tmantmmtBmm ■i zmwzZ* n mmmm msm ■ GIFT OF x*1? J Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from Microsoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/essentialsofenglOOrinerich Essentials of English A Textbook for Schools BY GEORGE W. RINE Pacific Press Publishing Company Mountain View, California Portland, Oregon Regina, Sask., Canada Kansas City, Missouri Entered According to Act of Congress, in the Year 1908, by the PACIFIC PRESS PUBLISHING COMPANY In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington, D. C. PREFACE This book is planned to afford the learner a practice review of the essentials of English gram- mar, and a preparation for the study of formal and practical rhetoric. The book is, in brief, a manual of the working principles of English composition. It is designed to serve as a natural transition from the study of grammar to that of rhetoric proper. It is, for this reason, adapted to the needs of the higher classes in grammar schools and the lower classes in high schools. Part One is replete with matter suited to the task of training the pupil to syntactical accuracy. The materials for study and practice have been selected and arranged with a constant view to the vital peda- gogical principal — learning by doing. The pupil should be taught from the first to punc- tuate correctly what he writes. No writing is com- plete until it is punctuated. To punctuate properly is as important as to spell correctly. To master the art of punctuating is to master a very considerable part of the art of clearness in written composition. For this reason the subject is treated with unusual fullness in Part Two. Part Three sets forth the principles governing the art of letter-writing. But this art, like all others, can not be mastered without much practice. The discussion of principles is, therefore, followed by an abundance of suggestive exercises. • Part Four is in itself a brief manual of composi- tion. It discusses words, sentences, and paragraphs. Figurative language is explained and illustrated with considerable fullness. The principles of clear- ness, force, unity, variety, and transition are set 293627 iv PREFACE forth and illustrated. A marked feature of Part Four is the unusual variety and fullness of prac- tical exercises designed to assist the learner in the extremely important work of building a vocabulary. Other means of attaining the same end will sug- gest themselves to the teacher. Part Five treats of synonyms, homonyms, idioms, and phrases, which are in frequent misuse. Many actual and some apparent synonyms are discrim- inated. Common improprieties of diction are pointed out and their corrections indicated. A somewhat long list of exercises is added, which will exact of the learner original investigation and vigorous, in- dependent thinking. Some teachers may not like the sequence govern- ing the succession of the several parts of this work. Teachers must not get the impression, however, that it is necessary to study the parts consecutively. Each part is measurably complete in itself, and, to a considerable degree, independent of the other parts. It is not necessary that the study of Part One be finished before lessons are assigned in Part Two. It is evident that the art of punctuation should be well mastered before the study of the "Principles of Effective Composition" is begun. The work prescribed in Part Five should, in my judgment, be distributed over the entire time required to com- plete the study of the book. It should never be forgotten that in the arduous process of attaining skill in speaking and writing English, nothing else succeeds like speaking and writing. "We learn by doing." George W. Rine. CONTENTS Page Part One Applied Grammar 7 Part Two Punctuation 90 Part Three Letter- Writing 141 Part Four Principles of Effective Composition 163 Part Five Accuracy in the Use of Words 246 PART ONE Applied Grammar Faultless grammar is the first requisite of good English. It is a degree of perfection of speech to which all can attain. It is, however, only by extended observation and practice that grammatical accuracy can be crystallized into habit — a habit indispensable to those who appeal to their fellows through voice or pen. The only phase of grammar with which we are here concerned is the application of its laws. The standard of grammatical correctness is the usage of scholarly writers and speakers of the present time. Like all other living tongues, the English language is a growing language, and is, therefore, subject to change from time to time. What was faultless Eng- lish in the time of Shakespeare, contains not a few expressions that are now solecisms. Definition. — A Solecism is a construction at va- riance with the laws of grammar. Definition. — Syntax is the art of correctly ap- plying the laws of grammar in the construction of sentences. Hence solecisms, taken collectively, are usually called False Syntax. The few solecisms found in the King James Version of the Bible were not sole- cisms at the time that version was made (1611). (7) 8'''- ''•' ! ?Sv ES3,eK?M-US OF ENGLISH The fundamental principles of grammar, estab- lished by good usage, will now be stated and illus- trated. HOW TO FORM THE POSSESSIVE CASE OF NOUNS Rule. — The possessive of nearly all singular nouns, and of all plural nouns not ending in s, is formed by adding an apostrophe and s ('s) to the nominative form. The possessive of all plural nouns that end in s is formed by adding an apos- trophe alone. a. The possessive case of a few proper nouns, for examples, Jesus, Moses, Xerxes, Achilles, Hercules, Demosthenes, etc., and of the abstract nouns good- ness and conscience, is formed by adding an apos- trophe alone; as, Jesus' disciples; Xerxes' army; Achilles' wrath; for conscience' sake; for goodness sake, b. Words having the same form in the singular and the plural number form the plural possessive by adding an s and an apostrophe (s') ; as, sheeps' eyes; deers' horns. As a rule, proper nouns of the sin- gular number, whether they end in s or not, take the possessive form regularly ; that is, by the adding of the apostrophe and s; as, Dr. Brooks's sermons ; Burns' s poems; Charles's bicycle. The adding or the omitting of the s in such cases is chiefly a matter of taste. The practice of newspaper publishers varies greatly. Whenever there is doubt, it is safe APPLIED GRAMMAR 9 to follow the regular rule; as, Perkins's "Rules of the Game." c. The possessive case of compounds and expres- sions used as compound nouns is formed by adding the sign of the possessive to the last part of the compound ; as, The attorney -general's office is on the third floor. His two brothers-in-law's estates were sold. The Emperor of Germany's youngest son has no taste for military life. d. The possessive case of two or more nouns denoting joint possession is formed by adding the sign of the possessive to the last noun alone; as, Hugh, Paul, and Alice's uncle gave them a Shetland pony. We used Herrick and Damon's "Composition and Rhetoric." e. The possessive case of two or more nouns used co-ordinately, but not denoting joint possession, is formed by adding the possessive sign to each noun ; as, There are more women's and children's shoes made in Lynn than in Boston. He would listen to neither his father's nor his teacher's advice. f. There are two recognized ways of expressing the possessive case of compound forms ending in else; as, Some one's else book, or, Some one else's book. To-day most writers of repute prefer the latter, or regular, form. g. Sometimes possession is indicated by the prepo- sition of used with, or without, the apostrophe and s; as, Those were the words of Jesus. He is a servant of my uncle's. This is a story of my father's. The 10 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH names of inanimate objects usually express pos- session by means of the o /-phrase alone; as, The hardness of the rock; not, The rock's hardness. Yet such short phrases as "a week's wages," "at death's door," "a day's journey," "two years' interest," are supported by the best usage. The student must not fail to note that a sen- tence in which an o/-phrase is used alone to denote possession, has a meaning different from what it has when the apostrophe and s are used in addition to the o/-phrase. Thus: "This is a story of my father's" means a story told by my father. "This is a story of my father," means a story about my father. EXERCISE I Embody in sentences the possessive form of each of the following words or groups of words: Pericles brothers-in-law teachers Chief Justice Fuller John Adams eagles women angels six months waif Lord Essex monkey oxen geese pony Prince of Wales Robert Burns one day Knights Templars King of Spain four years princes witness ladies mice Senator Perkins Edward the Seventh chief fox postmaster-general APPLIED GRAMMAR 11 EXERCISE II Distinguish as to meaning between the members of each of the following pairs: 1. My brother's picture. The picture of my brother. 2. The reception of Dewey in New York. Dewey's reception in New York. 3. Gertrude and Laura's doves. Gertrude's and Laura's doves. 4. Care of a sister. A sister's care. 5. The President's reception. The reception of the President. 6. This is a portrait of her. This is a portrait of her's. 7. A story of Dr. Briggs. A story of Dr. Briggs's. 8. Children's love. The love of children. EXERCISE III Write the following correctly. Give the reason for each correction: 1. Our pupils use Ridpath, Eggleston, and Chan- ning's United States History. 2. Do you prefer Morton or Frye's geography? 3. A goose and a duck's foot are shaped nearly alike. 4. Father likes Tennyson better than Words- worth's poetry. 5. I have no time to read Stewart or Hamilton's philosophy. 12 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 6. He plowed up a mouses' nest. 7. Grant and Lee's soldiers were disbanded at the same time. SPECIAL NUMBER FORMS OF NOUNS Rule. — Most English nouns are made plural by adding s to the singular. The following are important variations from this rule: 1. Nouns Ending in "o." — If the final o is pre- ceded by a vowel, the plural is formed regularly, that is, by adding s; as, portfolio, portfolios. If the final o is preceded by a consonant, the plural is formed, as a rule, by adding es; as, hero, heroes. The following words, however, are exceptions, and form the plural by adding s alone: banjo bravo piano stiletto canto lasso grotto tyro halo memento proviso torso junto octavo quarto casino chromo dynamo solo 2. Nouns Ending in "y." — If the final y is pre- ceded by a vowel, the plural is formed regularly ; as, valley, valleys; chimney, chimneys. If the final y is preceded by a consonant, the y is changed to i and es is added to form the plural; as, cherry, cherries; mercy, mercies. 3. Nouns Ending in "f." — The following nouns ending in the sound of / form the plural by chang- ing / or fe to v and adding es: APPLIED GRAMMAR 13 beef half life sheaf wife calf knife loaf shelf wolf elf leaf self thief wharf (or wharfs) A few nouns ending in / or fe follow the regular rule, and add s, , The following are examples : belief grief reproof brief gulf roof chief handkerchief safe dwarf hoof scarf fief proof strife fife reef waif 4. Plural of Compound Nouns. — The plural of most compound nouns is formed by adding the proper sign of the plural to the essential part of the word; that is, the part described by the rest of the compound; as, goose-quill, goose-quills; sister- in-law, sisters-in-law. The plural of a few compound nouns is formed by making both parts plural ; as, man-servant, men- servants; ignis-fatuus, ignes-fatuL Others of this class are, woman-servant, woman-singer, man- singer, and, usually, Knight Templar. 5. Plural of Proper Nouns. — The plural of proper nouns is expressed by adding s to the singu- lar, or es when s will not coalesce in sound; as, the first two Napoleons; the two Marys of English his- tory; the Joneses; the two Johns of the New Testa- ment. Most proper nouns when preceded by titles may be made plural in either of two ways; the Misses 14 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH Blair, or the Miss Blair s; the Messrs. Clark, or the Mr. Clarks; the Colonels Brown, or the Colonel Browns; the Drs. Hall, or the Dr. Halls. The latter of these forms is always used when the title is pre- ceded by a numeral; as, The two Mr. Wellers; the three Miss Bartletts. When the title is Mrs., the proper sign of the plural is added to the last part only; as, the Mrs. Parkers. 6. Letters, Figures, and other symbolic charac- ters are made plural by adding an apostrophe and s ('s) ; as, There are more e's than i's in this word. There are three b's in this number. 7. Nouns Always Treated as Plurals. — The following nouns are used in the plural number only : aborigines clothes pincers alms credentials premises (property) amends dregs riches annals eaves scissors antipodes embers snuffers archives goods (mdse.) statistics ashes headquarters tongs assets hose thanks belles-lettres hysterics tidings billiards nuptials trousers bitters oats vespers breeches obsequies victuals cattle paraphernalia wages Note. — The singular wage is sometimes used in the literature of economics. News is always singular. 8. Names of Sciences or Arts Ending in "ic" or "ics." — All such nouns, except politics, are always APPLIED GRAMMAR 15 singular. Among these are : arithmetic, mathematics, logic, ethics, aesthetics, optics, acoustics, etc. Poli- tics was formerly treated as singular only, but writ- ers of to-day, as a rule, treat it as plural. There is excellent authority for treating United States either as singular or as plural. The justices of the United States Supreme Court and those of other federal courts always treat United States as a plural; as, The United States were represented at The Hague Peace Congress. 9. An English and a Foreign Plural. — Many nouns adopted from foreign languages have both an English and a foreign plural form. Those most frequently used are the following: ngular English Plural Foreign Plural bandit bandits banditti beau beaus beaux cherub cherubs cherubim focus focuses foci formula formulas formulae gymnasium gymnasiums gymnasia memorandum memorandums memoranda nucleus nucleuses nuclei radius radiuses radii seraph seraphs seraphim spectrum spectrums spectra stamen stamens stamina 10. Foreign Plurals Only. — Some nouns adopted from foreign languages retain their original plural forms. The more common of these are — 16 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH Singular Plural alumna (fern.) alumnae alumnus (mas.) alumni amanuensis amanuenses analysis analyses axis axes basis bases crisis crises datum data desideratum desiderata diaeresis diaereses ellipsis ellipses proboscis proboscides stratum strata synthesis syntheses emphasis emphases erratum errata genus genera hypothesis hypotheses madame mesdames minutia minutiae monsieur messieurs nebula nebulae oasis oases parenthesis parentheses phenomenon phenomena terminus termini thesis theses vertebra vertebrae EXERCISE IV Write the plural of — Buffalo, mystery, ally, German, duty, calf, bam- boo, salmon, major-general, princess, hoof, man-of- APPLIED GRAMMAR 17 war, talisman, x, cupful, looker-on, Frenchman, donkey, Miss Rogers, court-martial, journey, Brah- man, forget-me-not, Dr. Hallam, minister-plenipo- tentiary, mouthful, mosquito, ditch, tyro, ellipsis, genus, Dakota, Mrs. Wilson, vertebra, heathen, Mr. Stratton, Watts, snipe, Dutchman, baseball, stimu- lus, datum, Ottoman, poet-laureate, commander-in- chief, alumna, postmaster-general, ipse dixit, halo, Norman, teacup, son-in-law, alumnus. EXERCISE V Each of the following nouns has two plurals, which are different in meaning. Use in sentences both plurals of each noun: brother penny genius index die staff cherub horse fish foot shot cloth EXERCISE VI Use each of the following nouns as the subject of a verb: ashes data suds wages optics assets tidings acoustics proceeds news phenomena scissors GENDER Definition. — Gender is a grammatical property of nouns and pronouns by which objects are dis- tinguished in regard to sex. A noun or pronoun denoting a male object is in 18 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH the masculine gender; a noun or pronoun denoting a female object is in the feminine gender; a noun or pronoun denoting an object or an idea that has no