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Profusely illustrated from latest photographs, engravings y diagrams and maps Edited by ROSSITER JOHNSON, Ph.D., LL.D. Editor of '' Great Events in History," "Appleton's Encyclopcedia," &c. NEW YORK THOMAS NELSON AND SONS LONDON EDINBURGH TORONTO PARIS D5il3 For much of the recent and accurate information in this volume the writers are indebted to Nelson's Perpetual Loose-leaf Encyclopaedia Copyright, iM4, by THOMAS NELSON & SONS ^ GIFT OF ^^^ Illustrated with copyrighted and special photographs from American Press Association, Bain News Service, M. E. Bemer, Brown Bros., Internatoinal News Service, Press Illustrating Co., Paul Thompson and Underwood & Underwood THE FRANCO-GERMAN FRONTIER. This relief map of the frontier indicates th& nature of the terrain as well as the position of fortresses and lines of communication. X / ' y W^-5rRA,N(KFCRT / / ^ "'^ / ) -„ ^"\ 3~X 43 UL* » >W^ « , o^TlJTjc^K *8P,.ii..^Mr : MUNICH ^^ 35^ TQUBs ^^/^s^^^ I SDSS ^ ^^s^^s^^.^ iNegy Q-D^ w r ^ ^^f^^ft. tot MILAN '^'^' /s4^/7-^ ?roV ^S '' °B\RMA 5t KBMa.i;r ->1 T crg^ ^S^^:S«rWJ|t«o^ / "T( "^UPSALA® _— ■-■■■-■•■■••■ p fi JoMALMO 1 * STRaiTZ kcTE^'TIN STRaiTZ k .M\^-^^jrr^,.W. iERLIN^^" ; P05EH ^ PIQC^ 4. us l^SPO^ . «.&«^ ^|V OEBPECZIN VIENNA V_„^", ' / ^— _^^f^ r^ T A. \t4 tl 1^ ^ ^ \ ■■■\ ^ cot AB1>1 KRAP HEPW^S^ W^ "^ TEWESV; BANJALUKft =^1ESTE ii i:. rBEDsRtoE" SftRAJEVO FOTCHAP<;C\ •*Mi^^ feROME GAETA ^ h -TARANr--'^-^- " ^i^li ^V 9\S>^^ \^ ..•..V.-...-...V.V:-..-.-.-. •...•-.■,^-.-.--.v-.-. C dS m ^...... ...ili^/^t?^ - „ iiiiiliiilSSF ^^ M -5<*V •^^ iS^ ■i ^EwiiifeBwfi^^^igligip THE FRENCH AND GERMAN FRONTIER FORCES. \By ptrmission of the lUuitrattd London Neva. This map shows the diqxmtion and streng:th of the forces which in nonnal times guard the Franco-German frontier. INTRODUCTION The Roman historian, Livy, begins his account of the Second Punic War with this declaration: "I am about to describe the greatest of all the wars that ever were waged." Doubtless he told the truth as it was in his time ; but if he could revise his book to-day he would open it with a different sentence. The solemn duty of narrating the great- est of all wars that ever were waged now devolves upon our journal- ists, and a few years hence it will tax the powers of the ablest historian that the world can produce. Whatever may be the prejudices, the opinions, or the original na- tionality of an American, he cannot seriously consider this tremen- dous, complicated conflict without feeling that he is a citizen of the world, profoundly affected by European wars and sincerely desirous of world-wide peace. This book is intended to enable the reader to scan the daily bulle- tins with something of an intelligent understanding of the despatches. No one, as yet, can tell him how it will all end ; but we endeavor here to tell him why it began ; to indicate, as nearly as possible, the various ends that are striven for; and to show him the resources and imple- ments that come into play — many of them for the first time. There is no intention here of according praise or blame to any of the combat- ants, or expressing any opinion as to the merits of the conflict or the truth or falsehood of those that wage it. We hope we have presented, simply and clearly, as many of the pertinent facts as our space allows — only adding that when Byron expressed his enthusiasm for "Livy's pictured page" neither he nor that brilliant historian ever had seen such pictured pages as these. R. J. \ 921585 CONTENTS CHAPTER I. The Immediate Causes of the War . II. The Original Causes — Boundaries and Races III. Mobilization ...... IV. The New Warfare ..... V. Military Implements of War . VI. Warships and Naval Implements of War Vll. Coast-defenses and Fortifications . VIII. Aircraft and Wireless in War IX. European Wars Since 1815: The Greek War for Independence (1821) The Insurrection in France (1830) The Revolutionary Movements of 1818 The Crimean War (1854.-'55) . The Franco- Austrian War (1859) The Liberation and Unification of Italy (1859- The Schleswig-Holstein War (1864) The Prusso- Austrian War (1866) The Franco-Prussian War (1870) The Russo-Turkish War (1877-78) The Greco-Turkish War (1897) War in the Balkan States (191 2-' 13) X. Countries at War and Involved: Austria-Hungary Belgium France Germany The British Empire Russia Servia Montenegro Albania Italy . Japan XI. The Hague Conference XII. The Effect of the War on the Western World XIII. State Papers and Official Correspondence Chronological List of Events .... 2 '60) page 11 31 41 65 71 87 107 115 131 133 135 145 149 151 161 165 169 185 191 196 213 225 243 275 307 343 361 364 365 367 375 379 385 403 414 SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I.— THE IMMEDIATE CAUSES OF THE WAR Assassination of the heir apparent to the throne of Austria. First blow of the international conflict struck at Servia. Austria's long-cherished design to extend her domain along the Adriatic. Her oppression of Servia in the past. The assassination of the heir apparent re- garded as a pretext for further oppres- sion and annexation of territory. Ignoring of Servia's request that the Aus- trian ultimatum be referred to the tribu- nal of The Hague. The Triple Alliance and the Triple En- tente. Opinions by experts, Servian and Austrian. CHAPTER II.— THE ORIGINAL CAUSES— BOUNDARIES AND RACES How to study these causes intelligently. The tendency of mankind to work toward centralization when natural boundaries are found. Why the natural law of geographical neces- sity holds a nation together. Other elements of union. Elements of separation. Difl'erent races, religions, and languages. Polyglot speech of Austria-Hungary. The "Eastern Question." The "Sick Man" of Europe. The usual outcome of modern wars. CHAPTER III.— MOBILIZATION Mobilization of the world in everyday life. Time is required for the mobilization of an army. The call to arms. Getting the commissary department ready. Provision made for cavalry as well as men. The medical corps and Red Cross nurses. Preparation of signal corps: field instru- ments and operators. Mobilization of an army in Germany. In France. In Russia. In England. Standing forces and incorporation of re- serves. Various classes of reserves. Diagram of a German army corps. Table showing fighting strength of nations. CHAPTER IV.— THE NEW WARFARE Inventive genius applied to war. Dreadnoughts and quick-firers. Alternations between improvements in attack and defense. Poetic prophecy of air-ships. The Red Cross Society and the advances made in medical and surgical science. George WiUiam Curtis's pathetic epigram. 4 SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS CHAPTER v.— MILITARY IMPLEMENTS OF WAR Multiplicity of engines of slaughter since the Napoleonic wars. Offensive and defensive weapons. Various forms of explosives. Smokeless powder. Varieties of modern rifles. Sword and lance. Small caliber bullets; the "dum-dum" bullet. The machine guns used by different nations. Artillery guns. Field artillery. Horse artillery. Common shell and shrapnel Case shot. Hand grenades. Automobiles in warfare. Motor-cars fitted with surgical operating- rooms. Motor-vans for carrying commissary " sup- plies. Motor-trucks for transporting wireless teleg- raphy outfit. Bicycles and motorcycles. CHAPTER VI.— WARSHIPS AND NAVAL IMPLEMENTS OF WAR Romance attached to historic sea-fights. Modern battle-ships. The British "Dreadnought," which effected a revolution in the construction of battle- ships. Pre-dreadnoughts and super-dreadnoughts. The new "Queen Elizabeth," Battle-ship cruisers. Ordinary cruisers. Destroyers. Submarines. Periscopes. Naval guns. The armor-piercing shell. How a large naval gun is operated. Range-finding. Torpedoes. CHAPTER VII.— COAST-DEFENSES AND FORTIFICATIONS The modern inland fort. The chains of interior fortifications in Europe. Construction of a tjpical fort. Mines. Theoretical invulnerability of a fort. Heaviest of all weapons used in coast forti- fications. Coast-defense guns. Range-finding of heavy guns. CHAPTER VIII.— AIRCRAFT AND WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY IN WAR Aircraft the most spectacular feature of modern warfare. The former talk of aircraft has passed from jest to earnest. Aviation established as an arm of military service in 1912. Air-ships, or dirigibles. The Zeppelin type. Semi-rigid and non-rigid types. Aeroplanes. Hydro-aeroplanes. Value of aircraft as a means of reconnois- sance. Wireless telegraphy. Great strides in the science of signaling since the War of 1812. From flags and semaphores to wireless telegraphy and telephony. Kites and balloons make connections by wire- less with stations at long distances. SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS CHAPTER IX.— EUROPEAN WARS SINCE 1815 The Greek War for Independence (1829-'30) The Greeks under Turkish rule for centuries. Revolt at Jassy in 18:21. Historic massacre at Chios. Lord Byron's part in the Greek war. Urahim Pasha, viceroy of Egypt, and his ef- fort to crush the Greek revolt. A protocol drawn by three great European Powers, demanding an armistice. Turkish and Egyptian forces routed at the battle of Navarino. Proclamation of Greece as an independent kingdom. The Kevolution of July (1830) Charles X on the throne of France. Polignac, the arbitrary head of the ministry: his craft and deception. Suppression of Algerian pirates. Offenses against the rights and liberties of the people. Revolt breaks out, and Charles X is driven out of France. Crowning of Louis Philippe. Revolutionary Movements of 1848 Social conditions in Europe in the first half of the 19th century. Metternich, his autocratic rule, his fall and flight. Spirit of the French Revolution stirring in the people. Kossuth, Hecker, Garibaldi, collaborators for freedom. Beginnings of the new revolt in Paris. The March Laws. Independence of Hungary, Revolt in Milan; strife against Radetzky, Austria's general in charge. The battle of Prague. The fall of Kossuth. Resignation of Victor Emmanuel I. The Chrimean War (1854-'55) The desire of Russia to gain access to the sea. Russia's invasion of Turkey. Declaration of war on Russia by the allied Powers. Balaclava — Inkerman — the English Royal Guards. The siege of Sebastopol — Its fall. Treaty of Paris. Turkey admitted as a European Power. The Franco-Austrian War (1859) Ascendancy of Austria in Italy. Woeful condition of the people. Declaration of war against Austria by Na- poleon III. Battle of Magenta: Marshal MacMahon: battle of Solferino. The Peace of Villafranca. The Liberation and Unification of Italy (1859-'70) Long subservience of Italy to foreign rulers. Result of conquests of Napoleon I on Italian division of territory. Suppression of liberal thought in Italy. The Carbonari ("charcoal-burners"). Mutiny of the royal troops of Naples. The three great liberators: Mazzini, Garibaldi, Cavour. Insurrection in the two Sicilies. The Italian victory at Gaeta. Withdrawal of Napoleon Ill's troops from Italy. End of the temporal power of the papacy. "Italy free!" The Schleswig-Holstein War (1864) The Duchy of Schleswig-Holstein. Origin of Schleswig dates from time of King Cnut (Canute). Origin of the Duchy of Holstein under Dan- ish rule. Union of the two duchies under Danish rule. The Danish King declared a member of the Germanic body. Prussian troops invade the united duchies. Courage of the Danes. Schleswig-Holstein annexed to Prussia. The Prusso-Austrian War (1866) Determination of Bismarck to consolidate the German States. SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS Equally strong desire of Prussia and Aus- tria to become the dominant power in the German States. The clash called the Seven-Weeks' War. The battle of Sadowa. Austria's defeat. King of Prussia becomes also the German Emperor. The Franco-Prussian War (1870) The revolution in Spain of 1868. Deposition of Queen Isabella. An eligible candidate for the Spanish crown chosen in a German prince, Leopold of HohenzoUern. France, through Napoleon III, objects to possible increase of German power. The French Ambassador to Germany re- quests the German Emperor to forbid the prince to accept the crown. Germany takes offense. Mobilization of German army ordered, July 15, 1870. France makes ready for war. A Berlin! Inadequate preparation of French army. German army in perfect condition for war- fare. The battle of Worth. The siege of Metz. Marshal MacMahon and Bazaine. The battle of Sedan. Napoleon III hands his sword to Emperor William I. The siege of Paris. Bismarck's triumph. The Russo-Turkish War (1877) Turkish misrule during four centuries. Rise of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1876. Massacre of Christians. Barbarous Bashi-Bazouks. Europe protests: Gladstone, Disraeli, the Russian Emperor, Alexander II. The siege of Plevna. The Russian army enters Adrianople* The Treaty of San Stefano. Independence of Servia, Montenegro, and Rumania. Bosnia and Herzegovina protected by Aus- tria. The Greco-Turkish War (1897) The Greek Government since 1863. King George I. Years of wrangling between Greece and Tur- key over boundary lines culminates in hos- tilities on the Island of Crete. Turkey overcomes Greece by better pre- paredness for war. Turkish atrocities horrify the world. Armistice demanded by Russia. Peace treaty at Constantinople. Settlement of the boundary line and ques- tion of territory. War in the Balkan Stiates (1912-'13) Annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria. Bulgarians in 1885 object to Russian domination and join the people of East- ern Rumelia against the Czar's min- isters. They repress the Servians, who protest against the expansion of Bulgaria. The prince of Bulgaria becomes king (1908) and throws off Turkish allegiance. The momentous year when the "Young Turks" wrested a constitution from the Sultan. Banishment of Abdul Hamid. Macedonia the seat of the trouble that fol- lowed. Uprisings in Albania. Greece joins in the general fray. Fall of Adrianople. Treaty of peace signed in London. CHAPTER X.— COUNTRIES AT WAR AND INVOLVED Austria-Hungary. Area and population of the dual monarchy. Boundaries, mountains, and rivers. Early history of Austria. Mode of government. Military service. Education. Religion. SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS Variety of languages spoken in the two countries. Napoleon's career in Austria. Congress of Vienna, which decided Napo- leon's fate. Attractions of Vienna, the capital of Aus- tria. Early history of Hungary. Picturesqueness of Buda-Pest, its capital. Austrian declaration of war on Russia (Aug. 6, 1914). Belgium. Area and population. Its provinces and peoples: The Flemings; the Walloons. The languages. Early history. Mode of government. Education. Religion. Agriculture and commerce. Rivers and canals. Military service. Various industries. Wealth per capita. Belgium the battle-ground of Europe. Attractions of celebrated cities and towns: Antwerp. Bruges. Brussels. Ghent. Ostend. The battlefield of Waterloo. The Belgian Congo. The British Empire. Area of the United Kingdom. Mountains and rivers. Climate; fertility of soil; picturesque scenery. Coal mines and manufacturing centers. London, the largest tity in the world. Oxford and Cambridge universities. Famous cathedrals. Early history. The American Revolution. Struggles with Napoleon. The Duke of Wellington. The Victorian reign. England's colonial possessions. Mode of government. Religion. Military and naval defenses. France. Area, boundaries, rivers, and mountains. Great variety and beauty of scenery throughout France. Historic castles and cathedrals. Medieval fortifications the most perfectly preserved in the world. The castles of Francis I. Early history. Sources of wealth: minerals, vineyards, manufactures. Mode of government. Population. Military and naval service. Colonial possessions. The German Empire. Boundaries, rivers, area and population. Beginning of the German Empire in its pres- ent form. History of Germany from the eighteenth century. Table of States composing the empire. Colonial acquisitions. Mode of government. Successful dealing with the problem of pau- perism. Religion. Education. Military and naval service and defenses. Military dirigibles and aeroplanes. Industries, manufactures, mining, fisheries. Railways and waterwaj's : The Kaiser Wilhelm Canal; its locks larger than those of the Panama Canal. Foreign possessions. Demand of the German Emperor that the mobilization of Russian troops be discon- tinued (July 31, 1914). His declaration of war on Russia. Russia. Area, boundaries, and climate. Population. Agriculture, mining, fisheries, and cattle. Mode of government. Religion. Education. Early history. Ivan the Terrible; the Cossack; the first of the Romanoffs, the founder of the present royal line. 8 SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS Peter the Great; Catherine II. Conquest of Poland. Napoleon I in Russia. Emancipation of the serfs. Stifling of free thought and speech Russia's policy from earliest times. Expansion of the empire. Troubles of the Jews. "Red Sunday" (Jan. 23, 1905). The first "Duma." Russian mobilization of troops to aid Servia against Austria. Servia: boundaries, area, and population. Mountains and rivers. Mining and other industries. Education. Absence of paupers. Military service. Early history. Independence of Turkey achieved in 1878. King Milan: his abdication. King Alexander: his assassination in 1903. Montenegro. Area, population, boundaries. Education. Religion. Change from a principality to a kingdom. Joins Servia and the Allies. Albania. The chief use of this State. Boundaries, rivers, and principal towns. Early history. A coimtry infested with bandits and warring tribes. A puppet in the hands of the European Powers. Italy. Boundaries, moimtains, and rivers. Population. Form of government. Education. Religion. Military and naval service. Equivocal position of Italy at opening of war. Proclamation of neutrality. Strong reasons inclining Italy to join the AUies. Japan. Boundaries, area, and population. Present government. Religion. Education. Military and naval service. Joins England against Germany. Ultimatum demanding evacuation of Kiau- Chou. Ill-feeling against Germany of long standing. CHAPTER XI.— THE HAGUE CONFERENCE "The capital of the world." The Peace Palace. The progress of a century in international morality. The first peace conference (1899). Chief accomplishment of the conference. The second peace conference (1907). .The first case tried before the tribunal. Other important cases. The international prize court. Provisions of the tribunal of The Hague. Ignoring of these provisions by some of the Powers. The "Drago Doctrine." The Hague Peace Palace a gift from An- drew Carnegie. CHAPTER XII.— THE EFFECT OF THE WAR ON THE WESTERN WORLD How the disaster and desolation of war produce the paradox of prosperity. The money markets of the world just before "the clash of nations." Heavy shipments of gold from the United States to Europe. Unshakable stability of American finances. Temporary paralysis of business in the United States. The inevitable revival. Great opportunities for many lines of Amer- ican industry. SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS 9 What the drawbacks to the prosperity of the United States are likely to be. FoodstuflFs. The fate of the American apple crop of 1914. A hard blow at cotton manufacture. The metal trades strong. A new factor to help in bringing prosperity. Magnificent opportunity to reestablish the American merchant marine. A weak link in the chain of American citi- zenship. Great opportunity for United States trade in South America and Central America. Rare chance for enterprising men to act as "business scouts" in South America. Effect of months of stoppage of immigra- tion to our shores. America the land of worthy work, demo- cratic equality, and noble peace. CHAPTER XIII.— STATE PAPERS AND OFFICIAL CORRESPONDENCE Ultimatum sent by Austria-Hungary to Servia, July 23, 1914. Circular note to the powers issued by the Austro-Hungarian Foreign OflBice, July 24, 1914. Reply of Servia to the Austro-Hungarian ultimatum, July 25, 1914. Circular note issued by Austria-Hungary de- nouncing Servia's reply, July 26, 1914. Austria-Hungary's Declaration of War against Servia, July 28, 1914. Note of the Russian Foreign Office, July 28, 1914. Czar's personal note to the Kaiser, July 31, 1914. Kaiser's reply to Czar's note, July 31, 1914. King George's personal appeal to the Czar, August 1, 1914. The Czar's reply to King George's appeal, August 1, 1914. Proclamation of President Poincare follow- ing the decree of French mobilization, August 1, 1914. Manifesto of the Czar to the Russian People upon Germany's declaration of war, Au- gust 3, 1914. Personal Message from King Albert of Bel- gium to King George, August 2, 1914. Telegram from Sir Edward Grey to British Ambassador instructing him to deliver ul- timatum to Germany, August 4, 1914. Statement of the British Foreign Office after the proclamation of war on Germany, August 4, 1914. President Wilson's tender of good offices made to each of the rulers of the states at war, August 5, 1914. Statement of the British Foreign Office fol- lowing the declaration of war on Austria- Hungary, August 13, 1914. Russia's Appeal to the Poles, August 14, 1914. Japan's Ultimatum to Germany, August 16, 1914. Japan's Declaration of War against Ger- many, August 24, 1914. Message from the Kaiser to President Wil- son charging the use of dum-dum bullets by the Allies and explaining the reasons for the destruction of Louvain. Reply of President Wilson to the Kaiser's Message, September 17, 1914. CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF EVENTS O 3! UJ < < (8 10 THE CLASH OF NATIONS CHAPTER I THE IMMEDIATE CAUSES OF THE WAR On June 27, 1914, Francis Ferdinand, nephew of the emperor and heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, drove, with his wife, through Sarajevo, capital of the Province of Bosnia, which had been wrested from Servia by Austria. Suddenly a half-crazed Servian student forced his way through the protecting line of soldiers and fired a pistol with deadly aim at the royal carriage. The shots not only slew Francis Ferdinand and his consort, but gave the immediate provocation — or, at least, the pretext — for a still more hideous slaugh- ter; it set in motion a war that has wrecked the peace of Europe and embroiled the Powers in the most appalling conflict the modern world has known. This murder was not in itself sufficient to cause a world-catas- trophe. No one at the time could imagine its all-embracing conse- quences. Yet succeeding events have cast an illuminating light on the dark places of political affairs, and revealed to us a Europe mined with the animosities of contending races, and primed for the chance spark that should cause an explosion. Dispassionate students of world-politics, though cautious in fram- ing an indictment against the Powers that precipitated the conflict, seem agreed that its causes are rooted in Austria's resolve to weld the difl'erent factions of her empire at whatever result to the Slav, though she was well aware that in so doing she braved the inevitable opposition of Russia and all the martial hordes of the Balkan States. Austria's critics call her the oppressor and bully of Servia. They point to the many things she has done to impair the national integrity of the little kingdom — to make it, in fact, her vassal, in order that the 11 -I X 12 THE IMMEDIATE CAUSES OF THE WAR 13 door may be open to her own expansion. In this never-wavering purpose of Austria to extend her domain along the Adriatic, in 1908 she tore up the Treaty of Berhn (made in 1878), seized the Servian provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, sought Russia's sanction for the occupation of Salonica, and, f aiHng in this, would now take from Servia the sanjak of Novi Bazar, and so set at naught the alliance of Servia with Montenegro. But that is not all. Having, through her seizure of Bosnia and Herzegovina, so bottled up Servia that the Serbs must seek a market for their products in Hungary, Austria, from time to time, has en- forced quarantine regulations that make it impossible for the Ser- vian farmer to live. This alone has driven the peasant to despera- tion. Inhabiting a rugged country, only one fourth of which can be cultivated, he is forced to raise pork that his Jewish and Moham- medan neighbors to the south cannot eat, and that he cannot send across the Danube at a profit. His very existence depends upon getting an outlet to the sea. For such an outlet he freely shed his blood in the two recent wars with the Turk, only to find that Austria had once more blocked his way by setting up the spurious principal- ity of Albania. So say the critics of Austrian ambitions and Austrian politics as played by the Hapsburgs. This arraignment (just recited above) of Austria-Hungary is founded partly on an assumption of sinister motives, partly on the facts of recorded history, and partly on a hos- tile interpretation of recent events. The more recent happenings are concerned with charges of political conspiracy to which Austria ascribes not only the actual murder of her heir apparent, but other crimes as well. The Servians, so Austro-Hungarians would ask the world to believe, are the scum of the earth — mentally and morally degraded. It is only under Austrian rule that they take on the ways of civilization — improving their farms, building up industries, and emerging from a shamefully illiterate condition. Lacking this benevolent supervision, they easily degenerate into assassins and poisoners. The very Government, we are told, has been in league with its citizens to plot against the peace of the troubled Austrian Empire, and to sow sedition among its vast population of Ser- vians. These charges are hotly resented by the Serbs. 14 THE IMMEDIATE CAUSES OF THE WAR 16 Whatever facts concerning the murder of the heir apparent may ultimately be disclosed, Austria-Hungary's efforts to fasten the crime upon Servia had met with no success when, late in July, the Emperor Francis Joseph was persuaded to enforce the policy of coercion that was implied in his country's sweeping demands. Servia was dis- posed to comply with these demands, excepting that which provided for an inquiry by Austrian officials in Servia itself. To abase her- self in that particular involved the virtual abdication of her sov- ereignty. Servia asked that the matter be referred to The Hague, as fully provided for in the treaty signed by Austria-Hungary in com- mon with the other great European Powers in 1899. "The contracting powers," says this treaty, to which the peace advocates of the world had pinned their faith, "agree to use their best efforts to insure the pacific settlement of international differ- ences. In case of serious disagreement or conflict, before an ap- peal to arms, the contracting powers agree to have recourse, so far as circumstances allow, to the good offices or mediation of one or more friendly powers." But Austria-Hungary, it appears, was in no temper for media- tion. It is generally believed, moreover, that she counted upon Ser- via's refusal, and was prepared to make good her own ultimatum. It is also assumed that in this she counted upon the cooperation of Ger- many, her chief partner in the Triple Alliance. Be this as it may, the German Emperor did not hold back. In vain did Great Britain ap- peal to him with offers of conciliation. The shadow of the Russian Bear obscured the sun; the fighting millions of the czar were in process of mobilization. Austria-Hungary declared war on Servia, and a horrified and bewildered western world saw chaos come again. The immediate causes contributing to the war are so overlapped with causes more remote that it is difficult to separate and distinguish them. The political tension of Europe within the past few j^ears is in most respects a sequence of conditions that have long obtained — some of them for many hundreds of years. What has happened in the Balkans is the climax of an old story. German aggression is the legitimate, though to some persons the unexpected, expression of a State that for many years has resembled an armed camp. The imme- diate relation of Austria-Hungary to the present crisis merges in the 16 THE IMMEDIATE CAUSES OF THE WAR 171 period that began with 1878. Russia's designs are all but as old as the sea that she seeks, and the Slavs by any other name than Servia would as readily enlist her aid. France has been forced to fight, and so has Great Britain. What has really happened is a new alignment of the nations. For the first time in history, the Latins are a secondary consideration. Uppermost in this stupendous conflict loom two great antagonists — the Teuton and the Slav. The Germans of Austria-Hungary, with those of the German Empire, have pitted their strength against Rus- sia and the millions that are allied to her by race. Great Britain and France back the Slav, and the western world looks on. The Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente. — In political terms, Triple Alliance is arrayed against Triple Entente. International Alliances, or agreements between nations of independent rank, for the purpose of offense or defense, have been formed in Europe, from time to time, in order to maintain what is called "the balance of power." France, for example, without the political partnership of Russia, or her understanding with Great Britain, would be soon re- duced to subjection by Germany, and Germany, in turn, needs Austria-Hungary's support. In Europe the political scene is con- stantly shifting with the development of the various nations, and the national friend of to-day may be the national enemy of to-morrow. In the Triple Alliance of 1688, Britain, Sweden, and the Netherlands were arrayed against France, while in 1717 France found herself allied with England and Holland against Spain, and afterward Aus- tria united with them, making a quadruple alliance. In 1788 Eng- land, Prussia, and Holland formed an alliance, which was in effect four years. As late as 1854, England and France — to-day the allies of Russia — combined with Turkey and Sardinia against the czar. In 1872 Russia, Austria, and Germany formed an alliance that was pop- ularly known as "the league of the three emperors." In 1879 Ger- many and Austria were allied, and Italy joined them in 1882. This was called the Dreibund (German for Triple Alliance). In 1902 England began forming similar connections (called ententes, signi- fying "understanding"), first with France, then with Russia — now constituting the Triple Entente; and in 1901 England formed an alli- ance with Japan, which was renewed in 1911. Some of these alliances 18 THE IMMEDIATE CAUSES OF THE WAR 19 are defensive only. Thus, in the present war, Italy, a member of the Triple Alliance, declines to join with Germany and Austria, on the ground that they are the aggressors, whereas she allied herself with them for defense only. At this moment we see Japan, Russia's recent conqueror, ready to aid King George, and incidentally the czar, in keeping Asia's coast in order by joining hands against the Germans. This alliance between Japan and Great Britain was formed in 1902, in the face of adverse criticism by many Americans, and still closer relations were established in 1905 ; but it is Germany, and not our own nation, that will suffer through the compact. It will be observed that Bismarck — Germany's chancellor of "blood and iron" — has had no successor. When the German ship of state dropped its pilot — as the London "Punch" once phrased it in the legend under a famous cartoon — the Kaiser took the helm. There are those who hold that, were Bismarck alive and in power to-day, German diplomacy, if it did not avert the war, would at least not have blundered in alienating Italy as a party to the Triple Alliance and inviting the vengeance of Great Britain by invading Belgium in defiance of The Hague Conference rules. It is interesting to recall that Bismarck, up to the time of his abdi- cation, did not relinquish the idea of renewing friendship with Russia. For Russia was bound with Austria-Hungary and Germany in the informal pact of 1872 known as the Dreibund, and if Russia even- tually withdrew from it, it was because her war against Turkey, five years later, did not accord with Austrian aims. With Russia an un- certain factor, Austria and Germany formed a defensive alliance in 1879, though it was not made pubhc till 1887, and in 1882 Italy for- swore the friendship of France, owing to the French occupation of Tunis, and became the third member of what is now known as the Triple Alliance. Italy's participation seems to be that of a silent partner, and a displeased one at that. Since 1898 she has renewed her lost friendship for France, and she took occasion to show it when Germany threat- ened trouble in Morocco. In view of Austria's cruel oppression of Italy, ere the yoke was cast off by Cavour, Italy's alliance with the despotic Hapsburgs seems inexplicable. The news from Italy at the outbreak of the war showed that, whatever might be the views of the I (Q a> O 4) go THE IMMEDIATE CAUSES OF THE WAR 21 Government, the Italian people were strongly opposed, not only to joining in a war against France, but to the strengthening of Austria's grip on the Balkans and the furtherance of her designs on the Adri- atic coast. Meanwhile, Italy has been on excellent terms with Great Britain ever since the alliance between Russia and France was effected in the period of 1887-'95. Strangely enough, this was brought about be- cause France and Russia took alarm at overtures made to Great Brit- ain by central Europe. The French fleet paid a visit to Cronstadt, the Russian fleet saluted the Republic at Toulon. The old cry of "perfidious Albion" was raised, and Russian loans were subscribed in Paris. Yet Russia and France, by formal compact, and Great Brit- ain, with acknowledgments less binding, form the Triple Entente that is now in a death-grip with the two Germanic Powers of the Triple Alliance. Two Expert Pleas — A brilliant representative of the Serbs is their honorary consul-general. Professor Michael I. Pupin, of Columbia University. Professor Pupin, who is a Serb of Austrian birth, holds that Austria's ultimatum to Servia is the most arrogant docu- ment ever flung in the face of a weaker nation by a powerful one. "It is true," he declared in a recent interview, "that there is a Pan- Serb propaganda in Austria; but this propaganda is among the Serbs and Croats in Austria, and not among the Serbs in Servia or Montenegro. These Austrian Serbs — and I am one of them — need no encouragement from Servia to carry on their national movement. Austrian violation of every principle of justice and fairness, Aus- trian tyranny, which cannot find its parallel in the darkest period of the Middle Ages, is responsible for this Pan- Serb movement in Austria. "In 1690 thirty-five thousand picked Serb families left Old Ser- via at the express invitation of Emperor Leopold I of Austria and settled along the southern Austrian frontier, which was then being devastated by the Turks. And now a refusal of the Austrian Empire to deal fairly with her Serb subjects is particularly hard in face of the fact that for two centuries they were the bravest and most loyal de- fenders of the empire. "In return for their splendid services to the empire, the Serbs THE IMMEDIATE CAUSES OF THE WAR 23 of Austria became victims of the modern Austrian policy of ex- pansion toward the ^Egean Sea. The Serb is imaginative, fond of his national music and poetry and of his national costumes, and nothing in the world can prevent him from indulging in the sweet dreams of the Serb minstrel who sang of the return of the Serb glories of the fourteenth century. This is the only offense of which the Austrian Serb is guilty, and this offense constitutes high treason in the Austrian Empire. "The annexation by Austria of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the home of the flower of the Serb race, in 1908, drove the people to des- peration and resulted in the Sarajevo tragedy, for which Austria blames the Kingdom of Servia. The Servian youth who fired the shot is a member of the Pan- Serb propaganda in Austria, but every Serb in Austria is a member of this propaganda. I am a member of it, although I have lived in this country since my boyhood." To the testimony of Professor Pupin (quoted above) we add the illuminating comments of Professor Alfred L. Kroeber, the emi- nent anthropologist of the University of California : "The present European situation reveals several outstanding fea- tures which may seem paradoxically improbable, but which would yet be indorsed as facts by students of ethnology. Contrary to all appearances, the responsibility for the war is not to be laid to the Ger- man Emperor or any individual. In the present state of civilization no more blame attaches to one nation than to any other. Race dif- ferences and race conflicts are emphatically not at the bottom of the eruption; and certain far-reaching results can even now be set down as inevitable. "The characteristic rapid-fire and decisive ultimatums of the Kaiser have spread the impression throughout the impartial portion of the civilized world that it is his personality that has precipitated an otherwise preventable crisis. Americans in particular, to whom con- stitutional imperialism is almost unthinkable, and therefore greatly exaggerated, appear to feel keen sympathy for the unfortunate pre- dicament of so sterling a people as the Germans, and corresponding resentment toward their war lord. "Whatever blame there is attaches to the German nation, and not to the Kaiser. For nearly fifty years Germans as a mass have c o »4t THE IMMEDIATE CAUSES OF THE WAR 26 made their own the blood-and-iron doctrine of Bismarck. In spite of organized socialist propaganda and much liberal theoretical opposi- tion, the German people have believed that their only hope as a nation lay in reliance on their sharp sword and strong arm. They have grumbled, but they have willingly supported armaments, con- scription, and an aggressive foreign policy. "To charge the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 to the short-sighted ambition of Napoleon III or to give credit for it to the genius of Bis- marck is a favorite device of apologists for France and admirers of the great statesman, but it is far from profound. At the bottom of that brief but decisive conflict lay the rehabilitation of France from the Napoleonic catastrophe of 1815, the growth of Prussian efficiency, the slow solidification of the German national sense. Bis- marck only seized, as Napoleon bungled, an opportunity presented in the development of ethnic relations. Like poor Louis Napoleon, William I bids fair to be the world's scapegoat for a sweep of events utterly beyond his control. "Let Americans not imagine that public sentiment is less powerful and the popular will less fundamentally dominant, even though less directly expressed, in Germany than in the United States. It is Ger- many, and not the Kaiser, that for fifty years — in a sense for a hun- dred and fifty years — ^has by the mere fact of her growth and strengthening been bringing on the struggle of to-day; and it is Germany, the German people and nation, that for better or for worse will have to bear the responsibility. "On one side Germany is currently represented as fired by lust of conquest and a boundless ambition utterly disregardf ul of obliga- tions or the rights of others ; and the sentiment of most of the civilized world seems to sustain the verdict. On the other hand, Germans exalt the conduct of their country as influenced only by motives of self-preservation against the Russian desire for brutal world-do- minion, British cold-blooded calculation of profit, and the long-nur- tured, revengeful hatred of France. "Neither side is at fault. Germany has for years been hated by Russia, feared by France, hated and feared by England, as a men- ace is always hated and feared. No one, individual or nation, can love a winning or even a gaining rival. Germany has been well aware 26 THE IMMEDIATE CAUSES OF THE WAR ^7 of these national sentiments, and, conscious of her own strength, has not sought the vain task of dissipating them, but has fortified her- self against them. In their own power, the German people have believed, lay their salvation, and not in false friendships with dis- tanced competitors. Assured in their minds of the unavoidable ill will of their neighbors, they have come to disregard totally the opinion of these neighbors. Self-satisfaction to the point of arrogance and self-confidence amounting almost to insult have been the natural result. "When Athens was at the very summit of her unparalleled civiliza- tion, when she was producing Sophocles and Phidias and Socrates, the attitude of the Greek world toward her was absolutely like that of Europe toward Germany to-day. She was arrogant, she was over- weening, she was an intolerable menace to the peace and to the existence of every other Greek state. The Peloponnesian war was brought on by a direct and carefully considered act of interference by Athens in a quarrel between two cities with which she had no con- cern. Corcyra and Corinth parallel Austria and Servia exactly. When Sparta called the council of the allies there was no dissentient voice to the cry for the need of once-and-for-all curbing the over- bearing progress of the Athenians. Athens' own allies were re- luctant and forced, or actuated only by calculated self-interest. Be- fore the war was done they had either rebelled against her or left her coldly in the lurch. "The war of to-day is continental and million-wide; the Greek wars were between cities of thousands in one small peninsula. The scale has changed, but the actuating principles are identical. The cause of the war, then, lies in the unavoidable clash between nation and nation. "Human race means two things. In the strict sense of the phrase, it means only the inherited bodily type and mental predisposition com- mon to a group of people. A looser, popular extension makes race signify the vaguer traits shared by masses of men, that are larger than political boundaries. It is with this looser meaning that we speak of an Anglo-Saxon and a Slavic race. In the first or strict anthropological sense, there are only three races in Europe : the North- ern, the Alpine, and the Mediterranean. What do we find about the TWO POSSIBLE MAPS OF THE FUTURE THE FUTURE POLAND Suggtttid Boundarj of Poland •M<««^re«d()rita SoUofM.lu Bj^tritfww. Edi*^ The Hope of a Restored Autonomous Poland May Become an Important Factor in the War. The Boundaries Indicated in the Map Represent the Probable New Poland, at Present Divided Between Russia, Austria, and Germany From Nelson's "War Atlas." Servia, Even with Its Recently Enlarged Boundaries, Represents Only a Part of the Kingdom Which Fell Before the Turl. oLipno oPuItusk / "^ » oLa'ndsberq /~r | V^^. oPionsk BERLIN© -"^oKuS^ifn—-^ '"H *i"^^,-/»o,^^tock^_Novogioraresk D&nu.iMy- IPOSEN^ y WtoclawekN^;;;^^>^\/3-A.be;^ I ^ CD AM i^ FORT Schrimm.-'-irpnrW Schriiw!i«--'KciT5^ oLubben y^^erf^, :,„ \oKaljl FRANl^FORT oKutnc SAW OLowici Siedlce oPInsk @BREST-UTOVSK -, oLissa oKlattau E^NA^k^.^PRtSSBURG CZERNOWITZS. • Frontier Between Germany, Russia and Austria-Hungary bors, because it had no natural boundaries ; but the smaller country of Switzerland maintains itself to this day, because it is buttressed about by great mountains. An interesting instance of the occasional imperfect application of the law is afforded by the Scandinavian peninsula. Sweden and Norway are separated by a range of mountains so moderate as to form a somewhat unsatisfactory boundary; and in consequence they are sometimes united and sometimes independent of each other, as natural advantages or political incompatibility may for the time dictate. 34 ORIGINAL CAUSES RlOA I.I8A.U MtMBW Ht \J g ^ I. A J^ ^^l^^^*^^"^^"^^ Boundaries of Central Europe in 1816 Two other elements make for union or separation, sometimes in harmony with the geographic law, and sometimes in conflict with it. These are race and religion. The assumption that a difference of race or tribe necessitates antagonism originated in primitive barbar- ism and has been only slowly outgrown in the progress of civilization. It was doubtless owing to this that when the Continent of North America was discovered the Indians that roamed over it were esti- mated at not more than three hundred thousand, as the tribes had been continuously at war with one another. A Casar or a Na- poleon may go out with great armies and conquer extensive terri- tories ; but if in doing so they overleap natural boundaries and ignore BOUNDARIES AND RACES Boundaries of Central Europe in 1866 racial traits and traditions, all their conquests lapse back in a few years. William of Normandy crossed the Channel and conquered England; but his successors could not keep both England and Normandy; and the conquered Saxons and the conquering Normans soon merged into a new English nation. Desire for alienation, or a clannish spirit, because of difference or identity of religious belief, no longer plays the part that it once played in the comity of nations. Yet many peoples are still slow to learn the obvious truth that religion is purely an affair between each individual soul and its Creator, and State-prescribed religion se ORIGINAL CAUSES ^^M TEUTONIC ^m^ ANGLO-SAXON UTIN 1 GREEK I SLAV RUMANIAN THE RACIAL MAP OF EUROPE Of the Areas Showing White, Switzerland Is a Mixture of French, Germans and Italians; Part cf Hungary Is Magyar, a Race Allied to the Finns; Turkey Is Inhabited by a Race of Asiatic Origin, and the Albanians Are a Mixture of the Descendants of the Ancient lllyrians with Greeks and Slavs is not really religion at all — is merely ecclesiasticism. Hence the blending of religious lines with political lines. Looking now at a map of Europe that is at once geographical and ethnological, we see how few are the natural boundaries, and how many the ethnical separations — the separations inciting to contest, and the lack of natural boundaries at once increasing this incitement and diminishing the means of self-defense. This smallest of the continents,- situated in the North Temperate Zone (most favorable for trade), and having an extensive sea-front (most favorable to soil and climate) possesses every condition for steady increase of population; and as this approaches congestion there is temptation BOUNDARIES AND RACES 37 ^^^1 German I \ iMagyar Rumanian Bohemian L_J RUTflENIAN Croato-Serbian Italian Slovenian iii Polish The Racial Patchwork of the Austro-Hungarian Empire to seize upon pretexts for encroaching upon neighboring territory. This condition of things is intensified by the forms of government and structure of society that maintain class distinctions and tend to suppress individual ambition. The steady stream of emigration that has been in fullest flow for several years hardly relieves the pressure; because wherever living is made easier, increase of popula- tion is accelerated. Where civilization, as we know it, is not far ad- vanced, a mingling of races appears only to weaken the country that embraces them, because each race clings to its traditions and preju- dices. This is especially the case in southeastern Europe. Austria- Hungary includes in her population Bohemians, Moravians, Poles, Ruthenians, Croats, Serbs, Slovaks, Morlaks, Bulgarians, Italians, Armenians, Magyars, Germans, Rumanians, Jews, and Gipsies, and of all the great Powers Austria is notably the weakest, forever in danger of disruption. An American naturally contrasts this with our own country, where we have many races, but great strength — ORIGINAL CAUSES The German Possessions in the Pacific because we send their children, without distinction, to the same pub- lic schools, have the same opportunities open to every race and creed, and the same liberty and protection for all. The surprise of Ameri- cans when the Balkan States failed to confederate after they had virtually driven the Turk out of Europe — such a confederation seem- ing to us inevitable — would have been less if we had considered how those little States cling to their nice race distinctions and cher- ished traditions. And any criticism of their imwisdom must be tem- pered by remembrance of the difficulties that were encountered in bringing the thirteen American colonies together under a national con- stitution only a century and a quarter ago. To the circumstances here set forth, which keep Europe in a state of unstable equilibrium and have led to numerous armed conflicts, must be added one other, greater than any of them, and sometimes seemingly greater than all. It has been known as "the Eastern ques- tion." Russia is an enormous empire in the center of a huge con- tinent — for Europe and Asia are practically one continent — with no sufficient approach to the sea. She claims her share in the opportuni- ties of world-commerce, and seeks a proper outlet to the highway of BOUNDARIES AND RACES 39 nations. This the European Powers have long combined to deny her. The costly Crimean War of 1854-'55, when she was assailed by Eng- land, France, Sardinia, and Turkey, had no other motive. Half a century later, when, with admirable enterprise, she had built a railroad across the then dreary length of Siberia, and sought an outlet on the Pacific, the ocean of the future, up rose nimble Japan to play in the East the same part, from the same motive, that England and France had played in the West. After each repulse Russia slowly and pa- tiently gathers her strength for another attempt. She is now double- tracking the Siberian railroad and improving it throughout; short branches extend on either side at frequent intervals, villages and farm- steads spring up all along the line, and the once forbidding territory is developing into a land of content. Russia never will cease her peri- odical attempts to secure a coastal outlet until one, at least, is accorded to her; and if her next trial is toward the Pacific, Japan is not likely to repeat the triumph of 1904. The difficulty of judging this gigantic and complicated war, whicK involves nearly all Europe — a difficulty that is almost made an impos- sibility by the daily receipt of contradictory reports- — may be relieved somewhat, if not fully, by remembering a principle taught us by nearly all modern wars — namely, that all modern wars end in the de- feat of the combatant in whose territory they are waged. 40 CHAPTER III MOBILIZATION Many readers are asking, "What is the meaning of the word 'mobihzation,' which has occurred so often in the despatches and edi- torials concerning the war?" The answer "Look in the dictionary" is not satisfactory to all, and indeed the term deserves a more ex- tended explanation than can be found in any dictionary. To begin with a simple illustration, many of us, as individuals, are mobilized every morning. The brief definition of the word is, to put into complete condition for moving, or for being moved. When we say of an actor that "he has a mobile face," we are using the root of the same word; we mean that the muscles of his face are so com- pletely under his control that he can move them quickly from one aspect or expression to another. When a man rolls out of bed at the proper hour in the morning, he must be mobilized. First, he wants a bath; then he puts on his garments, or some of them; then he shaves, unless he wears a full beard ; then he has his breakfast, and looks at the morning paper ; then he consults his wife as to the domestic program for the day; then, if it is stormy, he gets his overcoat, his overshoes, his umbrella; then he fills his cigar-case; then he makes sure that he has a few nickels in his pocket for car-fares ; then he kisses his wife and children good-by for the day. Now that man is completely mobilized — ^that is to say, he is prepared to move from his home to his place of business. The mobilization of an army is essentially the same thing, on a vastly greater scale ; it is getting the army together, in perfect order, with all necessary outfits, so that it is prepared to move as a unit against the enemy, or, in a good position, withstand the assaults of its opponent. Even with the best prepared people, the mobilization of a large army requires an appreciable amount of time. Let us suppose that 41 42 MOBILIZATION Canadian Soldier Kissing His Little Girl Good-bye every man of military age in the realm has been drilled and disciplined in the school of the soldier. This is the case in most of the countries of continental Europe. They are not all with the colors at the same time. A part have served there the required period, and returned to their homes, to be on call if wanted. When an emergency arises, and a large army is needed for active operations in the field, they are called out — ^many of them from distant points. Some are cultivating their farms, some are in workshops, some in trade, some in univer- sities, some are traveling abroad. If they have been drilled and apportioned properly, every man knows his place. MOBILIZATION 43 But calling the men together is only one item in the gigantic task. Some wise commander said long ago that "an army moves on its belly," which means that it can hardly move at all unless it is regularly and sufficiently fed. The great success of General Grant in the American Civil War was partly owing to the fact that he always saw to it that his army was properly fed. To feed a great Called to the Colors — German Reservists Going to Their Stations army, it is necessary not only to obtain the food (not all of which can be stored up beforehand) , but to get it where it is wanted and have it in the hands of competent, trained men, who know how to distribute it day by day, so that no soldier shall go hungry. This requires not only a special organization but great trains of wagons, with their horses or mules and their drivers. Animals eat, as well as men, and forage has to be provided for both the cavalry horses and the draft animals — those that draw the wagons and those that draw the guns. The amount of lead and iron that is fired away in every battle is "IT'S A LONG WAY TO TIPPERARY" Everywhere, on the March, in Camp and on the Field of Battle, English Troops Are Singing This Now Famous Song. It Has Even Been Caught up by Their French Allies, Who Have Rendered the First Line, "II y a bien loin d'ici a Tipperary." Here Is the Refrain of Britain's New Battle Song: It's a long way to Tipperary, It's a long: way to go. It's a long way to Tipperary To the sweetest girl I know. Good-by, Piccadilly! Farewell, Leicester Square! It's a long, long way to Tipperary, But my heart's right there. 44 MOBILIZATION 45 enormous. It has been estimated that this is nearly equal to a man's weight for every man that is killed. To keep an army supplied with ammunition requires another very large train. And these trains must be sufficiently guarded every day and hour ; for an enemy is al- ways looking for an opportunity to capture them or blow them up or burn them, which is quite as bad for the army as a defeat at the The "Queen's Own" Leaving Toronto for England front. To a certain extent an invading army can forage on the coun- trj'-; but this seldom lasts long, and supplies must be brought from home. In every army, however successful, large numbers of men are wounded in battle or fall ill by the wayside. Hence the medical corps, which must be as carefully organized and fully supplied as any other. One of the peculiar cruelties of war consists in shutting out from a blockaded country or an invested city the drugs and medi- cines that are necessary for the sick and the wounded. With the a Z "O o .2 — c I- re N E m < 46 MOBn.IZATION 47 medical corps go the Red Cross and other nurses, for duty in the field or in hospitals. Usually there is need of a signal corps to accompany the army, and this must be organized and equipped. It is common, in modern times, for the wings of an army and the headquarters to be in con- stant communication by telegraph ; and this requires field instruments and a staif of expert operators. At the same time, the commander-in-chief and his staff must de- termine which troops to call together and which to leave where they ORDR£ IE NOBtiJs iTio\ mmm , _ ^ _V^i The French Order of Mobilization are; for it will often happen that some strategic points of great importance are already guarded, and their defenders must not be re- moved. Or, again, seasoned soldiers may be withdrawn from a forti- fied position and less experienced ones sent to take their place; and the army is made up of definite proportions of infantry, cavalry, and artillery — varying somewhat according to the country in which it is to operate. When all this complicated problem has been solved, and the re- sulting tasks accomplished, that army is completely mobilized — it is ready to move as a unit. The problem of mobilization presents some variations in each coimtry. Probably Germany's facilities for it are somewhat superior to any other. Her people do not speak various languages, as do those of Austria. Her territory is not so large as that of Russia, and is better provided with railways. She has a central position, which gives D) 5 48 MOBILIZATION 49 A Detachment of Uhlans in South Africa her the interior lines as compared with any neighbor — always an ad- vantage either in tactics or in grand strategy. She has adopted power- ful automobile trucks for moving her heavy guns, instead of draft animals, which is a great improvement as well as a great expense. And finally, if there is any difference in the approach to perfection in the drilling and discipline of the men, the advantage lies with Ger- many. France has not so many men of military age as Germany has, and she has not drilled them so strenuously; and there is a difference between the men themselves. The German is usually very much in earnest about everything he undertakes. He is always serious, and usually stubborn. The Frenchman is of lighter build intellectually, has more sense of humor, is inclined to think of other things besides the one immediately in hand. Consequently, he is seldom so terribly in earnest as the German. With his songs and his witty sayings he 50 MOBILIZATION 51 French Reservists Reporting at the IVIiiitary Bureau sometimes gives a fringe of lightness to the sober realities of war. Yet France does not always forget the lessons of experience, and the French are keen at invention. It is said, on good authority, that the field artillery of the French is markedly superior to that of the Germans. As France is a republic, her Government cannot be ex- pected to have quite so free a hand in preparing for possible war, or even in promptly meeting the necessities of actual war, as a strong monarchy. A ministry may fall, or a president lose his office, in consequence of an error that is not fatal; but a dynasty is not easily changed or abolished. Hence the rigor of the service, and the conse- quent rapidity of mobilization never can be the same in a republic as in an empire. Mobilization in Russia has the advantage of a completely auto- cratic government, together with some disadvantages, the chief of which are the greater extent of territory over which the troops are spread in time of peace, and the lower scale of intelligence of the private soldiers. These are usually heavy physically and apparently , somewhat stolid mentally. But they obey orders without hesitation. (li CO (0 < .1 CQ D)c W C o
