HANDBOOK OF BUSINESS ENGLISH By GEORGE BURTON HOTCHKISS, M.A. Professor of Business English in New York University School of Commerce, Accounts and Finance EDWARD JONES KILDUFF, M.A. Instructor in Business English in New York University School of Commerce, Accounts and Finance 1915 NEW YORK UNIVERSITY BOOK STORE NEW YORK. CITY COPYRIGHT, 1914 G. B. HOTCHKISS E. J. KILDUFF COPYRIGHT, 1915 G. B. HOTCHKISS E. J. KILDUFF The William G. Hewitt Prew Brooklyn, New York PREFACE This book has been prepared in answer to the current demand for a brief presentation of the principal rules of good English grammar, sentence structure, paragraphing, punctuation, capitalization, letter writing, and report mak- ing adapted to the needs of business. Inasmuch as a large part of present-day business is con- ducted by letters and other written or printed communica- tions, a command of good English and English suited to business purposes is necessary. The majority of business operations collecting, answering complaints, ordering goods, selling, etc. are conducted in writing, and this fact alone indicates the great importance in business, of the ability to write correct and forcible English. Many business houses have as a motto, "Put it in writing," for their experience has shown that differences inevitably arise through verbal com- munications. The motto, however, is of little value unless the writer is able to write well. And to write well is to write so that there is no possibility of being misunderstood. If any disagreement as to the interpretation of a letter results in a" law suit, the courts usually decide that the one who caused the misunderstanding is in fault. Good business firms are coming to realize more and more that the persons with whom they do business, form their opinion of the firm from the English used in its letters and advertisements because, in most instances, these are the only points of contact between the firm and its customers. One iii 343545 iv PREFACE great house, Marshall Field and Company of Chicago, offers a reward of $i to the employee who first calls the attention of the Manager's Office to an error (other than typo- graphical) in any of its advertisements. Other instances of business concerns which encourage the use of good English on the part of their employees, are the National City Bank, the New York Times (business department), and the Bur- roughs Adding Machine Company. These and many others maintain classes in Business English for the instruction of their employees. The authors have found that up to the present time no handbook devoted solely to the exposition of the rules of good Business English has been published. While many excellent handbooks of English Composition have been pub- lished, the illustrations of rules given are not drawn from the business man's experience, and do not therefore come home to him. The examples in this book are taken entirely from letters, advertisements, and other forms of English used in business. In some cases, the rules laid down are at variance with the accepted rules of literary composition, but the reader is reminded that the purpose of Business English differs from that of literary composition. In every instance the aim has been to present only those rules which have a direct bearing on the getting of results. This is the purpose of business and of every department of business; or, to put it more frankly, the main reason a business man should have a com- mand of Business English is that it will help him in his business. The rules presented in this book have been formu- lated with a view to their usefulness in aiding the business man to write effectively. PREFACE v It is the belief of the authors that this work will serve not only as a manual of correct forms of Business English and a concise presentation of its- rules, but also as supple- mentary to texts dealing more specifically with business literature, such as letters, pamphlets, articles, reports, and advertisements. The authors desire to acknowledge their indebtedness to many of their students who have been actually engaged in business, to System, to Woolley's Handbook of Composition, to A. H. Adley, and to Professor Archibald Bouton of New York University. G. B. H. NEW YORK CITY, E. J. K. August 29, 1914. PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION The reception given to the first edition of the Handbook of Business English has been so much more cordial than even the authors had expected that in the second edition they have been encouraged to make extensive additions. These, how- ever, have been so arranged that they do not interfere with the original numbering of the rules. Consequently, this new edition may be used side by side with the old one without confusion. Except for the addition of new material, the Handbook has been changed only by the correction of minor typographical errors. The general plan has sufficiently proved its usefulness. G. B. H. NEW YORK CITY, E. J. K. August 14, 1915. CONTENTS I. INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS ENG- LISH PAGE Business English Defined I Impression 2 "You" Attitude 3 Adaptation to the Reader 4 Fundamental Qualities in Business English . . 7 Business English Style 17 II. GRAMMAR GOOD USE IN THE SEN- TENCE Usage as a Factor in Business English 18 Grammatical Agreement 19 Dangling Modifiers 22 Clearness in Reference 24 Errors in Case of Pronouns 26 Possessives 28 Adjectives and Adverbs 31 Questions of Tense 32 General Errors. 37 III. SENTENCE STRUCTURE Length of Sentences 39 Kinds of Sentences 40 The Principles of Construction 41 Unity in the Sentence 41 vii viii CONTENTS PAGE Coherence 44 Omissions 47 Coordination and Subordination 51 Parallelism 54 Emphasis 54 Euphony 53 .Revision after Dictation 59 IV. PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE General Rules 61 Unity in the Paragraph 66 Form Paragraphs 71 Coherence in the Paragraph 72 Emphasis in the Paragraph 81 V. DICTION Elements of Correct Diction 82 Superfluous Words 86 Prepositions 88 Figures of Speech , 88 Miscellaneous Faulty Expressions 90 VI. TONE AND VARIETY The Tone of the House 115 Editorial Manual for Correspondents 115 Style Adapted to the Reader 117 Variety 122 VII. THE OUTLINE General Discussion 125 VIII. BUSINESS REPORTS Definition of a Business Report 128 CONTENTS ix PAGE Different Kinds of Business Reports 129 Arrangement of the Business Report. * 129 An Example of a Presentation. 132 An Example of a Conclusion 132 Clearness in the Business Report 134 Miscellaneous Points 134 Accountants' Reports 135 IX. PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZA- TION The Comma 136 The Semi-Colon 141 The Colon 143 The Dash 144 The Period 145 The Exclamation Mark 145 The Question Mark 145 Parenthesis Marks 145 Brackets 146 Quotation Marks 146 The Apostrophe 147 The Hyphen 148 Capitalization 148 X. THE MECHANICAL MAKE-UP OF A LETTER Editorial Manuals for Typists 150 The Outward Appearance of the. Letter. ... 151 The Printed Heading 152 Written Heading 154 x CONTENTS PAGE Inside Address 157 The Salutation 161 The Body of a Letter 162 Examples of Display and Balance of Letters. 163 Examples of Report Arrangement 164 Complimentary Close 165 The Signature 166 Other Points about the Letter 167 The Envelope . . 169 Official Letters 171 Formal Official Letters 171 Informal Official Letters i?2 XL THE COMPOSITION AS A WHOLE How Effective Writing May Be Secured. . . 173 The Three Principles of Effective Writing. . 173 The Principle of Unity 174 The Efficiency of Singleness of Impression. . 176 The Principle of Coherence 177 Logical Arrangement of Ideas 177 The Use of Connection to -Secure Smooth- ness 178 Emphasis 1 86 . The Use of Position to Secure Emphasis 187 How to' Begin the Letter 188 How to End the Letter I9 1 The Use of Proportion to Secure Emphasis. . 192 The Use of Climax to Secure Emphasis. ... 192 The Use of Pause to Secure Emphasis 193 Emphasis Secured by Mechanical Means. ... 194 How to Dictate Answers to Letters 196 DETAILED SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS I. INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS ENGLISH (Numbers in Parentheses Refer to Paragraphs) Business English Defined (1) Definition of Business English (2) Not a separate language composed of stock phrases (3) Involves right thinking and right technique (4) Forms not fixed; no one best form of letter (5) Concerned with motives that induce people to act Impression versus Expression (6) Difference between Busi- ness English and literary composition (7) Impression must be made (8) Effective English required The "You" Attitude (9) Meaning of "you" attitude (10) Weakness of letters caused by wrong viewpoint Adaptation to the Reader (n) In language, mood, char- acter, and substance (12) Adaptation in language to comprehension of reader (13) Adaptation in language to direct purpose of letter (14) Adaptation to mood of reader (15) Adaptation to character of reader (16) Adjustment to reader through selection of ideas (17) Consider the reader first Fundamental Qualities in Busi- ness English (18) Desired qualities; clear- ness, courtesy, conciseness, correctness, and character (19) Reader is judge of quali- ties (20a) Importance of clearness (2ob) Definition of clearness (2oc) Violation of clearness (2od) Definition of ambiguity (2oe) Statement should have only one meaning (2of) Definition of vagueness (20g) Definition of obscurity (2oh) Reader is judge of clear- ness (201) Writer should be critical (2ia) Definition of courtesy; examples (2ib) Curtness DETAILED SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS (Numbers in Parentheses Refer to Paragraphs) (2ic) Curtness to women (2id) Courtesy and politeness (2ie) Discourteous treatment of a letter (22a) Conciseness is matter of adaptation to reader (22b) Definition of conciseness (22c) Two faults that arise (22d) Grammatical incomplete- ness (22e) Curtness in tone (23a) Definition of correctness (23b) Importance of correct dress (23c) Definition of mechanical make-up (23d) Usage determines cor- rectness of make-up (236) Incorrect grammar harmful (23f) Usage determines cor- rectness of language (23g) Correctness in execution (24a) Importance of character (24b) Definition of character (24c) To secure character Business English Style (25a) Definition of style (25b) Versatility needed (26) Encouragement of right habits II. GRAMMAR GOOD USE IN THE SENTENCE Usage as a Factor in Business English (27) Importance of Usage; idioms (28) Use of Whoever and Whomever (29) Unusual construction Grammatical Agreement (30) (31) Agreement of sub- ject and verb (32) Singular subjects joined by or or nor (33) Subjects of different numbers joined by or or nor (34) Singular subject followed by parenthetical phrase (35) Singular form of subject with plural sense (36) Plural form of subject with singular sense (37) Number of collective nouns (38) Correct use of compara- tive degree (39) Each, either, etc., with singular number Dangling Modifiers (40) (41) Participle as in- troduction word ; in absolute construction (42) Use of gerund phrase (43) Use of elliptical clause Clearness in Reference (44) Vague use of pronouns (45) Vague reference to ante- cedent DETAILED SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS (Numbers in Parentheses Refer to Paragraphs) (46) Pronouns in indirect dis- course (47) Antecedent must precede (48) (49) Avoidance of am- biguity Errors in Case of Pronouns (50) Use of relative (51) Predicate complement (52) Subject of infinitive (53) Complement of infinitive (54) Case of the object (55) Case of the appositive (56) Use of than and as Possessives (57a) Forming possessive of singular nouns (57b) Of plural nouns ending in s (57c) Of plural nouns not end- ing in s (57d) Of compound noun or noun phrase (S7 e ) Of nouns in apposition (57f) Beware of doubtful meaning (57g) Use of double posses- sive (S7h) Possessive adjectives (57i) Possessive case to show real ownership (58) Possessive ownership used with verbal nouns Adjectives and Adverbs (59) After look, sound, taste, smell, feel, etc. (60) Rule for adjective and adverb Question of Tense (61) Tense of verb (62) Tense of principal verbs (63) Use of perfect indicative (64) Principal and dependent verb (65) Expressions of fact (66) Use of perfect infinitive; rule for ought, need, must, and should (67) Verb in dependent clause (68) Use of present participle (69) (71) Use of shall and will (72) Form of shall and will in indirect discourse (73) Shall and will in condi- tional clauses (74) (75) Use of should and would General Errors (76) When and where clause (77) Sentence as subject cf is and was (78) Double negative (79) Use of hardly, scarcely, only, and but (So) (81) Use of any and all III. SENTENCE STRUCTURE Length I (83) Sentence length; impor- (82) Sentence defined tance of; long and short DETAILED SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS (Numbers in Parentheses Refer to Paragraphs) (84) Character through sen- tence length (85) Short sentence for sales- letters, etc. (86) Use of long sentence (87) Use of long, smooth sen- tences Kinds of Sentences (88) Loose, periodic, and bal- anced (89) The loose sentence (90) The periodic sentence (91) The balanced sentence The Principles of Construction (92) Unity, coherence, and em- phasis in business letters Unity in the Sentence (93) Unity defined (94) Unlike statements (95) Connecting unlike state- ments (96) Sentences connected by and's and but's (97) Faults of long sentences (98) Long sentences in busi- ness letters (99) Changing point of view (100) Phrases, clauses, and sentences to be connected (101) Unrelated clauses sepa- rated by comma ("Comma fault") Coherence (102) Requirements of (103) Position of modifiers (104) The split infinitive (105) Position of adverbs (106) Position of correlatives (107) Participle in absolute construction (108) Loose arrangement of clauses (109) Long, ill-connected sen- tences (no) Connections incorrect (in) Arrangement of sen- tence elements Omissions (112) Needful words (113) Parts of verbs (114) The verb be (115) Principal verbs should be expressed (116) Expressions of compari- son (117) Single modifiers limiting two sentence elements (118) Incomplete members of sentence (119) Subjects in first person (120) A, an, and the to be ex- pressed (121) Subordinating conjunc- tions (122) Omission of preposition (123) Incomplete comparison Coordination and Subordina- tion (124) (125) Use of and and but and or DETAILED SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS (Numbers in Parentheses Refer to Paragraphs) (126) Use of so, then, and also (127) Two consecutive state- ments (128) Use of adverb so (129) The "House-That-Jack- Built" style (130) Clauses of complex statements Parallelism (131) Parallel construction Emphasis (132) Importance of emphasis (133) Emphasis and arrange- ment (134) The need of emphasis (135) Weak beginnings (136) Weak endings (137) Emphasis from changed order (138) Climax; "Herd's Prin- ciple" (139) How to produce climax (140) Avoid useless words (141) Avoid use of there are and there is (142) Preposition at end of sentence (143) Additional clause at end of sentence (144) Absolute construction weakens force Euphony (145) Sentence should have pleasing sound (146) Avoid words difficult to pronounce (147) Avoid repetition (148) Avoid similar sounds Revision after Dictation (149) Secures effective sen- tences ; two important points : get the idea; revise for mis- takes (150) Effective sentences; principles of unity, coher- ence, and emphasis IV. PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE (151) Definition of paragraph (152) Purpose of paragraph (153) Effect of paragraph on eye and mind (154) Paragraph signs* (155) Length of paragraph (156) Length, how determined (157) Varieties of paragraph (158) (160) The short para- graph; value; definition (161) Variety of paragraphs pleasing (162) Important clause as paragraph (163) Paragraphing in sales- letters (164) Paragraphs to effect ac- tion (165) Use of long paragraphs (166) Impression secured by long paragraphs DETAILED SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS (Numbers in Parentheses Refer to Paragraphs) (167) Long paragraphs con- vince Unity in the Paragraph (168) Purpose of paragraph- ing (169) How to secure good paragraphs (170) Value of paragraphs to reader (171) Slfould contain but one distinct idea (172) Test for unity (173) Functions of letters de- termine paragraph (174) Paragraphs in complaint letter ; a model letter (175) Paragraphs in sales- letter (176) Paragraphing a conver- sation Form Paragraphs (177) Purpose of (178) Principle of unity (179) Routine correspondence (180) Letter from form para- graphs Coherence In the Paragraph (181) How secured (182) Close connection impor- tant (183) Logical relation and form (184) Use of connecting words in paragraphs (185) Use of to be sure, etc. (186) Therefore, hence, etc., used to indicate relation (187) Use of but, nevertheless, etc. (188) Use of demonstratives (189) Point of view in para- graph (190) Chronological order in paragraph (191) Narrative order (192) Descriptive order (193) Expository type (194) Argumentative type (195) Deductive order (196) Inductive order (197) Climactic order (198) Amplifying paragraph (199) Topic sentence para- graph (200) Some order needed Emphasis in the Paragraph (201) Securing emphasis (202) Important positions in paragraphs (203) Use of the short sen- tence (204) Short passage made im- portant V. DICTION (205) Importance of diction (206) Quality of business writing (207) Helpful principles, DETAILED SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS (Numbers in Parentheses Refer to Paragraphs) (208) Good usage defined (209) Reputable words ; a. Vulgarisms ; b. Words in correct sense ; c. Words spelled or sounding alike; d. Slang (210) National words; mean- ing of national; a. Provin- cial words ; b. Technical words (211) Present words; a. Ob- solete words ; b. Newly coined words (212) Use of intensive pro- noun (213) They in indefinite sense (214) It in indefinite sense (215) Characterless expres- sions (216) Contractions (217) Long and unusual words (218) Pretentious expressions (219) (220) Use specific words (221) Words of unpleasant suggestion Superfluous Words (222) Redundancy, tautology, and verbosity (223) Redundancy obscures (224) Tautology wearies (225) Verbosity not effective Prepositions (226) Wrong use of preposi- tion; illustrative table Figures of Speech (227) Use of (228) Improper simile or meta- phor (229) Blending literal with metaphorical (230) Unpleasant figures Miscellaneous Faulty Expres- sions (231) Alphabetic list of words and expressions frequently misused VI. TONE AND VARIETY The Tone of the House (232) In letters express char- acter of house (233) How tone is secured (234) Dignified letters, ex- ample from bond house Editorial Manual for Corre- spondents (235) Letters of distinction (236) Personality in letters ; how uniformity is secured (237) Rules for correspon- dents (238) Handbook as editorial manual (239) Attitude of writer; how determined Style Adapted to the Reader (240) Securing results through tone xviii DETAILED SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS (Numbers in Parentheses (241) Sales-letters to ladies (242) Example of wrong tone (243) Advertisements for edu- cated classes ; use of French (244) Letters to farmers (245) Sporting goods adver- tisements (246) Uniform tone to be maintained (247) Positive beginnings Refer to Paragraphs) (248) Pleasing variety in sen- tence (249) Monotony fatal (250) Violation of variety; a. Frequent compound sen- tences ; b. Use of absolute phrases; c. Use of so; d. Use of after this, there is, now, etc. ; e. Frequent use of therefore, however, etc. VII. THE General Discussions (251) Importance of outline (252) Outline is a coordinated arrangement ; three essentials (253) Unity (254) Simple construction (255) Proportion to be main- tained OUTLINE (256) Five parts of outline: I. The subject; 2. The Point of view ; 3. Main topics ; 4. Subdivisions ; 5. Clearness, unity, simplicity, and propor- tion (257) Outline of sales report (258) Revision of outline VIII. BUSINESS REPORTS Definition of a Business Report (259) Contents (260) Purpose (261) Maker and receiver (262) Various uses (263) The reporter Different Kinds of Reports (264) Varied nature of reports (265) Personal and impersonal forms (266) Importance of contents Arrangement of a Business Re- port (267) (268) Arrangement important (269) Items properly displayed (270) (271) Fact's separated from recommendations (272) Recommendations simple and definite (273) Nature of report, how determined (274) Titles to be inclusive (275) Beginning and end of report ; example of presenta- tion and conclusion Clearness in the Business Re- port (276) Clearness and conve- nience essential DETAILED SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS (Numbers in Parentheses Refer to Paragraphs) (277) Clearness, how obtained (278) Simple language and use of diagrams Miscellaneous Points (279) Common errors in re- ports (280) The necessity of an out- line (281) Proportion (282) Points for checking (283) Accountants' reports IX. PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION The Comma (284) Shortest stop (285) After each word of a series (286) Sets off direct address (287) Sets off absolute phrases (288) Sets off intermediate ex- pressions (289) Sets off appositives (290) Indicates an ellipsis (291) Separates geographical names (292) Separates two numbers (293) Sets off a quotation (294) Between independent clauses (295) Sets off a dependent clause (296) Sets off "not" before antithesis (297) Separates sentence ele- ments (298) Separates two adjectives (299) Separates name and title (300) Between parts of a series (301) Between repeated or similar words, etc. (302) Divides numbers into groups (303) Sets off a non-restrictive clause (304) Omitted before restric- tive clause (305) Sets off certain adverbs (306) Separates similar words (307) Separates a series of three or more words (308) Omitted before a num- ber (309) Omitted after a short inversion (310) Omitted before that (311) The comma fault The Semi-Colon (312) Longer separation than comma (313) (314) Separates parts of a compound sentence (315) Setting off conjunctive adverbs (316) Used with commas in compound sentences (317) When comma is not enough DETAILED SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS (Numbers in Parentheses The Colon (318) A mark of equality (319) Before certain expres- sions (320) After introductory word, phrase, etc. (321) After formal salutation (322) To separate hours and minutes The Dash (323) Indicates abrupt change (324) Sudden break in speech (325) Takes place of comma (326) Takes place of paren- thesis (327) Before a word which sums up (328) To connect dates (329) Between short sentences The Period (330) Mark of finality (33 1 ) At end of sentence (332) After abbreviations The Exclamation Mark (333) Indicates feeling (334) Expresses irony The Question Mark (335) After direct questions Parenthesis Marks (336) Enclose independent ele- ments Refer to Paragraphs) Brackets (337) Enclose explanatory statements Quotation Marks (338) Enclose direct quotations (339) Use of single quotations (340) When omitted (341) (342) Where placed (343) Omission of punctuation The Apostrophe (344) Indicates omissions (345) Forms possessives (346) Not used with possessive adjectives The Hyphen (347) At end of line (348) Divides compound words (349) Used with to-day, etc. (350) Words divided at end of syllable (351) Avoid double punctua- tion Capitalisation (352) Proper names and ad- jectives (353) Important words (354) First word of a sentence (355) Titles (356) Sections of country (357) Days of week (358) Official titles X. THE MECHANICAL MAKE-UP OF A LETTER Editorial Manuals for Typists (359) Standardized Letters (360) Manual of business house rules for DETAILED SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS (Numbers in Parentheses Refer to Paragraphs) The Outward Appearance of a Letter (361 ) Impression on the reader (362) Quality and size of paper (363) Sales-letter matters (364) Six parts in make-up of letter The Printed Heading (365) Quality of business let- ter-head (366) Script heading (367) Color of headings Written Headings (368) Forms of headings (369) Contents of heading (370) Abbreviations (371) Street number (372) When spelled out (373) Content of date (374) Dates not written out in full (375) Abbreviations for date numbers (376) Use more than one line Inside Address (377) Personal form (378) Contents of (379) The word City (380) Titles (381) Use of "esquire" (382) Miss as title (383) Messrs, as title (384) Right use of Messrs. (385) Initial titles (386) When presenting a re- port (387) In official letter (388) The street address The Salutation (389) Use of salutation (390) Where written (391) (393) Forms to be avoided (394) Odd cases (395) Use of name alone (396) Abbreviated forms (397) Punctuation (398) Official letters The Body of a Letter (399) Amount of material (400) Indention of paragraph (401) Handwritten letter (402) Standardized form Complimentary Close (403) Beginning of (404) (405) Correct forms (406) Forms to be avoided (407) Correct punctuation The Signature (408) Position of (409) The firm name (410) Typing the signature (411) Omission of title (412) Signature of married woman (413) Signature of unmarried woman Other Points about the Letter (414) Postscript (415) Discourteous expressions xxii DETAILED SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS (Numbers in Parentheses (416) Identity of dictator and transcriber (417) Enclosures (418) Written on one side only (419) The last sheet (420) Folding (421) Securing personal atten- tion The Envelope (422) Correct size (423) The address (424) Placing of address (425) Division of address (426) Personal attention indi- cated Refer to Paragraphs) (427) Envelope should be neat Official Letters (428) When used (429) Stationery used (430) Small letter-head used (431) Classes of official letters Formal Official Letters (432) To whom addressed (433) Mechanical form of (434) The salutation (435) Body of letter Informal Official Letters (436) When used (437) The inside address (438) Salutation informal XL THE COMPOSITION AS A WHOLE How Effective Writing May be Secured (439) Constructive side of writing (440) Writer must know prin- ciples of construction The Three Principles of Effec- tive Writing (441) Principles are natural laws The Principle of Unity (442) Singleness of impression (443) Concentration on" one idea (444) Selection a matter of judgment (445) Writer must know pur- pose and technique (446) Idea must be complete (447) Non-essentials must be excluded The Efficiency of Singleness of Impression (448) Trouble caused by un- unified letter (449) Letter should contain only one main idea (450) Test ^compositions for unity The Principle of Coherence (451) Principle of arrange- ment and connection (452) Some definite order necessary (453) Progress from reader's to writer's viewpoint DETAILED SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS (Numbers in Parentheses Refer to Paragraphs) The Use of Connection to Se- cure Smoothness (454) Methods of general con- nection (455) Methods of specific con- nection (456) Use of various kinds of connectives (457) Use of repetition (458) Use of transitional sen- tence (459) Use of topic sentence (460) Use of transitional para- graph (461) Connotative coherence (462) Example of coherence (463) Coherence secured by interest (464) Active coherence (465) First paragraph should secure interest (466) Paragraphs should be- gin interestingly Emphasis (467) Arrangement to secure impression (468) Emphasis used only when needed (469) Use of position and proportion The Use of Position to Secure Emphasis (470) Importance of beginning and ending (471) Two important places in letter (472) Misuse of important positions How to Begin the Letter (473) Beginning is important (474) Reader's viewpoint at start (475) Example of complaint letter (476) Purpose of letter in first paragraph (477) Acknowledgment of re- ceipt of letter (478) How to weave in date (479) Other methods of ac- knowledgment (480) Beginning of sales-letter How to End the Letter (481) Ending should not be weak (482) Sliding-off ending is weak (483) Participial ending is in- correct (484) Make definite statement The Use of Proportion to Se- cure Emphasis (485) Important ideas should have room The Use of Climax to Secure Emphasis (486) Definition ot climax (487) Danger of anti-climax (488) Arrangement of argu- ments DETAILED SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS (Numbers in Parentheses Refer to Paragraphs) The Use of Pause to Secure Emphasis (489) Definition of pause (490) Use of Dash (491) Use of paragraphing (492) Mechanical emphasis How to Dictate Answers to Letters (493) Aids to correct dictation Handbook of Business English I. INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS ENGLISH Business English Defined 1. Business English composition, as treated in this book, is confined to the art of employing written English to arouse in others such feelings and ideas as shall cause action that results in business profit, and to do so with the least waste of time, effort, and money. It includes all written messages used in commercial transactions for the purpose of securing a profitable response by impressing the reader. 