sex is in the neuter gender {neuter means neither). EXERCISE VII Write the corresponding masculine or feminine form of each of the following words, according as the word given is masculine or feminine. Consult, if necessary, any standard work on grammar: Jew sultana benefactor maidservant hero czar executrix marchioness lass hostess his duke bullock goose spinster nun idolater preceptor bride niece sir filly he-wolf giant Henry Frances Jesse George hart benefactor gentlewoman schoolmaster Louis landlord tiger administrator vixen emperor doe witch stag earl duck lady hen-sparrow Joseph Augustus Mrs. Brown negro Caroline maiden or damsel Gender in Personification. — When we speak of a plant or a lifeless object as if it were a person, we are said to personify it; that is, we speak or write about it as we should of a person. A word so used is, by personification, treated as masculine or femi- APPLIED GRAMMAR 19 nine. Objects remarkable for size, power, strength, or other qualities thought of as manly, are referred to as masculine; objects remarkable for grace, gen- tleness, beauty, or other qualities thought of as womanly, are referred to as feminine. Examine the following sentences: Earth, with her thousand voices, praises God. Spring hangs her infant blossoms on the trees. War smoothed his wrinkled front. The sun now rose upon the right. Out of the sea came he. The yacht is on the rocks; she will go to pieces. Note. — Certain words, like author, actor, poet, doctor, have recently come to be considered as applicable to both men and women, so that we rarely say authoress, poetess, actress, or doc- tress. Some words like servant, helper, nurse, fish, deer, bear, may refer to either a male being or a female being. Unless the context makes evident the gender of such words, the gender is said to be undistinguished. CASE FORMS OF PRONOUNS Nominative and Objective Cases. — There are only seven English words whose nominative forms differ from their objective forms. These words are the six personal pronouns /, we, he, she, thou, and they, and the relative (or interrogative) pronoun who. These words are used very frequently, and the liability to use one case form for the other is, there- fore, great. No mistakes are more common ; and no mistakes produce a more unpleasant effect upon cul- 20 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH tivated persons. The nominative and objective forms of these words are — Nominative Objective I me we us he him she her thou thee they them who whom Note. — The pronoun ye (you) is not added to the seven pro- nouns given above because its two forms are used interchangeably; however ye is far more frequently used in the nominative than in the objective case. Whoever (whomever) and whosoever (whomsoever) are compounds of who. It is imperative that the student thoroughly grasp the following principles of syntax : 1. A pronoun (or a noun) used as the subject of a finite verb is put in the nominative form. 2. A pronoun used as the complement of the verb "to be," or any of its forms — am, is, was, are, were, etc., — is put in the nominative form. 3. Words in apposition are in the same case. 4. A pronoun used as the complement of a tran- sitive verb or of a preposition is put in the objective form. 5. You and it are both nominative and objective in form. EXERCISE VIII To the Teacher. — It is important that both eye and ear should be trained to correct forms of expression. A helpful ex- APPLIED GRAMMAR 21 ercise to this end is to require the pupils to repeat aloud again and again such forms as: "Is it I?" "Is it she?" "Is it they?" "It is I," etc. "It is not they." "It is not we." "It is not he, ' ' etc. Use the correct form, I or me, in each blank, and give reason for your choice: 1. They invited Tom and . 2. May Clarence and fetch a pail of water? 3. Wait for Esther and . 4. Mother knew that it was . 5. She reproved John and . 6. He is not so tall as . 7. Father will come, and , too. 8. The teacher required Olive and to copy the words. 9. Olive and were requested to copy the words. 10. May Marion and go home? 11. If you were , should you yield? 12. He expects you or to meet him. 13. Please let Will and go to the ball game. 14. Who is there? Only . 15. Uncle bought brother and tickets for the concert. 16. The Son of God gave His life for you and . 17. Between you and , I feel certain that the undertaking will fail. 18. It was that sounded an alarm. 19. Every one is going except you and . 20. There was no one there but you and . 21. He said that you and would be admitted. 22. Is it he wishes to see? 23. The older man was supposed to be . 24. No, it couldn't have been . 25. He is a more fluent speaker than . 26. How can you speak so in- sultingly to me, , who am your friend? 22 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH EXERCISE IX Insert the correct form, WE or us, in each blank, and give the reason for your choice: 1. Is it that you criticised? 2. girls are invited to go driving with them. 3. Cousin wanted to go; so father took boys and her. 4. They knew it was . 5. It was whom you heard. 6. He took a picture of boys sitting on the fence. 7. The Fosters, as well as , are in- vited. 8. Two hundred miles stretch between home and . 9. boys had to bait our sister's hook. 10. One of the lambs got lost, and father sent boys to look for it. 11. He said it was , but it wasn't. 12. They didn't succeed any better than . 13. boys had a fine time. 14. It may have been whom you saw. 15. The Chinese are better imitators than . 16. They will gain more than by the discovery of the mine. 17. I hope that they three will ask five to go. EXERCISE X Insert the correct form, he or him, in each blank, and justify your choice: 1. She is nearly as tall as . 2. If I were I should desist. 3. It might have been who did it. 4. His father is darker than . 5. Is it you wish to see? 6. To Mary and belongs the credit. 7. She invited them all, among the rest. 8. There is little difference between you and APPLIED GRAMMAR 23 . 9. that overcometh will I make a pillar in the temple. 10. If I were I would never be seen there again. 11. that cometh to Me I will in nowise cast out. 12. who gives but a cup of cold water, will Jesus reward. 13. who gives but a cup of cold water, will be remembered by the Saviour. 14. It should make no difference to either you or . 15. Few could have written the petition as well as . 16. Boys like you and are expected to comply gracefully. 17. She did as well as . 18. It was Paul, whom the Lord sent to preach to the Gentiles. 19. who had always befriended her, she now forsook. 20. All wore silk hats except Lloyd and . EXERCISE XL In each of the following blanks insert she or her, according to your best judgment: 1. He asked Kate if it were , and she said no. 2. Gertrude and both are wanted. 3. Fa- ther brought and me in the automobile. 4. It's , mother is calling. 5. With Ruth and we had no trouble. 6. We can not expect much from such as . 7. I supposed the tall, stately woman was . 8. The farmer was afraid to let you or drive the colt. 9. Every one went except . 10. Should any one be disappointed, it will not be . 11. If any one is late, it will certainly be . 12. Before leaving Margaret we saw and her baggage safely on the boat. 13. 1 dare not let you 24 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH and sit together. 14. who disobeys, mother will punish. 15. who disobeys will be punished. EXERCISE XII Insert the proper form, they or them, in each of the blanks: 1. It must have been . 2. We are not so rich as . 3. I never saw James and together. 4. Let none handle it but that are clean. 5. It could not have been , for were at school. 6. None so deaf as that will not hear. 7. Few amateurs could have done as well as . 8. that whisper I will punish. EXERCISE XIII Insert in each blank the proper form of the pro- noun, who or whom : 1. did you think he was? 2. can I trust, if not him? 3. does the baby look like? 4. We did not tell her from the present came. 5. are you writing to? 6. do you think will be elected? 7. will the court summon? 8. did you say sat beside you? 9. do you think it was that reported the matter? APPLIED GRAMMAR 25 10. He is a boy I know is reliable. 11. I don't know to ask for. 12. She never knew it was that spoke to her. 13. did you say went with John? 14. do you mean? 15. did the officer suppose it was? 16. He confided his plan to those he thought he could trust. 17. He confided his plan to those he thought favored it. 18. Mr. Whitelaw Reid, the President has appointed ambassador to Great Britain, owns the New York Tribune, 19. do you think I met at the ferry house? 20. We left the man ignorant as to it was. 21. We like to be with those we love and we know love us. 22. do men say that I, the Son .of man, am ? 23. Elect you like. 24. should I meet this morning but my old friend Tompkins? 25. Near him sat a handsome man Harry knew must be Maude's brother. EXERCISE XIV Justify the use of the italicized objective form of each pronoun: 1. He knew it to be me by my gait. 2. I suppose it to be him. 3. I knew it to be them. 4. Whom did you take her to be? 26 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH CHOICE IN THE USE OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS Of the relative pronouns, who is used chiefly of persons (though sometimes of the higher animals) ; the possessive ivhose of persons, and also of animals and other objects when euphony will not admit of the possessive phrase of which; which of animals and inanimate things; that of persons or other ob- jects, except after a preposition. That is preferred to ivho (whom) or which — a. When the antecedent includes both persons and other objects; as, The men and the horses that we saw on the transport are intended for service in the Philippine campaign. b. When the antecedent is modified by an ad- jective of the superlative degree of comparison. (Do not forget that first, last, and next are super- lative forms.) c. Usually when the antecedent has no modifier except the relative clause; as, Money that is earned is generally prized. d. When the relative clause is restrictive, except when euphony requires the use of who or ivhich. e. Generally when the antecedent is modified by, or represented by, all, any, each, every, no, only, or same; as, All the men that the company employs are skilled workers. The relative that should not be used when that is the antecedent or a modifier of the antecedent; as, Do you know that man who is just stepping upon the platform? APPLIED GRAMMAR 27 After indefinite pronouns — many, others, few, several, some, those, etc., — modern usage favors who or which rather than that. EXERCISE XV Insert in each blank whatever relative pronoun seems to you best: 1. Man is the only animal -. laughs and weeps. 2. At the door I met an usher, procured me a seat. 3. There are others can testify. 4. Was it you or the wind shut the door? 5. Time is lost can never be reclaimed. 6. It was necessity taught me Greek. 7. The trees, are mostly walnut, were planted by my grandfather. 8. Every man enlisted was a brave man. 9. That is the lady spoke to us yesterday. 10. The first person we saw was Uncle Dick. 11. Those do their best generally win. 12. I have done many things I should not have done. 13. Mr. Cleveland was the only President served two non-consecutive terms. 14. The horse and his rider were lost in the desert have been found. 15. The dog bit the child has been killed. 28 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH THE NUMBER FORM OF A VERB HAVING A RELA- TIVE PRONOUN FOR ITS SUBJECT The number of a relative pronoun is determined, of course, by the number of its antecedent, but it is never indicated by the form of the relative. For example, who may be singular or plural: "A man who works earns the right to eat;" "They who die in a good cause will live again." When writing the verb of a relative clause, we must, therefore, note the number of the antecedent of the relative pro- noun in order to determine the number of the verb. A very common and obstinate error is to write such verbs in the singular form when the plural is the correct form. The opposite mistake is not nearly so common. In the sentence, "Mrs. Ward is one of the few women who never neglect an opportunity for doing good," the antecedent of tvho is women, not Mrs. Ward, or one. Who is therefore plural, and its verb, neglect, is properly given the plural form. EXERCISE XVI Which of the italicized forms is correct? Why? 1. She is one of the most successful teachers that have (has) ever taught in our district. 2. I look upon it as one of the most feasible plans that has (have) yet been offered. 3. It is one of the words that add (adds) es to the singular to form the plural. 4. Mark is one of those restless boys who is (are) always impatient to do something. . APPLIED GRAMMAR 29 5. You are not the only man that has (have) been ignored by the governor. 6. She is one of the few writers who are (is) destined to be long remembered. 7. This is one of the most instructive books that have (has) issued from the company's press. 8. Our home is one of those which command (commands) a view of the bay. 9. Some of the most heinous crimes that stains (stain) the pages of history have been committed in the name of liberty. 10. It was one of the most attractive programs that has (have) yet been given in the new hall. POSSESSIVE MODIFIER BEFORE A VERBAL NOUN The English language comprises not a few nouns that end in ing, and partake of the nature of both noun and verb. Such nouns are called verbal nouns. Very often they follow a personal pronoun or a noun that stands for the agent or the recipient of the action denoted by the verbal nouns. The noun or pronoun so related to a verbal noun should take, as a rule, the possessive form; as, "I have little hope of his (not him) passing the examination/' A somewhat different meaning would be expressed if the sentence were written thus: "I have little hope of him passing the examination." This latter meaning, however, is very seldom the meaning in- tended. The wording of the first sentence illustrates the rule; that of the second, the exception. 30 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH EXAMPLES 1. This can only be by his preferring truth to his past apprehension of truth. — Emerson. 2. There may be reason for a savage's preferring many kinds of food which the civilized man rejects. — Thoreau. 3. The two strangers gave me an account of their once having been themselves in a somewhat similar condition. — Audubon. 4. Edward's father opposed his entering the navy. EXERCISE XVII Distinguish in meaning between the two foi*ms of each sentence: 1. There is no use in me {my) trying to learn Sanskrit. 2. We had to laugh at Mary (Mary's) riding a donkey. 3. Much depends on the teacher (teacher's) cor- recting the papers. 4. Who ever heard of Smith (Smith's) running for office? 5. There is little doubt of him (his) being pro- moted. 6. Did you see Leslie (Leslie's) rowing? 7. What do you think of Uncle Will (Uncle Will's) studying art? APPLIED GRAMMAR £1 PRONOUNS AGREE WITH THEIR ANTECEDENTS IN NUMBER The rule that a pronoun should be in the same number as its antecedent is often violated in con- nection with such locutions as anybody, any one, each, either, neither, nobody, one after the other, man after man. These expressions are grammat- ically singular. a. When, in a sentence, a pronoun is used which has for its antecedent one of the foregoing italicized expressions, or a noun modified by one of these ex- pressions, the pronoun should be singular. b. When a collective noun is represented by a pro- noun, the pronoun is singular, if the collection is viewed as a whole; plural, if the members are thought of separately, or as individuals; as, (1) The committee has handed in its report. (2) The council were not agreed in their estimate of the probable expense. c. Two singular subjects connected by either — or, or by neither — nor, are represented, if at all, by a singular pronoun; as, Either the chairman or the secretary neglected his duty. Two plural noun's thus connected are represented, if at all, by a plural pro- noun; as, Neither teachers nor students brought their books. EXERCISE XVIII Insert in each blank the proper pronoun: 1. Either Esther or Ruth will let you use book. 32 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 2. Each should take turn. 3. It has been said that everybody is eloquent at least once in life. 4. Many a brave man lost life in that awful struggle. 