  • French Siege Artillery Mobilizing the great regular camps of the United Kingdom such as Aldershot, in England, and The Curragh, in Ireland, whence they are forwarded to the seaports from which they are to embark. Infantry can be trained to march, maneuver, and handle the rifle sufficiently well to be able to take the field in a few weeks ; but infantry is useless without cavalry, artillery, and engineers, and the training of men in these branches of the service requires much more time. It is highly important, also, that cavalry, infantry and artillery should become accustomed to coopera- tive tactics, necessitating practice maneuvers on a considerable scale. In continental Europe the problem of providing sufficient trained men to take the field on short notice has been solved by the highly efficient system of universal compulsory military service. Over the greater part of Europe, in each year on a specified date, all the young men who have just passed their twentieth birthday present themselves at various military depots. In France, which has been striving desper- ately for years, in the face of an increasing disparity in population, to keep her army on a footing nearly equal to that of Germany, no 56 MOBILIZATION 67 German Soldiers Resting After March in Beigium youth who is physically fit can escape his three years of militaiy serv- ice ; but Germany has a yearly surplus of recruits whom she places in a special class, known as the Ersatz, or "Compensatory," Reserve, to be used to supply the losses of war when the occasion arises. Russia is also in the enviable military situation of having more available soldiers than she knows what to do with. For two or three years these young men receive the grueling train- ing that is necessary to make a soldier. Then they pass, for a period varying from five to eleven years, according to the country in which they happen to be born, into the first reserve, and although they are free to pursue their callings in civil life, they are formally enrolled as members of some reserve regiment or battery during this whole time. Behind the active reserves are men of older years, who have set- tled down in business and home life. These men, until they have reached the age of forty-five or forty-eight years, are nevertheless included as members of second and third reserve organizations, and are liable to call in case the emergency demands their presence either at the front, in garrisons, or protecting lines of communication, thus releasing younger men for more active duty. O) >. 3 fc rt t. C < c o £ o in 58 MOBILIZATION 59 German Baggage Train Mobilization is primarily concerned with the regular forces and the incorporation into them of the active reserves. Just how each nation has solved its own problem has not yet been divulged, but cer- tain features connected with the regular peace organization make it likely that France formed a large part of her reserves into divisions, adding one reserve division to the two divisions of which each Army Corps is normally composed. Germany, on the other hand, probably mobilized her reserves in the smaller units of brigades, uniting one reserve brigade to the two brigades that form a division in time of peace. In order to provide for the ready assimilation of the reserves, the regular battalions are always proportionately over-ofRcered in time of peace. All the problems relating to mobilization and the massing of armies in their positions along the frontier are worked out by the Gen- eral Staff of each country. These highly educated and exceedingly able men, who are naturally officers of high rank, have for years been busy with plans for the contingency of war, and every detail of the 60 MOBILIZATION 61 The Camp at Vesoul, a French Mobilization Center preparation for invasion or counter-attack has long been made. Every general officer knows the task assigned to him and complete arrangements for transport of men, animals, guns, and provisions is made long in advance. Every soldier, when he receives notice to join the colors, instantly leaves his home with his little bundle, and, often with his wife and children beside him, walks to the barracks and dons the uniform. The German Army Corps system, copied by all the Continental nations, has made swift mobilization possible. Each army corps, which is really a small independent army, consisting of all arms — cavalry, artillery, infantry and engineers — is recruited in the region immediately surrounding its headquarters. Reserves have therefore, as a rule, only a short distance to go in order to join their regiments. When every man is with his army corps and the army corps is ready to. entrain or march to the place assigned it in the grand strategic plans of the Commander-in-chief — or Chief of the General Staff, as he is usually known in time of peace — the country's first-line forces are mobilized. It must be borne in mind that the active or mobile blAGFlAM OF AN ARMY CORPS AND TRAIN BRIGADE Z UJ Z iBATTAUOWl IBATTALIONI IBATTALIONI 1 1- z u IBATTALIONI IBATTALIONI IBATTAUONI ^ BRIGADE Z Id 1 2 (r IBATTALIONI IBATTALIONI IBATTALIONI Z u Z or IBATTALIONI iBATTAUONl iBAnALIONi ^ U'W 'A' W w W Ia" Jl lL lL ill iL z w w w w 3 lL lIj ill ili e r/p rjp ijp ijr W W w W TO W w W 1^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 lLi I^ W ■A' •jn ■A' TO w w W TO TO TO nH to to to to to to to to i lL lIj lL lL > W TO TO TO ; iXj ilj iXi tXi - TO TO TO. TO "■ ISQUAOffgN] squadrOnT BRIGADE ^- z u Z 5 kl K IBATTALIONI iBATTAUOKl IBATTALIONI 1 J- Z u Z o u or IBATTALIONI IBATTAUONI IBATTALIONI BRIGADE Z u Z o u o: IBATTAUONI jBAHAUONl IBATTALIONI z UJ Z 5 UJ IT IBATTALIONI IBATTAUONI IBATTALIONI TO TO 3TO TO TO TO li|TO TO ajTO TO WTO W TO HH TO TO TO TO ^ lLi lLi ill 1±| o TO TO TO TO TO TO wl TO o TO TO tin TO ii iJhijbijbbh TO TO bH TO TO TO nH TO **** i **** i |squaor8n] :S^ S^ 1^) :i^ jg^Tjg^jg^jg^ HOwrrzER battery howitzer battery howitzer battery howitzer battery BATTALION OF RIFLES MACHINE GUN SECTION BATTALION ENGINEERS TELEGRAPH SECTION BRIDGE TRAIN 5z ii £8 z Oz 2" z Oz 2 Or £8 ii si S8 a Sz |8 ^8 ill 1-8 ill i^8 |2o FIELD BAKERY horse: DE POT STRETCHER BEARER COLUMN FIELD HOSPITAL FIELD HOSPITAL FIELD HOSPITAL FIELD HOSPITAL FIELD HOSPITAL FIELD HOSPITAl FIELD FIELD FIELD FIELD HOSPITAL HOSPITAL HOSPITAL HOSPTTAL FIELD HOSPITAL FIELD HOSPITAL AMMUNITION COLUMN AMMUNITION COLUMN AMMUNmON COLUMN AMMUNITION COLUMN AMMUNITION COLUMN AMMUNITION COLUMN AMMUNITION COLUMN AMMUNITION COLUMN This diatrram shows the composition of the German army corps, which all other nations have taken more or less closely as a pattern. The rectangles show the component units, but their comparative size bears no relation to the numerical strength of the units represented. In time of peace some German infantry divisions are composed of three brigades instead of two as shown in this diagram, which suggests that it was intended to expand all the army corps on the outbreak of war by incorporating one reserve brigade with the two regular brigades, with proportionate increase in the artillery. The number of cavalry apportioned to an army corps is variable, depending upon the nature of the country in which it is operating. The war-strength of an army corps of two divisions of two brigades each is about 30,000 combatants. The strength of an army corps of two divisions having three brigades each is about 43,000 combatants. From seven to nine thousand non-combatants are required in the supply train, hospital section, etc. The relative strength of each arm in men is roughly: infantry, 25,000; artillery, 4,500; cavalry, 1,000. The small number of cavalry is accounted for by the fact that cavalry is not so closely associated with infantry as artillery, and is organized in independent divisions. The relative strength of all classes of troops in the German armv is as follows: Infantry. 63.81^^^; cavalrj-, 11.56%; field artillery, 10.99%; foot artillery, 3.88%; coast artillery, 0.33%; technical troops (engineers, etc.), 4.21%,; train, 1.26%; sanitary troops, 1.04%; miscellaneous, 2.02%. The rank of general officers assigned to various commands is somewhat arbitrary, and each nation has its own peculiar practice. In Germany, an officer bearing the title of General of Infantry, General of Artillery or General of Cavalrv commands an army corps. Above generals of this rank come Colonel-Generals and Marshal-Generals. Next be- low Generals of Infantry, etc., come Deutenant-Gen- erals (commanding divisions) and Major-Generals (com- manding brigades). In the French army the respective ranks are Generals, Generals of Division, and Generals of Brigade. In the British army, a brigade is usually command- ed by the senior colonel, Brigadier-General being only a temporary title and not a permanent rank; a division is commanded by a Major-General; an army corps by a Lieu- tenant-General; and two or more army corps, constituting an army, by a General or a P'ield Marshal. Field Marshal is an honorary rank bestowed upon distinguished generals. The commands of regimental officers also vary according to the country. In England, a Colonel commands a regiment; a Lieutenant-Colonel a battalion; a Major a half -battalion; a Captain, assisted by two Lieutenants, a company. In the French and German armies, where the regiments have three or more battalions, a Colonel, assisted by a Lieutenant- Colonel, commands a re^ment, with a Major to each battalion. Batteries of artillery are commanded by Majors. 6^ MOBILIZATION 66 ||*eserves are all men who have been graduated from the regular army f/^not more than five or six years at the most, and who, after a few weeks of hardening, are just as good as the men with the colors. The mobilization of the reserves of the second and third line is naturally a much more deliberate proceeding than the feverish em- bodiment of the first army. Men from about twenty-seven to thirty- nine years form the second reserve. They may be mobilized in com- plete army corps if necessary, or may be forwarded in smaller detach- ments to make up war losses, in accordance with the strain at the front. As a last resort, the reserves of the third line, consisting of men from about forty to forty-five years of age, are called upon. The tactics of the last line are to some extent those of the guerilla. They wear no uniform and their aim is to harass the enemy whenever the opportunity offers, by sharpshooting, or "sniping," as it is called, by making night raids on lines of communication, cutting off strag- glers from the enemy's line of march, and in any other way that the ingenuity of men fighting desperately for their homes may suggest. -"1 ^^I^^^^^^^^B' "^^T^^^^^^^H V ra < ° U. o < O) 64 CHAPTER IV THE NEW WAEFARE Wars have been waged since earliest history — ^bloody wars, de- structive wars, but never one hke this. The inventive genius of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries has produced many things to shorten the hours of labor, ease the strain on the scholar, and bring both families and nations into closer communication; and of these achievements we constantly boast; but while with one hand the Genius of the Age has wrought for the happiness of mankind, with the other it has multiplied and perfected the instruments of destruc- tion, and all these have come into use in this fierce contest among the great nations of Europe — apparently destined not only to play their new part in the settlement of national disputes, but to increase the harvest of death and the desolation of a million homes. When the "wooden walls" of our fathers were shattered in the shock of the sea fight, at least there was something afloat for the van- quished mariner to cling to ; but now a thousand may go down in their great steel battle-ship — at once a fortress and a prison — and not one fragment of wreckage ever float above their "vast and wandering grave." Brave as ever their hardy ancestors were, they stand un- flinching at their posts of duty; but they may be denied the satis- faction of striking or even seeing their enemy, when a sneaking submarine vessel inflicts a fatal wound beneath the water-line, and all the elaborate and costly structure, with its thunderous armament, goes for naught. And, again, it need not surprise us if occasionally two of the new dreadnoughts sink each other and go down at the same moment. The stone balls that were hurled from the primitive cannon a lit- tle farther than the catapult could throw them are succeeded by rifled bombs that weigh hundreds of pounds and make a flight of miles or pierce a wall of solid steel and burst on the other side. The 65 A NEW PHASE OF WARFARE German Zeppelin of the Type Which Dropped Bombs on Antwerp Havoc Wrought by German Zeppelin at Antwerp 66 THE NEW WARFARE 67 muzzle-loading musket, which decided many important conflicts, is succeeded by the breech-loading repeating rifle and the machine guri that pours out a continuous stream of bullets before which no troops can stand. And again a battalion may be hurled into the air by the explosion of mines and buried shells charged with a compound twenty times as powerful as gunpowder ; and into intrenchments may be thrown shells that emit fumes to choke or poison many who are not struck by the flying fragments. For centuries the comparative advantages of armor and weapons, fortifications and gun-fire, have alternated between the offensive and the defensive, as one device after another has been contrived or per- fected. Most of those here mentioned give the advantage to the de- fenders. In the day of the muzzle-loader the defenders could fire one volley at an approaching foe, and then the assailant, coming on the run, was among them with the bayonet before they could reload. That famous weapon is of little further use, except as a spade for throwing up hasty intrenchments. A steady fire of repeating guns will literally annihilate a charging column in a few minutes, as has been done in early engagements of this war. But, on the other hand, the recent inventions for navigating the air appear to throw the mar- gin of advantage again to the side of the assailants. There is far less use for spies and cavalry reconnoissances, when aviators can hover over the enemy and, out of easy reach, count his guns and his forces, map all his positions, and sometimes drop huge bombs upon camps and squadrons. Another aviator may be sent up to attack him; but the result is almost certain to be the destruction of both. Thus is realized the vision described by the poet more than seventy years ago : Heard the heavens fill with shouting, and there rained a ghastly dew From the nations' airy navies grappling in the central blue. The Genius of Invention is now called upon to throw the advan- tage again to the defensive by producing a gun that will send a seldom-erring shot through a machine that is hundreds of feet over- head. The ordinary large gun, if fired perpendicularly, is liable to burst. These are the novel elements in this tremendous contest ; yet, with all their appalling destructiveness, they hardly appear to diminish the THE NEW WARFARE 69 ardor with which the men on either side rush to the field that may be the field of honor, but is less the field of gloiy than the field of death. The Red Cross of mercy and the wonderful advances in medical and surgical science do their utmost; but the stretchers and ambulances are heavily loaded, the hospitals are crowded, and the mourning homes are beyond counting. The old theory that the earth is finally to be destroyed by one vast conflagration is brought vividly to mind when we behold the flames of war bursting out at once over nearly the whole of Europe, as if civilization and all peaceful progress were doomed — not destroy- ing the land, to be sure, but demolishing the works of man with which the land has been cultivated and adorned, sweeping tens of thousands of men into untimely graves, like the dust to which they so suddenly return, and reducing to ashes the happy homes of their children. Thousands of men in these great armies must fall before peace is attained, and when peace does come it will leave thousands of homes desolate and the already heavy national debts enormously increased, while every people in the civilized world will feel the efl'ects of the contest. Said George William Curtis, one of our most eloquent ora- tors, "Every war is long, though it end to-morrow; every battle is terrible, though only your son perish." However this contest may terminate, it will leave an endless train of sorrows, hatreds, and despair. German Field Howitzer Anti-aeroplane Gl^ii One of the German 11-in. Howitzers That Battered the Forts at Li^ge SOME MODERN IMPLEMENTS OF WAR 70 CHAPTER V MILITARY IMPLEMENTS OF WAR In the century that has elapsed since Waterloo, inventive genius has been incredibly busy in all departments of mechanics; but in the development of engines of slaughter it has fairly surpassed itself. Could the shades of Napoleon, Wellington, and Bliicher return to their old battleground, once more drenched with blood, they would be astounded at the extraordinary variety of the instruments of de- struction at the disposal of their successors in command and at their appalling precision, deadliness, and range. It must not be forgotten, however, that inventive skill has not confined itself to offensive meas- ures alone. Defensive tactics have kept pace with offensive ; and de- vices for protection have followed the introduction of new means of attack. Notwithstanding the terrific potentialities of modern war machinery, the present titanic conflict may prove therefore to be no more deadly in proportion to the numbers involved than those that have gone before. Lovers of peace have expressed the hope that those who were engaged in increasing the destructive capacity of war engines were most efl*ectively promoting the cause of universal peace by making war so deadly that human beings could no longer engage in it. This war will demonstrate whether this view is well founded or not. Be that as it may, we may at least express the hope that its ghastly spectacles will permanently sate the appetite of mankind for bloodshed. Explosives. — The motive power, so to speak, of all the major im- plements of modern warfare is explosive powder of one form or an- other, and before describing the implements themselves we will devote a paragraph to the uncanny substance in which such frightful powers of destruction are locked up. "Smokeless powder" is now in universal use. As a matter of fact, however, there is no such thing as an absolutely smokeless powder, and 71 AUTOMOBILE GUN, ESPECIALLY DESIGNED FOR ATTACKING AIRCRAFT Motor Tractors and Guns Mounted on Automobiles Were an Outstanding Feature of the Swift German Advance Through Belgium and France 7^ RIFLES AND POWDER 73 considerable vapor is noticeable at the muzzles of all large pieces. This is partly due to the small charge of black powder necessary to explode them. The practical invisibility conferred by smokeless pow- der is obviously of immense importance to the combatants. Smoke- BREECM SHOVvflNG CARTRID&E& eNTER\N& MACAZINE- The New Short Rifle of the British Army lessness is brought about by the fact that these powders leave no un- consumed residuum to be blown out of the muzzle in the form of smoke. The chief ingredients of all modern powders are nitrocellu- lose and nitroglycerine — both compounds of nitric acid. Chemically, they are all complex compounds of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen, and their explosive power is due to the fact that they are 74 MILITARY IMPLEMENTS OF WAR capable of suddenly liberating volumes of their component gases vast in proportion to the bulk of the powder. Compared with old-fash- ioned gunpowder, they are "slow-burning" and instead of adminis- tering a single sudden blow to the projectile they push it, so to speak, along the barrel. This has made it possible to increase the power of the charge enormously without increasing the maximum pressure in the bore. Smokeless powders are made in the form of cubes, flakes, or cords, whence the name of the English powder "cordite." They are usu- ally exploded by means of fulminate of mercury caps. Most military smokeless powders burn harmlessly when merely ignited. For burst- ing shells several forms of picric acid (technicalh^ trinitrophenol) are used under various names, such as lyddite and melinite. Picric acid is a very high explosive. Recently a chemical substance known as "trinitrotoluol" has been introduced. Among the advantages that this has over picric acid is that it is less easily exploded, requir- ing a very heavy detonating shock. Rifles. — Inasmuch as the bulk of the world's fighting on land falls to the lot of the infantrymen, who far outnumber all other arms of the service, and as the rifle is the principal arm of the foot-soldier, we may justly regard it as the most important weapon now in use. In its shortened form — the carbine — the rifle is also used by the cavalry- man, and there is a tendency in modern tactics toward the frequent emploj^ment of cavalry as mounted infantry, fighting with firearms rather than with the typical cavalry weapons — the sword and the lance. These weapons may be noted in passing; but as they have been used for centuries we dismiss them by stating that the sword was abandoned by British infantry officers during the Boer War, and that the value of the clumsy lance is disputed. The entire German cavalry, including the Uhlans, who figure so frequently in the war news of the day, is armed with the lance. Although the name "rifle" is applied specifically to the small arm fired from the shoulder, all modern firearms, from the great sixteen- inch coast-defense guns down to the pocket-pistol, are essentially rifles, as they all have rifled bores. That is to say, they have shallow spiral grooves running the length of the inside of the barrel. These spiral grooves cause the bullet to revolve on its own axis at an exceed- RIFLES AND POWDER 75 ingly high rate (about 4,000 revolutions a second). The rotatory motion enables the bullet to travel over a much flatter arc of flight than one projected from a smooth-bore piece, keeps it truer in its flight, and gives it higher penetrating power. In a rifle the grooves make one complete turn of the barrel in about eight inches ; hence in flight the bullet revolves once for each eight inches it travels. All modern military rifles have a magazine holding from five to ten cart- ridges, and they are loaded by drawing back and thrusting forward a ^^^A£!*» ., .... . .-.:..■. • • ■ BErn^in'"'*^"^^' ' ^B^^I^WWM^ ** --^^m^i*"^^^^^^^^'' -.■ .-^^^^^^"^«*»^ \. ^^^,jP^ f.:~::^^:r*'m^'^ ■'^'?5l*ff' If^^^^^gM^ German Infantry with Mauser Rifles bolt. These two movements eject the empty shell, throw a new cart- ridge into the chamber, and cock the piece ready for firing. The bolt can be removed, and it is so constructed that it can be rendered useless by a blow on some small but essential part. Soldiers are instructed thus to disable their weapons in case of a rout, in order to prevent them from being of immediate use to the enemy. Most rifle maga- zines are in the form of a metal box fitted belbw the chamber ; but the magazine of the French Lebel is formed by a tube in the wooden stock beneath the barrel. A "cut-ofl*" is usually provided, so that the weapon may be used as a single-shot piece, with the magazine held in reserve for an emergency. The modern rifle fires a small, long bullet 76 MILITARY IMPLEMENTS OF WAR having about the diameter of a lead-pencil. As lead could not with- stand the pressure of the powerful powder charges now used, bullets aire made with a hard metal coating (usually nickeled copper) over a lead core. In order to make these hard bullets engage the spiral grooves of the barrel, they are made somewhat larger than the bore. The characteristic wound inflicted by the small modern bullet is a French Soldiers with "Label" Rifles clean-cut puncture, and often it will push aside the smaller blood- vessels. JNIodern bullet wounds, unless in a vital organ, are apt to heal quickly, and men have come out of a campaign as well as ever after being bored through by an astonishing number of these new "humane" projectiles. In warfare against savages a bullet with a soft nose (known as the "dum-dum") is used. This expands on im- pact and inflicts a wound of pecuhar atrocity. The same result may be achieved by filing off the end of those bullets that have a soft core. The fact that malicious individual soldiers cannot be prevented from shdy filing their bullets accounts for the inevitable charges that the enemy is using "dum-dums." The following table gives complete particulars of the rifles used by the chief military powers: RIFLES 77 - - -a :2 . « .§ "I '» 1 (M rH <« t~ O 1=3 a > +j _^ o- • S 5 2i S * ? <0 O ^ r^ 95 i-c O t- >0 O ■-■ 00 S "* >o o t» i-l o t- « S »« Hw (V OS »5 — if !a -H o» ^- M i 2 " S C8 JS i-c rt o O 3 S^-3 3 ^ 9 «5 25 S 05 a '^ = s a •2 ,1 .a "^ a -s 5 S o e -^ £ "K "o -3 "o ■^ o S3 S ^ •- -. j3 ^ -a - 2 a " .a> tj H Iz; '3 M &.2 .S .2 V d Cj O) U) *^ .^ bo «^ '3 a ftM 5 _a; o 3 3 j; X -g « pq ^ W ^ ■^^ a !K I" ** OaS S "^ dja-a-s « (*<»•«"" ^ ^ Bv o V ° o-Ti, cs g 2 a.S =8 Si-° t, a^ S— " t. S - "** " a 2:3 a 2 o =« " -- iS -*^ S 2 5 * " o rt o .So t> ^ t» M o.'S a ° ft"^ Si's .e-o £ja u a*; «•« S^H o ii 5 a.> b. fc* -a aj n1 ^ a !» — '^ a; a =8 t-S t-.S' =• SSJ 0.S ^« a;2--§ « ^S>^ O^ N o m-S a ° M g-i-T3^ « 'jH a a-SSwl^ g'^'^i- «)>>=aija o J, 5:*i o*i -o'S.?« « °'-a-_2 s a-d 5-S52 ".a"® 2J « g^ ■5-^ >£3-o-^ ^ rt^'- r^ « o jgxi.a .>,a-S& ■^J^S cs^ a-ti.^'2-S J2.-W a _,^ 3 a--t!-^ S S o S'S^ 2^-a loc ■" « fe S S « OJ3 g a J3cS3-"t,,.*jM *f _2« o M s a <« S-'S'a a « 2'2^0"3 a 3 2<'o 78 MILITARY IMPLEMENTS OF WAR The companion weapon of the rifle is the bayonet, which, affixed to the muzzle, converts the rifle into a spear for use at close quarters. It is quite likely that when the story of the war is finally told, it will ap- pear that the decisive charges have been driven home by the bayonet even as in days of yore. Machine Guns — IMachine guns are loaded and fired mechanically at high speed. They are divided into two classes, those in Avhich the Cameron Highlanders Operating a Maxim Gun feed is maintained by the operation of a crank and those which are entirely automatic. The American Gatling is an example of the first type and the English Maxim of the second. The Gatling has ten barrels arranged in a circular group and is fed from a hopper. This hopper is filled with cartridges clipped side by side upon long metal strips. The turn of a crank throws a cartridge into the chamber of each barrel in succession and fires and ejects the empty shells in rotation. It is capable of firing at the terrific speed of 1,200 shots a minute. Although an excellent weapon, the Gatling has been super- seded in the world's armies and navies by the entirely automatic gun. MACHINE GUNS 79 These have only one barrel and the mechanism that actuates the loading, firing, and ejection of the empty shells is operated either (1) by the recoil of the barrel or (2) by a small amount of the pow- der-gas allowed to escape from a small hole near the muzzle after the passage of each bullet. Naturally these guns develop a tremendous amount of heat and most of them are cooled by a water-jacket or a radiator. Nevertheless they have to be allowed frequent intervals of rest for cooling. The English Maxim, which is the most widely used French Machine Gun — Gas Operated Type weapon of this type, is operated bj^ the recoil of the discharge at a rate of 600 shots a minute. It is fed by woven belts of 250 cartridges held side by side in loops. The end of the belt is placed into the lock and a single cartridge into the chamber. A pull of the trigger fires the first cartridge and starts the mechanism. Empty shells fall in a shower from the side. Holding the trigger for just one second will speed seven shots on their way. The ordinary infantry cartridge is used in the standard weapon; but automatic guns firing as large a missile as a one-pound explosive shell at the rate of 300 a minute are in use. The English Maxim-Nordenfeldt, which, during the Boer War, got the name of* the "pom-pom" from the peculiar drumming 80 MILITARY IMPLEMENTS OF WAR sound it emits in action, is a one-pounder automatic. Semi-automatic guns are used extensively in the naval service. In weapons of this type the recoil of the gun ejects the empty shell and throws the breech block into position to receive a new shell inserted by hand. Guns as large as the three-inch thirteen-pounder are operated in this way. Machine guns are mounted on carriages, tripods, parapets of forts and rails of warships. They are light and portable, the Maxim weigh- ing only about thirty-five pounds. The tripod is the usual mounting. The French have recently adopted a machine gun which is hardly larger than a rifle and can be fired in the same way, by a man lying down, at the rate of 500 shots a minute. French Siege-gun on Truck of Armored Train Under favorable conditions the machine gun is capable of inflict- ing frightful damage; but like a great many other modern war de- vices it has an awful capacity for wasting costly ammunition. On account of their excessive vibration and "jump," they are very diffi- cult to aim and control and they have a bad habit of "jamming" at critical moments. The Maxim gun is used by the Russians and Ger- mans as well as by the English. France and Japan use the Hotch- kiss, a gas-operated radiator-cooled weapon. Austria uses the Schwarzlose, a remarkably fine weapon, water-cooled, and operated by the powder-gas. Italy has adopted the Permio, which operates on the recoil principle. The American Colt is operated by gas and relies for cooling on its very thick barrel. Artillery Guns. — The most important large weapon used by mod- ern armies in the field is the piece with which the field artillery is armed. Usually there are four or six of these guns to each battery, FIELD GUNS 81 as the tactical unit of field artillery is termed. While they diifer in detail in each army, the typical field piece of to-day has a caliber of about three inches and fires a shell weighing from twelve to fifteen pounds, at a velocity of about 2,000 feet a second, to a distance of about 7,500 yards. They have hydraulic and spring cylinders for checking recoil. A shield of hardened steel, placed between the wheels of the gun-carriage, protects the crew. French ordnance of- ficers have secretly developed their field artillery to an extraordinary pitch of perfection and, if the predictions of some authorities are 1 w9IK^^^^^^^^^^^^^Bt ^luE^ PPI^ ^'^ ..^ cjMH ■ ■ ■ 1 1 HnPlflHHH/ .rtttctpt^^nWMW „., , ■■-' ^■.■■' '■ ■ . . . . : : English 60-pounder Siege Guns borne out, the French artillery may prove a decisive factor in this war. Field batteries are also equipped with breech-loading mortars, which are short pieces intended for vertical firing against troops under cover from direct fire. Intermediate in length between the regular field guns and the short mortars are howitzers, which are used to fire shells at a high angle of elevation, with a small muzzle velocity. They vary in size from the small field howitzer to the great siege pieces 16 inches in caliber. Their shells carry heavy explosive charges, and are terribly eifective in plunging down upon intrenchments and fortifications. Horse artillery, which is expected to keep pace with cavalry, is equipped with lighter pieces than the field artillery, which operate usually in cooperation with infantry. In siege operations against strongly fortified places, special heavy guns have to be brought up 82 MILITARY IMPLEMENTS OF WAR K^^^^yMH ^vrK_ l«l ^5SE H ?r™«"" iff| fliiHTJi'i'^iiir ^^gPP^^^^^K^ai H '""-—"' ^" ^ ■% ^. ... ■ ' English Artillerymen with Field-gun on Pontoons German 12-in. Mortar, for Use Against Fortifications from the siege train, as the heavy guns and their equipment, carried by every army in the field, are called. These field pieces are all breech-loading rifles. The principal pro- jectiles with which they are served are of two kinds — common shell and shrapnel. Common shells contain a heavy bursting-charge of some high explosive, such as lyddite or maximite. Shrapnel shells are filled with bullets. They contain a light charge of powder, just suffi- cient to burst the shell, allowing the bullets to spread out and continue their course. Shrapnel is directed against troops; common shell is used both against troops in close order and for destroying guns and other large objects. Shrapnel is particularly effective against troops behind earthworks and intrenclunents. Shells are exploded by fuses, which are designed so that an ex- ploding charge will be fired either immediately on impact, delaj^ed for a desired number of seconds after striking, or at any time in the flight of the missile. These fuses are screwed into the noses of the shells used by field pieces. They are ingenious and rather complicated de- vices. The safest fuse is one in which the mechanism of discharge cannot work until armed by the rotary motion of the shell leaving the gun. The shells of field pieces and of all large guns are made to engage the grooves of the rifled barrels of the guns by means of a HAND GRENADES 83 band of copper at the base, which is driven into and fills up the grooves as the shell leaves the chamber. It thus receives the same rotary motion as the rifle bullet. At close quarters, artillery use case shot, which is merely a cylin- drical box of bullets, made so as to break up immediately on leaving the muzzle of the gun, scattering the bullets across a wide front. Star shells are sometimes used at night to illuminate the enemy's posi- c r-ROTATING BAND 5. -GRAPHITE AND TALLOW ROTATING BAND p Common Shell BOURRELET POINT OF CAP BODY OF SHELL Armor-piercing Shell Diagram Showing Structure of Common Shell, Shrapnel and Armor-piercing Shell tion. These shells will burn with a brilliant light for about forty seconds. The introduction of aircraft into warfare, a novel feature of the present conflict in Europe, has brought entirely new types of guns into prominence, both for ofl'ensive use by such craft and for defense against them. Aeroplanes and air-ships have been fitted with light weapons for use in air-fighting, and special types of carriages per- mitting vertical and high-angle fire have been devised for guns de- signed to bring down the enemy's aircraft. The automobile has been pressed into service as a means of transport for such weapons. Hand Grenades. — Though the reader may start when he sees hand grenades mentioned in an article on modern implements of war, it is a fact that these antiquated instruments were revived during the Russo- Japanese War and with such eff*ect that considerable attention has been devoted to perfecting them. A grenade is a bomb thrown by 84 MILITARY IMPLEMENTS OF WAR hand. They are effective at close range, particularly in storming forts and intrenchments. There are also devices for throwing gren- ades from small guns. A mine grenade has been invented recently. These are buried in the groimd over which troops are expected to pass,, and are fired at the right moment. The grenades rise a short dis- tance from the surface — being prevented from soaring into the air by small chains — then burst and shoot out a mass of projectiles par- allel to the ground in all directions. ' )t0 French Siege-gun with Motor Tractor Automobiles. — France has led in the adaptation of the motor-car to military purposes. Some time ago armored automobiles carrying machine and other light guns were built ; but it is doubtful whether the automobile will figure much in this capacity. Its field will be mainly that of transport. Powerful motor-cars have been built for hauling heavy guns and trains of wagons. These cars are equipped with cap- stans for drawing themselves out of holes and for pulling their trail- ers up steep inclines. They have endured severe tests over rough country. The public imagination has been touched by the news that the French commander-in-chief uses a swift automobile, driven by a famous racing-driver, as a means of rapid transport on the long line over which troops extend in modern warfare. The French have also recently introduced an automobile that is fitted as an X-ray operating- room, the motor being used to drive the dynamo of the photographic MOTOR VEHICLES 85 apparatus after the car has taken up its station. Automobiles have been fitted up as sleeping-cars and movable kitchens for officers of high rank. Special motor vans for the transport of wireless equip- ment, aeroplanes and gas-tanks for replenishing and filling dirigi- bles, have been constructed. In a country intersected by a network of good roads, as Europe is, the automobile may obviously be put to German Field Piece with Interlocking Wheels a variety of uses. Bicycles are used in modern armies mainly by despatch-bearers and members of the signal corps. The Spade. — The subject of military implements cannot be closed without a reference to the humble spade and shovel. Intrenchment plays a very important part in field operations and gives the spade a high rank as an implement of war. Ingenious light combination tools, which can be used either as a pick or a shovel, are carried bj'' European infantryman. Canadian infantry carry a spade, the blade of which has a hole through which the rifle barrel can be passed. A hinged handle makes it possible for a rifleman lying prone to utilize this spade as a very efl'ective head shield. In an emergency the foot- soldier resorts to his bayonet as a spade and throws up as large a heap of earth as he can, for protection against the enemy's fire. 86 CHAPTER VI WAR-SHIPS AND NAVAL IMPLEMENTS OF WAR The popular imagination is more deeply stirred by naval than by land operations, not only because of the ever fresh romance of the sea but because modern weapons of war have been carried to their ex- treme pitch of perfection, both of precision and of power, in marine construction, and also because of the awful concentration of destruc- tive forces which a great sea-fight under present conditions will entail. Battle-ships. — The most terrible engine of destruction that human ingenuity has been able to devise is the modern battle-ship. "Battle- ship" is a technical term applied to war-ships of the heaviest class, strongly protected by thick plates of the hardest and toughest steel that science has been able to produce, and armed with large guns of extreme range, throwing a gigantic shell of high penetrating power bearing a charge of appalling explosive force. For many years a bitter fight has been in progress between the gun-makers and the mak- ers of armor-plate. Many times the armor-plate makers have thought they had at last produced a plate that would withstand the shock of any projectile, only to face a new gun of still greater penetrating power. The victory rests to-day w^ith the gun-maker, for guns of the latest naval type can punch a clean hole through eighteen inches of the finest armor. The advent of the English "Dreadnought" in 1905 brought about a revolution in the construction of battle-ships. Previously, battle- ships had carried a main battery of four heavy guns in turrets fore and aft, and rows of lighter guns along each side. The American "Connecticut," of 16,000 tons, armed with four twelve-inch, eight eight-inch and twelve seven-inch guns, is a fine example of the earlier type. The "Dreadnought" ushered in the all-big-gun ship, carrying all heavy guns of uniform size in turrets on the deck, and a secondary armament of light guns for repelling torpedo craft. The dread- noughts are supposed to be so far superior to vessels of the older type 87 88 WAR-SHIPS AND NAVAL IMPLEMENTS ( "pre-dreadnoughts," as they are termed) as to render them obsolete for use in the first line of battle. The present war may put to the test this famous controversy as well as many others that have raged in naval circles. The small battle-ship, \/ith few guns, has always had its advocates. In spite of hostile criticism, however, all the naval powers have been active in the construction of monster battle-ships, until we now Battle-ship "Neptune" — King George, Admiral Callaghan and the Prince of Wales on Decl< have a new class of "superdreadnoughts." England, in fact, has outdone the superdreadnought and with her "Queen Elizabeth" and her four sister-ships (some of which maj^ be completed in time to fig- ure in this war, as the}?- are due for completion in October, 1914, and early in 1915), she has begun a new era in battle-ship construction. The "Queen Elizabeth" is 650 feet long and will displace 27,500 tons. (The "displacement" of a ship is its dead weight, so called because a floating body displaces a volume of water equal to its own weight. It must not be confused with the "tonnage" of a merchant ship which is an entirely different measurement.) She will be protected by a belt DREADNOUGHTS 89 of 13%-inch armor on her water line and 10 inches on her middle belt. Her guns will be protected by 14-inch turrets. As with all battle- ships, parts of her bow and stern are unarmored, since it is not pos- sible for a ship to carry the weight of a complete suit of armor. She has the extreme speed of 25 knots. (The English Admiralty knot is 6,080 feet, or about 1% miles. A speed of 25 knots means about 29 land miles an hour.) Her eight 15-inch guns give her the most power- ful armament ever mounted on a warship. She will carry an auxiliary German Battle-Cruiser "Moltke' battery of 16 6-inch guns and — a significant sign of the times — 12 3-inch anti-aeroplane guns. Five 21-inch torpedo-tubes complete her armament. Her 58,000-horse-power turbine engines, driving four screws, will be supplied with steam by oil-burning boilers. Such is the "last word" in naval construction at the time of the present European struggle. She will cost about $13,000,000. Battle-ship Cruisers — A recent development in naval construction is the battle-ship cruiser, or battle-cruiser, in which armor is sacri- ficed to speed. These ships are classed as dreadnoughts and are almost as heavily armed as battle-ships of that class. The English "Tiger" represents the extreme development of this extraordinary class of ships. She has the enormous displacement of 29,000 tons, 90 WAR-SHIPS AND NAVAL IMPLEMENTS Plates Showing Disposition of Heavy Guns and Turrets in Recent All- Big-Gun Battle-ships and Battle Cruisers (Note. — A black dot In the center of a turret indicates that the guns of that turret are suflBclently elevated to fire over the adjacent turret.) I. Nevada. Oklahoma (U. S.), 14-lnch guns. 2. Michigan. South Carolina (U. S.), 12-ln. 3. Lion. Princess Royal, Queen Mary (British), 13.5-ln. 4. Inflexible. Invincible. Indomitable. Indefatigable. Australia. New Zealand (British), 12-ln. 5. Espana. Alfonso XIII.. Jaime I. (Spanish), 12-in.; Vonder Tann (German). 11-in. 6. GangiU. PoUava. Petropavlocsk. Sevastopol (Russian); Viribus Unitis. " V." (Austrian) ; Darue Allghlerl (Italian) : all 12-in. Plan 4 with triple-gun turrets has been suggested for Russian ships. 7. Delauiare. North Dakota. Florida. Utah (U. S.), 12-ln. 8. Texas. New York (U. S.), 14-in.; Orion. Thunderer. Conqueror. Monarch, King George V., CerUurlon. Aiax. Audacious (British), 13.5-ln. 9. Plan suggested by Mr. J. McKechnie (Viclcers Co.) for 16.000- ton ship with internal-combustion engines. 10. Neptune, Hercules, Colossus (British), 12-ln. 11. Dreadnought. Bellerophon, Temeraire. Superb, St. Vincent, CoUlngtcood, Vanguard (British), 12-in. 12. Conte di Cavour, Leonardo da Vlncl, Giulio Cesare (Italian), 12-ln. 13. Wyoming, Arkansas (U. S.), 12-ln. 14. Moreno. Rivadavia (Argentine); Mlnas Geraes, San Paulo (Brazilian), 12-ln. 15. Courbet, Jean Bart, France. Paris (FVench), 12-ln. 16. Kawachl, Settsu (Japanese), 12-ln.; Nassau, Westfalen, Rheinland, Posen (German), Il-in.; Ostfriesland, Helgoland, Thuringen, Oldenburg (German), 12.2-ln. although she carries an armor belt of only nine inches. Her main armament consists of eight 13.5-inch guns. She has engines of 78,000 horse-power, giving her a speed of 28 knots. The "Lion," a somewhat smaller ship, has made 30 knots. The German "Goeben," whose elusive qualities were so frequently referred to in the early news of this war, is a battle-ship cruiser. All recent battle-ships have CRUISERS 91 an armored upper deck and armored gratings over the funnels for protection against aeroplanes. Cruisers. — Cruisers are light-armed swift vessels, used mainly for scouting, patrolling, and convoying merchant vessels. The great speed of the new battle-ships and battle-ship cruisers has relegated cruisers of the old type to a secondary place. Cruisers are classed as "unprotected cruisers," which are without armor of any kind except around their guns; "protected cruisers," which have no vertical armor W ^ISlSi*^> aS^^^liSP'^'V^^^^^^^^^^^B wH^^^ ^^^^^^^^1 — --' ''^'*-^ • !^- WW^^^ ^ ^H ■ •**;"''^«vr»r^.: j| H 1 ■ ^^^^^^^^M fc^^,K.*^."^^ I ■ m^^^t m^:"^ ^ ^^^Hp-' m . % ' M ;«-• '. y ' Wi- 'i 4 "' ■"•■ - iMLJ German Protected Cruiser "Breslau" in the Kiei Canal but are protected by an armored deck over their machinerj^ curving at each side below the water-line; and "armored cruisers," which have light side armor and are in effect light battle-ships. Destroyers. — Torpedo-destroyers, usually shortened to "destroy- ers," is the name applied to a class of exceedingly swift small vessels. They were originally designed to cope with torpedo-boats, vessels of a smaller and slower class, but have become the highest type of torpedo- boats themselves. They carry light guns, but their main weapon is the deadly torpedo. These vessels are large enough to maintain them- selves at sea for long periods, and in speed they exceed all other sea- going craft. Slipping stealthily over the water, they suggest some 92 WAR-SHIPS AND NAVAL IMPLEMENTS British Destroyer "Nubian" — the Fastest Ship in the World beast of prey, and their swift night attacks are greatly dreaded by large ships. The English "Swift" maj' be taken as the extreme type of destroyer. She is 345 feet long and displaces 1,800 tons. With engines of 30,000 horse-power, which is a good deal more powerful than the engines of most Atlantic liners, this terrible little vessel can maintain a speed higher than 35 knots, or more than 40 miles an horn-, and faster than most express trains. She is armed with fom* 4-inch guns and two deck torpedo-tubes. Submarines. — A new and peculiarly sinister type of craft, the sub- marine, is to receive its first test in this war. Although really practi- cal vessels of this type have been in use only about twenty-five years, they have been so far perfected that Admiral Sir Percy Scott asserts that they have already sounded the death-knell of the battle-ship. This assertion has been sharply contested; but the recent astounding feat of a German submarine, or submarines, in sending to the bottom three British armored ci-uisers within a few minutes seems to vindicate the prophecy of the English admiral. Nevertheless, the earlier exploit SUBMARINES 93 of a British cruiser in destroying a German submarine, the where- abouts of which was disclosed by the appearance of its periscope above the surface, with two shots, shows that the operations of this class of boats are attended with grave peril. Submarines are made to dive by pumping water into ballast tanks, in co-operation with the action of horizontal rudders, and they are operated by gasoline engines when running on the surface. Before diving, the gasoline engine is cut off, and all surface openings are closed by valves. An electric British Submarine Running Awash motor, driven by a current stored up in accumulators while the craft has been running awash, is then thrown into operation. It would be unsafe to use gasoline engines below the surface because of escaping gas, and the telltale trail of bubbles that the exhaust would throw up to the surface. Air for respiration and for operating the torpedo- tube at the bow is stored up under high pressure in suitable tanks. Chemicals for purifying the air are carried. White mice, which squeak when they smell escaping gases, are regular members of the submarine's crew. The weapon of the submarine is the torpedo. Under favorable conditions, the destructive capacity of the sub- marine is enormous ; but these vessels labor under many serious disad- 94 WAR-SHIPS AND NAVAL IMPLEMENTS vantages. Fatal accidents among them have been very frequent in all navies. They are exceedingly uncomfortable to the crew at all times, and for obvious reasons they are habitable only for a short time when submerged. The maintenance of balance is a difficult problem, and even though a submarine approaches close enough to a battle-ship to discharge a torpedo, she may not be able to direct it properly. When the vessel is below the surface, objects can be seen only a few feet away ; and even when the submarine is near the surface a battle- ship could not be seen at a distance of more than one hundred feet. The faster the boat is moving the more obscure becomes the sur- rounding water. The submarine, being practically blind, therefore, has been fitted with eyes in the form of "periscopes." The peri- scope is a mirror fitted at an angle in the top of a tubular mast and ca- pable of being revolved horizontal- ly to sweep the horizon. The im- age of objects on the surface is re- flected down this tube to a properly placed mirror below, so that the commander of the craft, by looking into the mirror before him, can see what is going on above the surface of the water so long as the periscope-box remains unsubmerged. Un- fortunately for the submarine, however, this periscope is a certain tell- tale of its whereabouts, and it was by a shot through its periscope that the British cruiser previously mentioned blinded the German subma- rine and brought it to the surface, when a second shot sent it to the bottom. At night, the handicaps of the submarine are obviously greatly increased. Despite its drawbacks, however, the submarine is a fiendish contrivance, and though it may not do all that its champions expect of it, it has been brought to a high degree of perfection and it has already given a sufficiently horrible account of itself. Eng- land has nearing completion the largest submarine in the world, the The Eyes of the Submarine SUBMARINES 95 British Cruiser Squadron — H. IVI. S. "Lion" Leading "JSTautilus." The extraordinary features of this craft are her size (1,500 tons) and her high speed on the surface (21 knots), enabling her to keep pace with the main fleet on the high seas. She will have a submerged speed of about 16 knots and will be armed with six torpedo-tubes. Most of the submarines now in service, however, are of an earlier, smaller, and much less efficient type than this dreadful engine of war. They are usually from 150 to 200 tons, and are from 100 to 150 feet in length. They have a radius (distance that can be sailed without replenishing the stock of fuel) of about 1,000 miles on the surface and 100 to 150 miles under water. Naval Guns. — The battle-ship is essentially a floating platform for a battery of powerful guns. In fact, with the exception of a very few 16-inch American coast-defense guns, the heaviest weapons in existence are now afloat. We cannot here go into the disputes that have been waged over the respective merits of the big guns of the various nations, and it would be tedious to describe the guns of each nation in detail. In general, these guns are all very much alike, and in order to give the reader an idea of the size and power of the guns that constitute the main ofl'ensive armament of the modern battle-ship we may take the English 13.5 inch as typical. This gun weighs 76 tons and is 45 calibers (60.75 feet) long. It will throw a projectile weighing 1,400 pounds a distance of more than ten miles with a muz- 96 WAR-SHIPS AND NAVAL IMPLEMENTS The 11-inch Guns of the German Battle-Cruiser "IVIoitke' zle velocity of 2,821 feet a second. All ships of the dreadnought class carry as their main battery from eight to twelve guns of not less than 12-inch caliber, usually mounted in pairs in heavily armored re- volving turrets. Several nations have recently mounted three guns in a turret, and, in her four great dreadnoughts now building, France has taken the bold step of mounting four guns in a turret, believing the advantages of concentrated fire and simultaneous handling of the whole battery to be worth the risk of exposing all four to destruc- tion by one well-placed shot. The largest modern gun is simply a rifle on a large scale, embody- ing no essential principle not found in the small weapon. Powerful and swiftly operating machinery, either hydraulic or electric, raises its great muzzle in the air and swings it across the horizon in search of its prey. Its shell is raised into position and thrust into the breech by machinery, as a projectile w^eighing three quarters of a ton cannot be manipulated by hand. The great breech-block swings on hinges and is locked by a slight turn of a crank. The powder-charge, weigh- ing about 300 pounds, is packed in silk bags, as coarser fabrics may leave unburned fragments and explosions may ensue. They are usual- ly fired by closing an electric switch, though they can be fired by a per- cussion trigger. The cost of firing each charge is about $600. One NAVAL GUNS 9T round can be fired in a little less than a minute. The gun itself costs about $50,000. The modern heavy gun is very short-lived, due to the erosive effect of the gases of smokeless powders and the terrifically high velocity of the shell. Some of these guns have a life of only one hundred rounds; but recent guns in which the velocity has been re- duced can deliver as many as 250 shots before they become so inaccu- rate as to necessitate relining. A 6-in. and Two 13.5-in. Guns of H, M. S. "Iron Duke" These guns fire a frightful engine of destruction called the armor- piercing shell. Reference has been made already to the battle between armor and gun which, for the present, the gun has won. An Ameri- can 14-inch gun will pierce 16 inches of the hardest armor made at a range of 10,000 yards, and European guns of similar type will do the same. All armor is now made by the Krupp process, which face- hardens a steel plate to an extraordinary degree. "Harveyized" steel, popularly supposed to be the acme of steel armor, is a thing of the past. A projectile hard enough to pierce a plate of Krupp armor — so hard, that is to say, that it will cut glass — will shatter itself to pieces like glass if fired in the form of an ordinary shell. The armor- piercing shell has a nose or cap of soft steel over its real "business 98 WAR-SHIPS AND NAVAL IMPLEMENTS end." The effect of the impact of this soft nose is not clearly under- stood, but probably it is to dent and strain the plate so that the sharp point of the body of the shell, striking an instant later, is able to bore its way through, and also, and perhaps more important, to protect and Bow of a British Dreadnought with Launching Platform for Aeroplanes support the boring point. But the shell is ,not content merely with boring a hole through a ship's armor. Inside the projectile is a charge of about one hundred pounds of the most powerful explosives known, and screwed inside the base of the shell is a delayed-action fuse of the type already described, which is so timed that it will detonate the ARMOR PLATE 99 „ % 1* • . ,.