2. Business English is not a separate language in the sense of being composed of words and phrases peculiar to business transactions. The dictator who has at the tip of his tongue such stock expressions as u Yours of the I5th inst. to hand," "Pursuant to yours of even date/' and so on, is not necessarily a writer of good Business English. These expressions are not so efficient as simple expressions that mean the same thing; they injure rather than aid. They are weak because the average man never writes them, and certainly the average man never speaks them. They destroy the personality of the letter. 3. Like any other branch of business composition, Busi- ness English involves two processes, right thinking and right technique. The writer must think clearly, know the solu- tion of his business problem, and express and impress his ideas precisely. 1 2 INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS ENGLISH 4. The forms in whicn business communications are written are not fixed, but are of necessity elastic in order to lend themselves to a variety of uses. There is no such thing as a best form of collection letter or a best form of letter answering a complaint. Each case is individual because each reader is individual. 5. Business English has to do not merely with composi- tion, but also with the motives which induce people to act. In other words, the writer must comprehend the whole psychological problem involved in any given case, and must make use of his knowledge in the expression of his thoughts. Impression versus Expression 6. The main difference between literary composition and Business English is the purpose. In most forms of literary composition the writer endeavors to express his thoughts with clearness and precision for the purpose of giving information or entertaining the reader ; in Business English, however, the purpose is profits. Since Business English must produce a profit, it must not merely please or instruct the reader; it must cause him to act it must make him respond. The test, therefore, of the business letter is this: does it make the reader do what you want him to do? Does it bring the response you wish? 7. In literary composition the writer usually considers only the expression of his ideas; in Business English the writer must consider not only the expression of his ideas but also the impression upon the mind of the reader. He must make such an impression upon the reader's mind as shall arouse him to the desired course of action. This impression IMPRESSION VERSUS EXPRESSION 3 can be secured only by conveying the writer's own idea to the reader in such a way that the latter shall accept the former's point of view. 8. Business men are not purists: they do not always de- mand nicety in language. It is not always necessary that polished diction and well-rounded sentences be used. It is not fatal if a business message should violate a rule or con- vention now and then. Contractions, slang, colloquialisms are allowed in many cases, and at times are more effective than pure English would be. All this is so because the important and, for that matter, the only real purpose of a business communication is the transmission of a message. If the reader understands the message just as the writer wishes it understood and acts just as the writer wishes him to act, there certainly can be no cause for complaint. At the same time it can never be said that the message will be fully understood unless the expression is clear, the punctuation correct, and choice of words accurate. Hence it is necessary that certain rules of form be observed, for they will aid in getting the right result. The "You" Attitude 9. The "You" attitude means that the words I, we, my, mine, ours, and so on, are subordinated as much as possible. It means that the writer shall have a sincere regard for the reader and shall take his viewpoint. No other appeal is so direct, so effective, as that which is summed up in the words you, your business, your profits, your welfare. Keep before the reader his interests, not yours. Show the reader how your proposition will benefit him. Look at the problem 4 INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS ENGLISH through the eyes of the reader. Remember that of the three factors involved in a message (the sender; the subject, or idea; and the reader) the third, the reader, is the most important. 10. The weakness of most letters is due not to ungram- matical sentences or to poor style, but to the wrong view- point. To overcome this weakness two things will help: first, know your product or proposition; second, know the reader you are trying to reach. The examples given below show how prominent should be the "You" attitude. Wrong: We beg to announce that we are putting out on the market our new bathrobe. We should like to sell you some of these because we know that our bathrobes are the best on the market. Right: You can sell even better bathrobes at the price you have been charging your customers, and thus further de- velop your trade by the most effective of all advertising the recommendation of man to man. Or You can make a wider margin of profit on every sale by putting prices a peg higher and still give your cus- tomers gloriously good value for their money. Adaptation to the Reader 11. In order to make the desired impression upon the reader's mind, it is essential that some adjustment should be made if the message is to be conveyed. Business English composition should be adapted to the reader in language, mood, character, and substance. The language must be such as the reader would use or understand, and such as is best ADAPTATION TO THE READER 5 suited for the occasion. The mood or tone must be such as will make the best appeal to the reader and will best aid in getting him to do what the writer wants. The char- acter must be of the kind to make the deepest impression on him. The arguments used must be those that appeal to him. 12. The adaptation in language consists, first, in the use of such words, sentences, and paragraphs as are surely within the comprehension of the reader. In answering a letter written on a mere scrap of paper and showing illiteracy, the writer should use simple words, sentences, and paragraphs. 13. Adaptation in language also means that the language used should be well suited to the direct purpose of the letter. If the letter, for example, is a sales letter to a business man, the language used should be of the kind that is easily read; i. e., short sentences, words, and paragraphs. Again, since the purpose of a letter is to incite action, the words, sen- tences, and paragraphs should be short, sharp, and incisive. If, on the other hand, the writer is answering a letter of complaint written by an angry man, he should use the kind of language which would tend, from its mere type, to soothe and allay the anger of the complainant. He would use long, smooth sentences and paragraphs, for they tend to soothe. 14. Adaptation in mood means that the writer should adapt himself to the mood of the reader. If the reader has made a complaint, the writer should put himself into a friendly, sincere, and sympathetic attitude before he commits his answer to paper. If the reader is indifferent to a sales proposition, the writer must put himself into an enthusiastic mood which will carry him away. If the reader is antago- nistic, the writer must be tactful and diplomatic. The object 6 INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS ENGLISH of the writer is to create a co-operative and sympathetic state of mind and not to stir up opposition or resentment. 15. Adaptation to the character or personality of the reader means that the language and tone of the composition must not clash with the known characteristics of the reader. In most cases the writer is able to learn of the character of the reader from his letter; he may know it from acquaint- ance with him, from his business position, his nationality, credit rating, and from many other factors. If the writer finds by analysis that the reader is conservative in character, he should adapt the tone of his letter to the character of the reader and make the character or tone of his letter con- servative by expressing his ideas in non-colloquial, formal, and dignified language. If the writer finds by analysis, how- ever, that the reader is progressive, live, and up-to-date, a short, brisk appeal will be more likely to make a good im- pression. Sales letters sent to ladies should be polished, courteous, and non-colloquial in character. Letters sent out by firms like banking and bond houses should be dignified and conservative. 16. Adaptation or adjustment in substance means that from the ideas at the disposal of the writer, those should be selected that are closest to the reader's experience and interests. The writer should sufficiently understand the reader to know that of the arguments, selling points, appeals, ideas, and so on, certain ones will most directly reach the reader. The writer, therefore, should direct his persuasion at the interests that govern the reader and so fit his appeals to these specific interests. 17. The fault of failing to look at the problem through QUALITIES IN BUSINESS ENGLISH 7 the eyes of the reader is common in business. The ordinary seller tries to force his ideas as to why the buyer should buy, instead of trying to find the advantage that will result to the benefit of the buyer. A man looking for a position puts his reasons and his ambitions forward, instead of showing to the prospective employer how well he would fit in with the scheme of work of the prospective employer. "Consider the reader first" should be the motto of the letter-writer. Fundamental Qualities in Business English 18. A careful examination of the correspondence and other forms of composition, such as pamphlets, circulars, and so on, sent out by the best business houses, has revealed the fact that certain qualities are common to all forms of good Business English. These qualities are five in number : Clear- ness, Courtesy, Conciseness, Correctness, and Character. 19. Of all these qualities or characteristics of Business English, with the possible exception of the quality of correct- ness, the reader and not the writer is the judge. This fact can be easily understood from an explanation of the matter of clearness. In many cases the writer thinks that his writing is clear; but the reader is unable to understand it. It is not what the writer thinks about his message that counts so much as what the reader thinks. Letters that the writer intended to be courteous may appear discourteous to the reader. 20a. The first quality of importance in a business com- position is that of clearness, for the purpose of the composi- tion is to convey a certain message to the reader. Business men realize the importance of clearness, for they have had 8 INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS ENGLISH it brought home to them so often in matters of disagreements and misunderstandings. It is obvious that, if a business composition is not clear and does not convey its idea to the reader on the first honest reading, it is likely to be a financial loss, for few readers will take the time to study out what the writer had in mind when he wrote it. Clearness is ob- tained by clear thinking and by simple and precise expression. 20b. A composition is said to have the quality of clear- ness when the ideas are so expressed that the ordinary reader need exert little mental effort to understand them and cannot misunderstand them. Clearness, in other words, recognizes the law of economizing the reader's attention. Herbert Spencer's idea of this law may be expressed as follows: Everyone at a given moment has a certain amount of power of attention. Accordingly, whatever part of this power is used upon the form of the message must be deducted from the total; the remainder is left to comprehend the message itself. Those word combinations therefore are best which require the least energy for the comprehension of their meaning. 20c. The quality of clearness is violated in three com- mon ways: By ambiguity, by vagueness, and by obscurity. 20cl. Ambiguity means that a statement admits of more than one meaning. As a result of this double meaning the reader is very likely to take a wrong understanding of the idea. (See Rules 43-49-) 20e. The writer should take care that his statements can be understood in but one way. He should first think clearly and then write precisely. QUALITIES IN BUSINESS ENGLISH 9 20f. Vagueness means that the statement is not definite in meaning. Although not meaningless, it is likely not to convey much meaning. The reader gets a meaning, but it is not the writer's entire and exact meaning. Circumstances determine vagueness to a great extent. For example, if a large wholesaler in sugar were to receive a letter from one of his regular customers saying "What has become of our 'sugars'?" the message would be said to be vague, for in this particular case the customer might have four or five orders in the process of being filled, and the wholesaler would not know exactly what was meant by "Our sugars." Again, if in answer to a letter that asks what time an order would be shipped the following were sent, it would be said to be vague: "We think that perhaps we may be able to ship your order soon." Vagueness is caused by the use of inexact and unspecific words and expressions. This fault may be avoided by making the thought exact and specific, and using icxact and specific words to express it. 20g. Obscurity means that a statement is not readily understood, although by careful rereading and study the reader may finally understand what the writer intended to say. Few compositions in Business English, however, are usually considered important enough for a second reading. In fact, many readers have neither the time nor the disposi- tion to read a message. Example: In reply to your esteemed favor of the 25th inst. relative to Parcels Post charges on pick up orders, beg to state, we will, temporarily until we can determine just what readjustment of your stock is necessary to take care of your requirements unless we are compelled before on 10 INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS ENGLISH account of the expense to discontinue, arrange to stand all such Parcels Post expense on shipments made direct to your shop. 20h. It is true, of course, that sometimes a message that is obscure to the average reader is clear to those for whom it is intended. A report from one engineer to another engineer on the construction of a bridge would not perhaps be very clear to the lay reader because of the use of technical expressions, but it would be clear to an engineer. The reader is judge of the quality of clearness. The cylinder mold is made up of brass spiders evenly spaced upon a steel shaft. Grooves are milled on the cir- cumference of these spiders to hold brass rods. The end spiders are a little larger, and holes are drilled in them to hold the ends of the rods. Grooves are then cut in the rods, and copper wire is wound around. This winding is done in the lathe, and the wires are about an eighth of an inch apart. 20i. Clearness, 'therefore, exists if the combination of words used to express the thought carries to the reader defi- nitely and unmistakably the thought of the writer. Clear- ness is secured by constantly working for it. The writer should ask himself "Just what do I mean?" "Do these words say just what I mean?" "Do they say anything I do not mean?" The writer should be critical of his own work^ 21 a. Courtesy means that the writer should have a due: regard for the point of view of the reader. The writer must acquire the ability to put himself in the reader's place and to view his own letter through the reader's eyes. Curt- ness, snappishness, and impoliteness should be avoided. The "You" attitude should be used. The writer sjjould be QUALITIES IN BUSINESS ENGLISH 11 courteous and show that he has a sincere regard for his reader. Discourteous : Dear Sir: We have not heard from you in regard to our last order. What's the matter with you anyway? Don't you think we are in a hurry for it? Very truly yours, Better : Dear Sir: We have as yet received no word from you in regard to our order of January 24. As we are in a hurry for this order, won't you kindly look up the matter and let us know about it as soon as possible? Very truly yours, 21b. Curtness is a milder form of discourtesy, but it is harmful to good business. It is usually brought about unconsciously by the reader's striving for conciseness of expression. Dear Sir: Yours of the I5th to hand. We do not make suits to order. Yours, etc. In this particular example the discourtesy can be changed to courtesy by a more adequate consideration of the letter and by the use of several polite phrases.- Dear Sir: Thank you for your letter of January 15 in which you ask us as to whether we make suits to order. We wish to say that our whole business is concerned with ready-made clothes. 12 INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS ENGLISH We number among our customers many who formerly thought nothing was so good as tailor-made clothes. Now they are getting more satisfaction from our clothes and at a lower cost. Won't you drop in to see us? 21 c. Letters to women who for the most part are unused to the short, snappy letters of business should be carefully watched for the fault of curtness. Women very easily take offense at any abruptness in tone. 2 Id. Courtesy does not, as many consider it, consist only of polite terms and phrases. Many a letter that has polite phrases scattered throughout is discourteous. Polite- ness is merely a veneer. Courtesy goes deeper. It is a sincere regard for the other man the reader. Formal phrases of politeness can in no way take the place of true courtesy. Indeed, such an expression as "Thanking you in advance" is actually discourteous, as it discounts the value of the favor asked. "Dictated but not signed" also savors of discourtesy. Do not use such expressions. 21e. A violation of courtesy may arise from the dis- courteous treatment given to a letter. Do not, for example, scribble the answer on the original letter and mail it back. It suggests that you considered the letter so unimportant that you didn't care to keep it. 22a. The quality of conciseness is a good example of the fact that the reader is the judge of the qualities that a letter possesses and that all qualities are relative. A letter that is considered concise by the business man might be considered curt by a woman and might be considered lacking QUALITIES IN BUSINESS ENGLISH 13 in details by a farmer. True conciseness in Business English, therefore, is a matter of adaptation to the reader. 22b. This much about conciseness is certain: the thoughts and ideas of the writer should be expressed in as few words as will convey the message unmistakably to the reader. Conciseness means that the ideas are expressed briefly, but still with grammatical completeness. 22c. Two common faults arise from the attempt to secure conciseness : ( I ) grammatical incompleteness of sen- tences, and (2) curtness or snappishness in tone. 22d. Grammatical incompleteness arises when the writer, in a mistaken attempt to secure brevity of expression, omits the subject of the sentence, a part of the verb, or some other important element that is needed to complete the gram- matical construction of the sentence. (See Rules 112-123). Such omissions cause ambiguity, obscurity, and hence, instead of hastening the comprehension of the thought, impede it. In telegrams, cablegrams, and the like, the message is ex- pressed in the fewest words compatible with clearness. 22e. The other fault brought about by a mistaken idea of conciseness is that of curtness or snappishness of tone. The message is expressed in as few words as possible to con- vey the message, but in certain cases the reader receives a disagreeable impression from the tone of the message. (See Rule 2ib.) 23a. The quality of correctness is present if the me- chanical form of the composition is in accord with the rules of mechanical make-up ; if the language is in accord with the usage of good modern writers; and if the technique the 14 INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS ENGLISH execution of the composition is correct from the business point of view. 23b. At the first meeting, a man is judged by his per- sonal appearance his clothes, his looks, and so on and by his speech. Many of these snap judgments based on a man's appearance have been erroneous but it takes much to change a first impression especially if that first impression be a poor one. So it is that the person or concern presenting a business message to one reader or a hundred thousand readers cannot afford to allow the mechanical make-up the dress of the message to make a poor impression. The ap- pearance of the composition must be good. Correct dress commands a certain amount of respect and attention. 23c. The mechanical make-up deals with externals; that is, the margins, the typing, the placing of the matter on the page, and so on whether it be a letter, an adver- tisement, a pamphlet, report, or other form of business composition. 23d. Correctness of the dress of a letter is a matter determined by usage present day usage. Because of its long and constant use, the letter has become more or less con- ventionalized as to form, but certain parts of the letter have changed. The sliding off, participial ending of sixty years ago was as follows: "Assuring you of our great pleasure in having been given this opportunity to serve you, allow us to subscribe ourselves as, Your faithful and humble servants, John Jones & Com- pany." QUALITIES IN BUSINESS ENGLISH 15 Such a complimentary close would now be judged incorrect because of its not being in conformity with the present day custom of the best business houses. To be in correct me- chanical make-up, the letter must conform with present day usage. What this usage is and by whom it is decided are questions that naturally arise. Usage, it may be said, is the practice of the majority of the best authorities. Usage, however, like fashion, is constantly changing. What was correct yesterday may not be correct to-day; what is correct to-day may not be correct to-morrow. Not many years ago the script letterhead was in vogue; nowadays simple Roman type is preferred. 23e. A man is judged by his speech. If that be crude and ungrammatical the speaker stands condemned. Faults in speech are by no means so glaring as faults in writing, for in the latter case faults are in a lasting form so that all may see and laugh. A business man cannot afford to be misjudged he cannot afford to send out letters that have errors in grammar, punctuation, or spelling. If he does send out such letters, he lowers himself and his proposition in the estimation of the men with whom he deals. 23f. Correct grammar passes unnoticed, as it should, for it is expected. Bad grammar, since it attracts attention to itself, distracts the reader from the message and gives him an unfavorable impression both of the writer and of the proposition. Correctness in language is a matter of usage the practice of the majority of the best writers. 23g. The mechanical make-up and the language are external matters. The execution of the composition deals with internals. Correctness in executing a letter or adver- tisement is a matter that concerns the correct solution of the 16 INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS ENGLISH business problem involved (this, of course, involves the use of correct facts and ideas) ; in other words, correctness of execution is a matter of internals of the ideas that are used. A business composition, therefore, is correct in exe- cution if it conforms in construction with the technique that has been found to be the best for results and if it is accurate in its ideas and facts. 24a. In importance second only to the quality of clear- ness is the quality of character, which is far rarer than clearness. Character means that the composition is dis- tinctive either because of the writer's personality or because of a certain tone, style, or quality which the writer con- sciously or unconsciously puts into his composition. Since nine out of ten business compositions are characterless, the composition that has character secures more than ordinary attention. The reader imparts his character to the writing as much as he imparts his personality to a person with whom he talks. 24b. Character, however, does not mean eccentricity or oddity in expression. It is not to be secured by posing. Rather is it the personality of the writer injected into his writing and adapted to the reader. Such a writer expresses his idea not by means of mechanical expressions but by means of individual expressions. 24c. If the correspondent wants to secure character for his compositions he must first break away from the habit of using the wornout phrases that are common in our com- mercial correspondence. His next step should be to express his ideas and thoughts in a natural way simple, direct, and exact. He should write iust as he thinks. BUSINESS ENGLISH STYLE 17 Business English Style 25a. In literary circles the conception of style is that it is the individuality of the writer as shown in his expression. Buffon's famous definition "le style est de rhomme meme" (style is of the man himself) is the accepted one generally. Style, in Business English, does not mean simply the expres- sion of the writer's individuality. By far a better definition for style in Business English is: Style is the writer in the right relation to his subject and his reader. 25b. The writer of Business English should forget about his personal style, about himself, and should think of those readers that he is desirous of reaching. He should find the ideas that will appeal to them, the language that they can understand, and the action that they can be forced to take. The less style in the sense of literary style that the writer has the better. Certainly he should have no mannerisms. He should have sufficient versatility and adaptability to suit his message to the reader, the subject, and the concern and forget himself. 