5. Neither Raleigh nor Gilbert made a success of colonizing scheme. 6. Each of us has faults. 7. Every one should be careful of what says (say). 8. Nobody went out of way to make the stranger feel at home. 9. The senior class has not yet elected presi- dent. 10. Each of the pupils has own jackknife. 11. Every kind of insect has own proper food. 12. Every one should respect the property of those around . 13. Neither the boys nor the girls ate breakfast before going to the grove. 14. 'If any one wishes to see the committee let call at the committee's room. 15. Every bookkeeper and every clerk received pay. 16. Neither of the two adventurers ever saw native land again. 17. Everybody says that never before saw so large a man. APPLIED GRAMMAR 33 18. Neither the mayor nor the district attorney did duty in the matter. 19. I do not mean that I think any one to blame for taking due care of health. 20. Neither gave vent to feelings in words. 21. Each of the nations acted according to national custom. 22. Not an officer, not a private escaped getting clothes wet. 23. Hansen and Jensen started off together, each with only a dollar in pocket. 24. Whoever has a real interest in the school should do best to get others interested in it. This, These; That, Those. — Of the singular ad- jectives this and that, these and those are their re- spective plural forms. Of course the singular forms are used before singular nouns; the plural, before plural nouns. A common error consists in using the plural form these or those for the singular this or that before the singular nouns kind and sort, when the latter mean class or species; as, "These kind of trees grow only in the far West," for "This kind of trees," etc. Do not say, "I am fond of these kind of nuts," but "I am fond of this kind of nuts." To the Teacher. — There is a reason for the prevalence of this solecism. Lead the pupil to see the reason. Nothing but drill, both oral and written, will lead the pupil habitually to use these adjectives correctly in such constructions. 34 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH AKTICLES Owing to the peculiar office of the adjectives the, a, and an, they are often called articles, by way of distinction. Articles always limit nouns. A or An. — A and an are weakened forms of the numeral adjective one. They always imply oneness, but in a sense more vague and indefinite than does the adjective one. The choice between a or an is determined by sound. Before a word beginning with a consonant sound, a is used; before a word begin- ning with a vowel sound, an is used. However, sound and spelling do not always coincide. Thus one and union begin with vowels, yet the initial sound of each is a consonant sound. Heir begins with a silent consonant; its initial sound is, accordingly, a vowel sound. Hence we say "such a one," "a union/' "an heir," etc. Usage is not uniform as to a or an before words beginning with h and accented on the second syllable. We may say "an historical work" or "a historical work." The Definite Article. — The is called the definite article; a or an, the indefinite article. The definite article is used to point out some particular object or class; as, The teacher will give a lecture on "The Bee." In this sentence the first the points to an in- dividual teacher ; the second, to a noun used to repre- sent a class or genus. A or an can not properly be used before a class name, as a class name stands for APPLIED GRAMMAR 35 more than one. Hence we say, The horse (not a horse) is the most useful animal. Omitted and Superfluous Articles. — The is sometimes incorrectly omitted before one or more nouns of a couplet or series of nouns. In the phrase, "the secretary and treasurer," one person is meant, who is both secretary and treasurer; but in the phrase, "the secretary and the treasurer," two per- sons are meant, one of whom is secretary and the other treasurer. Hence we say, "The secretary and the treasurer both resigned," not "The secretary and treasurer both resigned." Note the difference be- tween "The cashier and teller looks over the books each evening" and "The cashier and the teller look over the books each evening." We may say either "the fifth and sixth pages" or "the fifth and the sixth page," but not "the fifth and sixth page." What difference in meaning obtains between "a red, white, and blue flag" and "a red, a white, and a blue flag"? The use of a superfluous a or an after the words sort or kind is an error exceedingly com- mon; as, in the sentence, "This is a rare kind of an owl," or "That sort of an education is not worth the getting." We should say, "This is a rare kind of owl," etc. Again, we may say "all day," "all night," "all summer," "all winter;" but not, "all week," etc., but "all the week," "all the month," "all the spring," "all the autumn." An important distinction made by careful speakers is indicated in the following lo- 36 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH cutions: We may say "enter school," "enter college ;" but, "enter the grammar school," "enter the high school," "enter the university." A or an should not be repeated before the second term when both terms denote the same person or thing; as, John is a better speaker than writer. Grant was a greater soldier than statesman (not a statesman). EXERCISE XIX Insert the wherever needed: 1. The horse and cow are two domestic animals. 2. The man and bear watched each other in si- lence. 3. The first and last stanzas are alike. 4. The third and fifth example are the most in- teresting. 5. The mountain and squirrel had a quarrel. 6. The second and fourth problems are the most difficult. 7. The superintendent and secretary has a double office to perform. 8. The passage is found in both the old and new edition. 9. In the copula verb the present and past sub- junctives are different in form. 10. Illustrate by an original sentence the singular and plural possessives of the personal pronouns. APPLIED GRAMMAR 37 EXERCISE XX Insert A or an wherever needed: 1. A German and Frenchman were received by the President. 2. Did you ever see a sloop and schooner sail side by side? 3. A black and tan dog trotted down the walk to- gether. 4. A good speller and poor speller have unequal chances of success. 5. A terrier and spaniel are very unlike in dis- position. 6. She is a young and delicate girl. 7. I never buy that sort of knife. 8. An ax and adz are similar, yet different, in form. EXERCISE XXI Distinguish between — 1. The tailor and (the) clothier. 2. Half a dollar. A half dollar. 3. The (a) horse is grazing in the meadow. 4. The commissioners will investigate the cause of (the) strikes. 5. The wise and (the) good. 6. He told us a (the) story. 7. She employs a cook and (a) housemaid. 8. The black and (the) white cat. 9. The soldier, (the) statesman, and (the) re- former. 38 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 10. He bought a cotton and (a) silk umbrella. 11. We listened to remarks by the recording and (the) corresponding secretary. 12. He had (a) salmon in his basket. 13. (The) men ran to rescue the child. 14. (A) Mr. Brown called to see me. 15. There are (a) few honest men in our town. 16. (The) grass is green. 17. (The) clouds are beautiful. CORRECT FORMS OF VERBS In vulgar usage, thoughtless persons often con- found the ''principal parts" of many English verbs. One often hears such solecisms as "I done my part of the work," "He seen the man take it," "He run all the way," instead of the correct forms, "I did my part of the work," "He saw the man take it," "He ran all the way." The principal parts of the follow- ing verbs should be memorized, and the habit of us- ing them correctly should, by all means, be acquired. The principal parts of the verbs most liable to abuse may be summed up as follows: — Present Past Indicative Past Participle awake awoke or awaked awaked begin began begun beseech besought besought blow blew blown bid bade bidden or bid bid (at auction) bid bidden or bid break broke broken burst burst burst APPLIED GRAMMAR 39 'resent Past Indicative Past Participle bring brought brought catch caught caught choose chose chosen come came come dive dived dived do did done drink drank drunk drive drove driven eat ate eaten flee fled fled flow flowed flowed fly flew flown freeze froze frozen forget forgot forgotten get got got or gotten give gave given go went gone grow grew grown hang hung, hanged* hung, hanged* know knew known lay (transitive) laid laid lie (to recline) lay lain plead pleaded pleaded prove proved proved** ride rode ridden raise (transitive) raised raised rise (intransitive] ► rose risen ring rang rung run ran run see saw seen set (transitive) set set sit (intransitive) sat sat * Things are hung on nails, etc., men are hanged on the gallows. ** Proven is not sanctioned by good usage. 40 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH ^resent Past Indicative Past Participle shake shook shaken shoe shod shod show showed shown sing sang sung sink sank sunk speak spoke spoken spring sprang sprung steal stole stolen slay slew slain swim swam swum take took taken teach taught taught throw threw thrown wake (transitive) woke waked wring wrung wrung weave wove woven write wrote written EXERCISE XXII Fill the blanks with the proper form of the verb lie (to recline), or of the verb lay (to cause to lie): 1. The book on the table. 2. The album on the table yesterday. 3. Snow on the ground two months last winter. 4. He has out the ground. 5. After I had down, I remembered that I had my purse on the chair by the open window. 6. I found the magazine on the table. APPLIED GRAMMAR 41 7. During the storm yesterday the ship at anchor. 8. Slowly and sadly we him down. 9. Five cats asleep. 10. Uneasy the head that wears a crown. 11. The tree has there since last winter. 12. Birds and fishes are spoken of as eggs. 13. Having read the pamphlet, I it on the table. 14. After the battle many fallen knights about their king. 15. The tired traveler in bed eight hours last night. 16. The knife had in the water so long that its parts separated when touched. 17. Get up, Tom. You've in bed long enough. 18. You will find the tools where you them. 19. I found my dictionary all warped. It had in the sun all day. 20. Dapple had to down on all fours before Dick could bestride her. 21. The ship has at anchor since Monday. 22. The footman was so weary that he down in his clothes. 42 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH EXERCISE XXIII Fill the blanks with the proper form of the in- transitive verb sit, or of the transitive verb set. Where two forms are applicable, name both: 1. I wish you would still while I write the address. 2. I in my chair, and as I dozed, some one a vase of flowers on the table by my side. 3. Your coat well. 4. He has all day in silence. 5. I have a guard over my tongue. 6. He the basket of -eggs on the counter. 7. the chair in the corner and let it . 8. We have three hens. We them last week. 9. After a hen has been she is a hen. 10. He up late last night. 11. He in the front row. 12. I traps in the woods last winter. 13. The cat up a howl. 14. John up late last night to write letters. 15. "We may it down that by the age of twenty a boy's character has become either for good or for bad." 16. There the setter with a bird under his paws. 17. We in the sun and fished. 18. down and rest. 19. While Joe idle, others were toiling on to the goal they had before them. APPLIED GRAMMAR 43 20. James himself to work, and steadily at work for two hours. 21. Neither do men light a candle and it under a bushel. 22. He by the hour talking religion. 23. Let us here and listen to Nature's voices. 24. The nurse had to up all night. 25. Last evening we around the fire telling stories. EXERCISE XXIV Fill the blanks with the proper form of the in- transitive verb rise, or of the transitive verb raise : 1. The river six inches during the night. 2. All the streams have been rapidly . 3. She could not get her bread to properly. 4. Mother says that her bread has nicely. 5. The price of wheat has . 6. The water so high that it the bridge an inch. 7. Abraham early in the morning. 8. Many are they that up against me. 9. The workmen have the railway bed. 10. A fog from the bay. 11. The river is rapidly . EXERCISE XXV Use in sentences the past tense and the present perfect tense of each of the following verbs: shrink blow lay dive come throw wake rise 44 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH blow do fly overflow lie freeze eat forget shoe speak set awake wring rise shake steal know plead raise go swear spring prove drive catch burst sing slay write forbid teach take see lose bring ring sit loose lead swing swim begin run beseech To the Teacher. — Test the ability of the pupil to spell cor- rectly these verba when changed to the present participle, or mg- torni. MAY OR CAN Can is often wrongly used for may, and could for might. May expresses permission or probability; can expresses ability or power. When a boy says> "I can solve that problem," he means that he is able to do it. But when he asks, "May I leave the room?" he means, Will you permit me to leave the room? This distinction should be remembered and habit- ually observed in practice. EXERCISE XXVI Insert can or may where it is needed: 1. I look through your magazine? 2. Arthur and I be excused from the phys- ical culture exercises to-day ? 3. the baby walk yet? 4. a hen swim? APPLIED GRAMMAR 45 5. I go with the rest? 6. I ask a favor? 7. Mother, I have more of the melon? 8. You say that I opened the letter by mis- take. 9. it be true that the letter was returned? 10. we have the pleasure of your company to dinner ? Explain the change in meaning according as may or can is used in the following sentences: 1. Father says you do it. 2. Eunice ride the bicycle? 3. I help you? 4. I depend on you? 5. you come, too? 6. he talk Spanish? 7. you give a dollar? 8. you climb this oak? 9. Earl go to the concert to-night? UNCHANGEABLE FACTS General or unchangeable truths are correctly ex- pressed in the form of the present tense. "How far did you say it was from New York to Phila- delphia?" should be "How far did you say it is from New York to Philadelphia?" If it is true that the air has weight, it has always been true and always will be true. Hence one should write, "Ancient philosophers knew that the air has (not had) weight?" 46 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH EXERCISE XXVII Which form is correct? Why? 1. It has been proved that the earth was (is) round. 2. What did you say your uncle's name is (was) ? 3. Many years ago I was taught that frost is (was) frozen dew. 4. In what state did you say Cedar Rapids was (is) ? 5. The teacher told me that the cube root of 343 is (was) seven. 6. Whose home is (was) that which we just passed ? 7. He repeated to us the truth that honesty ivas (is) the best policy. 8. Is he very sick? — I should say he was (is). 9. Was it Carlyle who asserted that earnestness alone makes (made) life eternity? 10. Why, the poor fellow hardly knew that two and two made (make) four. 11. The preacher declared that God upholds (up- held) all things by the word of His power. 12. Where did you say Antwerp is (ivas) ? 13. I think it was Plato who first asserted that virtue is (was) its own reward. 14. His disappointment proved to him that there ivas (is) many a slip 'twixt the cup and the lip. 15. The ancients believed that the earth is (was) the center of the universe. APPLIED GRAMMAR 47 16. What did he say the new minister's name was (is)? 17. Did you learn how far it is (was) from Seattle to San Diego? USE AND ABUSE OF THE PRESENT AND THE PER- FECT INFINITIVE To teach, to write, to do are examples of the Pres- ent Infinitive; to have taught, to have written, to have done, of the Perfect Infinitive. As a rule, an infinitive is used in close connection with a finite verb. It is proper to say, "I am glad to have seen Yosemite Valley," "I felt sorry to have hurt his feel- ings," "He claims to have taught in Paris." In these statements the action or feeling expressed by each predicate looks to the past. Such a predicate may properly come before a perfect infinitive. But when the action or feeling expressed by a verb either in the present tense or in the past tense looks to the future at the time it was or is made, the verb may properly come before a present infinitive, but not a perfect infinitive; as, "I expected to meet you there ;" not, "I expected to have met you there." The mental act expressed by the verb expected looked to the future at the time the act was experienced. It is altogether proper to say, "Romulus was supposed to have founded Rome," because the concept ex- pressed by was supposed looks to the past. But to say, "I intended to have done it yesterday," is incorrect, because the mental act expressed by in- tended looked to the future at the time it was ex- 48 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH perienced. It should be, "I intended to do it yes- terday." EXERCISE XXVIII Which form is correct? 