M 
 
 Agriculture Litraff 
 
 Dept, 
 
HIGHLAND SHEEP AT HOME Photo by Reid 
 
 THE PRESENTATION of this photo-engraving as a frontis- 
 piece is meant to be a tribute to the talent of Mr. Chas. 
 Reid, of Wishaw, Scotland, whose work in this direction has 
 shown the degree to which animal photography may be made both 
 artistic and instructive. The sustained merit of the work which 
 he had done has pointed the way to gratifying results, and the 
 outcome has just recently made it possible to illustrate a book of 
 'his kind with all the types and qualities shown as they are, 
 through the agency of photographs made by him and such artists 
 as Schreiber of Philadelphia, Hills of Ohio, and Brown of Scot- 
 land. In addition to the clearness of detail in this reproduction 
 of some Highland sheep, note the beauty of the mountain stream 
 with the old water wheel at the side of it, the naturalness of the 
 sheep, the watchful pose of the dog, guardlike in position, with 
 the shepherds resting at the foot of the trees and all in the fore- 
 ground of the rolling hills suggested beyond. 
 
JUDGING LIVE STOCK 
 
 By JOHN A. CRAIG 
 
 FORMERLY 
 
 Editor Canadian Live Stock Journal 
 
 Professor Animal Husbandry, University of Wisconsin 
 
 Professor Animal Husbandry and Vice Director 
 
 Iowa Agricultural College 
 Dean and Director Texas Agricultural and 
 
 Mechanical College 
 Director Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station 
 
 NINETEENTH EDITION 
 
 PUBLISHEP BY THE AUTHOR 
 1913 
 
 Send Orders Direct to the Printers 
 THE KENYON PRINTING & MFG. CO, 
 
 DES MOINES, IOWA 
 
Y v 
 
 n Lib, 
 
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 c 
 
 ^COPYRIGHTED 1901 
 
 
 
 JOHN A. CRAIG 
 
 
 SET UP AND ELECTROTYPED, JANUARY 1901 
 
 REPRINTED, SECOND EDITION, MARCH, 1901 
 
 REPRINTED, THIRD EDITION, APRIL, 1901 
 
 REPRINTED, FOURTH EDITION, JANUARY 1902 
 
 REPRINTED. FIFTH EDITION, OCTOBER, 1902 
 
 REPRINTED, SIXTH EDITION, AUGUST, 1904 
 
 REPRINTED, SEVENTH EDITION, FEBRUARY 1905 
 
 REPRINTED, EIGHTH EDITION, FEBRUARY, 1906 
 
 REPRINTED, NINTH EDITION, JANUARY 1907 
 
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 REPRINTED, TWELFTH EDITION, OCTOBER, 1908 
 
 REPRINTED, {THIRTEENTH .SDITION, JUNE, 1909 
 
 REPRINTED, FOURTEENTH EDITION, DEC., 1909 
 
 REPRINTED,',- >tFT?ENTH .' EDITION, OCT., 1910 
 
 REPRINTED, SIXTEENTH EDITION,' JAN., 1911 
 
 REPRINTED, SEVENTEENTH EDITION, AUG., 1911 
 
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 PUBLISHERS 
 
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Beauty is bought by 
 judgment of the eye. 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 J N JUDGING LIVE STOCK there are two faculties which 
 seem to require .special development observation and 
 judgment. 
 
 The eye must see quickly and accurately, so that there 
 may be no mistake in the observations which are to form 
 the basis for a conclusion. While this is to a considerable 
 extent dependent on being informed on what to look for, 
 yet no amount of information will 
 supply keen powers of observation, 
 which in addition, must be kept in 
 practice by continuous use. The stu- 
 dent should never be dilatory in this, for once allow it to 
 be said that he sees a thing which he does not, the founda- 
 tion for candid criticism is being built on sand. It is better 
 to be "simpler than the infancy' of truth" and completely 
 candid with one's observations than to be in the least 
 deceptive or dilatory in recording them. 
 
 Not only should one be quick to see things as they really 
 are but there should be as much dispatch in detecting 
 deviations from the correct standard. 
 There is much difficulty in this for 
 a standard only forms itself clearly 
 in one's mind after the results of 
 experience, observation and study 
 have merged together into a clearly 
 defined ideal. To formulate an ideal is absolutely essential 
 and in doing this it is imperative to familiarize one's self 
 with the good qualities of animal life, correct conformation 
 and the highest types, so that the 
 least variation from these at once at- 
 tracts the attention. When a dis- 
 
 What, then, makes a dog 
 beautiful? The possession 
 ofrthe excellence of a dog. 
 And what makes a horse 
 beautiful? The possession 
 of the excellence of a horse. 
 What, then, makes a man 
 beautiful? Is it not the po- 
 session of the excellence of 
 a mai\?Et>ictetus. 
 
 No pessimist ever made 
 much in the study of life 
 histories of animals. The 
 student of such had better 
 be an optimist out and out. 
 Samuel Lockmood. 
 
 tinct ideal, based on the best types 
 and their highest qualities has been formed in the mind, 
 and this is supported by a discriminating eye, it is but 
 another step to render a correct judgment. 
 
 267524 
 
In judging the market classes of stock the demands of 
 
 the market should have a strong influence in the establish- 
 
 ment of standards and in the judg- 
 
 But do thou, I say, simply . . , 
 
 and fully, choose the better ing oi breeding classes the oiiicial 
 
 and hold to it. But that 
 
 which is useful is the better. SCaleS 01 points, when SUCh 6XlSt, 
 
 Antoninus. ,-,-, -,. -, -, m 
 
 should be relied upon chieily as a 
 
 guide, and when these are not officially published an effort 
 should be made to become informed regarding the under- 
 standing that exists among the breeders. While these stand- 
 ards are so wide in scope as to include many minor points, 
 yet it will be noticeable that the essential features are given 
 the greatest prominence and they are usually based on the 
 utility of the animal for its purpose. 
 This does not mean that the minor 
 features should be slighted, for the 
 
 No detail is too small to 
 be studied for truth. 
 
 degree of excellence in domestic animals is now so high and 
 the competition so keen that it is most frequently on some 
 of these minor details that their rank in the show ring is 
 determined. 
 
 In show ring judging, after the inspection is completed, 
 a draft or "short leet" is made of the likely winners of 
 place from the rest of the competitors. Up to this time 
 the judging has been the detection of faults and deviations 
 from the standard required, but now the work is more of 
 the nature of comparative judging, in which the points of 
 the animals considered worthy of 
 prizes are compared to determine 
 
 Antoninus. 
 
 their rank. It greatly aids dispatch 
 
 Reverence the faculty 
 which produces opinion. 
 
 and tends to more exactness to make such a draft when 
 there are five or more animals in the class. It also materi- 
 ally assists the examiner in keeping in mind the qualities 
 which he must compare. Carefulness at this point will do 
 much towards the formation of a decision, which may be 
 afterwards maintained with justice. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I JUDGING HORSES. 
 
 I. THE ANATOMY A BASIS OF STUDY 
 
 The Bones as Levers; Actions of the Muscles; Function 
 of the Nervous System; Temperaments. 
 
 II. JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 
 
 General Examination. Form; Propelling Power Re- 
 sides in Hindquarters; Three Classes of Light Horses; 
 The Coach or Carriage Horse; Analysis of Style; The 
 Trotter or Roadster; The Pacer as a Roadster; The 
 Saddle Horse; Quality; Durability Associated with 
 Quality; Action, The Walk; Observing Straightness 
 of the walk; Manner of Noting Levelness; The High 
 Stepper in Action; The Carriage Horse; Straight and 
 Regular Action; The Driver's Sensation of Action; 
 The Trotter; The Pacing Gait. 
 
 Structural Examination, Head; Nostrils; Eyes; Ears; 
 Jaw Bones; Neck; Shoulders; Fore Legs; Arms; 
 Elbows; Fore Arms; Knees; Cannons; Pasterns; 
 Feet; Ribs; Back; Loin; Croup; Thighs; Quarters; 
 Hind Legs; Hocks; Hind Cannons; Hind Pasterns; 
 Hind Feet; Scale of Points for Light Horses. 
 
 III. JUDGING HEAVY HORSES 35 
 
 Consideration of Condition. 
 
 General Examination. Form; Advantage of Weight; 
 Market Value of Weight; Quality with Substance Nec- 
 essary for Durability; Action; Trotting Action. 
 Structural Examination. Head; Neck; Shoulder; 
 Chest; Arm; Fore Leg; Knees; Fetlocks; Pasterns; 
 Feet; Body; Loin; Croup; Hock; Scale of Points for 
 Heavy Horses. 
 
 IV. JUDGING HORSES IX THE BREEDING CLASSES 44 
 
 Sex Characteristics; Differences in Disposition; Differ- 
 ences in Form; Variation in Features; Relation of Sex 
 Characteristics to Sterility; Relation of Sex Character- 
 istics to Prepotency; The Stallion Classes; Importance 
 of Correct Conformation; Hereditary Diseases; The 
 Mare Classes; Colts and Fillies. 
 
 V. ESTIMATING THE AGE OF HORSES BY THEIR TEETH 50 
 
 Appearance of Incisors; Order of Appearance of In- 
 cisors; Disappearance of the Tables. 
 
CONTEXTS CONTINUED. 
 
 VI. EXAMINATION FOR UNSOUNDNESS 52 
 
 A Blemish Different from Unsoundness; Decayed and 
 Worn Teeth; Discharges from the Nostrils; Defective 
 Hearing; Sweenied Shoulders; Capped Elbows; Splints; 
 Ringbones; Sidebones; Quarter Cracks and Sand 
 Cracks; Corns; Thrush and Scratches; Locating Lame- 
 ness; Thoroughpin; Curb; Bone Spavin; Bog Spavin; 
 Unsound in Wind; Detection of Stable Vices. 
 
 VII. OFFICIAL STANDARDS FOR HORSES 58 
 
 Standard for Trotting and Pacing Horses; Shetland 
 Pony Scale of Points. 
 
 CHAPTER II JUDGING CATTLE. 
 Method of Examination 63 
 
 I. JUDGING BEEF CATTLE 63 
 
 Method of Handling; Store Steer; Form of the Feeder; 
 Quality; Inferences from Good Handling; Features of 
 the Head; Neck; Chest; Ribs; Hips; Judging Fat 
 Steers; Handling; Condition; Relation of Parts; Value 
 of Cuts; Scale of Points for Beef Steer. 
 
 II. JUDGING BEEF STOCK FOR BREEDING PURPOSES 73 
 
 Judging Beef Bulls; Judging Beef Cows; Judging 
 Young Beef Stock. 
 
 III. JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 76 
 
 Dairy Cow's Function; Making of Milk; Function of 
 the Blood; Function of the Udder; Nervous System; 
 The Dairy Form; Skin; Hair; Bone; Head; Neck; 
 Hind Quarters; Hips; Thigh; Escutcheon; Udder; 
 Teats; Milk Veins; Scale of Points for Dairy Cow. 
 
 IV. JUDGING DAIRY BULLS 88 
 
 Purity of Breeding; Uniformity of Breeding; Pedigree 
 Based on Performance; Qualities Associated with 
 Individuality; Judging Calves. 
 
 V. OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR CATTLE 90 
 
 Aberdeen Angus; Devon; Red Polled; Holstein- 
 Friesian; Jersey; Guernsey; Dutch Belted; Ayrshire. 
 
 CHAPTER III JUDGING SHEEP. 
 
 Method of Examining Sheep; Deception Due to Trim- 
 ming; Estimating Age by the Teeth 107 
 
 I. JUDGING SHEEP FOR MUTTON AND WOOL 109 
 
 Feeding Type that Gives the Best Gains; Feeding Type 
 Bringing Most at Maturity; Type Desired by the Butch- 
 er; Quality; The Importance of Condition; Judging 
 Condition; Importance of Dressed Weight; Considera- 
 tion of the Consumer; Qualities of the Fleece; Examin- 
 ing the Fleece; Quantity of Fleece; Density; Length 
 
CONTEXTS CONTINUED. 
 
 of Staple; Classification of Wool; Quality of Fleece; 
 Softness; Commercial Grades; Crimp; Soundness; 
 Condition; Purity; Domestic Wool; Territory Wool; 
 Blanket Wool; Lustre; Brightness; Yolk; Scale of 
 Points for Fine Wooled Sheep; Scale of Points for Fat 
 Sheep. 
 
 II. JUDGING SHEEP FOB BREEDING PURPOSES 127 
 
 Formation of Types; Value of Breed Type; The Ram; 
 The Ewe; Judging Lambs and Flocks. 
 
 JIJ, OFFICIAL STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE FOB SHEEP 131 
 
 Southdown; Shropshire; Hampshire; Suffolk; Oxford; 
 Cotswold; Wensleydale; Dorset Horn; Cheviot; De- 
 laine, Spanish Merino; Black Top Spanish Merino ; 
 Tunis, 
 
 CHAPTER IV JUDGING SWINE. 
 
 J. JUDGING FAT HOGS , 145 
 
 Form; Quality; Head; Eyes; Ears; Jowl; Neck; 
 Shoulder; Front Legs; Chest; Sides; Back; Loin; 
 Hips; Rump; Hams; Hind Legs; Scale of Points for 
 Fat Hogs, 
 
 H, JUDGING BACON HOGS , , , , 15$S 
 
 Condition; Form; Weight; Shoulder; Side; Scale of 
 Points for Bacon Hogs. 
 
 III. JUDGING SWINE FOB BBEEDING PURPOSES 156 
 
 The Boar; The Sow. 
 
 IV. OFFICIAL STANDABD OF EXCELLENCE FOB SWINE 158 
 
 Berkshire; Poland China; Essex; Chester White; 
 Duroc Jersey; Victoria; Cheshire; Large White York- 
 shire; Middle White Yorkshire; Small White Yorkshire; 
 Suffolks; Tamworth; Thin-Rind. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 JUDGING HORSES. 
 
 To furnish reasons for many of the points that will be 
 submitted in discussing the types of horses, it becomes nec- 
 essary to consider the horse as a mechanism in which the 
 bones are levers, the muscles the source of power aud the 
 nervous system the stimulator of the muscles. 
 
 I. THE ANATOMY A BASIS OF STUDY. 
 
 1. The Bones as Levers. The three classes of levers 
 are all represented in the anatomy of the horse. The first 
 class may be fittingly illustrated by a pair of scissors ; the 
 power is applied at the holes for the fingers, the fulcrum is 
 in the center where the blades are united and the applica- 
 tion of the power is at the points. This is the strongest, 
 form of leverage and it is employed in the skeleton of the 
 horse by the parts involved in the extension of the limbs. 
 
 The lever of the second class may be said to be clearly 
 represented by a wheelbarrow. The power is applied at 
 the handle, the weight is in the center and the application 
 of the power is at the wheel. This leverage in the horse 
 enables it to sleep standing or to stand without feeling 
 much strain. It is in action in such parts as that in the 
 region of the humerus. 
 
 The leverage of the third class is represented by a pair 
 of sheep shears. The power is applied at the center, the 
 fulcrum is at one end and the application of the power is 
 at the other. This leverage is not common but it is shown 
 in the action of the lower jaw of the horse. The masseter 
 
U JUDGING HOUSES 
 
 muscles of the jaw apply their power to the center of the 
 jaw bone, the f alcrum is at the point where the under jaw 
 joins the head, while the application of the power is at the 
 teeth. 
 
 2. Action of the Muscles. In considering the leverage, 
 the attachment of the muscles arid their nature are impor- 
 tant. As the muscles consist of bundles of fibres, it is easy 
 to understand that when these fibres are long, they possess 
 more elasticity than when they are short. The long muscle 
 with long leverage, added to by length of the bones is more 
 favorable for quick action or speed, while the heavier mus- 
 cle is more favorable for draft or power. The attachment 
 of the muscles to the skeleton is also an important feature. 
 When the muscles by means of the tendons are attached to 
 prominences thus enabling them to work some distance 
 from the bones that furnish the leverage, it is easy to see 
 that the action of the muscles would be more effective. 
 Hence, in most joints there are prominences to give the 
 muscles the most favorable attachment. 
 
 In this connection it will be interesting to study the pro- 
 portions of the bones of the skeleton to find reasons for the 
 advantages which are supposed to originate with different 
 proportions. In general we look for short bones in those 
 parts where the function is simply the transmission of 
 power ; while we desire greater length in those parts where 
 the muscles, the source of power or speed, are to be found. 
 In the front leg for instance it is desirable to have the 
 distance long from the elbow to the knee, with the propor- 
 tions showing a much greater distance than from the 
 knee to the fetlock joint for the reason that the distance 
 over which the power travels should be as short as pos- 
 sible that it may be economized and but little of it lost 
 in transmission. 
 
 3. Function of the Nervous System. In studying the 
 horse as a mechanism, more than bone and muscle should 
 be included. The stimulation for action comes from the 
 nerve power or force. The nerve power is represented 
 
Ancient and modern schools in stock judging. In early times what 
 was known in regard to the judging of stock had to be garnered under 
 the environment and with the material shown in the upper illustration. 
 Modern facilities and methods are shown in the lower illustration, which 
 is. a photograph of the stock judging pavilion at the Iowa State 
 College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, with the first class to come 
 together for special instruction in stock judging. Three hundred were 
 in attendance at this school, January, 1901. 
 
111!, . 
 
 2 -' a ... ** s^ -H -s" * 
 
 "-.. 
 
THE ANATOMY A BASIS OF STUDY 7 
 
 centrally by the brain and from there it is carried to all 
 parts of the body by the spinal cord through the main 
 channel of the vertebrae, and from this it branches out 
 to stimulate many muscles. The stimulation for action must 
 come from the nerve centers and these consequently have 
 much to do with the quickness and the strength with which 
 a horse may act. It has been determined* in the races of 
 dogs and other animals showing superior speed, that the 
 nerves regulating the heart and lungs have greater power 
 than in the instance of those that are slower. Another 
 authorityt who has given this feature special study states 
 that the degree of contraction of the muscle is pro- 
 portioned to the degree of stimulation. This general 
 statement serves to sustain the position that the horse of 
 strong nervous organization has quicker and more com- 
 plete control over its muscles than the one deficient in 
 this feature. 
 
 4. Temperaments. To the nervous organization, its 
 tone and force, we can largely trace the temperaments that 
 are characteristic of horses. The horse of nervous tem- 
 perament expresses the fact by being a willing and 
 enduring worker in its sphere; while the horse of lym- 
 phatic temperament seemingly lacks zest in its labors for 
 the want of tone in its nervous system. The bilious tem- 
 perament reflects itself in a bad temper and springs chiefly 
 from the condition of the body; while the sanguine tem- 
 perament, resulting from apparently opposite conditions, 
 finds expression in a disposition that is kind and willing. 
 In this connection it should be stated that the term ner- 
 vous temperament is not used in the sense in which it is 
 commonly accepted, namely a lack of nervous control; 
 for such a condition usually results in an irritable and 
 erratic temperament which is devoid of results as ex- 
 pressed in work. 
 
 *Mills, Comparative Physiology, page 213. 
 tSmith, Physiology of Animals, page 721. 
 
8 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 
 
 II. JUDGING LIGHT HORSES. 
 
 /. General Examination. 
 
 In the general examination of horses, the form, quality 
 and action are the chief features requiring consideration. 
 This examination takes in the horse as a whole, while the 
 structural examination requires detailed criticism of each 
 part independent of others. 
 
 5. Form The Contribution of Skeleton and Muscle. 
 
 To be able to accurately estimate the form of a horse, it is 
 necessary to understand the extent to which the form is 
 due to the skeleton and how much of it depends on the 
 muscular development. 
 
 A comparison of a skeleton of a horse with a living and 
 well developed animal will show clearly that some parts 
 owe their form to the framework of bone, while other re- 
 gions are shaped wholly by the muscle. Beginning at the 
 head, it will be noticed that the form of it is determined 
 almost altogether by the bones that comprise it. The out- 
 lines of the neck, however, are just as distinctly due to the 
 muscular development of that region. The shoulder and 
 chest are outlined in form chiefly by the skeleton though 
 smoothened with muscle. The shape of the leg from the 
 knee upwards to the body is determined by muscles of 
 that region, while from the knee to the fetlock the outline 
 is due largely to the tendons that make the leg at this 
 point appear flat from the side. The common supposition 
 is that the leg appears flat from the side view because the 
 bone is flat, but the fact is the flat appearance is due to 
 the degree to which the tendons stand back from the bone. 
 
 6. Propelling Power Resides in Hind Quarters. A 
 
 study of the degree to which the skeleton and the muscular 
 development contribute to the form of a horse, brings into 
 prominence the idea that most of the power resides in the 
 hind parts. The fact that the greatest muscular develop- 
 ment is in that region would indicate this. 
 
Photo by Sehreiber. 
 
 LEADER, THE SCOTCHMAN, winner of numerous prizes at the Boston 
 and Philadelphia horse shows in the heavy harness classes. Illustrative 
 of the fullness and symmetry of form that should be a feature of the 
 carriage or coach type. 
 
 Photo from Rider and Driver. 
 
 THE DEMON and LOTHARIO showing the type desirable in a pair of 
 carriage horses. 
 
Photo by Schreiber. 
 
 HOOD'S MCGREGOR, record '2 :L'f>%, by Robert Mc-< Jregor 2 :17V t . Winner 
 of three first prizes Philadelphia Morse Show, 1SD7, in roadster classes, 
 and also first for best appointed road rig. 
 
 Photo by Lillie. 
 
 Saddle fielding, COLUMBUS, showing Spanish trot. Winner of first 
 prize high school class at Kansas City Horse Show, 1898 Owned by 
 C. T. Walker. 
 
GENERAL EXAMINATION 9 
 
 It will be noticed that the form of the loin, the shape of 
 the croup, the fullness of the thigh and quarters are due 
 in the greatest degree to the extra development of muscle 
 in these parts. The front quarter of the horse is bare of 
 muscle in comparison with the hind quarter. 
 
 Another reason for accepting this theory is the differ- 
 ence in the manner of the attachment of the fore legs to 
 the body, compared to that of the hind legs. The shoulder 
 blade is loosely attached to the trunk while the hind leg 
 connects with the body through the agency of an unusually 
 strong ball and socket joint. The shoulder blade plays 
 1 oosely, seemingly for the purpose of lessening the concus- 
 sion the leg receives from contact with the ground, while 
 the hind legs in their connection with the pelvis make a 
 joint that is the most powerful of the body. 
 
 7. Tnree Classes of Light Horses. The light horse in 
 respect to form and other characteristics may be divided 
 into three main classes : the carriage horse, the road horse 
 and the saddle horse. These may be spoken of as the most 
 common types recognized in the market, while the pure 
 bred representatives of them are to be seen in the breeds 
 of coach horses, the standard trotter and the standard 
 saddle horse. 
 
 8. The Coach or Carriage Horse. The distinguishing 
 features of the coach or carriage horse are its symmetry 
 and action. The height should be about 16 hands to make 
 a good appearance. In contrast with the roadster the 
 carriage horse is very smooth and symmetrical. The 
 smoothness should be due to plumpness of the muscle over 
 all parts. In the carriage type the head should be com- 
 paratively small and lean, the ear neat, the neck long and 
 carried gracefully, the body round and plumjp and the 
 limbs clean cut, with well formed and durable feet. Grace- 
 ful carriage and stylish action are leading qualifications. 
 
 9. Analysis of Style. When in any posture, style is a 
 very desirable attribute in any carriage horse. A critical 
 
10 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 
 
 examination of this type would indicate how far the pos- 
 session of style depends on the adjustment of the parts 
 of the framework. When a carriage or coach horse pos- 
 sesses characteristic style, there seems to be an appropri- 
 ate blending of all proportions of form. In analyzing this 
 it will be found that most of the lines have a similar direc- 
 tion, in addition to the fullness of contour already dis- 
 cussed. The line running from the poll to the nose seems 
 to be parallel to that of the shoulder, the line dividing the 
 pastern also has a similar direction, and the line of the 
 thigh in the hind quarter corresponds with the slope of the 
 hind pastern. Considering the lines that run different 
 from these it will be noticed that the one made by the arm 
 from the point of the shoulder to the elbow is very similar 
 in direction to that made by the ischium of the pelvis and 
 this again is similar to that of the lower thigh. Each part 
 of a typical carriage horse seems to bear a fixed relation 
 to every other part both in size, length and slope giving 
 the horse that symmetry which contributes so much to its 
 style and beauty while standing or in action. 
 
 10. The Trotter or Roadster. The chief characteris- 
 tics of the roadster are speed and stamina. The ability to 
 trot fast is a desirable quality and the ability to maintain 
 a rapid gait is equally essential in a horse of this kind. 
 In addition to being able to stand steady road work, such 
 a horse must be well mannered so as to be safe and 
 pleasurable to drive. 
 
 The typical roadster may be said to be about 15^2 
 hands high and about a thousand pounds in weight. In 
 conformation the horse of this class is somewhat narrow 
 in front, deep chested, wide at the loin and very muscular 
 in the quarters. Every feature about the horse appears 
 clean cut, giving a hard finish which indicates durability. 
 The lineaments of the face and the outlines of the neck and 
 especially the distinctness with which the tendons stand 
 away from the leg are very desirable features. 
 
Combination saddle and harness gelding HIGHLAND, owned by Pro- 
 fessor C. F. Curtiss, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa. A winner 
 at state fairs in this class. 
 
 Prize winning Kentucky bred saddle horse, COMPEER, property of 
 Edwin H. Wetherbee, New 'York City. The Breeder's Gazette, referring 
 to this horse says: "Of magnificent presence, with a height of lb.3 
 and a weight of 1,100 pounds, this young horse wants merely to settle 
 to his height by the development of another year; in sound feet, elastic 
 pasterns, quantity and quality of bone, height at withers, range of neck 
 and strength of back, .Compeer makes good his name. Disposition and 
 manners are the essentials of a perfect saddle horse, and these Compeer 
 possesses in unusual degree. He is brilliant in his action ; his walk is 
 fine, his trot distinguished by a superb flex of hocks, while his haunches 
 could not be better tucked under at the canter." 
 
 Photograph of CRESCEUS 2:02i4, the champion trotting stallion of 
 the world, in track harness, with Geo E. Ketcham, his owner, in the 
 sulky. Cresceus was sired by Robert McGregor 2:17%. Owned by 
 Geo. H. Ketcham. Toledo, O. Cresceus trotted a mile in 1:59%, but it 
 was disallowed, owing to a technicality. 
 
BEN BOLT, champion light weight hunter, Philadelphia Horse Show 
 Association, 1900. Owned and ridden by Miss Marion Halloway. 
 
 EAGLE PLUME, champion heavy weight hunter and winner of num- 
 erous prizes as a saddle horse, owned by Geo. Pepper & Sons, of 
 Ontario, Canada. 
 
 Photo by Schreiber. 
 
 Polo pony owned by Robert M Strawbridge, Philadelphia. Purchased 
 at a cost of $1,000. 
 
GENERAL EXAMINATION 11 
 
 The Type lacks the fullness and symmetry that are char- 
 acteristic in the carriage or coach horse. To do effective 
 and hard work on the road is the sphere of the roadster 
 and the type that has been evolved is an illustration of 
 the evolution of a form for a specific purpose. The type of 
 the best campaigners that have marks of 2:10 or better 
 will show a similarity that indicates the type towards 
 which the trotter is tending. Though it should be noted 
 here that the roadster in show form will show quite dif- 
 ferent outlines from one that has been subjected to the 
 hard training that the campaigner receives. 
 
 To describe the roadster form in detail it may be said 
 that the head is proportioned to the rest of the body, 
 wide between the eyes and somewhat sharp at the poll. 
 The neck is slim, long and very often carried somewhat 
 straight owing to the continual use of the top check. The 
 shoulder slopes very markedly and extends well along to- 
 wards the back. The arm is short and this with the slope 
 of the shoulder makes the under line much longer than the 
 length of the back. The fore arm is long, the cannon 
 short and the pasterns with sufficient length and slope. 
 The horse appears too far from the ground in proportion 
 to its height. The back is short and strong rising some at 
 the hips and the croup is strongly muscled. Perhaps the 
 most noticeable feature of the type is the exceptional 
 length from the hip joint to the point of hock and then 
 from the point f the hock to the fetlock joint the distance 
 is short, making the hock appear as if set low. 
 
 11. The Pacer as a Roadster. As a roadster, the pacer 
 has many claims for consideration chiefly on account of 
 the speed that characterizes this gait and the fact that it 
 is easily main maintained on smooth city roads. It is, 
 however, mainly the quickness with which full speed is 
 attained that makes the pacer so popular among the road 
 riders of our cities. The difficulty that a pacer encounters 
 
12 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 
 
 on rough, broken roads or in snow, makes it necessary to 
 have a smooth hard road to enjoy the pleasures of the gait. 
 Among pacers there is often noticeable a type that is 
 not desirable in any class. It can hardly be called typical 
 of this class of horses for many of those that are fastest 
 at this gait, do not have the very low fore hand, the 
 cramped hind quarters or bent-in hocks that are often con- 
 nected with this form. The horse that paces smooth and 
 true exhibits an easy and pleasing manner of going as well 
 as one effective in producing speed, but there are many 
 varieties of this gait that are the reverse of this because of 
 defects in conformation which preclude rapid movement 
 in any other manner. 
 
 12. The Saddle Horse. The type of the saddle horse 
 is somewhat similar to that of the carriage horse but the 
 typical saddle horse shows more quality and better man- 
 ners than any other class of light horses. Aside from 
 these features the most necessary qualifications of the 
 saddle horse are the ability to show the different gaits 
 that are required of horses of this class. The standard 
 performances adopted by the executive committee of the 
 American Saddle Horse Association are the following 
 gaits: (1) Walk. (2) Trot. (3) Single foot or rack. 
 (4) Canter. (5) Slow pace, running walk or fox trot. 
 The gait known as single foot or rack is very similar to 
 the pace, except that in the latter the two feet of the 
 same side move together, while in the single foot the hind 
 foot reaches the ground shortly before the front foot on 
 the same side. The gait known as single foot is consid- 
 ered synonymous with that of the rack and it has been 
 described as exactly intermediate between the true walk 
 and the true trot, each foot apparently moves independent 
 of the other with what has been termed a "one at a time 
 movement." 
 
 13. Quality. This term applied to horses has reference 
 to their bones, skin and hair. Evidences of quality are 
 clearly cut features, glpve-like skin, silky hair and firm. 
 
THE HARVESTER; champion trotting stallion of the world. Record 
 2.01. Bred at Walnut Hall Farm, Kentucky. Owned by C. K. G. 
 Billings, New York. 
 
 MINOR HEIR; 1.58% champion pacing stallion under present ruling 
 conditions. Owned by International Stock Food Co., Minneapolis, Minn. 
 
b c 
 H. /: 
 
GENERAL EXAMINATION 13 
 
 clean Done. In the instance of the horse possessing quality, 
 the lines of the face are clearly defined and in every region 
 there is a complete absence of coarseness. It is possible in 
 such a horse to easily distinguish the muscles, tendons and 
 bones and when slightly exerted, so that the coat lies smooth, 
 the veins in the skin show clearly in an intricate net work 
 as delicate and fine grained as the skin. This freedom from 
 coarseness in the joints and tendons shows a soundness in 
 these features that guarantees durability. Coarse hair is 
 associated with coarse skin and that is a true indication of 
 soft, spongy bones which quickly become diseased when 
 subjected to the strain of hard usage or neglect. 
 
 14. Endurance Indicated by Quality. The connection 
 betAveen a horse's staying power or endurance and its 
 quality is frequently seen when subjected to severe road 
 work, but the reason for the connection is not so plainly 
 evident. The fine skin that is one of the features of high 
 quality is considered to be of value for what it tells of the 
 internal organization of the animal, for it may be said in a 
 general way that the one skin covers the horse internally 
 as well as externally. The inner coat of the skin which 
 covers the ribs and all external parts is a continuation of 
 that which lines the stomach and intestines. If the skin 
 covering the internal region is soft, fine and pliable it in- 
 dicates that the secretions are healthy and it would seem 
 natural to reason from this that the lining of the stomach 
 would be in the same state, and if such is the case it is in 
 a better condition to digest the food that goes into it, 
 thereby increasing the horse's recuperative powers and 
 endurance. 
 
 15. Durability Associated with Quality. Quality in a 
 horse's limbs and feet is especially desirable for the reason 
 that such prove more durable under stress or strain. In 
 looking for this feature in the leg, it is a common practice 
 to run the hand over the cannon bone. In doing this the 
 skin and hair are felt against the bone and if there is the 
 
14 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 
 
 proper quality there, the skin seems to melt from under the 
 hand letting the latter come in close contact with the bone 
 which feels firm and smooth. The fingers seem to touch 
 each other as they pass between the tendon and the bone of 
 the leg, when the latter has the right degree of quality. 
 It is a fact that in finely bred horses that undergo unusual 
 trials of endurance, such as the thoroughbred and the 
 trotter, the texture of the bone is decidedly firmer and 
 closer than that of horses bred for slower work. Another 
 evidence of quality is to be seen in the lines showing the 
 division of the muscles as these should appear distinct in 
 the horse of quality and the joints of the limbs should not 
 show any fullness but be clearly defined and hard. 
 
 16. Action Why Highly Valued. In the market for 
 light horses there is no single feature held in higher estima- 
 tion than that of desirable action. It has different degrees 
 of valuation when associated with the various types of 
 horses, but to sell well they all must have as much as may 
 be displayed and used to advantage. The fact that proper 
 action associated with the coach type brings exceptional 
 prices in the market, would of itself make the subject an 
 important study, but when its influence on the prices of 
 all classes of horses is considered, it at once assumes the 
 position of being the most valuable characteristic connected 
 with the classes of light horses. 
 
 Good action is mainly desirable for its utility and also 
 for the many other qualities which it indicates. It will 
 readily be expected that the horse with good action is more 
 durable and more enjoyable, as the work is done easier, and 
 also more profitable, for more of it is accomplished. But 
 looking further into the subject it is surprising what other 
 attributes are dependent on it. The action of a horse re- 
 flects its temperament, proves the balance of its conforma- 
 tion and indicates soundness. With right action there must 
 be a dash and zest which is the outflow of a sanguine tem- 
 perament making light of the hardest effort. Then the con- 
 
High stepper in action. Photographed from "Driving for Pleasure," 
 showing the extreme degree to which the knee and hock action may be 
 developed by heavy shoeing and training. 
 
 LEADER, THE SCOTCHMAN, in action, showing the folding of the knett 
 and the flexing of the hock desired in carriage horses. 
 

 1^^^^^^ 
 
 :. ;( .~"^^Pi i ^^^^^WB55flMHMB 
 
 Photo by Philips, Independence, Iowa. 
 
 ALLERTON, record 2 :Q9y, in action, showing the reach and movement 
 to secure greatest speed. 
 
 ONI.IXK, record '2 :()!, a world s champion 4-year-old pacer, owned by 
 the International Stock Food Co., Minneapolis, Minn. The photograph 
 shows eloarly the movement of the legs when a horse paces level and 
 true. 
 
GENERAL EXAMINATION 15 
 
 formation which is but a living mechanism of levers, pul- 
 leys and transmitters, must have the delicate adjustment 
 and balance, that gives grace and smoothness to every 
 movement. Further there cannot be any unsoundness to 
 render less free or firm the step as both these characteris- 
 tics must be prominent in actions of all kinds. The more 
 action is studied, the deeper becomes the conviction that 
 every attribute of the horse contributes to it. Every qual- 
 ity comes more or less into play and for that reason the 
 difficulties in the way of securing the typical action of 
 the high degree of merit are almost insuperable. 
 
 17. The Walk Active, Straight, Level. Excellence at 
 this gait is a very desirable quality in all varieties of horses, 
 and unlike the trot its meritorious features are the same in 
 all, as it has no connection with type. In the enjoyment of 
 a road horse there is much to admire in the manner in which 
 he conducts himself when walking. It is questionable as to 
 which is the most pleasurable to observe the walking of 
 the horse whose step is evenly timed and nervy, or the 
 trotting of one that has all the grace, style and snap that 
 characterizes the coacher. 
 
 18. Observing Straightness of the Walk. In moving 
 away from you the feet of the active walker leave the 
 ground with a quick snap, showing in its passage the 
 reflection of the whole shoe. After leaving the ground with 
 this peculiar snap the foot swings upward and forward, 
 then the knee unfolds, the pastern carries the foot grace- 
 fully forward and it again comes to the ground lightly but 
 firmly with the characteristic spring and snap that iden- 
 tified the first movement. The feet move straight away, 
 swerving neither to the left or to the right, nor should the 
 folding of the knees or the flexing of the hocks result in an 
 outward pitching or spreading. A horse that will lift and 
 plant his foot in the way described almost invariably has 
 the upheaded and commanding appearance in movement 
 which is so admirable in the harness horse. 
 
16 JUDGING LIGHT HOB&ES 
 
 19. Manner of Noting Levelness. The crucial test of the 
 balance of a horse's walk is the side view. Any variation 
 from proper structural proportions results in wobbling, hob- 
 bling or an otherwise uneven walk, and all these are readily 
 seen from the side. The levelness with which a horse walks 
 is one of the best evidences that the legs work in harmony. 
 The most common deflection from this is attributable to a 
 long, slim coupling which gives the onlooker the impression 
 that the horse might break away into two parts near the 
 region of the loin. In defective conformations of this kind 
 the stride of the hind limbs is short and he usually has an 
 uneven, choppy gait that is unsightly as well as ineffectual 
 in covering distances. On the other hand an opposite rela- 
 tion of the parts, close coupling and short back, with long 
 legs, is likely to give use to a slovenly swinging gait, pro- 
 ducing clicking, stumbling or other deficiencies. If there is 
 a flaw in the mechanism of the front legs, it is usually made 
 evident by the movement of the front feet, especially as 
 they are about to touch the ground. If the limb proportions 
 are ungainly the feet do not seem to reach the ground at 
 the proper stage, either turning too much on the heel or 
 not turning enough and precipitating the toe. From be- 
 hind it is easy to observe if the walk of the hind limbs 
 is level thus being free from any hitching, wobbling or 
 unevenness in the stride. 
 
 20. The High Stepper in Action. The highest priced 
 action in the general horse market is that of the high 
 stepper. The peculiarity of this action consists in lifting 
 the knees inordinately high and flexing the hocks so that 
 they come close to the body and keep the legs well under it. 
 From the standpoint of action alone, the higher the knees 
 and the hocks are lifted the more valuable is the horse, pro- 
 vided the type and other features more common are equally 
 satisfactory. The feet must be thrown forward without any 
 
GENERAL EXAMINATION 17 
 
 dishing on either side and the hocks must pass each other 
 close and in line with the forward movement. It is easy to 
 understand that while this method of movement is the most 
 showy and stylish, it is not serviceable action for a road 
 horse. The front legs soon succumb to the heavy concus- 
 sion they would be called upon to stand under hard driv- 
 ing. But this action is sought only in the horse that is used 
 for short drives about the city where style is paramount to 
 speed and stamina. While it is recognized that the high 
 stepper should have as many as possible of the other qual- 
 ities of excellence in addition to high action, yet all others 
 are considered of minor value among horses of this class. 
 "All-around action only to be considered" is the current 
 phrase in the prize lists that provide classes for competition 
 among the high steppers, which means a combination of 
 shoulder, knee and hock action. 
 
 21. The Carriage Horse Manners When in Motion. A 
 
 connoisseur of horses will see much more than the legs of a 
 carriage horse when moving. As such a horse moves before 
 an appropriate vehicle with the latitude of a light hand 
 assisting him there are flashes of gracefulness from every 
 motion. AYith this there is a quality of mind that gives 
 buoyancy to the step and accounts in no small degree for 
 the uplifted carriage of the head. It is expressive of a 
 happy temperament that gives gracefulness to every poise 
 and smooth flow to every movement. Even such a minor 
 organ as an ear plays its part, the eye, too, shows the fire 
 from within and challenges the critic for its meed of praise 
 in measuring the step and alertness in giving it security. 
 Scan the lines of the neck, and notice their tenseness and 
 yet the unusual elasticity it shows when occasion offers for 
 the movement of greater gracefulness. The shoulder plays 
 with freedom and the smooth turned loin and quarter seems 
 the only region that are not taking part in this unusual 
 
18 JUDGING LIGHT HOUSES 
 
 display, though in this immobility they show their renl 
 strength. 
 
 22. Straight and Regular Action. As to the action of the 
 fore legs, it is straight away with continuous folding and 
 unfolding. In the action of the carriage horse there must 
 be some style and dash and high lifting of the feet, but 
 never enough of it to make the action unserviceable. At no 
 time is the fore leg held in poise as it does not dwell either 
 in flexion or extension. The foot snaps from the ground 
 and is then carried forward while the limb unfolds, as if 
 following the rim of a wheel. It seems to reach the ground 
 at the right stage of the unfolding so that it is not held in 
 suspense at any point along the line of descent. The feet 
 pass close and in a straight line so that there is no swaying 
 or dropping down of the fore hand with each step. The 
 hind foot leaves the ground with the same quick movement 
 and at no time is it allowed to hang back so as to give the 
 horse the appearance of not gathering himself well 
 together. 
 
 23. The Driver's Sensation of Action. After all is writ- 
 ten that it is possible to write about the action of the car- 
 riage horse, there is something else that must go with it 
 which cannot be described with sufficient vividness to 
 make the novice appreciate it. It has something to do 
 with power and its connection between the animal and its 
 master seems to be the driving lines. As you sit behind 
 the horse of true carriage action and conduct you feel 
 your proximity to a powerful mechanism that is under- 
 going a test of its minutest parts. If anything fails every- 
 thing will be demoralized but it is the feeling of strength 
 and power in the animal that allays unnecessary fears. 
 
 Without leaving this feature connected with the carriage 
 horse let us study its relation to the trotter. Substance and 
 strength in the carriage horse gives momentum to the occu- 
 pants of the somewhat cumbersome carriage, while the 
 trotter loses these for speed and stamina. Between the 
 trotter and its driver the feeling is that of flight instead 
 of power in motion. The difference in the feeling result- 
 
An easy and satisfactory method of opening a horse's mouth. The 
 two thumbs are inserted just back of the incisors and the lower is 
 pressed down so that the horse drops the lower jaw. It is usually easy 
 in this way to make observations regarding the teeth. 
 
 Proper method of lifting and holding the foot of a horse. In seeking 
 to lift the front foot of a horse the hand should be run over the cannon 
 in the manner indicated in one of the photographs. Usually a horse 
 will lift his foot as soon as this is done. To hold it firmly without 
 much effort, the proper plan is to hold the toe with the foot doubled 
 against the elbow as shown in the above photograph. 
 
The illustration on the right hand shows a well bred and intelligent 
 head, the subject being LOLA RONAN, standard bred road mare owned 
 by the author, while that to the left is a photograph of a head showing 
 lack of breeding and deficient in fullness of forehead. 
 
 Two photographs to illustrate the differences in the appearance of 
 horses' heads when they are trimmed and untrimmed. The head shown 
 trimmed is that of Boralma, 2 :08, the unbeaten 4-year-old trotter. * 
 The trim appearance of the head is to some extent due to the fact that 
 the foretop has been clipped, the ears trimmed, the mane clipped back 
 of the foretop. The companion head, on the right, though of a French 
 Coach mare showing abundance of quality, is yet very coarse in appear- 
 ance, largely due to the fact that the head has not been trimmed. The 
 mane has not been cut away. The long hair is in the ears, the foretop 
 has not been removed, while the long growth of coarse hair below the 
 jaw has not been trimmed. 
 
GENERAL EXAMINATION 19 
 
 ing from following the movement of these two classes of 
 horses might be better expressed by reference to the dif- 
 ference in the feeling that one has when standing beside 
 a swift turning windmill, as compared with the effects of 
 observing the turn of a ponderous water wheel. The for- 
 mer takes advantage of every breath of wind and speeds 
 a merry clip without apparent exertion or strength; the 
 other impresses one at once with its power and in a lesser 
 degree with its combination of strength and speed. 
 
 24. The Trotter Speed and Stamina. The leading fea- 
 ture of the action of the trotter is speed at the trotting gait, 
 but there are many others that must be companions of this 
 to result in the greatest development and the chief of these 
 is stamina or the ability to maintain the necessary gait. 
 It is generally thought that if a horse has speed he has the 
 one essential necessary to make a trotter or a good road 
 horse. Not only is speed desirable but there must be a true 
 balance of parts, that insures their protection together with 
 trueness of stride. Being true and level gaited guarantees 
 the greatest durability and that with an ambitious turn of 
 mind gives us that very desirable quality in the trotter, 
 termed "gameness" or stamina. Of all features of the trot- 
 ter's action it must be the most evident that it is not in 
 the least wasteful of energy. While that of the carriage 
 horse or high stepper must display effort, the trotter 
 should move so as to leave the least impression of this. 
 
 Less roll to the knee, more propulsion from the stifle and 
 less motion in the hocks carries the trotter forward closer 
 to the ground and with less expenditure of force and with- 
 out the higher lifting of the knee and hock which is char- 
 asteristic of the high stepper. There is much more exten- 
 sion of the limbs in the trotter, as shown in the reach of 
 the fore leg, while the hind legs pass back farther and 
 reach farther forward than in the action of the high 
 
20 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 
 
 stepper or carriage horse as the latter must keep his legs 
 under him to gather himself together in the proper degree. 
 A wider spread in the. movement of the hind legs in the 
 instance of the trotter is not as bad a fault as it would 
 be if associated with the carriage horse. It is frequently 
 noticeable as a distinction between the action of a trotter 
 and coacher, that the latter is balanced in stride when 
 going an easy gait but becomes unbalanced or weak when 
 urged beyond it, while the trotter may very often show 
 an uneven gait when moving slowly but when urged to 
 the limit of its speed, displays truly balanced action with- 
 out any tendency towards losing its stride. 
 
 25. The Pacing Gait Level and True. A study of this 
 gait will disclose the fact that there is more variations in it 
 than in any other form of action. Horses pace in many 
 ways, some lurching, others shuffling and many more wob- 
 bling in an unsightly manner; but, however they may go, 
 they are nearly all characterized by possessing speed. A 
 level and true pacer displays a sightly gait. In pacing level 
 and true the body remains steadier than in any other move- 
 ment. The legs move in harmony with the directness of a 
 machine. The nervy, machine-like pace peculiar to many of 
 the fast pacing animals is a study in the degree to which the 
 minimum of effort results in the maximum of speed. Some 
 horses pace because of bent hocks, others because of ungain- 
 ly proportion but when the gait results from breeding and is 
 the outcome of straight and direct movement, it is difficult to 
 imagine a gait with less friction or display of effort. In the 
 instance of the horse that possesses 1 true excellence at this 
 gait, if you were to shut off your view of the limbs in mo- 
 tion, you would have the impression that the animal was 
 standing on a rapidly moving train hidden from your view, 
 so little does the body and other parts above the line make 
 any display of effort. As a rule the pace from the stand- 
 point of the spectator is an unsightly gait, but one that is 
 usually thoroughly enjoyable from the point of view of the 
 driver. Owing to the ease with which the pacer moves and 
 
These photographs have been selected to show the difference in the 
 dispositions of horses. The upper one shows desirable temperament 
 with harmony between horse and rider. The lower one shows horse 
 and rider out of touch with each other and the horse discloses by ex- 
 pression and countenance a strong will and vicious disposition. 
 
 Photo from Horse Show Monthly. 
 
 A row of good heads. The heads of the horses shown here indicate 
 a high order of intelligence, borne out by the fact that they all possess 
 sufficient intellect to act. Beginning on the left hand their names are 
 Charley Adams, Nixon, Alice, Blair, Charlie Ross, Ella, Maud. They 
 are used in the stage plays Sporting Life and the Great Ruby. They 
 are owned by the LeRoy Payne Co., of 171 Michigan Avenue, Chicago. 
 Without exception they show intelligent heads in that they display full 
 foreheads, open countenances, large eyes, with abundant width between 
 them. 
 
Rules Governing Position ol the Limbs of the Horse When Standing. 
 
 FRONT VIEW OF FORE LIMBS. 
 
 A vertical line downward from the point of the shoulder should fall upon the center of the 
 knee, cannon, pastern and foot. Cut A of Plate I represents the right conformation. B, C. D. 
 . F and G represent common defects. 
 
 A 
 
 SIDE VIEW OF FORE LIMBS. 
 
 A vertical line drawn downward from the center of the elbow joint should fall upon the 
 centerof the Unee and pasteru joints and back of the foot; and a vertical line drawn down- 
 ward from the middle of the arm should fall upon the center of the foot. Cut A of Plate II re- 
 presents the right conformation. B, shows the foot placed too far back; C, too far forward; 
 D. "knee sprung" and E. "knock kneed." 
 
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 T 
 
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 L 
 
 A 
 
 \J 
 
 SIDE VIEW OF HIND LIMBS. 
 
 
 
 A vertical line drawn downward from the hip joint should fall upon the center of the foot 
 and divide the gaskln In the middle; and a vertical line drawn from the point of the buttock 
 
 should coincide with the angle of the bock and pastern joints. Cut A of Plate III represents 
 right conformation. B, Cand D represent common defects. 
 
 REAR VIEW OF HIND LIMB5. 
 
 A vertical 1 
 
 of the hock, cannon, pastern and foo 
 and K represent common defects 
 
 drawn downward from the point of the buttock should fall upon the center 
 Cut A of Plate IV represents conformation. B, C, 1> 
 
STBUCTURAL EXAMINATION 21 
 
 the lightness with which they speed over pavements, com- 
 bined with the rapidity with which they can reach their 
 speed, the pacer has become very popular among city road 
 riders. 
 
 77. Structural Examination. 
 
 Thus far the features that enter largely into the general 
 appearance of the horse, the form, quality and action, have 
 been considered, but in addition to these qualities there are 
 numerous details of structure and soundness which have a 
 predominating influence on the value of any of the classes 
 that have been discussed. Not only must horses of the 
 classes described prove sound to be of service, but to sell 
 well they must also show the strength of structure that 
 wards off the possibility of any urysoundness developing in 
 the future. A badly constructed hock without a curb may 
 depreciate the value of the horse fully as much as a curb 
 present on a strong and well formed hock. The first does 
 not have a curb solely because it has never been subjected 
 to a strain, while the curb in the latter instance must have 
 been due to stress of more than common severity. To 
 discuss this division of the subject in detail it will be neces- 
 sary to arrange the material that follows so as to consider 
 the various parts of a horse completely. 
 
 26. Head Straight, Lean. The shape of the head and 
 the countenance of a horse adds greatly to its appearance, 
 and as this is the part which is most frequently observed it 
 becomes of some importance. The line from the ears to the 
 point of the nose as seen from the side should be almost 
 straight. In scanning the photographs of a great number of 
 trotters it will be noticed that nearly all stallions have 
 slight Roman noses while most of the mares have slightly 
 dished faces, a distinction which seems to be characteristic 
 of the sexes. As a rule it will be found that horses of very 
 prominent Roman noses are self willed. Small nostrils are 
 generally associated with this form of nose and as a conse- 
 quence we find in such instances, that the respiratory or 
 breathing organs lack development. The features of the 
 
22 JUDGING LIGHT HOESES 
 
 face should be distinct, without the least appearance of 
 coarseness or meatiness. A lean face is suggestive of good 
 quality in a horse. The muzzle should be fine in quality 
 to make the head appear at its best. Between the eyes 
 there should be breadth enough to give a pleasing frank- 
 ness to the countenance. It is a point of practical value 
 as an index to the brain development which is of much 
 importance in a light horse, for in this class intelligence 
 is a merit of high value. While it is granted that the intel- 
 ligence of a horse depends mostly on the training received, 
 yet there is a marked difference in the benefit which 
 horses derive from training, and that difference may only 
 be accounted for by variations in the brain development. 
 
 27. Nostrils Large, Open. The nostrils of a horse 
 should be large, thin, dilatable and of a pink color. While 
 there should be no discharges from them, they should 
 always have the appearance of being moist. 
 
 28. Eyes Full, Clear. A bright eye indicates vigor of 
 constitution, that is, stamina, staying power, or bottom, as 
 it is sometimes called. It is also associated with a happy 
 disposition and it seems to be this that accounts for the 
 fact that some horses do an enormous amount of work with 
 little worry and strain upon themselves. A large, full, clear 
 eye is indicative of a kind, generous disposition and good 
 health. 
 
 29. Ears Erect, Active. The ears should be close to- 
 gether and carried in an erect position. They should be 
 active and somewhat pointed. Lop ears indicate lassitude, 
 or in plainer words, laziness. When it is noticed that a 
 horse does not shift or move either of its ears to any extent 
 to catch sound, it is safe to presume that it is afflicted with 
 deafness. On the other hand if it is continually moving 
 them, it is advisable to inspect the eyesight carefully as it 
 is likely that the extra labor imposed on the ears has its 
 origin in the defect of one or both of the eyes. 
 
STBUCTUBAL EXAMINATION 23 
 
 30. Jaw Bones Wide, Sharp. Between the jaw bones 
 there should be sufficient width for a large wind-pipe and 
 also enough to allow the head to play freely on the neck. 
 When the space between the jaw bones is very narrow it 
 will often be noticed that the horse carries his head stiffly, 
 but when there is sufficient width in this region, the head is 
 usually carried gracefully and moved freely on the neck. 
 The throttle or throat latch should be light without any un- 
 natural fullness between the jaw bones or heaviness at the 
 juncture of the head and neck. 
 
 31. Neck Arched, Muscled. A nicely moulded and dis- 
 tinctly chiseled neck of sufficient length, carrying the head 
 gracefully is one of the most beautiful features of the light 
 horse. Extending towards the shoulder the neck should 
 swell gradually so as to join the body smoothly. The wind- 
 pipe should be large and appear distinct from the rest of 
 the neck and the upper outlines of the latter should be 
 sharp. While many excellent road horses have what is 
 called a ewe neck, it is none the less a defect as it detracts 
 very much from a symmetrical appearance. 
 
 32. Chest Deep, Projecting. In the light horse that is 
 called upon for light work, the chest should obtain its capa- 
 city more by depth than breadth. The reason for this is 
 that the deeper chest permits the freer play of the shoulder. 
 It is easy to see that swift, smooth action of the fore legs 
 is hardly possible in the broad chested horse, mainly be- 
 cause it throws them too far apart and out of line with 
 those behind. It will often be noticed in this direction that 
 too much width causes the horse to pitch or roll in its 
 action. A deep chest is evidence of staying power. The 
 conformation of noted campaigners on the turf, such as 
 Mary Marshall (2:12), The Abbot (2:031/4), Cresceus 
 (2:0214), may be cited to illustrate full development in 
 this feature. 
 
24 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 
 
 33. Shoulders Long, Oblique. The conformation of 
 the shoulder is one of the parts of all light horses that re- 
 quires critical scanning. To give elasticity to the move- 
 ment of saddle horses and to permit of quick and clean 
 action in the roadster, the shoulder should be long and 
 oblique. An upright shoulder is very likely to result in 
 short, stilted action, frequently accompanied by stumbling, 
 and it is quite a fertile cause of such bone diseases as side- 
 bones and ringbones. The high action which is desired in 
 the coach horse and the long reaching, clean action so 
 sought after in the roadster depends as much on the ob- 
 liquity and freedom of movement in the shoulder, as in 
 any other feature. In addition, a sloping and long shoulder 
 strengthens the back and extends the length of the under- 
 line. The muscular development of the shoulder should 
 also be carefully noted, for if there is an unusual bareness 
 or lack of muscular covering it would denote the fact that 
 sweeny has affected it. 
 
 34. Fore Legs Broad, Cordy, Straight. The appear- 
 ance of the fore leg from the side should show it to be flat 
 and cordy. The flatness shows the tendons to be properly 
 attached and some distance from the bone and the clean cut 
 appearance denotes the absence of any coarseness about 
 the legs. Viewing the legs from in front and using a plumb 
 line it will be found in the instance of a leg that is straight, 
 that a perpendicular line downward from the point of the 
 shoulder, should equally divide the knee, cannon, pastern 
 and foot. Viewing the fore leg from the side, a similar 
 line dropped from the center of the leg at a point where 
 it joins the body should nearly divide the leg until the 
 fetlock joint is reached and from there to the ground it 
 should fall exactly behind the foot. Any variation from 
 these two lines shows crookedness from either point of view. 
 The leg should be long from the elbow to the knee, for the 
 reason that free and clean action follows such a conforma- 
 tion. In these parts it will be noticed that most of the 
 muscles extending and flexing the leg, are located between 
 

 
 The photo on the left, HUMMER 6112, shows a sloping shoulder and 
 a foreleg of quality set properly and strongly supported below the knee 
 with correct pastern and excellent foot. Subject of the other photo is 
 too straight in shoulder and pastern with weak knees 
 
 Photo of a smoothly turned horse, especially round ribbed and on 
 that acount appearing too long in the legs, though not really so. 
 