__ ]/ f -'■> i i m /?! i. ,«<.4I44 A .*r^. ..^--m ^^m J^^-. J|^ IBR I I ^ ? ^,— Ij H German Battle-ship Squadron in Column charge at the exact instant when the projectile has made its way through the armor plate into the ship, and then — there is no more ship. Such is what would undoubtedly happen were a shell to ex- plode within a war vessel; but battles are not fought under the same conditions that prevail at gun proving-grounds. It is a fact that at the battle of Tsu-shima, between the Japanese and the Russians, the main armor belt of not a single ship on either side was pierced, even when the Japanese closed to within 3,300 yards. Hundreds of armor- piercing shells, carrying their frightful charges, of course struck, but they glanced on the rolling vessels and passed harmlessly on. It was the hurricane of smaller shot, with which the Japanese swept the decks and unarmored parts of the Russian ships, killing and demoralizing the crews, that gained the victory. Operating a Large Gun. — Large naval guns are pointed by means of telescopic sights. A small telescope of low magnifying power is set on a part of the carriage unaffected by the recoil so that it moves in exact unison with the gun both laterally and vertically, and is so constructed that it can be depressed the exact number of degrees necessary to elevate the muzzle of the gun for the desired range. The object-glass is scored with a vertical and a horizontal hair-line. If the range has been correctly estimated, and exact allowance has been made for various disturbing factors — such as the wind, speed of vessels, etc.— the shot will strike the target if the gun is fired at the 100 WAR-SHIPS AND NAVAL IMPLEMENTS t~~"; — \ French Battle-ships of the Pre-dreadnought Type exact instant the image of the target crosses the hair-Hnes on the telescope. Firing may be done in two ways: the sight may be de- pressed to the proper angle and by means of the powerful and flexible elevating gear m ith which modern guns are equipped the telescope may be kept trained exactly upon the target until the favorable mo- ment for shooting arrives ; or the gun maj^ be left stationary and fired when the roll of the ship sweeps the image of the target across the telescope sight, properly depressed for range. Naturally the pitch- ing and rolling of the vessel make accurate shooting very difficult even in ordinary weather, and quite impossible in a heavy sea. Indi- vidual gun-firing has given place in modern practice to methods of firing batteries simultaneously. This method, known as "director- firing," has been highly perfected by Admiral Sir Percy Scott, and phenomenal firing records of various British ships have been reported. Exact methods of fire-control are secret in all navies ; but in "director- firing" all the broadside guns of the ship can be made to follow the movements of one master gun. When the range has been found and proved by this gun, the others can be fired simultaneously. The simultaneous bursting of eight or ten 1,400-pound shells charged OPERATING LARGE GUNS lor with half a ton of trinitrotoluol, can be compared only to the sudden eruption of a volcano. Range-finding. — Knowledge of the exact range is essential to ac- curate shooting. Various means of calculating the distance of an in- accessible object are in use, all depending on the simple geometrical principle that if the length of the base of a triangle and the size of § " RP. ^ i,^* .«^,, M '«« •/,'- ^ Deck of the German Battle-Cruiser "Goeben' the two angles at the base are known, the distance of the apex from the base or the length of the other sides can readily be calculated. In land fortifications it is easy to lay off a long, permanent base for range- finding ; but on a war-ship this is obviously out of the question, and a very ingenious mechanical device, known as a "range-finder," is used. This is a tube, about nine feet in length, mounted horizontally. It has mirrors at each end, which can be made to converge by adjusting- screws. One of these mirrors reflects only the top half of the object iCf2''* ••"•'Wlll-SHIPS AND NAVAL IMPLEMENTS on which it is directed, and the other reflects the lower half. When these two half -images are made to "match" precisely, the mirrors are reflecting the exact angles between the target and the two ends of the range-finder. A pointer on a scale shows the range of the target in yards. , Range-finders are mounted on the tops of the military-masts. On United States ships the mihtary masts are in the shape of a lat- ticed column. European ships have tripod masts. Fortunately, the much-debated question of the value of the American type of mast is not likely to be decided in this war. Jl j^P^^^HH^ Ml PlltttHi iiiBw^Eil ^^Um „„-, 1 ii"W| ^c?^ s 3 tmM mpiigii BildI HIHH 8-in, Gun, Showing Telescope Sight and Operating Gear Torpedoes. — The automobile torpedo is a cigar-shaped metallic boat, equipped with engines driven by superheated compressed air, and kept true to its course by lateral and horizontal rudders. It car- ries in its nose a heavy charge of some high explosive (formerly wet guncotton, now trinitrotoluol), which is detonated by a firing-pin when the torpedo strikes. Torpedo boats and destroyers launch their torpedoes from swiveling deck-tubes by means of compressed air. Larger ships have tubes below the water line through which they are launched. A sort of trigger on the top of the torpedo is caught and thrown back as it leaves the tube, and this starts the engines. There- after, the torpedo is to all intents and purposes a self-contained sub- marine boat. AUTOMOBILE TORPEDOES 103 The devices that keep the torpedo true to its course and at a proper depth are of great ingenuity. The torpedo can be set so that it will run either along the surface of the water or at any desired depth, down to about twenty feet. The steering-gear that keeps it true in the vertical plane is based on the principle that the pressure of water increases with the depth. A spring is set to the known pressure of the water at the depth at which it is desired to run the torpedo. Should it sink below that depth, the increased weight of the water will press the spring back and thus open a valve that operates a small Torpedo Boat Discharging a Torpedo steering-engine. Should the torpedo rise, the pressure will decrease and the spring will force the valve in the opposite direction, thus actu- ating a corresponding turn of the rudder. A pendulum, free to swing in the longitudinal plane, checks sudden upward and downward move- ments and over-application of rudder pressure by striking the valve mechanism when brought into play. The torpedo is kept true to a straight-ahead course by a gyroscopic device, known as the "Obry gear." The gyroscope tends strongly to revolve always in the same plane. If the torpedo should veer, it would throw the longitudinal axis of the torpedo to the right or the left of the plane of the gyroscope, thus actuating stern rudders DEVELOPMENT OF THE SUBMARINE This Plate Shows the Successive Types of Submarines Constructed for the British Navy 104 AUTOMOBILE TORPEDOES 105 which bring it back to its proper course. In time of war, torpedoes are set to sink in case they go wide of their mark. The most recent types of torpedoes are of long range, and are astonishingly accurate in their flight. The best known type is the English Whitehead. The German Schwartzkopf ("Blackhead") differs very slightly from the Whitehead. The typical torpedo in use [Slew Type of Torpedo Which Fires an Armor-piercing Shell. The Ordinary Torpedo Explodes on Impact. This Type Acts as a Gun the Muzzle of Which Is Brought Directly Against the Side of an Enemy's Ship to-day is from 15 to 17 feet long and 18 to 21 inches in diameter. It has a range of about 8,000 yards, though England reports a new type with a 10,000-yard range. Its initial speed is about 35 knots, running down to about 26 knots when nearing the end of its radius. The cost of a torpedo is between four and five thousand dollars. The increase in range of torpedoes has had a decisive effect on tactics, as a battle obviously cannot be begun within the zone covered by the torpedoes of the two opposing lines. Battle-ships are protected from torpedoes while at anchor by steel nets hung from booms. Torpedoes are equipped with shears for the purpose of making their way through such nets. GENERAL From Nelson's "War Attas." A FORT AT LlkoE These Drawings Show the External Appearance and Internal Structure of the Cupola Forts of Liege, Designed by General Brialmont, Which, Under the Command of General Leman, Offered so Determined a Resistance to the German Invaders Until They Were Able to Bring Their Terrible 420 Millimeter Guns to Bear 106 CHAPTER VII COAST-DEFENSES AND FORTIFICATIONS Compared with battle-ships, destroyers and automobile torpedoes, fortifications are a rather prosaic subject; but as they are the very backbone of a nation's defense a few words regarding them may be in- teresting. In this country we have only coast-defenses to consider ; but continental Europe is scored with chains of interior fortifications for the protection of frontiers, important cities, and strategic points. The modern inland fort is small and very unobtrusive. Its walls, bomb- proof shelters, redoubts, and gun emplacements are all concealed be- hind mounds and grassy slopes so that it merges modestly into the landscape. Its guns are masked as much as possible, and a cluster of pretty shrubs may conceal a battery of deadly mortars. A city such as Liege, which was so valiantly defended against the Germans in this war, is protected by a girdle of forts at a distance of five or six miles from the outskirts of the town. There are usually four or five main forts, with smaller redoubts between, set at such intervals that their fire-zones, intersect. In advance of the forts is a continuous line of infantry trenches, and in favorable spots are lines of barbed-wire entanglements, usually charged with electricity and other devices for obstructing the enemy, such as pits with sharp stakes at the bottom, felled trees entangled with wire, and rows of stout sharpened branches pegged into the ground. Behind the en- tanglements are mines, or "fougasses," that can be fired electrically from the forts. Between the forts, batteries of howitzers are placed in positions commanding the enemy's approach. A light railway, for keeping the forts provisioned and renewing supplies, running through a deep trench, connects the entire chain of forts. Until the enemy's attack becomes so fierce that it is no longer possible to keep the field, the defending troops, in the daytime, take up their positions behind these trenches and field defenses in the open country between the 107 108 COAST-DEFENSES AND FORTIFICATIONS forts, retiring to the shelter of the fort at night, or in foggy weather. The last stage of the siege comes when the surrounding territory is so swept by the enemy's fire that the defenders are compelled to remain in the forts. In principle these forts are not unlike immovable battle-ships. They are usually triangular and their main protection — their side- armor, to use a naval term — lies in the thick embankment of sand and earth with which they are surrounded. This embankment — or "glacis," as its face is called — slopes gently toward the front, so that the enemy's German Officers in Artfully Constructed Shelter fire from the base will clear the top. Sand is very obdurate against gun-fire, and a thick bank of it will smother the most powerful shell. Behind this embankment — the whole of which is often called the "counterscarp," though that term is properly applied only to the sup- porting wall at the back of it — is a deep ditch, surrounding the inner citadel. Piercing this central structure from end to end is a long gallery, through which access to the fort is gained from the outside by a small tunnel-like gateway. From this central gallery, side pas- sages lead to the soldiers' quarters, magazines and store-rooms, and to the stairways leading up to the armored cupolas protecting gun- batteries, search-lights, range-finders, and the small observation chamber in which the commanding officer takes up his position. The COAST DEFENSES 109 inner citadel is constructed of massive concrete, and the large guns are mounted in heavily armored revolving disappearing turrets. Famous military engineers have exhausted every resource of tech- nical science in making the modern fort theoretically impregnable. They are seemingly able to resist the heaviest artillery that can be brought against them, and capable of unloosing an appalling hur- ricane of shot and shell. T^Tevertheless, the fate of Liege and Namur shows that it is possible to bring to bear upon them a fire severe enough to crush their resistance, and the new German 420 millimeter English Artillery Bringing Up Heavy Siege-guns (16% in.) siege howitzers seem to have sealed the fate of the inland fort.^ Coast Defenses — The heaviest weapons are mounted on coast for- tifications, though few exceed in power the guns carried by the new- est dreadnoughts. The 14-inch and 12-inch guns, which diifer only in the mounting from naval guns of the same size, already described, constitute the main armament of coast forts. The average 12-inch gun will strike a blow at the muzzle of about 45,000 foot-tons, while a 14-inch gun has a striking power of about 65,000 foot-tons, a foot- ton being the energy necessary to lift a ton one foot high in a second. As the largest dreadnought weighs only 30,000 tons, the terrific power of these guns may be realized. The long guns are supple- 110 COAST-DEFENSES AND FORTIFICATIONS mented by short 12-inch and smaller mortars, used for high-angle fire designed to plunge the shells downward upon the decks of the enemy's ships. The typical 12-inch mortar is a short, squat weapon, about 16 Rear View of 12-inch Disappearing Carriage. Gun in Firing Position feet long. It will fire a shell weighing half a ton farther than a 14- inch gun will carry, at the rate of about one shot a minute. It is mounted on a tilted base, so that the muzzle can be pointed very high and throw the shells miles into the air. They are set in groups in deep pits. In Europe the large coast-defense guns are usually mounted in armored turrets, as on a battle-ship ; or in steel cupolas which rise and RANGE FINDING 111 sink after firing into concrete cylindrical chambers. In this country, the disappearing carriage, which rears the gun in the air and sinks it back out of sight below the parapet when fired, is favored. Range-finding. — Finding the range is a very important and inter- esting procedure. The principle of range-finding has already been re- ferred to in the discussion of naval guns. On land, two well-protected observing stations are selected at each end of a base about a mile long. When an enemy's ship comes into sight, she is observed simultaneously with suitable instruments from these stations, and the respective an- gles which the hull makes with the base-line are telephoned to what is German UTticer- Operating a Field Range-finder called the "plotting-room" within the fort. Thirty seconds later simi- lar observations are made, and from these two the ship's position, speed, and direction can be instantly obtained. But the exact range alone is not sufficient. Corrections must be made for wind-pressure, varying tide-levels, atmospheric pressure, variation of the powder en- ergy due to temperature, and, of course, the ship's speed and direction. All these corrections are made within a twinkling by ingenious me- chanical devices, and the exact angle at which the guns are to be ele- vated is telephoned to the officer in charge of the batterj^ Another form of range-finder has a vertical base provided by a high tower. This system has the advantage of being purely mechanical, as it is only necessary to train the telescope of the instrument upon the target and read off the range in yards on a scale below. This instrument is based on the same principle as the naval range-finder already described. llg COAST-DEFENSES AND FORTIFICATIONS -V Planting Buoy WATER LINE Usually both systems are used in combination, and should the enemy destroy the permanent observation stations, the naval range-finder may be pressed into service. In the last extremity, gunners would get the range by comparison with fixed objects on the land, buoys, etc., the range of which had already been ascertained and recorded. Submarine Mines. — Harbor ap- proaches and the channels in the vicinity of fortified naval bases are protected by fields of submarine mines. So ingeniously are these laid, and so terrible is their destruc- tive capacity, that it seems almost impossible for an attacking fleet ever to penetrate the zone they cov- er. The modern submarine mine is of three forms: (1) Automatic, which explodes when struck; (2) Observation, fired electrically from the shore when the ship is supposed to be sufficiently close, and (3) Electrical contact, which gives a signal when struck, and is prompt- ly exploded by a watchful operator. Submarine mines are laid in several parallel lines, usually in groups of three. They are hollow metal globes, filled with a sufficient quan- tity of explosives to destroj^ the lar- gest battle-s h i p. They are anchored to the bottom by cables in such a to othe7M inw' way that they float about ten feet be- of Anchored Submarine Mine loW the SUrfaCC. SUBMARINE MINES 113 The electrical wires by which they are operated run to what are known as "junction-boxes," controlHng a group, and thence to the shore in cables. They can be fired either singly, or in groups of three, or the whole field can be exploded at once. Or they can be set to explode on contact. In order to clear a mine field, countermining operations are resorted to, either by sending small boats into the field to sow it with new mines that explode the old ones by the shock of their own explosion, or by dragging with cables, fitted with grappling irons, drawn across the field between two boats of light draft. In order to repel countermining operations, batteries of rapid-fire guns are alwaj^s placed where they can command the field. The German fleet to-day is in all probability at anchor behind coast defenses and lines of submarine mines of the general type we have just described. The magnitude of the task confronting the English fleet which de- sires to bring it to bay may therefore be imagined. Contact floating mines are set in the open sea in the course of the enemy's ships. These are usually launched overboard in couples from a mine-layer connected by cables, so that when a ship's bow strikes this cable it swings the two mines sharply against the vessel's side. The British cruiser "Am- phion" was destroyed by one of these fiendish contrivances in the early days of the war. British Dreadnought "Orion" **AIR NAVIES'' OF THE NATIONS Dirig- Aero- Ibles planes Germany . . 40 1,000 Austria . . 8 400 France. . . 22 1,400 Great Britain 9 400 Russia ... 18 800 Belgium ' . . 2 100 Servia ... 60 Italy ... 30 119 'HEARD THE HEAVENS FILL WITH SHOUTING, AND THERE RAINED A GHASTLY DEW FROM THE NATIONS' AIRY NAVIES GRAPPLING IN THE CENTRAL BLUE."— Tennyson. 114 CHAPTER VIII AIRCRAFT AND WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY IN WAR The most spectacular feature of the present war, and the one on which popular interest is most intensely centered, is the part to be played by aircraft. The development of the flying-machine from an ancient jest to a decisive factor in warfare has been phenomenally rapid, and it has passed from conquest to conquest with astounding speed. In fact, it was only in 1912 that aviation was officially consti- tuted a new arm of the service by all the great Powers. The imagina- tion plays readily about the flying-machine and its new and startling powers of destruction. It is easy to picture great air-ships speeding by night and dropping tons of explosives upon doomed cities, armies, fortifications, and ships at sea.* Visions of flocks of aeroplanes, firing machine-guns and shooting clouds of explosive darts, may readily be conjured up. The imaginative talents of a war-correspondent, in search of material denied him by the callous censor, may delineate for us the thrilling scene of a devoted patriot hurling his aeroplane upon a huge air-ship and going to his death along with the enemy's craft and aeronauts in a blaze of flaming hydrogen. The popular fancy is running riot with pictures of this kind; but whether anything of the sort will really happen the war alone must determine. Ofl'ensive and defensive warfare keep a fairly close pace, and it is a fact that rela- tively fewer men are killed in modern warfare than in the days of battle-ax and cross-bow. At least, such has been the case in recent wars; and whether the present stl'uggle will show the same tendency toward killing fewer men at greater cost remains to be seen. The kill- ing of each Boer in the South African war cost the English $40,000 ; and as weapons have increased greatly in capacity and are correspond- ingly more wasteful, it is likely to cost much more to-day. Be that as it may, aircraft are a new and exceedingly important factor in mod- ern warfare, and the aeroplane at least has already demonstrated its 115 116 AIRCRAFT AND WIRELESS enormous value for reconnoitering, and in consequence has pro- foundly modified military tactics. Zeppelin Flying Over German Fleet in Kiel Harbor Aircraft, as is well known, are divided into two distinct classes — the aeroplane, or heavier-than-air machine; and the air-ship, or diri- gible balloon, which is maintained in the air by the buoyant force of hydrogen gas. DIRIGIBLES 117 Air-ships. — Air-ships, or dirigibles, which are essentially elongated balloons, driven by propellers, are of three classes — rigid, semi-rigid, and non-rigid. In the rigid type, the gas-containing body, or hull, is Zeppelin at Rest in Its Huge "Air-dock" supported by a solid framework either of aluminum or of wood, con- taining several individual gas-bags, so that the craft will still remain in the air, even though several bags are torn. The cars containing the engines, crew-compartments, propellers, etc., are fitted to this frame- work close to the bottom of the hull. 118 AIRCRAFT AND WIRELESS Car of the Russian Dirigible "Russia" In the semi-rigid type, the bottom of the hull is strengthened so as to form a support for the car. This type shows a tendency to disap- pear in favor of the non-rigid, which has a flexible bodj^ without solid supports and capable of quick deflation for transport or when threat- ened with sudden danger. The Zeppelin, in which the framework is of aluminum; the Schiitte-Lanz, and the French Spiess, with wooden frames, are of the rigid type. The Gross and the Veeh are semi-rigid. The Parseval and the French Astra-Torres are non-rigid. The rigid type, while stronger and more efficient in many ways than the flexible type, which has nothing to support its gas-envelope but the fabric of which it is made, and internal ropes and bands from which the car is hung, has the disadvantage of a forced dependence upon huge fixed sheds for cover, and is exposed to the peril of destruction if forced to land in a high wind at a distance from its shed. A whole' battalion of men is required to maneuver it into its shed. Although the early career of the Zeppelin was marked by a series of heart-breaking disas- ters, it has redeemed itself recently and is to-day unquestionably a DIRIGIBLES 119 war-engine of formidable possibilities. The latest German Zeppelins have a gas capacity of 28,000 cubic meters (989,000 cubic feet), a lifting capacity of about 50 tons, and an average speed of 60 miles an hour. Their range is not known exactly, but it is probably not much short of 1,000 miles, and may be even greater. British Dirigible — Astra-Torres Type In her new mammoth Astra-Torres, France has a dirigible, of the non-rigid type, of 23,000 cubic meters' capacity, weighing only 16 tons. It is 110 meters (360 feet) long by 19 meters (62 feet) greatest beam. Its engines are of 1,000 horse-power, and because of its light- ness it is expected to prove faster than the new Zeppelins. All military dirigibles carry searchlights, wireless outfits, and ma- chine guns in their cars. They also have funnels leading from the car through the gas envelope, so that men may mount to the top of the body and operate machine guns mounted thereon, and thus repel attacks from above. Aeroplanes. — Little need be said by way of description of the aero- 120 AIRCRAFT AND WIRELESS plane. The public has been so fascinated by its exploits during the past few years and has followed its developments so keenly that nearly everj^one is familiar with its details and its various types. We need onlj^ say here that the monoplane is the better adapted for speed, while French Air-ship — ^Zeppelin Type the biplane, on account of its superior structural strength, has greater lifting power. Recent military aeroplanes have been quite heavily armored, men, rudders, and engines being covered. They are armed with machine guns usually operated by a gunner who sits below the aviator with the gun fixed between his legs, and very fair aeroplane shooting records have been reported. The recoil of the gun does not noticeably disturb the balance of the machine. Various bomb-drop- ping devices have been invented ; but so far nothing of that kind has AEROPLANES 121 proved reliable. Bombs, of course, can be thrown overboard at ran- dom from any aircraft, and may by accident do great damage, but to plant them surely upon a given spot under war conditions is quite another matter. Anyone who has ever tried to hit a stationary target, at a known range, with a rifle, can easily imagine the difficulty of firing from an air-ship going at the rate of fifty miles an hour, either at a stationary object or at an aeroplane darting about the heavens like a great dragon-fly. On the other hand, before the war began. The Car of a French Armored Aeroplane very successful records were made with guns and rifles from the ground against kite-targets representing aeroplanes and drawn b}'' automobiles; and despatches have frequently mentioned the destruc- tion of both aeroplanes and air-ships by gun-fire. No aircraft can operate efl'ectually at a greater altitude than 5,000 feet, and though that is nearly a mile in the air, it is well within rifle-range, not to men- tion howitzers, which can throw shrapnel shells, belching clouds of bullets, three times that distance. Guns specially designed for use against aircraft can be made to shoot vertically if necessary. The air-ship has two great advantages over the aeroplane — two advantages, in fact, which make it greatly to be dreaded. It can sail at night and, in favorable weather, remain almost stationary over a cl^osen spot. The aeroplane, on the other hand, will fall to the ground unless its speed is fully twenty miles an hour, and an aviator cannot AIRCRAFT AND WIRELESS steer his aeroplane without some guiding hghts and cannot land safely unless he can see the ground before him. In order to ward off air-ships from fortifications, fleets, and other vital spots, it has been proposed to sow the air with aerial mines, held aloft by balloons, in a manner analogous to the sea mine-field. In aerial tactics, the air-ship holds the same relative position that the dreadnought holds on the sea — indeed, in length, air-ships do not Dirigible Flying Over French Artillery faU far short of the smaller battle-ships — and, as the sea-dreadnought is protected while at anchor by a restless shoal of torpedo-destroyers, so the air-dreadnought will be accompanied hj a flock of aeroplanes to protect her against the raids of the enemy's aeroplanes or to drive them away before attacking. A very interesting development of the aeroplane is the flying boat, or hydro-aeroplane. These craft are like huge ducks, taking their flight from and landing upon the water with the utmost ease. Real- izing the great value of such craft in naval operations, England has been especially active in their development and construction, and her fleets to-day are accompanied by flocks of hydro-aeroplanes. She has HYDRO-AEROPLANES 123 British Armored Hydro-ae'poplane with Machine Gun done very little with dirigibles, and she places her main reliance upon her sea-plane fleet. The newest form of sea-plane used in the British navy has folding wings, so that it can be tucked snugly away on the deck of a war-ship, like a big moth at rest. An aeroplane ship is now under construction w^hich will "mother" twenty or thirty machines of this type. They can be launched from and reshipped to a battle-ship in quite rough weather in the open sea. On land, the automobile has been pressed into service for the transport both of aeroplanes and of the tanks of compressed hydro- gen used for inflating dirigibles. Whatever may be the result of the test of aircraft as weapons of war, the airship with its great lifting capacity can certainly be put to very effective use as a means of transport of war supplies to the front, and of wounded to the rear; while the aeroplane has already demonstrated its preeminence as a means of reconnoissance over all 124 AIRCRAFT AND WIRELESS methods hitherto known. The latest British army maneuvers pre- ceding this war were said to have come to a deadlock because the opposing army commanders knew the enemy's dispositions so exactly and were so promptly notified of strategical movements by aeroplane observers that neither side could strike effectively. In all previous Aeroplane Taking Flight from British Battle-ship wars, the onty means of finding the enemy's position was by cavalry scouts thrown out in advance of the army, and frequently "recon- noissances in force," tentative attacks made for the purpose of draw- ing the enemy's fire and making him disclose his forces, were resorted to. Now, the eagle-eyed aeroplane observes and reports every move of the enemy, and modern warfare has become a game of chess in which all moves are made in the presence of both players, and strata- gems and surprises are relegated to a minor role. AEROPLANES AS SCOUTS 125 A very important task of the aeroplane is to observe and report by wireless upon the effect of gun-fire. Modern field guns are operated at high angles and long ranges. The aeroplane observer can direct changes in range and direction, if necessary, and can instruct the gunners how to bring their fire to bear upon an object, invisible to them, such as a body of troops behind a hill, for example. It is thought, also, that the aeroplane may be used to spy out submarines. Aeroplane Circling H. M. S. "Conqueror" As is well known, it is possible from a high altitude, under favorable circumstances, to see for some distance below the surface of water beneath. Advantage will be taken of this fact by sea-planes, which will hover around a fleet at sea, watching for submarines, like an eagle on the lookout for fish. Wireless Telegraphy in War. — On January 8, 1815, was fought the battle of New Orleans, both sides being ignorant that a treaty of peace was signed fifteen days before. Just a century later, Ger- man ships on the high seas in all parts of the world, warned that war had been declared by messages flying through the air, suddenly turned about and fled for the nearest port of safety, lest they should fall a 126 AIRCRAFT AND WIRELESS prey to lurking British cruisers. Nothing could more graphically illustrate the great strides that have been made bj^ science in the space of one hundred years. As has happened with so many other wonder- ful modern inventions, wureless telegraphy and telephony have been promptly pressed into military service, so that they are now the chief means of communication between ships and distant sections of great French Automobile V, .:_.--_ Station armies in the field. In former days, flags and semaphores w^ere the sole means of communicating between ships. Now, though signals are still necessary and are constantly used in maneuvering, war-sliips can not only communicate readily and at great distances by wireless, but each ship (in the British navy, at least) is an independent wire- less telephone exchange, and officers may talk from ship to ship. Aeroplanes and dirigibles are also equipped with wireless outfits, and can keep constantly in touch with their bases. In the field, kites or small balloons, bearing the antennae of wireless apj^aratus, may be sent up and connection thus be made with similar aerial stations along WIRELESS ON SEA AND LAND 127 the far-extended front of the modern army, or with permanent sta- tions in the rear. During the siege of Adrianople, a lonely little wireless instrument kept up an uninterrupted communication with Constantinople, despite the eiforts of the besiegers to smother it with their more powerful British Field Telegraph Station currents. Secrecy in military wireless telegraphy is accomplished by "tuning" two or more instruments sympathetically. The "tune," or wave-length, can be changed easily at will, and the sending operator, having sent a few words at one wave-length, sends a code signal that means he is going to alter his machine to a new tune. The receiving operator, knowing the code, immediately changes his instrument to correspond, and the interchange continues without interruption. In this way, an enemy who happened to "cut in" would be baffled. It is this variety of wave-length that makes possible the uninterrupted com- munication of the great European land wireless stations, although 128 AIRCRAFT AND WIRELESS ^"mm ~ t^^'l '^w^ I*. ii '• Jj^^^M u.i;^^ WT^ " ^^.r : IM 1 1 kA M ■ "iP'ri " 8- ' f- h 7m ?^!F:' 4 B^iL. m ' T » ^SHHJI Wtmm Battery of German Field Kitchens the operating spheres of English, French, German, and Russian sys- tems overlap in a veritable aerial tangle. Such are the implements with which modern war is waged. In ingenuity they are fiendish; in capacity for destruction, appalling. The mind reels in contemplating their awful havoc-wreaking possi- bilities. Whether their performances in actual service will equal their mechanical potentialities, or whether many of them prove to be more potent in their moral effect than in their actual execution, the opera- tions of the next few months will tell. M^^OK Horiioni Rudde Shock Absorber ScabilityPiftnea ANTOINETTE MONOPLANE. Tips BLfiRIOT MONOPLANE. From Nelson's "War Atlas. AEROPLANES This Diagram Shows the Structure of the Leading Types of IVIilitary Aeroplanes 129 % i y^ W ^""l,^ - « ^m^am'Tm i ■'*^' ' ' -^-^ -'■ i^S klL^^ . > /■' -^ iS ''''H^H ^mh^^^^^^Hf^ ~^^^s^^^^^^h ^^^B^^^K»>^ '^SSB^^^^^ 'flH|p^...^B J^^^^BH^P'li^dif^* yf^^^^^H ^ - - ■' -^ w^ > ^1 s,.^- \ '^m W^ £,^^ril Q u Z J3 1. < 3 _J D UJ Q (T fB U. £ o < 10 (S Z _l o lU _l o •o Q. < z c « ■o «> 130 CHAPTER IX EUROPEAN WARS SINCE 1815 When the first Napoleon had overrun Europe, left the bones of his devoted soldiers on every field, overturned nearly every govern- ment, and set his relatives on thrones, the nations that had been "made pale by his cannons' rattle" realized that a combined effort to crush his power was necessary to their very existence. The final result was Waterloo, with St. Helena in the distance. All Europe then needed a breathing-spell; but, for all its severe lessons, that was by no means the end of European wars, for the hills and plains and rivers of the crowded continent were unchanged, and human nature re- mained the same. After six years the guns began to boom again, and the European historian must count twelve considerable wars since that time — an average, of one in less than eight years. The reader will probably be interested in the following brief narratives of those contests, and thus will be able the better to understand the greater one that is now in progress. The Greek War for Independence (1821-'30) — In March, 1821, the Greeks, weary of the oppressive rule of Turkey, which had lasted, with brief intervals under Venetian rule, from 1460, became filled with a new and ardent desire for national independence and broke out in revolt against the Ottoman Empire at Jassy, Moldavia. The Turks tried to crush the insurrectionists in their usual barbarous way, by summary executions, murders, and massacres, one of the worst of which occurred in Chios (Scio), an island in the ^Egean Sea, where a population of about 100,000 was reduced to 2,000. But even these savage measures could not suppress the rising tide of Greek national- ism, and in January, 1822, a constitution for a new Greece was drawn up at Epidaurus by the national assembly. The noble patriotism and heroic fighting of the long-suffering Greeks, and the frightful massacres committed by their Turkish op- pressors, awakened the sympathy and indignation of the civilized 131 132 EUROPEAN WARS SINCE 1815 The charge of the Scots Greys at Waterloo in 1815 world, and men of other countries offered their services to Greece in her righteous revolt. The most celebrated man among these alien al- lies was Lord Byron, the English poet, who joined the Greek army in 1824 but died within the j^ear. Early in 1825, the Turkish sultan, in a determined effort to deal a crushing blow to the Greek rebellion, called to his aid Ibrahim Pasha, Viceroy of Egypt, who, with an army of twenty thousand Egyptians, landed on the peninsula of the ]Morea (the Peloponnesus, as it was known in the ancient world) . For a time the struggle of Greece for freedom seemed hopeless, but European interest in her plight in- creased rather than diminished, and at last England, France, and Rus- sia determined to intervene. A protocol was drawn up in London, July 6, 1827, demanding an armistice, and at the same time these Powers augmented their own forces in the INIediterranean Sea. Turkey would not listen to the warnings or demands of the three Powers, how- ever, but, reljdng on the aid of Ibrahim Pasha and his troops, contin- THE FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1830 133 i^yi W^jj^ '^^^M I^^Kf / <#^J|H^^P im ''^^^^^^^^^^^^H ^JMBb ^X?^iiiS8BI HB^iffiH umm The regiment fought in Belgium again in 1914 ued her oppression of the Greeks until the international dispute came to a climax in the decisive naval bMtle of Navarino (October 20, 1827), in which the allied forces annihilated the combined fleet of Turkish and Egyptian vessels. In the following year (1828-'29) Russia attacked Turkey with land forces and advanced victoriously as far as Adrianople, where peace was finally declared after Turkey had yielded to the demands of the allied Powers ; and by another pro- tocol, issued in London in 1830, Greece was proclaimed an indepen- dent kingdom, her first monarch under the new order of things being Otho, the second son of Louis I of Bavaria. The Revolution of July (1830). — ^After the death of Louis XVIII (1824) his brother, Charles X, ascended the throne of France. These kings were brothers of Louis XVI, executed in the French Revolution of 1792-'93. Louis XVIII accomplished much good for his realm, and under his reign the country enjoyed a high degree of prosperity. But his successor did not follow his brother's moderate 134 REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS OF 1848 135 and liberal policy. He called Prince Polignac to power as the head of an extreme royalist ministry. At a meeting of the Chamber of Deputies in 1830 an assurance was given to the French people that the constitutional charter, which granted public liberties, would be respected. But, to divert the pub- lic mind from a demand for greater political liberty, Polignac made an appeal to the French love of military glory by organizing an expe- dition to northern Africa to suppress the Algerian pirates along the coast. The army took possession of the city of Algiers and then of the whole of Algeria, and put an end to piracy in the neighboring waters. In France certain ordinances were passed somewhat later (July 25, 1830) which were intended to muzzle the liberty of the press; meet- ings of the Chamber of Deputies were dissolved, and a new mode of election was established, all former elections being declared illegal. The success of the army in Algiers did not dazzle the French so much as to oif set these oiFenses against their comparatively new-found rights and liberties, and the people rose in protest, which soon in- creased to riot and open revolt. The revolution lasted only three days (July 27-29) , but while it raged the palace of the Tuileries was again invaded, as in the great Revolution, and Charles X was driven out of France. The crown was immediately offered to Louis Philippe, a great-grandnephew of Louis XIV, and was accepted, which act closed the brief but stormy Revolution of July. The Revolutionary Movements of 1848. — A hundred years ago, throughout Central Europe, began a political movement which, gath- ering strength in the middle of the nineteenth century, brought about a profound change in systems of government. Up to that time the spirit of absolutism had prevailed. Emperors and kings apparently waged wars to please themselves, and when a peace was concluded the people over whom they ruled found themselves little better off than before. Constitutional government was still a dream. Free speech and a free press were unknown. Feudalism was still in force, and ap- parently there was no relief from tyranny and excessive taxation. One of the chief causes in maintaining these conditions was the lack of national solidarity. The voluntary union of men speaking the same language, animated by the same ideals, and bound by ties of blood, had not been accomplished. The destinies of races were at the THE RUINS OF LOUVAIN The Hotel de Ville Is Standing Intact Among the Ruins of the Beautiful Cathedral of St. Pierre 13$ REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS OF 1848 137 mercy of conquerors and statesmen, and countries were partitioned, re-united and again partitioned, without reference to the laws of natu- ral development or to the consent of the governed. The Austrian rulers in the early nineteenth century, preceding the ascension of Francis Joseph, were men of small capacity, yet one statesman. Prince Metternich — with the prestige of the empire to support him — was able to impose his will upon Central Europe, and to smother the expression of all liberal ideas. The popular uprising that resulted, among other things, in the fall of Metternich, his flight and exile, was twofold. Its aim was, in the first place, to reform the intolerable abuses of the State, local and general, and in the second place, so to arouse the spirit of freedom that men united by common ties of race and language would rally under the same banner. Thus it came about that, though much blood was shed to little im- mediate purpose, and though the revolutions of these years ended in failure, Europe witnessed the birth of nationalism. In Italy, Maz- zini and Garibaldi, in Hungary, Kossuth and Francis Deak, in Ger- many, Hecker and Robert Blum, collaborated with speech and sword to shatter the traditions of despotism and prepare the way for free- dom and unity. This is the significance of the revolutionary movements in Italy, Austria, Germany, and to a less degree in France, in 1848-'49. From the first outbreak of the people at Messina, in September, 1847, and the speech of Kossuth at Presburg, in the following March, till the late summer of 1849, with despotism in the saddle once more, is a period embodying an idea that has left its mark on European civiliza- tion. Finally, it bears a very special relation to the terrible war of 1914. For the triumph of the national principle which made pos- sible a united Italy and a unified Germany has at the same time inten- sified the feeling of race, and put patriotism on close terms with contempt and hatred for neighbors who speak another language. In the European war now raging it seems that national jealousies and national prejudices and ambitions weigh heavy in the balance against the good results we associate with the triumph of the national principle. After the fall of Napoleon the representatives of the great 138 REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS OF 1848 139 Powers assembled at Vienna to reconstruct the map of Europe and divide the spoils of war. This assemblage was called a congress, yet really it was not a parliament at all. Its proceedings were vested in a committee that marked out boundaries and apportioned kingdoms by the rule of might. The dominating nations took as much as they could get without actually coming to blows, and the little States of Europe were obliged to be content with what was given them. As Prince Metternich was the controlling spirit of the congress, the Hapsburg dominions did not suffer, and Italy once more came under Austria's control. But, although absolutism in Europe had regained its old ascendancy, the leaven of the first French Revolution was at work. During the thirty years of peace that followed the Napoleonic wars, liberal ideas were generated in the minds of Magyar and Slav, Teuton and Italian, and there came a time when the demand for re- form began to find expression in acts. In Italy especially were the reformers at work, and the flame of insurrection had already been kin- dled in some of the Italian States. From that time it became a con- test between freedom and repression, between the modernism of Mazzini and the stifling system of Metternich. The world was to witness the strange spectacle of Italy's spiritual liberator, proscribed by his native land, controlling from his cheap lodgings in London the forces that were to overthrow the autocrat of Austria. The immediate impulse to the general revolution came from France — in other words, from Paris. The French people, by the Revolution of July, had driven out King Charles, only to set up Louis-Philippe, Duke of Orleans, with the old title of King of the French. With him came a freer constitution; but he did not prove to be a popular ruler, and neither he nor his chief minister, Guizot, who succeeded Thiers, understood the temper of the people or the eco- nomic needs of the times. The crisis came when a great public ban- quet was arranged by the Opposition to proclaim the nature of its demands. The king fortunately forbade the people to assemble in this manner, and so there was no banquet. Instead, there were bar- ricades, and from behind these barricades an aroused republicanism suddenly sprang to arms. This was on February 21-22, 1848. Two days later the "Citizen King," rudely awakened from his false sense of security by this unexpected demonstration of the popular will, 140 EUROPEAN WARS SINCE 1815 stepped down from his throne and made way for the Second Republic. It was as if the Goddess of Liberty, incarnate in France, had tossed her cap in air for all Central Europe to see. Metternich could not gather in his fist the wind of destiny, and so the tempest broke. In Hungary, Louis Kossuth, the uncompromising, let loose his thunderbolts of oratory. His speech in the Diet, INIarch 3, 1848, not only inflamed his passionate compatriots with revolutionarj^ ardor, but aroused Vienna as well. Students and laborers clashed with soldiers, and blood was shed. Metternich, perceiving that his career was at an end, fled from the flames of his burning residence, and sought safety in England. Two weeks later the Hungarian Diet enacted the March laws that made Hungary independent, creating a ministry through which the Austrian monarch must exercise his royal author- ity. Hungary was to have her own army and her own flag. With Budapest, not Presburg, as the seat of government, she was to enjoy, with a modern constitution, a free press, religious liberty, and trial by jury. The people, not the nobility, were to elect the Diet. All this in a countrj^ whose 13,000,000 population embraced 11,000,000 serfs. Reformers in Vienna and the Austrian provinces seized their op- portunity to exact from the Government not only local reforms but a contribution for the empire as well. These demands were granted, as in Hungary, because the Austrian army was in Italy, and the House of Hapsburg could only bide its time. The same policy of craft and concession marked the emperor's at- titude toward the Czechs. Bohemia entertained national aspirations. While greatly in the majority, the Czechs feared the supremacy of the smaller but richer German population; therefore they sought to re- vive their own language, and, along with sweeping local reforms, to obtain the privilege of national self-government. Germany, too, soon fell into line. The loosely-knit Confedera- tion of German States, formed by the Congress of Vienna, had been a prop in the reactionary system devised and maintained by INIetter- nich, but now the time seemed ripe not merely for reforms but for realizing the Liberals' dream of unitj^ The Prussian King did not, for the time, dispel that dream. The Parisian custom of erecting barricades in certain emergencies was now adopted by the people of Berlin, and scenes of violence marked the week of March 15. So the REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS OF 1848 141 king made certain provinces by proclamation ; the Liberals, by way of a beginning, assembled soon afterward at Heidelberg, to provide for a popular election of a constitutional assembly, and the parliament thus elected, with the reluctant consent of Diet and petty princes, met at Frankfort on May 18. Its deliberations were attended with great difficulties and dangers, but a better understanding of what hap- pened will be reached if we observe the state of things in Italy. The Italians, it must be borne in mind, were not a nation at all, politically speaking, and had not been since the time of the Romans. Actually, they were bound together by such ties of race, tradition, sentiment, and language as had no counterpart in the artificial king-, doms of the north, with their Babel of tongues and their appalling confusion of populations. It followed that in Italy there was little feeling of loyalty to the Hapsburgs — over-lords and cruel oppressors, with no natural right to their territory — and that the revolutionary movement in the peninsula was first of all aimed at their expulsion. Besides helping to keep the petty princes on their precious thrones, Austria was the owner of Lombardy and Venetia, with their principal cities of Milan and Venice. To the west was Piedmont, an indepen- dent State ruled by Charles Albert, King of Sardinia. Italy had long been a network of secret societies plotting Austria's ruin, but Mazzini founded in Young Italy an organization of greater import. Poetry, oratory, statesmanship became allies in a common movement. In 1846 Pius IX was elected pope, and his sympathy with measures of reform excited the highest expectations. The way seemed to be prepared. On March 18, 1848, Milan struck the first blow. The people rose against Radetzky, the savage and redoubtable general in command of Austria's army, and after five days of furious fighting they drove the troops from the city. The Austrians, in this encounter, committed incredible cruelties, spitting mere children on the points of their bayo- nets and torturing prisoners who fell into their hands. In Venice a republic was proclaimed. Charles Albert, who had shown some in- firmity of purpose, acted at last, and marched at the head of his army into Lombardy. Tuscany, Naples, and the papacy rallied, for the time, to his aid. But Radetzky, veteran of many bloody campaigns, commanded an army superior in organization and discipline. Forced s « Uft REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS OF 1848 143 out of Milan, he made his way to the Quadrilateral of Venetia. Skilled in maneuver, he outgeneraled Charles Albert, and at the bat- tle of Custozza, July 25, the patriots of Piedmont were so badly de- feated that Austria recovered Lombardy. Meanwhile another victory had been won by Austria nearer home. In the revolution of 1848 the empire was able to uphold its suprem- acy less by feats of arms than by the diplomatic cunning that pitted one of the subject races against another. This is what happened in Bohemia. The Czechs were so determined to nationalize their coun- try at the expense of the Germans, and the Germans so vigorously op- posed the attempt, that the two races came to blows at Prague, June 12. Windischgratz, the Austrian commander, saw his opportunity; Prague was promptly bombarded into subjection, and the aspirations of Bohemia were at an end. The Austrian Government then proceeded to play fast and loose with Hungary, where the Serbs, Croatians, and Rumanians were de- manding equal privileges with the Magyars, while the proud followers of Kossuth were opposed to anything short of complete Magyar domination. The Croats especially rebelled against the proposal that the Magyar language should become the official speech of the country. So the Vienna Government set up Gellachich, a Croatian army officer who hated the Magyars, as Governor of Croatia. Gellachich did what was probably expected of him by encouraging the antagonism of Croat and Magyar, and Hungary called upon Austria to keep her pledge and recall the governor. But Austria's policy was rooted in insincerity. Too weak to repudiate openly the sanction of the March laws, the emperor permitted a civil war of Croatian and Serb against Magyar. Then, growing bolder, on October 3, he dissolved the Hun- garian Diet. Thereupon Vienna itself rose against him, and he was compelled to seek safety in Olmiitz, only to return when the army, in command of Windischgratz, laid siege to Vienna, and, after five days of fighting, forced an entrance to the capital, October 31, 1848. But force of arms had not made legal the abrogation of the March laws, so Metternich's worthy successors in diplomacy resorted to a ruse. The Emperor Ferdinand was called upon to abdicate in favor of his nephew, Francis Joseph I. His accession, December 2, 1848, enabled the Government, headed by Schwarzenberg, to repudiate the 144 EUROPEAN WARS SINCE 1815 acts of Ferdinand, and this led, in 1849, to Hungary's open revolt. The Magyars now found themselves arrayed not only against the power of Austria, but agaii)st Serb and Rumanian, Croat and Sla- vonian. But this did not daunt them. Fired by the zeal of Kossuth, and aroused to reckless courage by his impetuous followers, the Diet, on April 14, 1849, proclaimed the independence of Hungary. It seemed as if the ominous word, "republic," might actually be uttered. But despotism, with an earthquake rumbling in its ears, is not without resources. The youthful Francis Joseph saw a light in the East. He called upon the Emperor of Russia for aid, and Nicholas I, sympathizing with the predicament of a neighboring monarch, did not turn a deaf ear. Then Magyar appealed in vain to Slav, and even to the Turk. Such are the ironies of history, especially when the perspective ranges back from the battle-fields of 1914. The rest is soon told. Russians and Rumanians on the east, Austrians on the west, Serbs, Croatians, and Slavonians on the south, all combined to crush the forces of Hungary. At Vilagos, August 13, 1849, the Hungarian general, Gorgei, surrendered. Kossuth took refuge with the Turks, who treated him with kindness. The Austrians, with less considera- tion, hanged many of the friends he had left behind, and Francis Joseph and Nicholas exchanged felicitations. The peace of Europe had been preserved, and the last state of Hungary was worse than the first. Meanwhile the German struggle for unity was making little head- way, for the parliament at Frankfort faced grave perplexities. The problem was to replace the lax confederation by a kingdom with one ruler and a common parliament, and to do this without offense to Austria or Prussia. It was finally agreed to include in the Confed- eration only the German provinces of Austria, and to erect a heredi- tary empire with the King of Prussia as ruler. But Austria declined the suggestion to part with these provinces or to be ousted from the German Confederation; and Frederick William of Prussia, partly because the offer came from a mere parliament, and partly because of Austria's attitude, would not accept the crown. So the Parliament of Frankfort, early in 1849, after a year of deliberating, came to noth- ing; and German unity awaited a stronger hand. THE CRIMEAN WAR 145 About this time the greater struggle of Italy was drawing to its tragic close. Austria and Piedmont had made a temporary truce, and Lombardy was beneath the heel of military oppression. The Italians, divided by rivalries, could no longer take the field with Charles Albert, who nevertheless felt himself pledged to another campaign. This was brief and decisive. Radetzky won the day at the battle of No- vara, March 23, 1849, and the king, denied the death he sought at the enemy's hands, resigned his throne to his son, Victor Emmanuel II. He had risked all in the cause of liberty, and the sacrifice had not been in vain. The constitution he gave Piedmont is to-day the constitu- tion of Italy, and his memory as that of a martyr is kept green. Absolutism still had a few tasks to discharge, and it discharged them thoroughly. In Tuscany and Florence the little Republics that had been set up were promptly demolished. The Roman Republic re- mained, for Pius IX had fled to Naples, and Mazzini ruled there as a triumvir. It will be recalled that republican France contributed the shock that has galvanized Central Europe into the semblance of na- tional life. Still a republic, it now became her role to rescue the pope, who was certainly no tyrant, and to restore him to Rome, at whatever inconvenience to the occupants of his dominions. So the French laid siege to the city, and as they were much stronger than the Romans, it took them only about three weeks to do what Louis Bonaparte had sent them to do. This was on June 30, 1849. Two months later the Austrians entered Venice. The Crimean War of 1854- '55 After Waterloo, the Powers waged no great war for thirty-nine years. As we have seen, the flames kindled by the mid-century revolutionists were speedily extin- guished, and what had promised to be a conflagration proved to be little more than signal fires for posterity. The peace of Europe had been threatened by men ready to die for a just cause; and now, in 1854, that peace was lightly shattered, and without abiding results. Nicholas I of Russia had been casting covetous eyes on Turkey, looking for an opportunity to gain, through the Bosphorus, his proper and much needed access to the sea. England, he thought, might aid him. So he made overtures to that Government, in the course of which he referred to the sultan as "the sick man of Europe," whose estates might profitably be divided without further delay. 146 EUROPEAN WARS SINCE 1815 Roll Call After a Crimean Battle But Queen Victoria's advisers looked coldly upon the plan, for, with a good outlet to the highway of nations, Russia's commerce would be a strong rival to her own. Nicholas then hit upon another plan, which he hoped to carry out on his own account. In the Turk- ish domains were some millions of Greek Catholics, whose spiritual head was the czar. Russia, France, and Turkey had quarreled over the question of protecting pilgrims in the Holy Land, and though the dispute was settled, Russia suddenly asserted a right of guardianship over all Greek Christians in the sultan's empire. As this would open the way to Russia's obvious ambition, Turkey, acting on the ad- vice of France and England, refused to comply with the czar's de- mand. Russia immediately invaded the Turkish provinces of Mol- davia and Wallachia. Russia, with her enormous army and immense prestige, had counted on an easy conquest. Despotism had built up an empire THE CRIMEAN WAR 147 The English Soldiers Suffered Severely in the Crimea whose forces seemed invincible; but actually, it was honeycombed with official corruption and incompetence, and doomed to defeat. The czar had fastened a duel upon a "sick man," only to find him- self opposed to England, France, and little Sardinia, who all took a hand as Turkey's allies : England, from mixed motives, of which the uppermost was perhaps the ever-abiding fear for India; Napoleon III for reasons personal and inherited; Sardinia, because Cavour coveted admission to the councils of the Powers. War upon Russia was declared by the allies, March 27, 1854, and after a brief campaign the Russians were driven north across the Danube and forced to retire from the two Turkish provinces. Rus- sia was now ready to cry quits ; but France and England were eager to cripple her, and so preclude the peril of future pretensions. Thus, in September, 1854, the Crimean war began on a great scale. It will always be memorable for the battles along the river BELGIAN SOLDIERS IN THE TRENCHES This Photograph, Taken Near Malines, Shows How Carefully Riflemen Protect Themselves Against the Enemy's Fire 148 THE FRANCO-AUSTRIAN WAR 149 Alma — Balaclava (October 25) and Inkerman (November 5) — where the English Royal Guards held at bay a body of Russians outnumbering them five to one. But eclipsing these in courage was the long and terrible siege of Sebastopol, Russia's chief naval station on the Crimean peninsula of the Black Sea. There the allies sought to crush her sea power, and began an investment that lasted eleven months. It was a murderous siege — one of the most horrible in modern military annals — 250,000 Russians lost their lives. In the cruel winter the campaign by land had been hardly less dreadful. Bad food and bitter weather and mismanagement played havoc with both armies. Mankind has seldom paid such tithes for military glory. Sebastopol fell on September 8, 1855. But for the genius of Russia's engineer with a German name — Todleben — the fortress might have fallen sooner. The war did not last much longer, but the Treaty of Paris was not signed until March 30, 1856. Russia emerged from this useless war broken and humiliated. By the terms of the treat}', she renounced all claims affecting the Turkish provinces, and was even obliged to fall back from the Danube by yielding to Moldavia a protecting wedge of territory. The Black Sea was declared neutral. It was to be stripped of all fortifications, opened to the world's commerce, and closed to all battle-ships. Tur- key, for the first time, was admitted to the concert of the Powers. In the course of twenty years these agreements were violated, and thus the permanent gains of the war were slight. It did, how- ever, teach a moral lesson to Russia, as the reforms enacted there in the reign of Alexander II w^ere a sequel to the humbling of her pride. The Franco- Austrian War (1859). — Early in the sixteenth cen- tury Italy, which was rav^aged by the wars of different nations that coveted possession of her beauty, had sunk into a state of political aj)ath}^ She had long been a bone of contention among Austrian aggressors, Swiss mercenaries, German invaders, and French and Spanish men-at-arms, all of whom trampled her underfoot. The brilliant Italians passed under the rule of a succession of foreign princes, who, with utter disregard of the welfare of the people, treated the whole country as conquered territory and her separate States as mere pawns in their games of diplomacy. The war over the Spanish succession (1700-'13) led to the ascen- 150 EUROPEAN WARS SINCE 1815 dancy of Austria in Italy; and, while her rule was comparatively just and humane, the general condition of the people was neglected, and they were in an apparently hopeless state of laziness, ignorance, and poverty. The invasion of Napoleon brought the first incentive that stirred the insensate masses into a consciousness of life and awakened a de- sire for change. The brilliant conqueror dashed into Italy in 1796, driving the usurping Austrians before him, breaking their oppres- sive yoke for a time, and spreading among the people some of the emancipated ideas of the French Revolution. When Napoleon fell (1815) Italy, of which he had made him- self king, fell with him, and soon the old governments regained pos- session, Austria assuming control of Venetia. The restored rulers determined to crush all popular manifestations by enforcing laws of unusual severity, and the Austrian Government prosecuted all per- sons even suspected of a tendency toward liberalism. But the Ital- ians had heard too much about the doings of the populace in the great Revolution and the smaller uprisings that came later to submit tamely. In Rome a republic had been organized under the influence of Giuseppe Mazzini, the young republican patriot, and Giuseppe Garibaldi, the celebrated soldier, both of whom wished to improve and elevate the masses and fit them for real liberty. But papal rule was restored, and the old policy of proscription and persecution held full sway again in the Austrian dominions of Italy. Only Sardinia kept her constitutions, and under the rule of King Victor Emmanuel I she had regained her prosperity, reorganized her finances and her army, and prepared for a new effort to liberate Italy from her Austrian bondage. In 1858 Victor Emmanuel and Cavour induced Napoleon III to enter into an alliance with Italy against Austria. War was declared in 1859, and Napoleon brought the French army to the assistance of his allies. The combined armies of France and Sardinia invaded Lombardy, and on June 4, 1859, de- feated the Austrians in a great battle at Magenta, a little town about sixteen miles west of Milan, and entered the city of Milan, the trium- phal procession headed by the Emperor Napoleon III and Victor Emmanuel. The French and Italian (Sardinian) troops numbered about 55,000 men and the Austrians about 35,000. Napoleon him- THE FRANCO-AUSTRIAN WAR 151 self took command of the allied armies, but a large share of the credit of the brilliant victory belonged to General MacMahon, who was re- warded by being created, on the battle-field itself, Marshal of France and Duke of Magenta. The loss of the allies was 4,000; Austria lost 10,000 killed and prisoners. The Austrians retreated to the Quadrilateral — the four fort- resses of Legagno, Mantua, Peschiera, and Verona — and were again defeated (June 24) in a battle at Solferino, a small village of the Province of Mantua in northern Italy, in which the allied armies lost 18,000 men, and Austria, under Francis Joseph I, then twenty-nine years old, lost 20,000. Throughout this conflict Napoleon issued orders to the allied troops from the tower of the Church of Cas- tiglione. But Napoleon, though he desired to free Italy from Austria and unite her several States, did not wish to do so under the rulers of the House of Savoy, the royal house of Italy, the heads of which have been dukes of Savoy since 1416, kings of Sardinia since 1720, and kings of Italy since 1861. He realized that this would be the proba- ble result should he wholly defeat Austria, whereas his own plan was to form eventually an Italian federation under the presidency of the pope and make all Italy virtually dependent on France. Hence he brought about a meeting with the Austrian emperor at Villaf ranca (a town in the Province of Verona, eleven miles southwest of the city of Verona) on June 11, 1859, and arranged preliminaries which greatly displeased and disappointed the Italian people, whose hopes and enthusiasm had been kindled by Napoleon's magnificent promise to set "Italy free from the Alps to the Adriatic!" The terms of peace gave Lombardy alone to Sardinia and left Venetia in the hands of Austria. Victor Emmanuel was compelled to assent; but soon Tuscany, Modena, and Parma expelled their rulers and asked to be united to Sardinia. This request Victor Emmanuel was ready to grant, but, in order to obtain Napoleon's acquiescence, Savoy and Nice were ceded to him; and so the boundary line between France and Italy was finally fixed at the Alps. The terms of these agree- ments of peace were finally embodied in the Treaty of Zurich, drawn in October, 1859. The Liberation and Unification of Italy in 1859-70, — The un- BELGIANS PREPARING TO RECEIVE THE INVADER ^^^H^^^^^^^^^I^^^lBK^HF*QBlk*^H»,.JVwXll^^^H&- - - I ^ » * '■mP*. . T. 4Bbii^^Ba «-.r>> ■< .# ^^- ., r * ■ ^ -'*"■^Si?»■'-i -v*> " ./WWIylW^BI^g .•H;,<^- - ■♦ " ■ '■ ' ^^;^^^V*\ *- xJSStfC^ ^Ke ^ ''* ,'•' ' -..■*' V- > " ;>i4? w' ' ♦?'^^JP%.Ji^ ' ■ ''''v;| , ' .*' ^ "'^■-'ij <-^-" .^ ■ "i ■ ♦ s, ■ ■ jS*?--^ . ••■ ■'Jtei --J<<^ "n,,-- <-:\.-.«»*kl^ -^> >SS^^.'At *>■• -iiw ■ - ,*r>^-^^"i*-*l«*'>il A*^^'*- Sm' ■ "v*'^ ** « ° ■ * ^^j:iL^'^/«».'^'M,>ir'^^ Mm ^ fJ5k H^^^^BW^^S^' &' • -t Jl iflMfluk *JC^''*al _ •■ft'^it^SL; ^{fSL Cj*'^**^^^E<8i^^B ''^^^B X, jJBr-',. 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The Treaty of Campo Formio, a village in the Province of Udina in northeastern Italy, was signed in 1797 between France and Aus- tria whereby Austria, the Belgium provinces, recognized the Cisal- pine Republic, and took over the greater part of the territory of Ven- etia, France retaining the Ionian Islands and receiving the left bank of the river Rhine. Northern and Central Italy were divided into four republics — the Cisalpine, the Ligurian, the Cispadine, and the Tiberine. In 1798 Lower Italy became a fifth republic, with Naples as its capital. Charles Emmanuel, King of Sardinia, abdicated his throne, and the existing pope (Pius VI) decamped from Rome. Thus the old order of the whole peninsula was suddenly changed. Yet for some time the unhappy Italian people gained nothing by it but new des- pots, higher taxes, and enforced interest in the uncertain triumphs of the still new and shaky French Republic. After Napoleon's vic- tory at Marengo (June 14, 1800) his conquest of northern Italy was complete, and four years later, when he became Emperor of the French, he assumed the crown of Lombardy also, and called all Italy his kingdom. In 1804 a new division of the Italian provinces had to be made. The pope was allowed to remain in Rome, and the Bourbon king, Fer- dinand I, to continue as King of Naples. Napoleon renamed Tus- cany the Kingdom of Etruria and handed it over to the Bourbons of the House of Parma; while the Ligurian and Cisalpine republics re- ceived a viceroy, none other than Eugene Beauharnais, Napoleon's stepson by the Empress Josephine. Following Napoleon's great victory at Austerlitz (December 2, 1805), he added Venetia to these north Italian possessions, and in 1806 drove from the throne of Naples the Bourbon Ferdinand in or- der to seat upon it his own brother, Joseph Bonaparte. In 1809 Napoleon removed the pope from Rome, sent him to France, and declared Rome a part of the French Empire. Soon the new-made Kingdom of Etruria was no more, but was rechris- 154 EUROPEAN WARS SINCE 1815 tened Tuscany, over which Napoleon, ever sohcitous for the worldly welfare of his family, placed his sister, EHza Bacciocchi, as Duchess of Tuscany and Princess of Piombino. Temporary as were these new partitions and sub-partitions of Italian territory, they had a marked influence on the people. A new feeling — the pride of nationality — arose among them, springing from the military service of the recruits that were drawn from all districts from the armies of Napoleon, by the breaking down of ancient boun- dary lines, the welcome riddance of the old tyrannical foreign rulers, the just administration of the code of Napoleonic laws, and largely by the emancipated spirit that had emanated from the French Revo- lution and still permeated all French institutions. But after the battle of Waterloo the Congress of Vienna swept away Bonaparte's new creations, and by 1816 some of the Italian sovereigns had returned to their former States; the pope had re- turned to Rome, education was no longer liberal and was in the hands of the clerics. Rigid press censorship was established, and every per- son that had played any public part under the Napoleonic regime was watched, followed, and all his movements were reported. The Na- poleonic Code was abolished in the provinces that had formed part of the Italian kingdom, and in the Papal States the administration of laws was placed in the control of the priesthood. All these measures, which were intended to suppress the rising tide of liberal thought in Italy, were encouraged by Austria. Every duke and princeling took his orders from the Austrian emperor, who promised each one the retention of his place and power. In Lom- bardy and Venetia, fortresses were filled with armed men who held the people in constant fear. As years went on, these intolerable con- ditions enraged the Italians, who had been sadly disappointed in their hopes of a new freedom by the unsatisfactory peace treaty made at Villafranca between Napoleon III and the Emperor of Austria, and many of the bolder spirits joined secret revolutionary societies, for naturally tyranny fostered conspiracy; and, beginning in 1808, a society calling itself the Carbonari ("charcoal-burners") was holding meetings throughout Italy as champions of the national Liberal cause against the reactionary governments. Other similar societies were organized, and for five years the wrath of the Italians was aug- THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY 166 merited by continued outrages on their rights and liberties and at last (in 1820) broke out into open flame. In that year the Spaniards, who in their turn longed for greater political freedom, proclaimed their constitution of the Cortes, which was formed after the one drawn up during the French Revolution. Spurred by this example of their neighbors, the royal army of Naples mutinied, and this revolt was followed by others more and more threatening until, in 1821, the allied European Powers authorized Austria to crush the rising revolu- tion in Lower Italy. Austrian soldiers entered Naples, and presently there were state trials and executions, and tyranny established a new reign of terror which succeeded in intimidating the people and hold- ing them in check until 1846, during which time the Italians remained sullenly quiet and submissive, while inwardly they raged at the bad government and tyranny of the aristocrats and the misery of the people. Such a state of things could not last, and meanwhile the three great men whose glorious fortune it was to liberate their unfortunate compatriots appeared in public life and by writing and oratory, mili- tary genius, and masterly statesmanship kindled afresh the fires of patriotism and hope. The first of these three was Giuseppe Maz- zini, sometimes called "the prophet of freedom." He was a young Genoese of good family and education, whose ambition it was to lead a revolution that should establish a permanent and indivisible republic not only in Italy but including all Europe. To this end he formed an organization calling itself the "Young Italy" party, which de- signed to found first a republic in their own country by the aid of vol- unteers drawn from all parts of the Italian peninsula. They thought it necessary, as an aid in achieving independence, to obtain the cooper- ation of the Kingdom of Sardinia. Many books and treatises were written and many fiery speeches were made by these young enthusi- asts, all of whom were inspired by the grand idea of establishing a confederation of Italian powers. Many of these men differed widely in their ideas as to details, but the three marked out by des- tiny to give coherence and practical form to the general plan, and finally to win the grand prize of independence, gradually made their way to the front. The second of the famous trio of liberators was Giuseppe Gari- 156 THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY 157 baldi, called the "knight-errant of the cause of freedom." Garibaldi was a man of the common people, a sailor in early youth, but a born soldier and leader of men. After an exciting and adventurous mili- tary career in young manhood, having always at heart a desire to see his beloved Italy free from foreign rulers and with all her States united, he dedicated his sword to her service to bring about this end, and, after the unpopular peace treaty of Villafranca, which boded so ill for Italy's future, he organized, as commander, a band of a thousand soldiers called "the chasseurs (hunters) of the Apennines," and drilled them with the intention of descending on the Papal States and liberating Rome at least. At that time this former dominion of the Roman Catholic Church comprised the Provinces of the Romagna, the Marches, Umbria, and the now existing Province of Rome. The political situation in Piedmont prevented Garibaldi from carrying out this plan, but he enlisted the interest and sympathy and gained the assistance of the third and the most powerful of the three liberators, the Count di Cavour, the eminent Italian statesman and benefactor of his country, the ultimate independence and unity of which was the dearest wish of his heart. After the change of government in 1848 following the general European upheaval called "the revolution" of that year, the Lib- eral party took the reins of power in Sardinia and framed a consti- tutional form of government, in the cabinet of which, under Mas- simo d'Azeglio, Cavour became successively minister of commerce (1850), minister of finance (1851), and premier (1852). He de- termined to do his utmost to bring about political consolidation in Italy, hence he was ready to assist his fellow-patriot. Garibaldi, in 1860, in forming an expedition to annex Sicily, which was then in a state of insurrection. In March of that year Central Italy had been annexed to Sardinia, under King Victor Emmanuel I, a measure ap- proved and assisted by Napoleon III. The insurrection in the Two Sicilies against the Bourbon rule of Francis II (son of Ferdinand I) raged chiefly in Naples, Palermo, and Messina. The Two Sicilies (consolidated by Ferdinand I in 1816) comprised the Island of Sicily and that part of southern Italy which, when considered separately from the island, was called Sicily on the hither side of Cape Faro (the northeastern promontory of the 168 THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY 159 island) or the Kingdom of Naples. Over this domain Francis II ruled with so much severity, cruelty, and cowardly oppression that his Sicilian subjects were quite ready to join Garibaldi when he landed on the island in 1860 and with his army of a thousand men defeated the Bourbon army at Marsala on the 15th of that month. After several smaller but successful battles the Garibaldian troops entered Palermo, the capital, and the gallant commander assumed the dictatorship of the island. Other brilliant battles followed: on July 29 he won a great victory over the Bourbon troops; on July 28 the fortress of Messina fell into his hands; on August 25 he fought a triumphant battle at Reggio in Calabria, and marched at once upon Naples, where he entered as conqueror, proclaimed him- self dictator of the Two Sicilies, and drove out the tyrant Francis I, who fle,d to Gaeta, in the Province of Caserta. This splendid ad- vance was followed by the victory of Volturno in October, after which a universal vote was passed to annex the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies to that part of Italy then governed by King Victor Emmanuel. The Bourbon supporters of Francis regathered their military forces at Gaeta, forty miles northwest of Naples, and for several months resisted the efforts of Victor Emmanuel's troops to drive them out. But Gaeta fell at last in February, 1861, and Victor Emmanuel was proclaimed King of Italy at Turin. Europe now gave an unspoken assent to Italian independence, and only Rome and Venetia remained to be set free. Once more Garibaldi, who had sworn never to rest until these two States should be liberated, raised a volunteer army and led it to Sicily. But now Napoleon III, who wished to have the Papal States and the Church power at Rome preserved, instructed Rattazzi, then the Ital- ian premier, to check Garibaldi's further activities. The royal troops met him and his volunteer army on September 22, 1862, when, not the soldiers of Italy's foreign oppressors but the riflemen of the Italian king shot him and took him prisoner. All Europe so strongly con- demned this action and expressed so much sympathy for the Italian people, who had struggled so long for independence, that in a con- vention held in September, 1864, Napoleon III agreed to withdraw his French troops from Rome if Italy would promise to respect the temporal power of the pope. At the same time the city of Florence FATHER AND SON The Kaiser Embracing His Eldest Son, the Crown Prince 160 THE SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN WAR 161 was named as the capital of Italy. This move on the part of Napoleon was regarded by the Liberals as favorable toward accom- plishing the annexation of Rome to Italy, and the war between Aus- tria and Prussia in 1866 gave them a new opportunity. They allied themselves with Prussia, and the Prussian victory of Koniggratz gave them one of the chief objects they had fought for ; and Venetia, including the Quadrilateral, was then added to the Kingdom of Italy. According to the terms of the convention of 1864, Napoleon with- drew his troops from Rome in 1866. The Liberals at once sprang into action. Mazzini, always an inspirer, called on the people to seize the prize then and there, and Garibaldi vowed to succeed in doing so or die. But again Napoleon interfered. Alarmed for the rule of the pope and the integrity of the Papal States, he reinstated the gar- rison at Rome for their protection, and there the French troops re- mained until the fall of the Second Empire in France in 1870, when the agreement made between Napoleon III and Victor Emmanuel in 1862 was declared at an end. The Italian king was released from the promises incurred thereby, and on September 20, 1870, he trium- phantly entered the Eternal City, which was no longer the capital of the pope and the Papal States but thenceforth the royal capital of "Italy free!" The Schleswig-Holstein War (1864) — Schleswig-Holstein, which belongs to Prussia, was formed out of the once Danish duchies of Schleswig, Holstein, and Liineburg. It is about 140 miles long and varies in breadth from ninety miles in Holstein to thirty-five miles in the narrowest parts of Schleswig. It is a miniature reproduction of the great German plain: the central part is a continuation of the vast Liineburg Heath ; the North Sea coast consists of marshes much like those of Holland and, like those of Holland, is protected by arti- ficial dikes, for much of the land is below the sea-level; while the Baltic Coast has steep, irregular banks pierced by numerous long and narrow fjords, which, running very deep into the land, afford excel- lent harbors. The islands of Alsen and Fehmarn lie off this coast, from which they are separated by narrow channels. The marsh land on the west affords such excellent pasture that here the special breed of Holstein cattle has been developed. But this district is more interesting to the historian, because it was from this THE AEROPLANE IN WARFARE Military Aeroplane Reconnoitering Photograph Taken from an Aeroplane in Flight 162 THE SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN WAR 163 spot that the Jutes and Angles emigrated across the North Sea to the southern shores of England to found a new race in Kent and Surrey. The whole history of the Cimbric peninsula is the record of a struggle between the Danes and the Germans, resulting ultimately in favor of the Germans. In 1027 the Danish Knut (King Canute, who bade the waves stand still) obtained from Conrad (then emperor) the recognition of Schleswig's independence of the empire that spread over all Europe at this time — the Holy Roman Empire. Then the Eider be- came the recognized boundarj^ between Denmark and what is now Germany. Knud Laward (1115-1131) extended his sway and became the first ruler of Schleswig to hold the singular double relationship to the King of Denmark and the emperor, which afterward became an im- portant factor in the history of the country. In 1232 the King of Denmark conferred the Duchy of South Jutland (Schleswig) on his son; and thereafter the terms of this investment became a fertile sub- ject of dispute between the dukes and the crown, the former maintain- ing that they held their land in hereditary fief, while the kings main- tained that the fief was revocable at pleasure. The dukes, aided by their kinsmen, the counts of Holstein, succeeded in establishing their position. In 1326 Duke Valdemar V of Schleswig was made King of Denmark through the influence of his cousin, Count Gerhard of Holstein, upon whom he bestowed the Duchy of Schleswig. The two territories were united under Margaret of Denmark in 1386; and thereafter the same prince ruled over Schleswig and Holstein. Many were the shiftings, divisions, and reunions of the two duchies of Schleswig and Holstein because of this complicated state of afl'airs. The duchies were inseparably connected, but owed feudal allegiance to different sovereigns. The situation became more complicated be- cause of the division of the royal line into two branches — the royal house of Denmark and that of the dukes of Holstein- Gottorp and sev- eral collateral branches. After the Congress of Vienna (1815) the King of Denmark was declared a member of the Germanic body on account of Holstein and Lauenburg, and was invested with three votes in the General Assem- bly. After the restoration of peace, however, Holstein, which never 164 EUROPEAN WARS SINCE 1815 had been so thoroughly a part of Denmark as Schleswig, grew restive regarding the continued non-convocation of its own assembhes The troubled year of 1830 brought forth a mutual animosity between the Danish and German populations, and many long-neglected local laws and privileges were dug up and their revival was urged. The troubles culminated in the invasion by an army from Prussia in 1849; but the Danes were victorious at the battle of Idsted (July 23), and peace was concluded with Prussia in 1850. Then the duchies began to set- tle the question of their ruler, and a treaty relative to this succession, signed in London, May 8, 1852, gave the crown of Frederick VII to Prince Christian of Gliicksburg ; but when Frederick VII died sud- denly in 1863 in the castle of Gliicksburg in Schleswig (the seat of his heir) , Prince Christian of Gliicksburg was proclaimed King of Den- mark as Christian IX. However, the young Duke of Augustenburg claimed the title as Frederick VIII, although his father had re- nounced his rights. "The claims of the pretender were supported by Prussia, Austria, and other German States, and before the year was out Generals Gab- lenz and Wrangel occupied the duchies in command of Austrian and Prussian troops, and Denmark was called upon to give up Schleswig- Holstein to military occupation by Prussia and Austria until the claims of the Duke of Augustenburg were settled. In its dilemma the Danish Government applied to England and to France, and, re- ceiving from these Powers what it considered as encouragement, it declared war against Germany early in 1864. The Danes sent their general, De Meza, with forty thousand men to defend the Danne- werk, the ancient line of defenses stretching across the peninsula from the North Sea to the Baltic. But the Dannewerk, popularly sup- posed to be impregnable, was first outflanked and then stormed, and the Danish army fell back on the heights of Dybbol, near Flensborg, which was strongly fortified, and took up a position behind it, across the Little Belt, in the island of Alsen. It became evident that Eng- land and France had no intention of aiding Denmark; but the cour- age of the Danes was heroic, and they made a splendid stand against their powerful opponents. General Gerlach was sent to replace the unlucky De Meza. The heights of Dybbol were harder to take than the Germans had supposed, but they fell at last, and with them the THE PRUSSO-AUSTRIAN WAR 165 strong position of Sonderburg, in the Island of Alsen. The Germans pushed northward until they overran every part of the mainland, as far as the extreme north of Jutland, and it seemed as if Denmark must cease to exist among the nations of Europe; but the Danes at last gave way, and accepted the terms of the Peace of Vienna, in October, 1864, by which Christian IX renounced all claim to Lauen- burg, Holstein and Schleswig, and agreed to have no voice in the final disposal of those provinces." Prussia became enriched, therefore, with the neck of land that separates the North Sea from the Baltic. The true value of this province was shown when the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal was opened in June, 1895. This, also called the North- Sea-Baltic Canal, is sixty- one miles long and extends from a point near Brunsbiittel on the Elbe to Holtenau on Kiel Bay, thus forming a waterway between the North Sea and the Baltic. Kiel has been made the chief naval station of the German Empire and the center of trade with Denmark and Scandinavia. The Prusso- Austrian War (1866) — In 1866 a war occurred which, though it was very short, was most important. It reached its climax in the Battle of Koniggratz, or Sadowa, decided the suprem- acy of Prussia over all the German States and led to the acquisition of Venetia by Italy and the constitutional independence of Hungary. At the outbreak of this war, William I had been on the throne of Prussia five years. Bismarck had been his prime minister since 1862. A united fatherland was their ambition, and the supremacy of Prussia their determination. At this period Prussia and Austria were the two strongest Powers of the German States. Austria, having inherited the torn purple mantle and the broken scepter of the Holy Roman Empire, had long been contending with Prussia. As early as 1849 efforts had been made at Frankfort to form Germany into one empire, excluding Austria, and the imperial crown had been offered to the King of Prussia. To counteract this sentiment, Austria had invited the dif- ferent States to send representatives to Frankfort, where she as- sumed the lead; and when Austria and Prussia brought all the representatives of the confederacy to the Diet at Frankfort, Aus- tria proposed that all her provinces, including Hungary and 166 EUROPEAN WARS SINCE 1815 Lombardo-Venetia, should be absorbed into the German confed- eracy. Great changes had taken place. Austria had warred with France and Sardinia; the battles of Magenta (June 4, 1859) and Solferino (June 24, 1859) had been fought, and the Peace of Villa- franca (July 11, 1859) had been signed. By this, Austria, though forced to give up Lombardy, retained Venetia, which permitted her to be a member of the new Italian confederation. Next followed the Schleswig-Holstein affair, in which Prussia persuaded Austria to join with her. The territory was more con- venient for Prussia to govern than for Austria, and Austria was willing to part with it ; but they could not come to terms. At a con- vention held in Gastein (August, 1865) it was agreed that Liine- burg was to be Prussia's; Austria was to have the administration of Holstein and Prussia that of Schleswig. Austria favored forming the duchies into a separate State and supported the claim of the Duke of Augustenburg. Prussia opposed this and regarded the public meetings that Austria had permitted in Holstein as a breach of the agreement. Then Austria referred the matter to the Frankfort Diet, which decided in favor of the duke. It was evident that a clash must come, sooner or later, to decide which should be the dominant Power in the German States; and, although both Prussia and Austria professed a desire for peace, both began to prepare for active war. On March 27, 1866, Prussia en- tered into an alliance with Victor Emmanuel, who agreed to declare war against Austria as soon as Prussia began hostilities, and Prus- sia promised to gain Venetia for Victor Emmanuel. In May, Fran- cis Joseph I, Emperor of Austria, ordered his whole army to prepare for war and he concentrated many troops on the Bohemian and Sile- sian frontiers. Prussia called out her full war strength, and forced the Austrians out of Holstein — fortunately without bloodshed! The Prussian force was thoroughly equipped. It consisted of three arm- ies: the first, commanded by Prince Frederick Charles, numbered 93,000 and was destined for Saxony and Bohemia; the second, un- der the crown prince (afterward the Emperor Frederick), of 115,000 men, was ordered to Silesia; and the third, or Army of the Elbe, commanded by General Herwarth, numbering 46,000, was to accompany the first army on its right flank. In addition to these THE PRUSSO-AUSTRIAN WAR 167 254,000 men, there was a reserve corps of 24,300 at Berlin. The Austrian comprised 271,000 men, for besides its 247,000 men the Saxon army of Dresden numbered 24,000. General Benedek was made commander-in-chief. He distributed his men along the frontier, separating Moravia from Saxony and Silesia. On June 16 the Prussians entered Saxony, and two days later they took possession of Dresden. On the same day the Austrians entered Silesia. The three Prussian armies then advanced into Bohemia and on June 26 and 28 won victories over the Austrians. Not- withstanding the difficult marches through the long and narrow mountain-passes of Bohemia and Silesia and the sharp defense from the Austrians, the Prussians were victorious in various minor battles that took place. General Benedek, who had taken up a strong posi- tion at Dubenetz to oppose the crown prince's army, was now forced to retreat toward Koniggratz, a town in Bohemia seventy-nine miles east of Prague, on the Elbe. By this time the Austrians had lost nearly 40,000 men. Both armies now concentrated and prepared for a critical contest. The King of Prussia arrived on June 30, and General Benedek took a strong position on the heights between Koniggratz and Sadowa. The Austrians numbered about 220,000 and the Prussians about 240,000. At eight o'clock on the morning of July 3, the first army opened the attack on the Austrian center and left. The morning passed without any decisive advantage on either side; but the arrival of the Second Army and its attack on the Austrian right, combined with the renewed efforts of Frederick Charles's troops, resulted in an overwhelming defeat for the Austrians in the middle of the after- noon. The Austrians lost in all about 44,200 men, of whom 19,800 were prisoners. The Prussians lost 8,794 men and 359 officers. The Austrians retreated to Zwittan and Olmiitz pursued by a body of Prussians; but the King of Prussia marched with 100,000 men toward Vienna, and reached Nikolsburg, July 18. Francis Joseph was now ready to make terms. He ceded Vene- tia to Italy, as well as the fortresses of the Quadrilateral — Peschiera, Mantua, Verona, and Legnano — and was willing to recognize a new German Confederation; he gave up all claims to Schleswig-Holstein and paid a heavy war indemnity. 168 THE FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR 169 The war of 1866 gave the death-blow to the Germanic Confedera- tion of 1815. In its place appeared the North German Confedera- tion under the lead of Prussia. The transformation was completed five years later, when, after the successful war with France, the South German States joined the union and the King of Prussia be- came the German Emperor. The Franco-Prussian War (1870-71) — After 1866, when Prus- sia became the strongest power in Europe and Austria was almost ex- cluded from Germany, M. Thiers predicted the coming German Em- pire. M. Magne addressed Napoleon III with the bold words: "The national feelings would be profoundly wounded if the final result should be that France has only gained by her intervention the estab- lishment on her two flanks of two neighbors of abnormally increased strength. Greatness is, after all, a relative affair ; and a country that in itself is no weaker than it was may be diminished by the accumu- lation of new forces around it." However, at the beginning of July, 1870, the horizon of Europe seemed without a cloud. On June 30, M. Emile Ollivier, the prime minister, declared that "the peace of Europe never rested on a more secure basis." The idea entertained by a great part of the French nation and kept alive by poets, historians, and the press, of the re-conquest of the left bank of the Rhine {les frontiers naturelles) had a great influence in bringing about the Franco-Prussian war. Other contributory causes were: The involved state of affairs occasioned by the govern- ment of Napoleon; the rejection of the "compensation" demanded after 1866 from the cabinet of Berlin for the growth of Prussia in extent and population; news of the introduction of an improved weapon for the North German infantry, which threatened the supe- riority of the famous chassepot rifle of the French ; and last, but not least, the election of the Prince of Hohenzollern to the throne of Spain, which was regarded in Paris as a Prussian intrigue endanger- ing the safety of France. In 1868 a revolution in Spain drove Queen Isabella from the throne. She took refuge in France, where she became a favored guest of the Emperor Napoleon and his Spanish wife, Eugenie. In 1869 General Prim, who had become president of the council of ministers in the Provisional Government at Madrid, began to search for an 170 EUROPEAN WARS SINCE 1815 eligible candidate for the crown. His choice fell upon Prince Leo- pold, of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, to whom he offered the crown of Spain. Prince Leopold informed the head of the House of Hohen- zollern, William I of Prussia, who authorized him to accept the offer. Fearful of this increase of German power, the French cabinet decided to intervene, and ordered the French ambassador, Benedetti, to see William I, who was in Ems, and request him to forbid the Prince of Hohenzollern's acceptance of the Spanish crown. William referred Benedetti to the regular method of communication through the min- istry at Berlin. Prince Leopold, not wishing to offend France, with- drew; but the telegraphic announcement of the proceeding was con- sidered insulting to France; and the Duke of Gramont thereupon made an inflammatorj^ speech in the Assembly. The King of Prussia was next pressed to promise that he never would support Prince Leopold in the future as a claimant for the Spanish crown, which was equivalent to saying that war was deter- mined. The Liberal party, headed by Thiers, opposed the war vehe- mently. That great statesman considered France "unprepared for war." The Imperialists, on the other hand, wanted war. The em- press thought if it were successful the throne would be secured to her son, and she would appear as the champion of Roman Catholic principles in Europe. The Imperialists pushed the matter. Refusing the good offices of the other States of Europe, they declared that France was ready — "ready to the last gaiter-button." Germany was more quiet, but very firm. Count Bismarck, who was on his estate at Varzin, went to Berlin July 12, and on the same day General von Moltke arrived from Schweidnitz, to meet William I, who was en- thusiastically received on July 15. That same day mobilization of the North German army and the convention of the Reichstag were ordered. On July 19 the French declaration of war was delivered. On July 23 the North German Reichstag was opened, and it unani- mously voted a war credit. The internal troubles of France were great: there were virtually two courts — that of the empress, desir- ing war, and the more patriotic party, representing the true interests of the country, opposed to it. Paris became frenzied with excite- ment. The delirious populace mobbed Thiers's house and raised the famous cry: "A Berlin!^' THE FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR 171 Thus the war began. The Empress Eugenie was left as regent in Paris, while the emperor went to the front with the young prince imperial. The most astounding ignorance prevailed in Paris. No- body knew the real state of feeling in Germany, nor of her prepared- ness for war. The French had been led to believe that their army was in fine condition, whereas it was not organized, not supplied, and was without proper reserve force. Worse still, the incapacity of the lead- ers was appalling. No one understood the science of warfare; their maps were inadequate; and the use of railways had been improperly studied. The French army was brave, however, and was soon stretched in a frontier line facing Germany from Strassburg to Metz. Metz was selected as the French headquarters and Mainz (or May- ence) as the German. France M^as now to experience a great surprise, one so great that it forced upon her a new military plan. She had counted on the neutrality of the South German States ; but southern Germany, believing that the French attack was part of a plan to conquer German territory and establish a new Confederation of the Rhine, gave its support to the North German cause. Louis II of Bavaria mobilized his army immediately, and his action influenced Wiirtemburg, Hesse-Darmstadt, and Baden. The French had planned to divide the army into three groups. Two were to force neutrality upon the South Germans and hasten the hoped-for alliance between Austria and Italy. The other attack was to be made upon North Germany. Napoleon III was commander- in-chief, with Marshal Leboeuf as chief of the, general staff. The change of plan distributed the army as follows: First Corps, under Marshal MacMahon, at Strassburg ; Second Corps, under General de Failly, at Bitsch; Third Corps, under General Bazaine, at Metz; and Fourth Corps, under General Ladmirault, at Thionville. The Corps of. Marshal Canrobert at Chalons, that of General F. Douay at Bel- fort, and the Garde under General Bourbaki at Nancy formed the reserve of 320,000 men. The German force consisted of three armies: First, the right wing, under Steinmetz, at Coblentz, of 60,000 men; second, the cen- ter, under Prince Frederick Charles, at Mainz, of 131,000 men, with a reserve of 194,000; and, third, the left wing under the Crown Prince Frederick WiUiam, at Mannheim, of 130,000 men. The total strength esi O V O Si Z £ < » 11. Q uj >; f I 17a THE FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR 175 of the North German army numbered 750,000 men, of whom 198,000 were Landwehr; and that of the South German equaled 100,000. King WilHam I of Prussia was commander-in-chief, and General von Moltke was chief of the general staff. Before the Germans could take the defensive, the French made an attack on Saarbriicken (August 2, 1870), but were forced to re- treat on August 6. On August 4 an engagement followed at Weis- senburg. On August 6 was fought the battle of Worth (Reich- shofen), where MacMahon, after a most courageous defense, was de- feated by the numerically superior army of the crown prince. ' The French army now began its retreat to the Moselle. The crown prince detached a corps to attack Strasburg and other Alsatian frontiers, and advanced upon Nancy, where the French crushed Charles the Bold in 1477, bringing the great duchy of Burgundy under the crown of France. One army marched upon Metz ; another army upon Pont a Mous- son, hoping to surround the main body of the French about Metz and cut them off from Paris. Bazaine, upon whom Napoleon had conferred the chief command, decided to retreat to Chalons-sur-Marne and join what was left of MacMahon's army and also a newly formed army; but the Germans attacked Bazaine in the battle of Colombey-Nouilly and Vionville. Both suffered great losses. The French tried to retreat to Verdun, but were prevented. New arrivals strengthened the Germans, and, although the French had acquired well-chosen and fortified positions, they were attacked. During the period that led up to Napoleon's giving the command of the army to Bazaine, the German armies had been marching through the Vosges and Lorraine, their chiefs carrying out Moltke's orders for the invasion of France. The masses that rolled across the frontier consisted of 400,000 men — dense bodies of cavalry and artil- lery. The contingent from Baden was sent to besiege Strassburg, while the other three armies drew near the Moselle and Metz. The German advance, on the whole, however, had been slow. On August 18 the battle of Gravelotte was fought, the most equally contested of the Franco-Prussian War and the most sanguinary. It is also called the battle of Saint-Privat. The French resisted bravely for eight 174 EUROPEAN WARS SINCE 1815 hours, but it resulted in Bazaine's retreat to Metz. A critic says: "Gravelotte was not a masterpiece of the art of war; the victory was not due to the strategy of Moltke ; it was emphaticalh'- a soldiers' bat- tle. The energy, nevertheless, of the German chiefs in pressing home the attacks on St. Privat and Roncourt was admirable, and deserves the highest praise, and if the effort cost thousands of gallant lives the result more than repaid the sacrifice. The conduct of Bazaine was poor and unskilful ; it is said that he never left a spot in the vicinity of Metz, and if the army of the Rhine fought extremely well — the battle, in fact, resembles Malplaquet — we see no traces of the confi- dence of Worth. By August 19 the marshal had withdrawn his whole forces under the ramparts of Metz. In a few daj^s the victorious Germans invested ]\Ietz, an operation which should have been im- possible had Bazaine been a capable chief; and Europe at last beheld the spectacle of an army in possession of a great fortress surrender- ing to one scarcely superior in numbers, disseminated upon a circle of sixty-odd miles, and divided by the broad stream of the INIoselle." Next occurred the siege of Metz (August 19 to October 27), a series of bloody battles that separated the French force into two parts, and locked up their main army in and about a fortress that was not sufficiently provisioned for such a siege. At this juncture, also, oc- curred the siege of Strassburg (August 14 to October 27) , by General von Werder. MacMahon evacuated Chalons and attempted to liberate Bazaine, choosing a circuitous flank march to the northeast. The Germans, getting news of this, made a detour north. Bazaine now attempted to break through the German lines and join MacMahon; but the engage- ments at Noisseville (August 31) frustrated the desperate venture. MacMahon now concentrated his forces at Sedan, where the famous battle was fought on September 1, 1870. The Germans numbered 250,000, and the French 140,000; and, notwithstanding the brilliant charges of the French cavalry, the Germans were victorious. Taking the battle as a whole, and remembering the disorganized state of the army before the fight began, the presence of a large number of raw recruits, the overwhelming superiority of the enemy, the crushing artillery fire coming from the four points of the compass, to which no adequate reply was possible, there can be no question that the THE FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR 175 French stood their ground magnificently . But, as is usual with troops when they give way, there was no restraining the French from flight. Marshal MacMahon, wounded very early in the day, was compelled to leave the field. He gave the command to Ducrot. It was MacMahon who chose the position of Sedan, thinking his task, with 100,000 men against 70,000 Germans, was comparatively easy. Sedan was one of the worst positions ever selected for a battle. Two of MacMahon's corps faced westward ; the other two looked east. The Meuse prevented retreat southward. On the north, the ground domi- nated the French position, and this was quickly occupied by the Ger- man artillery in tremendous force. The ground separating the corps facing opposite ways was uneven, and was so thickly wooded that the First and Twelfth Corps could not see what was going on in front of the Fifth and Seventh. Neither could the Fifth and Seventh Corps see what was happening before them. Moreover, a very steep and deep ravine divided the two latter from the two former corps. "Would you mind telling me," asked General Lebrun of a colonel of the Prussian staff, the day after Sedan, "why throughout the battle I saw so few of your infantry in my front?" "The reason is very simple," he replied. "In our first engagements with the French army, we recognized the great superiority of your infantry arm, but at the same time we discovered the great superiority of our cannon over yours; therefore, orders were at once given to all the infantry commanders in the army to keep as much as possible out of the fire of your infantry, while we combated you with our guns." The battle began at five o'clock in the morning. A shell bursting beneath the horse of Marshal MacoVlahon wounded the rider, and he was carried off the field. General Ducrot succeeded to the post of commander-in-chief about half-past seven in the morning, and in- stantly resolved on retreat toward Mezieres, in a northwesterly direc- tion. The evening before, he was marching with his corps toward an elevation called the Calvaire d'lUy, the occupation of which would have allo^^'ed the army to retire on Mezieres, or to occupy a somewhat favorable position if forced into the fray, when JNIarshal MacMahon recalled him. It is said that that order of recall decided the fate of the French. The various corps had barely been set in motion west- ward when a fresh commander-in-chief was put over the men. Gen- < s. '_■ ^^^H \"'' mm % ip^' mmm ilil Trooper of French Signal Corps releasing a message-bearing carrier pigeon separate from the Haut-Rhin). Since 1881 the three departments of Algeria are generally considered as a part of France proper. The unit of local government is the commune, the local affairs being un- der a municipal council. Each municipal council elects a mayor. In Paris the municipal council is composed of eighty members. The city's twenty arrondissements^ or districts, each having its own mayor, are presided over by the prefect of the Seine. No religion is now recognized by the State. In 1911 the population was given as 39,601,509. War can be declared by the president only with the consent of the two houses. His every act must be countersigned by a minister, A FRANCE 269 special body, the Conseil d'Etat, appointed by the president and pre- sided over by the minister of justice, gives advice upon administrative points submitted by the Government. The French army is administered by the war department, or min- istry of war, assisted by an under secretary, a military cabinet and the chiefs of the various bureaus. A superior council, consisting of ex- perienced officers and presided over by the commander-in-chief, gives expert advice. The chief of the general staff is responsible to the minister for plans, maneuvers, and preparations for war, and controls the directors of infantry, cavalry, engineers, artillery, finance, etc. The national forces consist of the metropolitan army (703,000 men) and the colonial army (87,000 men), making a total of 790,000 men. The field army is reckoned at 20 army corps, the Lyons bri- gade of 14 battalions and 10 cavalry divisions, a total of about 800,000 combatants. The reserve (including cavalry) amounts to about 500,000 men — altogether a strength of about 1,300,000 combatants. The Algerian troops and troops of the colonial army, with the Alge- rian cavalry, adding about 80,000 men, would make a grand total of about 1,380,000 combatants. The peace strength, according to the budget for 1912-'13, has a total of 645,644. The headquarters are: Lille, Amiens, Rouen, Le Mans, Orleans, Chalons-sur-Marne, Besan9on, Bourges, Tours, Rennes, Nantes, Limoges, Clermont-Ferrand, Lyons, Marseilles, Montpellier, Tou- louse, Bordeaux, Algiers, and Nancy. Military service is compulsory, liability to it extending from the age of twenty to forty-eight. Until the outbreak of war in 1914, the strength by arms was: In- fantry, 590 battalions, 24 Zouaves, 24 Algerian tirailleurs, 5 African light infantry, and 1 Saharan tirailleur. The fighting strength of the army, exclusive of Algiers and Tunis, was 490,000 men, with 42 coast batteries, 47 fortress batteries, 14 mountain batteries, 15 horse batteries, 619 field batteries, and 21 field howitzer batteries. The aeronautical corps is organized in three territorial groups. There are 27 sections of 8 aeroplanes, 10 cavalry sections of 3 aeroplanes each, and 11 fortress sections of 8 aeroplanes each, represent- ing a total of 334 aeroplanes. The aeronautical corps also owns 14 dirigibles. The gendarmerie is a force of military police recruited 270 COUNTRIES INVOLVED from the army but performing civil duties in time of peace. Their strength is about 21,700 men. The Garde Republicaine, another police force, performs duties in Paris similar to those of the gen- darmerie in the departments. Its strength is about 3,000, of whom about 800 are mounted. In 1913 there was a great development of the Boy Scouts. They A Battery of France's Wonderful Field Artillery are recruited from all members of society and participate in the re- unions and exercises organized by the Comite Central. The military law of 1913 made the length of service three years in the active army; eleven years in the reserve; seven years in the territorial army; and seven years in the reserve of the territorial army. The peace strength of the metropolitan army comprises 25,695 officers, 483,768 men; the colonial army (in France), 1,891 officers and 25,672 men. The gendarmerie, Garde Republicaine, etc., bring FRANCE 271 the force up to 673 officers and 25,672 men. Algeria and Tunis fur- nish 2837 officers and 69,191 men. The colonial army, distinct from the metropolitan, consists of both white and native troops. The colonial troops at home consist of 12 regiments of infantry and 3 regiments of artillery. The troops in the colonies consist of three battalions of the Foreign Legion; 13 battalions and 4 companies of colonial infantry, 32 batteries of artil- lery, 1 squadron or native cavalry; 3 companies of native sappers; 49 battalions of native infantry. The officers and most of the non- commissioned officers are French. The total number of troops in oversea garrisons is about 134,000, of whom 75,000 are Europeans. France's navy ranks fifth among the world's naval Powers. The minister of marine, who is a vice-admiral, is its head. The navy council consists of five vice-admirals occupying the position of the maritime prefect, the two vice-admirals commanding in home waters, and vice-admirals that have commanded the two home fleets within the past two years. There are also four inspectors-general. The navy is manned partly by conscription and partly by voluntary enlistment. The Inscription Maritime dates from 1683, originating with Colbert, minister of marine under Louis XIV. The navy is composed of twenty battleships; forty-five armored cruisers and protected cruisers, 213 torjiedo-boats and destroyers; sixty-five submarines ; and a great number of transports, mine-layers, etc. There are four dreadnoughts, each of 23,400 tons displacement and 36,000 horse-power, and carrying twelve twelve-inch guns and twenty-two five-inch guns. There are three superdreadnoughts of 23,500 tons displacement, carrying ten thirteen-inch and twenty-two five-inch guns. The naval architects have carried ingenuity of con- struction to a high degree, in the four superdreadnoughts, launched but not yet in commission, of 25,387 tons displacement, having twelve thirteen-inch and twenty- four five-inch guns in groups of four in the turrets. The minor cruisers include the aerial depot ship "Foudre." The navy has two centers of aviation — one at Frejus-St.