1. I meant to write (to have ivritten) before I. left the city. 2. He went sooner than he expected to have gone (to go). 3. I had hoped to have met (to meet) you at the station. 4. Captain John Smith is known to have (to have had) many narrow escapes. 5. He hoped to win (to have won) the suit, and was much surprised at the decision of the court. 6. They intended to return (to have returned) before the fifteenth of last month. 7. We did no more than it was our duty to have done (to do). 8. I should like to have heard (to hear) Burke's great speech in defense of the American colonies. 9. It was the policemen's duty to prevent (to have prevented) the outrage. 10. They meant to start (to have started) long before. 11. He is said to lose (to have lost) hundreds of dollars. 12. General Meade intended to attack (to hare attacked) Lee's forces at daybreak. APPLIED GRAMMAR 49 FORMS OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE The subjunctive mode expresses action, being, or state, not as a fact, but as something merely thought of, supposed, or wished. A verb in the subjunctive mode does not change its form to indicate the per- son and number of its subject, except in the past tense of the verb to be when its subject is thou. It is only in the case of the verb to be that the sub- junctive has distinct forms for the present and past tenses. Thus: Present Past Indicative Subjunctive Indicative Subjunctive I am I be I ivas I were Thou art Thou be Thou wast Thou ivert He is He be He was He were We are We be We were We were You are You be You were You were They are They be They were They were Examples of the subjunctive form of to be: Hallowed be Thy name. Would that Doctor Brown were here. If I were he, I would not yield. Judge not that ye be not judged. If Will ivere more studious he would rank second to none. The following formula serves to illustrate the difference between the second and the third person singular of the indicative mode and the second and the third person singular of the subjunctive mode: 50 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH Present Past Indicative Subjunctive Indicative Subjunctive I write I write I wrote I wrote Thou writest Thou write Thou wrotest Thou wrote He writes He write He wrote He wrote Examples of the Subjunctive of Other Verbs Than to be. — If thine eye offend thee, pluck it out. If he promise, he will perform. Thy money perish with thee. The law is good if a man use it lawfully. Govern well thy appetite, lest sin surprise thee. Though He slay me, yet will I trust Him. The subjunctive idea usually occurs in conditional (dependent) clauses. Such clauses are generally — by no means always — introduced by if, though, unless, lest, whether, or similar subordinate con- junctions. The clause, "If he had been there," may be put thus : "Had he been there," thus avoiding the use of the conjunction if. Note. — It is important to remember that not all clauses that are conditional in form are subjunctive in office. If the clause denotes a fact as opposed to a mere wish, to a mere supposition, or to a future contingency (uncertainty), its verb is not subjunc- tive, but indicative, in mode; as, "If Edward VII is King, he has less real power than his Prime Minister." The clause, "If Edward VII is King, ' ' is conditional in form, but not in essence, as it denotes a fact. The thought is, that notwithstanding his being King, Edward has less power than his Prime Minister. But in the sentence, ' ' If Prince Henry were Emperor of Germany, the army would be made less conspicuous, ' ' the if -clause expresses a mere supposition, a thought contrary to fact. Hence the verb were is subjunctive in office. APPLIED GRAMMAR 51 The subjunctive mode is most frequently used to express — a. Future contingency; as, If it rain to-morrow, we shall not go. Though he forsake me, I will not forsake him. b. Mere supposition; as, If I were chairman, I should not entertain the motion. If he were not my neighbor, I should not vote for him. c. A mere wish; as, Would that the teacher were here. I wish I were an artist. Oh, that I had the wings of a dove. d. An intention not yet carried out; as, the de- cision of the chair is that this question be further discussed at the next regular meeting. The sen- tence is that you be imprisoned for six months. In respect to one of the offices of the subjunctive, Mr. H. G. Buehler writes: u Wishes are naturally expressed in the subjunc- tive. The present subjunctive denotes a wish for the future; as, 'Thy kingdom come.' The past sub- junctive denotes a wish for the present which is un- fulfilled ; as, 'I wish I were a bird/ The past perfect subjunctive denotes a wish contrary to a past fact; as, 'I wish you had been there.' " EXERCISE XXIX What verbs are subjunctive? Why? What clauses are conditional only in form, and therefore not subjunctive in office? 1. If I were sure of what you tell me, I should not hesitate in the matter. 52 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 2. Though I were to implore his forgiveness, he would not grant it. 3. Though Thackeray was born in India, he was not a Hindu, but an Englishman. 4. Though Texas has, of all the states, the great- est area, it has by no means the greatest population. 5. Though Abraham is the father of the faith- ful, he was a man of like passions with ourselves. 6. Though he were the king himself, he could not release you. 7. Had he been prudent, he would not have blun- dered. 8. Tf it is raining, I will go anyhow. 9. Though Burke was the most learned publicist of his day, he was not by nature an orator. 10. If he promise, he will perform. 11. If a man smite his servant and he die, he shall surely be put to death. 12. Though he fall, he shall not be utterly cast down. 13. Whether she go or stay, my plan will not be changed. 14. If the wind blow too hard, we shall capsize. 15. I should be sorry if John were to fail. 16. If books are cheap, a fourth of the people never read one. 17. Were I not your friend, I should not advise you as I do. 18. If Thou hadst been here, my brother had not died. APPLIED GRAMMAR 53 19. Thy money perish with thee. 20. If it be possible, as much as lieth in you, live peaceably with all men. 21. Were it true, I would say so. 22. Though our legislators are wise, they make mistakes. *EXERCISE XXX Complete the following sentences by inserting were or was, in each case giving a reason for your choice: 1. If I you, I would tell everything. 2. I sure of it, I would say so. 3. I where I would be! 4. If he with you, why did he not tell you his troubles? 5. If I wrong, you should have told me. 6. he king, I would not obey him. 7. If he be industrious, I shall reward him. 8. If he industrious, I should overlook his failures. 9. If the work done, we could play. 10. He speaks as if he in earnest. 11. If he generous, he would not treat them so. 12. Suppose you given the money, what could you do? 13. Speak as if you confident. 14. If he chosen, he could not do the work. ^Suggested by Professor Alfred M. Hitchcock. 54 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 15. If he disappointed, he has kept quiet about it. 16. I wish I as happy as you. 17. They consulted the barometer to see if it going to rain. 18. The squirrels are scampering about as if au- tumn all too short. 19. To him the little light seemed as if it a comforting friend. 20. The hailstones rattled against the windows as if some one throwing pebbles. 21. While making a humorous remark, he pre- served a stern expression as if what he saying the most serious thing imaginable. AGREEMENT OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE General Rule. — A finite verb, correctly used, agrees with its subject in number and person. Though long established by good usage, the fol- lowing principles are not infrequently violated by careless writers or speakers : a. The pronoun you whether singular or plural in meaning takes a plural verb ; as, John, you -are more fortunate than most of us. b. When a collective noun in the singular number is viewed as a unit, it takes a singular verb; when the members of the collection are thought of as in- dividuals, it is plural in sense, and takes a plural verb. Examples: The senate has adjourned. The jury are divided in their judgment. APPLIED GRAMMAR 55 Note. — In the application of this principle much depends on the writer's own judgment. Mr. Froude wrote: "A number of jeweled paternosters was attached to her girdle." Another writer of equal repute might have preferred a plural verb after number. c. When the subject consists of singular nouns or pronouns connected by or, either — or, or neither — nor, the verb should be singular; when the sub- ject consists of plural nouns or pronouns connected similarly, the verb should be plural; when the sub- ject consists of two nouns or pronouns, one of which is singular and the other plural, the verb should agree with the one nearest to it. Examples : Neither the cashier nor the teller was suspected of wrong- doing. Either the freshmen or the sophomores are responsible for the damage. Neither the father nor his sons are responsible for the loss. d. The terms each, every, many a, either, neither, everybody, anybody, everyone, and anyone are sin- gular in sense, and if followed by a verb, the verb is singular. Examples : Everyone of us has had his bitter experiences. Neither of us has mistaken his calling. Nobody but you and me knows where it is. Everyone of the boys was promoted. Many a brave man has given his life for the honor of his country. e. Professor A. S. Hill writes: "When the subject though plural in form is singular in sense, the verb should be singular; when the subject though singu- lar in form is plural in sense, the verb should be plural; as, 'Gulliver's Travels/ was written by Swift. Five hundred dollars is a large sum. Half 56 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH of them are gone. Thirty-four years affects one's remembrance of some experiences. Economics of- fers a wide field for study." f. Words joined to the subject by with, of, as ivell as, in addition to, or together ivith are not of the same grammatical value as the subject, but being parenthetical, they do not affect the number of the verb. Examples : Asia, as well as Europe, was daz- zled. General Custer, with all his men, was killed by the Indians. The interest, in addition to other expenses, was paid from the profits. g. When a verb is placed between its two sub- jects, it agrees in number and person with the first; as, The leader of the regiment was captured, and all his men. EXERCISE XXXI Insert in each blank the proper form of the verb to be: 1. Mathematics my favorite study. 2. either of you going to the concert? 3. Ten dollars a week all he earns. 4. Our success or our failure largely the result of our own actions. 5. Every sound and every echo listened to for two hours. 6. The Epic, as well as the Drama, divided into tragedy and comedy. 7. Every week, nay, almost every day, set APPLIED GRAMMAR 57 down in their calendar for some appropriate cele- bration. 8. Neither birch, poplar, nor pine so hard as oak. 9. Neither North nor South slow to fight against Spain. 10. Each of these states a part of the Union. 11. None so deaf as he that will not hear. 12. The crowd all shouting. 13. Neither the eaves nor the shingles in- jured by the falling of the tree. 14. The king of France, with forty thousand men, marching up the hill. 15. Half the oranges gone. 16. Half the month gone. 17. A fine collection of coins displayed. 18. Not one of all the pupils able to answer the question. 19. The ebb and flow of the tides explained in the second chapter. 20. Neither you nor I subject to these rules. 21. Not one in ten likely to be admitted. 22. A block and tackle used. 23. Nine-tenths of his troubles the fruit of his shiftlessness. 24. Their religion, as well as their customs and manners, strangely misrepresented. 25. Either the proprietor or his servants to blame. 26. Either the owners or the keeper to blame. 58 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 27. All work and no play responsible for Jack's dullness. 28. A hundred miles not far. 29. Every mountain, hill, and valley clothed in vernal beauty. 30. A hundred yards of railway track under water. 31. Pictures a common noun. 32. A number of the boys waiting at the gate. The following pertinent note is by Professor E. H. Lewis: "When the subject is such an expression as either he or I the question arises whether we shall say is or am. It is best in such cases to avoid the difficulty by so changing the sentence as to use both is and am. We say, Either he is to blame, or I am. In like manner we say, Either you are to blame, or I am; Either he is to blame or you are." SHALL AND WILL; SHOULD AND WOULD Shall and will are somewhat troublesome because each performs a double office, sometimes expressing simple future — also called pure future — and some- times expressing what is called volition. Volition means an act of the will. When we express a de- termination to do a certain act, or promise or threaten to do it, we express volition. When we express mere intention or state what is sure to happen regardless of our will, we state a APPLIED GRAMMAR 59 simple future. The distinction between simple fu- turity and volition must be clearly understood before one can apply the rules governing the use of shall and will. a. Shall used with the first person and will with the second or the third express a simple future ; as, I shall go. We shall go. You will go. He will go. b. Will used with the first person, and shall with the second or the third express volition; as, I will go (determination). You shall go. He shall go. c. "In a question use shall in the /w*s£ person; with the second or ^/w'rd persons use sftaZZ when s/ia^ is expected in the answer, will when zm'M is expected in the answer." To study a few illustrative sentences will help us to grasp more fully the meaning of these rules. 1. "I shall be twenty next Tuesday." (Simple fu- ture.) The speaker here states what must happen regardless of his will. 2. "I shall be happy to meet your friend." (Sim- ple future.) Here the speaker announces what he knows will be true regardless of his will. 3. "I will be heard in this matter." (Volition.) Here the speaker expresses determination. He re- solves to be heard whether others will have it so or not. If the speaker should say instead, • I shall be heard in this matter, he would state simply what he knows is sure to happen without the necessity of his willing it to happen ; he would express a sim- ple future. 60 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 4. "I will give you the money to-morrow." (Voli- tion.) In this sentence the speaker makes an em- phatic promise to pay the money. There is here an expression of the will. He aims to reassure the person addressed. 5. "You will find him reliable." (Simple future.) The speaker does not here express determination, or make a promise or a threat, but states what he believes to be certain. Had the speaker said, "You shall find him reliable," he would have expressed an absurdity. 6. "You shall give me a hearing." (Volition.) In this sentence the speaker announces determination. The hearing shall be given, if he can possibly bring it about, regardless of the wishes of the person ad- dressed. 7. "John will know the result by four o'clock." (Simple future.) 