The illustration on the right is a photograph of the hind quarter of 
 ST. SAVIOUR, a thoroughbred stallion, showing a clean, strong hock and 
 properly set hind leg. The photograph on the left shows a curb on the 
 right leg due to a weakly supported hock also improperly set. 
 
 The left illustration shows a hind leg too straight, while the right 
 one shows the other extreme in being set too far back. 
 
STRUCTURAL EXAMINATION 25 
 
 the elbow and the knee. If this region is long, the muscle 
 must necessarily be long and that produces quick and easy 
 action. The muscle of the fore arm flexes and extends the 
 rest of the leg, and in order that these motions may take 
 place with the least expenditure of power the course over 
 which it must travel must be as short as possible; that is, 
 the cannon running from the knee to the fetlock should be 
 much shorter than from the knee to the elbow. 
 
 Mr. H. T. Helm has made a careful study of the effect 
 that the proportions of these parts to each other have upon 
 the horse's action. He has measured a great many horses 
 and finds that their action in the fore legs seems to be 
 governed by the proportionate length of the fore arm and 
 the cannon. He found that Administrator has superior 
 action in front, and that his cannon was 11% inches long, 
 and the fore arm 21 inches long. About the same propor- 
 tions were found to exist in the fore legs of George Wilkes, 
 and there was no lack of knee action in.his movement. The 
 actual proportions were 10% "to 20 inches. In Governor 
 Sprague the cannon was 11 inches and the fore arm 21 
 inches, and here the front action was not quite as rounding 
 as that of George Wilkes. In the instance of St. Lawrence, 
 the proportions were ll 1 /^ to 21 inches and the action was 
 noted to be far reaching and gently curving. It will be 
 easily understood that the strain upon the knees would be 
 greater in those horses that were long in the cannons in 
 comparison with the length of the fore arm, and it will 
 usually be found that such a conformation predisposes a 
 horse to weak knees. On the other hand when the fore arm 
 is inordinately long the tendency is for the front legs to 
 bend back at the knees and give rise to what is commonly 
 termed calf knees. 
 
 35. Arms Short, Thrown Forward. The humerus 
 which forms the arm should be short and appear compara- 
 
26 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 
 
 lively straight. When it is so, it gives a horse an upright 
 appearance and adds to the latter 's style. 
 
 36. Elbows Free. The space between the leg and the 
 body should permit of easy insertion of the hand. If the 
 elbow is closer than this or tied in, as it is termed, the toes 
 are usually thrown out; or if the opposite is the case, the 
 toes are likely to be thrown in, which makes the action of 
 the horse awkward and dangerous. 
 
 37. Fore Arms Wide, Muscled. Perhaps the most im- 
 portant matter to notice in examining the fore leg is the 
 size of the fore arm, or the muscular development observable 
 just below the juncture of the leg and the body. As fat 
 accumulates very little there it is a safe criterion of the 
 muscular development of the animal. 
 
 38. Knees Wide, Deep, Straight. The knees should 
 be broad in front, much broader than the rest of the leg, 
 either above or below, and the pisiform bone, which is the 
 bone forming the projection at the back of the knee, should 
 be sharp and prominent, for to this some of the most im- 
 portant muscles of the fore leg are attached. Breadth is 
 desirable in such joints, because of the fact that the con- 
 cussion is more evenly distributed, and better spent by the 
 many bones forming the joint, when their surfaces are 
 large. The most common defects of the knee are calf knees, 
 knock knees, knee sprung, speedy cut and scars. 
 
 39. Cannons Wide, Short, Large Sinews. There should 
 be very little shrinkage below the knee as the joints require 
 as much support as possible. This defect of being tied in 
 below the knee is one of the most common weaknesses to 
 be seen in the fore legs of light horses. A light horse of 
 common size should measure at least 8 inches at this point. 
 The cannon should be short, wide and clean and the sinews 
 should be back from the bone. It is sometimes noticeable 
 that the cannon is thicker than usual which is generally 
 caused by hard road work. 
 
 40. Pasterns Sloping, Strong. The pastern should 
 stand at an angle of 45 degrees with the ground, and with 
 
A fully developed bog spavin is shown on the left leg in the right 
 hand illustration, while the one in the left illustration shows a large 
 ringbone at the base of the pastern. 
 
 A clean, clearly defined hock appears in the photo on the right shown 
 from the point of view most likely to discover bone spavin. The photo 
 to the left shows this, as a spavin may be clearly seen at the inner 
 base of the right hock. 
 
Photo by G. A. Tadman. 
 
 The illustration to the right shows a cocked ankle, while the other 
 one is a photograph of a large sidebone which may be seen on the out- 
 side of the right leg at the junction of the pastern and foot. 
 
 Prize winning Mammoth jack, JUMBOAK, owned by W, R. Goodwin, 
 Jr., Oakhurst Stock Farm, Napersville, Illinois. In size of bone and 
 general form this jack shows the characteristics which are most sought 
 in this breed. First prize at Illinois State Fair, 1900 ; height, 15.3 ; 
 weight, 1,100 Ibs. at three years old. Sold for $1,000. 
 
STBUCTURAL EXAMINATION 27 
 
 the cannon it should form an angle of about 135 degrees. 
 When more upright than this, they will cause bone diseases, 
 such as sidebones and ringbones, as the concussion is very 
 severe in such instances. Moreover, it detracts greatly from 
 the utility of the light horse, especially those intended for 
 the saddle, as the step is short and stilted, and this is very 
 disagreeable to the rider. On the other hand, sometimes the 
 pasterns of light horses, and of thoroughbred horses es- 
 pecially, are too long and slanting, which weakens them 
 and ultimately ends in the snapping of the suspensory liga- 
 ment, resulting in the horse "breaking down." 
 
 41. Feet Dense, Waxy, Large. The foot should re- 
 ceive careful attention as it has an important part to play 
 in the work of the horse, and it is subject to many defects 
 and various kinds of unsoundness. It should be of firm 
 texture, good size, moderately upright and thoroughly 
 sound. It should have a healthy appearance which is in- 
 dicated by an oily coat of natural wax. The frog: should 
 bear the mark of natural usage as a buffer, bein^ spongy 
 and touching the ground at each step. The roof or sole 
 of the hoof should be distinctly concave. Flatness, brittle- 
 ness and contraction, are the three most common defects in 
 horses' feet. It will be noticed in many instances that the 
 bar of the foot has been cut away, so that the hoof splits 
 from the heel towards the coronet. This is due to the black- 
 smith 's practice of cutting away the bars that bind the foot 
 together. When this is done the foot begins to spread and 
 the crack ultimately extends as far as possible. 
 
 42. Ribs Well Sprung, Deep, Close. The ribs should 
 be well sprung from the spine and they should be close to 
 each other. It will generally be found that horses having 
 well sprung ribs always make a better appearance than 
 those that are flat ribbed; and, in addition, they will be 
 found to be easier keepers. It should be noted that the 
 
28 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 
 
 round ribbed horse always has the appearance of being in- 
 ordinately long in the legs. This deception is due to the 
 roundness of the body. It can easily be seen that from a 
 side view the flat ribbed horse presents a body of deeper 
 appearance and seemingly has shorter legs than the horse 
 that is rounder ribbed. 
 
 43. Back Strong, Short, Muscled. In its proportion 
 the body should be short above and long underneath. This 
 not only adds to its strength, but it gives the legs free play 
 and insures a balanced stride. The horse of this conforma- 
 tion under the saddle will unite himself more quickly and 
 better, while the same horse on the line, or in harness will 
 have a freer and more balanced stride. It is the opinion of 
 many that the roach back is an evidence of strength. It is 
 the most undesirable feature in a horse for the saddle, and 
 it is to say the least, an eyesore in road or in carriage 
 horses. 
 
 44. Loin Short, Broad, Muscled. It is a defect of many 
 horses to be light and narrow at the juncture of the body 
 and the hind quarter. If the loin is long or slack, that is, 
 if the distance is great between the last rib and the hip 
 bone, the horse is likely to be weak in the coupling and 
 deficient in action, and when this is viewed from the side, 
 it will be noticed that the hind foot fails to reach the point 
 where the front foot left the ground. This probably is due 
 more to lack of muscle over the loin than to any other 
 defect. 
 
 ^.5. Croup Long, Muscular. The part included in the 
 hind quarters should be critically examined, for, as it has 
 been previously explained, it is in this region that the pro- 
 pelling power resides. The haunch or croup should be long 
 and on account of the improved appearance it should be 
 comparatively straight. When the croup is long, it allows 
 a greater play of the main muscles that are located in this 
 region. It will be noticed in nearly all fast trotters that 
 the croup generally has this characteristic. Length of 
 muscle here as elsewhere contributes to speed. 
 
Arabian stallion, SHAHWAX, bred by Ali Pasha, Sherif, Egypt, sold 
 to W. S. Blount, in 1892, and taken by him to England and afterwards 
 sold to present owner, J. A. P. Ramsdell, Newburg, N. Y. The photo- 
 graph shows this horse t? fce a model of symmetry, style and quality. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE ARAB HORSE. 
 
 THOUGH there is some unreliable sentiment associated with the Arab horse, 
 yet there is not a vestige of doubt but that they are of superior symmetry 
 and quality. This is perfectly summed up by Sheik Abd.-El.-Kader : "The 
 horse of pure descent is distinguished by thinness of its lips, and the cartilage 
 of the nose, by the dilation of its nostrils, by the leanness of the flesh en- 
 circling the veins of the head, by the graceful manner the neck is attached, 
 by the softness of its coat, its mane and the hairs of its tail, by its breadth of 
 chest, the largeness of its joints and leanness of its extremities. According 
 to the traditions of our ancestors, the thoroughbred is still better known by 
 its moral characteristics than its physical peculiarities." Major R. D. Upton 
 in "Newmarket and Arabia" gives the characteristics of the Arabian horse in 
 the following statement which is true of those familiar to the author: "The 
 Arabian is a horse of the highest courage, in stature about 14 hands 2 inches, 
 a horse of length, power and substance, combined with the elastic and sinuous- 
 like movement of the serpent. He is a very perfect animal ; he is not exag- 
 gerated in some parts large, meagre and diminished in others. There is a 
 balance and harmony throughout his frame not seen in any other horse ; the 
 quintessence of all good qualities in a compact form." 
 
 The head of the typical Arabian horse is exceedingly straight and the eye 
 markedly full and bright. Perhaps the most striking feature of the type is the 
 round and extra well ribbed barrel. In action the movement of the legs is 
 very peculiar, being very strong and elastic. Though small, the form is ex- 
 ceedingly smooth and symmetrical, while the evidences of quality are strik- 
 ingly shown. 
 
Photo by G. A. Tadman. 
 
 Hackney stallion, ROYAL DANEGELT 5785, owned by Sir Walter Gilbey, 
 Elsenham Hall, Essex. Winner of championship at London Hackney 
 Show, 1898, and at the Manchester show of the Royal Agricultural 
 Society of England in 1897. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE HACKNEY HORSE. 
 
 *pHE HACKNEY was established in Great Britain as a breed to meet the 
 requirements for a horse of extreme smoothness, with gracefully curved 
 outlines, having the action necessary to show these to the best advantage. 
 The head is light, neck muscular and curved but free from heaviness ; 
 shoulders smooth and laid well back ; body circular, compact, short ; hips 
 smooth ; quarters plump with muscle, legs short with tendons clearly defined. 
 Their action is noted for its straightness and height, and the regularity of 
 knee and hock movement. There is a variation in the types of the breed, some 
 showing more upstanding with abundance of quality and straighter lines, 
 while others are shorter limbed, fuller made and especially strong in action 
 from a carriage standpoint. The secretary of the Hackney Horse Association 
 of Great Britain has summed up the general description of the Hackney, 
 which, as he says, fitted old style and new ideal, in the following: "A power- 
 fully built, short legged, big, broad horse, with an intelligent head, neat neck, 
 strong, level back, powerful lines and as perfect shoulders as can be pro- 
 duced; good feet, flat boned legs, and height of from 15.2 hands to 15.3^. 
 In addition to showing a type required for a carriage horse, the hackney must 
 possess as a necessary essential true carriage or coach action. 
 
STRUCTURAL EXAMINATION 29 
 
 46. Thighs Muscular, Deep. The thigh should be full 
 and plump with muscle which should also extend as far 
 down towards the hocks as possible. Some horses have this 
 feature so strongly developed that the muscle continues to 
 the hock and gives the latter a thicker appearance. The 
 thigh should be long, making the hocks low, as this con- 
 tributes to a long stride. 
 
 47. Quarters Heavily Muscled. The quarters viewed 
 from behind should show a heavy mass of muscle between 
 the legs. Perhaps there is not another part of the muscular 
 system that shows a greater variation in development in dif- 
 ferent horses than the quarters, for while some will be cat- 
 hammed there are others surprisingly full in this part, with 
 deep, hard muscle. 
 
 48. Hind Legs. The set of the hind legs has a direct 
 bearing on their liability to diseases. A leg that is bent too 
 far forward is likely to develop a curb, while one that is too 
 straight is more subject to fullness in the hock region, pre- 
 disposing it to either thoroughpin or bog spavin. In look- 
 ing from the side at a leg that has correct conformation, a 
 plumb line from the center of the hip joint should equally 
 divide the gaskin and the foot. Dropping a plumb line from 
 the point of the buttock it should run parallel with the 
 line of the cannon. From behind, the same line should 
 equally divide the hock, cannon, pastern and fpot. 
 
 49. Hocks Wide, Straight, Clean. The hocks should 
 be clean and broad and the point should be prominent as 
 the leverage of the most powerful muscles attached here 
 depend to a great extent upon this. There should be no 
 gumminess about the hocks ; the web should be especially 
 clean and free from all fleshiness or puffs of any kind. In 
 running the hand over the hock, all the depressions that are 
 characteristic of the sound hock should be easily felt and 
 the bone should feel firm without the least indication of un- 
 
30 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 
 
 soundness of any part. Too much attention can hardly 
 be given to this joint as it is one of the most important in 
 the whole frame. 
 
 50. Hind Cannons Wide, Short, Clean. The hind can- 
 nons should be comparatively short as such a conformation 
 gives the hind leg a longer stride while at the same time 
 allowing the feet to keep under the body more. They should 
 also be wide for that gives better attachment to the tendons 
 and especially if the width continue just below the hock it 
 materially strengthens that part. When the support for the 
 tones of the hock is slight and narrow at the top of the 
 cannon there is greater susceptibility to curbs on account 
 of the weakness of that region. The fetlock joint should be 
 of normal size with good width and particularly free from 
 any puffiness indicating windgalls, 
 
 51. Hind Pasterns Sloping, Strong. The slope of the 
 hind pasterns is not of such importance as that of the front 
 pastern for the reason that it is seldom that this part will be 
 found too straight in light horses. There is less concussion 
 for the hind foot to stand, consequently there is less need 
 for the pastern to be very sloping. The pasterns should be 
 of medium size and length so that they may be strong. 
 Freedom from thick, coarse skin and hair is desirable for in 
 the instance of such there is less susceptibility to scratches. 
 
 52. Hind Feet Dense, Rounded. The hind feet should 
 have the characteristics that have been described in the 
 reference to the desirable points of the fore feet. It may 
 be noted in addition that the hind feet are more inclined to 
 become narrow in front and not have the nicely rounded 
 surface that is desirable in a good foot. The sides of the 
 foot viewed from in front very often appear to have 
 shrunken some, making a ridge down the center of the foot 
 from the hoof head to the toe and leaving the sides flat. 
 Narrowness at the hoof head usually accompanies this. 
 The foot should be dense in structure, medium in size, with 
 strong, wide heel and full front. 
 

 Thoroughbred stallion, IMP. ORMONDE, owned by W. O'B. Mac- 
 donough, Menlo Park, Cal. A Derby winner sired by Bend Or. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE THOROUGHBRED HORSE. 
 
 T IS of much assistance in understanding the type of the thoroughbred to 
 
 remember that they are the oldest of the breeds of horses and that they 
 have been bred for many years for a leading purpose and this has generally 
 been running speed. To secure this there had to be associated with the 
 mechanism that produces it, unusual quality of structure, stamina and am- 
 bition. The running record for a mile is held by Salvator, the time being 
 1.35% on a straight track. The common colors among the representatives of 
 this breed are brown, bay and chestnut. The distinguishing features are u 
 refined appearance, especially clearly defined lineaments, with length of neck, 
 deep chest, short upper line, Ions under line, somewhat straight croup, mus- 
 cular thighs, neat pasterns, dense bone, firm muscle and active temperament. 
 An inclination to ranginess in type is required, with a racy apearance, usu- 
 ally resulting in a horse standing 16 hands. Extreme breeding for the lead- 
 ing characteristics mentioned makes it necessary to discountenance in the 
 show ring light bodies and a general appearance which has given rise to 
 the term "weedy," which is also associated with lengthy pasterns and long 
 legs. Being highly sensitive in organization they frequently reflect an erratic 
 temperament. Their purpose being principally for racing, high quality with 
 endurance and spirit are cardinal qualities, and it is these same features 
 which have made them useful in the production of strong drivers and stylish 
 carriage and saddle horses. 
 
Photo by Schreiber. 
 
 Photograph of the American standard bred trotter, GEO. WILKES, 
 2 :22 ; founder of the great Wilkes family of standard bred trotters. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE STANDARD BRED HORSE. 
 
 THE CHIEF characteristics of the American standard bred horse is speed 
 at the trotting and the pacing gaits ; the world's trotting record for one 
 mile being held by The Abbott, the time being 2:03 14, while the world's 
 pacing record for the same distance is held by Star Pointer, the time being 
 IroO 1 /^. The type which should be encouraged in the show ring is that 
 which conduces towards this end, while at the same time showing the char- 
 acteristics required for endurance, ambition and the essential features of a 
 road horse. This means the possession of general features represented by 
 an intelligent head and extremely light neck, low, deep chest, oblique shoul- 
 der, long, muscular forearm, strong knees, short cannons, slim, sloping pas- 
 tern, and feet of good wearing quality, with round body rising slightly over 
 the loin ; neat, long croup ; thighs full with low hocks that are strongly con- 
 structed and clearly defined. Such deficiencies as are due to undersize, lack 
 of style and substance should be points for underscoring in the show ring. 
 In this connection, it is of importance to understand the difference that may 
 exist in representatives of this breed when they are undergoing the strenuous 
 work of campaigning or when they are retained only for show and stud pur- 
 poses. As many carriage horses have their origin in this breed, as well as 
 most of the roadsters and trotters, emphasis should be given to the qualities 
 which mean endurance, ambition and high finish. 
 
 It sometimes occurs that both pacing and trotting action compete in the 
 show ring in a class for roadsters or standard breds. Both these gaits must 
 l)e recognized and the preference given to the one that shows the most purity 
 and is the best in every particular of its kind. The distinction must be 
 made between the high knee and hock action of the carriage horse and the 
 more reaching and easier folding action of the roadster or trotter. See 
 standard, page f>8. 
 
STRUCTURAL EXAMINATION 31 
 
 "" SCALE OF POINTS FOB LIGHT HORSES GELDING. % o 
 
 GENERAL APPEARANCE: (/) 
 
 Form, symmetrical, smooth, stylish 4 
 
 Quality, bone clean, firm and indicating sufficient sub- 
 stance; tendons defined; hair and 3kin fine 4 
 
 Temperament, active, kind disposition 4 
 
 HEAD AND NECK: 
 
 Head, lean, straight 1 
 
 Muzzle, fine, nostrils large; lips thin, even; teeth sound 1 
 
 Eyes, full, bright, clear, large 1 
 
 Forehead, broad, full 1 
 
 Ears, medium, size, pointed; well carried, and not far 
 
 apart . . l 
 
 Neck, muscled; crest, high; throatlatch, fine; wind- 
 pipe, large _. 1 
 
 FORE QUARTERS: 
 
 Shoulders, long, smooth with muscle, oblique, extend- 
 ing into back 2 
 
 Arms, short, thrown forward 1 
 
 Fore arms, muscled, long, wide 2 
 
 Knees, clean, wide, straight, deep, strongly supported. 2 
 
 Cannons, short, wide; sinews, large, set back 2 
 
 Fetlocks, wide, straight 1 
 
 Pasterns, strong, angle with ground 45 degrees 3 
 
 Feet, medium, even size; straight; horn dense; frog 
 
 large, elastic; bars strong; sole concave; heel wide. 6 
 
 Legs, viewed in front, a perpendicular line from the point 
 of the shoulder should fall upon the center of the 
 knee, cannon, pastern and foot. From the side, a 
 perpendicular line dropping from the center of the 
 elbow joint should fall upon the center of the knee 
 
 and pastern joints and back of hoof 4 
 
 BODY: 
 
 Withers, muscled and well finished at top 1 
 
 Chest, deep, low, large girth 2 
 
 Ribs, long, sprung, close 2 
 
 Back, straight, short, broad, muscled 2 
 
 Loin, wide, short, thick 2 
 
 Underline, long; flank let down 1 
 
 HIND QUARTERS: 
 
 Hips, smooth, wide, level 2 
 
 Croup, long, wide, muscular 2 
 
 Tail, attached high, well carried 1 
 
 Thighs, long, muscular, spread, open angled 2 
 
 Quarters, heavily muscled, deep 
 
 Gaskin or Lower Thighs, long, wide, muscular 2 
 
 Hocks, clearly defined, wide, straight 5 
 
 Gannons, short, wide; sinews, large, set back 2 
 
 Fetlocks, wide, straight 1 
 
 Pasterns, strong, sloping 2 
 
32 JUDGING HEAVY HORSES 
 
 Feet, medium, even size; straight; horn dense, frog 
 large, elastic; bars strong; sole, concave; heel, wide, 
 high 4 
 
 Legs, viewed from behind, a perpendicular line from 
 the point of the buttock, should fall upon the center 
 of the hock, cannon, pastern and foot. From 
 the side, a perpendicular line from the hip joint 
 should fall upon the center of the foot and divide 
 the gaskin in the middle; and a perpendicular line 
 from the point of the buttock should run parallel 
 
 with the line of the cannon 4 
 
 ACTION: 
 
 Walk, elastic, quick, balanced 5 
 
 Trot, rapid, straight, regular, high 15 
 
 Total 100 
 
 III. JUDGING HEAVY HORSES. 
 
 53, Consideration of Condition. In examining draft 
 horses it is well to remember that defects that are often 
 apparent to the eye in the instance of light horses, require 
 more careful observation to detect them in heavy horses. 
 The defects are usually harder to see owing to the degree 
 to which the horses may be pampered. Draft horses may be 
 fed to such a high condition and in this way so "veneered" 
 that it becomes a very hard matter to detect the struc- 
 tural defects. A horse in lean serviceable condition will 
 often show many defects especially in the body that a 
 thick covering of fat would hide. In judging draft 
 horses it is necessary to observe the greatest precaution 
 so as not to mistake such padding with fat for dvelopment 
 of muscle. 
 
 /. General Examination. 
 
 As in the light horse the most important matters to 
 notice in the general examination are the form, quality 
 and action of the horse under inspection. 
 
 54. Form Massive, Broad, Deep. In form the draft 
 horse should be broad, square, close to the ground and 
 well proportioned. It is necessary to remember that power 
 rather than speed should be the outcome of the effort of 
 a draft horse. It is evident that the size of the muscle 
 has more to do with power, while the length of the muscle 
 
French Coach Stallion, PALADIN 1968, by Perfection.Owned by Dunnam, 
 Fletcher & Coleman, Wayne, 111. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF 'A HE FRUNCH COACH HORSE 
 
 I ARGELY through the encouragement and direction of the French government 
 the French coach horse has been moulded into a type that has as its leading 
 characteristic extreme smoothness, symmetry, a grace in movement with strong 
 action approaching closely to that required for the carriage horse. The head 
 should be intelligent looking, the neck clearly outlined and gracefully carried, the 
 body snugly ribbed and quarters deep and muscular. To be striking in appearance, 
 upstanding and high headed are features which have a paramount value in this 
 type, and in addition there should be every evidence of quality in all structures. 
 The common colors are bay, brown and black, and usually these are solid and not 
 broken. Uniformity is desirable in any breed, so that it is necessary for the judge 
 to adopt a certain type as that which he prefers, and then be consistent in the 
 awards which follow. The highest pattern of a coach horse without coarseness or 
 lack of action should be the standard carried in mind. When at rest it may be 
 said that for true symmetry, fullness and graceful curves the highest type of the 
 French coach horse is almost an idealistic pattern of what is required of ? repre- 
 sentative of this class. 
 
German coach stallion imported SOCRATES, owned by Mr. John Par- 
 rott, San Francisco, California. At the San Francisco Horse Show 
 this stallion was first prize winner in the stallion class for coachers. 
 
 A Cleveland Bay coach stallion, first prize winner at the Royal 
 Agricultural Society Show in 1899. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE GERMAN COACH HORSE. 
 
 THE GERMAN coach horse is representative of the larger breeds coming 
 within the coach class. The type of the best carries with it the smooth- 
 ness and the full development of muscular regions which give powerful move- 
 ment and at the same time fullness of form. Substance, meaning thereby the 
 possession of a strong frame, shown especially in the bone below the knee, 
 is one of the features which has a pre-eminent place in the qualities desired 
 by the adherents of the breed. Soundness of joints and cleanness of limb 
 are qualities which must be secured in horses suitable for the purpose of 
 these, and the show ring inspection should be directed clearly towards dis- 
 countenancing undue roughness of structure, looseness of joints. The colors 
 are bay, brown and black, and these are rarely broken by splashes or other 
 striking markings. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE CLEVELAND BAY HORSE. 
 
 THIS BREED, taking its name from its native district in England, has for 
 its charactertistic color different shades of bay with black points. Being 
 bred for the heaviest carriage work, a representative of this breed should 
 stand sixteen hands high, somewhat large in size, and with more evidence of 
 power than most other breeds of light horses. While possessing substance 
 and symmetry, there should not be any deficiencies in evidence such as rough 
 joints, coarse bone and lack of action for carriage purposes. Their size, 
 power and evenness of disposition adapt them for general work on light farms 
 or for heavy carriage work in the cities. As the sphere of this breed has not 
 demanded the action called for in the lighter coach breeds, true coach action 
 has not been commonly associated with its members, but, more or less, the 
 critical judge should look for it in the show ring as in all coach classes. 
 
GENERAL EXAMINATION 33 
 
 is indicative principally of speed. There is a combination 
 of power and speed which is desirable to secure in the 
 draft horse but as in all things opposed to each other it 
 is impossible to secure the highest development of both 
 in the same individual. It has been stated by a writer 
 on this subject* that in the instance of animals of short 
 bones, slight angularity and short muscles, the conditions 
 are most favorable for drawing heavy loads, and animals 
 with long bones, long muscles and slightly angular joints 
 are especially adapted for speed. 
 
 55. Advantage of Weight. In considering the form, 
 weight should be given a high valuation, for a horse that 
 does not weigh at least 1,500 pounds should not be con- 
 sidered a draft horse. In addition, this weight must be ' 
 the outcome of strong bone, heavy muscles and idi'ge pro- 
 portions and not have its origin in excessive fatness. As 
 to the importance of weight it may be illustrated best by 
 citing what is said to be the first experience that inventors 
 had with the locomotive. When this was being perfected 
 before its introduction as a means of transportation, it 
 is stated that a small model of a locomotive with thejiec- 
 essary track arrangement was used by those desiring to 
 bring it into practical use. It was found in the model 
 that the wheels would not adhere to the track but would 
 spin around and waste the power. Considerable study was 
 given to the best means of overcoming this difficulty. It 
 was thought that the wheels should have cogs and the 
 track furnished in the same way but a better plan was 
 happened upon by accident. The inventor having a small 
 load in form of bags to take over the track, instead of 
 putting it in the car of the model train threw them across 
 the locomotive and when steam was generated the train 
 started without any of the difficulties that had been before 
 observed. He found through this that the locomotive to 
 exert its power to the best advantage should have a pro- 
 portionate weight and it ultimately assisted in the per- 
 
 * Smith, Physiology of Domestic Animals, page 756. 
 
34 JUDGING HEAVY HORSES 
 
 fection of the locomotive. The same principle attached it- 
 self to the draft horse as a motor. It has been further 
 illustrated in this way a driver with a rather light horse 
 was trying to take a cartload of grain up a hill, the horse 
 tried several times to accomplish it but would only get 
 partly up the hill when the load would draw him back. 
 After studying the matter the driver took some bags out 
 of the cart and put them on the horse and accomplished his 
 object. The same principle is applied as in the instance of 
 the locomotive. He had added just so much to the weight 
 of the horse and this enabled him to overcome in a degree 
 the weight of the load. The factor of weight is not only 
 of value in matter of work but this is also observable 
 .as an influence in the general market. 
 
 56. Market Value of Weight. Arranging the sales re- 
 ported by a leading firm of Chicago, during 1893, accord- 
 ing to the weight of the horses sold, it will be seen that 
 the variation in price is in accordance with the weight of 
 the horse, as follows : 
 
 Average Average 
 
 Weight. Price. 
 
 1400 $155.87 
 
 1450 159.15 
 
 1500 169.15 
 
 1550 176.56 
 
 1600 176.62 
 
 1650 208.64 
 
 1700 212.89 
 
 1750 236.14 
 
 1800 258.33 
 
 It will be noticed that there is a constant increase in the 
 prices from the lighter to the heavier weight and this 
 factor of weight seems to be so marked as to dominate all 
 other merits. The weight increasing from 1,400 to 1,800 
 pounds advanced the price about $100, which means that 
 the added weight within this range was worth, about 25 
 cents per pound on the general market. 
 
 57. Quality with Substance Necessary for Durability. 
 Of all desirable features to be sought in a draft horse that 
 of strong, clean and firm bone is one of the most important. 
 
JLJ* 
 
 Imported Trakehner coach stallion VIRGIL. Black horse with brown 
 muzzle, 16 hands high. Foaled 1887. Weight 1,275 pounds. Bred by 
 W. Gerlach, Walterkehmen, Prussia. Imported by Jacob Heyi, of Mil- 
 waukee, Wisconsin, in 1890. 
 
 Russian Orloff stallion WZMAKH, record 2:26*4. Gray horse, 16 
 hands high. Foaled 1887. Bred by S. DeBeauvais, Rogojkinow, Gouv- 
 ernement Pensa, District of Mokshansk, Russia. Imported by Jacob 
 Heyl, of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, 1892. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE TRAKEHNER COACH HORSE. 
 
 THIS BREED of coach horses, developed under the patronage of the Prus- 
 sian government, includes among its representatives horses that for gen- 
 eral use exhibit a high standard of excellence. They possess the substance 
 required in a weight pulling coach horse and with it much of the quality which 
 reflects a high order of breeding. The outline of the best type illustrates a 
 high order of perfection for a coach horse ; while the advantage of large size 
 with good bone adds greatly to their weight pulling qualities. In color these 
 horses are with rare exception bright bays with few if any markings. Though 
 typical coach action has not been made a feature of their breeding, as in the 
 instance of some of the other breeds of coach horses, yet it is a characteristic 
 which should be in evidence in any show ring containing a display of this class. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE ORLOFF TROTTER. 
 
 THE ORLOFF trotter, being the national horse of Russia, has been de- 
 signed largely by government direction to meet the many demands which 
 are made upon a horse of general utility. They should be expected to show 
 the quality which would be required in any light horse frequently subjected to 
 severe tests of endurance and strength of structure. The type is one smoothly 
 moulded with muscle, strong in all its parts and yet not unduly coarse, while 
 at the same time not being so finely constructed as to detract any from its 
 general strength. Being vigorous, they possess an abundance of ambition, and 
 associated with this there is a compactness and general unity of structure 
 which makes them good wearers under work. It is not expected that a horse 
 of this type would have the ability to trot as fast as one showing a higher 
 and more special construction, but it is proper to look for that type which 
 would be adapted for covering long distances with the least fatigue. 
 
Champion Shetland pony PRINCE OF WALES, at nine years of age, 
 height 39 inches. This stallian lias won a championship at every show 
 exhibited since his two-year-old form, having won over 12 consecutive 
 championship prizes. Owned by Chas. E. Bunn, Peoria, Illinois. See 
 Shetland Standard page 59. 
 
 A typical Welsh pony. 
 
 STANDARD FOR PONY. 
 
 BEFORE the establishment of the Hackney Horse Society in 1883, the 
 dividing line between the horse and the pony in England was vague and 
 undefined. It was then found necessary to distinguish clearly between horses 
 and ponies, and accordingly all animals measuring fourteen hands or under 
 were designated "ponies" and registered in a separate part of the Stud Book. 
 This record of height with other particulars as to breeding, .etc., serves to 
 direct breeders in their choice of sires and dams. The standard of height 
 established by the Hackney Horse Society was accepted and officially recog- 
 nized by the Royal Agricultural Society 'in iss:t when the prize list" for the 
 Windsor Show contained pony classes for animals not exceeding 14 hands. 
 The altered Polo rule which iixes the limit of height at 14 hands 2 inches mav 
 l>e productive of some little confusion ; but for all other purposes 14 hands is 
 the recognized maximum height of a pony. Prior to 1883 small horses were 
 called indifferently galloways, hobbies, cobs or ponies, irrespective o their 
 height. Ponies Past and Present, by Sir Walter Gilbey, Bart. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF WELSH PONY. 
 
 FOR THE information of those interested in this breed, the following de- 
 scriptions, furnished to the Polo Pony Society for their stud book (Vol. V. ) 
 by the local committees, may be quoted:' "HEIGHT Not to exceed 12.2 hands. 
 COLOR Bay or brown preferred ; grey or black allowable ; but dun, chestnut 
 or broken color considered objectionable. ACTION Best described as that of 
 the hunter ; low 'dairy-cutting' action to be avoided. The pony should move 
 quickly and actively, stepping out well from the shoulder, at the same time 
 flexing the hocks and bringing the hind legs well under the body when going. 
 GENERAL CHARACTER The pony should show good pony character and evidence 
 of robust constitution, with the unmistakable appearance of hardiness peculiar 
 to mountain ponies, and at the same time have a lively appearance. HEAD 
 Should be small, well chiseled in its outline and well set on ; forehead broad, 
 tapering toward nose. NOSTRILS Large and expanding. EYES Bright, mild, 
 intelligent and prominent. EARS Neatly set, well formed and small. THROAT 
 AND JAWS Fine, showing no signs of coarseness or throatiness. NECK Of 
 proportionate length ; strong but not too heavy with a moderate crest in the 
 case of the stallion. SHOULDERS Good shoulders most important; should be 
 well laid back arid sloping, but not too fine at the withers, not loaded at the 
 points. The pony should have a good, long shoulder blade. BACK AND LOINS 
 Strong and well covered with muscle. HINDQUARTERS Long, and tail well 
 carried, as much like the Arab as possible, springing well from the top of 
 the back. HOCKS Well let down, clean cut, with plenty of bone between the 
 joint ; they should not be 'sickled' or 'cow-hocked.' FORELEGS Well placed ; 
 not tied in any way at the elbows ; good muscular arm, short from the knee 
 to the fetlock joints; flat, hone; pasterns sloping but not too long; feet, well 
 developed and open at the heel ; hoof sound and hard." PO!<-N J'axt and 
 J'rrscnt, Kir Walter Cilbry, Part. 
 
GENERAL EXAMINATION 35 
 
 The leg below the cannon should be flat, the bone should 
 feel firm and the tendons should stand out distinctly from 
 the bone. There should be such a feeling about the bone 
 of the legs as to warrant the assumption that it is of a fine, 
 firm texture. If you will compare the texture of a piece of 
 hickory wood with that of tamarac or larch, which differ 
 markedly in their relative strength, the difference which 
 exists in the bone of horses will be made clear. Although 
 a horse has never been known to break its leg in this region 
 by severe exertion yet the importance of strength of bone . 
 in these parts is of high value, not simply because of its 
 wearing quality but also largely for what it indicates. It 
 will be found that in the instance of a horse that has what 
 is generally known as flat, clean bone with hard defined 
 joints, its endurance is double that of a horse showing the 
 opposite quality. In those breeds which have hair on 
 their legs or ''feather" as it is sometimes called, the qual- 
 ity of the hair is an . index to the nature of the bone. 
 Coarse, porous bone, and coarse skin are associated and the 
 latter gives rise to coarse hair; while on the other hand 
 fine, silky hair is accepted as an indication that the bone 
 is of close and hard texture. The mistake sometimes made 
 of considering small bone a characteristic of quality should 
 be guarded against as this is a very detrimental feature in 
 a draft horse. In heavy horses the important considera- 
 tion is to secure as close a combination as possible of 
 quality with substance and weight. 
 
 58. Action Straight, Regular. The common working 
 pace of the draft horse is the walk and for this reason it 
 deserves prominence. In its sphere the draft horse is only 
 at times urged beyond a walk so that it becomes a very 
 important attribute of this horse to be a good walker. In 
 criticising the walk of a draft horse, the action should be 
 noted from three points of view before, behind and from 
 the side. In approaching, the horse should carry his head 
 high and the stride should be regular. The feet should be 
 lifted clear of the ground and placed down evenly as if in 
 
36 JUDGING HEAVY HORSES 
 
 deliberation. From the side it may be noted if the hind 
 and fore legs work in unison. Horses with short bones 
 and long underlines present the best view from, the side 
 while in action hut on the other hand those with long- 
 backs and weak loins usually drag their legs in a slovenly 
 way. Viewed from behind the action of the hock should 
 be carefully noted. The flexion in this region should be 
 free and straight. It is a common weakness of the hocks 
 to be turned outward when raised, but more frequently 
 the hocks are bent in too much and the feet thrown out of 
 line. As a rule the stride should not be too long but well 
 balanced with a movement quick and elastic. 
 
 59. Trotting Action. The ability to trot well is not 
 generally considered a valuable attribute for a draft horse, 
 as it is claimed that to walk well is a much more useful 
 achievement. Good trotting action, however, is not only 
 valuable in itself but it also brings with it many other 
 qualities such as activity, style, balance of conformation 
 and other features that are desirable in any class of horses. 
 The draft horse in trotting should go level, straight and 
 regular, for any deviation from these qualities are usually 
 evidences of unsoundness or the absence of a balanced con- 
 formation. The legs, both fore and hind, should flex freely 
 at the hocks and knees, for a rigidness of movement of 
 these is indicative of defects of some kind. A stilted hock 
 action is much too common in draft horses and is very 
 often due to the fact that the hock is not properly set as 
 may be observed in all hind legs that are too straight. 
 Such are usually lacking in reach and power. 
 
 II. Structural Examination. 
 
 60. Head Lean, Medium Size. Coarseness of the head 
 is a prevalent fault. While it should be of only medium 
 size there should be sufficient breadth between the eyes 
 and the face lines should be clearly defined with the total 
 length of the head proportionate to the rest of the body. 
 It should be well set on the neck and carried gracefully. 
 
Photo from Horse Show Monthly. 
 
 Saddle stallion MOXTE CRISTO, JR., owned by J. T. Crenshaw, Scott 
 Station, Ky. Winner of numerous prizes at leading horse shows. 
 
 
 Morgan horse, HILLSIDE, bred by Morgan Horse Company, Carpen- 
 tersville, 111. HILLSIDE and his full brother sold during the depressed 
 times of the horse industry for $1,600. He was first at the Illinois State 
 Fair in 1894, 1895, and also first prize winner at the Chicago Horse 
 Show in 1894. 
 
Standard bred trotting 1 stallion, ALLERTON, when a three-year-old with 
 a record of 2:12, formerly champion trotting- stallion, and within recent 
 years the leading- sire of standard trotters. Sired by Jay Bird 5060, 
 and owned by C. W. Williams, Galesburg, 111. 
 
 American standard bred stallion ALLERTON, 2:09 1 /4. Reproduced from 
 a photograph taken when ] 4 years old. A comparison of this with 
 the illustration shown above, which was taken when three years old, 
 indicates the development which takes place in a stallion as he ad- 
 vances in years. A comparison will also add to the prestige of this 
 horse, for it shows how well preserved in form he is, without any 
 !>!(. lislies, after having passed through severe campaigning. 
 
STRUCTURAL EXAMINATION 37 
 
 The nostrils should be large and of a healthy color. An 
 examination of the mouth, though usually made to esti- 
 mate the age, should include inspection for the most fre- 
 quent defects in this region which, in heavy horses are 
 parrot mouth or overshot mouth and troubles of the teeth. 
 The eye should be bright, full and mild with no appearance 
 of film to interfere with the vision. In looking at the eye 
 it is well to remember that the natural shape of the pupil 
 is elliptical, while a spherical form indicates blindness or 
 impaired vision. Haziness of the eye, one being smaller 
 than the other or a wrinkled eyelid are indications of oph- 
 thalmia. 
 
 61. Neck Strong, Lengthy. The neck should have the 
 appearance of being strong and massive and also of suffi- 
 cient length and well arched. Undue length of neck 
 especially in draft horses is so rare that it may be con- 
 sidered unknown. 
 
 62. Shoulders Sloping, Muscular. While a decidedly 
 upright shoulder may give increased power in the shafts, 
 it must be remembered that it may be in an extreme posi- 
 tion in this respect, and if so it forces the step to be short 
 and slow. It is easy to see that a moderately oblique 
 shoulder favors a long, quick step and at the same time it 
 detracts but little from the power. When the shoulder is 
 very upright the concussion upon the feet is increased and 
 hence this conformation is general!}^ associated with side- 
 bones and ringbones. Activity and elasticity of movement, 
 especially in the walk is a desirable feature of the heavy 
 horse and such is very seldom found in connection with an 
 upright shoulder. 
 
 63. Chest Deep, Full. The chest should be deep and 
 comparatively broad giving great volume and lung room. 
 It is best estimated by the girth, which is the body's cir- 
 cumference behind the fore legs. Horses that are slack in 
 that part, are generally of weak constitution without aver- 
 age staying power. Exceptional width in the chest usually 
 
38 JUDGING HEAVY HORSES 
 
 results in rolling and pitching in action, but if the shoulder 
 blades fit snug to the body this is not generally noticeable. 
 
 64. Arms Sloping. The humerus or bone that forms 
 the arm should be short and sloping so as to bring the fore 
 legs properly under the body. In addition it should be 
 well covered with muscle. 
 
 65. Fore Legs Wide, Defined, Fore Arm Large. The 
 
 fore arm should be large and its prominence should be due 
 to a large bunch of muscle which gives the horse complete 
 control of his legs. It is an especially valuable feature to 
 notice in a draft horse for the reason that it is not as 
 easily padded with fat as the rest of the body. 
 
 66. Knees Broad, Defined, A broad, clean knee is im- 
 portant and there should not be the least shrinkage in the 
 breadth below it. The extremities should be lean and the 
 tendons should stand out prominently from the rest of the 
 leg. In Clydesdales and Shires there should be a fringe of 
 fine, silky hair starting from behind the knee and running 
 to the fetlock and this should spring from the edge of the 
 leg. It is well to bear in mind that this "feather" very 
 often gives one a false impression of the width of the leg 
 below the knee. Horses that are coarse about the fetlocks 
 with matted, wiry hair in this region are as a rule more 
 subject to the skin diseases characteristic of these regions. 
 
 67. Fetlocks Clean, Wide. This joint should be clearly 
 defined without any fullness, due to windgalls. In addition 
 it should be wide so as to give favorable attachment to the 
 strong tendons that pass this point. 
 
 68. Pasterns Sloping, Springy. The pastern of the 
 draft horse should be medium in length and it should be 
 critically examined especially in regard to its slope, for 
 this has much to do with the durability of the horse 's feet 
 and also has an effect on the animal's action. A glance at 
 the skeleton in this region will show that there are four 
 
A yearling Hackney filly, winner of numerous prizes in the leading 
 British show rings. 
 
 A thoroughbred yearling, DISGUISE II, owned by James R. Keene. 
 This American bred horse finished third in the Derby, and afterwards 
 beat the winner of the race, the Prince of Wales' Diamond Jubilee. 
 
 A group of French Coach yearling fillies at Oaklawn Stock Farm, 
 the property of Messrs. Dunham, Fletcher & Coleman, Wayne, 111. 
 These fillies were sired by Perfection and they show the form and 
 quality desired in coach fillies of this age. 
 
NANCY HANKS 2.04 and foal by ARION 2:07%. This foal shows the [ 
 qualities desired in a trotting breed weanling while the mare in form > 
 illustrates a very desirable type of standard bred brood mare. 
 
 A pasture scene at Gregory Farm, White Hall, 111. 
 
The illustration on the right hand shows a deficient fore leg for a 
 draft horse, as it lacks muscle, with straight, coarse pastern and shelly 
 feet. The shoulder is also too straight and the legs very deficient in 
 quality, as the hair is coarse and wiry, which may be noted by com- 
 parison with the one on the left. The latter shows good feet, sloping 
 pasterns, strongly supported knee, rather weak fore arm, and mod- 
 erately sloping shoulder. 
 
 Clydesdale gelding SENSATION. In 1896 this horse was champion 
 gelding of Scotland and then weighed 2184 pounds when shown by Mr. 
 William Clark of Netherlea, Scotland, who paid $600 for him. After 
 working during the intervening time on the streets of Liverpoo 1 , he was 
 shown at Chicago at the International Exposition in December, 1900, 
 where he won a $100 special for the best aged gelding in harness. 
 Photo taken December, 1900. This horse was bred by Mr. John Craw- 
 ford, of Scotland and he was sired by the Darnley horse Gartsherrie 
 (2800). 
 
The imported English Shire stallion SOUTHILL CASTLE. First in 
 aged class at International Exposition in 1911, shown by Truman 
 Bros., Bushnell, 111. 
 
 A prize winning Belgian stallion, imported and shown by Crouch 
 & Son, La Fayette, Ind. 
 
STRUCTURAL EXAMINATION 39 
 
 small bones below the fetlock joint. The first one below 
 this joint is the one that forms the pastern and below this 
 there are two others continuing the slope of the pastern ; 
 vrhile the fourth is located at the juncture of the two just 
 mentioned. It is evident that it is desirable for the pastern 
 bone to slope at least forty-five degrees, for if it is 
 straighter than this, the concussion given to the foot is 
 not dissipated over all the structures as it should be. A 
 horse putting the foot down (except when severely taxed 
 in draft and then the toe reaches the ground first) receives 
 the concussion on the frog which transmits it to the ten- 
 dinous tissue padding the heel of the foot. From there it 
 passes to the bones of the foot apparently about the region 
 of the first joint made by the three bones, the navicular, 
 coffin and the coronary, which are admirably arranged in 
 the leg having a sloping pastern to each receive a share 
 of the buffeting. If the pastern is sloping it would seem 
 that only a small part of the concussion is likely to reach 
 the pastern bone and this seemingly would be completely 
 spent before the fetlock joint would be reached. This 
 joint when the pastern slopes properly, swings in a sling 
 of ligaments and tendons and consequently when the parts 
 below slope considerably, it is much more effective in pro- 
 tecting the bones of the leg from the irritation that arises 
 from concussion. It is easy to see why navicular disease, 
 sidebones and ringbones, are most frequently associated 
 with straight pasterns. The concussion from the foot in 
 the straight pastern falls most severely on the first joint 
 formed by the navicular, coffin and coronary bones and 
 consequently it is about this region that these various bone 
 Diseases are located. Concussion produces irritation, 
 which continued results in inflammation followed by bony 
 deposits. To give the pastern the proper springiness, a pro- 
 portionate length should be associated with the slope. The 
 slope, however, is of still more importance than length or 
 
40 JUDGING HEAVY HORSES 
 
 size. The features of the joints at both ends should be 
 clearly denned, showing that they are completely free from 
 puffiness, sidebones or other diseases or blemishes. 
 
 It may be stated here that pasterns that are upright in 
 a mature horse generally become more so with age and the 
 action depreciates in proportion. Such a conformation 
 gives but slight command of the feet and the horse that 
 has it literally forces the feet into the ground or batters 
 them on the hard pavement of the city streets. 
 
 69. Feet Large, Dense, Concave Sole, Large Frog. 
 
 Diseases and defects of the foot are exceedingly prevalent 
 among heavy horses. As sound feet are rather the excep- 
 tion, and this is an important structure, considerable atten- 
 tion should be directed to it. The foot is made up of three 
 bones. These are covered by a highly sensitive secreting 
 layer. The external surface is made up of the wall, sole 
 and frog. In shape the proper foot is somewhat irregular 
 as the outer quarter running back to the sole curves consid- 
 erably outward, while the inner quarter is straighter. This 
 shape it will be easily seen not only gives a strong hold 
 upon the ground, but it also decreases the possibility of 
 the inner edge of the foot striking the opposite leg or inter- 
 fering. In color the foot should be dark and it should have 
 a waxy appearance. The angle formed by the hoof from 
 the ground to the top should be about fifty degrees. One 
 of the parts to be examined most critically is the frog. This 
 should be plump, large and elastic. Just above the frog is 
 what is known as the sensitive frog, which is a mass of 
 blood vessels and nerves and above this again is a fatty 
 frog which acts as a buffer. On top of the latter is the 
 small navicular bone. This bone is enveloped in a very 
 sensitive secreting membrane and if this becomes irritated 
 in the least through concussion resulting from the frog 
 not fulfilling its functions as a buffer then inflammation at 
 once sets in; the fluid for lubricating the joint is not se- 
 creted ; then follows absorption of the cartilage and finally 
 
STRUCTURAL EXAMINATION 41 
 
 disease of the bone which interferes with the function of 
 the joint. These all result in excruciating pain and greatly 
 lessen the horse's utility. Wide, open hoof heads (this 
 has reference to the top of the foot) are very desirable. 
 
 70. Body Short, Broad Back, Deep Ribs. The typical 
 draft horse should stand comparatively high in front. This 
 should not be due to straight shoulders or height of the 
 withers, for when these are high it will generally be found 
 that they are not well covered with muscle. Undue length 
 of the back, very often sunken, is a common defect of draft 
 horses. Another feature to look for in viewing the barrel 
 is the breadth and depth of the ribs. If the body is not 
 round and the ribs well sprung and deep, the chest is 
 likely to be narrow. The volume of the chest behind the 
 withers is an index to the capacity of the lungs, and it is 
 a fact that horses that are light there and short in the hind 
 rib easily become languid and depressed during exertion. 
 The horse with a poorly sprung rib making a shallow barrel 
 and light loin is usually a poor feeder and ill doer. 
 
 71. Loin Thick, Broad. The loin should be thick and 
 broad. If there is a slight elevation over the loin due to 
 an extra development of the muscle it may be considered 
 as indicating strength, though it detracts from the sym- 
 metry. 
 
 72. Croup Broad, Muscled. The croup should be 
 broad and thick with muscle. There is considerable differ- 
 ence in draft horses in regard to the slope of the croup. In 
 some it appears as if they had been hit with a board in the 
 hind quarter giving the croup an extreme slope, while in 
 others it runs almost straight. The main factor which adds 
 to the strength of the croup is not the slope of it but the 
 degree to which it is muscled The slope that runs from 
 the center of the hips to the root of the tail is made by the 
 vertebrae to which some important muscles are attached. 
 The other slope which runs from the sides of the hip joints 
 as seen from the side has perhaps more to do with the 
 favorable application of power in this part, than the slope 
 
42 JUDGING HEAVY HORSES 
 
 that has been first mentioned. It is easy to see that when 
 a muscle is perpendicular to the weight to be lifted the 
 power is applied in the most advantageous way, just the 
 same as when you wish to lift a weight you stand straight 
 over it instead of trying to lift it at arm's length. There 
 seems to be no real reason why the croup should slope so 
 markedly as it does in some strains of horses, as it certainly 
 detracts from their appearance. 
 
 73. Thighs Muscled ; Quarters Full. Passing down to 
 the hind leg the thigh should be closely examined for the 
 development of muscle in that region. The quarters should 
 also be observed with the same object in view. There is a 
 vast difference in horses in this respect, and it will some- 
 times be found that horses very heavily muscled at the 
 croup are very lightly muscled in the quarters. It is a bad 
 defect for a draft horse to be deficient in muscle in the 
 quarters, for it is from these parts that they obtain most 
 of their power to pull. 
 
 74. Hock Wide, Defined, Properly Set. The hock 
 should be closely examined, for in this joint there is likely 
 more work done than in any other single joint of the body. 
 Narrow, tied-in hocks are more subject to curbs than those 
 that are broad. Fleshiness or coarseness about the hocks 
 is very prevalent among draft horses and it is well to ex- 
 amine such closely for bog spavins. The tendons running 
 from the hocks should be large, lean and firm. It is a com- 
 mon defect for a draft horse to be too straight or too 
 crooked in the hock. .One that is set properly gives more 
 power. The worst trouble and the most common one to be 
 noted in hocks of draft horses is that of fleshiness or * ' gum- 
 miness, " and such are not only more liable to hock trou- 
 bles, but it indicates coarseness of organization which is 
 not usually associated with durability. In looking at the 
 hock it should appear wide both from in front of the 
 horse and the side, especially so from the latter point of 
 view. The point of the hock should be as sharp as possible 
 and the same may be said of all its features. Some horses 
 
Suffolk stallion, RENDESHAM CUPBEARER. 
 cultural Society Show, 1899. 
 
 First at the Royal Agri- 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE SUFFOLK PUNCH HORSE. 
 
 THIS BRITISH breed of draft horses is exceptionally uniform in type, owing 
 to the fact that they have been long established and have been carefully 
 bred for this feature. They are chestnut in color and the best representatives 
 in form show a type that is low set, short legged and deep bodied. Consider- 
 ing the average weight of the breed they show an unusual amount of this 
 be due to the extreme development of muscle. The bone is most frequently 
 of a high quality and the limbs clean cut in every feature, while feet of dur- 
 able texture are among their common attributes. They have a well estab- 
 lished reputation for being docile in temperament, easy keepers, steady when 
 working, and activity is a leading quality of the breed. Desirable weight is 
 sometimes absent in its representatives and frequently when this is ample it 
 is secured by abnormal fatness rather than by general massiveness. While 
 the fact that their qualities, chiefly activity and durability, especially adapt 
 them for general farm work of lighter draft purposes, yet the importance of 
 the other essential and draft qualities, especially weight should not be over- 
 looked by the judge in the show ring. 
 
HIAWATHA (10067), Vol. XVIII. Champion Clydesdale stallion; 
 bay; rising nine years old; height 17-1 hands high; weight at present 
 i'128 Ibs. Bred by William Hunter, Garthland Mains, Stranraer. 
 Property of John Pollock, Paper Mill, Langside. Winner of first 
 prizes in the Aged Open Class and the Cawdor Scottish cup at the 
 Scottish Stallion Show, Glasgow, in 1898 and 1899; first prize and 
 R. H. the Prince of Wales' Gold Medal at H. A. S. Show, Edinburgh, 
 1899; first prize and Duke of Montrose Plate, Glasgow Summer Show; 
 also Duke of Portland's cup at Ayr, 1900 ; first prize and Cawdor 
 Challenge cup at Scottish Stallion show, Glasgow, 1901. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE CLYDESDALE HORSE. 
 
 THE representatives of this breed of Scotch draft horses are usually bay, 
 brown, black or chestnut in color, with white markings. In conforma- 
 tion, the leading characteristics sought are the possession of weight with 
 quality and action. While the adherents of the breed recognize the value 
 of weight yet they always associate with it quality of structure with superior 
 mechanical action, and in judging a class of horses of this breed these 
 features should have equal prominence. The head in the typical Clydesdale, 
 though sometimes out of proportion to the other parts, is usually possessed 
 of intelligent features. To secure the action desired the shoulders must be 
 sloping so as to permit a free and long stride in the walk and trot ; the arm 
 must necessarily be full muscled, legs fiuted and fiat with a fine feather 
 springing from the edge. The pasterns which have received much attention 
 in the formation of this breed, should be decidedly sloping, the hoof head 
 or top of the foot should be large, and no amount of fine feather or excel- 
 lence of pastern should be allowed to overbalance the necessity of a good 
 sized foot, correctly shaped and of splendid wearing texture. The back 
 should be short and, though seemingly low from the extra style secured by 
 high carriage of head, should never be weak, which is prevented by short- 
 ness in this part, and with an easy rising and full coupled loin running 
 smoothly into a strong croup. The quarters should be well muscled and the 
 hind legs in addition to having every evidence of quality should be properly 
 set, meaning thereby that they stand close and the parts have correct pro- 
 portion in relation to each other. In no case should style be allowed to sup- 
 plant essential draft qualities, as it would be a fault of judgment to permit 
 high carriage and flashy action to attain prominence over a deep middle, 
 strong coupling in association with properly set limbs, as the source of 
 Clydesdale popularity is the degree to which they combine the many essen- 
 tials of a draft horse with activity. 
 
STRUCTURAL EXAMINATION 43 
 
 are especially sharp in the prominences of the hock leading 
 some to question their freedom from spavins. This forma- 
 tion is desirable for the reason that it is usually associated 
 with the best quality of bone and tendon and further it 
 gives this region more power because of the more favorable 
 attachment of the tendons that pass these points. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS FOR DRAFT HORSES GELDING. t5 
 
 GENERAL APPEARANCE: || 
 
 Weight, over 1,500 Ibs.; score according to age 4 
 
 Form, broad, massive, proportioned 4 
 
 Quality, bone smooth, hard; tendons lean; skin and 
 
 hair fine 4 
 
 Temperament, energetic, good disposition 4 
 
 HEAD AND NECK: 
 
 Head, lean, medium size 1 
 
 Muzzle, tine; nostrils large; lips thin, even 1 
 
 Eyes, full, bright, clear 1 
 
 Forehead, broad, full 1 
 
 Ears, medium size, well carried 1 
 
 Neck, muscled, crest high; throatlatch fine; windpipe 
 
 large 1 
 
 FORE QUARTERS: 
 
 Shoulder, sloping, smooth, snug, extending into back 2 
 
 Arm, short, thrown back . . . 1 
 
 Fore Arm, heavily muscled, long, wide 2 
 
 Knees, wide, clean cut, straight, deep, strongly sup- 
 ported 2 
 
 Cannons, short, lean, wide; sinews large, set back. .. 2 
 
 Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong 1 
 
 Pasterns, sloping, lengthy, strong 3 
 
 Feet, large, even size; horn dense; sole concave; bars 
 strong; frog large, elastic; heel wide, one-half 
 
 length of toe and vertical to ground 8 
 
 Legs, viewed in front, a perpendicular line from the 
 point of the shoulder should fall upon the center of 
 the knee, cannon, pastern and foot. From the side, 
 a perpendicular line dropping from the center of the 
 elbow joint should fall rpon the center of the knee 
 and pastern joints and back of hoof 4 
 
 BODY: 
 
 Chest, deep, wide, low, large girth 2 
 
 Ribs, long, close, sprung 2 
 
 Back, straight, short, broad 2 
 
 Loins, wide ,shcrt, thick, straight 2 
 
 Underline, flank low 1 
 
4 ! JUDGING HORSES 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS FOR DRAFT HORSES GELDING 
 
 Continued 
 
 HIND QUARTERS: 
 
 Hips, smooth, wide 2 
 
 Croup, wide, muscular 2 
 
 Tail, attached high, well carried 1 
 
 Thighs, muscular 2 
 
 Quarters, deep, heavily muscled 2 
 
 Gaskin or lower thighs, wide muscled 2 
 
 Hocks, clean cut, wide, straight 8 
 
 Cannons, short, wide; sinews large, set back 2 
 
 Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong 1 
 
 Pasterns, sloping, strong, lengthy 2 
 
 Feet, large even size; horn dense; dark color; sole con- 
 cave; hars strong; frog large, elastic; heel wide, one 
 
 half length of toe and vertical to ground 6 
 
 Legs, viewed from behind, a perpendicular line from 
 the point of the buttock should fall upon the center 
 of the hock, cannon, pastern and foot. From side, a 
 perpendicular line from the hip joint should fall 
 upon the center of the foot and divide the gaskin in 
 the middle; and a perpendicular line from the point 
 of the buttock should run parallel to the line of the 
 cannon 4 
 
 ACTION: 
 
 Walk, smooth, quick, long, balanced 6 
 
 Trot, rapid, straight, regular 4 
 
 Total. . .100 
 
 TV. JUDGING HORSES IN THE BREEDING CLASSES. 
 
 The preceding- discussion has most to do with the judg- 
 ing of the various types of the horse in use for pleasure or 
 for work; so that it is necessary to present some details 
 that should be observed in making awards in the breeding 
 classes. In this w r ork the judge must closely discriminate 
 between the peculiar characteristics of the sexes and also 
 employ much judgment in determining the development 
 according to the age. 
 
 75. Sex Characteristics. Preceding birth and for some 
 time in foetal life, there are no evidences of sex. Such are 
 apparent at birth, but it is not until the approach of pu- 
 berty that the sex characteristics referred to here begin to 
 develop. After this period is reached the sexes begin to 
 
IX THE BREEDING CLASSES 45 
 
 diverge from each other, the male acquiring characteristics 
 that are distinctly masculine, while the female acquires 
 others peculiarly feminine in that they are strikingly dif- 
 ferent from those of the male. The reproductive cells of 
 each seem through their characteristics to influence the 
 peculiarities of the sexes in a remarkable manner. 
 
 76. Differences in Disposition. In all classes of farm 
 live stock there are very noticeable differences in disposi- 
 tion, that may be credited to the influence of the sex. The 
 active disposition of the male animal oftentimes is forced 
 to spend itself in the development of viciousness and it 
 cannot be disputed that such has been true of many of the 
 best breeding sires, especially among those of the lighter 
 breeds of horses and the dairy breeds of cattle. The differ- 
 ence in the nature of the sexes is even characteristic of the 
 reproductive cells the sperm or male cell being active and 
 smaller, while the ovum or female cell is larger and more 
 stable. From this condition through the various stages of 
 life the differences in the disposition of the sexes is. easily 
 traceable. The lamb of the male sex becomes combative 
 and more active in disposition as he develops while the ewe 
 lamb loses the early activity that was common to all and 
 develops into the gentler ewe ; the calf of the male has a 
 fierceness of mien that seeks active experssion in imaginary 
 combats, becoming easily excited to anger, when it is no- 
 ticeable that the suppliant bawl has become a fierce roar ; 
 while the cow has lost the playful energy that she had as 
 a calf and now has none to spare for anything but her quiet 
 vocation of making milk ; the colts tend to develop the 
 same restless activities while the fillies assume the quieter 
 quality of mind common to maternity, and in like manner 
 the pigs separate in their dispositions as the sex character- 
 istics become pronounced. Thus in all live stock the 
 changes of disposition are traceable to sexual development 
 
46 JUDGING HORSES 
 
 and it is because of the close connection between the two 
 features that many breeders consider the characteristic 
 disposition valuable indications of future usefulness for 
 breeding purposes. 
 
 77. Differences in Form. In the development of the 
 sexes marked differences in form result. The true male 
 form is heavier at the shoulders than the female while the 
 latter is wider in the region of the pelvis. This should be 
 borne in mind in critically examining animals of the differ- 
 ent sexes, for it may oftentimes prevent an adverse critic- 
 ism which should be favorable comment. It is not infre- 
 quent to hear the remark passed that a ram for instance, 
 in a breeding class, would be an exceptionally good sheep 
 if he were as wide behind as he is in front. This is thought 
 by some to be the striking defect of our mutton breeds 
 (and perhaps it is) but in many instances it is but the uni- 
 versal pattern that nature has adopted for the male form. 
 A male of any class of stock should be expected to be 
 wider in the chest than behind though it should not be 
 weak in the latter part. Width of hip, however, is not the 
 chief qualification of the female form ; depth in this region 
 or length of the barrel and from rib to hip, is of more im- 
 portance as this makes provision for the proper growth 
 of the foetus. 
 
 78. Variation in Features. There are many marked 
 variations in the features that are characteristic of the dif- 
 ference in the sexes. In the stallion the face has a harder 
 look and the head is larger. The neck is fuller and the 
 crest or swell of the neck is very pronounced and sur- 
 mounted with a heavy mane. The mare has a slimmer face 
 with a softer expression, the neck is thin and often ewe 
 shaped and the mane light and fine. In cattle the face of 
 the bull is more or less burly and covered with wavy hair, 
 the horn is strong and inclined to roundness while the neck 
 ic thick and stout with a full crest. In the cow the face is 
 long, free from wavy hair, the horn light and flat and the 
 neck thin and in-curved on the top line. In sheep the face 
 
Shire mare, HENDRIE CROWN PRINCESS, first in 1898 and first and 
 jreserve champion Royal Agricultural Society Show, 1899. Sold for 
 ; $5,500 at Lord Wantage's auction sale. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE SHIRE HORSE. 
 
 Z1MONG the representatives of this long established breed of English draft 
 * horse the most desirable form is low, broad and massive. Weight is con- 
 sidered a leading feature and so with this we must associate the attributes 
 of being heavily built, muscular, with large bone and rather slow movement 
 Strength of shoulder has been preferable to slope, which has probably given 
 power in the collar but detracted from the freedom and length of the stride. 
 The body of the best representatives is of exceptional merit, being large in 
 girth, deep, strongly coupled with broad, short back and heavily muscled 
 quarters. Their points of excellence are undoubtedly exceptional weight, 
 made up of heavy bone, full muscular development, with width and depth 
 of form; asosciated with these qualities there are kindred deficiencies which 
 are sometimes in evidence, meaning thereby a lack in general quality, coupled 
 with a sluggish temperament. The superior consideration which has been 
 given to weight has frequently overbalanced the claims of action, conse- 
 quently while showing to excellent advantage standing there are some which 
 fail to sustain their merit when their action is shown. Alack of quality in a 
 draft horse must necessarily be discountenanced for durability depends on 
 this and also on the set of the limbs. 
 
The imported Percheron stallion HAUTBOIS, winner in aged class at 
 the International Exposition in 1911. Shown by McLaughlin Bros., 
 Columbus, Ohio. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE PERCHERON HORSE. 
 
 IN THE establishment of this French breed of draft horses the guiding 
 ideal has been to develop an active and durable type of draft horses suited 
 for drawing loads at a rapid pace. The degree to which weight is desirable 
 in the modern draft horse has resulted in the production of a heavier type 
 with these characteristics yet in evidence. The modern type of this breed 
 is short legged, compactly and stoutly built. The representatives which best 
 exemplify the type show an active temperament, intelligent heads, short, full 
 crested necks, with deep body and wide croup. To meet the requirements 
 of their patrons they must possess with this abundance of quality, attractive 
 style and active movement. The modern type shows a difference from the 
 original in being black in color and somewhat closer to the ground than 
 those first imported. The original gray Percheron had for its peculiar char- 
 acteristics an unusual combination of strength and active action with style 
 and endurance. They had an abundance of style, with round bodies and 
 an exceptional quality of bone. The highest type of this breed in the present 
 show rings should be typical of an active draft horse with the quality and 
 the substance to justify durability. To serve this purpose to the fullest 
 extent the necessity of regular and straight action with properly set limbs 
 should not be a secondary consideration in any show ring, and in the mmd 
 of the judge no amount of flashy action and toppiness should be allowed to 
 overbalance these features. The weight that is necessary in representatives 
 of this breed should be made up of a desirable quality of bone with muscle in 
 those parts where real strength resides and not by a development in regions 
 that have little to do with pulling power. 
 
l.\ THE BREEDING CLASSES 47 
 
 of the ram is shorter and heavier and the neck has a heavy 
 ''scrag" or crest. The ewe's face is finer and the neck 
 much lighter. In swine the boar's head is short and in- 
 clined to coarseness and the tusks are strong and large. 
 The neck is full and the bristles abundant and with age 
 the shields (thickening of the hide over the shoulder 
 blades) develop. The sow is smaller in the face, the neck 
 much lighter and finer just at the point where it joins the 
 head. These things are all features of the sex character- 
 istics and their value, which will be discussed in what fol- 
 lows, will indicate the degree to which they should be 
 looked for in all breeding classes. 
 
 79. Relation of Sex Characteristics to Sterility. When 
 the sex characteristics that have been described fail to 
 develop in the mature animal, it is invariably good evi- 
 dence of the lack of procreative power. The effect of 
 castration is evidence of the fact that if anything inter- 
 feres with the maturity of the reproductive organs, the 
 cex characteristics fail to develop. If the operation is per- 
 formed early in life there is a decided approach to the 
 characteristics of the feminine type in the instance of geld- 
 ings, steers, wethers and barrows. On the other hand, it 
 is equally true of the opposite sex thwarted or impaired 
 development results in the production of the characteris- 
 tics that are peculiar to the male type. As an instance of 
 this the occurrence of "free martins" in cattle may be 
 cited. This term is applied to twins in which the one is a 
 male and the other a female The female usually possesses 
 the sex characteristics of the male as she has the coarse 
 appearance in the head, neck and horn, and when this is 
 ::o it will be found that she is invariably infertile. Ex- 
 treme effeminacy on the part of the male is equally indic- 
 ative of sterility as may be attested to by the effeminate 
 appearance and the sterility that results from inbreeding 
 some classes of stock. Low, referring to this says of 
 closely in and inbred animals, "They become as it were 
 sooner old ; the males lose their virile aspect and become 
 
48 JUDGING HORSES 
 
 at length incapable of recreating their race." Walker 
 (Intermarriages) cites many instances that have been ob- 
 served by different poultry breeders, bearing out the pro- 
 position that sterility through close in and inbreeding with 
 some animals is followed by the loss or interchange of sex 
 characteristics. 
 
 80. Relation of Sex Characteristics to Prepotency. The 
 
 non-development of the sex characteristics in the male is 
 indicative of the lack of vigor and that in turn has a close 
 relation to prepotency or the impressive powers of a sire. 
 Effeminacy means a lack of tone in muscle and loss of 
 vigor and this is very observable in sires lacking in im- 
 pressive powers, while the most noted sires in the history 
 of breeding have been remarkably virile with the charac- 
 teristics of masculinity unusually developed. 
 
 81, The Stallion Classes. Excepting the sex character- 
 istics the stallion should have the qualities that have been 
 described in the class for geldings. The stallion should 
 have the determined expression, the hard features, the high 
 crest and full neck, that are evidences of masculinity. With 
 these there should be the active vigorous temperament, 
 which also indicates virility. The testicles should be nor- 
 mal in size and both should be visible in the sac or scro- 
 tum, for impotency is often indicated by their non-appear- 
 ance. 
 
 It is a frequent subject for discussion as to whether or 
 not the stallions in some classes should be judged solely as 
 to their individual merit or also include the merit of their 
 pedigree, performance and progeny. Usually the condi- 
 tions relating to the awarding of the prizes are explicit 
 enough to avoid such a discussion but where they are not 
 it is best to consider in making awards all the attributes 
 that will add to the value of the stallion. Pedigree in a 
 breeding class has a value, so has performance; and for 
 this reason they should be given consideration along with 
 the personal merit of the stallion and his progeny. In the 
 Instance of a standard bred trotter it is assumed by some 
 
IN THE BREEDING CLASSES 49 
 
 that the fact that the stallion complies with the standard 
 is sufficient consideration to give his breeding but those 
 who have given the matter any study will concede that 
 there is a vast difference in the value of the pedigrees of 
 standard horses. The judge should be able to discriminate 
 between pedigrees and also to be broad minded enough to 
 include in his estimate of the different stallions before him 
 the other characteristics that make the animal valuable 
 for breeding purposes. 
 
 82. Importance of Correct Conformation. In the breed- 
 ing classes special attention should be given to the confor- 
 mation. A defect of conformation even in the smallest par- 
 ticular is very apt to be transmitted and for that reason 
 it should be discountenanced in breeding stock. It is gen- 
 erally known that even such a slight matter as a twist of 
 the fetlock, or the turn of the foot in action is very likely 
 to pass from a stallion to all his get. Considering however 
 greater defects such as a curby hock, a weak knee or other 
 malformations, it is certainly the duty of the judge to pro- 
 nounce against them. To present this feature plainly it 
 may be stated that a breeder would be better justified in 
 using a stallion that had a spavin on a well constructed 
 hock than one that was without a spavin but had a hock 
 that was very defective in conformation ; the reason being 
 that in the instance of the well constructed hock with a 
 spavin it is certain that the horse was subjected to a severe 
 wrench or injury of some kind else the spavin would not 
 be there. In the instance of the horse with the badly con- 
 structed hock it needs only the opportunity, which occurs 
 in nearly all kind of work, to develop a spavin, and the 
 reason there is not one there is solely because extra care 
 has been given to the protection of this part. Breeding 
 animals of this kind may be so carefully tended and pam- 
 pered that they fail to show such diseases as would be pro- 
 duced by their conformation under the ordinary stress of 
 labor. 
 
50 JUDGING HORSES 
 
 83. Hereditary Diseases. In these classes it is of im- 
 portance to have in mind the diseases that are known as 
 hereditary. This term does not imply that the disease is 
 directly transmitted but that a horse having them trans- 
 mits to his get a decided tendency to contract them. The 
 newly born foal never shows them, but from its parents it 
 inherits the defects of conformation that predisposes it 
 towards these diseases. The Royal Commission composed 
 of the leading veterinarians of England have decided that 
 the following diseases in horses are hereditary : Roaring, 
 whistling, sidebone, ringbone, navicular disease, curb, 
 bone spavin, bog spavin, thoroughpin, grease, shivering 
 and cataract. 
 
 84. The Mare Classes. In addition to the lighter head, 
 neck and fore quarter which is the proper type of the sex, 
 the mare should specially differ from the stallion in the 
 roominess of the barrel. The ribs should be deeper and the 
 body bss compact and with much more length of loin than 
 in the case of the stallion. 
 
 85. Colts and Fillies. This is probably the hardest class 
 for the judge to satisfy himself in rendering decisions. 
 This class cannot be judged without considering the pos- 
 sibilities of the future which comes only from experience. 
 It is the growthy colt or filly with ideal limbs and rather 
 lanky body that is likely to prove the superior animal 
 when mature ; while the compact, smooth bodied colt or 
 filly that is not constructed on correct mechanical prin- 
 ciples is likely to develop into a disappointment. 
 
 V. ESTIMATING THE AGE OF HORSES BY THEIR TEETH. 
 
 It is necessary to know the indications of age as they 
 appear in the teeth that no animal may be unfairly classed 
 with those that are younger. The indications become in a 
 degree satisfactory to those who have proven them many 
 times by personal observation and experience in noting the 
 differences that exist. It is to be remembered however, 
 
Percheron mare CASTILLE 78956 (64553.) Champion Percheron 
 mare at the International Exposition in 1911. Shown by Dunhams 
 Wayne, 111. 
 
 Sketches of horses' teeth, showing 1, a temporary incisor or 
 characteristic shape ; 2, a permanent incisor, broader and longer than 
 No. 1 ; 3, a permanent incisor with lines indicating the appearance 
 of the two as it is subjected to wear. At "A" the unworn surface of 
 the new tooth is shown. At "B" the mark is indicated with the general 
 shape of the table. At "C" it is noticeable that the mark becomes 
 much smaller while at "D" the triangular shape of the tooth that is 
 well worn makes its appearance; 4, shows the natural mark and table 
 of a horse's tooth. It will be noticed that there is a ring of enamel 
 around the black mark or center ; 5, this sketch shows the table of 
 the horse's tooth that has been "Bishoped" or fixed so as to bear some 
 resemblance to a young tooth with the natural mark. This black 
 mark has been made in the tooth by the use of a hard instrument. 
 
2 to 4 Years 
 <Tl. _.4'/2 to 5 Years 
 
 Sketch of the permanent incisors, indicating the order in which they 
 appear in pairs. The central pair of permanent incisors in both the 
 upper and lower jaws apear when the horse is about two and one-half 
 or three years of age, the next pair replace the temporary incisors 
 when the horse is about four years of age, and the outside pair, mak- 
 ing a full mouth, usually appear at five years of age. 
 
 FIVE YEARS 
 
 LOWER INCISORS 
 
 Six YEARS 
 
 LOWER INCISORS 
 
 SEVEN YEARS EIGHT YEARS 
 
 LOWER INCISORS L WER |NC ' SO ^ 
 
 At live years it will be noticed t.hat the marks are very distinct and 
 the tables worn but slightly in all of the incisors. At six years tin- 
 center pair in the lower jaw show some wear, the mark becoming 
 smaller. At seven years the second pair have nearly lost their marks, 
 while at eight the third or outside pair show considerable wear with 
 but a trace of the mark. 
 
ESTIMATING THE AGE BY THEIR TEETH 51 
 
 that the foods fed them have a marked influence on the 
 wear of the teeth, thus making differences which are not 
 solely due to age. Liberal feeding which favors early ma- 
 turity is also likely to affect the appearance and arrival of 
 the incisors. 
 
 86. Appearance of Incisors. The difference in the ap- 
 pearance of the milk teeth or temporary incisors and the 
 permanent incisors is readily understood after they have 
 been once inspected. The temporary incisors are slender, 
 narrow and constricted at the neck and very white, while 
 the permanent incisors are broader, thicker and usually of 
 a light yellowish tinge. 
 
 87. Order of Appearance of Incisors. The permanent 
 incisors of both the upper and the lower jaws appear at 
 the same time so that it is only necessary to refer to the 
 upper. There are six permanent incisors in each jaw in 
 the full mouth and these make their appearance in pairs 
 about as follows: The pair in the center are the first to 
 appear and they have displaced the temporary pair and are 
 full grown when the colt is from 2 l / 2 to 3 years old. The 
 second pair or the two next to these are fully grown at 
 3!/2 to 4 years and the third pair have displaced the two 
 corner temporary incisors at 4% to 5 years of age. At 
 this time the horse usually has a full mouth. 
 
 88. Disappearance of the Tables. The best indications 
 of the age from five to ten years is the order of the disap- 
 pearance of the tables or marks in the incisors. At five 
 years the tables in the central pair of incisors of the lower 
 jaw show some wear but it is not until the horse is about 
 six years old that they have almost disappeared. At seven 
 years of age the " swallow-tail' ' as it is called, or the nick 
 in the corner incisor appears. At this age also, the two 
 incisors next to the central pair lose almost all traces of 
 their tables through wear, and at eight years the corner 
 incisors or outside pair are so worn as to be almost free 
 from any appearance of having tables. At nine years of 
 age the tables have disappeared from the central pair of 
 
C2 JUDGING HORSES 
 
 incisors in the upper jaw ; at ten the marks in the next pair 
 in the upper jaw are about worn out and when eleven is 
 reached the tables have almost disappeared from the corner 
 pair of the upper row of incisors. Sometimes the teeth are 
 "bishoped," that is, marks are made in the teeth to repre- 
 sent tables thus making the horse appear to be younger 
 by the tables of its teeth. This treatment may always be 
 told from the unnatural appearance of the table as the 
 normal tooth always has a rim of enamel around the tables. 
 After a horse passes beyond the age mentioned it is a 
 difficult matter to make any further estimate with any de- 
 gree of certainty. As the age increases, however, the up- 
 per surface of the incisors appear more triangular and the 
 teeth spring from the jaw with a greater slope. 
 
 vi. EXAMINATION FOR UNSOUNDNESS. 
 
 89. A Blemish Different from Unsoundness. A blemish 
 is something that depreciates the value of a horse without 
 interfering with its usefulness. Such injuries as wire cuts 
 mar the appearance of a horse and are properly called 
 blemishes, while unsoundness include spavins, curbs, ring- 
 bones and all other diseases that lessen the usefulness of 
 a horse in its sphere. 
 
 90. Decayed and Worn Teeth. In examining a horse 
 for unsoundness it is well to follow a regular order begin- 
 ning with the teeth. The best indication of decayed 
 teeth or any similar unsoundness of the mouth is the 
 odor that comes from it or attaches itself to the hand 
 on the introduction of the latter. If the outer edges of 
 the incisors are broken and worn away, it is an indica- 
 tion that the horse is addicted to "cribbing" in the 
 stable. 
 
 91. Discharges from the Nostrils. The nostrils should 
 be of a fresh pink color somewhat moist but there should 
 be no discharge from them. If there is, glanders or dis- 
 temper may be suspected, which should lead to a trial of 
 the mallein test if there is any suspicion of the former. 
 
TEN YEARS 
 UPPER INCISORS 
 
 ELEVEN YEARS 
 UPPER INCISORS 
 
 FIFTEEN YE.ARS 
 LOWER INCISORS 
 
 Passing to the permanent incisors in the upper jaw at nine years the 
 central pair have almost completely lost their mark. At ten those 
 adjoining these have reached the same condition, while at eleven the 
 marks have about vanished from all of the permanent incisors. It 
 will be noticed that as the age advances the appearance of the worn 
 tables assumes a more triangular form. 
 
 TWENTY ONE YEARS 
 FIVE YEARS 
 
 Comparison of a five-year-old mouth with one that is twenty years 
 old, showing the marked contrast that develops, as age advances, in 
 the slope of the teeth as viewed from the side. To Goubaux and 
 Barrier's "Exterior of the Horse" the author is greatly indebted for 
 the prints of horses' teeth which have been shown. These have been 
 modified somewhat to bring out more clearly the necessary distinctions. 
 
EXAMINATION FOE UNSOUNDNESS 63 
 
 92. Impaired Vision. In regard to the eye there are 
 many defects of vision which can hardly be termed un- 
 soundnesses, yet they should be carefully looked for. A 
 horse by its action will usually indicate if the eyesight is 
 good. Stepping inordinately high or an inclination to shy 
 readily indicate defective vision. By moving the hand 
 gently in front of the eye, blindness may generally be dis- 
 covered if the eye is so affected. The hand should be 
 moved slowly for if the motion is made quickly the in- 
 fluence of the air on the eye will induce the horse to shut 
 it though it may not have seen the motion of the hand. 
 
 93. Defective Hearing. Defects of hearing are more 
 common than is ordinarily supposed and they can usually 
 be foretold by the action of the ears. Rigid ears indicate 
 that the hearing has been lost. On the other hand when 
 the ears are used excessively there is reason to suspect 
 that the eyesight is not as perfect as it should be and on 
 that account the horse is trying to make its ears assist 
 its eyes by following closely every sound. 
 
 94. Sweenied Shoulders. Passing to the shoulder it 
 should be closely observed for the presence of sweeny. 
 This is a shrinkage or atrophy of the muscles of this 
 region leaving the shoulder appear flat and the blade bare 
 of muscle. 
 
 95. Capped Elbows. On the point of the elbow, shoe 
 boils or capped elbows may be frequently seen. The point 
 of the elbow is unduly enlarged by the accumulation of 
 matter. It is a blemish as it is unsightly though not inter- 
 fering with the horse at work. 
 
 96. Splints. Continuing down the fore leg, splints 
 should be looked for on the cannon. They may be found 
 on almost any part of this region but some care is neces- 
 sary not to mistake the ends of the two small bones, that 
 are associated with the cannon, for splints. In some horses 
 
54 JUDGING HORSES 
 
 the ends of these bones are surmounted with noticeable 
 knobs. If these lumps are found on both legs in exactly 
 the same place, it may be taken for granted that they are 
 natural. When the splint is located at the back of the leg 
 near the tendon or close to the knee joint, so as to inter- 
 fere with the action, it is in the worst place that it is pos- 
 sible to have it. A small splint in a position of the leg 
 where it is not likely to cause lameness is not considered 
 by most judges to be more than a blemish. The fact that 
 splints on young horses very frequently disappear in a 
 year or two is sufficient reason for overlooking this defect 
 when it is present in young animals. 
 
 97. Ringbones. These are generally located on the 
 pastern. There are two forms of it called high and low 
 ringbone, depending on the location. Ordinarily it is situ- 
 ated at the hoof head where the foot joins the pastern and 
 it may be on any one of the four feet. Usually it can be 
 seen because of the prominence produced but the hand 
 should be passed over the part that a small form of it 
 may not escape detection. 
 
 98. Sidebones. By pressing the thumb and the fore 
 finger around the hind quarter of the front foot this dis- 
 ease may be easily detected. It is common to the front 
 feet only. Small, hard prominences may be found on the 
 side of the pastern just above the foot in horses that have 
 them. They were originally cartilage but became ossified 
 and solid causing pain and considerable lameness especi- 
 ally when the horse having them is driven on hard roads. 
 
 99. Quarter Cracks and Sand Cracks. The feet are sub- 
 ject to many forms of unsoundness and among the most 
 prevalent are sand cracks and quarter cracks. In very 
 sandy districts during the hot days of summer when horses 
 are driven considerable the hoof becomes so heated that it 
 cracks and in time results in a very troublesome disorder. 
 Usually this defect originates from weak feet. Quarter 
 cracks are very similar to sand cracks excepting that they 
 are seen on the quarters of the hoof. They extend from 
 
EXAMINATION FOR UXSOUNDXESS 55 
 
 the coronary band or the hoof head to about the middle of 
 the hoof in cases of ordinary severity. Looking at the bot- 
 tom of the foot there should be no cracks running from 
 the bars to the top of the hoof. Large cracks here are very 
 common owing to the general practice of cutting out the 
 heels in shoeing. 
 
 100. Corns. These are generally located in the corner 
 of the heels and their presence may be more or less indi- 
 cated by the way a horse will shrink when the sole of the 
 foot is hit in that region with the handle of a knife. 
 
 101. Thrush and Scratches. Thrush is a diseased con- 
 dition of the foot in the region of the frog and invariably 
 makes its presence known by the disagreeable odor that 
 comes from it. Scratches occur in the back part of the 
 pastern, and, while not properly an unsoundness, they 
 cause the animal affected a great deal of pain and annoy- 
 ance. It is a condition due to the filthiness of this part 
 and will generally disappear before cleanliness and anti- 
 septic lotions. 
 
 102. Locating Lameness. In locating lameness in the 
 leg, it should be borne in mind that it is the sound limb 
 that the horse puts down with the most confidence and 
 when the ailing leg comes to the ground an effort to ease 
 it is made by throwing the head up. When a horse shows 
 lameness in the front legs, if the trouble is in the shoulder 
 the leg will usually be flexed at the knee when standing at 
 ease; but when the sprain or lameness is below the knee 
 the affected limb will be extended. When sore on both 
 front feet they will be extended as far as convenient. 
 
 103. Thoroughpin. In detecting diseases in the region 
 of the hock or in fact in any other part, it is absolutely 
 necessary to first know the outlines of the perfect struc- 
 ture. This has special application to the diseases of this 
 region ; for there are many that may show but a very slight 
 variation from the normal condition ^nd thoroughpin is 
 one of these. Thoroughpin is located between the tendon 
 of the hind leg and the bone and appears just above the 
 
56 JUDGING HORSES 
 
 hock. It consists of a soft swelling that .may b* 1 pushed 
 from side to side. 
 
 104. Curb. Curb, which occurs just below the hock 
 and to the rear is a thickening of the ligaments in that 
 region. By looking at the leg from the side it may be 
 easily noticed as it is a variation from the straight line 
 which should run from the point of the hock down towards 
 the end of the cannon. 
 
 105. Bone Spavin. The most common trouble of the 
 hocks, and the worst of all, is bone spavin. To detect this, 
 it is best to stand in front of the horse and take a position 
 so that in looking back the inner outline of the hind leg 
 may be seen very clearly. This is a bone deposit which 
 nature has thrown out to strengthen an otherwise weak 
 joint and when it has developed it ties the joint so that it 
 interferes with the proper action of the horse. The hind 
 leg instead of coming down on the heel as it should in a 
 sound limb, is thrown forward so that the toe reaches the 
 ground first and the stride is unnaturally shortened, and 
 lameness frequently results. Occult spavin, that is where 
 the deposit is not aparent to the eye but hidden in the 
 joints, is very hard to determine ; the usual method of de- 
 tection is to lift the suspected leg and then starting the 
 horse quickly observe the result when the foot reaches the 
 ground. Undue shrinkage indicates the presence of spavin 
 in this form. 
 
 106. Bog Spavin. Bog spavin is usually associated with 
 thoroughpin and it is very similar to the latter ; differing 
 from it only in location. In the natural depression that 
 occurs on the inner and front part of the hock, the oil from 
 the joint accumulates and forms a soft swelling commonly 
 known as bog spavin. The term blood spavin is sometimes 
 applied to the enlargement of the vein that passes across 
 the hock from in front. This, however is not an unsound- 
 ness. 
 
 107. Unsound in Wind. After giving all the parts care- 
 ful inspection for soundness, the horse should be driven 
 
EXAMINATION FOR UNSOUNDNESS 57 
 
 rapidly for a quarter of a mile so as to discover wind 
 troubles. The horse should be stopped quickly and then 
 by advancing close to the neck the breathing may be 
 noted whether free and easy or accompanied with a sound 
 similar to whistling. If the breathing is characterized by 
 a wheezing or whistling sound, then whistling, roaring or 
 some other disorder of the air passages is present. If the 
 origin of the sound is doubtful it might be possible to 
 result from too tight a collar have the horse taken out of 
 the harness and ridden rapidly. When the breathing is 
 not regular it is likely that the horse is troubled with the 
 heaves. In the instance of horses so afflicted, the breathing 
 is more or less spasmodic, the air from the lungs seeming 
 to be half expelled when the respiration stops for a brief 
 period and then the expulsion of the air is continued. In 
 this way the depression of the flanks is not gradual and 
 continuous as it is in the instance of the horse with sound 
 lungs but it is stayed for a short period at a time when the 
 breath is about half expelled from the lungs. 
 
 108. Detection of Stable Vices. Horses may have many 
 stable vices that detract greatly from their utility, but 
 these cannot be discovered as a rule in the show ring. To 
 make a satisfactory examination of a horse, it is necessary 
 to see it in the stable, then have it harnessed, hitched, 
 driven and subjected to a critical examination, and after 
 these things have been given careful consideration it will 
 be only after continuous companionship on the road that 
 a man may be said to truly know his horse. 
 
58 JUDGING HORSES 
 
 VII. OFFICIAL STANDARDS FOR HORSES. 
 
 THE TROTTING STANDARD ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN 
 
 TROTTING REGISTER ASSOCIATION. 
 
 When an animal meets these requirements and is duly 
 registered it shall be accepted as a standard bred trotter: 
 
 1. The progeny of a registered standard trotting horse and 
 a registered standard trotting mare. 
 
 2. A stallion sired by a registered standard trotting horse 
 provided his dam and grand dam were sired by registered 
 standard trotting horses, and he himself has a record of 2:30 
 and is the sire of three trotters with records of 2:30 from 
 different mares. 
 
 3. A mare whose sire is a registered standard trotting 
 horse, and whose dam and grand dam were sired by registered 
 standard trotting horses, provided she herself has a trotting re- 
 cord of 2:30 or is the dam of one trotter with a record of 2:30. 
 
 4. A mare sired by a registered standard trotting horse, 
 provided she is the dam of two trotters with records of 2:30. 
 
 5. A mare sired by a registered standard trotting horse, 
 proivded her first, second and third dams are each sired by a 
 registered standard trotting horse. 
 
 THE PACING STANDARD. 
 
 When an animal meets these requirements and is duly 
 registered, it shall be accepted as a standard bred pacer: 
 
 1. The progeny of a registered standard pacing horse and 
 a registered standard pacing mare. 
 
 2. A stallion sired by a registered standard pacing horse, 
 provided his dam and grand dam were sired by registered 
 standard pacing horses, and he himself has a pacing record of 
 2:25, and is the sire of three pacers with records of 2:25, from 
 different mares. 
 
 3. A mare whose sire is a registered standard pacing horse 
 and whose dam and grand dam were sired by registered stand- 
 ard pacing horses, provided she herself has a pacing record 
 of 2:25, or is the dam of one pacer with a record of 2:25. 
 
 4. A mare sired by a registered standard pacing horse, 
 provided she is the dam of two pacers with records of 2:25. 
 
 5. A mare sired by a registered standard pacing horse, 
 provided her first, second and third dams are each sired by 
 a registered standard pacing horse. 
 
 6. The progeny of a registered standard trotting horse out 
 of a registered standard pacing mare, or a registered standard 
 pacing horse out of a registered standard trotting mare. 
 
OFFICIAL STANDARDS FOR HORSES 59 
 
 .SCALE OF POINTS FOR SHETLAND PONY ADOPTED BY 
 AMERICAN SHETLAND PONY CLUB. 
 
 Constitution Constitution indicated by general healthy 
 
 appearance, perfect respiration, brightness of eyes. . . 10 
 
 Size Ponies over four years old, 42 inches and under in 
 height, two points to be deducted for every inoh over 42 
 up to 46 inches, fractional portions to count as full 
 inches 25 
 
 Head Head symmetrical, rather small and fine, wide be- 
 tween eyes, ears short and erect 10 
 
 Body Barrel well rounded, back short and level, deep 
 
 chested, good breast, compact, "pony build" 10 
 
 Legs Legs muscular, flat boned, hind legs not cow-hocked 
 
 or too crooked 25 
 
 Mane and Tail Foretop, mane and tail heavy 10 
 
 Feet Good 10 
 
 100 
 
 Note. In judging horses the height is sometimes a subject 
 of discussion so that the manner of determining this should 
 be well understood.lt is generally conceded that the horse 
 should stand on a perfectly level floor and the measurement 
 made to the highest point of the withers. The position of the 
 horse should be such that the head at the poll should be in 
 line with the withers and this parallel to the floor. The fore 
 legs and hind legs should be as perpendicular to the floor and as 
 parallel to each other as the conformation of the horse per- 
 mits. It should be noted that the spirit level in the cross bar 
 of the standard should indicate that it is being held properly. 
 The horse should be measured in shoes of the same thickness 
 as he wears when in competition in the show ring. 
 
JUDGING CATTLE. 
 
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CHAPTER II. 
 
 JUDGING CATTLE. 
 
 109. Method of Examination. In judging cattle in the 
 show ring the most satisfactory plan is to make a very 
 careful scrutiny of the animal as it stands before you; 
 then approaching it from the front, notice the head and 
 neck before placing the hands upon the shoulder to re- 
 view the various parts of the body. 
 
 I. JUDGING BEEF CATTLE. 
 
 110. Method of Handling. In judging beef cattle it is 
 of much importance to see that they stand properly and 
 are not held so as to hide any natural defects which other- 
 wise would be easily seen. They should stand on a surface 
 as level as possible with the legs naturally placed under 
 them, with the head held straight forward. By variations 
 from this it is quite possible to hide from the examiner as 
 he makes his first inspection many of the natural defects. 
 It becomes very easy to vastly improve the handling quali- 
 ties of an animal by turning the head towards the judge 
 or to make the top or lower lines more level by choosing 
 an advantageous position. In moving towards the animal 
 from in front, note the characteristics of the head and neck 
 quickly and then placing the hand upon the shoulder and 
 using the tips of the fingers feel the compactness of the 
 shoulder, its covering and the smoothness with which it 
 fits to the body. From this point it is usual to pass to the 
 back, handling this region very carefully as the back rib 
 
64 JUDGING CATTLE 
 
 and loin is the most valuable part in the butcher's point of 
 view. After handling the back carefully, the covering of 
 the ribs should also be observed very closely. It is con- 
 sidered a good method for determining the quality of the 
 flesh to gently push the ends of the fingers between the 
 ribs. If there is no natural flesh or muscle there, the ends 
 of the fingers are easily inserted in this region but if the 
 flesh is of the best quality and it is mostly muscle the ends 
 of the fingers cannot be inserted very far between the ribs. 
 To estimate the character of the skin and the mellowness 
 of the flesh, the skin is generally lifted between the first 
 finger and the thumb and its quality carefully noted. Then 
 with the fingers flat gentle pressure against the rib reveals 
 the mellowness or firmness of the flesh. The thickness of 
 the loin is an exceedingly important point and one of the 
 ways of determining this is to push the back of the hand in 
 at the lower level of the loin and then note the distance 
 from the top of the loin to the back of the hand. Leaving 
 this point the fullness and characteristics of the hind 
 quarter are observed, then the fullness of the flank and the 
 cod, which make the criticism of the one side of the animal 
 complete. Standing squarely behind it, the development 
 of the hind quarter is noted after which it is only necessary 
 to pass down the other side very similar to that which has 
 been followed on the right side. 
 
 The steer may be considered from two points of view. 
 The first has to do with the qualities of the store steer or 
 feeder to be fattened, while the other refers to the merits 
 of the prime steer that is ready for the butcher. 
 
 111. Store Steers. It is a common practice in some 
 communities for the stockmen to buy young steers with 
 the object of feeding them for market. The steers are 
 generally procured in the early fall, fed through most of 
 the winter months' and put on the market in the spring 
 or early summer. The most forcible factors in determin- 
 ing the profits from this work is the skill of the purchaser 
 in selecting animals that will make good feeders and 
 
Aberdeen Angus steer ADVANCE, champion International Exposition, 
 Chicago, 1900. Bred and fed fcy Stanley R. Pierce, Creston, 111. Illus- 
 trating the type most desirable for the block as the flesh is of the 
 right quality and most abundant in the proper places. 
 
 Photograph of a steer selected to show the form that is not desirable 
 either from the standpoint of the feeder or the butcher. 
 
Photo by Hills. 
 
 Shorthorn steer BRITISHER, illustrating desirable type for a feeding 
 steer as shown in a short face, large muzzle, wide forehead, short neck, 
 deep chest, straight, wide back, deep ribs and smooth, long hind quar- 
 ters. 
 
 The type and other finalities usually indicative of an undesirable 
 feeding steer showing thin, long neck,' sharp withers, shallow chest, 
 narrow back, thin loin, light quarters, long legs and the characteristic- 
 expression of the steer that eats most and makes least progress in 
 the feed lot. 
 
jr DOING BEEF CATTLE 65 
 
 then buying them at a proper price. The skill lies gener- 
 ally in being able to estimate the possibilities of improve- 
 ment in the animals selected ; and to do this with any de- 
 gree of certainty, calls for a practical knowledge of the 
 conduct of animals in the feed lot where the reasons for 
 the points are unfolded and tested. 
 
 112. Form of the Feeder. The best feeding steers are 
 comparatively wide, round and deep ribbed. The steer 
 that stands high from the ground, light in the flanks and 
 shallow in the heart girth rarely makes a good feeder. 
 In type the form of the store steer should fill out a paral- 
 lelogram, the lines being true in every direction. 
 
 It should be broad and deep in front and this should be 
 characteristic of the hindmost parts as well. As much 
 width as possible is desirable if it is not accompanied with 
 roughness over the shoulder or the hips or hooks. It is 
 not expected, however, that a store steer should be as 
 level and smooth in form as the finished animal ready for 
 the block. Stoutness of form with depth of body are 
 usually the characteristics of vigorous feeders, which may 
 be accounted for by the supposition that in the stout in- 
 dividual the blood currents have less distance to travel 
 and consequently the circulation is more active. 
 
 113. Quality. The possession of quality does not seem 
 to have much influence on the feeding ability of the steer 
 though it has a marked effect on the value of the steer 
 after being fattened. Animals of quality usually fatten 
 more quickly than those that are rough and coarse, though 
 if the latter are exceptionally vigorous, which is generally 
 the case, they will sometimes make greater gains than 
 those having quality because of delicacy. Quality in the 
 steer means fine bone, soft, mellow hide and silky hair; 
 while such attributes as a very rough, heavy frame, coarse 
 joints, prominent, ragged hips and rough, open shoulders 
 
66 JUDGING CATTLE 
 
 are the most pronounced evidences of deficiency in this 
 feature. 
 
 114. Inferences from Good Handling. The handling 
 of a feeder or the condition of the hide is one of the most 
 valuable indications that may be observed. If the skin is 
 mellow and elastic, it possesses what is called good han- 
 dling. Such a skin is invariably associated with rapid fat- 
 tening qualities, while a heavy, stiff hide is considered to 
 indicate slower fattening. The previous management 
 which the steers have had has a marked influence on the 
 handling. When liberally fed and they are thrifty, the 
 skin has the softness and elasticity that usually accom- 
 panies a condition which has had been termed by stock- 
 men as ' ' sappy. " On the other hand if scrimped in their 
 feed or if it has been dry without anything of a succulent 
 nature as a part of the ration, the skin becomes tightly 
 attached to the frame and it feels dry and paper like. In 
 animals that possess good handling, when the "hand is 
 placed on the body just back of the shoulder and pressed 
 against it, there is a soft elastic feel to the touch which is 
 only found in animals having a thick coat of hair of fine 
 quality, mellow skin and firm flesh. This feature of good 
 handling cannot be magnified too much in judging all 
 classes of beef stock, for it not only reflects the thriftiness 
 of the animal at the time but also foretells its future 
 progress. 
 
 115. Features of the Head. The features and propor- 
 tions of the head are usually a condensed reflection of the 
 rest of the form. A broad, short head is invariably ac- 
 companied with a thick, wide, low set body and the long, 
 slim face is generally associated with the greater length 
 of body and more narrowness. There is a co-relation of 
 parts here as elsewhere that is seldom at fault and no 
 other part offers such a field of study in this regard as 
 that of the head. The mouth and the lips should be large, 
 making the juncture of the muzzle and the face appear 
 to be somewhat concave. From the muzzle to the eyes the 
 
THE ENGLISH METHOD OF CUTTING BEEF. 
 
 1, 2, 3, 4 and 10 , 1st quality 
 
 5. 6 7, 9 and 13 2d quality 
 
 8, 11 and 12 3d quality 
 
 14, 15 and 16 * 4th quality 
 
 CHICAGO RETAIL DEALERS' METHOD OF CUTTING BEEF. 
 
 A good 1200-lb. steer dresses about 800 pounds, and of this 708 
 pounds is marketable meat. All of the high-priced cuts are taken from 
 ribs, loins and hind quarters, and the best cuts come principally from 
 the ribs -and loins. These valuable cuts together weigh 346 pounds, 
 and at above prices sell for $44.55. The less valuable cuts from the 
 fore quarters, belly and flank weigh 362 pounds and bring only $16.48. 
 
Shorthorn bull, RINGMASTER. Champion of the breed at leading 
 shows in 1911. Shown by White and Smith, St. Cloud, Minn. Photo 
 taken at three years of age. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF SHORTHORN CATTLE. 
 
 THE SHORTHORN in the course of its development has been mainly repre- 
 sented by three family types the Bates, noted for style, fine heads, clean 
 necks, straight, level backs, refined bone, with a combination of milking 
 and beefing qualities ; the Booths, famous for excellence in girth, wide backs, 
 lengthy quarters, deep llesh and beefing attributes ; the Cruickshanks, or 
 Scotch cattle, possessed of scale, with low, broad, deep forms, heavy flesh, 
 mossy coats and early maturity. With this as the source of their evolution, 
 the modern shorthorn should reflect in the show ring a blending of the fore- 
 going family types in possessing beef form, early maturity and all the gen- 
 eral evidences of thrift and vigor. In the show ring the type that is recog- 
 nized is that of a beef animal combining the butcher's ideas, the feeder's 
 requirements and the breeder's demands. This means a representative that 
 possesses a high percentage of valuable meat of the quality that is desired 
 for the block. With this there should be the general evidences of productive 
 capacity in the making of beef, which means a full development of the vital 
 organs and the other regions which have to do with the powers of production. 
 In unison with the breeding, and held in equal estimation, there should be 
 the finish, style and other characteristics which the breeder seeks in the 
 breeding herd required chiefly for the production of beef. The common 
 colors are red, white and roan, and these as well as all families should not 
 be subject to the personal preferences of the judge or to present popularity. 
 
JUDGING BEEF CATTLE 67 
 
 aspect of the face should appear triangular with the base 
 at the muzzle and the top at the line running between the 
 eyes. The openings of the nostrils should be very promi- 
 nent indicating that there is an abundance of lung ca- 
 pacity. The lower jaw should appear strong and well 
 clothed with muscle. The eyes should be large, somewhat 
 prominent yet placid, indicating a quiet, generous tem- 
 perament. Quietness and laziness are attributes of the 
 temperament favorable to the process of fattening and we 
 know that animals of lymphatic temperament have both 
 these characteristics. The head should not be long be- 
 tween the eye and the horn and the poll should be some- 
 what prominent and topped with a mass of wavy hair. A 
 fine texture is desired in the horn and it should be some- 
 what flat in shape and in no sense coarse. The ear should 
 be neatly attached to the head, pointed end covered inside 
 and on the edge with a profuse growth of fine, silky hair. 
 
 116. Neck Short, Full. The neck should be short, in 
 fact many well bred steers appear as if they had none. 
 The top line from the base of the poll should run back 
 straight and almost level with the top of the shoulder. 
 The blade of the latter should fit closely to the body with 
 a nice slope so that the animal may have a gay carriage. 
 In steers that are very coarse in the shoulder with the 
 blade standing out from the body, this part is apt to show 
 bare of flesh giving also a marked appearance of shrinkage 
 in the girth just behind the blade. 
 
 117. Chest Wide, Deep, Full. In this region the steer 
 should appear fully developed with the brisket light but 
 yet far enough advanced to fill out the squareness of the 
 frame to the proper degree. It will be found frequently 
 that the narrow chested animal is a poor feeder, which 
 makes but little progress in proportion to the feed that it 
 eats. In addition to the chest being wide it should also 
 be deep. The bottom of it should come down well between 
 the fore legs with no shrinkage behind these as may be 
 noticed frequently in animals that are deficient in con- 
 
68 JUDGING CATTLE 
 
 stitution. Such animals do not have the capacity to make 
 feed into flesh and fat economically as they are deficient 
 in vital force or constitution. 
 
 118. Ribs Long, Hooped. These should be long and 
 hooped so as to give an abundance of room to the vital 
 organs, the lungs and the heart, and also provide a place 
 for the storage of food in large quantities. A large, deep 
 chest and a capacious stomach are good indications that 
 an animal has the capacity to utilize large quantities of 
 food and make rapid progress in fattening. The hind ribs 
 should be comparatively long bringing the plates and the 
 flanks on almost a level with the bottom of the fore part 
 of the body. The loin should be wide leaving the ribs on 
 a level and joining the hind quarters with little departure 
 from a straight line. 
 
 119. Hips Smooth; Long Hind Quarters. While width 
 is desirable at the hips yet smoothness should not be sacri- 
 ficed to secure this. When the hips are too wide apart they 
 are likely to be prominent and appear coarse. It would be 
 impossible to finish such an animal without the hind 
 quarters appearing rough and very deficient in covering. 
 The hind quarters should be long and carry out the 
 squareness of form which should be characteristic of the 
 fore quarters of the ideal feeding steer. 
 
 120. Judging Fat Steers. In judging the finished or 
 fattened steer, the view must be largely that of the 
 butcher. The butcher invariably prefers animals that are 
 small in frame ; the low set, thick sort that yield heavily in 
 the most profitable parts. The finished steer should also be 
 of fine quality so that the quantity of offal may be small, 
 as this has much to do with the profitableness of the car- 
 cass from the standpoint of the butcher. In coarse steers 
 fully one-half of their live weight is made up of what is 
 largely waste to the butcher. If the bone is fine, the skin 
 and hair of good quality, there is much less waste than if 
 they were coarse. 
 
Hereford Bull GAY LAD 6th. Champion of the breed at the leading 
 shows of 1911. Owned by O. Harris & Sons, Harris, Mo. Photo 
 taken at two years of age. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF HEREFORD CATTLE. 
 
 npHIS BREED, which derives its name from its native district in England, 
 * is most popular in color and markings when showing a dark claret or 
 cherry with white face, throat, chest, legs, belly, twist, and small stripe of 
 white on neck and before shoulder. The type represented by this breed is 
 that suitable for the largest production of beef, as it is low set and broad, 
 heavy in fore quarters, full deep chest; level, wide back; wide, thick loin 
 and full quarters. In those representing the best of the breed the covering 
 of flesh is usually thick while the coat possesses a thickness and mossiness 
 which is very conducive to the general thrift. The form represents that 
 which is invariably associated with a strong constitution, vigor and pre- 
 potency, and these qualities are sometimes so strongly in evidence as to give 
 rise to undue coarseness and roughness which should necessarily be dis- 
 couraged in the show ring. Two of the cardinal qualities of the breed are 
 early maturity and grazing attributes, and as these have their origin in 
 latural vigor and activity those qualities of form and general appearance 
 which contribute to these should have prominence in rendering decisions. 
 
Aberdeen Angus bull, PKIXOK TTO, the property of Stanley R. Pierce, 
 Creston, Illinois. Champion of the breed, Royal Agricultural Society 
 Show. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF ABERDEEN ANC.TS CATTLE. 
 
 Till 1 : characteristic color of this brec 1 of Scotch cattle is black without 
 any white beyond the udder or above the under line. The type of the 
 breed is favorable to the production of the highest quality of meat in the 
 greatest quantity. Smoothness is a leading feature, this being encouraged 
 by the type which is noted for the rotundity of form with symmetry and 
 quality, and it should be noticeable in the show animal by the evenness with 
 which the flesh covers the carcass over all regions. The head is hornless 
 without any appearance of scurs, and it should be surmounted by a sharp 
 poll ; neck free from loose skin with a strong shoulder vein ; shoulder oblique, 
 iitting close to the body and not rough at the top ; ribs deep, circular ; hips 
 moderately far apart, smoothly covered ; rump, long, level, smooth ; thighs 
 muscular, twist low and full ; quarters low, full and rounded. The general 
 form is cylindrical, covered with even depth of mellow flesh and hide that is. 
 pliable yet not thin, and coated with fine, black hair. See official scale of 
 points, page !)0. 
 
JUDGING BEEF CATTLE 69 
 
 121." Handling Indicates Condition and Quality of 
 Meat. The handling quality of the prime steer has con- 
 siderable value in the butcher's view. On this he relies 
 for indications of the steer's condition, and also the qual- 
 ity of the meat. If the covering of flesh is evenly dis- 
 tributed over the steer and it is springy and mellow to the 
 touch, it is considered ready for the block. If in denting 
 the side with the finger the dent lingers some time the 
 condition is due to soft, flabby fat that brings but a small 
 price at the butcher's stalls. This is quite common in fin- 
 ishing steers to find them flabby in places, most commonly 
 over the loin and about the root of the tail. This patchi- 
 ness is due to the unevenness of the fat distribution and it 
 is a very undesirable feature. 
 
 122. Condition. A sure sign of the condition of a steer 
 and its fitness for the block is fullness of the scrotum or 
 cod. When a steer is ready for the butcher the scrotum 
 will be soft and large. The condition of the flank is an- 
 other sign of ripeness. This should be thick, full and 
 pendant, and the lower lines of it should be nearly even 
 with the bottom lines of the body. Another indication 
 considered very reliable is the development of tongue fat 
 or the fullness which appears at the root of the tongue. 
 
 123. Relation of Parts. In the finished steer from the 
 butcher's standpoint the head is of little value, it should 
 be in harmony with the rest of the body and not too large, 
 as that means waste. The neck should be short and thick. 
 The shoulder vein or the junctiure of the neck and the 
 shoulder should be full, giving both these parts a charac- 
 teristic smoothness due to the base of the neck swelling 
 nicely over the shoulder blade. The latter should be well 
 covered and evenly packed on top. The brisket should 
 not be too heavy, as this is very cheap meat, but only ad- 
 vanced enough to contribute to the desired squareness of 
 
70 JUDGING CATTLE 
 
 form. Just back of the shoulder there should be no slack- 
 ness in the girth. The ribs should be well covered with 
 springy, mellow, yet firm flesh. The loins should' be broad 
 and thick ; the reason for this is that there are more valu- 
 able cuts in the broad, thick loin than in the thin, narrow 
 one, and this region in addition has a high value in the 
 view of the butcher. The hips should be smoothly covered 
 and their breadth should be carried back uniformly. The 
 hind quarters should be long, as this adds greatly to the 
 value of the carcass. The flesh should extend far down 
 the legs with the twist deep and plump. Viewed from the 
 side the top line of the animal and the long line should be 
 parallel or nearly so. 
 
 124. Value of Cuts. The value of the different parts 
 may be said to be a point of first consideration with the 
 butcher. Dividing the steer into parts according to the 
 way the butcher cuts them, we find that the head is only 
 worth about ten or fifteen cents altogether, while the neck 
 only has a value of from three to seven cents. Then the 
 cut called the chuck, which runs from the top of the 
 shoulder to the beginning of the forearm and above the 
 brisket, is worth from five to ten cents per pound. The 
 brisket as a whole only has a value of from four to eight 
 cents while the fore leg from the point where it joins the 
 body to the chuck, known as the clod, is worth about six 
 cents. The crops, or as the butcher terms it, the ribs, 
 which consist of that part just back of the shoulder, is 
 worth seven cents in the poor steer against sixteen cents 
 per pound in the best. The region just below the crops 
 known as the fore flank or plates, has a value usually 
 from four to eight cents per pound. Following this comes 
 the loin and this varies from ten to twenty cents. The 
 upper part of the hind quarter has a value of about ten 
 cents pe*r pound, while the lower part, ranges from ten 
 to twelve cents per pound in the best steers. The neck, 
 brisket and plates are the cheapest portions. In regard 
 to ribs, the two end ribs go with the hind quarters, 
 
Galloway heifer, LUTIE LAKE 2nd, 22759 ; Junior champion female 
 of her breed at the International Live Stock Exposition in 1904. 
 Bred and shown by O. H. Swigart, Champaign, 111. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GALLOWAY CATTLE. 
 
 THIS BREED, deriving its name from its native district in Scotland, is 
 black in color, with no white admissible except on the udder or below the 
 imder line. The type represents a form that is thick, close to the ground 
 and symmetrical, with long, wavy and thick coat of hair. As hardiness and 
 strength of constitution are leading features, there should be every indication 
 of general thrift and ruggedness in a representative of the breed. 
 
 The scale of points adopted by the Council of the Galloway Cattle Breed- 
 ers Association of Great Britain in 1883 gives the features of the breed in 
 detail as follows : 
 
 COLOR Black, with a brownish tinge. 
 
 HEAD Short and wide, with broad forehead and wide nostrils ; without 
 the slightest symptoms of horns or scurs. 
 
 EYES Large and prominent. 
 
 EARS Moderate in length and broad, pointing forward and upward ; fringe 
 of long hairs. 
 
 XECK Moderate in length, clean and filling well into the shoulders, the 
 top in a line with the back in a female, and in a male naturally rising with 
 age. 
 
 BODY Deep, rounded and symmetrical. 
 
 SHOULDERS Fine and straight, moderately wide above ; coarse shoulder 
 points and sharp or high shoulders are objectionable. 
 
 BREAST Full and deep. 
 
 BACK AND RUMP Straight. 
 
 RIES Deep and well sprung. 
 
 LOIN AND SIRLOIN Well filled. 
 
 HOOK BONES Not prominent. 
 
 HIND QUARTERS Long, moderately wide and well filled. 
 
 FLANK Deep and full. 
 
 THIGHS Broad, straight and well let down to hock ; rounded buttocks are 
 very objectionable. 
 
 LEGS Short and clean, with fine bone. 
 
 TAIL Well set on and moderately thick. 
 
 SKIN Mellow and moderately thick. 
 
 HAIR Soft and wavy, with a mossy undercoat; wiry and curly hair is 
 very objectionable. 
 
Red Polled cow, DELPHINE, winner of first prize at the Royal Agri- 
 cultural Society Show (England), in 1899 . 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF RED POLLED CATTLE. 
 
 *THIS BREED which originated in Norfolk and Suffolk, England, have been 
 * polled and red in color and otherwise possessed the type characteristics 
 which now identify them for a century past. The type of the breed should 
 represent a high combination of beefing qualities with utility for dairy pur- 
 poses. This means a form that carries a covering of flesh and is especially 
 developed in those parts which produce the best quality of meat. The head 
 should be clearly defined in its features, the face being clean cut, the eye 
 full and large, the ear medium size and the poll sharp without any fullness 
 at the sides where the horns are usually located. The throat should be free 
 from looseness and while fine should run easily into a somewhat thick neck 
 which swells smoothly over the shoulder. The chest should be both broad 
 and deep and the body should consist of a back moderately broad and well 
 covered and a rib that is deep and somewhat round ; the loin should have 
 width with smoothness due to flesh and the same should be characteristic of 
 the hind quarter. Moderate meatiness is allowable in this region and in the 
 cow the udder should be specially well developed, large and circular and the 
 teats of good size and well placed. The udder should be the sponsor for the 
 dairy qualities while the general form and the condition should be indicative 
 of the beefing propensities. In the show ring the tendencies towards beef 
 production find more favor than those considered conducive to dairy qualities. 
 See official scale of points, page 94, 
 
JUDGING BEEF CATTLK 
 
 71 
 
 white- the two second ribs in the fore quarters sell from 
 ten cents upwards, as they are the best cuts in that 
 part. The first two ribs in the front quarter have a 
 value of ten to twelve cents per pound. The wing cut 
 of the sirloin grows narrower as it runs down but it 
 still affords a large and valuable cut in finished steers. 
 Porterhouse steak and sirloin taken from the parts which 
 run from the front of the hooks to the end of the wing cut 
 (that is where the fore quarter is separated from the hind 
 quarter) is worth from ten to twenty cents per pound, 
 making this region the most valuable of the steer. The 
 rump steak which comes from the lower part of the hind 
 quarter including the thigh and twist, has only a value 
 of ten to twelve cents per pound. When it is understood 
 "that the average percentage of pounds that a steer pos- 
 sesses is usually sixty, it is easy to see that the butcher 
 must pay close attention to the form which yields the 
 smallest percentage of offal and returns the most valu- 
 able cuts. From the foregoing we see that the animal 
 from the butcher's point of view depends mostly on its 
 quality and then on its form, and in regard to the latter 
 we find that the value of the animal grows greater as we 
 pass from the fore quarters towards the hinder parts. It 
 is important to know that the feeder's ideal does not 
 differ markedly from the best for the butcher, except 
 that the latter has been matured and fattened. 
 
 Location of the cuts in the dressed carcass of the steer, showing also 
 the pounds and the percentage returned by each part ; 1, Shank ; 2, 
 Round ; 3, Rump ; 4, Loin ; 5, Rib ; 6, Flank ; 7, Plate ; 8, Chuck ; 9. 
 Clod ; 10, Neck. Tenderloins, Sirloin Butts, and Strips cut from No. 4. 
 Rib Rolls cut from No. 5. 
 
. 72 JULGING CATTLE 
 
 SCALE OF POIXTS FOR BEEF CATTLE STEEKS. tj 
 
 
 
 GENERAL APPEARANCE: 58 
 
 Weight, score according to age 10 
 
 Form, straight topline and underline; deep broad, low 
 
 set, stylish 10 
 
 Quality, firm handling, hair fine; pliable skin; dense 
 
 bone; evenly fleshed 10 
 
 Condition, deep, even covering of firm flesh, especially 
 
 in regions of valuable cuts 10 
 
 HEAD AND NECK: 
 
 Muzzle, broad; mouth large; jaw wide; nostrils large. 1 
 
 Eyes, large, clear, placid 1 
 
 Face, short, quiet expression 1 
 
 Forehead, broad, full 1 
 
 Ears, medium size, fine texture 1 
 
 Horns, fine texture; oval, medium size 1 
 
 Neck, thick, short; throat clean 1 
 
 FORE QUARTERS: 
 
 Shoulder Vein, full 2 
 
 Shoulder, covered with flesh, compact on top, smooth. 2 
 
 Brisket, advanced, breast wide 1 
 
 Dewlap, skin not too loose and drooping 1 
 
 Legs, straight, short; arm full; shank fine, smooth. . . 2 
 
 BODY: 
 
 Chest, full, deep, wide; girth large; crops full 4 
 
 Ribs, long, arched, thickly fleshed 8 
 
 Back, broad, straight, smooth, even 10 
 
 Loin, thick, broad 8 
 
 Flank, full, even, with underline 2 
 
 HIND QUARTERS: 
 
 Hips, smoothly covered; distance apart in proportion 
 
 with ether parts 2 
 
 Rump, long, wide, even, tail head smooth, not patchy. 2 
 
 Pin Bones, not p^omirent, far apart 1 
 
 Thighs, full, deen, wide 2 
 
 Twist, den, plump 2 
 
 Purse, full, indicating fleshiness 2 
 
 Legs, straight, short, shank fine, smooth 2 
 
 Total.. .100 
 
Highland bull, LAOICH 1260. The property of J. R. Campbell, Shin- 
 ness, Scotland. A winner of numerous first and champion prizes at the 
 Royal Agricultural Society Show of England and the Highland Agricul- 
 tural Society Show of Scotland. The upper illustration shows this bull 
 when champion of the breed at two years of age, while the lower one 
 shows him again when in the same honored position at six years of age. 
 A comparison of these photographs, both taken by Reid, is very instruc- 
 tive as they clearly indicate the development which takes place as a 
 bull approaches maturity. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF HIGHLAND CATTLE. 
 
 nnHIS BREED which comes from the highlands of Scotland is noted espe- 
 cially for their robustness and the high quality of the meat which they 
 produce. In type they exemplify the characteristics which we associate with 
 constitution, being very deep and full chested, strong and rugged framed 
 with a dense and long coat which protects them from the exposure to moun- 
 tain conditions. The head is somewhat shaggy with bright, piercing eye and 
 the horns strong and long. The neck is short the chest deep and full and 
 the fore quarter shows unusual development especially in the region of the 
 vital organs. The back is long and level and the quarter well covered and 
 lengthy. The general form is massive and the general appearance of rugged- 
 ness is added to by a thick shaggy coat of various shades of dun, black and 
 sometimes brindle in color. 
 
Hereford bull, SIR BRED WELL, 63685, by Corrector, Champion at the 
 Trans-Mississippi Exposition, 1898. Bred by T. F. B. Sotham of Chilli- 
 cothe, Mo. Purchased by Col. C. Slaughter, of Texas, for $5,000. 
 
 Ilenr view of Snt P.RKDWELL 63685, showing- the extent to which it is 
 possible for a bull to be developed in the most valuable parts for meat 
 production. Note the covering of the back, loin, fullness and depth of 
 the hind quarters. 
 
JUDGING BEEF STOCK FOR BREEDING PURPOSES 73 
 
 II. JUDGING BEEF STOCK FOR BREEDING PURPOSES. 
 
 In judging beef stock for breeding purposes, the 
 breeder must have in view the demands of his own in- 
 terests, and yet those of the feeder and butcher must 
 also receive due consideration. For this reason the de- 
 sirable qualities that are sought for in feeding stock, the 
 features that make the animal valuable to the butcher 
 and the attributes that the breeder knows to be of value, 
 must all have proportionate consideration. Those of the 
 feeder's and the butcher's type have been discussed, so 
 that it is required to comment only on the peculiar fea- 
 tures that are especially valuable from the breeder 's point 
 of view. There are two features of this kind that be- 
 cause of their importance deserve special emphasis in 
 the judging of breeding stock in the beef classes, and 
 these are the possession of all the evidences of constitu- 
 tion in combination with deep natural flesh. The breeder 
 to appreciate his work must rely greatly on the constitu- 
 tion of his animals, for it is this that guarantees thrift 
 and vigorous reproduction. 
 
 The other feature of special importance in beef stock 
 is that of natural flesh. Natural flesh means the posses- 
 sion of muscle or red meat with which an animal must 
 be born to make a carcass for the butcher's block that is 
 properly mixed in fat and lean. 
 
 There is no feature of more value in the breeding of 
 beef stock than that of having natural flesh characteristic 
 of all animals in the herd, and there is likely no other 
 quality which is transmitted with more certainty than 
 this. 
 
 125. Judging Beef Bulls. In form and condition those 
 qualities which mark the feeder's and butcher's ideal 
 should be strikingly shown in the beef sire. As already 
 mentioned there are two features that require special 
 emphasis, as they are especially valuable in the breeding 
 herd of beef cattle and consequently should be possessed 
 in a marked degree by the head of the herd. Reference 
 is made to constitution and depth or wealth of natural 
 
74 JUDGING CATTLE 
 
 flesh. A careful study of the work of those breeders who 
 have made a name in the breeding of beef cattle will bear 
 out the assertion that every one of them appreciated 
 these two qualities. To illustrate this point we may use 
 the most marked example in recent years, by referring to 
 the work of two of the most successful breeders of beef 
 cattle, Amos and Anthony Cruickshank, of Sittyton, Scot- 
 land, as their work bears out the value of the two features 
 that have been selected for more prominence than others. 
 Two of the best sires that were used in their herd, Cham- 
 pion of England and Roan Gauntlet, have been described 
 by a recent writer (Prof. T. F. Jamieson, in the London 
 Live Stock Journal) as possessing this quality in an inor- 
 dinate degree, though they had other features of minor 
 importance which, however, would cause some judges to 
 overlook such animals in a show r ring. Referring to the 
 Champion of England, this writer states that his produce 
 were better than those of any other bull used at Sittyton, 
 asserting that "they were large, growthy, healthy, thriv- 
 ing beasts, with straight backs, deep ribs and good hair; 
 heavy carcasses on short legs; often not so stylish and 
 neat in their hind quarters, for they lacked that finish in 
 their frames that would have brought them to the top in 
 the Royal or Highland society's shows. A marked feature 
 was their early development. No other bull's calves came 
 out so strong as young animals. Champion himself was 
 in color a roan, of good size but not extra large, stood on 
 short legs, had a deep-ribbed, heavy carcass, a strong 
 back, which so far from shrinking at all at the loins or 
 middle rather tended to arch up there. He had a slight 
 drop from the hooks to the rump which detracted from 
 his appearance, but had good hind quarters, was heavy 
 and full in his thighs, unusually good in his fore ribs 
 and had a fine elastic skin with good hair." 
 
COUNCILLOR. MILLIONAIRE. INGRAM'S STYLE. 
 
 Yearling Shorthorn bulls, first, second and third at R. A. S. E. Show, 
 Birmingham. INGRAM'S STYLE exhibited by Mr. John Handley (first 
 prize) ; MILLIONAIRE, exhibited by Messrs. G. and H. Bickford (second 
 prize) ; COUNCILLOR, exhibited by H. M. the Queen, (third prize). 
 
 Reproduced from Bibby's Quarterly. 
 
 Three Hereford prize winners at Birmingham (England) Fat Stock 
 Show, first, second and third in the same class. The left hand animal, 
 GARNISH, took first prize ; the middle one, GRACE, third prize. The right 
 hand animal took the second prize in the same class. First and third 
 prize winners both the property of the Right Honorable the Earl of 
 Coventry, president of the Royal Agricultural Society. The second prize 
 winner is the property of G. H. Baker, Esq., The Hill, Bridgnorth. 
 
Aberdeen Angus cow VIOLET 3rd OF CONGAS H. A celebrated cow 
 imported and shown by J. D. McGregor, Brandon, Manitoba, Canada. 
 
 The Hereford heifer BANZA 316601, a prize winner in the 'two year 
 old class in the shows of 1911. Shown by J. P. Cudahy. Kansas 
 City, Mo. 
 
JUDO IXC, BEEF STOCK FOR BREEDING PURPOSES 75 
 
 Commenting on Roan Gauntlet, this writer says : ' ' Roan 
 Gauntlet was a lightish roan color, with a deep heavy 
 carcass on shortish legs. For size, quality, hair and sub- 
 stance he was all right ; he was well let down in his hind 
 quarters and his ribs sprung out well from his back, 
 but inclined to flatten lower down. He had a biggish 
 head and his face was covered with very curly hair. The 
 stock got by Roan Gauntlet were, like those of Champion 
 of England, of good size and remarkable for their early 
 development, natural depth of flesh and quality." These 
 are the qualities that the breeder desires to have per- 
 petuated in the produce of his herd, and they are also 
 the qualities that the feeder desires and the butcher re- 
 quires in the animals he buys. In addition to them the 
 beef sire should have the features of masculinity that 
 attach themselves to cattle very strikingly apparent. The 
 face should be broad, the head burly, the horns strong 
 but not coarse, and the crest full and prominent. There 
 should be a marked appearance of massiveness presented 
 in the front view and the hind quarters shoiUd not in any 
 sense be feminine ; that is, they should not have the short- 
 ness and width and roughness that are usually associated 
 with those of the other sex. 
 
 126. Judging Beef Cows. In judging beef cows the 
 preference should be given those that show constitution, 
 wealth of natural flesh and feminine character. Constitu- 
 tion in the female is of as much importance as it is in 
 the sire, and its value cannot be overestimated in the 
 breeding herd. The question of condition or flesh in this 
 class constantly challenges the judgment of the judge, 
 as it is very frequent that a good cow of excellent type 
 and style competes in the show ring with an indifferent 
 animal in high flesh. While this is an occurrence where 
 every instance will most likely call for a different judg- 
 ment, yet it may be said that the preference should be 
 
76 JUDGING CATTLE 
 
 given to the cow that is lacking in condition rather than 
 the poorer individual that is highly pampered. In this 
 connection it should be stated that cows are probably 
 more apt to be rough and patchy, yet this is a feature 
 that should always be condemned. Over the ribs there 
 are apt to be creases, or around the tail the fat may be 
 accumulated in bunches or the back may show patches, 
 "ties" or unevenness of flesh. Though not often trans- 
 mitted, yet this tendency to patchiness should be dis- 
 countenanced, as it is an undesirable condition in all fat 
 stock. 
 
 127. Judging Young Beef Stock. In judging young 
 beef stock the peculiar feature to which much importance 
 should be attached is that of early maturity. Early ma- 
 turity is a profitable characteristic to encourage in beef 
 animals and for that reason should be given all possible 
 prominence in the show ring. The young animals that 
 show an early tendency to put on an even and somewhat 
 firm and deep covering of flesh and at the same time show 
 size, constitution and quality are the ones that should 
 have the preference of the judge. 
 
 III. JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE. 
 
 To estimate the merits of dairy cows when giving milk 
 there is no method so satisfactory as the actual records 
 made with the Babcock test and the scales. Having the 
 weight of milk yielded, the percentage of fat in it, dura- 
 tion of the milking season and period of pregnancy to- 
 gether with the amount of feed consumed, the merit of 
 a cow for dairy purposes may be rated accurately. But 
 even all these details will not completely express the 
 meritorious qualities that it is possible for a dairy cow 
 to possess ; for the breeder has in mind some other quali- 
 ties that he desires, chief among which may be mentioned 
 the ability of the cow to produce calves of the merit of 
 herself and to continue doing this for a number of years. 
 To attempt to encompass all the merits that any domes- 
 ticated animal may possess and express this in a scale of 
 
Hereford cow PRINCESS 16th. Champion at the Iowa State Fair 
 in 1911. Shown by O. Harris & Sons, Harris, Mo. 
 
 
 Shorthorn bull calf, SCOTTISH CHAMPION, at 7 months. The highest 
 priced calf of 1898. Bred by W. S. Marr, Uppermill, Scotland. Sold 
 at auction for $1,650. 
 
Polled Durham bull THE CONFESSOR. Champion at the International 
 L,ive Stock Exposition in 1J11. Owned by J. H. Miller and Sons, 
 Peru, Ind. The term 'Doul)le Standard' is applied to such Polled 
 Durhams as are eligible for registration in the American Shorthorn 
 Herd Book as well as in the Polled Durham Record. 
 
 Photo by Reid. 
 
 Hereford herd owned by Messrs. Gudgell & Simpson, Independence, 
 Mo. This herd won first prize as the best young herd at the Kansas 
 City National Live Stock Show in 1900. 
 
JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 77 
 
 points* is at best but a stimulus to the study of them, and 
 it is only with this in mind that the various scales of 
 points are submitted here in this work. That which fol- 
 lows is used at the London and Canadian Dairy Show ag 
 a basis for making awards : Twenty points for constitu- 
 tion and conformation, one point for each pound of milk, 
 twenty points for each pound of fat, four points for each 
 pound of solids not fat, one point for each ten days in 
 milk after the first twenty days (limit 200 days) ; ten 
 points is deducted from the total score for each per cent 
 of fat below three per cent fat in the milk, 
 
 While the judging of dairy cattle by points may not 
 be completely satisfactory, it is a quick method for use 
 in the show ring and it assists in the study of the many 
 traits that are common to dairy cattle. Its value does 
 not lie in the degree to which it assists in distinguishing 
 the good cows from the bad ones but chiefly for the in- 
 sight which it gives into the nature aud functions of the 
 dairy animal, and it is the deeper knowledge of them 
 that leads to- better care, more intelligent feeding and 
 more successful breeding, which all culminate in greater 
 production. 
 
 128. Dairy Cow's Function. To be able to draw cor- 
 rect inferences from the points of the dairy cow, it is 
 necessary to understand her function and how she per- 
 forms it. The function of the dairy cow is to make milk, 
 so that it is desirable to have a complete knowledge of 
 how she does this and more especially the operation of 
 the chief organs employed in the process. After studying 
 this so as to see the work performed by each part, it is 
 then realized that the type of the dairy cow is produced 
 simply by the activity of these parts and it is in this 
 way that it is possible to obtain a clear conception of 
 the close relation of function or work, to type. 
 
 129. Making of Milk. To understand how milk is 
 made let us follow the course of the food after entering 
 the cow's mouth. From there it passes into the gullet 
 
78 JUDGING CATTLJE 
 
 and then to the first stomach or paunch. After remaining 
 there for a time, the most of it is returned to the mouth 
 and remasticated ; when this is accomplished the food 
 passes through the two other stomachs and finally lodges 
 in the fourth. After undergoing a mixing process by the 
 action of the muscles of the stomach, the food passes into 
 the small intestines. Up to this time the chief action of 
 the various parts has been to break up the food, so that 
 the fluids of the body may act upon it, and make the 
 digestible and nutritive portion into a solution. In its 
 passage thus far the food has been subjected to the action 
 of the saliva of the mouth and the gastric juice of the 
 stomach, together with the bile of the liver and pancreatic 
 juice which attack it in the small intestine. The result 
 of this action is that the soluble nitrogenous material, 
 carbohydrates and salts are now in a condition to be re- 
 ceived by the blood and carried to the parts of the body 
 that make the most abundant use of it. We see from this 
 that the stomach and its aids have an important part to 
 play in preparing the food, so that it may supply the cow 
 the material to carry on her specialty, which is the making 
 of milk. 
 
 130. Function of the Blood, The food now being in 
 a condition to be utilized by the animal economy, let us 
 see how it passes into the blood and finally reaches that 
 other great manufacturing center of the body of the dairy 
 cow, the udder. It is the blood that is the medium for 
 carrying the nutritive portions of the food to the organs 
 needing them. The mucous membrane or inner lining of 
 the small intestines is covered with a large number of 
 small glands that have the appearance of the pile on 
 velvet. These villi consist of cells and numerous small 
 branches of veins called capillaries, and they also have 
 what are known as lacteals. All the constituents, ex- 
 cepting the fat, pass through the wall of the small capil- 
 laries and these connect with the portal vein, which car- 
 ries the blood to the liver and thence to the right side of 
 the heart. The emulsified fat of the food reaches the 
 
JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 79 
 
 same destination by a slightly different course. It passes 
 into the lacteals that are contained in the villi mentioned 
 and these join a long tube that runs beneath the spine and 
 finally reaches the thoracic duct, which also receives all 
 the fluid coming from the other lymphatics in the cow. 
 The thoracic duct empties its contents about the region of 
 the first rib into a great vein (the anterior vena cava) 
 which opens into the right side of the heart, so all the 
 digestible constituents of the food are now in the blood 
 and have reached the right side of the heart. From here 
 the blood goes to the lungs to be purified by the air that 
 is breathed in and then it again goes back to the left side 
 of the heart to be pumped through the arteries to the 
 various portions of the body. Several branches run to 
 the various organs of the body but that which goes to the 
 mammary gland is of chief interest in the function of 
 making milk. The aorta runs along under the spinal 
 column and finally reaches the femoral artery which is 
 about parallel with the femur or thigh bone. This throws 
 off a branch (prepubic) which again branches into another 
 (the external pubic) and this again after it passes through 
 the inguinal ring divides into two branches (the anterior 
 or subcutaneous artery, and the posterior abdominal or 
 mammary artery) and from these the mammary gland re- 
 ceives its supply, as they branch into all the regions of the 
 udder. 
 
 Following the blood still further, it passes through the 
 udder and appears outside of it in what are known as the 
 milk veins. They run along the belly, pass into the body, 
 and finally direct the blood to the heart again. In respect 
 to the function and relations of the organs up to this point, 
 we can understand that the stomach and its accessories 
 perform the greatest amount of work in making food into 
 blood, while the lungs purify it, and the heart propels it to 
 those parts that are in most need of it. 
 
 131. Function of the Udder. In the dairy cow the 
 udder is an important organ, for it directly performs the 
 work of making milk, which is the dairy cow's specialty. 
 
80 JUDGING CATTLE 
 
 With the exception of the water, the udder is generally 
 considered to produce as the direct product of it^ own 
 action all the constituents of the milk. The casein, the 
 fat and the milk sugar are elaborated in the udder, the 
 only constituent that is thought not to undergo any 
 change is the water in the blood. However, it is from 
 the blood that the milk is made, for the action of the 
 udder is to so change all the constituents that the milk 
 distinctly becomes the peculiar product of the udder. 
 
 To better understand the construction of the udder let 
 us follow the course of the small opening which exists at 
 the end of the teat. This opening at the upper part of 
 the teat swells into a cistern or milk reservoir, where the 
 milk accumulates to a degree between the time of milking. 
 The milk is prevented from passing out of this cistern 
 through the teat by a small muscle (sphincter) which holds 
 the milk in the udder until relaxed by the stimulation of 
 milking. From this cistern a canal extends further into 
 the udder. This branches many times and at the end of 
 each branch there is a cluster (a lobe) of tissue very 
 similar to a bunch of grapes. What is known as the lobe 
 is similar to the bunch, the lobule resembling one grape, 
 and what is known as the alveoli the seeds of the grape. 
 The alveoli are lined with small cells in which the milk is 
 made. These cells produce within themselves the fat pe- 
 culiar to milk and also secrete the water, salts, etc., that 
 enter into the composition of milk. The milk being se- 
 creted in these millions of small cells, which compose the 
 udder, passes into the branches that lead to them, and 
 from these it passes into the main branch and finally 
 reaches the milk cistern, where it accumulates until milk- 
 ing begins. The four quarters which make up the whole 
 udder are each constructed in the way indicated and they 
 act somewhat independently of each other. 
 
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JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 81 
 
 132,... Nervous System. Besides the organs performing 
 the work of digestion and secretion, there is another 
 feature of the physiology of the dairy cow, which is of 
 equal importance. Reference is made to the brain, the 
 spinal cord, and the numberless nerves connected with the 
 nervous system. These control the action of most of the 
 organs of the body and have an effective influence over the 
 amount of work that they may accomplish. The nervous 
 system is represented by the brain and the spinal cord 
 with its branches. The spinal cord runs through the verte- 
 bra from the head to the tail and sends out from each 
 vertebra branches that connect with the various organs of 
 the body. The feature connected with the nervous system 
 that has special application to the dairy cow is that of 
 temperament. More study has been given this in the 
 instance of men, and those who have given most attention 
 to it have divided their temperament into four classes 
 nervous, lymphatic, bilious and sanguinary. In cattle the 
 two divisions, nervous and lymphatic are most in evidence, 
 and they are very markedly characteristic of two classes 
 of cattle, dairy stock and beef animals. In an animal of 
 nervous temperament, the nervous organization is strong 
 and well developed. Such an animal is able to stand labor 
 beyond what would be expected of it from its physical 
 appearance. The animal of lymphatic temperament is 
 sluggish in disposition and inclined to fatten or become 
 fleshy. It should be stated that the common conception 
 of nervous temperament is not the same as that which 
 is referred to here. Generally when reference is made to 
 an animal's having a nervous temperament it is commonly 
 supposed to mean that it is irritable and excitable which 
 actually indicates the lack of nervous control. The term 
 as properly used in reference to dairy cattle means an 
 animal that is full of nerves, one that has strong nerves 
 which gives tone to the various organs of the body. The 
 
82 JUDGING CATTLE 
 
 animal of nervous temperament is one that is sensitive and 
 active, giving all regions the greatest vitality and all the 
 organs the greatest productive powers. 
 
 To sum up, if we consider a cow simply as a machine for 
 making milk, we find that the food is manufactured into 
 blood by the stomach and its accessories and the blood in a 
 general sense is made into milk by the udder so that the 
 two main manufacturing centers of the dairy cow are the 
 stomach and the udder, and it is around these that what 
 is known as the dairy type has evolved its peculiarities. 
 But as the dairy cow is more than a machine, as she has 
 vitality and recuperative power, we find that the nervous 
 system as expressed in the nervous temperament is what 
 enables her to maintain her enormous productive powers 
 in these centers. 
 
 133. The Dairy Form. It will be understood from th^ 
 previous discussion of the function of the dairy cow that 
 there are four main centers of activity when she is per- 
 forming her function; the digestive system, the milk se- 
 creting system, the circulatory system and the nervous 
 system. And it is because of extreme activity in these 
 centers that the dairy cow inclines towards a given type. 
 She tends to become wedge shaped and lean because of the 
 unusual activity in the regions mentioned. Certain por- 
 tions of her organization have an undue amount of work 
 which tends to their development in an extreme degree, 
 while the other portions because of their activity and lack 
 of nourishment do not develop to the fullest degree ; this 
 results in the instance of unusual performers in a type 
 that is inclined to be narrow in front and wide and deep 
 behind. While it does not necessarily follow that a cow, 
 to be a good dairy animal, must be of this type yet because 
 of the work she does, most of them tend towards it. The 
 relation of type to performance has been the subject of ex- 
 periments by Professor Haecker, reported in Bulletin 67 
 of the Minnesota Experiment Station. When a cow is 
 milking freely if she possesses good dairy qualities there 
 is likely to be a lean appearance over every region of the 
 
Jersey cow BOSNIAN'S ANNA Imp. Champion of the breed at the 
 National Dairy Show in 1910. Shown by C. I. Hudson, East Nor- 
 wich, N. Y. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF JERSEY CATTLE. 
 
 N THE establishment of this breed on the island, from which it takes its 
 name, the work was conducted very systematically to produce uniformity 
 of type and bovine beauty. In establishing the ideal, two representative ani- 
 mals were chosen for excellence and the scale of points adopted was made a 
 combination of these. The early breeders adhered very closely to color, mark- 
 ings and type but the modern breeder has lessened the attention towards these 
 by breeding more strictly for utility as a butter producer. The foundation 
 stock for the Jersey represented chiefly by those on the island at the present 
 time are noted especially for the deerlike appearance of their heads, fine, slim 
 necks, light shoulders, deep though narrow forequarters, large bodies with 
 abundant capacity, lean hind quarters and more particularly for the beautiful 
 appearance of the udder in the fullness and placing of the teats. Since the 
 introduction of a system of testing, the indications which give power of pro- 
 duction have overbalanced to some degree the fine discriminations which 
 existed as to the general color and markings, of nose, tongue and switch. 
 The modern type may be of broken color, or lack in^the fancy points referred 
 to but it has the ability for larger butter production more intensified, as the 
 frame is inclined to show more strength and the general form more ruggedness 
 of constitution. While the type should show 'the angular form which is con- 
 ducive to the highest butter production, yet those features which contribute 
 to beauty, the head and neck, should not be wholly without the graceful lines 
 so characteristic of the breed. See scale of points, page 97. 
 
Guernsey cow GLENCOE'S BOPEEP. Champion cow of her breed at 
 the National Dairy $how in 1911. Shown by W. W. Marsh, Waterloo, 
 Iowa. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GUERNSEY CATTLE. 
 
 "PHE GUERNSEY cattle coming from the island of that name hava not had 
 attached to them any peculiar requirements as to the type or markings, 
 as these have been allowed to evolve themselves as the breed developed under 
 the patronage of the Royal Agricultural Society of the island. Being carefully 
 protected from the infusions of blood from foreign sources they have become 
 of a distinct type and their markings and color have necessarily assumed 
 uniformity. The greatest production of butter has been the aim and the 
 evolution of the breed and this has evolved the type of large capacity, neces- 
 sarily strong in frame without any encouragement being given to the finer 
 lines of beauty. The color is usually some shade of fawn with white mark- 
 ings, but this is considered subordinate to the color of the skin, which should 
 be of a rich orange tinge. The head in all its lineaments should show refine- 
 ment, the nostril and mouth large, the face slightly dished and clearly chiseled, 
 the eye large and full with the top of the head surmounted by delicate horns. 
 The juncture of the head and neck should be trim and light and the latter 
 slim. A sharp shoulder should run into a deep chest and the latter should 
 swell into a roomy barrel. The back should be sharp and straight and the 
 hind quarters completely free from fleshiness with a thin thigh. The udder 
 Is a leading consideration and it should be long with full, circular form and 
 teats large and the milk veins prominent, branched and tortuous. See the 
 elaborate official scale of points, page 98. 
 
JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 83 
 
 bocly showing that she is an animal of nervous organiza- 
 tion and further that she utilizes all her foods for the 
 making of milk and not for the filling out of her form. 
 
 In a good dairy cow there is a feminine look that is very 
 characteristic. There is no thickening of the neck, or a 
 crest on the neck, or any heaviness of the fore quarters 
 indicating the slightest masculinity, but all of these parts 
 are light, clean cut and in every way indicative of feminine 
 character. The size of the dairy cow comes into the dis- 
 cussion of type. This has something to do with her per- 
 formance, but there is no distinct advantage in having a 
 cow very large if there is not with it characteristics which 
 indicate enlarged dairy qualities. 
 
 134. Skin Soft, Fine. The skin should be soft and 
 comparatively thin. It is a point of much value to dis- 
 criminate against a thin, papery skin, as such is usually 
 associated with the weakness of constitution. The skin 
 should be unctuous, or oily to the touch, giving the im- 
 pression that butter might be squeezed out of it. When 
 the secretions of the skin are healthy it may be expected 
 that the secretions in the rest of the body are going on 
 vigorously. The skin lining the ear should be of a golden 
 color and so should that in the region of the udder, inside 
 the thighs, around the eyes, at the root of the tail and 
 below any spots of white hair. 
 
 135. Hair Silky, Fine. The hair covering all the body 
 should be short, soft and silky. The udder especially 
 should be covered with hair of this character, and not with 
 long, coarse hair, as is often observed on poorly milking 
 animals. Coarse, harsh hair is generally an indication of 
 lack of refinement and an evidence of unthriftiness. 
 
 136. Bone Fine Texture. The dairy cow in her daily 
 life needs but sufficient bane to maintain her form. As a 
 rule the milking cows are loose in form but possessed of 
 fine quality. There should not be any appearance of 
 weakness due to fineness, yet the f^rm should not be coarse 
 and heavy. 
 
84 JUDGING CATTLE 
 
 137. Head Feminine, Lean, Long. A very essential 
 quality is for the head to have a feminine appearance. 
 The ideal head of a cow is devoid of the heaviness and 
 coarseness characteristic of the bull. Just as milk giving 
 is a peculiar trait of the cow so is fineness in the head. 
 The face should be long and especially lean with the 
 features very distinct. The eye should be full, mild and 
 bright, and more or less active. A kindly disposition is 
 reflected by a mild eye, while one that is bright is in- 
 dicative of vigorous circulation and good health. Large, 
 dilated nostrils permitting easy entrance of air to the 
 lungs, with prominent windpipe, are usually associated 
 with depth of chest and lung capacity. In size the ear 
 should be medium, possessed of fine quality, and a rich 
 orange color inside. The strong horn of the bull is not 
 desirable, but rather one that is small and fine in quality. 
 The poll should be prominent, with the forehead broad 
 and full, showing strong development of brain. 
 
 138. Neck Thin. A slim, fine neck carrying the head 
 gracefully is a characteristic that adds much to the ap- 
 pearance of a dairy cow. The fullness and heaviness here 
 which characterizes the beef animal should be completely 
 absent. The neck must be thin and join an equally thin 
 and bare shoulder, with the withers sharp but yet quite 
 open. The performing powers of the dairy cow depend 
 greatly on the depth and volume of the barrel. It has 
 been noted the important part that the heart, lungs and 
 stomach perform in the work of a dairy cow, so that the 
 necessity of having a barrel that will afford ample room 
 for the work of these will be readily apparent. The ribs 
 should be long to supply storage capacity for food. The 
 backbone should be prominent and strong, for through it 
 and under it run two of the largest channels, representing 
 two of the most vital systems of the body, the nervous 
 and the circulatory. 
 
 139. Hind Quarter Lean, Elevated. As a whole, the 
 hind quarter in a deep milking cow is strikingly free from 
 fleshiness, and there is usually a slight raise in the quarter 
 
JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE OO 
 
 from the loin to the attachment of the tail. Some think 
 this conformation indicates vigor, but a more reasonable 
 view of the merit of the point asserts that it is to some 
 extent unfavorable for the premature birth of calves. 
 
 140. Hips Sharp, Wide Apart. The hip bones should 
 be prominent, sharp and wide apart, giving plenty of room 
 to the generative organs. From the point of the hip to 
 the end of the tail there should be a marked hollow or 
 shrinkage, due to the absence of the flesh, a condition 
 characteristic of heavy performers when in full milk. 
 
 141. Thigh Thin, In-curving. The thigh, for the same 
 reason should be thin and retreating and possessed of 
 length. A thin thigh, decidedly in-curving is a note- 
 worthy feature. Attention has been drawn to the use of 
 the tail as a plumb line to determine the degree to which 
 the thigh curves. 
 
 142. Escutcheon High, Wide, Spreading. Viewing 
 the thighs and the region of the cow above the udder, it 
 will be observed that on this part the hair runs in the 
 opposite direction from that to which it inclines on the 
 other parts of the body. Where it does this, it is known 
 as the escutcheon, to which attention was first directed by 
 Guenon. It is supposed that the reason of this hair grow- 
 ing in the direction mentioned is due to the artery which 
 passes this part. The artery supplying the udder with 
 blood also nourishes the skin on which the escutcheon 
 grows. Many have the idea that Guenon considered this 
 the only point of value in determining the worth of 
 a cow. The fact is that he considered it only one of ten 
 to be included in the merits of a first-class dairy cow. 
 There is some reason for considering the escutcheon as it 
 is undoubtedly to a degree an index of the quantity of 
 blood received by the udder, for the same reason that 
 the milk veins are of value as they indicate the quantity of 
 blood that leaves the udder. In 1878 a commission was 
 appointed by the Governor of Pennsylvania to inquire into 
 the reliability of this point, and they reported in its favor. 
 
86 JUDGING CATTLE 
 
 It is unnecessary to go into the details of the various 
 classes of escutcheons as Guenon enumerates eight classes 
 and eight orders or, in other words, eight different shapes 
 and eight different sizes. He claimed that the shape was 
 indicative of the quantity and the size was an index of the 
 duration of the milk flow. The broader it extends over 
 the thigh and the greater the length of it the better the 
 escutcheon is considered to be. Guenon believed that the 
 thigh escutcheon indicated the quantity of milk the cow 
 gave, while the upper portion or vertical escutcheon the 
 length of time she would milk, and with these he con- 
 sidered the feel of the skin, the character of the hair, 
 and the color of the skin as indicative of the quality of 
 the milk. "With these features he also associated "the 
 thigh ovals" on the udder just above the hind teats, for 
 in his view an escutcheon was not considered of a high 
 order without them. 
 
 143. Udder Long, Plastic. When empty the udder 
 should nearly lose its form and appear to consist of folds 
 of soft, pliable and elastic skin. The hind quarter should 
 be full behind and attached high, while the fore quarter 
 should extend far forward. Length in the udder is im- 
 portant, as it gives a long line of absorption. It should 
 be fully thirty inches long from the attachment at the 
 back to where it joins the belly. It is to be remembered 
 that the udder not only secretes milk from the blood 
 and hence is an important organ, but it is also a receptacle 
 for holding the milk. In Bulletin 62 issued by Purdue 
 University, Professor Plumb presents some instructive 
 studies of this important organ. 
 
 144. Teats Evenly Placed. These should be just 
 large enough to fill the hand and yield milk easily but 
 never leak. They should be evenly placed, standing at 
 least six inches apart in all directions when the udder is 
 full. 
 
 145. Milk Veins Large, Branching. The milk veins 
 are considered important as they indicate the amount of 
 blood that has passed through the udder. In a cow that 
 
JUDGING DAIBY CATTLE 87 
 
 has recently dropped her calf they should be very prom- 
 inent and full and branched. The milk wells through 
 which the veins pass into the body of the cow are in- 
 dicative of the size of the milk veins and consequently 
 they should receive consideration, especially when the 
 cow is dry, for at that time the milk veins themselves are 
 not in evidence. 
 
 SCALE OF FOISTS FOB DAIBY CATTLE COW. *J 
 
 GENERAL APPEARANCE! || 
 
 Form, inclined to be wedge shaped 6 
 
 Quality, hair fine, soft; skin, mellow, loose, medium 
 
 thickness; secretion yellow; bone clean, fine 6 
 
 Temperament, nervous, indicated by lean appearance 
 
 when in milk 6 
 
 HEAD AND NECK: 
 
 Muzzle, clean cut; mouth large; nostrils large 1 
 
 Eyes, large, bright, full, mild 1 
 
 Face, lean, long, quiet expression 1 
 
 Forehead, broad 1 
 
 Ears, medium size, yellow inside, fine texture 1 
 
 Horns, fine texture, waxy 1 
 
 Neck, fine, medium length, throat clean, light dewlap. 1 
 
 FORE QUARTERS: 
 
 Withers, lean, thin 1 
 
 Shoulders, light, oblique 2 
 
 Legs, straight, short; shank fine, 2 
 
 BODY: 
 
 Chest, deep, low, girth large with full fore flank 10 
 
 Barrel, ribs broad, long, wide apart; large stomach. . . 10 
 
 Back, lean straight, open jointed 2 
 
 Loin, broad 2 
 
 Navel, large 2 
 
 HIND QUARTERS: 
 
 Hips, far apart, level 2 
 
 Rump, long, wide 2 
 
 Pin Bones or Thurls, high, wide apart 1 
 
 Tail, long, slim ; fine hair in switch 1 
 
 Thighs, thin, long 4 
 
 Escutcheon, spreading over thighs, extending high and 
 
 wide; large thigh ovals 2 
 
 Udder, long, attached high and full behind, extending 
 
 far in front and full, flexible; quarters even and free 
 
 from fleshiness 20 
 
 Teats, large, evenly placed 5 
 
 Mammary Veins, large, long, tortuous, branched with 
 
 double extension; large and numerous milk wells. 5 
 
 Legs, straight; shank fine ^ 2 
 
 Total .100 
 
JUDGING CATTLE 
 
 IV. JUDGING DAIRY BULLS. 
 
 146. Judging Dairy Bulls. In judging dairy bulls 
 many points may be noted that they have in common 
 with dairy cows, especially features of type, but it is a 
 much more difficult task to judge between those of this 
 sex than it is to discriminate between developed cows. 
 
 147. Purity of Breeding. It seems necessary to say 
 that the first requirement in the dairy bull, as in the in- 
 stance of all other stock sires, is purity of breeding. The 
 sire should meet all the requirements demanded of a pure- 
 bred animal for registration. In addition the dairy sire 
 should have the characteristics which are called for by 
 the scale of points for the breed represented. 
 
 148, Uniformity of Breeding. To secure the greatest 
 prepotency in a sire, the breeding for some generations, 
 back must show a uniformity in the type and characteris- 
 tics of the ancestry. When the animals mentioned in a 
 pedigree lack uniformity, or have been dissimilar in type 
 and characteristics, it is not probable that the progeny 
 will show that uniformity which every breeder desires to 
 see in the herd. 
 
 149. Pedigree Based on Performance. The most valu- 
 able characteristic relating to the pedigree of a dairy bull 
 is the number and the merit of the records that have been 
 made by the cows that are named in it. This feature is 
 not usually considered in the show ring, though it should 
 be, as it has a marked influence on the worth of a dairy 
 sire. The most important feature of the pedigree of a 
 dairy sire is the degree to which his dam was a good 
 dairy cow, and in a lessening degree the records of those 
 that preceded her. Next in importance to this is the 
 number and the merit of the performances of the cows 
 that are mentioned in the sires' line. Not only should 
 the dams in the pedigrees have good records as per- 
 formers, but the males should also be getters of per- 
 formers. A bull that has breeding of high order based on 
 
JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 89 
 
 performance, is as certain as things can be to sire su- 
 perior stock, provided he is satisfactory as an individual. 
 
 150. Qualities Associated with Individuality. Impres- 
 sive power or prepotency and constitution are indicated 
 to a certain extent by the individual. The first mentioned 
 may be estimated with some certainty by the masculine 
 appearance of the bull in the head, horn, and crest ; while 
 the constitution is reflected by the depth of chest, the 
 size of the navel and the general appearance of the hair, 
 hide, and eye, as these are closely asso-ciated with thrift 
 and vigor. The type in other respects should be that out- 
 lined for the dairy cow. A very common defect in the 
 form of the dairy bull is roundness of the hips and undue 
 fullness of the thighs, traceable to heaviness of flesh in 
 these regions. 
 
 The hip bones and the hocks should be prominent and 
 between these points there should be a marked falling 
 away due to the absence of any tendency towards fatness 
 in this region. The undeveloped teats should be large 
 and well placed and the navel should be prominent. The 
 skin, especially where it gathers in loose folds between 
 the thighs and at other points, should be soft, pliable and 
 rich in color. All points should show much more open- 
 ness and relaxation than is customary in beef animals, for 
 this characteristic appears to be prevalent among deep 
 milking types. 
 
 151. Judging Calves. In the selection of the best 
 calves the merit of the dam as a dairy cow is a valuable 
 guide but it is not a point that is usually employed in 
 show yard judging. In reference to the form of heifer 
 calves the type of the typical dairy cow in miniature is 
 the most desirable. The long face, the thin neck, light 
 shoulder, sharp withers, deep chest, large capacious body, 
 wide, long and thin rump, thin thighs, mellow hide of 
 red color and soft hair should all be in evidence. The 
 folds of skin in the udder regions should be loose and 
 pliable. The teats should not be bunched together but 
 
90 JUDGING CATTLE 
 
 wide apart and evenly placed. It is desirable to have the 
 navel of such size that it may be easily noticed, and the 
 form in every part should have the open and relaxed 
 condition referred to in discussing developed cows. The 
 bull calf differs in no marked degree from the heifer calf 
 until it approaches the age of one year when the sex 
 characteristics have developed to a noticeable extent 
 
 V. OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR CATTLE, 
 ABERDEEN ANGUS CATTLE. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY AMERICAN 
 ABERDEEN ANGUS ASSOCIATION BULL. Q 
 
 Color Black. White is objectionable, except on the under- 
 line behind the navel, and there only to a moderate 
 extent; a white cod is most undesirable 3 
 
 Head Forehead broad; face slightly prominent, and taper- 
 ing toward the nose; muzzle fine; nostrils wide and 
 open; distance from eyes to nostrils of moderate 
 length; eyes mild, full and expressive, indicative of 
 good disposition; ears of good medium size; well set 
 and well covered with hair; poll well defined, and 
 without any appearance of horns or scurs; jaws clean. 10 
 
 Throat Clean, without any development of loose flesh un- 
 derneath 3 
 
 Neck Of medium length, muscular, witih moderate crest 
 (which increases with age), spreading out to meet the 
 the shoulders, with full neck vein 3 
 
 Shoulders Moderately oblique, well covered on the blades 
 and tap; with vertebra or backbone slightly above the 
 scapula or shoulder blades, which should be moderate- 
 ly broad 6 
 
 Chest Wide and deep, also round and full just back of 
 
 elbows 10 
 
 Brisket Deep and moderately projecting from between the 
 
 legs, and proportionately covered with flesh and fat. . 4 
 
 Ribs Well sprung from the backbone, arched and deep, 
 
 neatly joined to the crops and loins 8 
 
 Back Broad and straight from crops to hooks; loins 
 strong; ihook bones moderate in width, not prominent 
 and well covered; rumps long, full, level and rounded 
 neatly into hind quarters 10 
 
 Hind Quarters Deep and full; thighs thick and muscular, 
 and in proportion to hind quarters; twist filled out 
 well in its "seam" so as to form an even wide plane 
 between thighs 8 
 
OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOB CATTLE 91 
 
 ABERDEEN ANGUS CATTLE. +? 
 
 BULL CONTINUED. o 
 
 Tail Fine, coming neatly out of the body on a line with 
 
 the back and hanging at right angles to it 3 
 
 Underline Straight, as nearly as possible; flank, deep and 
 
 full 4 
 
 Legs Short, straight and squarely placed, hind legs slight- 
 ly inclined forward below the hocks; forearm muscu- 
 lar; bones fine and clean 4 
 
 Flesh Even and without patchiness 4 
 
 Skin Of moderate thickness and mellow touch, abundantly 
 covered with thick soft hair. (Much of the thrifti- 
 ness, feeding properties, and value of the animal de- 
 pend upon this quality, which is of great weight in the 
 grazier's and butcher's judgment. A good "touch" will 
 compensate for some deficiencies of form. Nothing can 
 compensate for a skin hard and stiff. In raising the 
 skin from the body it should have a substantial, soft, 
 flexible feeling, and when beneath the outspread hand 
 it should move easily as though resting on a soft cellu- 
 lar substance, which however becomes firmer as the 
 animal ripens. A thin papery skin is objectionable, 
 especially in a cold climate) 10 
 
 General Appearance Elegant, well bred and masculine. 
 
 The walk square, the step quick, and the head up. ... 10 
 
 Total 100 
 
 When bulls are exhibited with their progeny in a separate 
 class, add 25 counts for progeny. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY AMERICAN 
 
 ABERDEEN ANGUS ASSOCIATION COW. o 
 
 Color Black. White is objectionable, except on the under- 
 line behind the navel and there only to a moderate 
 extent 2 
 
 Head Forehead moderately broad and slightly indented; 
 tapering toward the nose; muzzle fine; nostrils wide 
 and open; distance from eyes to nostrils of moderate 
 length; eyes full, bright and expressive, indicative of 
 good disposition; ears large, slightly rising upward, 
 and well furnished with hair; poll well defined, and 
 without any appearance of horns or scurs; jaws clean. 10 
 
 Throat Clean, without any development of loose flesih un- 
 derneath 3 
 
 Neck Of medium length, spreading out to meet the shoul- 
 ders, with full neck vein 3 
 
 Shoulders Moderately oblique, well covered on the blades 
 and top; with vertebra or backbone slightly above the 
 scapula or shoulder blades, which should be mod- 
 erately broad 6 
 
 Chest Wide and deep; round and full just back of el- 
 bows 10 
 
 Brisket Deep and moderately projecting from between the 
 
 legs, and proportionately covered with flesh and fat. . 4 
 
92 JUDGING CATTLE 
 
 ABERDEEN ANGUS CATTLE, | 
 
 COW CONTINUED. 
 
 (j 
 
 Ribs Well sprung from the backbone, arched and deep, 
 
 neatly joined to the crops and loins 8 
 
 Back Broad and straight from crops to hooks; loins 
 strong; hook bones moderate in width, not prominent, 
 and well covered; rumps long, full, level and rounded 
 neatly into hind quarters 10 
 
 Hind Quarters Deep and full; thighs thick and muscular, 
 and in proportion to hind quarters; twist filled out 
 well in its "seam" so as to form, an even wide plane 
 between thighs 8 
 
 Tail Fine, coming neatly out of the body on a line with 
 
 the back and hanging at right angles to it 3 
 
 Udder Not fleshy, coming well forward in line with the 
 body and well up behind; teats squarely placed, well 
 apart and of good size 8 
 
 Underline Straight, as nearly as possible, flank deep and 
 
 full 4 
 
 Legs Short, straight and squarely placed; hind legs slight- 
 ly inclined forward below the hocks; fore arm muscu- 
 lar; bones fine and clean 3 
 
 Flesh Even and without patchiness 3 
 
 Skin Of moderate thickness and mellow touch, abundantly 
 covered with thick, soft hair. (Much of the thrifti- 
 ness, feeding properties and value of the animal de- 
 pend upon this quality, which is of great weight in 
 the grazier's and butcher's judgment. A good "touch" 
 will compensate for some deficiencies of form. Noth- 
 ing can compensate for a skin 'hard and stiff. In rais- 
 ing the skin from the body it should have a substan- 
 tial, soft, flexible feeling, and when beneath the out- 
 spread hand it should move easily, as though resting 
 on a soft, cellular substance, which, however, becomes 
 firmer as the animal ripens. A thin, papery skin is 
 objectionable, especially in a cold climate) 10 
 
 General Appearance Elegant, well bred and feminine. The 
 
 walk square, tlhe step quick, and the head up 5 
 
 Total 100 
 
 In judging heifers omit No. 12, and add 3 counts to "Flesh" 
 and 5 counts to No. 17, in the order named above. 
 
 DEVON CATTLE. 
 
 STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE FOR DEVON BULL ADOPTED BY DEVON 
 
 CATTLE BREEDERS SOCIETY, ENGLAND, 1896. 
 
 Registered pedigree. 
 
 Head masculine, forehead broad, tapering towards the nose, 
 which should be flesh-colored; nostrils high and open, muzzle 
 broad; eyes full and placid; ears medium size and thickness, 
 fringed with hair; horns growing at right angles from the head 
 or slightly elevated; stout and waxy at the base, tipped with 
 a darker shade. 
 
OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOB CATTLE 03 
 
 Cheek full and broad at the root of the tongue. Throat 
 
 Neck of medium length and muscular, growing from the 
 head to the shoulders and spreading out to meet them. 
 
 Withers fine, shoulders flat sloping and well covered. 
 
 Chest deep, broad and somewhat circular in character. 
 
 Ribs well sprung from the backbone, nicely arched, deep and 
 fully developed. 
 
 Back straight and level from the withers to the setting on 
 of tail, loins broad and full, hips of medium width and on a 
 level with the back. 
 
 Rumps moderately long, thick and square. 
 
 Hind quarters deep, thick and square. 
 
 Tail, thick at the root, and tapering with a brush of strong 
 hair, reaching to the hocks and hanging at right angles with 
 the back. 
 
 The underline as nearly as possible parallel with the top. 
 
 Arms and thighs muscular. 
 
 Legs straight and squarely placed when viewed from behind, 
 not to cross or sweep when walking. 
 
 Skin moderately thick and meMow. covered with an abundant 
 coat of rich mossy hair of a red color; a little white in front 
 of the purse is admissible; but it should not extend beyond 
 the navel forward, on the outside of the flanks, or any other 
 part of the limbs or body. 
 
 STAXDARD OF EXCELLENCE FOE DEVON COW ADOPTED BY DEVON 
 CATTLE BREEDERS SOCIETY, ENGLAND, 1896. 
 
 Registered pedigree. 
 
 Head, moderately long, with a broad indented forehead, 
 tapering considerably towards the nostrils; the nose of a 
 creamy white, the nostrils high and open, the jaws clean, the 
 eye bright, lively and prominent; throat* clean, ears thin, the 
 expression being gentle and intelligent; horns matching, long, 
 spreading and gracefully turned up of a waxy color tipped 
 with a darker shade. 
 
 N-^ck of medium length, growing from the head to the shoul- 
 ders, and spreading out to meet them. 
 
 Withers fine, shoulders flat, sloping and well covered. 
 
 Ribs well sprung from the backbone, nicely arched, deep 
 and fully developed. 
 
 Back straight and level from the withers to the setting on 
 of the tail, loins broad and full, hips of medium width and on 
 a level with the back. 
 
 Rumps moderately long and level. 
 
 Hind quarters, deep, thick and square. 
 
 Udder not fleshy, coming well forward in line with the belly 
 and well up behind; teats moderately large and squarely 
 placed. 
 
 Tail thick at the root and tapering, with a brush of strong 
 hair reaching the hocks and hanging at right angles with the 
 back. 
 
 The underline as nearly as possible parallel with the top. 
 
94 JUDGING CATTLE 
 
 Legs straight, squarely placed, when view from behind, 
 not to cross or sweep w'hen walking. 
 
 Skin moderately thick and mellow, covered with an abun- 
 dant coat of rich mossy hair of a red color; white about the 
 udder is admissible, but it should not extend beyond the navel 
 forward, on the outside of flanks or any other part of the 
 limbs or body. 
 
 HOLSTEINxFRESIAN CATTLE. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS PUBLISHED IN ADVANCED -2 
 
 REGISTRY, VOL. 11, 1889 BULL. 
 
 Head Showing full vigor, elegant in contour 2 
 
 Forehead Broad between the eyes, dishing 2 
 
 Face Contour graceful, especially under the eyes, medium 
 
 in length, broad muzzle 2 
 
 Ear Of medium size, fine, covered with soft hair l 
 
 Eyes Moderately large, full and bright 2 
 
 Horns Medium in size, fine in texture, short, oval, inclin- 
 ing forward 2 
 
 Neck Neatly joined to head and shoulders, nearly free 
 
 from dewlap, good length, proud in bearing 5 
 
 Shoulders Of medium height, well rounded and even over 
 
 top 4 
 
 Chest Low, deep and full 8 
 
 Crops Full and level with shoulders 4 
 
 Chine Straight, broadly developed and open 3 
 
 Karrel Well rounded and large abdomen 6 
 
 Lcins and Hip Broad, full, long and level 5 
 
 Rump High, long, broad and level 5 
 
 Thurl High, with great width 4 
 
 Quarters Long, straight behind and full at sides 5 
 
 Flanks Deep and hill 2 
 
 Legs Shcrt, clean, tapering, with strong arm, with posi- 
 tion firm, wide apart; feet of medium size, round, 
 
 solid and deep 6 
 
 Tail Reaching to hock or below, large at setting, taper- 
 ing to a full switch 2 
 
 Hair and Handling Fine, soft and mellow, skin of mod- 
 erate thickress, secretions oily and of rich brown or 
 
 yellow cclor 10 
 
 Mammary Veins Lon^. large, branched, with extensions 
 
 entering large orifices 10 
 
 Rudimentary Teats Not less than four, large, well spread 2 
 
 Escutcheon Large and fine development 8 
 
 Total 100 
 
 A bull that has from three to five of 'his progeny in Ad- 
 vanced Register shall be credited with five points, in excess 
 of what he may scale in structure. 
 
 A bull that has five or more of his progeny in Advanced 
 Register shall be credited with ten points, in excess of what 
 he may scale in structure. 
 
OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOB CATTLE 95 
 
 No bu.ll shall be received to Advanced Registry who does 
 not scale 80 points. 
 
 No bull shall be received to Advanced Registry that in the 
 judgment of the inspectors will not reach a minimum weight 
 of 1,800 in good flesh at full age. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS PUBLISHED IN ADVANCED *> 
 
 BEGISTBY, VOL. 11, 1889 COW. 
 
 Head Decidedly feminine in appearance, comparatively 
 
 long from eyes to base of horns, fine in contour 2 
 
 Forehead Broad between the eyes, dishing 2 
 
 Pace Contour fine, especially under the eyes, showing 
 
 facial veins, length medium, broad muzzle 2 
 
 Ears Of medium size, fine, covered with soft hair i 
 
 Eyes Moderately full, large and mild 2 
 
 Horns Set moderately narrow at base, tine, oval, well 
 
 bent, inclining forward 2 
 
 Neck Fine, nearly free from dewlap, neatly joined to head 
 and shoulders, topline slightly curving, of good length, 
 
 moderately thin, elegant in bearin? 4 
 
 Shoulders Fine anl even over top, lower than hips and 
 
 moderately thick, deep and broad 3 
 
 Chest Low, deep and broad 6 
 
 Crops Full and level with shoulders 2 
 
 Chine Straight, broadly developed and open 3 
 
 Barrel Well rounded with large abdomen 5 
 
 Loin and Hip Broad, full, long and level 5 
 
 Rump High, broad and level, with roomy pelvis 4 
 
 Thurl High, with great width : 4 
 
 Quarters Long, straight behind, roomy in the twist, wide 
 
 and full at sides 4 
 
 Flanks Fairly deep and full 2 
 
 Legs Short, clean, tanerine, with strong arm, in position 
 firm, wide apart; feet of medium size, round, solid and 
 
 deep 5 
 
 Tail Reaching to hocks or below, large at setting, taper- 
 ing finely to a full switch 2 
 
 Hair and Handling Fine, soft and mellow, skin of mod- 
 erate thickness, secretions oily and of rich brown or 
 
 yellow color 10 
 
 Mammary Veins Large, long, crooked, brandhed with ex- 
 tension enterine laree rrifi^e^ 10 
 
 Udder Capacious, flexible, well developed, both in front 
 and rear; teats well formed, wide apart and of con- 
 venient size 12 
 
 Escutcheon 8 
 
 Total 100 
 
 A cow that b*s ma^e milk or butter record in exes<* of t h e 
 minimum requirement annlicable to her case (see Rule 6) 
 shall be credited one point for each and every eight per cent 
 that such record exceeds such requirement. 
 
96 JUDGING CATTLE 
 
 No cow shall be received to Advanced Registry that does 
 not scale 75 points (credits from milk records being allowed 
 as provided above). 
 
 No cow shall be received to Advanced Registry that in the 
 judgment of the inspector will not reach a minimum weight 
 of 1,000 pounds at full age, in ordinary flesh milking form. 
 
 JERSEY CATTLE. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN JERSEY J 
 
 CATTLE CLUB, MAY 6, 1885. VOL. 45, 1896 COW. 
 
 Head Small and lean; face dished, broad between the 
 
 eyes and narrow between the horns 2 
 
 Eyes Full and placid; liorns small, crumpled and ambar- 
 
 colored 1 
 
 Neck Thin, rather long, with clean throat and not heavy 
 
 at the shoulders 8 
 
 Back Level to the setting on of tail 1 
 
 Loin Broad across the loin 6 
 
 Barrel Long, hooped, broad and deep at the flank 10 
 
 Hips Wide apart; rump long 10 
 
 Legs Short 2 
 
 Tail Fine, reaching the hocks, with good switch l 
 
 Color and mellowness of hide; inside of ears yellow 5 
 
 Fore Udder Full in form and not fleshy 13 
 
 Hind Udder Full in form and well up behind 11 
 
 Teats Rather large, wide apart and squarely placed 10 
 
 Milk Veins Prominent 5 
 
 Disposition Quiet 5 
 
 General appearance and apparent constitution 10 
 
 Total 100 
 
 In judging heifers, omit Nos. 11, 13 and 14. 
 
 FOR BULLS. 
 
 The same scale of points shall be used in judging bulls, 
 omitting Nos. 11, 12 and 14, in the order named above, and 
 making due allowance for masculinity; but when bulls are 
 exhibited with their progeny in a separate class, add 30 counts 
 for progeny. 
 
OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOE CATTLE 
 
 97 
 
 Dairy Temper- 
 ament. Con- 
 stitution ..38 
 
 GUERNSEY CATTLE. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN ~ 
 
 GUERNSEY CATTLE CLTTB, DEC. 13, 1899 COW. 
 
 , Clean cut, lean face; strong, sinewy 
 jaw; wide muzzle with wide open 
 nostrils; full, bright eye with quiet 
 and gentle expression; forehead long 
 and broad 5 
 
 Long, thin neck with strong juncture 
 to head; clean throat. Backbone 
 rising well between shoulder blades; 
 large rugged spinal processes, indi- 
 cating good development of the spinal 
 cord 5 
 
 Pelvis arching and wide; rump long; 
 wide, strong structure of spine at 
 setting on of tail. Long, thin tail 
 with good switch; Thin, in-curving 
 thighs 5 
 
 Ribs amply and fully sprung and wide 
 apart, giving an open, relaxed con- 
 formation; thin, arching flank.... 5 
 
 Abdomen large and deep, with strong 
 muscular and navel development, 
 indicative of capacity and vitality. . 
 
 15 
 
 Milking Marks 
 de n o t i n g 
 quantity of 
 flow . ... .10 
 
 Udder 
 tion 
 
 Forma- 
 
 26 
 
 Indicating Col- 
 or of Milk. .15 
 
 Milking Marks 
 denoting qual- 
 ity of flow. . 6 
 
 Hide firm yet loose, with an oily feel- 
 ing and texture but not 'thick 3 
 
 Escutcheon wide on tMghs, high and 
 broad with thigh ovals % 
 
 Milk veins crooked, branching and 
 prominent, with large or deep wells 8 
 
 Udder full in front 8 
 
 Udder full and well up behind 8 
 
 Udder of large size and capacity 4 
 
 Teats wide apart, squarely placed and 
 
 of good and even size 6 
 
 / Skin deep yellow in ear, on end of bone 
 ) of tail, at base of horns, on udder, 
 j teats and body generally. Hoof, am- 
 ber colored 15 
 
 Symmetry and 
 Size , . 5 
 
 Udder showing plenty of substance but 
 not too meaty 6 
 
 Color of hair, a shade of fawn with 
 white markings. Cream colored nose. 
 Horns amber colored, small, curved 
 and not coarse. Hoofs amber color- 
 ed 3 
 
 Size for tihe breed: Mature cows 
 four years old or over about 1,050 
 
 pounds 2 
 
 Total , 100 
 
9$ 
 
 JUDGING CATTLE 
 
 Temperament. 
 Constitution 38 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN 
 GUERNSEY CATTLE CLUB, DEC. 13, 1899 BULL. 
 
 f Clean cut, lean face; strong, sinewy 
 jaw; wide muzzle with wide open 
 nostrils; full, bright eye with quiet 
 gentle expression; forehead long and 
 broad 5 
 
 Long Masculine neck with strong junc- 
 ture to head; clean throat. Back- 
 bone rising well between shoulder 
 blades; large, rugged spinal proc- 
 esses, indicating good development 
 of the spinal cord 5 
 
 Pelvis arching and wide; rump Ions; 
 wide, strong structure of spine at 
 setting on p? tail. Long, thin, tail with 
 good switch. Thin, in-curving 
 thighs 5 
 
 Ribs amply and fully sprung and wide 
 apart, giving an open, relaxed con- 
 formation; tihin, arching flank.... 5 
 
 Abdomen large and deep, with strong 
 muscle and navel development, in- 
 dicative of capacity and vitalitv. 
 
 15 
 
 Hide firm yet loose, with an oily feel- 
 ing and texture, but not thick. . . . 
 
 Dairy prepo- 
 tency 15 
 
 Rudimentaries 
 and Milk 
 
 Veins . . 10 
 
 Indicating color 
 of Milk in Off- 
 spring .... 15 
 
 As shown by having a great deal of 
 vigor, style, alertness and resolute 
 appearance 15 
 
 Rudimentaries of good size, squarely 
 and broadly placed in front of and 
 free from scrotum. Milk veins prom- 
 inent 10 
 
 Skin deep yellow in ear, on end of bone 
 of tail, at base of horns and body 
 generally, hoofs amber colored. ... 15 
 
 Symmetry and 
 Size ..22 
 
 Color of hair a shade of fawn with 
 white markings. Cream colored 
 nose. Horns amber colored, curv- 
 ing and not coarse 8 
 
 Size for breed: Mature brills four years 
 old or over, about 1,500 Ibs 4 
 
 General appearance as indicative of the 
 power to beget animals of strong 
 
 dairy qualities 10 
 
 Total 100 
 
 EXPLANATORY NOTES BY COMMITTEE. 
 
 We recognize the Guernsey should be 
 
 First. A dairy animal with a distinctive dairy temperament 
 and conformation, having a strong, nervy structure wit'h a 
 corresponding flow of nervous energy, and every indication 
 of capacity and vitality. 
 
OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR CATTLE 99 
 
 Second. In color of hair, a shade of fawn, with white on 
 limbs and under part of body are considered the prevailing 
 markings, and some degree of uniformity is desirable. 
 
 Third. One of the important distinguishing features of 
 the breed is the presence of a yellow color in the pigment 
 of the skin, which is indicative of rich golden color in the milk. 
 This is very pronounced in the Guernsey and held by her to 
 the greatest extent under all conditions of stabling and feed. 
 The intensity of this trait is more marked in some animals 
 and families than in others, but it should be kept at the high- 
 est standard. It is fast being recognized that this color is ac- 
 companied by a superior flavor in the milk and thus in the 
 butter. 
 
 DAIRY TEMPERAMENT. 
 
 By "dairy temperament" is meant a strong overruling pre- 
 disposition or tendency to turn the consumption of food 
 towards the production of milk with a high content of solids, 
 especially butter fat as against the constitutional tendency 
 so often seen to turn food into fiesh. Even in the strongest 
 dairy breeds there are more or less frequent out-crops in 
 male and female of the flesh-making temperament. To breed 
 from such animals, while we are striving to establish a pre- 
 potent dairy temperament or tendency is not wise. All 
 cattle bred specifically for dairy purposes should possess a clear 
 and decided dairy temperament, for it is that quality of 
 character we desire most to establish, enlarge and perpetuate 
 in the Guernsey cow. 
 
 This is especially indicated by the shape of the head, show- 
 ing brain capacity, wide muzzle, open nostril, full, bright eyes, 
 feminine neck and a construction of the backbone indicating 
 a strong flew of nerve power and support from the brain to 
 all of the maternal organs. 
 
 CONSTITUTION. 
 
 In breeding our domestic animals, especially for lone: 
 service like the dairy cow, it is very important that they should 
 have abundant vital power which we call "constitution." But 
 constitution must be judged and measured by the peculiar 
 function the animal is bred to fulfill. With the race horse 
 the function is speed; with the steer, the laying on of flesh; 
 with the dairy cow, the production of milk solids. In all these 
 various functions the animal that is to represent any one of 
 them must show not only large capacity in the line of that 
 function but also the ability to endure long and well the 
 strain of such function and keep in good health. Constitution 
 is best indicated by a full development at the navel and strong 
 abdominal walls, showing that the animal when in the prenatal 
 state was abundantly nourished by the mother through a 
 well developed umbilical cord. 
 
 PREPOTENCY. 
 
 In the scale for bulls, for the first time, we believe, in the 
 history of dairy breeds, this point is introduced. The reason 
 we have included it is that "prepotency" is the chief consider- 
 ation in the selection of all male breeding animals. The pedi- 
 
100 JUDGING CATTLE 
 
 gree and conformation is often all that can be desired, but 
 because the bull is lacking in prepotent breeding power he is 
 an expensive failure. This quality is in a sense, difficult to 
 perceive or describe, but we know certain animals have it in 
 a high degree and others fail of it completely. It is fairly well 
 indicated by vigor of appearance, strong, resolute bearing and 
 abundant nervous energy. We would distinguish this from an 
 ugly disposition. A bull is ugly by the way he is handled rather 
 than by (his breeding. What we want is strong, impressive 
 blood. A dull, sluggish spirit and action, we consider it 
 indicative of a lack of true dairy prepotency, but we would pre- 
 fer to breed to a rather sluggish appearing bull with lirst class 
 rudimentaries than to a stylish one with badly placed rudi- 
 mentaries. 
 
 RUDIMENTARY TEATS. 
 
 We consider that a well balanced and well shaped udder in 
 the cow is largely due to the way the rudimentary teats are 
 placed on tiie sire. If they are crowded close together the re- 
 sult is likely to be narrow, pointed udders. If they are placed 
 well apart, of good size, and well forward of the scrotum, 
 the effect we think will be to influence largely the production 
 of well shaped udders in the resulting heifers and counteract 
 the tendency to ill-shaped udders inheritable from dams 
 deficient in this respect. We believe the future excellence 
 of the Guernsey cow will be greatly aided by close attention 
 on the part of her breeders to this point. 
 
 RED POLLED CATTLE. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OP STANDARD AND SCALE OP POINTS FOR RED POLLED CATTLE. 
 
 COW. 
 
 DISQUALIFICATIONS Scurs., or any evidence whatever of a 
 horny growth on the head. Any white spots on body above 
 lower line or brush of tail. 
 
 COLOR Any shade of red. The switch of tail and udder may be -| 
 white, with some white running forward to the navel. Nose of , 
 a clear flesh color. Interior of ears should be of a yellowish, 
 
 waxy color 2 
 
 OBJECTIONS An extreme dark, or an extreme light red is not 
 desirable. A cloudy nose or one with dark spots. 
 
 HEAD Of medium length, wide between the eyes, sloping grad- 
 ually from above eyes to poll. The poll well defined and prom- 
 inent, with a sharp dip behind it in center of head. Ears of 
 medium size and well carried. Eyes prominent ; face well dished 
 
 between the eyes. Muzzle wide with large nostrils 6 
 
 OBJECTIONS A rounding or flat appearance of the poll. 
 Head too long and narrow. 
 
 NECK Of medium length, clean cut, and straight from head to 
 top of shoulder with inclination to arch, when fattened, and 
 may show folds of loose skin underneath when in milking form 3 
 
 SHOULDER Of medium thickness and smoothly laid, coming up 
 
 level with line of back 6 
 
 OBJECTIONS Shoulder too prominent, giving the appearance 
 of weakness in heart girth. Shoulder protruding above 
 line of back. 
 
 CHEST Broad and deep, insuring constitution. Brisket prominent 
 
 and coming well forward 10 
 
 BACK AND RIBS Back medium long, straight and level from 
 withers to the setting on of tail ; moderately wide, with spring 
 of ribs, starting from the back bone, giving a rounding ap- 
 pearance, with ribs flat and fairly wide apart 14 
 
 OBJECTIONS Front ribs too straight, causing depression 
 back of shoulders. Drop in back or loin below the top line. 
 
OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOE CATTLE 101 
 
 HIPS Wide, rounding over the hooks, and well covered 3 
 
 QUARTERS Of good length, full, rounding, and level; thighs 
 
 wide, roomy, and not too meaty 6 
 
 OBJECTIONS Prominent hooks, sunken quarters. 
 
 TAIL Tail head strong and setting well forward, long and taper- 
 ing to a full switch 2 
 
 LEGS Short, straight, squarely placed, medium bone 3 
 
 OBJECTIONS Hocks crooked, legs placed too close together. 
 
 FORE-UDDER Full and flexible, reaching well forward, extend- 
 ing down level with hind-udder 10 
 
 HIND-UDDER Full and well up behind 10 
 
 TEATS Well placed, wide apart and of reasonably good size .... 4 
 OBJECTIONS Lack of development, especially in forward 
 udder. Udder too deep, "bottle shaped" and teats too close 
 together. Teats unevenly placed and either too large or 
 too small. 
 
 MILK VEINS Of medium size, full, flexible, extending well for- 
 ward. Well retained within the body ; milk wells of medium 
 size 6 
 
 HIDE Loose, mellow, flexible, inclined to thickness, with a good 
 
 full coat of soft hair 5 
 
 OBJECTIONS Thin, papery skin, or wiry hair. 
 
 CONDITION Healthy, moderate to liberal flesh evenly laid on ; 
 
 glossy coat ; animal presented in good bloom 10 
 
 Total 100 
 
 GENERAL DESCRIPTION Cow medium wedge form, low set, top 
 and bottom, lines straight except at flank, weight 1300 Ibs. to 
 1500 Ibs. when mature and finished. 
 
 BULL. 
 
 DISQUALIFICATIONS Scurs, or any evidence whatever of a 
 horny growth on the head. Any white spots on body above 
 lower line or brush of tail. 
 
 COLOR Any shade of red. The switch of tail may be white, with 
 some white running forward to the navel. Nose of a clear 
 flesh color. Interior of ears should be of a yellowish, waxy 
 
 color 2 
 
 OBJECTIONS An extreme dark or an extreme light red is 
 
 not desirable. A cloudy nose or one with dark spots. 
 HEAD Wide, strong and masculine, relatively short. Poll stronger 
 and less prominent than in cow. Ears of medium size and 
 well carried; eyes prominent; muzzle wide with large nostrils. 12 
 OBJECTIONS Long, narrow, or lacking in masculine char- 
 acter. 
 NECK Of medium length, full crest, of good thickness, strong, of 
 
 masculine appearance 5 
 
 SHOULDER Of medium thickness and smoothly laid, coming up 
 
 level with line of back 8 
 
 OBJECTIONS Shoulder top prominent, giving the appearance 
 of weakness in heart girth, shoulder protruding above line 
 of back. 
 CHEST Broad and deep, insuring constitution. Brisket prominent 
 
 and coming well forward 12 
 
 BACK AND RIBS Back medium long, straight and level from 
 withers to setting on of tail, moderately wide, with spring of 
 ribs starting from the back bone, giving a rounding apearance, 
 
 with ribs flat and fairly wide apart 14 
 
 OBJECTIONS Front ribs too straight, causing depression 
 back of shoulders. Drop in back or loin below the top line. 
 
 HIPS Wide, rounding over the hooks, and well covered 3 
 
 QUARTERS Of good length, full, rounding, and level ; thighs wide 
 
 and moderately full, deep 6 
 
 OBJECTIONS Prominent hooks, sunken quarters 
 TAIL Tail head strong and setting well forward, long and taper- 
 ing to a full switch 2 
 
 LEGS Short, straight, squarely placed, medium bone 3 
 
 OBJECTIONS Hocks crooked ; legs placed too close together. 
 RUDIMENTARIES Large, wide apart, and placed well forward. 1? 
 
 Position of rudimentaries 6 
 
 OBJECTIONS Rudimentaries placed back on scrotum, or 
 placed too close together, indicating tendency to transmit 
 badly formed udders. 
 HIDE Loose, mellow, flexible, inclined to thickness, with a good 
 
 full coat of soft hair 5 
 
JUDGING CATTLE 
 
 OBJECTIONS Thin, papery skin, or wiry hair. 
 CONDITION Healthy ; moderate to liberal flesh evenly laid on ; 
 
 glossy coat ; animal presented in good bloom 10 
 
 Total 100 
 
 GENERAL DESCRIPTION Strong, iniDressive, low set, and of 
 good carriage. Weight 1800 Ibs. to 2000 Ibs. when mature and 
 finished. 
 
 DUTCH BELTED CATTLE. 
 
 SCALE OF POIXTS ADOPTED BY THE DUTCH BELTED 2 
 
 CATTLE ASSOCIATION COW. 
 
 Body Color black, with a clearly defined continuous white 
 belt. The belt to be of medium width, begining be- 
 hind the shoulder and extending nearly to the hips. . 8 
 Head Comparatively long and somewhat dishing; broad 
 between the eyes. Poll prominent; muzzle fine; dark 
 
 tongue 6 
 
 Eyes Black, full and mild. Horns long compared with 
 
 their diameter 4 
 
 Neck Fine and moderately thin and should harmonize in 
 
 symmetry with the head and shoulders 6 
 
 Shoulders Fine at top, becoming deep and broad as they 
 
 extend backward and Downward, with a low chest .... 4 
 Barrel Large and deep wiiTh. well developed abdomen; ribs 
 
 well rounded and free from fat 10 
 
 Hips Broad, and chine level, with full loin 10 
 
 Rump High, long and broad 6 
 
 Hind Quarters Long and deep, rear line in-curving. Tail 
 
 long, slim, tapering to a full switch 8 
 
 Legs Short, clean, standing well apart 3 
 
 "Udder Large, well developed front and rear. Teats of con- 
 venient size and wide apart; mammary veins large, 
 
 long, crooked, entering large orifices 20 
 
 Escutcheon 2 
 
 Hair Fine and soft; skin of moderate thickness, of a rich 
 
 dark or yellow color 3 
 
 Quiet Disposition and free from excessive fat 4 
 
 General Condition and apparent constitution 6 
 
 Total 100 
 
 FOB BULLS. 
 
 The scale of points for males shall be the same as those 
 given for females, except that "Udder" shall be omitted and 
 the bull credited 10 points for size and wide spread placing 
 of rudimentary teats, 5 points additional for development of 
 shoulder, and 5 additional points for perfection of belt. 
 
OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE IOR CATTLE 103 
 
 AYRSHIRE CATTLE. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN AYRSHIRE 
 BREEDERS ASSOCIATION, FEB. 21, 1889 BULL. 
 
 The points desirable in the female are generally so in the 
 male, but must, of course, be attended with that masculine 
 character which is inseparable from a strong and vigorous con- 
 stitution. Even a degree of coarseness is admissible; but then 
 it must be so exclusively of masculine description as never to 
 be discovered in a female of his get. 
 
 The Head of the bull should be shorter than that of the 
 cow, but the frontal bone should be broad, the muzzle f 
 good size, throat nearly free from hanging folds, eyes 
 full. The horns should have an upward turn, with 
 sufficient size at the base to indicate strength of con- 
 stitution 10 
 
 Neck Of medium length, somewhat arched, and large in 
 
 those muscles which indicate power and strength... 10 
 Pore Quarters Shoulders close to the body, without any 
 hollow space behind; chest broad, brisket deep and 
 
 well developed, but not too large 7 
 
 Back Short and straight; spine sufficiently well defined, 
 but not in the same degree as in the cow; ribs well 
 
 sprung and the body deep in the flanks 10 
 
 Hind Quarters Long, broad and straight; ihip bones wide 
 apart; pelvis long, broad and straight; tail set on a 
 
 level with the back; thighs deep and broad 10 
 
 Scrotum Large, with well developed teats in front 7. 
 
 Legs Short in proportion to size, joints firm. Hind legs 
 
 well apart, and not to cross in walking 5 
 
 Skin Yellow, soft, elastic and of medium thickness 10 
 
 Color Red of any shade, brown or white, or a mixture of 
 
 these each color being distinctly defined 3 
 
 Average Live Weight at maturity, about 1,500 10 
 
 General Appearance, including style and movement 15 
 
 Escutcheon, large and fine development 3 
 
 Total .100 
 
104 JUDGING CATTLE 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN AYRSHIRE 
 BREEDERS ASSOCIATION, FEB. 21, 1889 COW. 
 
 The following scale of points for the Ayrshire cow were 
 adopted being similar to the scale adopted in Scotland in w 
 1884 and changed in a few points to render them ap- | 
 plicable to this country. 
 
 Head Short; forehead wide; nose, fine between the muzzle 
 and the eyes; muzzle, large; eyes, full and lively; 
 
 horns, wide set on, inclining upwards 10 
 
 Neck Moderately long and straight from the head to the 
 top of the shoulder, free from loose skin on the under 
 side, fine at its junction with the head, and enlarging 
 
 symmetrically towards the shoulder 5 
 
 Fore Quarters Shoulders sloping; withers fine; chest suffi- 
 ciently broad and deep to insure constitution; brisket 
 and whole fore quarters light, the cow gradually in- 
 creasing in depth and width backwards 5 
 
 Back Short and straight; spine well defined, especially at 
 the shoulders; short ribs, arched; the body deep at 
 
 the flanks 10 
 
 Hind Quarters Long, broad and straight, hook bones 
 wide apart and not overlaid v/ith fat; thighs, deep and 
 broad; tail, long, slender, and set on level with the 
 
 back 8 
 
 Udder Capacious and not fleshy, hind part broad and 
 firmly atttched to t^e body, the sole nearly level and 
 extending well forward; milk veins about udder and 
 abdomen well developed; the teats from 2J to 3 inches 
 in length, equal in thickness the thickness being in 
 proportion to the length hanging perpendicularly, 
 their distance apart at the sides should be equal to one- 
 third of the length of the vessel, and across to about 
 
 one-half of the breadth 30 
 
 Legs Short in proportion to size, the bones fine, the joints 
 
 firm 3 
 
 Skin Yellow, soft and elastic, and covered with soft, 
 
 close, woolly hair 5 
 
 Color Red of any shade, brown or white, or a mixture of 
 
 these each color being distinctly defined 3 
 
 Average Live Weight in full milk, about 1,000 pounds. . . 8 
 
 General Appearance, including style and movement 10 
 
 Escutcheon Large and fine development 3 
 
 Total ...100 
 
Ayrshire cow, NELLIE OSBORXE, winner of Sweepstakes Gold Medal 
 for breed at World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893. Owned by 
 D. Drummond, Petite Cote, Quebec. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF AYRSHIRE CATTLE. 
 
 I*HIS BREED of Scotch dairy cattle originated under the rugged conditions 
 of Ayrshire and in their type and general characteristics they exemplify 
 the form and quality which would be called for in a dairy animal required 
 to make the most economical use of their food and do the best under condi- 
 tions too severe for finer and more delicate cattle. The head is slim, rather 
 long in the face and surmounted with a horn not wholly devoid of strength 
 the neck, somewhat short is clean cut though not delicate, the shoulder is 
 sharp and the chest full and deep, the body is straight in its top lines, slightly 
 more compact than usually found in the dairy type, but has the volume which 
 invariably results in large capacity for consumption and production. The 
 hind quarter is moderately wide and covered with flesh while the thigh is 
 thin and the udder long and excellent in its proportion. The size and the 
 placing of the teats is a feature wttich calls for careful attention in ranking 
 representatives of this breed. See official scale of points, pages 103 and 104. 
 
Holstein-Friesian cow COLANTHA 4th in her four year old and six 
 year old form. The lower illustration is a photo of her as a four year 
 old. Compare this with the upper, which is a photo of her as a six year 
 old, and the changes that take place in a dairy cow as she approaches 
 maturity may be seen. This cow is owned by Messrs. Gillett & Son, of 
 of Rosendale, Wis., and her records are as follows : 
 
 AGE. 
 
 2 years . . 
 
 3 years . . 
 
 4 years . . 
 
 5 years. . 
 
 6 years . . 
 
 Milk, 1 day. Butter, 1 w'k. Milk, 1 y'r. Butter Fat.l y'r. 
 14.1 Ibs. 12,463.41bs. 
 
 52.21bs. 
 64. 8 Ibs. 
 70.2 Ibs. 
 
 18.7 Ibs. 14,951. 5 Ibs. 577.7 Ibs. 
 
 21. libs. 13, 992. 2 Ibs. 532.9 Ibs. 
 
 14, 481. 8 Ibs. 
 
 77. 3 Ibs. 24.5 Ibs. 14,782.7 Ibs. 562.9 Ibs. 
 
 This cow was also first in the official tests of the Holstein-Friesian 
 Association in 1900, and also winner of first prize in tests for economy 
 of production making 19.6 Ibs. fat in one week at a food cost of 6 3-5 
 cents per pound. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN CATTLE. 
 
 THE ORIGINAL type of this breed had more size of frame than that which 
 characterizes the modern representative. The conditions existing have 
 favored the production of a large dairy animal with extreme development for 
 yielding milk. The type which is now common shows more refinement but 
 still has the characteristics in the main which identified the first importations. 
 The color should be black and white, with no mixture of this or tinge of 
 brown. The head should be lengthy, generally because of a long face, the 
 eye should be large and bright and that portion of the head between the 
 horn and the eye should be full. The neck should be slim and lengthy, the 
 shoulder sharp and fitting well while the chest should be deep and the body 
 have for its most noted feature a large development of the digestive organs. 
 The loins should be strong though bare of flesh and the hind quarters 
 straight and angular and the thighs thin. The frame should show as much 
 refinement as possible without any indication of delicacy. The general 
 conformation should be such as to favor large capacity for the consumption 
 of food and the production of the largest quantity of milk. See official scale 
 of points page 95. 
 
PARADISE II 97112, bred by H. C. Taylor, Orfordville, Wis. Record, 
 18 Ibs. 4 ounces. Owned by A. O. Auten, Jerseyville, Illinois. Dropped 
 Oct. 17, 1893. Good type of a dairy cow. Udder very capacious and 
 very handsomely developed, teats large and well placed, veins very 
 prominent. Not only does the cow show unusual merit as to form, 
 but the calf is especially illustrative of the type desirable for dairy 
 purposes. 
 
 Guernsey bull BENJAMIN, owned by Geo. C. Hill & Son, Rosendale, 
 Wis., a noted prize winner in the show rings, illustrating the main 
 features of form required in a dairy bull. 
 
Holstein herd owned by Messrs. W. B. Smith & Sons, of Columbus, 
 O. In this remarkable photograph of a large herd there cannot be 
 found a single animal which does not illustrate desirable dairy type. 
 
 Photo by Schreibrr. 
 
 Photograph of the head of the Jersey cow, BUTTERCUP. This 
 photograph stiows in an unusual degree the conformation of head ami 
 neck which is desirable in a highly bred Jersey. 
 
JUDGING SHEEP. 
 
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CHAPTER III. 
 JUDGING SHEEP. 
 
 152. Method of Examining Sheep. In examining sheep 
 it is advisable to adopt a definite course of procedure so 
 that nothing may be overlooked and each motion made 
 to disclose something in regard to the merit or demerit 
 of the sheep. In the show ring that contains as many as 
 ten sheep in a class it is easy to see that the judge must 
 work quickly as well as accurately. And there is nothing 
 that will contribute to both of these like examining each 
 part of the sheep in regular order. The best course to 
 follow is perhaps to begin at the head, pressing down 
 the lower lip with the finger and thumb so that the teeth 
 may be seen and the age estimated. Then with the hands 
 under the jaw look carefully over the head, seeing that 
 the eyes are all right, the head a good shape and no ap- 
 pearance of horns in those breeds that are hornless, while 
 in those that possess these, note that they spring clear 
 from the head. Then pass to the neck, feeling with the 
 hands the fullness of it, and in addition observing the 
 length and the way it swells to meet the shoulder at the 
 shoulder vein. Pass down to the brisket, putting one 
 hand on the floor of the chest and the other at the top of 
 the shoulder and in this way form an idea as to the depth 
 of the sheep through these parts. Next note the shoulder, 
 observing how it is covered with flesh along the side and 
 top and also taking the girth of the spring of the ribs 
 with the sheep. From the top of the shoulder, using one 
 hand, follow the line of the back to the end of the body. 
 By carefully handling these parts the fleshiness of the 
 sheep or the way the ribs are covered and the straightness 
 
108 JUDGING SHEEP 
 
 of the back are determined and at the same time the 
 spring of the ribs is made apparent. The width of the 
 loin should then be taken and also its covering and thick- 
 ness. The width of the hips should next be observed, 
 and turning to one side and using two hands the length 
 from the hip to the end of the hind quarter should be 
 made apparent between the two points. Then the width 
 of the hind quarter and the manner in which it is carried 
 back and the fullness should also be examined. Follow- 
 ing the joint towards the leg the development of the 
 thigh on the outside requires examination, and then with 
 the hand the quarters should be firmly felt. 
 
 153. Deception Due to Trimming. In this way the 
 sheep has been thoroughly examined as to form, but it is 
 to be remembered that the hands should be thoroughly 
 relied on to discover all defects of form, and unless the 
 sheep is carefully handled the examiner is very likely to 
 be deceived. The wool of all show sheep and fat stock 
 of the medium wool classes, is always trimmed, and the 
 trimmer possessing skill can give any desired form to 
 sheep, providing the wool is long enough and the sheep 
 approaches somewhat towards the form which is being 
 imitated. 
 
 154. Estimating Age by the Teeth. The order of ap- 
 pearance of the nippers or incisors in sheep is a fairly 
 reliable method of telling their age. The sheep has eight 
 permanent incisors, and these appear in regular order in 
 supplanting the milk teeth. The milk teeth can always 
 be told from the permanent incisors by the fact that they 
 are narrower. The permanent incisors are broad and widp 
 and widened considerably towards the top. The first or 
 central pair 'of incisors appear when the sheep is slightly 
 over one year old. The next pair, that is, one on each 
 side of the central pair, appear the following year, and 
 that is when the sheep is two years old ; the third pair 
 
Illustrations of Proper Methods of Handling Sheep in Judging Them 
 
 Looking at the face and head and 
 feeling the fullness of the neck. 
 
 With one hand on top and the 
 GStimate the depth f 
 
 Notice the heart girth by the With the hand perfectly flat note 
 
 distance between the hands. ^ 6 ba k ' " 
 
Illustrations of Proper Methods of Handling Sheep in Judging Them Continued 
 
 Taking the width of the loin ; also note the thickness. 
 
 Noting the degree to which the 
 width of body is carried to the end. 
 
 Feeling the development in the 
 leg of mutton. 
 
Illustrations of Proper Methods of Handling Sheep in Judging Tisa^ 
 
 Manner and place of opening fleec< 
 
 finest quality of wool. 
 
 Illustration showing the proper method of holding the hand in 
 examining sheep. It will be noticed that in this illustration those 
 examining the sheep hold the fingers together in a sloping manner, In 
 this way it is possible to feel the form of the sheep without disturbing 
 or breaking the fleece. The very common method of sticking the 
 fingers into the fleece makes holes in it which greatly annoy the 
 shepherd. 
 
f-i <!> <0 CQ <U <D O> t, 
 
 i 5S I;i:i 
 
 , bJ3 cd 
 
 5 p . o -O g ~ 
 
 iijul! 
 
 S a& 2<M.s^ 
 
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 *-" OJ g ft bJD 
 
 S^^ss 3 *"*" 
 ISS|*ts3|a| 
 
 0r S M '"^0 0)0,0^ 
 
 ^^IjgilSli- 
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 O) <l) <B 02 O+J +J 
 
 Ullf^lll 
 l|ll^tll 
 
 S-S^^OJSK 
 
 OlrG 
 
 
 B 
 
 "2 O K I- w 
 
 S||^|2|U g 
 
 '-g- rt 2^^ 
 
FOE MUTTON AND WOOL 109 
 
 appear when the sheep is slightly over two years old, and 
 the fourth pair when it is between four and five years old. 
 This completes the number of incisors and a complete set 
 always indicates that the sheep is between four and five 
 years old. High feeding or forcing hastens the age indica- 
 tions, so that the variations are often unnoticeable, es- 
 pecially in show sheep or those imported from Great 
 Britain. 
 
 I. JUDGING SHEEP FOR MUTTON AND WOOL. 
 
 In judging fat sheep it is necessary to consider tlie 
 needs of the feeder of this class of stock, the demands of 
 the butcher for lambs and mutton, the desires of the con- 
 sumer and the requirements of the manufacturer of wool. 
 These requisites must be merged together to arrive at a 
 correct view of the whole. 
 
 155. The Feeding Type That Gives the Best Gains. 
 In considering the type of sheep which gives the best re- 
 sults in the feed lot, we have only to have in view the 
 type that gives us the greatest vigor, insuring an active 
 digestion and the most constitution, so that nothing may 
 upset the sheep in the rapid progress desired. In this 
 connection it will be well to report the results of an ex- 
 periment made at the Wisconsin Experiment Station by 
 the writer. Two lots of lambs were selected; the one 
 bred by the station showing in fleece and form a high 
 degree of merit for grade sheep. These lambs were bred 
 from high grade ewes and the rams had been selected at 
 high prices for some years to make the best blend with 
 the ewes. The lambs were very uniform as to type and 
 they showed what might be called an unusual degree of 
 merit for ordinary feeding lambs. To compare with these, 
 some lambs native to northern Wisconsin showing the 
 type common to that territory were put upon similar 
 rations. The representatives of both these kinds of lambs, 
 
110 JUDGING SHEEP 
 
 in addition to having the same kind of food, were kept 
 under identically the same conditions, putting both lots 
 of lambs in the fed lot at three cents a pound and taking 
 them out at four cents at the end of the feeding period. 
 The well bred lambs of good feeding type after paying 
 for the feed that they ate, at current prices yielded a 
 profit of $1.13 per head ; while those representative of the 
 poor type being indiscriminately bred only yielded a profit 
 of $ .60 per head. The lambs of the best type ate more 
 food, but they made more than a corresponding gain, and 
 the chief point should not be lost sight of, that the profit 
 from each one of them was just twice as much as that 
 from those being of inferior type. 
 
 156. The Feeding Type Bringing Most at Maturity. 
 In the selection of feeding lambs the feeder has to keep 
 in view the fact that there is most demand for the lamb 
 that when fat weighs about 100 pounds. Such a lamb has 
 the quickest sale at the highest price per pound. This 
 type is one that is not too heavy boned and large framed, 
 but such as require only a medium amount of flesh to 
 make the carcass smooth and plump at the weight in- 
 dicated. It is the low set, thick t} r pe that possesses these 
 qualities to the highest degree. To secure the greatest 
 profit in feeding it is desirable to have the gain made as 
 rapidly as possible. The younger the animal the cheaper 
 the cost of gain, and it is that feature that makes early 
 maturity such an important consideration in the different 
 classes of stock. The market favors a lamb of the weight 
 mentioned, because as a rule such usually dress better and 
 the cuts are smaller. 
 
The three photos on the right hand show a sheep 
 of a bad feeding type. Note narrowness ox face, 
 shallowness of chest, with length of leg in both 
 front and side view, while the hind view shows 
 thinness of leg of mutton. The three photos on 
 the left show a good feeding type in breadth of 
 face, depth and width of chest, spring of rib, 
 squareness of form throughout and fullness of leg 
 of mutton. The sheep used for these illustrations 
 A-ere selected from the lots experimented with at 
 the Wisconsin station and referred to in para- 
 graph 155. 
 
,Q 
 
 o'E 
 
 2,5 
 
 fcC o^ 
 w P.s/5- 
 
 Pi 
 
 P-i ..S 
 
 I 8 
 
 bD o 
 
 03 ^ 
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 be o 
 
 I * -/: 
 
 c ^^ 
 ^^ 3 
 
FOB MUTTON AND WOOL 111 
 
 157. -The Type Desired by the Butcher. If we were 
 to consider only the things that have the most importance 
 in the view of the butcher we would have a very queerly 
 formed sheep presented to us. The butcher is very de- 
 sirous of obtaining the greatest percentage of valuable 
 cuts, consequently the different parts of a lamb from a 
 butcher's point of view show a wide variation from the 
 feeder's and breeder's ideal. In the lamb that is ideal 
 from a butcher's standpoint, it would not be necessary to 
 have any neck, chest, digestive apparatus or leg. As may 
 be seen from the illustration herewith submitted, the neck 
 has a value of only one cent per pound, the shoulder is 
 two cents and the shanks the same. The rib running 
 from the point of the shoulder to the loin has a value of 
 nine cents per pound, and the same is true of the loin; 
 while the leg of mutton has the highest value per pound, 
 as that is quoted at ten cents. The breast and chest have 
 the very low value of two cents per pound. It is very 
 evident from these facts that the back, loin and the leg 
 are the three divisions that are most prized in the lambs 
 that would be ideal from the butcher's standpoint. 
 
 158. Quality. After the form of the sheep has been 
 carefully examined the quality should be noticed. This 
 means the cleanness of the bone, fineness of the skin and 
 the nature of the hair which covers the face and legs. 
 These are important features in either breeding or fat 
 sheep. It is perhaps the most valuable from the butcher 'c 
 standpoint, because the waste is less from a sheep of 
 good quality than it is from one that is inferior. The 
 range in the percentage of dressed weight in lambs w,ill 
 vary from 50 per cent to 60 per cent of their live weight, 
 so that it will be understood that quality is an important 
 factor from the butcher's standpoint, where the profit 
 from the carcass is largely Determined by the dressed 
 weight returns, 
 
112 JUDGING SHEEP 
 
 159. The Importance of Condition. Not only should 
 a lamb be well developed in the parts indicated to satisfy 
 the butcher, but the flesh should be uniformly deep over 
 the parts; this is a factor in giving a high percentage of 
 dressed weight which adds greatly to the profit of the 
 carcass. While it is very desirable that the lamb should 
 weigh about 100 pounds, it is even more so that the con- 
 dition should be equally satisfactory to produce the high- 
 est price. As indicating the progress of the lambs in the 
 feed lot in this particular it would perhaps be advisable 
 to follow them through their development. 
 
 When put in the feed lot under proper conditions, 
 lambs will usually begin to show the influence of good 
 feeding at the end of the third or fourth week. During 
 this time they seem to be simply getting into good con- 
 dition to put on flesh, though it appears that some fat is 
 being deposited internally. Towards the end of that 
 time many of the lambs may be noticed standing leisurely 
 in the sun in a partially stretched posture. This pose in 
 the lambs is a delight to the shepherd. The fattening 
 process seems to extend from the internal regions, and is 
 first in evidence at the tail. It then passes along the back 
 over the shoulder and reaches the neck; from this line it 
 seems to extend down the sides and over the breast in 
 front. There are six main points at which its extension 
 seems most in evidence at the tail, middle of the back, 
 the neck, the flank, the purse and the breast, 
 
 160. Judging Condition. Judges of condition handle 
 these different points and seem to arrive at the same con- 
 clusions from continued practice in observing the develop- 
 ment of any one of them, although a critical examination 
 will reveal that sheep sometimes fatten unevenly and may 
 be good in one or more of these points and comparatively 
 deficient in others. By feeling the tail head some will 
 form their opinion as to the degree to which the lamb 
 
Two photographs of the same sheep the upper before trimming and the 
 lower after trimming by Thomas Bradbourne, shepherd for Altamont flock, 
 who holds the sheep. This illustrates the necessity of careful handling of 
 sheep to determine the form. 
 
Five Southdown wethers that were first prize pen of lambs at the 
 International Live Stock Exposition in 1910. 
 
 Photographs of sheep teeth, showing changes that occur in the 
 order of appearance of the incisors. The photo on the upper left 
 hand shows a lamb's mouth with all temporary incisors. The upper 
 right hand photograph shows mouth of a sheep about one year old, with 
 the first pair of permanent incisors and the temporary incisors back 
 of them. The photo in the lower left hand corner shows the mouth 
 of a sheep about two years old, with two pairs of permanent incisors 
 appearing. The photograph in the center below shows the mouth of a 
 Ihree year old sheep, with three pairs of permanent incisors. The lower 
 right hand illustration is a photograph of a sheep's mouth when four 
 and a half to five years old. The incisors are all permanent, worn 
 down some and more sloping than the others. 
 
FOB MUTTON AND WOOL 113 
 
 13 fat. Others are satisfied with feeling the back. Many 
 after feeling the tail, grasp the neck and base their 
 opinion on the fullness of that part. The flank and breast 
 are often used for further assistance, and some butchers 
 estimate condition by the fullness of the purse. At any 
 of these points, more especially the back, the covering 
 should be such in the prime lamb as to prevent feeling 
 the sharp projection of backbone. In a lamb that is com- 
 pletely fattened there is a distinct trough or groove run- 
 ning from the tail to the shoulders and the covering of 
 flesh should extend well down over the sides, without 
 softness due to excessive fat or oily tissue. All lambs do 
 not fatten as smoothly or as uniformly as herein indicated. 
 In most lambs, however, the worst defect is bareness of 
 the loin and lightness in the hind quarters. With these 
 parts well covered and fully developed, a rather sharp 
 shoulder and peaked brisket will be overlooked. Not 
 only should the flesh be thick over the valuable cuts, but 
 it should be firm. Very often it will be found that soft 
 rough patches will be present about the head of the tail, 
 owing to the depositing of too much soft flesh on thb 
 back, which may slip from there on the over ripe lamb 
 and gather at the flank or along the sides in long soft 
 rolls. 
 
 161. The Importance of Dressed Weight. In consider- 
 ing this subject still further from the butcher's point of 
 view, there is the question of quality which matprially 
 affects the percentage of the dressed meat obtained. This 
 in addition to being largely influenced by the condition 
 of the sheep, is perhaps most influenced by the fineness 
 of the bone, thickness of the pelt and other features, 
 which all have a marked influence on the profit from the 
 butcher's standpoint. In this connection to show how im- 
 portant it is to have the dressed weight yield a large per- 
 
114 JUDGING SHEEP 
 
 centage of valuable cuts, it will be interesting to quote 
 some results obtained from an experiment at the Iow:i 
 Station under direction of Professor Curtiss. He found 
 in a lot of ten pure bred Oxford lambs marketed by the 
 Iowa Experiment Station, that the leg cuts constituted 
 31.87 per cent of the whole carcass by weight and sold 
 for 42.63 per cent of the total value. The leg, rib and 
 loin cuts together aggregated 73.74 per cent of the total 
 weight and sold for 92 per cent of the total. 
 
 162. Consideration of the Consumer. The butcher 
 and the consumer are very similar in their demands, but 
 there are a few points that are of peculiar importance to 
 the latter, and among these may be mentioned the char- 
 acter of the flesh. A clear distinction should be drawn 
 between flesh and fat, or, as it may be otherwise stated, 
 between muscle and lean meat and tallow. The ideal 
 sheep from the consumer's standpoint is one that carries 
 a large proportion of flesh or lean meat with but a limited 
 quantity of fat. In live sheep this is indicated by a firm, 
 even covering over the parts of the body. The flesh has 
 a firm but springy touch and is smooth over all regions, 
 especially thick where it has the highest value. The con- 
 sumer asserts his preference for another feature and that 
 is a marked desire for lamb in contrast to matured sheep, 
 owing to the desirability of small cuts and the supposi- 
 tion that lamb is more tender than older sheep. 
 
 163. The Qualities of the Fleece. In estimating the 
 worth of a sheep or judging it, not only is it fair to con- 
 sider the demands of the feeder, the butcher and the con- 
 sumer, but with these we must include the qualities de- 
 sired by the wool manufacturer. Though the returns 
 from the fleece are not very large, yet the sheep breeder 
 must consider them so that the ultimate profit may be as 
 great as possible. To arrive at a correct understanding 
 
FOB MUTTON AND WOOL 115 
 
 in regard to this, the examiner must follow the best 
 method of examination and also know in detail the mar- 
 ket requirements for wool. 
 
 164. Examining the Fleece. In examining and valu- 
 ing the fleece the chief points to consider are the quantity, 
 quality and the condition. In grouping the qualities 
 under these three divisions we can include the interests 
 of those directly concerned on the various products com- 
 ing from sheep, on the market. The best method of ar- 
 riving at the nature of a fleece is to open it first just over 
 the shoulder. It is in this region that the finest and the 
 soundest wool of the fleece is found. By using the hands 
 in a flat position instead of sticking the end of the fingers 
 into the wool the fleece may be parted in a more satis- 
 factory manner. After looking at the wool and skin in 
 this region, the thigh should be the next place of examina 
 tion, for here grows the poorest and coarsest wool of the 
 whole fleece. Then the covering of the wool on the belly 
 also demands notice, for very often sheep are quite poor 
 in this region, making the wool light and indicating a 
 lack of constitution. By examining the fleece in these 
 three parts a fair estimate may be made of its qualities. 
 
 165. Quantity of Fleece. The chief factors which de- 
 termine the quantity are the length, density and evenness 
 of both of these over all parts. 
 
 166. Density. The density of the fleece means the 
 closeness of the fibers. Technically it means the number 
 of fibers that grow on a square inch. Density is not only 
 of value to secure a heavy fleece, but from a breeder's 
 point of view its chief importance lies in the fact that it 
 is more protection to the sheep than a fleece that is open. 
 Not only is a sheep with a loose open fleece more liable 
 to contract a cold from exposure to rain or wind, but it is 
 also more apt to yield a dirty fleece, as the loose fleece 
 
H6 JUDGING SHEEP 
 
 catches the dirt and dust and pieces of hay and straw. 
 From the shepherd's point of view the denseness of the 
 fleece is its leading feature, for it will be found that those 
 animals with dense close fleeces are less subject to such 
 diseases as catarrh, running at the nose or scouring. 
 When a sheep experiences a chill, it at once affects the 
 circulation and sends the blood to the internal organs, and 
 inflammation or scouring results. This is why sheep that 
 have open fleeces are more subject to such diseases than 
 those that have dense fleeces. Wool is one of the best 
 non-conductors of heat that we have and when it is on a 
 sheep in the form of a dense fleece, it gives them the 
 greatest possible protection from exposure. Furthermore, 
 if the fleece is not dense, it is almost impossible for the 
 fiber to be sound that is, free from weak spots. When 
 a sheep has been badly chilled or has become sick in any 
 way so as to cause the pores of the skin to contract, a 
 break or shrinkage occurs in the fiber at that point. The 
 wool on a sheep grows from a small sac in the skin and 
 it passes away from the skin through a small opening 
 which may be easily contracted or expanded, according 
 to different influences. The influences are various, and 
 for that reason it is important that the sheep be covered 
 with a fleece that is so dense as not to be affected much 
 by external conditions. 
 
 167. Length of Staple. The length of the staple is an 
 important feature, both from a commercial point of view 
 and from the shepherd's standpoint. Wools are generally 
 known as short-stapled or the carding wools, which are 
 used for woolen clothes, or long-stapled or combing wools, 
 which are used for worsted clothes. The long stapled 
 wools include the Lincoln, Leicester, Cotswold, Romney 
 March and Black Face or Highland. The short stapled 
 include all the Downs (Southdown, Hampshire, Suffolk, 
 Shropshire, Oxford) and the Cheviot and Welsh. The 
 

 
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 3^c nS 
 
 -4- A 
 
 l-MfeC 
 
 C tc x! O 05 
 
 
A prize winning- T,incoln ram. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE LINCOLN SHEEP. 
 
 1*HIS BREED which originated in Lincolnshire, England, vies with the Cots- 
 wold for the position of being considered the largest of the long wooled 
 breeds. The form is very squarely built and when mature the representa- 
 tives of this breed are very heavy. The face is pure white, somewhat long 
 and surmounted by a tuft of wool. The body is exceedingly full in its 
 development and marked specially by a very wide, level and deep fleshed 
 back, while the hind quarters are usually well developed, being very square 
 in form. The wool is long in fiber, very strong, frequently inclined to be 
 coarse because of this, but it is particularly lustrous and parts easily in 
 flakes. Tn yield of mutton and wool this breed occupies a foremost position. 
 
FOR MUTTON AND WOOL 117 
 
 mairafacturer of woolens desires a short stapled wool, for 
 such a wool has better felting qualities and usually more 
 serrations or spirals than the long wools. In manufac- 
 turing woolens into yarns the fibers are transversely dis- 
 posed to the axis or length of the thread. In yarns of 
 this nature this feature is termed "pile." The points pro- 
 jecting from the center should be numerous, so that in 
 felting the fabric unites and also when the cloth comes 
 to be finished it will appear on top like short fur (Royal 
 Agricultural Society Transactions, Vol. II, Second Series). 
 On the other hand, in worsted goods, the object is to 
 stretch the fibers and lay them parallel with each other, 
 and this produces a yarn, even, strong, and composed of 
 as fine fibers as possible. In this process of manufacture, 
 it is easy to see that the length and strength of a fiber 
 includes its most valuable characteristics. 
 
 168. Classification of Wool. There is another market 
 classification which is more definite than this, but is very 
 similar in nature. The wools according to their length 
 and strength in the Chicago market are divided into 
 clothing, which is short, being about two inches, or it is 
 weak ; then there is the delaine class, which is a fine wool 
 from two to three inches long in fiber. The other class 
 is a combing, which is a strong wool over three inches 
 long. This classification, it will be seen, depends alto- 
 gether on the length and strength of the wool. Consider- 
 ing first, clothing wool, which is used for making flannels 
 and certain kinds of rough cloth, shortness in the fiber 
 is its leading characteristic. If the fiber of a fleece, how- 
 ever, is four inches long, it would, on its length, be classi- 
 fied as combing wool, but if that fiber has a weak spot 
 in it where it readily breaks it passes from the combing 
 class into the clothing class and drops two or more cents 
 on the pound in price. The delaine wools are fine wools 
 
118 JUDGING SHEEP 
 
 that are not longer than three inches. They are used for 
 making the finest kinds of cloth. The combing wool must 
 in the first place be strong to stand the process of comb- 
 ing, and with that the greatest length is desired. In 
 further reference to the quality of the wool, in examining 
 a fleece, it should be noticed that the length and the 
 density are even over all parts. Considering first the 
 length, the fleece should be examined at the brisket, on 
 top of the back, along the side on the thigh and on the 
 belly. As a rule sheep fitted for show are trimmed in 
 such a way that the wool in front of the brisket is much 
 longer than that on top of the back, and the same may be 
 said of that on the sides. In an untrimmed sheep, on 
 which the wool has grown naturally, it will be found that 
 there is a natural variation in the length of the fiber on 
 different parts of the body. The wool on the brisket will 
 invariably be found to be longer than that on the top or 
 in most other parts. The density of the fleece may be 
 determined by the feel of it under the hand. If the fleece 
 feels firm and it seems to be compact, it is likely dense. 
 
 169. Quality of Fleece. As in most other instances it 
 is rare to find quality and quantity associated. As a gen- 
 eral rule it will be found that the short wooled sheep have 
 the finest quality of wool. In judging of the quality, it 
 should be noted again that the finest wool occurs just 
 over the heart and on the belly, while the coarsest grows 
 on the thigh. 
 
 170. Softness. By pressing the fleece with the hand 
 the softness of it can readily be approximated. This 
 feature is opposed to harshness. The softness of the fleece 
 not only depends greatly on the management, but also on 
 the nature of the food and the soil. In reference to the 
 foods, those that are rich in sulphur have been observed 
 to have the most influence on the softness of the wool. 
 
A group of Cotswold rams shown in 1911 by F. W. Harding 
 Waukesha, Wis. These rams show the desirable qualities of their 
 breed in long forelocks, upstanding and full fronts, long, level backs 
 and heavy fleeces. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE COTSWOLD SHEEP. 
 
 |*HIS BREED which is native to the Cotswold hills in Gloucestershire, 
 England, is one of very ancient origin and is one of those breeds which 
 show a high order of style and finish and uniformity, due to the long con- 
 tinued breeding for a type. The form is remarkably square, upstanding and 
 stylish, the latter being contributed to in no small degree by a beautiful tuft 
 of wool growing from the forehead and falling luxuriantly over the face. 
 The head is somewhat long in the face and may be white or slightly mixed 
 with gray. The forelock is full and long, the ear small, the neck of sufficient 
 length to uphold the head with style. The characteristic form of the body 
 is long, level and wide with a strong back. The hind quarter comes up 
 square and should have sufficient fullness below. The fleece owing to its 
 length is usually somewhat open but it possesses a long, strong fiber that 
 yields heavy. The fleece most desired, while wavy, parts into locks showing 
 a clear pink skin free from dark spots. The popularity of the breed lies 
 chiefly in their large yield of wool and mutton, and these features should be 
 leading characteristics yet they should also be associated with quality in all 
 the essentials. See official scale of points, page 136. 
 
Border Leicester ram, FAVORITE, winner first prize at Highland and 
 Agricultural Society, Dumfries, Scotland, 18!r>. Bred by and property 
 of Andrew Smith, Longniddry, Hadington, Scotland. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE LEICESTER SHEEP. 
 
 THIS BREED which was one of the first to be established originated in 
 Leicestershire, England. The first improver, Robert Bakewell, 1726-1795, 
 sought chiefly to increase the early maturity of this breed and lessen the size 
 of the bone and increase the weight of flesh. The characteristics secured at 
 that early time are maintained in the modern representative. The face is 
 bare and pure white, body square, fore quarters especially full with hind 
 quarters peculiarly rounded on top. There are usually many evidences of 
 quality as seen in the fine bone and the further fact that the fiber of the 
 fleece is usually remarkably fine considering its length. The marked aptitude 
 of the representatives of this breed to fatten results in remarkable backs 
 but frequently the same aptitude produces a soft and uneven covering. The 
 Border Leicester, originating from an infusion of Cheviot blood, is generally 
 stronger in bone and more vigorous than the English type. The wool of the 
 fleece is lustrous, five or six inches long and very soft though frequently too 
 open and sometimes absent on the belly. 
 
FOR MUTTON AND WOOL 119 
 
 It-4s interesting to know that in one hundred pounds of 
 wool there is at least five pounds of sulphur, and it seems 
 that the abundance of this in the food, has an effect on 
 this feature of softness in the fleece. It is well known 
 that soil has a strong influence on the properties of wool, 
 especially in regard to its softness. Clay soils are con- 
 sidered to produce the softest wool, of the best lustre and 
 next to these rank sandy soils, and lastly, those of the 
 nature of limestone. Chalky soils have been noted for 
 the deterioration they produce in the softness of the wool. 
 Harshness of the fleece is generally due to the absence of 
 yolk which has resulted from ill health on the part of the 
 sheep or from exposure. Considering the nature of the 
 fiber of wool, it is easy to understand how anything, such 
 as ill health or exposure which effects the secretion of 
 yolk is certain to make the wool harsh. A fiber of wool 
 is covered with a series of scales which overlap in a sim- 
 ilar manner to the shingles on a roof. When the secre- 
 tion of yolk is abundant, these scales fit in closely to the 
 fiber, but when the secretion of yolk is stopped from any 
 injurious cause, the scales stand out from the fiber very 
 similar to warped shingles on a roof. The result of this 
 is that the fibers lock and when you feel the fleece that 
 has fibers of this nature they seem to grate each other 
 very similarly to file shavings. The wool is harsh and 
 dry and when pressed it gives that grating feeling which 
 is also characteristic of an unhealthy fleece. It is this 
 that produces what is generally known as a cotted fleece. 
 
 171. Commercial Grades. According to the fineness of 
 fiber, or, in other words, the size of it, wool is arranged 
 in three grades fine, medium and coarse. These terms 
 are applied to all the classes of wool -the clothing, delaine 
 and combing that go into the market. For instance, there 
 is fine, medium and coarse clothing; there is fine delaine 
 
120 JUDGING SHEEP 
 
 and medium delaine, and there are all three grades of 
 combing wools. These terms relating to the grades are 
 used to designate certain size of fiber. No exact measure^ 
 ment limits the arrangement of it, but yet they are so 
 defined that one can readily tell them after becoming ac- 
 quainted with them in practice. 
 
 172. Crimp. All wool is more or less crimped, possess- 
 ing what are sometimes called spirals. The most im- 
 portant point in regard to the crimp is that it should be 
 regular and the folds should not be thrown on each other. 
 Regularity in the crimp indicates that the fiber is sound 
 from end to end, but if is some places the crimp is short 
 and close, and in others long and wavy, it usually indi- 
 cates that where this difference occurs, there is an un- 
 sound spot in the fiber. It shows that the growth has 
 been irregular and there is a close relation between the 
 fineness of the fiber and the nature of the crimp. When 
 the crimp is fine and close almost invariably the fiber will 
 be found to be of fine quality. In all coarse wool it should 
 be noted that the crimp is open and wavy. In opening a 
 fleece and looking at it, the crimp should always be noted, 
 for from it an estimate may be made, both as to the sound- 
 ness and fineness of it. 
 
 173. Soundness. The soundness of the fiber is of much 
 importance in the process of manufacturing woolens. 
 The fleece of unsound fibers will bring four or five cents 
 less than one that is strong throughout. To test the 
 soundness of a fiber in addition to knowing it by the char- 
 acter of the crimp, a small lock of wool is taken between 
 the fingers and stretched evenly and gently until the un- 
 soundness or the strength becomes apparent. The wool 
 may break at the bottom, having what is called "weak 
 bottoms," or it may have "weak middles" or "weak 
 tops," according to the location of the unsoundness, Even- 
 
A champion Southdown ram shown in 1911 by Charles Leet & Son, 
 Mantua, Ohio. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE SOUTHDOWN SHEEP. 
 
 THIS BREED, which is one of the oldest and purest, originated on the 
 Downs of Sussex in England and they represent a uniformity of type for 
 mutton purposes which may be accepted as a model of mutton form. The 
 type shown by this breed is very symmetrical, compact and close to the 
 ground and there is a marked refinement in every feature ; the general struc- 
 ture being of fine quality while every part strongly reflects the same char- 
 acteristic. The head is moderate in size, short and clearly defined in its 
 lineaments. The forehead should be covered v/ith wool and the cheeks also 
 but this usually does not join forward of the eye. There is a complete absence 
 of horns, with small pointed ears, the face is some shade of brown or gray 
 tint and the same markings should prevail on the legs. The neck is very 
 short and straight, the breast broad and full, the back is straight, well cov- 
 ered and tightly knit, while the loin is wide, straight and smooth. The gen- 
 eral form of the body shows much depth and width with a trimness charac- 
 teristic of every region. The hips while markedly wide are not prominent, the 
 hind quarter fills out square and the twist and thigh are low and full. . The 
 fleece is characterized more by its fineness and density rather than the weight 
 of the wool which it yields as it is generally medium in length and compar- 
 atively free from yolk. A marked uniformity in the quality of the wool should 
 be in evidence ; that over the shoulder and that which covers the thigh and 
 other parts being very even in quality. The best types of this breed may be 
 accepted as a model form for the block. See official scale of points, page 131. 
 
Shropshire ram, RINGLEADER, a frequent prize winner arid stock ram 
 at the head of the Altanionl Hock, owned by Dr. G. Howard Davidson, 
 Mill brook, N. Y. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE SHROPSHIRE SHEEP. 
 
 THIS BREED having- its home in the Downs of England is very symmetrical 
 and stylish in form. The head should show refinement in every feature 
 with moderate length. A characteristic attribute is for it to be closely covered 
 with wool, the cap between the ears being dense, running to the bridge of 
 the nose and joining that which covers the cheek and lower part of the head. 
 The ears should be far apart, pointed and moderate in thickness and preferably 
 covered to the tip with fine curly wool. There should not be the least evi- 
 dence of horns as the places where these sometimes appear should be covered 
 with wool. The neck should be nicely attached and full and of sufficient 
 length to carry the head with peculiar style. The body to possess this char- 
 acteristic smoothness and symmetry must be somewhat circular and round 
 ribbed. The back should be straight, strong- and knit so that the handling of 
 this part shows it to be smooth and evenly covered. The loin must be wide 
 and hips not prominent and the quarters lengthy and deep, the width from 
 the loin and hips should be carried out to the tail head and the fullness 
 characteristic of this part should be maintained on the outside of the thigh 
 and on the inside as well, making the twist not only deep but plump with 
 flesh. The fleece should be strong- and fine in fiber with all the density pos- 
 sible. From the bridge of the nose to the fetlock as well as along the belly, 
 a dense covering of wool is desirable. In opening the fleece the fibers, which 
 are generally about three inches long, should part readily, show clear white 
 in strong contrast to the pink skin. About the ears or top of the head there 
 should be no patches of black fiber nor should these appear distributed any- 
 where in the fleece. The characteristic markings for the face and legs are 
 a rich dark brown in color. The best type of this breed shows an unusual 
 combination of quality and quantity of both wool and mutton. See official 
 scale of points, page 131!. 
 
FOB MUTTON AND WOOL 121 
 
 ness oX.all the desirable characteristics should exist over 
 all parts of the fleece. The softness should be apparent 
 over all regions and fineness also, and the crimp should 
 in addition appear uniform throughout the fiber. 
 
 174. Condition. The condition of the fleece refers 
 more to its purity, lustre, brightness and the quantity and 
 character of the yolk. The condition of a fleece results 
 mostly from correct breeding and proper management. 
 
 175. Purity, Purity refers to the freedom of the fleece 
 from dead fibers and foreign matter. In fleeces that are 
 grown on sheep that are exposed to conditions unfavor- 
 able to thrift, there is a natural tendency for the fleece 
 to revert to its original state ; that is, fibers of hair begin 
 to appear in it and these take the place of the wool. Very 
 often in fleeces grown by sheep that have been exposed 
 there will be found a great many dead fibers which are 
 technically spoken of as "kemp." These dead fibers are 
 very injurious to the fleece from the commercial stand- 
 point, because they do not absorb dyes, and in any cloth 
 that is made from such wool these dead fibers will retain 
 the white and hard appearance that they had in the fleece. 
 
 176. Domestic Wool. Based on the condition of the 
 fleece the market makes a division of four kinds. These 
 are what is known as domestic wool, territory wool, 
 blanket wool and carpet wool. Domestic wools are clean 
 and bright. Wool of this kind comes from fleeces that are 
 grown under what might be termed domesticated condi- 
 tions, that is, sheep are given shelter, fed well and other- 
 wise have good management. This results in a clean, 
 bright wool which the market classifies as domestic wool, 
 
 177. Territory Wool. In contrast to this is the ter^ 
 ritory wool. This wool is called territory wool simply 
 because it is dirty or it is discolored. It is wool that 
 comes from sheep managed and cared for in a way very 
 
122 JUDGING SHEEP 
 
 similar to that which is common in the territories. The 
 sheep have run out the year round ; the fleece has become 
 full of sand, straw, chaff and similar substances, and this 
 has filled the fleece with foreign material. 
 
 178. Blanket Wool. The poorest kinds of wool that 
 go to the market are known as carpet wool and blanket 
 wool. The worst feature connected with this kind of wool 
 is the presence of kemp or the dead fibers previously men- 
 tioned. On account of these not freely absorbing the 
 dyes, this wool has to be manufactured into carpets and 
 blankets. When the nature of the fleece of the original 
 sheep is understood so that the improvement that has 
 been made through breeding for many years becomes ap- 
 parent, it can easily be seen that where sheep are neg- 
 lected the tendency is for their fleece to revert to the orig- 
 inal condition. In this condition the fleece was made up 
 of an external covering of hairs and beneath it an under- 
 growth of very finely fibered wool. Domestication by 
 man has completely removed the hair and gives us a fine 
 fleece of wool which exists on well bred sheep today. 
 Neglect on the part of the breeder will surely result in 
 the sheep reverting to the kind of fleece that it at one 
 time possessed. 
 
 179. Lustre. This refers to the glistening appearance 
 of the fiber when held to the light. This is independent 
 of the amount of yolk, and it is also quite distinct from 
 the brightness of the fiber. Although yolk in a fleece 
 may add to the lustre of the fibre, yet all lustrous wools 
 have this characteristic independent of the amount of yolk 
 that is present. The chief advantage from a commercial 
 standpoint that attaches itself to lustrous wools is that 
 they more readily take delicate dyes. "Wools in the mar- 
 ket are known as lustrous or dull, according to the ap- 
 pearance of the fiber. The lustrous fiber has the appear- 
 
Imported Hampshire ram, BARTON'S BEST 699. Weight, 313 Ibs. ; 
 fleece 12% Ibs., April 15, 1896. At head of the Prairie Castle flock. 
 Dropped February 10, 1893. Owned by J. H. Taft Estate, Mendon, 
 Mich. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE HAMPSHIRE SHEEP. 
 
 THIS BREED, finding its name from its native district in England is strong 
 framed with those features which denote constitution, strikingly shown. 
 The head is strong and somewhat large with prominent nose and ear inclined 
 to be thick and large, yet there should not be any undue coarseness in these 
 parts. The neck should be strong and deep from head to shoulder, the chest 
 very deep and wide. The back strong with width and proper covering. The 
 hind quarter should be characterized by fullness both before and below. In 
 general the frame is strong, lengthy and close to the ground with the other 
 attributes which indicate vigor. The wool of the fleece is somewhat short, 
 dense and strong in fiber. Ruggedness and weight of form are desirable yet 
 these should be secured if possible without extreme coarseness of form or 
 fleece. The early development of the lambs of this breed is a leading char- 
 acteristic and should be recognized, consequently a heavy weight at an early 
 age but not at the expense of quality and breed type is very desirable. See 
 official scale of points, page 133. 
 
Undefeated Oxford ram shown in 1911 by Geo. McKerrow & Son. 
 Pewaukee, Wis. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE OXFORD DOWN SHEEP. 
 
 THIS BREED originated in the county of Oxford, England, and the type 
 was evolved by the use of the Cotswold and Hampshire. The origin of 
 the type is shown somewhat in the modern representatives for the scale, sub- 
 stance and back which they possess reflect the qualities of the long wool line, 
 while the dark face, fleece characteristics and quality of structure are attri- 
 butable to the Down ancestry. The face and markings are either gray or 
 brown. The head of the Oxford differs somewhat from the Shropshire in 
 being longer and not so densely wooled past the eye, while the ear is slightly 
 larger and longer. The form is square in general appearance, wider than in 
 that of the other Down breeds and the hind quarter square on top and below 
 carrying flesh close to the hocks. The fleece is heavy, moderately open and 
 the fiber is long and strong. When mature they are one of the heaviest of 
 the Down breeds, being large in size and strong in frame. See official scale 
 of points, page 135. 
 
FOB MUTTON AND WOOL 123 
 
 ance^of having been varnished, while a dull one does not 
 show the least tendency to glisten when held in the light. 
 
 180. Brightness. Brightness is quite distinct from 
 lustre, as it refers altogether to the color of the wool. 
 In the market wools are said to be bright or dark as they 
 vary in this characteristic. The bright wool is one that 
 has a clear white color, while the dark wool is one that 
 has become discolored from the soil on which the sheep 
 has ranged, or some similar source. Brightness is always 
 characteristic of domestic wool and discoloration is a 
 feature of all territory wools. 
 
 181. Yolk. This is the grease or oil that is naturally 
 secreted by the skin. As before indicated, the yolk in the 
 fleece is an indication of the healthiness of the sheep. 
 The yolk is secreted in the skin, but it passes down 
 through the fiber and finds an outlet at the end of the 
 fiber. If you will notice sheep on certain days when the 
 weather is close and the sheep are likely sweating, the 
 yolk seems to accumulate on the end of the fibre, and if 
 you were to run your hand over the fleece at that time 
 you would find it became quite oily. The yolk apparently 
 comes out at the end of the fibers and works back into the 
 fleece. In some flocks the quantity of yolk has been in- 
 creased and encouraged by selection in breeding, so that 
 heavy fleeces might be obtained. The ordinary fleece in 
 which yolk is abundant in proper quantity will lose nearly 
 one-third through washing it in hot water. This grease 
 is of no value to the manufacturer and it represents a 
 direct loss to him when it is in the fleece in very larg? 
 quantities. The feeding and the management undoubtedly 
 influence the amount of yolk. Feeding sheep foods that 
 are rich in oils seems to further the secretion of grease 
 and especially in feeding with such rations as are gen- 
 erally given to fattening sheep, the quantity of yolk s 
 
124 JUDGING SHEEP 
 
 to increase. In fattening lambs at the Wisconsin Station 
 it was found that the lambs which received grain from 
 birth invariably sheared heavier fleeces than those that 
 had grain only during the latter three months of fatten- 
 ing. By washing samples from the fleece of these^ sheep 
 it was determined that the increased weight of the fleece 
 was almost altogether due to the increased amount of 
 yolk which the grain- fed lambs secreted. The presence 
 of yolk in proper quantities is of chief importance, be- 
 cause the fleece becomes soft through it, and is made 
 more compact, thereby keeping bright and clean in con- 
 dition. Furthermore, it is a safe index of the thriftiness 
 in the sheep, though if present in excessive quantities and 
 accumulated in flakes it indicates undue pampering or 
 unthriftiness due to overfeeding. 
 
. Cheviot ram, SANDY WALKER ; winner of first prize at Edinburgh, 
 Morpeth, and the H. and A. S. Show, Dumfries, 1895. Bred by and 
 property of John Elliott, Hindhope, Jedburgh, Scotland. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OP THE CHEVIOT SHEEP. 
 
 THIS BREED, a native of the Cheviot mountains and the most common 
 sheep of Scotch borders, has been known on the hills of Scotland for 
 more than 200 years. To thrive under the conditions of their nativity they 
 must naturally possess unusual activity with strong constitutions. The mod- 
 ern type exemplifies this fact as it is that of a sheep blocky in body and 
 deep, with short legs. The face is bare of wool from the ears forward with- 
 out any appearance of horns and pure white, as on all other regions of the 
 body excepting the immediate vicinity of the nostrils and the hoofs which 
 should be black. Being hardy, active and prolific, they have a pertness in 
 look, and activity in movement which is thoroughly characteristic of the 
 breed. The manner of the sheep is characterized by alertness added to further 
 by a keen face, bright eye and active, fine ears. The chest is deep with the 
 floor of it close to the ground, the girth full, the back rather short but strong, 
 with a deep rib, the hind quarter is low set but well developed from the mut- 
 ton standpoint. The fleece should be dense and fine in texture. The breeders 
 are particularly careful that the quality of the fleece should be even through- 
 out and free from kemp or dead hairs and especially fill the hand well. As 
 constitution is eminently desirable in these sheep the evidences of this should 
 be strikingly shown in type and temperament. See official scale of points, 
 page 139. 
 
A Dorset ram shown in 191] by Nash Bros., Tipton, Ind. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE DORSET SHEEP. 
 
 ^RIGINALLY a mountain breed of Dorsetshire and Summersetshire of the 
 ^ south of England, this breed has been modified considerably in type 
 during late years and the modern representative now shows a form that 
 is long, round-bodied and yet compactly built. 
 
 Standard of excellence and scale of points of the Dorset sheep, adopted by 
 the Continential Dorset Association. Head neat, face white, norstrils large, 
 well covered on crown and around jaws with wool, 5 ; horns, small and grace- 
 fully curving forward, rather close to jaws, 5 ; eyes, prominent, bright, 2 ; 
 ears, moderately large, covered with short white hair, 2 ; neck, symmetrical, 
 strongly set on shoulders, gradually tapering to junction of head, 5 ; shoulders, 
 broad and full, joining neck forward, and chine backward with no depression 
 at either point (important), 15; brisket, wide and well forward, chest full 
 and deep, 8 ; fore flank, quite full, showing no depression behind shoulders, 
 10 ; back and loin, flat and straight, from which ribs should spring with a 
 fine circular arch, 10 ; quarters, wide and full with mutton extending down 
 to hock, 6 ; belly, straight on under line, 5 ; fleece, medium grade, of even 
 quality, and presenting a smooth surface, well covered on belly and legs, 12 ; 
 general conformation of the mutton type, body moderately lengthy, short legs 
 placed squarely under body, appearance attractive, skin pink colored. 15.' 
 
FOR MUTTON AND WOOL 125 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS FOE FINE WOOLED SHEEP. 
 
 *t* o 
 
 GENERAL APPEARANCE: 
 
 Form, level, deep, stylish, round rather than square. 8 
 
 Quality, clean, fine bone; silky hair; fine skin 6 
 
 HEAD AND NECK: 
 
 Muzzle, fine; broad wrinkly nose; pure white 1 
 
 Eyes, large, clear, placid 1 
 
 Face, wrinkly, covered with soft, velvety coat 1 
 
 Forehead, broad, full 1 
 
 Ears, soft, thick, velvety 1 
 
 Neck, short, muscular, well set on shoulders 1 
 
 FORE QUARTERS: 
 
 Shoulder, strong, being deep and broad 4 
 
 Brisket, projecting forward, breast wide 1 
 
 Legs, straight, short, wide apart; shank smooth and 
 
 fine 2 
 
 BODY: 
 
 Chest, deep, full, indicating constitution 10 
 
 Back, level, long; round ribbed 4 
 
 Loin, wide, level 4 
 
 Flank, low, making underline straight 2 
 
 HIND QUARTERS: 
 
 Hips, far apart, level, smooth 2 
 
 Rump, long, level, wide 4 
 
 Legs, straight, short, strong; shank smooth, fine.... 2 
 WOOL: 
 
 Kind Domestic, clean and bright. 
 Territory, dirty or discolored. 
 Carpet 
 Blanket 
 Hairy or having dead fibers. 
 
 Class Clothing, fiber under two inches in length or 
 
 unsound. 
 
 Delaine, fiber two or three inches in length. 
 Combing, fiber over three inches in length and 
 
 sound. 
 
 Grade Fine, medium or coarse. 
 Quantity Long, dense, even covering, especially over 
 
 crown, cheek, armpit, hind legs and belly 15 
 
 Quality Pine fibre, crimp close, regular; even quality 
 
 including tops of folds 15 
 
 Condition Bright, lustrous, sound, pure, soft, even 
 distribution of yolk, with even surface to fleece. ... 15 
 
 Total .100 
 
126 JUDGING SHEEP 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS FOR MUTTON SHEEP FOR WETHER. 
 
 fc0 
 
 GENERAL APPEARANCE: 
 
 Weight, score according to age 8 
 
 Form, long, level, deep, broad, low set, stylish 10 
 
 Quality, clean bone, silky hair, fine skin, light in offal, 
 
 yielding large percentage of meat 10 
 
 Condition, deep even covering of firm flesh especially 
 in region of valuable cuts. Points indicating condi- 
 tion or ripeness are thick dock, back thickly cov- 
 ered with flesh, thick neck, full purse, full low flank, 
 
 plump breast 10 
 
 HEAD AND NECK: 
 
 Muzzle, fine, mouth large, lips thin, nostrils large 1 
 
 Eyes, large, clear, placid 1 
 
 Face, short, clean cut features 1 
 
 Forehead, broad, full 1 
 
 Ears, fine, erect 1 
 
 Neck, thick, short, throat free from folds 1 
 
 FORE QUARTERS: 
 
 Shoulder Vein, fuh 1 
 
 Shoulder, covered with flesh, compact on top, smooth. 1 
 
 Brisket, projecting forward, breast wide 1 
 
 Legs, straight, short, wide apart, strong; fore arm full, 
 
 shank smooth and fine 1 
 
 BODY: 
 
 Chest, wide, deep, full, indicating constitution 8 
 
 Back, broad, straight, long, wide, thickly fleshed, ribs 
 
 arched 10 
 
 Loin, thick, broad, long 10 
 
 HIND QUARTERS: 
 
 Hips, far apart, level, smooth 2 
 
 Rump, long, level, wide to tail head 3 
 
 Thighs, full, deep, wide 3 
 
 Twist, plump, deep 3 
 
 Legs, straight, short, strong; shank smooth, fine 1 
 
 WOOL: 
 
 Kind, domestic, territory, carpet or blanket 
 
 Class, clothing; delaine or combing 
 
 Grade, fine, medium or coarse 
 
 Quantity, long, dense, even 4 
 
 Quality, fine, pure; crimp close, regular, even 4 
 
 Condition, bright, sound, clean, soft, light 4 
 
 Total , .100 
 
Rambouillet ram lamb imported by George Harding & Sons, Wauke- 
 sha, Wis. A frequent first prize winner in the state fair circuit of 1899. 
 Owned by J. F. Jensen, Mount Pleasant, Utah. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE RAMBOUILLET SHEEP. 
 
 THIS is the largest breed of fine wooled sheep and they have been estab- 
 lished in France from the orginal Merino type by. generous feeding and 
 careful selection, having in view a large form with tendency towards mutton 
 making and fleece that is fine in fiber, very long and markedly dense. The 
 aim has been to produce a fine wooled sheep with mutton qualities. Size qf 
 form has been secured and where this possesses sufficient quality and smooth- 
 ness it represents a high order of combination of wool and mutton producing 
 tendencies. The head is covered with a dense growth of wool extending over 
 nose, cheeck and around the eye. The ewe should be polled and the rams 
 possessed of horns. The ears are somewhat short, silky in feeling, due, largely 
 to pliability and a fine growth of hair. The neck is somewhat thick but com- 
 paratively free from wrinkles and the chest very deep. The body should 
 continue its depth and have a smooth layer of flesh. The hind quarters 
 should not droop but be characterized by levelness with a crease at the tail 
 head. The legs are short, strong and straight. The feature of most decided 
 merit connected with this breed is the character of the fleece which yields 
 heavily because of its unusual density and the combination of length and 
 fineness which the fiber shows. The fleece should show bright and lustrous 
 with a uniformly fine crimp extending from tip to base. The yolk should be 
 free and not clotted at any part of the fleece. These characteristics should 
 be noticeable in all regions showing it to be true and even in quality through- 
 out. The fleece in addition to extending well over the face should run down 
 on the legs as far as possible and make a complete covering of the belly. 
 
A prize winning Merino ewe (Class A) bred by D. K. Bell. 
 Rochester, N. Y. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE DELAINE MERINO SHEEP. 
 
 THIS FAMILY of American Merinos has been established by increasing the 
 size smoothening the form, lengthening the fiber and adding somewhat 
 to the mutton properties of the ancestral stock. In some families the polled 
 feature is an additional characteristic. In those that are horned these should 
 in turning keep clear of the face. The form in general has been enlarged and 
 smoothened by the development of a tendency to take on flesh. The fleece 
 being comparatively free of wrinkles has also contributed to the smoothness 
 of form which is characteristic of the Delaine. As in the other type quality 
 of bone, skin and hair and the addition of quality of fleece with fineness in 
 every particular should be mainly characteristic. See official scale of points, 
 page 140. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE AMERICAN MERINO SHEEP. 
 
 THIS BREED with its fascinating history starting in Syria, passing into 
 Greece, from there to Italy, then to Spain on to France and from thence 
 to England and later to Australia and America has an historical record for 
 inherent constitution which has made them strong in type and very decided 
 in. their characteristics. Size and mutton form are not characteristic of the 
 breed but quality in every requirement is a striking attribute. The face is 
 white and the head closely capped with wool extending down on the bridge 
 of the nose and completely surrounding the eyes. The ear is small, pointed 
 and covered with wool and a soft growth of hair. In the ram the horn 
 should spring strong and completely clear of the face, the neck is light and 
 so is the shoulder and a marked feature is the depth of the chest, the floor 
 coming down well between the fore legs which are short and strong. The 
 body is short, the rib deep, the loin and hind quarter strong. The fleece 
 under careful examination should be very dense with flat surface as shown 
 by a very even pile. The fiber should be long, fine, sound and when the 
 fleece is opened it should part readily from end to end showing an even and 
 free distribution of yolk. To the finger and thumb softness of the wool should 
 be apparent, while to the eye it should show a lustre and brightness through- 
 out. Where the wrinkles occur they should not have any coarse fibers on 
 the tops of the folds and the yolk should not be clotted in the creases or 
 any portion of the fleece. 
 
 The following scale of points is taken from the Merino Sheep Registry : 
 "Merino Sheep Register First. Blood, a perfectly authenticated line of 
 ancestry tracing to importations made from Spain prior to 1812 without a 
 mixture. 20. Constitution, 18. Fleece, quality, quantity and condition as 
 shown by weight of fleece, length and strength of staple, crimp, fineness and 
 brightness of fiber, evenness throughout, freedom from dead fiter and amount 
 of yolk, 13. Form, 9. Size, rams at full growth in breeding condition should 
 weigh 130 pounds or upwards; ewes 100 pounds, 9. Head medium size, 
 muzzle clear, nose covered with glossy, furry hair; eyes bright and placid ; 
 forehead broad ; ears soft, thick and set well apart ; ewes hornless ; horns on 
 ram well turned (set not too close to the head and neck, nor yet standing 
 out too widely from them) and free from black or dark colored streaks, 6 
 Neck short on top, long below ; strongly set to head and shoulders becoming 
 deeper towards shoulder folds, heavier underneath and extending up sides of 
 neck, including dewlap and apron, 5. Legs and feet, 4. General appearance, 
 good carriage ; bold, vigorous style, symmetrical form and proper complexion 
 of covering, 4. 
 
FOR BREEDING PURPOSES 127 
 
 II. JUDGING SHEEP FOR BREEDING PURPOSES. 
 
 In judging pure bred sheep in the breeding classes, the 
 subject of breed type should receive careful consideration. 
 While it has a bearing on the judging of all classes of 
 pure bred stock, yet it is of double importance in the pure 
 bred classes of sheep. 
 
 182. Formation of Types. The type that has become 
 characteristic of each breed has arisen from a variety of 
 causes. In all instances the breeder's skill in selecting and 
 mating has been a controlling factor, but other influences 
 have assisted more or less. In some instances, the func- 
 tion of the animal or the work it is called upon to do has 
 had a strong influence. This is evident in the instance 
 of the running horse, the trotting horse and the dairy 
 cow ; where the form or the type has developed from the 
 function. In other instances the environment has aided 
 man in the work of selection and this is notably true of 
 sheep. The adaptability of sheep for different altitudes 
 of land enables us to divide them into lowland breeds, 
 upland or down breeds, and mountain breeds. The low- 
 land breeds are large, square and strongly framed, and 
 heavy producers of wool and mutton; the down breeds 
 are smaller, but rounder and more compact with fleece, 
 frame and mutton of better quality. The mountain breeds 
 must have more vigor and agility than those previously 
 mentioned to earn subsistance under rougher conditions, 
 so that the possession of a rugged constitution, and active 
 disposition with strong limbs and muscles are of more im- 
 portance than the other features that are characteristic 
 of other types. Man seeks to fix the type considered char- 
 acteristic of the breeds by elaborating a scale of points 
 representing the features desired in the types and towards 
 the production of these ideal types all the breeders bend 
 their energies, 
 
128 JUDGING SHEEP 
 
 183. Value of Breed Type. The type of the breed 
 having been decided upon by all the breeders, it should 
 be the aim of the judge to recognize it, for aside from 
 an acknowledgment of the wishes of the breeders it is a 
 point of direct value to do so. When a breed has been 
 bred uniformly to a type for many years the type has 
 become so fixed that it is uniformly transmitted. Two 
 of the most powerful factors aiding the fixing of the type 
 of a breed are the breeders seeking to produce the animal 
 of ideal type as represented by the scale of points and 
 the judges conforming to it in the show ring. The re- 
 sult is influential in regard to breeding, as it assists in 
 making the breed prepotent or able to transmit its char- 
 acteristics with a greater degree of certainty. Another 
 feature associated with the fixing of the breed type by 
 the assistance of the breeder and the judge is the fact 
 that it then becomes possible to select breeding stock 
 from among the pure breeds with special reference to 
 their adaptability for a definite environment. Knowing 
 the environment that has assisted in producing a type of 
 any breed of sheep and knowing that a certain type has 
 become the fixed property of that breed, it is possible to 
 make an intelligent choice of a breed for any environ- 
 ment. It is this adaptability for different environments 
 that has given us over twenty-five different breeds of 
 sheep, and as it is the possession of these peculiarities 
 which unite in what is called breed type that gives each a 
 place. Consequently it is important that the breeder 
 should try to retain the type and in this secure the co- 
 operation of the judge. 
 
 184. The Ram. Aside from the breed type which is 
 outlined in the scales of points that are given elsewhere, 
 the ram in type should show masculinity in many fea- 
 tures. In those breeds that have horns, the latter should 
 spring strong from the head and turn free from the face. 
 
Class A Merino ram, DON ALFONSO, champion at New York State 
 Fair, 1909. Bred and shown by D. K. Bell, Rochester, N. Y. 
 
 From photograph in the "Australian Pastoralists' Review." Merino 
 ram PRESIDENT, bred by Hon. James Gibson ; sold at Sydney, Australia, 
 for $8,000, July, 1896. 
 
Sof 
 
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 P, 
 
 2x; 
 M 
 
FOR BREEDING PURPOSES 129 
 
 In jail rams the face should be broad between the eyes, 
 somewhat short with a Roman nose. The crest or scrag 
 should be thick and rising and the neck full. A point de- 
 serving emphasis is the depth of the chest. The body 
 should sink deep between the fore legs and the ribs back 
 of the shoulder should be deep and round, making the 
 girth large and the brisket prominent and wide two 
 features that are indicative of a strong constitution. A 
 live fleece, that is, one that is springy and not dead to the 
 touch, and especially a dense thick covering of belly wool 
 is also indicative of vigor or constitution. For the same 
 reason in those breeds that are wooled about the head, 
 the more complete and dense this covering is, the better 
 it is liked. The legs of the ram should be straight and 
 strong and short. The movement of the ram should be 
 bold and active. This is often influenced by the condi- 
 tion. A ram should never be so heavy in flesh as to be 
 useless for service, as is too often the case in the show 
 ring. The flesh should be even and firm, and not gath- 
 ered in masses or rolls at any part of the body. It is very 
 apt to gather at the fore flank, leaving the back bare or 
 raw. Excessive condition is likely to make the ram un- 
 wieldy in action or result in broken down pasterns which 
 usually render a ram useless for breeding purposes. 
 
 185. The Ewe. The ewe should be rather long in the 
 face with fine features. The neck should be slender and 
 without any of the thickness noticeable in the ram. The 
 body should be deep, round ribbed and specially long so 
 as to provide room for the growing lamb. The type of 
 the good milking ewe verges strongly towards that which 
 is typical of the good dairy cow. The ew r e that milks 
 well, and, consequently, rears early maturing lambs tends 
 towards the wedge shape, deep in the chest, large bodied 
 and wide across the loins and the hips. The condition of 
 the ewe should not be such as to impair her breeding 
 
130 JUDGING SHEEP 
 
 qualities. Excessive fatness as a rule is in this way in- 
 jurious. The flesh should be evenly distributed and not 
 gathered in bunches about the tail head, and it should be 
 firm and not flabby. 
 
 186. Judging Lambs and Flocks. In judging lambs 
 the main consideration is to make due allowance for the 
 difference in age among the contestants. As to the pos- 
 sibilities of future development, the judge can only have 
 his own experience and observation to guide him. It may 
 be said, how'ever, that it will be found as a rule that the 
 short, smooth and thick lamb, which shows best at five 
 or six months old or under, will rarely develop into a 
 sheep of desirable size when mature ; while the lamb that 
 is more growthy, yet possessing a well knit frame, show- 
 ing some length and also quality, will develop both size 
 and smoothness. Stress should be laid on the strength, 
 straightness and firmness of the back and the depth of 
 the body. In judging flocks the rams that head them 
 should receive chief consideration, though this does not 
 mean that the uniformity and the type of the ewes should 
 be overlooked. An exceptionally good ram either in the 
 showing or in use as a sire will as a rule obliterate a 
 multitude of small faults in the remainder of the flock. 
 In reference to the ages of the individuals in the flock, 
 the nearer they are to being yearlings the higher they 
 should be appraised. Younger than this calls for sup- 
 positions relating to their development, and when they 
 pass beyond two years, their worth in the flock has lost 
 the value that results from the production of one year, 
 though it cannot be said that the merit of the sheep has 
 decreased in any other respect. 
 
Photo by Schreiber. 
 
 Imported Shropshire ewe-lambs owned by W. L. Elkins, Philadel- 
 phia, PC 
 
 Southdown ram lambs. The property of the Pagham Harbour Com- 
 pany, Selsey, Chichester, England. Winners of first prize at R. A. 
 S. K. Show, 1898. 
 
Hampshire flock shown in 1911 by C. O. Judd, Kent, Ohio. 
 
 Imported Oxford Down prize winning ewe, IRCHESTER MODEL 18445, 
 and ram, HOBB'S RECTOR 17470. First prize winners at the Trans- 
 Mississippi Exposition held at Omaha 1898. The ram was the cham- 
 pion sheep of the Exposition. Owned by Richard Stone, Stonington, 
 
OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SHEEP 131 
 
 III. OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SHEEP. 
 
 SOUTHDOWN SHEEP. 
 
 STANDABD OF EXCELLENCE AMERICAN SOUTHDOWN 
 
 RECORD, VOL. I, 1884. 
 
 en 
 
 Head Medium in size and hornless, fine, carried well up, | 
 forehead or face well covered with wool, especially 
 between the ears and on the cheeks, and in the ewe 
 slightly dished 5 
 
 Lips and under jaw fine and thin 1 
 
 Ears Rather small, tolerably wide apart, covered with fine 
 hair and carried with a lively back and forth move- 
 ment 2 
 
 Eyes Full and bright 3 
 
 Face A uniform tint of brown, or gray, or mouse color. . 3 
 
 Neck Short, fine at the head, but nicely tapering, and 
 
 broad and straight on top at the shoulders 4 
 
 Shoulders Broad and full, smoothly joining the neck with 
 
 the back 5 
 
 Breast Wide, deep and projecting well forward, the fore- 
 legs standing well apart 5 
 
 Back and loin broad and straight from shoulders to rump. 7 
 
 Ribs Well arched, extending far backward, the last pro- 
 jecting more than the others 6 
 
 Rump Broad, square and full, with tail well set up .... 6 
 
 Hips Wide, with little space between them and the last 
 
 ribs 6 
 
 Thighs Full and well let down in twist, the legs standing 
 
 well apart 6 
 
 Limbs Short and fine in bone, and in color to agree with 
 
 face 3 
 
 Fore Legs Well wooled and carrying mutton to the knees, 
 
 but free from meat below 2 
 
 Hind Legs Well filled with mutton and wooled to the 
 
 hocks, neat and clean below 2 
 
 Belly Straight and well covered with wool, the flank ex- 
 tending so as to form a line parallel with the back or 
 top line 5 
 
 Fleece Compact, the whole body well covered with moder- 
 ately long and close wool, white in color, carrying some 
 yolk 12 
 
 Form Throughout smooth and symmetrical, with no 
 
 coarseness in any part 9 
 
 General Appearance Spirited and attractive, with a de- 
 termined look, a proud and firm step, indicating con- 
 stitutional vigor and thorough breeding 8 
 
 Total . .100 
 
132 JUDGING SHEEP 
 
 SHROPSHIRE SHEEP. 
 
 POINTS OF EXCELLENCE FOB PURE BRED SHROPSHIRE 
 
 SHEEP RECORDED OR ELIGIBLE TO REGISTRY w 
 
 IN THE AMERICAN SHROPSHIRE REG- 
 ISTRY ASSOCIATION RECORD. 
 
 General Appearance Attractive, indicating breeding and 
 quality, with stylish carriage and a symmetrical form, 
 covered with dense fleece 25 
 
 Constitution Robust as indicated by width and depth of 
 chest, strength and formation of neck, and by bold 
 active movement 10 
 
 Size In breeding condition when fully matured. Rams 
 should weigh not less than 180 to 225 pounds, and 
 Ewes should weigh not less than 125 to 170 pounds. . 10 
 
 Fleece and Skin Fleece of good length, dense, elastic to 
 touch, medium line, free from black fiber, slightly 
 crimped, with evenness of texture throughout; scro- 
 tum Oif rams well covered with wool. Skin light cherry 
 color, clear and free from dark spots 15 
 
 Body Well proportioned, with shoulders well placed, fit- 
 ting smoothly upon chest, which should be deep and 
 wide, broad and straight back, thick loins, well cov- 
 ered with firm flesh; hind quarters well finished; twist 
 deep and full 20 
 
 Head and Neck Head, short, broad between the ears and 
 eyes bold and masculine in rams, without horns, well 
 covered with wool, ears short and erect, eyes bright, 
 color of face and ears dark brown. Neck of medium 
 length, strong and masculine (especially in rams), 
 symmetrically joined to head and shoulders 15 
 
 Legs Well set apart, broad, short, straight, color dark 
 
 brown and well wooled; pastern strong and upright. . 5 
 
 Total . 100 
 
OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOB SHEEP 133 
 
 HAMPSHIRE DOWN. 
 
 STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE ADOPTED BY AMERICAN 
 
 HAMPSHIRE DOWN SHEEP BREEDERS 
 
 ASSOCIATION, VOL. I, 1890. 
 
 Head Mcderate-ly large, but not coarse; wall covered with 
 wool on forehead and cheeks. 
 
 Nostrils Wide. 
 
 Color Head and Legs Dark brown or black. 
 
 Eyes Prominent and lustrous. 
 
 Ears Moderately long and thin and dark brown or black 
 color. 
 
 Legs Well under outside of body, straight with good size 
 of bone, black. 
 
 Neck A regular taper from shoulders to hea" 1 , without any 
 hollow in front of shoulders, set high up on body. 
 
 Shoulders Sloping full, and not higher than the line of 
 back and neck. 
 
 Chest Deep and full in the heart place, with breast prom- 
 inent and full. 
 
 Back Straight with full spring of rib. 
 
 Loin Wide and straight, without depression in front of 
 hips. 
 
 Quarters Long from hips to rump, without sloping, and 
 deep in thigh. Broad in hips and rump, with full hams. In- 
 side of thighs full. 
 
 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS. 
 
 Head Size and shape, 5; ears and eyes, 3; color, 5; legs <> 
 
 and feet. 2 15 
 
 Neck, Shoulders and Breast Neck, 5; shoulders, 10; chest 
 
 and breast, 15 30 
 
 Body Back and loin, 15; rib, 5 20 
 
 Quarters Length, 10; width, 10; twist, 5 25 
 
 Wool Forehead and cheeks, 2; belly, well covered. 3; 
 
 quality, 5 10 
 
 Total 100 
 
134 JUDGING SHEEP 
 
 SUFFOLK SHEEP. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS. SUFFOLK SHEEP SOCIETY FLOCK 
 BOOK, VOL. VII, 1893. ENGLAND. 
 
 Head Hornless; face black and long, and muzzle moder- 
 ately fine, especially in ewes. (A small quantity of | 
 clean white wool on the forehead not objected to.) ft 
 Ears a medium length, black, and fine texture. Eyes 
 
 bright and full 25 
 
 Neck Moderate length and well set. (In rams stronger, 
 
 with a good crest) 5 
 
 Shoulder Broad and oblique 5 
 
 Chest Deep and wide 5 
 
 Back and Loin Long, level, and well covered with meat 
 and muscle; tail broad and well set up. The ribs long 
 
 and well sprung, with a full flank 20 
 
 Legs and Feet Straight and black, with fine and flat bone, 
 Wooled to knees and hocks, clean below. Fore legs 
 
 well filled with mutton 20 
 
 Belly; also Scrotum of Rams Well covered with wool. ... 5 
 Fleece Moderately short; close, fine fiber, without ten- 
 dency to matt or felt together, and well defined, i. e., 
 
 not shading off into dark wool or hair 10 
 
 Skin Pine, soft, and pink color 5 
 
 Total 100 
 
OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SHEEP 135 
 
 OXFORD DOWN SHEEP. 
 
 b<JALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY AMERICAN OXFORD DOWN 
 
 SHEEP BREEDERS ASSOCIATION. IN FOUR 
 
 DIVISIONS. 
 
 Breed type 30 
 
 Constitution 25 
 
 Mutton form and quality 30 
 
 Wool 15 
 
 SUB-DIVISION BREED TYPE OF ANIMALS. 
 
 Form of a good general appearance, made by a well bal- 
 anced conformation, free from coarseness in any part, 
 and showing good style both at rest and in motion. . 15 
 
 Head of moderate length and width between the ears and 
 between the eyes, and well covered with wool over 
 poll and down to the eyes. Color of face an even dark 
 gray or brown, either with or without gray spots on 
 tip of nose 6 
 
 When fully matured and in good condition rams should 
 
 weigh 250 to 350 pounds; ewes, 180 to 275 pounds. . 5 
 
 Ears medium size, not too thick and of an even brown or 
 
 dark gray color 2 
 
 Legs short, strong in bone, flat and of even dark gray or 
 brown color, placed squarely under the body and well 
 apart 2 
 
 CONSTITUTION. 
 
 Large around the heart and wide and full in the chest. ... 10 
 
 The movement must be bold and vigorous 5 
 
 Eyes bold, prominent and bright 4 
 
 Skin bright pink in color 3 
 
 Neck strong and muscular in rams and well set on in both 
 sexes 3 
 
 MUTTOX FORM AND QUALITY. 
 
 Wide and straight on top of shoulders, back, loin and rump, 
 
 from base of neck to tail 15 
 
 Full shoulders and thighs, well meated both inside and out- 
 side 5 
 
 Flanks well filled and strong so as to make the lower lines 
 of the body as straight as possible, and side lines 
 straight or rather full 4 
 
 The whole carcass evenly covered with good, well marbled 
 
 meat 6 
 
 WOOL. 
 
 Fleece of moderate length, close and of even quality, cover- 
 ing the whole carcass well, and free from black 
 patches upon the body, neck or head 15 
 
136 JUDGING SHEEP 
 
 COTSWOLD SHEEP. 
 
 STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE AND SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED 
 
 BY AMERICAN COTSWOLD ASSOCIATION, 
 
 VOL. V, 1892 EWES. g 
 
 Head Moderately fine, broad between the eyes and nos- j 
 trils, but without a short, thick appearance, and well 
 covered on crown with long lustrous wool 8 
 
 Pace Either white or slightly mixed with gray, or white 
 
 dappled with brown 4 
 
 Nostrils Wide and expanded. Nose dark 1 
 
 Eyes Prominent, but mild looking 2 
 
 Ears Broad, long, moderately thin and covered with short 
 
 hair 4 
 
 Collar Full from breast and shoulders, tapering gradually 
 all the way to where the neck and head join neck 
 should be fine and graceful, and free from coarse and 
 loose skin 5 
 
 Shoulders Broad and full, and, at the same time, joined 
 so gradually to the collar forward and chine back- 
 wards, as not to leave the least 'hollow in either place 8 
 
 Pore Legs The mutton on the arm, or fore thigh, should 
 come quite to the knee. Leg upright with heavy bone, 
 being clear from superfluous skin, with wool to fet- 
 lock and may be mixed with gray 4 
 
 Breast Broad and well forward, keeping the legs wide 
 
 apart. Girth and chest full and deep 10 
 
 Fore Flank Quite full, not showing hollow behind the 
 
 shoulder 4 
 
 Back and Loin Broad, flat and straight, from which the 
 
 ribs must spring, with a fine circular arch 12 
 
 Belly Straight on underline 5 
 
 Quarters Long and full, with mutton quite down to the 
 
 hock 8 
 
 Hock Should stand neither in nor out 2 
 
 Twist Or junction inside of thighs deep, wide and full, 
 which with a broad breast, will keep the legs open 
 and upright .5 
 
 Fleece The whole body should be covered with long, lust- 
 rous wool 18 
 
 Total . 100 
 
Cotswold ewes from the flock of C. E. Ladd, Portland, Oregon, 
 showing the vigor and thrift of sheep when under environment which 
 favors them such as the Willamette Valley, in that state. 
 
 Selected heads to show the characteristic form of this part in the 
 breeds represented. The one to the left is photographed from the 
 head of a Cotswold ram owned by Messrs. Geo. Harding & Son, of 
 Waukesha, Wisconsin. This photograph shows the beautiful forelock 
 desired in representatives of this breed. The head shown in the upper 
 right hand corner is that of an imported Shropshire ram lamb owned 
 by Craig & Stevenson, Rice Lake, Wis. The head shown shows not 
 only a very complete covering, but also much width between the eyes 
 and across the forehead, while the ears are well placed being far 
 apart. The photograph of the black faced ram's head which appears 
 in the center is taken from Scott's "Black Faced Sheep," and it rep- 
 resents the head of "SEVENTY-TWO," first prize winner at the Highland 
 and Agricultural Society Shows, 1883 to 1885. The horn illustrates the 
 type which is sought in representatives of any of the horned breeds. 
 
A group of Leicester ewes, prizewinners at the Highland Agricul- 
 tural Society Show of Scotland. 
 
 *:^ 
 
 Suffolk ram, a first prize winner at the Royal Agricultural Society 
 Show. Kngland. 
 
OFFICIAL STANDABDS OF EXCELLENCE FOB SHEEP 137 
 
 FOB RAMS. 
 
 c 
 
 Head Not too fine, moderately small, and broad between 
 the eyes and nostrils, but without a short, thick ap- 
 pearance, and in young animals well covered on crown 
 with long, lustrous wool 8 
 
 Face Either white or slightly mixed with gray, or white 
 
 dappled with brown 4 
 
 Nostrils Wide and expanded. Nose dark 1 
 
 Eyes Prominent, but mild looking 2 
 
 Ears Broad, long, moderately thin, and covered with short 
 
 hair 4 
 
 Collar Full from breast and shoulders, tapering gradually 
 all the way to where the neck and head join. The neck 
 should be short, thick and strong, indicating consti- 
 tutional vigor, and free from coarse and loose skin. . 6 
 
 Shoulders Broad and full, and at the same time joined 
 gradually to the collar forward, and chine backward 
 as not to leave the least hollow in either place 8 
 
 Fore Legs The mutton on the arm or fore thigh should 
 come quite to the knee. Leg upright with heavy bone 
 being clear from superfluous skin, with wool to fet- 
 lock, and may be mixed with gray 4 
 
 Breast Broad and well forward, keeping the legs wide 
 apart. Girth or chest, full and deep 10 
 
 Fore Flank Quite full, not showing hollow behind the 
 shoulder 5 
 
 Back and Loin Broad, flat and straight, from which the 
 
 ribs must spring with a fine circular arch 12 
 
 Belly Straight on underline 3 
 
 Quarters Long and full, with mutton quite down to the 
 
 hock 8 
 
 Hock Should stand neither in nor out 2 
 
 Twist Or junction inside thighs, deep, wide and full 
 which with a broad breast will keep the legs open and 
 upright 5 
 
 Fleece The whole body should be covered with long lust- 
 rous wool . 18 
 
 Total 100 
 
138 JUDGING SHEEP 
 
 WENSLEYDALE SHEEP. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS. WENSLEYDALE FLOCK BOOK, 
 
 VOL. II, 1891. ENGLAND. 
 
 Head Face dark. Ears dark, and well set on. Head 
 
 broad and flat between ears. Muzzle strong in rams. 
 
 A tuft of wool on forehead. Eyes bright and full. 
 
 Head gaily carried 20 
 
 Neck Moderate length, strong, and well set on to the 
 
 shoulders 10 
 
 Shoulders Broad and oblique 5 
 
 Chest Deep and wide 10 
 
 Wool Bright lustre, curled all over body, all alike in 
 
 staple 10 
 
 Back and Loins Ribs well sprung and deep. Loin broad 
 
 and covered with meat. Tail broad. Flank full. ... 20 
 Legs and Feet Straight and a little fine wool below the 
 
 hock. Fore legs set well apart. Hind legs well filled 
 
 with mutton 20 
 
 Skin Blue, fine and soft 5 
 
 Total 100 
 
 DORSET HORN SHEEP. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS. AMERICAN FLOCK RECORD OF - 
 
 DORSET HORN SHEEP. VOL. II, 1894. 
 
 General Appearance Head well up, eyes bright and alert, u 
 
 and standing square on legs 20 
 
 Chest Broad, full, brisket well forward 10 
 
 Back Broad, straight, with well sprung ribs 15 
 
 Quarters Heavy, square, set on short straight legs, well 
 
 apart 10 
 
 Legs White, with small light colored hoof 5 
 
 Head Small, face white, nostrils well expanded, nose and 
 
 lips pink in color 5 
 
 Neck Short and round, set well on shoulders 5 
 
 Horn Neat, curving forward, and light in color 10 
 
 Fore Top Go'od and well covered on belly and legs 10 
 
 Wool Medium quality and good weight, presenting an 
 
 even, smooth, white surface 10 
 
 Total . ..100 
 
Photograph showing serious objections in a ram. The hind 
 is too straight and the pasterns broken down. 
 
 Flock of Dorset ewes, reproduced from Live Stoi-k Journal, showing 
 uniformity and type desired in a foundation flock. Address of owner 
 not given. 
 
A Cheviot ram and ewe shown in 1011 by G. W. Parnell, Win- 
 gate, 1ml. 
 
 Yearling Rambouillet ram. First prize at Minn 
 Owned by Cole Brothers, of Spring Grove, Illinois. 
 
 State Fair. 
 
OFFICIAL STANDARDS 07 EXCELLENCE FOB SHEEP 139 
 
 CHEVIOT SHEER 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS. CHEVIOT SHEEP BREEDERS FLOCK | 
 
 BOOK. U. S. AND CANADA. VOL. I, 1893. 
 
 Blood Pure bred from one or more importations from u 
 Scotland 15 
 
 Constitution and Quality Indicated by the form of body; 
 deep and large in breast and through the heart; back 
 wide and straight and well covered with lean meat; 
 wide and full in the thigh; deep in flank; skin soft and 
 pink in color; prominent eyes; healthful countenance. 
 Deficiency of brisket or fish back objectionable 20 
 
 Size In fair condition, when full matured rams should 
 weigh not less than 200 pounds, ewes, 150 pounds, 
 (when bred in America. Imported stock, rams, 125 to 
 150 pounds, ewes, 100 to 125) 10 
 
 General Appearance Good carriage; head well up, elastic 
 movement; showing symmetry of form and uniform- 
 ity of character throughout 10 
 
 Body Well proportioned; small bone; great scale and 
 length; well finished hind quarters; thick back and 
 loins; standing with legs well placed outside; breast 
 wide and prominent in front; tail wide and well cov- 
 ered with wool 10 
 
 Head Long and broad, and wide between the eyes; ears 
 of medium length and erect; face white, but small 
 black spots on head and ears not objectionable; 
 straight or Roman nose, a white nose objectionable, 
 end of nose dark (but never smut nose on top with 
 black or brown) ; no tuft of wool on head 10 
 
 Neck Medium in length; thick, and well placed on tlie 
 
 shoulders 5 
 
 Legs and Feet Short legs, set well apart; color white; no 
 wool on legs; fore legs round, hind legs flat and 
 straight; hoofs black and well shaped 5 
 
 Covering Body and belly well covered with fleece of 
 
 medium length and good quality 10 
 
 Quality of Wool Medium; such as is known in market as 
 
 half combing wool 5 
 
 Total . .. .100 
 
140 JUDGING SHEEP 
 
 DELAINE SPANISH MERINO SHEEP. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY THE STANDARD DELAINE 
 
 SPANISH MERINO REGISTER. 
 
 Pure Merino Blood Which must be established by certifi- < 
 
 cate 
 
 Constitution Indicated by a deep chest, long rib well 
 arched, giving heart and lung room, with great di- 
 gestive capacity 20 
 
 Fleece XX and delaine wool. This includes the quantity 
 and quality as shown by weight of fleece, the length 
 and strength of staple, crimp, fineness and trueness 
 
 of fiber 10 
 
 Density of Fleece 3 
 
 Evenness of Surface 3 
 
 Evenness of Crimp 3 
 
 Length of Fiber 2 
 
 Free Flowing Oil Of the best quality and the right quan- 
 tity to protect the sheep and preserve the fleece 9 
 
 Head Medium size. Ewes showing a feminine appear- 
 ance; rams, a masculine, with properly turned horns 4 
 Eyes Bright, prominent and well set apart, with a thick, 
 
 soft eye lid 3 
 
 Nose Short, broad, with well expanded nostrils, skin thick 
 and covered with thick, furry coating, joining the 
 
 wool one inch below the eye 4 
 
 Ears Medium size, set well apart, thickly coated 2 
 
 Neck Short on top, deep and strongly attached to shoul- 
 ders, tapering to head; rams with a fold across the 
 
 breast, and deep neck 4 
 
 Fleece Covering over the entire body, head and legs, skin 
 
 thick and spongy 4 
 
 Legs Short, strong and well apart 2 
 
 Feet Neatly shaped, thin hoof, well set under the leg. . . 4 
 Quarters Deep and well rounded; back, broad, straight 
 
 and strongly coupled to quarters 10 
 
 AY eight Ewes at maturity, 100 pounds and above; rams, 
 
 150 and above 8 
 
 General Appearance Good carriage, bold and vigorous 
 
 style, symmetrical form 5 
 
 Total 100 
 
 Any sheep scaling below 60 per cent in any point can not 
 be recorded. 
 
OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOB SHEEP 141 
 
 BLACK TOP SPANISH MERINO. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS. BLACK TOP SPANISH MERINO SHEEP 
 
 REGISTER, VOL. Ill, 1891. 
 
 Blood Purely bred from the Humphrey importation of 
 Merino sheep from Spain, in the year 1802, as bred by 
 W. R. Dickinson, of Steubenville, Ohio 
 
 Constitution Indicated by physical development; deep and 
 large in the breast and through the heart; broad back; 
 very heavy square quarters; skin of fine texture, and 
 pinkish in color; expansive nostril; brilliant eye; 
 healthful countenance and good feeders 15 
 
 Size In good condition, with fleece of five months' growth, 
 full grown rams should weigh not less than 175 
 pounds, and ewes not less than 120 pounds 12 
 
 General Appearance Head carried well up; standing 
 squarely on feet and legs; well rounded body, showing 
 in all points symmetry of form 3 
 
 Body Throughout heavy boned; well proportioned in 
 length; smooth joints; ribs starting horizontally from 
 the back bone, and well around to breast bone; breast 
 bone wide, strong and prominent in front; strong, 
 straight and heavy back bone; heavy muscular quart- 
 ers, deep through and squarely formed before and be- 
 hind; shoulders broad and flat, and not projecting 
 sharply above the back bone, muscles firm and heavy, 
 and body entirely free from folds. There may be a 
 slight throatiness, and a small dewlap smaller on the 
 ewes than on the rams 15 
 
 Head Wide, medium in lengtft, eyes clear and bright, 
 prominent ears, medium in size and covered with soft 
 fur. Ewes should give no appearance of horns, while 
 upon tlhe rams the horns should be well developed, 
 clear in color, and symmetrically curved, without ten- 
 dency to extreme expansion 5 
 
 Neck Medium in length and very heavy, especially with 
 
 the rams, deepening towards the shoulder 4 
 
 Legs and Feet Legs medium in length, set well apart, 
 medium bone and smooth joints. The feet must be 
 well shaped, medium sized, firm and solid 10 
 
 Covering Evenness of fleece and crimp; body and legs 
 covered to the knees; head covered forward between 
 the eyes; the surface should be free from hair or gare 8 
 
 Quality Medium or fine, such as is known in the market 
 
 as tine delaine 7 
 
 Density Shown by compactness of fleece, which should 
 open freely, and have no tendency to be stringy or 
 knotty 7 
 
 Liength At twelve months, growth must be not less than 
 
 three inches, and as near as may be of uniform length 8 
 
 Oil Evenly distributed, white, soft and flowing freely from 
 skin to surface, forming on the exterior a uniform 
 dark coating 6 
 
 Total . 100 
 
142 JUDGING SHEEP 
 
 TUNIS OR BROAD TAILED SHEEP. 
 
 STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN 
 TUNIS SHEEP BREEDERS ASSOCIATION. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS. 
 
 Blood 20 
 
 Constitution 15 
 
 Fleece 10 
 
 Covering 10 
 
 Form and Tail 12 
 
 Head and Ears 10 
 
 Neck 5 
 
 Legs 6 
 
 Size 6 
 
 General Appearance 6 
 
 Total 100 
 
 Blood Imported from Tunis, or having a perfect line of an- 
 cestors extending back to the flock owned and bred by Judge 
 Richard Peters of Belmont, near Philadelphia, who received 
 his first pair from Tunis in 1779, and bred them pure for 
 more than 20 years. 
 
 Constitution Healthful countenance, lively look, head 
 erect, deep chest, ribs well arched, round body with good 
 length. Strong, straight back; muscles fine- and firm. 
 
 Fleece Medium length, medium quality, medium quantity, 
 color tinctured with gray, never pure white. Evenness through. 
 out. 
 
 Covering Body and neck well covered with wool. Legs 
 bare or slightly covered; face free from wool and covered with 
 fine hair. 
 
 Form and Tail Body straight and broad and well propor- 
 tioned. Small bone; breast wide and prominent in front. Tail 
 the little end should be docked, leaving the fleshy part fan 
 shaped, or tapering; five or ten inches broad, six or eight 
 inches long and well covered with wool. 
 
 Head and Ears Head small and hornless, tapering to end 
 of nose; face and nose clean; in color, brown and white. Ears 
 broad, thin, pendulous, covered with fine hair; in color brown 
 to light fawn. 
 
 Neck Medium in length, well placed on shoulders; small 
 and tapering. 
 
 Legs Short. In color brown and white; slightly wooled 
 not objectionable. 
 
 Size In fair condition, when fully matured, rams should 
 weigh 150 pounds and upwards; ewes 120 pounds and up- 
 wards. 
 
 General Appearance Good carriage; head well up; quick 
 elastic movements, showing symmetry olf form and uniformity 
 of character throughout. 
 
Prize Dorset ewe and lamb, winners at International Exposition, 
 Chicago, 1900. Owned by J. E. Wing, Mechanicsburg, Ohio. 
 
 Imported Shopshire yearling ewes from the flock of Craig & Steven- 
 son, Rice Lake, Wisconsin. 
 
JUDGING SWINE. 
 
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CHAPTER IV. 
 
 JUDGING SWINE. 
 
 In judging swine the butcher's preference must be the 
 leading guide as it is in judging all other classes of fat 
 stock. These preferences are in turn largely controlled 
 by the demands of the market, so we find in some mar- 
 kets a bacon hog, so called because of its deep, long sides, 
 is preferred by the butchers; while in others the prefer- 
 ence is for fat hogs because there is demand for hams, 
 shoulders and broad, fat backs, and these features would 
 attract the butcher's attention. In forming an opinion as 
 to the best type of swine it is necessary to keep the re- 
 quirements of these two markets distinctly in view, for 
 they have established for us two very distinct market 
 classes of hogs, the fat hog and the bacon hog. While 
 every consideration should be given to the butcher's pref- 
 erence, for the profit of hog feeding largely lies in suc- 
 cessfully catering to them, yet there are some points re- 
 lating to the feeding qualities of a hog which demand 
 consideration in the joint interests of the feeder and 
 breeder. The evidences of constitution and vigor are 
 things on which the butcher cannot realize profit, but the 
 feeder and the breeder know that they are prime essen- 
 tials in the animals required for their purpose. 
 
 I. JUDGING FAT HOGS. 
 
 187. Form Low, Long, Deep. In respect to the form 
 of the fat hog, one of the leading considerations is the 
 weight, though the market requirements in this respect 
 
146 JUDGIXG SWIXE 
 
 are by no means stable. At some times the market pref- 
 erences are decidedly in favor of the hog weighing 200 
 pounds, and again in a short while the 400-pound hog 
 makes the top price, but as a rule it will be found that 
 the most profitable weight for selling is from 200 to 300 
 pounds. This fact meets the breeders' preferences exactly, 
 for he realizes that up to the attainment of this weight 
 his hogs have been making the most profitable gain for 
 him. The influences of the present market are all directed 
 towards the development of a rapidly maturing hog that 
 will be in smooth prime condition for the butcher when 
 it reaches about 250 pounds in live weight. The hogs 
 that fatten quickest and meet the butcher's requirements 
 for fat hogs are low, deep and wide in form. They are 
 compactly built, deep chested, long, and round-ribbed, 
 with straight top and bottom lines sustained by standing 
 squarely on strong and straight legs. Over these parts 
 there is a smoothness that is indicative of the proper 
 development of form and flesh. 
 
 188. Quality Fine Hair; Clean Bone. The indica- 
 tions of quality are fine hair and comparatively light, hard 
 and clean looking bone. Fineness of parts in general is 
 an evidence of quality. Hogs with coarse bone, coarse 
 hair and hide are not the best breeders, and the butcher 
 does not like them because of the large percentage of 
 offal which they dress. In addition to being fine, the 
 hair should lie close to the body and the skin free from 
 undue roughness caused by scurf. 
 
 189. Head Short, Broad. The head of a hog that 
 will fatten readily is very similar in its relative portions 
 and parts to that of a steer, it should be comparatively 
 short and broad. The snout should be of medium length 
 with the face fine in features. 
 
JUDGING FAT HOGS 147 
 
 190. Eyes Clear, Prominent. The eyes should be 
 wide apart and large without any appearance of being 
 watery. Folds of fat in creases about the eyes are com- 
 mon, but are none the less objectionable. 
 
 191. Ears Small, Fine in Texture. The ear should 
 be small in size and pointed. The way the ear is carried 
 depends largely on the parentage of the hog, being erect 
 in the Berkshire, half drooping in the Poland China and 
 wholly pendant in the instance of most of the large white 
 hogs. Large and coarse ears are generally associated 
 with heavy and coarse bone and hide and consequently 
 they are not desirable. 
 
 192. Jowl Firm, Broad, Neat. The jowl should be 
 smooth, firm, broad and neat. A jowl that is flabby 
 owing to the abnormal accumulation of fat in this region 
 is very objectional, and the same may be said of the 
 opposite condition which produces a very small jowl that 
 is sharp at the edges. This region should not be so full 
 as to be pendant and loose. 
 
 193. Neck Short; Narrow Nape. The neck in its 
 upper part nearest the head should spring sharply up- 
 ward and the ears should be comparatively fine or nar- 
 row at the nape, and swell quickly to the breadth of the 
 shoulders. It should be short and thick and deep as well, 
 merging in this region into the brisket without any shrink- 
 age. From the cheeks the neck should swell smoothly 
 into the shoulder vein and pass from the shoulder with- 
 out any noticeable depression. 
 
 194. Shoulder Full Vein, Level Top. Just forward 
 of the shoulder where the neck swells most is the region 
 known as the shoulder vein. Fullness in this part is 
 desirable for it generally results in a smoothly covered 
 and wide shoulder. On top, the shoulder should be level, 
 being well packed with flesh : and in addition it should be 
 
148 JUDGING SWINE 
 
 broad and deep. To fill out the form desired there should 
 be some development of the brisket, though as a rule 
 there is very little of this in the fat hog. 
 
 195. Front Legs Short, Straight; Pasterns Strong. 
 
 The front legs should be short, straight, strong and taper- 
 ing. The pastern should be strong and the feet com- 
 paratively short and of medium size. What are known 
 as "bucked knees" or pasterns are sometimes observable 
 in hogs that bend over in these parts. Long, slim pasterns 
 are very undesirable, for hogs having them readily break 
 down when carrying much flesh. The fat hog should 
 stand firm and high on the toes without any evidence of 
 weakness of the pasterns. Viewed from in front the leg 
 should be straight. A rather common defect here is 
 crooked knees which come too close together, but the 
 reverse defect is very rare among hogs. 
 
 196. Chest Low, Wide. The floor of the chest should 
 be as low as possible, for it is the depth and width of this 
 part that adds to the girth. With width between the fore- 
 legs there is usually width above on the shoulder, though 
 this is not always true. The girth should be large, for it 
 is undesirable to have any shrinkage just behind the 
 foreleg at the fore flank. 
 
 197. Sides Deep, Fleshed Evenly. The sides may be 
 deep and yet supported with a round rib. Usually depth 
 of side is associated with flatness of rib, but there are 
 many decided exceptions to this to be found among fat 
 hogs. When the rib springs from the back, well arched, 
 and continues to follow the circumference of a circle 
 it gives the hog the appearance of not only being leggy, 
 but also lacking in depth of body. The rib, however, 
 not only should be well sprung, but it should also be long, 
 giving roundness and smoothness of body with more 
 depth than appearance would indicate. The sides should 
 
Photograph showing the expression, head and other features of 
 form characteristic of hogs that do not fatten rapidly. These pigs 
 on grain and grass gained only 31% pounds while being fed 91 days 
 in an experiment by the Utah Experiment Station. 
 
 
 Photograph showing the head and form of a typical fat hog, also 
 comfortably disposed for rapid increase in weight. 
 
Carcass of a fat hog showing the division commonly made and the relative 
 prices of the various parts in Chicago market. 
 
 447 
 RIBS. PRIME CUT 
 
 CORNER 
 GAMMON 
 
 FORE HOCK THICK SJREAKY GAMMON HOCK 
 
 -Diniam showing various cuts of a side of bacon, and the everego pnoes iwnwd for each during 1897. 
 (Journal ol Koyal Agricultural Society 1SWO 
 
JUDGING FAT HOGS 149 
 
 be ^thickly and evenly fleshed. It is not uncommon to 
 notice creases just behind the shoulders and at different 
 points between the shoulders and the hips. This is an 
 indication of uneven fattening with a poor quality of 
 flesh and is consequently objectionable. From the shoul- 
 der to the ham in the fat hog there should be that evenness 
 of line which would permit the laying of a straight edge 
 along the sides from one of these points to the other and 
 no deviation from the edge should be noticed at any 
 point. Usually the development of the shoulders or the 
 hams is as much greater as to leave a marked depression 
 behind the shoulder and forward of the ham. 
 
 198. Back Straight, Broad, Evenly Covered With 
 Flesh. Looking at the back from the side the top line 
 should be straight, though if it rises gradually from the 
 neck to the center of the back and there slopes very grad- 
 ually to the tail, it usually carries more flesh and is con- 
 sidered a stronger and better back. There certainly 
 should be no depression from shoulder to tail in the back 
 of the hog that is in fat condition. Viewing the back 
 from above it should appear broad and the two lines that 
 bound it on each side should be carried straight from the 
 upper sides of the shoulder to the hips. In addition, the 
 back should be evenly and thickly fleshed. Any tendency 
 towards what is called a fish back, in which the center 
 rises very sharply, is undesirable. 
 
 199. Loin Wide, Thick. The width of the loin 
 should be such as to sustain the width of the back. In 
 addition to being wide it must be straight and thickly 
 fleshed to fill out the lines properly. Another part of the 
 body that should receive some consideration is the belly. 
 The underline should run parallel with the top line; that 
 is, the belly should be equally as straight as the back. 
 The most common defect is a marked drooping in this 
 
150 JUDGING SWINE 
 
 region. The fore flank and the hind flank should be 
 nearly on the same level, though this is seldom so, unless 
 the hog is far advanced in fattening. A full and pendant 
 hind flank is an indication of fatness. 
 
 200. Hips Smoothly Covered With Flesh. The hips 
 should be wide apart, completely covered with flesh and 
 low. Where they are placed high, it is seldom that they 
 are smoothly covered with flesh. In an evenly fleshed 
 hog, the location of the hips is not apparent to the eye, 
 so smoothly are they covered. 
 
 201. Rump Long, Smooth. The width of the hips 
 should be carried back over this part. From the hip to 
 the end of the body there should be as much length as 
 may be secured. It is not possible to find a hog that is 
 exactly level over this part, as they invariably droop 
 somewhat towards the tail, but some nevertheless closely 
 approach exact levelness in this region. 
 
 202. Hams- Wide, Deep, Plump, Looking at the ham 
 from tfie side, it should be wide from the stifle to the end 
 of the body and it should also be plump and full right 
 down to the hock. Viewed from behind, width from be* 
 tween the legs to the outside of the ham, is very desirable. 
 Perhaps the most difference in this part will be found in 
 the degree to which the ham continues plump and full 
 towards the hock. This part of the thigh should not be 
 bare, but heavy with flesh. 
 
 203. Hind Legs Properly Set, Strong. The most 
 common defect of the hind leg is a cramped condition of 
 the hock. Though this is most usually found in hogs 
 with light bone, yet it is common among hogs that other- 
 wise appear strong in the limbs. It is noticeable that 
 many hogs are higher behind than in front, showing the 
 line running from the hind quarter to the head, to be very 
 slanting. This is generally caused by the undue length 
 
.JUDGING FAT HOGS 151 
 
 of the hind legs. The legs should be short, strong and 
 placed wide apart and when the hog moves the hind and 
 the front legs should pass forward in a straight line. An 
 in and out movement of the legs is not uncommon and it 
 accounts for much of the awkwardness observable in the 
 gait of fat hogs. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS FOR FAT HOGS BARKOW. -g 
 
 
 GENERAL APPEARANCE: || 
 
 Weight, score according to age. . 6 
 
 Form, deep, broad, low, long, symmetrical, compact, 
 
 standing squarely on legs. 10 
 
 Quality, hair silky; skin fine; bone fine; flesh smooth, 
 
 mellow, and free from lumps or wrinkles 10 
 
 Condition, deep, even covering of flesh especially in 
 
 regions of valuable cuts 10 
 
 HEAD AND NECK: 
 
 Snout, medium length, not coarse 1 
 
 Eyes, full, mild, bright 1 
 
 Face, short, cheeks full 1 
 
 Ears, fine, medium size, soft 1 
 
 Jowl, strong, neat, broad , . . ', 1 
 
 Neck, thick, medium length ..v 1 
 
 FORE QUARTERS: 
 
 Shoulder, broad, deep, full, compact on top. 6 
 
 Breast, advanced, wide . 2 
 
 Legs, straight, short, strong; bone clean; pasterns up- 
 right; feet medium size 2 
 
 BODY: 
 
 Chest, deep, broad, large girth 2 
 
 Sides, deep lengthy, full; ribs close and well sprung P 
 
 Back, broad, straight, thickly and evenly fleshed 10 
 
 Loin, wide, thick, straight. .-.-.-' 10 
 
 Belly, straight, even . . . 2 
 
 HIND QUARTERS: 
 
 Hips, wide apart, smooth 2 
 
 Rump, long, wide, evenly fleshed, straight 2 
 
 Ham, heavily fleshed, plump, full, deep, wide 10 
 
 Thighs, fleshed close to hocks. . . . 2 
 
 Legs, straight, short, strong; bone clean; pasterns up- 
 right; feet medium size 2 
 
 Total . . . . ; 100 
 
152 JUDGING SWINE 
 
 II. JUDGING BACON HOGS. 
 
 Owing to the demand that has originated in the mar- 
 kets for lean meats, the bacon type of hog has been 
 evolved. The consumption of bacon has extended greatly 
 and this has made a strong demand on the large mar- 
 kets for the type of hog which produces this. To obtain 
 a clear conception of the type required it is essential to 
 remember that flesh is the leading characteristic de- 
 manded and with this there are certain peculiar cuts 
 which are quite distinct from those taken from the fat 
 hog. 
 
 204. Condition Even and Thick Fleshed. The condi- 
 tion of the bacon hog is a feature of paramount impor- 
 tance, for it must be smooth over all parts with a thick 
 covering of flesh. It is very necessary to understand that 
 a thin hog is not in any sense a bacon hog. In the bacon 
 hog it is desirable to have about one inch of fat with an 
 abundance of lean flesh in the carcass. It is flesh, muscle 
 or lean meat that is desirable and not in any sense a thin 
 carcass. 
 
 205. Form Smooth, Long, Level, Deep. An important 
 point among the desirable characteristics of the bacon 
 hog is that of form, because this must be peculiar, as 
 there are unusual cuts to be made from the carcass. The 
 side should be as long as possible with great depth and 
 levelness from shoulder to hip. The shoulder should not 
 bulge out and the hams should not be pendant and plump 
 as in the case of the lard hog. If a straight edge is laid 
 along the side of the typical bacon hog it should touch 
 every point from the start of the shoulder to the end of 
 the hind quarter. Width is not sought for, but length 
 and depth are cardinal points. The form should show a 
 striking trimness in every region, due to an even covering 
 of smooth flesh without any soft or flabby parts and a 
 
Photo from Ontario Farmers' Institute Report. 
 
 Photograph showing packers' model of a bacon hog. The extreme 
 length levelness and smoothness are the particular features of this type. 
 
 Photo from Ontario Farmers' Institute Report. 
 
 Photograph illustrating a pig too thin for the bacon market, but of 
 desirable type in other essentials. 
 
Duroc-Jersey sow, Miss LOGAN 18404, a sweepstakes winner, owned 
 by E. B. Watson, Newton, Iowa. Being close to the ground and full 
 made and compact, this sow shows the leading characteristics of this 
 breed. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE DUROC-JERSEY SWINE. 
 
 Z1T THE National Swine Breeders Convention, held in 1872, the Jersey 
 * swine of New Jersey and the Durocs of New York were classified in the 
 families of red swine with similar characteristics ; the Durocs it was then 
 stated being finer in bone and carcass than the other reds. Previous to that 
 time the Jersey reds had been bred in New Jersey state for over fifty years. 
 The most popular color for this breed is a deep cherry red without any 
 markings. The type most approved is that of a very compact hog exceed- 
 ingly smooth in all parts and very close to the ground. The head is fine, 
 the ear light and pendent, neck short and thick, the shoulder full yet 
 smooth with the body, the back slightly arching, wide and strong. The hips 
 deep and the hind quarter very plump and full with meat yet somewhat 
 short, the legs are very short and straight allowing the frame to approach 
 very close to the ground. The type is that of a very early maturing hog 
 that will dress a high percentage of valuable cuts. See Official scale of 
 points, page 177. 
 
JUDGING EACON HOGS 153 
 
 well coupled form without undue coarseness. This trim- 
 ness'should be observable in the smoothness by which the 
 shoulder and the quarter join the side, and it is also 
 brought out very effectively by the thick trim belly which 
 is characteristic of the bacon type. 
 
 206. Weight. In reference to the weight that is de- 
 sirable, the packers uniformly prefer a hog weighing from 
 170 to 200 pounds live weight. This preference exists in 
 the markets of the world and most decidedly in that of 
 Great Britain where the production of this hog has 
 reached its highest development. It seems that a hog of 
 this weight in proper condition offers the most satisfac- 
 tory cuts, both in weight and quality. 
 
 207. Shoulders Smooth, Compact. It will not be 
 necessary to dwell on the minor points desired in the 
 bacon type, but merely to discuss the salient features. 
 Among these the shoulders demand attention, for they 
 are much different in the ideal bacon hog than they are 
 in the typical fat hog. The shoulder in the bacon type 
 is not heavy, but completely free from roughness and 
 characterized by compactness. It should fit closely to the 
 body and not show any more width than the back and 
 hind quarter, thereby adding to the trimness of form 
 which is eminently desired in hogs of this type. The flesh 
 should extend well down on the leg, indicating muscular 
 development with a long shoulder cut. 
 
 208. Sides Long, Smooth, Level. The side is a very 
 characteristic point in the bacon type, as it should possess 
 as much length as possible with smoothness and levelness 
 from the beginning of the shoulder to the end of the hind 
 quarter. The choicest bacon comes from this region and 
 on this account there should be as much as possible of 
 the dressed weight in this region. The upper part of the 
 side should carry a straight line from the shoulder to the 
 
154 JUDGING SWINE 
 
 hip and the lower side should show almost as full a line 
 running from the elbow to the stifle. The belly should be 
 thicker with flesh than is usual in the case of the fat hog. 
 In addition this part should be trim in form and thick 
 without any flabbiness or shrinkage at either the fore or 
 hind flank. The hind quarter of the bacon type is 
 markedly different from that of the fat hog, because the 
 extreme development of the latter is not considered an 
 advantage in the bacon type. In. the bacon hog the hips 
 should be smooth and proportionately wide to the rest of 
 the body. The hind quarter should be long, even and 
 straight and slightly rounded towards the tail. A pe- 
 culiar feature in the hog of this type is the gammon, 
 which is a cut very similar to the ham. This should be 
 firm, rounded, tapering and fleshed deep and low towards 
 the hocks. Plumpness or fullness in this part is not con- 
 sidered an advantage ; while length with smooth develop- 
 ment of muscle is a prime requisite. 
 
Poland-China sow, a winner of many prizes at state fairs, owned by 
 Messrs. Risk & Gabbert, Weston, Missouri. This sow shows very 
 smooth and is especially thickly fleshed over shoulder, back and ham, 
 the valuable cuts of the fat hog type. Though heavy, note how erect 
 she stands on her pasterns. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE POLAND-CHINA SWINE. 
 
 THIS AMERICAN breed of swine originated in the Miami Valley of the 
 Ohio during the years intervening between 1825 to 1840. It had for 
 its ancestry a large coarse hog that was broken in color, being mostly white 
 and black. The improvement of the last 40 years has resulted in producing 
 an exceedingly symmetrical hog with early maturing qualities which has 
 been added to further by disposition very favorable to quick fattening. The 
 modern type shows unusual fullness which makes the width of the body 
 remarkable though giving the appearance of undue shortness. With it all 
 there is a quality of hair, bone and skin which contributes in a great degree 
 to the percentage of meat from the carcass. The color is black with a. few 
 white markings, these consisting preferably of a splash on the face, four 
 white feet and white on tip of the tail. The coat of hair should be thick, 
 fine and free from swirls or spots around which the hair seems to twist. The 
 head is small, slightly dished and runs to a fine snout. The ear starts 
 strong and straight from the head but breaks and drops about one-third its 
 length. The shoulder is well covered on top, the girth full, ribs well 
 sprung, deep; hind quarter very full with deep ham. The desirability of 
 plumpness in all parts should not lead to undue shortness of body nor lack 
 of length in the hind quarters. Straightness in the latter is also desirable 
 as frequently the drop from the hip to the tail is quite marked. The legs 
 should be straight and strong and the pasterns set so as to make the hog 
 appear to be standing on 'the very tip of its toes. See official scale of 
 points, page 161. 
 
Berkshire sow, ELPHICK'S MATCHLESS, a prize winner owned by 
 Mr. Edwin Buss, England. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE BERKSHIRE SWINE. 
 
 DURING the last century this British breed of swine has been the subject 
 of high breeding and careful selection. Writing in 1790, Lawrence de- 
 scribes the Berkshire as being "long and crooked in snout, muzzle turning 
 upwards, ears large and heavy and inclined to be pendulous, the body long 
 and thick but not deep, legs short, bone large and great size." In "The 
 Complete Grazier," written in 1805, the Berkshire of that time is described 
 as follows : "Color reddish brown, with brown, or black spots, sides very 
 broad, flat legs, ears large and pendulous over eyes, body thick, close and 
 well made." The modern type of this breed reflects many changes from the 
 old, as it represents a hog that is black in color with white on the face, 
 feet and tip of tail. They are not such a large hog as those of the original stock 
 as they are long in type, trim without undue roughness over the shoulder 
 or prominence of hips. The face is short and dished, the ears short, pointed 
 and erect, jaws full, back broad and straight, full over the shoulder, the loin 
 thick and level and the hams especially full with short, strong and straight 
 legs. Straightness in lines and trimness and smoothness over all parts "are 
 leading Berkshire characteristics and these should be strongly in evidence 
 along the back and especially from the hock backward as the hind quarter 
 should come out square to the tail and be full. As straightness and strength 
 of legs are leading Berkshire features, it should be noted that the fore legs 
 drop straight without any crookedness at the knee and the hind legs should 
 not appear cramped above the hock. A thick coat of black hair lying close 
 to the body and without swirls should contribute much to the general ap- 
 pearance of smoothness which is due in the main to an even covering of 
 firm yet mellow flesh. See official scale of points, page 158. 
 
, JUDGING BACON HOGS 155 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS FOR BACON HOGS BARROW. 
 
 H 
 
 GENERAL APPEARANCE: || 
 
 Weight, 170 to 200 Ibs., largely the result of thick 
 
 cover of firm flesh 6 
 
 Form, long, level, smooth, deep 10 
 
 Quality, hair fine; skin thin; bone tine; firm, even 
 covering of flesh without any soft bunches of fat or 
 
 wrinkles 10 
 
 Condition, deep, uniform covering of flesh, especially 
 
 in regions of valuable cuts 10 
 
 HEAD AND NECK: 
 
 Snout, fine 1 
 
 Eyes, full, mild, bright 1 
 
 Face, slim 1 
 
 Ears, trim, medium size 1 
 
 Jowl, light, trim 1 
 
 Xeck, medium length, light 1 
 
 FORE QUARTERS: 
 
 Shoulders, free from roughness, smooth, compact and 
 
 same width as back and hind quarters 6 
 
 Breast, moderately wide, full 2 
 
 Legs, straight, short, strong, bone clean; pasterns up- 
 right; feet medium size 2 
 
 BODY: 
 
 Chest, deep, full girth 4 
 
 Back, medium and uniform in width, smooth 8 
 
 Sides, long, smooth, level from beginning of shoulders 
 to end of hind quarters. The side at all points 
 should touch a straight edge running from fore to 
 
 hind quarter 10 
 
 Ribs, deep 2 
 
 Belly, trim, firm, thick without any flabbiness or 
 
 shrinkage at flank 10 
 
 HIND QUARTERS: 
 
 Hips, smooth, wide; proportionate to rest of body. . . . 
 
 Rump, long, even, straight, rounded toward tail 2 
 
 Gammon, firm, rounded, tapering, fleshed deep and low 
 
 towards hocks 8 
 
 Legs, straight, short, strong; feet medium size; bone 
 clean; pasterns upright 2 
 
 Tctal . 100 
 
156 JUDGING SWIXE 
 
 III. JUDGING SWINE FO.R BREEDING PURPOSES. 
 
 The judging of sv\ T iiie in the pure bred classes requires 
 of the judge an intimate acquaintance with the scale of 
 points adopted by the different associations of the various 
 breeds. These scales of points have been arranged with 
 much labor by the associations and consequently they 
 should be closely followed. As they are published in full 
 in another part of this work attention will be here given 
 to a few peculiar points that should be sought in all 
 breeds. 
 
 209. Boar. In addition to having the characteristics 
 of the type of the breed, the boar should be strong in 
 those traits that are peculiar to the sex. The head ma\ 
 be slightly inclined to coarseness, the neck full and arched 
 somewhat, with the shoulder heavy. The fore quarters 
 are usually slightly heavier than the hind quarters and 
 this distinction grows greater with age as the shields de- 
 velop. Strength of frame without coarseness in desirable 
 and the body should be deep, long and low. Just behind 
 the elbow there should be as much depth as possible, as 
 this with a rugged appearance is indicative of a vigorous 
 constitution. Short and strong limbs with straight pas- 
 terns of a fine quality should carry the body easily and 
 without awkwardness at all times. 
 
 210. Sow. Omitting consideration of the breed type 
 the sow should represent, the sex type is of first im- 
 portance. There should not be the least appearance of 
 coarseness the head should be light, neck slim and neat 
 and also inclined to sharpness between and back of the 
 ears. In the sow it is expected that the hips and hind 
 quarters should be slightly wider than the fore, though 
 the width before and behind should be almost uniform. 
 Length of body is specially desirable to give room for the 
 growth of the litter. There should be twelve teats be- 
 

 Improved Yorkshire sow, a first prize winner at Toronto Industrial 
 Exhibition, owned by J. E. Brethour, Burford, Ontario. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE YORKSHIRE SWINE. 
 
 1* HERE are three varieties of Yorkshires, namely ; the large, middle and 
 the small, and as may be surmised these divisions are based wholly on 
 size. The large Yorkshire is decended from the old English which were white 
 in color with a few black spots and it was bred principally in Yorkshire. 
 Both the white Chinese pigs, introduced at an early time in England, and 
 the Neapolitan swine were used slightly upon the native stock. The middle 
 Yorkshire originated by crossing the small and large varieties. The small 
 Yorkshire is an offshoot of the large varieties containing a large percentage 
 of Chinese blood. The improved large Yorkshire retains the hardness and 
 prolificness of the old English hog and has improved in symmetry, flesh 
 und early maturity through the Chinese cross. They are strong in bone, deep, 
 and long in body and of medium quality throughout. They have thick bellies, 
 well mixed meat and long sides, points that curers of bacon value highly. 
 The middle or improved Yorkshire are as heavy as the large variety but 
 are lighter in bone and head with a smaller quantity of offal. In type they 
 are very similiar to the large Yorkshire, being long, level and deep in car- 
 cass. The small Yorkshire are finer in quality, possess more symmetry and 
 they are more compact in form. These features contribute to their early 
 maturity but do not enable them to attain the heavy weights of the others. 
 All the varieties are white in color. A few blue spots are permissible but these 
 should not be covered with colored hair. See official scale of points, page 182, 
 
Chester White sow, ALMA., sired by Coco 2223. The property of 
 Joseph Cairns, Camlachie, Ontario, Canada. The litter of ALMA when 
 thiee months old tipped the scales at 100 pounds. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE CHESTER WHITE SWINE. 
 
 npHIS BREED which originated in Chester county, Pennsylvania, about 
 the beginning of the last century was the result of crossing the big 
 Chinas with white pigs from Bedfordshire, England, which were of York- 
 shire decent, thus giving these breeds much in common. The Chester White 
 is a large breed, strong though fine in bone, vigorous with very deep and 
 lengthy bodies. They should be pure white in color and where black spots 
 occur, these should not be covered with colored hair. The head has a fine 
 snout with broad face slightly dished and the ears pendent. The jowl is 
 light and the neck short and deep. Depth of chest is a very desirable char- 
 acteristic and this should also be a feature of the body. The shoulder should 
 fit snugly to the body and its width should be almost uniform with that of 
 the body and hind quarter. Uniformity in these lines is desirable as the 
 girth over the heart should be about equal to that around the flank. The 
 hair should be fine and lie close to the body without any tendency to harsh- 
 ness or extreme coarseness. See official scale of points, page 174. 
 
FOB BREEDING PURPOSES 157 
 
 ginning well forward and none of them blind. Blind 
 teats in young sows do not protrude as the normal teats 
 do, and when the sow has farrowed they usually fail tc 
 yield any milk. 
 
 In judging swine the best plan is to have them arranged 
 in. small yards so that they may be readily compared and 
 driven enough to determine whether or not they are 
 strong and active on their legs. 
 
158 JUDGING SWINE 
 
 IV. OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE. 
 
 BERKSHIRE SWINE, 
 
 STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN - 
 
 BERKSHIRE ASSOCIATION. 
 
 Color Black, with white on feet, face, tip of tail and an 
 
 occasional splash on the arm 4 
 
 Face and Snout Short; the former fine and well dished, 
 
 and broad between the eyes 7 
 
 Eye Very clear, rather large, dark hazel or gray 2 
 
 Ear Generally almost erect, but sometimes inclined for- 
 ward with advancing age; medium size; thin and soft 4 
 
 Jowl Full and heavy, running well back on neck 4 
 
 Neck Short and broad on top 4 
 
 Hair Fine and soft; medium thickness 3 
 
 Skin Smooth and pliable 4 
 
 Shoulder Thick and even, broad on top, and deep through 
 
 chest 7 
 
 Back Broad, short and straight; ribs well sprung, coup- 
 ling close to hips 8 
 
 Side Deep and well let down; straight on bottom lines. . 6 
 Flank Well back and low down on leg, making nearly 
 
 straight line with the lower part of side 5 
 
 Loin Full and w^de 9 
 
 Ham Deep and thick, extending well up on back, and 
 
 holding thickness well down to hock 10 
 
 Tail Well se-t up on back; tapering and not coarse 2 
 
 Legs Short, straight, and strong, set wide apart, with 
 
 hoofs erect and capable of holding good weight 5 
 
 Symmetry Well proportioned throughout, depending 
 
 largely on condition 6 
 
 Condition In a good healthy, growing state; not overfed. . 5 
 Style Attractive, spirited, indicative of thorough breed- 
 ing and constitutional vigor 5 
 
 Total 100 
 
 BERKSHIRE SWINE. 
 
 The Berkshire Society of Great Britain has issued to the 
 leading Agricultural Show Societies the following instruc- 
 tions as guides to judges in making their awards: 
 
 "We recommend that a perfectly black face, or a black foot, 
 cr black tail should disqualify a pig in the show yard. White 
 or sandy spots on the top or sides of the animal, or a de- 
 cidedly white ear should be disqualifications. Any descrip- 
 tion of coloring, staining or clipping should also be a disqualifi- 
 cation. White on the ear or under the throat or on the under- 
 line of the body, should be considered objectionable. Either 
 too much or too little white in the place of the recognized 
 markings should be an objection, also to be noted in the com- 
 petition." 
 
OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE TOR SWINE 1C9 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF BERKSHIRE ARRANGED BY THE NATIONAL 
 
 ASSOCIATION OF EXPERT JUDGES OF SWINE, 1897. 
 DISQUALIFICATIONS. 
 
 Form. Very large and heavy or drooping ears; small, 
 cramped chest, crease hack of shoulders and over the back so 
 as to cause a depression in back easily noticed, deformed or 
 crooked legs, feet broken down, so that the animal walks on 
 pastern joints. 
 
 .Size. Overgrown, gangling, narrow, contracted or not two- 
 thirds large enough for age. 
 
 Condition. Barrenness, deformed, seriously diseased, total 
 blindness from any cause. 
 
 Score. Less than sixty points. 
 
 Pedigree. Not eligible to record. 
 
 DETAILED DESCRIPTION. 
 
 1. Head and Face. Head short, broad, coming well for- 
 ward at poll, face short and fine and well dished, broad be- 
 tween the eyes tapering from eyes to point of nose, surface 
 even and regular. 
 
 Objections. Legs, long, slim, coarse, crooked, muscles light, 
 and narrow, jaws narrow or contracted, lower jaws extending 
 beyond upper; face Icng, straight between the eyes; nose 
 coarse, thick or crooked, or rigid. 
 
 2. Eyes. Very clear, rather large, dark, hazel or gray. 
 
 Objections. Small, dull, bloodshot, deep set or obscure, 
 vision impaired by wrinkles, fat or other cause. 
 
 3. Ears. Generally almost erect, but sometimes inclined 
 forward with advancing age, medium size, thin and soft. 
 
 Objections. Large, coarse, thick, round or drooping, long 
 or large knuck, difference in form, size or position one with 
 the other, animal unable to control their position. 
 
 4. Neck. Full, deep, short and slightly arched, broad on 
 top, well connected with shoulder. 
 
 Objections.^ Long, flat, lacking in fullness and depth. 
 
 5. Jowl. Full, firm and neat, carrying fullness back to 
 shoulder and brisket. 
 
 Objections. Light, flabby, thin, tucked up or wrinkled. 
 
 6. Shoulder. Broad, deep and full, not extended above 
 line of back and being as wide on top as back, carrying size 
 down to line of belly and having lateral width. 
 
 Objections. Lacking in depth or width, thick beyond the 
 line of sides and hams or extending above line of back, heavy 
 shields on hogs under eighteen months of age. 
 
 7. Chest. Large, wide, deep and roomy, full girth, breast 
 bone curving well forward, extending back on level, not tucked 
 up, broad between fore legs. 
 
 Objections. Flat, narrow at top or bottom, small girth, 
 lacking depth or fullness, breast bone crooked or tucked up. 
 
 8. Back. Broad and straight, carrying same width from 
 shoulder to ham, surface even and smooth without creases or 
 projections and not too long. 
 
 Objections. Narrow, swayed or hollow, dropping below a 
 straight line. 
 
160 JUDGING SWINE 
 
 9. Sides and Ribs. Sides full, smooth, firm and deep, car- 
 rying size down to belly and evenly from ham to shoulder. 
 Ribs long, strong, well sprung at top and bottom. 
 
 Objections. Plat, thin, flabby, not as full at bottom as top. 
 Ribs weak, not well sprung at top or bottom. 
 
 10. Belly and Flank. Wide, full and straight on bottom 
 line. 
 
 Objections. Belly narrow and sagging. Flank thin and 
 tucked up. 
 
 11. Ham and Rump. Hams broad, full and long; the 
 lower front part of ham should be full and stifle well covered 
 with flesh, coming well down on hock. Rump should have a 
 rounding slope from loin to root of tail, same width as back; 
 and filling out on each side and above the tail. 
 
 Objections. Ham narrow, short, thin, not projecting be-^ 
 yond and coming down on hock, cut up too high in crotch, 
 Rump flat, narrow and too steep, 
 
 12. Legs and Feet. Legs short, straight and strong, set 
 wide apart with hoofs erect and capable of holding good, 
 weight. 
 
 Objections Legs, long, slim, coarse, crooked, muscles light, 
 pastern long, slim or flat, fee-t long or sprawling. 
 
 13. Tail. Well set up, fine, tapering and neatly curled. 
 
 Objections. Coarse and straight, too low. 
 
 14. Coat. Fine, straight, smooth, laying close to and cov- 
 ering body well, net clipped, evenly distribute I over body. 
 
 Objections. Hair, coarse, harsh, wavy or curly, not evenly 
 distributed over body, swirls or clipped. 
 
 15. Color. Black, with white on feet, face, tip of tail and 
 an occasional splash on arm. 
 
 Objections. Solid black or black points, or white spots on 
 body. 
 
 16. Size. Large 'for age. Boar two years and over not 
 less than 450 pounds, sow same age 400 pounds. Boar eight- 
 een months, 350 pounds; sow same age 325 pounds. Boar 
 twelve months 300 poiirds, s~w same age 275 pounds. Boar 
 and sow six months, 150 pounds. 
 
 Objections. Underweight, coarse, not in good form to fat- 
 ten. 
 
 17. Action and Style. Action, vigorous. Style, graceful 
 and attractive. 
 
 Objections. Dull, sluggish and clumsy. 
 
 18. Condition. Healthy, skin clear of scurf, scales or 
 sores, soft and mellow to the touch, flesh fine, evenly laid on 
 and free from lumps, hair soft and lying close to body, good 
 feeding qualities. 
 
 Objections. Unhealthy, skin scaly, scabby or harsh, dry and 
 or lumpy flesh, too much fat for breeding. Hair harsh, .dry 
 and standing up from body, poor feeders, deafness, partial or 
 total. 
 
 19. Disposition. Quiet and gentle and easy to handle. 
 
 Objections. Cross, restless, vicious and wild. 
 
OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 161 
 
 POLAND-CHINA 
 
 NATIONAL SCORE CARD ADOPTED BY THE NATIONAL 2 
 
 ASSOCIATION OF EXPERT JUDGES ON 
 
 SWINE, JUNE, 1897. '-> 
 
 Head 4 
 
 Eyes 2 
 
 Ears 2 
 
 Neck 2 
 
 Jowl 2 
 
 Shoulders 6 
 
 Chest ,- 12 
 
 Back and Loin 14 
 
 Bides and Ribs 10 
 
 Belly and Flank 4 
 
 Ham and Rump , , t , 10 
 
 Feet and Legs , , . , 10 
 
 Tail 1 
 
 Coat 3 
 
 Color , , , 3 
 
 Size 5 
 
 Action and Style 3 
 
 Condition 2 
 
 Disposition 2 
 
 Symmetry cf Points 3 
 
 Total 100 
 
 GENERAL RULES FOB SCORING. 
 
 Rule 1. Experts shall not use fractions other than the deci- 
 mal and not above tenths. 
 
 Rule 2. Experts shall not indicate the score of an animal 
 by amount of cut opposite the number of points. 
 
 Rule 3. Experts shall at all times call the score of each 
 division aloud and the attendant shall take the score as called. 
 
 Rule 4. Should ties in scores be indicated by footings, then 
 such ties shall be determined as follows: The officers attend- 
 ing the expert shall foot the score on tie cards of the following 
 divisions, 7, 8, 11 and 12, and the animal scoring the highest 
 on the above divisions shall be awarded the first premium, and 
 the second highest score, the second premium. Should there 
 be a tie on the above divisions then another addition of the 
 following divisions should be made, to-wit: divisions 6 and 9. 
 Should a tie exist, then division 1 should be added to above. 
 
 Rule 5. When an expert who has scored the entire class is 
 called upon to award the sweepstakes premium he shall take 
 the highest scoring animal or animals in class score for such 
 sweepstakes premium. 
 
 Rule 6. Experts shall not be required to score entries in 
 class for sow and litter of pigs. 
 
 Rule 7. Experts shall not be required to score pigs under 
 four months of age. 
 
 Rule 8. When animal is presented for score and the expert 
 determines it to be disqualified he shall call out the disquali- 
 fications and the attendant shall indicate the same on card. 
 
162 JUDGING SWINE 
 
 Rule 9. Experts are required to keep themselves familial 
 with the score card and details of this Association. 
 
 Rule 10. Experts holding certificates issued by this Asso- 
 ciation are not required by the rules of this Association to use 
 any standard other than the one issued by this Association. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF SCORE CARD FOR POLAND-CHINAS ISSUED BY 
 
 NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF EXPERT JUDGES 
 
 ON SWINE, 1897. 
 
 Head. 4. Head should be broad, even and smooth be- 
 tween and above the eyes. Slightly dished, tapering even 
 and gradually to near the end of the nose. Broad lower jaw, 
 head inclined to shortness, but not enough to give the ap- 
 pearance of stubby nose. And in male a masculine expression 
 and appearance. 
 
 Objections. Head long, narrow between the eyes; nose un- 
 even and coarse; too large at the muzzle or the head too short; 
 not full or high above the eyes, or too much wrinkled around 
 or above the eyes. 
 
 Eyes. 2. Full, clear, prominent and expressive. 
 
 Objections. Dull expression, deep set or obscure. Sight 
 impaired by wrinkles, fat or other cause. 
 
 Ears. 2. Ears attached to the 'head by a short, firm 
 knuckle, giving free and easy action. Standing up slightly at 
 the base to within two-thirds of the tip where a gentle break 
 or drop should occur; in size neither too large nor too small, 
 but even, fine, thin, leaf shape. Slightly inclined outward. 
 
 Objections. Large, floppy, straight, upright or coarse; 
 knuckle long, letting the ear drop too close to the head and 
 face, hindering the animal of free use of the ears. 
 
 Neck. 2. Short, wide, even, smooth, well arched. Round- 
 ing and full from poll to shoulder, with due regard to the char- 
 acteristics of the sex. 
 
 Objections. Long, narrow, thin and drooping from the 
 shoulder to the poll with unevenness caused by wrinkles or 
 creases. 
 
 Jowl. 2. Full, broad, deep, smooth and firm, carrying 
 fullness back near to point of shoulders and below line of 
 lower jaw so that lower line will be as low as breast bone when 
 head is carried up level. 
 
 Objections. Light, flabby, thin and wedge-shaped, deeply 
 wrinkled, not drooping below line of lower jaw, and not car- 
 rying fullness back to shoulder and brisket. 
 
 Shoulder. 6. Broad and oval at the top, showing even- 
 ness with the back and neck, with good width from the top 
 to the bottom, and even smoothness extending well forward. 
 
 Objections. Narrow at the top or bottom; not as deep as the 
 body; uneven width. Shields on pigs under eight months of 
 age, or showing too much shield at any age. 
 
 Chest. 12. Large, wide, deep and full; even underline to 
 the shoulder and sides with no creases; giving plenty of room 
 for heart and other organs, making a large girth, indicating 
 mucli vitality. Brisket smooth, even and broad, wide be- 
 tween legs and extending well forward showing in front. 
 
 Objections. Pinched appearance at the top or bottom, or 
 tucked in back of the fore legs; showing too narrow between 
 
Photo by Hills. 
 
 Tamworth sow, KATY BELL, a very prolific sow that reared thirty- 
 three living pigs in one year, while in the herd at the Iowa State 
 College. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE TAMWORTH SWINE. 
 
 THIS ENGLISH breed has be.en bred with care during the past sixty years 
 without any infusions of foreign blood, consequently the representatives 
 of this breed are very uniform as to color and type. The color should be a 
 cherry red or a dark chestnut and very uniform in shade throughout with- 
 out any black spots in skin or patches of hair other than the color indicated. 
 The form should show the type that is desired for bacon production, this 
 means a hog that is exceedingly light in offal with a long trim body and 
 especially very smoothly covered with firm flesh indicating a desirable mix- 
 ture of fat and flesh. The head should be slim, the snout fine and not un- 
 duly long, the ear of appropriate size for the head with the neck sharp be- 
 tween the ears and light, swelling easily to cover a deep shoulder smoothly. 
 Depth of shoulder desirable but without any roughness. The shoulder should 
 not bulge out beyond the body or the hips for this detracts from the general 
 appearance of trimness and smoothness which is so very desirable. The back 
 should be long and strong with a gradually rising arch over the shoulder to 
 the loin and then a corresponding descending line from there to the end of the 
 tail. Width of the back is not demanded but extreme smoothness and an even 
 covering of firm flesh is absolutely essential. The ribs should drop as deep as 
 possible making the body appear from the side as if it had abundance of 
 depth. The loin is even in width with the shoulder and back well covered. 
 The hind quarter lacks the width characteristic of the lard hog as this should 
 not be any wider than the parts which precede it. Length of ham or gam- 
 mon is a peculiar feature which should be looked for. A long ham, fleshed 
 firmly towards the hock without folds of fat is eminently desired. The lead- 
 ing features of the type throughout are length and depth with trimness and 
 smoothness in all regions. See official scale of points, page 186. 
 
Essex sow, a prize winner at Toronto Industrial Exhibition, 
 owned by Jos. Featherstone, Ontario, Canada. A sow very typical 
 of the breed, being exceptionaly smooth and possessed of unusual 
 quality. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE ESSEX SWINE 
 
 THIS BREED of swine originated in the County of Essex, England, and 
 from this it takes its name. Loudon, writing in 1825, described the 
 old Essex as being "up-eared with long, sharp head, roach back ; flat, long 
 carcass and long in the legs." They were improved by Lord Weston who, in 
 1830, purchased in Italy a Neapolitan boar and two sows and these were 
 crossed on the native Essex. Extreme refinment resulted with the loss of 
 size, constitution and fecundity, but through the after work of Fisher Hobbs 
 these defects have been largely overcome. Some authorities (Long) claim 
 that the black Suffolk pig bred in England at the present time is but an im- 
 proved Essex; others (Coleman) assert that the Suffolk is a distinct breed. 
 However, the two now are recognized as separate breeds. According to the 
 standard agreed upon by the American association, the characteristics of the 
 Essex are as follows : "Color, black without any white whatever ; face, 
 short and dishing ; ears, small, soft and standing erect while young but 
 drooping slightly with increasing age ; carcass, long, broad, straight and 
 deep ; hams, heavy and well let down ; bone, fine ; hair, ordinarily rather 
 thin; fattening qualities, very superior. The type of the Essex represents 
 a very compact hog of fine quality and very stoutly built ; a type which is con- 
 sidered to mature early and fatten easily. See official scale of points, page 
 170. 
 
OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWIXE 163 
 
 the legs; not depth enough back of the shoulder. Brisket 
 uneven, narrow, not prominent. 
 
 Back and Loin. 14. Broad, straight or slightly arched, car- 
 rying same width from shoulder to ham, surface even, smooth, 
 free from lumps, creases or projections, not too long but broad 
 on top, indicating well sprung ribs; should not be 'higher at hip 
 than at shoulder and should fill out at junction wi h side 
 so that a straightedge placed along at top of side will touch 
 all the way from point of shoulder to point of ham, should be 
 shorter than lower belly line. 
 
 Objections. Narrow, creased back of shoulders, swayed or 
 hollow, dropping below a straight line; humped or wrinkled; 
 too long or sun-fi&h shaped; Icin high, narrow, depressed cr 
 humped up; surface lumpy, creased, ridgy or uneven, width at 
 side not as much as shoulder and ham. 
 
 Sides and Ribs. 10. Sides full, firm and deep, free from 
 wrinkles; carrying size down to belly; even from ham to 
 shoulder; ribs of good length, well sprung at top and bottom. 
 
 Objections. Flat, thin, flabby, pinched, not as full at bot- 
 tom as top; drawn in at shoulder so as to produce a crease or 
 pinched and tucked up and in as it approaches the ham; un- 
 even surface; ribs flat or too short. 
 
 Belly and Flank. 4. Belly broad, straight and full, inii- 
 cating capacity and room, being about the same or on a level 
 at the flank with the under chest line. Underline straight, or 
 nearly so, and free from flabby appearance. 
 
 Objections. Belly uneven and flabby, or apparent locseness 
 in the make-up. Pinched up in the flank or flanked too high. 
 
 Ham and Rump. 10. Hams broad, full, deep and long 
 from rump to hock. Fully developed above and below, being 
 wide at the point of the hip, carrying wilth well down to the 
 lower part of the hams. Fleshy, plump, rounding fullness per- 
 ceptible everywhere. Rump rounding and gradually sloping 
 from the loin to the root of the tail. Broad and well de- 
 veloped all along from loin and gradually rounding to the 
 buttock; lower front part cf ham should be full and stifle well 
 covered with flesh. Even width of ham and rump with 
 the back, loin and body. Even a greater width as to females 
 not objectionable. 
 
 Objections. Ham short, narrow, too round or slim. Not 
 filled out above or below, or unshapely for deep meat; not 
 as wide as the body, back cr loin too tapering or small. Rump 
 narrow or pointed, not plump or well filled or too steep from 
 loin to the tail. 
 
 Legs and Feet. 10. Legs medium length, straight, set 
 well apart and squarely under body, tapering, well muscled 
 and wide above knee and hock; below hock and knee round 
 and tapering, capable of sustaining weight of animal in full 
 flesh without breaking down; bone firm and of fine texture; 
 pasterns short and nearly upright. Feet firm, short, tough 
 and free from defects. 
 
 Objections. Legs long, slim, coarse, crooked; muscles small 
 above hock and knee; bone large, coarse; as large at foot as 
 above knee; pasterns long, slim, crooked or weak; the hocks 
 turned in or out of straight line; legs too close together; hoofs 
 
164 JUDGING SWINE 
 
 long, slim and weak; toes spreading or crooked or unable to 
 bear up weight of animal without breaking down. 
 
 Tail. 1. Tail of medium length and size, smooth and tap- 
 ering well and carried in a curl. 
 
 Objections. Coarse and long without a curl; or short, 
 crooked or stubby; or too small, fine, even, not tapering. 
 
 Coat. 3.- Fine, straight, smooth, laying close to and cov- 
 ering the body well; not clipped, evenly distributed over the 
 body. 
 
 Objections. Bristles, hair coarse, harsh, thin, wavy or 
 curly; swirls, standing up, ends of hair split and brown; not 
 evenly distributed over all of the body except belly. Clipped 
 coats should be cut 1.5 points. 
 
 Color. 3. Black with six (6) wlhite points: Tip of tail, four 
 white feet and white in face, on the nose or on the point of 
 lower jaw. All to be perceptible without close examination. 
 Splashes of white on the jaw, legs or flank or a few spots of 
 white on the body not objectionable. 
 
 Objections. Solid black, white mixed or sandy spots. Spec- 
 kled with white hairs over the body; mottled face of white 
 and black; hair mixed, making a grizzly appearance. 
 
 Size. 5. Large for age. Condition, vigor and vitality to 
 be considered. There should be a difference between breed- 
 ing animals and those kept or fitted for the show of at least 
 25 per cent in size. In show condition, or when fat, a two- 
 year-old boar should not weigh less than six 'hundred (600) 
 pounds, and a sow not less than five hundred (500) pounds. 
 Boar one year and over, four hundred (400) pounds; sow 
 three hundred and fifty (350) pounds. Boar eighteen months, 
 five hundred (500) pounds; sow, four hundred and fifty (450) 
 pounds. Boar and sows six months old, not less than one 
 hundred and sixty (160 pounds. All hogs in just fair breed- 
 ing condition, one-fourth less for size. The keeping and 
 chance that a young hog has cuts quite a figure in his size 
 and should be considered, other points being equal. Fine 
 quality and size combined are the desirable. 
 
 Objections. Over-grown; coarse, flabby, loose appearance. 
 Gangling, hard to fatten; too fine, undersize; short, stubby, 
 inclined to chubby fatness. Not a hardy robust animal. 
 
 Action and Style. 3. Action vigorous, easy and graceful. 
 Style attractive; high carriage; and in males testicles should 
 be prominent and of about the same size, and yet not too large 
 and pouchy. 
 
 Objections. Clumsy, slow, awkward movement; low car- 
 riage; waddling or twisting walk. A seeming tired or lazy 
 appearance; not stand erect and firm. 
 
 Condition. 2. Healthy, skin clear of scurf, scales and 
 sores; soft and mellow to the touch; flesh fine; evenly laid on 
 and free from lumps and wrinkles. Hair soft and lying close 
 to body; good feeding qualities. 
 
 Objections. Unhealthy, skin scaly, wrinkled, scabby or 
 harsh, flabbiness or lumpy flesh; too much fat for breeding. 
 Hair harsh, dry and standing up from body; poor feeders; 
 deafness, partial or total. 
 
OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 165 
 
 Disposition. 2. Lively, easily handled and seemingly kind, 
 responsive to good treatment. 
 
 Objections. Cross, sluggish, restless, wild or of a vicious 
 turn. 
 
 Symmetry or Adaptation of Points 3. The adaptation of 
 
 all the points, size and style combined to make the desired 
 type or model. 
 
 POLAND-CHINA SWINE 
 
 NATIONAL BREEDERS SCALE OF POINTS AS ADOPTED BY 
 
 THE NATIONAL POLAND-CHINA BREEDERS ASSO- 
 CIATION AT THE ANNUAL MEETING HELD Q 
 IN CHICAGO IN NOVEMBER, 1886. 
 
 Published in the Poland-China Record, Dayton, Ohio, 
 Vol. XVIII, 1896, and American Poland-China Record, 
 Cedar Rapids, Iowa, Vcl. XI, 1890. 
 
 Color Dark spotted or black 3 
 
 Head Small, broad, face slightly dished . 5 
 
 Ears Fine and drooping 2 
 
 Jowl Neat and full 2 
 
 Xeck Short, full, slightly arched 3 
 
 Brisket Full 3 
 
 Shoulder Broad and deep 6 
 
 Girth Around Heart 10 
 
 Back Straight and broad '."..iJT" 7 
 
 Sides Deep and full 6 
 
 Ribs Well sprung 7 
 
 Loin Broad and strong 7 
 
 Belly Wide and straight 4 
 
 Flank Well let down 3 
 
 Ham Broad, full and deep 10 
 
 Tail Tapering and not coarse 2 
 
 Limbs Strong, straight and tapering 1 
 
 Coat Thick and soft 3 
 
 Action Prompt, easy and graceful 5 
 
 Symmetry Adaptation of the several pcints to each other. 5 
 
 Total 100 
 
 DETAILED DrSCRIPTiOX. 
 
 Color. Black or dark spotted, with white points. (Sandy 
 spots and speckled color shall not argue impurity of blood, but 
 are not desirable.) 
 
 Objections. Solid black or with more sandy than black hairs 
 over body. 
 
 Head. Short, broad between eyes, and nicely tapering from 
 eyes to point of nose; face slightly dished, cheeks full. 
 
 Objections. Head coarse, long and narrow; face too much, 
 dished; snout coarse and thick. 
 
 Ears. Drooping, fine and silky; pointing forward and a 
 little outward; well proportioned to size of body. 
 
 Objections. Too large and coarse; thick, lopping; lying too 
 near the face; stiff, erect or too round. 
 
 Jowl. Full, firm and neat; carrying fullness well back to 
 shculder and brisket. 
 
 Objections. Flabby; light; thin in cheeks, tucking up under 
 the neck. 
 
166 JUDGING SW'NE 
 
 Neck. Full, deep, short, and slightly arched. 
 
 Objections. Long, fiat; lacking in fullness or depth. 
 
 Brisket. Full, well let down, extending well forward and on 
 line with belly. 
 
 Objections. Narrow or tucked up. 
 
 Shoulders. Broad, deep; thickness in proportion to sides 
 and 'hams, full and even on top. 
 
 Objections. Lacking in depth cr width; thick beyond the 
 lines of the sides and hams; blade too prominent. 
 
 Girth Around Heart. Full back of shoulders, ribs extend- 
 ing well down; wide and full back of fore legs. 
 
 Objections. Less than flank measure or length of body from 
 top of head to root of tail, or creased back of shoulders. 
 
 Back. Broad, straight or slightly arched, carrying width 
 well back to hams, and cf medium length. 
 
 Objections. Narrow, creasing back of shoulders; narrow 
 across loins; swayed; too long; sunfish shaped. 
 
 Loin. Broad, strong and full. 
 
 Objections. Narrow, weak. 
 
 Sides. Full, deep; carrying sides well down and back. 
 
 Objections. Too round or flat; shallow or thin at the flank. 
 
 Ribs. Well sprung and long; carrying fullness well back. 
 
 Objections. Too flat, curve of the ribs too short. 
 
 Belly. Wide and straight. 
 
 Objections. Sagging, narrow. 
 
 Flank. Well let down and full. 
 
 Objections. Thin and tucked in; cut up too high. 
 
 Ham. Full, broad, deep, holding width and coming well 
 over back. 
 
 Objections. Narrow, short, too steep at the rump and cut 
 up too high in the crotch. 
 
 Tail. Well set on; small, smooth and well tapered. 
 
 Objections. Coarse, large, too prominent at the root. 
 
 Limbs. Medium length; well set apart ani well tapered; 
 bone firm and flinty; not coarse; muscles full above knee and 
 hock; pastern short; foot short. 
 
 Objections. Long, slim, coarse, crooked, muscles light; 
 pastern long, slim or flat; feet long or sprawling. 
 
 Coat. Fine, thick and covering the body well. 
 
 Objections. Coarse, bristly, harsh and wiry. 
 
 Action. Easy, prompt, fine and graceful. 
 
 Objections. Dull, sluggish, clumsy. 
 
 Symmetry. A harmonious combination of the foregoing 
 scale of points. 
 
 Objections. Too much developed in some points and lack- 
 ing in others. SERTOUs OBJECTIONS 
 
 Form. Small growth; upright ears; small, cramped chest; 
 crease back of shoulders, so as to be readily seen; deformed 
 and badly crooked legs; feet broken down so that the animal 
 walks on pastern joints and dew-claws. 
 
 DISQUALIFICATIONS. 
 
 Condition. Excessive fat; barren; deformed; unsound or 
 diseased; ridging or one-sided. 
 
 Score. A score of less than sixty points of the standard. 
 Pedigree. Lack of eligibility to record. 
 
OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 167 
 
 POLAND-CHINA SWINE 
 
 CENTBAL ASSOCIATION SCALE OF POINTS. 
 
 Published in the Central Poland-China Record, In- ~ 
 
 dianapolis, Ind., Vol. XII, 1891, and Standard Poland- = 
 
 China Record, Maryville, Mo., Vol. XIII, 1894. o 
 
 Head and Face 4 
 
 Eyes 2 
 
 Ears 2 
 
 Neck 2 
 
 Jowl 2 
 
 Shoulders 6 
 
 Chest 12 
 
 Back and Loin 15 
 
 Sides and Ribs 8 
 
 Belly and Flank G 
 
 Ham and Rump 10 
 
 Feet and Legs 10 
 
 Tail 1 
 
 Coat 2 
 
 Color 2 
 
 Size 5 
 
 Action and Style 4 
 
 Condition 4 
 
 Disposition 3 
 
 Total 100 
 
 DISQUALIFICATIONS. 
 
 Form. Upright ears; small, cramped chest, crease back of 
 shoulders an'd over the back so as to cause a depression in 
 back easily noticed; deformed or badly crooked legs; feet 
 broken down, so that the animal walks on pastern joints. 
 
 Size. China build, or not two-thirds large enough for age. 
 
 Condition. Excessive fatness; barrenness; deformed; seri- 
 ously diseased; total blindness, caused by defective eyes, or 
 by reason of fat or loose and wrinkled skin over the eyes. 
 
 Score. Less than sixty points. 
 
 Pedigree. Not eligible to record. 
 
 DETAILED DESCRIPTION. 
 
 Head and Face. Head short and wide; cheeks full; jaws 
 broad; forehead high and wide; face short; smooth; wide be- 
 tween the eyes; tapering from eyes to point of nose and slight- 
 ly dished; surface even and regular. 
 
 Objections. Head long; narrow; coarse; forehead low and 
 narrow or contracted; lower jaw extending beyond upper; face 
 long, straight and narrow between the eyes; nose coarse, thick 
 or crooked, ridgy or dished as much as a Berkshire. 
 
 Eyes. Large, prominent; bright; lively, clear and free from 
 wrinkled or fat surroundings. 
 
 Objections. Small, dull, blood-shot, deep set or obscure, 
 vision impaired by wrinkles, fat or other cause. 
 
 Ears. Small; thin; soft; silky; attached to the head by a 
 short and small knuckle; tips pointing forward and slightly 
 
168 JUDGING SWINE 
 
 outward, and the forward half drooping gracefully; fully under 
 control of animal; both of same size, position and shape. 
 
 Objections. Large; straight; stiff; coarse; thick; round; 
 long or large knuckle, drooping close to face, swinging and 
 flabby; difference in form, size or position. 
 
 Neck. Wide; deep; short, and nicely arched at top, from 
 poll of head to shoulder. 
 
 Objections. Long; narrow; thin; flat on top; not extending 
 down to broast bone; tucked up. 
 
 Jowl. Full; broad; deep; smooth and firm; carrying full- 
 ness back near to point of shoulders, and below line of lower 
 jaw, so that lower line will be as low as breast bone when 
 head is carried up level. 
 
 Objections. Light; flabby; thin; wedge shaped; deeply 
 wrinkled; not drooping below line of lower jaw, and not carry- 
 ing fullness back to shoulder and brisket. 
 
 Shoulders. Broad; deep and full; not extending above line 
 of back, and being as wide on top as back; carrying size down 
 to line of belly and having good lateral width. 
 
 Objections. Narrow; not same depth as body; narrow on 
 top or bottom or extending above line of back; less than body 
 in breadth at top or bottom portions, or lacking in lateral 
 width; shields on boars under eight months of age, or large, 
 heavy shields on hogs under eighteen months of age. 
 
 Chest. Large; wide; deep; roomy, indicating plenty of 
 room for vital organs, and making a large girth just back of 
 shoulders; the breast bone extending forward so as to show 
 slightly in front of legs and extending in a straight line back 
 to end of breast bone; showing width of not less than six inches 
 between fore legs in a large, full grown hog. 
 
 Objections. Flat; pinched; narrow at top or at either end 
 of breast bone; breast bone crooked or not extending slightly 
 in front of fore legs. 
 
 Back and Loin. Broad; straight; or slightly arched; car- 
 rying same width from shoulder to ham; surface even; smooth, 
 free from lumps, creases or projections; not too long, but broad 
 on top, indicating well sprung ribs; should not be higher at 
 hip than at shoulder and should fill out at junction, with side 
 so that a straight edge placed along top of side will touch all 
 the way from point of shoulder to point of ham; should be 
 shorter than the lower belly line. 
 
 Objections. Narrow; creased back of shoulders; swayed or 
 hollow; dropping below a straight line; humped or wrinkled; 
 too long, or sunfish shaped; loin high, narrow, depressed or 
 humped up; surface lumpy, creased, ridgy or uneven; width at 
 side not as much as shoulder and ham. 
 
 Sides and Ribs. Sides full; smooth; firm and deep; carry- 
 ing size down to belly and evenly from ham to shoulder; ribs 
 long, strong, well sprung at top and bottom. 
 
 Objections. Flat; thin; flabby; pinched; not as full at 
 bottom as top; drawn in at shoulders so as to produce a crease 
 or pinched and tucked up, and in as it approaches the ham; 
 lumpy or uneven surface.; ribs flat or too short. 
 
 Belly and Flank. Wide, straight and full and drooping as 
 low at flank as bottom of chest; back of fore leg making a 
 
OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 169 
 
 straight line from fore legs to hind legs; flank full and out 
 even with surrounding portions of body; the belly at that 
 point drooping down on a line with lower line of chest; the 
 loose skin connecting ham and belly being on a line even with 
 bottom of side. 
 
 Objections. Belly narrow; pinched; sagging or flabby. 
 Flank tucked up or drawn in. 
 
 Hams and Rump. Hams broad; full, long and wide. They 
 should be as wide at point of the hip as the swell of the 'ham. 
 Buttocks large and full; should project beyond and come down 
 upon and full between the hocks. The lower front part of the 
 ham should be full and stifle well covered with flesh and a 
 gradual rounding toward the hock. Rump should have a round- 
 ing slope from loin to root of tail; same width as back and 
 filling out full on each side of, and above the tail. 
 
 Objections. Ham narrow; short; thin; not projecting be- 
 yond and coming down to hock; cut up too high in crotch or 
 twist; lacking in fullness at top or bottom; lacking in width 
 from stifle straight back; lower fore part thin and flat; straight 
 from root of tail to hock; buttocks light, thin or flabby. Rump 
 flat, narrow and peaked at root of tail; too steep. 
 
 Legs and Feet. Legs medium length; straight; set well 
 apart and squarely under body; tapering; well muscled and 
 wide above knee and hock; below 'hock and knee round and 
 tapering, capable of sustaining weight of animal in full flesh 
 without breaking down; bone firm and of fine texture; pasterns 
 short and nearly upright. Feet firm; short, tough and free 
 from defects. 
 
 Objections. Legs long; slim; coarse; crooked; muscles 
 small above hock and knee; bone large; coarse, as large at 
 foot as above knee.; pasterns long, slim, crooked or weak; 
 the hocks turned in or out of straight line; legs too close to- 
 gether; hoofs long, slim and weak; toes spreading or crooked 
 or unable to bear up weight of animal without breaking down. 
 
 Tail. Well set on; small, smooth, tapering and carried in a 
 curl. 
 
 Objections. Coarse; long; crooked or hanging straight 
 down like a rope. 
 
 Coat. Fine; straight; smooth; laying close to and cover- 
 ing the body well; not clipped; evenly distributed over body. 
 
 Objections. Bristles; hair coarse; harsh; thin; wavy or 
 curly; swirls; standing up; ends of hair split and brown; not 
 evenly distributed over all of the body except belly. Clipped 
 coats should be cut 1.5 points. 
 
 Color. Black with white in face or on lower jaw; whiKe 
 on feet and tip of tail, and a few small, clear white spots on 
 body not objectionable. 
 
 Objections. Solid black, more than one-fourth white; 
 sandy hairs or spots; a grizzled or speckled appearance. 
 
 Size. Large for age and condition; boars two years old and 
 over, if in good flesh, should weigh not less than 500 pounds. 
 Sows same age and condition not less than 450 pounds. Boars 
 eighteen months old, in good condition, not less than 400 
 pounds; sows, 350 pounds. Boars twelve months, not less 
 
170 JUDGING SWINE 
 
 than 300 pounds; sows, 300 pounds. Boar and sow six months, 
 not less than 150 pounds. Other ages in proportion. 
 
 Objections. Overgrown; coarse; gangling, or hard to fatten 
 at any age. 
 
 Action and Style. Action vigorous; easy; quick and grace- 
 ful. Style attractive; high carriage; and in males testicles 
 should be of same size; carriage, readily seen and yet not too 
 large. 
 
 Objections. Slow; dull; clumsy; awkward; difficulty in get- 
 ting up when down; low carriage; wabbling walk. In males 
 testicles not easily seen, not of same size or carriage, top large 
 or only one showing. 
 
 Condition.- Healthy; skin clear of scurf, scales, or sores; 
 goft and mellow to the touch; flesh fine, evenly laid on and 
 free from lumps or wrinkles, Hair soft and lying close to, 
 feQdy; good feeding qualities. 
 
 Objections. -Unhealthy; skin scaly, wrinkly, scabby or 
 harsh, flabbiness or lumpy flesh; too much fat for breeding. 
 Hair harsh, dry and standing up from body; poor feeder; 
 deafness, partial or total, 
 
 Disposition. Quiet, gentle and easily handled. 
 
 Objections, Cross, restless, vicious or wild. 
 
 ESSEX SWINE. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY AMERICAN ESSEX ASSOCIA- | 
 
 TION, VOL. II, IMPROVED ESSEX SWINE RECORD, 1893. 
 
 Color Black 2 
 
 Head Small, broad and face dished 3 
 
 Ears Fine, erect, slightly drooping with age 2 
 
 Jowl Full and neat 1 
 
 Neck Short, full, well arched 3 
 
 Shoulders Broad and deep 7 
 
 Girth Around Heart 6 
 
 Back Straight, broad and level 12 
 
 Sides Deep and full 6 
 
 Ribs Well sprung 7 
 
 Loin Broad and strong 12 
 
 Flank Well let down 2 
 
 Ham Broad, full and deep 12 
 
 Tail Medium, fine, and curled 2 
 
 Legs Fine, straight and tapering 3 
 
 Feet Small 3 
 
 Hair Fine and silky, free from bristles 3 
 
 Action Easy and graceful 4 
 
 Symmetry Adaptation of the several parts to each other . . 10 
 
 Total,, .100 
 
Pen of two Berkshire pigs. Exhibited by Mr. J. A. Firckert, of 
 Burton Mere, Wiltshire. Winners of the challenge cup for the best 
 pen of two pigs, at the Smithfield Show, England, 1898. 
 
 Pure bred Tamworth sow, AGINCOURT QUEEN. The property of 
 Mr. John Bell, Amber, Ontario, Canada. Agincourt Queen was far- 
 rowed Feb. 9, 1896. Photo was taken May 26, 1897. 
 
Thin Rind Sow, BKAKTY 1'T, MNVMCM! ly .Ii.lm S. IMu-lps, Lexington, 
 Kentucky. 
 
 Berkshire sow, HIGHCLERE COUNTESS IX, of Hood Farm, and her 
 litter of nine pigs at three weeks old, by Wantage King of Hood 
 Farm. First prize winner at numerous fairs in 1898. Two of the 
 pigs are under the others, the white brush of one showing between the 
 second and third from the left end, and the other in the same position 
 from the other end. Owned by Hood Farm, Lowell, Massachusetts. 
 
OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE TOR SWINE 171 
 
 CHESTER \7HITE SWINE 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS AS ADOPTED BY THE STANDARD CHESTER m 
 
 ^.. WHITE RECORD ASSOCIATION. CHESTER WHITE 
 
 RECORD, VOL. Ill, 1892. 
 
 The description which follows is similar to that 
 adopted by the National Association of Expert Judges. 
 
 Head and Face 4 
 
 Eyes 2 
 
 Ears 2 
 
 Neck 2 
 
 Jowl 2 
 
 Shoulders 6 
 
 Chest ] . 9 
 
 Back and Loin 15 
 
 Sides and Rib 8 
 
 Belly and Flank 6 
 
 Ham and Rump 10 
 
 Feet and Legs 10 
 
 Tail 1 
 
 Coat 2 
 
 Color 5 
 
 Size 5 
 
 Action and Style 4 
 
 Condition 4 
 
 Disposition 3 
 
 Total 100 
 
 DISQUALIFICATIONS. 
 
 Form. Upright ears; small cramped chest; crease around 
 back of shoulders and over the back, causing a depression 
 easily noticed; feet broken down, causing the animal to walk 
 on pastern joints; deformed or badly crooked legs. 
 
 Size. Chuffy, or not two thirds large enough for age. 
 
 Condition. Squabbv. fat; deformed, seriously diseased; 
 barrenness; total blindness. 
 
 Score. Less than sixty points. 
 
 Pedigree. Not eligible to record. 
 
 Color Black or sandy spots in hair. 
 
 DETAILED DESCRIPTION. 
 
 Head and Face. Head short and wide; cheeks neat but not 
 too full; jaws broad and strong; forehead medium, high and 
 wide. Face short and smooth; wide between the eyes; nose 
 neat and tapering and slightly dished. 
 
 Objections. Head long, narrow and coarse; forehead low 
 and narrow; jaws contracted and weak. Face long, narrow and 
 straight; nose coarse, clumsy or dished like a Berkshire. 
 
 Eyes. Large, bright, clear and free from wrinkles or fat 
 surroundings. 
 
 Objections. Small, deep or obscure; vision impaired in any 
 way. 
 
 Ears. Medium size; not too thick; soft; attached to the 
 head so as not to look clumsy; pointing forward and slightly 
 
172 JUDGING SWINE 
 
 outward; fully under control of the animal and drooping 
 so as to give a graceful appearance. 
 
 Objections. Large; upright; coarse; thick; round; too 
 small; drooping too close to the face; animal not being able to 
 control them. 
 
 Neck. Wide; deep; short and nicely arched. 
 
 Objections. Long, narrow; thin; flat on top; tucked up; not 
 extending down to breast bone. 
 
 Jowl.- Full; smooth, neat and firm; carrying fullness back 
 to shoulder and brisket when the head is carried up level. 
 
 Objections. Light; too large and flabby; rough and deeply 
 wrinkled; not carrying fullness back to shoulder and brisket. 
 
 Shoulder. Broad, deep and full, extending in a straight line 
 with the side, and carrying size down to line of belly. 
 
 Objections. Narrow at top or bottom, not full nor same 
 depth as body; extending above line of back; shields on boars 
 too coarse and prominent. 
 
 Chest. Large; deep and roomy so as not to cramp vital or- 
 gans; full in girth around the heart; the breast bone extend- 
 ing forward so as to show slightly in front of legs, and let 
 down so as to be even with line of belly, showing a width 
 of not less than 7 inches between fore legs of a full grown hog. 
 
 Objections. Narrow; pinched; heart girth less than flank 
 girth; too far let down between fore legs; breast bone crooked 
 or too short. 
 
 Back and Loin. Back broad on top; straight or slightly 
 arched; uniform width; smooth; free from lumps or rolls; 
 shorter than lower belly line; same height and width at shoul- 
 ders as at ham; loin wide and full. 
 
 Objections. Back narrow; creased back of shoulders; sun- 
 fished shape; humped; swayed; too long or lumpy rolls; un- 
 even in width; loin narrow, depressed or humped. 
 
 Sides and Ribs. Sides full; smooth; deep; carrying size 
 down to belly; even with line of ham and shoulder; ribs long; 
 well sprung at top or bottom, giving hog a square form. 
 
 Objections. Flat; thin; flabby; compressed at bottom; 
 shrunken at shoulder and ham; uneven surface; ribs flat and 
 too short. 
 
 Belly and Flank. Same width as back; full, making a 
 straight line and dropping as low at flank as at bottom of 
 chest; line of lower edge running parallel with sides; flank 
 full and even with body. 
 
 Objections. Belly narrow; pinched; sagging or flabby; flank 
 thin, tucked up or drawn in. 
 
 Ham and Rump. Ham "broad; full; long, wide and deep; 
 admitting of no swells; buttock full; neat and clean, thus 
 avoiding flabbiness; stifle well covered with flesh, nicely taper- 
 ing towards the hock; rump should have slightly rounding 
 shape from loin to root of tail; same width as back, making 
 an even line with sides. 
 
 Objections. Hams narrow; short; not filled out to stifle; too 
 much cut up in crotch or twist; not coming down to hock; but- 
 tocks flabby; rump flat, narrow, too long, too steep, sharp or 
 peaked at root of tail. 
 
OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 173 
 
 Leg's and Feet. Legs short; straight; set well apart and 
 squarely under body; bone of good size; firm; well muscled; 
 wide above knee and hock; below knee and hock round and 
 tapering, enabling the animal to carry its weight with ease; 
 pastern short and nearly upright; feet short, firm, tough and 
 free from defects. 
 
 Objections. Legs too short, long, slim, crooked, too coarse: 
 too close together; weak muscles above hock and knee; bone 
 large and coarse without taper; pasterns long; crooked, slim 
 like a deer's; hoofs long, slim, weak; toes spreading, crooked 
 or turned up. 
 
 Tail. Small; smooth; tapering, well set on, root slightly 
 covered with flesh; carried in a curl. 
 
 Objections. Coarse; long, clumsy; set too high or too low; 
 hanging like a rope. 
 
 Ccat. Fine; straight or wavy; evenly distributed and cov- 
 ering the body well; nicely clipped coats no objection. 
 
 Objections. Bristles; hair coarse; thin; standing up; not 
 evenly distributed over all the body except belly. 
 
 Color. White (blue spots or black specks in skin shall not 
 argue impurity of blood). 
 
 Objections. Color any other than white. 
 
 Size. Large for age and condition; boars two years old 
 and over, if in good flesh, should weigh not less than 500 
 pounds. Sow same age and. conditions, not less than 450 
 pounds. Boars 18 months old in goo-i flesh should weigh n^t 
 less than 400 pounds. Sows 350. Boars 12 months old not 
 less than 300 pounds. Sows 300. Boars and sows 6 months 
 old, not less than 150 pounds each, and other ages in pro- 
 portion. 
 
 Objections. Overgrown; coarse; uncouth; hard to fatten. 
 
 Action and Style. Action easy and graceful; style attrac- 
 tive; high carriage; in males testicles should be readily seen; 
 same size and carriage. 
 
 Objections. Sluggish; awkward low carriage; wabbling 
 walk; in males testicles not easily seen; not of same size or 
 carriage, or only one showing. 
 
 Condition. Healthy skin, clear and bright: free from scurf 
 and sores; flesh fine and mellow to the touch; evenly laid on 
 and free from lumps; good feeding qualities. 
 
 Objections. Unhealthy; skin scaly, scabby or harsh; flesh 
 lumpy or flabby; hair harsh, dry and standing up from body; 
 poor feeders; total deafness. 
 
 Disposition. Quiet; gentle and easily handled: with ambi- 
 tion enough to look out for themselves if neglected. 
 
 Objections. Cross; restless; vicious or wild; no ambition. 
 
174 JUDGING SWINE 
 
 CHESTER WHITE SWINE, 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS AS ADOPTED BY THE CHESTER WHITE 
 
 RECORD ASSOCIATION AT THEIR ANNUAL MEETING, m 
 
 JAN., 1885, AND REVISED JAN., 1888. PUBLISHED 
 
 TODD'S IMPROVED CHESTER WHITE SWINE 
 
 RECORD, VOL. IV, 1891. 
 
 Head Small, broad, slightly dished 5 
 
 Eye Large and bright 2 
 
 Ear Thin, fine and drooping 2 
 
 Jowl Neat and full 3 
 
 Neck Short, full and slightly arched 3 
 
 Brisket Full and deep 3 
 
 Shoulder Broad and deep 6 
 
 Girth Around Heart 10 
 
 Back Straight and broad 7 
 
 Sides Deep and full 6 
 
 Ribs Well sprung 7 
 
 Belly Wide and straight 4 
 
 Girth Around Flank 10 
 
 Ham Broad, full and deep 10 
 
 Iambs Strong, straight and neat 7 
 
 Tail Tapering, and not coarse 2 
 
 Coat Fine and thick 8 
 
 Color White . 1 
 
 Action Prompt, easy and graceful 5 
 
 Symmetry 4 
 
 Total 100 
 
 DETAILED DESCRIPTION. 
 
 Head Short broad between the eyes, and nicely tapering 
 frcm eyes to point of nose; face slightly dished; cheeks full. 
 
 Objections Head coarse, long and narrow; face straight cr 
 too much dtshed; snout coarse or thick. 
 
 Eye. Large, bright, and free from overgrowing fat. 
 
 Objections. Small, dim, or hidden under protruding fat. 
 
 Ear. Drooping; thin; pointing outward and forward; well 
 proportioned to size of body. 
 
 Objections. Too large and coarse; thick, lopping; lying too 
 near the face; stiff, erect, or too small. 
 
 jowl. Full, firm and neat; carrying fullness well back to 
 neck and brisket. 
 
 Objections. Flabby; light; thin in cheek; tucking up unler 
 the neck. 
 
 Neck. Full, deep, short, and well arcned. 
 
 Objections. Long; flat; lacking in fullness or depth. 
 
 Brisket. Full; strong; well let down; extending well for- 
 ward, and on line of the belly. 
 
 Objections. Narrow, or tucked up. 
 
 Shoulder. Broad; deep; thickness in proportion to the side 
 and ham; full and even on top. 
 
 Objections. Thick beyond the line of side and ham; lacking 
 in depth or width; blade prominent, or extending above the 
 line of the back. 
 
OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOB SWINE 175 
 
 Girth Around the Heart. Full back of shoulders; ribs ex- 
 tending well down; wide and full back of fore legs. 
 
 Objections. Less than flank or length of body from top of 
 the head to root of the tail. 
 
 Back. Broad, straight, or slightly arched, carrying width 
 well ba"ck to the hams, and of medium length. 
 
 Objections. Narrow; sinking back of shoulders; narrow 
 across the loin; swayed; too long; sunfish shaped. 
 
 Sides. Full; deep; carrying weight and thickness well down 
 and back. 
 
 Objections. Too round or flat; shallow or thin at the flank. 
 
 Ribs. Well sprung, carrying fullness well back and deep. 
 
 Objections. Too flat; curve of rib too short; tucking in at 
 bottom; sagging about loin. 
 
 Loin. Broad, strong and full. 
 
 Objections. Narrow; poorly ribbed up; weak. 
 
 Belly. Wide and straight; width approximating that of the 
 back. 
 
 Objections. Sagging; narrow; skin coarse, harsh and thick. 
 
 Girth Around Flank. Flank well let down and full; loin 
 broad, strong and full; measurement of flank girth equal to 
 heart girth. 
 
 Objections. Flank thin, tucked in, or cut up.too high; loin 
 narrow or weak. 
 
 Ham. Broad, full, deep; of medium length; coming down 
 well over the hock. 
 
 Objections. Narrow; short; running too far up the back; 
 steep at the rump. 
 
 Limbs. Medium length; short rather than long; set well 
 apart, and well under; muscles full above knee and hock; 
 bone firm and not coarse; pasterns short and strong; foot 
 short. 
 
 Objections. Long, slim, coarse, crookel; muscles light; 
 pasterns long, slim or flat; hoofs long or sprawling. 
 
 Tail. Small, tapering, smooth, well set on. 
 
 Objections. Coarse; large; too prominent at the root. 
 
 Coat. Fine and thick. 
 
 Objections. Coarse; hair too long; wiry; harsh. 
 
 Color. White. (Blue spots in skin and black specks shall 
 not argue impurity of blood.) 
 
 Action. Easy; prompt; fine and graceful. 
 
 Objections. Dull, sluggish, clumsy. 
 
 Symmetry. Uniform build, and all points in animal in pro- 
 portion. 
 
 Objections. Wanting in some points, and too much de- 
 veloped in others. DISOUALIFICATIO NS. 
 
 Form. Small growth; upright ears; small, cramped chest; 
 crease back of the shoulders, so as to be readily seen; de- 
 formed and badly crooked legs; feet broken down so that ani- 
 mal walks on pastern joints and dew-claws. 
 
 SERIOUS OBJECTIONS. 
 
 Condition. Excessive 'fat; barren; deformed, unsound or 
 diseased; ridgling or one-seeded. 
 
 Score. A score of les than sixty of the standard. 
 Pedigree. Lack of eligibility to record. 
 
176 JUDGING SWINE 
 
 DUROC-JERSEY SWINE, 
 
 STANDARD OF CHARACTERISTICS ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN DUROC- 
 JERSEY SWINE BREEDERS ASSOCIATION. AMERICAN 
 DUROC-JERSEY RECORD, VOL. IV, 1893. 
 
 Color. The color is a very important factor in establish- 
 ing the fancy markings of any of the improved breeds of swine, 
 and it seems as though the Doroc-Jersey is no exception. Our 
 breeders (at least many of them) seem to not have the right 
 idea as to what our "Standard of Characteristics" means by 
 the term "Cherry Red." 
 
 There are many shades of red and we shall here endeavor 
 to make some suggestions which will enable breeders to give 
 the exact color of their hogs sent for registration. 
 
 The best way is to take a few hairs from the back of the 
 animal and hold them in a bright light, and then you can tell 
 very accurately the exact color. If the hair is a clear, deep 
 red, and not shading brown or black at the end, you have a 
 cherry red color and should be recorded as "Cherry Red." 
 Should the hair be as above and shading brown or black, it 
 should be recorded as "Dark Cherry." Should the hair be 
 lighter and glossy in the sun light, they should be -recorded as 
 "Bright Red," or "Bright Cherry." Should the hair be light 
 and have a dull appearance, they should be recorded as "Medi- 
 um." Should the hair be dark or shading black, they should 
 be recorded as "Dark Red." 
 
 The most fashionable color and the one our breeders should 
 use every possible means to establish in their herd is a 
 "Cherry Red" and as speedily as possible, discard aU animals 
 with black spots or flecks, and avoid very light or dark shades 
 in their selection of breeding animals. 
 
OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 177 
 
 DUROC-JERSEY SWINE. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS AMERICAN DUROC-JERSEY RECORD. 
 
 --Similar to the description prepared by the National 
 
 Association of Expert Judges. u 
 
 Head and Face 4 
 
 Eyes 2 
 
 Ears 2 
 
 Neck 2 
 
 Jowl 2 
 
 Shoulders 6 
 
 Chest 12 
 
 Back and Loin 15 
 
 Sides and Ribs 8 
 
 Belly and Flank 6 
 
 Hams and Rumps 10 
 
 Legs and Feet 10 
 
 Tail 1 
 
 Coat 2 
 
 Color 2 
 
 Size 5 
 
 Action and Style 4 
 
 Condition 4 
 
 Disposition 3 
 
 Total 100 
 
 DISQUALIFICATIONS. 
 
 Form. Ears standing erect; small cramped chest, and 
 crease back of shoulders and over back so as to cause a depres- 
 sion in the back easily noticed; seriously deformed legs, or 
 badly broken down feet. 
 
 Size. Very small, or not two-thirds large enough as given 
 by the standard. 
 
 Score. Less than fifty points. 
 
 Pedigree. Not eligible to record. 
 
 DETAILED DESCRIPTION. 
 
 Head and Face. Head small in proportion to size of body; 
 wide between eyes; face nicely dished (about half way be- 
 tween a Poland-China and a Berkshire) and tapering well 
 down to the nose; surface smooth and even. 
 
 Objections. Large and coarse; narrow between the eyes; 
 face straight; crooked nose, or too much dished. 
 
 Eyes. Lively, bright and prominent. 
 
 Objections. Dull, weak and obscure. 
 
 Ears. Medium; moderately thin; pointing forward, down- 
 ward and slightly outward, carrying a slight curve, attached to 
 head very neatly. 
 
 Objections. Very large; nearly round; too thick; swinging 
 or flabby; not of same size; different position and not under 
 control of animal. 
 
 Xeck. Short, thick and very deep and slightly arching. 
 
 Objections. Long, shallow and thin. 
 
178 JUDGING SWIXE 
 
 Jowl. Broad, full and neat; carrying fullness back to 
 point of shoulders and on a line with breast bone. 
 
 Objections. Too large, loose and flabby; small thin and 
 wedging. 
 
 Shoulders. Moderately broad; very deep and full; carrying 
 thickness well down and not extending above line of back. 
 
 Objections. Small; thin; shallow; extending above line of 
 back. Boars under one year old heavily shielded. 
 
 Chest. Large; very deep; filled full behind shoulders; 
 breast bone extending well forward so as to be readily seen. 
 
 Objections. Flat; shallow, or not extending well down be- 
 tween fore legs. 
 
 Back and Loin. Back medium in breadth; straight or slight- 
 ly arching; carrying even width from shoulder to ham; sur- 
 face even and smooth. 
 
 Objections. Narrow; crease behind shoulders; swayed or 
 hump backed. 
 
 Sides and Ribs. Sides very deep; medium in length; level 
 between shoulders and hams and carrying out full down to 
 line of belly. Ribs long, strong and sprung in proportion to 
 width of shoulders and hams. 
 
 Objections. Flabby, creased, shallow and not carrying 
 proper width from top to bottom. 
 
 Belly and Flank. Straight and full and carrying well out 
 to line of sides. Flank well down to lower line of sides. 
 
 Objections. Narrow; tucked up or drawn in; sagging or 
 flabby. 
 
 Hams and Rump. Broad, full and well let down to the 
 hock; buttock full and coming nearly down and filling full be- 
 tween hocks. Rump should have a round slope, from loin to 
 root of tail; same width as back and well filled out around 
 tail. 
 
 Objections. Ham narrow; short; thin; not projecting well 
 down to hock; cut up too high in crotch. Rump narrow; flat 
 or peaked at root of tail; too steep. 
 
 Legs and Feet. Medium size and length; straight; nicely 
 tapered; wide apart and well set under the body; pasterns 
 short and strong. Feet short, firm and tough. 
 
 Objections. Legs extremely long, or very short; slim; 
 coarse; crooked; legs as large below knee and hock as above; 
 set too close together; hocks turned in or out of straight line. 
 Feet, hoofs long; slim and weak; toes spreading or crooked. 
 
 Tail. Medium; large at base and nicely tapering and rather 
 bushy at end. 
 
 Objections. Extremely heavy; too long and ropy. 
 Coat. Moderately thick and fine; straight, smooth and 
 covering the body well. 
 
 Objections. Too many bristles; hair coarse, harsh and 
 rough; wavy or curly; swirls, or not evenly laid over the body. 
 Color. Cherry red without other admixtures. 
 Objections. Very dark red or shading brown; very pale or 
 light red; black spots over the body; black flecks on belly and 
 legs not desired but admissible. 
 
 Size. Large for age and condition. Boars two years old and 
 over should weigh 600 pounds; sow same age and condition, 
 
OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOB SWINE 179 
 
 500 pounds. Boar eighteen months, 475 pounds; sow, 400 
 pounds. Boar twelve months, 350 pounds; sow, 300 pounds. 
 Boar and sew pigs six months, 150 pounds. The figures are 
 for animals in a fair show condition. 
 
 Objections. Rough ana coarse and lacking in feeding 
 qualities. 
 
 Action and Style. Action vigorous and animated. Style 
 free and easy. 
 
 Objections. Dull or stupid; awkward and wabbling. In 
 bears testicles net eas:iy saen nor of same size or carriage; 
 too large or only ere showing. 
 
 Condition. Healthy; skin free from scurf, scales, sores, 
 and mange; flesh evenly laid over the entire body and free 
 frcm any lumps. 
 
 Objections. Unhealthy; scurfy; scaly; sores; mange; too 
 fat for breeding purposes; hair harsh and standing up; pcor 
 feeders. 
 
 Disposition. Very quiet and gentle; easily handled or 
 driven. 
 
 Objections. Wild, vicious or stubborn. 
 
 VICTORIA SWINE, 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY VICTORIA SWINE BREEDERS 
 
 ASSOCIATION. AMERICAN VICTORIA SWINE RECORD. , 
 
 VOL. I, 1887. 
 
 The description that fellows is similar to that adopted 
 by the National Association of Expert Judges. 
 
 Color White, with occasional dark spots in the skin 2 
 
 Head Small, broad and face medium dished 3 
 
 Ears Fine, pointing forward 2 
 
 Jowl Medium size and neat 1 
 
 Xeck Short, full and well arched 3 
 
 Shoulders Broad and deep 7 
 
 Girth Around Heart 6 
 
 Back Straight, bread and level 12 
 
 Sides Deep and full 6 
 
 Ribs Well sprung 7 
 
 Loin Broad and strong 12 
 
 Flank Well let down 2 
 
 Ham Broad, full and deep, without loose fat 12 
 
 Tail Medium fine and curled 2 
 
 Legs Fine and straight 3 
 
 Feet Small 3 
 
 Hair Fine and silky, free from bristles . . 3 
 
 Action Easy and graceful 4 
 
 Symmetry Adaptation of the several parts to each other. 10 
 
 Total 100 
 
 Detailed description cf Victoria swine as adopted by the Vic- 
 toria Swine Breeders' Association at their annual meeting, No- 
 vember, 1888, as an aid to judges at fairs in place of the score 
 card. 
 
 Color. White, with occasional dark spot in the skin. 
 
180 JUDGING SWINE 
 
 Head and Face. Head rather small and neat. Pace medium 
 dished and smooth; wide between eyes; tapering from eyes to 
 nose. 
 
 Eyes Medium size, prominent, bright; clear and lively in 
 young, and quiet expression in aged animals. 
 
 Neck. Medium wide, deep, short, well arched and full at 
 top. 
 
 Jowl. Medium full, nicely rounded, neat and free from 
 loose, flabby fat. 
 
 Shoulders. Broad, deep and full, not higher than the line 
 of back, and as wide on top as back. 
 
 Chest. Large, wide, deep and roomy, with large girth back 
 of shoulders. 
 
 Back and Loin. Broad, straight or slightly arched, carrying 
 same width from shoulders to ham; level and full at loin; 
 sometimes higher at hip than at shoulder. 
 
 Ribs and Sides. Ribs well sprung at top; strong and firm; 
 sides deep, full, smooth and firm; free from creases. 
 
 Belly and Plank. Wide; straight and full; as low or 
 slightly lower at flank than at chest. Plank full and nearly 
 even with sides. 
 
 Hams and Rump. Hams long; full and wide; nicely round- 
 ed; trim and free from loose fat. Buttocks large and full; 
 reaching well down toward hocks. Rump, slightly sloped 
 from end of loin to root of tail. 
 
 Legs and Feet. Legs short; set well apart and firm; wide 
 above knee and hock tapering below. Feet firm and standing 
 well up on toes. 
 
 Tail. Small; fine and tapering; nicely curled. 
 
 Coat. Fine and silky; evenly covering the body. 
 
 Size. Boars two years old and over when in good condi- 
 tion should weigh not less than 500 pounds; sow same 
 age and condition, 450 pounds. Boars twelve months old 
 not less than 300 pounds; sows in good flesh, 300 pounds. 
 Pigs 5 to 6 months old, 140 to 160 pounds. 
 
 Action. Easy and graceful, but quiet. 
 
 Condition. Healthy; skin clean, and white or pink in color; 
 free from scurf; flesh firm and evenly laid on. 
 
 Disposition. Quiet and gentle. 
 
 DISQUALIFICATIONS. 
 
 Color. Other than white or creamy white, with occasional 
 dark spots in skin. 
 
 Form. Crooked jaws or deformed face; crooked or de- 
 formed legs; large, coarse, drooping ears. 
 
 Condition. Excessive fatness; barrenness; deformity iti 
 any part of body. 
 
 Pedigree. Not eligible for record. 
 
OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 181 
 
 CHESHIRE SWINE 
 
 STANDAKD OF EXCELLENCE. THE CHESHIRE HERD BOOK. 
 VOL. I, 1889. 
 
 Head. Short to medium in length, short in proportion tc 
 length of body; face somewhat dished and wide between th 
 eyes; ears small, erect, in old animals often slightly pointing 
 forward; neck, short; shoulders broad and full; hips broad 
 body long, broad and deep; hams, broad, nearly straight witb 
 back and running well down towards hock; legs small and 
 slim, set well apart and supporting the body on the toes: 
 tail, small and slim; hair fine, medium in thickness and quan 
 tity; color, white, a few blue spots in skin not to disqualify 
 but objectionable; when grown and well fattened should dress 
 from 400 to 600 pounds. 
 
 SCALE OF POIXTS. 
 
 Cheshires must be Shown in fair breeding condition. , 
 Animals too fleshy to meet this requirement must be f 
 docked ten points. 
 
 Head. Short to medium in length, short in proportion to 
 
 length of body 8 
 
 Face. Somewhat dished and wide between the eyes 8 
 
 Jowl. Medium in fullness 3 
 
 Ears. Small, fine, erect; in old animals often pointing for- 
 ward 5 
 
 Neck. Short and broad 3 
 
 Shoulders. Broad, full and deep 6 
 
 Girth. Size of body around heart 8 
 
 Back. Long, broad and straight nearly to root of tail. ... 10 
 
 Side. Deep and full, nearly straight on bcttom line 7 
 
 Flank. Well back and low down, making flank girth nearly 
 
 equal to heart girth Z 
 
 Hams. Broad, nearly straight with back and running well 
 
 down towards hock 10 
 
 Legs. Small and slim, set well apart and supporting boly 
 
 on toes 1C 
 
 Tail. Small, slim and tapering 
 
 Hair. Fine, medium in thickness and quality 
 
 Color. White, any other colored hair to disqualify 2 
 
 Skin. Thin and pliable; small blue spots objectionable, 
 
 but allowable 
 
 Symmetry. Animal well proportioned, handsome, stylish . . 8 
 
 Total., 100 
 
182 JUDGING SWINE 
 
 YORKSHIRE SWINE: LARGE WHITE, 
 
 STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE PUBLISHED IN THE NATIONAL 
 PIG BREEDERS ASSOCIATION HERD BOOK, NOTTING- 
 HAM, ENG., VOL. XII, 1896. 
 
 Color. White, free from black hairs, and as far as possible 
 from blue- spots on the skin. 
 
 Head. Moderately long, face slightly dished, snout broad, 
 not tco much turned up, jowl not too heavy, wide between 
 ears. 
 
 Ears. Long, thin, slightly inclined forward, and fringed 
 with fine hair. 
 
 Neck. Long, and proportionately iull to the shoulders. 
 
 Che?t. Wide and deep. 
 
 Shoulders. Level across the top, not too wide, free from 
 coarseness. 
 
 Leg's. Straight and well set, level with the outside of the 
 body, with flat bone. 
 
 Pasterns. Short and springy. 
 
 Feet. Strong, even and wide. 
 
 Back. Long, level and wide from neck to rump. 
 
 Loin. Broad. 
 
 Tail. Set high, stout and long, but not coarse, with tassels 
 of fine hair. 
 
 Sides. Deep. 
 
 Ribs. Well sprung. 
 
 Belly. Full, but not flabby, with straight underline. 
 
 Flank. 'Thick and well let down. 
 
 Quarters. Long and wide. 
 
 Hams. Broad, full and deep to hocks. 
 
 Coat. Long and moderately fine. 
 
 Action. Firm and free. 
 
 Skin. Not too thick, quite free from wrinkles. Large bred 
 pigs do not fully develop their points until some months old, 
 the pig at five months often proving at a year or fifteen 
 months a much better animal than could be anticipated at 
 the earlier age and vice versa; but size and quality are most 
 important. 
 
 Objections. Black hairs, black spots, a curly coat, a coarse 
 mane, short snout, in-bent knees, hollowness at back of shoul- 
 ders. 
 
 MIDDLE WHITE SWINE. 
 
 STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE ADOPTED BY THE NATIONAL PTO 
 BREEDERS ASSOCIATION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 Color. Wliite, free from black hairs and blue spots on the 
 skin. 
 
 Head. Moderately short, face dished, snout broad and 
 turned up, jowl full, wide between the ears. 
 
 Ears. Fairly large, carried erect and fringed with fine 
 hair. 
 
 Nock. Medium length, proportionately full to the shoul- 
 ders. 
 
 Chest. Wide and deep. 
 
OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 1S3 
 
 Shoulders. Level across the top, moderately wide, free 
 from coarseness. 
 
 L*g. Straight and well set, level with outside of the body 
 with tine bone. 
 
 "Pasterns. Short and springy. 
 
 Feet. Strong, even and wide. 
 
 Back. Long, level and wide from rump. 
 
 Loin. Broad. 
 
 Tail. Set high, moderate length, but not coarse, with tassel 
 of fine hair. 
 
 Sides. Deep. 
 
 Ribs. Well sprung. 
 
 Belly. Full, but not flabby and straight underline. 
 
 Flank. Thick and well let down. 
 
 Quarters. Long and wide. 
 
 Hams. Broad, full and deep to hocks. 
 
 Coat. Long, fine and silky. 
 
 Action. Firm and free. 
 
 Skin. Fine and quite free from wrinkles. 
 
 Objections. Black hairs, black or blue spots, a coarse mane, 
 in-bent knees, hollowness of shoulders, wrinkled skin. 
 
 SMALL WHITE SWINE. 
 
 STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE ADOPTED BY THE NATIONAL PIG 
 BREEDERS ASSOCIATION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 Color. Pure white. 
 
 Head. Very short and dished, snout broad and turned up, 
 jowl very full, broad between the ears. 
 
 Ears. Small, short and erect. 
 
 Neck. Short and thick. 
 
 Chest. Full and broad. 
 
 Shoulders. Full and wide. 
 
 Legs Short, set well outside the body, fine bone. 
 
 Pasterns. Short and springy. 
 
 Feet. Small. 
 
 Back. Broad, level and straight. 
 
 Loin. Wide. 
 
 Tail. High set, small and fine, with tassel of fine hair. 
 
 Girth. As deep as possible consistent with length. 
 
 Sides. Deep. 
 
 Ribs. Well sprung. 
 
 Belly. Deep and near ground. 
 
 Flank. Thick and well let down. 
 
 Quarters. Wide and full. 
 
 Hams. Dee-p, wide, full, and well rounded. 
 
 Coat. Fine and silky. 
 
 Action. Free and firm. 
 
 Skin. Fine, quite free from wrinkles. The general appear- 
 ance of animals, small, thick and compact when compared 
 with other breeds. 
 
 Objections. Black hairs, black or blue spots, coarse hair, 
 in-bent knees, hollowness at back of shoulder, wrinkled skin. 
 
184 
 
 JUDGING SWINE 
 
 SMALL YORKSHIRE SWINE, 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS AMERICAN SMALL YORKSHIRE SWINE " 
 RECORD, VOLUME II, 1890. 
 
 Smaller the better 2 
 
 Nose, shorter the better 5 
 
 Dish, greater the better 3 
 
 Width between ears, greater, the better 3 
 Ears, small, thin, erect, more so the 
 better (may be pricked forward, not 
 
 lopped) 2 
 
 Head ,.15 
 
 Trunk 
 
 Hams 
 
 Shoulders . 
 Legs . 
 
 Skin 
 
 Hair 
 
 / Top line, straighter the better, from 
 
 I shoulder to tail 5 
 
 \ Belly line, the more level the better. . 5 
 
 j Girth, in excess of length, more the bet- 
 
 3 _ } ter, if not more than ten per cent. . . 5 
 
 3 \ Depth, greater the better 5 
 
 1 Width, greater and evener the better, 
 
 / from shoulder to ham 5 
 
 I Loin, broader the better 5 
 
 ' Flank, deeper and fuller the better. . . 5 
 
 f Length, longer the better 10 
 
 ,25 ^ Breadth, broader the better 10 
 
 [ Thickness, greater the better 5 
 
 f Length, longer the better 2 
 
 . 5 <( Breadth, broader the better 3 
 
 [Thickness 
 
 r i Shorter the better 3 
 
 3 i Straighter the better 2 
 
 / Smooth, flexible, fine; more so the bet- 
 
 I ter 5 
 
 Must not be too thin, nor ridgy 
 5 an'l coarse, nor show discolored 
 
 spots from old sores, not pale and 
 ashy but healthy in color and free 
 from eruption. 
 
 Evener, finer and thicker the better. 5 
 
 General appear- f Symmetry and evidence of vigorous 
 ance . .51 health . 5 
 
 Total 100 
 
 DISCOUNTS AND DISQUALIFICATIONS. 
 
 Pedigree, lack of registration or ineligibility to be regis- 
 tered disqualifies 100 
 
 Sterility, inability to produce offspring disqualifies 100 
 
 Deformity, any structural deformity or lack disqualifies. . 100 
 
OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 185 
 
 Disease, any evidence of, or tendency to disease disqualifies. 100 
 Disease, scars of sores, discolored spots, eruptions, eczema, 
 
 etc 5 to 25 
 
 Colored hair, disqualifies 100 
 
 Colored spots, dark spots in skin 5 to 25 
 
 Size, inordinate size, with coarseness of bone or form. 10 to 50 
 
 Size, diminutive size 5 to 25 
 
 Disposition, savage or fierce nature 5 to 10 
 
 SUFFOLK SWINE. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN SUFFOLK 
 
 ASSOCIATION. 
 
 Color. White 2 
 
 Head. Small, broad and face dished 3 
 
 Ears. Fine, erect, slightly drooping with age 2 
 
 Jowl. Full and neat 1 
 
 Neck. Short, full and slightly arched 3 
 
 Shoulders. Broad and deep 7 
 
 Girth Around Heart 6 
 
 Back. Straight, broad, level 12 
 
 Sides. Deep and full 6 
 
 Ribs. Well sprung 7 
 
 Loin. Broad and strong 12 
 
 Plank. Well let down 2 
 
 Ham. Broad, full, deep 12 
 
 Tail. Medium, fine and curled 2 
 
 Legs. Fine, straight and tapering 3 
 
 Feet. Small 3 
 
 Hair. Fine and silky, free from bristles 3 
 
 Action. Easy and graceful 4 
 
 Symmetry- Adaptation of the several parts to each other 10 
 
 Total ( ,...., ..100 
 
186 JUDGING SWINE 
 
 TAMWORTH SWINE. 
 
 STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE ADOPTED BY THE NATIONAL PIG 
 BREEDERS ASSOCIATION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 Color. Golden-red hair on a flesh colored skin, free from 
 black. 
 
 Head. Fairly long, snout moderately long, and quite 
 straight, face slightly dished, wide between ears. 
 
 Ears. Rather large, with fine fringe, carried rigid, but in- 
 clined slightly forward. 
 
 Neck. Fairly long and muscular, especially in boar. 
 
 Chest. Wide and deep. 
 
 Shoulders. Fine standing, and well set. 
 
 Legs. Strong and shapely with plenty of bone and set well 
 outside of body. 
 
 Pasterns. Strong and sloping. 
 
 Feet. Strong and fair size. 
 
 Back. Long and straight. 
 
 Loin. Strong and broad. 
 
 Tail. Set on high and well taeseled. 
 
 Girth. Deep and full around heart. 
 
 Sides. Long and deep. 
 
 Ribs. Well sprung, and extending well up to flank. 
 
 Belly. Deep, with straight underline. 
 
 Flank. Full and well let down. 
 
 Quarters. Long, wide, and straight from hip to tail. 
 
 Hams. Broad and full, and well let down to hock. 
 
 Coat. Abundant, long, straight, and fine. 
 
 TAMWORTH SWINE. 
 
 The following is the Tamworth Scale of Points adopted by 
 the English breeders: 
 
 Formation and setting on of fore legs 10 
 
 Formation and setting on of hind legs 10 
 
 Length and general conformation 10 
 
 Head, ears, jowl and snout 10 
 
 Breadth of neck 5 
 
 Breadth and depth of sholders 10 
 
 Width of loin, depth of sides, springing of ribs 15 
 
 Depth and breadth of hams 10 
 
 Straightness of back 5 
 
 Hair and quality of skin 5 
 
 Color 5 
 
 Fineness of bone 5 
 
 Action. Firm and free. 
 
 Objections. Black hairs, very light or ginger hair, curly 
 coat, coarse mane, black spots on skin, slouch or drooping 
 ears, short or turned up snout, heavy shoulders, wrinkled 
 skin, inbent knees, hollowness at back of shoulders. 
 
OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE 1 OB SWINE 187 
 
 THIN RIND HOGS. 
 
 STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE ADOPTED BY THE THIN BIND 
 RECORD ASSOCIATION. 
 
 Head. Medium, well proportioned to length of body, and < 
 grade as follows: 
 
 Face. Straight and rather narrow between eyes 3 
 
 Eyes. Full and bright 2 
 
 Ears. Medium length, thin and slightly inclining forward 3 
 
 Jowl. Light and tapering from neck to point 5 
 
 Xeck. Short and well set to shoulders 3 
 
 Shoulders. Wide, full and deep, smoothly joined to back 6 
 Back. Medium in length, broad with nearly uniform width 
 from shoulders to loins, slightly arched from neck to 
 
 top of tail 10 
 
 Sides. Deep and well rounded, nearly straight on bottom 
 
 line , 8 
 
 Ribs. Nicely sprung in line with shoulders and hams. . 3 
 Girth. Very full, denoting great vigcr and strong consti- 
 tution 8 
 
 Flank. Running low nearly in line with belly 2 
 
 Hams. Full and rounding up to rump and of great breadth 12 
 Legs. Small, set well apart, very erect on feet, denoting 
 
 great carrying capacity 10 
 
 Tail. Medium length, neat and tapering 2 
 
 Hair. Fine and of medium thickness 3 
 
 Color. Black, with exception of white belt encircling body 
 including fore legs, or solid black, white running high 
 
 upon hind legs objectionable but allowable 5 
 
 Form and General Appearance. Smooth and symmetrical, 
 devoid of such grossness as excess of bone, jowl and 
 flabby belly; spirited, attractive, easy movement, indi- 
 cating constitutional vigor and good breeding 15 
 
 Total . 100 
 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 
 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 
 
 This book has been developed to its present form under in- 
 fluences that have been very favorable to it and the author 
 feels that these should be fittingly acknowledged. Prom its 
 inception, some ten years ago, these influences have been so 
 encouraging that it becomes necessary to give tangible evidence 
 of them, and consequently the work had to be published with- 
 out any thought of filling the traditional "long-felt want" 
 which is so frequently the source of authorship. Previous to 
 attending the Ontario Agricultural College the writer had a 
 very limited knowledge of any phase of live stock work but a 
 deep love and active interest in animal life, centered chiefly 
 on horses, made the instruction from such teachers as Prof. 
 Wm. Brown, Dr. F. C. Grenside and Prof. J. W. Robertson, a 
 genuine pleasure. After graduation, three years of editorial 
 management of the Canadian Live Stock Journal offered un- 
 usual opportunities for analyzing the ideals of the best Cana- 
 dian breeders, to whom unlimited appreciation is hereby ten- 
 dered for a foundation which could hardly have been laid 
 without more than usual co-operation from them. With the 
 acceptance of the Chair of Animal Husbandry in the University 
 of Wisconsin, a wider field was entered upon for deeper study 
 and investigation. Stock judging was made a leading feature 
 of the course, and with the development of ideas a new system 
 of instruction was evolved. The writer is vastly indebted to 
 Mr. R. B. Ogilvie, formerly proprietor of Blairgowrie Stock 
 Farm, for not only directly assisting the development of this 
 department at the University, but also for the results from 
 frequent visits and conferences at Blairgowrie, through which 
 a much stronger grasp of the essentials of horse judging was 
 obtained. For many valuable observations on the qualities of 
 draft horses the writer finds himself also greatly in the debt 
 
192 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 
 
 of Mr. Alexander Galbraith. The influence of Hon. W. A. 
 Jones, now Commissioner of Indian Affairs, was clearly felt on 
 the development of this department of the University, for 
 through him as chairman of the Farm Committee of the Board 
 of Regents, the equipment for this work was materially up- 
 lifted with corresponding encouragement. Mr. George Mc- 
 Kerrow liberally assisted the writer in his work and much 
 advancement is due to him and others, including Messrs. 
 George Harding and Son, the late Mr. M. W. Dunham, Ex- 
 Governor Hoard, H. C. Taylor, John Gosling and M. J. Hoven, 
 all of whom in more than one way gave material impetus to 
 the movement. 
 
 It was at this time that the writer come under the inspiring 
 influence of the late Mr. William Watson. It was a source of 
 intense pleasure to see this experienced fitter and judge sub- 
 ject any of his loving friends, chiefly cattle and sheep, to his 
 considerate inspection. Equally fair minded, another friend, 
 William Lysaght, had this rare faculty of candid criticism 
 even of : his own, and to both of these men the writer owes 
 more than he is able to acknowledge. After coming to Iowa, 
 enlarged opportunities were entered upon for the pursuit of 
 these studies. Prof. C. F. Curitss and Hon. James Wilson, 
 present Secretary of Agriculture, had prepared the way with 
 an equipment in live stock and other facilities of exceptional 
 merit for the teaching of this subject. Continued association 
 with the former has vastly deepened and widened the writer's 
 interest and knowledge of this subject; for such must be the 
 outcome of contact with a broad and fair minded judge of 
 wide experience in American live stock show rings. One of the 
 most effective sources of encouragement to the development 
 of this line of teaching has been the support given the move- 
 ment by the commission firm of Messrs. Clay, Robinson & 
 Company, of the Union Stock yards, Chicago. By liberally 
 donating prizes for the study of this subject in our colleges, 
 this firm brought the attention of the practical man to it, as 
 the latter realized that when a large firm stopped in its work 
 to do this there must be something of genuine merit in the 
 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 193 
 
 movement. With such interest from outside sources and such 
 direct asscciaticns is it any wonder that the subject should 
 gro_w until it became a necessity to publish a book about it? 
 Other influences have been drawn on in studying this sub- 
 ject further. In earlier days the writer happened on one of 
 the first numbers of the Breeders Gazette, containing an illus- 
 trated editorial on the points of horses. This emphasized the 
 importance of the subject and at once started the note taking 
 and the collection of photographs which seem essential features 
 for a work like this. Since then the same source has been 
 frequently drawn upon. The writer has also found it very 
 desirable to keep in touch with the London Live Stock Journal, 
 as well as many other publications along this line included in 
 the American press. Among contemporary works, Capt. Kayes' 
 "Points of the Horse," Goubaux and Barrier's "Exterior of 
 the Horse," Underbill's "Driving for Pleasure" and many 
 others have been consulted. To continue acknowledging all 
 the sources of assistance to the writer, wcul?. require another 
 volume but let it suffice to say there are hundreds of Amer- 
 ican, Canadian and British breeders to whom he vividly recog- 
 nizes his debt but feels utterly unable to adequately acknowl- 
 edge it. 
 
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