26. Good business writing is simply the encourage- ment of right habits the fixing of good habits until they become a part of one's nature and are exercised automatically. II. GRAMMAR GOOD USE IN THE SENTENCE Usage as a Factor in Business English 27. The usage of good writers is stronger than formal grammatical rules, for any language is the product, not of grammatical rules, but of usage. Usage has given to our language its idioms, the construction of which, for the most part, cannot be justified by rules of grammar. Several ex- pressions of idiomatic usage are: "I had rather," "He had better," "In this connection." 28. In the sentence, "We shall give the order to whom- ever we consider is the best prepared to fill it," the word whomever, according to grammatical rule (Rule 50) is in- correctly used for whoever ', because the subject of the verb is prepared in the relative clause, must be put into the nominative case. It is, however, so natural to follow the preposition (in this case to) with the objective case that a writer will naturally use whomever. The use of whoever, although grammatically correct, is unnatural, and sounds so unnatural that the reader's attention is directed to it. As a result, the reader is more likely to stop to find out why the writer uses whoever instead of whomever after to, than he is to continue to read and grasp the thought. In other words, the writer by means of his correct use of English has dis- tracted the reader's mind from the important thing, which is not the method of expression, but the thought. 29. In the sentence, "Neither he nor I are connected with this plan," the verb are is incorrectly used, according 18 GRAMMATICAL AGREEMENT 19 to grammar (Rule 33). The sentence should read "Neither he nor I am connected with this plan ;" but if it were written in that way the reader would be struck by this odd construc- tion, would pause, and would be likely to be distracted from the thought. It is better, therefore, to avoid any unusual grammatical construction, even if correct, that will call attention to its grammar and thereby distract the reader. In such cases, the writer may use a different form to express the same idea, as, "He is not connected with this plan ; nor am I." [Any rule in this book that might cause by its applica- tion such distraction is marked with an asterisk (*).] The writer should write so that the reader will never notice the words or the grammatical construction used, but will see only the idea that is being expressed. The medium of the communication should never attract attention to itself. Grammatical Agreement 30. A verb should agree with its subject, not with its predicate noun. Wrong: The only asset of the estate are twenty-two shares of New York Central. Right: The only asset of the estate is twenty-two shares of New York Central. Wrong: Safety, marketability, and income is the test for bond investment. Right: Safety, marketability, and income are the tests for bond investment. 31. A verb agrees with its subject in number. Wrong: Our latest shipment of automobiles are on ex- hibition at our show-rooms. 20 GRAMMAR GOOD USE IN THE SENTENCE (It is a common error to make the verb agree with the noun intervening between it and the subject, instead of with the subject.) Right: Our latest shipment of automobiles is on exhibition at our show-rooms. Wrong: He don't want to receive any more supplies. Right: He doesn't want to receive any more supplies. ^2. Two or more singular subjects joined by or or nor take a singular verb. Wrong: Neither the interest nor the security interest me. Right: Neither the interest nor the security interests me. Wrong: Either the shipping clerk or the railroad are at fault. Right : Either the shipping clerk or the railroad is at fault. *33. Two or more subjects of different number joined by or or nor take a verb of the number of the last subject. Wrong: Either they or he were interested in this, concern. Right: Either they or he was interested in this concern. Wrong: Neither he nor I are very good accountants. ^L Right: Neither he nor I am a very good accountant. 34. A singular subject, although followed by a paren- thetical phrase, takes a singular verb, because words joined to the subject by with, together with, in addition to, or as well as, are not a part of the grammatical subject. Wrong: Your regular order, as well as your special orders of March 8, have been shipped. Right: Your regular order, as well as your special orders of March 8, has been shipped. Wrong: A letter, together with a catalogue, were mailed to you. * See Rule 29. GRAMMATICAL AGREEMENT 21 Right: A letter, together with a catalogue, was mailed to you. 35. When the subject, though singular in form is plural in sense, the verb should be plural. Wrong: Half of the men has resigned. Right: Half of the men have resigned. 36. When the subject, though plural in form, is singular in sense, the verb should be singular. Wrong: Ten thousand dollars are a large sum to us. Right: Ten thousand dollars is a large sum to us. 37. A collective noun, when it refers to the collection as a whole, is singular in sense, and therefore requires a singular verb. When it refers to the individual persons or things of the collection, it is plural and requires a plural verb. Wrong: The committee as a whole have approved the purchase. Right: The committee as a whole has approved the pur- chase. Wrong: The Interstate Commerce Commission have de- cided against the railroads. Right: The Interstate Commerce Commission has decided against the railroads. Wrong: The committee has disagreed among itself. Right: The committee have disagreed among themselves. 38. With two objects use the comparative degree; with more than two use the superlative. Wrong: This is the best of the two machines. Right: This is the better of the two machines, 22 GRAMMAR GOOD USE IN THE SENTENCE Wrong: Of our five offers, the second is the better. Right: Of our five offers, the second is the best. Words like each, either, someone, somebody, any- one, everyone, etc., demand the use of singular verbs and pronouns. Wrong: Everyone in the office was asked their opinion. Right: Everyone in the office was asked his opinion. Wrong: Each one of my five recommendations were granted. Right: Each one of my five recommendations was granted. Dangling Modifiers ^40. A participle should not introduce a sentence unless .V. . it logically modifies the subject of the sentence. Bad: Replying to your letter, the matter has been arranged satisfactorily. Good : Replying to your letter, we should like to say that the matter has been arranged satisfactorily. Bad: Fitted to your measure, you will find perfect comfort in this suit. Good: Fitted to your measure, this suit will give you per- fect comfort. Bad: Having shipped you the motor boat on March 25, it should now be in your hands. . Good: Having shipped you the motor boat on March 25, I we think that it should now be in your hands. 41. Do not use a participle in the absolute construction. It does not express the true relation between the subordinate idea and the main idea. Bad: This cement having been tested out for three years, we are backing it with our guarantee. * See Rule 29. DANGLING MODIFIERS 23 Good: As this cement has been tested out for three years, we are backing it with our guarantee. Bad: He declined the offer, it being too low. Good : As the offer was too low, he declined it. Bad : I being unfamiliar with this special branch of the work, the firm had to call in outside assistance. Good: Since I was unfamiliar with this special branch of the work, the firm had to call in outside assistance. 42. Do not begin a sentence or clause with a gerund phrase unless it logically modifies the subject of the sentence or clause. Wrong: After telephoning to me that I should go ahead with his order, I find his cancelation on my desk. Right: After he had telephoned to me that I should go ahead with his order, I find his cancelation on my desk. Wrong: In conferring with our manager about the new district, he informed me of his plans. Right: At a conference with our manager about the new district, I was informed by him of his plans. 43. Do not use an elliptical clause if there is any danger of ambiguity. (An elliptical clause is a clause from which the subject and predicate are omitted : e. g., when ordering for when you are ordering.) Wrong: When four years old, you will be getting a com- fortable income from the orchard. Right: When the orchard is four years old, you will be getting a comfortable income from it. Wrong: Although contained in tin. you will not find the "tinny" taste in these soups. Right: Although these soups are contained in tin, never- theless, you will not find that they have the "tinny" taste. 24 GRAMMAR GOOD USE IN THE SENTENCE Clearness in Reference 44. Avoid the use of a pronoun, or a pronominal expres- sion, that seems to refer to some word or phrase that has not been expressed. Wrong: Do not take the life out of your rugs by beating them. Let us do it in a more scientific way with our steam process. Right: Do not take the life out of your rugs by beating them. Let us clean them in a more scientific way with our steam process. Wrong: Without doubt, our new manager is strict, but it has not dominated him as it did the old manager. Right: Without doubt, the new manager is strict, but strict- ness has not dominated him as it did the old manager. Note: In the sentence marked "wrong" the pronoun it is without an antecedent, because a pronoun may not refer grammatically to an adjective. Wrong: Your check for $117.85 was not received until Feb. 4, which means that we shall be unable to allow you the discount. Right: Your check of $117.85 was not received until Feb. 4. This fact means that we shall be unable to allow you the discount. j 45. Avoid the use of a pronoun, or a pronominal expres- sion, the antecedent of which is not immediately seen. Wrong: The members of the firm have again taken up the matter with the two watchmen, for they now think that they know how the safe was tampered with. Right: The members of the firm have again taken up the matter with the two watchmen, who think that they know how the safe was tampered with. CLEARNESS IN REFERENCE 25 Wrong: The water is maintained at a certain temperature, which continually changes. Right: The water, which continually changes, is main- tained at a certain temperature. '46. Be particularly careful of the use of pronouns in indirect discourse. Not clear: Gordon wrote to Mr. Hains that he had re- ceived his order. Clear: Gordon wrote to Mr. Hains that he had received Mr. Hains' order. Clear: Gordon wrote to Mr. Hains, "I have received your order." 47. Do not use the pronoun until the antecedent has appeared, unless the 'antecedent immediately follows and is unmistakable. Wrong: Sales letters are an important part of our sell- ing campaign, but though they have steadily watched, and though they have studied hard, sales letter writers have been unable to lay down hard and fast rules for the success of this work. Note: Tn the above passage "They" is entirely vague until near the end of the passage. 48. Various ways of ridding the sentence of the am- biguity due to pronouns are: The substitution of equivalent nouns and the unequivocal "the former" and "the latter"; the use of direct quotation in place of the indirect; and the repetition of a word or phrase. Do not be afraid, ever, to repeat the word to which the pronoun refers. 49. Avoid the use of a pronoun in referring to a noun subordinate in thought or syntax; either repeat the noun or recast the sentence. 20 GRAMMAR GOOD USE IN THE SENTENCE Wrong: In F. B. Scott and Company's new catalogue for 1914 they give some remarkably low figures for hydraulic engines. Right: F. B. Scott and Company, in their new catalogue for 1914, give some remarkably low figures for hydraulic engines. Right: F. B. Scott and Company's new catalogue for 1914 gives some remarkably low figures for hydraulic engines. Errors in Case of Pronouns. *50. Be careful of the case of the relative pronoun in the relative clause. Remember that its case is determined by its relation to the verb in the clause. Wrong: The manager, whom I knew could help me, did not listen to me. Right: The manager, who I knew could help me, did not listen to me. Note: "Who" is the subject of "could help;" "I knew" is merely a parenthetical expression. Wrong: Whom do you think I am? Right: Who do you think I anr? Note: "Who" is a predicate nominative in the same case as "I." Wrong: Give the position to whomever you find is the best prepared. Right: Give the position to whoever you find is the best prepared. Note: "Whoever" is the subject of the verb "is"; not the object of the preposition "to." The object of "to" is the entire clause "whoever you find is the best prepared." Wrong: You should take whomever can do this kind of work. Right: You should take whoever can do this kind of work. * See Rule 29. ERRORS IN CASE OF PRONOUNS 27 Note: "Whoever" is the subject of "can do"; not the object of "take." The object of "take" is the entire clause "whoever can do this kind of work." 51. A predicate substantive that completes a finite verb is put into the nominative case. Right: It was 7 who signed the order. Right: The contracting parties are we, they, and she. Right: Was it they to whom you have telegraphed? Right: What would you have done, ,if you were If 52. The subject of an infinitive should be in the objec- tive case. Right: Give the position to whomever you find to be the best prepared. Note: "Whomever" is the subject of "to be." 53. The predicate substantive that completes an infini- tive should be put into the objective case. Right: We believe the consignee to be him. Note: "Him" is the predicate substantive that completes the infinitive "to be." 54. The object of a verb or of a preposition should be in the objective case. Right: He meant particularly you and me. Right: Whom did you name? Right: Remember, this is between you and me. 55. An appositive should be in the same case as the noun with which it is in apposition. Right: We all should meet at the hotel, you, he, and she. Right: He cancelled agreements with the two of us Frank Horn and me. Note : "You, he, and she" are in apposition with "we," which is in the nominative case ; therefore, you, he, and she should 28 GRAMMAR GOOD USE IN THE SENTENCE be^ in the nominative case. "Frank Horn and me" are in apposition with "two," which is in the objective case; there- fore, "Frank Horn and me" should be in the objective case. 56. Since than and as are conjunctions, not prepositions, the substantive which follows takes its case from its relation to the verb in the subordinate clause introduced by than or as. Wrong: He has more influence than me. Right: He has more influence than /. ("Than I" = "than I have.") Right: He is wealthier than /. ("Than I" = "than I am.") Right: Frank can sell as well as 7. ("As I"="as I can sell.") Right: He would consult me more quickly than him. ("Than him" = "than he would consult him.") Possessives The possessive case is used to show possession or ownership. 57a. Singular nouns form their possessive by the addi- tion of an apostrophe and s ('s) to the nominative case. Examples : The company's policy The secretary's report Note: Even though a noun ends in s, its possessive singular is formed in the usual way by the addition of an apostrophe and ^ ('s), unless the repetition of the j-sound makes the word difficult to pronounce or unpleasant in sound. Hence we say "Lewis's salary," "Jones's account" ; but "for goodness' sake," "Ulysses' sales territory." 57b. Plural nouns that end in s form their possessive case by the addition of an apostrophe alone ('). Examples: Youths' suits Ladies* umbrellas Boys' blouses POSSESSIVES 29 57c. Plural nouns that do not end in s form their pos- sessive by the addition of apostrophe and s ('s). Examples : Men's shoes Children's clothing Women's cloaks 57d. A compound noun or noun phrase forms its pos- sessive by the addition of an apostrophe and s ( J s) to the last word only. Examples : The Secretary-treasurer's signature The Palace Theater's new show Note : When two or more nouns are used so that joint possession is indicated, the sign of the possessive ('s} is added to the last only. Examples : Lord & Taylor's windows Rogers Peet Company's new store John and George's new houses (This expres- sion indicates that John and George are joint owners of the new houses) Note: But if separate possession is indicated, the sign of the possessive follows each name. Examples : John's and George's new houses (This ex- pression indicates that both John and George separately own new houses) Wanamaker's and Gimbel's new advertising campaigns 57e. In the case of nouns that are in apposition, the possessive is indicated in various ways. Examples : At Pach's, the photographer At Pach's, the photographer's 57f. In using the equivalent for the possessive, beware of doubtful meaning. 30 GRAMMAR GOOD USE IN THE SENTENCE Examples : Hatred of Johnson brought on the trouble Johnson's hatred brought on the trouble The loss of their star salesman depressed the firm Their star salesman's loss depressed the firm Note: On close examination the reader will see that there is a difference in meaning between the sentences given above. 57g. The double possessive has become correct through usage. Examples : That check of Thompson's Those bonds of mine 57h. The possessive adjectives theirs, ours, yours, his, hers, its should not be written with an apostrophe. Wrong: It's, her's, your's S7i. The possessive case ordinarily is used to show real ownership and, accordingly, is usually applied only to things which have the ability to possess; i.e., things that are really alive. Thus we say "the manager's check-book" and "the cover of the check-book." As a rule, however, we do not usually say "the check-book's cover," or "the chair's polish." Such expressions as "the day's work," "the week's salary," "a three hours' job," "a two years' contract," are correct, because of common usage. 58. The genitive (possessive) case of the noun or pro- noun should be used before the verbal noun ending in "ing." Wrong: We have just been informed of him being successful. Right: We have just been informed of his being successful. Wrong: This can be done without any one noticing it. Right: This can be done without any one's noticing it. ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 31 Adjectives and Adverbs 59. After lookj sound, taste, smell, feel, and similar verbs, and in such expressions as, We stand firm, We stand firmly, an adjective is used to describe the subject. To modify the verb, an adverb should be used. Right: These vases look good. (Not, "look well.") Right: Pinaud's perfume smells exquisite. (Not, "smells exquisitely.") Right: How good the Victrola sounds on the porch! (Not, "sounds well.") Right: I feel well. ("Well" is an adjective in this use.) Right: It feels good to get back to my office. Right: We stand firm in our conviction of our rights. Right: We stand firmly by our decision. Right: The bonds you mailed reached us safe. Right: He got across safe. Note: As a rule the adjective is used whenever some form of the verb to be or to seem may be used; when the adverb is used, no such substitution can be made. 60. In such expressions as He rolled it tight, He rolled it tightly, We kept it safe, We kept it safely, the modifier should be an adjective if it designates the condition of the object. If it designates the manner of action of the verb, the modifier should be an adverb. Right: He rolled it tight. (Tight designates the condition of the object.) Right: He rolled it tightly. (Tightly designates the manner of rolling.) Right: We kept it safe. (Safe designates the condition of the object.) Right: We kept it safely. (Safely designates the manner of keeping.) 32 GRAMMAR GOOD USE IN THE SENTENCE Questions of Tense 61. The tense of a verb should correctly express the time referred to. Obscurity results when an incorrect tense of a verb is used, for the reader takes a meaning from the sentence different from that which the writer tried to convey. Most errors in the use of tense are violations of some one of the following principles : *62. Principal verbs referring to the same time through- out a passage should be in the same tense. Wrong: We recently wrote to Mr. Way at the factory in reference to the delay. In reply he has expressed his regret and writes further that as far as he can see, your material will be delayed a week. Right: We recently wrote to Mr. Way at the factory in reference to the delay. In reply he expressed his regret and wrote further that as far as he could see, the material would be delayed a week. 63. The perfect indicative represents the action either as now completed or as begun in the past but continuing to the future; as, "I have sold your bonds" (so that I no longer have them) ; "I have known him for years" (I still know him). 64. The tense of the verb in a dependent clause varies with the tense of the principal verb. 1 Right: I know that you will realize our position in this matter. Right: I knew that you would, realize our position in this matter. Right : We have sent you the entire order, so that you may have a complete display. QUESTIONS OF TENSE 33 Right: We had sent you the entire order, so that you might have a complete display. Right: He will be greatly pleased if he gets this order. Right : He would be greatly pleased if he got this order. Right: He would have been greatly pleased if he had got this order. 65. Present facts and unchangeable truths, however, should be expressed in the present tense, regardless of the tense of the principal verb. Right: He explained in his report that this chemical is composed of three things. (Not, was composed.) Right: We learned from the time table that the distance between the two cities is seventy-four miles. (Not, was.) 66. The perfect infinitive is used to denote action prior to that of the governing verb ; otherwise, use the present infinitive. Be careful to see that the infinitives and con- ditional verb phrases are not incorrectly attracted into the perfect tense. Wrong: He meant to have written yesterday. Right : He meant to write yesterday. Wrong: He expected to have seen you tomorrow. Right : He expected to see you tomorrow. Right : He was reported to have sold out. Right: He is known to have had financial difficulties. Note: Ought, need, must, and should (in the sense of ought) have no 'distinctive form to denote past time. Pres- ent time is denoted by putting the complementary infinitive into the present tense; past time is denoted by putting the complementary infinitive into the perfect tense, as, "You ought to write," "You ought to have written" "You should be careful," "You should have been careful." 34 GRAMMAR GOOD USE IN THE SENTENCE 67. A verb in the dependent clause within a conditional clause should be in the present tense unless it denotes action prior to that of the governing verb. Wrong: The letter would never have left my hands if I had realised the damage that it would have done. Right: The letter would never have left my hands if I had realised the danger that it would do'. Right: The letter would never have left my hands if I had known what had happened already. 68. The present participle should not be used to repre- sent an action that is not of the same time as that of the governing verb. Wrong: Leaving here on May 25, he reached Providence on May 28. Right: He left here on May 25 and reached Providence on May 28. Wrong: He sailed for Liverpool on June 8, arriving there on the i6th. Right: He sailed for Liverpool on June 8 and arrived there on the i6th. 69. The use of shall and will is rather confusing to 'the average writer. When the writer desires to express simple futurity or expectation without expressing willing- ness, desire, or determination on the part of the writer, he should use the following formula: I shall We shall You will You will He will They will Wrong: I will be glad to hear from you. Right: I shall be glad to hear from you. (It is absurd for one to say that one is determined to be glad to hear from a man.) Right: They will be glad to receive your letter. QUESTIONS OF TENSE 3g 70. When the writer desires to express determination, desire, or willingness he should use the following formula: (These forms imply that the matter is within the control of the speaker or writer.) I will We will You shall You shall He shall They shall I certainly will not pay this bill (determination). He shall pay for that bill if I have anything to do with it ( determination ) . You shall stay out of this territory, even though I have to get out an injunction. "It shall rain to-morrow" is nonsense, as it means that the speaker or writer is determined to have it rain to- morrow. 71. In questions, the use of shall and will is as follows: a. When the subject is in the first person, shall is always used, except in repeating a question addressed to the speaker. Right: Will I let you have that discount? Why surely I will. Right: Shall we continue to mail the information as it comes in? Right: Shall I return the shipment? b. When the subject is in the second or third person, use the form that will be used in the answer. Shall you arrive on the 8:20 train? (The answer expected is: "I shall arrive" or "I shall not arrive on the 8:20 train"; therefore shall ought to be used in the ques- tion.) 36 GRAMMAR GOOD USE IN THE SENTENCE Will he come, do you suppose? (The answer expected is: "He will come" or "He will not come," therefore will ought to be used in the question.) Will you lend me the money? (The answer expected is: "I will" or "I will not lend you the money"; therefore will ought to be used in the question.) 72. In indirect discourse, use the form that would properly be used in the direct quotation. Right: He wrote in his letter that he should probably arrive on the 8:20 train. Note: In the letter he actually wrote: "I shall probably arrive on the 8:20 train"; therefore shall (an inflectional form of should) ought to be used in the direct quotation. Right : You telegraphed that you would grant me the favor. Note: On the telegraph blank what was actually written was : "I will (showing willingness on the part of the writer) grant you the favor"; hence would (an inflec- tional form of will) ought to be used in the direct quotation. 73. In conditional clauses,. such as those introduced by if or whether, shall is used to express futurity in all persons. If he shall mail me the card, I shall be glad to send him further examples (simple futurity). If he should leave the firm, we should probably find others without positions (simple futurity). 74. Should and would, the preterite (imperfect) forms of shall and will, are used in the same connection and sense as shall and will. Other uses of should and would follow. a. Would may be used to express frequentative action. Right: He would pace the floor of his office, hour after hour. b. Would is also used to express a wish. Right: I would that I could help you in your difficulty. GENERAL ERRORS 37 75. Should is frequently used to express moral obli- gation. Right: You should do your duty no matter what it costs. General Errors 76. Do not use a when or where clause in place of a predicate noun; use a noun with modifiers. Wrong: Insolvency is where a firm cannot meet its bills. Right: Insolvency is the condition of a firm which can- not meet its bills. 