8. "John shall know the result by four o'clock." (Volition.) In the first of these two sentences the speaker states his conviction — not determination or a prom- ise — that the result will be known to John by four o'clock. In the second sentence he promises that he will see to. it that John be apprised of the result by four o'clock. He wills that it shall be so. But in the first he merely states his belief that it will be so. 9. "Shall you go to the park this afternoon?" (Simple future.) APPLIED GRAMMAR 61 10. "Will you go to the park this afternoon?" (Volition.) The first is a simple inquiry, and expects an an- swer containing the word shall. The second has the nature of a petition and means "Will you agree to go to the park?" It expects an answer containing the word will or its equivalent; or the answer may be "I can not." "Official courtesy, in order to avoid the semblance of compulsion," says Mr. Ayres, "conveys its com- mands in the you-will form instead of the strictly grammatical you-shall form. It says, for example, 'You will proceed to Key West, where you will find further instructions awaiting you.' " Should and would are in form, but not always in sense, the past tense of shall and ivill respectively. When used in this way they are practically gov- erned by the same rules as shall and will. Both should and ivould, however, sometimes perform other duties. Should may be used for ought; as, Children should be polite to their parents. Would is some- times used subjunctively to express a strong wish; as, Would that I could undo the wrong! The most common and obstinate error in the use of these four auxiliaries is the practice of using will or would with a subject noun or pronoun in the first person, when shall or should is the correct form. Will or would should be used after a first personal subject, only to express volition, or determination. In all other cases use shall or should, according to need, with the first person. 62 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH To the Teacher. — The pupil should be given extended practice in orally repeating sentences containing shall or should used with the first person. The ear should be accustomed to the use of shall or should in sentences like the following: 1. I shall be glad to come. 2. I shall not be afraid to say so. 3. I shall be happy to see him. 4. We shall be at home then. 5. We shall be drowned if the canoe capsizes. 6. I shall be asleep before ten. 7. We shall be worse off than at present. 8. I shall be sorry if he fails. 9. We shall reach Boston in time. 10. When shall I be well, Doctor? 11. Shall I report the result? 12. We shall all be dead before that happens. 13. I shall get out of breath if I run much longer. 14. We shall be pleased to see you Tuesday. 15. How dark it grows! We shall surely get wet. 16. I shall fall if I climb that tree. EXERCISE XXXII Insert will or shall according to the need of each sentence: 1. We need umbrellas, I think. 2. You surely capsize. 3. I be obliged to return home. 4. We break through the ice if we are not careful. 5. He not go home until he has learned his lesson. 6. We not do this under any circumstances. 7. I succeed in spite of his opposition. APPLIED GRAMMAR 63 8. You stay whether you wish to stay or not. 9. I do my best, come what may. 10. You fall if you climb that tree. 11. You have a warm day for your journey. 12. Do you think we have rain? 13. We find ourselves much mistaken. 14. Arthur thinks he probably live to old age. 15. They say I find public libraries in every village. 16. Blanche tells me that she be sixteen to- morrow. 17. If we examine the falling snow, we find that each flake is regular in form. 18. I hope we be in time to be admitted. 19. you be at leisure this evening? 20. I feel greatly obliged if you ask for my mail. 21. I go, and nobody detain me. 22. I have completed the task by Thursday. 23. When I call for you? 24. You — — pardon me, I am sure. 25. I not look upon his like again. Distinguish between: 1. Hugh will (shall) not see me. 2. I shall (will) not hear his explanation. 3. You will (shall) know my decision to-morrow. 4. You will (shall) not be the only one to suffer. 5. Lloyd shall (will) not go. 6. You will (shall) have all you deserve. 7. You will (shall) have your choice. 64 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 8. He shall (will) do as I wish. 9. He shall (will) not interfere with your plans. 10. Do you think I would (should) accept it? 11. What did he say the admission would (should) be? 12. We will (shall) return at four o'clock. 13. If he disobeyed, he would (should) be pun- ished. 14. You will (shall) pay for it. 15. Will (shall) such things be permitted? 16. He shall (will) see strange sights. 17. Shall (will) Ruth go, too? 18. They shall (will) see what I can do. 19. Thou shalt (wilt) not steal. 20. You would (should) go if you could. 21. If you work, you will (shall) be rewarded. Shall and will in Subordinate Clauses. — Re- specting the use of these auxiliaries in subordinate clauses, Mr. H. G. Buehler says: "In noun clauses introduced by 'that/ expressed or understood, if the noun clause and the principal clause have different subjects, the distinction be- tween shall and will is the same as in independent sentences;" as — My sister says (that) Dorothy tvill be glad to go with us. (Futurity; the same as, 'Dorothy will be glad to go with us/) My sister says (that) Dorothy shall not be left behind. (Volition; the same as, 'Dorothy shall not be left behind.') APPLIED GRAMMAR 65 In all other dependent clauses, shall is in all per- sons the proper auxiliary to express simple futurity ; will in all persons implies an exercise of will on the part of the subject of the clause; as, Dorothy says (that) she shall (futurity) be able to go with us. She says (that) she will (volition) meet us at the corner. If Bessie will come (volition) , we will try to make her visit pleasant. When He shall appear (futurity) we shall be like Him. The following sentences will serve to illustrate further the rules given by Mr. Buehler: 1. He declares that he shall die if he is not helped. 2. You say you should like to see him. 3. Barnes says that he will not pay this bill. 4. You promised that you would help me. 5. He said that he should be happy to meet your friend. 6. John said that James tvoidd be fifteen next month. 7. I said that I should like to go if I got a chance. 8. They said they feared they should miss the train. 9. They thought it would rain. 10. Did he say that he should be glad to go? 11. Jane said that her mother would try to go. 66 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH EXERCISE XXXIII Examine the following sentences, and justify the use Of SHALL or WILL, SHOULD OT WOULD: 1. "I will not answer," he said stubbornly. 2. We should be greatly mistaken if we thought so. 3. Will not our national character be greatly injured? Shall we not be classed with the robbers and destroyers of mankind? 4. But I shall doubtless find some English per- son of whom to make inquiries. 5. "I am a wayfarer," the stranger said, "and should like permission to remain with you a little while." 6. I fear that we shall have bad weather. 7. I shall receive no benefit if I do not apply my- self. 8. I think I shall stay at home to-night; so if you will keep quiet, I will tell you a story. 9. You will be sorry if you do not go, and so shall I. 10. I shall be fatigued if I walk to town. 11. You will like her when you meet her, and so will your brother. 12. I shall be disappointed if he does not come, and so will you and your sister. 13. You shall have the money next week. 14. Tommy, you shall not leave the room. 15. I know we shall be sorry. 16. I shall be obliged to refuse your request. APPLIED GRAMMAR 67 17. If I do not wear my overshoes, I shall be ill. 18. We will do whatever is fair. 19. You shall not have one cent. 20. We shall expect you to-morrow. 21. I shall be satisfied, when I awake, with Thy likeness. 22. He will call for me on his way to school. 23. I shall regret your absence. 24. He is resolved that Anna shall go. 25. We will not pay one cent. 26. We will not permit this to continue. 27. If I do not study now, I shall later regret not having done so. 28. I will follow up the quest, despite its hard- ships. 29. I will fight it out on this line if it takes all summer. 30. Shall you go to Newport in July or August? 31. Will you insist on this demand? 32. I should prefer to have you go in my place. 33. I should think you would try again. 34. If you should fail, how sorry I should be. 35. Were I to fail again, I should be discouraged. 36. You will report to your general before twelve o'clock. 37. He fears he shall be late. 38. He fears you will be late. 39. Depend upon it, I will be ready when you arrive. 40. I shall be glad if he will tell me wherein I have offended him. 68 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH ACCURACY IN MAKING COMPARISONS When two persons, things, or ideas are compared, the comparative form of the adjective or of the adverb should be used ; when more than two, the su- perlative. Thus: Of two evils, choose the less. Now abideth faith, hope, love, these three; but the greatest of these is love. Rule. — When a comparative with than is used, the thing compared must be excluded from the rest of a class to which it belongs. This may be done by inserting the word other. When the superlative is used, the particular term must be included in the class of things with which it is compared. The word other must then be omitted. It is clearly incorrect to say "Texas is larger than any state in the Union," because Texas is included in "any state," and of course is not larger than it- self. This error is avoided by inserting other after any. Thus: Texas is larger than any other state in the Union. To say "Texas is the largest of any state in the Union" is also incorrect, because "any state" means "any one state" or "some states," and the thought intended to be conveyed is that "Texas is the largest of all the states in the Union." The simplest way of expressing the thought is "Texas is the largest state in the Union." APPLIED GRAMMAR 69 EXERCISE XXXIV Which is preferable? 1. The smallest (smaller) of the twins is the most (more) active. 2. The oldest (older) of the four sons is in college. 3. Which is the farthest (farther) west, Helena, Salt Lake City, or Denver? 4. Of the two German poets, Schiller and Goethe, the latter (last) is the more (most) famous. 5. Of Irish song writers, Moore is the greater (greatest) . Point out and correct the errors in the following sentences: 1. Our history lessons are the easiest of any we have. 2. California produces more citrus fruit than any state in the Union. 3. Buenos Ayres has a larger population than any city south of the equator. 4. Lake Superior is the largest of any of the Great Lakes. 5. The Amazon is larger than any river in the world. 6. You may have the black or the spotted kitten, whichever you like best. 7. Studying and reciting are both interesting, but reciting is the most interesting. 8. This is the most entertaining book of any that I have read. 70 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 9. Which do you like best, oranges or bananas? 10. Stonewall Jackson was more daring than any Confederate general. 11. Tennyson was the greatest of any of the Victorian poets. 12. Of all other boys, Charles should be the last to complain. 13. Of all women orators, Susan B. Anthony was the greater. Adjectives and Adverbs not Admitting of Com- parison. — Not a few adjectives and adverbs have meanings that do not vary in degree; as, entirely, dead, unparalleled. Such words do not admit of comparison, or of being modified by most, more, too, very, or so. Which of the following adjectives and adverbs do not admit of formal comparison? ill universally flexible late invariable unprecedented square unbounded invisible incessant preferable productive unanimous immeasurably near ambitious supreme constantly unerring omnipotent inseparable parallel inaudible incessantly unique absolute omniscient wooden incomparable matchless paramount Professor E. H. Lewis defends the practice of comparing such words as full, perfect, and round. Thus: APPLIED GRAMMAR 71 "It is often said that certain adjectives like full, perfect, and round are 'incapable of comparison/ because they are already superlative in meaning. It is true, in one sense, that if a pail is full, it can be no fuller. But no actual pail is ever exactly full ; no circle ever drawn was perfectly round; nothing save God is perfect. The Bible, by the way, contains the expression more perfect (Acts 24 : 22 ; Heb. 9 : 11). If we were to be theoretically exact in all our speech, we could not speak at all. In strictness, time never 'flies/ the sun never 'rises,' nothing ever 'happens/ "In common usage it is 'perfectly' good English and 'perfectly' good sense to say full, fuller, fullest; round, rounder, roundest; perfect, more perfect, most perfect, half-perfect. We need not go so far as to say rather perfect, though rather round and rather full might be permitted." ACCURACY IN USING PREPOSITIONS Errors made in the use of prepositions are by no means few. In choosing the preposition that will accurately express his meaning, a writer must rely chiefly on his knowledge of good usage. The indi- cation of the correct use of the more important prepositions may, however, prove helpful. We should say: 1. Between two; among three or more. 2. Different from (not different to, or than). 3. Accused of (not with) a, grave offense. 72 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 4. Greedy of (not for) popularity. 5. Acceptable to (not with) the persons con- cerned. 6. Need of (not for) more money. 7. Angry a£ a thing or an act. 8. Angry tvith a person. 9. Made of (not with) the best material. 10. Frown at a person, but on conduct. 11. One is careless of (not with) one's valuables. 12. Descended from (not o/) a good family. 13. Destined to (not for) high service. 14. Antipathy to (not /or) a person. 15. Agree with a person; to a proposal. 16. Confide in (meaning trust in). 17. Confide to (meaning hit rust something to an- other) . 18. Averse to (rarely front). 19. Yoked with (not to). 20. Sympathize with (not for), 21. Concede to (not /r/Y//) a proposal. 22. Concur with a person; in what is said. 23. Dissent from (not tvith) an opinion. 24. Persons are reconciled to others or to God; practice is reconciled with theory. 25. Seized by a policeman; with some disease. 26. Remonstrate /r/Y// a person; against conduct or procedure. 27. Accompanied by a person; with noble thoughts. 28. Killed by a weapon; uri£A dissipation. APPLIED GRAMMAR 73 29. Overwhelmed by the enemy; with grief. 30. Attend to our duties; upon our masters. 31. Similar things or ideas are compared with each other; unlike things (analogously) to each other. 32. Vexed with a person; at conduct. 33. Correspond to or with a thing; with a person. 34. Witness for a person; to sl principle or truth. 35. Emulous of (not for) honors. 36. Disappointed in what we have; of what we expected, but could not get. EXERCISE XXXV Write sentences illustrating the difference be- tiveen — In and into; beside and besides; wait for and wait on; consist of and consist in; laugh at and laugh with; part from and part with; taste of and taste for; assimilated by and assimilated to; smile at and smile on; frown at and frown on; accompanied by and accompanied with; among and between; touch at and touch upon; succeed to and succeed in; bear with and bear up; trespass on and trespass against; re- sponsible for and responsible to; embark on and embark in; eager to and eager for; perish by and perish with. EXERCISE XXXVI The fifty phrases given below are prepositional in form, but have the force of adverbs, and are treated as adverbs. 