-Raphael, the other at Montpellier. There is an efficient corps of hydroplanes. For purposes of administration, the French coasts are divided into five arrondissements, with headquarters at Cherbourg, Brest, Lorient, 272 COUNTRIES INVOLVED Rochefort and Toulon, at each of which there are shipyards. Each arrondissement is presided over by a vice-admiral with the title of maritime prefect. The chief torpedo-stations are Cherbourg, Brest, Dunkirk, Lorient, Rochefort, Toulon, Corsica, Bizerta, Oran, Al- giers and Bona. The forces afloat are: the Mediterranean Squad- ron, the Northern Squadron in the Channel; and the divisions of the Atlantic, Pacific, Far East, Cochin China, and the Indian Ocean. Removing the Dead After the Battle of Charleroi The personnel of the navy includes 4,128 officers, 60,153 sailors, and 35,000 workmen for the construction and repair of ships. France is provided with a reserve of 114,000 men, of whom about 25,500 are serving with the fleet. In 1911 the French mercantile marine included 15,949 sailing- vessels, and 1,780 steamers, of 838,118 tons. France's colonial possessions in the East are Pondicherry in India (about 196 square miles, population 276,484) ; Annam (52,100 square miles, population 5,554,822) ; Cambodia (45,000 square miles, popu- lation 1,634,252). Cochin China (20,000 square miles, population FRANCE 273 •^>#* -■ 3,050,785) ; Tonking (46,400 square miles, population 6,119,720) ; the Laos Territory (98,000 squai^e miles, population 640,877) ;ah(iHhe territory of Kwang Chau Wan on the coast of China, leased from China in 1898, which, with two islands in the bay, was placed under French Mountain Battery the authority of the governor-general of Indo-China (190 square miles, population about 150,000) . On the evening of August 1, 1914, following the action of Ger- many in mobilizing her army against Russia, France ordered the mobilizing of her own army. On August 12 she declared war on Austria-Hungary, and two days later (August 14) her troops entered Belgium to assist in the defense of Brussels, penetrating as far as Gembloux, north of the Sambre. WILLIAM (WILHELM) II German Emperor, King of Prussia. Born in Berlin, January 27, 1859. Son of the Emperor Frederick III and of Victoria, Sister of Edward VII. Succeeded to the Throne on the Death of His Father, June 15, 1888. Married, February 27, 1881, Augusta Victoria, Princess of Schleswig-Holstein 274 THE GERMAN EMPIRE 275 The German Empire — Germany, the storm-center of the war, oc- cupies the central part of Europe, having for its geographical neigh- bors Russia, Hungary, Austria, Switzerland, France, Luxemburg, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Denmark. Within twenty- four hours its war-ships can reach Great Britain across the North Sea. Its coast- line is about 1,200 miles in length, and it has 3,500 miles of land fron- tier to guard. Southern Germany is elevated, and, in certain regions, mountainous, though the highest peak in the empire (Zugspitze, in Kaiser Reviewing the Imperial Guards at Potsdam Bavaria) reaches an elevation of only 9,725 feet. The northern part, embracing about one third of the country, is a low-lying plain. Ger- many has no well-defined natural borders except on her Austro-Hun- garian and Swiss frontiers, and for a few miles in Alsace, where the Vosges Mountains rise between her and France. The rest of the French boundary is an arbitrary line, while the coast plain that stretches across Northern Germany merges into Holland and Bel- gium on the west and Russian Poland on the east. The country slopes to the North Sea and the Baltic, to which four great rivers find their way, running roughly in parallel courses. The Rhine, which courses through Holland, the Weser, and the Elbe flow into the North Sea; 276 THE GERMAN EMPIRE 277 the Oder and the Vistula into the Baltic. The smaller Niemen runs through Russia and cuts into German territory a few miles west of the frontier. Hamburg, Germany's great port, is on the estuary of the Elbe; Bremen is on the Weser. Not far from Hamburg lies one entrance of the great Kaiser- Wilhelm Canal, which joins the North Sea and the Baltic, across territory wrested from Denmark in 1864, and gives the fleet the great strategic advantage of quick and safe ac- cess to both seas. Germany has no great lakes ; but east of the Elbe, along the Baltic plain, across which the Russian army of invasion will operate, there are hundreds of small and medium-sized lakes. The area of Germany is 208,780 square miles. Its population, according to the census of 1910, was 64,925,993, an average of 310.4 to the square mile. In 1816 the population of the same area was 24,831,396. The present German Empire is one of the youngest of the nations, as it dates only from 1871, and though the history of the various States that comprise it begins at the time of the break-up of the western Roman Empire, it was only after the fall of Napoleon in 1815 that the group of Teutonic States that now form the empire took political shape. During the eighteenth centiuy what is now Germany had been a jumble of more than three hundred independent States; and Germany owes to the conqueror Napoleon the first impetus toward consolidation, for he roughly swept most of them out of existence, and at his fall they numbered only thirty-nine. The Congress of Vienna, which in 1815 carefully picked up and cemented the pieces into which Napoleon had shattered Europe, constituted the German Confedera- tion, a clumsy organization, under the leadership of Austria. A prom- ising liberal movement toward the establishment of a German empire took place in 1848, when a national parliament was called; but the movement was doomed when in 1849 the weak King of Prussia re- fused to accept the office of German Emperor to which he had been chosen. There was not room in Germany for both Prussia and Aus- tria, and their rivalries made a real union impossible. Prince Bismarck, to whose ruthless but sagacious and successful statesmanship Germany owes the greatness she has now so rashly placed in jeopardy, took ad- vantage of quarrels with Austria over the administration of Schleswig- Holstein, which was taken from Denmark in 1864 by the combined forces of the two Powers, to force a final clash between the rivals. 278 THE GERMAN EMPIRE 279 Austria was completely vanquished in the seven weeks' war that fol- lowed (1866), and Europe awoke to the realization that a new power of extraordinary military efficiency was thereafter to be reckoned with. Prussia, greatly increased in territory by the Austrian war, now became the dominant power in the new North German Confed- eration, with offensive and defensive treaties of alliance with three The Kaiser as a Country Gentleman southern States — Bavaria, Wurttemberg, and Baden. The growing power of Prussia brought her into rivalry with France, then ruled by Napoleon III, the mediocre nephew and namesake of the great em- peror. Bismarck took the same skilful and unscrupulous advantage of the fatuity of the French emperor that he previously had taken of Austria, and a pretext for war was easily found. On July 19, 1870, Napoleon III declared war, and his army set out for Berlin. On September 2, the unfortunate Emperor Napoleon was a prisoner. PRINCE OSCAR Fifth Son of the Kaiser, in Command of One of the GerlVian Armies 250 THE GERMAN EMPIRE 281 and on January 18, 1871, in the ancient palace of the French kings at Versailles, William I, King of Prussia, was proclaimed German Em- peror. On April 16, 1871, the constitution of the new empire was promulgated. In accordance with the terms of the Treaty of Frank- fort-on-the-Main (May 10, 1871), which closed the Franco-Prussian war, France ceded Alsace and German-speaking Lorraine to Ger- many and paid a war indemnity of 5,000,000,000 francs ($1,000,000,- 000). Since then the conquests of Germany have been intellectual. German Soldiers Jeered by French at the Frontier before the War scientific, industrial, and commercial, and she has aroused the admira- tion of the whole world by her achievements in all lines of human prog- ress — with the exception of liberal government. The medieval au- tocracy of the emperor and the odious militarism of the ruling classes undoubtedly were the most powerful influences in impelling Germany to challenge the world in arms. Since 1871 Germany has devoted her- self to the task of building up her industries and foreign trade with extraordinary energy and skill and with such success that at the out- break of the war her foreign trade and her magnificent merchant marine were second only to those of Great Britain. At the same time, she had the most formidable military machine that the world had ever !282 COUNTRIES INVOLVED seen, and her navy had reached such proportions as to cause great un- easiness to the mistress of the seas across the North Sea. In 1884, with the acquisition of some small territories in Africa, Germany entered upon her career as a colonial power, and her pos- sessions at the opening of the war had an area of more than a million square miles, with a population of twelve millions. The "Triple Alli- ance" (Dreihund), between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, negotiated by Bismarck in 1883, has just fallen apart by the defection of Italy, probably actuated by her inveterate hatred against Austria and her desire to redeem the Italian-speaking provinces that are still held by Austria. The following table shows the States that compose the empire, and gives important information regarding them: Prussia Bavaria Saxony Wurttemberg Baden Hesse Mecklenburg-Schwerin Saxony Mecklenburg-Strelitz Oldenburg Brunswick Saxe-Meiningen Saxe-Altenburg Saxe-Coburg-Gotha Anbalt Schwarzburg-Sondershausen. . Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt Waldeck Reuss Aelteres Linie Reuss Jungerer Linie Schaumburg-Lippe Lippe Lubeck Bremen Hamburg Alsace-Lorraine Kingdom . Grand Duchy. Duchy . Principality . Free Town Reichsland. . . , Capital Berlin Munich Dresden Stuttgart Carlsruhe Darmstadt. . . . Wismar Weimar Neu-Strelitz. . . Oldenburg. . . . Brunswick.. . . Meiningen .... Altenburg .... Coburg-Gotha. Dessau. . . . Sondershausen Rudolstadt . . Arolsen Greiz Gera Buckeburg Detmold . . Strassburg. Area, Square ^liles 134,616 29,292 5,789 7,534 5,823 2,966 5,068 1,397 1,131 2,482 1,418 953 511 764 888 333 363 433 122 319 131 469 115 99 160 5,604 Population 40,165,219 6,887,291 4,806,661 2,437,547 2,142,833 1,282,051 639.958 417,149 106,442 483,042 494,339 278,762 216,128 257,177 331,128 89,917 100,702 61,707 72,769 152,752 46,652 150,937 116.599 299,526 1,014,664 1,874,014 Religion by Percentages 66 Prot. 70 R.C. 95 Prot. 68 Prot. 59 R.C. 69 Prot. 96 Prot. 94 Prot. Prot. 79 Prot. Prot. Prot. Prot. Prot. Prot. Prot. Prot. Prot. Prot. Prot. Prot. Prot. 96 Prot. 87 Prot. 92 Prot 76 R.C. Mem- bers in Bundes- rath 17 6 4 4 3 3 2 Deputies in Reich- stag 236 48 23 17 14 9 6 3 1 3 3 2 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 S 15 The four kingdoms, six grand duchies, five duchies, seven princi- palities, three free towns, and the imperial territory of Alsace-Lor- raine bear somewhat the same relation to the empire that the various States bear to the Federal Government of the United States. Some THE GERMAN EMPIRE 283 Friedrich Wilhelm, Crown Prince of Prussia of the principalities are very tiny, and with their well-nigh feudal governments are anachronistic survivals of medieval times. The au- tonomy of the free cities also dates from the Middle Ages, when these cities were at the head of the Hanseatic League, a powerful union of the commercial cities of the coast. By the constitution, the King of Prussia is also the German Emperor. The present King of Prus- sia and German Emperor is William II, grandson of the emperor who was proclaimed at Versailles. The hegemony of the Kingdom of Prussia lies not alone in the honor of the presidency of the Empire Admiral von Tirpitz Minister of iVIarine Dr. von Bethmann-Hoilweg Chancellor of the Empire A GROUP OF HIGH GERMAN OFFICIALS S84 THE GERMAN EMPIRE 285 conferred upon her king. Her vote in the Bundesrath is sufficiently- large to prevent the passage of any constitutional amendments which she (that is to say, the emperor) may not favor. Certain special privi- leges were granted to Bavaria, Wurttemberg, and Baden also, to in- duce them to join the empire. The two former, for example, have their own railway and postal systems, and their armies are separate military organizations. Local patriotism is especially strong in Ba- varia. The emperor has the power of declaring war, if def efisive, mak- ing peace, and entering into treaties with foreign nations, j He is also commander-in-chief of the army and the navy, and the supreme di- rection of the affairs of the empire is vested in him. King George of England is also the commander-in-chief of the British army -and navy, and all government nominally centers in him. As a matter of; fact, however, he is a mere shadow of royalty, whereas the German emperor is the head and front of the government. All laws passed by the legislature must be promulgated by the emperor, and their administration is entrusted to him. The executive' power of the^ emperor is exercised by the imperial chancellor, who is responsible, not to the legislature, but to the emperor, and holds office at his pleasure. Under the supervision of the chancellor are fourteen secretaries (of foreign affairs, admiralty, army, post-office, etc. ) ; but these secretaries are in no sense comparable with the British cabinet, which is responsible to parliament and over which the king has not a vestige of authority. The imperial chancellor is president of the Bundesrath, and has a seat in the Reichstag, where he acts as the mouthpiece of the government. The legislature is composed of two chambers : the Bundesrath, or Federal Council, and the Reichstag, or National Diet. The Bun- desrath represents the federal principle, as does our Senate, and all the States, however petty, are represented in it. The table on page 282 shows the apportionment of the sixty-one members of the Bundesrath among the various States. The members are appointed by their re- spective State governments, and each State delegation must vote as a unit in accordance with instructions from its government. The Bundesrath shares with the emperor certain powers of nominating and appointing imperial officials. Its members are regarded as ambassa- dors from the States they represent — they have, in fact, the same ^86 COUNTRIES INVOLVED privilege of ex-territoriality and rank with them officially — and may address the Reichstag in favor of measures advocated by their gov- ernments. Under the direction of the imperial chancellor, the Bundesrath acts as a supreme administrative and consultative board, its powers in this respect being exercised through twelve standing committees with Kaiser William II and His Five Sons authority over various departments of government — the army, navy, tariff, trade, railways, finance, civil and criminal law, foreign affairs, Alsace and Lorraine, the constitution, standing orders, and railway tariffs. The Bundesrath also exercises the functions of our Supreme Court, in legal and constitutional controversies between States. The Reichstag is composed of three hundred and ninety-seven deputies elected by universal suffrage for a term of five years, the representation of each State being determined by its population. The result naturally is that the Reichstag is mainly Prussian. The mem- bers receive 3,000 marks ($714) for each session, with a deduction of THE GERMAN EMPIRE S8Y twenty marks for each day's absence. They receive also free passes over the railroads. The Reichstag has equal powers of initiating leg- islation with the Bundesrath, and the two bodies have constitutional jurisdiction over many things which in the United States fall within the province of the several States. Laws, when passed by the im- perial legislature, are administered by the various State governments under the emperor's supervision. Gun Factory at the Krupp Works, Essen Germany enjoj^s uniform codes of civil and criminal law through- out the empire. The courts are of three grades, with successively wider jurisdiction and powers in cases of appeal from lower courts, the highest being the Supreme Court of one hundred members {Reichs- gericht), which sits at Leipzig. Bavaria has a supreme court of its own (Oherstes Landesgericht) , composed of twenty-two members, with revising jurisdiction over the lower Bavarian courts. The Ger- man jury consists of twelve members, and usually three judges occu- py the bench. The shameful entanglement with politics which dis- 288 THE GERMAN EMPIRE 289 graces and corrupts our lower courts does not exist there, and the German judge is placed in a position of absolute independence, be- cause, once appointed, there is no power to remove, transfer, or retire him against his will, so long as he properly discharges his duties. With the exception of the members of the Supreme Court, appointed by the emperor upon the nomination of the Bundesrath, the judges are appointed and paid by the various States. Since 1907 the number of causes tried in the various courts of Germany has not increased as rapidly as the population. In 1911, the latest year for which figures are available, 1,446,472 persons were tried by German courts, and 552,560 were convicted. This was equal to 119.8 convictions for each 10,000 inhabitants. In 1907 the ratio was 122.2. Germany has grappled with the problem of pauperism in a very intelligent way, though the growth of socialism, at which such meas- ures were aimed, has not been checked thereby, as 112 socialist depu- ties — ^nearly one third of its membership — sit in the Reichstag. The German national compulsory insurance of workingmen against sick- ness, accident, and old age is a very comprehensive scheme for the alleviation of those evils on a scale vastly larger than any nation had ever before attempted. In fact, nothing yet approaches it except the English old-age pension system. For insurance against sickness, workmen must pay two thirds and the employer one third of the con- tribution, or premium. The employers must pay the total charges for the insurance of their workmen against accident. For old-age and infirmity pensions the employer must pay half, and the beneficiary half, the State contributing $12 to each pension when it is paid. The employer is responsible for the payment of all the authorized contri- butions, both his own and the employee's, but the latter's charges may be deducted from his wages. Premiums are paid by affixing postage- stamps to official cards weekly. Old-age and infirmity pensions are paid after contributions have been kept up regularly for 1,200 weeks (twenty-five and one half years). Pensions are divided into five classes, according to wages received. The lowest class is on wages of about $84 a year. On this the weekly contribution is about three and one half cents, and the yearly pension about $38. The highest class is based on yearly wages between $275 and $480. In this class the weekly contributions are about eight and one half cents, and the yearly 290 COUNTRIES INVOLVED A Brigade of German Horse Artillery pension about $77. In the year 1911 the total amount of compensa- tion paid by the State for insurance of the three classes was $206,- 179,000. In religion, Germany is 61 per cent. Protestant and 36 per cent. Catholic. Jews form about 1 per cent, of the population. The table on page 282, giving statistical information regarding the component States of the Empire, reveals sharp contrasts in the religious make-up of the country, Prussia and Saxony, for example, being strongly Protestant, and Bavaria and Baden largely Catholic. Education is compulsor}^ throughout Germany, and so thoroughly have the elementarj^ schools done their work that the number of illiter- ates in the empire is astonishingly small. In 1912 only one twentieth of one per cent, of the army recruits were reported as illiterate. There are twenty-one universities in the empire, four of which are Catholic, four mixed, and thirteen Protestant. These universities have a total of 3,450 professors and teachers and 59,312 students. The largest is Berlin, with 502 professors and teachers and 10,274 students. The technical and agricultural schools of Germany are highly efficient and have contributed powerfully to Germany's wonderful commercial ad- vance. The naval academy is at Kiel, and the two military academies THE GERMAN EMPIRE 29T German Horse Artillery on the March are at Berlin and Munich. According to a school census taken in 1911, there were in the empire 61,557 elementary public schools, with a total attendance of 10,309,949. Differences of religious opinion are officially recognized by the educational authorities in Germany, and special schools are provided for Protestants, Catholics, and Jews. While German is the language of the greater part of the population, there are still nearly 4,500,000 subjects of the empire who cannot speak its language. About 3,500,000 Poles in Eastern Prussia, 200,- 000 French in Alsace and Lorraine, and 140,000 Danes in Schleswig- Holstein still obstinately reject the language of the conquering race. The imperial revenues are derived from customs duties, excise taxes on spirits, tobacco, etc., and profits of the railways, postal serv- ice, and telegraphs. In addition, the various States are assessed in proportion to their population. The estimated revenue for the year ending March 31, 1915, is $831,979,854. The total expenditure dur- ing the year ending March 31, 1914, was $879,656,301. The expenses of the war, of course, will increase enormously the expenditure for 1914. Germany is divided, for national defense, into ten "fortress dis- tricts," as follows: On the eastern Baltic, Konigsberg; on the Bus- 292 COUNTRIES INVOLVED sian and Austrian borders, Thorn and Posen; in the interior, Berlin; in the south, Munich and Mainz; on the French frontier, Metz and Strassburg; on the Belgian frontier, Cologne; on the North Sea and western Baltic, Kiel. Konigsberg contains the first-class fortresses of Konigsberg and Danzig, the latter one of the coast-defense sj'^s- tem, with the minor defenses of Pillau, ]Memel, and Boyen. Posen The Julius Tower at Spandau, Where Germany Kept Her Great War Treasure contains the first-class fortresses of Posen and Neisse, together with Glogau and Glatz. Berlin contains the heavy fortresses of Spandau, Magdeburg, and Kiistrin, with Torgau. Mainz contains IMainz, Ulm, and Rastatt — all of the first class. Metz has Diedenhofen and Bitsch, besides the powerful fortress of Metz. Cologne contains Cologne and Coblenz of the first class, with Wesel and Saarlouis. Kiel con- tains, besides the heavily fortified naval bases of Kiel and Wilhelms- haven, the coast fortifications of Friedrichsort, Cuxhaven, Geeste- miinde, and Swinemiinde. Thorn contains Thorn, Graudenz, Vistula THE GERMAN EMPIRE 293 Passages, and Dirschau — all of the second class. Strassburg contains New Breisach and the formidable fortress of Strassburg. Munich has Germersheim and the first-class fortress of Ingolstadt. It is impossible to find some of these fortified places upon an ordinary commercial map; but they now overshadow the great cities of the empire in importance, and some of them will probably become historic spots before the close of the war. The German army is undoubtedly the most formidable military machine with which mankind has so far burdened itself. Last year it cost the German people $206,347,000. Military service is universal and unescapable, except for physical disability or through special ex- emption. At the age of seventeen, the boy becomes liable for serv- ice, but in time of peace does not actually join the army until the beginning of his twentieth year. From that time until his forty-fifth year every German is a soldier, either with the colors or in one division or another of the reserve. He first serves two years continuously in the ranks, and then passes for five years into the first line of the re- serve. While in the reserve, he is still attached to his corps, and must return to it twice for periods of training not exceeding eight weeks. Having completed the first stage of his military career at twenty- seven years of age, the German then passes into the Landwehr, which constitutes Germany's second army. For five years he serves with the first "ban," during which time he must report twice for training for one or two weeks. Having completed this term, he passes into the second ban of the Landwehr until his thirty-ninth year ; but he is not liable to be called for training in this period. Still the State is not through with him. Between the ages of thirty-nine and forty-five he is enrolled in the Landsturm, or home-defense army, which con- tains, in addition to those who have completed their military service, all those who have been exempted for any reason. The foregoing is the military career of an infantryman or a field- artilleryman. In the cavalry and the horse-artillery, the men serve three years in the ranks, four years with the reserve, and then three years with the first "ban" of the Landwehr. As Germany is fortu- nate in having more boys arriving at military age each year than she needs, there is organized to provide for them what is known as the "Ersatz" reserve. Those enrolled in this division receive special short 294 COUNTRIES INVOLVED periods of training, and a large portion of them are destined for non- combatant military duties in time of war. Besides the conscripts, who are soldiers whether they will or no, there are two classes of volun- teers in the army. One is composed of well-to-do and well-educated young men who serA'^e for one year and pay their own expenses, many of them being graduated as officers of the reserve and Landwehr; the The Colors of the Guards Passing in Review Before the Emperor other includes those who have a liking for military life, remain in the army permanently, and for the most part provide it with its non- commissioned officers. The officers are professional soldiers, who are destined for a mili- tary career from an early age. They are drawn from the sons of the well-to-do classes, and are mainly nobles. They are highly educated, and thoroughly trained in everything that pertains to the military art. They are animated by an intense military patriotism and a devotion to the emperor, and are possessed of a fierce determination that success THE GERMAN EMPIRE ^95 shall crown the German arms at whatever cost to themselves and the men under their comjnand. In case of war, the reserves are immediately called to the colors, and the men of the Landwehr, in such numbers as may be necessary, Germans Removing Their Wounded from a Belgium Battlefield are concentrated in depots, to be drawn upon to supply the losses at the front, to man forts, to defend lines of communication, and to per- form such other duties as the military situation may require. Should a last desperate defense be necessary, the members of the Landsturm must take their places at the front. The German army is divided mto twenty-five army corps, each corps being an independent unit consisting of all arms of the service — 296 THE GERMAN EMPIRE 297 cavalry, artillery, engineers, and infantry — numbering in all about 43,000 men when on a war footing. The peace establishment, or standing army, for the year 1913 was 36,304 officers, 754,681 men, and 157,816 horses. To this must be added about 470,000 reserves, mak- ing the total strength of the field army about 1,250,000 men. The Landwehr can yield about 600,000 men ready for early action. The remaining available forces, before resorting to the Landsturm, are variously estimated, but probably do not fall short of 1,500,000. Hence, Germany can put into the field, for offensive warfare, about 3,350,000 men. Mobilizing the Landsturm at Leipsic The infantry is armed with the Mauser magazine rifle, of a caliber of .311 inch, model 1898. The field and horse artillery are equipped with 15-pounder Krupp guns, model of 1896. Their light howitzer throws a 30-pound shell. The heavy siege howitzer is a 94-pounder. These guns are described in the chapter on military weapons. The cavalry are armed throughout with the lance. Not all German cav- alrymen are Uhlans, however, as current war despatches appear to in- dicate, though there is little difference among the various classes of cavalry, except in name. The German fleet is manned by compulsory service in the same manner that the army is recruited. Young men who have followed any calling connected with the sea are drafted into the navy instead MAINZ ON THE RHINE A Heavily Fortified City, and the German Headquarters During the Early Part of the War 298 THE GERMAN EMPIRE 299 of into the army, and volunteers are numerous among the sea-faring classes. The German navy is now rated as second only to that of Great Britain. Great Britain is incomparably more powerful in the number and tonnage of her ships; but since she made the fatal error of building her "Dreadnought" the fighting strength of the world's navies has been reckoned mainly in terms of that class, and in the building of dreadnoughts Germany has been feverishly active ever since 1907. At the end of 1914, Germany will have completed 21 dreadnoughts, against England's 31 ; 20 pre-dreadnought battleships, against England's 40; 47 cruisers, against England's 126; 152 de- stroyers, against England's 248; and at least 37 submarines, against England's 85. In addition, many of the fast ships of the North Ger- man Lloyd and the Hamburg- American lines were rated as auxiliary cruisers. Most of these ships, however, are now out of the reach of English cruisers, in New York, Hamburg, and Bremen, and some have been sunk during hostilities. The most important naval bases are Kiel, Sonderburg, and Dantzig, in the Baltic, and Wilhelmshaven and Cuxhaven on the North Sea. The small island of Heligoland, facing the mouths of the Weser and the Elbe in the North Sea, is heavily fortified. It is known that Germany possesses far more dirigibles, and those of greater size, power, and cruising range than any other nation. Just how many she actually has constructed has not been divulged, but she undoubtedly has not fewer than forty. Germany is very proud of and places great confidence in these craft, which are peculiarly of her own contriving. The number of aeroplanes in her naval and military serv- ice is also a matter of conjecture; but she probably has about 700 ma- chines, in addition to those which civilians may place at the disposal of the government. In the army there are five aeroplane battalions, numbering 4,619 officers and men. The naval estimates for the year 1914 called for an expenditure of $118,735,000 contrasted with Eng- land's $250,877,000. Passing from military and naval affairs to peaceful pursuits, now so sadly disrupted, an occupation-census taken in 1907 showed that, of a population of 31,497,000, 9,732,000 were engaged in agriculture; 11,256,000 in industries and mining; 3,478,000 in commerce; 1,736,000 in domestic service; while 1,738,000 were classed as professional. THE WAR LORD AT MANEUVERS The Kaiser in IMimic Warfare a Few (Months before the Outbreak of Real War 300 THE GERMAN EMPIRE 301 About 86,000,000 acres of land are under cultivation, while 34,569,000 acres are in timber-producing forests, carefully nurtured by the State in accordance with scientific forestry methods. The war situation gives particular significance to the following agricultural statistics: In 1913 the production of wheat was 4,656,000 metric tons; of rye, 12,222,000 tons; of barley, 3,673,000 tons; of potatoes, 54,000,000 tons; of hay, 29,000,000 tons; of oats, 9,700,000 tons. The metric German Artillerymen Pushing Tiieir Guns up a Hill ton is almost the same as our "long ton," being 2,204 pounds. An animal census taken in 1912 showed 4,516,000 horses, 20,158,000 cat- tle, 5,788,000 sheep, 22,000,000 swine, and 3,390,000 goats. In 1912 there were mined 174,875,000 metric tons of coal, 80,934,- 000 tons of lignite, 27,000,000 tons of iron ore, 975,000 tons of copper ore, 143,000 tons of lead ore, 1,296,000 tons of rock salt, and 11,000,- 000 tons of potassic salts. The total value of the minerals mined in 1912 was $564,000,000. In 1913 the furnaces of the empire produced 19,292,000 tons of pig iron. -I (0 i-" > « D O o o < : )£ o f5 302 THE GERMAN EMPIRE 303 The fisheries of Germany employ about 35,000 persons, and their yearly product is valued at nearly $100,000,000. The manufactures of Germany have reached colossal proportions, and the Germans excel in nearly every department of industry. In some lines, such as chemicals and drugs, they have almost a monopoly, as Americans have discovered to their cost. They have been very ag- gressive in the conquest of foreign trade, and they attribute Eng- land's participation in this war to her jealousy of their rapidly grow- ing foreign commerce and of their splendid merchant marine. It would be tedious to enumerate the items of German exports and im- ports, but we will give some significant statistics. In 1908 the total value of Germany's exports was $1,577,075,000; of imports, $1,965,- 000,000. In 1913 the exports amounted to $2,212,000,000, and the im- ports to $2,602,450,000. By way of comparison we may say that dur- ing the same year Great Britain's exports amounted to $3,090,900,000, and her imports to $3,742,628,000. The corresponding figures for the United States are: Exports, $2,363,740,000, and imports, $1,764,500,- 000. By reason of this war Germany has placed in jeopardy a total yearly trade with England of $477,000,000; with France, $295,596,- 000; and with Russia, $521,504,000. Whatever be the military out- come of the war, the shock sustained by German commerce must be terrific. In 1914 there were registered under the German flag 2,321 vessels exceeding 100 tons measurement, with a total tonnage of 5,082,061, compared with 11,287 vessels under the British flag, with a tonnage of 20,431,543. At this writing there is hardly a German ship upon the high seas. The railways of Germany are nearly all State-owned. Out of a total mileage of 39,065, all but 2,926 belong to the various State sys- tems. Of these, 44 miles are classed as "royal military." The rail- ways represent a capital investment of $4,380,000,000. In 1913 their combined receipts were $799,740,000, and they yielded to the Govern- ment profits of $272,982,000 (6.23 per cent.). They carry annually about 1,643,000,000 passengers and 570,741,000 metric tons of freight. Germany has a magnificent system of interior waterways,' her rivers having been augmented by many canals, among which the 304 COUNTRIES INVOLVED Kaiser- Wilhelm Canal, 611/4 miles long, connecting the Baltic with the North Sea between Kiel and the estuary of the Elbe, is the most interesting at present because of its great naval significance. Inci- dentally, we may mention that the locks of the Kaiser- Wilhelm Canal are about 70 per cent, larger than those of the Panama Canal. Other great interior artificial waterways are the Dortmund-Ems Canal (161^ miles), and the Elbe-Trave Canal (42 miles). In all, the in- German Cavalry Crossing a Stream, Horses Propelling tine Boat ternal navigable waterways, canals, and rivers of the German Empire have a total length of 8,832 miles. The German Empire does not form a postal unit, as Bavaria and Wurttemberg have their own postal systems. The rest of the em- pire, however, forms an "imperial postal district." In the empire there are 41,192 post offices, of which 5,308 are in Bavaria and 1,194 in Wurttemberg. In 1912, 10,149,726,670 pieces of mail-matter — of which 3,405,372,400 were letters and 2,045,192,610 post-cards — passed through German post offices, and $13,404,000,000 was sent in money- orders. The postal service yielded the empire (Bavaria and Wurt- temberg included) the handsome surplus of $28,110,717, which is in striking contrast with the operations of our own department. The empire has about 144,000 miles of telegraph line, with 449,600 miles of wire, and 4,175,000 miles of telephone wire. The telephone was used in Germany last year to the extent of about 2,327,000,000 conversations. The standard coin of Germany is the mark, the equivalent of which in American money is $0,238. THE GERMAN EMPIRE 305 German Zeppelin Maneuvering Inasmuch as the German colonies are now exposed to attack the following list of the German possessions will be of interest : In Africa — Togo, Kamerun, German Southwest Africa, German East Africa — with a total estimated area of 931,460 square miles and an estimated population of 11,422,000, of whom only 22,405 are white. In Asia — Kiauchau, Kaiser Wilhelm's Land, Bismarck Archipel- ago, Caroline Islands, Palau Islands, Marianne Islands, Salomon Islands, Marshall Islands, and the Samoan Islands — with a total area of about 96,000 square miles and a population of about 635,000. In all, the German colonial possessions have an estimated area of 1,027,820 square miles, and a population of 12,041,603, of whom only 24,389 are white. The capital of the German Empire is Berlin (population 2,071,- 257). Other large cities are: Hamburg (931,035), Munich (596,- 467), Leipsic (589,850), Dresden (548,308), Cologne (516,527), Breslau (512,105), Frankfort-on-the-Main (414,576), Dusseldorf (358,728), Niirnberg (333,142), Charlottenburg (305,978). On July 31, 1914, the emperor demanded that mobilization in Russia be discontinued, and immediately martial law was proclaimed throughout the German Empire. The next day war was declared against Russia, and on August 2 Russian forces entered Germany. On August 3 three German armies were set in motion against France, and the next day Germany declared war against that country. GEORGE V King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and of the British Dominions Beyond the Seas, Emperor of India. Born in London, June 3, 1865. Son of Edward VII and of Alexandra, Princess of Denmark. Succeeded on the death of his father, May 6, 1910. Married, July 6, 1893, Victoria Mary, Princess of Teck 306 THE BRITISH EMPIRE 307 The British Empire — The British Empire occupies about one quarter of the known land-surface of the globe. Its population ex- ceeds one quarter of the estimated number of the human beings, and includes nearly every race and every religion. The United Kingdom consists of England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. England, comprising, with Wales, the southern portion of the island of Great Britain, covers an area of 58,320 square miles, and corresponds in latitude with Northern Germany and the Netherlands. It is nearly triangular, and is surrounded by the sea, except for a distance of seventy miles on the Scottish border. The coast is much indented, particularly on the Atlantic side. The total length of the coast-line is estimated at 2,000 miles. No part of the country is far- ther than fifty miles from the sea, or from one of its arms. Of the inlets, the most important are the Humber, the Wash, and the mouth of the Thames on the east coast; Portsmouth Harbor, Southampton Water, Tor Bay, and Plymouth Sound on the south; and the Bristol Channel, IVIilford Haven, the Mersey, and Morecambe Bay on the west. Off the coast there are several islands, or groups of islands, the most important of which are the Channel Islands (Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, and Sark) ; the Scilly Islands off Land's End; and the Isle of Man, in the Irish Sea. The Isle of Wight and Anglesey are so close to the mainland that they almost touch the coast. The coast is constantly changing. ]Many old towns, such as Ra- venspur in Yorkshire — where Bolingbroke, afterward Henry IV, landed in 1399 — are now submerged; and it is a common occurrence for the pedestrian rambling over the cliffs of Kent, Yorkshire, or Sussex to find the path ending abruptly, interrupted by a precipice. In some places the action of the waves is so rapid that the changes may be followed from week to week. "Over a distance of thirty-six miles between Bridlington and Kilnsea," says Professor Phillips, "the materials which fall from the wasting cliff are sorted by the tide ; the whole shore is in motion; every cliff is hastening to its fall; the par- ishes are contracted, the churches wasted away." As regards physical structure, England has been described as "an epitome of the geology of almost the whole of Europe." Nearly all the formations of the earth's crust, from the Silurian upward to the ENGLAND & WALES Jaha BartLalomcw A Ca THE BRITISH EMPIRE 309 most recent deposits, are found in layers in different parts of the country — ^mainly in order from north to south. In conformity with the geological structure of England, its moun- tains lie in the north and west, rolling gently toward the center and south. The Cheviot Hills, running alnlost directly east and west, form a gentle natural boundary between England and Scotland. Their highest summit, Cheviot Peak in Northumberland, rises 2,676 feet above the sea. This chain merges southwestward into the mountain ranges of Cumberland and Westmoreland, and within these ranges is the celebrated Lake District, where lie the only notable lakes in England, the largest of which, Windermere, covers only eight square miles. From the Cheviots the Pennine Range runs at right angles, continuing south into Derbyshire, where the famous Peak rises (2,088 feet), five miles northwest of Castleton, with its celebrated caverns. South of the Peak district extends the central plain, or plateau, about five hundred feet above the sea-level. On the south are Salisbury Plain, a tract of rolling downs with barrows and ancient remains, including the famous Stonehenge; the Chilterns; the Marlborough Downs; the North Downs; and the South Downs. The mountains rise again in Wales, attaining their greatest height in the Snowdon Range (3,571 feet). Then the chain running through Gloucestershire, Wilts, and Somerset rises into a high tableland in Devonshire, reaching its height in Dartmoor Forest (1,500 feet), and declining gradually to the Land's End. As the mountains are chiefly in the west, the principal rivers flow toward the east. Of the navigable streams, the most important is the Thames. Rising in the Cotswold Hills above Oxford, where it is known as the Isis, it flows through sylvan scenery, a narrow, silvery thread of water; but at London Bridge it has a width of 266 yards, and below Gravesend it expands into an estuary five miles wide at the Nore. The tide ascends to Ted- dington, the upper limit of the port of London. Vessels of 4,000 tons reach Blackwall; river steamers go, by means of locks, to Oxford; barges to Lechlade ; and small barges to Cricklade. The great forests of masts and lines of smokestacks in the miles of docks are a never- forgotten sight. The stretch between the Tower and Wapping Old Stairs, called the Pool, is always full of shipping. The Thames, therefore, is a river of contrasts. Essentially a pleasure stream in its BRITISH ADMIRAL AND DISTINGUISHED POLITICAL LEADERS 310 THE BRITISH EMPIRE 811 upper reaches, winding through meadows and past lordly homes, an- cient castles, and such historic places as Windsor, Runnymede, Eton, and Hampton Court, always bright and alive with row-boats, and often the scene of regattas, as at Henley and Kingston, it becomes at London a dark and somber river, spanned by great bridges and at- tracting to its heart the varied shipping of the world. Every imag- inable craft gathers here, from coal-barges with their heavy, bronzed red sails to the East-India merchantman and the ocean liner. Bank of England — London Royal Exchange — London Next in importance to the Thames comes the Humber, formed by the Trent and the Ouse, draining about one sixth of England. The Witham, the Welland, and the Nen flow into the estuary of the Wash. On the wTst the chief river is the Severn, its headwaters parted from the Thames by the Cotswold Hills. Like the Thames, it begins its career of two hundred miles in gentle meadows, and flows through historic and romantic scenery. Then it winds through Shropshire and Worcestershire to Tewkesbury and Gloucester, to which point ascends a tidal wave, or "bore." One of the Severn's tributaries is the peaceful Warwickshire Avon, which joins it at Tewkesbury, after passing Stratford, famous as the birthplace of Shakespeare. The Avon, entering the Bristol Charmel six miles below Bristol, is subject to spring tides of forty feet. FIELD MARSHAL EARL KITCHENER OF KHARTUM British Secretary of State for War 312 THE BRITISH EMPIRE 313 Next in commercial importance to the Thames comes the Mersey, winding through Lancashire and Cheshire, receiving the Irwell, and expanding at Liverpool into a wide estuary. Into the English Channel flow the Sussex Ouse, the Itchen, and the Axe, Teign, Dart, Tamar, and Exe — all remarkable for pictur- esque scenery. Internal communication is served to some extent by canals and rivers, but mainly by railways. The canal system connects the west of England with the north, and the east with the south. Together it presents, with the navigable rivers, a waterway of 5,000 miles, the canals amounting to about 3,200 miles. The Bridgewater system and the Ship Canal give Liverpool and Manchester water connection. The long coast-line is marked by numerous and easily accessible harbors. Some of these are purely natural; others have been im- j^roved by artificial harbor-works. The greatest ports are London and Liverpool. The continental ports are Hull, Grimsby, Harwich, Folkestone, and Dover. The chief fishing-ports are Grimsby, Boston, Dover, Yarmouth, and Lowestoft. London, Liverpool, and Bristol are great marts for American cotton ; while the coal and metal ports are Cardiff, Newport, and Swansea (in Wales), and, on the Tyne and the north- east coast, Newcastle, the Shields, Sunderland, and Middlesborough. The coal of Great Britain (about 230,000,000 tons annually) is mined mainly in Yorkshire, South Durham, Glamorgan, Monmouth, Derby, Nottingham, Northumberland, Lancashire, Staffordshire, and Lanarkshire. Iron is mined in South Stafford, North Yorkshire, South Durham, South Wales, Barrow, Middlesborough, and the Black Country ; tin is worked in Devon and Cornwall ; and salt is pro- duced in Cheshire and Worcestershire. The chief manufactures have grown up mainly on the great coal- fields, the woollen industry in the West Riding of Yorkshire, the cotton industry in Lancashire; hosiery, etc., in Derby and Notting- ham ; potteries and iron in Staffordshire ; iron and metal industries in Middlesborough, South Durham, South Staffordshire, and South Wales; chemical and other industries in St. Helen's, Newcastle, and Birmingham; shipbuilding on the Tyne. To these may be added the manufacture of machinery in Birmingham, Manchester, Bolton, and S14< COUNTRIES INVOLVED other industrial centers; agricultural machinery in Ipswich, Lincoln, and Bedford; railway engines and stock in the railway centers of Crew^e, Derby, and Swindon; leather in Northampton, Bristol, Lei- cester, Birmingham, Walsall, and London; and cutlery in Sheffield. Notwithstanding its natural advantages, England has been re- garded as backward in its agriculture. This is owing to the great advantages the -country possesses for the prosecution of manufacture. Its wheat capacity is high, however — thirty bushels to an acre. Wheat British troops at maneuvers. The band around the cap shows they are of the "White Army" is grown chiefly in the eastern counties, Shropshire, and the south- west. Other cereals grow well in the north. Cattle and dairy-farm- ing form an occupation of the counties of Cheshire, Devonshire, and Staffordshire. Sheep are plentiful in the counties of Nottingham, Leicester, Rutland, Northampton, Lincoln, Yorkshire, Devonshire, and other southern counties. Aif ected by its insular position and by the Gulf Stream, the cli- mate of England is much milder than that of any other country in the same latitude on the Continent of Europe, or in America. Eng- land has been therefore described as "a great hothouse kept above the surrounding temperature by never-ending currents of warm air." The Gulf Stream brings both warmth and moisture, and as warm, moist THE BRITISH EMPIRE 315 winds from the southwest prevail, much rain is discharged all over the land. All these causes render the ground extremely fertile. Notwith- standing the wonderful greenness of the grass, the luxuriance of the foliage, and the brightness of the colors of many flowers that make the gardens of England dreams of beauty, the sun shines feebly, and many fruits and vegetables ripen only upon walls and trellises, or under glass. Peaches, tomatoes, nectarines, and apricots, common enough in America, are, therefore, luxuries in the British Isles. Nearly all England is settled and cultivated, although well-wooded land is common; but such districts belong to old estates, or to royal domains, or are reservations belonging to the public and known as "Forests," such as Epping Forest, the New Forest, Dean, and Sal- cey. These might be more appropriately called parks, as they are carefully superintended by "forest-rangers" and are in fact extensive pleasure-grounds, with little suggestion of native wildness. They are diversified with patches of heath between the groves of trees, stretches of emerald sward, and occasional hamlets. Epping Forest, ten miles from London, for example, comprises 5,300 acres, being onl}^ a rem- nant of the great Waltham Forest. New Forest, in Hampshire, cov- ers 62,648 acres of woodland, interspersed with open glades and stretches of moor and marsh, quaint old villages, churches, and ruins of abbeys and monasteries. It was enclosed by William the Con- queror in 1079. In the extreme west and in Yorkshire the bleak moorlands, and in the southern counties the downs, are characteristic, as are the chalk-clifFs on the southern shore, broken by gaps and topped with verdure. Altogether, with its mountains, rivers, valleys, lakes, moors, dales, meadows, marshes (such as the Norfolk Broads), forests, parks, chalk-clifFs, and downs, England makes a strong appeal to the lover of beautii'ul scenery that possesses the additional charm of historic and legendary interest. Ancient and splendid architecture — cathe- drals, castles, old abbeys, and ancestral homes of lords and country gentlemen, as well as picturesque inns and cottages of the lowly — all enclosed in soft frames of trees and hedges — combine in i)roducing a series of delightful pictures, unlike those offered by any other coun- try, to which the peculiar mistiness of the atmosphere gives an inde- scribable delicacy and depth of tint and color. BRITISH COMMANDERS ON LAND AND SEA Field Marshal Sir John French, Regarded as Admiral Sir George Callaghan, of the War Staff the Greatest Living Cavalry ComiViander Of the Admiralty 316 THE BRITISH EMPIRE 317 London, with its population of more than seven millions, is the largest city in the world. Its age is lost in antiquity. What is known as the City — the district enclosed within a wall in olden days — lies on the north bank of the Thames, stretching between the river and Fins- bury, and from the Tower to the site of Temple Bar (now removed) . In both size and shape it corresponds very nearly to ancient Roman London, and its chief thoroughfares — Cannon Street, Cheapside, Bishopsgate Street, and others — run over the sites of Roman roads. Four bridges — Blackfriars, Southwark, London, and Tower — con- nect the City with the Borough of Southwark. The Tower of Lon- ^ ■ -aw m n ■ ■XT, B i^^^l W^^^^KL^i^M "^k^ ^^kSkVj^ ^6 ^ ^E ■'Jf ^ V-- 4 '<<.'" ^^ jpJ^pHP ^"■*''"^'-.'' : ■r'^: \ " . . -a English Recruits Drilling in Hyde Park don is an epitome of English history. Within the City are such famous buildings as St. Paul's Cathedral, the Mansion House (the official residence of the Lord Mayor), the Bank of England, the Post-office (enclosing a portion of the old Roman wall), St. Bartholomew's Church in Smithfield (the finest example of Norman architecture in London) , and the Monument commemorating the Great Fire of 1666. Temple Bar, at the junction of Fleet Street and the Strand, marked the beginning of the City of Westminster, the greatest bor- ough of Greater London. Architecturally and historically, Westmin- ster ranks next in interest to the City. On its river-front in the old days stood the great houses of princes and nobles, now occupied by the Victoria Embankment between Blackfriars and Westminster bridges. At the west end of the Strand is Trafalgar Square, contain- ing Nelson's column guarded by Landseer's four lions, not far from the National Gallery and St. Martin's-in-the-Fields. The Houses of Parhament, Westminster Abbey, and Whitehall lie south of Trafal- 318 COUNTRIES INVOLVED gar Square, and north of it one passes up the Haj-market to the great "west end" circle — Piccadillj^ Circus, from which radiate various thor- oughfares. In this district Pall Mall leads to Buckingham Palace, with its spacious grounds. Vast London is not only interesting be- cause of its monuments and historical associations, but for its swarm- ing crowds of humanitj% ever moving in a steady stream and repre- senting eveiy class from persons of the most magnificent state to those of the most sodden and squalid condition. Among England's greatest treasures is Oxford, the seat of the oldest ^English university, with a history dating from 912, when it was recovered by King Edward from the Danes. It began to be a college town in 1214. With its churches of St. Michael, St. Peter's in the East, St. Cross, and Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford would be renowned for architecture of great beauty; but to these are added more than twenty colleges that are gems of medieval art. The cele- brated Bodleian Library, restored bj^ Sir Thomas Bodley in 1598, with its magnificent collection of manuscript volumes (30,000 to 40,000) and 700,000 books — the public library of Oxford University — ranks with the British JVIuseum as one of England's most glorious possessions. Cambridge vies with Oxford in splendid architecture. King's Col- lege and Queen's College, founded in 1441 and 1448, are beautiful specimens of stone work, wood work, and glass. Clare College is even more admired by some critics. The great cathedrals of Canterbury, Durham, Ely, Exeter, Glou- cester, Hereford, Lichfield, Lincoln, Norwich, Peterborough, Ripon, Rochester, St. Albans, Salisbury, Southwark, Wells, Winchester, Worcester, and York exhibit many features that are unlike the archi- tecture of the Continent. All have been built and rebuilt on sites consecrated to religious uses even before the days of Christianity. In the days of King Cnut (or Canute) England began to enter into the aiFairs of the outside world. Cnut, like most great conquer- ors, was an able administrator. Once safely on the throne, he began to govern. Sending back to Denmark his famous army, he kept a body of chosen housecarls — Danes, English, artd others, noted for bravery — around his throne, the first standing army known in Eng- land. Up to this time the title had been King of the English, never THE BRITISH EMPIRE 319 King of England. Cnut used the special style of King of all Eng- land {Reoo totius Anglice). In his reign, too, the relations between England and Normandy began to be of great importance, and the seeds were sown that ripened into the Norman Conquest. The enor- mous empire that obeyed Cnut's scepter, consisting of scattered islands and peninsulas, was too large and disconnected to hold to- fifether. The election of Edward the Confessor to the throne was in A Detachment of English Infantry some measure the beginning of the Norman Conquest. Edward had been educated in Normandy, spoke the Norman tongue; and more Norman than English, he filled every post at court with Norman fa- vorites, who soon plotted against Englishmen; and a Norman monk, Robert of Jumieges, was made Archbishop of Canterbury. The actual Norman Conquest came in 1066. The spirit of Eng- lishmen was aroused by the return of Godwine and his sons, and the nation rose to receive them. The army that the king called together refused to fight against the deliverers, the citizens of London decreed 320 THE BRITISH EMPIRE 321 the banishment of the archbishop and other Normans in power, and Norman influence in pubhc afl*airs was ended. "England for the English" was the cry. Under Harold, England held a high place at home and abroad. The story of his relations with Duke William of Normandy is variously told; but it is generally accepted that he was shipwrecked on the coast of Normandy, was imprisoned there, and was released by the aid of William, to whom he swore an oath that he would help William to obtain the succession. Thus the crown of England became a personal matter between William of Normandy and Harold. The Norman Conquest was a great revolution for England. It rooted up ancient traditions and changed the European position of the realm. Britain was ruled by a continental prince, who introduced foreign ideas and customs into a country partially prepared to accept them. French became the fashionable language, as Latin was the language of the learned. Architecture was changed. The Norman abbots and bishops pulled down old minsters and erected churches on a gigantic scale never before seen in England; and Norman castles, begun in the days of Edward the Confessor, were multiplied. The Tower of Lbndon reared its massive keep ; great changes were made in the art of fortification ; and new fashions in dress and diet, as well as in manners, regulated society. The Normans also brought in for- eign merchants and scholars and much that added to the arts and graces of life. It was largely owing to the Norman influence upon society that England took part in the Crusades. In fact, Normandy and the Normans mean so much in the relation of England to the history of the European Continent that some knowledge of the old French duchy is necessary for a full understanding of the question. The Norman (a softened form of the name Northmen) is distin- guished from the latter by his adoption of the French language and the Christian religion. Normandy, which, in its strict sense, was the seaboard of France between Brittanj'- on one side and Flanders on the other, therefore lies directly opposite Great Britain. It was occupied early in the tenth century by the Northmen. To the original territory William I added more land ; and thus the settlement of Rolf at Rouen grew into the Duchy of Normandy. France was but a rival duke- dom, and as long as the Norman duchy had an independent being, it 322 COUNTRIES INVOLVED was interposed between England and France. France and Nor- mandy were two great rival duchies. No diplomacy could adjust their troubles ; and this rivalry was a most important element in the history of Europe. England took up Normandy's cause. France was di- vided in speech and sentiment; the kings of Laon, on the east, were Germanic; the great country of Flanders spoke Low Dutch; Breton, in the west, was Celtic ; the lands south of the Loire had a variety of the Romance language ; while in the center lay the Duchy of France, of which Paris was the center and cradle — land of the newborn French speech and French nationality. The rise of Normandy, a power torn from the side of France which cut off Paris and the whole Duchy of France from the sea, had been a great blow to French interest. Both were vassal States of the Carlovingian king at Laon, who, notwithstanding his dignity, was a prince of smaller power than either of his mighty vassals. In the tenth century, Normandy rose against Laon, and Rouen, once friendly to Laon and hostile to Paris, changed her policy. Normandy became the faithful and powerful ally of France ; and the Norman duchy had a large share in helping Hugh Capet of Paris to the crown. Nor- mandy thus turned the balance of power in favor of the French, rul- ing that France should be the chief power in Gaul ; that the Duke of the French and King of France be one and the same person, and Paris the ruling city. The Duke of Normandy thus became the most cherished vassal of the king. Though Normandy owed to France its introduction to the Christian and Romance-speaking world, and France owed to Normandy its new position among the Powers of Gaul, feelings of rivalry and dislike cropped up now and then. The old border district, Vexin, between Rouen and Paris, was often a bone, of contention. After the accession of William I, periods of enmity alternated with periods of friendship. William established his authority over rival factions in the fight of Val-es-dunes, and thereafter made his Duchy of Normandy not only one of the most flourishing parts of Gaul, but of Europe as well. He repaid the King of France's help at Val-es-dunes by assistance in his wars with Geoffrey of Anjou. This led to a long rivalry between Anjou and Normandj^ which re- sulted in a struggle for Maine, lying between the two. In 1048 Wil- THE BRITISH EMPIRE 323 r'''-\, «^. .«- i--' ^^ i^HllllM[pV^^HMB^V'!!^^Ki^^S^I A Detachment of England's "Women's Nursing Yeomanry Corps" liam extended his frontier there, and in 1063 he obtained possession of Le Mans. The conquest of England by William changed the position of the duchy as a European Power. In one sense its position was low- ered; but, on the other hand, it became part of a Power far greater than the Duchy of Normandy had ever been. For a long time the sovereign of the two lands was able to use the strength of England for Norman purposes. Much of the best that was in Normandy, as re- gards blood, talent, and performance, crossed the Channel into the conquered kingdom. Under the Angevin house, Normandy and Eng- land became parts of one of those heterogeneous dominions like that of Burgundy under the Valois dukes. Normandy handed on to Eng- land its old enmity toward France. After the death of William the Conqueror, Normandy fell into anarchy ; and after various parts of the duchy were lost and won and lost again, Henry invaded it, and, at the Battle of Tinchbrai, in 1106, united the kingdom and duchy once again. It was now not the Duke of Normandy who ruled in England, but the King of the Enghsh who ruled in Normandy. It is notice- 824 COUNTRIES INVOLVED able that the two great Norman rulers — Henry of England and Rob- ert of Sicily — each kept his island kingdom in perfect peace while he used his continental territory as a battle-ground. Henry absorbed another duchj^ to his possessions by marrying his daughter to Geoffrey Plantagenet, son of Falk, Count of Anjou and Maine. Geoffrey gradually possessed himself of Normandy, and in 1150 resigned the duchj^ to his son Henry, who in 1152 married Eleanor, the divorced wife of Louis VII, Countess in her own right of Poitou and Duchess of Aquitaine. Henry, through his father, mother, and wife, had a collection of dominions that made him more powerful than his overlord, the King of the French. In 1154, therefore, began the memorable thirty-five years' reign of Henry II, King of England. During his reign and that of his eldest son, the connection between England and the Continent was closer than ever. On the death of Richard in 1199, John's succession was admitted in both England and Normandy. The French king, Philip Augustus, seized Nor- mandy in 1203-'04!; but the Channel Islands — Jersey, Guernsey, Al- derney, and Sark — still held to the duke and have since remained in the possession of the kings of England, though they never have been in- corporated into the United Kingdom. Freeman writes : "The fact that the English kings kept Aqui- taine after the loss of Normandy — for the inheritance of Eleanor was not forfeited by the crime of her son — was the immediate occasion of many of the later disputes between England and France ; but the tra- ditional feeling was handed on from the days when Englishmen and Normans fought side by side against Frenchmen. In Normandy it- self, the memory of the connection with England soon died out. We read — and it seems strange as we read — of the quarrels which, in the days of Edward I, arose between the crowns of England and France out of the disputes between Norman subjects of France and Gascon subjects of England." On the reign of Henry II the fusion of English and Norman was complete ; the English nation was united. The fame of England was spread throughout all lands by her share in the Crusades, and another jewel was added to the crown by the conquest, or half -conquest, of Ireland. Henry also took back the earldoms of Northumberland and THE BRITISH EMPIRE 325 Cumberland on the Scottish frontier, and warred endlessly on the Welsh frontier. Wales was conquered and made a part of the king- dom in the reign of Edward I. The Scottish crown was more diffi- cult to acquire. The struggles were long and full of romantic inci- dent, producing such heroes as William Wallace and Robert Bruce, and a host of border ballads and songs. The old saying that if the King of England would win and preserve French territory, he must first suppress Scotland, sent the flower of English chivalry to Ban- nockburn and Flodden Field. The French aided the Scots; and the English made alliance with the Flemings. Then followed the Hun- dred Years' War. With the loss of Bordeaux in 1453, after the death of the great Earl of Shrewsbury, the tie of three hundred years which united Eng- land and Aquitaine was broken. England now held no continental possessions but Calais, Boulogne, Dunkirk, and Gibraltar. The en- tire relations of France and England were changed, and their modern relations date from this period. England now gradually drew into shape; but not without great and bloody internal dissensions, such as the Wars of the Roses, Henry VIII's overthrow of papal supremacy and instituting himself as "Su- preme Head on Earth of the Church of England" ; the persecutions alternately of Roman Catholics and Protestants; the suppression of the monasteries, and the consequent pilgrimage of grace, doubly a po- litical and religious movement; the rise of the Puritan party; the overthrow of Charles I and his execution; the Protectorate, anarchy, and restoration of the monarchy ; the rise of the Whigs and Tories ; and the revolution that transformed the ultimate decision from the king to parliament. William, Prince of Orange, invited in 1689 to take the throne with his wife Mary (a Stuart), by the advice of the Earl of Sunderland, called into existence a body destined to be of great importance in gov- ernment — the cabinet — selected from the leading members of both houses of parliament. In the reign of Queen Anne, the Duke of Marlborough, by his supreme genius won great prestige for English arms at Blenheim, which drove the French out of Germany (1704) ; and at Ramillies, which drove them out of the Netherlands (1706) . The incapacity of 326 COUNTRIES INVOLVED The Grenadier Guards Passing Buckingham Palace — Members of the Royal Family at the Gate the foreign-born Hanoverians — George I and George II — was bal- anced by the efficiency of Walpole, prime minister in both reigns. He gradually altered the English constitution from a hereditary mon- archy into a parliamentary government, the forms of the constitu- tion becoming in all essentials what they are now. England went through a great period of change during the Seven* Years' War (1756-1763). England and Prussia formed an aUiance against Austria, France, Russia, and the Overman princes. Pitt's object, to make England the foremost colonial and maritime power in the world, was accomplished. The Battle of Plassey gave Bengal into Clive's hands in 1757; Quebec fell before Wolfe in 1759; and Sir E\Te Coote's victory at Wandewash in 1760 crushed French authority in southern India. At the coronation of George III a jewel fell from his crown. It was a bad omen. The passage of the Stamp Act (1765) eventually led to the American War for Independence, and the thirteen populous THE BRITISH EMPIRE 327 and important colonies were lost forever. In 1783 the Treaties of Paris and Versailles ended the war, and the independence of the United States of America was recognized. Before peace was made, Lord North had fallen and the Whigs had again taken office. The death of their leader. Lord Rockingham, in 1782, threw them into con- fusion, and then the coalition of Fox and North was formed. This proved unpopular; William Pitt was placed at the head of affairs, and he remained prime minister until 1801. His ministry witnessed the industrial revolution that made England the first manufacturing country in the world, and this coincided with a remarkable develop- ment of England's imperial responsibilities. Numerous India bills, a more enlightened view with regard to Ireland, and a tendency toward reform, financial, political, and social, represent the principal effects of the American war upon home politics. Pitt, to keep the peace of Europe as far as possible and to restore England's prestige, formed, in 1788, with Prussia and Holland, the Triple Alliance. Pitt's re- forming and peace policy was much checked by the French Revolu- tion. In 1793 France forced England into a war; and until the Peace of Amiens, in 1802, hostilities with France continued in all parts of the world. A rebellion in Ireland in 1798 led to the union of England and Ireland in 1800. War was renewed in 1803 between England and France, on account of Napoleon's ambition to gain com- mand of the sea arid to ruin England's commercial and colonial policy. In 1810 Wellesley (now known as the Duke of Wellington) beat back the masses of French forces under Massena, and in 1812 he won the Battle of Salamanca. In that year, too. Napoleon wrecked his finest army in the snows of Russia. The failure of the Moscow expe- dition was followed by the defeat at Leipsic and the invasion of France by the allies. In 1814 Napoleon was driven into exile at Elba. His escape and his seizure of the throne, in 1815, began with good auspices for a third period of triumph ; but fortune deserted him. All Europe declared against him, and the crushing blow was given by Wellington at Waterloo in 1815. England came out of the Napoleonic wars with increased prestige and additional possessions. Nelson's battle of the Nile, in 1798, marked an epoch in British naval history; and Trafalgar (1805), 328 COUNTRIES INVOLVED A Scottish Regiment Passing Through London dearly bought with the hfe of the great admiral, ended once for all Napoleon's plan for invading England. The army that afterward subdued the Continent had been concentrated along the cliffs of Bou- logne and the descent was to be covered by a great fleet under Ville- neuve. Nelson gave chase to Villeneuve, and caught him oiF the Cape of Trafalgar. To the laurels won at sea by Nelson England added those won on land by the Duke of Wellington in the campaign in Spain as well as at Waterloo. The Victorian age, under the ministry of Peel, Russell, Palmer- ston, Disraeli, Gladstone, and Salisbury, saw a remarkable develop- ment in every department of national life. The United Kingdom expanded into an empire. British possessions in India and Africa were extended; Hongkong was acquired; the Australian Colonies rose to importance; a rising of the Zulus in 1879 resulted in the con- quest of Zululand; and a war with the Boers in 1899-1902 brought about the annexation of the Transvaal and the Orange Free State. 329 8S0 COUNTRIES INVOLVED The chief events in the reign of Edward VII (1901-'10) were the departure from traditional foreign policy in the alliance with Japan; the entente between Great Britain and France; numerous ar- bitration policies; the formation of the Union of South Africa; and the king's strong peace policy. In 1908, on the fiftieth anniversary of Queen Victoria's proclama- tion transferring the government of India from the East India Com- pany to the Crown, a message from King Edward VII to the princes and peoples of India reviewed the progress made during the half century and promised an extension of representative government. In the following year Lord INIorley, Secretary of State for India, an- nounced a scheme for native representation in the executive councils of the viceroy and of the provinces and in the council of the secretary of state at Whitehall. The Durbar at which King George V in person was proclaimed Emperor of India (December, 1911), was noticeable for the an- nouncement of the removal of the imperial capital from Calcutta to Delhi. The division of England into tithings, hundreds, and counties is generally attributed to King Alfred. English country names occur in historj^ before the extinction of the Heptarchy. Each of the forty counties of England and twelve of Wales is still divided into hun- dreds, although the name ceases to have its exact meaning in many cases. Originally the division signified a district containing a hun- dred families. To-day some "hundreds" count their population by hundreds of thousands, while others have not gone far beyond the number that gave rise to the name. One of the most ancient and celebrated jurisdictions of the coun- try is the Cinque Ports. These were self-governing boroughs from an early date. The records in Rye mention that "the five Ports were enfranchised in the time of King Edward the Confessor." These five were: Hastings, Romney, Hythe, Dover, and Sandwich. To these were added Rye and Winchelsea. The Cinque Ports possess peculiar privileges in return for services that they rendered during the early Danish invasions. In 1300 Gen^ase Alard first took the title of "ad- miral of the fleet of the Cinque Ports." The Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports, with ofiicial residence at Walmer Castle, near Dover, THE BRITISH EMPIRE 331 still exercises maritime jurisdiction and has certain other official func- tions. The small area of the British Isles has necessitated England's finding for her people homes and occupations beyond the seas. Her list of colonial possessions is large. The Dominion of Canada occu- '-^_ ^^' / // J^ ' Ik jP^KtSt»^^^ ^^^^^^'^''■^ /'^f^*i^A ^m I ' Field Marshal Earl Roberts Inspecting Volunteers pies the northern part of the North American Continent, with the exception of Alaska and Labrador. Newfoundland, the oldest Eng- lish colony, is about three hundred miles long and three hundred miles broad; Australia, with the islands of Tasmania and New Guinea, con- tains 3,063,041 square miles; New Zealand, about 104,751 square miles ; and South Africa, 473,100 square miles. The Indian Empire extends over a territory larger than the Continent of Europe without Russia, an area of 1,773,168 square miles. Within the Indian "sphere 332 COUNTRIES INVOLVED of influence" lie the self -governed States of Afghanistan, Nepal, and Bhutan. The Imperial British Dominions and Protectorates that have not yet received "responsible government" are: Ascension, the Ba- hamas, the Barbados, Basutoland, Bechuanaland, Bermuda, Borneo, Brunei, British Guiana, British Honduras, British East and Central Africa (Somaliland, East Africa, Uganda, Zanzibar, Nyassaland), British West Africa (Gambia, the Gold Coast, Sierra Leone, and Nigeria), the British West Indies, Cayman Islands, Ceylon, Cyprus, East Africa Protectorate, Falkland Islands, Fiji, Gibraltar, Hong- kong, Jamaica, Leeward Islands, Malta, ^lauritius, Rhodesia, St. Helena, Sarawak, Seychelles, Straits Settlements, The Federated Malay States, Johor, Swaziland, Trinidad, Tobago, Tristan da Cunlia, Turks and Caicos Islands, Weihaiwei, and the Windward Islands. The British Constitution is mainly unwritten and customary. It is based on and has developed from certain laws, of which the chief are the Magna Charta (1215), which secured annual court sessions and the equal administration of justice; the Habeas Corpus Act (1769), which established liberty of person; the Act of Settlement (1701), which provided for the Protestant succession to the throne ; the Act of Union with Scotland (1707) and the Act of Union with Ireland (1800), which created the United Kingdom; and the Parliament Act (1911), which enabled the Commons to pass certain acts without the adherence of the other chamber (House of Lords). The crown (the king in council) "makes peace and war, issues charters, increases the peerage, is the fountain of honor, of office, and of justice." Though the executive government of Great Britain and Ireland is vested nominallj- in the crown, the monarchy, being consti- tutional and limited, is practically vested in a cabinet or a committee of nineteen ministers, whose existence is dependent on the possession of a majority in the House of Commons. As a rule, the first lord of the treasury is also the prime minister and secretary of state. The cabinet is therefore an inner council under the presidency of the prime minister. The cabinet, as a whole, is responsible to parliament for its joint and several administrations. The ministry includes minor posts, whose occupants have no seat in the cabinet. INIinisters hold their of- fice during the sovereign's pleasure. The supreme legislative power of the British Empire is given to parliament, which is summoned by THE BRITISH EMPIRE A Battalion of the Grenadier Guards the writ of the sovereign out of chancery, hy advice of the privy coun- cil, at least thirty-five days before its assembling. The present form of parliament — divided into two houses, the Lords and the Commons — dates from the middle of the fourteenth century. The House of Lords consists of peers, who hold their seats by ( 1 ) hereditary right, (2) by creation of the sovereign, (3) by virtue of office — law lords and English archbishops and bishops, (4) by election for life — Irish peers, ( 5 ) by election for the duration of parliament — Scottish peers. The full House in 1913 consisted of 613 peers. The House of Com- mons consists of 670 members, elected by registered male electors in county, borough and university constituencies. All clergymen are disqualified, as are also English and Scottish peers. Non-representa- tive Irish peers are eligible. In August, 1911, provision was made for the payment of a salary of four hundred pounds a year to mem- bers of the House of Commons. The three main principles underlying the administration of the 334. COUNTRIES INVOLVED empire are: self-government, self-support, and self-defense. The third is of modern growth largely the outcome of the imperial confer- ence. This has become recognized as the cabinet of the empire.' Its origin is traced to the presence in London in 1887 of the premiers of the various self-governing dominions representing their countries at the jubilee of Queen Victoria. In 1907 the name of the subsequent gatherings of this nature was changed from "Colonial Conference" to "Imperial Conference." The conference is composed of: presi- dent, the prime minister of the United Kingdom ; chairman, the secre- tary of state for the colonies; members — the prime ministers of Can- ada, Australia, New Zealand, Union of South Africa, and Newfound- land, and two secretaries. The laws in England and Wales are ad- ministered by judges appointed by the crown, holding office for life. They cannot be removed, save on petition presented by both Houses of Parliament. The high court comprises the king's bench, chancery and probate divorce and admiralty divisions. Appeal from all courts in the United Kingdom is to the House of Lords. The civil courts in Ireland are similar to the English courts; but the Scots civil law is entirely different. This is administered by the court of session, a court of law and equity. The high court of justiciary is the supreme criminal court in Scotland. The sheriff in each county is the proper criminal judge in pett^'^ cases. The Established Church of England is the Protestant Episcopal. The king is its head by law regulated in the time of Henry VIII, and he possesses the right to nominate archbishops and bishops. For twelve centuries England has been divided into two archbishoprics: Canterbury and York. The Archbishop of Canterbury, "the primate of all England," has as his province the whole of England except the six northern counties and Cheshire. These are the province of the Archbishop of York, "the primate of England." The Archbishop of Canterbury ranks next after the royal princes, and is the first peer of England. He has the right of placing the crown on the sovereign's head at the coronation. There are thirty-eight bishops, under whom are thirty-two deans and a hundred archdeacons. In 1911 the number of civil parishes was 14,614. The Roman Catholics in England and Wales are estimated at 1,800,000, with three archbishops (one of whom is a cardinal) and thirteen bishops. Other denominations — THE BRITISH EMPIRE 335 English Territorials, Who Correspond to the American "National Guard" Baptists, Presbyterians, Wesleyan Methodists, etc. — number about 2,428,933. The Jews represent 245,000, with two hundred syna- gogues. The Salvation Army has about 76,400 members, and 9,340 corps and outposts. The Church of Scotland (established in 1560 and confirmed in 1688) is Presbyterian. The clergy are all equal. Its supreme court is a general assembly. The number of churches, chapels, etc., is 1,693. The Roman Catholic Church in Scotland numbers about 550,000, pre- sided over by two archbishops. The Roman Catholics in Ireland number 3,242,670, against 576,611 Episcopalians, 440,525 Presby- terians, 62,382 Methodists, and 68,031 others. Four archbishops — of Armagh, Cashel, Dublin, and Tuam — with twenty-three bishops, rule the Church. In England the highest education is given in the ancient universi- ties of Oxford and Cambridge. Oxford has twenty-two colleges and' three private halls; Cambridge, seventeen colleges and one private hall. The University of Durham, with its college of medicine, ranks high; the College of Science at Newcastle, the University of London (with twenty- four colleges), and the universities of Victoria (Man- chester), Birmingham, Liverpool, Leeds, Sheffield, and Bristol and 336 COUNTRIES INVOLVED Battle-cruiser "Inflexible" Saluting the university colleges at Exeter, Nottingham, Reading, and South- ampton, are most efficient. There are special agricultural colleges at Carlisle, Cirencester, Glasgow, Newport, Kingston-on-Soar, Wye, Uckfield, and Ripley. There are four universities in Scotland: St. Andrew's, founded in 1411; Glasgow, 1450; Aberdeen, 1494; and Edinburgh, 1582. The Carnegie Trust (1901) devotes half its in- come of £100,000 to the equipment and expansion of Scottish uni- versities, and half to assisting students. Ireland has its University of Dublin, founded in 1591 ; the National University of Ireland (1909) ; and the Queen's University of Belfast. The general defense of the empire is undertaken by the Imperial Government, aided by the Government of India, and the self-govern- ing Dominions of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. The first line of defense is the royal navy ; the second line of defense is the regular and auxiliary troops of the British navy. Questions regarding general strategy are considered and determined by the de- fense committee, which secures coordination between the sea and land forces of the empire. The defense committee consists of the prime minister of the United Kingdom, secretary of state for war, first lord of the admir- alty, secretaries of state for foreign affairs, colonies and India, chan- cellor of the exchequer, chief of the imperial general staff, first sea- THE BRITISH EMPIRE 537 lord of the admiralty, director of military operations, and director of naval intelligence. Naval and military officers of experience are also invited to the conferences. The royal navy is recruited by voluntary enlistment, and is ad- ministered by the commissioners for executing the office of the lord high admiral of the United Kingdom ("lords of the admiralty") con- One of Canada's Crack Regiments — "The Queen's Own Rifles" trolled by the king-emperor in Parliament. The admiralty office is in the historic district of Whitehall, London. The officers and men num- ber 115,052; the marines, 18,235; and the coast-guard, 3,130. For 1914-'15 an increase of 5,000 was provided for. On January 1, 1913, the royal naval reserve numbered 20,169; the royal fleet reserve, 25,794 ; and the royal naval volunteers, 4,114. The total reserves num- bered 50,077. The British fleet consists of about 16 super-dread- noughts; 15 dreadnoughts; 40 pre-dreadnought battleships; 50 cruis- ers; 76 light cruisers; 18 torpedo gunboats; 23 sloops, gunboats, etc.; 338 COUNTRIES INVOLVED Group of Sikhs, One of England's Finest Indian Corps 248 destroyers; 100 torpedo boats; and 85 submarines. Certain fast Cunarders are subsidized for use in case of war. In 1912 the naval wing of the royal flying corps was founded. The number of naval aeroplanes is about fifty, including school machines. There are naval air stations at the Isle of Grain, Calshott, Felixstowe, Yarmouth, Cromarty, and the Firth of Forth. Farnborough has an air-ship sta- tion, and there is a special air department at the admiralty. The land forces of the United Kingdom consist of the regular army and the territorial army. The British army is recruited by voluntary enlistment, and is administered by an army council under the authority of the king-emperor in parliament. The training and efficiency of the army are under the inspector-general of the home forces, and a similar office has been organized recently for the oversea forces. The war office is in Whitehall, London. The secretary of state for war is at the head, with the chief of the imperial general staff, adju- tant-general to the forces, quartermaster-general to the forces, and master-general of the ordnance as first, second, third, and fourth IVIili- tary Members. The service is for twelve years, with permission to THE BRITISH EMPIRE 339 extend it to twenty-one years. The grand total of the British army is 711,575 men, including the troops serving in India (78,476). The tropical areas of the British Empire include southern India, west and central Africa, parts of the West Indies, British Guiana and Honduras, northern Australia, Borneo, and the various settle- ments in the Malay Peninsula. The estimated white population in 1911 — mainly Anglo-Saxon, but including French, Dutch, Spanish, and a few Jews — is 60,000,000. The remaining 370,000,000 include: 315,000,000 of the natives of India and Ceylon, 40,000,000 of the black races, 6,000,000 Arabs, 6,000,000 Malays, 1,000,000 Chinese, 1,000,000 Polynesians, and 100,- 000 Red Indians in Canada. The Indian Empire is governed by the king and emperor, acting on the advice of the secretary of state for India, who is assisted by a council appointed by that secretary. In all matters he can impose his orders on the Government of India. Indian Government business in England is transacted at the Indian office, Whitehall. The king- emperor appoints the viceroy and governor-general of India, in whom the supreme authority is vested, subject to the control of the secretary of state in England. The viceroy's council consists of seven members. Since March, 1909, one of these has been a native of India. British India is divided into provinces, with varying degrees of independence. A governor from England, appointed by the king-emperor, adminis- ters the presidencies of Madras^ Bengal, and Bombay. Each has an executive and legislative council. The United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, the Punjab, Burma, and Bihar and Orissa are adminis- tered by lieutenant-governors appointed by the governor-general, with the approval of the crown. The Central Provinces and Berar and Assam are administered by chief commissioners. In the 250 dis- tricts in British territory the highest executive official is a collector- magistrate. On August 4, 1914, following the action of the Emperor of Russia in ordering (August 1) partial mobilization of his troops, in an intention to support Servia against Austria, and the mobilizing of the French and the German troops on the evening of the same day, Great Britain sent an ultimatum to Berlin, demanding unquali- 340 COUNTRIES INVOLVED fied observance of the neutrality of Belgium, which had refused free passage to German troops through her domain. Germany rejected Great Britain's ultimatum and began an attack on Liege; and on the following day (August 5) Great Britain declared war on Ger- English Hospital Sergeant and Wounded Soldiers many, which action was followed on the 13th by a declaration of war on Austria also. On August 17 the first British troops landed in France. They were immediately hurried to the front, and stubbornly held the left of the alhed line under a series of ferocious attacks launched against them by the Germans in the now famous retreat from the Belgian frontier to within a few miles of Paris. S4il NICHOLAS (NICOLA!) II Emperor and Autocrat of all the Russias. Born in St. Petersburg, May 18, 1868. Son of the Emperor Alexander III and of Princess Dagmar (Mary Feodorovna) of Denmark. Succeeded, on the Death of His Father, November 1, 1894. Married, November 26, 1894, Alexandra Alix (Alexandra Feodorovna), Princess of Hesse 342 RUSSIA 343 Russia — To get a mental picture of the immensity of the Russian Empire look at a map that covers Asia and Europe. Thus regarded, the western kingdoms of Europe seem suddenly to have shrunk. France, Italy, the British Isles, the German Empire even — all these, it appears, would rest easily in the lap of Siberia alone. Or, if you prefer to think in figures, Russia means one seventh of all the dry land on the globe. Its extreme length from west to east is 6,000 miles — one fourth of the earth's circumference. When a peas- A Russian Regiment Passing In Review Before the Czar and His Staff ant, taking at St. Petersburg a train of the Trans-Siberian Railway, arrives at Irkutsk, he has already traveled twelve hundred miles far- ther than if he had made the trip from New York to San Francisco ; and he has paid in fare only the equivalent of fifteen dollars. From North to South Russia, where it is widest, measures 2,300 miles. It is bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean ; on the east by the seas of the Pacific; on the south by China, Afghanistan, Persia, and Turkey in Asia; on the west by the Black Sea, Rumania, Austria, Germany, the Baltic, and the Scandinavian Peninsula. Its area, including the inland lakes, together with Khiva and Bokhara, is 8,770,703 square miles. Vice-Admiral Grigorovich, Minister of the Navy M. Goremykin, President of tiie Councii of Ministers DISTINGUISHED RUSSIAN OFFICIALS 344 RUSSIA 345 Russian expansion has been neither colonial nor maritime, but purely continental. The empire has grown from within by a series of accretions in which one contiguous country after another has been an- nexed and absorbed. It has been a great land monster, whose appetite grows with what it feeds on. Yet, geographically, its aggressions have but followed the natural "lay of the land." In other words, it is a great, unbroken plain ; for even the Ural Mountains, between Euro- pean and Asiatic Russia, do not contribute a continuous or a formid- able barrier. In European Russia, the only breaks are the small table- lands. Excepting the Urals and an isolated chain in the Crimea, the mountains are of no importance. In the southern region stretch the barren steppes; vast forests and many lakes are in the north; in the heart of the country, and extending to the west, are the great wheat lands. Of the rivers, the Neva and the Vistula flow into the Baltic; the Dniester, the Dnieper, and the Don into the Black Sea; and the Ural and the Volga into the Caspian. Russia has a polar region, a cold region, a temperate region, and a warm region ; so particulars of its climate cannot well be set forth in brief. At St. Petersburg (now called Petrograd) the mean annual temperature is above 40°. In "cold" Russia, the thermometer sinks to 30° below zero and rises to 80° above. Midsummer heat in the warm region means a normal temperature of 100°, yet the Sea of Azov freezes early in November, and does not thaw till April. On the whole, it is a healthful country, though it suffers from drouths in the south and an excess of snow and rain in the far north. Nearly all the waters maintain fisheries. Russian sables are among the most luxur- ious furs known to civilization. Bears, wolves, wild hogs, elk, bison, and lynx abound. Russia, until lately, got all its living from the land. It is a great agricultural country, producing cotton and rice in northern latitudes commonly unfavorable to such culture. The profitable farming lands lie mostly between the Baltic and the Black Sea. In 1912 the whole area under cultivation was 361,000,000 acres. Of this, about 78,000,- 000 acres were sown in wheat, yielding about 21,500,000 tons; 72,000,- 000 acres in rye, yielding nearly 26,000,000 tons ; together with barley, oats, hemp, maize, flax, tobacco, and 37,000,000 tons of potatoes. Herds and flocks embrace nearly 49,000,000 head of cattle, 74,000,000 346 COUNTRIES INVOLVED sheep and goats, 13,500,000 pigs, and more than 33,000,000 horses. Russia ranks third among the sea-food producing countries of the globe. It exports caviar, and imports codfish and herrings to feed a population that cannot live on a year's catch of fish approximating 1,500,000,000 pounds. In the mountains are precious metals, copper, platinum, high-grade i . Mr. if M^mfmm ^Hkj 'sMjlIiB'ML ssShHIm^H >r ^s - > ■; W*^^ V 1 .J^L" .**< \i BB^ :s.k / .^lii I^LtoiimM^ h ■ ^--^'t % ^ ^ i^^ im^mm II^Bmi!^ f!!^^ "" ^f J%^^fg j|Lr«w» .. -affi^j*''^^*, 54-- mf^ •1 m^-j ^7^ .^"^ *^- ' — -ippr "^ ^ |i' Some of Russia's World-famous Cossacks iron, marble, rock salt, and lead. Russia leads the world in the pro- duction of petroleum, the annual output approximating 515,500,000 poods — a pood being 36 pounds. From immeasurable coal-beds, near the Dnieper and elsewhere, was taken, in 1910, coal weighing 1,600,- 000 poods. In the same year Avas produced 3,606 poods of pure gold. In 1906 the output of steel and rails reached 2,000,000 tons. Russia's total imports in 1912 were valued at more than $600,000,- 000 ; the exports at more than $800,000,000. Her commercial marine in 1913 included 716 steamers (790,000 tons) and 500 sailing-vessels ^184,000 tons). RUSSIA 347 The railways aggregated about 50,000 miles in length — a large portion being under government control. In 1912 they carried more than 235,000,000 passengers, and more than 229,000,000 tons of freight — yielding a gross revenue of about $600,000,000. The build- ing of the Trans-Siberian Railway has cut in half the time required to reach the Pacific via the Suez Canal, and has spread the Russian influence along the borders of China. The whole empire's population in 1912 was estimated at 173,360,- 000. These figures included 122,550,000 in European Russia proper, exclusive of Poland and Finland. Siberia's population was 9,600,000, and that of Central Asia nearly 11,000,000. The Russian language is everywhere dominant, and the Russ represents two thirds of the whole population. The Poles represent about 6 per cent.; the Jews about 4 per cent.; Finns, 4.5 per cent.; Lithuanians, 2.4 per cent.; Turco-Tartars, 10.6 per cent. It is estimated that about 80 per cent, of the inhabitants dwell on about 25 per cent, of the surface. Despite famine, wars, poverty, and cruel oppression, Russia grows and grows. The natural annual increase is placed at more than 1,700,000. The average proportion of the sexes is 99.8 women to 100 men; but in Fin- Und and the Russian provinces the women outnumber the men by more than two per cent. Russia's capital, St. Petersburg (now Petrograd), has a popula- tion of a little more than 2,000,000. The city is built on the marsh- land of the Neva River, 20 miles east of its port, Cronstadt. The average winter temperature is 18°. It was founded by Peter the Great in 1703, and Catherine II made it one of the most brilliant capitals in Europe. When the emperor occupies his wonderful Win- ter Palace, it houses 6,000 persons. This building is one of the world's largest palaces, and is lavishly decorated and furnished. Moscow's population is 1,174,000. Nijni Novgorod, on the Trans- Siberian Railway, has a population of only 90,000, but its annual fair is the largest in the world. Russia nominally ceased to be an absolute monarchy in 1905, with the establishment of the Duma ; but the emperor has not dropped his title of Autocrat, although the Duma has registered a protest, and in him are still lodged, in a great measure, the executive, judicial, and legislative functions of the government. The fourth Duma has been 348 COUNTRIES INVOLVED Russian Infantry sitting since November, 1912. By a change made in the electoral law in June, 1907, the members of the Duma, representing the provinces and the greater cities, are chosen (for five years) by electoral bodies created by the voters. The council of the empire, established in 1810, became in 1906 a legislative council, made up equally of elected mem- bers and the emperor's nominees, and annually convoked and pro- rogued by imperial decree (ukase) . No act of legislation is submitted for the emperor's approval unless it has been passed by both bodies. Equal powers of initiative and legislation are vested in the Council and the Duma, but neither body is empowered to receive petitions or depu- tations. Four additional councils, controlled by the emperor's private cab- inet, conduct the administration. All the legal tribunals are con- trolled by the high court of justice, known as the Ruling Senate. This was established by Peter I in 1711. There are six sections, repre- senting the various provinces, presided over collectively by the min- ister of justice. The Holy Synod — also established by Peter I — superintends the empire's religious affairs. It is composed of the metropolitans of St. Petersburg, Moscow, and Kiev, the archbishops of Georgia and Poland, and several bishops sitting in turn. Its deci- sions are of no effect unless approved by the emperor. A third gov- ernment board, reorganized in the autumn of 1905, is the committee of ministers, while the Council of Ministers constitutes a fourth board composed of all the ministers and the general directors of important administrations. The established religion is the Russo-Greek Church, officially called the Greek "Orthodox faith," of which the emperor is the head. He RUSSIA 349 Passing in Review does not presume to decide questions of theology or dogma, but he makes appointments and exercises certain powers of transfer and dismissal. Members of the Orthodox faith represent about 70 per cent, of all; Mussulmans, 10 per cent.; Roman Catholics, 9 per cent.; Protestants, 5 per cent. ; Jews, 4 per cent. Advanced education has been sternly repressed in Russia, even in the time of the present emperor. Professors have been persecuted and suspended for teaching fundamental scientific laws, standard text- books have been banned, and other repressive measures have been put in force. Statistically speaking, European Russia in 1913 had 90,418 elementary schools — high, middle, and primary — with a total attend- ance of 5,794,922. Ten per cent, of the total population have received no instruction whatever, and it is said that many schools in the remote districts exist only on paper. The primary instruction in these dis- tricts is very backward. University students in St. Petersburg num- ber 8,224; in Moscow, 9,242; in Kiev, 4,931. On January 1, 1912, the whole number in the empire was 36,147. There are also secondary institutions, in number somewhat insignificant con^pared with the area and population. The special schools embrace: theological, 470, with more than 77,000 pupils; pedagogical, 323, with more than 21,000 pupils; medical, 72, with 9,112 pupils; technical, 627, with 40,000 pu- pils; commercial and industrial, 178, with about 38,000 pupils; fine arts, 75, with 10,500 pupils. Russia's national debt has not varied much since 1902; in 1913 it was 8,845,717,768 roubles. The Russian Empire had its real beginning in the year 862, when the northern Slavs, tired of their civil wars, invited Rurik, the Norse- 350 COUNTRIES INVOLVED man, to govern them. So Rurik came to Novgorod; but some of his Varangian brethren pushed on south to the Dnieper and set up their government at Kiev. Then Rurik's successors took possession of Kiev also, embracing Christianity in the reign of the Queen Regent Olga (950). Olga's son, SviatoslafF, divided the empire among his three sons, and the dissensions that arose continued until the reign of Vladimir (980-1015), who married a sister of the Byzantine emper- ors. Under his rule the Russian people became Greek Christians, passing under the influence of the Byzantine civilization ; and by this time the Norsemen — as often happens with conquerors or invaders — had lost their identity as Scandinavians and taken on the character of their subjects, the Slavs. The new empire now stretched eastward to the Volga, and embraced the country from the northern lakes to the Dnieper; but again it was divided among too many heirs, and again came quarrels that disrupted the kingdom. It became a group of principalities, and some of these States made good progress under their princes — notably Novgorod, which acquired wealth and even a liberal form of government. Nevertheless, the empire had lost its strength and solidity, and it was as a leaf in the storm of the Mongol invasion. This set in early in the thirteenth century, when the Tartars (Mon- gols, or Moguls), under the terrible Genghiz Khan, came like an ant- swarm from Asia, sweeping through the greater part of both Asia and EfUrope, and threatening to submerge Mahometan and Christian alike. For two centuries Russia was trodden under the heel of the Tartars, and was quite cut off from contact with western Europe. Kiev was altogether destroj^ed, and the principality of Vladimir in the north became tributary. In the last quarter of the thirteenth century came a shifting of the seat of power from Novgorod to oSIoscow. In 1328 it became the capital. Ivan I, strongest of the subject princes, reigned there, and, gaining favor with the INIongol khans, was per- mitted to retain the succession in his own line. It was Ivan who built The Kremlin — most famous of Russia's citadels, including within its walls the imperial palace, the arsenal, churches, and monasteries. The Mongols made a mistake in giving so much power to Ivan. From his loins sprang a line of kings, and among the first of these was Dmitri, who organized a valiant but vain rebellion. Better for- RUSSIA 351 tune attended the efforts of Ivan III the Great (1462-1505), who subdued Novgorod and overthrew the Khan of the Golden Horde (1480). His conquest quadrupled the Russian domain; but it re- mained for his grandson, Ivan IV, to complete the subjection of the Moguls. This ruler — Ivan the Terrible, as he has come to be called — carried the war to the Caucasus, and overcame the Khan of Kazan. The Czar and President Poincar6 at Peterhof Thus the only lasting dynasty established by the Moguls in their attempted conquest of all Europe came to an end. Russia now began anew. On the south, Ivan, who called himself czar, waged war against the Tartars of the Crimea. On the Baltic he sought to obtain a seaport for Russia, but Poland and Sweden blocked his way. When Novgorod joined hands with Poland in resisting him, he stormed the city and massacred its people. Everywhere he over- came opposition with cruelty; yet he could not prevail against the Swedes and their allies, and he was obliged to give up Livonia. Ivan established commercial intercourse with England, by way of the 352 COUNTRIES INVOLVED White Sea, introduced the printing-press, encouraged the coming of western artists and mechanics, and sought the friendship of Queen Ehzabeth. For England was now in the spacious EHzabethan age, while Russia was just awakening from the long nightmare of Turan- ian rule. In Ivan's reign we first hear of the Cossacks. These robber bands of the Dnieper and the Don were pressed into service by Ivan, and readily made war. for Russia against the weaker nomads of the sur- rounding regions. Ivan sent one of the Cossack chiefs, with a hand- ful of followers, across the Ural Mountains, and in doing so began the conquest of Siberia. Russia had now entered upon her march to the Pacific. The Tartars still opposed her progress to the Euxine, and her only ports were on the White Sea and the Caspian. From the port of Archangel, her outpost on the frozen Arctic, she began to ply a trade with the nations to the west. This port was founded by Feodor, son of Ivan, and it remained Russia's chief haven till the coming of Peter the Great. The royal line that began with Rurik, the Norseman, came to an end in 1589. The Poles brought forward a pretender to the throne, and a condition approaching anarchy ensued. Then, in 1613, a repre- sentative assembly of Russians elected the youthful jNIichael Roman- off (1613- '45) to rule over them; and from him springs the present royal family. With the coming of Peter the Great (1682-1725) , Russian civihza- tion made its first distinct progress. In 1696 he took AzofF from the Turks, and Russia acquired her coveted port on the Black Sea. He made war against Charles XII, and acquired Sweden's possessions east of the Baltic. On the Caspian Sea he extended his dominions at the expense of Persia. St. Petersburg was made the capital, in place of Moscow. Peter was determined to make Russia a great Power, and he assumed the title of Emperor of All the Russias, which meant that Poland should not retain her hold upon her Russian provinces. Peter was half barbarian, half modern. He performed manual labor in the navy yards. He was a traveler and a linguist, and, like Ivan, he opened the door to foreign arts and inventions. Russia was an inferior country when Peter became its ruler, and when his reign was over it had become a Power. RUSSIA Peter's policy was continued by Catherine, his widow, who reigned for only two years. From 1725 until 1796 Russia's rulers were chiefly women: Anna, Elizabeth, and Catherine II. In the reign of Cath- erine II (1762-'96), the Crimea was conquered, the Tartars were driven out, and Russia once more had access to the Black Sea. A more momentous event of her reign was the spoliation of Poland, whereby Russia acquired 180,000 square miles of territory, with 6,000,- 000 inhabitants. This brought her into close contact with western A Group of Russian Artillery Officers Europe, and made her a force in European affairs. In Catherine's reign, also, the Turks were forced back to the Dniester, and Russia began her policy of interference in Turkey's internal affairs. The brief reign of the autocratic Paul I (1796-1801) , ending with his assassination, was succeeded by that of Alexander I (1801-'25). Russia's remarkable rise in the nineteenth century now began in ear- nest, and its events are closely linked with those of our own time. Alexander was first at peace and then at war with Napoleon. When Austria and Prussia had been conquered, he joined issues with Na- poleon once more, and received some territory in Lithuania, at Prus- sia's expense. Russia also deprived Sweden of Finland, pushed her 354 COUNTRIES INVOLVED way to the Danube against the Turks, and annexed certain Persian territory between the Black and Caspian seas. After ^N^apoleon's fatal invasion of Russia, in 1812, Alexander took the leading part in his overthrow; with INIetternich, in 1815, he was largely instru- mental in remaking the map of Europe and creating the Kingdom of Poland under the Russian scepter. It was he who inspired the Holy Alliance. Meanwhile Russia's internal affairs did not prosper. In the be- ginning of his reign the emperor displayed liberal ideas. Under the inspiration of the tutor of his youth. La Herpe, new universities : were established,' scholarship was encouraged, and numerous im- portant reforms were planned. But later Alexander fell under the influence of JSletternich's reactionary viewsj and came to believe that political freedom and the education of the masses were opposed to the laws of God. Russia immediatelj^ reverted to conditions approaching those of the Middle Ages. Science was suppressed, dissection of the dead was banned, and German universities were forbidden to Russian students. » •' - Nicholas I (1825-''55) likewise did his best to crush liberalism. He was in all respects despotic. Under his rule, Poland was humbled in the dust and became virtually a Russian province. A strict cen- sorship of books was put into effect, and the secret department of police became odious to all citizens that entertained the most innocent ideas of libert3^ Russia's oflicial corruption and incompetence were exposed in the Crimean war ; but Nicholas did not live to profit by his mistakes. Alexander II (1855-'81), touched by the deplorable condition of the Serfs, and perceiving, too, that repressive measures might lead to further uprisings, resolved to set them free. This was done in 1861, when 40,000,000 peasants were, in a manner, released from bondage; yet, under the terms of the new freedom, they were to some extent subjected to tyranny and expensive taxation at the hands of the State. In 1863 there was another revolt in Poland, which was suppressed with cruel completeness, and Alexander declined to grant his sub- jects any greater liberties. His persistence in a course of despotism led to the movement known as nihilism, in which every educated and peacefully inclined person took part, and this in turn led to terrorism RUSSIA 355 and the employment of explosives in "removing" obnoxious officials. Early in 1878 a young woman, Vera Zassulitch, tried to kill General Trepoff, St. Petersburg's cruel and corrupt chief of police, and, fol- lowing her acquittal by a jury packed by the government, yet in sym- pathy with her wrongs, sixteen persons were hanged and many others were sent to Siberia. This led to such acts of violence by the stu- dents, together with an attempt to kill the emperor, that Alexander was prevailed upon to grant the people at least some approach to a popular assembly. He consented to the compromise, but was assassi- nated while driving to his palace, early in 1881. House of the Senate and Holy Synod, Petrograd Alexander III (1881-'94) did not swerve from the example of his predecessors in crushing all experiments toward liberty. In this course he was strengthened by Pobiedonosteif , Procurator of the Holy Synod, yet a new era had set in — ^the era of industrial enterprise, encouraged by Count Witte ; and this began to affect the social order in Russia by drawing the peasants from the farms to the cities. Many of them then heard, for the first time, of republican institutions, and came to know that there was a Germany and a France, and other strange States, to the west of Russia. Hearing these things, they too began to talk of liberty. This so alarmed the advisers of the emperor that afterward the factory hands were sent back to the farms, and were replaced by farmers ; but this only had the effect of spread- ing the news, and so nothing was gained by it. Meanwhile Russia continued to expand. Turkestan was taken intp 356 COUNTRIES INVOLVED the fold, and so were Samarkand, Bokhara, and Khiva, until only- Afghanistan remains as a buffer between Russia and Great Britain's Empire of India. Even in Persia the Russian influence is pre- dominant. Nicholas II, the present emperor, ascended the throne in 1894. The events of his reign are familiar to readers of our own day who will recall that Nicholas has pursued a wavering policy, even in the case of Finland, whose independence he stifled, only to restore her Russian Infantrymen, Veterans of the War with Japan rights when Russia felt the strain that came with the war with Japan in 1904. By this conflict, arising from Russia's occupation of Man- churia and Port Arthur, the corruption and incompetence of oflicial Russia was once more revealed. Japan destroyed the Russian navy, and captured the supposedly impregnable Port Arthur after one of the bloodiest sieges in history. Mukden fell in March, 1905, and in September a treaty was signed, under the terms of which Manchuria was evacuated by both nations. Meanwhile, in 1903, there was a terrible war-scare of Jews at Kishineff*, and von Plehve, Minister of the Interior, began the exercise of that ruthless policy which led to his assassination in July, 1904. RUSSIA 357 This period marks the rise of the Liberals, the Social Democrats, and the Socialist revolutionary party. During 1904 and 1905 Russia was in the throes of incipient revolution. Reforms had been promised; but on "Red Sunday" (January 22, 1905) an army of humble, un- armed petitioners — including men, women and children — on the way to the Winter Palace were shot down by the imperial troops. It ap- Russian Soldiers with Field Wireless Apparatus peared, for a time, as if all Russia might revolt; but torture, im- prisonment, and exile to Siberia carried the day. The Grand Duke Sergius, uncle of the emperor, was, however, "removed" by means of a bomb. In August, 1905, the emperor was prevailed upon to summon a Duma — a representative body or council whose powers should be lim- ited to advice — and general strikes followed the announcement of this perfunctory arrangement. At Moscow revolutionists fought the troops and more Jews were murdered. The Duma eventually met in 358 COUNTRIES INVOLVED May, 1906; but the addresses made by its members did not please the emperor, who dissolved it and appointed a date for another meet- ing. Various disorders followed, several thousand persons were killed or maimed in the name of good government, and, incidentally, the Jews suffered again. In 1907 the second Duma met, and this, too, was dissolved, after it refused to expel some of its members and sur- render others to the police. The third Duma, which met in 1907, dared to declare that the title "autocrat" is "incompatible with the Russian Supply Detachment, with IViotor Transports system put into effect by the emperor's manifesto of October 29, 1905." On July 29, 1914, following the declaration of war by Austria on Servia, Russia began mobilizing her army to go to the aid of Servia, whereupon the German emperor, after demanding that mobilization of the Russian armies be discontinued, declared war on Russia, August 1, 1914. On August 6 Russia declared war against Aus- tria. A promise to reunite Poland and give it autonomy secured the loyalty of the Poles in the war, and all opposition to the Govern- ment was put aside, to present a united front to the enemy. On August 17 the first Russian troops invaded German territory in. Eydtkuhnen, Prussia, which action was soon followed by the Russian occupation of Insterharg, on the way to the fortress of Koenigsberg. BALKAN PENINSULA PETER (PETAR) I King of Servla. Born in Belgrade, Juiy 12, 1844. Son of Prince Alexander I, Kara-Georgevitch. Fought with Distinction in the French Army, in the Franco-Prussian War. Proclaimed King June 15, 1903, After the Assassination of King Alexander, of the Rival Dynasty of Obrenovitch. Married Zorka, Princess of Montenegro, Sister of the Queen of Italy, August 11, 1883 360 SERVIA 361 Servia. — Servia, south of Hungary, is divided from her Austro- Magyar enemies by the Danube and the Save. On the east lies Bul- garia; on the south, Greece; on the west, Albania and Montenegro. Servia is thus an inland State, her march to the sea by way of Albania having been checked by the Powers, who are not friendly to Slav ad- ventures in the Adriatic. By the war of 1912 Servia's area was doubled. Her expansion to the south embraces the whole of Macedonia under her occupation, and some territory east of the old vilayet of Kossovo. Her area now ap- proximates 34,000 square miles, and her population is about 5,000,000. The wars with Turkey and Bulgaria cost her, in money alone, more than $90,000,000. Servia is a tableland, cut up by mountains and valleys. The high- lands in the east link the Transylvania Alps with the Balkans. From the southeast to the middle of the northern boundary line runs the broad and fertile valley of the JNIorava River, and near the center of the country the southern and western forks of this river come together. Still another river, the Drina, a tributary of the Save, forms much of the western boundary. Well-watered and fertile, with perhaps 70 per cent, of its area productive, it is a country of small farms, few of them exceeding thirty acres. More than 4,500,000 acres are under culti- vation, mostly in cereals. Plums and prunes are exported in large quantities. The timber of the forests supplies stores for casks ex- ported to Austria and France. In 1911 the country contained more than 150,000 horses and nearly 1,000,000 head of cattle. Silk culture employed more than 30,000 persons. Servian industries are progress- ing. These include flour-milling, brewing and distilling, and the an- cient industry of carpet-weaving — a specialty of the southeastern sec- tion, where the secrets of colors and dyeing are handed down from father to son. The mines of copper, coal and lead are largely under government control. In 1910, the capital, Belgrade, on the Danube, had a population of 90,000. Next to this in size are Monastir and Uskiib, newly acquired from the Turks, with populations approximating 60,000 and 47,000 respectively. Belgrade has a university; the State supports public schools, and makes elementary education compulsory. Yet in 1900 only 17 per cent, of the total population could read and write. 362 COUNTRIES INVOLVED 1 ««. - "^ .1 II 1 WMh. tF F i^JkJ^ '^^SiJi^^l l^^wb .^*-, v 'i^ f>- r^-- <^ P^(R'.-' Belgrade, the Capital of Servia, Austrian Territory In the Distance It is interesting to note that, unlike the advanced States of Eu- rope, Servia is without paupers. Even in its capital, Belgrade, the very poor are so few that a workhouse is unnecessary. Thus every Servian who goes forth to fight for his country does not battle for an abstract cause or idea, but fights to protect land of which he is the actual owner. This perhaps helps to explain that prowess in war which has so recently elicited the admiration of the world. Yet war is the great burden under which the Servian labors. Previous to the struggle for independence in 1876, there was no public debt. In 1903, owing largely to the liabilities imposed by the Powers under the Treaty of Berlin, the public debt had become $81,500,000; on Janu- ary 1, 1913, it was more than $131,000,000. In order to pay the interest, the Government, acting through a licensed company organized for the purpose, controls the revenue from the manufacture of tobacco, salt, petroleum, matches, cigarette- paper, and alcohol. Every man between 18 and 50 years of age is liable for military SERVIA 363 service. The war strength is about 175,000, with 95,000 additional soldiers in reserve. The country was conquered by the Turks at the battle of Kossovo (the "Field of Blackbirds") in 1389. In the seventeenth and eight- eenth centuries, a great number of Servians left their native land and settled in Hungary, where their descendants live to-day. In the open- ing years of the nineteenth century, Kara (Black) George led a revolt against Turkish rule, but he was assassinated in 1817 by Obrenovich. Servian Women-soldiers, Members of the "League- of Death" The princes of this house ruled Servia until 1842, when Alexander, son of Black George, was chosen prince by the National Assembly. In 1859 he was forced to abdicate, and was succeeded first by the aged Milosh, and then by Michael of the same house, who, in turn, was murdered in 1868. Michael's cousin, Milan, then mounted the throne, and in 1878 Servia achieved its independence of Turkey, and he was proclaimed king. Upon his abdication in 1899, he was succeeded by his son, Alexander. Four years later King Alexander and Queen Draga were murdered by army officers representing the old Kara George dynasty; and thus, after a century of feuds, Peter I, the reigning king, is the third of his house to rule over Servia. 364. COUNTRIES INVOLVED Nicholas I, King of Montenegro Montenegro — Montenegro is 8 miles in width and 100 miles in length, from north to south. Since the war of 1912-'13, it has pos- sessed a seaboard about 28 miles in length; otherwise, it is shut off from the Adriatic on the west by the tip of Austrian Dalmatia. Bos- nia bounds it on the northwest, Servia on the east, Albania on the south. Under the new dispensation, it takes in a little slice of Turkey, and it has an area of 5,800 square miles (a little larger than Con- necticut), with a population of 500,000. It is rugged and mountain- ous, and its people are mostly farmers belonging to the Servian branch of the Slavs, and, in the main, to the Greek Church. Crime is rare. ALBANIA 365 There is free, compulsory education; at Cettinje, the capital (popula- tion, 5,000) , there are a boys' college and a girls' high school. Danilo Petrovic, prince-bishop, overturned Turkish rule in 1697, and obtained Russian support. Montenegro was a principality up to 1910, and was then proclaimed a kingdom. A constitution, with popular representa- tion, was granted in 1905 by the present ruler, King Nicholas I, a collateral descendant of Petrovich. A Montenegrin may be called upon to bear arms at any time from his eighteenth to his sixty-second year. Montenegro has no cavalry. Its war strength does not exceed 40,000 men, but King Nicholas made a brave showing in the recent conflict with the Turks. On August 8 Montenegro declared war on Austria. Albania — The chief use of Albania is its employment by the Pow- ers in preventing Servia from reaching the sea. It lies south of Montenegro, with the Strait of Otranto on the west, and Greece and Servia on the east. Its estimated area is 12,000 square miles, and its population, of Czechs in the north and Tosks in the south, is estimated at 2,000,000. It is a neglected and undeveloped country, with much of the arable land untilled. Its interior is rugged, and its coast land is swampy and unhealthful. Bandits and warring tribes keep the country free of tourists; besides, there are no railways and the few bridges are unsafe. The best known towns are Scutari and Durazzo. The chief river is the Drin. It was called lUyria in ancient times. In the second century b. c.^ it was a Roman province. Slav tribes settled it in the Middle Ages, and the Turks subdued it in 1478. Early in the eighteenth century it became virtually independent under Ali Pasha — one of Lord Byron's heroes. The Powers have made an independent State of Albania, vesting the government in the hands of a prince supported and advised by an international commission of control. Prince William Frederick Henry of Wied, a nephew of Rumania's Queen Elizabeth, whose name in literature is "Carmen Sylva," has accepted the crown. The future of the country is problematical. ITALY i{«nLali»ac* Ldu»' S66 ITALY 367 The Kings of Italy and Servia Italy. — From the beginning of the earliest historical records, Italy has been an "earthly paradise," for no country combining such beauti- ful scenery, delightful climate, fertile land, and picturesque waters is found elsewhere. Italy to-day may be regarded as divided into three sections: the northern, including Piedmont, Venetia, Liguria, and Lombardy, and bounded bj^ Austria-Hungary and Switzerland; the central part, embracing the ancient Etruscan, Latium, and Umbrian divisions ; and the southern, which includes the Samnite, Apulian, and Calabrian districts, with Sardinia and Sicily, the islands in the Bay of Naples, the Lipari group, and the Trentini Islands in the Adriatic Sea. On the east it is bounded by the eastern Alps, separating it from the Austrian provinces of Carinthia and Carniola and the Adriatic ; on the south by the Ionian Sea ; on the west by the Tyrrhene and Ligur rian Seas and the western Alps, which, together with the river Var, sep- arate it from France. From north to south, the length of the country is about 718 miles; its breadth varies from 90 to 350 miles. The total area of Italy proper is 110,659 square miles. The coast-line, which is washed by five seas, is 2,272 miles long, and that of the islands HIS HOLINESS POPE BENEDICT XV The New Pope Owes His Election indirectly to the War, Which Bore so Heavily on Hic PredecessoPi Plus X, That the Days of the Late Pontiff Were Shortened 368 ITALY 369 1,944 miles. The population of Italy, with her islands, is 34,686,653. Among the Alpine heights, 6,000 feet above the sea-level, rises the river Po, 360 miles long, the largest river in Italy, the tributaries of which drain an area of 27,000 square miles'. From the western end of the Alps the Apennine Mountains begin, and thence they extend south like a backbone throughout the length of the peninsula. Officers of Many Nations at Italian Maneuvers Besides Italy proper and her surrounding islands, her provinces and dependencies include San Marino, the oldest and smallest inde- pendent republic in the world, situated far up on a steep ledge of the Apennines, and covering an area of only thirty-two square miles ; Eritrea, in northwestern Africa, which exports pearls, mother-of- pearl, and hides; Somaliland, the Italian part of which occupies the central tip of Africa on the eastern coast between the equator and Lat. 12° N.; the Tientsin concession in China, which was leased by Italy in 1902, and covers an area of eighteen square miles; and Trip- oli, in northern Africa, which was under Turkish government from 370 COUNTRIES INVOLVED the sixteenth century until the year 1912, when Italy annexed the territory and declared war on Turkey, the result of which was the ratification by Turkey of the annexation, embodied in the Treaty of Ouchy in October, 1912. Over these dominions reigns Victor Emmanuel III, great-grand- son of Victor Enmianuel I, the first king of United Italy after her liberation in 1860. Victor Enmianuel III ascended the throne in Italian Cavalry, Among the Best In Europe July, 1900. The king possesses executive power but is represented by responsible ministers. Legislative power is exercised by the king and the parliament, the latter divided into two bodies — the Senate and the House of Deputies. The Senate is formed from princes of the royal blood and from life members appointed by the king. The king's cabinet of ministers is composed of eleven members. Members of the House of Deputies are elected to office by male citizens over the age of twenty-one. Citizens more than thirty years old, who are not priests or who do not hold any other public office, are eligible as members of the House of Deputies. Their term of office ITALY 371 lasts five years. Parliament meets every year, and the king has au- thority to dissolve it at any time. The country is divided, for administrative purposes, into twelve provinces. These are subdivided into 197 territories, and these again are divided into communes, the number of which, according to the last report, is 8,320. Education in Italy is compulsory up to the age of twelve, and A Group of Italian Officers, One of the Famous Bersaglieri on the Left every commune must have at least one elementary school for boys and one for girls. The schools are graded as elementary, secondary, and higher. There are numerous private schools, technical schools, and in- stitutions for special branches of study. The State religion is Roman Catholic, but all denominations are free to hold their private opinions and public religious services. The civil Government was once connected with the Catholic clergy, but has not been so since 1870. The seat of the Roman Catholic government is in Rome, where its affairs are directed from the Palace of the Vati- can by the pope, assisted by archbishops and cardinals. 372 COUNTRIES INVOLVED Service in the Italian army is compulsory. As soon as a young man reaches the age of nineteen, he is liable to be called on to enter the army at any time up to the age of thirty-nine. The period of service is two years in the ranks, eight years in the reserves, four years in the active militia, and seven years in the territorial militia. The total organized strength of the army is 400,000, the standing army numbering 291,679. Italy possesses some of the largest ships in the world, including 8 Type of Armored Automobile Used in Italian Army battleships, 10 armored cruisers, 13 gun-boats, 22 destroyers, 6 pro- tected cruisers, 83 torpedo-boats, and 9 submarines, with a naval per- sonnel of 1 admiral, 22 vice- and rear-admirals, 1,875 officers of various ranks, and 33,000 men. The opening of the war placed Italy in a decidedly equivocal posi- tion. Ever since 1882 she has been a member of the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria, and was expected by her two allies to join them in the struggle. Italy, however, cherishes an enmity of long standing against Austria, which at one time held and tyrannized over a large part of what is now Northern Italy. Italy joined Prussia in the war against Austria in 1866, and her forces were badly beaten at ITALY 373 "S^f f^^^BKjl^^ 1 iy>.>:«MiesJflH i^ - - > Pi 1 PP ?rT 9^ |d| wiy ^ w / %^ \ ^r. -*^- ! ^fc»#- ^ ppSk -Wj l^!lfl I .r:^:-^'' ■^ >- .. '> . ■ ■JM ^^^^^^^^^H^i«v, w^s^ ^^W^^^^Kt- ,a* MK. V .'^.....-v. Italian Field Telegraph Detachment Custozza on land and at Lissa on the sea; but victorious Prussia forced Austria to give up her Italian province of Venetia. An ex- tensive Austrian territory adjoining Venetia at the head of the Adri- atic Sea is inhabited by Italian-speaking people, however, and Italy looks upon those provinces in much the same way as the French upon Alsace and Lorraine. Italy, moreover, is deeply indebted to France for her aid in the liberation of the country from Austria in 1859, when the armies of Napoleon III, in alliance with Sardinia, won the bat- tles of Magenta and Solferino. Finally, Italy has a traditional friendship with England, who has given her many evidences of sin- cere sympathy. On the outbreak of the war the Italian Government, instead of joining Austria and Germany, declared its neutrality, on the ground that the treaty of alliance bound Italy to throw her military resources into the scale only in case her allies were attacked by other powers, and she was under no obligation to join Germany and Austria in a war in which they were the aggressors. At the same time a partial mobilization of the army was ordered. Popular feeling in favor of the Allies gave rise to violent demonstrations; and the eagerness of nearly all classes to take advantage of the opportunity to wrest from Austria the long-coveted "Italia irredenta" was strongly manifested. / 374 JAPAN -^75 Japan. — The old geographers used to^ say that Japan lay off the coast of China at the far eastern end of* the world; but to Americans of to-day Japan lies to the far west. Its boundaries run along differ- ent lines to the Japanese themselves, for on the north they have Rus- sian neighbors in half of Saghalien and in Siberia; on the south, North Americans and Filipinos ; and Formosa and Korea, known officially as Chosen, once belonging to China, are now part of the Empire of Japan. The whole empire is made up of about four thousand islands, of which thirteen are reckoned as great islands, the largest being Hondo, on which live about four fifths of the Japanese people. Other large islands are Shikoku, Kiushiu, Sado, Oki, Awaji, Iki, and Tsuchima. Yezo and the so-called "Thousand Isles" are far to the north. These isles of the long-continued archipelago are farther north than the northernmost part of the United States, and those farthest south are in the tropic region. Japanese territory altogether covers 163,000 square miles, making a total area a little larger than California. Including the Asiatic peninsula of Korea, annexed to Japan in 1910, and of Formosa, annexed in 1904, the population is about 66,000,000. The constitution of Japan is that of a monarchy with represen- tative institutions, based on German forms. Executive power is vested in the emperor, under the advice of his cabinet ministers, chosen by him and responsible to him. The Imperial Diet consists of the House of Peers and the House of Representatives. The former is composed of all adult men of the imperial family, other persons ap- pointed by the emperor, and certain public officials in each city of the first class. The House of Representatives is composed of members elected from each district of the empire. The country is divided and subdivided, for local administration, into prefectures, municipalities, and counties, towns, and villages. In 1871 a national system of education was established, largely with the aid of American teachers. Instead of the old teaching, given in temples or in private houses, where the children sat on the floor and learned only the rudiments of arithmetic and literature, the pupils are taught in .graded classes in schoolhouses built and arranged in modern western style. Japan has three universities, more than 26,000 elementary schools, and numerous middle, high, and normal schools, JAPANESE TRENCHES IN MANCHURIA European soldiers are now scoring the countryside with hundreds of miles of trenches Just like these 376 JAPAN 377 many schools for special studies, such as music, science, commerce, agriculture, the fine arts, and naval and military instruction. As in many countries of Europe, military service is compulsory. Service is for two or three years in the ranks, and then five years and four months in the reserves. After serving seven years and four months in the first line, the men are transferred to the kohi, which cor- responds to the German Landwehr, or first reserves. This service is for ten years, and the men next enter the territorial or home-defense army, serving two years and eight months. Up to 1914 the total peace strength was 225,000 officers and men; the war footing 740,000. The navy consists of four dreadnoughts, ten battle-ships of the first class and four of the second class, twenty-nine steel cruisers, ninety-five torpedo-boat destroyers, sixty-four torpedo boats, and six- teen submarines. About 36,000 officers and men are on the active list. Japan became involved in the war because of her treaty of alli- ance with Great Britain. On August 4, 1914, Great Britain asked Japan what she could expect in the way of naval assistance for the protection of British shipping in the Pacific. Japan agreed to join Great Britain, provided that she be allowed to demand and enforce the evacuation by Germany of Kiau-Chau, a territory embracing about 200 square miles, "leased" from China for ninety-nine years, March 6, 1898, after its seizure by force in November, 1897. Great Britain assented, on the condition that the territory be returned to China after the war. Japan consented, and sent an ulti- matum, expiring at noon on August 24, to Germany, "advis- ing" the evacuation of the port of Tsing-tau, and the disarma- ment of warships in that harbor. Germany ignored the ultimatum, war was immediately declared, and Japanese forces promptly dis- patched to invest Tsing-tau. Such is the official history of Japan's participation in the war; but it is doubtful if the treaty with Great Britain would have brought Japan into the fray had it not been for the bitter feeling against Germany which Japan has nursed since 1895, when Germany's threats forced her to give up Port Arthur after her victory over China. A grievance of a more sentimental character, but perhaps none the less strong for that, is the kaiser's flaunting of the "Yellow Peril," and the treatment of the Japanese by the Germans in conformity with that insulting watchword. VIEWS IN THE HAGUE 1. Place du Grand March^, 2. Le Mus^e (Maurits Huls). 3. Royal Palace. 4. The Vijver 378 CHAPTER XI THE HAGUE CONFERENCE At a time when almost the whole of Europe and the most power- ful military nation of Asia are in arms, and a war of staggering di- mensions is in progress, it may seem that a reference to The Hague Conference and the efforts hitherto made to promote universal peace can be met only with derision. The peace palace at The Hague, "the capital of the world," appears for the time being like a monument to the fatuity of those who have had faith in the nobler side of mankind, and the tomb of the blasted hopes of impracticable visionaries. The outlook certainly is gloomy; but, Utopian as the idea may seem, the cause of peace may nevertheless be powerfully advanced by this war. Civilization cannot be dissolved in blood ; and there is ground for the hope that the frightful catastrophe which has befallen mankind by its insane competition in war-ships and armament may bring it to its senses, and lead the people who have had to pay the cost of this war in the lives of their loved ones to determine once for all that they will no longer submit to the chiefs whose frantic greed for territory and military glory have plunged them into misery and ruin. In 1801, England, fearing that Napoleon would coerce the Danes into placing their powerful fleet in his hands, sent Lord Nelson to Copenhagen. Although Denmark was then at peace with England and had as yet done her no injury, Nelson destroyed the Danish fleet. In 1914 Germany, though pledged by treaty to respect the neutrality of Belgium, invaded that country and overran it with a huge army. Such has been the progress of a century in international morality. To those who wage war, the solemn obligations of a treaty are as lightly regarded as human lives, and it is evident that the conventions of The Hague Conference, to which the nations of the world have bound themselves, are likely to receive scant courtesy while the war is in progress. We cannot help feeling, nevertheless, that The Hague 379 380 THE HAGUE CONFERENCE Conference was a distinct achievement of civilization, shining still like a good deed in a naughty world, and a brief account of it may have more than an academic interest. The first peace conference, called at the instance of the Emperor of Russia, sat at The Hague — the seat of the government of the Neth- erlands, though not its official capital — from May 18 to July 29, 1899. One hundred delegates from the European Powers, the United States, Mexico, China, Japan, Siam, and Persia were in session. The smaller American republics were not invited to attend. The Confer- ence discussed the limitation of armaments, the adjustment by arbi- tration of international disputes, and measures for rendering land warfare more humane. It was agreed that the principles of the Ge- neva Convention regarding war on land should be applied to naval warfare. The chief accomplishment of the convention was the estab- lishment of a permanent court of arbitration, M^hich provides the ma- chinery for arbitration of such disputes as anj^ of the nations may desire to submit to it, and the foundation of an international bureau of this court, under the control of a permanent administrative coun- cil consisting of the diplomatic representatives of the signatory Pow- ers to the government of the Netherlands, and presided over by the Dutch minister of foreign affairs. A second conference was called by the Emperor of Russia in 1907, and it sat from June 15 to October 18, two hundred and fifty-six dele- gates being present. In the second conference the smaller Powers, excluded from the first conference, were represented ; and their claims to equal representation with the great Powers were a cause of dis- sension. It was finally decided that all the signatory Powers, large and small, shall have the right to nominate not more than four mem- bers to the permanent court of arbitration. The signatory powers are under no obligation to resort to the court of arbitration, and two countries may choose whom they please to act as arbitrators in any dispute between them ; but if they decide to submit their diff'erences to The Hague tribunal, the judges or arbi- trators must be chosen from among the members of the permanent court. This court, of course, has no means of enforcing its decisions, and very little to guide it in the way of a definite body of international law commanding general respect. We are still far from the time THE HAGUE CONFERENCE 381 when a great Power may be haled to the court at The Hague and forced to do justice to a small one, by legal injunction. The Hague tribunal, nevertheless, has by no means been a dead letter. In the year 1902 it tried its first case, the issue of the pious fund of the Calif ornias, between the United States and Mexico, and in 1904 it adjusted the vexed question of the preferential claims of the creditor nations of Venezuela. In 7l910 it settled the famous dis- pute of long standing between Great Britain and the United States over the North Atlantic fisheries. Its latest decisions, rendered May 6, 1913, were in the "Carthage" and "Manouba" cases, between France and Italy. In all, it has rendered judgment in thirteen cases — an average of nearly one a year since its establishment, some of which might easily have led to war had it not been for its friendly inter- vention. The second conference also provided for the establishment of an international prize court, to act as a court of appeal from national marine courts, upon decisions relating to vessels taken as prizes during war. Great Britain strongly objected to a court in which questions involving her great maritime interests might be decided by "the vote of Santo Domingo or Turkey." The question of disarmament was brought up, but was discussed in a perfunctory and half-hearted way, as it was felt to be beyond the sphere of practical consideration. Consent — though not unanimous in every instance — was won for the following provisions : (1) Neutral territory shall be inviolable, and combatants may take refuge therein under custody. (2) Belligerents shall not establish wireless stations in neutral territory. (3) Belligerent ships shall take only sufficient supplies and suf- ficient fuel in a neutral port to take them to the nearest port in their own country. (4) Nations shall not begin war without a previous declaration of war, stating the causes. (5) Neutral Powers must be promptly notified of a state of war. (6) Explosives must not be dropped from balloons ; and expand- ing bullets ("dum-dums") and projectiles purposely designed to give off deadly fumes must not be used. "Mauretania." of the Cunard Line . nia," of the Cunard Line ONCE COMMERCE CONVEYERS, NOW COMMERCE DESTROYERS These famous transatlantic liners are all in the naval service, and the "Carmania" has been victorious in action vt^ith a hostile ship S82 THE HAGUE CONFERENCE 383 (7) Indemnification may be exacted from a nation that violates any of the rules of war. (8) Merchant vessels must be allowed a fixed time in which to clear from an enemy's port at the opening of hostilities. (9) Submarine floating mines and automobile torpedoes which do not quickly become harmless after they are set, discharged, or break away from their moorings must not be employed. (10) Undefended towns and buildings and those ports whidh are defenseless or defended only by mines, must not be bombarded. (11) Fishing-boats and those engaged upon a scientific, relig- ious, or charitable mission are not liable to capture. (12) The inviolability of the postal service must be respected. Since this war began the Powers, or some of them, have played fast and loose with many of the foregoing provisions. The humane spirit to which they give expression is utterly foreign to the instinct of war. Nations go to war for the purpose of destroying one another, and it is of little use to ask them to abide by any rules that might de- prive them of an opportunity to cripple the enemy. Another principle afiirmed by the second Hague Convention is of great significance in American affairs, but has no bearing on the pres- ent European war. This was the recognition of the so-called "Drago Doctrine," which maintains that no government can collect debts due its nationals from the government of another Power, unless an offer to submit the question to arbitration be first made, or the delinquent government refuse to abide by the judgment of the court of arbitra- tion. The money for the building of the handsome peace palace that is the permanent home of the international court and is designed to provide an assembly hall for future conferences, was the gift of An- drew Carnegie. Discouraging as the prospect now seems, we may venture to hope that The Hague has by no means seen its last peace conference, and that representatives of the nations now at war will some day meet there again to adopt measures that will make impossible another such contest as that which is now shaking the world. 384 CHAPTER XII f THE EFFECT OF THE WAR ON THE WESTERN WORU) War^ viewed in its widest perspective, is a disaster; viewed from the aspect of personal bereavement, it is a desolation; yet it is invaria- ble that, at certain points between these two, war produces prosperity. The western world, though not directly embroiled in the European conflict, is keenly affected thereby, suffering in certain fields of activ- ity and being greatly benefited in others. Rightly to determine what will be the favorable and the unfavorable results of the war is a vital issue to Americans in every branch of business life. For more than a year preceding the actual outbreak of hostilities, trade conditions in the United States had been below the mean of an equal balance, and by June 30, 1914, the conditions of money and of industry, considered jointly, showed business to have reached a lower point than had been recorded since the panic of 1907. At the same time, confidence had been reestablished in the country, owing to re- ports of a large cotton yield, a bumper grain crop, and a beginning of returning financial strength after the currency turmoil of the spring. Upon this condition of steady decline and heralded strength the dec- laration of war in Europe fell as a thunderbolt. In considering the effect of the tremendous conflict, conditions in Europe during the months preceding the actual mobilization of the armies should be brought into their due relation. The markets in Germany, France, and England were even more unsound and pan- icky than were those of the United States, and, in addition, they lacked the strength which, in America, was anticipated from the crop reports. Since 1912 the bourses of Europe had been liquidating American securities, at a sacrifice, indeed, in order to secure as much gold as possible. Partly this selection of American securities as the best to sell was due to the stereotyped maxim of the seller that it is wise to unload first securities belonging to lands at a distance, and the 385 386 EFFECT OF WAR ON WESTERN WORLD 38T knowledge that American gold was easy to secure added a consider- able impetus to the liquidation. The United States, therefore, was bled of her stock of gold. In 1914, up to July 25, $79,800,000 in gold bars had been shipped to Europe from the United States. Of this quantity, $63,800,000 had been shipped in the ten weeks prior to the last week in July. In the three days, July 27-30, $28,600,000 more was shipped, much of this being for unlisted securities delivered on the "Olympic," their charac- ter and total value not being accurately known. This pressure upon the gold reserve of the United States, especially coming when it was necessary to move the crop, rendered economic conditions such as to require the issuance of an emergency currency of $80,000,000 to $90,000,000. The principal feature of this movement of gold to Europe was the astounding stability shown by American finances un- der the strain. Not only did the European bourses find it necessary to realize on United States securities, but, as far as possible, they did the same with those of other countries. This drew gold from those sources also and produced elsewhere the same tightening of money. Not having such opportunity for releasing the stringency as the United States possessed in the emergency-currency legislation, these neutral coun- tries became greatly in need of money. Herein lay an immediate chance for the investment of American capital, in the buying of high- grade foreign securities which had been held preferentially for Europe. The interest is high, the risks are not great, and this field of investment, long withheld from American capitalists, is now thrown open. Immediately upon the opening of the war, there was in certain lines a natural paralysis of American business, which is likely to give a false idea as to the adverse eiFect of the European situation. All in- dustries that depend on Europe for their raw materials, or ship raw material to foreign manufacturers, or find in European countries the best markets for their products, are bound to suffer heavily at first. Naturally, the war conditions raised the price of those articles that appear in the tables of imports as having come from Europe in large quantities. At the same time, if it continues, it will cause a drop in prices of all those articles that are produced in America in quantities. 388 EFFECT OF WAR ON WESTERN WORLD 389 which have formed the largest part of our exports. This follows the general rule of supply and demand — the supply being reduced in the former case and increased in the latter. From this temporary numbing of business there must be a rebound, and the American manufacturer has already perceived the opportu- nity that is afforded him by the cessation of imports from his Euro- pean competitors. Houses which heretofore have only been able to secure a small share of the trade of the United States, by reason of foreign competition from countries where the wage-rate is low, now are able to win the whole domestic trade. Numerous examples might be quoted. To take a small case — yet one which appeals to every household — the manufacturers of toys and games of every kind will reap a rich harvest. The "made in Germany" novelties for the Christmas trade will be replaced by "made in America" articles. The watch-and-clock industry has received a considerable stimu- lation from the cessation of Swiss competition. All the textiles, de- spite their loss of French workmen, show signs of taking advan- tage of the situation. California wines will secure a public notice which the overshadowing effect of foreign vintages has partly hid- den until this time. In many lines of industry, Americans have be- gun the production of American-made goods, and it is expected that before long a domestic article will have a reputation as high as that of the imported product. The export of cheap manufactured articles from the United States into the European commerce fields has been done only on a small scale, as the bulk of the export has been of articles classified as luxuries; but the opportunity is good as soon as the war comes to an end. Then the countries of Europe will desire to resume life upon its former scale, and some time will elapse before their industries are again in perfected condition. It is to be remembered, however, that if the war should continue for any considerable length of time, Europe would be too poor to buy any but the cheapest articles, and usually the cheapest grades are the least profitable to the producers. Even these opportunities, however, though allied to the extension of European custom, do not promise a suflSciently permanent trade to justify the building of a plant, since the conflict may be brief. In such case, the European manufactory would immediately begin A DESTROYER IN THE PANAMA CANAL The Opening of This Great Waterway Comes at a Time When the United States May Divert Some of South America's Trade Which Formerly Went to Europe 390 EFFECT OF WAR ON WESTERN WORLD 391 operations again, and the capitalist in the United States who had begun the new venture might find himself with a useless or losing factory on his hands. By running a present plant to full force, however, he might make a considerable sum of money, and then, when normal conditions returned, those who had helped him would share in the benefit and regain the former situation. International relations have become so complicated in modern times, and the articles that are now deemed to be essentials are so vastly more numerous than they were a century ago, that the ques- tion of military supplies is on an entirely new basis. An example of the immediate importance of the progress of the war is seen in its relation to the naval situation. As long as the con- trol of the seas is in the hands of England, it stands to reason that facilities will be provided for the safe-conduct of ships handling our export trade. English factories, therefore, may be regarded as ele- ments leading directly to Ihe prosperity of the United States. On the other hand, as Germany's part in naval warfare is rather that of forcing England to the defensive than of endeavoring to secure ab- solute control of the seas, her activities upon the water are much more likely to be those of a commerce-destroyer. Accordingly, in this light, German naval victories may be considered as factors tend- ing to hinder the prosperity of the United States. Realization of the close interdependence of nations brings prominently into view the fact that the profits received by one nation at the expense of another form at bottom a fictitious prosperity. The depression following the immediate announcement of the war is likely to give place to a long, slow advance in the commodities that the United States can produce and in the securing of fair prices for them. At the same time, after this upward movement has been consummated, the actual pinch will begin to appear, for millions of our customers will have been slain on the field of battle, thousands of our best artisans, who returned to the Fatherland to join the colors, will remain there to take the vacant places of the men that were killed in battle. The United States thus will lose by reason of the depletion in numbers of her European consumers, and also since the war will have been the prime cause in the loss of an efficient section of her producing population. 392 EFFECT OF WAR ON WESTERN WORLD 393 The cessation of certain exports during the continuance of the war will have a deadening effect on certain industries. For exam- ple, the Standard Oil Company laid off fifteen thousand men within a few days after the declaration of war by Germany, owing to the fact that a large part of her oil exports go to that country. The ex- ports and imports of automobiles — which may be classed as a luxury — have fallen practically to nothing, and automobile manufacturers are reducing their outputs to fit the needs of the domestic trade as well as developing their opportunities in South American countries. One of the fields of business that have been the first to be affected by the war conditions is that of agricultural implements. The an- nual exports of agricultural machinery from the United States have been more than $30,000,000, and this business — in which America is supreme among the nations of the world — has dwindled proportion- ately. In Europe this season the crops will have to be garnered by the women and children; indeed, so urgent has become the need of gathering in • the harvest that the governments of the respective States have issued a call to the women, urging them to sacrifice every- thing and become field hands, for the purpose of saving food. The fear of starvation is an ever-present menace in times of war. The difficulty of securing the grain crop is certain to be gl"eatly in- creased by reason of the lack of ability to manage the farm machin- ery. Not only is this owing to the lack of men to work the machines, but also because the horses have been commandeered from most of the farms for military purposes. The crops of the United States hold this year a unique place. With a demand for foodstuffs, especially cereals and meat, almost at the highest point possible, the country has secured a buhiper crop and the packers also foretell a good season. Yet, though the crop is so large and the opportunity of actually sending wheat to Europe is so small, causing the holding up of large supplies, the domestic price increases. It is pointed out by J. Ward Warner, President of the Produce Exchange, that there has been an exorbitant amount of speculative buying of foodstuffs. It has long been a custom of the European nations to keep sup- plies of money on deposit in New York for buying corn, wheat, and flour. For several weeks prior to the declaration of war, orders for 394. EFFECT OF WAR ON WESTERN WORLD foodstuffs came in thick and fast, and the first two weeks after war was declared a vast amount of material was ready for shipment to Europe and waiting for bottoms in which to move it. Canada's gift to the empire of one million bags of flour saved England from an awkward situation, as her actual supplies were running low. The rapid action of the British fleet in clearing the North Atlantic and safeguarding her own interests at the same time relieved the tie-up in American ports and allowed the movement of the foodstuffs from the congested areas. The situation with regard to foodstuffs possesses certain compU- cations by reason of the fact that these are classed among the group of subjects to be considered as conditional contraband. Absolute contraband consists of articles that are used in warfare, such as guns, ammunition, and military vehicles. The principal articles listed as conditional contraband are foodstuffs, forage, clothing, boots and shoes, bullion, ships and boats, railway and telegraph material, bal- loons and flying machines, fuels and lubricants, barbed wire, and scientific instruments. AU these, it will be noted, are substances that would be likely to be of service in an extended war. How thoroughly this embargo applies is strongly evidenced by the fate that has befallen the apple crop. The International Apple- Shippers' Association held its regular annual convention at Boston in the first week of August, immediately after the outbreak of the war. At this convention orders usually are received representing the movement of about half the apple crop. The shippers for years have been enabled to place their crop by this means, and it has been their custom to go home, after the convention, with the final arrange- ments made concerning shipments, and to rush the fruit away. But at the convention this year there was not a single large order, and no apples are being packed for European shipment. Cotton is another crop that is hard hit by the war. Despite of the fact that the crop is of unusual excellence in the United States, this will be of little service to cotton-growers immediately. By far the largest amount of the raw cotton produced in this country is ex- ported to English mills, only one fourth of it, and that of the lower grades, being retained in the United States. There has been a large over-production of cotton goods, and for some time past the cotton 395 396 EFFECT OF WAR ON WESTERN WORLD mills in the United Kingdom have been running on half time. As the warehouses in the Orient and elsewhere are filled with manufac- tured cotton goods, no profit worth considering will accrue to Ameri- can cotton-growers. But, should the war last long enough to deplete the stocks now on hand, there will be the opportunity of a lifetime in the cotton business. Not only will the American manufacturer be able to dispose of his output at a good profit, but he will have also the opportunity of manufacturing a higher grade of goods than has heretofore been produced in the United States. In the metal trades the market is strong. With a widespread and possibly a long war in prospect, pig iron, sheet steel, bars, tubes, bil- lets, semi-finished iron and steel products are in demand. The de- mand on this department is intense, as much of this material can be utilized in the manufacture of munitions of war. Copper, which is used far more in building construction than in war material, shows a decline, mines are shutting down, and there is a general depression through the industry. A recovery of price, followed by a steadying, is anticipated. With the conditions in the several industries as they have been out- lined, the next consideration that determines the eiFect of the war upon the western world is that of shipping. The days have long passed since the American clipper was the queen of the seas. During the first thirty-five years of the nineteenth century, no nation was more justly proud of its merchant marine than the American. But about 1840 occurred the change from wooden ship to iron, and thence to steel. That was the knell of the American commercial power on the sea. Having resources of coal and iron and cheaper labor than could be secured in the United States, England plunged into the manufac- ture of steel vessels. A high protection was put upon iron, and this doubly handicapped the American shipbuilder. In addition to this, the prohibition which refused to foreign-built vessels the right to fly the American flag had the efl*ect of driving the stars and stripes from the sea. Since those days a new factor has entered into the situation. This is the fact that improved machinery and efficiency of handling now enable the United States to make steel as cheaply here as anywhere. Moreover, while the wages are higher than in any other shipbuilding EFFECT OF WAR ON WESTERN WORLD 397 country, the American is a much more rapid workman. Many forces are at work making arrangements to seize the bulk of the carrying trade, if possible. Experts are unanimously agreed that the pur- chase of every foreign vessel that is seaworthy should be made, that the laws should be amended to admit the American registry of such . purchases and in every way possible to consider American vessels as a commercial factor. For a considerable time the advance of the United States to the position of one of the first Powers of the world has made it evident that an American mercantile marine is a necessity, and that this coun- try is distinctly failing to fulfil a part of its mission in neglecting this feature of its development. One sidelight was thrown on this question in the battle-ship cruise around the world, when it was found that an American battle-ship fleet could not be moved without the assistance of foreign colliers. The present war has thrown the need of a mercantile marine into still clearer light. From the point of view of commerce, but also with the question of national prestige at stake, there is no denying the importance of this development. Under circumstances similar to those which .confronted the United States at the opening of the war, viz., the knowledge that thousands of her citizens were stranded in the countries of belliger- ents, almost any nation in the world could have sent to their assist- ance vessels under her own neutral flag. Great hardships were endured, and serious loss of property resulted, from the fact that America had no ships to send. It is true that a situation such as this might never occur again ; but that it could occur at all shows a weak link in the chain of American citizenship. It hardly needs a prophet to declare that one of the lasting efl*ects of the European war upon the western world will be the development of a great mercantile marine on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. Intimately connected with the question of ships, and also with the loss of foreign trade by European nations now grappled in con- flict and spending certainly not less than $30,000,000 a day (the sta- tisticians declare that it is $50,000,000), is the opportunity in South and Central America. The Monroe Doctrine, since the mediation question in Mexico, is largely giving place to the so-called "A. B. C." 398 EFFECT OF WAR ON WESTERN WORLD policy, and the effect of this among the republics of South America has been marked. "All South America," says John Barrett, director-general of the Pan-American Union, "is an enormous purchaser of manufactured products, and she secures by far the greatest part of them from Europe, buying $700,000,000 v/orth annually. Of this sum, almost two thirds is from Germany alone. She also sells $800,000,000 worth of her products to Europe." Whatever may be the final result of the war, so far as territorial changes of the map of Europe are concerned, there is no question that the manufacturing interests of Germany will be seriously crip- pled. The trade of South America, therefore, may be handed over to the merchants of the United States as if on a golden platter. All that is needed to establish a relation of great mutual advantage is to accept this in the spirit in which it is tendered, on our part undertak- ing to do what Europe does — ^handle her trade in the manner that South America wants and not by the methods to which many big corporations and business firms are hidebound. A billion and a half dollars' worth of trade is there waiting for the United States to pick up, and this volume of commerce is being increased year by year with the rapid development of the Latin- American republics. "The war will do much to increase our trade prospects in South America and to enable us to tighten our grip on the business oppor- tunities in this country," said Frank A. Vanderlip, president of the National City Bank. "Much depends on whether we take advantage of our opportunity to establish steamship lines and other means of transport for carrying our products to South America, bringing back their goods in our own ships." While it must be remembered that Brazil and Argentina and Chile are not quite a Tom Tiddler's ground, where gold and silver may be picked up for the stooping, at least it is certain that one of the rarest opportunities for a young man is that of a business scout in South America, representing the United States with the same vigor and skill that have deen displayed Iby the German scouts. The scout system, which was devised by Germany to secure preferential trade with countries all over the world, has been the most effective form of salesmanship ever seen. It is America's chance to do it now. 400 EFFECT OF WAR ON WESTERN WORLD The consular reports are of great assistance ; but the scout, travehng far and wide through a country, with his eye keen for business condi- tions and with his intentions set on making his firm the dominating one in the business in South America, is of tenfold more service. With the establishment of a merchant marine, the seizure of the South American trade, and the extension of American trade into the Orient, the evil effects of the war upon America will be minimized, and, at the last, may be turned into permanent benefits. The open- ing of these avenues to trade will serve to reduce the disaster that this war brings upon the labor world. Hundreds of thousands of men will be thrown out of work because the factories lack an outlet for their wares ; hundreds of thousands of families will be left starving in America because of the war in Europe; millions will suffer depriva- tion of their accustomed state of living because the cost of commodi- ties is rising to a point that will be almost prohibitive. On the other hand, as soon as business resumes again, there will be an era of unexampled prosperity for the workingman. Large numbers of reservists have left the United States for their ow^n coun- tries, many of them skilled workers of great value to America. Thousands never will return, but in their home land will take the places of the men who have been killed or disabled on the battle-field. JNIoreover, immigration has stopped absolutely, and even a few months of such a stoppage, with the natural increase of opportunity in this country, will afford abundant employment to all on the resump- tion of normal conditions. The western world will suffer, since in these modern times all nations are more of kin than ever before in the history of the world. In the United States, members of racial stocks now battling against one another live in peace and friendship side by side. There is no cor- ner in all this wide land where news of triumph on the one side does not carry sorrow to others. "Reactionary autocracy," says Samuel Gompers, "cannot perma- nently stay progress. The peoples of Europe will emerge from the carnage and smoke of battle with renewed determination to establish principles and institutions that are in harmony with industrial, social, and political development. This war will constitute a more urgent reason to destroy monarchical institutions, autocratic power, and to EFFECT OF WAR ON WESTERN WORLD 401 banish militarism — a reason forced upon the consciousness of all by maimed and dead bodies of fathers and sons, husbands and brothers, by the starved under-development of women and children, and by terrible desolation brooding over the continent like an evil spirit." In such a conflict, in such a time of stress, America indeed may be neutral, may be outside the field of expressed participation, but Americans are not. There are few men who will feel the pinch of the impending adversity as keenly as they feel the haunting burden of the death-tool on the battle-fields of Europe, few men who will re- joice more in the prosperity that will so soon follow, as they will rejoice that peace has come again upon the earth. There is no American who will wish to batten upon the spoils of the dreadful feast. In no country in the world will the thankfulness be greater when the sword is again beaten into the plowshare than in these Linited States, whose population is formed largely of elements that elsewhere are in discord, and who have found worthy work and noble peace in a land of democratic institutions. Copyright, 1912, by Pack Bros. WOODROW WILSON The Good Will of the United States Has Been Eagerly Sought by All the Powers Now at War. President Wilson Has Handled Delicate Questions Involving the Neutrality of the United States with Great Firmness and Skill, and His Official Utterances Have Been Notable for the Elegance of Their Literary Form 402 CHAPTER XIII STATE PAPERS AND OFFICIAL CORRESPONDENCE In the following pages the reader will find the full text of a num- ber of important state papers bearing upon the war — ultimatums, declarations of war, manifestos, and messages exchanged by eminent personages. Because of their solemn import, these documents pos- sess a profound interest; and they will form an historical record of great value. Ultimatum Sent by AustriarHungaxy to Servia, July 23, 1914 On March 31, 1909, the Royal Servian Min- ister in Vienna on the instructions of the Servian Government, made the following statements to the Imperial and Royal Gov- ernment : "Servia recognizes that the fait accompli regarding Bosnia has not affected her rights, and consequently she will conform to the de- cisions that the Powers will take in con- formity with Article XXV of the Treaty of Berlin. At the same time that Servia sub- mits to the advice of the Powers she under- talies to renounce the attitude of protest and opposition which she has adopted since Octo- ber last. She undertakes on the other hand to modify the direction of her policy with regard to Austria-Hungary and to live in future on good neighborly terms with the latter." The history of recent years, and in par- ticular the painful events of June 27 last, have shown the existence in Servia of a sub- versive movement with the object of detach- ing a part of Austria-Hungary from the monarchy. The movement, which had its birth under the eyes of the Servian Govern- ment, has had consequences on both sides of the Servian frontier in the shape of acts of terrorism and a series of outrages and murders. Far from carrying but the formal under- takings contained in the declaration of March 31, 1909, the Royal Servian Government has done nothing to repress these movements. It has permitted the criminal machinations of various societies and associations, and has tolerated unrestrained language on the part 403 of the press, apologies for the perpetrators of outrages, and participation of officers and functionaries in subversive agitation. It has permitted an unwholesome propaganda in public Instruction. In short, it has permitted all the manifestations which have incited the Servian population to hatred of the mon- archy and contempt of its institutions. This culpable tolerance of the Royal Ser- vian Government had ceased at the moment when the events of June 28 last proved its fatal consequence to the whole world. It results from the disposition and con- fessions of the outrage of June 28 that the Sarajevo assassinations were hatched in Bel- grade, that the arms and explosives with which the murderers were provided had been given to them by Servian officers and func- tionaries belonging to the Narodna Obrava, and, finally, that the passage into Bosnia of the criminals and their arms was organized and effected by the chiefs of the Servian frontier service. The above-mentioned results of the magis- terial investigation do not permit the Aus- tro-Hungarian Government to pursue any longer the attitude of expectant forbearance which it has maintained for years in face of the machinations hatched in Belgrade and thence propagated in the territories of the monarchy. These results, on the contrary, impose on it the duty of putting an end to intrigues which form a perpetual menace to the tranquillity of the monarchy. To achieve this end, the Imperial and Royal Government sees itself compelled to demand from the Servian Government a for- mal assurance that it condemns this danger- ous propaganda against the monarchy and the territories belonging to it, and that the 404 STATE PAPERS Royal Servian Government shall no longer permit these machinations and this criminal and perverse propaganda. In order to give a formal character to this undertaking the Royal Servian Government shall publish on the front page of its official journal for July 26 the following declara- tion: "The Royal Government of Servia con- demns the propaganda directed against Aus- tria-Hungary, i. e., the ensemble of tendencies of which the final aim is to detach from the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy territories be- longing to it, and it sincerely deplores the fatal consequences of these criminal proceed- ings. "The Royal Government regrets that Ser- vian officers and functionaries participated in the above-mentioned propaganda and thus compromised the good, neighborly relations to which the Royal Government was solemnly pledged by its declaration of March 31, 1909. The Royal Government, which disapproves and repudiates all idea of interfering or at- tempt to interfere with the destinies of the inhabitants of any part whatsoever of Aus- tria-Hungary, considers it its duty formally to warn officers and functionaries, and the whole population of the kingdom, that hence- forth it will proceed with the utmost rigor against persons who may be guilty of such machinations, which it will use all its efforts to anticipate and suppress." This declaration shall simultaneously be communicated to the Royal Army as an order of the day by His Majesty the King, and shall be published in the official bulletin of the army. The Royal Servian Government further un- dertakes : 1. To suppress any publications which in- cite to hatred and contempt of the Austro- Hungarian Monarchy and the general ten- dency of which is directed against its terri- torial integrity. 2.. To dissolve immediately the society styled Narodna Obrana, to confiscate all its means of propaganda and to proceed in the same manner against other societies and their branches in Servia which are addicted to propaganda against the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. The Royal Government shall take the necessary measures to prevent the so- cieties dissolved from continuing their activ- ity under another name and form. 3. To eliminate without delay from public instruction in Servia, not only as regards the teaching body, but also as regards the meth- ods of instruction, everything that serves or might serve to foment the propaganda against Austria-Hungary. 4. To remove from military service and from the Administration in general all offi- cers and functionaries guilty of propaganda against the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, whose names and deeds the Austro-Hun- garian Government reserves to itself the right of communicating to the Royal Government. 5. To accept the collaboration in Servia of representatives of the Austro-Hungarian Government in the suppression of the subver- sive movement directed against the territorial integrity of the monarchy. 6. To take judicial proceedings against ac- cessories to the plot of June 28 who are on Servian territory. Delegates of the Austro- Hungarian Government will take part in the investigation relating thereto. 7. To proceed without delay to the arrest of Major Voija Tankositch and of the in- dividual named Milan Ciganovitch, a Servian State employee, who have been compromised by the results of the magisterial inquiry at Sarajevo. 8. To prevent by effective measures the co- operation of the Servian authorities in the illicit traffic in arms and explosives across the frontier, to dismiss and punish severely officials of the frontier service at Achabatz and Loznica guilty of having assisted the perpetrators of the Sarajevo crime by facili- tating the passage of the frontier for them. 9. To furnish the Austro-Hungarian Gov- ernment with explanations regarding the un- justifiable utterances of high Servian officials both in Servia and abroad, who, notwith- standing their official, position, did not hesi- tate after the crime of June 28 to express themselves in interviews in terms of hostility to the Austro-Hungarian Government; and finally, 10. To notify the Austro-Hungarian Gov- ernment without delay of the execution of STATE PAPERS 405 the measures comprised under the proceeding heads. The Austro-Hungarian Government ex- pects the reply of the Servian Government at the latest by 6 o'clock on Saturday evening, the 25th of July. Circular Note to the Powers Issued by the Austro-Hungarian Foreign Office, July 24, 1914 The Imperial and Royal Government has felt itself compelled to forward on Thurs- day the 23d inst., to the Royal Servian Gov- ernment through its Imperial and Royal Min- ister in Belgrade the following note: [The Austro-Hungarian ultimatum to Ser- via was here inserted.] I have the honor to request your Excel- lency to bring the contents of this note be- fore the Government to which you are ac- credited, and to accompany this with the following explanations: On the 31st March, 1909, the Royal Servian Government ad- dressed a statement to Austria-Hungary, the text of which is repeated above. Almost on the following day Servia's policy took a direction tending to rouse ideas subversive to the Austro-Hungarian monarchy in the minds of Servian subjects, and thereby to prepare for the detachment of those districts of Austria-Hungary which adjoin the Ser- vian frontier. A large number of agents are employed in furthering by all possible means the agi- tation against Austria-Hungary to corrupt the youth of those territories of Austria- Hungary bordering on Servia. The spirit of conspiracy which animates Servian political circles and which has left its bloody traces in the history of Servia has grown since the last Balkan crisis. Members of bands who up to the time had found occupation in Macedonia have since placed themselves at the disposal of the terrorist propaganda against Austria-Hungary. The Servian Gov- ernment has never considered itself obliged to take steps of any kind against the in- trigues to which Austria-Hungary has been exposed for years. The patience which the Imperial and Royal Government has observed toward the provoca- tive attitude of Servia is to be attributed to the fact that she knew herself to be free from all territorial interests and to the hope which she did not abandon that the Servian Gov- ernment would eventually prize at its worth the friendship of Austria-Hungary. The Im- perial and Royal Government thought that a benevolent attitude toward the political in- terests of Servia would eventually call for a similar attitude from that kingdom. Austria-Hungary expected an evolution of this nature in the political ideas of Servia more especially at the time following the events of the year 1912, when the Imperial and Royal Government, by its disinterested attitude from any suggestion of ill-will made possible the important extension of Servia. The sympathy which Austria-Hungary demonstrated in its neighbor nevertheless made no change in the conduct of that king- dom, which continued to permit on its terri- tory a propaganda, the lamentable conse- quences of which were made evident to the whole world on June 28 this year, when the heir apparent of the dual monarchy and his illustrious consort fell the victims to a plot hatched in Belgrade. In view of this state of affairs the Imper- ial and Royal Government found itself com- pelled to take a fresh and energetic step in Belgrade, of such a nature as to induce the Servian Government to put an end to a movement which threatened the security and integrity of Austria-Hungary. The Imperial and Royal Government is convinced that in taking this step it is acting in complete har- mony with the feelings of all civilized na- tions, which cannot agree that royal assassina- tions can be made a weapon to be used un- punished in political struggles, and that the peace of Europe may be incessantly disturbed by intrigues which emanate from Belgrade. In support of these statements, the Im- perial and Royal Government holds at the disposal of the Government to which you are accredited a dossier dealing with the Servian propaganda, and showing the connection of this propaganda with the assassination of June 28. 406 STATE PAPERS The Reply of Servia to the Austro- Hungarian Ultimatum, July 25, 1914 The Royal Servian Government received the communication of the Imperial and Royal Austro-Hungarian Government of the 23d of this month, and it is persuaded that its reply will remove all misunderstanding tending to threaten or to prejudice the friendly and neighborly relations between the Austro-Hun- garian Monarchy and the Kingdom of Servia. The Royal Government is aware that the protests made both at the tribune of the National Skupshtina and in the declarations and the acts of the State — protests which were cut short by the declaration of the Servian Government made on March 18 — have not been renewed toward the great neighboring monarchy on any occasion, and that since this time, both on the part of the Royal Governments which have followed on one another, and on the part of their organs, no attempt has been made with the purpose of changing the political and judicial state of things in this respect. The Imperial and Royal Government has made no representations save concerning a scholastic book regarding which the Imperial and Royal Government has received an en- tirely satisfactory explanation. Servia has repeatedly given proofs of her pacific and moderate policy during the Balkan crises, and it is thanks to Servia and the interest of the peace of Europe that this peace has' been preserved. The Royal Government can- not be held responsible for manifestations of a private nature, such as newspaper articles and the peaceful work of societies — manifes- tations which occur in almost all countries as a matter of course, and which, as a gen- eral rule, escape oflBcial control — all the less in that the Royal Government, when solving a whole series of questions which came up between Servia and Austria-Hungary, has displayed a great readiness to treat, and in this way succeeded in settling the greater number to the advantage of the progress of the two neighboring countries. It is for this reason that the Royal Gov- ernment has been painfully surprised by the statements, according to which persons of the kingdom of Servia are said to have taken part in the perpetration of the outrage com- mitted at Sarajevo. It is expected that it would be invited to collaborate in the investi- gation of everything bearing on this crime, and it was ready to prove by its actions its entire readiness to take steps against all per- sons with regard to whom communications had been made to it, thus acquiescing in the desire of the Imperial and Royal Govern- ment. The Royal Government is disposed to hand over to the courts any Servian subject, with- out regard to his situation and rank, for whose complicity in crime of Sarajevo it shall have been furnished with proofs, and espe- cially it engages itself to have published on the front page of the Official Journal of July 13-;36 the foUdwing announcement: "The Royal Servian Government condemns all propaganda directed against Austria- Hungary, that is to say, all tendencies as a whole of which the ultimate object is to de- tach from the Austro-Hungarian monarchy territories which form a part of it, and it sincerely deplores the fatal consequences of these criminal actions. The Royal Govern- ment regrets that Servian officials should, according to the communication of the Im- perial and Royal Government, have par- ticipated in the above-mentioned propaganda, thereby comprising the good neighborly re- lations to which the Royal Government sol- emnly pledged itself by its declaration of the 31st March, 1909. The Government which disapproves and repudiates any idea or attempt to interfere in the destinies of the inhabitants of any part of Austria-Hun- gary whatsoever, considers it its duty to utter a formal warning to the officers, the officials, and the whole population of that kingdom that henceforth it will proceed with the ut- most rigor against persons who render them- selves guilt^y of such actions, which it will use aU its eflForts to prevent and repress." This announcement shall be brought to the cognizance of the Royal Army by an order of the day issued in the name of His Majesty the King by H. R. H. the Crown Prince Alexander, and shall be published in the next official bulletin of the arm)\ 1. The Royal Government engages itself. STATE PAPERS 407 furthermore, to lay before the next regular meeting of the Skupshtina an amendment of the press law, punishing in the severest manner incitements to hate and contempt of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy and also all publications of which the general ten- dency is directed against the territorial in- tegrity of the monarchy. It undertakes at the forthcoming revision of the Constitution to introduce in Article XXII of the Con- stitution an amendment whereby the above publications may be confiscated, which is at present categorically forbidden by the terms of Article XXII of the Constitution. 2. The Government does not possess any proof, nor does the note of the Imperial and Royal Government furnish such, that the society Narodna Obrana and other similar societies have up to the present committed any criminal acts of this kind through the instrumentality of one of their members. Nevertheless, the Royal Government will ac- cept the demand of the Imperial and Royal Government and will dissolve the Narodna Obrana Society and any other society which shall agitate against Austria-Hungary. 3. The Royal Servian Government engages itself to eliminate without delay for public instruction in Servia everything which aids or might aid in fomenting the propaganda against Austro-Hungary when the Imperial and Royal Government furnishes facts and proofs of this propaganda. 4. The Royal Government also agrees to remove from the military service (all per- sons) whom the judicial inquiry proves to have been guilty of acts directed against the integrity of the territory of the Austro-Hun- garian monarchy, and it expects the Imperial and Royal Government to communicate at a later date the names and the deeds of these officers and officials, for the purpose of the proceedings which will have to be taken. 5. The Royal Government must confess that it is not quite clear as to the sense and object of the demands of the Imperial and Royal Government that Servia should under- take to accept on her territory the collabora- tion of delegates of the Imperial and Royal Government, but it declares that it will admit whatever collaboration which may be in ac- cord with the principles of international law and criminal procedure, as well as with good neighborly relations. 6. The Royal Government, as goes without saying, considers it to be its duty to open an inquiry against all those who are, or shall eventually prove to have been, involved in the plot of June 28, and who are in Servian territory. As to the participation at this in- vestigation of agents of the Austro-Hun- garian authorities delegated for this purpose by the Imperial and Royal Government, the Royal Government cannot accept this de- mand, for it would be a violation of the Con- stitution and of the law of criminal pro- cedure. Nevertheless, in concrete cases it might be found possible to communicate the results of the investigation in question to the Austro-Hungarian representatives. 7. On the very evening that the note was handed in the Royal Government arrested Major Voija Tankositch, As for Milan Ciganovitch, who is a subject of the Austro- Hungarian monarchy, and who, until June 15, was employed as a beginner in the ad- ministration of the railways, it has not yet been possible to (arrest) him. In view of the ultimate inquiry the Imperial and Royal Government is requested to have the goodness to communicate in the usual form as soon as possible the presumptions of guilt as well as the eventual proofs of guilt against these persons which have been collected up to the present in the investigations at Sarajevo. 8. The Servian Government will strengthen and extend the measures taken to prevent the illicit traffic of arms and explosives across the frontier. It goes without saying that it will immediately order an investigation, and will severely punish the frontier officials along the line Schabatz-Losnitza who have been lacking in their duties and who allowed the authors of the crime of Sarajevo to pass. 9. The Royal Government will willingly give explanations regarding the remarks made in interviews by its officials, both in Servia and abroad, after the attempt, and which, according to the statement of the Imperial and Royal Government, were hos- tile toward the monarchy, as soon as the Im- perial and Royal Government has (forward- ed) it the passages in question of these re- marks and as soon as it has shown that the 408 STATE PAPERS remarks made were in reality made bj the officials regarding whom the Royal Govern- ment itself will see about collecting proofs. 10. The Royal Government will inform the Imperial and Royal Government of the exe- cution of the measures comprised in the pre- ceding points, in as far as that has not already been done by the present note, as soon as each measure has been ordered and executed. In the event of the Imperial and Royal Government not being satisfied with this re- ply, the Royal Servian Government, consider- ing that it is to the common interest not to precipitate the solution of this question, is ready, as always, to accept a pacific under- standing, either by referring this question to the decision of The Hague International Tribunal or to the great powers which took part in the drawing up of the declaration made by the Servian Government on the 18-31 March, 1909. Circular Note Issued by Austria-Hun- gary Denouncing Servia's Reply, July 26, 1914 The object of the Servian note is to create the false impression that the Servian Gov- ernment is prepared in great measure to comply with our demands. As a matter of fact, however, Servia's note is filled with the spirit of dishonesty, which clearly lets it be seen that the Servian Gov- ernment is not seriously determined to put an end to the culpable tolerance it hitherto has extended to intrigues against the Austro- Hungarian Monarchy. The Servian note contains such far-reach- ing reservations and limitations not only re- garding the general principles of our action, but also in regard to the individual claims we have put forward that the concessions actually made by Servia become insignificant. In particular our demand for the partici- pation of the Austro-Hungarian authorities in the conspiracy on Servian territory has been rejected, while our request that meas- ures be taken against that section of the Servian press hostile to Austro-Hungary has been declined, and our wish that the Servian Government take the necessary measures to present the dissolved Austro-phobe associa- tions continuing their activity under another name and under another form has not even been considered. Since the claims in the Austro-Hungarian note of July 23, regard being had to the attitude hitherto adopted by Servia, repre- sent the minimum of what is necessary for the establishment of permanent peace with the Southeastern monarchy, the Servian an- swer must be regarded as unsatisfactory. That the Servian Government itself is con- scious that its note is not acceptable to us is proved by the circumstance that it pro- poses at the end of the note to submit the dispute to arbitration — an invitation which is thrown into its proper light by the fact that three hours before handing in the note, a few minutes before the expiration of the time limit, the mobilization of the Servian Army took place. Austria-Hungary's Declaration of War Against Servia, July 28, 1914 The Royal Government of Servia not hav- ing replied in a satisfactory manner to the note remitted to it by the Austro-Hungarian Minister in Belgrade on July 23, 1914, the Imperial and Royal Government finds itself compelled to proceed to safeguard its rights and interests and to have recourse for this purpose to force of arms. Austria-Hungary considers itself, there- fore, from this moment in a state of war with Servia. Note of the Russian Foreign Office, July 28, 1914 Numerous patriotic demonstrations of the last few days in St. Petersburg and other cities prove that the firm pacific policy of Russia finds a sympathetic echo among all classes of the population. The Government hopes, nevertheless, that the expression of feeling of the people will not be tinged with enmity against the powers with whom Russia is at peace, and with whom she wishes to remain at peace. While the Government gathers strength from this wave of popular feeling and ex- STATE PAPERS 409 pects its subjects to retain their reticence and tranquillity, it rests confidently on the guar- dianship of the dignity and the interests of Russia. The Czar's Personal Note to the Kaiser, July 31, 1914 I thank thee from my heart for thy media- tion, which leaves a gleam of hope that even now all may end peacefully. It is technically impossible to discontinue our military opera- tion, which has been rendered necessary by Austrian mobilization. We are far from wishing for war, and so long as negotiations with Austria regarding Servia continue my troops will not undertake any provocative action. I give thee my word upon it, and I trust with my strength in God's grace and hope for the success of thy mediation at Vienna, and for our countries' peace and the peace of Europe. The Kaiser's Reply to the Czar's Note, July 31, 1914 In answer to thy appeal to my friendship and thy prayer for my help, I undertook mediatory action between the Austro-Hun- garian Government and thine. While this action was in progress thy troops were mo- bilized against my ally, Austria-Hungary, in consequence of which", as I have already informed thee, my mediation was rendered nearly illusory. Nevertheless, it continued. But now I am in possession of trustworthy advices concerning the serious war prepara- tions on my eastern frontier as well. My responsibility for the safety of my empire compels me to counter-measures of defense. In my endeavors for the mainte- nance of the peace of the world I have gone to the extreme limit of the possible. It is not I that shall bear the responsibility for the peril which now threatens the civilized world. I lay it to thy hand to avert it, even at this moment. No one menaces the honor and might of Russia, which well could have waited upon the result of my mediation. The friendship for thee and thy empire bequeathed to me by my grandfather on his deathbed has al- ways been sacred to me, and I have re- mained true to Russia when it was in grave distress, especially in your last war. The' peace of Europe can yet be conserved by thee if Russia decides to discontinue her military measures which threaten Germany and Austria-Hungary. King George's Personal Appeal to the Czar, August 1, 1914 "I cannot help thinking that some mis- understanding has produced this deadlock. I am most anxious not to miss any possibility of avoiding the terrible calamity which at present threatens the whole world. I there- fore make a personal apppeal to you to re- move the misapprehension which I feel must have occurred, and to leave still open grounds for negotiation and possible peace. "If you think I can in any way contribute to that all-important purpose, I will do every- thing in my power to assist in reopening the interrupted conversations between the powers concerned. I feel confident that you are as anxious as I am that all that is possible should be done to secure the peace of the world." The Czar's Reply to King George's Appeal, August 1, 1914 "I would gladly have accepted your pro- posals had not the German Ambassador this afternoon presented a note to my Govern- ment declaring war. Ever since the presenta- tion of the ultimatum at Belgrade, Russia has devoted all her efforts to finding some pacific solution of the question raised by Austria's action. The object of that action was to crush Servia and make her a vassal of Austria. The effect of this would have been to upset the balance of power in the Balkans, which is of such vital interest to my empire. "Every proposal, including that of your Government, was rejected by Germany and Austria, and it was only when the favorable moment for bringing pressure to bear on Austria had passed that Germany showed any disposition to mediate. Even then she did 410 STATE PAPERS not put forward any precise proposal. Aus- tria's declaration of war on Servia forced me to order a partial mobilization, though, in view of the threatening situation, my mili- tary advisers strongly advised a general mob- ilization owing to the quickness with which Germany can mobilize in comparison with Russia. "I was eventually compelled to take this course in consequence of complete Austrian mobilization, of the bombardment of Bel- grade, of concentration of Austrian troops in Galicia, and of secret military prepara- tions being made in Germany. That I was justified in doing so is proved by Germany's sudden declaration of war, which was quite unexpected by me, as I had given most cate- gorical assurances to the Emperor William that my troops would not move so long as mediation negotiations continued. "In this solemn hour I wish to assure you once more that I have done all in my power to avert war. Now that it has been forced on me, I trust your country will not fail to support France and Russia. God bless and protect you." Proclamation of. President Poincare Following the Decree of French Mobilization, August 1, 1914 "For some days the States of Europe have been considerably aggravated, and, notwith- standing the eflForts of diplomacy, the horizon has darkened. At the present hour a greater part of the nations have mobilized their forces. Even the countries protected by neu- trality conventions have deemed it their duty to take this measure as a precaution. "The powers whose constitutional or mili- tary legislation differs from ours have, with- out issuing a decree of mobilization, begun and carried on preparations which, in reality, are equivalent to mobilization, and are but the anticipated execution of it. "France, who always has affirmed her de- sire for peace, who on many a tragic day has given to Europe counsels of moderation and a living example of decorum, and who has multiplied her efforts to maintain the peace of the world, has now prepared her- self for all eventualities, and has taken her first indispensable dispositions for the safe- guarding of her territory. "But our legislation does not permit the completion of these preparations without a decree of mobilization. Conscious of its high responsibility, and feeling that it would fail in its sacred duty if it did not take this measure, the Government has signed the de- cree. "Mobilization is not war. Under the pres- ent circumstances it would appear, on the contrary, to be the best means of assuring peace with honor. "Strong in its ardent desire of arriving at a peaceful solution of this crisis, the Government under cover of these essential precautions will continue its diplomatic ef- forts, and still hopes to succeed. It counts upon the coolness of the people not to give up to unjustified emotion. It counts upon the patriotism of every Frenchman, and it knows that there is not a single one who is not ready to do his duty at this hour. "There are no longer any parties. There is an eternal France — a France peaceful and resolute. There is a fatherland of peace and justice, all united in calm vigilance and dignity." Manifesto of the Czar to the Russian People upon Germany's Declara- tion of War, August 3, 1914 "By the grace of God, we, Nicholas II, Emperor and Autocrat of all the Russias, King of Poland, and Grand Duke of Finland, &c., to all our faithful subjects make known that Russia, related by faith and blood to the Slav peoples and faithful to her histori- cal traditions, has never regarded their fates with indifference. "But the fraternal sentiments of the Rus- sian people for the Slavs have been awak- ened with perfect unanimity and extraordi- nary force in these last few days, when Austria-Hungary knowingly addressed to Servia claims inacceptable for an indepen- dent State. "Having paid no attention to the pacific and conciliatory »eply of the Servian Gov- ernment, and ha^ ing rejected the benevolent intervention of Russia, Austria-Himgary STATE PAPERS 411 made haste to proceed to an armed attack, and began to bombard Belgrade, an open place. "Forced by the situation thus created to take necessary measures of precaution, we ordered the army and the navy put on a war footing, at the same time using every endeavor to obtain a peaceful solution. Pour- parlers were begun amid friendly relations with Germany and her ally, Austria, for the blood and the property 9f her subjects were dear to us. "Contrary to our hopes in our good neigh- borly relations of long date, and disregard- ing our assurances that the mobilization measures taken were in pursuance of no ob- ject hostile to her, Germany demanded their immediate cessation. Being rebuffed in this demand, Germany suddenly declared war on Russia. "Now it is not only protection of a coun- try related to us and unjustly attacked that must be accorded, but we must safe- guard the honor, the dignity, and the integ- rity of Russia and her position among the great powers. "We believe unshakably that all our faith- ful subjects will rise with unanimity and devotion for the defense of Russian soil; that internal discord will be forgotten in this threatening hour; that the unity of the Em- peror with his people will become still more close, and that Russia, rising like one man, will repulse the insolent attack of the enemy. "With a profound faith in the justice of our work, and with a humble hope in om- nipotent Providence in prayer, we call God's blessing on holy Russia and her valiant troops. "Nicholas." Personal Message from King Albert of Belgium to King George, August 2, 1914 "Remembering the numerous proofs of your Majesty's friendship and that of your predecessor, of the friendly attitude of Eng- land in 1870, and the proof of the friendship which she has just given us again, I make a supreme appeal to the diplomatic interven- tion of your Majesty's Government to safe- guard the integrity of Belgium. "Albert." Telegram from Sir Edward Grey to British Ambassador Instructing Him to Deliver an Ultimatum to Germany, August 4, 1914 "We hear that Germany has addressed note to Belgian Minister for Foreign AflFairs stating that German Government will be compelled to carry out, if necessary by force of arms, the measures considered indispen- sable. "We are also informed that Belgian ter- ritory has been violated at Gemmenich. "In these circumstances, and in view of the fact that Germany declined to give the same assurance respecting Belgium as France gave last week in reply to our request made simultaneously at Berlin and Paris, we must repeat that request, and ask that a satisfac- tory reply to it and to my telegram of this morning be received here by 12 o'clock to- night. If not, you are instructed to ask for your passports, and to say that His Majesty's Government feel bound to take all steps in their power to uphold the neutrality of Belgium and the observance of a treaty to which Germany is as much a party as ourselves. "Edward Ghey." Statement of the British Foreign Of- fice after the Proclamation of War on Germany, August 4, 1914 "Owing to the summary rejection by the German Government of the request made by His Britannic Majesty's Government that the neutrality of Belgium should be respected. His Majesty's Ambassador at Berlin has re- ceived his passports and His Majesty's Gov- ernment has declared to the German Gov- ernment that a state of war exists between Great Britain and Germany from 11 o'clock P. M., Aug. 4." 412 STATE PAPERS President Wilson's Tender of Good OflBces, Made to Each of the Rulers of the States at War, August 5, 1914 "As oiBcial head of one of the Powers sig- natory to The Hague Convention, I feel it to be my privilege and my duty, under Ar- tide III of that Convention, to say to you in a spirit of most earnest friendship that I should welcome an opportunity to act in the interest of European peace, either now or any other time that might be thought more suitable, as an occasion to serve you and all concerned in a way that would afford me lasting cause for gratitude and happiness. "WooDEow Wilson." Statement of the British Foreign Of- fice Following the Declaration of War on Austria-Hungary, August 13, 1914 "After having declared war on Servia and having thus taken the initiative in the hos- tilities in Europe, the Austro-Hungarian Government has placed itself, without any provocation from the Government of the French Republic, in a state of war with France; and after Germany has successively declared war against Russia and France she has intervened in this conflict by declaring war on Russia, who is already fighting on the side of France. "According to information worthy of be- lief Austria has sent troops over the German frontier in such manner as to constitute a direct menace against France. In the face of these facts the French Government finds itself obliged to declare to the Austro-Hun- garian Government that it will take all meas- ures permitted to reply to these acts and menaces." Russia's Appeal to the Poles, August 14, 1914 "The hour has sounded when the sacred dream of your fathers may be realized. A hundred and fifty years ago the living body of Poland was torn to pieces, but her soul survived, and she lived in hope that for the Polish people would come an hour of regen- eration and reconciliation with Russia. "The Russian Army brings you the solemn news of this reconciliation, which effaces the frontiers severing the Polish people, whom it unites conjointly under the scepter of the Czar of Russia. Under this scepter Poland will be born again, free in her religion, her language, and autonomous. "Russia expects from you only the loyalty to which' history has bound you. "With open heart and a brotherly hand extended, great Russia comes to meet you. She believes that the sword which struck her enemies at Grune- wald is not yet rusted. "Russia, from the shores of the Pacific Ocean to the North Sea, marches in arms. The dawn of a new life begins for you. In this glorious dawn is seen the sign of the Cross — the symbol of sufi'ering and the resur- rection of a people." Japan's Ultimatum to Germany, Au- gust 16, 1914 "M^e consider it highly important and nec- essary in the present situation to take meas- ures to remove the causes of all disturbances of the peace in the Far East, and to safe- guard the general interests as contemplated by the agreement of alliance between Japan and Great Britain. "In order to secure a firm and enduring peace in Eastern Asia, the establishment of which is the aim of said agreement, the Im- perial Japanese Government sincerely be- lieves it to be its duty to give the advice to the Imperial German Government to carry out the following two provisions: "First — To withdraw immediately from Japanese and Chinese waters German men- of-war and armed vessels of all kinds, and to disarm at once those which cannot be so withdrawn. "Second — To deliver on a date not later than September 15 to the Imperial Japanese authorities, without condition or compensa- tion, the entire leased territory of Kiao-chau, with a view to the eventual restoration of the same to China. "The Imperial Japanese Government an- nounces at the same time that in the event STATE PAPERS 41S of it not receiving by noon on August 24, 1914, an answer from the Imperial German Government, signifying its unconditional ac- ceptance of the above advice offered by the Imperial Japanese Government, Japan will be compelled to take such action as she may deem necessary to meet the situation." Japan's Declaration of War Against Germany, August 24, 1914 "We, by the Grace of Heaven, Emperor of Japan, seated on the Throne occupied by the same Dynasty from time immemorial, do hereby make the following proclamation to all our brave and loyal subjects: "We hereby declare war against Germany, and We command our army and navy to carry on hostilities against that empire with all their strength, and We also command all Our competent authorities to make every effort, in pursuance of their respective duties, to attain the national aim, by all the means within the limits of the law of nations. "Since the outbreak of the present war in Europe, the calamitous effects of which We view with grave concern. We, on Our part, have entertained hopes of preserving the peace of the Far East by the mainte- nance of strict neutrality. But the action of Germany has at length compelled Great Britain, Our Ally, to open hostilities against that country; and Germany is, at Kiao-chau, its leased territory in China, busy with war- like preparations, while its armed vessels, cruising the seas of eastern Asia, are threat- ening Our commerce and that of Our Ally. The peace of the Far East is thus in jeop- ardy. Accordingly, Our Government and that of His Britannic Majesty, after full and frank communication with each other, agreed to take such measures as may be necessary for the protection of the general interests contemplated in the Agreement of Alliance; and We, on Our part, being desirous to at- tain that object by peaceful means, com- manded Our Government to offer, with sin- cerity, an advice to the Imperial German Government. By the last day appointed for the purpose, however. Our Government failed to receive an answer accepting the advice. "It is with profound regret that We, in spite of Our ardent devotion to the cause of peace, are thus compelled to declare war; especially at this early period of Our reign, and while We are still in mourning for Our lamented Mother. "It is Our earnest wish that, by the valor and loyalty of Our faithful subjects, peace may soon be restored and the glory of the Empire enhanced." Message from the Kaiser to President Wilson, Charging the Use of Dum- dum Bullets by the Allies, and Ex- plaining the Reasons for the De- struction of Louvain, September 7, 1914 "I consider it my duty, sir, to inform you, as the most notable representative of the principles of humanity, that after the cap- ture of the French fort of Longwy my troops found in that place thousands of dum-dum bullets which had been manufactured in spe- cial works by the French Government. Such bullets were found not only on French killed and wounded soldiers and on French pris- oners, but also on English troops. You know what terrible wounds and awful suffering are caused by these bullets, and that their use is strictly forbidden by the generally recognized rules of international warfare. "I solemnly protest to you against the way in which this war is being waged by our op- ponents, whose methods are making it one of the most barbarous in history. Besides the use of these awful weapons, the Belgian Gov- ernment has openly incited the civil popula- tion to participate in the fighting, and has for a long time carefuUy organized their re- sistance. The cruelties practised in this guerilla warfare, even by women and priests, toward wounded soldiers and doctors and hospital nurses were such that eventually my generals were compelled to adopt the strong- est measures to punish the guilty and fright- en the bloodthirsty population from contin- uing their shameful deeds. "Some villages and even the old town of Louvain, with the exception of its beautiful town hall [H6tel de Ville], had to be de- stroyed for the protection of my troops. 414! CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF EVENTS "My heart bleeds when I see such meas- ures inevitable, and when I think of the many innocent people who have lost their houses and property as a result of the mis- deeds of the guilty. "WiLHELM." Reply of President Wilson to the Kaiser's Message, September 17, 1914 "I received your imperial Majesty's im- portant communication of the 7th, and have read it with gravest interest and concern. I am honored that you should have turned to me for an impartial judgment as the rep- resentative of a people truly disinterested as respects the present war and truly de- sirous of knowing and accepting the truth. "You will, I am sure, not expect me to say more. Presently, I pray God very soon, the war will be over. The day of accounting will then come when, I take it for granted, the nations of Europe will assemble to deter- mine a settlement. Where wrongs have been committed their consequences and the rela- tive responsibility involved will be assessed. "The nations of the world have fortunately by agreement made a plan for such a reck- oning and settlement. What such a plan cannot compass the opinion of mankind, the final arbiter in all such matters, will supply. It would be premature for a single Govern- ment, however fortimately separated from the present struggle, it would even be incon- sistent with the neutral position of any na- tion which like this has no part in the con- test, to form or express a final judgment. "I speak thus frankly because I know that you will expect and wish me to do so as one friend should do to another and because I feel sure that such a reservation of judg- ment until the end of the war, when all its events and circumstances can be seen in their entirety and in their true relations, will com- mend itself to you as a true expression of sincere neutrality. "WOODEOW WiLSOK." CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF EVENTS The following Chronology was compiled from the best sources available at the time «f writing; but on account of the strict censorship it is subject to modification. Official reports have been scanty and vague as to dates and places of important operations^ and definite announcements of decisive actions have often been delayed for days. Consequently there is confusion as to the exact sequence of events and the war will probably be far advanced before a strictly accurate account of its early stages can be given. 1914 June 28. — Archduke Ferdinand, heir to the Austrian throne, assassinated in Sara- jevo. July 23. — Austria sends an ultimatum to Servia. July 27. — Sir Edward Grey proposes an in- ternational conference, but Austria and Germany decline. July 28. — Austria declares war on Servia. July 31. — The Kaiser demands that Russia discontinue mobilization. August 1. — Germany declares war on Rus- sia. Mobilization begun in France. 1914 August 2. — German forces enter Luxemburg, and Germany demands that Belgium give free passage for her troops to the French frontier. The demand is refused, and Belgium appeals to England. August 4. — England sends an ultimatum to Germany, demanding that she respect Belgian neutrality. Germany refuses, and begins to attack Lifege. She declares war on France. — President Wilson issues a proclamation of neutrality, and ten- ders the good offices of the United States to the nations at war. CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF EVENTS 415 1914 August 5. — England proclaims a state of war with Germany. Lord Kitchener is appointed Secretary of State for War. — German mine-layer "Koenigin Luise" sunk by British cruiser "Amphion." August 6. — Austria declares war on Russia. German warships drive the Russian fleet from the western part of the Baltic. — British cruiser "Amphion" sunk by mine in North Sea. August 7. — German troops enter Liege. — The French invade Alsace. August 8. — Montenegro declares war on Austria. Portugal declares that she is an ally of Great Britain. Italy pro- claims her neutrality. Austrian troops sent to the assistance of the Germans, and. British troops to assist the French. August 10. — France proclaims a state of war with Austria. August 13. — England declares war on Aus- tria. — German cruisers "Goeben" and "Breslau" take refuge in Constantinople. August 15. — Japan sends an ultimatum to Germany, demanding evacuation of Kiao- chau in China. August 17. — English forces begin landing in France. Belgian capital removed from Brussels to Antwerp. August 20. — Belgian army retreats to Ant- werp and German forces enter Brussels. Russians occupy Gumbinnen. Servians defeat Austrians at Loznitza. August 21. — French forces withdraw from Lorraine. — The Germans begin the in- vestment of Namur. August 23. — Allied forces fall back to French frontier. Austria discontinues military operations against Servia. Ja- pan declares war on Germany. August 24. — German air-ship drops bombs into Antwerp, killing or wounding many persons. — British driven out of Mons. August 25. — Austria declares war on Japan. — Germans reduce five of the nine forts protecting Namur. August 26. — French cabinet resigns, and a new non-partisan cabinet is formed. Germans destroy Louvain, in revenge for alleged hostilities by the citizens. British take possession of the German colony of 1914 Togoland in West Africa. The British cruiser "Highflyer" sinks the "Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse." August 27. — Japanese blockade Tsing-Tau. — Russians capture Tilsit. August 28. — French forces withdraw from Alsace. — British cruiser squadron near Helgoland sinks three German cruisers and two destroyers. August 29. — British expedition from New Zealand captures Germany's share of the Samoan Islands. Germans capture La F^re. August 30. — Germans occupy Amiens. — Von Hindenberg defeats Russians under Ren- nenkampf in East Prussia. September 1. — Name of St. Petersburg changed to Petrograd. — Army of General Von Kluck reaches Senlis, its nearest point to Paris, while his outposts come in touch with the outer forts of the cap- ital. Russians at the end of a week's fighting defeat Austrians at Lemberg, and claim the capture of 82,000 pris- oners. September 2. — Japanese forces sent against Kiao-chau land at Lung-kow. September 3. — Von Kluck swings southward to Meaux. — Rheims taken by the Ger- mans. — -Bordeaux becomes the temporary capital of France. — Russians enter Lem- berg. September 4. — Germans advance from Brus- sels and occupy Ghent and Termonde. September 5. — Great Britain, France and Russia sign an agreement not to make peace with the enemy except by common consent. — British cruiser "Pathfinder" sunk by German submarine. September 6. — French push back German right near Compi^gne. — Army under the Duke of Wiirttemberg begins a series of assaults on the French position between La Fere and Vitry-le-Fran?ois. September 7. — Von Kluck's army forced back still further from the Marne, neces- sitating a retreat of Von Billow's army upon his left. — Maubeuge taken by Ger- mans after a bombardment beginning August 26. — Austrian left wing defeated with heavy loss at Ravarusska. 416 CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF EVENTS 1914 September 8. — Allies deliver fierce attack against armies of Von Kluck and Von Biilow. September 9. — Von Kluck, hard pressed, es- capes toward Soissons. September 10. — German armies on the right in full retreat, while the Crown Prince delivers counter attack at Revigny. — Ser- vians capture Semlin. September 11.— Entire German army falls back to strong defensive positions, heavy rains impeding operations on both sides. — Australian expedition seizes Bismarck Archipelago and Solomon Islands. September 12. — Army under the Crown Prince of Bavaria retires into Lorraine after an unsuccessful attack upon Nancy. September 13. — British submarine "E-9" sinks German cruiser "Hela." September 14. — Allied army crosses theAisne and reoccupies Rheims. — Belgian army sallies forth from Antwerp as far as Malines and Louvain. September 16. — Belgian Commissioners sent to Washington to protest against the de- struction of Louvain and other alleged German atrocities received by President Wilson. September 17. — Servians retire from Semlin. September 18. — Rheims Cathedral wrecked by German shells. September 20. — British cruiser "Pegasus" surprised in Zanzibar harbor by German cruiser "Koenigsberg" and destroyed. September 22. — Russians capture Jaroslav and invest fortress of Przemysl. — British armored cruisers "Aboukir," "Hogue" and "Cressy" torpedoed and sunk by German submarine "U-9" with a loss of about 60 oflBcers and 1,400 men. September 23. — French carry Peronne by storm. September 24. — Zeppelin drops bombs at Ostend, inflicting slight damage. — Out- break of Asiatic cholera among Austrian troops admitted in Vienna. — Germans try unsuccessfully to land forces from trans- ports at Windau on the Russian Baltic coast. 1914 September 25. — German army under Von Hindenberg forces the Russians back as far as the Niemen. — Montenegrin troops enter Mostar. Septesiber 26. — British Indian troops land at Marseilles. — Outer forts of Antwerp at- tacked by Germans. September 28. — Passes over the Carpathian Mountains into Hungary occupied by Russian advance troops. September 29. — Allies hotly attacked by Ger- mans at Noyon. — French make forward movement between Toul and Verdun. October 1. — Heavy fighting north of Cracow, October 3. — Russians state that the battle of Augustowo, in progress for a week, has ended in the complete rout of Germans, and their retreat to the Prussian fron- tier. Russians reach valley of the Magy in Hungary. October 4. — Berlin admits an outbreak of cholera among German troops, but says there is no danger of an epidemic. — The flanking movement of the Allies against the German right still continues without decisive results. Slight advances on their right flank claimed by French. — Several forts taken and Termonde occupied by German forces besieging Antwerp. — Prayers for peace and special services held in churches of all denominations in the United States in conformity with the proclamation of President Wilson. October 8. — The situation along the battle line in France is reported as stationary. In the north the right wing of the Ger- mans and the left wing of the Allies have been extended beyond Lille, almost as far as the North Sea. — The Germans claim that the outer forts of Antwerp have been reduced, that the inner line is weakening. October 9. — Antwerp occupied by Germans. — The Russian War Office announces that Russia has conquered and occupied 39,000 square miles of Austrian territory. The Germans and Austrians have joined forces in Southwestern Poland, and are obstinately opposing the advance of the Russians toward Breslau and Cracow. 921585 THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA UBRARY lilllilltlllllil!ll»l»!!>it»tJlf