77. Do not use a sentence (except a quoted sentence) as the subject of is or was. Wrong: War was declared in Europe is why the Stock Exchange closed. Right: The Stock Exchange closed because war was de- clared in Europe. 78. Do not use a double negative. Wrong: We don't send nothing unless it is paid for in advance. Right: We send nothing unless it is paid for in advance. Wrong : I don't know nothing about your offer. Right: I know nothing about your offer. 79. Hardly, scarcely, only, and but (in the sense of only) are often incorrectly used with a negative. Wrong: If you were to search for many years you couldn't hardly find a safer investment. Right: If you were to search for many years you could hardly find a safer investment. 38 GRAMMAR GOOD USE IN THE SENTENCE Wrong: At the time, we couldn't scarcely figure out how he stood. Right: At the time, we could scarcely figure out how he stood. Wrong: On account of the high cost, we are not able to give this only to our regular customers. Right: On account of the high cost, we are able to give this only to our regular customers. Wrong: We haven't but one sample left. Right: We have but one sample left. 80. After comparatives accompanied by than, the words any and all should be followed by other or else. Wrong: This tobacco is better than any on the market. (The construction used here is illogical because it means that the tobacco mentioned is better than itself.) Right: The tobacco is better than any other tobacco on the market. Wrong: We would rather do business with you than with anyone. Right: We would rather do business with you than with anyone else. 81. Be careful to restrict the use of any and all by other or else. Wrong: A pleasant feature of these straw hats, not to be found in any make, is the unique transparent lining. Right: A pleasant feature of these straw hats, not to be found in any other make, is the unique transparent lining. Wrong: Woven in selected camel's hair in undyed effects, this rug has a wearing quality lacking in all rugs. Right: Woven in selected camel's hair in undyed effects, this rug has a wearing quality lacking in all other rugs. III. SENTENCE STRUCTURE Length 82. The sentence is the simplest unit of expression, but upon its use depends the effectiveness of the thought. The sentence may be defined as a group of words grammatically united to express a complete thought or idea. A group of words, such as "Circulation exceeding 200,000 copies." is not a sentence despite the fact that it begins with a capital letter and ends with a period. There is no complete thought contained therein. 83. Sentence length is an important consideration in business English, since, to get the best results, the length must be arbitrarily adapted to the reader and to the type of letter. Short sentences should be used in writing to busi- ness men, to farmers, and, in general, to progressive people and to uneducated people. By a short sentence we mean one that contains less than fifteen words. 84. A writer sometimes gives his letters a distinctive character by the use throughout of sentences of a given length usually short sentences. This practice is not de- serving of encouragement. It is desirable, however, to avoid the use of sentences of a length that may interfere with the accomplishment of the purpose of the letter. 85. In sales letters, letters of application, and collection letters, which try to arouse the reader to action, short, in- cisive sentences are most likely to be used. 39 'Kinds of Sentences 40 SENTENCE STRUCTURE 86. Long sentences are suitable in writing to teachers, women, professional men, and in general, to educated people and to conservative people. By a long sentence we mean one that contains more than twenty-five words. 87. In letters, such as answers to complaints, letters refusing credit, and letters adjusting differences, which try to soothe the reader who is aroused, long, smooth sentences are most effective. / , /, 88. The three types of sentences, loose, periodic, and balanced, should be used. 89. The loose sentence is a sentence so constructed that it may be closed at two or more places and yet make com- plete sense. Example: We have made you concession after concession and have tried to keep you a satisfied customer, but your last demand is too much. (The sentence can be closed after the words "concession" and "customer.") 90. The periodic sentence holds the complete thought in suspense until the end of the sentence. Examples : One of the foundation stones upon which the Delco success has been built is the Delco Ignition. From whatever viewpoint true efficiency is judged, Fire- stone Non-Skids furnish the full answer. 91. The balanced sentence is made up of members similar in form but often contrasted in meaning. UNITY IN THE SENTENCE 41 Examples : Get the Welch habit ; it's one that can't get you. They don't come back so often, but they do come back for more. If it isn't an Eastman, it isn't a Kodak. We couldn't improve the powder; so we improved the box. The Principles of Construction 92. In business letter writing and in all other forms of business composition, there are certain principles of con- struction called Unity, Coherence, and Emphasis, which the writer must apply to his constructive work of writing, if he desires to make his message effective. If his message is constructed in accordance with these principles, it is likely to be clear and effective. The applications of these three principles to sentence structure are given below. Unity in the Sentence 93. Unity is the selective principle which requires that the sentence contain but one central idea. Unity requires also that closely related thoughts should not be improperly scattered among several sentences. v94. Two or more statements that have no close con- nection with one another should not be embodied in one sentence. Bad: We should like to call your attention to our facili- ties for this work, and you will find that we live up to our word. Good: We should like to call your attention to our facili- ties for this work. You will find that we live up to our word. 42 SENTENCE STRUCTURE Bad: This laundry was named for President Lincoln and has a reputation for first-class work. Better: This laundry was named for President Lincoln. It / has a reputation for first-class work. 95. It is possible, sometimes, to correct a sentence made up of two statements lacking connection with each other by. expressing a connection between the statements. Bad: The entire load comes on the motor suddenly, and we expect to put a heavy fly-wheel on the motor shaft to carry it over these points of excessive load. Good: Since the entire load comes on the motor suddenly, we expect to put a heavy fly-wheel on the motor shaft to carry it over these points of excessive load. Bad: Our packer has signed the check for having enclosed the lace, and we should like you to examine carefully the contents of the package. Good: As our packer has signed the check for having enclosed the lace, we should like you to examine care- fully the contents of the package. J96. Long compound sentences consisting of many state- ments connected with and J s and but J s are to be avoided. Bad: ,The goods were shipped to you on June 15, and we can prove this fact by the carbon duplicate, but, neverthe- less, we have put on a tracer and in all likelihood, there- fore, you will soon receive the goods. Good: The goods were shipped to you on June 15. We can prove this fact by the carbon duplicate. We have, nevertheless, put on a tracer, and in all likelihood, there- fore, you will soon receive the goods. 97. Avoid excessively long sentences. Although such sentences are not necessarily objectionable, they are usually UNITY IN THE SENTENCE 43 incapable of making a single definite impression upon the reader's mind. They are, moreover, likely to have serious structural faults, the most important of which is the lack of unity. 98. Long sentences are common in business letters, be- cause, in dictating, one is easily led from one idea to another until he has strung together a large number of them. Do not change the point of view unnecessarily. Bad: / have just finished writing my report, and it will be sent to you to-morrow. Good: / have just finished writing my report, and will send it to you to-morrow. Bad: In order to test this watch, it has been subjected to the extremes of heat and cold. (The point of view at the beginning is that of the persons who have made the test. The point of view after the comma is that of the object that has been tested.) Good: In order to test this watch, we have subjected it to the extremes of heat and cold. (The point of view throughout is that of the persons who have tested the watch.) Bad: Upon releasing the backward pressure, the wheel coasts on with entire freedom. Good: After the backward pressure has been released, the wheel coasts on with entire freedom. 100. Unite into one sentence, phrases, clauses, and sentences that are closely and logically connected with one another in thought. Bad : Our machine will handle 250 cards per minute. While no other machine can handle even 150. 44 SENTENCE STRUCTURE Good: Our machine will handle 250 cards per minute, whereas no other machine can handle even 150. Bad: Our accountant has already sent us two letters about your case. Also one report. Good: Our accountant has already sent us two letters and one report about your case. Bad: We have just received your telegram. It informs us of the non-arrival of your desk. Good: We have just received your telegram, which informs us of the non-arrival of your desk. 101. Do not write two unrelated independent clauses following each other, with only a comma for separation. Either make two sentences or connect them with a con- junction. (This is sometimes called the "comma" fault.) Bad: There are only a few of these suits left, we are sell- ing them at a great reduction. Good: There are only a few of these suits left. We are selling them at a great reduction. Or As we have only a few of these suits left, we are selling them at a great reduction. Coherence 102. Coherence is the principle which requires the ar- rangement and construction of the sentence to be clear, logical, and free from ambiguity. v 103. Each modifier should be so placed that the reader sees unmistakably to what word or group of words it refers. Not clear: Inform my secretary that I should like to know why he was absent if he is there. Clear: Inform my secretary, if he is there, that I should like to know why he was absent. Not clear: This company sold all of its stock just before it went into bankruptcy at greatly reduced figures. COHERENCE IN THE SENTENCE 45 Clear: This company, just before it went into bankruptcy, /sold all of its stock at greatly reduced figures. ^104. Do not place an adverb or a phrase between the infinitive and its sign to. (This-is called the split infinitive.) Bad: The firm stands ready to quickly deliver the article at any time. Good: The firm stands ready to deliver quickly the article at any time. Bad: In order to fully assure you of our standing, we are mailing our latest report. Good : In order fully to assure you of our standing, we are mailing our latest report. 105. Special care should be taken to place adverbs as close as possible to the words they modify. Bad: This company can't even handle its present orders. Good : This company can't handle even its present orders. Bad: We only have ten shares of this stock. Good: We have only ten shares of this stock. (See Only.) 106. Correlatives should be placed next to the expres- sions they are meant to connect. Bad: Insiders in sugar not only continue to take stock, but also to create a great demand for it. Good: Insiders in sugar continue not only to take stock, but also to create a great demand for it. Bad: We neither have received your letter nor your telegram. Good: We have received neither your letter nor your telegram. 107. The use of the participle in the absolute construc- tion is to be avoided, because it does not express the exact relation between the two ideas. (Compare with Rule 41.) * See Rule 29. 6 SENTENCE STRUCTURE Bad: Early copy means early proof, avoiding the necessity for hasty revision. Good : Since early copy means early proof, the necessity for hasty revision is avoided. Bad: Advertisements of 1500 lines or more will be placed on a separate page, the remainder of the page containing interesting news matter. Good: Advertisements of 1500 lines or more will be placed on a separate page. The remainder of this page will contain interesting news matter. Bad: All our available supply having been lost in the fire, we are unable to fill your order. Good: Since all our available supply has been lost in the fire, we are unable to fill your order. Bad: The goods having arrived, we quickly disposed of them. Good : After the goods had arrived, we quickly disposed of them. 108. Avoid a loose arrangement of relative clauses. Bad : We had on hand a good stock, which we used to meet the demand at this time, which was the rush season. Good: We had on hand a good stock, which we used to meet the demand of the rush season. /1 09. Avoid long, incoherent, ill-connected sentences. Bad : We also found that by manufacturing the boats in large quantities and building them all just alike, we could reduce the cost and be able to furnish a high- grade boat at a price that would be within the reach of the ordinary purchaser and thus enable us to sell boats in large quantities so that we could accept a small profit on each boat and still make a good profit on the total investment. Good: We also found that by manufacturing the boats in large quantities and by building them all just alike we OMISSIONS 47 could reduce the cost and be able to furnish a high-grade boat at a price that would be within the reach of the ordinary purchaser. In this way we should be enabled to sell boats in large quantities so that we could accept a small profit on each boat and still make a good profit on the total investment. 110. Avoid the placing of a clause so that the verb following it is incorrectly connected with the verb of the clause. Bad: He entered my office just as the price of the stock jumped two points and walked nervously about the room. Good: Just as the price of the stock jumped two points, he entered my office and walked nervously about the room. 111. The parts of the sentence should be arranged so that the sentence reads smoothly and clearly. Parenthetical expressions are especially likely to injure the smoothness of the sentence. Bad : Our sales manager, a man considered to be a cracker- jack salesman, contrary to our wishes, started the new campaign. Good: Our sales manager, who is considered to be a crackerjack salesman, started this new campaign contrary to our wishes. Bad : We are enclosing our latest catalogue, which we know will be of interest to retailers, dealing with our newest models. Good: We are enclosing our latest catalogue dealing with our newest models which will be of interest to retailers. Omissions 112. A serious fault in business correspondence is the omission of words needed to complete tne grammatical con- 48 SENTENCE STRUCTURE struction of the sentence. This fault arises from haste, or ' from an attempt at conciseness. The result is that the reader cannot so easily follow the thought of the writer. 113. Parts of verbs which are needed to complete the grammatical construction, and which cannot be supplied from the preceding part of the sentence, should not be omitted. Bad: As you requested, the stock certificate was registered and the bonds sent. Good: As you requested, the stock certificate was registered and the bonds were sent. Bad: The letter never has and never will be sent. Good: The letter never has been and never will be sent. 114. Do not make one form of the verb be serve both as a principal and as an auxiliary verb. Bad: His report was convincing and appreciated by the directors. Good : His report was convincing and was appreciated by the directors. Bad: The pamphlet was made up in good form and in- teresting. Good: The pamphlet was made up in good form and was interesting. 115. Principal verbs should not be supplied from one part of the sentence to another if the same form is not gram- matically correct in both parts. The correct form should be written for each part. Bad: He ran such an office as only the true executive can. Good: He ran such an office as only the true executive can run. Bad : Our house did what many others have and are doing. Good : Our house did what many others have done and are doing. OMISSIONS 49 116. Two expressions of comparison, one of which is an adjective preceded by as, and the other, an adjective in the comparative degree, should not both be completed by a single as clause or a single than clause, unless that clause immediately follows the expression of comparison that stands first in the sentence. Bad : This price is as good if not better than any other you can get. Good : This price is as good as any other you can get, if not better. Bad: Our twenty-pound paper is cheaper and just as good as Amco. Good: Our twenty-pound paper is cheaper than Amco and just as good. 117. A single modifying clause or phrase should not limit two sentence elements unless that modifier is idiomati- cally adapted to both. Bad: Frank Jones will make a good employee, because of the experience and the good work he has done. Good: Frank Jones will make a good employee, because of the experience he has had and the good work he has done. Bad: This office has no connection or knowledge of the house you mentioned. Good : This office has no connection with or knowledge of the house you mentioned. (This sentence is correct, but is awkward; the following one is better.) This office has no connection with the house you men- tioned and no knowledge of it. 118. Two incomplete members of a sentence, one re- quiring a single noun to complete it, and the other a plural 50 SENTENCE STRUCTURE noun, should not both be completed by one noun unless that noun immediately follows the incomplete member standing first in the sentence. Bad: This bond is one of the safest, if not the safest bond, for the investor. Good : This bond is one of the safest bonds for the in- vestor, if not the safest. Bad: Consent to this and all future issues must be given by the Public Service Commission. Good : Consent to this issue and to all future issues must be given by the Public Service Commission. 119. The subject of the sentence, when in the first per- son, should not be omitted. Bad: Have received your letter of March 16. Good: / have received your letter of March 16. Bad : Shall let you know after I have seen the secretary. Good : / shall let you know after I have seen the secretary. 120. The articles a, an, and the should not be omitted. Bad : We have sent bill and goods to home address of firm. Good: We have sent the bill and the goods to the home address of the firm. Bad : Wanted A woman who understands little about cook- ing, to take charge of small lunch room. Good: Wanted A woman who understands a little about cooking, to take charge of small lunch room. *121. Subordinating conjunctions should not be omitted. Bad: He wrote me he had sent the order. Good: He wrote me that he had sent the order. "122. Do not omit prepositions. Bad: The following day we received your check. Good: On the following day we received your check. ~See Rule 29. COORDINATION AND SUBORDINATION 51 Bad: This announcement was published the gth of May. Good: This announcement was published on the Qth of May. Bad: All bids will be opened Saturday. Good: All bids will be opened on Saturday. 123. Do not leave comparisons incomplete. Bad: The make-up of the pamphlet marked "2" is better. Good: The make-up of the pamphlet marked "2" is better than that of the pamphlet marked "i" Coordination and Subordination 124. Do not join a relative clause to the principal clause by and or but. Bad : The chief told me about the favor you had done and which I want to thank you for. Good : The chief told me about the favor you had done, which I want to thank you for. Bad : One of the best salesmen on the staff is John Ripley of New York City, and who is only twenty-six years of age. Good: One of the best salesmen on the staff is John Ripley of New York City, who is only twenty-six years of age. Good : He is a man in whom we can trust and from whom we can expect conscientious work. (In this sentence one relative clause is connected with another relative clause.) V12 125. Do not join one idea to a preceding idea by and, but, or or, unless it is logically coordinate. Subordinate ideas should be put into subordinate grammatical forms. Bad: The shortage has not been made good by the rail- road, and we must ask you to make it good. Good: As the shortage has not been made good by the railroad, we must ask you to make it good. 52 SENTENCE STRUCTURE Bad: Your check was received two days late, but we can- not allow you the discount. Good: As your check was received two days late, we can- not allow you the discount. 126. Do not join coordinate verbs in a sentence with the adverbs so, then, or also. Bad : The reproducing point is a genuine diamond, so it will not wear out. Good: The reproducing point is a genuine diamond and so will not wear out. Bad: The varnish is applied with a brush, then rubbed in. Good: The varnish is applied with a brush and then rubbed in. Bad : You will be delighted with the big showing of spring fabrics, also will be pleased with our new array of hats. Good: You will be delighted with the big showing of spring fabrics and also will, be pleased with our new array of hats. 127. Two consecutive statements should not both* be introduced by but or for. Bad : His explanation of the cost system used was under^ stood by most of us, but several did not understand cer- tain details, but they did not say anything. Good : His explanation of the cost system used, was un- derstood by most of us ; several did not understand cer- tain details, but they did not say anything. Or, His explanation of the cost system used, was understood by most of us. Several did not understand certain de- tails, but they did not say anything. Bad : Such a watch becomes a true companion, for it never fails you, for it keeps time to the infallible second. Good : Such a watch becomes a true companion ; it never fails you, for it keeps time to the infallible second. Or, Such a watch becomes a true companion. It never fails you, for it keeps time to the infallible second. COORDINATION AND SUBORDINATION 53 128. Avoid the use of the adverb so for the purpose of compounding sentences. Bad: We understood that you were interested in our trip, so we sent you our pamphlet and circulars. Correct (but not preferable) : We understood that you were interested in our trip; so we sent you our pamphlet and circulars. Preferable: As we understood that you were interested in pur trip, we sent you our pamphlet and circulars. 129. Avoid the "House That Jack Built" style of subordination: i. e., do not use a series of similar clauses or a series of similar phrases in such a construction that the second depends on the first, the third on the second, and so on. Bad : On page 15 you will see the drawings that have been made of this engine which is the marvel of expert engineers. Good : On page 15 you will see the drawings of this engine that is the marvel of expert engineers. Bad: The tobacco is treated by a patented process so that the bite is taken out, so that smoking is once more a pleasure to those smokers that have tender tongues. Good : The tobacco is treated by a patented process, so that the bite is taken out. Smoking is thereby once more made a pleasure to those smokers that have tender tongues. 130. The principal clause of a complex sentence should contain the most important statement ; the subordinate clause should contain the secondary or qualifying statement. Be especially careful of the use of a when clause. Bad: We were shipping their order when news came that they had filed a petition in bankruptcy. Good: When we were shipping their order, news came that they had filed a petition in bankruptcy. 54 SENTENCE STRUCTURE Bad: The monthly quota had almost been reached when all at once sales fell off in every place. Good: The monthly quota had almost been reached. All at once sales fell off in every place. / Parallelism 131. Parallel ideas in a sentence should be put, as a rule, in parallel construction. If one idea is expressed by an infinitive, the other also should be so expressed; if one is a relative clause, the other should be; and so on. Bad: I have written to him to send me his report and that he should also leave immediately for Chicago. Note : The infinitive construction "to send" and the subordinate clause construction "that he should" are not in parallel form. This makes the sentence awkward. Good : I have written to him to send me his report and also to leave immediately for Chicago. Or, I have written to him that he should send me his report and that he should also leave immediately for Chicago. Bad: We wrote personal letters to customers who had formerly done business with us and now they were with our competitors. Good: We wrote personal letters to customers who had formerly done business with us and who were now with our competitors. Bad: The capital necessary to start the business and for running it several years is now at our disposal. Good: The capital necessary to start the business and to run it for several years is now at our disposal. Emphasis 132. The principle of emphasis is of special importance in business English, for from its correct application come many of the rhetorical effects that make strong impressions on the reader. It is one means of making a sentence forceful. EMPHASIS IN THE SENTENCE 55 133. Emphasis results from arrangement. It requires that the sentence be so arranged that the principal idea is brought into prominence and that the minor details are sub- ordinated. It requires also that the important idea in the sentence be so presented that its importance cannot but be felt. 134. Only when particular stress is required need the principle of emphasis be applied. ^35. Avoid a weak beginning in an important sentence. Unemphatic : In other words, the American business man has been "playing the game alone. Emphatic: The American business man, in other words, has been playing the game alone. Unemphatic: Therefore, you should select your filing equipment for what it will do. Emphatic: You should therefore select your filing equip- ment for what it will do. Unemphatic: Moreover, no saving of a few cents can balance what you lose in attention through the use of inferior paper. Emphatic : No saving of a few cents, moreover, can balance what you lose in attention through the use of inferior paper. v!3r sewing at night, or studying, the Ready Light concentrates every bit of the light on your work, and at the same time keeps it out of your eyes. The same amount of work can be accomplished in much less time, and with half the 1'atigue. I will not enurcerate further. After you have owned a Ready Light for a wet5K .or two. hundreds of ways to use it will have sug- gested thesis elves. Do you not think it is a Ready Light? Yours respectfully^ FIG. I Example of Incorrect Tone 120 TONE AND VARIETY 243. In advertisements selling goods to women of the better educated classes, one means, for example, of securing good tone is by the use of French phrases or words. When they are used, however, they should not be followed im- mediately by the translation. This should be introduced less obviously. Such an expression as "Perrine's La Neige (French for snow) White Washable Gloves," is too bald. An example of correct use is as follows \ L "Les Frangais ne sont jamais contents settlement de faire. Us creent. Djer-Kiss Talc is strictly a French creation. It is made in France, the home of daintiness. It is made of French talc, which is the finest in the world. It is perfumed with Djer-Kiss, the chef d'ceuvre of Kerkoff, the master perfumer of Paris." 