74 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH Use each in a sentence: Above all, all in all, at a loss, at all events, at any rate, at best, at heart, at fault, at hand, at most, at one, at random, at that, at the most, at times, by- heart, by no means, by the bye, for a while, for all that, for instance, for example, for lost, for that mat- ter, for the most part, for the present, for the time, from time to time, in a word, in brief, in general, in fact, in full, in other words, in part, in particular, in short, in the main, in vain, in view, more and more, no doubt, none the less, on the contrary, on the one hand, on the other hand, on the whole, once for all, over and above, under the circumstances. Preposition as the Final Word of a Sentence. — "Some authorities object to the use of a preposi- tion as the final word of a sentence, but such usage is in accord with the genius of all the Teutonic lan- guages." — Standard Dictionary. The nicest judgment, however, is necessary to de- termine whether a sentence would be improved or impaired by placing the preposition at the close of the sentence. Seldom, if ever, should such phrases as, at least, at any rate, at all events, in short, in truth, in fact, to be sure, etc., be placed at the close of a sentence. "Off" Followed by "Of." — Never use the prepo- sition of after the preposition off. No mistake is more common than off of. The pupil should accustom himself to saying: Off the lawn, off the desk, off the APPLIED GRAMMAR 75 pier, off the bush, off the vines, off the roof, off the horse, off the first base, etc. "Than." — Than is used as a preposition in only one phrase: "than whom;" as, Horace Mann, than whom no man of his time was a greater educator, was a native of Massachusetts. "Like." — Like is never a conjunction, and should not be used to introduce a clause, as in the sentence, "Do like your father does," for "Do as your father does." Like properly introduces a phrase; as, He looks like his father; talks like a parrot; works like a beaver; etc. EXERCISE XXXVII Use in sentences each of the following words (1) as a preposition; (2) as an adverb: in off below within up down behind beneath by above around without Use each of the following, (1) as a preposition; (2) as a conjunctive adverb: Since, before, after, till, until. Phrasal Prepositions. — Each of the following expressions is treated as a preposition. They are called phrasal prepositions: as for as to apart from because of as regards by means of according to by reason of 76 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH by way of out of for the sake of in opposition to in accordance with in place of in addition to in preference to in case of in spite of in compliance with instead of in consequence of on account of in front of 'with regard to Prepositions Derived from Verbs. — Though de- rived from verbs, the following words, when not following auxiliary verbs, are prepositions: barring excepting regarding concerning pending respecting during notwithstanding touching ADJECTIVE OR ADVERB Verbs, like adjectives and adverbs, are modified, if modified at all, by adverbs. But there are cer- tain verbs that, like the verb to be, may have ad- jectives for their complements. The more common of these verbs are look, feel, seem, appear, taste, smell, grow, become, sound, turn, and so on. It is proper, as a rule, to use an adjective after any one of these verbs, whenever some form of the verb to be or to seem or to become may be substituted for the verb; an adverb when no such substitution can be made. Thus: He looked strong. He spoke strongly. Or, The velvet feels smooth. She writes smoothly. In the sentence, "He turned pale," pale does not tell how he turned, but how he became; in other APPLIED GRAMMAR 77 words, he became pale. Hence pale is here an ad- jective. But in the sentence, "He turned quickly," quickly tells how he did the act expressed by the verb turn. Hence quickly is an adverb. When you say, "The apple tastes sweet/' you do not mean that the apple performs an act denoted by the verb tastes, but that the apple is sweet to your sense of taste. Sweet is therefore an adjective. But when you say, "The birds sing sweetly," you mean to tell by the word sweetly how the birds perform the act of singing. Sweetly is therefore an adverb. EXERCISE XXXVIII Which is correct? Why? 1. How sweet (sweetly) these violets smell! 2. At once his eye grew wild (wildly). 3. The wind blows furious (furiously). 4. The servant looked weary (wearily). 5. The day dawned fair (fairly). 6. He spoke distinctly (distinct). 7. Her voice grew more faintly (fainter). 8. He looks stronger (more strongly) than his brother. 9. You are exceeding (exceedingly) thoughtful. 10. He felt awkwardly (awkward) in the pres- ence of ladies. 11. The dead soldier looked calm (calmly). 12. You should value your privileges higher (more highly) . 13. She seems amiably (amiable) enough. 78 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 14. The beans boiled soft (softly). 15. She sings good (well). 16. The pudding looks good (tvell). 17. The phaeton rides easy (easily). 18. Experience makes us cautiously (cautious). 19. We should not let our lights grow dim (dimly) . 20. Deal gentle (gently) with the erring. 21. He always acts independently (independent). 22. The weather turned coldly (cold). 23. One can scarce (scarcely) help smiling at his grotesque movements. 24. These shoes go on easy (easily). 25. These shoes feel easy (easily). 26. They feel bad (badly) over their defeat. 27. He speaks loud (loudly) enough. 28. He writes so ill (illy) that one can scarcely (scarce) read his writing. 29. Previous (previously) to his election to pub- lic office, he practiced medicine. EXERCISE XXXIX Distinguish between — 1. The applicant appeared promptly (prompt). 2. They arrived safe (safely). 3. The deacon looks well (good). 4. I found the way easy (easily). 5. The teacher took great pains to explain (in explaining) everything. 6. Do you think I would ■ (should) accept it? APPLIED GRAMMAR 79 7. She was the greatest poet (poetess) of her day. 8. He taught (has taught) there for twenty years. 9. She sings as well as (as well as she) plays. 10. I remember a story of the judge (judge's) that may interest you. 11. William (William's) and Henry's books. 12. Few (a few) are qualified to serve. 13. He lived (had lived) on the lake front thirty years. 14. Much depends on the teacher's (teacher) crit- icizing our essays. MISTAKES IN THE USE OF CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS Definition. — Correlative conjunctions are con- junctions used in pairs; such as both — and, either — or, neither — nor, whether — or, not only — but also. When using correlatives, we must see to it that each of the correlated words is so placed as to in- dicate clearly what ideas the correlatives unite in thought. This rule is violated in "He -is neither inclined to favor protection nor absolute free trade." By placing the first term of the correlative before the verb inclined the reader is led to expect a corresponding verb in the second part of the sen- tence. In fact, however, the two connected expres- sions are protection and absolute free trade. The intended meaning is clearly indicated by putting 80 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH neither before protection; thus, "He is inclined to favor neither protection nor absolute free trade." As a rule, each member of the correlative should be followed by same part of speech. EXERCISE XL Point out and correct the errors of position in — 1. She was neither qualified by early training nor by later associations to govern a nation. 2. You are not only mistaken in your inferences, but also in your facts. 3. He neither answered my letter nor my post- card. 4. Every written exercise is liable to criticism both in regard to its style and to its thought. 5. We are neither acquainted with the mayor nor his advisers. 6. The night neither brought food nor shelter to the lonely traveler. 7. He was not only prompted by inclination nor by a sense of duty. 8. Tom's success is neither the result of cleverness nor of studiousness. OMITTED CONJUNCTIONS Professor Buehler writes: "Careless writers sometimes omit conjunctions that are necessary either to the grammar or to the sense. A common form of this fault is illustrated in This is as good APPLIED GRAMMAR 81 if not better than that' — a sentence in which 'as' is omitted after 'as good.' The best way to correct the sentence is to recast it, thus: This is as good as that, if not better/ " EXERCISE XLI Correct the errors in the following sentences: 1. Though not so old, Charlie is taller than Willie. 2. The President is as young, if not younger than the Emperor William. 3. Redwood is not so hard, but more durable than white pine. 4. Jones is older, but not so gray as Brown. OTHER COMMON ERRORS Most, Almost. — Most is often used where almost is the proper word. Almost should be used when- ever nearly can be substituted for it. Use most to express degree of quantity, number, or quality. Thus: "The poor cripple's money is almost (not most) gone. Almost (not most) every one contrib- uted something to the undertaking. Some, Something, Somewhat. — Careless writers often forget that some is an adjective, something a noun, and somewhat an adverb of degree. The sentence, "The patient is some better this morning" is a vulgarism as well as a solecism. To say, "He looks something like his father," is a gross blunder. In both sentences someivhat is the proper word. 82 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH Real, Really. — Real is an adjective, and should not be made to do duty for very, extremely, or really. Such locutions as real sick, real healthy, real hand- some, and so forth, are solecisms. Real is properly used before a noun; as, This is a real diamond. Such, So. — The adjective such is often wrongly used for the adverb so, when the idea of degree is to be expressed; as in the sentence, "I never before heard such an eloquent speaker." The cor- rect form is, "I never before heard so eloquent a speaker." "I never before saw such a tall man" is correct if I mean that I never before saw a tall man of this peculiar kind. But if I mean that this man is the tallest I ever saw, I should say, "I never before saw so tall a man." Double Negatives. — In modern English two neg- atives are equivalent to an affirmative. To say "I don't know nothing about the subject" is equiva- lent to "I know something about the subject." An- other inadmissible double negative is, "John can not pass the examination, I don't think." While such double negatives as "I didn't eat nothing," "Neither you nor nobody else," and so on, are solecisms, there is a kind of double negative supported by good usage ; as, Such mistakes are not infrequent. Not a few were unable to gain admission. That, But What, But That.— Dr. R. H. Bell says : "But that and but what used instead of that is certainly poor taste, to say nothing more." Say "There is no doubt that (not but ivhat) he APPLIED GRAMMAR 83 will succeed." "I'll not deny that (not but that) you are right." Had or Hadn't before Ought. — Never use had or hadn't before ought. Had ought and hadn't ought are vulgarisms. "He hadn't ought to leave" is intended to express the thought, "He ought not to leave." Quite. — Quite is an adverb; it can not therefore modify a noun. We should say "a large number," "a larger quantity," not quite a number," etc. Bad, Severe. — Bad is the opposite of good, and is not synonymous with severe. Say "I have a se- vere (not bad) cold." Very Much. — Very badly means in an evil man- ner, hence should not be used instead of very much. Say "I am very much (not very badly) in need of help." Every, Entire. — Every means each one of sev- eral. It is not a synonym of entire or all. Say "We have entire (not every) confidence in our em- ployees." PRACTICE IN DETECTING SOLECISMS EXERCISE XLII. Point out and correct all errors of syntax in the folloiving sentences: 1. The dice is loaded. 2. The formation of these rocks are very curious. 3. Each of these states are a part of the nation. 84 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 4. Edible fungi is hard to distinguish from poisonous. 5. The phenomena is very unusual. 6. The data is sufficient. 7. Those plants belong to different genuses. 8. How different the climate is to what we ex- pected. 9. Can I consult your lexicon? 10. Let each of them depend on their own effort. 11. It was Raleigh's intention to have dedicated his book to Lord Bacon. 12. He was an Irishman who, like Priestly, the Republicans delighted to honor. 13. How will I know who to look to? 14. I meant to have given the class several of these kind of questions. 15. Which is the cheapest route, the central or the southern? 16. It doesn't really deceive the reader any more than "Arabian Nights" or "Gulliver's Travels" do. 17. Who do you think I saw standing on the bridge ? 18. Any burglar, be he whom he may, should be hung. 19. He found that the river had raised several inches. 20. More than one failure has resulted from care- lessness. 21. Nothing but vain and foolish pursuits delight some people. APPLIED GRAMMAR 85 22. He laid down in the shade where we formerly- had set. 23. One of the most trying things that is known to life, is to suffer alone and unjustly. 24. Every one of the boys tell the same story. 25. Us boys may soon organize a debating club. 26. How does my coat set across the shoulders? 27. The old method is quite different than the cne now in use. 28. I will confide the secret to my brother. 29. He may return next week, but we can not wait on him. 30. It makes no difference whom you thought it was. 31. What kind of an adjective did you say some was? 32. I was born an American, I live an American, I will die an American. 33. Why don't Amelia speak plainly? 34. Are you most ready? 35. We don't hardly expect them this week. 36: It is very pleasant to travel in style like the Lord High Chancellor does. 37. Happiness is not complete except it is shared with another. 38. Can I be excused from reciting this morning? 39. As Mark was feeling bad, the teacher ex- cused him from the recitation. 40. He called for Estelle and I. 41. It was us whom you saw. 86 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 42. There should be no trouble between them and I. 43. He is a man whom I know is honest. 44. They saw that it was her. 45. Don't all speak at once, but each in their turn. 46. Everybody in the waiting room were amusing themselves as well as they could. 47. Neither Charles or Carl found themselves able to solve the problem. 48. The general with all his men were taken by the enemy. 49. Nothing but confectionery and stationery are sold here. 50. Are either of you acquainted with the princi- pal or his assistant? 51. Night air, together with draughts, are the bugbear of fearful patients. 52. Who did you take him to be? 53. I felt sure that the culprit was him. 54. He lives as far, if not farther, from the city as you do. 55. I mean Noah Webster, he who compiled the dictionary. 56. The Prime Minister, with the Lord Chief Justice, were admitted to the King's presence. 57. You can take any book that you find laying on the table. 58. Was it a lawyer or a preacher's library that you bought? 59. Candidates are liberal with promises before election. APPLIED GRAMMAR 87 60. The judge said that he could not entirely acquit the defendant from blame. 61. I wish it was not so far to my office. 62. Will you be likely to meet the postman? 63. St. Augustine is older than any town in North America. 64. We can not but help being deeply impressed. 65. The old swimming hole — I will not soon for- get it. 66. There is very little room here for men like you and I. 67. I would be very much obliged to you for your autograph. 68. I fully expected to have executed your orders, but circumstances forbade. 69. The man whom they thought was the clergy- man, proved to be a layman. 70. He had just laid down when you called. 71. I can not imagine it to be he. 72. Who can you recommend for the position? 73. I think you will find that it was him who wrote the article. 74. How should you like to be me? 75. I hardly think it was him to whom Mr. Stone referred. 76. She lay the baby on the bed and then ran for a physician. 77. They had no thought of its being us. 78. What kind of a bird is it? 79. We woke at five o'clock. 88 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 80. I wrang the clothes as dry as I could. 81. Did you wake of your own accord, or did you have some one else awake you? 82. He has set up night after night to study. 83. Her cries for help have been wringing in my ears all day. 84. You caught cold by laying on the grass while John was sitting out the shrubs. 85. Every one present, except he, guessed why. 86. He earnestly protested against them embark- ing in the enterprise. 87. I meant, when I first came, to have bought all Paris. 88. If I had not rode part of the way, I never would have been there in time. 89. It is just as good, if not better, than any other brand in the market. 90. I have no doubt but what he meant to have told you the facts long ago. 91. He would allow no one to open their eyes while at prayers, and would ofttimes raise up and look around to see if all were praying. 