244. Letters to farmers should be simple in style, frank and colloquial in tone. Example: If you could only see one of my stump-pullers in operation, I know you would not hesitate a minute about having one, too. I am convinced that no up-to-date farmer can see one without wanting it. In order to make it possible for the people in your locality actually to see one of my machines working, I am going to make an offer to a few men in each neighborhood so remarkable, so sure, so absolutely without risk, that it will put at least one exhibition stump-puller in every neighborhood in the country. 245. The sporty and slangy tone may be used in letters written to sell sporting articles. It may also be used with success in other class advertisements and letters ; for example, those addressed to smokers. STYLE ADAPTED TO THE READER 121 "Whar nature leaves off on Burley, work on VELVET begins cultivating pickin', an' choosin', to get the best an' richest leaves. Then th' curin' that lasts mo' than two years an' puts that fine, mellow, aged-in-th'-wood smooth- ness into VELVET, The Smoothest Smoking Tobacco." FIRST OF ALL You buy a jimmy pipe. Get one that chums-up with your spirit right off the bat, natural-like. Then lay a dime against a tidy red can of Prince Albert tobacco that's all pleasing and fragrant and fresh. A match! and you're off! Get jimmy pipe joy'us quick as you can beat it up the pike to any store that sells tobacco. . . . 246. Once the tone or character of the letter has been decided upon, this tone should be adhered to throughout. Any false note that is struck destroys the effect of the whole letter. Example: "The Merchants' City Bank of New York has purchased bonds of the above loan to the amount of five million dollars, description of which is contained in the enclosed circular. "We are able to offer these bonds with accumulated interest less the broker's commission of 54% at 94. We desire to make you an advance offer of any part at this figure. This is pretty good stuff, don't you think? Why not take on a line of it?" 247. Besides the style in which the writer adapts him- self to the reader; besides the established tone in the corre- spondence of a business house, there is still another tone which comes from the business sense and which applies to its ordinary letters. This is the courteous, agreeable, and 122 TONE AND VARIETY positive note so conducive to good business relations. Take, for example, the possible ways of beginning a letter answer- ing a complaint: Negative : We must say that we are surprised to learn from your letter of Jan. 19 that you are dissatisfied with your purchase from us on Jan. 14. Neutral: Your letter of Jan. 19 in regard to a shirtwaist purchased from us on Jan. 14 has been received. Positive: Thank you for your candid letter of Jan. 19, in which you call our attention to the fact that the shirtwaist you purchased on Jan. 14 does not come up to the usual high quality of goods handled by our store. Note : The third, the positive beginning, is by far the best because its tone gets the reader into the right spirit to read the rest of the letter. Remember that the first para- graph of the letter is usually the most important. From it the reader shapes his entire attitude. Variety 248. Variation in the length and structure of sentences not only stimulates the attention, but makes interesting even the dullest subject. This is the only practical method of imparting to a dull recital of facts (e. g., letters selling bonds), the interest so necessary in certain forms of busi- ness correspondence. 249. Sameness or monotony of construction is a fatal fault in many letters, for it takes the life out of the most interesting subject. In like manner, the constant use of any one form of sentence or the steady recurrence of the same kind of construction in sentences, both annoys the reader and distracts his attention. Since most sentences are VARIETY IN SENTENCE STRUCTURE 123 written in the loose style, it is safe to advise the writer to use the periodic style, so far as can be done without apparent artifice. The more the writer uses the short staccato sen- tence, the more interesting becomes his style. 250. Common violations of the principle of variety are: a. The frequent use of compound sentences composed of two members of about the same length joined by and or but. Examples : "Two weeks ago we wrote to you about our re- liable watch and we hope that you have been interested in it. To-day we are sending to you testimonials from many people who have bought these watches and we know that you will be impressed when you see them. You may still be a little sceptical about this watch and you may say that we can't live up to our offer. You should read care- fully the enclosed testimonials and you will then know that we do live up to our agreements." "We have sent to you by the last mail a copy of our pamphlet and we hope that you will read it carefully. You will notice that a full description of the adding machine is given on page 10 and you will find it is very complete. You will find on the same page an answer to your ques- tion and you will see how easily the machine is operated." Note : It is important to remember that coordination is not a rhetorical fault. The real fault lies in the use of isolated compound sentences, each consisting of two clauses joined by the same conjunction, "and." We should care- fully distinguish between those cases in which this structure best expresses the thought and those in which it represents no thought at all. b. The frequent use of participial or absolute phrases (Rule 107). 124 TONE AND VARIETY Examples : Early copy means early proof, avoiding the necessity for hasty revision. Therefore kindly see that we receive your copy by May 22, this being the last day. Remember that advertisements of 1,500 lines or more will be placed on a separate page, the remainder of the page containing interesting news matter. c. The frequent use of so for the purpose of compounding sentences. Examples : We understood that you were interested in our trip, so we sent you our pamphlet and circulars. This trip, you will recall, is being conducted by the University, so it will not be a money making scheme. And too, the party is under the leadership of well-known civic experts, so you. can be assured of a profitable experience. d. The frequent use at the beginning of the sentence of after this, after that, there is, there are, and now. Example : There are two special designs featured in E. & W. Shirts. There are in these same shirts materials unsur- passed for workmanship. There are also other points of superiority which we have no space to mention. e. The frequent use at the beginning of a sentence of a connective such as, therefore, however, and nevertheless. Example: If your workrooms are not properly ventilated, your employees cannot do efficient work. Therefore you lose money because you lose service. Therefore it would be wise to have installed one of our electric suction fans. Therefore call me up or write to me. f. Too frequent use of the personal pronoun I. VII. THE OUTLINE 251. In the writing of a long report, an important busi- ness letter, or an article, the outline is of importance. Not only will the writer's time be saved, but the actual labor of composition will be easier and in the end the result will be more satisfactory. 252. An outline is a properly coordinated arrangement of the important facts which are to be included. In other words, it is a condensed form of notes. A common fault is that it is made too soon after notes have been taken on the subject. The material should have been collected some little time and the subject allowed to shape itself before the outline is given an opportunity to crystallize. The three essentials of a good working outline are: unity, simplicity, and proportion. 253. The principle of unity is applied by seeing that one topic leads to another and that all pertain to the same topic. Care should be taken to see that nothing is included in the main topic which is a part of the subordinate topic. 254. The outline should be simple in construction. No wearisome details should be included, and there should be no confusion of topics. 255. The principle of proportion as here applied means that the main ideas must be made main topics; subordinate ideas must not be made principal topics, but sub-topics of main topics. Sub-ideas should be properly subordinated. 125 126 THE OUTLINE 256. The five steps taken in the making of an outline are: (1) The statement of the definitely limited subject. (2) The selection of the point of view. (3) The selection and arrangement of the main topics. (4) The subdivision of the main topics. (5) Revision to secure clearness, unity, simplicity, and proportion. 257. An example of an outline for a sales report is as follows : Report on Sales Department of Standard Gear Motor Co. Presentation : I. The Present Selling System 1. Tabulated comparison of sales, this year with last. 2. Field and prospects. 3. Methods of selling. a. Office sales. b. Salesmen on salary and commission. c. Agency sales. II. Faults of the Present System 1. Small number of salesmen results in: a. An inconsiderable amount of territory covered. b. Limited number of prospects followed up and sold. c. Competitors entering field. 2. Waste of 50% of salesman's time caused by : a. Lack of advertising. b. Lack of follow-up letters. 3. Lack of cooperation with agencies. THE OUTLINE 127 III. Remedies Suggested 1. Increase in salesmen so that: a. More territory may be covered. b. More prospects may be followed up and sold. c. Competition may be met. 2. Appropriation for advertising and follow-up cam- paigns to save 50% of salesman's time. 3. Closer cooperation with agencies. IV. Probable Results 1. Increase in sales because of larger force of sales- men. 2. The advertising and follow-up systems will re- sult in: a. Direct sales from advertising and follow-up systems. b. Increase of 100% in selling power of present salesmen. 3. Increased sales through agencies. V. Recommendations 1. Increase in number of salesmen. 2. Appropriation for: a. Advertising campaign. b. Follow-up campaign. 3. Better treatment of agencies. Conclusion. 258. After the outline has assumed the above form, it should be carefully scrutinized for any defects in its mechan- ical and logical arrangement. VIII. BUSINESS REPORTS Definition of a Business Report 259. A business report is a statement which contains in logical form specific facts and figures pertaining to a certain phase of business. It may contain also the writer's recommendations or conclusions based on the facts given. 260. The purpose of a report is to convey information that is of use and that is to be used, and the writer should never lose sight of this fact. No report should be made unless it has some definite purpose or tries to convey some definite information. 261. A report implies a maker and a receiver. The latter is usually some one in authority who is to use the report and base a judgment upon the information contained in it. Accordingly, the function and purpose of the one who receives the report should determine its character and contents. Hence, a report to be made to go out to the stockholders of a company should be adapted to them and to their use. If the report is to go to the head of a technical department it need be adapted only to him. 262. The making of a report is of great importance to the reporter for the reason that it usually goes to some- one in authority, who judges the reporter by his work. Re- ports are demanded of nearly everyone in business sales- 128 DIFFERENT KINDS OF REPORTS 129 men, managers, committees, secretaries, treasurers, experts, accountants, and so on. 263. The executive who desires a report, should select the man or men who have the opportunities and training which best fit them for getting the desired information. Different Kinds of Reports. 264. Reports range all the way from the short, pub- lished, bank reports and accountant's reports, which are nearly all figures, to those of consuls and others, which are mostly narration, description, and exposition. There is every grade of report from the mere presentation of facts or statistics up to dignified persuasion and the making of recommendations. 265. There are two forms of reports the personal and the impersonal. The personal is used when dignity and formality need not be observed; the impersonal style is used when these characteristics are essential elements. 266. As a rule, a report which contains recommenda- tions is more important than one containing merely figures. The former demands that the business judgment and know- ledge of the writer be exercised ; whereas, in the latter, only facts and figures are given. In a report making a recom- mendation, the writer should realize the responsibility that rests upon his judgment and should act accordingly. Arrangement of the Business Report 267. A business report is largely dependent for its value on the method of arrangement and presentation. 130 BUSINESS REPORTS 268. Both the logical and mechanical arrangement of the report should, therefore, be very carefully considered. The logical arrangement is necessary so that the thought may progress properly. The mechanical arrangement is necessary in order that the various topics may be easily found or referred to. 269. For convenience of reference the report should be properly displayed. It should have numerous sub-heads written in capitals, underlined, or in some other way separated from the body of the reading matter, so that they can be seen at a glance. Sometimes they are placed in the marginal space. At other times they are boxed by rules and placed in the reading matter in the margins. In every case, margins should be wide and paragraphs should be separated by an abundance of white space. The arrange- ment of these headings and topics is a most important con- sideration in a report. For further convenience, figures should be tabulated, and maps and diagrams inserted wherever possible. 270. Recommendations should be separated from and follow the facts on which they are based. A good arrange- ment is secured either by grouping all recommendations at the end of the report or by placing a recommendation at the end of each division of facts which necessitates one. If a report is long and involves the making of recommendations on several .topics, it is better to place the recommendations throughout the report following each separate division of facts or statements. If the report is short they may be grouped at the end. In many cases where recommendations ARRANGEMENT OF THE BUSINESS REPORT 131 are scattered throughout the report, they are summed up at the end. 271. Recommendations should not be hidden within a paragraph, but should be paragraphed separately. Example : We therefore recommend that an appropriation of $10,000 be made for advertising and follow-up cam- paigns. We also recommend that the present sales force be increased to forty-two. 272. Recommendations should be simple, but definite, comparatively few in number, and should deal with only the essential points under discussion in the report. 273. The purpose and source of any report should de- cide the nature, form, and arrangement of its contents. For example, if it is informal and is to be seen only by one or two persons, it may be submitted in letter form. If the report is to be published for the benefit of stockholders, it must have an arrangement suitable for publication. 274. Nothing should be included in the report unless it pertains to the title and is common to it. Likewise, each sub-title must cover every point contained in the passage which it titles. 275. The beginning of a report should state its object, the ground to be covered, and the sources of facts stated (i. e., whether they have been obtained by personal observation, by talk with employees, or otherwise), and the authority by which the reporter is making the report. The end should 132 BUSINESS REPORTS be a summary of the essential facts given and a review of the conclusions reached throughout. An Example of a Presentation To the Board of Directors of the Standard Gear Motor Company, Gentlemen : In compliance with the vote passed at your last meeting, January 21, 1914, that "The sales manager shall submit a report on the sales system now in use, together with his recommendations as to how his department may be im- proved," I herewith present a report entitled "Report on Company." I have personally examined the condition of my depart- ment and have considered carefully every method whereby sales may be increased. I hope that the Board will take under special consideration the remedies suggested for the faults of our present selling system. An Example of a Conclusion In conclusion, allow me to say that I hope the Board will pass favorably upon the system as outlined in this report and embodied in the recommendations, for I firmly believe, if the report be accepted and the recommendations passed, the Board will feel satisfied with the results. Respectfully submitted, An example of the mechanical arrangement of a type- written page of a business report is given in Fig. 2, on the opposite page. tittle territory covered because of small number of salesmen ARRANGEMENT OF A BUSINESS REPORT 133 nave been realising for some time past that they have been very much slighted by the company* FAULTS OF THE PRE5E3T SELLDTO SYSTEM After a reading of the foregoing matter on the present selling system, it will be seen that certain great faults exist. Of these faults, the first that I desire to dis- cuss la the fact that the small number of salesmen compos- ing our present sales force have been able to cover only a small part of tne territory assigned to them. Each of these salesmen (they are on a salary and commission basis) has been assigned a certain district or territory in the United States. On personal investigation and from reports submitted I have found that of the twenty-four dis- tricts which have been alloted to salesmen, only four have been anywhere near covered. $7 that I mean that only four salesmen of twenty-four to whom exclusive territory had been assigned have been able to meet the known prospects of their district 9 The following table shows in concrete form this wretched conditions fiumber of active prospects Sumber of prospects on the market .net by salesmen 7, 200 Z39J6 limited number of prospects sold 18, 500 Fig. 4 Another fault with the present selling system is the limited number of prospects sold. From the table (Fig. 4) given FIG. 2 Example of a Typewritten Page of a Report 134 BUSINESS REPORTS Clearness in the Business Report 276. As the receiver of a report is usually some one in authority who can profitably use the information and recommendations, the essential qualities are clearness for the first reading and convenience for reference. 277. To obtain clearness, it is necessary for the writer to observe the principles of unity, coherence, and emphasis both in the report as a whole and in its separate divisions and paragraphs. 278. Use simple language; avoid technical terms unless they are adapted to and can be easily understood by the reader. Wherever possible use maps, charts, diagrams, and illustrations. They are more vivid than pages of description. Miscellaneous Points 279. The most common errors of business reports are: (i) essentials included, but the report not clear; (2) non- essentials included; (3) essentials omitted. 280. For the sake of securing the necessary qualities and observing the principles of construction, an outline should be made by dividing the subject according to some principle and then sub-dividing the sections as this becomes necessary. The topics thus secured should be arranged in proper order and so far as possible should be expressed in definite sen- tences. (See Page 126.) 281. Proportion in a report means that important facts should be given as much space as is needed by them, and unimportant facts should be given as little space as possible. ACCOUNTANTS' REPORTS 135 282. Check up these four points in revising the busi- ness report: (i) arrangement (mechanical and logical); (2) proportion; (3) clearness; (4) conciseness. Accountants' Reports 283a. The accountant's report usually consists of four main divisions: (i) the presentation; (2) the certificate; (3) comments; and (4) exhibits and schedules. 283b. The presentation is the same as that in the ordinary report, but in addition includes a statement as to the contents of the whole report; e.g., "A certificate, ten pages of comments, and the following exhibits and schedules 283c. The certificate certifies that the audit has been made and is correct. This is signed by the accountant. These certificates are of two kinds qualified and unquali- fied. A qualified certificate states that the correctness of the audit is vouched for, subject however to the comments. An unqualified certificate, as its name implies, is not thus qualified. 283d. The comments in many cases constitute the major part of the report and are of great importance to the reader. Comments have four main purposes: (i) They bring sharply to the attention of the reader a particular fact that might be passed by in the examination of the figures given in the schedules; (2) they make clear certain statements and figures in the schedules; (3) they describe the work that has been done, and may tell what has not been done; (4) they contain suggestions and recommenda- tions, if recommendations are asked for. IX. PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION The Comma (,) 284. The comma indicates the smallest degree of separa- tion in the sentence. It is required : 285. After words, phrases, and clauses where two or more are used in succession and the connectives are omitted. Right: This machine is strong, well-made, and costs little. 286. To set off a proper name used in direct address. Right: You will understand, Mr. Fall, that we have done our best in this matter. 287. To set off absolute participial phrases. Right : Our factory having burned last week, we are unable to fill our orders. 288. To separate parenthetical or intermediate expres- sions from the context. Right : His plans, although well made, have become known. 289. To set off appositives. Right: He stayed at our headquarters, the Hotel Astor. 136 THE COMMA 137 290. To indicate an ellipsis. Right : Price, $2.50. Right: Some of the boxes were shipped yesterday; the rest, to-day. 291. To set off a geographical name explaining a pre- ceding name. Right: The goods were sent by mistake to St. Joseph, Mo., instead of to St. Joseph, Mich. 292. To separate two numbers. Right : May 25, 1914. Right: In 1912, 412 complaints were registered. 293. To separate a quotation from the other parts of the sentence. Right : When we read in his letter, "I shall be sure to send this on Friday," we awaited his message. 294. Between two independent clauses connected by one of the simple conjunctions. Right: The delay was our fault, but we could not help it. 295. To set off a dependent clause preceding its prin- cipal clause. Note: A comma is usually not necessary when the de- pendent clause follows the principal clause. Right : If we had received this in time, we should not have said anything. Right: We should not have said anything if we had re- ceived this in time. 138 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION 296. Before "not" when introducing an antithetical clause, phrase, or word. Right: We have done this, not because it is our policy, but because this is an exceptional case. Right: You should have taken his point of view, not your own. 297. To indicate separation between any sentence elements that might be misunderstood. Wrong: Ever since we have refused to do business with them. Right: Ever since, we have refused to do business with them. 298. To separate two adjectives modifying the same noun, if they are coordinate in thought. Right: He is a willing, steady worker. (The adjectives are coordinate in thought; both modify "worker.") Right: We have shipped a large open boat. (The adjectives are not coordinate in thought; "open" modifies "boat," but "large" modifies "open boat*.") 299. Between the name of a person and his title. Right: Perley Thorne, M. S. Right: Frank Jones, cashier. 300. Between the terms of a series of words or phrases, if the conjunction be omitted. Right: The plan of the bankers is to remain patient, calm. 301. Between repeated or similar words, or phrases. Right: Down, down, down, have gone our prices. THE COMMA 139 302. To divide numbers in groups of three figures each. Right: 82,934,567. 303. To separate from the rest of the sentence, a non- restrictive adjective clause. Right: Louis, who has been with us only two years, is our best salesman. 304. When the phrases or group is restrictive no commas are used. Right: An investment which nets about 4% is the one I am looking for. Note : The following test may be used to decide whether a given clause or phrase is restrictive or non-restrictive: If the main assertion in the sentence remains unchanged in meaning and can stand alone if the clause or phrase be omitted, the clause or phrase is non-restrictive. If the main assertion of the sentence is incomplete and cannot stand alone in meaning unless the clause or phrase be present, the clause or phrase is restrictive. In the sentence "Louis, who has been with us only two years, is our best salesman," the clause "who has been with us only two years" may be omitted and the main assertion is unaffected, namely, "Louis is our best salesman." But in the sen- tence, "An investment which nets about 4% is the one I am looking for," the clause "which nets about 4%" can- not be omitted from the sentence, for then the sentence would read '"An investment is the one I am looking for" which makes no sense. In this case, therefore, the clause is restrictive. 305. To separate the adverbs, however, now, then, too, perhaps, and indeed from the rest of the sentence when they are used as connectives. Right: "Your first letter, however, has not reached us." 140 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION 306. To separate similar words, even though the comma is not required by the sense or the grammatical construction. Right: I tell you, you are hurting only yourself by your attitude. 307. In a series of three or more words where the con- junction and is used between the last two words. Right: We have in stock a large quantity of purple, white, and blue silks. Note : Many of the best writers do not agree on the use of the comma with the conjunction; for, as they say, the comma between words is used for and. If and is used, the comma is unnecessary. On the other hand, it seems illogical to omit the comma, for the intention is to make the three adjectives equally distinct. White and blue silks might mean silks, each of which is colored white and blue. 308. Do not use a comma before the first member of a series of sentence elements, unless it would be proper there, were there only one element instead of a series. Wrong: This make of electric truck is being used, (i) by 17 department stores, (2) by 7 express companies, (3) by 8 bakers. Right: This make of electric truck is being used (i) by 17 department stores, (2) by 7 express companies, (3) by 8 bakers. 309. The comma is not required after a short inversion or in any other place where the sense is unmistakable and no pause would be made in reading. Wrong: In your letter, was a check for $5. Right: In your letter was a check for $5. THE SEMI-COLON 141 310. The comma is not required before a substantive clause introduced by that when the governing verb imme- diately or very closely precedes the clause. Wrong: He wrote, that he was returning the bonds. Right: He wrote that he was returning the bonds. 311. Do not make the comma fault; that is, do not use a comma at the end of a grammatically complete asser- tion that is not joined to a following assertion by a con- junction. Use the period. Wrong: You probably know how successful our sales agents have been in your state, this is the reason we are now establishing agencies in every town where we are not already represented. Right: You probably know how successful our sales agents have been in your state. This is the reason we are now establishing agencies in every town where we are not already represented. The Semi-Colon (;) 312. The semi-colon indicates a wider uegree of separa- tion than the comma. It is used: 313. To separate the clauses of a compound sentence that are not joined by conjunctions. Right: Your advertisement makes the customer glad to buy; the chance of betterment spurs your man to eager- ness in work. 314. To separate the clauses of a compound sentence that are joined by a conjunction, only when it is desirable to indicate a very definite pause. Right: We have informed you of the delay in shipment; but we have not told you yet of the reason for it. 142 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION 315. Between the clauses of a compound sentence that are joined by one of the conjunctive adverbs, such as accord- ingly, besides, hence, thus, therefore, then,, still, also, never- theless, moreover, and however. Wrong: This camera is made of aluminum, therefore, it is very light. Right: This camera is made of aluminum; therefore, it is very light. Wrong: You see, the motor had too much oil, then it got heated up and smoked like a volcano. Right: You see, the motor had too much oil; then it got heated up and smoked like a volcano. 316. To separate the parts of a compound or a com- plex sentence when some of those parts are punctuated by commas. Right: We have been informed that he has refused to honor his draft; that he has paid none of his bills, al- though heretofore, he has borne a good reputation in this respect ; and that his bank account is greatly depleted. 317. To separate two elements of a simple or com- pound sentence when for any reason a comma would not make the relation between them immediately clear. Wrong: If we had your territory, we should sell this product to every banker, and merchant, and nobody would escape us. Right: If we had your territory, we should sell this product to every banker and merchant; and nobody would escape us. THE COLON 143 The Colon ( ;) 318. The colon is the mark of equality: it indicates that what follows is equivalent to, or explains, what pre- cedes. It is used: 319. Before the expressions, as that is, namely, etc., and before the abbreviations, viz., i. e., e. g., etc., when they are used to introduce a series of particular terms simple in form that are in apposition to the general term. Right: Up to the present time, we have opened five new accounts : namely, the Johnson Company, The Smith Company, The White Company, The Jones Company, and the Stone-Black Company. Note : Some authorities prefer the semi-colon here, and use the colon only when such an introductory word is understood but not expressed. 320. After a word, phrase, or clause of a sentence that is used as an introduction to something that follows, such as an enumeration, or an extended quotation. Right : There are three points to be taken into consideration : production, transportation, and marketing. Right: Mr. Jones said in his letter: "(A long quotation follows)." 321. After the formal salutation at the beginning of the letter: e. g., Gentlemen: When less formality is de- sired, a comma may be used : e. g., My dear Fred, 322. Between the hours and minutes in indicating time: e. g., 9 :45 A. M. 144 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION The Dash ( ) 323. The dash indicates an abrupt change of construc- tion. It is used: 324. To indicate any sudden break in thought or speech. Right: Your order for a sample pouch of ROYAL MIX- TURE is greatly appreciated by the way, have you re- ceived the sample package of tobacco that we mailed you? 325. In place of the comma, to set off more definitely some part of the sentence. Right: We have been lacking something that we have needed most efficiency. 326. As a substitute for parenthesis marks. Right: The more you smoke our mixture you will soon find this out the more you like it. 327. Before a word which sums up the preceding part of a sentence. Right: Wherever packing costs must be considered, wherever transportation charges are an item, wherever safety on goods in transit must be assured the fibre board box is replacing the wooden one. Right: "For the best cleanser, for an aid to a clear com- plexion, for something that is more than mere soap, there is only one thing PALMOLIVE." 328. To connect extreme dates in specifying periods of time: e. g., 1910 1914. THE PERIOD 145 329. Between short, simple sentences to increase the speed of the discourse: e. g., Look just glance over these bargains it will pay you it means money to you. The Period (.) 330. The period is the mark of finality. It indicates the conclusion of an idea. 331. The period is used at the end of every declarative sentence. 332. The period is placed after every abbreviation. The Exclamation Mark (!) 333. The exclamation mark indicates strong feeling. It is used after an exclamatory sentence, clause, or interjection. Right : Quality ! That one word tells our story. Right : These prices can't be beaten ! 334. The exclamation mark in parentheses indicates irony. Right : These are the facts ( ! ) that convinced them. The Question Mark (?) 335. The question mark is used after every question. Parenthesis Marks ( ) 336. Use the parenthesis marks to enclose a word or clause that is independent of the sentence. 146 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION Right: He said (at least he told me so) that he was here on the I5th. Brackets [ ] 337. Brackets are used- to enclose an explanatory state- ment or word inserted by some other than the original writer of the sentence. Right : Their letter reads : "We have decided to turn over this district to Mr. West [their new salesman] who will " Quotation Marks (" ") 338. Use quotation marks to enclose quotations of the exact words of another. Wrong: They telegraphed "That they were coming." Right: They telegraphed, "We are coming." 339. Use single quotations ( f ') to enclose a quotation within a quotation. Right : He writes : "I have seen Mr. John Lewis who said, T shall accept your offer.' " 340. Do not use quotation marks to enclose well-known nicknames, titles of books, proverbial phrases, or to indi- cate one's own literary invention. 341. When a quotation consists of several paragraphs, quotation marks should be placed at the beginning of each paragraph and at the end of the quotation. When a quota- tion mark and another form of punctuation both follow the THE APOSTROPHE 147 same word, see whether the punctuation mark belongs to the direct quotation or to the sentence as a whole. Examine the following: Wrong: He wrote, "Where did you get that"? Right: He wrote, "Where did you get that?" Wrong: Did you say, "Ship at once?" Right: Did you say, "Ship at once"? 342. The period and the comma, at the close of a quoted word or passage, are usually placed before the quo- tation marks, whether they belong only to the quotation or to the sentence as a whole. Right: Don't use the word "ain't." Right: "Ain't," used for "am not," is incorrect. 343. No comma or period need be used in addition to the quotation marks and the question or exclamation mark. Wrong: Did he write, "We accept"? Right : Did he write, "We accept" ? Wrong : We removed the sign, "Fire Sale !,"-,and then left. Right: We removed the sign, "Fire Salel" and then left. The Apostrophe (') 344. Use the apostrophe to indicate the omission of letters: e. g., can't, doesn't, there's. 345. Use an apostrophe to form the possessive of reg- ularly inflected nouns. In the singular number, the apos- trophe precedes the s] in the plural, the apostrophe follows the s. Right: The clerk's (singular) time. The clerks' (plural) time. (See Rule 57.) 346. An apostrophe is not used with the possessive ad- jectives theirs, ours, yours, his, hers, its. 148 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION The Hyphen (-) 347. Use the hyphen when a word must be divided at the end of a line. Such words as also, besides, over, and through should not be divided. 348. To divide certain compound words. For this, no rule can be laid down, because one must simply learn from observation and dictionaries what is the correct practice in individual cases. 349. Always use a hyphen with to-day, to-morrow, to-night, and good-bye. 350. Never divide words except at the end of a syllable. Always put the hyphen at the end of the first line, not at the beginning of the second. 351. Avoid what is called double punctuation; that is, the use of two marks of punctuation, as a comma and dash (, ) in the same place. This rule does not apply to the use of quotation marks. Capitalization 352. Capitalize all proper names and adjectives derived from proper names. Right: German, Germany, Paris, Parisian, George, etc. 353. Capitalize the important words in titles of books, and articles, as, Imagination in Business. CAPITALIZATION 149 354. Capitalize the first word of every sentence, of every line of poetry, and of every complete sentence if quoted. Right: "Can you ship by Friday?" he wrote, "We need it." 355. Capitalize all titles when used with proper nouns. Right: Professor Smith, Postmaster Jones, Colonel Osborne, etc. 356. Capitalize the names, north, south, east, and west, only when referring to sections of country, not to direction. Right: From Chicago we traveled north. Right: Conditions in the East were not promising. 357. Capitalize the names of the days of the week and the 'names of the months, as, Wednesday.^ Friday, January, March. Note: The words spring, summer, autumn, fall, and winter should not be capitalized unless personified or referred to specifically: e. g., At this time we may expect spring weather; but, the Spring of 1915 holds good opportunities for our business. 358. Capitalize the titles of governmental officers of high rank, even when used separately. Right: The Secretary of State and the Attorney General met in New York City. X. THE MECHANICAL MAKE-UP OF A LETTER Editorial Manuals for Typists 359. Most good business houses have recognized the desirability of having all their correspondents follow certain rules so that their letters may be standardized in appearance. From their experience these houses have learned that where their letters are being handled by thirty or forty different correspondents and typists, there are thirty or forty different styles in the make-up of the letters going out from the house. By adopting a uniform policy in regard to the make-up of a letter and by impressing upon the correspondents the fact that these rules should be followed, so that the mechanical arrangement of a letter may be always the same, these houses have secured a definite form of letter. 360. It is wise, therefore, for any business house that has not a manual of rules to devise one. From the follow- ing pages on the Mechanical Make-Up of a Letter, which cover the most important usages of the best business houses of the present day, the head correspondent can choose those rules which he desires to make use of. These rules can then be typed out and a copy given to each correspondent and typist, or this book itself can be used as a manual. If it is used, the head correspondent should indicate, in cases where there is a choice in arrangement, the arrangement he prefers to have used. In this way all letters can be standardized in appearance. 150 THE APPEARANCE OF THE LETTER 151 The Outward Appearance of the Letter 361. The outward appearance of a letter makes the first impression on the reader. In other words, the general appearance of the letter is the first appeal that it makes to the average man. It is important, therefore, that the letter shall present as good an appearance as possible. The general appearance of a letter has to do with all the externals that catch the reader's eye, such as arrangement, typing (or hand writing) , paper, and so on. These externals are called the mechanical make-up of a letter. 362. The kind of paper as to size, color, and quality used in business correspondence depends upon the following points: the person or class of persons to whom the letter is sent, the business house from which it comes, the purpose of the letter, and the cost. In every case paper should be selected which will meet the expectations of the recipient. In ordinary business correspondence the paper is a sheet 8^x11 inches to fit the standard envelope 6^/2 x 3j4 inches. It is unruled and preferably white or of some light tint. In interdepartmental work, paper of different colors is used to show from what department the letter came and to help in the handling. The letter that goes outside the business firm should be of as good a grade as the firm can afford to use. Bond papers are most extensively used by business firms. 363. In sales-letter work, results have shown that the kind of paper used should be adapted to the class of per- sons to whom the letter is sent. To women, to the pro- fessional classes, to the wealthy, and so on, only the best quality of paper should be sent. A note-paper size, smaller 152 THE MECHANICAL MAKE-UP OF A LETTER than the ordinary 8^2 x 1 1 inch business letter-head is used, with envelopes to match. With farmers and with others on whom little impression is made by external appearances, a lower quality of paper is used. Variations in size and color, however, are used to secure different effects with these classes. 364. The mechanical make-up of a letter has six parts, the heading, the inside address, the salutation, the body of the letter, the complimentary close, and the signature. The Printed Heading 365. The business letter-head gives the name of the firm, its address, the nature of the business, and sometimes the names of the officers. It may also contain the telephone number and other essential information. It should never contain unessential facts since the heading is not the impor- tant part of the letter and should not be made so by colored pictures of the products or buildings of the firm, and long lists of directors. The simpler the letter-head, the better chance has the message in the body of the letter to secure the undivided attention of the reader. It should not occupy more than one-fifth of the sheet and should not extend down the margins for advertising purposes. 366. Headings printed in script are not easily read and are out of harmony with the typewritten letter. 367. The head may be lithographed, engraved, or printed, and the color should usually be black. Other colors are sometimes- effectively used, but black ink on white paper is the safe and correct form. THE PRINTED HEADING 153 Colliert, NEW YORK UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF COMMERCE ACCOUNTS AND FINANCE THE NATIONAL SHAWMUT BANK BOSTON MASa SPELLMAN & SPELLMAN. HENRY L.DOHERTY &COMPA.'Y The House of Kuppenheimer CHICAGO NEW Y FIG. 3 Examples of Good Letter Heads 154 THE MECHANICAL MAKE-UP OF A LETTER Written Heading 368. When the heading is written by hand it takes the following forms: 25 West Eighth St., New York City> July 8, 1914. or 25 West Eighth St., New York City, July 8, 1914- 369. It will be noted that this heading contains the street address, the city address, the state address, and also the date. The heading should be placed at the top of the letter close to the right hand margin. Note: It is a practice of some writers to omit all punctuation at the ends of the several lines of the written heading. 370. It is better never to abbreviate the name of the state when the abbreviation is likely to be confused with the abbreviation of the name of another state. Wrong: St. Joseph, Mo. Right: St. Joseph, Missouri. 371. No word or sign should be placed before the street number. Wrong: 33 Main St., Waterbury, Connecticut. Wrong: No. 33 Main St., Waterbury, Connecticut. THE WRITTEN HEADING 155 372. The street and avenue numbers up to and includ- ing ten should be spelled out in full. Wrong: 754 5th Avenue. Right: 754 Fifth Avenue. 373. The date should consist of the month, the num- ber of the day, and the number of the year. Do not use a number for the month and do .not abbreviate the year. Wrong: 8-5-'i4. 8/5/14. Right: August 5, 1914. Note: Although on the face of it, the use of the num- ber of the month and of the year seems to be more efficient than the use of the month written out in full, nevertheless, the reader is often confused in trying to find out exactly what month is meant. In many Euro- pean countries 8-5-'i4 would be read the 8th of May, 1914. 374. In ordinary business letters the numbers and the date should not be written out in full. Wrong: May fifth, Nineteen hundred and fourteen. Note : In certain cases, however, such as official letters, the date is spelled out to secure a greater formality. 375. The number of the day should not be followed by d, nd f rd, st, or th. Incorrect: May 5th, 1914. Correct: May 5, 1914. Note: This rule holds good when referring in the body of the letter to the date. 376. The entire heading even though it be short should never be written on one line. As a rule, the date is on a separate line. 156 THE MECHANICAL MAKE-UP OF A LETTER c ) 10 35 7i ) 3/4 i ^ Heading int in* Address Salutation Body of Letter t*. the eyeten In back of the letter* and know that they cannot after month. They sense th* system In back of the evade It. wompt payment* will increase our cash on hand. Tetters and know that tney cannot evade It. Prosjr-t pay- ments wlU Increase oiy caah on band. Goodwill Any effort put forth to pleas* a customer will ecured re-establish confidence between our firm and Goodwill secured duct claim* from remittance* until w* have Investigated th* Any effort pat forth to please n customer will r*-es- tabl'.ah corfldence between our firm and the outo*r. He can be taught from experience that our house can b* relied upon. A* goodwill develope, we can obtain favor* from hln. until w* have Investigated the claim and passed credit. Fig. 7 Examples of the Different Mechanical Arrangements of a Page of a Report THE COMPLIMENTARY CLOSE 165 deep provided that the letter is short, because a short letter will occupy little space, and this space should be as near in the center of the page as possible. 400. All paragraphs are to be indented an equal distance from the margin, say ten spaces or one inch regardless of the length of the salutation. It is also wise to use double space between the paragraphs. Some firms use no indention but begin each paragraph flush with the margin. In this case paragraphs are indicated by double or triple spacing between the paragraphs. In the illustration on Page 160 may be seen the correct forms of a typewritten letter. 401. If the letter is written in hand-writing, the space between the paragraphs should be double that between other lines. 402. Business houses should see that all their corre- spondence conforms to a certain definite plan, so that the appearance of the letter may be standardized. Complimentary Close 403. The complimentary close follows the body of the letter. As a rule it begins in the middle of the page. 404. The following forms are most used in business letters: Yours truly, Truly yours, Very truly yours, Yours very truly, Yours respectfully. 405. In official letters the complimentary close is Respectfully, Respectfully submitted, or Yours respectfully. 166 THE MECHANICAL MAKE-UP OF A LETTER 406. Do not use any abbreviation such as Y'rs or Resp'y in the complimentary close. Do not write respectively for respectfully. Do not use and oblige, in place of a compli- mentary close. 407. In the complimentary close only the first word should begin with a capital. The proper punctuation at the end is a comma. Such expressions as Believe me, I beg to remain, I am, I remain, etc., should not be used, for they are unnecessary and weaken the end. The Signature 408. The signature follows the complimentary close, a little below and to the right so that it ends at the right hand margin. 409. In letters from firms, the firm name should be typewritten and below it should come the written signature of the person directly responsible for the letter. Sometimes his signature is preceded by the word By and followed by his title- such as President, Secretary, Cashier, and the like. This title is also typewritten. 410. On account of the illegibility of many signatures, some business houses adopt the practice of typing the name of the writer. Below this the writer signs his name. This assures that in an answering letter the writer of the first letter is correctly addressed. 411. The signature of the writer, if a man, should not be preceded by any title, such as Mr., Prof., or Dr. OTHER POINTS ABOUT THE LETTER 167 412. A married woman signs her full name (this in- cludes her maiden name) and places immediately below, in parentheses, her married name. Anna Templeton Parsons (Mrs. Edward F. Parsons} 413. An unmarried woman signs her name with Miss in parentheses before it. Other Points About the Letter 414. The postscript is sometimes added to business let- ters. The letters P. ., however, are no longer used to label it. Formerly the postscript was used to express some idea which had been forgotten. Now, whenever it is em- ployed, it is for the purpose of emphasizing some important idea; for example, "Remember in order to take advantage of this offer we must receive your post-card by April 24th." Since it stands out as occupying a unique place in the letter, it should be used to contain an important idea and not simply the last thought of the writer. 415. Such expressions as Dictated but signed in my ab- sence, Dictated but not corrected after transcribed. Dictated but not read. Dictated but not signed, etc., should never be used, for they are discourteous to the reader of the letter. 416. The identity of the dictator and transcriber of the message should never become obtrusive. Expressions such as 168 THE MECHANICAL MAKE-UP OF A LETTER Dictated by Mr. John F. Royal to Miss White, Dictated by Mr. JoneSj etc., should be omitted. When identification is absolutely necessary it should be made by initials, such as EJK-C. Every mark or expression that does not help the message in the main part of the letter should remain incon- spicuous, as otherwise it distracts attention from the body of the letter. 417. Enclosures should be indicated by the abbreviation End. placed next to the lower left-hand margin ; e. g., j Ends. 418. Only one side of the paper should be used whether the letter is written in handwriting or typed. When more than one sheet is necessary to contain the message, plain sheets without the letter head but of the same size and ma- terial as the letter head should be used. At the top of these additional sheets is placed the number of the sheet and the initials or the name of the firm or person to whom the letter is sent, as, Trie Century Company 2. 419. Care should be taken that the last sheet of the letter does not contain only the complimentary close and the signature. The use of a little judgment will prevent that. 420. In folding the letter, fold up the bottom edge until it is exactly even with the top edge or one-half inch from the top edge and crease ; then fold over from the right THE ENVELOPE 169. a little more than one-third of the letter and crease. The remainder of the letter is folded over from the left. The free edge of the letter is thus slightly below the right-hand crease. It should be placed in the envelope with the free edge toward yourself. 421. The personal attention of a certain individual in a firm is secured to a matter of the firm's business by the expression Attention of Mr. Johns written in the center of the page. This may be placed below the salutation or above the inside address. The former position is preferable. The Envelope 422. In business correspondence the '-envelope is prefer- ably of the standard size, 6^x3% inches. The return address of the sender should always be printed or written in the upper left-hand corner. It should not be large or con- spicuous, and should never be used for advertising purposes. In many cases, as in sales-letters to women and professional classes, a return card or return address is printed on the flap of the envelope. This gives more of a social appearance to the letter and is of aid in getting better results from these classes. In such cases the size of the envelope used is that commonly called "Baronial," which measures about 4x5 inches. 423. The address should begin slightly below the middle of the envelope and should be well centered. Two forms are used just as in the inside address. 170 THE MECHANICAL MAKE-UP OF A LETTER The Smith Hardware Company, 35 Broadway, New York City. or The Smith Hardware Company, 35 Broadway, New York City. 424. When the straight edge form is used in the inside address this form should also be used on the envelope. The main thing to be considered is that the address should be well balanced. 425. The order of the address is usually as follows: first line, name of addressee; second line, street address or box number; third line, city or town, and state or country; or the state or country may be placed on the fourth line. 426. The personal attention of a certain individual in a firm is secured to a matter of the firm's business by the ex- pression (Attention of Mr. Johns) placed in the lower left- hand corner of the envelope. 427. The envelope should have no unsightly blots, finger prints, or erasures. It is better to re-write the letter entirely than to take any chance of marring the effect of an otherwise perfect page by any of these blemishes. Correctness and neatness in a letter are of vital importance in winning a pas- sage to the favorable consideration of the reader. OFFICIAL LETTERS 171 Official Letters 428. Official letters are used in writing about matters that are outside the scope of regular business. Any letter that is written by or to an official, or to a business man on any other question than those which come up in the regular routine of business, may be considered an official letter, 429. The stationery used in these letters is different from that used for other business communications. As a rule, it is smaller in size, of folder form, and similar to social stationery. When four-page folder sheets are used the fold should be at the right; or, in other words, that page which is ordinarily the back page of the folder is the first page to be written on. If a second page is necessary, the other out- side page is used. When three or four pages are to be written on, the best order is the natural, as 1, 2, 3, 4; and not, 1, 2, 4, 3 or 1, 4, 2, 3. 430. A small letter head is regularly used. This con- tains regularly only the name, official business, and address of the sender; sometimes only the address. 431. There are two classes of official letters, the formal and the informal. Formal Official Letters 432. The formal letter is sent to government officials, members of Congress, officers of the army and navy, and others in high position, and generally to all business men except those with whom the writer is on a footing of familiarity. 172 THE MECHANICAL MAKE-UP OF A LETTER 433. The mechanical form of the formal official letter differs from that of other business letters. The inside address is written at the close of the letter at the left-hand side. In it, all titles are given in full. No abbreviations should be used. 434. The salutation is "Sir" or "Sirs". The compli- mentary close is "Respectfully" or "Very respectfully". 435. In the body of the letter, the strictest formality is observed. No abbreviations or colloquial expressions are per- missible. Very frequently the third person is used through- out in speaking of the writer. The language is stately, formal and dignified to the point of coldness. Informal Official Letters 436. Informal official letters are used in writing to business men, who are on terms of familiarity with each other, about matters outside the routine of business. The very informal, conversational tone is desirable. The in- formal official letter has character, whereas the formal official letter is characterless. 437. As in the formal official letter, the inside address is at the lower left-hand corner of the sheet at the end of the letter. 438. The salutation is informal; as, "Dear Johnston", "Dear Mr. Johnston", "Dear Fred", or any other salutation the writer pleases to use. The complimentary close may be "Sincerely", "Cordially", or "Faithfully", and others of like tenor. Q. THE COMPOSITION AS A WHOLE How Effective Writing May be Secured 439. In a preceding chapter (Rules 18-25) the five qualities of the successful business message were defined. These qualities must be judged from the reader's viewpoint. A letter that is clear to the writer but not to the reader could not be said to have the quality of clearness. This chapter is concerned not so much with the finished result as viewed by the reader as with the principles of construction which aid the writer in securing an effective composition. 440. The writer knows that if his message is to be read and is to make a good impression upon the mind of the reader, the medium of the message the English must have the five qualities mentioned above. He must also know the principles which will aid him to construct the letter or advertisement so that it will have those qualities. This chapter on the composition as a whole explains and illustrates these principles. The Three Principles of Effective Writing 441. The principles of construction are unity, coherence, and emphasis. These principles are not primarily and pe- culiarly rhetorical laws ; they are deductions, crystallized into rules, drawn from experiences that have shown that ideas and thoughts presented in a certain method are most easily and quickly taken in and understood by the mind of the 173 174 THE COMPOSITION AS A WHOLE average person. In other words, the three principles of unity, coherence, and emphasis are natural laws. The writer who applies them will usually find that his ideas and feelings are conveyed clearly and effectively. The Principle of Unity 442. Unity is the principle of selection. It has for its purpose the making of a single, definite impression upon the mind of the reader by presenting a single, definite idea. To achieve this purpose, the writer must select from all the available ideas only those that will contribute to the one idea he wishes to impress. 443. The average brain cannot easily grasp two different ideas at the same time. Especially in business is this fact of importance. In actual business work there are so many distractions and so many problems demanding a business man's attention that, unless a message has a singleness of purpose, it will not readily be understood. The writer should concentrate on one idea. 444. In the selection of those facts and ideas which are to aid in the thorough development of the main idea or purpose, the writer must exercise his judgment. In many cases this judgment is founded on business experience. The experienced advertising man or sales-letter writer, for ex- ample, has learned to select just those closely related points that will carry across to the reader the main idea. 445. Before writing a business message, the writer should see and clearly understand its main idea or purpose. In an- swering a complaint letter, for instance, the purpose is, usually, to conciliate the complainant so that he will continue to do THE PRINCIPLE OF UNITY 175 business with the writer. All material should be included which is essential to accomplish this purpose. If the writer's aim is to get a direct sale from his letter, he should work to that end. If his aim is to get an inquiry which he is to follow up later, he should strive to make every idea in the letter subordinate to that aim. If the writer does not know pre- cisely what course of action he desires the reader to take, how can he expect the reader to know? 446. The writer should be sure that his letter contains the points essential to the completeness of his message. If he is writing a letter ordering goods, he should see that that letter contains all the information that is necessary for the rilling of the order. 447. At the same time the writer should exercise his judgment in excluding all those non-essentials which would only obscure and clog the thought, for every fact that is not needed to help the development and completeness of the thought hinders its comprehension. The writer should also see to it that his composition does not contain non-essentials, for unity means not only the inclusion of essentials but also the exclusion of non-essentials. Every word, sentence, or paragraph that does not help to make the idea complete in its unity, lessens the efficiency of the message. The letter answering a complaint, for example, should not have much space devoted to your excuses, for the reader is not so much interested in the excuses as he is to know what you are going to do about reparation and satisfaction. If the main idea in an advertisement for Victor Victrolas is that of exclusive talent, it is unwise to bring in the use of the Victor for dancing, as it is a non-essential thought to complete the main 176 THE COMPOSITION. AS A WHOLE idea of exclusive talent. As a result of the inclusion of these two ideas the reader would be confused, for he would be unable to see the relation of the two ideas. The Efficiency of Singleness of Impression 448. A letter that makes a complaint and orders goods at the same time is an example of a violation of the principle of unity and also of the principle of efficiency. In such a letter there is no unity of purpose. As a result the reader receives a jumbled impression of what is wanted. But be- sides that fault there is the trouble caused in handling such a letter. It comes into the business house, where it is opened by the mail clerk, who sees from its first paragraph that it is a complaint letter. He accordingly sends it to the com- plaint department. The complaint department has other com- plaint letters on hand, and this particular letter may have to wait until the last. When its time comes, the complaint man handles the letter, and then discovers that the letter should also go to the order department. It is then sent to the order department, where it has to wait until its turn for attention. This may be two or three days after it has been received by the concern. As a result of this violation of unity, the sender of the letter has to wait for his order, and perhaps writes in to find out why it has not been shipped immediately. All of this, of course, has been a waste of time and energy. 449. The matter of filing such a letter causes trouble, for the complaint department would want to keep a copy of it as would also the order department. This fact might mean that the letter would have to be copied. A good rule THE PRINCIPLE OF COHERENCE 177 to follow in business writing, therefore, is that a separate letter should be written for each important message. The re- sult would be a saving in time and trouble for all concerned. 450. In the writing of long letters, reports, or adver- tisements, it is always helpful to block out roughly, either on paper or in your mind, the ideas that you think might be used. You can then select those that you think are essential and reject the rest. Then test your selection by seeing if all the selected ideas can be gathered and expressed in one sentence that sums up the main idea that you desire your reader to receive. The summing-up sentence or key-sentence may be like the following: "As I am an expert on electrical repairing and installing, you ought to call me up if you have any work to be done." (See Page 70.) "If we cannot find your goods in four days, we shall ship duplicate order." (See Page 69.) The Principle of Coherence 451. Coherence is usually considered as the principle of arranging the ideas that have already been selected so that there will be a constant and logical progression throughout the message. There are two points to be considered in the matter of securing coherence; arrangement or order, and connection. Logical Arrangement of Ideas 452. Proper sequence is important in presenting ideas so that they will be clearly and easily understood. Each step taken in developing our proposition should be apparent. In ITS THE COMPOSITION AS A WHOLE colloquial use we often hear the remark, "No, I don't fol- low you." This remark means that the listener, from the arrangement of the ideas of the speaker, fails to comprehend exactly the speaker's reasoning. Some definite order or ar- rangement and an order or arrangement that is apparent to the reader is therefore necessary. 453. In most cases of letter writing, the thought pro- gresses from the viewpoint of the reader to that of the writer. Most people are interested primarily in themselves. If we speak about them, they will listen. The reader of a sales letter or advertisement is not interested to learn at the be- ginning that the writer wants him to do something. It is the purpose of the writer to lead the reader to that point. An answer to a complaint furnishes a good example. The first step is to conciliate the complainant in order to get him to read the rest of the letter with an unbiased mind. The second step is to state the facts in the case or the explanation of the causes. The third step is to make reparation, or tell why you cannot make it. The fourth step is to ask for a continuance of the business. The letter on Page 69 shows how this idea is carried out in complete detail. The Use of Connection to Secure Smoothness 454a. The mind likes to get on, to make progress. It likes to move easily, swiftly, smoothly from sentence to sen- tence, from paragraph to paragraph right through the whole composition until it has come to the end. Hence, a visible connection between paragraphs is an aid in showing the rela- tion between their statements. This visible connection may be shown in these ways : USE OF CONNECTION TO SECURE SMOOTHNESS 179 454b. By parallel construction, i. e., several paragraphs may begin with the same sentence construction. If a man should call on you and tell you that he could solve all of your office problems that he would guarantee to develop a higher degree of efficiency show you a better system of handling detail If he told you that he had many years of experience in the management of large office organizations that he was now an officer in a large business training institute, and was also a lecturer on office organization in one of the largest universities ****** 4S4c. By having the second or third paragraph, for ex- ample, develop the points made in the preceding paragraph. Dear Sir: In accordance with your request of January 25, I am submitting a summary of the estimated economies you will make in insurance and labor by taking space in one of our model loft buildings and giving up your present New York warehouses. Mr. Slade has carefully investigated the rates of insurance in your present warehouses and has compared them with the existing rate of insurance in our building. This saving, he has estimated, at a rate of nc in our building as against rates from 42c to 58c in your present warehouses. This saving is approximately $6,000. In estimating the saving that you can make in labor cost, Mr. Wolf, without allowing for added efficiency of labor and possible economy in emergency help, has figured that if the entire business is transferred to Brooklyn five porters at $13 a week can be saved. This amounts to a saving per annum of $3,380 ****** 180 THE COMPOSITION AS A WHOLE 454d. By having each paragraph depend directly upon the preceding paragraph and carry its thought a step further. Dear Sir: Looking over our records a few days ago, I noticed that you haven't been so good a customer of ours in the past twelve months as you used to be, and the more I looked at that record the more I wondered what we had done that caused you practically to stop trading with us. Finally I decided to drop you a line and ask you whether you are willing to tell me, personally, frankly, just what the trouble has been, and whether there is anything we haven't done that we should have done, and whether there is any- thing we can do NOW to get you back on our list of regular customers ; if we can we surely want to do it. ******* 455. Even between the paragraphs the use of certain methods of specific connection helps to secure coherence. Among the more important methods are: the use of con- nectives, of repetition, of transitional sentences, of transi- tional paragraphs. 456. Connectives are connecting words that show the relation of one paragraph to the preceding paragraph, and thus aid the reader in getting the thought. This method is very useful in argumentative and explanatory work, for the connecting words act as sign-posts to point out the intricate way and to show the exact relation that exists between the paragraphs. These connecting words are of various kinds. Sometimes a numeral expression makes a good transition, as first, second, third, and so on. This, of course, is a rather formal method, but sometimes you want to show the reader that you are trying to make certain definite points. Next, USE OF CONNECTION TO SECURE SMOOTHNESS 181 we have such connectives as therefore, hence, accordingly, as a result, and so on. Then there are the demonstratives, such as this, that, those, these, and the pronouns he, it, they, and so on, which refer to the preceding paragraph and thereby connect the two paragraphs. The judicious and profitable investment of money is es- sentially a banker's business; the selection of investments in which safety of interest and principal is assured, requires experience and special knowledge. It is, therefore, of the greatest wisdom for the person having idle money to invest, to obtain investments through a sound, well-managed bank which makes a business of handling millions of dollars and has facilities for se- curing complete, accurate information regarding investments offered 457. Sometimes the best transition from paragraph to paragraph is brought about by repetition; that is, the first sentence of the new paragraph echoes or repeats a thought in the preceding paragraph. May we inquire whether you have given any consideration to our recent requests to consult you regarding the interior decorating contemplated for your new residence? As interior decorating is our specialty, we are prepared to supply what is required to make a home attractive 458. In many cases, in order that the reader may see that we are changing our point of view, it is wise to note this change of point of view in the opening sentence of the new paragraph. This type of sentence is called the transi- tional sentence. In a similar way the banker in enlisting aid for his railway sets the imaginations of his listeners at work upon a con- 182 THE COMPOSITION AS A WHOLE trast between the monotonous present and the brilliant future of their town. When your listener is self-satisfied, talk his disadvantages, weaken his discontent, play upon his need. Now, let us take this from another angle. A man may feel a need yet have both well-grounded objections against your way of supplying it, and false objections or prejudices 459. The topic sentence may be used. (A topic sen- tence is a sentence that contains the idea of the paragraph.) The topic sentence is to the paragraph as a title is to a story. Example: Advertising, we are told, is a game. So it is. Many people, however, play it as if it were a game of chance, like dice; or luck and bluff, like poker. They seem to think that if they make one wrong guess, they have just as good a chance on the next deal. Far from it. The game of advertising is more like chess. It de- pends on skill and science and one false move often does more damage than a dozen good ones can repair. Note: In dictation, especially, is the topic sentence of great assistance. The dictator should know, before he starts to dictate, the distinct topics that he is going to put into the letter. With these topics well arranged in his mind, he should begin by dictating a short sentence which contains the idea. He should then develop the idea into a paragraph. He next dictates his second topic put into the form of a short sentence to begin his second paragraph; he develops this topic as much as he desires, and then goes on with his third paragraph. The results of this method are: the reader upon reading the first sentence of the paragraph learns in the very first few words of what the writer is writing; the dictator's work is made easier; and a more logical presentation of the ideas is secured. USE OF CONNECTION TO SECURE SMOOTHNESS 183 460. Still another way of securing better connection throughout the composition is by the use of transitional paragraphs. A transitional paragraph is a paragraph that is used as a sort of bridge between two important and unre- lated ideas, and that serves to prepare the reader for the new idea that is coming. The quality of this typewriting machine is the same as that of the standard typewriting machine and I need not go into further detail in regard to its construction, its easy running properties, and its durability. Since I have discussed the matter of the quality of the machine, I should also take up the matter of price, because you want to know not so much about the quality of the machine, but whether or not you are getting value for your money. The price of the machine is $60. This, as you will note, is $40 less than the price of the standard machine. If you will 461. Fast, smooth reading is especially desirable in a sales letter and in advertising copy so that the attention of the reader may be held. The demands of space and of fast reading in sales letters and in advertising copy cause to be used in this case a connotative coherence ; i. e., a coherence secured by the logical presentation of the thought assisted but little by the use of expressed connecting phrases or words. Armour & Company are the biggest in their line. They deserve this position because they know how to do business. I learned a lot from them. I was in sole charge of their business in my part of the country. I employed all the men. My force included 40 managers and salesmen. 184 THE COMPOSITION AS A WHOLE Business grew in my territory so did my salary. All conceivable plans were followed to boom business on Star Hams, Simon Pure Lard, Armour's Soaps, Extract of Beef, Veribest Canned Meats, Mince Meat, etc. I issued weekly bulletins, salesmen's papers, ginger talks, held conventions, and met bodies of salesmen ail over the country. I ran direct to trade campaigns to all the retail dealers strong business-bringing stuff. 462. Another example that shows how speed can be given to a message by the using of a connotative coherence is given below. In this case, although a Postal Telegraph blank was used, this was no telegram, for it was enclosed in an envelope and sent through the mail. ALEXANDER HAMILTON INSTITUTE 65 ASTOR PLACE, N. Y. FACTS ELECTRICAL EXPERIMENTER ALMOST 3 YEARS OLD THIS IS FIRST ISSUE WE ACCEPT ADS REASON DIDN'T THINK IT WOULD PAY YOU BEFORE WE HAD 20,000 CIRCULATION GOT THAT MUCH NOW ON ALL NEWSSTANDS HIGH CLASS CIRCULATION ALL READERS HAVE HOBBY ALL SPEND MONEY YOU WANT SOME OF THEIR KALE ADVERTISING RATES? SURE JUST DROP POSTAL RUSH GOING TO PRESS loTH HAND SHAKE 233 FULTON ST ELECTRICAL EXPERIMENTER N Y 8.39 P M 463. So far coherence has been discussed as a matter of externals of mechanical arrangement and connection but that discussion did not apparently cover the whole matter of USE OF CONNECTION TO SECURE SMOOTHNESS 185 coherence. Can there be an internal coherence? By in- ternal coherence is meant a constant forward movement through the reading matter caused by an aroused interest in the mind. No matter how logically arranged are the ideas in an advertisement, no matter how well connected they are, yet there may be no forward movement through the text. The average mind may have no active desire to move through, and, if the mind does not move through, there is no coherence. On the other hand, even though the ideas were illogically arranged, even though they were not joined by connectives, yet there might be a forward movement of the mind through the text, if the ideas were interesting to the mind. 464. In sales letters and in advertising copy, paragraphs are like so many ties in a trestle crossing a river. The reader must step over the gaps between the ties. We ordinarily help him over these gaps by means of a transition, but this ordinary way will not always do. The reader of sales letters and advertising copy will not step over the gaps unless he is impelled onward by an interest already aroused, or unless he is drawn on by an interest in the paragraph ahead. This is a matter of active coherence a coherence which is present because of the interest in the mind of the reader. Active coherence might therefore be defined as the quality which influences the reader to read from the first sentence, right through the entire composition without a break. This is a vital principle, for the success of most sales letters and advertisements is based on it. 465. In a sales letter and in advertising copy it would, therefore, be necessary to have the opening paragraph of 186 THE COMPOSITION AS A WHOLE interest to the reader. Once we have secured this interest, we should see that it is held throughout the reading of the whole composition. The reader will continue to read so long as his interest remains unabated. 466. We can draw the reader on by putting at the beginning of each new paragraph something of interest. At the end of one paragraph he glances across the space to the first sentence of the next paragraph. If he sees that there is something interesting at the beginning of the next para- graph, he will step across to read. Emphasis 467. The third principle of construction is the principle of emphasis a principle primarily of arrangement. The usual purpose is to make certain points stand out of the general mass and impress the reader. Another purpose of emphasis is to use to best advantage the important places in a letter or advertisement. 468. The principle of emphasis is not so commonly used as the other two principles of construction. For emphasis is applied only when the writer desires to lay stress on cer- tain ideas that are important. The writer has little need for the principle of emphasis in the writing of an ordinary routine letter say a perfunctory acknowledgment of the payment of a bill, or an ordinary order letter. Emphasis is, however, of great importance in advertisements and sales letters, for these types of Business English meet strong competition, and, if they are to serve their purpose, must be strongly and emphatically written or as advertising writers have it, they must have punch. USE OF POSITION TO SECURE EMPHASIS 187 469. In most business letters, pamphlets, advertisements, and so on, certain facts and ideas are of more importance than others. In order that these facts and ideas may not be overlooked by the reader, in order that they may be forced into the reader's attention, and in order that the main point may be more forcibly impressed, various methods are used. The most common of the methods used to secure the desired emphasis are by position and proportion. The Use of Position to Secure Emphasis 470. The first of the two methods of securing emphasis is by position; that is, by placing the important ideas in the important places, or by the careful utilization of the im- portant positions of a letter or advertisement. It is a well- known fact that the impressiveness of a written story or an oral presentation depends for a large measure on the introduction and conclusion the beginning and ending. Just as true, but not so widely known, is the fact that the impressiveness of a letter or advertisement depends on the beginning and ending. 471. The two most important places in a letter deserve the most important ideas. The beginning is an important place because it makes the first impression on the reader, and the first impression determines the attitude or frame of mind of the reader. The ending is important because it is read last, and hence, other things being equal, will remain longest in the mind of the reader. 472. That the beginning and ending of the letter should be regarded as of greatest value and should contain ideas of importance or interest seems obvious. Yet the great bulk 188 THE COMPOSITION AS A WHOLE of letters begin with some such expression as " Yours of the 1 5th instant received and contents noted." Of course, the letter has been received and noted or the reply would not have been written. These same letters are likely to end with the weak, sliding off, participial ending "Hoping and trusting to receive an early and favorably reply, we beg to remain." To take up the most important places of a letter with these common and useless expressions is a waste of opportunity and of valuable space. How to Begin the Letter 473. The beginning of a letter should accomplish an important part of the purpose of the letter. Just what it should accomplish depends on the kind of letter that is being written. 474. The best method of presenting ideas in business letters is to start with the reader's point of view. The idea that is of importance to the reader, that fits in well with his viewpoint, should therefore be put at the beginning. The idea that is of importance to the writer should be kept until the end. 475. Take for an example the answering of a complaint. The first and natural thought of the writer is to give his excuses, but those are not of prime interest to the reader. The writer should take the complainant's viewpoint and try to get him in a suitable state of mind to listen to the writer's side of the complaint. This is done by starting off with a conciliatory paragraph which tells the reader that his complaint will be satisfactorily adjusted. That is what HOW TO BEGIN A LETTER 189 he wants to know. An example of a good beginning is as follows : Dear Madam: Thank you for your candid letter of Jan. 19 in which you call our attention to the fact that the shirtwaist you pur- chased on Jan. 14 does not come up to the usual high standard of goods handled by our store. You can rest assured that everything will be satisfactorily arranged Such a beginning is good because it takes the reader's view- point, tells an important idea right at the start, and helps accomplish the purpose of the letter by getting the reader into the right attitude of mind. 476. A general rule to follow in most cases (sales letters are a notable exception) is to show the purpose of your letter at the beginning. If this is done, the reader will know from the start what the letter is about. 477. It is always best to acknowledge in the first sen- tence the receipt of the letter to which you are replying, for such identification helps the reader to understand at once what you are writing about. 478. The preceding statement does not mean, however, that the first sentence should be taken up wholly with the remark "Yours of the 29th ult. just to hand and contents noted." Such preliminary remarks absorb part of the reader's attention, kill interest, and accomplish nothing. A good way is to begin the letter with an idea that is of im- portance to the reader, into which the acknowledgment is woven in an unobtrusive way. The following beginnings are characteristic of good letters: 390 THE COMPOSITION AS A WHOLE We are unable to give you the information you ask for in your letter of May 15 concerning the financial standing of John F. Andrews, who '. The catalogue you sent for on August 27 has been mailed Your order of October 10, we are sorry to say, has been delayed in shipment, but Thank you for your letter of April 14 in which you call our attention to the mistake made on our last invoice, our number 54643 479. There are several other ways of acknowledging a letter. One of these is by placing the acknowledgment in the center of the letter above the inside address. This acknowledgment will read: "Replying to your letter of October 14." "In reply to your letter of October 14." "In re your letter of October 14." "Answering Mr. Brown's letter of October 14." Still another way is by placing the kind of acknowledgment shown above in the center of the letter just below the salu- tation. These various ways are neither so commonly used nor so good as weaving the acknowledgment into some im- portant idea and placing it in the first sentence. After a little practice the letter writer will grow accustomed to opening his letter with a sentence that expresses an im- portant idea, uses a tone that helps to achieve the purpose of the letter, and at the same time contains the acknowledg- ment in a manner that, because it is unhackneyed, impresses the reader favorably. 480. The beginning of a sales letter or advertisement HOW TO END THE LETTER 191 must be such as to grip the reader's attention. The words and ideas presented in the first line are important, for they determine in many cases whether or not the letter will be read. How to End the Letter 481. A very important place or position is the ending. But like the beginning of the letter, the ending is often given over to the expression of an unimportant idea or to the weak expression of an important idea. 482. In many cases the writer throws away an oppor- tunity to end his letter with a sentence that will drive home the idea the reader should get by filling the valuable space at the end with a hackneyed, sliding-off, participial ending, such as "Hoping that you will find this arrangement satis- factory and trusting that we may hear from you soon, we beg to remain." 483. Many writers, after they have finished what they have had to say, tack on a participial ending, which leads into "We beg to remain." They do this because they are afraid that otherwise the close of the letter might seem abrupt. An abrupt ending is often undesirable, but it can easily be avoided without the use of the weak, participial ending. 484. If the idea is important it should be expressed in a strong way in the form of a definite statement and not in the form of a participial construction one of the weakest forms of construction of the English language. If the idea is unimportant, it should be left out, or, at least should not occupy one of the most important places in the letter. 192 THE COMPOSITION AS A WHOLE It is better, therefore, to make a definite statement, and write "We sincerely hope that you will find this arrange- ment satisfactory;" then put in a complimentary close, as "Yours very truly." That ending is not abrupt. The Use of Proportion to Secure Emphasis 485. The securing of emphasis by the use of proportion means that the important ideas should be given as much space as is needed to treat them with sufficient detail. This result cannot be accomplished if too much room is taken up with details of the unimportant ideas. The writer should first find out the amount of space he has at his disposal ; next, he should judge the relative importance of the ideas he intends to put into this space; and then he should give to the important ideas as much space as they require before he puts in the unimportant ideas. Proportion is a matter of judgment. The Use of Climax to Secure Emphasis 486. The climax can be used to secure emphasis. The climax is a series of thoughts or statements which gradually increase in importance. It is secured by arranging ideas in the order of their importance with the most important last. In true climax, a weaker or less important thought never fol- lows a stronger one. Although commonly used in sentences and paragraphs, it is seldom used in a whole composition unless the whole composition happens to be an advertisement or letter that consists of a paragraph or a sentence. Of this an example follows: USE OF PAUSE TO SECURE EMPHASIS 193 By thinking of Gold Medal Flour And reading of Gold Medal Flour And hearing of Gold Medal Flour You will EVENTUALLY come to having Gold Medal Flour With much satisfaction and economy to yourself. WHY NOT NOW? For its absolute correctness of construction, for the per- fect control and noiselessness of its power, for its inspiring dignity of appearance, and for studied attention to every smallest detail that provides complete comfort and relaxa- tion, the White Berline stands unequalled. 487. It is a part of human nature to put one's best argu- ment first so that a deep impression may be made on the reader. This instinct invariably leads the writer into an anti-climax, for if he places his strongest argument first, his other arguments which follow must of necessity be weaker. So it is that the writer must exercise not only judgment in selecting his most important ideas but also self-restraint in the matter of placing them. 488. If an advertisement or letter contains several argu- ments, the strongest argument should not come first, for the reader in reading through the composition will feel that it is getting weaker and weaker. The Use of Pause to Secure Emphasis 489. Speakers commonly use the pause to secure em- phasis; that is, just before they are to present an important point, they pause. This pause serves several purposes. It l&i THE COMPOSITION AS A WHOLE allows the listener time to assimilate that which he has just heard and to catch up with the speaker. The whole amount of the attention of the listener is then ready to be given to the idea that is to be presented next. The pause, moreover, announces that an idea of importance is to follow. 490. The pause may be used to good effect in advertise- ments and in sales letters to secure a stress or an emphasis. A dash placed before the word to be stressed will give the desired effect. "We have been lacking something that we needed most efficiency." "For the best cleanser, for an aid to a clear complexion, for something that is more than mere soap, there is only one thing PALM OLIVE." 491. The pause can be secured in another way by the paragraphing of a single word or phrase, for the white space serves the same purpose here as the element of time does to the speaker. The mind of the reader catches up with the eye, for it has been given time to assimilate that which has just been read. It is then not only ready to attack the next idea, but is also informed that an idea of importance is to follow. Emphasis Secured by Mechanical Means 492a. Emphasis on a certain word, phrase, and even a clause can be secured by certain mechanical devices. Some of these can be used in the typewritten letter; all of them can be used in printed matter. EMPHASIS SECURED BY MECHANICAL MEANS 195 492b. Emphasis can be secured by the use of capitals or bold face type. Example: We will let YOU be 4he judge. 492c. Emphasis can be secured by the use of italics. Example : But you must send in your order before to-night. 492 d. Emphasis can be secured by spacing a word. Example : Sapolio uses 'up s-1-o-w-l-y. 492e. Emphasis can be secured by underlining. Example Take advantage of this offer now ! 492f. Emphasis can be secured in the entire clause by spacing the words. Example : This agency is yours if you will act now ! 492g. Emphasis can be secured by the use of a dash before the word to be stressed. Example: The one thing that you need most in your office is efficiency. , 492h. Emphasis can be secured by the use of color on a typewriter that uses a two-color ribbon ; an important word can be typed in red. 4921. Emphasis can be secured by a combination of the various points given above. Note: A word of caution should be given in legard to the use of mechanical emphasis. The end of emphasis is defeated if these devices are used too often: they attract special attention and secure emphasis only because they are seldom used. [If a letter is written entirely in capitals with the exception of one or two words which are in lower case type, these words would stand out and become emphatic because they are different in make-up from the other words. 196 THE COMPOSITION AS A WHOLE If the letter or advertisement shouts all the time, the im- portant word or words will be unable to make themselves heard above the unimportant. Hence emphasis should be carefully and sparingly used.] HOW TO DICTATE ANSWERS TO LETTERS 493. The following hints are of aid in learning how to dictate answers to letters: 1. Read the letter very carefully and understand what the ^ writer says or tries to say. 2. As you read the letter pick out the subjects or ques- tions which are to be answered, and to these add questions or doubts which should be settled to make the answer to the letter complete. These questions may be numbered as you go along. 3. Gather the facts with which you are to answer the letter. Arrange them in the most logical order. 4. If there is a problem of business policy involved, de- termine on your attitude before you start to dictate. 5. Decide what action, if any, you wish to have the reader take, and make your message work toward that end. 6. Consider carefully the kind of man the reader is and adapt yourself to him in language, mood, and character. If you find that you are unable to put yourself in the right mood and attitude, it is better to postpone the dictation. It is most important that the tone of your letter be suitable. 7. Dictate slowly and speak distinctly. By doing so you will be able to think accurately as you dictate and you will also be helping the transcriber. 8. Concentrate your thoughts upon the ideas that you are trying to express and impress through the letter upon the reader. Continually keep the reader in mind and talk as though he sat facing you. INDEX (Numbers refer to pages) A, an correct use of, 90 omission of, 50 Abbreviation, not used in complimentary close, 166 Accept, use of, 90 Acknowledgment, methods of, 190 Action, secured by paragraph- ing, 62, 64 Adaptation essential of business style, 7 in character, 5 in language, 5 in mood, 5 to the reader, 4 Address in letters, 157-159 on envelope, 170 titles in, 157-159 Adjectives correct use of, 31 position of, 44 Adjustment (see "Adapta- tion"), 6 Adverbs correct use of, 31 position of, 45 Advertisements coherence in, 72, 73 paragraphing, 63 tone in, 120 Advise, used to excess, 90 Affect, meaning of, 90 After this, after that, frequent use at beginning of sen- tence, 124 Aggravate, for annoy, vex, 91 All, after than, 38 All ready, for already, 91 Almost, for most, 91 Alternative, for choice, 91 Am, (are), incorrect use, 18, 20 Ambiguity defined, 8 in elliptical clause, 23 in pronouns, 25 Among, different from be- tween, 91 Amount, for number, 91 And illogical, 51 too frequent use, 42 Antecedent, of pronouns, 24, 25 Any, after than, 38 Any one, with singular verb, 22 Any place, for anywhere, 92 197 198 INDEX (Numbers refer to pages) Apostrophe, rules for, 147 Appositive, case of, 27 Appreciate, correct use of, 92 Apt, confused with liable and likely, 92 Are, (am), incorrectly used, 18, 20 Arrangement of sentence, 47 Articles, omission of, 50 As confused with that, 92 distinct from so, 92 instead of like, 92 As well as, introductory phrase, 20 At, omit before about, 92 Awful, careless use of, 93 B Badly, for very much, 95 Balance display of letters, 163 Balance, distinct from rest and remainder, 93 Balanced sentences, 40, 41 Bank on, avoid use of, 93 Beginning of letter, 188-190 Besides, distinct from beside, 93 Best, misuse of, 93 Between, used for among, 91 Borrow, used for lend, 94 Bound, for determine, 94 Brackets, rule for, 146 Bring, for carry, fetch, and take, 94 Business English defined, I differs from literary Eng- lish, 2 processes of, I qualities of, 7-16 style, 17 Business reports (See "Re- ports") But contrasting, 75 illogical, 51 in sense of only, 37 repeated, 52 with negative, 37 too frequent, 42 But that, instead of but what, 94 C Can, misused for may, 94 Cannot but, for can but, 94 Can't seem, vulgar, 95 Capacity, for ability, 95 Capitalization, rules for, 148, 149 Case genitive, 28-30 how determined, 26 possessive, 28-30 Certificate of accountant's re- port, 135 Character, 7 defined, 16 essential, in business letters, 16 secured by, 16 INDEX 199 (Numbers refer to pages) Chronological order, 76 Clause at end of sentence, 58 conditional, 36 dependent, 32-34 elliptical, 23 introduced by when or where, 37 modifying, 49 - place of, 147 principal, 53 series of, 53 unrelated, 44 (See also "Related clauses," etc.) Clearness denned, 8 in reference, 24 in report, 134 in use of pronouns, 24 test of, 10 violated by, 8 Climactic order in paragraph, 79 Climax in advertising and sales let- ters, 56 to secure emphasis, 192 Coherence between paragraphs, 178-181 defined, 177 in composition as a whole, i8 3 in paragraph, 74 in sentence, 44, 47 Collection letters, 13 Collective nouns, 21 Colloquialisms, 3 Colon, rules for, 143 Comma, rules for, 147 Comma "Fault," 44 Comments, in accountant's re- port, 135 Comparative degree, with two objects, 21, 38, 51 Comparison expression of, 49 incomplete, 51 Complaint, letter as answer, 13, 68, 69 Complement, case of, 27 Complimentary close capitalization of, 166 forms used in business let- ters, 165 forms used in official letters, 165 position, 163 Composition, processes of, i, 2 Compound sentence, 42 Conciseness defined, 12, 13 faults of, 13 how obtained, 13 Conclusion, in a report, 132 Conditional clauses, 36 Conjunctions coordinate and subordinate, 50, 51 than and as, 28 200 INDEX (Numbers refer to pages) Connectives ( See separate words), proper use of, 74 Continual, for continuous, 95 Contractions, 3 Conversation, how para- graphed, 70 Coordinate clauses, 52 Correctness defined, 13, 14 determined by, 14, 15 of execution, defined, 16 value of, 14 value to business man, 15 Correlative, 45 Correspondence (See "Letter") Correspondents, manual for, H5, n6 Couldn't seem, vulgar, 95 Council, for counsel, 95 Courtesy, 7 defined, 10 illustrated, n violations of, 12 Curtness defined, n illustrated, n when to avoid, 12 Custom, for habit, 95 D Dash, rules for, 144 Date, of letters, correct form, 155 Deal, vulgar use of, 95 Deductive order in paragraph, 78 Definite, for definitive, 96 Degree, comparative, use of, 21 Demean, correct use of, 96 Demonstratives, as connectives, 75 Dependent clause, tense in, 32 Descriptive order, 76 Desire, how expressed, 35 Determination, how expressed, 34, 35 Dictation, method of, 196 Diction, 82-87 elements of, 82 in Business English, 3 in business, 82 principles of, 82 superfluous words, 86, 87 test of good, 82, 83 Differ from, for differ with, 96 Different than, for different from, 96 Disagree, with and from, 96 Display and balance of letters, 162, 165 Distinctiveness, in style, 16 Don't, used in singular, 96 Due to, correct use of, 96 Each, every, with singular verb, 22 Each other, used for one an- other, 97 INDEX 201 (Numbers refer to pages) Economy, in style, 17 Effect confused with affect, 90 (See "Affect," 97) meaning of, 90 Efficiency brought about by unity, 176 Either, neither use of, 97 with singular verb, 20 Elliptical clause, 23 Else use of, 38 with somebody, 97 Emphasis climax, 56, 57 denned, 186 how obtained, 81 how secured, 55 in paragraph, 81 in sentence, 54-58 participle, 58 preposition, 58 principle of, 54 secured by climactic order, 79 secured by climax, 192 secured by mechanical means, 194, 195 secured by pause, 193, 194 secured by position, 187 secured by proportion, 192 unusual order, 56 use of there is, etc., 57 weak beginning or ending, 188 Enclosures, indicated by, 168 Ending of a letter, 191, 192 Enormity, for enormousness, 97 Envelope, 169 address, 169 correct size, 169 neatness of, 170 personal attention, 170 Errors, in pronouns, 27 Euphony, 58, 59 difficult words, 58 pleasing words, 58 repetition, 59 similar sounds, 59 Every one, with singular verb, 22 Excellent, a superlative, 98 Except confused with accept, 90 use of, 90 Exceptional, for exceptionable, 98 Exclamation mark, rules for, 145 Expect, for suppose or suspect, 9 8 Expression versus impression, 2 Farmers, letters to, 120 Farther and further, distin- guished, 99 Faulty expressions, list of, 90 Few, for less f 99 Figures of speech, 88, 89 202 INDEX (Numbers refer to pages) Find, for locate, 99 Fine, careless use of, 99 For, repeated, 52 Form paragraphs, 71, 72 Former, use of, 25 Former, and /after, 99 Forms of business communi- cation, 2 Fundamentals in Business Eng- lish, 7 Genitive case, when used, 28 Gerund, introducing sentence, 23 Got, misused, 99 Gotten, obsolete, 99 . Grammar constructions to be avoided, 19 of Business English, 18 usage better than rules, 18, 19 Grammatical agreement, 19 (See "Agreement") Guess, for think, etc., 100 H Hackneyed expressions, 84, 85 Had, with ought, 100 Hanged, for hung, 100 Hardly, in sense of only, 37 Have got (See "Got") 99 Headings, of letters, 153, 154 Healthy, for healthful or whole- some, 100 Hence, as connective, 74, 78 Herd's principle, 56 However, too frequent, 124 Hyphens, rules for, 148 I Idioms origin, 18 //, introducing clauses, 36 Imperfect tense (of shall and will), 36 Implies, for infers, 100 Impression effect of, 14 how created, 2 versus expression, 2 In and into, distinguished, 101 In addition to, introductory phrase, 20 Indention of paragraphs, 165 Indirect discourse pronouns in, 251 should and would in, 36 Inductive order of paragraphs, 78 Infinitive perfect, 33 split, 45 subject of, 27 with predicate substantive, 27 Inside of, to express time, 101 Intensive pronouns, 84 Internal coherence defined, 185 importance of, 185, 186 Is, usage of, IQ INDEX 208 (Numbers refer to pages) It, indefinite, 84 Its, and it's, use of, 101 K Kind, and sort, 101 Kind of, and sort of, 101 Language, in Business Eng- lish, i, 5 Latter, use of, 25 Lay and lie, 101 Led and lead, 102 Letter body of, 162, 165 complimentary close, 165 date, 155 enclosures, 168 envelope, 169 formal official, 171 functions of, 6*8 headings, 153, *54 informal official, 172 inside address, 157, 159 mechanical make-up, 150-170 method of folding, 168 outward appearance of, 151 paper, 151 personal attention, 169 point of view, 43 postscript, 167 prevision in writing, 66, 67 salutation, 161, 162 sentence structure in, 39 signature, 166, 167 standardized form, 150 tone of, 115, n6, 120, 121 Letterheads abbreviations, 154 examples of, 153 printed, 152 written, 154, 155 Liable, (See "Apt"), 92 Like " use of, 92 used for as, 92 Likely, (See "Apt"), 92 Line, uses of, 103 Loose sentence, 40 Lose, for loose, 103 Lot, defined, 103 M Mechanical make-up comprised of, 14 discussed in detail, 150-172 Mechanical means to secure emphasis, 194, 195 Might of, (See "Of"), 104 Miscellaneous faulty expres- sions, 90-114 Miss, as title, 104 Modifiers clause, 49 participial, 22 position, 44, 45 phrase, 49 sentence as, 74 Monotony, 122 204 INDEX (Numbers refer to pages) Most, (See "Almost"), 91 Must, tense of, 33, (See "Of"), 104 N Nearly, for near, 104 Need, tense of, 33 Negative double, 37 with hardly, scarcely, etc., 37, 38 Nevertheless as connective, 75 in contrast, 75 Nominative case with predicate substantive, 27 Nor, with singular subject, 20 Number, in place of amount, 91 O Object of verb or preposition, 27 Objective case subject of infinitive, 27 with predicate substantive, 27 Obscurity defined, 9 how avoided, 9 how caused, 9 illustrated, g in use of tense, 32 Of, with could, might, etc., 104 O^ o/, misused, 104 Official letters defined, 171 formal type, 171, 172 informal type, 172 stationery for, 171 Omissions of articles, 50 of completeness, 49 of conjunctions, 50 of part of comparison, 51 of prepositions, 50 of the subject, 50 of verbs, 47 One, not a one, 104 Ones, with article, 104 Only, rule for, 104 Or illogical, 51 ,with singular subject, 20 Order of paragraphs, 76-79 chronological, 76 climactic, 79 deductive, 77 descriptive, 76 inductive, 78 narrative, 76 Other, use of, 38 Ought, tense of, 33 (See "Had") Outline of reports (See "Re- port") common faults, 125 essentials, 125 example, 126, 127 five steps, 126 proposition, 125 INDEX 205 (Numbers refer to pages) Paper, quality for letters, 151 Paragraphs amplifying, 79 argumentative, 77 climactic order, 79 coherence between, 178-183 coherence in, 72-80 deductive order, 78 emphasis in, 81 expository, 77 form, 71 indention of, 165 inductive order, 78 length, 62 order in, 76-78 purpose, 61 space between, 165 topic sentence, 80 transitional, 80 unity, 66-71 Parallelism, 54, 179 Parentheses, rule for, 145 Parenthetical expression, 47 phrase, 20 Participial ending, 14 Participle as modifier, 22 in absolute construction, 22 Party, defined, 105 Pause, to secure emphasis, 193, 194 Per cent., and percentage, 105 Perfect tense, 32, 33 j Period, rules for, 147 Periodic sentence, 40 Personal pronoun, too frequent use, 124 Phrases, series of, 53 Plenty, 'as adverb, 105 Possessives, 28 adjective, 30 double, 29 equivalent of, 29 how formed, 28, 29 of nouns in apposition, 29 use of, 30 Position, emphatic, 55, 80 Posted, for informed, 106 Postscript, in business letters, 167 Practical, for practicable, 106 Predicate noun, case of, 27, 46 Predicate substantive with infinitive, 27 with nominative case, 27 Prefer, with to, above, etc., 106 Prepositions at end of sentence, 58 correct use of, 88 object of, 27 omission of, 5> 5 1 Present time, 33 Presentation of accountant's report, 135 Pretentious expressions, 85 Principal, and principle, 106 Principal verb, tense of, 32 206 INDEX (Numbers refer to pages) Profit, aim of Business English, I Pronouns antecedent of, 24 clearness in, 24 errors in, 26 in indirect discourse, 25 intensive, 84 relative, 26 Proportion to secure emphasis, 192 Proposition, for task, etc., 107 Proven, for proved, 107 Provided, and providing, 107 Psychology of Business English, 2 of letter writing, 2 Punctuation, rules of, 146, 148 Q Quantity, for number, 107 Question mark, rule for, 141 Quite a few, misuse of, 107 Quite a little, misuse of, 107 Quotation marks, rule for, 146, 147 R Rarely ever, for hardly ever, 107 Real, for very, 108 Reason is, the, incorrect, 108 Recommendations, in report, 130, 131 Redundancy, 87 Relative clauses, 46 connectives of, 51 Relative pronouns, 26 Repetition, in paragraph, 181 Reports arrangement, 129 business, 125-135 certificate, 135 clearness, 134 comments, 135 conclusion, 132 consists of, 135 defined, 128 essentials of, 125 kinds, 129 mechanical arrangement, 164 outline of sales report, 126, 127 presentation, 135 purpose, 128 the five steps, 126 two parties to, 128 Revision after dictation, 59, 60 Right away, right off, not good usage, 108 Sales letters coherence in, 72, 73 functions of, 69, 70 paragraphing, 63 sentences in, 39 to ladies, 117, 119 tone of, 117, 119 Sales report, outline, 126, 127 INDEX (Numbers refer to pages) 207 Salutation abbreviation in, 162 correct form, 161, 162 how written, 161 in formal official letters, . I7 . 2 in informal official letters, 172 in letters, 161, 162 Same, misuse of, 108 Scarcely, in sense of only, 37 Scarcely, with negative, 37 Seem, in can't seem, 95 Seldom or ever, for seldom if ever, 109 Sentences coherence in, 44-47 compound, 42 coordination or subordina- tion, 51-53 emphasis, 54-58 euphony, 58 ill-connected, 46 kinds, 40 length, 39 logically related, 74 long, 42, 43 omissions, 47-51 parallelism, 54 revision of, 59 structure of, 39-60 topic, 80 unity, 41, 43 Shall and will, correct use of, 34, 36 Should, 33, 36 Should of, 104 Show up, vulgar, 86 Signature illegibility of, 166 in letters, 166 of women, 167 position of, 166 use of titles, 166 Sit or set, 109 Size, as adjective, no Size up, vulgar, no Slang, 3 Smoothness, how secured, 178 So, frequent use of, 129 Some, for somewhat, no Somebody, with singular verb, 22 Someone, with singular verb, 22 Some place, for somewhere, no Sort of, (See "Kind of"), 101 Split infinitive, 45 Stationery correct form, 169 for official letters, 171 Stock phrases, disadvantages of, i Stop, for stay, no Style distinctive, 16 in Business English, 17 qualities of, 17 208 INDEX (Numbers refer to pages) Subj ect agreement with verb, 20 of infinitive, 27 of is or was, 37 omission of, 50 person of, 35 Subordinate clause, 53 Subordinate conjunction, 50 Such, misuse of, no Superlative degree, use of, 21 Take, misuse of, in Tautology, 87 Tense conditional clauses, 36 errors in, 32 in indirect discourse, 36 obscurity in, 32 of shall and will, 34-36 of verbs in dependent clauses, 34 of unchangeable facts, 33 result of attraction, 33 (See also names of tenses), 32-36 Than, conjunction for when, 30, in and as, 28 That as adverb, in instead of as, 92 (See "Who"), 113 The, omission of, 50 Then, as conjunction, 52 Therefore as connective, 34, 74 for therefor, in too frequent use, 124 There is, there are errors in use of, 57 too frequent, 124 These here, (See "This here"), 112 These kind, these sort, (See "Kind"), 101 They, indefinite, 25, 84 Through, for finished, etc., 112 Till and until, 112 Titles, correct form in letters, 157-159 To and too, 112 Together with, introductory phrase, 20 Tone, 115, 122 adapted to reader, 117 faulty example, 119 how secured, 114 in advertisement, 120 in letters, 120 uniformity of, 120 value of, 116 Topic sentence, 182 Transitional paragraph, 80 Transitional sentence, 181 Transpire, for occur, 112 Typists' manual of instruction, 150 INDEX 209 (Numbers refer to pages) U Unity defined, 174 how secured, 174, 175 in paragraph, 66-71 in sentences, 41-44 results in efficiency, 176 test of, 177 Up, with verbs, 112 Usage as factor in Business Eng- lish, 18 denned, 15 V Vagueness, g defined, g examples, g how avoided, g how caused, g Variety, 122, 123 how imparted, 122 violation of, 123 Verb agreement with subject, ig independent clause, 34 object of, 127 omissions of, 48 principal, 32 Verbosity, 87, 135 W Was, were, after as, if, etc., 113 Way, with preposition, 113 Weakness of business letters, 4 What, for that, 113 When, introducing clauses, 37, 53 Where, introducing clauses for that, 37, H3 Whether, introducing clauses, 36 Who (whom), correct use of, 26 Who, which, and that, as rela- tives, 113 Whoever (whomever) correct use of, 18, 26, 27 use of, 114 Whose, as possessive, 114 Will, correct use of, 34-36 Willingness, how expressed, 35 With, introducing phrase, 20 Without, for unless, 114 Words avoid unspecific, 85 faulty use of, 90, 114 superfluous, 86, 87 test of good, 82, 83 unpleasant, 86 Would, 36 Write up, (See "Up"), 112 "You" attitude, 3, 10 6-' I YB 02261