92. I neither attempted to conceal from myself nor from him that the project would be a danger- ous one. • 93. Charlemagne patronized not only learned men, but also established educational institutions. 94. "When will you be ready for business ?" asked the reporter. 95. If it don't come before six, I shall have to go for it myself. APPLIED GRAMMAR 89 96. Which structure is best, the loose or the periodic ? 97. Mazzini did more for the unity of Italy than any living man. 98. He once said to his mother, "I believe I will die young." 99. In Europe no one marries without they have a certain amount of property. 100. Beelzebub, than who, Satan except, none higher sat. PART TWO Punctuation Punctuation is an indispensable help in making clear, and therefore easy to read, what one writes. It is the art of dividing written discourse into sen- tences and shorter sections in such a manner as to make clear to the eye their grammatical relations. Punctuation is just as essential to the structure and meaning of sentences as are the choosing and ar- ranging of words. "Every mark of punctuation, if rightly used," says Professor Genung, "has its definite office to fulfil, and depends on some deter- minate principle of connection and relation." Though no two writers punctuate precisely alike, yet the important rules for using the period, the comma, the colon, and so on, are fully established in the practice of reputable writers. Rules and di- rections can only facilitate the process of mastering the art. One is not a master of the art until one punctuates correctly from sheer habit — automatic- ally. A master punctuates without thinking of the rules, for he is himself the rules — and vastly more — incarnate. Here, as elsewhere, patient observation and persistent practice are the ladder by which we rise to the plane of mastery. The purpose of using capital and italic letters is practically the same as that of punctuating. Hence (90) PUNCTUATION 91 the rules for the use of capitals are here included under punctuation. CAPITAL LETTERS The following are the essential rules governing the use of capital letters : Begin with a capital letter — 1. The first word of every sentence. 2. The first word of every line of poetry. 3. The first word of every phrase or clause sepa- rately numbered. 4. The first word of every example, question, precept, or direct quotation, which, in effect, is a sentence within a sentence. 5. A proper noun. 6. A word derived from a proper noun and an. abbreviation of a proper noun. Note. — Some words derived from proper nouns, have, by long usage, lost all reference to their origin, and hence are written with small initial letters; as, simony, currant, artesian, laconic, milliner, solecism, etc. 7. A common noun when joined to a proper noun to form a compound name. Note. — By some authorities geographical names are made an exception to this rule; as, the Hudson river. 8. A title of honor or of office when used with a proper name or when referring to a particular person. 9. Names of the Deity, and, usually, personal pronouns referring to the Deity. 92 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 10. Names of the Bible and of its books. 11. Names of religious denominations, of political parties, and of all other organized bodies. 12. Names of the months, and of the days of the week. 13. Names of important historical events and epochs. 14. The first word and all important words in the titles of books and of all other forms of dis- course. 15. Each of the words north, east, south, west, when it denotes a part of a country, but not when it denotes direction. 16. A noun "so strongly personified as to produce in the mind a distinct image of a person." 17. Words denoting family relations, such as father, mother, uncle, and so on, when used with the proper names of the persons, or when used with- out a possessive noun or pronoun. 18. The word fathers when it denotes sages or ancient Christian writers. To these rules must be added — 19. The words I and are always written as capitals. 20. "Common nouns and adjectives often begin with capital letters when they designate the topics or main points of definitions or similar statements. Such capitals are called emphatic (or topical) capi- tals." PUNCTUATION 93 Often a Matter of Taste. — All who have had considerable experience in writing know that there are many constructions where the use or non-use of capitals is solely a matter of taste. The tendency to use italics sparingly is becoming more and more marked. Inexperienced writers are prone to capitalize and italicize too much. EXERCISE I Justify the use of the capitals in the following sentences: 1. Caesar cried, "Help me, Cassius, or I sink." 2. The Prince of Wales will succeed King Ed- ward upon the throne of England. 3. He was the author of "The Reformation in France." 4. In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. John 1:1. 5. His name shall be called Wonderful, Counsel- lor, The mighty God, The everlasting Father, The Prince of Peace. Isa. 9 : 6. 6. St. Edmund of Canterbury was right when he said to some one, "Work as though you would live forever; live as though you would die to-day." 7. Leonardo da Vinci would walk across Milan to change a single tint or the slightest detail in his famous picture of "The Last Supper." 8. Mr. and Mrs. Simpson request the pleasure of Mr. Wheeler's company at dinner on Wednesday, 94 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH June twenty-third, at seven o'clock. To meet Mr. James Larkin. 23 Lear Street, June nineteenth. 9. Can storied urn or animated bust Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath ? Can Honor's voice provoke the silent dust, Or Flattery soothe the dull cold ear of Death? 10. President Benjamin Harrison was a member of the First Presbyterian Church, of Indianapolis. In politics Mr. Harrison was a Republican. He was an ardent supporter of democratic institutions. 11. Let me repeat it: Devote yourself to the good of humanity. 12. This watch is a present from Uncle Edwin. 13. The Breeze came whispering to our ear. 14. Charcoal. a. Tell what it is. b. Describe the manufacture of charcoal. c. Chief uses. ITALICS 1. A word belonging to a foreign language should be italicized when printed in English ; as, Un cheval is the French for the English a horse. 2. When in written thought a word is referred to as a word, it should be printed in italics or put within marks of quotation. a. In this book such words are italicized. PUNCTUATION 95 3. Words are sometimes italicized to render them emphatic; as — It is this soul of words that gives them creative force. — R. H. Bell. b. The use of italics for emphasis is now much less common than formerly. THE PERIOD The period, as the etymology of the word im- plies, indicates that the circuit of the thought is complete. Its chief use, accordingly, is to mark the end of sentences. 1. Every declarative and every imperative sentence is followed by a period, as — Truth is stranger than fiction. Go to the ant, thou sluggard. 2. An abbreviation is followed by a period unless an apostrophe marks the omission of the letters ; as — The Hon. Wm. E. Gladstone would sometimes ad- dress the House of Commons at 2 A. M. a. When shortened forms of proper names or of other nouns become current, they no longer require a period. Some of these contractions are Tom, Ben, Will, Sue, bus (omnibus), cab, (cabriolet). b. Titles may be abbreviated only when they are joined with proper names. c. The name of a State may be abbreviated when standing with the name of a town or county, but not when standing alone. 7 96 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH d. The name of a month may be abbreviated when used with the day of the month and the year, but not otherwise. e. The words morning, noon, and afternoon are expressed by A. M. or a. m., M. or m., P. M. or p. m., respectively, only when the hour is given. f. The use of & is permissible in the names of firms only. . g. Words, not figures, should be used to express small numbers, excepting in tables, statistics, num- bering of pages, lines, examples, dates, and the like. Do not begin a sentence with a figure. 3. The title of a book, of a chapter, or of any other writing is, as a rule, followed by a period. h. Publishers of fine books now often disregard this rule. 4. A subhead, an address, or a signature is followed by a period. 5. Every figure, letter, or word used to number or designate a member of a series is followed by a pe- riod. The numbering of these rules illustrates this requirement. i. The former custom of putting a period after the number of a page or of a line is no longer ob- served. j. A letter or figure enclosed by curves and used to designate a member of a series, is not followed by a period. 6. A Roman numeral is generally — but by no means always — followed by a period. PUNCTUATION 97 THE INTERROGATION POINT 1. An interrogation point is placed after a sentence used to express a direct question ; as — Can the Ethiopian change his skin? a. An interrogation point should not be placed after an indirect question ; e. g. — He asked me how I liked Mr. B's lecture. 2. An interrogation point is placed within a sen- tence, when needed to mark the close of an inter- rogative clause ; as — "My father! must I stay?" shouted he. (Or) The question, "Why has the bank closed its doors?" must be definitely answered. 3. When a sentence consists of two or more closely related questions each of which, except the first, be- ing usually elliptical, an interrogation point follows each question ; as — Where be your gibes now? your gambols? your songs? your flashes of merriment that were wont to set the table on a roar? — Shakespeare. b. In practice even the best writers are not agreed as to the application of rule 3. Some of them place a semicolon after each question except the last. c. If, however, a question is not complete until the end of the sentence has been reached, an interroga- tion point should be inserted at the close of the sentence only; as, Which was the more ancient, Nineveh or Babylon? 98 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 4. In order to express doubt as to the accuracy of an idea, an interrogation point enclosed by curves may be placed after the word or words expressing such idea ; as — It was in 1328 (?) that Geoffrey Chaucer first saw the light. d. The enclosed interrogation point sometimes tinges the doubt with irony; as, Our honorable (?) Representative in Congress is now enjoying the com- forts of a Federal prison. THE EXCLAMATION POINT 1. An exclamation point follows a word, a phrase, or a sentence that expresses strong feeling of any kind ; as — Oh, that the salvation of Israel were come out of Zion ! Ps. 53 : 6. a. Exceptionally strong feeling is sometimes ex- pressed by one word, called an interjection. When this is the case, the mark of exclamation follows the interjection; as, Alas! life is too short for the ambitious soul. b. When intense feeling pervades the entire sen- tence, an exclamation point may follow the inter- jection, and another the completed sentence. Some- times the interjection is followed by a comma or by no point at all, and an exclamation is inserted at the end of the sentence. Thus : Alas ! thy youth is dead! Oh, what a cruel fate is mine! Ah the years, the years! how they pass! PUNCTUATION 99 2. When a person or a thing is addressed with strong emotion, a mark of exclamation, instead of a comma, may be placed after the vocative noun; as — Your voiceless lips, flowers ! are living preachers. c. We must not forget that the use of the ex- clamation point is much less subject to rule than the use of the interrogation point. It is safe to say that where one writer would place the mark of ex- clamation immediately after the interjection, an- other would place the point at the end of the sen- tence and insert a comma after the interjection. d. In respect to the use of the exclamation point Professor Hart says : "The best advice that one can give to the young is to be very sparing in the use of the sign of exclamation. Use the sign only when you are fully conscious that your feeling is intense, or that you are directly addressing some person or some personified object. A composition dotted over with ( ! ! ) is evidence of mental hysteria ; to cor- rect such writing is, for the sober-minded teacher, a personal grievance." THE COMMA The comma marks the least degree of separation in the divisions of a sentence. It has been called the sign of incompleteness. "It is the group-maker." It shows what words belong together, and serves to keep words apart that should not be taken together. It thus helps to prevent misunderstandings. 100 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH There is a growing tendency to disuse the comma in many cases where it was formerly employed. Books printed to-day have fewer commas to the page than have those printed twenty-five or more years ago. Hence we should be careful not to use the comma too freely. It is not needed so often as young writers are prone to think. When, however, the comma is needed, it is greatly needed. 1. How to Punctuate the Series. — When the terms of a series are in the same construction, they are separated by commas. If all the terms are connected by conjunctions, the commas are usually omitted ; but if only the last two terms are thus joined, the comma is used regardless of the conjunction. a. A series may consist of nouns all subjects of the same verb, of verbs having a common subject, of modifiers — adjectives, adverbs, phrases, or clauses. It may consist, though rarely, of short, closely re- lated coordinate statements. b. If it is desired to make each term of a series stand out in emphatic relief, commas are used even though conjunctions are inserted. c. When no conjunction is inserted, even between the last two terms, a comma should follow the last term also, unless what follows is a single word or a short expression closely connected with the series. d. If the terms of a couplet are connected by a conjunction, no comma is needed. • PUNCTUATION- 161 Explain the punctuation of the folloiving sen- tences in the light of the foregoing rule and sug- gestions: 1. Beauty, truth, and goodness are never out of date. 2. The Indian, the sailor, the hunter, only these know the power of the hands, feet, teeth, eyes, and ears. 3. The best part of a man's life is his little, name- less, unremembered acts of kindness or of love. 4. He was brave, pious, patriotic, in all his as- pirations. 5. Life is a constant, responsible, unavoidable duty. 6. They are a rich and prosperous people. 7. Some are born great, some achieve greatness, and some have greatness thrust upon them. 8. For I am persuaded that neither death, nor life, nor angels, nor principalities, nor powers, nor things present, nor things to come, nor height, nor depth, nor any other creature, shall be able to sep- arate us from the love of God, which is in Christ Jesus our Lord. Rom. 8 : 38, 39. EXERCISE II Complete the punctuation of the folloiving sen- tences: 1. All was ended now, the hope and the fear and the sorrow. 'jr62'' '' •' * V ' • -ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 2. The model business man dresses plainly prom- ises nothing and performs much. 3. They groaned they stirred they all uprose. 4. They were so shy so subtle and so swift of foot that it was difficult to come at them. 5. Some books are to be tasted others to be swal- lowed and some few to be chewed and digested. 6. Ring out, wild bells, to the wild sky The flying cloud the frosty air. 7. He searched for it at home on the street at his office. 8. The sun the moon the stars revolve. 9. He is adroit intense narrow and hard. 10. Genesis Exodus Leviticus Numbers Deute- ronomy make up the Pentateuch. 11. The description was clearly forcefully and beautifully written. 12. The earth the air the water teem with busy life. 13. He laughed he cried he capered about. 14. Regret for the past grief at the present and anxiety respecting the future are plagues which af- fect the generality of men. Note. — Two or more adjectives sometimes precede a noun, which are not in the same construction. Such adjectives require ncit her conjunctions nor commas. For example, "a beautiful white horse." Here beautiful does not qualify korte alone, but white horse; hence no comma separates the two adjectives. In "a fragrant little flower," fragrant modifies the expression little flower, and must not be separated from little. Other ex- amples are "a fine large trout," "a. small speckled hen," "an affable young man." PUNCTUATION 103 2. The Comma with Independent Elements. — Eng- lish sentences exhibit several kinds of independent elements: (1) "Vocative" expressions, (2) "absolute" expressions, and (3) " parenthetical " expressions. (1) Vocative expressions (nouns independent by address) are separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma or by commas; as — Rejoice, young man, in thy youth. a. When the vocative is expressed with strong feeling, an exclamation point may follow it. (2) Absolute constructions are separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma or commas. b. An absolute construction may consist (a) of a grammatically independent participial phrase, or (b) of a grammatically independent noun or pronoun modified by a participial phrase, or (c) of a gram- matically independent infinitive phrase; as, We be- ing exceedingly tossed, they lightened the ship. Gen- erally speaking, the education of the common people is advancing rapidly in Japan. To speak candidly, your failure was the result of carelessness. (3) Parenthetical expressions are, as a rule, sep- arated from the rest of the sentence by a comma or commas; as — The man was, to be sure, somewhat conceited. c. The following expressions are often used par- enthetically : as it were after all in reality as it happens beyond question without doubt 104 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH of course no doubt in short in truth in a word in fact in fine to be sure for the most part generally speaking now and then in the meantime namely finally besides doubtless first lastly moreover secondly to be brief then in general however therefore too indeed thus consequently again on the contrary thirdly on the other hand accordingly in the first place d. Most of these locutions are susceptible of two constructions. Where they distinctly modify a par- ticular word, they are not parenthetical, and must not be cut off by commas. Some writers do not isolate all of these terms, even when they are par- enthetical. The comma is often omitted in the case of too, also, therefore, or perhaps; especially when they are so introduced as not to interfere with the harmonious flow of the sentence, or when the sen- tence is short. EXERCISE III Name the independent expressions in the follow- ing sentences. Insert commas where they are needed: 1. You are to speak frankly over-confident. 2. I pray Thee Lord that I may be beautiful within. 3. This by the way is where Washington Irving once lived. PUNCTUATION 105 4. The fault dear Brutus is not in our stars. 5. This to say nothing worse is regrettable. 6. It is mind after all which does the work of the world. 7. On the other hand there is great danger in delay. 8. Besides it may promote the healthfulness of the town. 9. velvet bee you're a dusty fellow. 10. His father being dead the prince ascended the throne. 11. Then came Jesus the doors being shut and stood in their midst. 12. Thou knowest come what may that the light of truth can never be put out. 13. The sea being smooth we went for a sail. 14. Again let us consider the consequences of such conduct. 15. death where is thy sting? grave where is thy victory? 3. The Comma with Intermediate Expressions. — An intermediate expression which interrupts the thought or the grammatical order of a sentence should be set off by a comma or commas; as — Father, I am pleased to say, is very well. Mere energy, if not wisely directed, accomplishes but lit- tle. I have endeavored, in my previous lectures, to show the falsity of some current maxims. a. Intermediate expressions are -phrases or clauses which come between the essential parts of 106 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH a sentence, as between subject and predicate, be- tween a verb and its complement, or between the parts of a quotation. They closely resemble paren- thetical expressions. EXERCISE IV Insert needed commas in the following sentences: 1. This magazine if you are willing I shall take home with me. 2. He gave I am told all that he had. 3. "Let me make the ballads of a nation" said Fletcher of Saltoun "and I care not who makes its laws." 4. Prudence as well as courage is necessary to success in the conflict of life. 5. The brightest pupil may from want of applica- tion fail to achieve success in school work. 6. Nature through all her works delights in variety. 7. Man in his higher moods aspires to God. 8. Classical studies regarded merely as a means of culture are deserving of serious attention. 9. There is no flock however watched and tended but one dead lamb is there. 10. Phrases and clauses when not restrictive are set off by commas. b. An intermediate phrase may be restrictive; i. e., inseparable in thought from what it modifies; in that case it is not separated from the rest of the sentence; as, The man with a white beard is PUNCTUATION 107 my uncle. The tree by the bridge was blown down last night. The clock standing in the hall is a hun- dred years old. 4. The Comma with Appositional Expressions. — An appositive noun, with its modifiers, is set off by a comma or commas. A title or a degree when it fol- lows the name of a person, is separated from the name by a comma ; as — Now the bright morning star, day's harbinger, comes dancing from the east. The author of this book is David Starr Jordan, LL. D. a. In such constructions as the following, no comma is needed : The poet Lowell was a great lin- guist. Paul the apostle was a zealous missionary. The astronomer Herschel made many discoveries. EXERCISE V Complete the punctuation of the following: 1. But Hope the charmer lingered still behind. 2. Out of this nettle danger we pluck this flower safety. 3. And he their prince shall rank among my peers. 4. Diogenes the Greek philosopher was a cynic. 5. Woodrow Wilson Ph D LL D is the president of Princeton University. 6. George Lyman Kittredge A M has written much on language and kindred subjects. 7. It became necessary to remove this rebel this monster this serpent this firebrand. 108 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 8. This proposition that paper money should be made a full legal tender has been fully discussed. 9. Earth's noblest thing a woman perfected. 5. Words or Phrases in Pairs. — Words or phrases in pairs take a comma after each pair ; as — The rich and the poor, the strong and the weak, the young and the old, have one common Father. In peace or in war, in good or in evil report, Wash- ington was always the same calm, self-sustained gentleman. Interest and ambition, honor and shame, friendship and enmity, gratitude and revenge, are the prime movers in public transactions. 6. Contrasted Words or Phrases. — Words or phrases placed in contrast to each other are separated by a comma; as — The battle, but not honor, is lost. Not failure, but low aim, is crime. EXERCISE VI Where, according to rule 6, are commas needed in the folloiving sentences? 1. Truth is not a stagnant pool but a fountain. 2. There are few voices but many echoes in the world. 3. It is never our tenderness we repent of but our severity. 4. Vainly but well the chieftain fought. 5. Though he slay me yet will I trust him. 6. Liberal not lavish is kind Nature's hand. PUNCTUATION 109 7. Death thinned their ranks but could not shake their souls. 8. We live in deeds not years; in thoughts not breaths; in feelings not in figures on a dial. 9. Not failure but low aim is crime. 10. Condemn the fault but not the actor of it. 11. We walk by faith not by sight. 12. I will speak daggers to her but use none. 7. Omitted Words. — When a word readily under- stood and necessary to the sense is omitted, the omis- sion is usually indicated by a comma ; as — Carthage has crossed the Alps; Rome, the sea. Theodore Roosevelt was elected President of the United States, November 8, 1904. EXERCISE VII Complete the punctuation of the following sen- tences: 1. The former of these tendencies was repre- sented by the Jews ; the latter by the Greeks. 2. A wise man seeks to shine in himself; a fool in others. 3. From law arises security; from security curi- osity; from curiosity knowledge. 4. Iron sharpens iron ; scholar the scholar. 5. I met Captain Fowler in Dayton Ohio June 21 1899. 6. Histories make men wise; poems witty; the mathematics subtle ; natural philosophy deep ; moral 110 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH philosophy grave; logic and rhetoric able to con- tend. 7. He follows his destiny; I mine. 8. Virtue brings its own reward; vice its own punishment. 9. Columbus discovered the New World Friday October 12 1492. 10. Luck relies on chance; labor on character. Note. — An omitted verb is not marked if there are but two clauses, and a conjunction is inserted between them. Neither is the omission marked when the clauses are followed by a modifier that qualifies them all alike. "In a very light and vivacious composition the ellipsis of the verb is not usually marked. ' ' Thus : Charles makes the more rapid progress in language, but Albert in science. Plato was the more speculative, but Bacon the more practical, in philosophy. The animals fle»TTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTYYYYY^ CHOICE BOOKS Three Beautiful Books for only $2.00 5 " MAKING HOME HAPPY " H " gy JKrs. L. <■ . - • ; N M Considerably over 1 00,000 copies already sold! Price, 50 Cents. Sequel to the above named book, and by the same Author. These are useful and sensible home stories, and ought to be read by old and young. Price of this book, 75 Cents. "THOSE BIBLE READINGS" Mrs. Stuttle's latest and best book. It is a compilation of the series of Home Bible Studies, which appeared in the SIGNS OF THE TIMES' Home Department. In this book, every vital point of Bible Truth is dis- cussed and studied. Just the book to send £ to your friends. It is Present Truth in a Nut- shell, simplified and made attractive and easy. h Price, 75 Cents. All books bound in neat J cloth cover, each containing over 200 Pages. * Address Your Stale Tract Society, An]} of Our Publishing Houses, or Pacific Press Publishing Company Mountain View, California * * rXXXXXTXXXXXXXXXXTXXXXXXXXXXXTXXXXXXXxS Crue OEtmcatton Meatier •ertes Chis fine series of School Readers now covers the work of Primary and Intermediate schools in grades one to seven inclusive. No reasonable expense has been spared in order to make these Readers in every way superior to the best text-books heretofore obtainable. A competent corps of educators has been working on this series for sev- eral years, and while Books Four and Six are still in prepa- ration, the work in corresponding grades is easily covered by the other numbers. The complete Series comprises the following: Book One, 204 pages, 14 point type, Price profusely illustrated, $ . 75 Book Two, 256 pages, 14 point type, many illustrations, . 75 Book Three, 304 pages, 12 point type, fully illustrated, .90 Book Four, in preparation, Book Five, 353 pages, 10 and 12 point type, illustrated, 1.00 Book Six, in preparation, Book Seven, 392 pages, 10 point type, illustrated, 1. 00 These Readers are of uniform size, printed on fine smooth paper, and illustrated by a large number of expensive engravings, prepared especially for these books. All are substantially bound in beautiful sage- green cloth with green ink stamp. (Books One and Two red and green.) ORDER OF YOUR STATE TRACT SOCIETY. OR OF: Parittc Ptegg Publia&mo; Company MOUNTAIN VIEW, CALIFORNIA KANSAS CITY. MISSOURI REGINA. SASK., CANADA PORTLAND. OREGOC Kebieto anti Strain Publte&mo; flaaociation TAKOMA PARK, D. C. Southern Publishing Association NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE PATRIARCHS AND PROPHETS Or the Great Controversy between Good and Evil, as Illustrated in the Lives of the Holy Men of Old. This book treats upon the themes of Bible history — themes not in themselves new, but so presented here as to give them a new significance. Beginning with the rebellion in heaven, the author shows why sin was permitted, why Satan was not destroyed, and why man was tested; gives a thrilling descrip- tion of man's temptation ana fall, and rehearses the plan of sal- vation. The life of each of the Patriarchs from Adam to King David is carefully scanned, and from each a lesson is drawn. The deliverance of Israel from Egypt, the incidents of their fort}- years' wanderings, the building of the Sanctuary, the erAranoe into Canaan, the subjection of the land, and the con- tinued 'istory of the Israelite nation down to the close of David's reign are all related in an interesting, narrative style that charms the reader and opens up to him new beauties in the Scriptural record. The book contains 762 octavo pages, and is illustrated with more than 50 engravings. STYI.ES AND PRICES: Cloth, marbled edges $2.75 Library Leather, marbled edges . $3.75 Full Turkey Morocco, giU aiges $4-76 Also published in Danish, SwediUi, German, Dutch and Spanish. PACIFIC PRESS PUBLISHING COMPANY Mountain View, Cal. 1109 E. 12th St., Kansas City, Mo. Portland, Ore. H.giua, Sask., Canada. CONTROVERSY BETWEEN CHRIST AND SATAN DUR- ING THE CHRISTIAN DISPENSATION BY MRS. E. G. WHITE ' I "'HIS volume presents the most wonderful and in- *" tensely interesting history that has ever been written of the great conflict between Christianity and the pow- ers of darkness, as illustrated in the lives of Christian martyrs and reformers on the one hand, and of wicked men and persecuting powers on the other. Beginning with our Lord's great prophecy given while viewing Jerusalem from the Mount of Olives, this book outlines the history of the whole dispensation down to the time when " sin and sinners are no more ; God's entire uni- verse is clean; and the great controversy is forever ended." This remarkable book contains over 700 pages, and 26 illustrations. The work is handsomely printed and bound. Cloth, marbled edge* ..... $2.75 Library, marbled edges . . . . .3.75 Full Leather, marbled edges . . . . 4.75 W'Mijr be had also in the German, Danish, Swedish, and French languages. PACIFIC PRESS PUBLISHING COMPANY Mountain View, California Portland, Oregon Kansas City, Missouri •/WVWWWW\A> The House We Live In yhis beautiful little book sets forth in an inter- esting and instructive manner the wonders, uses, functions, etc., of the human body, in all its various parts. The style of the book is con- versational — a mother talking with her children. Many interesting parallels are drawn, comparing, for instance, the bony structure of the body to the frame of a house ; and the nervous organization to a complete telegraph system. It is a book for school or home reading and will be of great assistance to teachers or parents in teaching our children how to care for themselves physically, and to avoid the evil effects of narcotics, drugs, and stimulants. Contains 218 pages, about 150 illustrations, printed in art-brown ink, beautifully bound in blue cloth, with ink stamp in blue and red. Price $1 .00.' Order of your state tract society, or of Pacific Press Publishing Company Mountain View, California Kansas City, Missouri Regina, Sask., Canada Portland, Oregon Review and Herald Publishing Association Takoma Park, D. C. Southern Publishing Association Nashville, Tennessee Steps to Christ By Mrs. E. G. White THIS little work, by Mrs. E. G. White, pre- sents in a simple and attractive manner, the steps by which the sinner may find Christ and be made complete in Him. While the book is an excellent guide to in- quirers and young converts, it also contains a wealth of counsel and encouragement for those older in the way, who are experiencing difficulties. The all-pervading spirituality and whole- some counsel blended throughout its pages, cause the book to meet with general accept- ance. Once read, it is often re-read and studied as a guidebook in the way of sal- vation. Thirteen chapters ; 1 63 pages. Price, pa- per, 25 cents ; cloth, 50 cents. Pacific Press Publishing Company MOUNTAIN VIEW, CAU Portland, Ore. 1109 E. 12th St., Kansas City, Mo, I'MVKRSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW 5 1916 JUL 2S 1917 SEP 5 1919 30/«-6,'14 YB 12449 393^27 y» UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY