6 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. permanent existence of His Church, our Lord gave them the solemn promise that He Himself would be with them to the end of the world, and that the Paraclete, the Spirit of truth, would abide with them forever, " Who would teach them all truth." John xiv. and xvi. 13. Thus was established by Christ the "Kingdom of God upon earth," that is, the Church, which, although small in the beginning, was destined to spread over the whole world, embracing all nations and uniting them into one great spiritual Kingdom. The small society consisting then of only the Apostles and Disciples of our Lord, and some pious women, who ministered to Him in His daily rounds and travels, was the commencement, the fruitful bud, as it were, of the " Church of Christ." Christ calls His Church indifferently " the King- dom of God " and " the Kingdom of Heaven^ She is a Kingdom, indeed, not of this world, yet founded in this world, and for the salva- tion of the world. In her alone are fulfilled the predictions of the prophets concerning the perpetual Kingdom of the Messiah. SECTION III. PASSION AND DEATH OF OUR LORD. Jesus and His Enemies — ^Divine Decree — Institution of the Blessed Sacrament — Our Lord's Final Discourse— His Passion — His Death — His Resurrection — His Ascension— The Four Gospels — Apocryphal Gospels and Writings. 14. During the three years of His public ministry, Jesus bestowed upon the Jewish people the greatest benefits and blessings ; the count- less miracles which He wrought in the name of God the Father, were a sufficient and convincing proof of His divine Mission, and of His being the promised Messiah. Many of the people, indeed, believed in Him, confessing Him to be " the Prophet who was to come into this world," John vi. 14, and "that when the Christ conieth, He would work miracles neither greater nor more numerous than those of Jesus." John vii. 31. Nevertheless, our Lord had many enemies, who were found chiefly among the Scribes and Pharisees.^ These were bitterly opposed to Him, because of His severe reproaches against them, and because walking in the way of humiliation and contempt of the world, He appeared in a guise which ill suited their pride and the carnal views 1. The Jewish Theolog-ians, we find at this time, divided into three sects, who were more or less opposed to each other— the Pharisees, the Saddiicees and tlio Essenes. The Pharisees, whose name implies separation from the unholy, atfected the g'reatest exact- ness in every reiiKJous observance, and attributed j^roat authority to traditional precepts relating principally to external rites. They were the leading? sect among- the Jews, and had great intiuence with the common people. The Sadducees, on the contrary, disre- garded all the traditional and unwritten laws which the Pharisees prized so highly; they denied the doctrine of the resurrection, and the existence of the angels. The Essenes were a society of piousty disposed men, who had- withdrawn themselves from the strife of theological and political parties to the western side of the Dead Sea, where they lived together, leading an ascetic and retired life. PASSION OF CHRIST. 7 they had formed of the Messiah. They con^antly watched His words and actions, but could not detect any fault wherewith to impeach His character. 15. Full of malice, the Jewish leaders continually sought to destroy Him, and decreed to excommunicate every one who should confess Jesus of Kazareth to be the Messiah. John x. 22. Finally, when Jesus raised Lazarus from the dead, and soon after made His regal entry into Jerusalem, the high-priests summoned a council, and, under pretence of providing for the welfare and security of the nation, resolved to put Him to death. John xi. 47-53. Yet so long as it pleased Him, His enemies could do Him no harm, "for though they sought to apprehend Him, yet no man laid hands on Him, because His hour was not yet come." John vii. 30. All the intrigues and violence of His enemies would have availed nothing, had it not been His will to suffer and die for the salvation of the world. " No man" He said, 'taketh My life from Me, but I lay it down of Myself; and I have power to lay it down, and I have power to take it up again." John x. 18. 16. But when His time was come, Jesus said to His disci- ples, on His way to Jerusalem: "Behold we go up to Jerusalem; and the Son of man shall be betrayed to the chief priests and to the Scribes, and they shall condemn Him to death." Matt. xx. 18. In the eternal counsels of God it had been decreed that Jesus should become a victim and sacrifice of expiation for the sins of the world, and by His sufferings and death on the cross redeem mankind. Our Lord, therefore, resigned to the will of His heavenly Father, steadily looked forward to the consummation of that sacrifice in His ignomin- ious death. And He not only died because He so willed, but when He willed. He chose to die at the time of the Paschal feast ; and He carried out His purpose in spite of all the efforts of His enemies to the contrary. In vain had the high priests and Pharisees resolved not to seize and slay Him until after the Pasch, lest there might be a tumult amongst the people who shortly before had welcomed Him with such enthusiasm. Matt. xxvi. 5. Jesus had expressly said to His Apostles : " After two days will be the Pasch, and the Son of man will be given up, that He may be crucified." Matt. xxvi. 2. 17. On the eve of His bitter Passion, after having eaten the Pas- chal lamb with His Apostles, and having washed their feet, Jesus proceeded to institute the Blessed Sacrament. Taking bread He blessed it and gave it to His Apostles, with the words : " Take ye and eat. This is My Body which shall be delivered for you." In like manner taking the chalice with wine. He blessed and gave it to His Apostles, saying : " Drink ye all of this, for this is My Blood, IBRARY 'NlVr:-;TY OF CALIrC.'?NiA /" j<«? History of the Church, PKOM ITS First Establishment to Our Own Times. DESIGNED FOE THE ITSE OP ECCLESIASTICAL SEMINARIES AND COLLEGES. — BY — REV. J. A. BIRKH.EUSER, IFORMERLY Professor of Church History and Canon Law in THE PrOYINCIAL SEMINARY OF St. FraNCIS DE SaLES, NEAR Milwaukee, Wis. " The first Law of History is to dread uttering falsehood ; the next, not to fear stating the truth lastly, that the historian's writings should be open to no suspicion of partiality or of animoslty."- His Holiness Pope Leo XIII. FR. PUSTET, Printer to the Holy See and the S. Congregation of Kites. FR. PUSTET & CO., New Yokk and Cincinnati LOAN STACK Copyright Secured, 1888. Rev. J. A. Birkhjeuseb. (All Rights Reserved.) RECOMMENDATIONS. Milwaukee, May 9, 1888. It is with sincere pleasure and satisfaction that I recommend the *' History of the Church," written by Eey. J. A. Birkhseuser, late Professor of Church History and Canon Law in the Provincial Seminary of St. Francis. As I have carefully perused the proof- sheets of the work while it was in print, I had sufficient opportu- nity of convincing myself that this book, owing to the singularly full and precise treatment of the subject, will fill a long-felt want in our Catholic literature, and will be used with great advantage as a text-book in our Ecclesiastical Seminaries. The frequent references to patristic literature which are found in this volume will make our students familiar with a branch of theological science, which, owing to the status of our course of studies, has not yet received that attention which it rightly deserves. While I sincerely congratulate the Reverend author on the good he has done, I wish to his work all the success which his zeal and assi- duity deserve. t MICHAEL HEISS, Archbishop of Milwaukee. Baltimore, May 18, 1888. I take great pleasure in adding my name to that of the Most Rev. Archbishop of Milwaukee in commending to the clergy and faithful the " History of the Church," by Rev. J. A. BirkhsBUser, late Professor of St. Francis' Seminary, Milwaukee. t JAMES CARDINAL GIBBONS, Archbishop of Baltimore, .SI 2 if RECOMMENDATIONS, Cincinnati, May 18, 1888. I have not had an opportunity to examine Rev. J. A. Birkhse user's "History of the Church." But the approbation of the Most Rev. Archbishop of Milwaukee is a full guarantee of its merits. And the reputation of the Institution from which rit comes makes me not hesitate to recommend it to all readers of Church History, t WILLIAM HENRY ELDER, Archbishop of Gindnnatu I PREFACE. The object of the present work will require but little explanation : it is to supply what is believed to be an acknowl- edged deficiency. This brief outline of ecclesiastical history, intended for the use of students in colleges and theological seminaries as an introductory to the important study of Church History, has arisen out of a course of lectures which, for several years, I delivered in the Provincial Seminary at St. Francis, near Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The repeated requests of my fellow-professors and of the seminarians attending these lectures at length prevailed upon me to pub- lish them in a connected and enlarged form for a wider circle. That there exists a real need of a good English text-book on Church History, suited for theological students and more advanced pupils, seems to be generally conceded. A writer in the Catholic Literary Circular of London, April, 1882, observes : " We are behindhand in many departments of literature ; but in none, probably, is the dearth of readable books more sadden- ing than in this one subject of ecclesiastical history. The English version of Alzog is cumbersome and unfinished ; Reeve has made his work so intolerably dreary, that it would be folly to hope for any good as the result of such a book ; the translation of DoUinger leaves many centuries untouched. The ordinary Catholic student, therefore, who wants informa- tion on questions belonging to ecclesiastical history and is not master of foreign languages, must drink at such poisoned sources as Stephen, or the translations of Ranke and Neander." Other leading periodicals, such as The Dublin Review and The American Catholic Quarterly Review, express themselves to the same effect. '^Manuals are needed for the use of institutions, which, while leaving truth intact, shall put aside all that is harmful to youth and serve to aid and extend historical studies." (His Holiness Pope Leo XIIL, in his letter of August 18, 1883, to Cardinals de Luca, Pitra, and Hergenrcether.) % RECOMMENDATIONS, Cincinnati, May 18, 1888. I have not had an opportunity to examine Rev. J. A. Birkhse user's "History of the Church." But the approbation of the Most Rev. Archbishop of Milwaukee is a full guarantee of its merits. And the reputation of the Institution from which at comes makes me not hesitate to recommend it fco all readers of Church History, t WILLIAM HENRY ELDER, Archbishop of Gindnnatu PREFACE. The object of the present work will require but little explanation : it is to supply what is believed to be an acknowl- edged deficiency. This brief outline of ecclesiastical history, intended for the use of students in colleges and theological seminaries as an introductory to the important study of Church History, has arisen out of a course of lectures which, for several years, I delivered in the Provincial Seminary at St. Francis, near Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The repeated requests of my fellow-professors and of the seminarians attending these lectures at length prevailed upon me to pub- lish them in a connected and enlarged form for a wider circle. That there exists a real need of a good English text-book on Church History, suited for theological students and more advanced pupils, seems to be generally conceded. A writer in the Catholic Literary Circular of London, April, 1882, observes : " We are behindhand in many departments of literature ; but in none, probably, is the dearth of readable books more sadden- ing than in this one subject of ecclesiastical history. The English version of Alzog is cumbersome and unfinished ; Reeve has made his work so intolerably dreary, that it would be folly to hope for any good as the result of such a book ; the translation of Dollinger leaves many centuries untouched. The ordinary Catholic student, therefore, who wants informa- tion on questions belonging to ecclesiastical history and is not master of foreign languages, must drink at such poisoned sources as Stephen, or the translations of Ranke and Neander." Other leading periodicals, such as The Dublin Review and The American Catholic Quarterly Review, express themselves to the same effect. "^Manuals are needed for the use of institutions, which, while leaving truth intact, shall put aside all that is harmful to youth and serve to aid and extend historical studies." (His Holiness Pope Leo XIIL, in his letter of August 18, 1883, to Cardinals de Luca, Pitra, and Hergenroether.) ▼i P EFFACE. While teaching Church History in our Seminary, I sadly felt the want of a suitable text-book for the use of our students ; as a natural consequence, they had either to be taught, with much additional cost, both of time and labor, from the notes or lectures of their professor, or to adopt as their manual the translations of either Alzog or Darras — works which, though excellent in their kind, have been pronounced too extensive and voluminous for the short space of time that is usually al- lotted to the study of ecclesiastical history in our institutions. To supply the want by the translation of another foreign manual, I considered inexpedient. In a text-book of Church History for the use of our institutions greater regard ought to be shown for the wants of the English speaking world than is commonly found in books that are merely adaptations or trans- lations from foreign sources and languages. Besides, I deemed it important that some prominence should be given to Chris- tian Antiquity, and especially to Patristic Studies. These important subjects are generally treated in European institu- tions as separate branches of -study ; but in our ecclesiastical seminaries, it would seem, they must be studied in connection with Church History, or there is danger that they will be entirely overlooked. It has been my constant effort not to encumber the student's mind with a mass of details, but to sketch events in a few words, and to give, in as clear and connected a manner as possible, a plain but carefully drawn outline of ecclesiastical history. How far I have succeeded, must be left to the decision of those whose knowledge of Christian history entitles them to pronounce judgment in this matter. This being the limit of my desire, I thought best not to clog the work with copious references and quotations, which, although interesting to the scholar, would make a text-book too prolix for the ordinary student. The present work claims no originality. The utmost I have done in historical research has been as an humble follower in the footsteps of those who have gone before. Tte work which has been especially consulted, and which, to a certain extent, forms the basis of this history, is the famous " Manual of Uni- versal Church History," by his Eminence, Cardinal Hergen- roether, whose, great services to the Church in the field of PREFACE. vii ecclesiastical history are well known all over the Catholic world, and have been acknowledged by as high an authority as His Holiness Leo XIII., who promoted the learned author to the dignity of Cardinal, and appointed him "■ Prefect of the Vatican Archives." Other works used in the composition of this volume are those of the learned Church-historian, Bishop Hefele, who wrote a most elaborate and valuable ** History of the Councils ;" of Mohler, the famous author of the Symbolism ; of Jungmann, professor in the University of Louvain ; of Palma, Dollinger, Janssen, and Briick ; of Lingard, the English his- torian ; of Cardinals Newman and Moran ; of J. G. Shea, the well known author of a series of works on American history ; and the English versions of Alzog and Darras. Many other modern works of standard authors. Catholic and Protestant,, have been put under contribution ; amongst the rest were con- sulted the publications of Cardinal Wiseman and Archbishops Kenrick and Spalding ; of Bishops Challoner, Carew, and Eng- land ; of Audin, Waterworth, Flanagan, Mac Geoghan, Malone, Mac Leod, Marshall, Gillow, Thebaud, Bellesheim, Brownson, Murray, Ranke, Neander, Mosheim, Gibbon, Milman, Hallam, Maitland, Green, Macaulay, Robertson, Graham, Bancroft, Blunt, Lee, and Guizot. On some points I am indebted for val- uable information to The Month, The Dublin Review, The Irish Ecclesiastical Record, The American Quarterly Review, The Cath- olic World, and other Catholic periodicals. In writing the treatises on Patristic Literature, besides con- sulting the excellent '' OutHne of Patrology," by Dr. Alzog, and other works on this subject, I followed chiefly the learned and extensive " Institutions of Patrology," by Bishop Fessler, whose long study and labor on patrology, church history, and canon law were deservedly honored by the late Pope Pius IX., who, in 1869, appointed the distinguished prelate Secretary of the Council of the Vatican. The present work, having been written and the printing cor- rected under the pressure of other occupations, will, no doubt, contain some inaccuracies and omissions ; with respect to these I trust to find indulgence with the reader. In writing this vol- ume, I have conscientiously striven to follow the rule laid down by His Holiness Leo XIII., in the above quoted letter: " The first law of history is to dread uttering falsehood ; the viii PREFACR next, not to fear stating the truth ; lastly, that the historian's writings should be open to no suspicion of partiality or of animosity." At the end of this work will be found a carefully prepared Index, by the aid of which, together with the Table of Contents at its commencement, the reader will be able to turn to any event and question stated therein. In conclusion, the author expresses his sincere thanks to the friends who helped and encouraged him in his labor. He feels bound to express his special obligations to the Rev. E. Fitzpatrick, formerly professor in our Seminar}^ who furnished him with many valuable suggestions and corrections ; and to Professor J. Gmeiner and Rev. J. Casey, for many acts of kindness during the preparation of the work for the press. TABLE OF CONTENTS. T Preface Introduction xxi FIRST PERIOD. CHRISTIAN ANTIQUITY. FEOM CHRIST TO THE END OF THE SEVENTH CENTURY, OR, FROM A. D. 1 TO A. D. 680. FIRST EPOCH. FROM THE BIRTH OF CHRIST TO THE EDICT OF MILAN, OR, FROM A, D. 1 TO A. D. 313. CHAPTER I. HISTORY OF JESUS CHRIST, THE DIVINE FOUNDER OF THE CHURCH. Section'I. - Birth and Early Life of Christ 1 Section II. Public Life of our Lord - 3 Section lU. Passion and Death of our Lord 6 CHAPTER n. HISTORY OF THE APOSTLES. Section IV. Pentecost — Preaching of the Apostles . - - - 10 Section V. Growth of the Infant Church 13 Section VI. ApostoHc Labors of St. Peter— The Founding of the See Of Rome 16 Section VH. Apostolic Labors of St. Paul — His Missionary Journeys and his Epistles 19 Section, V m,— Labors of the Other Apostles— Disciples of Apostles 24 Section IX. Overthrow of Judaism and Triumph of the Infant Church 28 X CONTENTS. I PAGB. Section X. Rapid Propagation of Christianity — Its causes - - 31 Section XI. Propagation of Christianity in Particular Countries - 33 CHAPTER in. RELATION OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH TO THE HEATHEN "WORLD. Section XII. Heatheti- Opposition to the CHristian Cliurch— Perse- cution of the Faitliful.. 37 Section XIII. Persecutions during the First Century - - - 40 Section XIV. Persecutions during the Second Century - - - 43 Section XV. Persecutions during the Third Century - . ^ - 46 Section XVI. Persecutions during the Third Century, Continued - 48 Section XVII. The Great Persecution under Diocletian and His Colleagues 51 Section XVIU. Continuation of the Persecution under Galerius and MaximinDaja - • 55 Section XIX. Heathen Philosophy in Opposition to Christianity - 58 CHAPTER IV. EARLY CATHOLIC LITERATURE. Section XX. The Apostolic Fathers. 63 Section XXI. The Christian Apologists • . . - . . 64 Section XXI. The Fathers after the Apostolic Age .... 69 Section XXII. Clement of Alexandria, Origen, and Tertullian - 71 Section XXin. Other Christian Writers 74 Section XXIV. The Early Christian Schools or Lyceums — Versions and Canon of the Sacred Scriptures - - - • 77 CHAPTER V: HISTORY OF HERESIES AND SCHISMS. /. Heresies. Section XXV. Heresies during the Apostolic Age - - • • 80 Section XXVI. Heresies after the Apostolic Age — The Gnostic Sects — Various Gnostic Schools 83 Section XXVII. The Manicheans 87 Section XXVni. The Montanists and Alogi - ... - 88 Section XXIX. Antitrinitarian Heresies - 90 //. Schisms and Controversies. Section XXX. Schisms, (a.) of Novatus at Carthage; (b.) of Nova- tian at Rome, and (c.) of Meletius in Egypt - - 92 Section XXXI. Controversies concerning (a.) The Millennium, (b.) Paschal Festival, and (c.) The Validity of Heretical Baptism 96 CHAPTER VI. CONSTITUTION, WORSHIP, AND DISCIPLINB. Section XXXII. The Clergy— Diflferent Orders of Clergy - - 98 Section XXXIII. The Hierarchy of Bishops— Metropolitans - - 101 CONTENTS. Ti Section XXXIV. The Primacy of the Roman See — Authority of the Popes over the Whole Church .... 103 Section XXXV. Popes of the First and Second Centuries - - - 105 Section XXXVI. Popes of the Third Century 107 Section XXXVII. The Sacraments of Baptism and Confirmation - 111 Section XXXVIII. Practice and Discipline of Penance— The Sacra- ment of Penance 113 Section XXXIX. The Holy Eucharist— Discipline of the Secret - 115 Section XL. Holy Days and Ecclesiastical Seasons— Sacred Rites and Places— The Catacombs ..... -ig SECOND EPOCH. 7B0M THE EDICT OF MILAN TO THE SIXTH ECUMENICAL COUNCIL, OB, FROM A. D. 313 TO A. D. 680. Introductory MemarJcs, CHAPTER I. CHRISTIANITY TRIUMPHANT OVER PAGANISM. I. The Church in the Boman Empire. Section XLI. The Church under Constantine and his Sons - - 124 Section XLII. The Church under Julian the Apostate - - - 127 Section XLIH. The Church under the Successors of Julian — Extinc- tion of Paganism in the Roman Empire - - - 129 II. The Church outside the Roman Empire. Section XLIV. Propagation of Christianity in Asia, and Africa - 131 Section XLV. Conversion of Ireland by St. Patrick .... 135 Section XL VI. Christianity in Britain and Scotland .... 133 III. Christianity am,ong the Oermanic and Sclavonic Nations. Section XLVH. The IVIigration of the Nations 141 Section XL Vin. Christianity among the Visigoths in Spain, and Ostrogoths and Lombards in Italy - - - . 143 Section XLIX. Christianity among the Vandals in Africa — The Huns 146 Section L. Christianity in Gaul — The Burgundians — Conversion of the Franks 148 Section LI. Conversion of the Anglo-Saxons in Britain . - - 149 CHAPTER n. PATRISTIC LITERATURE. Section LH. The Greek Fathers and Doctors 152 Section LIH. The Greek Fathers, Continued 156 lii CONTENTS. PAOS Section LIV. Other Greek Writers — The Christian Schools of Alex- andria and Antioch 161 Section LV. Doctors of the Latin Church . . _ . . 166 Section LVI. Other Doctors and Fathers of the Latin Church - - 171 Section LVII. Other Latin Writers 174 Section LVHI. Syrian Fathers and Writers 178 CHAPTER ni. HISTORY OF HERESIES AND SCHISMS. /. Heresies. Section LIX. Arianism— Ecumenical Council of Nice - - 181 Section LX. Intrigues of the Eusebians — Persecution of Orthodox Bishops 185 Section LXI. Arian Parties— The Pretended Fall of Liberius and Bishop Hosius 189 Section LXII. Decline and End of Arianism in the Roman Empire 193 Section LXIII. The Heresies of Macedonius, Appollinaris, and Pho- tinus — Second General Council of Constantinople - - 194 Section LXIV. Pelagianism 197 Section LXV. Semi-Pelagianism — Predestinarians - - - 199 Section LXVI. Nestorianism — Third General Council of Ephesus - 201 Section LXVH. The Monophysite Heresy — The' Fourth Ecumenical Council of Chalcedon - - - 204 Section LXVIH. The Orlgenist Controversy 209 Section LXIX. The Three Chapters— The Fifth Ecumenical Council of Constantinople 210 Section LXX. Heresy of the Monothelites ...... 213 Section LXXI. The Sixth Ecumenical Council, A. D. 680— The Sup- posed Fall of Honorius 216 Section LXXn. Minor Sects - - - - - - - - - 218 //. Schisms. Section LXXIH. Schism of the Donatists — Luciferian and Meletian Schisms - - - 220 Section LXXIV. Mohammed and Mohammedanism - - - - 224 CHAPTER IV. CONSTITUTION, WORSHIP, AND DISCIPLINE. Section LXXV. Education and Celibacy of the Clergy - - - 227 Section LXXVI. Metropolitans, Primates, Exarchs and Patriarchs — Bishops — Their Assistants 228 Section LXXVIL The Primacy of the Roman See .... 230 Section LXXVIII. The Popes of the Fourth and Fifth Centuries - 234 Section LXXIX. The Popes of the Sixth Century to the Accession of Gregory the Great 237 Section LXXX. Gregory I. the Great— The Popes to the Close of the Seventh Century - - 240 Section LXXXI. Sacraments of Baptism, Confirmation, and Penance 243 CONTENTS. ^iii PAGE. Section LXXXII. Holy Eucharist 245 Section LXXXIII. Eremitical and Monastic Life . - - . 243 SECOND PERIOD. MEDIEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. FEOM THE CLOSE OF THE SEVENTH TO THE BEGINNING OF THE SIX- TEENTH CENTXJEY, OE, FEOM A. D. 680 TO A. D. 1500. FIRST EPOCH. FEOM THE CLOSE OF THE SEVENTH CENTUEY TO THE GEEEK SCHISM, OE, FROM A. D. 680 TO A. D. 1054. Introductory Remarks, CHAPTER I. PEOPAGATION OF CHRISTIANITY. Section I. Christianity in Germany - - - - - - - 257 Section H. Labors of St. Boniface - - - . •, . . 260 Section III. Conversion of the Saxons— Christianity in Scandinavia 262 Section IV. Christianity among the Sclavonic Nations — SS. Cyril and Methodius, Apostles of the Sclavonians - • - 265 Section V. Christianity among the Sclavonians, Continued — The Bo- hemians, Poles, and Russians— Conversion of Hungary 268 Section VI. State of the Church in Ireland - 270 Section VH. State of the Church in England 275 Section VHI. State of the Church in France and Spain .... 279 CHAPTER n RELATION OF THE PAPACY TO THE EMPIRE. Section IX. The Popes under the Byzantine Rule .... 281 Section X. Temporal Dominion of the Popes — Papal States — Stephen in. — His Successors 284 Section XI. The Holy Roman Empire — Pope Leo IH. and Charle- magne 287 Section XII. Successors of Leo III. ...... - 290 liv CONTENTS. PAGE Section XIII. Pontificate of Nicholas I. the Great. — The Papacy to the the Ninth Century - - 292 Section XIV. The Papacy from the Death of Formosus to John XII. — ^Enslavement of the Holy See 295 Section XV. The Papacy after the Restoration of the Empire under Otho 1. the Great - 299 Section XVI. The Papacy from the Death of Sylvester II. to that of Leo IX.— Renewed Dependency of the Holy See - - 802 CHAPTER ni. CATHOLIC SCIENCE AND LITERATURE. Section XVH. General State of Learning in this Epoch — Endeavors of the Church to Promote Letters 304 Section XVHI. Christian Scholars and Writers— Their Works - - 308 CHAPTER IV. HERESIES AND SCHISMS. Section XIX. Iconoclasm — Seventh Ecumenical Council. - - 813 Section XX. Adoptionist Heresy — Predestinarianism - - - 316 Section XXI. The Greek Schism 318 Section XXII. Eighth Ecumenical Council — Revival of the Greek Schism by Michael Cerularius 322 Section XXIII. Controversy on the Holy Eucharist — Heresy of Ber- engarius 324 CHAPTER V. CONSTITUTION AND DISCIPLINE. Section XXIV. The Church in Her Relation to the State— Supremacy of the Popes - - - - 326 Section XXV. Ecclesiastical Legislation— False Decretals - - 829 Section XXVI. The Clergy and Religious Orders - - - . 831 SECOND EPOCH. TROM THE GREEK SCHISM TO THE BEGINNING OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY, OR, PROM A. D. 1054 TO A. D. 1500. Introductory Remarks, CHAPTER I. PROPAGATION OP CHRISTIANITY. Section XXVII. Progress of Christianity in Northern Europe - - 336 Section XXVIII. Missions to the Heathen and Mohammedans in Asia and Africa 3^^ CONTENTS. XV PAGE. Section XXIX. The First Crusade under Godfrey of Bouillon — The Kingdom of Jerusalem- 341 Section XXX. The Crusades — Continued 344 CHAPTER 11. RELATION OF THE PAPACY TO THE EMPIRE. Section XXXI. State of the Church in the Eleventh Century - - 349 Section XXXII. Predecessors of Gregory VII. 353 Section XXXIII. Pontificate of Gregory VII. 356 Section XXXIV. Gregory VII. 's Conflict with Henry IV. ... 359 Section XXXV. The Conflict with Henry IV. — Continued. - - - 362 Section XXXVI. Successors of Gregory VII. — Contest of Investitures - 366 Section XXXVII. From the Accession of Honorius II. to the Election of Hadrian IV. 371 Section XXXVIII. Conflict of Frederick I. with the Church. —Hadrian IV. and Alexander III. . - 374 Section XXXIX. Pontificate of Innocent III. - - - . - - 378 Section XL. Successors of Innocent III. — Conflict of Frederick II. with the Church 381 Section XLI. Innocent IV. and His Successors. — Thirteenth General Council — Fall of the Hohenstaufens - - - - - 384 Section XLII. Gregory X. — Fourteenth General Council — Successors of Gregory X. - - - - - 386 Section XLIII. The Church in France - - - - - - - 389 Section XLI V. Boniface VIII. and Philip the Fair of France - - - 393 Section XLV. Translation of the Holy See to Avignon — Popes Benedict XL and Clement V. - - - - - - - - 399 Section XL VI. John XXII. and His Successors at Avignon - - - 402 Section XL VII. The Schism of the West, or the Great Papal Schism - 406 Section XLVIIL The Schism of the West, or the Great Papal Schism, Continued — Schismatical Council of Pisa - - - - 409 Section XLIX. Council of Constance— Close of the Schism - - - 412 Section L. Popes Martin V. and Eugenius IV. — Council of Basle - 416 Section LI. Seventeenth Ecumenical, or Council of Ferrara and Flo- rence — Reunion of the Greek and other Eastern Churches - 420 Section LII. The Concordats under Eugenius IV. — Nicholas V. — His Successors ---------- 423 Section LIII. The Last Popes of this Period— Fifth Lateran Council - 427 Section LIV. The Church in England under the Norman Kings - - 431 Section LV. The Church in England, Continued — Conflict of St. Thom- as a Becket with Henry II. - 434 Section LVI. The Church in England, Continued — Conflict of John, surnamed Lackland, with the Church 438 Section LVII. The Church in Ireland - - - - - . - - 442 Section LVIII. The Church in Ireland, Continued 444 Section LIX. The Church in Scotland - . - . . .447 3tvi CONTENTS. CHAPTER III. CATHOLIC SCIENCE AND LITERATURE. PAGE. Section LX. Foundation of Universities 450 Section LXI. Scholastic and Mystical Theology . - . . 453. Section LXII. St. Anselm— St. Bernard— Peter Lombard - - - 455 Section LXin. Alexander of Hales— Albertus Magnus— St. Thomas of Aquin — St. Bonaventure — Duns Scotus - - - 459, CHAPTER IV. HERESIES. Section LXTV. Minor Sects - 462 Section LXV. The New Manicheans — Catharists — Albigenses - - 46& Section LXVI. The Punishment of Heresy — The Spanish Inquisition - 469 Section LXVII. John Wycliffe— The Lollards 47a Section LXVIII. John Huss— The Hussite War - - - - 477 CHAPTER V. CONSTITUTION AND DISCIPLINE. Section LXIX. Religious Life 481 Section LXX. Ecclesiastical Legislation — Penitential Discipline — Study and Versions of the Bible ------ 435 Section LXXI. New Religious Orders - - - - - - 488 Section LXXII. The Mendicant Orders 490 Section LXXUI. The Military Orders — Other Religious Congregations 494 THIRD PERIOD. MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PROM THE BEGINNING OP THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY TO THE BCUMBNICAI* COUNCIL OF THE VATICAN, OR, FROM A. D. 1500 TO A. D. 1870. FIRST EPOCH. FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY TO THE MIDDLB OP THE SEVENTEENTH. OR, PROM A. D. 1500 TO A. D. 1650. Introductory Remarhs. CHAPTER I. PROPAGATION OF CHRISTIANITY. Section I. Missions to the Heathen in Asia — St. Francis Xavier - - 501 Section II. The Successors of St. Francis Xavier — Christianity in China and the adjacent Countries 504 CONTENTS. xvii PAGE. Section III. Missions in the West Indies - . i - - - 507 Section IV. Missions in Mexico and South America - - _ - 510 Section V. IVIissions in South America — Continued - - . . 515 Section VI. Missions in North America — The United States - - 519 Section VU. Missions in Canada and North- Western United States - 523 CHAPTER II. BISE AND PKOGRESS OF PROTESTANTISM. /. The Reformation in Germany. Section VIII. Martin Luther — His Theses against Indulgences - - 526 Section IX. Disputation at Leipzig — Luther's Condemnation - - 530 Section X. The Diet of Worms — Luther's Religious System - - 533 Section XI . Disturbances and Insurrections of the Lutherans — Org}»ni- zation of the Lutheran Church 536 Section XH. Progress of Protestantism in Germany — Events from A. D. 1530 to A. D. 1555 . . 54I IT. The Reformation in Switzerland. Section Xin. The Zwinglian Movement ------- 545 Section XIV. The Calvinistic Movement 549 ///. The Reformation in England. Section XV. Henry VEIL (1509-1547)— The Divorce Question - - 553 Section XVI. Henry VIII., Continued — Establishment of Royal Supremacy -----.-_-_ 557 Section XVH. Victims of Royal Supremacy — Enforced Dissolution of Monasteries -561 Section XV ill. Introduction of Protestantism under Edward VI. (1548- 1553) 566 Section XIX. The Restoration under Queen Mary (A. D. 1553-1558) - 570 Section XX. Revival of Protestantism under Elizabeth — The New Church " By Law Established " - ----- 574 Section XXI. The Sufferings of the English Catholics under Elizabeth - 578 Section XXH. The Condition of the Catholics under the First Stuarts - 58? IV. The Reformation in Scotland and Ireland. Section XXIH. Protestantism in Scotland — John Knox - - - 587 Section XXIV. Establishment of the Scottish " Kirk " - - . - 590 Section XXV. Futile Attempts of the Reformers in Ireland - - - 594 F. The Reformation in France and Northern Europe. Section XXVI. Protestantism in 'France — The Huguenots - - - 600 Section XXVII. Protestantism in the Netherlands aud the Scandinavian Kingdoms 605 Section XXVIH. Minor Protestant Sects -.-,.-- 609 Bection XXIX. Causes and Effects of the Protestant Reformation - 612 xviii CONTENTS. CHAPTER m. HISTORY OP THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. PAGB. Section XXX. The Council of Trent 616 Section XXXI. The Other Popes of this Epoch 620 Section XXXII. New Religious Orders 623 Section XXXIII. Theological Controversies 626 Section XXXIV. Theological Science and Religious Life - - - 629 SECOND EPOCH. PROM THE MIDDLE OP THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY TO THK COUNCIL OP THE VATICAN OR PROM A. D. 1650 TO A. D. 1870. Introductory Bemarks, CHAPTER I. PROPAGATION OF CHRISTIANITY. Section XXXV. Missions to the Heathen in Asia and Africa - - 635 Section XXXVI. Present State of the Eastern and other Foreign Missions - - -- 638 Section XXXVII. Present State of the Greek and other Schismatic Churches - 641 Section XXXVIH. Missions to the Schismatical Sects of the East - - 645 CHAPTER H. HISTORY OP THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. /. The Papacy. Section XXXIX. Alexander VII. and His Successors - - - - 648 Section XL. Pontificates of Clement XIII. and Clement XIV. — Suppres- sion of the Jesuits 651 Section XLI. Pontificate of Pius V.^Josephism — The French Revolu- tion 655 Section XLH. Pius VH. — His Successors 659 Section XLIII. Pius IX. 665 Section XLIV. Council of the Vatican 668 //. The Church in Europe. Section XLV. The Church in France - - 672 Section XL VI. The Church in Spain and Portugal - - - - - 675 Section XL VII. The Church in Belgium, Holland, and the Scandinavian North - - 67& CONTENTS. xix PAGE. Section XLVIII. The Church in Austria and Bavaria - - . - 680 Section XLIX. The Church in Switzerland and Protestant Germany . - 685 Section L. Oppression of the Catholics in Prussia and Switzerland — The "Kulturkampf." 690 Section LI. The Church in England 696 Section LII. The Church in Scotland 702 Section LIII. The Church in Ireland 705 Section LIV. The Church in Russia and Poland - - - --711 ///. The Church in America and Aitstralia. Section LV. The Church in British North America - - - - 714 Section LVI. The Church in the United States— Colonial Period - - 717 Section LVII. The Church in the United States, Continued - - 722 Section LVIII. The Church in Mexico and South America - - - 729 Section LIX. The Church in Australia - - - - - - - 733 CHAPTER m. SCHISMS AND SECTS. Section LX. Controversies and Heresies ------ 737 Section LXI. New Protestant Sects 741 CHAPTER IV. CATHOLIC SCIENCE AND LITERATUBE. Section LXH. The Theological Sciences — Distinguished Scholars and Writers - - - 746 CHAPTER V. RELIGIOUS LIFE. Section LXHI. Famous Saints of this Epoch — New Religious Orders - 750 Conclusion -- 762 List of the Roman Pontiffs ---. 755 General Index -.-- 759 INTRODUCTION. In all ages and throughout the whole world, history tells us, we find amongst men the belief in, and the worship of a Supreme Being ; in other words we find — Religion. The human race, even in its deepest degradation, could not rid itself of the idea of an all ruling Being, whom it was bound to acknowledge and to worship. The following words of the celebrated Cicero are remarkable: "There is no nation existing so barbarous that it does not acknowledge the existence of a God, so much so, that men will rather have a false god than no god at all." And the heathen philosopher, Plutarch, writes : " If thou wanderest through the earth thou mayest easily find cities without walls, without kings, without palaces, without money, and without science ; but no one has ever yet found, nor ever will find, a people without the knowledge of a God, without prayers, without vows, without relig- ious ceremonies, and without sacrifices whereby to obtain benefits, or to avert evil. Nay, I believe that it would be easier for a city to be built without foundations, than for a community to be organized or to continue to exist, after the belief in a Divine Power has been discarded." Religion, being inherent in man's nature, has always existed on earth; it is indispensible to social life; it is the very foundation and mainstay of society. Religion, therefore, forms the basis of ecclesiastical history: for the history of the Chris- tian Church is but the history of the Christian Religion. I. PREPARATION FOR THE COMING OF CHRIST — MORAL CONDITION OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. The Christian Religion rests on two fundamental facts — the Fall of man, and his Redemption by the Incarnate Son of God. For this reason, the history of the Church of God on earth does not, properly speaking, begin with the Birth of Christ, but reaches xxii HISTORY OF TEE CHURCH. back to the days of the First Parents of mankind, as the great Doctor, St. Augustine, beautifully remarks : "What is now called the Christian Religion, has existed from the Creation of the human race ; but it was only when Christ appeared in the flesh, that men gave the name of Christianity to the true religion which was already existing." Retract., i. I. c. 12. Christ is the centre of the history of mankind ; He is the "Alpha and Omega, the beginning and end," Apoc. i., 8 ; He is "the Lamb which was slain from the beginning of the world." Apoc. xiii., 8. Therefore, the history of mankind before Christ is. the history of the preparation of mankind for the coming of the Saviour of the world ; and the history after Christ^ is the history of the develop- ment of God's kingdom on earth. All historical events, the rise and fall of kingdoms and empires; barbarian invasions; the rise and decline of philosophical schools and heresies ; commerce, inventions, and even bloody persecutions, are more or less directly guided by Divine Providence for the welfare of God's spiritual kingdom on earth. His Church, of which the Civilta Cattolica (Jan. 1875) has well remarked : " God has made this kingdom (His Church) the centre of His providential operations in the world." The preparation of mankind for the coming of Christ may be said to have been two-fold, a negative and a positive prepara- tion. As a negative preparation for Christianity, the ancient world, having fallen away from God, was obliged by long and painful experience to learn that " it is an evil and bitter thing to have left the Lord." Jerem. ii. 19. Man had said to God in his arrogance, '* Leave us, we desire not the knowledge of Thy way!" and therefore God, as the Apostle St. Paul says, "suffered all nations to walk in their own way." Acts. xiv. 15. Gradually the knowledge of the One Personal God was lost, and mankind fell into the most degrading idolatry. This was, indeed, according to the Fathers, the greatest crime of the heathens, that they would not acknowledge Him, whom it was impossible for them to ignore. "Although they discerned God," says St. Paul, "they did not honor Him, but corrupted the truth of God with falsehood, and prayed to creatures instead of the Creator." Rom. i., 25. With the belief in the true God, the foundation, on which true morality must rest, was also lost. In heathen worship the most disgraceful vices were stamped with the seal of relig^ion ; the tern- INTRODUCTION. xxiii pies of the gods were made the scenes of the most unbridled lust ; and immorality of the most abominable nature formed the essence of the heathen religious rites. *' Why," asks St. Justin of the heathen, ''why art thou wrath with thy son for planning treachery against thee, whilst thou honorest Jupiter, who did the like ? Thou, who bowest down in the temple of Venus, what right hast thou to complain of thy spouse that she leads a dissolute life ?" St. Paul writing to the Romans (c. i. 24-32) briefly, but forcibly^ describes the depth of moral degradation into which the most highly civilized and polished nations— the Greeks and Romans — at the time of the coming of the Messiah, had sunk. Cruelty, the inseparable companion of base lusts, showed itself everywhere in human society — in the endless bloody wars, in the degraded condition of woman, in the treatment of slaves, in the sanguinary combats of gladiators, and in the barbarous so-called right of fathers to kill their own children. Satan and his fellow- demons, indeed, ruled supreme in the ancient world. While on the whole earth the One True God possessed but one sanctuary, in Jerusalem ; the temples of the heathen gods and goddesses w^ere innumerable. To win their favor, even human victims were mercilessly slain on their altars. Such, then, was the moral degradation and darkness into which the ancient world had sunk. It had become evident, even to the heathen themselves, that no real help could come from man, but from above only, that is, from God Himself. Socrates had already declared, that " unless some one came to put aside the thick mist, man could not know how he was to comport himself tovvards God and man." Mankind had to taste the full bitterness of its rebellion against God in order the better to appreciate the blessings and happy tidings which the Expected of the nations was to bring unto fallen mankind. Before He would give to man a Redeemer, God wished first to teach him, by long and painful experience, how essential to his well-being was this promised Messiah. But although God justly suffered all nations to walk their own way, "He, nevertheless, left not Himself without testimony." Acts xiv. 16. He did not cease to manifest Himself to man, but, on the contrary, spoke to him on many occasions and in various ways, and from time to time renewed the promise of a Redeemer and Deliverer made to our First Parents in Paradise. To keep xxiT HIST or. Y OF THE CHURCH alive among men the hope in the promised Redeemer, God called the people of Israel to prepare the way for His coming, and for the propagation of His Gospel among the other nations of the earth. To train His people, the Israelites, for their high calling. He conducted them into the land of Canaan, where they lived secluded from the surrounding Gentile nations for many centuries. He guided and protected them in a truly wonderful manner, until the fullness of time was completed, when the promised Redeemer of the world was to appear. The scattering of the Israelites among the heathen, which was the just punishment of their sins, served to bring the heathen nations, sunk in error and vice, to the knowledge of the true God. "Give glory to the Lord," said Tobias, speaking to the exiled Israelites, " and praise Him in the sight of the Gentiles : Because He hath scattered you among the Gentiles who knew Him not, that you may declare His wonderful works, and make them know that there is no other almighty God besides Him." Tob. xiii. 3, 4. From their intercourse with the Israelites, the heathen learned to know the wonderful destiny of this nation, and heard of the promise of a Redeemer who was to come from Heaven into this world to deliver mankind from error and sin. The five great empires recorded in ancient history — the Assyrian, the Babylonian, the Persian, that of Alexander the Great, and the Roman — successively came in contact with God's chosen people, and without knowing it, helped to " prepare the way of the Lord." About the time of the Birth of Christ, Jews were to be found throughout the whole extent of the Roman Empire. Wherever they settled, they kept up their religious customs ; remaining faithful to the law of Moses, they continued to meet in their synagogues and to read the inspired writings of their Prophets ; and many of these synagogues, as we read in the Acts of the Apostles, became starting points for Christian congre- gations. Here may be mentioned a remarkable saying of Clement of Alexandria : " As the Law was given to the Jews, so Philosophy was given to the Greeks until the coming of the Lord." Greek philosophy contained many precious truths which helped to prepare the way of the Lord among Gentiles, by nourishing in nobler minds, a desire for supernatural truths. Plato, especially, INTRODUCTION. xxt was, in the words of the Fathers, a teacher who prepared the way for Christ among the Pagans, by his philosophy, which had, among the heathen, the same office that the law of Moses performed among the Jews. Never had the expectation of a Saviour been so great among men, as at the time when the promise made to man in Paradise was about to he fulfilled. The sacred writings and traditions of the Jews, as well as the mythologies of the heathens handed down from the earliest times, had spread throughout the whole extent of the then known world the knowledge of a great Redeemer and Saviour, who was to appear in Judea and restore to mankind a reign of peace, happiness, and justice. The Pagan writers, Tacitus and Suetonius, who lived in the first century of the Christian era, pointed out Judea as the land in which the long-expected Ruler was to arise. Thus we see how under God's guiding providence, the human race was gradually prepared to receive Him who was to be the fairest flower on the tree of mankind, and of whom we read in the Prophet Isaiah xi. 1 : " There shall come forth a rod out of the stem of Jesse, and a flower shall rise out of his root." The time had arrived when it pleased God to send His angel to that chosen unspotted Lily of Israel, the Virgin Mary, to announce to her: "Behold thou shalt bring forth a Son ; and thou shalt call His name Jesus. He shall be great, and shall be called the Son of the Most High: and the Lord God shall give Him the throne of David, His father ; and He shall reign over the house of Jacob forever, and of His kingdom there shall be no end." Lukei. 31-33. II. — OBJECT AND DIVISION OF CHURCH HISTORY. The Greek '' ehklesia,'^ rendered by the word '^ church," taken in a general sense, means an assembly, or congregation, whether religious or political. In the Scriptures and the Fathers it is commonly rendered by ** house, or congregation of the Lord,"" and by ^*^ Church of God," and ^'Church of Christ.'' Every religious community may, in a certain sense, be termed a Church ; but the name is commonly restricted to those religious societies which were established by the Lord Himself — the Jewish Church of the Old Testament, and the Christian Church of the New. In the Scriptures xxvi HISTORY OF THE CHIRCH. the name of " Church of the Lord," and '^ Congregation of the Lord " is given to the Jewish Synagogue, Deut. xxiii. 1-2. ; whilst the Church founded by Christ, in the New Testament, is expressly called ''the Church of God." Acts, xx. 20, 28. 1. Cor. xi. 16, 28. By the Church, we understand, then, when taken in its widest sense, the whole congregation of true believers, comprehending the faithful of the Old Testament as well as those of the New. But when taken in a limited sense, the Church is defined by Catholic writers to be: '' The society of the faithful, who, being united under one head, Christ, profess the same faith, participate in the same sacraments and in the same worship, and are governed under the guidance of the Holy Ghost by the bishops, as the lawful successors of the Apostles, and the Sovereign Pontiff, the Vicar of Christ on 'earth." In Scripture the Church is called ''the kingdom of God on earth." Hence, ecclesiastical history is the history of the kingdom of God on earth, showing its origin and establishment among men, its progress and spread from age to age, the blessings it brought to the nations, as well as the adversities and persecutions, which, in all ages, it had to endure. Church History, in particular, is a statement of the foundation, development, and varied fortunes of the Catholic Church — the true Church of Christ. The subject- matter of ecclesiastical history is furnished by those events and institutions, those conflicts and victories, those graces and benefits which mark the history of the Catholic Church since her foundation by Christ. The object of church history being to give a statement of the progress and workings of the kingdom of God on earth, the fol- lowing come naturally within its province: 1. To state the establishment and propagation of the Church in the world, as well as her relations to the various nations with which she came in contact; 2. To explain the development of her dogmas occa- sioned by her conflicts with schism and heresy ; 3 To exhibit her inner life and working as manifested in her public worship ; 4. To point out the origin and development of ecclesiastical consti- tution which embraces the members of the whole body and defines the rights and duties of all ; 5. To show how the Church adapts her discipline to the requirements of every age and country. ^ INTRODUCTION. *3^*» Church history is either universal or particular. Universal church history describes the working of the Church, under various attitudes and relations, in every age and country, and shows that her whole aim is steadily directed to the one definite end — the glory of God and the salvation of man. Particular church history, on the contrary, is limited to a single country, or a dis- tinct period, or takes up one or another of the various branches of general church history. It remains for us to give the division of ecclesiastical history according to time. The history of the Church from its first establishment to the present time, is usually divided into three periods — ancient, mediaeval and modern. The First Period extends from the Birth of our Lord to the close of the seventh century, or from A. D. 1 to A. D. 680. It comprises what is called Christian Antiquity. During this period the Greeks and Romans were the chief representatives of civiliza- tion and Catholic Christianity. The Second Period extends from the close of the seventh cen- tury to the rise of the Protestant religion in the sixteenth century, or from A. D. 680 to A. D. 1500. It embraces the whole of the Middle Ages, during which period all Western Christendom was united in one Church under one head, viz., the Pope. The Third Period extends from the sixteenth century to the Ecumenical Council of the Vatican, or from A. D. 1500 to A. D. 1870. During this period a great part of Western Christendom separated from the Catholic Church, who, however, repairs her losses by the conversion of new nations in Asia, Africa, and America. These periods are again divided each into two epochs : FIRST PERIOD. CHRISTIAN ANTIQUITY. First Epoch: From the Birth of Christ to the Edict of Milan, or from A. D. 1 to A. D. 313. Foundation and Progress of the Church — Age of the Apostles, of the Apostolic Fathers, of the Martyrs, and of the Christian Apologists. Second Epoch: From the Edict of Milan to the close of the seventh Century, or from A. D. 313 to A. D. 680. Age of .:xviii BISTORT OF THE CHVRCU. Heresies; of the Great Councils and Fathers of the Church — Rise of Mohammedanism. SECOND PERIOD. MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. First Epoch: From the close of the seventh Century to the final establishment of the Greek Schism, or from A. D. 680 to A. D. 1054. Conversion of the German and Sclavonic nations — Foundation of the Temporal Power of the Popes — Restoration of the Western Empire — Enslavement of the Papacy — Separation of the Greek from the Latin Church. Second Epoch : From the Greek Schism to the beginning of the sixteenth century, or from A. D. 1054 to A. D. 1500. Con- tests about Investitures — The Papacy at the height of its author- ity — The Crusades — Great Schism of the West — Monastic Orders — Scholasticism — Precursors of the Protestant Reformation. THIRD PERIOD. MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. First Epoch : From the beginning of the sixteenth century to the middle of the seventeenth, or from a. d. 1500 to a. d. 1650. Rise and Spread of Protestantism — Establishment of the Anglican Church — True Reformation by the Catholic Church — Religious Wars — Treaty of Westphalia — Martyr-Church of Ireland — Catholic Mis- sions. Second Epoch : From the middle of the seventeenth century to the Council of the Vatican, or from a. d., 1650 to 1870. Age of Religious IndifFerentism and Infidelity — French Revolution — Revival of Religious Life — Catholic Missions — Vatican Council. FIRST PERIOD. Christian Antiquity FROM CHRIST TO THE END OF THE SEVENTH CENTURY, OR, FROM A. D. 1 TO A. D. 680. FIRST EPOCH. FROM THE BIRTH OF CHRIST TO THE EDICT OF MILAN, OR, FROM A. D. 1 TO A. D. 313. CHAPTER I. HISTORY OF JESUS CHRIST, THE DIVINE FOUNDER OF THE CHURCH. SECTION I. BIRTH AND EARLY LIFE OF CHRIST. Christian Era— Year of Our Lord— Political Condition of the Jews— Table of the Herodian Family — Division of Judea — Birth of Our Lord — His Hidden Life. 1. All civilized nations follow the Christian era and reckon time and dates, not as the Jews, from the Creation, nor as the ancient Romans, from the foundation of their city, but from the Birth of Jesus Christ, the Saviour of the world. The Roman Abbot Diony- sius Exiguus was the first, who, in the sixth century, introduced this method of dating from the Birth of Christ. According to his computation, which is now generally followed, the Birth of Our Lord occurred in the year of Rome 754. But it is generally conceded that he placed this blissful event from four to seven years too late. Christ was born several months, at least, before the death of Herod the Great, which, according to Jes^phus Flavins, occurred in April, 750 U. C. From other considerations, it is more than probable that the Nativity took place in the year 747 or 748 U. C. 2. The Jews then lived under the dominion of the Romans, who, under Pompey, in the year 63 B. C, had subjugated their country. Thus, the independence of the Jews disappeared forever. In the year 48 B. C, Antipater, an Idumean, was appointed Roman pro- curator of Judea by Caisar, and, finally, in the year 40 B, C, his son 2 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. Herod, who, as if in irony, has been called the Great, was made king of Judea by the Roman Senate and forcibly installed by the Roman army. This cruel and bloodthirsty prince, who put to death the whole house of the Amosneans, including his own wife, the noble and much beloved Mariamne, her mother Alexandra, and his two sons by Mari- amne, ruled thirty-seven years over Judea, i. e., from the year 40 B. C. to theyear 3 B. C.i 4. Thus was fulfilled the prophecy of the Patriarch Jacob : " The sceptre shall not be taken away from Juda, nor a ruler from his thigh, till He come Who is to be sent, and He shall be the expected of nations." Gen. xlix. 10. Augustus, emperor of the newly founded Roman Empire, who reigned from the year 30 B. C. to A. D. 14, divided the kingdom of Judea among the three surviving sons of Herod. Archelaus as ethnarch, received Judea, Samaria, and Idumea; Herod Antipas and Philip were made tetrarchs, the former of Galilee and Perea, and the latter of Batanea, Trachonitis, Iturea, and Auranitis. 5. Such was the political condition of the Jews, when Jesus Christ, the Son of God and Redeemer of the World, was born of Mary, a Yirgin of the royal race of David, in a stable at Bethlehem. The great event is expressed by St. Luke, ii. 7, in these simple words : " And she brought forth her first born Son, and wrapped Him up in swaddling clothes and laid Him in a manger." The Birth of the Saviour was announced by a star to the Wise Men in the East. Their inquiries in Jerusalem excited the suspicion of King Herod, and he, fearing the loss of his throne, sought the Divine Child to destroy Him. But Joseph, the foster-father of Jesus, being warned in a dream, fled with the Child and His Mother Mary to Egypt, where he remained until after the death of Herod, 750 U. C, when Jesus was brought by His parents to Nazareth. 6. Of the early life of Our Lord at Nazareth, nothing is known, except the summary statement given by St. Luke ii. 40, that " He grew 1. TABLE OF THE HERODIAN FAMILY. Herod the Great (+ 750 U. C.) had many wives, the principal of whom were: 1. Mariamne, the Asmonean. Alexander and Arlstobolus, both put to death by order of Herod, 750 U. C. | Herod A^rippa I. who behead- ed St. James the Elder, was the brother of the notorious Hero- dias (+ A. D. 44.) | Herod Agrippa II. before whom St. Paul, a prisoner, stat- ed his case. His sisters were Drusilla and Berenice. 3. Mariamne, daugh- ter of the high priest Simon. | Philip I., husbund of Herodias. 3. Malthace. Archelaus, ethnarch of Judea, and Philip II., tetrarch of Ituria, and Trachonitis (+ A. D. 37). Arche- laus was exiled 750 U. C. 4. Cleopatra. Herod Antipas, te- trarch of Galilee, who took Herodias, wife of his half- brother Philip I., beheaded John the Baptist, and mocked Our Lord. He was exiled A. D. 39. PUBLIC LIFE OF GHBIST. 3. and waxed strong, was full of wisdom, and the gi'ace of God was in Him." At the age of twelve, Jesus went up to Jerusalem, with His parents, to the Paschal feast. He remained there three days, astonish- ing even the doctors by the wisdom of His questions and answers. Returning to Nazareth, He lived in private with His Virgin-mother and Joseph, His foster-father, " and was subject to them." Of the . following eighteen years, till the commencement of His public min- istry, no account is given in the Gospels. Jesus continued to live in retirement " advancing in wisdom and age and grace with God and men. Luke ii. 32. SECTION II. PUBLIC LIFE OF OUR LORD. John the Baptist— His Mission — Baptism of Christ— His Public Ministry- Testimony of Christ Concerning Himself — Foundation and Organization of the Church. 7. Thirty years had elapsed from the Birth of our Lord to the opening of His ministry, when John the Baptist appeared on the banks of the Jordan,^ preaching the baptism of penance for the remis- sion of sins. In the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Cfesar, 778 U. C. or A. D. 25, reckoning from his joint rule with Augustus 764 U. C. or A. D. 11, the holy Precursor of our Lord began to preach publicly. He was the last representative of the prophets of the old covenant ; his work was to announce the way for, and to prepare the advent of the promised Messiah. Such was the fame and authority of John, whom the Lord Himself declared the " greatest of those born of women," that it led men to suspect that he himself might be the Mes- siah. But John openly confessed that he was not the Christ, and an- nounced the approach of " one mightier than himself, who should bap- tize with the Holy Ghost and with fire, and the latchet of whose shoes he was not worthy to loose." Luke iii. 16. 8. Jesus also came to the Jordan to be baptized by John, who, recognizing in Him the Messiah, publicly declared Him to be " the Lamb of God, who taketh away the sins of the world," and testified " that He was the Son of God." John i. 29, 34. It was by the testi- mony of John that the divine mission of Jesus was autenticated, as at this baptism the holy Precursor received the miraculous token that Jesus was indeed the " Anointed of God." For the heavens were opened, and the Holy Ghost descended upon Him, and a voice from heaven said : " This is my beloved Son in whom I am well pleased." Matt. iii. 17. The valley of Jericho is marked out as the probable scene of our Lord's baptism, which is supposed to have taken place in 4 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. January, 7V9 U. C, or A. D. 26. Immediately after this inauguration of His ministry, Jesus retired into the wilderness, subjecting Himself to a fast of forty days, and suffering Himself to be tempted and led about, even by the Devil, as He afterwards permitted himself to be crucified by the minions of Satan. 9. After this, Jesus began His public ministry, which embraced a period of three years and three months, from 'F'ZQ U. C, or A. D. 26, to March 25, 782 U. C, or A. D. 29. He preached the Gospel, i. e. the good tidings of the Kingdom of God, first in Galilee, and then in Judea and Samaria. He went about doing good to all, healing the sick, casting out devils, and working the most stupendous miracles to prove His divine mission and show that He was the Messiah promised to mankind from the beginning. In His wonderful sermon on the Mount, He set forth the spirit of His doctrine and the conditions of participation in the Kingdom of God, and in the " Lord's Prayer " He gave an example of how we should pray to God. Multitudes of peo- ple followed Him, and all who heard Him were in admiration at His doctrine and the authoritative manner of His teaching. " He was a prophet, mighty in work and word before God and all the people." Luke xxiv. 19., "and was teaching them as one having power, and not as their Scribes and Pharisees." Matt vii. 29. 10. Concerning Himself, Jesus often declared in the plainest terms that He was the Son of God, one with the Father, and that His doctrine was the word of God, and divine truth. " I and the Father are one. Believe that the Father is in Me, and I in the Father." John X. 30, 38. "He that seeth me, seeth the Father also." "The words that I speak to you, I speak not of Myself, but the Father who abideth in Me." John xiv. 9, 10. The incomparable holiness of His life, the numberless and undeniable miracles He wrought, the fulfil- ment of His own propheci'es as well as those of the ancient prophets, — all these are sufficient proof of His divine Mission and the truth of His words. Challenging His fiercest enemies. He could say: "Which of you shall convince Me of sin?" John iii. 46. "The works that I do in the name of My Father, they give testimony of Me. If, there- fore, you will not believe Me, believe My works, that you may know and believe that the Father is in Me, and I in the Father." John x. 25, 38. And finally. He sealed His testimony with His death on the cross. Being adjured by the living God before the tribunal of the high-priest. He solemnly confessed that He was " The Christ, the Son of God," and on account of this confession He suffered death. Matt. xxvi. 63, 66. PUBLIC LIFE OF CHRIST. 5 11. As Christ our Lord came into this world to give light and salvation, not to one people only, but to all men of all countries and ages, the blessings of the mission which He had from His Father, were not to be limited to the Jewish people alone. He Himself expressly declared to His disciples, that He was the Saviour of the world, and that His Gospel should be preached throughout the whole world and to all nations. He, therefore, founded a visible Church, that through her He might insure to all ages the fruit of His divine doctrine and the integrity of the Sacraments which He instituted, and through Her lead all men to eternal salvation. 12. For this purpose He — 1. Chose from among His followers twelve, whom He called Apostles. These were destined to establish among all nations the One Saving Church which He had come to found. With them He associated seventy-two Disciples, and these He sent before Him, two by two, into places whither He Himself was going. 2. With amazing zeal and patience. He instructed and trained both of these, particularly His Apoostles, whom He initiated more fully into the spirit of His doctrine and of the divine mysteries. 3. To His Apostles He entrusted the execution of His teaching office, and the power both to administer His Sacraments and to rule His Church. He gave them the power of binding and of loosing, of for- giving and of retaining sins, saying : " All power is given to Me in heaven and on earth. Go ye, therefore, and teach all nations." Matt, xxviii. 19. "As the Father hath sent Me, I also send you. Whose sins you shall forgive, they are forgiven them : and whose sins you shall retain, they are retained." John xx. 21-23. " He that receiveth you, receiveth Me : and he that receiveth Me, receiveth Him that sent Me." Matt. x. 40. 4. That this Kingdom, His Church, might be held to- gether by some visible bond, and that unity might be ever maintained in it, Christ appointed Peter to be the supreme visible head of His Church. Him He made the sure foundation-stone of His Church : " Thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build My Church ; and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it." Matt. xvi. 18. To Peter He gave full and absolute authority and jurisdiction in the government of His Church : " And I will give to thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven. Whatsoever thou shalt bind upon earth, it shall be bound also in heaven ; and whatsoever thou shalt loose opon earth, it shall be loosed also in heaven." Matt. xvi. 19. In the Church, Peter should be, next to Christ Himself, the chief foundation- stone, • in quality of chief pastor and governor, and should have, accordingly, all fullness of ecclesiastical power. 5. And in order to shield His Apostles against all error and dangers, and to insure the 6 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. permanent existence of His Church, our Lord gave them the solemn promise that He Himself would be with them to the end of the world, and that the Paraclete, the Spirit of truth, would abide with them forever, " Who would teach them all truth." John xiv. and xvi. 13. Thus was established by Christ the "Kingdom of God upon earth," that is, the Church, which, although small in the beginning, was destined to spread over the whole world, embracing all nations and uniting them into one great spiritual Kingdom. The small society consisting then of only the Apostles and Disciples of our Lord, and some pious women, who ministered to Him in His daily rounds and travels, was the commencement, the fruitful bud, as it were, of the " Church of Christ." Christ calls His Church indifferently " the King- dom of God " and " the Kingdom of Heaven^ She is a Kingdom, indeed, not of this world, yet founded in this world, and for the salva- tion of the world. In her alone are fulfilled the predictions of the prophets concerning the perpetual Kingdom of the Messiah. SECTION III. PASSION AND DEATH OP OUR LORD. Jesus and His Enemies— Divine Decree— Institution of the Blessed Sacrament —Our Lord's Final Discourse— His Passion— His Death— His Resurrection — His Ascension— The Four Gospels — Apocryphal Gospels and Writings. 14. During the three years of His public ministry, Jesus bestowed upon the Jewish people the greatest benefits and blessings ; the count- less miracles which He wrought in the name of God the Father, were a sufficient and convincing proof of His divine Mission, and of His being the promised Messiah. Many of the people, indeed, believed in Him, confessing Him to be " the Prophet who was to come into this world," John vi. 14, and "that when the Christ cometh, He would work miracles neither greater nor more numerous than those of Jesus." John vii. 31. Nevertheless, our Lord had many enemies, who were found chiefly among the Scribes and Pharisees.* These were bitterly opposed to Him, because of His severe reproaches against them, and because walking in the way of humiliation and contempt of the world. He appeared in a guise which ill suited their pride and the carnal views 1. The Jewish Theologrians, we find at this time, divided into three sects, who were more or less opposed to each other— tlie Pharisees, the Sadducees and the Essenes. The Pharisees, whose name implies separation from the unholy, atfected the g-reatest exact- ness in every reliKious observance, and attributed jfreat authority to traditional precepts relatiuK principally to external rites. They were the leading- sect among- the Jews, and had g-reat intiuence with the common people. The Sadducees, on the contrary, disre- garded all the traditional and unwritten laws which the Pharisees i)rized so hig-hly; they denied the doctrine of the resurrection, and the existence of the ang-els. The Essenes were a society of piousty disposed men, who had- withdrawn themselves from the strife of theological and ])olitical parties to the western side of the Dead Sea, where they lived tog-ether, leading an ascetic and retired life. PASSION OF CHRIST. 7 they had formed of the Messiah. They con^antly watched His words and actions, but could not detect any fault wherewith to impeach His character. 15. Full of malice, the Jewish leaders continually sought to destroy Him, and decreed to excommunicate every one who should confess Jesus of Nazareth to be the Messiah. John x. 22. Finally, when Jesus raised Lazarus from the dead, and soon after made His regal entry into Jerusalem, the high-priests summoned a council, and, under pretence of providing for the welfare and security of the nation, resolved to put Him to death. John xi. 47-53. Yet so long as it pleased Him, His enemies could do Him no harm, "for though they sought to apprehend Him, yet no man laid hands on Him, because His hour was not yet come." John vii. 30. All the intrigues and violence of His enemies would have availed nothing, had it not been His will to suffer and die for the salvation of the world. " No man" He said, *taketh My life from Me, but I lay it down of Myself; and I have f»ower to lay it down, and I have power to take it up again." John x. 18. 16. But when His time was come, Jesus said to His disci- ples, on His way to Jerusalem: "Behold we go up to Jerusalem; and the Son of man shall be betrayed to the chief priests and to the Scribes, and they shall condemn Him to death." Matt. xx. 18. In the eternal counsels of God it had been decreed that Jesus should become a victim and sacrifice of expiation for the sins of the world, and by His sufferings and death on the cross redeem mankind. Our Lord, therefore, resigned to the will of His heavenly Father, steadily looked forward to the consummation of that sacrifice in His ignomin- ious death. And He not only died because He so willed, but when He willed. He chose to die at the time of the Paschal feast ; and He carried out His purpose in spite of all the efforts of His enemies to the contrary. In vain had the high priests and Pharisees resolved not to seize and slay Him until after the Pasch, lest there might be a tumult amongst the people who shortly before had welcomed Him with such enthusiasm. Matt. xxvi. 5. Jesus had expressly said to His Apostles : " After two days will be the Pasch, and the Son of man will be given up, that He may be crucified." Matt. xxvi. 2. IV. On the eve of His bitter Passion, after having eaten the Pas- chal lamb with His Apostles, and having washed their feet, Jesus proceeded to institute the blessed Sacrament. Taking bread He blessed it and gave it to His Apostles, with the words : " Take ye and eat. This is My Body which shall be delivered for you." In like manner taking the chalice with wine. He blessed and gave it to His Apostles, saying : " Drink ye all of this, for this is My Blood, 8 HISTORY OF TEE CHURCH. the blood of the New Testament, which shall be shed for you and for many for the remission of sins." Matt. xxvi. 26-28. Our Lord in this most sacred mystery instituted, not a sacrament only, but a sacri- fice also, the unbloody sacrifice of the New Law, — when, witl^ the words : " Do this for a commemoration of Me," He gave to the Apostles the command and power to offer this sacrifice. Matt, xxvi ; Luke xxii. 18. After this, Jesus plainly announced His denial by Peter that very night, and as clearly designated His immediate betrayal by Judas Iscariot, though all present understood not the sign as referring to the traitor. He then delivered that memorable final discourse recorded by St. John the Evangelist, addressing His disciples in tones of the most fervent love. He promised them the Holy Ghost for a comforter, the Spirit of truth, who should abide with them forever. Lastly He admonished them to live in Him, as the branch in the vine; to pray, and to persevere patiently and confidently in suffering and persecution. " In the world," He said, " you will have persecution ; but have confidence, I have overcome the world." John xvi. 33. 19. When Jesus had thus spoken to the Apostles, and in a fervent prayer recommended them to His Father in heaven, . He went out to the Mount of Olives to pray. A mortal anguish seized His soul, and His sweat became as drops of blood, trickling down to the ground. Strengthened by an angel from heaven. He arose to meet the traitor Judas, who, with a kiss, betrayed his Master to His enemies. Jesus permitted Himself to be bound and led before the court of the Sanhedrim ; and because He afiirmed that He was Christ, the Son of God, the council pronounced Him guilty of blasphemy, and then, as being worthy of death, delivered Him to Pontius Pilate, the Roman Governor of Judea. Pilate in vain sought to release Jesus. Yielding to the threatening demands of the Jews, who in terrible blindness exclaimed : " His blood be upon us and upon our children," he delivered Him up to them to be crucified. The Death of the Saviour occurred in the year 782 U. C, and, accord- ing to an ancient tradition, on the 25th day of March — the same day on which the Word was made flesh. 20. Extraordinary signs in nature followed the Death of our Lord. The sun miraculously hid its light, and a fearful darkness covered the earth ; rocks split asunder ; graves were opened, and of the Saints that had slept many arose and appeared in Jeru- salem. It was about three o'clock in the afternoon that Jesus died. His body was taken down from the cross by Nicodemus and Joseph of Arimathea, and laid in a new grave hewn in a solid rock. With a PASSION OF CHRIST. 9 view to frustrate the prediction of our Lord concerning his Resurrec- tion, the leaders of the Jews made His grave secure by sealing it and setting a guard around it. But early on the third day the Crucified Lord, by His own power, rose gloriously from the dead and showed Himself alive to His Apostles and disciples. During the forty days that He still remained on earth, Jesus constantly appeared to His disciples and instructed them concerning the kingdom of God — His Church. He gave them the power to forgive sins, and installed Peter as head of the Church. 21. Before departing from this world, our Lord solemnly ratified the mission of His Apostles; and assigning the whole world to them as the field of their labors. He said : " All power is given to Me, in heaven and on earth. Go ye therefore, and teach all nations, bap- tizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, teaching them to observe all things whatsoever I have commanded you. " Matt, xxviii. 16. He commanded them not to leave Jerusalem before the Descent of the Holy Ghost, and while blessing them ascended triumphantly before their eyes into heaven, from the Mount of Olives, where His Passion was begun. ^ The only reliable and authentic records respecting the life and teachings of our Lord, are the four Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John. Other Gospels and accounts relating to the life of Christ must be rejected as apocryphal, many of which were written by heretics in the interests of their sects. The best known of these are: 1. "The Gospel of the twelve Apos- tles, " also called Evangelium juxta Hebraeos, which was used by the Na- zarenes and Ebionites; 2. "The Gospel of Peter," which probably was a Greek translation of the foregoing ; 3. " A Gospel of the Egyptians " is mentioned by Origen and others. The foregoing are all lost; but still extant are: 4. The Proto-evangelium of James the Less; 5. "Evangelium Pseudo-Matthaei" or "Liber de ortu B. Mariae Virginis et infantiaSalvatoris;" 6. " Evangelium de Nativitate Mariae, " an abridgement of the preceding work, as far as the Birth of Christ; 7. The Arabic " History of Joseph the Carpenter; " 8. The "Gospel of the Infancy of Jesus," also of Arabic origin; 9. "Evangelium Thomae Isaelitae, " the authorship of which is attributed to Thomas, a disciple of Manes; 10. The work, "De dormitione Mariae, "or "Transitu Mariae." The following works pretend to relate to the Passion of Christ: 11. " The Gospel of Nicodemus," which includes the " Acta sen Gesta Pilati," and "Descensus Christi ad inferos;" 12. The correspondence of Herod and Pilate to the Ro- man senate. To these may be added: 15. A Syriac letter of Mara to his son 1. The Jewish historian Josephus Flavius, who flourished in the second half of the first century gives the following- remarkable testimony concerning- Christ: " There was at this time a wise man whose name was Jesus, if, indeed, ho may be properly called a man, for he wroujrht wonderful works, taug-ht the truth to those willing- to hear Him, and ha HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. renewed, and it continued to rage with increased fury under Bahram V . and Isdegerd II., until A. D. 450. Abdas, with a number of other Christians, was put to death. Every species of torture that inhuman-, ity could devise was employed upon the confessors of the faith ; some were sawed to pieces or flayed alive, others were bound hand and foot and cast into pits to be devoured alive by rats and mice. Of the mar- tyrs in this persecution are named the deacon Benjamin, Hormisdas, a Persian prince, and James surnamed " Intercisus." 25. The persecution of the Catholics continued under the despotic kings Chosroes I. and Chosroes II., from whom also the Christians in Syria and Palestine had much to suffer. Invited by the Jews, who even enlisted an army of twenty-six thousand men of their own nation for the Persians, Chosroes II., A. D. 614, took Jerusalem ; the stately churches of Helena and Constantine were destroyed, the patriarch Zacharias and the Cross of our Lord were transported into Persia, and 90,000 Christians were massacred, principally by the Jews. The Emperor Heraclius, afterward, in a series of brilliant campaigns, defeated Chosroes, reconquered all the lost possessions, and also recov- ered the Holy Cross, which he restored to its former place, A. D. 629. 26. The Church, however, was threatened with a greater danger from within by the Kestorian heresy. In 498, Babaeus, a Nestorian, became metropolitan of Seleucia. With the aid of the Persian gov- ernment, he suppressed the existing Catholic communities, and, sever- ing the Persian from the Roman Church, succeeded in undermining the true faith among the Persians. The Nestorians of Persia called them- selves " Chaldean Christians," and the bishop of Seleucia-Ctesiphon, their spiritual head, took the title of " Catholicus," or " Universal Bishop." 27. The Armenians were the first who, as a nation, embraced Christianity. St. Gregory, surnamed the " Illuminator," of the royal race of the Arsacidae, became their Apostle. In 302, he baptized King Tiridates, and, with the aid of Greek priests, propagated the faith throughout the whole country. Having been consecrated bishop by Leontius, archbishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia, and constituted metropolitan of Armenia, he ordained a great number of bishops, — it is said about 400, — for the converted nation. He left the Church of Armenia in a flourishing condition when he died, A. D. 332. Of the successors of St. Gregory, the most illustrious were SS. Nerses, Sahak, and Mesrop; the last named invented the Armenian alphabet and translated the Bible into Armenian. When, in 429, Armenia became a Persian province, many but ineffectual attempts were made by the Persian kings to introduce the religion of Zendavesta, to which the I CHRISTIANITY IN ASIA AND AFlilCA. 133 Armenians offered a determined resistance. This nation, which resisted with so much vigor the spreading of the Nestorian heresy, subsequently fell into the errors of the Monophysites. Their recon- ciliation with the Church never proved of long continuance. 28. Among the Homerites, or Sabaeans, of Southern Arabia, the Gospel was preached by Theophilus of Diu in India. He was an Arian and had been sent to that nation by Constantius, A. D. 350. Many of the inhabitants embraced the faith and three churches were built at Tapharan, Aden, and Hormuz. Monks from the frontiers of Palestine labored zealously during the fourth and fifth centuries among the nomadic tribes of Arabia, as, for instance, Hilarion, Simeon Stylites, and Euthymius. Through the efforts of these holy solitaries, immense multitudes of the tribes we now call Bedouins, embraced Christianity. In 401, Euthymius converted Aspebethos, chief of a Saracenic tribe, and also consecrated him bishop for his subjects. 29. But the Christians of Arabia found bitter enemies in the Jews, who were very numerous in that country. In 522, a cruel per- secution was begun by Dunan, a Jew, who had usurped the kingly power over the Homerite Arabians. The inhabitants of Negraan, nearly all Christians, were massacred by that tyrant. At the request of Timotheus, patriarch of Alexandria, King Elesbaan of Abyssinia hastened to the succor of his Christian brethren. Dunan was defeated and slain. Gregentius, bishop of the Homerite Arabians, was or- dained by a Monophysite ; and the bishops and priests, whom he appointed, very probably professed the same heresy. In the province of Hira, south of Babylon, the Christians were numerous in the sixth century ; but they soon fell into heresy. Arabia being the seat of so many heresies, soon fell a prey to Mohammedanism, which for a time tolerated Christianity, but afterward forcibly suppressed it. 30. The Iberians, at the foot of the Caucasus, were won to the faith- by a Christian slave, named Nunia. She cured the queen of an illness by her prayers, and by this means lent a powerful impulse to the conversion of the whole nation. The king, named Mirjeus, is said to have requested Constantine the Great to send him Christian mis- sionaries. From Iberia, the Gospel was carried to the Albanians, and, in the sixth century, also to the Lazi (Colchians) and the Abasgi. Tzathus, the chief of the Lazi, was baptized at Constantinople in the year 522. St. Maximus and St. Stephen in the seventh century labor- ed successfully among these nations. Even India and China were illuminated by the light of the Gospel ; for, in the sixth century, the monk Cosmas found Christian congrreo^ations in India, and even a 134 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH bishop at Calliana (Calcutta). The Indian Christians, also called " Thomas-Christians," were infected with the Nestorian heresy. Ac- cording to an old document written in ancient Syrian and Chinese, discovered in 1625, a priest named Jaballah, is said to have spread the faith in China about the year 636, and to have enjoyed the favor and protection of the emperor. 31. The evangelization of that part of ancient Ethiopia, called Abyssinia, was commenced by St. Frumentius and his co-laborer uEdesius, though some writers attribute that honor to the chamber- lain of the Ethiopian queen, Candace, whose baptism by Philip the Deacon is recorded in the Acts viii. 38. In 316, Frumentius and his com- panion were taken captives into Abyssinia whilst accompanying Me- ropius of Tyre on a journey, and were presented to the king as slaves. Tliey eventually rose to influential positions at court, and were per- mitted to practice and announce their religion without restraint. Af- ter the death of the king, Frumentius became the instructor of the hereditary prince Aizana and administered the government. When the prince became of age, ^desius returned to Tyre and was ordained a priest; St. Frumentius went to Alexandria, where St. Athanasius consecrated him bishop of Abyssinia, A. D. 328. 32. Returning to that country, Frumentius baptized the king, with a great portion of the people, and firmly established the Abyssinian Church whereof Axum became the metropolitan see. The Emperor Constantius, in 356, vainly endeavored to prevail on St. Frumentius and the Abyssinian king to adopt Arianism. When, in the fifth cen- tury, the Monophysite heresy had infected the Church of Alexandria, the see of Axum was drawn into the same error. The neighboring Nubians embraced Christianity in the sixth century, but also, with it, the Monophysite heresy. The Monophysite priest, Julianus of Alex- andria, was their apostle. CONVERSION OF IRELAND. 135 SECTION XLV. CONVERSION OF IRELAND BY ST. PATRICK. First Knowledge of Christianity conveyed to Ireland — The pretended Pre- decessors of St. Patrick — St. Palladius, the first Bishop sent to Ireland — Scotia and the Scots — St. Patrick the Apostle of Ireland — ^Time and Place of his Birth — Early Life of our Apostle — He studies at Tours and Lerins — He visits Rome — He is consecrated Bishop for Ireland — His first Con- verts — Wonderful Success of our Apostle — The Primatial See of Ireland established at Armagh — Erection of other Episcopal Sees — St. Patrick holds a Synod — His Death — St. Benignus, his Successor in the See of Armagh. 38. Ireland was the first country in the West, outside of the Ro- man Empire, that was converted to Christianity. Until the pontifi- cate of Pope Celestine, the Christian religion was but little known amongst the Irish. There were, indeed, among the Irish people, even before the period of St. Patrick's apostleship, some who embraced and professed the Christian faith. It is probable that some knowledge of the Christian faith was acquired from the Christians of the adjacent shores of Britain, Gaul and Spain, or perhaps from some merchants who, as early as the days of Tacitus, were accustomed to frequent the shores of Ireland. But the professors of the Gospel in Ireland were at that time only few. This is confirmed by the authority of St. Prosper and the testimony of St. Patrick himself. " The Irish," says the great Apostle of that gallant nation, " who till this time had not the knowledge of God and worshipped idols and unclean things how are they now become the people of the Lord and are called the Sons of God. The sons of Ireland and the daughters of its chieftains now appear as monks and virgins of Christ." 84. It has been, indeed, maintained that the Irish Church already possessed a hierarchy, before Palladius and Patrick were destined to establish that same Church. The Bishops SS. Ailbe, Declan, Ibar and Kieran are named as predecessors of these missionaries in the Irish episcopacy. Against this, however, it has been clearly shown that the ecclesiastics, who are represented as the predecessors of St. Patrick, belonged to a later period — the sixth century — than that in which Ire- land's Apostle flourished. Besides, this theory is contradicted by the statement of St. Prosper, who was a contemporary of both St. Pal- ladius and St. Patrick, and who in his Chronicle, published about the year 484, distinctly calls St. Palladius " the first bishop," to whom the care of the Irish mission was confided. 35. But little is known of the early career of St. Palladius. He held the high ofHce of deacon of the Roman Church under Pope 136 HIS TO BY OF THE CHURCH. Celestine, by whom he was consecrated bishop, and sent to preach the Gospel to " the Scots," as the Irish were then called. According to Bede and Adamnan, the name " Scotia " in their time meant no other country than Ireland, and " Scoti " no other people than the inhabit- ants of that island. In company with four other missionaries, St. Palladius, in the year 431, entered upon his mission in Ireland. His preaching, however, was not destined to bear much fruit o^ gather the Irish into the fold of Christ. Meeting with opposition from the Druids and local chiefs, Palladius sailed away the following year to the north, and, landing in modern Scotland, became the Apostle of the Picts. Nevertheless, he made some converts in Ireland, and built three churches which he left in charge of two of his assistants. 36. The Apostle of Ireland, to whom under God her conversion is due, was St. Patrick, who was appointed to that mission, A. D. 432, by the same Pope Celestine I. who in the previous year had sent St. Palladius to Ireland.^ Our Apostle having then ^.ttained the forty- fifth year of his age, the year 387 must have been that in which he w^as born. On the authority of our Saint's own Confession and the tradition of the Scottish Church, Dr. Moran, the learned archbishop of Sidney, has clearly shown that the Apostle of Ireland was born at Old-Kilpatrick, between Alcluaid, now called Dumbarton, and Glas- gow, in Scotland. Other accounts make him a native of Armoric Gaul, which then formed part of the Roman province. He was the son of Calpurnius of illustrious Celtic descent, and of Conchessa, who is said to have been a near relative, probably the sister, of St. Martin of Tours. 37. Whilst yet in his boyhood, Patrick was led a captive to Ire- land, and there he was obliged to act as herdsman. Being by divine interposition freed from captivity, he resolved to dedicate himself to the sei-vice of God. By divers visions God manifested to him that he was destined for the great work of converting Ireland. Day and night he was haunted by the thought of the pagan country, in which he had spent six years of servitude, and the character of whose people he so well understood. 1. " From the earliest days of Christianity," says Dr. Moran, " the Roman Pontiffs have occupied themselves with the conversion of pagan nations, and continue to do so to the S resent time, carrying out the commission given tb them in theperson of St. Peter by hrist, to feed his lambs, and to feed his sheep. St. Innocent the First, writing to Bishop Decentius in the year 402, refers to this fact: 'Is it not Icnown to all,' says he, 'that the things which have been delivered to the Roman Church by Peter, the Prince of the Apostles, and preserved ever since, should be observed by all, and that nothing is to be introduced devoid of authority, or borrowed elsewhere ? Especially as it is manifest that no one has founded churches for all Italy, the Gauls, Spain, Africa and the interjacent islands, except such as were appointed priests (or bishops) by the venerable Peter and his successors.' All the northern nations of Europe were converted by missionaries sent by Rome; and at present any progress made in converting the heathen is due to the sucessors of St. Peter. The missionaries sent by Protestant societies or churches produce no ciffect." See Marshall's excellent work, " Christian Missions." CONVERSION OF IRELAND. 137 38. It was at the famous schools of St. Martin at Tours, and of Lerins, that our Saint prepared himself for his missionary career. At the last named place, St. Honoratus, the founder of this great school' St. Hilary of Aries, St. Eucherius of Lyons, St. Lupus of Troyes, and the celebrated Vincent de Lerins were contemporaries with our Apos- tle in his hallowed retreat. At the solicitation of St. Germanus of Auxerre, his spiritual adviser, Patrick proceeded to Rome in com- pany with the pious priest Segetius, who was instructed by Germanus to attest the virtues and excellence of our Saint. Patrick's baptismal name was Succath ; at the time of his ordination it was changed to Ma- gonius; but Pope Celestine, to add dignity to the Saint's mission, con- ferred on him the Patrician order, which had been instituted by Con- stantine the Great, whence he was afterwards generally called " Pa- tricius." Having received episcopal consecration, Patrick set out for Ireland and, assisted by Analius, Iserninus and some others, com- menced the arduous task of a nation's conversion, with all the advan- tages of profound learning and piety, and of a personal knowledge of the people, their language and manners. 89. Before the arrival of St. Patrick, the Irish were Pagans wor- shipping the sun and the stars ; hills and mountains were the places of their religious services. His first convert was a chief named Dicho, who in proof of his sincerity built a church in Down. Thence our Saint proceeded to Tara, in the present county of Meatb, where he preached on the eve of Easter before the Monarch Leaguaire and bap- tized many of the Druids, lords, and courtiers. The Arch-Druid him- self, the daughters and a brother of the king were among the converts. The king himself, however, did not become a Christian, though he in every way favored the missionaries. Patrick travelled over the whole island, visiting every province. Such was the fruit of his preaching that the conversions soon were numbered by tens of thousands. The most numerous conversions were made at Connaught, where St. Patrick baptized no fewer than one hundred and twenty thousand, including seven princes. 40. In 455, St. Patrick founded the metropolitan see of Armagh, and thus laid the foundation of the primatial see of "All Ireland." The extraordinary success of this truly apostolic man is without a par- allel in the history of the Church. In the course of twenty years, a whole nation, including rulers and princes, men and women, was won over to Christianity without the shedding of a single drop of blood. Sees were founded in all parts of the island, bishops conse- crated and priests ordained ; churches were built and monasteries erected, which became famous seats of piety and learning, and nurseries 138 ' HISTORY OF THE CHVRCH. of faith for other nations. St. Bridget founded several nunneries, the first and most celebrated of which was that erected at Kildon in 490. Ireland soon became known as the " Island of Saints." 41. In the year 450, St. Patrick held a synod to regulate the dis- cipline of the Church which he had founded. The acts of this Coun- cil are still extant, bearing the name of the Saint. He continued his mission in Ireland for sixty years and reached the extraordinary age of ninety-six years. Such an unusual length of life and spiritual ac- tivity enabled him to establish the Irish Church on a firm and lasting basis. During the latter part of his apostolic life he composed the treatise known by the name of " St. Patrick's Confessions," in which with fervent gratitude he records the divine favors towards himself and the nation to which he had been sent. He died March 17, A. D. 493, in the monastery of Saul, the first of his founding; accounts vary, however, both as to his age and the year of his death. Of his disci- ples, many became famous, the most illustrious of whom were Benig- nus who succeeded him in the see of Armagh, Kieran, bishop of Clon- macnais, and later on St. Finian, bishop of Clonard (f 552). 42. We cannot but admire the omnipotence of God and the power of his divine grace in the rapid conversion of Ireland by St. Patrick. So sudden a change and transition of a whole nation from idolatry to the faith of Christ, can only be attributed to Him who has the power of softening the most callous hearts. It can be said with truth that no other nation in the Christian world was converted in so short a time and received with so much joy the religion of Christ. And we may add that no other nation has preserved its faith with more forti- tude and courage during a persecution of two centuries. SECTION XLVI. CHRISTIANITY IN BRITAIN AND SCOTLAND. Early Traces of Christianity in Britain — Anglican Claims refuted— Conver- sion of King Lucius — Missionaries sent by Pope Eleutherius — Diocletian Persecution — St. Alban, the Protomartyr of Britain — Origin of Christi- anity in Scotland — Apostles of the Scots — St. Ninian — St. Palladius — St. Columbkill. 43. Britain. It cannot be ascertained, when or by whom Christi- anity was first preached in Britain. Some writers ascribe it to St. Peter, while Anglican writers, — hoping to show that the introduction of Christianity into England was independent of the See of Rome ! — claim that St. Paul, the Apostle, planted the Church in Britain. Both opinions are totally unsupported by any proof. There is no evidence whatsoever to show that St. Paul ever preached in Britain. The testimonies of the early writers — St. Clement, Eusebius, St. CHRISTIANITY IN BRITAIN A^D SCOTLAND. 139 Jerome, and Theodoret, who are quoted in support of the Anglican claim, are wholly ambiguous and unsatifactory. It is certain, how- ever, that there were Christians in Britain at a very early period. Tertullian and Origen refer to the early, triumph of the Church among the tribes of Britain, as a well-known fact. Of the Romans who, since the subjugation of the island under Claudius, came to Britain, and of the Britains who were induced to visit Rome, some, no doubt, were Christians or were made acquainted at Rome with the Christian Religion. 44. The two celebrated ladies who became Christians at Rome in the time of the Apostles, — Claudia, the wife of the senator Pudens, and Pomponia Graecina, the wife of Aulus Plautius, the first general who made any permanent conquest in the island, — are believed to have been Britons. We are assured by English historians that Helena, the saintly mother of Constantine the Great, was also a native of Britain. About the year 182, at the request of a British chieftain, named Lucius, Pope Elentherius sent Fugatius and Damianus to Britain by whom Lucius and great numbers of the Britons were con- verted to the faith. A regular hierarchy had already been established in Britain before the close of the third century ; for three British bishops, Eborius of York, Restitutus of London, and Adelphius of Lincoln, attended the Council of Aries in 314. The persecution of Diocletian also reached the faithful of remote Britain, and St. Alban, who suffered, A. D. 303, is called the protomartyr of Britain. When the heresy of Pelagius, himself a British monk, began to disturb the faithful of Britain, Pope Celestine L, A. D. 429, sent St. Germanus of Auxerre (died A. D. 448), and St. Lupus of Troyes (died A. D. 479), to Britain to silence the heretics. Their mission proved most successful in exterminating Pelagianism. 45. ScoTLAXD. Scotland, or North Britain, as it was called at this period, is said to owe the first introduction of Christianity to Pope St. Victor I. According to an ancient tradition in the Scottish Church, this Pope, at the request of King Donald, sent Marcus and Dionysius to Scot- land, by whom the king and his people were converted to the faith, A. D. 203. The first Apostle of the Lowland Scots, or Picts, as they were termed from the custom of painting their bodies, was St. Ninian, the son of a Christian prince and a native of Britain. During the pontificate of Pope Damasus, he visited Rome, where he remained some years, devoting himself to study. He was consecrated bishop by Pope Siricius and received from him a mission to Scotland about the year 394. By his preaching all the southern Picts, inhabiting the country south of the Grampian hills, embraced the true faith. 140 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH He built a great monastery and church at Whithorn, now in Gallo- way ; here he also established his episcopal see, which from the white stone of his cathedral bore the name of " Candida Casa." After nearly forty years of apostolic labor, St. Ninian died in 432. 46. By this time, St. Palladius, having been entrusted by Pope Celestine with the mission to the Scots, at once continued the mission among the Picts, left without a director by the death of St. Ninian. He preached with great zeal and formed in the Lowlands a. consid- erable church. After an apostolate of nearly twenty years, St. Palla- dius died, A. D. 450. He consecrated St. Ternan bishop, to labor among the Picts, and St. Servanus to labor in the Orkneys, and thus provided a hierarchy for the northern and central parts of Scotland. St. Kentigren, a disciple of St. Servanus, evangelized Cumbria — the district between the wall of Severus and the river Forth — and founded the See of Glasgow, where he died, A. D. 603. 47. St. Columba, from the great number of monasteries which he founded, sumamed " Columkille," was the Apostle of the Caledonians, (Gael of the mountains, Highlanders), or northern Picts. They were, like the Irish, a Celtic nation, and inhabited the northern part of Scot- land, known to the Romans by the name of Caledonia. St. Columba was born at Gartan in Ireland, A. D. 521, and was a disciple of the holy bishop Finian, by whom he was ordained priest in 550. He founded a number of monasteries in Ireland, the most noted of which was that of Deny, now called Londonderry. This patriarch of the Irish monks was in the forty-second year of his age, when, in 563, he left his native country, and, with twelve disciples, crossed over to Scotland. He landed on the isle of Jona or Hy, where he founded a celebrated monastery, which became the center of numerous monastic institutions and churches, established by him and his disciples through- out Scotland and Britain. In 565, St. Columba baptized Brude, the powerful king of the Northern Picts. Supported by the gift of mir- acles, he soon brought the whole nation to profess the faith. After thirty-four years of missionary labor, St. Columba died in 597, leaving Christianity firmly established in the Hebrides, and spread over all the northern and western highlands of Scotland. St. Machor, one of his disciples, was sent by him to found the see of Aberdeen, of which he was the first bishop. r MIGRATION OF THE NATIONS. 141 III. CHRISTIANITY AMONG THE GERMANIC AND SCLAVONIC NATIONS. SECTION XLVII. THE MIGRATION OF THE NATIONS. Barbarian Invasion of the different Provinces of the Empire— St. Gregory Describing the Universal Desolation— Mission of the Barbarian Invad- ers — Influence of the Church. 48. As early as the second century, various barbarian nations, mostly of Germanic origin, commenced to invade the provinces of the Roman Empire. The Roman legions guarded in vain the frontiers against these rude but powerful nations who, coming from the north- east of Europe, were irresistably carried toward the land in which had dawned the light of Faith. The danger into which the empire was brought by the barbarian invaders, continually increased up to the year 375, when the Huns, a savage nation from the extreme East, crossed the Volga, and extended their depredatory course westward. Europe, for two centuries — i. e., from the invasion of the Goths in 378 to that of the Longobards in 570, became the battle-field for contend- ing savage tribes, who strove fiercely with one another for the fairest provinces of the empire. After the downfall of the Western Empire in 476, Italy was successively ruled by the Heruli, Ostrogoths and Lombards, — Africa was conquered by the Vandals, — the north-western part of Spain fell under the Suevi, and the rest of the peninsula, together with the South of France, was subdued by the Visigoths. The Burgundians, AUemanni, Thuringians, Saxons, and Franks, divided Germany and Gaul among themselves, whilst Britain was seized by the Anglo-Saxons. 49. Everywhere ruin marked the track of the invaders. Towns and villages were burned, fortresses levelled to the ground and Chris- tian churches, of which there were then many in the Roman colo- nies, destroyed. Thousands of tbe inhabitants fell by the sword and thousands were led away into captivity. " Lights and sounds of war," writes the great St. Gregory, "meet us on every side. The cities are destroyed, the military stations broken up ; the land devastated ; the earth depopulated. No one remains in the country ; scarcely any inhabitants in the towns ; yet even the poor specimens of humanity that remain, are still smitten,daily and without intermission. Before our eyes some are carried away captives, others mutilated and murdered. Behold how Rome fares; she who once was mistress of the 142 . HISTOBY OF THE CHURCH. . world, is worn down by manifold and incalculable distresses, by the be- reavement of her citizens, the attack of her foes, the reiteration of overthrows. Where is her Senate ? Where are her people ? We, the few survivors, are still the daily prey of the sword and of other innumerable tribulations. Where are they who in former days rev- elled in her glory ? Where is their pomp, their pride, their frequent and immoderate joy ? — Young men of the world, congregating here from every quarter, aimed at secular advancement. Now, no one hastens to her for preferment ; and so it is with other cities also ; some places are laid waste by pestilence, others are depopulated by the sword ; some are afflicted with famine, and others are swallowed up by earthquakes." These words of St. Gregory are but a meagre statement of the ruin and desolation brought about by the ceaseless ijicursions of the northern barbarians. 50. These barbarians, no doubt, had a mission from God. They had come in obedience to a divine call to punish the Roman Empire for its widespread corruption, revolting crimes, and savage cruelty to the holy martyrs ; to crush out the last vestiges of Paganism which, notwithstanding the closing of its temples, was still rife, and in its circuses, theatres and amphitheatres continued to exercise a corrupt- ing influence even upon Christians, as the Fathers of that period so loudly complained. 51. "Had it not been for the Catholic Church," to quote the words of Herder, " Europe, in those dark times, would, most proba- bly, have become the spoil of robber chieftains, a scene of endless discord, or it might be a Mongolian desert." It was the Church that subdued the savage hordes of the North, tamed their unruly passions and caused them to betake themselves peacefully to the cultivation of the soil. .Under her mild but powerful influence, we see young, vig- orous states rising and advancing, slowly but surely, towards a true civilization. r^ CHBISTIANlTr IN' SPAIN AND ITAL Y. 143 SECTION XLVIII. CHRISTIANITY AMONG THE VISIGOTHS IN SPAIN, AND OSTROGOTHS AND LOMBARDS IN ITALY. Visigoths and Ostrogoths — Origin of Christianity among the Goths — Bishop Theophilus — Persecution of the Christians under Athanaric — Martyrs — The Goths turn Arians — Bishop Ulfilas — Sacking of Rome by Alaric — The Visigoths in Gaul and Spain — Persecution of the .Catholics under Eurich and Leovigild — King Reccared embraces Catholicity — Courifcil of Toledo — End of the Visigothic Kingdom— Other Gothic Nations— Their Religious Belief — Odoacer, King of the Heruli, overthrows the Western Empire — His Treatment of the Church — Theodoric, King of the Ostro- goths, in Italy — Boethius — Cassiodorus — Theodoric a Persecutor — Pope John I. — End of the Ostrogothic Rule in Italy — The Lombards in Italy — Condition of the Church under the Lombard Rule. 52. The Goths, whose ancient home seems to have been Scandi- navia, about the beginning of the third century settled on the shores of the Black Sea and about the Danube. They were divided into Ostrogoths and Visigoths, or Eastern and Western Goths. In the latter half of the third century, they began to invade the neighboring provinces, extending their incursions over Illyria, Greece, Thracia, and beyond the Hellespont into Asia Minor. The Goths were the first of the Germanic nations who received the light of Faith, proba- bly from their Christian captives. A Gothic bishop, named Theoph- ilus, attended the Council of Nice. St. Cyril of Jerusalem, in 347, mentions the Goths among the Christians who had bishops, priests, monks, and holy virgins. Under King Athanaric, the Gothic Chris- tians had to endure a persecution ; their most illustrious martyrs were SS. Nicetas and Saba. 53. Driven from their new homes on the Euxine by the Huns in 3*76, the Goths received from Emperor Valens ample territories in Thracia and Moesia, where they were induced, mainly by the efforts of their bishop Ulfilas, to become Arians. They continued to remain Arians even until after their victory over Valens at Adrianople, A. D. 378. Most of them, however, were semi-Arians, as was also Ulfilas, who was consecrated bishop of his nation at Constantinople between the years 341 and 348. Ulfilas rendered himself famous by inventing the Gothic characters of the alphabet, and by translating the Bible into the Gothic language, the greater part of this work being still extant. He died an Arian, A. D. 388. 54. The Visigoths, under Alaric, invaded Italy and sacked Rome in 410 ; but unable to maintain themselves in Italy, they founded under their leader Ataulpli a new kingdom, which subsequently extended over the greater part of Gaul" and Spain ; Toulouse became 144 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. its capital. With few exceptions, the Visigoths were tolerant as to the faith of others. King Enrich, A. D. 466-485, was a bitter enemy of the Catholics. Sidonius Apollinaris, bishop of Clermont, A. D. 486-490, states that Enrich exiled a great number of Catholic bishops, prohibited the election of new ones, and in other ways desolated numerous churches. The persecution continued under King Leovi- gild^who, A. D. 585, put his own son Hermenigild to death on account of his Catholic faith. 55. King Reccared, A. D. 586-601, second son and successor of Leovigild, was converted to the Catholic faith by St. Leander, bishop of Sevilla. With him most of his people abjured the Arian heresy. The reconciliation of the entire nation with the Church was effected by the great national Council of Toledo, A. D. 58V. In Yll, the Moors having been called to Spain put an end to the Visigothic kingdom, after it had lasted nearly three hundred years. 56. From the Visigoths, Arianism passed to the other Gothic nations, — the Ostrogoths, Gepidae, Suevi, Alani, Burgundians, and Vandals. The Suevi, who established themselves in Spain under King Rechila, (died 448), were at first Catholics, but under King Remismund they were forced to adopt the Arian heresy. About the middle of the sixth century,the Suevi returned to the Catholic faith.; but in 585 they came under the dominion of the Visigoths, when Leovigild persecuted the Catholics. Many of the clergy, such as Pancratian, bishop of Braga, and Patanius, suffered martyrdom. 57. In 476, Odoacer, prince of the Heruli, dethroned Romulus Augustulus, the last of the Western Roman emperors, and assumed the title of King of Italy. Though an Arian, Odoacer treated the Catholic Church with much respect. His reign, however, was of short duration, having been brought to an end by Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, who, at the instigation of Emperor Zeno, invaded Italy and condemned Odoacer to death, A. D. 493. 58. Theodoric was an Arian, but the Catholic Church was left unmolested, and the country enjoyed great prosperity under his reign. This was due mainly to the excellent men by whom he allowed him- self to be guided. One of them was the learned Boethius whom The- odoric held in high esteem, but whom he afterwards, from an unjust suspicion, put to death, together with his father-in-law, A. D. 526. Not less renowned was Aurelius Cassiodorus, whom Theodoric had appointed his prime minister. The wisdom of Cassiodorus prevented many hostile measures of the king and the outbreak of a schism by the recognition of the lawful Pope Symmachus instead of the anti-pope Laurentius. Cassiodorus, after having served his CHRISTIANITY AMONG THE LOMBARDS. 145 country fifty years, founded the monastery Vivarium, whose first superior he became. He died, A. D. 575, being nearly a century old. 59. Toward the close of his reign, A. D. 493-526, Theodoric began to persecute the Church. Pope John I. died in prison. A general persecution was prevented only by the timely death of The- odoric. Profiting by the Gothic disorders consequent upon the death of Theodoric, Emperor Justinian sent Belisarius and Narses to Italy, who, after a twenty years war, A. D. 533-553, put an end to the Gothic rule ; Italy then became a province of the Eastern Empire, and was governed by Exarchs who resided at Ravenna. 60. The union of Italy with the Eastern Empire was of short duration. The Lombards, who had been employed by Justinian in the overthrow of the Ostrogothic rule, under Alboin conquered the whole of northern Italy and founded a kingdom, A. D. 568, with Pavia as its capital. Many of the Lombards had remained Pagans, and those who had adopted Christianity professed the Arian heresy. They manifested the fiercest hatred towards the Catholics whom they found in the country. After the assassination of Alboin, A. D. 374, and that of his successor Cleph, A. D. 375, Italy was divided and oppress- ed by thirty-six ducal tyrants, who laid waste the country and perse- cuted the Catholics. 61. This interregnum was for the Church a season of unspeaka- ble misery. The persecution lasted until the accession of Agilulf, A. D. 590, who embraced the Catholic faith with many of his nation. This was largely due to the high-minded Queen Theodolinde, a Bava- rian princess. Encouraged and aided by Pope Gregory the Great, Theodolinde labored with untiring zeal in bringing about the conver- sion of the Lombards. After the death of Agilulf, Arianism was favored by some of his successors until the conversion of the entire nation was completed under King Grimoald (died 671). Still, the rude character of the Lombards continued to betray itself in the merciless rapacity of the lords, and in a lasting hostility to the Popes. Their dominion was finally brought to a close by Charlemagne, A. D. 774. 146 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH SECTION XLIX. CHRISTIANITY AMONG THE VANDALS IN AFRICA THE HUNS. Invasion of Africa by the Vandals— Genseric— Persecution of the Catholics- Distinguished Martyrs— Persecution under Hunneric — Martyrs — Miracle of Typasa— Conditions of the Catholics under Guntamund and his Suc- cessors — Overthrow of the Vandalic Rule— Invasion of the Empire by the Huns— Attila and Pope Leo the Great— Martyrdom of St. Ursula and her Companions. 62. The Vandals, the most cruel tribe of the Germanic race, settled in Northern Spain, A. D. 410; but unable to maintain themselves against the Visigoths, they accepted the invitation of Boniface, the Roman governor, and, under Genseric, A. D. 429, crossed over into Africa, where they conquered nearly the whole of the northern coast, — subsequently also Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, and the Balearic Isles. Being fanatical Arians, they persecuted the Catholics with relentless fury. Genseric, A. D. 427-477, who is said to have been a Catholic in his youth, began the persecution in 437, by putting to death four of his courtiers, Arcadius, Probus, Paschasius, and Eutychius, who refused to renounce the Catholic faith. The other distinguished martyrs in his reign were the Bishops Possidius and Honoratus An- toninus of Constantine. Many more, including bishops, priests, and tender virgins, for instance, St. Julia, were exiled into the deserts or condemned to slavery. To these cruelties against his Catholic sub- jects, the king was strongly incited by the Arian clergy. Catholics were deprived of their churches, and could assemble for worship only in private houses. 63. Hunneric, A. D. 477-484, in the beginning of his reign, toler- ated the Catholics, who were recommended to his clemency by the Emperor Zeno and Placidia, his sister-in-law. He even permitted the election of Eugenius as bishop of Carthage. But listening to the promptings of the Arian Bishop Cyrila, Hunneric resumed the perse- cution against the Catholics, A. D. 479, which surpassed in cruelty even that of his father. Eugenius, together with other Catholics, to the number of about five thousand, mostly priests and bishops, was banished to the deserts, where many of them perished miserably. The religious conference in Carthage in 484, between Catholic and Arian bishops, served only to add to the sufferings of the Catholics. Three hundred and eighty-four bishops were exiled, and Catholics refus- ing to become Arians were deprived of all their property and subjected to the most cruel and ignominious treatment. Respectable citizens, noble matrons, and consecrated virgins were stripped naked, their \ CHRISTIANITY AMONa THE VANDALS. 147 bodies torn with scourges or burned with red-hot irons. The ampu- tation of the ears, the nose, the ♦tongue, and the right hand was a common punishment inflicted upon the Catholics, frequently by the Arian clergy themselves, who surpassed in cruelty even the king and his Vandals. At Typasa in Mauretania, a number of Catholics had, by the king's order, their tongues and hands cut off. But the holy confessors continued to speak without tongues ! Some of them came to Constantinople, where many heard them speak and relate their suf- ferings. This miracle, the truth of which even the infidel Gibbon admits, is related by Victor of Vita, an African bishop, who was an eye-witness of what he describes in his " History of the Vandalic Per- secution," and his testimony is confirmed by the philosopher ^neas Gaza, and the Emperor Justinian I. in a perpetual edict. Victor him- self was a confessor under Hunneric who sent him into exile. 64. Under King Guntamund, A. D. 485-496, the exiled bishops were permitted to return to their sees, though the persecution did not wholly cease. His successor Thrasamund, A. D. 496-523, re- kindled the persecution against the Catholics. One hundred and twenty bishops were exiled to Sardinia, among them St. Fulgen- tius, bishop of Ruspe, one of the most learned defenders of Catholic- ity against the Arian and Pelagian heresies. Hilderic, A. D. 523-530, a peaceful prince, recalled the exiles, and permitted a synod to be held at Carthage, A. D. 525, which was attended by about sixty bish- ops. Hilderic was assassinated by his cousin Gilimer. A fresh per- secution was expected, but the dominion of the Vandals was finally, in 533, overthrown by Belisarius, and Northern Africa again became a Roman province. After their overthrow in Africa, the Vandals vanished from sight. The African Church never regained its former prominence, and a century later, Christianity wholly disappeared before Islamism in a country, which, in the days of St. Augustine, counted over six hundred bishoprics. 65. Gaul and Italy were threatened by the savage Huns with a fate similar to that which the invasion of the Vandals had brought upon Northern Africa. At the instigation of Genseric, Attila at first invaded the Eastern Empire and, in 450, the Western. Followed by seven hundred thousand warriors, he crossed the Rhine in 451 and sacked Treves, Mentz, Metz, and a number of other cities. Troyes was spared by him at the entreaty of St. Lupus, bishop of that city. After the bloody battle on the Catalaunian Plains, Attila, who called himself the " Scourge of God," directed his barbarian hordes towards Italy, captured and burned Aquileja, and filled the whole country with blood and desolation. He then marched against Rome; but here he was 148 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. stayed in his destructive march by the commanding appearance of Leo the Great, to whom Rome and Italy owed their preservation. Returning after his defeat at Chalons, and finding in Cologne St. Ursula and her companions, who had fled thither from Britain through fear of the Anglo-Saxons, Attila unpityingly ordered them to be slain, together with the Christian inhabitants of that city to the num- ber of eleven thousand. SECTION XL. CHRISTIANITY IN GAUL THE BUHGUNDIANS CONVERSION OF THE FRANKS. Christianity among the Burgundians — Distinguished Bishops — Conversion of the Franks — King Clevis— Queen Clotilda — St. Remigius— Council of Orleans — The Merovingians— SS. Columbanus and Gall. 66. The Burgundians, whose original territory lay on the shores of the Baltic Sea, penetrated into Gaul in the beginning of the fifth century, and settling between the Alps, the Saone, and the Rhone, established the Burgundian kingdom, of which Lyons was the capital. At that time they were still Pagans, but soon after embraced the Cath- olic faith. The priest Orosius, in 417, commended the mildness and modesty of these Burgundians, who treated their subjects of Gaul as their Christian brethren. In 450, they were found professing Arianism, which was probably owing to their Arian neighbors, the Visigoths. 67. However, Arianism was not generally adopted by the Burgun- dians. In the second half of the fifth century, there flourished among that nation such men as St. Eucherius, (died A. D. 450), and Patiens, (died A. D. 491), successively bishops of Lyons; St. Sidonius Apollina- ris, the poet and bishop of Clermont, (died A. D. 482); later on, St. Apollinaris, bishop of Valence, (died A. D. 520), and his brother St. Avitus, the learned bishop of Vienna and champion of Catholicity at the religious conference held between Catholics and Arians in 499. King Sigismund returned to the Catholic Church in the year 516, and Arianism entirely disappeared among the Burgundians, after their kingdom had passed under the dominion of the Franks, A. D. 534. 68. An event of great importance for the Catholic Church was the conversion of Clovis, the valiant king of the Franks. The Franks occupied all the North of Roman Gaul, between the Somme, the Seine, and Loire, Paris being the capital of the Prankish kingdom. Already inclined to Christianity by his Catholic queen, the Burgun- dian princess Clotilda, Clovis, by reason of his great victory over the Alemanni at Zuelpich, near Bonn, in 496, was induced to embrace CONVERSION OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 149 the Catholic faith. Within the same year, Clovis, true to the vow, which he had made on the occasion, was instructed in the Christian religion by St. Yedastus of Toul, and baptized at Rheims on Christ- mas-day, by St. Remigius. With him were baptized three thousand of his followers. 69. In 507, Clovis, after defeating Alaric, king of the Visigoths, annexed Aquitania to his realm. In the year 511, he convoked the Council of Orleans, which was attended by the bishops of the newly conquered dominions. The expectations entertained of the " New Constantine " were fully realized, although his conduct as a Christian was not without reproach, and was stained by deeds of blood and cruelty. Clovis died, A. D. 511, whilst his consort, the saintly Clo- tilda, survived him till A. D. 545, 70. Under the successors of the great Clovis, dissension and bloodshed prevailed among the Merovingians, idolatrous worship still lingered among the Franks, and even apostasy from the Catholic Church was no rare occasion. In their efforts to civilize the Franks, the bishops were supported by the Irish monks, to whom must be attributed the religious reformation of this nation; among them, espec- ially St. Columbanus distinguished himself. He came to Gaul, A. D. 590, with twelve companions, and founded in the Yosges Mountains the celebrated monastery of Luxeuil, from which issued many holy bishops and disciples. Being compelled to leave the country, A. D. 610, he sought refuge in Alemania. In 612 he departed for Lom- bardy, where he established the monastery of Bobbio. He died, A. D. 616. His disciple, St. Gall, founded near Lake Constance, a monas- tery, from which sprung the famous abbey and city of St. Gall. SECTIOX LI. COXVERSIOX OF THE AXGLO-SAXOXS IX BRITAIX. The Anglo-Saxons in Britain— Distinguished Welsh Bishops— Zeal of Pope Gregory the Great— St. Avigustine, the Apostle of the Anglo-Saxons — Conversion of King Ethelbert — Canterbury a Metropolitan See — Obsti- nacy of the Welsh Clergy— Conversion of the East-Saxons— St. Mellitus — Conversion of the Kingdom of Northumbria— St. Paulinus and St. Aidanus— Conversion of the other Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms— St. Birinus and St. Wilfrid. 71. When Britain, in the beginning of the fifth century, was abandoned by the Romans and left to provide for itself, it had much to suffer from the invasions of the Picts and Scots. Unable to oppose the constant invasions of their hostile neighbors, the Britons, A. D. 449, called in the assistance of the Anglo-Saxons from Northern Ger- many. These Teutonic auxiliaries, however, after chastizing the 150 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. Scottish invaders, retained Britain for their reward. They subdued the greater part of the country, and established themselves as perman- ent inhabitants, driving the British natives into Wales and Cornwall, or to France (Bretagne). One effect of this Anglo-Saxon conquest was, that Britain relapsed into heathenism, Christianity becoming wholly extinct within its borders. 72. The Britons maintained their independence in their new homes, and Christianity continued to flourish among them. In the sixth century, flourishing monasteries existed in Wales, and many holy bishops adorned the Church. Among them are mentioned St. David, archbishop of Menevia (died A. D. 544), St. Dubricius (died A. D. 522), and his disciple St. Theliaus (died A. D. 560), St. Udoce- us, St. Paternus, Daniel, Itutus, and others. Yet, no efforts, were made by the Welsh clergy to convert the Anglo-Saxon invaders, who probably would not receive Christianity from the conquered race. 73. The honor of bringing the heathen Anglo-Saxons, who had founded seven kingdoms in Britain, jointly called the " Heptarchy," into the fold, of Christ, is due to Pope Gregory the Great. This great Pontiff, before his elevation to the Papacy, had desired to become himself their Apostle, but was prevented from carrying out his design. Having succeeded to the Papal Chair, he zealously considered the means of fulfilling his early wish. In 596, he sent thirty-nine Benedictines .under the guidance of the holy Abbot Augustine to undertake the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons in Britain. The mis- mionaries, landed on the isle of Thanet, and, with the permission of King Ethelbert of Kent, commenced preaching in the capital city, in the chapel of St. Martin, where divine service was held for the Cath- olic Queen. The effect of this preaching was, that King Ethelbert, already inclined towards Christianity through the influence of his Queen Bertha, a Prankish princess, received Baptism on Pentecost, A. D. 597. On the following Christmas, ten thousand of his subjects followed his royal example. 74. On learning the wonderful success of Augustine, Pope Greg- ory appointed him the first bishop, and, in 601, metropolitan of the Anglo-Saxons with authority to found twelve suffragan sees, and, when the Northern English should have embraced the Faith, also to ordain a bishop for York, which should likewise be a metropolitan with twelve suffragan bishops. Augustine chose Dovernum, now Canter- bury, for his metropolitan see. The Apostle of England, wishing to establish uniformity of discipline over the whole of Britain, held sev- eral conferences with the British bishops of Wales to have them con- form to the usages of Rome. The Welsh Christians, though agreeing CONVERSION OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 151 in faith with the universal Church, yet differed in- some points of discipline. These differences regarded the time of celebrating Easter, and the mode of administering Baptism. The conferences, however, failed to have any result. Out of rancor against the English, the Welsh bishops and monks refused to acknowledge Augustine as their Primate, or to aid him in the conversion of their heathen neighbors. Indignant at their uncharitable refusal, he foretold that punishment would shortly come upon them. This prediction was ful- filled some years after his death, when Ethelfried, the pagan king of Northumbria, had twelve hundred monks at Bangor put to death and their monasteries destroyed, A. D. 613. St. Augustine died in 605, after having chosen Lawrence, one of his companions, to succeed him in the see of Canterbury. 75. From Kent, Christianity rapidly spread among the other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. The East-Saxons, with their King Soberct, nephew of Ethelbert, were converted by St. Mellitus, another com- panion of St. Augustine, who became the first bishop of London, A. D. 604. Mellitus, on the death of Lawrence, A. D. 619, succeeded him in the see of Canterbury, and, on his demise in 624, Justus, the first bishop of Rochester, was installed, who again, A. D. 630, was followed by Honorius, another co-laborer of St. Augustine. In 616, both Ethelbert and Soberct, — the latter the founder of Westminster Abbey, — died. 76. Korthumbria received the Faith by the preaching of St. Pau- linus, by whom King Edwin and a great number of his people were baptised, A. D. 627. York was erected into a metropolitan see and Paulinus made its first archbishop. On the death of Edwin in 633, Paulinus retired to Rochester, which see he governed till his death, A. D. 644. The conversion of the Northumbrians was afterwards completed under King St. Oswald by St. Aidanus from the monastery of St. Columba on the isle of lona. St. Aidanus, who fixed his Epis- copal see at Lindisfarne, died in 651. 77. King Edwin of Northumbria also induced the king of East- Anglia, Corpwald, to embrace Christianity, A. D. 627. His brother and successor Sigebert, supported by Felix, first bishop of Dunwich, con- tinued the work of evangelization among the East- Angles. St. Biri- nus, sent by Pope Honorius, was the Apostle of Wessex. King Cy- negils was baptized by him, A. D. 635, at Dorchester, where Birinus fixed his episcopal see. In 655, commenced the conversion of the kingdom of Mercia, when Peada, son of King Penda, became a Chris- tian, in order to receive in marriage Alchfleda, a Catholic princess of Northumbria. It was not till twenty-five years later that Sussex, the 153 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. last of the Heptarchy, received the grace of faith by the preaching of St. Wilfrid, about A. D. 680. He converted King Caedwalla, who was baptized by the Pope, at Rome, where he also died. Thus in about ninety years after St. Augustine's landing on the isle of Thanet, the whole of the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy was brought to the knowl- edge of Christ. CHAPTER II. PATRISTIC LITERATURE. SECTION LII. — THE GREEK FATHERS AND DOCTORS.^ Age of Church-Fathers— Advancement of Christian Literature— Its Causes —St. Athanasius, Father of Orthodoxy — His Writings against the Arians and other Heretics— St. Cyril of Jerusalem — Acacius of Jeru- salem—Writings of St. Cyril — St. Basil of Caesarea — His principal Works— St. Gregory Nazianzen — His Writings. 78. No sooner had peace been restored to the Church, than her Divine Founder was pleased to bestow upon her the charismata of science and knowledge, as in the times of persecution he had con- ferred upon her a firmness of faith which was not to be shaken by the severest trials. The fourth and fifth centuries are justly called the age of the Church-Fathers. At no time was the literary activity of God's chosen servants more wonderful and productive, and never did they arise in greater "numbers than during this period. The chief causes contributing to this advancement of Christian learning and the development of Christian doctrine, were ; 1. The learned schools at 1. A distinction is to be made between " Fathers of the Church (patres ecclesiae) and ecclesiastical writers (scriptores ecclesiastici)." The distinguishing- marks of the former are: 1. Antiquity (antiquitas); 2. Orthodoxy of doctrine (doctrina orthodoxa); 3. Em- inent sanctity (insignis sanctitas); and 4. Express or tacit approbation of the Church (approbatio expressa sive tacita). Early Christian Avriters that are wanting In one or the other of these requisites are pot counted among the Fathers of the Church. Such of the Fathers and Holy Teachers of the Church as united extraordinary learning (doctrina eminens) with purity of faith, are called "Doctors of the Church (doctores ecclesiae)." Of these, SS. Athanasius, Basil the Great, Gregory Nazianzen and Chrysostom belong to the Eastern Church. Doctors of the Western or Latin Church are SS. Ambrose, Hieron- ymus, Augustine and Gregory the Great, to whom afterwards were added by the Church SS. Leo the Great, Thomas Aquinas, Bona venture, Hilary, Alphonse de Liguori and Francis de Sales. GREEK FATHERS. 153 Antioch, Alexandria, Caesarea, Eclessa, Nisibis, and Rhenocorura in Egypt; 2. The controversies with pagan writers who continued to assail Christianity ; 3. The great heresies of Arius, Macedonius, Pelag- ius, Nestorius and Eutyches and the various conti;oversies arising from these heresies ; 4. The numerous Councils which met in order to de- line, under the special guidance of the Holy Ghost, what was to be believed, and what was to be rejected as contrary to Christian truth. 79. Against each of the numerous heresies germinating during this period, a glorious array of the Fathers of the Church came forward and waged a victorious battle. It was they who, at Councils, defined the Catholic doctrine, condemned the false teachings of here- tics, laying bare and demolishing their sophistries with the most penetrating acuteness. In their divinely inspired writings, they have bequeathed to all nations and ages a rich treasure of solid and profound learning, and most consoling doctrine, while at the same time the incomparable holiness of their lives has merited for them the honorable title of Fathers and Doctors of the Church. 80. The greatest luminary among the Oriental Doctors was St. Athanasius, surnamed the Great, whom God had chosen to be the champion and defender of His Church against the Arian heresy. Ath- anasius was born at Alexandria, about the year 296, ordained deacon in 319, and was chosen by Alexander, his bishop, to accompany him to the Council of Nice. To his acuteness, learning, and elo- quence in that Council, was principally owing the condemnation of Arianism. On the death of Alexander in 328, Athanasius became patriarch of Alexandria, and during forty-five years, he withstood, often almost alone, the whole brunt of the Arian assault. He stood unmoved against four Roman Emperors, was banished five times, was the butt of every wrong and calumny the Arians could devise, and lived in constant peril of death. Firm and unbending in defence of the Catholic faith, he merited the honorable title of " Father of Orthodoxy." He closed his stormy life in peace, A. D. 3'73. 81. With few exceptions, the numerous works of St. Athanasius have an apologetical and polemical tenor, having been w^ritten in defence of Catholicity against Paganism and heresy. His diction and style are clear, full of deep sense, strength, and solid reasoning. The first of his works are his two discourses " Against the Gentiles," and " On the Incarnation," which form one work addressed to a con- vert from heathenism, and which were written before the Arian controversy had broken out. Most of his other works have a direct bearing upon that heresy ; the principal among them are : 1. " Four Orations against the Arians," which he wrote whilst concealed in the 154 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. desert, A. D. 356-361 ; 2. " An Apology against the Arians," contain- ing thirty-six authentic documents relative to the history of Arianism ; 3. Two encyclical letters to the orthodox bishops, one against the illegal intrusion of Gregory the Cappadocian into his see, the other to warn against the wiles and stratagems of the Arians ; 4. An Apology to the Emperor Constantius, and "An Apology for His Flight," both of which were written in the desert. 82. Against the heresies of the Macedonians and the ApoUina- rians St. Athanasius wrote : 1. Four Letters to Serapion, bishop of Thmuis ; 2. A treatise " On the Incarnation and against the Arians ;'* 3. "A Book on the Trinity and Holy Ghost;" 4. "Two Books against the Apollinarians ;" 5. A treatise " On the Incarnation against Apollinaris ;" and 6. Another " On the Advent of Our Lord Jesus Christ." St. Athanasius is, however, not the author of the famous creed bearing his name, as it was compiled in Latin in the fifth or sixth century. 83. A worthy companion of the great Athanasius in his struggle with the Arians was St. Cyril of Jerusalem. This Father was born at, or near, the Holy City about the year 315. He was ordained priest in 345 by Bishop Maximus, who also intrusted him with the charge of the Catachumens, and in his stead appointed him preacher to the people. In 850, Cyril succeded Maximus in the see of Jerusalem, and was consecrated by Acacius of Csesarea. This Acacius, a bitter Arian, soon became a severe enemy and persecutor of Cyril, and, in 358, procured his deposition and exile from Jerusalem. Cyril was restored by the Council of Seleucia, in 359, but, at the instigation of Acacius, he was banished again, the next year, by Constantius. On the accesion of Julian, Cyril returned to Jerusalem. He witnessed the attempts of the apostate emperor to rebuild the temple of Jerusa- lem, which, however, owing to his prayers, were frustrated and had to be abandoned. The Emperor Yalens, in 367, again banished Cyril from his see, and only after eleven years was he allowed to return. In 381, he assisted at the Second General Council of Constantinople, and is recorded as one of the presiding prelates. He died, A. D. 386, after a troubled episcopate of thirty-five years, sixteen of which were spent in exile. 84. The writings of St. Cyril still extant, are : 1. "A Course of Twenty-three Catechetical Discourses" on the entire Christian doctrine for the instruction of the Catechumens. These consist of eighteen to the " competentes," i. e.. Catechumens before baptism ; and of five mystagogic discourses addressed to the Neophites on the sacrament of Baptism, Confirmation and the Eucharist ; 2. A homily GREEK FATHERS. 155 on St. John v., 2-16 ; 3. A letter to the Emperor Constantius relating to the prodigy of the luminous cross of Jerusalem. 85. After the death of the great Athanasius, the three Oappado- cians, Basil the Great, Gregory Nazianzen, and Gregory of Nyssa, took his place in the East as defenders of the orthodox faith. St. Basil was born at Caesarea in Cappadocia, about the year 330. Two of his brothers, Gregory and Peter, became bishops, the former of Nyssa, the latter of Sebaste, and, together with their parents, grand- mother and sister, are honored by the Church as saints. Basil stud- ied with great success at Athens, where he became intimate with Gregory Nazianzen. The two friends vied with each other both in learning and in the practice of virtue. " We know but two streets in the city," said Gregory, " the one leading to the Church and the other leading to the schools." They remained at Athens four or five years, where they also made the acquaintance of Julian, who afterwards merited the evil name of apostate. Having re- ceived Baptism in 357, Basil visited the monastic institutions of Syria and Egypt, and founded several monasteries in Pontus and Cap- padocia. He became the father of monachism in the East; the Basilians are to this day the jDrincipal religious order in the Oriental Church. In 364, Basil was ordained priest by Bishop Euse- bius, successor of Dianius, and, on the death of that prelate, was chosen bishop of Caesarea, A. D. 370. He was an instrument in the hands of God for beating back the Arian and Macedonian heresies in the East. His energy and zeal, learning and eloquence, and the exceeding austerity and holiness of his life, have gained for him the reputation of one of the greatest bishops of the Church, and his charac- ter and works have earned for him the surname " Great." Basil died in the year 379. 86. Of the works of St. Basil, the most important are : 1. "Five Books against Eunomius," the leader of the extreme Arians, called " Anomoeans ;" 2. "A Book on the Holy Ghost" to Amphilochius, bishop of Iconium, written against the Semi-Arians ; 3. "Nine homilies on the Hexaemeron," an explication of the work of Six Days ; 4. A number of ascetic works, containing treatises and rules which he composed for his monasteries ; 5. Three hundred and sixty- six letters, three of which are called "canonical," because they explain the manner and duration of the public penances to be enjoined on penitents. The Liturgy ascribed to St. Basil is still used in the Eastern Church, both by Catholics and Schismatics. 87. St. Gregory Nazianzen, the chosen friend of St. Basil, was born at Nazianzus in Cappadocia, about the year 329. His father 156 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. Gregory, who before his conversion had belonged to the Hypsistarians, — a mongrel sect, partly Jew and partly pagan, — became bishop of Nazianzus and, with his mother Nonna, is honored by the Church as a saint. On his return from Athens to Nazianzus, Gregory was baptized, and for some years lived in seclusion as a hermit, in company with St. Basil. He was ordained priest in 361, though, in his extreme humility, he was quite reluctant to accept that dignity ; and he henceforth assisted in the government of his father's diocese. About the year 372, he was consecrated by St. Basil, bishop of Sas- ima, but he was never able to occupy that see. In 381, Gregory was chosen bishop of Constantinople by the Second General Council, yet, on account of the opposition against him, he resigned this see and retired to Nazianzus, where he died about the year 389. 88. The writings of St. Gregory contain : 1. Forty-five orations which, properly speaking, are dogmatical treatises on tiie Holy Trinity. Of these, the most famous are his five theological orations on the Divinity of the Son and of the Holy Ghost against the Eunomians and Macedonians, which acquired for their author the name of " Theologian ;" 2. Two hundred and forty-two letters, which are highly interesting and are distinguished for their clearness and brevity. SECTION LIII. GREEK FATHERS, CONTINUED. St. Gregory of Nyssa— His early Career— His Writings— St. Epiphanius— His Writings— St. John Chrysostom — His Zeal as Patriarch of Constantinople — His Banishment — His Works— Treatise on the Priesthood — St. Cyril of Alexandria— His Writings — St. Sophronius of Jerusalem— His Writings —St. Maximus the Confessor— His Works— St. John of Damascus— His Zeal against the Iconoclasts— His Writings. 89. St. Gregory of Nyssa, a younger brother of St. Basil, was born in 331. He was married, but, after the death of his wife, was induced by Basil and their common friend Gregory Nazianzen to dedicate his talents to the sacred ministry. In 371, Gregory was made bishop of Nyssa in Cappadocia. He was deposed by the Ari- ans and exiled under Yalens, but upon the death of that emperor, he was restored to his see by the Emperor Gratian. He was deputed, A. D. 379, by the Council of Antioch to visit the churches of Jeru- salem and Arabia. In the Second Ecumenical Council of Constanti- nople, Gregory held an important place, and the high reputation of his learning procured for him the title of " Pater Patrum." He died about the year 395. GREEK FATHERS. 157 90. The works of St. Gregory of Nyssa contain the most complete exposition of Christian dogma given by any of the Greek Fathers after Origen. The writings of our Saint may be grouped as follows : 1. Exegetical : of this class we have numerous commentaries and homilies on the Holy Scriptures, principally of the Old Testament, as for instance on the " Hex^emeron," or " The Six Days ;" On the Work of Creation ; On the Inscriptions of the Psalms ; fifteen homilies On the Book of Canticles, etc. 2. Polemical and Doctrinal : The great work of Gregory is his twelve Books against Eunomius, in which he proves against that heretic the " Homoiision " of the Son and of the Holy Ghost, and vindicates the memory of his brother Basil. His other works of this class are his " Antirrhetic " against Apollinaris, " The Catechetical Discourse " for the instruction of Jews and Pagans. 3. Ascetic and Practical, which contain a number of treatises and sermons on various subjects and for different occasions, for example, " On Virginity," " On Christian Perfection," " On Pilgrimages to Jerusalem," etc. 4. Twenty-six Letters addressed to various persons. Gregory follows Origen in his scientific method ; however, he expressly combats the heterodox opinions imputed to Origen. 91. A zealous opponent of all heresy and a firm defender of orthodoxy was the pious and learned Epiphanius of Salamis, born near Eleuthoropolis in Palestine, about the year 310. He embraced the monastic life and founded a monastery near the place of his birth, which he governed for thirty years until 367, when he was made bishop of Salamis in Cyprus. Owing to his great sanctity and the general veneration in which he was held, he was almost the only Catholic bishop who was exempt from the persecutions by the Arians. Epiphanius was well read and a man of great learning ; he mastered five languages, but was less acute and critical, and an over-zealous oppo- nent of Origen whom he considered as the real author of Arianism. By the persuasion of Theophilus of Alexandria, he was induced to assem- ble a Council in Cyprus, A. D. 401, at which, without distinction, the writings of the great Alexandrian scholar were condemned. His immoderate zeal toward Origen involved him in a controversy with John of Jerusalem, the successor of St. Cyril, and St. John Chrysos- tom of Constantinople. The most important of his w^ritings are " The Panarion," or Box of Antidotes ; " Against Eighty Heresies," which is a history of the heresies before and after Christ ; his " Anchorate," which was written by him to confirm weak and unsettled minds in the true faith, particularly of the doctrine on the Trinity and Incar- nation. St. Epiphanius died on board a ship bound to Cyprus, A. D. 403. 158 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 92. The incomparable John of Constantinople, from his sanctity and eloquence called " Chrysostom,'' or " Golden-mouthed," was born at Antioch in 34*7. He received his literary education from the fa- mous Libanius and the philosopher Andragathius ; and such was his proficiency in studies, particularly in eloquence, that Libanius predicted the eminence which his favorite pupil afterward attained. After spending six years in monastic solitude, where he devoted himself to prayer and the study of the Sacred Scriptures, he was baptized in 369. In 386, he became a priest and commenced his course as preacher. After the death of Bishop Nectarius in 397, John was, much against his will, advanced to the See of Constantinople and consecrated by Theophilus of Alexandria (secnod successor of St. Athanasius), who, afterwards becoming his enemy, was instrumental in procuring his removal from Constantinople. 93. In his new post, John displayed a wonderful zeal and energy ; the effect of his sermons was really wonderful. Greatly loved as he was by the people, his bold denunciation of vice made him numerous enemies, especially at court,- who in 403 procured his banishment. Although almost instantly recalled, he was, at the instigation of the licentious Empress Eudoxia, again exiled the following year to Cucu- sus in Armenia. Honorius, emperor of the West, and Pope Innocent I. tried in vain to obtain his release. Three years after, a new decree banished John to Pityus in Colchis, the farthest limits of the empire ; but, before* reaching that place, he died at Comona in Pontus, A. D. 407. In 438, his remains were brought back by Theodosius II. who, falling on his knees before the bier, in the name of his parents begged pardon of the Saint. 94. Of all the Greek Fathers, the writings of St. Chrysostom are the most voluminous. They consist of numerous commentaries and homilies on the Bible, of sermons, dogmatical and moral treatises, and of a number of letters. His homilies and commentaries on the Bible alone fill nine volumes, and embrace nearly all the sacred books of both Testaments. Besides these, our Saint composed a number of elegant sermons and homilies on Christian doctrine and Christian virtues and duties. Most of his homilies he preached at Antioch, while yet a presbyter. 95. Of his moral works, must be mentioned his incomparable treatise on the Priesthood in six books, which he composed to excuse himself to his friend Basil, for whom by his flight he had left open the way to the episcopal dignity. With the exception of a few, all his letters, to the number of 243, were written during his exile. Of these, two are addressed to Pope Innocent I. The Liturgy bearing I GREEK FATHERS. 159 the name of St. Chrysostom is used to this day throughout the East by the Catholics and Schismatics alike. 96. St. Cyril of Alexandria was a nephew of the above-named Patriarch Theophilus of Alexandria, whom, A. D. 403, he also accom- panied to the famous Synod of the Oak (ad Quercum) in Chalcedon, which sentenced St. Chrysostom to deposition and banishment. In 412, Cyril succeeded his uncle in the see of Alexandria. He began to exercise his authority by closing the churches of the Novatians, and driving the Jews, on account of their violence, out of the city. This step was followed by a bitter quarrel between him and Orestes, the Prefect of Egypt, and by the murder of Hypatia, the celebrated pagan female philosopher, in which, however, Cyril had no part. From his uncle he had imbibed prejudices against St. Chrysostom, but he was finally prevailed on to replace his name in the Dyptics of his church. St. Cyril was the great champion of orthodoxy against Nestorius, whence he is called the " Doctor of the Incarnation." He died, A. D. 444. 97. Of his voluminous works, apologetical, controversial, and doctrinal, the most important are : 1. His great work " Against the Emperor Julian " in ten books, which he dedicated to the Emperor Theodosius II., and which is a complete refutation of the work written by the imperial apostate against the Christians ; 2. His book " On the Holy and Consubstantial Trinity," consisting of seven dialogues, and establishing the Divinity of the Son against the Arians ; 3. Against the Nestorian heresy, his principal works are : " On the Incarnation of the Only-Begotten ;" " Five Books against the Blas- phemies of Nestorius ;" " A Dialogue with Nestorius " to prove that the Blessed Virgin is the Mother of God (Deipara), and not merely Mother of Christ (Christipara) ; 4. Commentaries on the Pentateuch, the Psalms, the Prophets, and the Gospels of SS. Luke and John ; 5. Besides eighty-seven letters, we have of St. Cyril thirty "Paschal Homilies," or circular letters, written in conformity with a Kicene decree to other bishops, — in particular to the Roman Pontiff, — to acquaint them with the time and day of the coming Easter. 98. St. Sophronius was born at Damascus, about the year 560. He was a sophist, or rhetorician, and the friend of John Moschus, a distinguished hermit of Palestine, who dedicated to him his work entitled, " Pratum Spirituale," or Spiritual Meadow. After the death of his friend, Sophronius became a monk of St. Sabas, about A. D. 620. In him, Providence had provided his Church with a faithful champion against the rising heresy of the Monothelites. Sophronius strenuously but vainly opposed the adoption of the Monothelite form- IGO HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. Ilia, composed by Cyrus and Sergius, the patriarchs of Alexandria and Constantinople respectively. Being soon afterward chosen patriarch of Jerusalem, A. D. 633, he held a synod and issued a synodal letter, in which he ably defends the Catholic faith against the new heresy. He also seht Bishop Stephen of Dora to Rome, to warn the Pope and the Western bishops of the rising heresy. Sophronius lived to see the capture of Jerusalem by the Mohammedans under Osmar, A. D. 627; but died soon after. Besides the synodal letter, which was adopted and approved by the Sixth General Council, we have of this Father seven sermons, a liturgical commentary on the ceremonies of the Mass, and collections of prayers and hymns. 99. Another zealous defender of the Catholic faith against the Monothelites was St. Maximus the Confessor. He was a scion of a noble family and was secretary to Emperor Heraclius ; but resigning his office at court, he retired to a monastery near Constantinople, of which he became abbot. In 645, he held a public conference at Car- thage with the Monothelite Patriarch Pyrrhus of Constantinople, whom he induced to abjure his errors. Under Emperor Constans II., Maximus was cruelly persecuted for refusing to sign the "Typos;" he was deprived of his tongue and right hand, and sent into exile, where he died, A. D. 662. Of the many works of this Father are to be mentioned his commentaries on divers books of Scripture, and all the works attributed to Dionysius the Areopagite, besides a number of smaller theological treatises and polemic discourses against the Monothelites. 100. St. John of Damascus, the last of the Fathers of the Church, was born in the decline of the seventh century at Damascus, from which city he received the surname Damascene; by the Saracens he was called " Mansur," and on account of his eloquence was surnamed " Chryssorroas," or " Gold-streaming." John received his education from a pious and learned monk named Cosmas, who was taken a pris- oner and brought to Damascus. Like his father, he held a high office under the Caliphs. His zeal in defending the sacred images against the Iconoclasts exposed him to the resentment and persecution of the Greek Emperor. On the suspicion of a treasonable correspondence, he was deprived of his right hand, which, however, was miraculously restored by the Mother of God. He resigned his office, distributed his wealth among the poor and retired into the Laura of St. Sabas, where after some time he was ordained a priest. He died about the year 754. 101. John Damascene has left many works which, on account of their solid learning and great literary merit, have been held in high OTHER GREEK WRITERS. 161 esteem in both the Latin and the Greek Church. His great work enti- tled " The Source of Knowledge " (Fons Scientiae) may be called the first dogmatic work in systematic form. It consists of three parts: 1. "Things Philosophical, or Dialectics," in which are explained the elements of philosophy (principally Aristotle's) ; 2. " Compendium of Heresies;" 3. "An Accurate Exposition" of the orthodox faith in four books. In his " Parallels " he laid down the principles of Christian morality in passages extracted from the Scripture and the Fathers. Besides these, we have several minor treatises, "On the Trinity," " On Confession," " On the fast of Lent," and other Christian dogmas and observances. His polemical writings against the Manicheans, Nestorians, Monophysites, Monothelites, and Mohammedans are very numerous ; those against the Iconoclasts are widely known. His other works comprise commentaries on the Epistles of St. Paul, hymns and twelve homilies on the Saints, five of them on the Virgin Mary. SECTION LIV. — OTHER GREEK WRITERS THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS OF ALEXANDRIA AND ANTIOCH. Schools of Alexandria and Antioch — Principal Points of Difference between the two Schools — Famous Pupils and Scholars — Eusebiusof Cassarea — His Attitude towards the Arian Controversy — His Historical Works — His other Writings — Didymus the Blind— His Writings — Distinguished Rep- resentatives of the Antiochian School— Theodore of Mepsuestia — His Errors and Writings — Polychronius — Theodoret of Cyrus — His Attitude towards the Nestorians and the Council of Ephesus — His Writings — Greek Church Historians — Their Writings — Other Greek Writers. 102. No schools were better known in the early ages of the Church than those of Alexandria and Antioch, which had been founded for the instruction of the Catechumens, and the advancement of Christian learning in general. These famous lyceums, under a long line of illustrious teachers, pursued each its own traditions and sys- tem, the one in a certain sense opposing, yet supplementing, the other. The principal points of difference between the two schools referred to, were : 1. The inspiration and rule for the interpretation of the Holy Scriptures. While the Alexandrian theologians defended the verbal inspiration, and sought principally the mystical and allegorical inter- pretation of the Sacred Scriptures, the Antiochians assumed a more limited inspiration, restricting it to matters of faith and morals, and insisted on the literal, grammatical and historical sense of the sacred writings. 2. The use of philosophy in theology. The Alexandrian School manifested a predilection for Plato, whereas 163 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH the Antiochian rejected philosophy altogether, or, at the best, accepted only the dry formalism of Aristotle. 3. The terms made use of in explaining and defining the dogmas of the Incarnation and the union of the two natures in Christ. The Syrian School tended to draw a sharp distinction between the two natures, while the Alexandrian defended their intimate (hypostatical) union in Christ. 103. These schools gave to the Church a great number of learned bishops, priests and writers. That of Alexandria counted among its pupils St. Pamphylus and Eusebius of Csesarea, St. Athanasius, Ma- carius of Egypt, St. Cyril of Alexandria, and Didymus the Blind, but also the heresiarch Apollinaris. Among the scholars formed in the school of Antioch were St. Cyril of Jerusalem, Diodore of Tarsus, Theodore of Mopsuestia, St. Meletius and St. Flavian of Antioch, St. Chrysostom, Theodoret of Cyrus, and Isidor of Pelusium. Of this school were also Arius and Nestorius and most of the Arian and Semi-Arian leaders, such as Eusebius of Nicomedia, Asterius, Maris, Theognis, Leontius, Eunomius, Theodore of Heraclea in Thracia, and Eusebius of Emesa. To the Nestorian and Monophysite heresies, and partly also to the Origenist controversies, must be ascribed the decay and final extinction of the two once renowned seats of Christian enlightenment. 104. Eusebius of Csesarea in Palestine was born betw^een A. D. 260 and 2*70. He was a disciple of the learned priest and martyr St. Pamphylus of Caesarea, whose name he afterwards assumed in mem- ory of their friendship. About the year 314, he was made bishop of Caesarea. He attended the Council of Nice, and, not without some hesitation, however, subscribed the Kicene Creed. In the long Arian struggle, Eusebius sided with the opponents of the orthodox bishops ; he presided at the Council of Antioch, A. D. 330, which deposed Eustathius, patriarch of that city, and took part in the Council of Tyre, A. D. 335, which decreed the like fate to St. Athanasius. This, as well as his equivocal attitude and views with regard to the leading question of the day, the Divinity of Christ, caused him to be justly suspected of heresy. However, his piety and zeal for the Church is highly praised. Besides, St. Athanasius is generally silent about him, mentioning him rarely, and then without any special reproach. Eusebius died about the year 340. His life was written by Acacius, his pupil and successor in the bishopric of Caesarea, the bitter and uncompromising adversary of St. Cyril of Jerusalem. 105. Eusebius is called "The Father of Ecclesiastical History" and was one of the most learned prelates of his age. The splendid library founded at Caesarea by Pamphylus, his protector, enabled him OTHER GREEK WRITERS. 163 to collect vast treasures of erudition. His principal historical works are : 1. An Ecclesiastical History from Christ down to the year 324, in ten books, in which are preserved many valuable extracts from the works of earlier writers since lost; 2. Chronicon, a conspectus of universal history down to the year 325, which was translated into Latin by St. Jerome ; 3. The Life of Constantine in four books ; 4. • A work " On the Martyrs of Palestine " and another entitled " Collec- tion of Ancient Martyrdoms " and 5. " The Acts of St. Pamphylus and his Companions." Eusebius also completed and published the Apology of Origen begun by Pamphylus. His other works, chiefly biblical and apologetical, are : " An Evangelical Preparation " in fifteen books, and an " Evangelical Demonstration " in twenty books ; a Topography of Judea and Jerusalem ; Commentaries on the Psalms, etc.; " Con- cord of the Four Gospels " ; two books " Against Marcellus " (of Ancyra), an elaborate work in twenty-five books " Against Porphyry," and three books "On Ecclesiastical Theology." 106. One of the last heads of the School of Alexandria was Didy- mus the Blind. Born in 309, he lost his sight when only four years old. Nevertheless, Didymus afterwards learned the alphabet from tablets with raised letters and became so deeply versed in sciences, divine and human, that he was appointed to take charge of the Cate- chetical School of Alexandria. His learning and eloquence, which were looked upon as oracular, attracted a large number of pupils. Our fullest information about him is derived from St. Jerome who calls the blind scholar his teacher. "In many points," Jerome writes, " I give him thanks ; I learned from him things which I had not known ; what I did know, his teaching has helped me to retain." Didymus was a writer of eminence ; but of his numerous writings, only a few remain, of which his " Three Books on the Trinity," a work " On the Holy Spirit," which St. Jerome translated into Latin, and a trea- tise " Against the Manicheans " are the principal. Didymus died, A. D. 394, and was succeeded as head of the Alexandrian School by Rhodon, after whom that once renowned institution became extinct. 107. The most distinguished representatives of the School of Anti- och were Diodorus of Tarsus, Theodore of Mopsuestia, and Theodoret of Cyrus. Diodorus was born in the beginning of the fourth century at Antioch, and received his education at Athens, his native city, under the learned Eusebius, bishop of Emesa- He was appointed bishop of Tarsus in Cilicia and took part in the General Council of- Constantinople, A. D. 387. Among his disciples at Antioch were St. Chrysostom, and Theodore of Mopsuestia. Diodorus died, A. D. 390. Of his many writings, apologetical, controversial, 164 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. doctrinal, and exegetical, which he composed against Pagans, Jews, and the prevailing heresies of the age, only fragments have reached us. 108. Theodore, bishop of Mopsuestia in Cilicia was born at An- tioch, about the year 350. St. Chrysostom, his school-fellow under Diodorus and Libanius, induced him to embrace the monastic and clerical state. As interpreter of the Holy Scriptures, he gained great renown. Nestorius the heresiarch was among his pupils. In his writings " On the Incarnation " against the Apollinarian heresy, Theo- dore laid the seeds of Nestorianism. He is likewise accused of having favored Pelagianism ; at least, he was the protector of Julian the Pelagian when he took refuge in the East, and he wrote against the doc- trine of original sin. Of his numerous writings which were con- demned by the Fifth General Council, A. D. 553, only fragments have been preserved. He died, it is said, in communion with the Church, A. D. 428. His brother Polychronius, bishop of Apamea in Syria, who did not share his errors, was an eminent exegetist and wrote valued commentaries on Holy Scripture. He died A. D. 431. 109. Theodoret, bishop of Cyrus in Syria, was born at Antioch, A. D. 390, and was, with Kestorius, a pupil of Theodore of Mopsu- estia. He was one of the most learned men of his age. His friend- ship for Nestorius embroiled him with St. Cyril of Alexandria. When the Ecumenical Council of Ephesus met in 431, Theodoret refused, with John of Antioch, to enter it and took part in the schismatical conventicle which pretended to excommunicate the Fathers of the lawful Council. After a prolonged controversy with St. Cyril, he finally submitted and, at the Council of Chalcedon in 451, subscribed the condemnation of Nestorius. He died, A. D. 458. Theodoret is esteemed as a profound exegetist and eminent historian. He wrote, besides various exegetical works, an "Ecclesiastical History" from A.D. 320 to 328, an "Epitome of Heretical Fables," and a "Religious History" containing the lives of thiry-three hermits. In addition to these there are extant one hundred and seventy-nine letters. His writings against St. Cyril and the Council of Ephesus, together with those of his master Theodore, were condemned at Constantinople, A. D. 559. 110. Besides Eusebius and Theodoret, the principal Greek Church- historians of the period were: 1. Socrates, a Scholasticus, or lawyer of Constantinople, under Theodosius II., who wrote a continuation of Eusebius in seven books, reaching from A. D. 305 to 430; 2. Sozome- nus, another lawyer and continuator of Eusebius, was a native of Pales- tine, whence he moved to Constantinople. He died, A. D. 450. His "Ecclesiastical History" in nine books, which he dedicated to Theodo- sius II., begins with A. D. 304 and ends with 423; 3. Philostorgius of OTHER GREEK WRITERS. 165 Cappadocia, an Eunomian, who wrote a church-history in twelve books, in which he attempts to show that the teachings of Arianism were the primitive doctrines of the Church ; of this work only an abstract by Photius is extant; 4. Theodore the Lector, of Constanti- nople who wrote, in the sixth century, an abridgement of Socrates, Sozomenus and Theodoret, and also a continuation of Socrates doT\Ti to the death of Justin I., A. D. 627; 5. Evagrius, scholasticus of An- tioch, born A. D. 536, whose " Ecclesiaetical History" in six books contains the history of the Church from 431 to 294; 6. The anony- mous author of the " Chronicon Paschale " in two parts, containing a chronology from the Creation down to A. D. 354, and from thence to A. D. 630; 7. Gelasius, bishop of Cyzicus, who, in the fifth century, compiled a history of the first General Council of Nice in three books. 111. To complete the list of the Greek writers, we add the names of : 1. Macarius of Egypt, a contemporary of St. Athanasius. We have of his writings fifty homilies, or exhortations to monks. His name- sake, Macarius of Alexandria, or Macarius the Younger, has left a few minor ascetical works. 2. Palladius, bishop of Hellenopolis, was a disciple of the latter. He wrote a history of the monks and anchorets of both sexes living at his time. 3. Synesius, bishop of Ptolemais in Egypt, who died A. D. 414. Of his many writings, there remain one hundred and fifty-five letters, besides several hom- ilies and minor treatises. 4. Asterius, bishop of Amasea in Pontus. He was a contemporary of St. Chrysostom, and has left us twenty-one homilies. 5. Xemesius, bishop of Emesa in Phcenicia, of whom we have a valuable philosophical treatise " On Human Nature." 6. Pro- clus, a disciple of St. Chrysostom, and afterward patriarch of Constantinople, who died, A. D. 447. There are extant of his writings several synodical letters and twenty-five homilies. 7. Isidore, for- merly a philosopher and rhetorician, afterward abbot of Pelusium in Egypt, flourished under Theodosius II., and was much esteemed for his learning. He is said to have left ten thousand letters, two thousand of which still remain. 8. St. Nilus, abbot of a monastery on Mount Sinai, lived to the year 430 ; he is the author of a number of ascetic works. 166 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. SECTION LV. DOCTORS OF THE LATIN CHURCH. Four great Latin Doctors — St. Ambrose— His Apostolic Zeal— His Writings — Ambrosian Chant and Liturgy— St. Jerome— Account of His Life— His Writings— Latin Vulgate— St. Augustine— His Early Life— His City of God— His Other Works— Pope St. Gregory the Great— His Writings — Palatine Library. 112. SS. Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine, and Gregory the Great are called the great doctors of the Latin Church. St. Ambrose, born about the year 340, was Roman governor when, upon the death of the Arian Auxentius, he was, though then only a Catechumen, miraculously chosen bishop of Milan, A. D. 374. Rising at once to the full height of his sacred office, Ambrose distributed all his goods among the poor, and with unwearied zeal devoted himself to the performance of his pastoral duties. With great mildness and moderation he united a wonderful firmness and inflexibility wherever the divine law was con- cerned. He resisted the attempts of the Arian Empress Justina to obtain from him one of the churches of Milan for the use of the Arians ; and with fearless zeal, he compelled the Emperor Theodosius to a humiliating penance for the indiscriminate massacre of about seven thousand persons, which, in a moment of irritation, he had ordered at Thessalonica, A. D. 390. Such was his zeal and success in rooting out heresy and propagating the orthodox faith, that it caused St. Jerome to write that, when Ambrose became bishop of Milan, all Italy was converted to the true faith. To him, also, in part, is to be ascribed the conversion of the great St. Augustine. 113. The writings of Ambrose are numerous and various, com- prising dogmatical, exegetical, and ascetic treatises, besides a num- ber of letters and hymns. They contain practical instruction for all classes, though maintaining throughout an ascetictone ; they consist mainly of addresses and expositions which had been first delivered in the church and afterwards were revised for publication. His principal dogmatical writings are his treatises " On Faith," " On the Mysteries," " On the Sacraments " and " On Penance." His biblical commentaries were originally sermons which he preached to his people, as, for example, those " On a happy Death," " On Paradise," " On Flight from the World." The most important of his works are his ascetic treatises, particularly those " For Virgins," " On Virgin- ity," " On the Instruction of a Virgin," etc. Such was the effect of his preaching that mothers would prohibit their daughters to attend his sermons, for fear they might embrace the virginal, or monastic state. Of his letters, only ninety-one have been preserved, and of I DOCTORS OF THE LATIN CHURCH. 167 his many beautiful hymns, several have been adopted by the Church in her divine office. We have a narrative also, from St. Ambrose's own pen, of the wonderful discovery of the remains of the holy mar- tyrs Servasius and Protasius in the year 386. Whether or not he was the joint author of the " Te Deum," has not been determined. The commentary on the Epistles of St. Paul, known under the name of " Ambrosiaster," or Pseudo-Ambrosius, was formerly attributed to him, but has been proved to be the work of another author, perhaps of St. Hilary, to whom it is ascribed by St. Augustine. To St. Am- brose is traced the Chant and Liturgy bearing his name. The Ambro- sian Liturgy is still in use at Milan. The life of this illustrious* Doctor was written in 411 by Paulinus, his secretary, at the suggestion of St. Augustine. 114. St. Jerome, who is regarded as the most learned of the Latin Fathers, was born at Stridon in Dalmatia, A. D. 340. His. youth was passed in Rome, whither he was sent to complete his studies under ^Elius Donatus, a celebrated grammarian. His thirst for knowledge caused him to visit foreign cities, among others also Treves, where he transcribed for his friend Rufinus a commen- tary on the Psalms, and a treatise on Synods by St. Hilary. In company with several friends, Jerome in 372 set out for the East, travelling through Asia Minor to Antioch. Here, he attended the biblical lectures of Apollinaris, the future heresiarch. He afterwards withdrew into the Syrian desert of Chalcis, where, for four years, he led a solitary life, learning at the same time of a converted Jew the rudiments of the Hebrew language. Whilst living in the desert, he wrote the life of St. Paul, the first hermit, and his dialogue against the Luciferian schismatics. The Meletian schism caused him to return to Antioch, where he was ordained priest, A. D. 379. In 381, Jerome went to Constantinople, to study the Holy Scriptures under St. Gregory Nazianzen, and thence returned to Rome. He was the intimate friend of Pope Damasus who appointed him his secretary. At the Pope's request, Jerome began his revision of the Old Latin, or Italic, Version of the Bible. After the death of Damasus, he set out again for Palestine, where he founded and superintended several monasteries until his death, which occurred at Bethlehem, A. D. 420. He was buried amid the ruins of one of his monasteries which had been destroyed by the partisans of Pelagius. 115* St. Jerome, who is called by the Church " the greatest Doctor raised up by the divine hand to interpret the Sacred Scriptures," was the author of the Latin translation of the Bible, known as the Vulgate. Of all his writings this is the most useful and the most 1(38 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH widely known. His complete works comprise, besides those already named : 1. Topographical and grammatical dissertations on Hebrew History and Geography ; 2. Commentaries on the Scriptures ; 3. Polemical and doctrinal treatises ; the most important of them are his " Apology against Rufinus," and his writings against Helvidius and Jovinian, in defence of the perpetual virginity of Mary, the Mother of Christ, and against Vigilantius who denied the merit of holy vir- ginity ; 4. Historical works, the most valuable of which is his " Cata- logue of Illustrious Men," also called Catalogue of Church Writers, which contains a list of ecclesiastical writers with their works from the time of the Apostles down to his own ; 5. One hundred and fifty letters, many of which are rather treatises on various questions, particularly biblical and ascetic. Many other works written by this Father have been lost. 116. The most illustrious among the Doctors of the Church, St. Augustine, was born in 354, at Tagasta in Africa. He received his literary education at the schools of Madaura and Carthage, and was brought up by his mother St. Monica in the Christian faith ; but, as his own Confessions tell us, his conduct was far from exemplary ; he early lost his faith and innocence. At the age of twenty, he embraced the Manichean heresy, and for a space of nine years was more or less under its influence. From Manicheism he went over to Neo-Platon- ism without, however, finding a resting-place in that system. The read- ing of " Hortensius " by Cicero roused him to a diligent search after truth. Setting out*for Rome and thence to Milan, he was, by God's grace, rescued from the errors of his youth, and, together with his son Adeodatus and his friend Alypius, baptized by St. Ambrose, A. D. 387. He was then thirty-three years of age. From this time forth, Augustine devoted himself with his whole mind and soul to the service of truth and the Church. His mother having died at Ostia, Augustine returned to Carthage and lived for three years with several friends in monastic retirement. He was ordained priest by Valerius, bishop of Hippo, who also, about the year 395, appointed him coadju- tor and successor in his see. For thirty-five years, Augustine was the centre of ecclesiastical life in Africa, and the Church's mightiest champion against heresy; he bore the great burden of the contro- versy against the Donatists, Manicheans, and Pelagians. His death occurred in 430, while Hippo was besieged by the Vandals. These barbarians entered and burned the city, but the library of Augustine was providentially saved. IIV. Of his multitudinous works, St. Augustine gives a critical review in his "Retractations" which he wrote toward the end of his DOCTORS OF THE LATIN CHURCH. 169 life, to correct whatever seemed doubtful or extravagant in his writ- ings and to harmonize discordant opinions. The most famous of his works are the " Confessions," and the twenty books of the " City of God." In the former, he gives a history of his own life up to the year 400, when the work appeared. This extraordinary work is classed as one of the choicest ascetic books. The "City of God," which was begun in 413 and finished in 427 — thus engaging the ma- turest years of the author's life — is Augustine's masterpiece and one of the noblest apologetical works which the ancient Church can boast of. It is a learned defence of the Christian Religion against the absurd calumnies of the Pagans, who accused the Christians of having brought about all the calamities then befalling the empire by renouncing the time-honored deities of ancient Rome. 118. Augustine was a philosopher and dogmatical theologian, as well as a mystic, and a powerful controversialist. His works, conse- quently, are of many kinds and may be grouped as follows : 1. Phi- losophical. Of this class are his three books "Against the Academ- ics," who asserted the impossibility of man ever knowing the truth ; the treatises " On a Happy Life," " On the Immortality of the Soul," and his " Soliloquies." These are composed mostly in the form of dialogues. 2. Dogmatical. Of these we have treatises " On the Faith and the Symbol " and " On the Christian Combat." After the " City of God," Augustine's greatest dogmatical work, should be ranked his fifteen books " On the Trinity," which he wrote between the years 400 and 416; if is a masterly exposition and defence of that august mystery against the Arians. 3. Polemical, which he wrote in defence of the Catholic doctrine against the prevailing heresies of the age. Against the Manicheans are directed his treatises "On the Manners of the Catholic Church and on the Manners of the Mani- cheans," "Of the two Souls," "On the Advantage of Believing," etc. Against the Donatists he wrote " On Free Will," " On Baptism," and " On the Unity of the Church." He also left a " Breviculum," or Abridgment of the Conference with the Donatists at Carthage in 411. His principal writings against the Pelagians, which procured him the title of " Doctor of Grace," are " On the Demerit of Sin," " On the Baptism of Children," " On Nature and Grace," " On the Grace of Jesus Christ," and " On Original Sin." Against the Semi-Pelagians, we have his treatises " On Grace and Free Will," " On the Predesti- nation of the Saints " and " On the Gift of Perseverance." 4. Exe- getical. Of these there are extant " An Exposition of the Sermon of Our Lord on the Mount," one hundred and twenty-four " Tracts on the Gospel of St. John," Expositions of St. Paul's Epistles to the 170 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH Romans and the Galatians, one hundred and fifty " Enarrations," or Discourses on the Psalms, besides a number of homilies and commen- taries on nearly all the books of the Bible. 5. Ascetic. To these belong, besides his " Confessions " and " Soliloquies," the treatises " On the Sanctity of Marriage " against Jovinian, " On Holy Virgin- ity " and " On the Work of Monks." 6. Besides a large collection of sermons, three hundred and sixty-four in number, there remain two hundred and seventy letters of Augustine, containing doctrinal, moral, and ascetic instructions. Many other works written by our Saint are lost, and several others, attributed to him, are doubtful, or spurious. 11 9; St. Gregory, called the Great, was a no less distinguished writer than Pope. The number of his writings is truly mar- velous. If we except Benedict XIV., no other Pope has left so many learned works, written chiefly for the use and instruction of the clergy, as this truly great Pontiff. As a writer he was intellectually eminent, and deserves the place assigned to him among the Doctors of the Church. His principal work is the exposition of the book of Job, or " Morals " in thirty-five books, which he composed at the request of St. Leander, bishop of Hispalis. It is not so much an exposition of the scriptural text as of the principles of morality, whereof this admirable work has been regarded ever since as the great repertory and armory. His incomparable work, " Liber Regulae Pastoralis," or, , " On Pastoral Care," is an excellent instruction for pastors, setting forth the requisite qualifications, duties, obligations and dangers of the pastoral charge, which he calls the " Art of arts." By order of the Emperor Mauritius, it was translated into Greek by Anastasius, patri- arch of Antioch ; King Alfred translated it into Saxon. 120. The other works of Gregory consist of forty homilies on the Gospels, and twenty-two on Ezekiel ; four books " On the Life and Miracles of Italian Fathers," and " On the Eternity of Souls," besides eight hundred and eighty letters, which are arranged in fourteen books. To Gregory are also ascribed several liturgical works, which he wrote to reform the Sacramentary, or Missal, and Ritual of the Roman Church. To these belong : (a.) The Sacramentary of St. Gregory ; [b.) The Antiphonarium ; and (c.) The An- tiphonarius and Liber Gradualis. Other works attributed to him are doubtful. Gregory the Great is regarded as the author of what is called the Cantus firmus, or Gregorian Chant. He established at Rome a school of chanters, which existed for three centuries after his death. The statement of subsequent writers, such as John of Salis- bury, that Gregory ordered the Palatine library and the History of FATHERS OF THE LATIN CHURCH 171 Livy to be burned, is an invidious fabrication. His life was written by Paul the Deacon, in the eighth century, and by John the Deacon, in the ninth century. SECTION LVI. OTHER DOCTORS AND FATHERS OF THE LATIN CHURCH. St. Hilary of Poictiers — His Principal Works — St. Peter Chrysologus — His Extant Writings — Pope St. Leo the Great — His Sermons and Epistles — St. Optatus of Milevis — St. Zeno of Verona— His Extant Treatises — St. Maximus — His Writings— St. Paulinus of Nola — His Extant Writings — St. Gregory of Tours— His Works— St. Isidore of Seville— His Principal Works. 121. To the preceding illustrious names may be added those of SS. Hilary of Poictiers, Peter Chrysologus of Ravenna, and Pope Leo the Great, whom the Church reckons among her Doctors and honors as such in her liturgy. St. Hilary, called the "Athanasius of the West," on account of the unshaken courage which he displayed in the struggle with Arianism, was born about the year 320, at Poictiers in Aquitaine, of wealthy pagan parents. He was far advanced in years when, with his wife and daughter, he embraced the Catholic faith. In 355, he was chosen bishop of his native city, but, together with St. Rhodanus, bishop of Toulouse, banished the next year by Emperor Constantius, for his fearless defence of St. Athanasius against his own metropolitan, the Arian Saturninus of Aries. He attended the Council of Seleucia and returned to his see, A. D. 359. His death occurred in the year 366. 122. Hilary's principal work is his treatise " On the Trinity" in twelve books, which he completed during his banishment in Phrygia. It became the standard of orthodoxy in the western churches. At that time, also, he wrote his work " On the Synods," or, " On the Faith of the Orientals," to instruct the western bishops on the various creeds adopted by the principal Arian and Semi- Arian Synods, held between the years 341 and 358. Of his other writings, we have the valuable Comments on the Psalms and the Gospel of St. Matthew, besides two books "Against Constantius," and another "Against Auxentius," the intruding Arian bishop of Milan. Hilary, whom Jerome calls "the Rhone of Latin eloquence," was declared, in 1852, Doctor of the Universal Church by Pope Pius IX. 123. St. Peter Chrysologus was born at Imola in the year 415. In 433, he was, by divine intervention, made bishop of Ravenna and consecrated by Pope Sixtus III. His life was thenceforth that of a zealous pastor. To eminent piety and great austerity of life, he 172 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. joined great zeal and learning. He is chiefly famous for the brilliancy of his oratory, which won for him the title of " Chrysologus (golden speech), or the " Chrysostom of the West." Of his sermons, there still remain one hundred and seventy-six, which were collected in the eighth century by Archbishop Felix of Ravenna. They are remarka- ble for their elegance and extreme brevity. "VYe have also the letter which our Saint wrote in reply to the appeal of Eutyches against his condemnation. "We exhort you," he wrote to the heresiarch, "to submit obediently to the decision of the Pope, since the blessed Peter lives and presides in his own Cathedra and gives the true faith to all who seek it." He died in the year 450. 124. Pope St. Leo I., called the Great, has earned the undying gratitude of the Church also as a writer. His writings are remark- able for elegance and nobleness of style, precision of thought, as well as for depth and strength of reasoning. Besides his ninety-six ser- mons on the festivals of Our Lord and the Saints and other subjects, there remain one hundred and seventy-three letters which the great Pontiff addressed to bishops. Councils and princely persons. The most famous of these is his Dogmatical Epistle to Flavian, patriarch of Constantinople. Benedict XIV., in 1754, decreed upon him the title and cultus of Doctor of the universal Church. 125. Other Latin writers of this period, who, on account of the sanctity of their lives and the orthodoxy of their teachings, are reck- oned among the. Fathers of the Church, were Optatus of Milevis, Zeno of Verona, Paulinus of Nola, Maximus of Turin, Gregory of Tours, and Isidore of Seville. St. Optatus^ bishop of Milevis in Numidia, flourished under Pope Damasus. St. Augustine ranks him among the most renowned writers of the Church. His treatise " On the Donatist Schism " against Parmenianus (the Donatist bishop of Carthage), in seven, originally in six, books, is a short but valuable and highly interesting disquisition giving, besides much historical information, a brief, clear and precise explanation of the doctrines and customs of the Catholic Church in that age. It contains a list of the Roman Pontiffs from St. Peter down to Pope Siricius whose accession Optatus lived to see. 126. St. Zeno was a contemporary of St. Optatus, and became the eighth bishop of Verona, in 362. He is honored as a confessor of the faith, and, by St. Gregory the Great, is styled a martyr, on account of the persecutions he drew upon himself by the zeal which he displayed in opposing Arianism and in the conversion of heathens^ He died in 380. There are extant ninety-three of his " Treatises," a title given in that age to familiar discourses made to the people. He is the first FATHERS OF THE LATIN CHURCH. 173 among the Latin Fathers whose sermons were collected and pub- lished. 127. St. Maximus, bishop of Turin, was celebratad in the fifth century as a Christian orator and for his zeal in preaching, for which function he qualified himself by the study of the Holy Scriptures and the writings of St. Ambrose. Maximus acted a prominent part in the Council of Milan in 451, which subscribed to the Dogmatical Epistle of Leo the Great to Flavian, and at the Council of Rome in 465, in which he subscribed first after Pope Hilary, on account of his seniori- ty. The precise year of his death is not known. The works of Maximus consist of one hundred and seventeen homilies on the principal festivals of the year, and one hundred and sixteen sermons, three treatises on Baptism, two treatises entitled respectively " Contra Paganos " and *' Contra Judaeos," besides a collection of expositions " De Capitulis Evangeliorum." 128. St. Paulinus was born of a wealthy and ancieut senatorial family, about the year 353. His acquaintance with SS. Ambrose, Augustine, and Jerome induced him to give up all his dignities and retire from the world. In 409, he became bishop of Nola in Campania. He died in 431. Many of the works of this distinguished Father are lost ; there only remain, besides thirty poems, fifty letters written to friends, such as Sulpicius Severus, St. Augustine, St. Jerome, and other distinguished contemporaries. 129. St. Gregory was born of a noble family in Auvergne, A. D. 539. Members of his father's and mother's families had held high offices in both Church and State. His education was directed by his uncle, St. Gall, bishop of Clermont, and by Avitus, at first arch-deacon, afterwards bishop of Auvergne. In 573, he was chosen bishop of Tours, and as such, he displayed great zeal and courage in vindicating the rights of the Church and the oppressed against the Merovingian kings. He died about the year 595. Gregory has left several valuable historical works. His principal work, the "Ecclesiastical History of the Franks," procured him the name of "Father of French History." His other works are four books " On the Miracles of St. Martin," two books " On the Glory of Martyrs," and one book " On the Glory of Confessors." 130. St. Isidore of Seville was born in Carthagena in Spain, of which city his father Severianus was prefect. He was a brother of the bishops Fulgentius of Carthagena and St. Leander of Seville, suc- ceeding the latter as bishop, A. D. 600. He presided at the Synods of Seville and Toledo, A. D. 619 and 633. He died in 637, and was declared a Doctor of the Church, A. D. 1828. Isidore was undoubt- 174 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH edly the greatest man and scholar of his time in the Church of Spain. His writings are many and multifarious. His most important work, entitled " Originum sive Ethymologiarum Libri XX," is an encyclo- poedia of the arts and sciences then known. His other works deserving mention are a Chronicon, or history of the" world, from the Creation to the year 526 ; a Chronicon, or history of the Visigoths, from A. D. 172 to A. D. 628 ; and a Book of Ecclesiastical Writers, a continuation of a similar work composed by St. Jerome and Gennadius, to which he added the names of thirty-three other authors. The collection of Canons, formerly ascribed to him, is not his work. With St. Isidore closes the line of the Latin Fathers of the Church. SECTION LVII. OTHER LATIN WRITERS. Latin Church-Historians— Sulpicius Severus— His Writings— Rufinus of Aqui- leja — His Translations — Dispute with St. Jerome — Cassiodorus — Monas- terium Vivariense — His Writings — Other Latin Writers— Victorinus, Philastrius, Cassianus and Prosper— African Writers— SS. Victor and Fulgentius— Boethius— His Consolation of Philosophy— Dionysius Exigu- us— Christian Era — Lerinum — SS. Eucherius, Hilary, and Sidonius Apol- linaris — St. Vincent of Lerins — His Commonitory — Salvianus and Caesarius—Other Christian Writers. 131. Besides the Fathers already named, other Latin Christian writers flourishing in this period deserve mention, inasmuch as they have bequeathed to posterity much valuable historical, as well as doctrinal, information concerning the ancient Church. Chief among these are the Church-historians, Sulpicius Severus, Rufinus, Cassiodo- rus, and Paulus Orosius. Sulpicius Severus, born in Gaul about the year 363, was a famous lawyer, but, on the death of his wife, he embraced an ascetic life. He died in 406. His writings comprise : "The Life of St. Martin," "Three Dialogues" on the virtues and miracles of St. Martin, and on the virtuous example of the Oriental monks; "A Sacred History" in two books, from the beginning of the world to the year 400, in which he furnishes much information respecting the ancient Church of Gaul, and a collection of letters to St. Paulinus and others. His pure, classical style has merited for him the name of the " Christian Sallust." 132. Tyrannius Rufinus, a priest of Aquileja, was born in 345. Most of his later years were passed in the East. He was intimately connected with St. Jerome till 394, when the Origenist controversy became the cause of a disagreement between them. Besides the OTHER LATIN WRITERS. 175 writings of Josephus Flavins, several works of Origen, SS. Basil and Gregory Nazianzen, Ruiinus also translated the Church History of Eusebius to which he added, in two books, a very inaccurate " History of the Arians " to the death of Theodosius the Great. The original works of Rufinus are his "AjDology" against St. Jerome in two books, "A History of the Monks," and "An Exposition of the Symbol." He died in 410. Paulus Orosius was a priest of Bracara in Spain, and a friend of SS. Augustine and Jerome. At the request of the former, he wrote, in seven books, a History of the World, from its beginning to A. D. 416, directed against the Pagans. He also published an " Apologeticus " against Pelagius. The year of his death is not known. 133. Marcus Aurelius Cassiodorus, born in 470, was a distin- guished statesman under Odoacer and Theodoric, filling under various titles the highest offices of the state. When seventy years of age, he retired to the monastery of Viviers (monasterium Vivariense) which he had founded in Calabria. Here he spent the remainder of his days in religious and literary pursuits. Under his direction, his monks devoted themselves to the copying of the Sacred Scriptures and ancient manuscripts of Christian and classical writers. As a historian and man of letters, Cassiodorus has made for himself a considerable name. His writings on education, embracing grammar, rhetoric, and dialectics (trivium); and arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy (quadrivium), form a considerable part of his literary remains. His chief historical works are : 1. Twelv.e books of various epistles or state papers, a valuable collection, extending from the year 509 to 539 ; 2. "History of the Goths" in twelve books, of which only the epitome by Jornandes is extant ; 3. "Chronicon," a universal history down to the year 519 ; 4. "Tripartite History," an abridgment of the ecclesiastical histories of Socrates, Sozomenus, and Theodoret. He also continued the history of the first-named author down to A. D. 518, which, together with the writings of Rufinus, were, during the Middle Ages, the principal sources for the study of primitive Church History. To these must be added several theological treatises. Cas- siodorus died, A. D. 562. 134. Of other Latin writers flourishing in this epoch, we mention Marius Victorinus, a famous rhetorician, who had the honor of a statue set up in the Roman Forum. He was advanced in age, when, to the amazement of the Pagans and the joy of the Christians, he embraced Christianity, A. D. 361. He wrote several works against the Arians and Manicheans, and commentaries on three of St. Paul's 176 HISTORY OF THE GHUBCH. Epistles. St. Philastrius, bishop of Brescia, left a work " On Her- esies," containing a catalogue of one hundred and fifty-eight heresies. In it, however, the author incorrectly reckons among heresies, opinions that have never been declared heretical, and are, at the most, only problematical. 135. Cassian, a Scythian by birth, was a disciple of St. Chrysos- tom, by whom he was ordained deacon. He had been brought up in the monastery of Bethlehem, and afterwards became celebrated as a founder of monasticism in the West. He died in the odor of sanctity in the year 433.. His " Institutions of the Monastic Life," and his " Conferences of the Fathers " were written for the instruction of monks. In his thirteenth Conference some Semipelagian principles are unwittingly favored. By the request of the Roman deacon, after- wards Pope Leo the Great, he also wrote " On the Incarnation of Christ " in seven books, a work directed against Nestorius. 136. St. Prosper of Aquitaine was a disciple of St. Augustine and secretary of Pope Leo the Great. He was a zealous defender of the orthodox doctrine against the Pelagian heresy. He died in 455. There remains of his writings an "Exposition of the Psalms" 100-150; a treatise " On the Grace of God and Free Will ;" several works writ- ten to answer the objections raised against St. Augustine by the Semipelagians ; a poem " On the Ungrateful," meaning the Semipela- gians, and, besides two letters and several minor works, a brief Chron- icle in which he registered under each successive year some few of the leading facts connected with its history. In it is recorded also the mission of St. Palladius to Ireland. 137. Victor, bishop of Vite in Africa, who was exiled by the Arian King Hunneric, is the author of a " History of the Vandalic Persecution," which he wrote in 427, and is one of the principal sources of the history of the Yandals. His countryman St. Fulgen- tius, bishop of Ruspe, was, together with sixty other Catholic bishops, exiled to Sardinia by the Yandal King Thrasamund, but was restored to his see under King Hilderich. He died A. D. 533. Fulgentius was a great theologian, and is styled the " Augustine of his age." Of his writings, which, are deeply polemical, written against the Arians, Pela- gians and Nestorians*, there are yet extant a treatise " On the Rule of the True Faith," a book " On the Trinity," a work " Against the Arians," three books to King Thrasamund, and treatises "On the Incarnation " and " On the Remission of Sins." In defence of the Augustinian doctrine on Grace he wrote three books " On the Two-fold Predestination," and as many " On the Truth of Predestination and Grace." OTHER LATIN WRITERS. 177 138. Boethius, the senator and philosopher, called "the last of the Romans," was born between the years 4V0 and 475. He was one of the most accomplished scholars of his age. He was consul from the year 508 to 510 and enjoyed the friendship of King Theodoric. His strict honesty and bold advocacy of the cause of the innocent and weak, had made him many enemies by whom he was accused of plotting with the Byzantine emperor to free Rome from the Ostro- gothic rule. He was imprisoned by order of King Theodoric, and ultimately executed, A. D. 524, in the fiftieth year of his age. His father-in-law, Symmachus, was involved in his ruin. A mag- nificent mausoleum, with an epitaph by Pope Sylvester II., was erected to the memory of Boethius by the Emperor Otto III. 139. The works of Boethius are chiefly philosophical, containing translations with notes, of the works of Plato, Aristotle, and other Greek philosophers. His principal literary relic "Consolation of Philosophy " in five books, Boethius composed in prison at Pavia, shortly before his execution. It is a dialogue between the author and philosophy, showing the inconstancy and insufiiciency of earthly happiness, and that true happiness is to be sought in God alone. Its tone is elevated, its style eloquent and pure, but the fact that the name of Christ or of the Christian Religion is not even once men- tioned in the work, has led many to question the author's belief in Christianity. The several theological tracts written against the Arian, Nestorian, and Eutychian heresies, which are attributed to our author, are by many regarded as not genuine. 140. Dionysius, surnamed Exiguus, a Roman abbot, was a Scyth- ian by birth, and flourished under the Emperors Justin and Justinian in the sixth century. He is the reputed founder of the Christian Era, also called the Dionysian Era, which has been in general use among Christian nations since the tenth century. He likewise laid the foun- dation of Canon Law by his collection of ecclesiastical canons. His collection comprises the so-called canons of the Apostles and of several Councils, and the decretal epistles of the Popes from Siricius, who succeeded Damasus, A. D. 354, to Anastasius II. who succeeded Gelasius, A. D. 496. 141. The island of Lerins, now called St. Honorat, had, at this epoch, become famous for the monastery (Lerinum) founded there by St. Honoratus, about the year 410. This monastery in the fifth and sixth centuries was the principal theological centre of Europe, giving to the Church a number of illustrious bishops and distinguished scholars. Such were the bishops, St. Eucherius of Lyons, St. Hilary of Aries, and St. Sidonius Apollinaris of Clermont, who, as their 178 HI8T0ET OF THE CHURCB. extant writings show, were distinguished no less for their learning than for their piety and apostolic zeal. They flourished in the fifth centuiy. Of the writings of Eucherius and Hilary but few remain ; while Sidonius Apollinaris, a poet of some note, who had been hon- ored by the Roman Senate with a statue, left nine books of Epistles of considerable historical interest, besides twenty-four poems and panegyrics. 142. From the same school proceeded St. Vincent of Lerins, Salvianus, and CsBsarius bishop of Aries. The first-named has ren- dered himself famous by his admirable " Commonitory against Here- tics," which he composed to guard the faithful against the wiles of false teachers. Vincent died in 450. Salvianus, a priest of Mar- seilles, called the *' Jeremias of his age," died in 485. Among his writings, which have an important bearing on the history of his age, should be mentioned his treatises " Against Avarice " and " On the Government and Providence of God." The object of the last- named work is similar to that of St. Augustine's " City of God." St. Caesarius, a truly apostolic bishop, manifested his zeal particularly in holding synods for the reformation of ecclesiastical discipline. He presided in the Council of Orange, A. D. 529, at which semi-Pelagi- anism was condemned. He died in 542. We have of his writings one hundred and fifty sermons ; two " Monastic Rules," one for monks, the other for nuns, besides three epistles, relating to monastic duties. His book against the Semi-Pelagians, entitled "De Gratia et libero arbitrio," was sanctioned by Pope Felix IV. 143. To close the list for this period, we simply add the names of Gennadius, a priest of Marseilles, who, living toward the end of the fifth century, continued St. Jerome's " Catalogue of Illustrious Men " down to his own time ; the African writers, Marius Mercator who wrote against Pelagius and Nestorius ; Vigilius and Victor, bishops respectively of Tapsus aiid Tumunum ; the deacon Fulgentius Fer- randus of Carthage ; the bishops, Junilius and Primasius, and the Christian poets, Juvencus, Prudentius, Claudianus Mamertus, and Venantius Fortunatus. SECTION LVIII. SYRIAN FATHERS AND WRITERS. Schools at Edessa— Oldest Syriac Documents— Letters of Mara— Aphraates— St. Ephraem Syrus— His Writings— St. Maruthas— Other Syrian Writers. 144. Edessa, the metropolis of Mesopotamia, was the seat of various schools. Here were Syrian schools attended by heathen and Christian youths in common. At Edessa too St. Ephrsem, in SYRIAN FA THER8. 179 338, founded his own school for the instruction of Syrian Chris- tians and the advancement of Syriac literature in general. The school of Ephraem which lasted long after his demise, became the bulwark of orthodoxy against the Nestorian and Monophysite heresies. At Edessa also existed the celebrated Persian Christian school, founded for the education of the Persian clergy. It was, since the Council of Ephesus, the centre of Nestorianism. After its closing, in 489, by the Emperor Zeno, this school was transferred to Nisibis, where it conkd freely develop itself under the Persian government. The school at Nisibis became the chief educational seat of the Nestorians in the Persian Empire, and was famous for the prosecution of the study of Holy Scripture, carried on in the liberal spirit of Theodore of Mop- t 145. The most ancient Syriac documents extant relative to Chris- tianity are the " Doctrine of Addaeus, the Apostle," and the letter of Mara to his son Serapion, both belonging to the first century. The former relates the conversion of King Abgar of Edessa and many of his subjects by St. Addaeus, or Thaddseus, one of the seventy Disciples of Our Lord. It also contains the supposed correspondence between Christ and Abgar. There is no doubt that the work, though interpo- lated, is, in the main, genuine. It was written by Labubna, who was notary, or secretary, to the king of Edessa. In the Letter of Mara, Christ is praised as a Wise King and Great Lawgiver whose murder by the Jews is greatly deplored. Whether or not the writer was a Christian cannot be ascertained. .146. Jacob Aphraates and St. Ephrsem are the earliest orthodox writers of the Syriac Church. Aphraates, a Syrian bishop who flour- ished in the first half of the fourth century, has left twenty-three homilies or discourses of great merit, which have been wrongly attrib- uted to St. James of Nisibis. St. Ephrsem Syrus, the most illustrious of the Syrian Fathers, was born A. D. 306. He was a disciple of St. James, bishop of Msibis, whom he accompanied to the Council of Nice. After the taking of Nisibis by the Persians in 363, Ephraem went to Edessa, where he was made a deacon and became the founder and head of a flourishing school. He is the most elegant and the most prolific Syrian author preserved to us. What St. Chrysostom was in the Greek Church, St. Ephraem was in the Syriac. Ephrsem, who was a poet of no common order, is styled by his countrymen the "prophet of the Syrians" and the "harp of the Holy Ghost." His extant works in Syriac and Greek, the latter probably translated even in his own time, comprise commentaries on the entire Bible, and a large number of sermons and discourses on devotional and moral sub- 180 HISTORY OF THE CHUM OH. jects and against the heresies of the age. We here mention particu- larly his many beautiful prayers to the Blessed Virgin, which are remarkable for their warm and animated feelings and expressions of devotion. St. Ephraem died, A. D. 373. 147. St. Maruthas, bishop of Tagrit, or Marty ropolis, in Mesopo- tamia, was truly one of the most learned and illustrious writers of the Syriac Church. He was a contemporary and the intimate friend of St. Chrysostom, and assisted at the Council of Constantinople. He converted a great number of Persians and extended the faith through- out Persia. Of his works extant are " Acts of the Persian Martyrs," who suffered under Sapor II. and his successors, a " History of the Council of Nice " and a " Syriac Liturgy." The thirty-six canons of the Synod held in 410 at Seleucia, in which the Procession of the Holy Ghost from the Father and the Son is clearly expressed, are in part his work. 148. Other orthodox Syrian writers were : Balaeus Chorepiscopus of Aleppo, and Cyrillonas, probably a nephew of St. Ephraem, both of whom flourished in the second half of the fourth century ; St. Rabulas, bishop of Edessa, a zealous opponent of the Nesto- rian heresy ; Isaac of Antioch, abbot of a monastery near that city, who flourished in the middle of the fifth century ; the priest Cosmas, who wrote the life of St. Simeon the Stylite ; and Jacob, bishop of Batnas in Sarug, who was, after St. Ephraem, the most prolific writer of the ancient Syrian Church. Only a few of his extant works, which are very numerous, have been published. Of his hymns, the one on the Blessed Virgin deserves special mention. These Syrian Fathers are very explicit in the statement of the Catholic doctrines on the Church, the Primacy of the Roman See, the Sacraments, the Sacrifice of the Mass and the Invocation of the Saints. Their writings clearly demonstrate the uniformity in faith of the ancient Syriac Church with that of the Catholic Church of to-day. ARIANI8M. 181 CHAPTER III. HISTORY OF HERESIES AND SCHISMS. I. HERESIES. SECTION LIX. ARIANISM ECUMENICAL COUNCIL OF NICE. Arian Heresy — Contrasted with Sabellianism — Arius — Alexander of Alexan- dria — Council of Alexandria — System of Arianism — Supporters of Arius — Bishop Hosius in Alexandria— Council of Nice — Distinguished Cham- pions of Orthodoxy — Nicene Creed — Settlement of Other Questions. 149. Arianism, one of the most powerful heresies in the history of the Church, was directed against the Divinity of Christ and indirectly against the whole dogma of the Trinity. Arianism is the opposite ex- treme of Sabellianism. While the former, urging too much the personal distinction in the Trinity, teaches an inequality and subor- dination of the three Divine Persons, the latter denies this distinction of Persons, asserting only a Trinity of names. The fundamental tenet of Arianism was, that the Son of God was a creature, not born of the Father, but made out of nothing. The author of this heresy was Arius, a priest of Alexandria. He was a disciple of Lucian of Anti- och, who was excommunicated for heresy, but, afterward, submitting to the authority of the Church, attained some renown for learning and piety, and died a martyr in 311. Having finished his studies, Arius came to Alexandria. Here he joined the schismatical party of the Meletians ; but abandoning this p^rty, he was ordained a deacon by Peter, bishop of Alexandria. Arius afterward returned to the Mele- tians and was excommunicated ; he was re-admitted by Achillas, the successor of Peter, who also ordained him priest and appointed him one of the public preachers of Alexandria. He is said, on the death of Achillas in 313, to have aspired to the see of Alexandria, to which, however, the mild and saintly Alexander was appointed. 182 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 150. At first, Arius taught his blasphemous doctrine only in pri- vate ; but in 318, he boldly defended it in a public conference of the clergy against his diocesan bishop Alexander, whom he accused of Sabellianism. Not only did he refuse to recant his error, but he had the boldness to send a written confession of his faith to several bish- ops, requesting their support against his ordinary. His eloquence and affected virtues gained him many admirers, especially among the con- secrated virgins. After trying in vain to draw Arius from his errors, Alexander in 320 convened a Council at Alexandria which was attend- ed by about one hundred Egyptian bishops ; Arius and his adherents, among them the two bishops Secundus and Theonas, were expelled from the Church by the Council. 151. As Arius nevertheless continued to teach and hold divine service, Alexander, summoning another conference, addressed a circu- lar letter signed by all his clergy to the bishops, in which he gives a full statement of all the errors maintained by the heresiarch : 1. God, who existed prior to the Son was not always Father. 2. The Logos ex- isted indeed before all time, i. e., before all creation ; yet He is not co- eternal with the Father, who is prior to Him. 3. Neither is He of the same essence with the Father, and, therefore, not true God. 4. He is not born of the Father, but was created out of nothing by the will of the Father. 5. He is a creature and not immutable according to his nature, consequently it was possible for Him to sin. 6. Yet, He is superior to all other creatures and in dignity next to God. He is the Son of God, but only by adoption. V. He was formed for our sake ; God, being too great for the world, created the Logos, through whom, as through an instrument, all things including time were made. 8. He would not have had subsistence, had not God willed our making. 152. Banished from Alexandria, Arius went to Palestine, whence he addressed a defence of his doctrine to Eusebius of Nicomedia. Eusebius, a fellow-disciple of Arius under Lucian, henceforth, is to be accounted the real head of the heretical party. Upon his invitation, Arius came to Nicomedia and thence addressed a letter to Alexander, in which he defends his doctrine as that of the Fathers of the Church. Here he also wrote his most important work, the " Thalia" (Banquet), designed to promulgate his principles among the people. Fragments of the "Thalia" are preserved in the writings of Athanasius. A Synod was held in Bithynia, A. D. 323, which restored Arius, and addressed a letter to Alexander and the other bishops with a view of effecting his re-admission into the Church. Arius returned to Alex- andria, between the years 322 and 323, and openly propagated his ARIANISM. 188 blasphemous doctrines in defiance of his ordinary. The controversy now began to excite all classes, and the Pagans even in their theatres ridiculed the division among the Christians. 153. About this time, Constantine, by the defeat of Licinius, be- coming master also of the Orient, entered Nicomedia, where Eusebius acquainted him with the controversy which agitated all Egypt. Igno- rant of the importance of the question, which he looked upon as an idle war of words, the emperor at once directed a letter to Alexander and Arius jointly, and sent Bishop Hosius of Corduba in Spain, to Alexandria, to mediate between the contending parties. But the efforts of Hosius in restoring harmony proved ineffectual ; whereupon, at his advice, and, as the Sixth Ecumenical Council of Constantinople expressly states, with the consent of Pope Sylvester I., the emperor convoked the Ecifmenical Council of Nice. 154. This First Ecumenical Council met in May, A. D. 325, at Nicaea, or Nice, Bithynia (now a miserable Turkish village, Is-nik.) It was attended by three hundred and eighteen bishops, mostly Oriental, and was presided over by the venerable Hosius of Corduba, and by the two Roman priests, Vitus and Vincentius, as Legates of Pope Sylvester. Constantine, who opened the Council with an address to the bishops, attended also the principal sessions in person, without, however, interfering with the proceedings of the assembled prelates. The principal defenders of the orthodox doctrine were, besides Hosius, Alexander of Alexandria, Eustathius of Antioch, Macarius of Jerusalem, Marcellus of Ancyra, but pre-eminently the learned and eloquent Athanasius, then only a deacon of about twenty-seven years of age, whose unwavering opposition against the new heresy obtained for him the title of "Father of Orthodoxy." Of the Fathers, some; as James of Nisibis, Nicolas of Myra, etc., were eminent for their sanc- tity and miracles ; others, Patamon, Paphnutius and Paul of Neo- Caesarea, as confessors of the faith, bearing yet the marks of the tor- ture they had endured in the last persecution. The number of the A.rian bishops is reckoned at twenty-two, chief among whom was Eusebius of Nicomedia, whence the Arians were also called " Eusebians." 155. The principal questions submitted to the decision of the Council were : 1. The Arian heresy ; 2. The time of celebrating Easter ; 3. The Meletian schism. Arius was introduced and exam- ined by the Fathers, who were shocked at the impieties he uttered. To exclude all subterfuges, the Council, adopting the term " Homou- sios,^^ or consubstantial, as the crucial test for the heresy of Arius, clearly defined : 1. That the Son was begotten of the Father, i. e., of 184 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. the essence of the Father ; 2. That the Son was begotten and not made, and consubstantial with the Father. 156. Two symbols, or forms of creed, were presented : the one drawn up by Eusebius of Caesarea, which carefully omitted the Hormousion and imperfectly expressed the orthodox doctrine, was re- jected ; the other, ascribed to Hermogenes, secretary of the Council and afterward bishop of Caesarea, which, in distinct terms, declared the c(ynsuhstantiahility of the Father and the Son, was adopted by the Fathers and has since been known as the " Nicene Creed." Anathemas were added against all who maintained the heretical teaching. The clause of the new symbol, bearing upon the heresy of Arius, reads as follows : " And we believe in the one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God begotten as the only begotten of the Father, i. e., of the essence of the Father, God from God, Light from Light, true God from true God, begotten, not made, consubstantial with the Father^ through whom all things were made." The symbol was sub- scribed first by the papal legates, then by the remaining Fath- ers ; after some hesitation, also by the partisans of Arius, except the two Egyptian bishops, Theonas and Secundus, who, with the here- siarch, were banished into Illyria. Three months later, Eusebius of Nicomedia and Theognius of Nicaea shared the same fate. Constantine ordered the writings of Arius to be burned, making it a capital crime even to own them. 157. The Easter controversy was next disposed of by the Coun- cil. To establish uniformity in that important point of discipline, the Council fixed the celebration of Easter on the Sunday after the full moon following the vernal equinox ; and if the full moon happens on a Sunday, then Easter-day to be on the succeeding Sunday^ It, more- over, devised means for the healing of the Meletian Schism, and for the re-admis*sion of the Novatians and Paulicianists. While the Council admitted the validity of baptism conferred by the heretics, the baptism administered by the Paulicianists, who denied the Trinity of persons in God, was rejected as invalid. Twenty canons were added, regu- lating various points of ecclesiastical discipline, and a collective letter addressed to the bishops of Egypt and Lybia communicating to them the decisions of the Council. Constantine, after giving all the pre- lates a magnificent entertainment, dismissed them with rich presents to their respective sees, and published several edicts enforcing the Nicene decrees. EUSEBIAN8. 185 SECTION LX. INTRIGUES OF THE EUSEBIANS PERSECUTION OF ORTHODOX BISHOPS. Arian Exiles Recalled— Defenders of the Nieene Faith Persecuted— Council I of Antioch — Banishment of Eustathius of Antioch — Return of Arius from Exile— False Accusations against St. Athanasius — Councils of Caesarea and Tyre— First Exile of Athanasius— Arius' Restoration attempted by Constantine — Death of the Heresiarch — Death of Constantine — Restora- tion of St. Athanasius— His Second Exile — The Intruders Pistus and Gregory of Cappadocia — Paul of Constantinople — Councils of Rome and Antioch— Great Council of Sardica — Its Object — Eusebian Council at Philipopolis — First Formula of Sirmium — Council of Aries — Third Exile of Athanasius — Fall of Vincent of Capua — Council of Milan — Exile of Pope Liberius — Banishment of Catholic Bishops. 158. The three years succeeding the Council of Mce had scarcely elapsed, when Constantine was induced by his sister Constantia to recall the Arian exiles. Eusebius and Tlieognis were restored to their sees, and those who had been consecrated in their stead were banished. Soon after Arius was also permitted to return. This lamentable inconsistency of Constantine renewed all the discussions which had been settled by the Council of Nice, and opened the way to endless intrigues. As the Arian leaders, or Eusebians as they were also called, after the Kicene Council dared not openly avow their heresy, they directed their assaults against the principal defenders of the Catholic faith, Eustathius of Antioch, Marcellus of Ancyra, Paul of Constantinople, and particularly against the learned and energetic Athanasius, who, upon the death of Alexander, A. D. 328, had been elevated to the patriarchal chair of Alexandria. 159. Eustathius, from A. D. 325, bishop of Antioch, distinguished himself, both during and after the Council of Nice, by his strenuous resistance to the Arian heresy, and had, on that account, incurred the hatred of the Arians. The Eusebians assembled in council at Antioch, A. D. 330, and, on charges of Sabellianism and immorality — a general slander with which they aspersed all orthodox bishops, — pronounced sentence of deposition against Eustathius. Constantine banished him into Illyria, where he died, A. D. 337. The same fate was shared by the bishops Asklepas of Gaza and Eutropius of Hadrianople. 160. But their most rancorous enmity and most persevering efforts were directed against Athanasius. To rid themselves of so dangerous a foe, the Eusebians impugned the validity of his election and ordination, a charge which was refuted by the solemn and unani- mous testimony of the Egyptian bishops. In the meantime, Arius having returned from exile, Eusebius of Nicomedia endeavored to 186 HISTOBY OF THE CHURCH. secure his re-instatement at Alexandria, but was refused by Athana- sius, who resisted even the emperor in his attempts to have Arius restored ; the intrepid patriarch answered that a heretic could have no communion with the Catholic Church. 161. The Arian party now had recourse to calumny and violence. An attempt was made to convict Athanasius of political offenses ; but on examination, Constantine became convinced of his innocence. Dismissing him with honor, the emperor addressed a letter to the Alexandrians, warning them against the intrigues of the enemies of their bishop. The Eusebians next prepared another assault against the much hated prelate ; charges of a serious character were alleged against him : 1. That he had sacrilegiously broken a consecrated chalice ; 2. That he had murdered, or at least mutilated, Arsenius, a Meletian bishop ; and 3. That he had ravished a consecrated virgin. 162. These charges against Athanasius were examined in two Councils, held successively in Csesarea and Tyre in 334 and 335, the Meletians appearing as accusers, and avowed enemies of Athanasius being the judges in the trial. Notwithstanding the absurdity of the allegations and the protest of forty-eight Egyptian bishops, who clearly proved the innocence of their patriarch, the Synod of Tyre pro- nounced sentence of deposition and exile against Athanasius. Con- stantine banished him to Treves. Marcellus, bishop of Ancyra in Galatia, another strenuous opponent of the Arians, was also deposed and banished, on the ground of reviving Sabellianism. 163. To complete their triumph, the Eusebians occupied themselves with the restoration of Arius into the church at Alexandria. They had received him into their communion in a council, held at Jerusa- lem, A. D. 335. On the refusal of the Alexandrians to admit Arius, Constantine recalled him to Constantinople, and issued a peremptory order to Alexander, bishop of the city, that the heresiarch should be restored to Catholic communion. Alexander, after vainly using every effort to move the emperor, had recourse to prayer, that God would avert this frightful sacrilege from the Church. While on the evening of his proposed triumph, Arius was passing through the city with his party in an ostentatious manner, death overtook him ; his bowels bursting out while stepping aside to attend an urgent call of nature, (A. D. 336). The unexpected death of the heresiarch, which was gen- erally attributed to divine interposition, caused many Arians to return to the Catholic faith. Alexander died soon after, when the Arians chose Macedonius to succeed him, and Paul was elected by the Catholics. At the instigation of the Eusebians, Constantine exiled Paul, but refused to recognize Macedonius. EUSEBIAN8. 187 164. Corjstantine died in 337. Of his three sons, Constantine II. and Constans, the former ruling in the West, the latter over Italy and Africa, adhered to the Nicene Creed ; while Constantius, the emperor of the East, was a pronounced supporter of Arianism. The exiled bishops were recalled, and through the efforts of Constantine II., Athanasius, after an exile of twenty-eight months, was also permitted to return to his see, A. D. 338. The Eusebians soon recommenced the persecution of orthodox bishops : Paul of Constantinople, having been deposed by them for a second time was exiled by Constantius, and the crafty Eusebius of Nicomedia was raised to his see. When Eusebius of Csesarea died in 340, his disciple Acacius, a rigid Arian, was promoted to that see. The Eusebians next renewed their accusa- tions against Athanasius. With the approval of Constantius, they appointed Pistus bishop of Alexandria. To secure the recognition of the intruder, they sent letters and deputies to the emperors and Pope Julius I. Being informed of this by the Pope, Athanasius in 339 called a Synod in Alexandria, composed of nearly a hundred bishops, to re- fute the Arian slanders against him, and then, at the invitation of the Pope, hastened to Rome. In the meantime, a Eusebian Synod at Antioch had again deposed Athanasius. 165. In place of the deposed Athanasius, the Arians intruded the violent Gregory of Cappadocia, who, by force of arms, was placed in the see of Alexandria, A.D. 340. On the arrival of Athanasius at Rome, Pope Julius I. summoned both parties before him. After awaiting in vain the appearance of the Eusebians, the Pope in 341 held a Council of fifty bishops, which declared Athanasius and Mar- cellus innocent and restored them to their sees. The same year, about ninety bishops assembled at Antioch for the dedication of a new basilica. The Synod, held on the occasion by the Eusebians, confirmed the deposition of Athanasius. When Eusebius of Constan- tinople died in 342, the Catholics recalled their exiled pastor Paul, while the Arians sought to intrude Macedonius, the founder of the heresy of the Pneumatomachists. This was the signal for a bloody sedi- tion, which ended in the murder of Hermogenes, the imperial gover- nor. Constantius hastened to Constantinople ; Paul was exiled a third time, and the intruder Macedonius, after much bloodshed, gained possession of nelarly all the churches. 166. To terminate these conflicts, Pope Julius at last prevailed on Constans and Constantius (Constantine the Younger having died, A. D. 340) to convoke a general Council at Sardica in lUyricum, A. D. 343; at which about one hundred and seventy bishops assembled, of whom seventy-six were Arians. The Council was presided over 188 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. by the venerable Ilosius and two Roman priests as legates of Pope Julius. Its chief object was : 1. To decide all disputes, particularly those relating to the bishops that had been deposed ; 2. To clear the Catholic doctrine from all misconceptions caused by the many Eusebian formulas. But immediately before the opening of the Council, a schism arose among the members. Finding that Athanasius and the other deposed prelates were allowed seats in the Council, the Eusebi- ans retreated to Philipopolis and there, holding a separate Council, confirmed the condemnation and deposition of Athanasius, as well as of the other exiles, and renounced all communion with the Western Church and Pope Julius, to whom they even denied the right to pass judgment upon them. 167. Unmoved by the secession of the Arians, the true Council of Sardica, finding the exiled bishops innocent, decreed their restora- tion and excommunicated the chiefs of the Eusebian faction. The cowardly Constantius, yielding to the remonstrances of his brother Constans, consented to recall Athanasius, who, after an exile of six years, returned to Alexandria, A. D. 346. The other exiled prelates, Paul, Marcellus and Asclepas, likewise were restored to their sees. Of the canons framed by the Council of Sardica, the most important are those which establish the right of appeal to the Bishop of Rome. 168. The tragic end of Constans, A. D. 350, deprived the Catho- lic party of a powerful and generous protector. Constantius, now sole ruler of the empire, recommenced the persecution of the orthodox bishops. Photinus, bishop of Sirmium in Pannonia and a disciple of Marcellus of Ancyra, by advocating a doctrine savoring of Sabellian- ism, afforded the Eusebians a welcome opportunity to calumniate Catholic doctrine ,and teaching. They held a Council at Sirmium A. D. 351, and deposed Photinus, who was banished by the emperor. Also a new creed — the first of the three dated at Sirmium^was framed. Though orthodox in its terms, this formula carefully avoided the ^''Hcymousion " and was, on that account, rejected by St. Athanasius. 169. The Eusebians again undertook to prejudice the emperor against Athanasius, who was accused by them of high treason. Con- stantius in 353 ' convened a Council at Aries, and not at Aquileja as had been proposed by Pope Liberius ; and, by his influence extorted from the Fathers, including the papal legate, the condemnation of Athanasius. Paulinus of Treves who alone resisted the emperor, was banished to Phrygia. Nothing is more lamentable than the fall of Vincent of Capua, the papal legate, who had always shown himself a zealous supporter of orthodoxy. ARIAN PARTIES. . 189 170. Liberius, deeply afflicted at the fall of his legate, rejected the proceedings of the Council of Aries against Athanasius, and deputed Lucifer, bishop of Cagliari in Sardinia, and Eusebius of Ver- cellae to the emperor to ask for another Council. Meeting at Milan in 355, the new Council, which was attended by about three hundred bishops, had, however, no better result. By threats and violence, Constantius compelled the bishops to condemn Athanasius and com- municate with the Arians. " My will must be your canon," exclaimed the tyrannical emperor ; " so the Syrian bishops have decided, and so must you decide, if you would escape exile." 171. The few bishops who refused to subscribe to the imperial dictation were exiled. Among the exiles were Dionysius of Milan, the papal legates Lucifer of Cagliari, Eusebius of VercelLne and the Roman deacon Hilarius. Pope Liberius and the aged Hosius, refusing to condemn Athanasius and communicate with the Arians, were likewise banished : the one tf Beroea in Thrace, the other to Sirmium, A. D. 355. Later on, also St Hilary of Pictavium was exiled to Phrygia. Although a prize was offered for his capture, Athanasius escaped arrest by fleeing to the desert, and the Arian George, a man of illiterate mind and savage manners, was substituted in his see by force of arms. In spite of all persecutions, however, the people in general remained true to their exiled pastors and to the faith which had been basely betrayed by so many bishops, and refused to hold communion with the intruders. SECTIOX LXI. ARIAN PARTIES THE PRETENDED FALL OF LIBERIUS AND BISHOP HOSIUS. Divisions among Arians— Pure Arians— Semi-Arians— Their Doctrine — Their Leader — Homoeans or Acacians— Their Symbol — Acacius of Caesarea — Anemoeans— Their Formula — Their Leaders — Aetius and Eunomius — Synods of Sirmium— Second Formula of Sirmium — Third Formula of Sirmium — Pope Liberius — Evidences Disproving His Fall — Pretended Fall of Hosius. 172. The Arians, now everywhere triuniphant, soon became di- vided into parties which, while at variance with one another, were united only by their aversion to the Nicene Creed. There were : 1. The original Arians who, rejecting the " Homousion,'''* or " Consuh- stantial^'' taught that the Son is a creature, though the first creature of God ; that He is made out of nothing, and of an " alterable nature," which is wholly distinct from that of the Father, and that He is essen- tially different from the Father ; hence they were also called '•'-Exucon- 190 , HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. ti(m& " and " Hetero-ousiasts.^'' 2. The Semi-Arians or " Homoeusians^'* as they were also cafled, aap^rted&liki^aLe^ of substance between the Father and the Son. Their symbol was the " ISymmmam^^ " similar in substance," which they substituted for the orthodox *' Homoidsiom^'^ " same in substance," or consubstantial. The recognized leader of the Semi-Arians was the learned Basil, bishop of Ancyra, who, after the deposition of Marcellus, had been intruded into that see by the Arians. 3. The Hommans (holding the Hommon, or like), in their vague and comprehew^Te creed, mer^ de«i,^ced tioat tke " Son in all things is like the Father," or simply" like Him " — " like " as opposed to the oae in substance. Acacius of Caesarea in Palestine (died A. D. 366), the opponent of St. Cyril of Jerusalem, was the inventor of this new form- ula, whence its advocates were also called "Acacians." The distinguish- ing pretensions of this new pigment of heresy was adherence to the Scripture phraseology; wherefore the Acacians adopted the phrase "like in all things according to the Scripture !" 173. 4. The Anomoeans rejected both the Nicene and Semi- Arian, teaching, and, in opposition to it, developed a strict subordinationism. Reviving rigid Arianism, they affirmed that the Son was not consubstantial nor even similar in essence, but wholly "unlike or dissimilar" to the Father. Hence their formula of the " Anomoeon, or unlike in substance. The found- ers of the Anomoeans were Aetius, a deacon of Antioch, and Eunomius, bishop of Cyzicus in Mysia, from whom they were also called "Aetians " and "Eunomians." From his denial of the Divinity of Christ, Aetius was surnamed the " Atheist." At the instigation of the Semi-Arians, he was banished under Constantius, but recalled under Julian, and made bishop. Aetius died in 370, and his disciple Eunomius in 395. The Eunomians rejected all mysteries, denied the incomprehensibility of the divine nature and the Divinity of the Holy Ghost, whom they called a " creature of the Son." 174. The intestine divisions, which distracted the Arians, be- came particularly conspicuous in the two Synods of Sirmium-, A. D. 357, and Ancyra, A. D. 358. The Anomoeans at Sirmium rejected both the Homousion of the Catholics and the Ilomceusion of the Semi- Arians, and in their profession of faith — the second formula of Sirmium — expressly declared that " the Father is greater than the Son and superior to Him in glory, dignity, power and majesty." The Semi- Arians at Ancyra condemned the extreme teachings of the Anomoeans, especially the one maintaining the Son to be only a creature and dissimilar in essence to the Father. Emperor Constantius, favoring Semi-Arianism, convoked the third Synod of Sirmium, A. D. 358, I ARIAN PARTIES. 191 which in its profession, after rejecting the word " substance " as un- biblical, declared that " the Son is in all things like to ih& Father, according to the Holy Scriptures." This third formula of Sirmium does not clearly contain the Arian heresy, though, indeed, it omits the term " Homoiision," or " consubstantial." 175. It has been asserted, and for a long time admitted by even Catholic writers, that Pope Liberius obtained his recall from exile by condemning St. Athanasius, and subscribing to one of the three creeds of Sirmium. Now, first of all, it is certain that Liberius did not sign the first or second Sirmium creed, and secondly, it is highly im- probable that he signed the third. For, 1. Liberius was exiled after the Council of Milan, i. e., towards the close of tiie jesr 355. After an exile of over two years, he returned to Rome in the year 358. Now, contemporary historians, such as Sulpitius Severus, Socrates and Theodoret, without mentioning any condition or terms, ascribe the return of Liberius simply to the urgent entreaties of the Roman ladies, who presented themselves in a body to Constantius on his visit to Rome, and to the seditions of the Romans which forced the emperor to recall the illustrious exile. 2. Rufinus, after seeing Bishop Fortunatian of Aquileja, who was said to have in- duced Liberius to sign the formula in question, writes : " Liberius, bishop of Rome, returned to his see during the lifetime of Constantius; but whether this permission was given him because he consented to subscribe to the Arian formula, or because the emperor thought he would conciliate the Roman people by this act of clem- ency, I have not been able to ascertain." 3. The Roman people were hostile to the Arians and would not endure Felix the anti-pope who, though professing ihe Nicene faith, communicated with the sectaries; he was on that account deserted, and afterward expelled by them from Rome. But on the return of Liberius the Roman people went forth to meet him and give him a triumphal entry into the city. Now, the Roman people would not have given him such a reception, had he fallen in faith. 4. Nor could Liberius, had he fallen, have established himself and re-assumed his attitude as defender of the Nicene faith without a public recantation. Of such a recantation, however, noth- ing is known, nor that Liberius afterward communicated with the Arians. On the contrary, he condemned the Arians as before, repu- diated the Council of Rimini ; and, when fifty-nine Semi-Arian bishops applied, A. D. 365, to be admitted into communion with the Roman Church, Liberius received them on condition of their accepting the Nicene symbol and the " Homoiision " which, in his letter to them, he called " the bulwark of the orthodox faith against Arian heresy." 192 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 176. Of the writings and passages in which mention is made of the alleged fall of Liberius, some are evidently not genuine, others are interpolated, (a.) Thus, the four letters which are ascribed to our Pope bear intrinsic evidence of another authorship and of their forgery. That the Arians did not shrink from forging documents, is a well- known fact in the history of Athanasius. (b.) The two passages of St. Athanasius in his Apology against the Arians and History of the Arians, which refer to this imputation, are manifestly interpolated, since the two works were written at a period prior to the supposed fall of Liberius. (c.) The fragments of St. Hilary which are cited against Liberius, on account of the intrinsic contradictions they con- tain, are evidently spurious. The account given of the charge by writers who were almost contemporaries of Liberius, leaves no doubt that it was a fiction of the Arians, which was believed also on popu- lar rumor by St. Jerome, who heard the calumny from the Arians in Palestine ! Besides, the passages of Jerome referring to our question, if not interpolated as they seem to be, are founded on the forged let- ters of Liberius and the spurious fragments of Hilary. But, be this as it may, even if we admit the fall of Liberius, no argument can be derived therefrom against papal infallibility. His yielding to open violence was but a personal weakness and does not prove that the Pope fell by heresy, since he gave no doctrinal definition, nor imposed a heresy upon the Church. One admitted requirement for an " ex-ca- thedra" definition was wanting, i. e., freedom. His defence of orthodoxy, as well before, as after his banishment, is unquestionable. 111. The supposed fall of the illustrious Bishop Hosius is no less improbable, since it is plainly rejected by such authorities as Sulpitius Severus and St. Augustine. About him similar lies were fabricated and circulated as they were about Liberius. St. Athanasius assures us that Hosius, broken down by old age and vanquished by tortures, gave way for a moment and communicated with the Arians, but without subscribing against him or the orthodox faith. Renewing the condemnation of the Arian heresy, the venerable prelate died in exile, or according to another account, in Spain, A. D. 357. DECLIl^E AND END OF ART AN ISM. 193 SECTION LXII. DECLINE AND END OP ARIANISM IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE. Councils of Seleucia and Rimini— Triumph of Arianism— Death of €onstan- tius — Fourth and Fifth Exile of St. Athanasius under Julian and Valens — Final Triumph of the Nicene Faith under Theodosius the Great — Arianism among the Barbarians. 1*78. With the view of uniting the conflicting parties among the Arians and forcing their creed upon the Catholic Church, Constantius caused the convocation of two separate Synods : one at Rimini in Italy, for the Western, and the other at Seleucia, for the Eastern bishops, A. D. 359. The former w^as attended by about four hundred bishops, eighty of whom were Arians ; while one hundred and six assembled at Seleucia, of whom one hundred and five belonged to the Semi-Arian party. A Semi-Arian formula, similar to the last of Sirmi- um and known as the fourth Sirmian creed, was held in readiness to be presented to the bipartite Council. This the Catholic bishops at first rejected, insisting upon the adoption of the word " Usia," or "substance," in the creed, and demanding that all present should forthwith subscribe to the condemnajbion of the Arian heresy. After a prolonged struggle between the contending parties, the artful hypocrisy of the Arians, and the threats of the emperor induced nearly all the bishops of both Councils to give up the " Homoiision," and to sign the " Homoean " formula expressing " a mere likeness of the Son to the Father, according to the Scriptures !" Thus the Fathers, (the majority of whom were and remained orthodox, suffered the [palladium of the Catholic faith to be w^renched from their hands by fraud and open violence. It was on this occasion that St. Jerome ^wrote : " The w^hole world groaned to find itself Arian." Pope aberius had no part in these synods and promptly annulled their acts. 179. With the death of Constantius, A. D. 361, Arianism began decline rapidly. Julian recalled the banished bishops of all jarties ; St. Athanasius also, after an exile of six years, returned [to Alexandria, George, the Arian usurper of his see, having been jlain by the Pagans the year before. On account of the numerous Iconversions he made, Athanasius was banished for the fourth time, but was recalled by Jovian, A. D. 363, and with him came the triumph jof his cause. The Nicene Faith was now everywhere re-established, |and, under Valentinian I., became predominant throughout the West- em Empire. In the East, Arianism found a zealous supporter in the Emperor Valens. Under him, Athanasius in 365 suffered his fifth ibanishment, and for four months lay hid in his father's tomb, till 194 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. the fear of an insurrection moved Valens to recall him. The great champion of orthodoxy was thenceforth permitted to govern his church in peace until his death, A. D. 373. 180. With the death of Valens, Arianism lost its last support. The Emperor Gratian, who professed the Nicene faith, issued an edict of toleration, which greatly strengthened the orthodox cause. The downfall of Arianism was completed by the celebrated edict of Theodosius, A. D. 380, in which that emperor exhorted all his sub- jects to embrace the teachings of Nice. He took the churches from the Arians, restoring them to the Catholics, and prohibited the assem- blies of heretics. In the Eastern Empire, under Arcadius and Theo- dosius II., Arianism dwindled into utter insignificance. In Italy, the Empress Justina, mother of Yalentinian II., favored the Arians, but her efforts were thwarted by St. Ambrose of Milan. The most prominent of those who labored earnestly in the defence of the Catholic faith against the Arians, after the great Athanasius, were, the Cappadocians — Basil the Great, Gregory Nazianzen and Gregory of Nyssa — Ephraem the Syrian, Diodorus of Tarsus, Cyril of Jeru- salem, Epiphanius of Salamis, and St. John Chrysostom. 181. Crushed out of the Roman Empire, Arianism took refuge among the Germanic nations, which, in subsequent centuries, overran Italy, Gaul, Spain and Africa. These barbarians had received Chris- tianity in the form of Arianism during the reign of the Emperor Valens. The Ostrogoths in Italy remained Arians till A. D. 553, w^hen Italy was reconquered by Justinian ; the Visigoths in Spain till the Synod of Toledo, A. D. 589 ; the Vandals in Africa till 530, when they were expelled by Belisarius ; the Burgundians till their subjuga- tion by the Franks in 534 ; and the Lombards in Italy till the reign of King Grimoald, A. D. 662-672. SECTION LXIII. THE HERESIES OF MACEDONIUS, APOLLINARIS AND PHOTINUS — SECOND GENERAL COUNCIL OF CON- STANTINOPLE, A. D. 381. Second Ecumenicad Council — Its Object — Macedonian Heresy— Synods of Alexandria and Rome — Constantinopolitan Creed— Photinus — His Her- esy — Hi^ Condemnation— Apollinaris — His Doctrine — His Condemnation by various Councils. 182. In order to re-establish the Nicene Faith also in the East, and to provide for the capital an orthodox bishop, the Emperor Theo- dosius convened a great Council at Constantinople. It met in May, A. D. 381, and was presided over by Meletius of Antioch. On his HERESY OF MAVEDONIUS. 195 death, Gregory Nazianzen, whom, in the mean while, the Council Had established in the See of Constantinople to the exclusion of the pre- tender Maximus, was called to preside; and after his resignation, Nec- tarius was chosen to succeed him in the capital See and as president of the Council. There were assembled one hundred and fifty orthodox bishops from the East. The most eminent among them were, besides Meletius and Gregory Nazianzen, Gregory of Nyssa, and his brother Peter of Sebaste; Amphilochius of Iconium, Diodorus of Tarsus, Cyril of Jerusalem, and his nephew Gelasius of Caesarea in Palestine. 183. The Western Church enjoying at this time an almost perfect peace, was not represented at the Council. Of the Macedonians, who had been invited in the vain hope of winning them over to the ortho- dox faith, there were thirty-six present; but they soon left the Council protesting against its proceedings. As there were only Eastern bishops present, this Synod attained the rank and force of an Ecumen- ical Council only after it had been accorded the assent of Pope Da- masus and the bishops of the West. It is celebrated for its condem- nation of of the Macedonian, Apollinarian, and Photinian heresies. 184. Arianism, in rejecting the consubstantiality of the Son, necessarily led to the denial of the Divinity of the Holy Ghost. But the violent contest with the Arians, would not permit the discussion of the dogma regarding the Third Person of the Trinity, till it was forced upon the Church by the Semi- Arians. On account of their i denying the Divinity of the Holy Spirit, they were called " Pneuma- tomachists," or adversaries of the Holy Ghost ; they were also known as Macedonians from Macedonius, the intruding bishop of Con- stantinople, who was the founder of this heresy. Separating the Holy Jpirit from the Unity of the Father and the Son, they inferred that he was not a Divine Person, being wholly dissimilar to the Father and the Son; that he was but their servant and a mere creature, though more perfect than other creatures. St. Athanasius was the first who defended the Divinity of the Holy Ghost against the Macedonians and, under his presidency, the Council of Alexandria, A. D. 362, declared the " Consubstantiality of the Holy Spirit with the Father and the Son." This doctrine was confirmed by the Roman Synods held under Pope Damasus, which declared the Holy Ghost to be increate, and of one essence and power with the Father and the Son; and anathematized Arius, Macedonius, and all others who refused to assert the Holy Spirit's eternity, his procession from the Father and his perfect unity with the Father and the Son. 185. The Ecumenical Council of Constantinople affirmed the condemnation of the Macedonian heresy, and enlarged the Kicene 196 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH Syrnbol, adding the words : " We believe in the Holy Ghost, the Lord and Giver of life, who proceedeth from the Father; who together with the Father and the Son is adored and glorified, who spoke by the Proph- ets." The same Council also renewed the condemnation of the Sabellians who baptized by immersion, but without the invocation of the three Divine Persons. 186. Photinus, who was a disciple of Marcellus of Ancyra and bishop of Sirmium, reviving Sabellianism denied the plurality of Per- sons in the Trinity. Insisting upon a subtle distinction between the " Word and the Son," he inferred that the Word of the Father, or Logos, was a divine yet impersonal power, that is, the divine reason of the Father working externally. He denied the Divinity of Christ, who was to him not the begotten Son of the Father, but only his adopted Son, and no more than the Logos dwelling in the man Jesus, whose existence began only with his birth from Mary. In like man- ner Photinus held that the Holy Ghost was but a divine power with- out any personality. This heresy was condemned at Antioch, A. D. 344, at Milan, A. D. 347, and by the first Synod of Sirmium, which also pronounced sentence of deposition against its author. His condemna- tion was confirmed by the second Ecumenical Council. Photinus died A. D. 366. 187. The opposite heresy, denying the true and full Humanity of Christ, was advocated by Apollinaris, bishop of Laodicea in Syria. Adopting the psychological trichotomy of Plato, the doctrine affirm- ing three component parts of man — spirit, soul and body — he main- tained that Christ had, indeed, a human body and human passions, or a sensitive soul, but not a spirit, or rational soul. This was supplied in him by the Divine Word ; consequently Christ had no human will, which would mean that he was not impeccable. The Apollinarians denied that Christ assumed fiesh from the Virgin Mary ; his body, which was heavenly and divine, as they maintained, merely passed through her virginal womb. This heresy was ably refuted by St. Athanasius and condemned by the Synods of Alexandria in 362, of Rome under Pope Damasus ; and lastly, by the second Ecumenical Council of Constantinople, which proclaimed " Christ is true God and true man." After the death of Apollinaris, which occurred about A. D. 380, his followers were divided into two parties: the Timotheans and Valentinians. During the fifth century they were absorbed by the Monophysites. PELAGIANISM. 197 SECTION LXIV. PELAGIANISM. Pelagius and Coelestius — Account of their Early Career — Pelagian Doctrine — Propositiones Coelestii — Their Condemnation by African Synods — Pope Zosimus — His Epistola Tractatoria— Julian of Eclanum — Pelagianism Condemned by the Council of Ephesus. 188. Arianism had hardly been crushed, when a new heresy was raised in the African Church by two natives of Britain, Pela- gius, a monk from Bangor in Wales, and Coelestius, an attorney at law. About the year 400, the two came to Rome for the purpose of continuing their studies. Here Pelagius embraced the errors of the monk Rufinus, concerning the exemption of human nature from inborn and inherited corruption. During the ten years of his stay at Rome, he occupied himself in writing commentaries on the Epistles of St. Paul, into which he introduced many heterodox opinions on original sin, free will, and grace. The fundamental error of Pelagius was his denial of original sin, and of the necessity of divine grace for man. 189. In 411, Pelagius and Coelestius went to Carthage for the purpose of receiving priestly ordination. Warned by Paulinus, a dea- con of Milan, Aurelius, the metropolitan of Carthage, convoked a Coun- cil A. D. 412, which condemned, under the title of "Propositiones Coelestii," six leading articles of the new heresy. They were : 1. Adam was created mortal, and would have died whether he had sinned or not. 2. Adam's sin injured only himself and not the human race. 3. Newborn infants are in the same condition in which Adam was before his fall. 4. The sin of Adam is not the cause of death, nor is the resurrection of the flesh the consequence of the Resurrection of Christ. 5. The Law of Moses is as good a means of salvation as the Gospel of Christ. 6. Even before the coming of Christ, there were impeccable men, that is, men without sin. 190. Coelestius, refusing to recant his errors, was excommuni- cated by the Council. He appealed to Rome, but, without waiting to urge his appeal, he left for Asia Minor and was ordained priest at Ephesus. Pelagius in the meanwhile had gone to Palestine, where St. Jerome and Orosius of Spain were his chief opponents. They ac- cused him before a Synod held at Jerusalem, A. D. 415, which, how- ever, gave no decision, but referred the matter to Pope Innocent I. The same year, a Council of fourteen bishops was held at Diospolis, or Lydda, in which Pelagius was obliged to appear. By evasive and equivocal answers he succeeded in clearing himself from the charge of heresy, and was declared orthodox. The African bishops, how- ever, who were not to be imposed upon so easily, reiterated the 198 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. condemnation of the Pelagian heresy, at the Councils of Carthage and Milevis, A. D. 316, and, writing to Innocent I., begged him to give a final decision on the subject. This the Pope did without delay. Early in 417, he held a Synod at Rome and ratified the decisions of the African Councils, as well as the condemnation of Pelagius and Coelestius. It was upon this occasion that St. Augustine, speaking on the papal decisions to his people, exclaimed : " Rome has spoken, the affair is ended." 191. Pelagius wrote to the Pope to justify himself, and Coelestius went to Rome in person, where, meanwhile, Zosimus had ascended the papal chair. The new Pontiff, not detecting the wiles of their equivocal creed, and trusting their solemn protest that "they con- demned all that Pope Innocent I. had condemned," believed them un- justly persecuted. He wrote to the African bishops to reconsider their cause, that is, the personal heterodoxy of the two sectaries ; yet, in the meantime, the Pope would not remove their excommunication, nor did he alter in the least the doctrinal decision of his predecessor. The African bishops, two hundred in number, assembling again at Carthage, A. D. 318, maintained their former decision. Pope Zozi- mus, now better informed, confirmed their decision in his " Epistola Tractatoria," and Emperor Honorius banished the heretics. After this Pelagius vanishes from history ; of his end nothing is known. 192. The more courageous and active Coelestius still kept up the vain strife. In Italy eighteen bishops refused to subscribe to the sen- tence of the Pope ; they were deposed and banished. Chief among them was Julian of Eclanum in Apulia, who appealed to a General Council. He was accordingly deposed and afterwards exiled by the Emperor Honorius, A. D. 418. After the death of Honorius, Julian and Coelestius applied to Pope Coelestine I. for another' hearing, but were refused. They then went to Constantinople, seeking the pro- tection of the patriarch Nestorius, but were compelled by Marius Mercator, a learned layman who exposed their heretical views, to leave the city. Pelagianism, which never became popular, but was confined to men of learning, was, together with Nestorianism, con- demned by the Ecumenical Council of Ephesus, A. D. 431. After this, we hear no more of Julian until his death, which took place in Sicily, A. D. 454. Of the death of Coelestius history is silent. SEMI- PEL A OIAN18M. 199 SECTION LXV. SEMI-PELAGIANISM PREDESTINARIANS. St. Augustine, the Champion of Orthodoxy against Pelagianism and Semi- Pelagianism — His Doctrines — Semi-Pelagian Doctrines — Advocates of semi-Pelagianism— Condemnation by various Councils — Predestinarians. 193. The great champion of orthodoxy against Pelagianism was St. Augustine. He followed up the heresy for twenty years, and died with the assurance, that pierced by so many darts, it could not long survive him. The leading doctrines which the great Doctor in the name of the Church defended against Pelagius were : 1. Man in his original state enjoyed, besides the natural, also certain supernatural gifts ; he was in the state of innocence, holiness, and happiness, enriched by divine grace and endowed with a superior knowledge and free will which was an agent for good ; he enjoyed perfect harmony and happiness in soul and body, immunity from sufferings and immor- tality even of the body. These supernatural gifts were to devolve upon the whole human race. 2. In consequence of sin, Adam was deprived of all his supernatural endowments, and, at the same time, also weakened in his natural faculties, the will and the intellect (spoliatus supernaturalibus, vulneratus in naturalibus). 3. The sin of Adam infected all his posterity ; in him, the Father and Repre- sentative of the whole human race, all have sinned, wherefore, both the guilt and punishment of his sin passed unto all men, not indeed by imitation, but by propagation. Hence the necessity of Baptism, in order to obtain remission of original sin. 4. By sin also the " libertas," i. e., freedom of the children of God, was lost ; but the liberum arbitrium, i. e., free will, though weakened, was left to man even after his fall. 194. 5. Without God and his aid, man can do absolutely noth- ing towards his salvation. Man, therefore, stands in need of both the " gratia habitualis " (sanctifying grace), by which he is enabled to regain his former high estate, and the gratia curationis, actualis, (medicinal and actual grace), which, according to the various degrees of assistance it communicates, is called respectively gratia excitans sen praseveniens (exciting, or preventing grace), gratia adjuvans seu concomitans (helping, or concomitant grace) and gratia executiva seu consequens (executive, or consequent grace). 6. Grace does not destroy or impair free will, but strengthens it, and gives it exertion in performing supernatural works ; the will stands in need of grace both to desire good and to do good. 7. With the grace of God man can avoid every sin ; yet, to pass one's whole life without committing 200 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. the least sin, is an extraordinary grace which God does not usually grant to man. 8. Grace is a gratuitous gift of God, not at all due to man ; it is given to man gratuitously, and not on account of his merits (non meritis redditur, sed gratis datur). 195. More important was the conflict which St. Augustine had with the Semi-Pelagians. This heresy, holding a middle course between the orthodox doctrine and that of Pelagius, denied 1. The necessity of preventing grace (gratia praeveniens) for the beginning of faith, which they maintained to be from man himself ; 2. The " donum perseverantiae," or gift of perseverance, and 3. The gratu- itous predestination, maintaining that God foreordains some unto election, because of the foreknowledge He has of their merits (prsevisis meritis). As early as A. D. 427, many persons, but particularly the monks of Adrumetum in Northern Africa, pretended to discover in the writings of St. Augustine doctrines subversive of free will. To explain himself more clearly on this point, Augustine wrote his two works " On Grace and Free Will," and " On Correction and Grace," in which he declares man a free agent, and defends the necessity of co-operating with divine grace. Being informed by Hilary and Pros- per, two pious laymen from Gaul, that certain priests and monks of that country objected to his doctrine on Grace and Predestination as being too harsh and destroying free will, St. Augustine, to confute them, wrote his two works " On the Predestination of the Saints," and " On the Gift of Perseverance." 196. The prin^cipal advocate of Semi-Pelagianism was the pious Abbot John Cassianus of Marseilles (died A. D. 433). From this city, where the Semi-Pelagians were most numerous, they were also called " Massilians." Among those who seemed to have favored Semi- Pelagianism are mentioned Faustus, bishop of Riez, Gennadius of Marseilles, and even the celebrated Vincent Lerins. These men, however, seemed to have erred without obstinacy, as Semi-Pelagianism had not yet been condemned by the Church. Pope Coelestine I. censured the doctrine of Cassianus without condemning him. Some Pelagian doctrines were formally condemned by the Councils of Orange in 529, and Valentia in 530, and the sentence was ratified by Pope Boniface II. The principal persons who undertook the defence of the Augustinian doctrine against the Semi-Pelagians, particularly against Faustus, were Claudianus Mamertus of Vienne, the African bishop Possessor, and St. Fulgentius of Ruspe. 197. The very contrary of Pelagianism was the doctrine of the Predestinarians, who asserted a " Praedestinatio ad vitam et ad mor- tem," and held that God from eternity predestined the righteous to NESTORIANISM. 201 everlasting life, and the wicked to everlasting death. The author of this doctrine was Lucidus, a priest from Gaul, who, however, retract- ed at the Synod of Aries, A. D. 475. The system of the Predestina- rians was condemned by the Synod of Aries, and that of Lyons in 480. SECTIOX LXVI. NESTORIANISM THIRD GENERAL COUNCIL OF EPHESUS, A. D. 431. Christology of Theodore of Mopsuestia — Leporius — Nestorius of Constan- tinople—His Heresy — Cyril of Alexandria against Nestorius — Pope Coelestine I. — Council of Rome — Council of Ephesus — Decree of Council — John of Antioch — His Schismatical Conventicle — Exile and Death of Nestorius — Reconciliation of John of Antioch — Nestorianism Proscribed — St. Rabulas and Ibas of Edessa — Nestorians in Persia — Barsumas — Babaeus — Chaldean Christians — Christians of St. Thomas. 198. The question as to how the two natures were united and co- existed in Christ, gave rise to prolonged and, at times, sharp contro- versies between the Alexandrian and Antiochian schools, which finally resulted in three new heresies, Nestorianism, Monophysitism and Monotheletism. Urging too much the distinction of the two na- tures in Christ, Theodore of Mopsuestia asserted only an external union between them, which led him to teach two distinct persons in the God-Man. His doctrine was further developed in the West by the Gallic priest Leporius, and in the East by Nestorius. Leporius was afterwards convinced of his errors by St. Augustine and induced to recant them publicly. 199. Nestorius, a native of Germanicia in Syria, was a monk and priest from Antioch. On the death of Sisinnius, in 428, he was pro- moted to the see of Constantinople. He distinguished himself by an intemperate zeal against the prevailing heresies, particularly Apol- linarianism. In his inaugural oration he thus presumptuously ad- dressed the Emperor Theodosius : " Give me a world free from heresy, and I will give thee the kingdom of heaven ; assist me in put- ting down the heretics, I will aid thee in conquering the Persians." He procured an imperial law of the utmost severity against all heretics, and excited a violent persecution against the Novatians, Quartodecimans and Macedonians. Denying the hypostatical union in Christ, Nestorius affirmed that the hujnan nature of our Lord had a distinct subsistence, or personality, and was only morally united with the Divine Nature and Person. Christ was to him but a mere man " containing God within himself " (Theodochos), and the Incarnation meant no more than " an in-dwelling of the Logos in the man Jesus," in 302 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. whom, he said, he dwelt as in a temple. Consequently, God had not truly been made man, and Christ was not God-Man, but only "bore God in his human person" [Theophoros) . This led Nestorius to assert: 1. That in Christ there were two distinct persons, one divine (Logos), and the other human (Jesus), and two son ships, one begotten of God the Father, and the other born of Mary ; 2. That the Blessed Virgin was not the "Mother of God" {Theotocos), but only the "Mother of a man called Christ" (Christotocos), since she be- got only a human person with whom the divine Logos had united himself. 200. The heresy made its first appearance in a sermon preached in the presence of Nestorius by his friend, the presbyter Anastasius. Anas- tasius preached publicly that it was improper and even injurious to ad- drsss the Virgin Mary as the Mother of God. She was but a human being, and God cannot be born of a human being. This pernicious error was openly approved by Nestorius. When the news of the scandal reached Alexandria, Cyril, its worthy patriarch, in his Easter-pastoral, at once combated the rising heresy, vindicating the honor of the Mother of God against Nestorius. Cyril then brought the matter before Pope Celestine L, to whom Nestorius had already appealed. In a Synod held at Rome, A. D. 430, the Pope condemned the errors of Nestorius and threatened him with deposition if he would not retract within ten days. Cyril, as Vicar Apostolic, being charged with the execution of the papal sentence, at once called a Synod of all the bishops of Egypt, and submitted to them twelve propositions with anathemas, hence called " anathematisms," which he had drawn up against the doctrine of two separate persons in Christ. These, with the Pope's letter, he sent to the heresiarch, who answered by sending him twelve counter- anathemas. In this controversy the distinguished Theodoret of Cyrus and John, patriarch of Antioch, sided with Nestorius ; the lat- ter even became the leader of the party. 201 . The controversy becoming more exciting, Theodosius II., with the consent of the Pope called the Third General Council of Ephesus, A. D. 431. There were present over two hundred bishops ; Cyril, with three other legates, was appointed to preside. After a long de- lay caused by John of Antioch and his Syrian suffragans, Cyril opened the Council. Nestorius refusing to obey the repeated summons to appear before the Council was, in accordance with the ecclestical canons and the instructions of the Pope, deposed and cut off from tlie Church, and his doctrine condemned as heretical. 202. Confirming the "anathematisms" of Cyril, the Council defined " that Christ consists of one divine person, but of two distinct NE8T0R1ANI8M. 203 natures, one divine, the other human, not mixed and confounded, although intimately (hypostatically) united, so that He, true God and the Son of God by nature, was born according to the flesh of the Blessed Virgin, who, consequently, is truly the Mother of God (Theo- tocos)y The joy of the Ephesians, who had anxiously waited during the whole day for the decision, was unbounded when they learned that this, heresy had been condemned, and that the title " Mother of God " was solemnly acknowledged by the Council. 203. Six days after, John of Antioch arrived at Ephesus, but instead of associating with the Council, he held a pseudo-synod of the friends of Nestorius. The schismatical conventicle consisting of forty- three bishops, presumed to declare void the proceedings of the lawful Council, and to excommunicate Cyril and his adherents. The Em- peror Theodosius at first favored the Nestorian party, and Cyril and Bishop Memnon of Ephesus were held under arrest ; but, when informed of the true state of affairs, he granted liberty to Cyril and Memnon, and ratified the deposition of Nestorius, in whose place Maximian was chosen bishop of Constantinople. Nestorius was sent into Syria to a monastery near Antioch ; thence, in 435, he was exiled to Arabia, and afterwards to Oasis in Lybia, where he died, A. D. 440. 204. John of Antioch and his party continued in their opposition for two years, when, through the combined efforts of the Pope and the Emperor, they became reconciled with Cyril, and accepted the decrees of Ephesus. A few bishops, such as Meletius of Mopsuestia, and Alexander of Hierapolis, who persisted in adhering to Nestorius, were banished. In 435, Theodosius passed a law commanding the writings of Nestorius to be burned, and his followers not be called Christians, but " Simonians." 205. Notwithstanding the severe measures used in suppressing this heresy, it found many advocates, especially in Syria. This caused St. Rabulas, bishop of Edessa in 432 to close the Persian school, which favored that heresy, and condemn the writings of Theodore of Mop- suestia. and Diodore of Tarsus, as the real source of Nestorianism. He was opposed chiefly by Ibas, a presbyter of Edessa, the same that wrote against Cyril the famous epistle to Maris, bishop of Hardaschir in Persia, which epistle was afterwards condemned by the Fifth General Council. Ibas became the successor of St. Rabulas in 435. 206. The exiled Nestorians found refuge in Persia, where Bar- sumas, bishop of Nisibis, with the aid of the. Persian king, succeeded in accomplishing the separation of the Persian from the Catholic Church, which was effected not without violence and much bloodshed. About eight thousand are said to have suffered martyrdom for their 204 HISTORY OF THE GHURGH. steadfastness in the true faith. Barsumas compelled the clergy to marry, and himself espoused a nun named Mammaea. He died A. D. 482. In the course of time, the Nestorians obtained posses- sion of nearly all the episcopal sees in Persia. A new patriarchate was founded at Seleucia. A synod held in 499 under Babaeus, who assumed the title of "Catholicus" and "Patriarch of the East," granted to the clergy, including bishops and monks, permission to marry. From Persia the Nestorians spread over Syria, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Arabia, and as far as India and China. In Persia and the neighboring countries they are called " Chaldean Christians " ; in India, " Christians of St. Thomas." In the thirteenth century they counted about one hundred and fifty bishops ; but their sect was sub- sequently greatly reduced, partly by apostasy to Mohamedanism, and partly by re-union with the Catholic Church. In 1551, about eighty thousand Nestorians, dwelling in Mesopotamia and the neighboring districts, returned to the Catholic Church. In 1830, the united Chal- deans, who have their own patriarch, numbered about one hundred and fifty thousand ; of the Nestorians, there are in Persia at present not more than thirty thousand. SECTION LXVII. THE MONOPHYSITE HERESY THE FOURTH ECUMENICAL COUNCIL OF CHALCEDON, A. D. 451. Eutyches — His Heresy — Synod of Constantinople — Dogmatic Epistle of Pope Leo I. — Robber-Synod of Ephesus — Dioscorus of Alexandria — General Council of Chalcedon— Definition of Doctrine— Twenty-eighth Canon — Persecution of Orthodox Bishops — Intrusion of Monophysites into Patriarchal Sees — Imperial Interference — Enkyklion of Basiliscus — Henoticon of Zeno — Acacian Schism — Emperor Anastasius supports Eutychianism — Closing of Schism — Pope Silverius — Vigilius— Divisions among Monophysites— Jacobus Barad£eus— Jacobites — Present Condition of Jacobite Church— Copts in Egypt. 207. The intemperate zeal against the Nestorian heresy carried some of the friends of Cyril into the opposite error, that of denying the distinction of natures in Christ. Eutyches, archimandrite, or abbot, of a monastery of three hundred monks near Constantinople, was the first who openly advocated this pernicious novelty. He was a pious, but narrow-minded man, and was led into the error, called after him Eutychianism, by his want of learning, rather than by subtlety of thought. Confounding the Divinity with the humanity, he affirmed, indeed, two natures in Christ before the union, i. e., before the Incarnation, but after the union only one. " As a drop of milk," he said, " let fall into the ocean is quickly absorbed, so also the human M0N0PHT8ITE HERESY. 205 nature in Christ, being infinitely less than the divine, was entirely- absorbed by the Divinity." The error was at once denounced by Domnus, patriarch of Antioch, and Eusebius, bishop of Doryloeum in Phrygia, and condemned in 448 in a Synod held by Flavian, patriarch of Constantinople. Eutyches refusing to retract, was excommuni- cated and deposed. 208. Eutyches appealed to Rome and endeavored to gain favor at the imperial court. He found powerful protectors in Dios- corus, who had succeeded St. Cyril in 444 as patriarch of Alexandria, and the eunuch Chrysophius, his own god-child, and at the time minister. These two men were the avowed enemies of Flavian and exercised an unbounded influence on the mind of the Empress Eudoxia. Persuaded by these, the Emperor Theodosius II., A. D. 449, summoned a Council tomeet at Ephesus. 209. To Pope Leo the Great belongs the glory of exploding the error of Eutyches. In his famous *' Dogmatic Epistle to Flavian," he confirmed the condemnation already pronounced against Eutyches, and gave a clear and lucid exposition of the Catholic faith regarding the two natures and their union in Christ. At the same time, the Pope despatched three legates, Julius, a bishop; Renatus, a priest; and Hilary, a deacon, to preside in the Council convened at Ephesus. Contrary to all precedents, the haughty Dioscorus of Alexandria was appointed to preside instead of the papal legates, who were even denied permission to read the Pope's letters. Everything was carried on with open violence. Dioscorus, supported by the imperial ofiicers and a band of fanatical monks, exercised the most arbitrary despotism against the assembled prelates. Eutyches was absolved and restored ; his accusers were excommunicated and deposed, and the doctrine of the two natures in Christ was rejected. Flavian was exiled, and, in consequence of the brutal treatment he had received at Ephesus, died three days after, on his way to banishment. In vain did the papal legates protest against the irregular and violent proceed- ings ; they could save themselves only by flight ; while the remaining Fathers were obliged to subscribe to the dictation of the violent Alexandrian. Pope Leo reprobated the acts of this scandalous con- venticle, which he branded as a Latrocinium, or Robber-Synod, and demanded a new Council in the West, which, however, Theodosius refused. 210. Upon the death of Theodosius II., A. D. 450, his sister Puloheria, who was sincerely devoted to the orthodox faith, raised her husband Marcian to the throne, A. D. 450-457. To restore peace to the Church, the new emperor, with the Pope's assent, called the 306 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH Fourth Ecumenical Council, that of Chalcedon, A. D. 451. It was attended by six hundred bishops, mostly from the Orient, and presided over by three legates sent by Leo the Great. The Dogmatic Epistle of the Pontiff, in which the mystery of the Incarnation was propound- ed, was received with acclamation by the assembled bishops, who cried out : " This is the faith of the Fathers ! This is the faith of the Apostles ! All of us have this belief ! Peter has spoken by Leo !" The Council excommunicated Eutyches and his partisans, and drew up a profession of faith designed to meet both the Eutychian and Nestorian heresies. It was here defined that there are in Christ " two 7iatures, — one Divine, the other human, — without mixture or alteration, united in one person and hypostasis, so that he is not parted nor divided into two persons, but is one and the same Son and Only- begotten, our Lord Jesus Christ." ^ The deposition of Dioscorus of Alexandria by the Council was confirmed by the emperor ; and he was banished to Gangra in Paphlagonia, where he died in 454. 211. In sixteen sessions the Council passed twenty-eight canons defining the limits of jurisdiction and regulating disciplinary matters. The twenty-eighth canon, which raised the see of Constantinople to the first patriarchal rank after the Roman see, was, strictly speaking, not the act of the Ecumenical Council. It was made in the absence of the Pope's legates, and was subscribed to by only two hundred, bishops, a slender minority of the six hundred or more who were assembled at Chalcedon. The papal legates at Chalcedon and Leo I. himself rejected the canon, which, at the Pope's bidding, was finally abandoned by the Emperor Marcian and by the Patriarch Anatoli us, by whom it had been introduced into the Council. The entire Western Church repudiated it, and the Greeks themselves, until the schism of Photius, had omitted it in their codices. 212. Their condemnation by the Council of Chalcedon only made the Monophysites, as the new sectaries were called, more obstinate. Orthodox bishops were persecuted and expelled from their sees, and many acts of violence were committed by the Eutychians. The three patriarchal sees in the East fell into their possession. Juvenal of 1. The same doctrine Is set forth in a more condensed form in the second part of the so-called Athanasian creed : " Furthermore, it is necessary to everlasting salvation, that we also believe faithfully the Incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ. For the right faith is, that we believe and confess; that our Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, is God and man; God, of the substance of the Father, begotten before the world; and man, of the substance of his mother, born in the world. Perfect God and perfect man; of a reason- able soul and human flesh subsisting; equal to the Father according to His Divinity; and inferior to the Father according to His humanity. Who, although He be God and man, still He is not two but one Christ. One, not by conversion of the Divinity into flesh, but by the assumption of the humanity into God. One altogether, not by confusion of substance; tut by unity of person. For as the reasonable soul and flesh is one man, so God and Man is one Christ." MONOPHrSITE HERESY. 207 Jerusalem and Martyrius of Antioch were forced to surrender their sees to Monophysites — the former to the monk Theodosius, the latter , to Peter Fullo, or Fuller. The Patriarch Proterius of Alexandria was murdered and his see usurped by Timothy ^lurus. Marcian's suc- cessor, Leo I., A. D. 457-474, banished the intruders and restored the usurped sees to the Catholics. 213. The interference of the Greek emperors became the cause of much confusion, and only served to widen the breach. To gain the support of the Monophysites, the usurper Basiliscus, A. D. 475-77, published his "Enkyklion," in which he denounced the Dogmatic Epistle of Pope Leo I. and the Council of Chalcedon. Five hundred bishops had the weakness to sign this impudent edict, with the excep- tion of Acacius of Constantinople who even forced the tyrant to re- voke the Enkyklion. The Emperor Zeno, A. D. 477-91, gave his sup- port to the Catholics ; but the publication of the " Henoticon," or Formula of Concord, in 482, only increased existing complications. The Henoticon, the work of Acacius, and Peter Mongus, the Monophy- site patriarch of Alexandria, pronounced indeed no express judg- ment on the doctrine of the two natures, but, on the other hand, carefully avoided the expressions of " one " or " two natures." It was rejected both by the Catholics and the Monophysites. Instead of healing old enmities, the Henoticon created new ones giving birth to another Monophysite party — the Acephali — and to the Oriental schism which lasted until A. D. 519. Acacius, the real author of the schism, was excommunicated by Pope Felix III. in 484. 214. Every attempt at reunion made by the Roman Pontiffs dur- ing the reign of Emperor Anastasius I., the Silencer, A. D. 491-518, proved unsuccessful. Acting under the advice of the Monophysite leaders, Xenaias, bishop of Hierapolis, and the monk Severus, Anas- tasius, seeking everywhere to establish Eutychianism, expelled from their sees, which were given to Monophysites, the three patriarchs of the East and other bishops who adhered to the Council of Chalcedon. In this extremity, many Eastern bishops appealed to Pope Symmachus to rescue their church from heresy. The sudden death of Anastasius brought a change. The united efforts of Pope Hormisdas and Em- peror Justinus I., A. D. 518-527, effected a reconciliation between the East and the West. Emperor Justinian, A. D. 527-565, also sup- ported the orthodox cause ; but his wife, Theodora, was an ardent propagandist of the Monophysite heresy. By her intrigues. Pope Silverius was expelled and Vigilius intruded in his stead. On the death of Silverius, however, Vigilius resigned, when he was canon- ically elected and thenceforth defended the orthodox faith. 208 HI8T0RT OF THE CHURCH. 215. In the meanwhile, the Monophysites had become divided among themselves. The Severians, headed by the above-mentioned Severius of Alexandria, maintained the corruptibility of the body of Christ ; the Julianists, so called from Julian, bishop of Halicarnassus in Asia-Minor, the incorruptibility. The Agnaites, also called Themistians from their founder, the Deacon Themistius of Alexan- dria, denied the omniscience of Christ, and the Tritheites who assert- ed three distinct natures in the Holy Trinity. But for the persistent efforts of Jacob Barnadseus, the Monophysites would speedily have disappeared from history. This ambitions monk, in 541 ordained bishop of Edessa and metropolitan of all the Monophysites in the East, succeeded in uniting all the parties and establishing a perma- nent ecclesiastical organization among his sectaries The number of clergy ordained by him is stated to have reached the incredible num- ber of eighty thousand, comprising eighty-nine bishops and two patri- archs. From him the Monophysites in Syria, subsequently also in Egypt, called themselves Jacobites. 216. Monophysites are still to be found : 1. In Syria, MesojDO- tamia, Asia-Minor, Cyprus and Palestine. They number about forty thousand. Their spiritual head, who calls himself " Patriarch of An- tioch," resides at Madrin, near Bagdad. The united Jacobites, or Catholic Syrians, numbering about thirty-two thousand, have their own patriarch of Antioch residing at Aleppo. 2. In Armenia, where a National Council held in 527 is said to have formally rejected the Council of Chalcedon ! The Armenian Monophysites are estimated at three millions. Their " Catholicos " resides at Etschmiadsin, which, since 1828, has been under the rule of Russia. They have, besides, patriarchs at Sis, Constantinople and Jerusalem, who all acknowledge the superior rank of the " Catholicos " of Etschmiadsin, The united Armenians, who number about one hundred thousand in all, have their own patriarch at Constantinople. 3. In Egypt the Monophysites re- ceived the name of Coptic, i. e., Egyptian Christians, while the adher- ents of the orthodox faith were called Melchites, or Royalists. The Schismatical Copts number about one hundred thousand, and the United Copts about five thousand ; according to another estimate, they are put down at twelve thousand. 4. With the Coptic Church in Egypt is connected the Abyssinian Church, which stands under the jurisdiction of an Abubna, or metropolitan, who is consecrated by the Coptic patriarch of Alexandria. The Monophysites, as well as the Nestorians of our day, furnish unmistakable evidence of the antiquity of Catholic tradition respecting the Sacraments, the Sacrament of the Mass, the invocation of the saints, and other Catholic rites and usages. THE ORIOENIST CONTROVERSY. 209 SECTION LXVIII. THE ORIGENIST CONTROVERSY. Errors Imputed to Origen— St. Methodius against Origen — St. Pamphylus — SS. Epiphanius and Jerome, Opponents of Origen— John of Jerusalem and Rufinus— Theophilus of Alenxadria — Theodore Aseidas — Imperial Edict against Origen — Protoctistae and Isochristi. 217. The writings of Origen, as they now stand, have time and again been the cause of heated controversies among churchmen. The errors, on which the question of Origen's orthodoxy chiefly turns, but which, it appears, were wrongfully attributed to him, are : 1. Subor- dination, or inequality in the Persons of the Holy Trinity ; 2. Orig- inal equality of all spirits and pre-existence of all human souls, in- cluding also the soul of Christ ; 3. Creation of the material world from eternity; 4. Apocatastasis, or restitution of all things to their pris- tine state of good, and the final conversion and salvation of the repro- bate, including the fallen spirits ; 5. Besides eternal punishment, Origen is said to have denied also the resurrection of man in his present body, and the distinction of sex in the other life. 218. The orthodoxy of Origen was first openly attacked at the be- ginning of the fourth century by St. Methodius, bishop of Tyre, in two works, "On the Resurrection" and "On the Creation." He was answered by St. Pamphylus the martyr, who defended the illustrious Alexandrian in an Apology which after his death was finished and published by Eusebius of Caesarea. During the long struggle with Arianism, the controversy was abated ; but at the close of the same century, it was renewed by one Aterbius, who, coming from Egypt to Jerusalem, accused St. Jerome and Rufinus of Origenism. Jerome cleared himself by condemning the errors attributed to Origen, while Rufinus paid no attention to the charge. Soon after, St. Epiphanius arrived at Jerusalem from Cyprus and openly denounced the Origen- ists. John, bishop of Jerusalem, retorted the charge by condemning the Anthropomorphites, as the opponents of Origen were called. In this dispute, Rufinus adhered to the bishop of Jerusalem, while Jerome sided with Epiphanius. The quarrel continued about three years, when in 397, chiefly by the endeavors of Theophilus, bishop of Alex- andria, Jerome was reconciled with Rufinus and Bishop John. But the translation of Origen's " Periarchon " by Rufinus, became the cause of another rupture between him and Jerome. 219. In the meantime, a fresh quarrel had broken out in Egypt. To the great surprise of all, Theophilus of Alexandria, who had him- self been formerly an admirer of Origen, all at once declared against the great Alexandrian scholar. He interdicted the reading of his 210 HIS TOBY OF THE CHURCH. works and caused three hundred Origenist monks of Nitria to be ex- pelled from their monastery. About fifty of the expelled, among whom were the so-called four Tall Brothers, Dioscorus, Ammonius, Eusebius, and Euthymius, fled to Constantinople, where St. Chrysos- tom gave them an asylum. Theophilus now joined with the enemies of Chrysostom, in whose downfall he acted a prominent part. 220. The Origenist quarrels were suspended for over one hundred years, when in 520 they were again opened among the monks of the Great Laura, near Jerusalem, some favoring, others opposing, the doctrines imputed to Origen. Chief among the Origenists were Domitian, bishop of Ancyra in Galatia, and Theodore Ascidas, bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia. With their aid, the Origenist party, on the death of St. Saba, expelled their opponents, whom they called Sabaites, from the Laura. Pelagius, the papal Apocrisiarius, or Nuncio, and the patriarch of Constantinople, Mennas, urged the interference of Justinian. Justinian, aspiring to the dignity of legislator of Christian doctrine as well as of Christian civil affairs, in 543, issued an edict condemning ten propositions drawn, as alleged, from the writings of Origen. The imperial anathema was subscribed by Mennas and other bishops meeting in Council at Constantinople. 221. These measures, however, failed to effect a settlement be- tween the conflicting parties. Under the influence of Theodore As- cida, who was all-powerful: at the imperial court, the Origenist monks became predominant in Palestine ; but meanwhile they had fallen out amoi^g themselves. The Protoctistae deified the pre-existing human soul of Christ, while the Jsochristi asserted the original equality of all souls, and that at the Final Restitution of all things all men will be- come equal to Christ. At last, through the efforts of Eustochius, patriarch of Jerusalem, the schismatic monks accepted the imperial edict, A. D. 563, and peace was restored in the monasteries of Pales- tine. SECTION LXIX. — THE THREE CHAPTERS. THE FIFTH ECUMENICAL COUN- CIL OF CONSTANTINOPLE, A. D. 553. Three Chapters — Justinian's Edict of Condemnation — Conduct of Eastern Bishops — Pope Vigilius — His Judieatum — His Encyclical to the Universal Church — Submission of Eastern Patriarchs — Fifth General Council — Papal Constitutum — Condemnation of the Three Chapters — Western Schism. 222. In order to divert the attention of Justinian from the Orig- enist controversey, Theodore Ascidas artfully represented to him that THE THREE CHAPTERS. 311 bring back the Monophysites to the Church. The Three Chapters so offensive to the Monophysites, are : 1. The person and writings of Theodore Mopsuestia ; 2. The writings of Theodoret of Cyrus in fa- vor of Nestorius and against St. Cyril, as well as the Syiiod of Ephesus; 3. The letter of Ibas of Edessa to the Persian Bishop Maris. The condemnation of the "Three Chapters" was justifiable, since these writings contained heretical doctrines ; but the emperor was not the proper authority to pronounce the condemnation. Justinian, with his usual eagerness to engage in theological disquisitions, published in 544 an edict, in which, under the name of the " Three Chapters," he condemned the works of the above-named authors. The imperial edict usurped the form of a confession of faith, and trespassed on the ex- clusive prerogative of the Church to anathematize the holders of er- roneous doctrines. After some hesitation, the imperial anathema was subscribed by the four patriarchs and most of the Eastern bishops ; but Stephen, the Papal Legate at Constantinople, and all the Western bishops, who looked upon this unauthorized proceeding of the emperor as a censure of the Council of Chalcedon, sternly resisted the imperial mandate. 223. To overcome the opposition, Justinian saught to win over Pope Vigilius, and invited him to Constantinople. On his arrival at Constantinople, A. D. 547, Vigilius refused assent to the condemna- tory edict which he considered unnecessary, and prejudicial to the Council of Chalcedon ; and denied communion with Mennas and the other bishops who had signed it. But wearied out at last by incessant importunities, and having become convinced of the heretical character of the Three Chapters, he approved their condemnation in his " Judi- catum " under the saving clause " without prejudice to the Council of Chalcedon." The papal Judicatum, however, had not the desired effect ; it produced a schism in the West, and failed to reconcile the Monophysites. To restore peace, the Pope and the emperor in 550 agreed to convoke a Council, and meanwhile to stop all discussion of the questions at issue. But, before the Council assembled, Justinian in 551 issued a second edict against the Three Chapters, addressed to the whole Christian world. Vigilius promptly resisted the arbitrary act of the emperor and excommunicated the bishops who had sub- scribed the edict. This incensed the emperor and drew upon the Pope a cruel persecution, which well nigh cost him his life. He was compelled to flee for safety, first to a church in Constantinople, and afterward to Chalcedon. Here he renewed the excommunication against Mennas, Theodore Ascidas and their partisan bishops, and addressed an Encyclical to the universal Church, in which he gave an 212 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. account of his conduct and the persecution to which he had been subjected. The condition of the Pope was exceedingly distressing, but a grand triumph was in store for him. The excommunicated prelates, including Mennas and Theodore Ascidas, addressed a sub- missive letter to the Pope, in which they recognized the four General Councils with the papal decrees regarding the questions in dispute, expressly disavowed the imperial decrees against the Three Chapters; and, asking the Pope's pardon, petitioned him to withdraw his censure. Vigilius thereupon returned to Constantinople and consented to the convocation of an Ecumenical Council. 224. The Fifth General Council met in May, A. D. 553, under the presidency of Eutychius, successor of Mennas who had died the year before. There were present one hundred and fifty-one bishops, all from the East, excepting six from Africa. On account of the small number of Western bishops, Vigilius, though urgently invited, declined to preside over the Council ; he promised to deliver his decision upon the Three Chapters separately, in writing. On the 14th of May, he issued his Constitutum, which greatly modified his Judicatum. In this he condemned the first Chapter, that of Theodore of Mopsuestia, but partially Excused the second and third Chapters, those of Theodoret and Ibas, whom the Council of Chalcedon had admitted to be orthodox. This Constitutum, the genuineness of which is disputed by some, does not appear in the acts of the Fifth Council, and Vigilius also made no attempt to impose it on the Synod. In eight sessions, the bishops of the Synod, after expressing their unreserved adhesion to the four General Councils, condemned the Three Chapters as containing and defending the Nestorian heresy. The decisions of the Council were confirmed by Vigilius in a decretal epistle to the patriarch Eutychius, as well as in his second Constitu- tum. Shortly after, Vigilius died at Syracuse on his way to Rome. 225. The condemnation of the Three Chapters and its approba- tion by Pope Vigilius was ratified by his successors, and subsequently also assented to by the Western Church, which gave to the Synod of 553 the rank of a General Council. But the bishops of Northern Italy, headed by Vitalis and Paulinus, the metropolitans of Milan and Aquileja, refused to accept the Fifth Council, which they condemned in a Synod held at Aquileja, A. D. 555, and thus caused a formal schism. Through the efforts of the Emperor Justin II. and Popes Pela- gius II. and Gregory the Great, the greater number of the schismatic bishops became reconciled to the Roman See. The schism of Aquileja held out longest. It was not till A. D. VOO, that the last of the schismatics returned to the unity of the Church. I HERESY OF THE MONOTHELITES. 213 226. It is commonly asserted that Vigilius was banished by Jus- tinian for his resistance to the Fifth Council, and that he finally yield- ed, only because he was broken down by sufferings and desired to ob- tain his freedom. How much truth there is in the story of Vigilius' exile, which is mentioned by a few contemporary writers, cannot be ascertained. Some regard it a forgery. However this may be, the inconsistency of Vigilius can furnish no argument against papal infal- libility, as it did not affect the dogmatic teachings of the Church. He wavered not in a question of faith, but only in his views on the policy of dealing with the Three Chapters, viz.: Whether or not it was wise and prudent to condemn writings which the Council of Chalcedon had spared, or pass sentence upon those who had died in the com- munion of the Church. SECTION LXX. HERESY OF THE MONOTHELITES. Controversy about the Two Wills in Christ — Doctrine of the Church — Origin of Monotheletism— Its Probable Author— Theodore of Pharan— Cyrus of Alexandria— Compromise between Catholics and Monophysites —St. Sophronius, the Champion of Orthodoxy— Letter of Sergius to Pope Honorius— Reply of Honorius— His Orthodoxy— Heraclius involved in the Controversy— His Ecthesis— Type of Constans II.— Pope Martin L— His Banishment and Death, 227. The heresy of the Monothelites, so called because they ad- mitted but one Will and one Operation in Christ, was but another form of Monophysitism. The Church teaches that Christ, having two Natures — the divine with all its perfect attributes, and the human with all its properties — had consequently also two Wills, a human will and a divine will, both operating in perfect harmony, yet each in its own peculiar manner. The Monothelites, indeed, admitted two Natures in Christ, but denied that he had two distinct Operations, or " energies," as they called them ; they asserted that He had but one divine-human (Theandric) Operation ; that His Divine Nature was the immediate principle of all His actions. His Human Nature being in Him wholly inert and purely passive. The origin of this heresy was owing to the effort made by the Emperor Heraclius, A. D. 610- 641, to conciliate the Monophysites, who then were very numerous in Egypt, Syria and Armenia. Its probable author was Sergius, patri- arch of Constantinople. He suggested to the emperor the formula of " One Operation " as a basis on which the Monophysites might be reconciled with the Catholic Church. Theodore, bishop of Pharan in Arabia, and Cyrus, bishop of Phasis in Colchis, readily adopted the design of Sergius, and the credit and authority of these men made Monotheletism current in the East. 214 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 228. Heraclius, who. for political reasons desired the reunion of the Monophysites, approved the heretical formula, and sought to in- duce the Catholic and Monophysite bishops to adopt it. In 622^ in a letter to Bishop Arcadius of Cyprus, the emperor forbade any further discussion of the Two Operations in Christ. On this basis Cyrus, who in the meantime had been promoted to the patriarchal see oi Alexan- dria, effected the reunion of a large number of Monophysites. The latter, thereupon, boasted that they, had not yielded to the Council of Chalcedon, but that the Council had yielded to them ! 229. This compromise, accomplished at the sacrifice of the ortho- dox faith, was strenuously opposed^ by the pious and learned monk Sophronius. He earnestly, but vainly, entreated Cyrus not to betray the cause of the Church. His appeal to the crafty Sergius was like- wise of no avail. Sophronius, who during the controversy became patriarch of Jerusalem, called a Council, and in a synodical letter boldly asserted and defended the doctrine of two Wills and -two Operations in Christ, denouncing the opposite teaching of " One Will," as an Eutychian error. 230. Alarmed by this opposition, Sergius sought to gain Pope Honorius to his side. In a skillfully worded letter to the Pope, the artful prelate gave an exaggerated and partial account of the return of the Egyptian Monophysites to the Church, and the opposition with which the reunion was met by Sophronius. He cunningly suggested, that since the whole matter was but "a war of words," which might endanger the work of reconciliation, no further mention of one or two Operations in Christ should be made. The unsuspecting Pontiff, mis- apprehending the real question at issue, imprudently assented to the artful proposition, and, in his reply, insisted, but without adopting the Monothelite error, that the expressions " one or two Operations," for the sake of peace, should be carefully avoided, as they niight be most seriously misunderstood. As to the words occurring in his letter : " We confess one will of our Lord Jesus Christ," Honorius evidently intended to exclude only the corrupt will of fallen man, and to express the moral unity and perfect harmony of the Divine and the Human will. " Christ's will is one, because our nature," the Pontiff adds, *' was assumed by the God-head, but not also our guilt ; that is, our nature as it was created before sin existed, not that which was cor- rupted after the transgression." 231. In his second fragmentary letter to Sergius, which he wrote in 635, after receiving the synodical epistle of Sophronius, Honorius expresses himself with greater clearness on the subject. Repeating the prohibition of speaking of one or two Operations, he writes : " We HERESY OF THE MONOTHELITES. 215 ought to confess that the two natures united in Christ, act and operate each with the other's participation ; the Divine Nature operates what is of God, the human what is of man, without division and confusion, and without change of the Divine Nature into man, or of the Human into God. . . . Instead of the one operation, we must confess that the. one Christ, the Lord, truly operates in the two natures ; and in place of the two operations, let us rather proclaim the two natures, the divine and the human, which exist in the one Person of the only begotten Son of God, the Father, without confusion, division, or change, and which operate each in its own peculiar manner." Save the mention of "Two Operations," which, being new and not yet sanctioned by the Church, Honorius thought better to suppress for the sake of peace, he believed, and, in his letters expressed, though in- adequately, the Catholic doctrine of two Wills and Operations in Christ. 232. Confident that Honorius, if better informed, would not hes itate to condemn the rising heresy, St. Sophronius sent Bishop Ste- phen of Dora to Rome, to warn the Pope of the true state of the ques- tion, and of the danger which threatened the Faith in the East. But Stephen reached Rome only after the death of Honorius. To silence the orthodox party, the crafty Sergius drew up, and caused Emperor Heraclius to publish, in 638, an edict, called JEJcthesis, which forbade the mention of one or two Operations, and expressly affirmed that in Christ there is only one will. The Eastern bishops, in two Synods, confirmed the Ecthesis, but the Western bishops, particularly the Popes, John IV and Theodore, rejected it, and solemnly protested against the imperial interference. Shortly before his death, Heraclius revoked the Ecthesis and excused himself to Pope John IV, writing that Sergius, the author of the edict, caused him to publish it. 233. Under Emperor Constans II, A. D. 642-668, the Monothe- lites made another effort to obtrude their heresy upon the Catholics. At the instigation of Paul, the Monothelite patriarch of Constantinple, Constans, in 648, published a new dogmatic edict, called " Typos^'' which forbade all further discussion of one or two Operations and Wills in Christ. Whilst the Eastern bishops again submitted to the imperial dictation, the Lateran Synod of 649, under Pope St. Martin I, condemned both the Monothelite heresy and the two imperial edicts^ the Ecthesis and the Typos. For this courageous act, the Pope suffer- ed imprisonment, and, after prolonged cruel treatment at the court of Constanstinople, was banished to the Chersonesus, where he died a martyr. The holy Abbot Maximus and his disciples, the two Anas- tasiuses, shared a similar cruel fate. 216 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. SECTION LXXI. THE SIXTH ECUMENICAL COUNCIL, A. D. 680. THE SUPPOSED FALL OF HONORIUS. HIS CONDEMNATION. Meeting of the Council — Dogmatic Epistle of Agatho — Definition of the Council — Condemnation of Honorius — Second Trullan Synod — Rejected by the Holy See — Suppression of Monotheletism— Orthodoxy of Pope Honorius. 234. Unlike his cruel father, Constantine IV Pogonatus A. D. 668-685, a valient and pious prince, exerted himself to restore peace to the Church. At his request, the Sixth Ecumenical Council assem- bled at Constantinople, A. D. 680. It was attended by one hundred and seventy-four bishops and presided over by the three legates of Pope Agatho. From the place of its meeting, a vaulted hall in the imperial palace, it is also called the First Trullan Synod. The Dog- matic Epistle of Pope Agatho, defining the Catholic doctrine of the two Wills in Christ was received by the assembled "Fathers with ac- clamations as "the voice of Peter." In conformity with the papal letter, the Council condemned the Monothelite heresy and defined " that, corresponding to the two natures in Christ, there were in Him also two natural Wills and two natural Operations undivided, inconvertible, inseperable, unmixed according to the doctrine of the holy Fathers ; that the human will of Christ was not contrary to, but perfectly har- monizing with His Divine Will and in things subject to it." The dis- senters, with their chief, Macarius, were excommunicated, and the Monothelite leaders — Theodore of Pharan, Cyrus of Alexandria, Ser- guis, Pyrrhus, with Peter and Paul of Constantinople — were anathe- matized as heretics. Pope Honorius was also condemned, not, how- ever, /br heresy, hut for conniving with heretics, because, by his un- timely silence, he emboldened the Monothelites. 235. The decrees of the Fifth and Sixth General Councils being almost exclusively of a dogmatical character, Emperor Justinian II, in 692, called a Council to be held at Constantinople, which is known as the Second Trullan Synod, also called the " Concilium Quinisex- tum." In the Greek Church, it ranks as an Ecumenical Council. Its acts manifest a hostile spirit against the Latin Church and the Roman See in particular, wherefore Pope Sergius I forbade their promulga- tion in the Western Church. The Monothelite heresy was finally completely suppressed, under Emperor Anastasuis II, A. D. 713-V16. It continued, however, among the Maronites on the Libanan till the twelfth century, when they united with the Catholic Church. 236. Concerning the much debated question of the orthodoxy of Pope Honorius and his condemnation by the Sixth Council, we must THE SIXTH ECUMENICAL COUNCIL. 217 admit: 1. That it is certain his letters to Sergius contain no heresy or false doctrine ; on the contrary, they express — though under the circumstances in language inadequate and misleading, and, after the Monothelite condemnation, no longer admissible — the doctrine of the One Divine Operator in two natures, which is in substance the Catholic doctrine of Two Operations, each nature having its own Operation; 2. Neither do these letters contain a decision '•^ex-Cathe- dra^'' which is evident from the fact that Honorius enjoined silence on both parties and forbade any further discussion of the question. No doctrine is defined in them as obligatory on all Catholics, but only a rule of discipline is enjoined, that is, the precept of silence. 3. The fault of Honorius lay in not using his authority, when appealed to, by declaring the true doctrine and thereby repressing the incipient heresy. 4. It was for this neglect, and not for heresy that Honorius was condemned. He had rendered himself morally responsible for the spread of heresy, by having neglected to publish decisions against it; and in this sense alone, was his condemnation confirmed by Leo n. 237. No error or false decision of Honorius ever was or could be condemned by the Sixth Council, otherwise that body would have contradicted itself ; for, in accepting the Letter of Agatho as a rule of faith, it recognized that the Holy Roman See had never failed, but had in all time the privilege of teaching only the truth. Besides, the decrees of a Council are only valid inasmuch as they are confirmed by the Holy See. But Leo H., in confirming the decree concerning Honorius, expressly declares that he was condemned, only because he had grievously injured the Chureh by his failure in energetically re- sisting the Monothelite heresy. In the same sense the Seventh and Eight Ecumenical Councils, as well as Pope Hadrian II., repeated the condemnation of Honorius. 6. The condemnation of Honorius was the result of pressure, on the part of the Greeks. Alarmed at seeing six Eastern patriarchs, including Macarius of Antioch, con- demned as the inventors of the new error, they importunely insisted that the name of Honorius, who had encouraged the Monothelite leaders indirectly, by not proceeding against them with timely vigour, should be added in the condemnatoiy decree. T. The orthodoxy of Honorius is attested by Pope John II, who wrote an Apology in de- fence of Honorius against the calumnious letter of the patriarch Pyrrhus ; and by Abbot John, secretary to Honorius and John II., who drew up the very Letter of Honorius to Sergius and testified as to its orthodox purport. 218 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. SECTION LXXII. MINOR SECTS. Arianisra the Parent of Numerous Sects— Euchites—Audians — Jovinian — His Doctrine — Vigilantius — Helvidius— Bonosus — Priscillianists — Their Ori- gin — Execution of Priscillian and other Leaders of the Sect — Severity against Heretics Condemned by the Church. 238. Arianism was the fruitful parent of a multitude of sects and heresies that not only assailed Christian dogma, but were also adverse to Christian morals and ecclesiastical life. The Euchites, or Euphemites, so called from their habit of long prayer, originated in Mesopotamia. Their chief characteristic was, that they professed to give themselves entirely to prayer, refusing to do any work, they obtained their living by begging. Hence they were also known as Messalians, praying people, and Adelphians, from Adelphius, their leader. Rejecting all external worship, they laid great stress on con- tinual prayer as the only means for expelling the demon which every man had, as they said, inherited through original sin. These deluded spiritualists spread over Syria, Palestine and Mesopotamia. 239. Another spiritualistic sect were the Audians, so called from Audius, their founder. Their home was also Mesopotamia. They refused to hold communion with Catholics, rejected canonical pen- ances, observed the Jewish manner of celebrating Easter, and were Anthropomorphites, believing that God exists in a human form. Audius, who had himself irregularly consecrated bishop, was banished by Emperor Constantius ; but in spite of repeated persecution, they maintained themselves till the close of the fifth century. The Eusta- thians, followers of Eustathius, bishop of Sebaste, a hyper-ascetic sect, rejected matrimony and ecclesiastical fasts, but fasted on Sun- days and festivals. The Arian priest ^rius of Sebaste, maintained the equality of bishops and priests, rejected prayers for the dead and the obsei-vance of Easter, as well as all appointed fasts, as Jewish superstitions. 240. In the West, Jovinian, a Milanese monk, denied the merit of fasting and good works in general, the distinction between mortal and venial sins, and maintained that a person baptized cannot lose sanctifying grace, and that there is but one grade of reward and one of punishment in the future world. He also opposed celibacy, maintaining that the virginal life is no better than the married state in the sight of God, and denied that Mary remained a virgin, after she had given birth to Christ. Jovinian was excommunicated as a heretic by St. Ambrose and Pope Siricius, A. D. 390. Vigilantius, a priest of Barcelona, also opposed celibacy, fasting and the venera- MINOR 8EGT8. 219 tion of saints and relics which he declared a pagan superstition. Similar errors were held by Helvidius, and Bonosus, bishop of Sardica, who maintained that Mary did not always remain a virgin. All these heretics denying the virginity of Mary, were ably and successfully refuted by 8t. Jerome and St. Augustine, who thus fully brought out the belief of the Church regarding the perpetual virginity of the Mother of Christ. 241. About the middle of the fourth century, Manichean doctrines began to spread in Spain under the name of Priscillianism. The real founder of the new sect was one Marc, an Egyptian Manichee, who came to Spain in 330. His first disciples were Agape, a lady of dis- tinction, and Elpidius, a rhetorician. The wealthy and leanied Pris- cillian, another disciple of Marc, became the real leader of the sect to which he also gave his name. By his ascetic life and plausible eloquence, as well as by his great wealth and refined manners, Priscillian won many followers also among the clergy ; even two bishops, Instantius and Salvianus, joined his party and also ordained him bishop of Avila. The first to resist this pernicious sect was Hyginus, bishop of Corduba ; but its principal opponents were the Bishops Idacius of Merida, and Ithacius of Ossonoba. The Council of Saragossa, A. D. 380, condemned the heresy and excommuni- cated Priscillian, while Ithacius caused the Emperor Gratian to pub- lish an edict exiling Priscillian and his friends ; but the exiles, who had vainly applied to Pope Damasus and St. Ambrose for help, suc- ceeded in obtaining ^a revocation of the edict by bribery. Priscillian and Instantius were restored to their sees, and Ithacius was compelled to flee from Spain. 242. Another Synod, held at the instance of Ithacius at Bordeaux in 384, renewed the condemnation of the heresy; but Priscillian appealed to the Emperor Maximus, who, after the assassination of Gratian, A. D. 383, had usurped his victim's throne. The heresiarch and six of his companions were accordingly tried at Treves, before a secular court, and, notwithstanding his promise made to St. Martin, bishop of Tours, that the life of the heretics should be spared, Maxi- mus sentenced them to be beheaded, A. D. 385. This was the first instance of Christians being condemned to death for heresy. The intemperate zeal of Ithacius and Idacius, who appeared as accusers against Priscillian, was seriously disapproved by Pope Siricius and St. Ambrose, who refused to hold communion with them. 243. The execution of Priscillian, who was honored by his follow- ers as a martyr, served only to spread his heresy in Spain. The doc- trines held by the Priscillianists were a mixture of Manicheism and 230 HISTORY OF THE CHVRCH Gnosticism. They denied the Trinity of Persons and advocated Dualism and Docetism. They held the use of fleshmeat and marriage to be unlawful, but permitted sexual intercourse, on condition that generation should be prevented. They celebrated their orgies with great debauchery, and principally at night. For the suppression of this abominable sect, stringent laws were enacted by the Synods of Astorga and Toledo, in 446 and 447. Even as late as the year 563, the second Council of Braga found it necessary to adopt measures against the Pricillianists. After that, the sect disappears from history. II. SCHISMS. SECTION LXXIII. SCHISM OF THE DONATISTS LUCIFERIAN AND MELE- TIAN SCHISMS. The Donatists— Origin of their Schism— Bishop Mensurius— Election of Caa- cilian— Felix of Aptunga — Majorinus, Sehismatical Bishop of Carthage — Donatus the Great— Councils at Rome and Aries— Decision of Constan- tine— Circumcelliones — Ravages committed against Catholics— Donatist Errors— Conference at Carthage— Its Result— Luciferian Schism— Mele- tian Schism. 244. The Donatists were the first Christians who separated from the Catholic Church as such on the ground of discipline. The Dona- tist schism, of which St. Optatus of Milevis says, that " it was born of the anger of an offended woman, nurtured by ambition and strength- ened by avarice," was the most violent and obstinate that afflicted the ancient Church for more than a century. The schism dated back to the year 305 and originated from a double election in the see of Car- thage. Some malcontents at Carthage, headed by the Numidian bishops, Secundus of Tigisis and Donatus of Casae Nigrae, formed a faction against the worthy Primate Mensurius whom they falsely accused of having delivered the Sacred Scriptures in the Diocletian persecution. Upon the death of Mensurius, in 311, his archdeacon Caecilian was chosen successor and ordained by Felix of Aptunga. This election greatly disappointed the factions, at the head of which now appeared one Lucilla, a wealthy and influential lady of Carthage. To her Caecilian was particularly offensive, because of a rebuke he had given her for the use of relics of some fictitious martyr. 245. No sooner had Caecilian been consecrated, than Secundus and Donatus held a Council at Carthage_pf seventy Numidian bishops, SCHISM OF THE DONATISTS. 221 nearly all of whom had been convicted of having delivered the sacred books to the heathen authorities in the time of persecution. Two priests, Botrus and Celestius, competitors of Csecilian, appeared as his accus- ers. On the frivolous pretext that Felix of Aptunga was a traditor, Csecilian's consecration was declared void and in his stead Majorinus, a domestic of Lucilla, consecrated bishop of Carthage, A. D. 312. Thus, two bishops claimed the see of Carthage, each of them being supported by a strong party. All Northern Africa was gradually drawn into the schism, the schismatrcs setting up also in the other cities bishops of their party against the Caecilians. The disorders which ensued caused Constantine to except the Donatists expressly from the privileges which he conferred on the Catholic Church. Majorinus died, A. D. 315, and Donatus, called the Great, succeeded him who also gave the schismatic party his name. 246. The controversy was tried successively in three tribunals. To secure the recognition of their party, the Donatists appealed to Constantine and requested their cause to be judged by Gallic bishops. The emperor referred the matter to Pope Melchiades, who in a Synod held at Rome, A. D. 313, pronounced the charges against Caecilian groundless. The schismatics protested against the Roman sentence and demanded another trial before a Council in Gaul. Constantine acquiesced and submitted the whole matter to the Council of Aries; at the same time ^lian, proconsul of Carthage, was commanded by the emperor to investigate judicially the charges against Felix of Aptunga. From the public records, Felix was proved to be innocent of the charge of " tradition.'^'' The Council of Aries met, A. D. 314, and was largely attended by bishops from Italy, Africa, Gaul, Spain, and Britain. The Fathers reaffirmed the sentence of the Roman Synod and declared ordinations by traditor-bishops, and baptism conferred in the name of the Holy Trinity, even by heretics, to be valid. 24*7. From this decision, the Donatists appealed to the emperor himself. This was the first instance of an appeal from an ecclesias- tical tribunal to that of a secular judge. Constantine yielding again, heard both parties at Milan in 316, but confirmed the ecclesiastical decision. His judgment was likewise protested against on the pretext that he had been prejudiced against them by Hosius of Corduba. Seeing them invincibly obstinate, Constantine enacted severe laws against the Donatists, ordering their churches to be taken from them and their leaders to be banished. But these measures incited them to open resistance and rebellion which caused the emperor, in 321, to revoke his penal laws. 248. Emboldened by this indulgence, the Donatists vented all their rage against the Catholics. A sect of fanatics known as 222 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. " Circumcelliones," or hut-rovers, sprang up among them, who in the name of religion committed all kinds of excesses and depredations against the Catholics, pillaging and burning their houses, blinding and murdering their priests. These savage fanatics, who styled themselves " Agonistici," or " Soldiers of Christ," while their leaders were called " Captains of the Saints," were possessed with a strong desire of martyrdom. Their frenzy increased to such a degree, that they laid violent hands even upon themselves, or compelled strangers to murder them. Such a self-inflicted death they called martyrdom. The schism of the Donatists was confined to Africa, where they were very numerous. In A. D. 330, they held a Synod which was attended by two hundred and seventy bishops. Under Julian the Apostate, the Donatist leaders, being recalled from exile, took fearful retal- iation on the Catholics. These excesses of wild fanaticism caused the Emperors Valentian and Gratian to enact severe laws against the Donatists. 249. Although split among themselves into factions, the Dona- tists obstinately declined every offer of peace made to them by the Catholics. Nor would they listen to the reasoning and arguments of St. Optatus of Milevis or of St. Augustine, who refuted their calum- nies and errors in various writings. Reviving the errors of Novatian, the Donatists denied the validity of sacraments conferred by sinners, and maintained that the Catholic Church, by admitting sinners into her communion, had ceased to be the true Church of Christ. The Donatists accordingly rebaptized all, including Catholics, who came over to them, and declared the rest of the Christian world, living in communion with Caecilian and his consecrator Felix, cut off from the true Church, asserting that the Church of Christ was confined to their own schismatical party, which alone had preserved inviolate the integ- rity of the Christian faith and morals. 250. The various Councils held at Carthage, between the years 403 and 409, in vain made every effort to effect a reconciliation. At last, in 410 the Catholic bishops obtained an imperial order which compelled the Donatists to meet with them in conference. Under the presidency of the imperial commissary Marcellinus, 286 Catholic, and 279 Donatist bishops met at Carthage in 411, and during three days, discussed the articles which divided them. The most dis- tinguished Catholic prelates taking part in the discussion were SS. Augustine and Aurelius of Carthage. An offer was made by the Catholic prelates to receive the Donatist bishops on a perfect footing of equality in every episcopal see. Several Donatist commun- ities with their priests and bishops returned to the Church. Many, SCBISM OF THE D0NATIST8. 223 however, remained obstinate, and the schism maintained itself in some parts of Northern Africa, till the invasion of that country by the Saracens, when the Donatists disappeared altogether. 251. The lenient policy adopted by the Council of Alexandria, A. D. 362, for the re-admission of such bishops as had, under forcible compulsion, joined the Arians, was the cause of an unhappy schism among the orthodox. By this Council it had been determined that those bishops who had merely consented to Arianism under pressure, should remain undisturbed in their office. Displeased with this con- cession, Lucifer of Calaris in Sardinia, separated himself from St. Athanasius and the other orthodox bishops, and became the head of a schismatical party known as " Lucif erians." They held that no one who had yielded to any compromise whatever with Arianism should be allowed to hold an ecclesiastical office. Lucifer died about the year 370, but the schism to which he had given birth survived him till the fifth century, and his followers reviving the Novatian heresy, denied the validity of baptism and ordination conferred by heretics. 252. The same Lucifer of Calaris also laid the foundation of the Meletian schism at Antioch. Upon the banishment of Eustathius in 330, a series of Arian bishops succeeded him in the see of Antioch. The Catholics, or Eustathians, as they were called, rejecting the Arian intruders, formed a community of their own. In 361, Meletius of Sebaste, a man of great virtue and merit, was chosen bishop of Anti- och by both the Arians and the Catholics ; but, being found orthodox, he was banished by the Emperor Constantius, and the Arian Euzoius was appointed in his stead. Lucifer of Calaris went to Antioch ; but instead of healing the schism between the two parties, he only in- creased the existing disorders, by ordaining Paulinus bishop for the Eustathians. St. John Chrysostom and Theophilus of Alex- andria at last succeeded in having Flavian, the successor of Meletius, recognized also by Rome, A. D. 400. A small party of extreme Eustathians held out till the year 415, when the schism, after it had lasted eighty-five years, was practically closed under Alexander, the second successor of Meletius. 234 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH SECTION LXXIV MOHAMMED AND MOHAMMEDANISM. Mohammed — His Early Life— His Pretended Mission— His Visions — Islamism —Its Articles of Faith— Its Moral Precepts— Moslem Functionaries- Koran — Sonna— Shiites — Sonnites— Mohammed's Hegira — He Conquers Mecca — His Death— Successors of Mohammed — Moslem Conquests. 253. While the disputes concerning the Monothelite heresy were disturbing the Eastern Church, the impostor Mohammed had arisen in Arabia. According to Oriental writers, Mohammed was a direct descendant of Ishraael, and consequently of the Patriarch Abraham. He was born at Mecca about the year 570. After the death of his parents, who belonged to the distinguished tribe of Kuraish, the hereditary guardians of the sanctuary of the Kaaba, Mohammed was brought up by his uncle Abu Taleb, and instructed in commer- cial business. During his mercantile trips to Syria and other coun- tries, he formed an acquaintance with Jews and Nestorian Christians, from whom he acquired his distorted knowledge of the Jewish and Christian religions. At the age of twenty-five, he married a rich Meccan widow, Khadijah by name, whose agent he had been. This advantageous alliance enabled him to live at his ease and gratify his taste for religious seclusion. 254. In his fortieth year, A. D. 609, Mohammed formed the scheme of establishing a new religion, or, as he expressed it, of abol- ishing the gross idolatry in which his countrymen had fallen, and of replanting the only true and ancient religion professed by Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and all the prophets, which consisted chiefly in the worship of only one God. He gave himself out as the " Prophet of God;" the spasmodical convulsions to which he was subject he rep- resented as heavenly visions in which, he alleged, the Angel Gabriel appearing commanded him to restore the religion of Abraham. This religion he named that of Islam, that is, " submission to God," whence his followers are styled " Moslems," or Mussulmans, that is, " dedicated to God." Mohammed maintained that a great number of prophets had been divinely commissioned at various times, chief among whom were Adam, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus, but that he was superior to them all ; he pretended that his divine mission was clearly foretold in the writings of both Jews and Christian^, whom he charged with having corrupted the Scriptures and suppressed the prophecies bearing witness to himself. 255. The fundamental doctrine of Islamism, which is for the most part an incongruous admixture of Paganism, Judaism and Christianity, is : " There is but one God, and Mohammed is His MOHAMMED AND MOHAMMEDANISM. 225 prophet." The Mohammedans divide their religion into two distinct parts : Iman^ i. e., faith, or doctrine, and Z>m, i. e., religion, or prac- tice. The first or doctrinal part, comprehends : 1. The unity of God; 2. The creation of the world out of nothing ; 3. The existence of good and evil spirits ; 4. The resurrection and future judgment ; 5. A state of retribution hereafter ; and 6. Fatalism, or God's absolute predetermination both of good and evil. It rejects the Christian doctrine of the Trinity, the Incarnation, and the Divinity of Christ; also Redemption and Justification. The happiness of heaven, which none but the believers in Mohammed can attain, is \ described to consist in the enjoyment of sensual pleasure. 256. Like all heathen religions, Islamism insists upon external observances, but lays no stress upon interior sanctity. Its moral law enjoins: 1. Prayer five times a day; 2. Repeated purifications; 3. Alms-giving ; 4. Fasts and abstinence from wine and spirituous liquors ; 5. Pilgrimage to Mecca ; 6. War against unbelievers ; and 7. The keeping of Friday as a holyday. Islamism permits its rV followers to recompense evil for evil, and allows polygamy, the prophet himself, after the death of his first wife, having taken ten wives, besides a number of concubines. It has no hierarchy or teaching body of religious men. The functions of the Sheiks who preach, of the Kathibes who explain the Koran, of the Kayim, the guardians of the mosques, of the Imans who preside at the daily prayers, and the Muezzins who call to them, may be discharged by any Moslem. The Ulemas are doctors of law, and the Dervishes a filthy and fanatical sort of monks. 25*7. The sacred writings of the Mohammedans are the Koran, a collection of the prophet's pretended revelations, compiled after his death by Abu-Bekr, and arranged by Othman; and the Sonna, or col- lection of moral traditions of the sayings and doings of Mohammed. Many of the Mohammedans, for instance the Persians and Hindoos, reject the Sonna, whence they are called Shiites, opponents of tradi- tion, while those acknowledging the authority of the Sonna, as the Turks, are styled Sonnites, or Traditionists. The Sonnites, as well as Shiites, are subdivided into a number of sects. The Koran consists of one hundred and fourteen chapters, or Suras, each bearing a title and beginning with 'the formula " In the name of the most merciful God." It is the chief authority of the Mohammedans in civil and military affairs, as well as in matters of faith. The Koran regards Christ with great reverence, but denies that he is God or the Son of God, though it admits His miraculous birth of the Virgin Mary. 22G HISTORY OF TEE CHURCH. 258. At first Mohammed found acceptance only with a few of his nearest relations. He was vehemently opposed by the Korasheites of Mecca, who at last drove him to seek an asylum at Medina, July 22, A. T). 622. From this flight, or Hegira, of the prophet begins the Mohammedan era. From Medina, where he assumed supreme spirit- ual and civil authority over his people, Mohammed, with sword in hand, began to propagate his religion. In 630, he took Mecca and converted the Kaaba, after purifying it from all idols, into the national sanctuary of the true believers, or Moslems. Mohammed now assumed the task of converting all nations. He addressed letters to the Emperor Heraclius, the Persian King Chosroes II., and other princes, calling upon them to embrace Islamism. Before the death of Mohammed, which occurred in 632, just as he was preparing to enter and conquer Syria, nearly the whole of Arabia was subdued to the new religion. 259. Islamism spread with amazing rapidity. It had been found- ed by the sword, and by the sword it was to be maintained and pro- pagated. The Caliphs, who succeeded to the authority of Mohanmed, trod in his footsteps. Abu-Bekr, A. D. 632-634, the first Caliph, began the conquest of Syria and Palestine, which his successor, Omar I, A. D. 634-644, completed. In 635, the Moslems took Damascus and, in 63*7, Jerusalem, where, on the site of the ancient temple, Omar built the grand Mosque bearing his name. Egypt came under the Moslem domination in 640; Persia in 642, and Northern Africa in 707. Soon, all the islands of the Mediterranean and nearly the whole of Spain were in their hands, whence they invaded Gaul but were defeated in the decisive battle at Tours by Charles Martel, A. D. 732, which put a stop to their progress in Western Europe. J EDUCATION OF THE CLERGY. 227 CHAPTER IV. CONSTITUTION, WORSHIP, AND DISCIPLINE. SECTION LXXV. EDUCATION AND CELIBACY OF THE CLERGY. Education of Clergy — Ordination — Administration of the Rite ^ Clerical Celibacy— Its Observance in the Western and Eastern Church — Trullan Synod on Celibacy. 260. The clergy, as in the preceding epoch, still acquired their education mostly by practice and exercise in ecclesiastical functions, under the immediate supervision of their bishops. In the East, the Catechetical schools of Alexandria and Antioch continued to flourish. Similar schools for the education of the clergy were founded at Edessa, Nisibis, and Rhinocorura. Seminaries modeled after the one at Hippo, founded by St. Augustine, were established in the West for the instruction of the clergy, as, for instance, the institutions erected by St. Eusebius of Vercelli, and by St. Exsuperantius of Milan. Not a few of the clergy were trained in monasteries. The monks, both in the East and the West, zealously fostered learning, sacred and secular, and established schools which grew to be semina- ries, whence distinguished bishops and ecclesiastics went forth, laboring zealously for the spread of the faith and the advancement of Christian life. 261. The duty of administering the sacrament of Holy Orders devolved, ex-oflicio, upon the bishop alone. This is abundantly im- plied in the canons of Councils, and often expressly asserted by eccle- siastical writers. From the time of the Apostles, the first and essential rite of ordination was the imposition of hands by the bishop. The anointing of the hands was not practiced either in the East or at Rome before the ninth century. Ordination was solemnized in the Church and in the presence of the congregation, and usually in connec- tion with the celebration of the Holy Sacrifice. In the ordination of a bishop, an open book of the Gospels was placed on his head, and the presence of at least three prelates was required. From this obliga- tion Gregory the Great had exempted St. Augustine, the Apostle of the Anglo-Saxons, and permitted him to consecrate bishops without any assistants ; but he added that this indulgence was to expire with the circumstances which rendered it necessary. 228 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 262. The exalted idea entertained of the priesthood, increased the obligation of clerical celibacy, which' gradually became more stringent. In the beginning of this period, married men who, as a rule, however, separated from their wives, were even promoted to higher orders, for want of competent candidates among the unmarried. The ancient rule forbidding priests to marry after their ordination, was rigorously enforced by various Councils. The Council of Elvira, A. D. 305, even made a law requiring under pain of deposition all clerics in higher orders, including subdeacons, to separ- ate from their wives whom they had married before ordination. The Fathers of the Council of Nice were for extending this law to the whole Church, but, on representations made by the holy Bishop Paph- nutius, they were content with renewing the ancient ordinance which forbade deacons and priests to marry after their ordination. Subse- quently, only unmarried men or widowers were promoted to the higher order. 263. Clerical celibacy was most strictly observed throughout the Latin Church, and, as St. Jerome and St. Epiphanius testify, also in Syria and Egypt. The refusal of Synesius to accept the bish- opric of Ptolemais, because he would not separate from his wife, only confirms the then existing discipline. The Popes Siricius and Innocent I. insisted on the strict observance of the rule of celibacy, which Leo the Great and various Synods extended also to subdeacons. The Emperor Justinian even made a law excluding a widower from the episcopate, which, however, the Church refused to sanction. In the Greek Church, particularly in the patriarchate of Constantinople, clerical celibacy was less rigorously observed. The Trullan Synod of A. D. 692 made celibacy obligatory only on bishops, and permitted priests, deacons and subdeacons to marry once before their ordination. To this lax discipline the Greek and Russian churches adhere to this day. SECTION LXXVI. METROPOLITANS, PRIMATES, EXARCHS AND PATRI- ARCHS — BISHOPS THEIR ASSISTANTS. Metropolitans— Primates and Primatial Sees — Exarchates — Patriarchs — Five Patriarchal Sees — Their Extent— Prerogatives of Patriarchs — Election of Bishops — Assistants of Bishops. 264. The distinction of rank among bishops, though not of divine institution, dates back to the Apostles themselves. The political divi- sion of the Roman Empire was made a basis for ecclesiastical division. In each province, the bishop of the metropolis, or chief city, presided METROPOLITANS AND PATRIARCHS. 229 over the other bishops, whence he was called metropolitan and arch- bishop. In some countries, one was designated Primate, whose rank was superior to that of other Metropolitans. Thus Carthage, Aries, Rlieims, Armagh, and Canterbury enjoyed primatial privileges over the other metropolitan sees in their respective countries. An equal, but a more independent dignity, was that of the Exarchs in the East, who were not subject to the jurisdiction of a patriarch. The bishops of Ephesus, Caesarea, and Heraclea, were Exarchs of Asia Minor, Pontus, and Thrace respectively. The bishops of Thessalonica in Macedonia, and of Acrida (Justinianopolis) in Moesia, for a time also enjoyed the title and honors of Exarchs. The Exarchs took rank after the Patriarchs, and had quasi-patriarchal jurisdiction over the metropolitans of their exarchates. 265. The name of Patriarch, which is of Jewish origin, was given in the fifth century to the bishop of the three sees which were founded by St. Peter — Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch. The incumbents of the sees possessed from the beginning a pre-eminent authority and jurisdiction over large provinces, or dioceses, as they were anciently called. The Bishop of Rome, besides holding the primacy over the whole Church, exercised the power of metropolitan over the provinces styled suburbicarian, and patriarchal jurisdiction over the dioceses of the West — as those in Italy, lUyricum, Spain, Gaul, Britain, and Africa proper. In all these provinces, he exercised his patriarchal rights by Vicars apostolic. 266. The patriarchate of Alexandria, on account of its first in- cumbent, St. Mark, the distinguished disciple of St. Peter, was second in rank, having under it Egypt, Thebais and Lybia. The Patriarch of Alexandria appointed and ordained all bishops of his patriarchate, who in the exercise of their jurisdiction were wholly dependent on him. The patriarchate of Antioch comprised Cilicia, Isauria, Syria, Phoenicia, Arabia, Mesopotamia and Osrhoene. Cyprus originally seems also to have belonged to it, but the Council of Ephesus in 431 made it an independent province, with Constantia as its metropolitan see. The Council of Nice confirmed the rights and privileges of the two sees of Alexandria and Antioch. 267. The Council of Chalcedon also raised the sees of Jerusalem and Constantinople to the patriarchal rank ; the former with jurisdic- tion over the three Palestines (including Judea, Samaria, Galilee, and Perea), whilst to the latter were assigned the provinces of Thrace, Asia-Minor and Pontus, including the exarchates of Heraclea, Ephesus and Csesarea. The principal prerogatives of the patriarchs were to confirm and consecrate the metropolitans ; to convoke synods and 230 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. preside over them ; to receive appeals, etc. The ancient rule that each diocese should have only one bishop was renewed by the Council of Nice. The same Council also enacted that, if not all bishops of the province, at least three of them should participate in the election of a bishop, in which the people had, though with some limitation, an active voice. The mode of appointing a bishop was : 1. The clergy and people elected a bishop, who was then confirmed by the metro- politan ; or, 2. The clergy and people proposed three candidates, from whom the metropolitan and provincial bishops selected one ; or 3. Conversely, the provincial bishops proposed three candidates, from whom the clergy and people were to select one. 268. The chief assistants of the bishop were : 1. The Archdea- con, who had a prominent part in the administration of the diocese. He represented the bishop in Councils, and, as a rule, also became his successor ; 2. The Archpriest, who officiated in the absence of the bishop; 3. The Administrator and Defender, the former being charged with the administration of Church property ; the latter with defend- ing the rights and privileges of the Church before secular tribunals ; 4. The Notary and Archivist, who were appointed to draw up eccle- siastical deeds and for the safe-keeping of such documents ; and 5. The Syncellus, or Cubicularius, who was the adviser and domestic chaplain of the bishop. The office of deaconess was permitted grad- ually to fall into disuse during this epoch, as in the East the office of chorepiscopi. SECTION LXXVII. THE PRIMACY OF THE ROMAN SEE. Supremacy of the Roman Bishop universally recognized — Testimonies of Councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon — Development of Papal Authority — Exercise and Examples of Papal Authority — Titles and Prerogatives. 269. As in the preceding centuries, so in this period, the superior- ity ^d authority of the Bishop of Rome were fully recognized both in the East and in the West. The terms in which the Councils and the Fathers of the present epoch speak of St. Peter and of the Bishop of Rome, are such as to leave no room to question their faith in the divine institution of the Roman Primacy and its perpetual duration for the government of the entire Church. The General Council of Ephesus considered it as a " fact questioned by no one, and known to all ages, that St. Peter was the Prince and Head of the Apostles, the pillar of faith and the foundation of the Catholic Church ; that down to the present time, and forever, he lives and judges in his successors." In like manner, the General Council of Chalcedon solemnly acknowl- THE PRIMACY OF THE ROMAN SEE. 231 edged the Primacy of the Roman See. "We consider," said the Fathers, " that the Primacy of all, and the chief honor, according to the canons, should be preserved to the most beloved of God, the Arch- bishop of ancient Rome." 270. If we reflect that the Church itself was only by degrees to be come great and powerful, developing itself as from a grain of mustard seed to a lofty and wide-spreading tree, we shall readily understand why Papal prerogatives were not spoken of by the Apostolic Fathers in such terms as came into use in the following centuries. The bond of union and the common authority which Christ had clearly provided for His Church in the Primacy of Peter, could not be consolidated while persecutions lasted. But no sooner had these ceased, than the Bishop of Rome was seen exercising supreme power over the entire Church ; and, as if by instinctive faith, was rightly regarded by Christendom as the common Father of the faithful, as the one sure defender and refuge of the orthodox faith ; and was recognized as the Visible Head of the Church, as the supreme teacher and law-giver, the Superior of all bishops, and Shepherd in the fold of Christ. So universally was his spiritual supremacy acknowledged, that even the pagan historian, Ammianus Marcellinus, called Pope Liberius " the Overseer of the Christian religion." 271. That the Primacy, which St. Chrysostom calls the "Presi- dency of the Universal Church," was generally recognized in this period, the following facts are sufiicient evidence : 1. Such is clear from the relations of the Pope to the Ecumenical Councils, which were summoned, if not always by him personally, at least with his assent and at his solicitation. He also presided over them by his legates and ratified their decrees by his solemn confirmation, which the Fathers of such assemblies considered a duty to seek from him. 2. The doctrinal decisions of the Roman Bishop in controversies of faith were universally accepted as final. He was throughout the Eastern Church, as well as in the West, regarded as the chief guardian and expounder of the faith. The decrees of Damasus and Innocent I., condemning the heresies of Apollinaris and Pelagius, and the doctrinal letters of Celestine I., Leo I. and Agatho regarding the Nestorian, Monophysite, and Monothelite heresies, were unreservedly received as the correct expositions of the mysteries of the Incarnation and the Trinity. For this reason, bishops not unfrequently besought the Roman Pontiff to declare the Faith, and submitted for his confirma- tion the definitions which they themselves had formed against heresies. St. Augustine and other African bishops wrote to Pope Innocent I., to ask his confirmation of the two Councils of Carthage 232 HISTORY OF THE GIIURCn. and Milevis, in which the Pelagian heresy had been condemned ; and Flavian, patriarch of Constantinople, solicited the Papal approbation of his sentence against Eutyches. 2V2. 3. The answers given to the consultations of bishops from every part of Christendom, prove that the Roman Bishop was a superior, to whom all looked for guidance. St. Jerome testifies that, when at Rome under Damasus, he was constantly engaged by order of the Pope in answering the synodical consultations that poured in from the East and the West. 4. The Roman See was recognized as a tribunal of appeal to which injured bishops might have recourse for redress. During the violent struggle with Ariandsm, St. Athanasius, Marcellus and other prelates betook themselves to Rome with confi- dence, submitting their cause to the decision of the Pope. In accord- ance with the canons of the Council of Sardica, in which the right of the Pope to receive appeals from all parts was distinctly acknowledged, not only bishops, but also patriarchs, as for instance, St. Chrysostom and Flavian of Constantinople, Peter II. of Alexandria, appealed from decisions of Councils to the Roman See. Even the heretics Pelagius, Nestorius and Eutyches, by invoking the Pope's authority, sought to be restored to communion with the Church. 273. 5. The authority of the Roman Pontiff was manifested in the deposition of bishops, including even patriarchs. Thus, Pope Damasus was asked by Eastern bishops to depose Timothy, a prelate infected with the heresy of Apollinaris. The same Pontiff deposed Ursacius and Valens, two Ari*an bishops. The people and clergy of Ephesus solicited and obtained from Leo I. the deposition of the intruder Bassian. The papal legates, in the Council of Chalcedon, deposed the violent Dioscorus of Alexandria. In like manner. Popes Sixtus III., Simplicius, and Felix III. deposed respectively the patri- archs Polychronius of Jerusalem, Peter Mongus of Alexandria, Peter Cnapheus of Antioch, and Acacius of Constantinople. On the other hand, no patriarch, bishop or Council ever presumed to pass judgment on the Roman Pontiff. When King Theodoric summoned a Council at Rome, A. D. 503, to examine the charges of the schismatical party against Pope Symmachus, the assembled bishops replied that " the idea of subjecting the Roman Pontiff to the judgment of his inferiors 'was entirely new and unheard of." 274. 6. The Primacy of the Roman Bishop is further evinced from the right of confirming the election of patriarchs. It was customary for the bishops of Alexandria and Antioch to notify the Roman Pontiff of their election, in order to obtain his recognition ; and the bishop of Constantinople, to procure the required confirmation, as a THE PRIMACY OF THE ROMAN SEE. 233 rule, sent a special embassy to Rome. Thus, the Emperor Theodosius despatched ambassadors to the Roman Bishop to obtain the confirma- tion of Nectarius ; the same was done in the election of St. Chrysos- tom and his successor Atticus. Pope Leo I. confirmed Maximus as patriarch of Antioch. Pope Agapetus, on the occasion of his visit to Constantinople, could not be prevailed upon, even by the Emperor Justinian I., to confirm Anthimus, but in his stead consecrated, with his own hands, Mennas as bishop of Constantinople. 7.. The appoint- ment of legates whom the Popes, whenever necessity required it, were wont to send to every part of Christendom, delegating them as " Vicars of the Apostolic See," to regulate important affairs of the Chrch, is another luminous evidence of the Primacy. Thus did Pope Celestine I. appoint Cyril of Alexandria in the case of Nestorius ; and Popes Leo I., Felix III., and Hormisdas constituted respectively Anatolius, Acacius, and Epiphanius successively patriarchs of Constantinople. So afterwards did Pope Gregory the Great appoint St. Augustine to be his vicar in England. 2*75. 8. Lastly, the titles and prerogatives ascribed to the Roman Bishop manifestly express the Primacy of his See. He was called Vicar of Peter, Heir of Peter's administration. Head of all the churches. Universal Archbishop, Pope or Bishop of the Universal Church, Bishop of the Catholic Church, Head and Chief of the Episcopate, Chief Pontiff and Bishop of Bishops, Ruler and Vicar of the Church of Christ. He has supervision in matters of faith; he has apostolic power over all, and the Primacy in all things; contrary to his judgment, the Church cannot make laws. 9. From all this it is clear that in these early ages of the Church, the Primacy of the Roman See was exercised, and fully recognized throughout the East and the West. To ascribe the papal authority to usurpation or ecclesiastical arrangement, is to mistake its character altogether. It was exercised and admitted before any Council could be convened and was always referred to, not only by the Popes, but by the early Fathers and Christian writers in general, as a divine Institution, namely the privileges and prerogatives bestowed by Christ upon Peter. 234 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH SECTION I.XXVIII. THE POPES OF THE FOURTH AND FIFTH CENTURIES. Sylvester I. — Pretended Donation of Constantine — Origin and History of the Document — Julius I. — Liberius — Felix Antipope — Damasus — Ursiclnus Antipope — Siricius — Anastasius I. — Innocent I. — His Attitude towards Pelagianism — Boniface I. — Celestine I. — Sixtus HI.— Pontificate of Leo I. — Popes Hilary and Simplicius — Vatican Library — Felix HI. — Pope Gelasius— Anastasius 11. 276. Pope Sylvester I., A. D. 314-335, governed the Church in the first years of her temporal prosperity and triumph over her perse- cuting enemies. His long and glorious pontificate is marked by the by the First Ecumenical Council, that of Nice; and by the suppression of the Arian heresy. In his reign also occured the happy discovery of the true Cross and holy Tomb of Our Lord, by the Empress St. Helena, A. D. 326. To the pontificate of Sylvester is assigned the pretended donation of Constantine. The document, which purports to be the instrument of the donation, grants to the Bishop of Rome, besides certain marks and insignia of honor, such as the tiara, the lorum, and imperial robes, also the temporal sovereignty over Rome and the provinces, towns and castles of all Italy. The document origin- ated probably in France, in the ninth century, and likely was intended for the Greeks, by whom the coronation of Charlemagne as Emperor was ill received. The assertion that it was fabricated in the interests of the Papacy is without foundation. Up to the twelfth century, the document was never found to have been made use of in Rome or referred to by the Popes, although its authenticity was then universally admitted. While the document is proved to be a forgery, yet it is certain that Constantine bestowed large possessions on the Bishops of Rome. The Roman See has never looked upon the apocryphal docu- ment as its strongest bulwark ; the Popes place upon entirely difi:erent grounds the foundation of the papal prerogatives and the powers exercised by the Apostolic See. 277. After the brief pontificate of Marcus, Jan.-Oct. A. D. 336, Julius I. was elected his successor, A. D. 337-352. During the violent struggle with Arianism, he was the strenuous champion of the Nicene faith, and the constant defender of St. Athanasius and other orthodox bishops oppressed by the heretics. The bishops whom the Eusebians had unjustly deposed, were reinstated by Julius by virtue of the pre- rogative of the Roman See. With the concurrence of the two emper- ors, Constans and Constantius, he, in 343, summoned the great Council of Sardica. Liberius, A. D. 352-366, had to suffer much from the Arians and the Emperor Constantius, by whom, on account of his un- I POPES OF THE FOURTH AND FIFTH CENTURIES. 235 wavering constancy in the defence of the Nicene faith, he was exiled, and Felix II. in his stead intruded. On the return of Liberius to Rome in 358, the antipope was expelled by the Romans. Felix, who always believed the Nicene creed, is put by some in the list of Popes, but St. Augustine and others omit him ; some think that he acted as Vicar of Liberius. The story that Liberius lapsed into the Arian heresy, has been disproved elsewhere. 2*78. After a violent opposition on the part of the Antipope Ursicinus, which led to bloodshed, Damasus succeeded Liberius, A. D. 366-384. The antipope was finally banished from Rome by the Emperor Yalentinian. Damasus appears as a principal defender of Catholic orthodoxy against Arius and other heretics. He condemned the Macedonian and Apollinarian heresies, and confirmed the decrees of the General Council of Constantinople. He was very solicitous for the preservation of the catacombs, and adorned the sepulchres of many martyrs with epitaphs in verse, which he himself composed. For his secretary, he chose St. Jerome, his faithful friend, and induced lim to publish a corrected version of the Bible, known as the Latin ^Vulgate. Pope Siricius, A. D. 385-398, was a no less stanch defender of orthodoxy against heresy, than his illustrious predecessor. We have from him the first complete papal decretals. Great praise is given by St. Jerome to Popes Anastasius L, A. D. 398-402, and Inno- cent I., A. D. 402-41*7. The latter warmly espoused the cause of St. John Chrysostom, who had been unjustly deposed and exiled. To save Rome from being sacked, he urged Emperor Honorius to treat for peace with Alaric. Innocent condemned the heresy of Pelagius, and the condemnation was renewed by his successor. Pope Zosimus, A. D. 417-418. That Pope Zosimus taught a doctrine different from that of his predecessor in the Pelagian controversy, as is asserted by the opponents of papal infallibility, is utterly false and distinctly denied by St. Augustine. His difference with the African bishops regarded not the doctrine, but solely the personal orthodoxy of Celestius. 279. Boniface I., A.D. 418-422, to whom St. Augustine dedicated one of his works, was for a time opposed by the Antipope Eulalius, till the latter was banished by the Emperor Honorius. He was an unswerv- ing supporter of orthodoxy and a strenuous defender of the perogatives of the Roman See. Celestine I., A. D. 422-432, was zealous in oppos- ing Pelagianism, and constrained Coelestius, the companion of Pelagius, to leave Italy. He confirmed the decrees of the General Council of Ephesus and the sentence of deposition pronounced by that body against Nestorius. This Pope sent St. Germanus, bishop of Auxerre, 236 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. and Lupus, bishop of Troyes, to repress the Pelagian heresy in Britain, and SS. Palladius and Patrick, to convert the Scots and the Irish. After his death, Sixtus III. was chosen Pope, A. D. 432-440. This holy Pontiff vainly endeavored to reclaim the heresiarch Nestorius; but he had the consolation of seeing a happy reconciliation effected between St. Cyril and the party of John of Antioch. His chief counselor was the sub-deacon Leo, who became his successor. 280. Leo I., A. D. 440-461, on account of his eminent learning, sanctity and great achievements, is called the Great. It was this great Pontiff who, by his confidence in God and noble and courageous conduct, in 452, saved Rome from being pillaged by the Huns under "the Scourge of God," Attila, and again, in 45V, he saved the city from destruction by the awe which he inspired in the fierce Genseric, king of the Vandals. Rejecting the false Council of Ephesus (Robber-Synod), Leo in 451 summoned the General Council of Chalce- don, over which he presided by his legates and in which his Dogmatic Epistle was accepted as the expression of true Catholic faith. He strongly maintained Papal supremacy against arrogant and aspiring bishops, and was zealous everywhere for the interests of the faith and Church discipline. 281. After the eventful and glorious Pontificate of Leo the Great, succeeded Popes Hilary, A. D. 461-468, and Simplicius, A. D. 468- 483, both of whom were worthy of their illustrious predecessor. All the acts of their pontificates tended to check the spread of the Monophysite heresy in the East, to keep in the episcopal sees zealous and able prelates, and to enforce the strict observance of the sacred canons with regard to the appointment of bishops. Pope Hilary was the founder of the Vatican library. He strongly asserted the rights of the Church against the Emperor Anthemius. In like manner, Simplicius, with apostolic energy, resisted the usurper Basiliscus in his endeavors to uphold the Eutychian heresy. Simplicius witnessed, the downfall'of the Western Empire in 476. 282. During the pontificate of Felix III., A. D. 483-492, began the Acacian schism, the author of which, Acacius, patriarch of Con- stantinople, was excommunicated by this Pontiff at the Roman Synod of 484. Gelasius L, A. D. 492-496, was a man of rare piety and great experience. He held a Council of seventy bishops at Rome in 494, which determined: 1. The canon of the Sacred Scriptures of both the Old and the New Testament ; 2. The number of Ecumenical Councils, which was set at four — Nice, Ephesus, Constantinople and Chalcedon ; and 3. A list of the Fathers and their books which could be lawfully read, as also a catalogue of forbidden and apochryphal POPES OF THE SIXTH CENTURY. 237 books. To abolish the lascivious feast of the Lupercalia, Gelasius introduced in its stead the festival of the Purification. He also revised the canon of the Mass and enjoined communion under both kinds in opposition to the Manicheans, who condemned the use of wine in the Holy Sacrifice. The Sacramentary which bears his name is by some ascribed to Leo I. the Great. 283. To put an end to the Eastern schism, Pope Anastasius II., A. D. 496-498, sent legates to Constantinople with letters to the emperor, in which he insisted upon the removal of the name of Acacius from the dyptichs, and the recognition of the Council of Chalcedon, yet, declaring valid the Sacraments conferred by that schismatic. This concession — the validity of the Sacraments administered by schismatics — was the cause of Anastasius being unjustly suspected of complicity with the Monophysites, a charge, as is readily perceived, without foundation. SECTION LXXIX. THE POPES OF THE SIXTH CENTURY TO THE ACCES- SION OP GREGORY THE GREAT, A. D. 560. Symmachus— Laurentius Antipope — Synodus Palmaris — Hormisdas— Formu- la of Hormisdas— John I. — His Imprisonment — Felix IV. — Canons of Orange— Boniface II. — Dioscorus Antipope— Agapetus — Anthimus of Constantinople Deposed by the Pope — Silverius — His Banishment — In- trusion of Vigilius — Vigilius Lawfully Elected — His Attitude toward the Monophysite Heresy — Pelagius I. — John III. — Benedict I. — Papal Elec- tion — Imperial Interposition. 284. Pope Symmachus, A. D., 498-514, successor of Anastasius II., was opposed by Laurentius, whom the Senator Festus, an agent of the Eastern Emperor, had appointed in the hope that he would approve the imperial Henoticon. This schism was the cause of violent quarrels and even bloodshed. King Theodoric, at the recommendation of his prime minister Cassiodorus, decided in favor of the lawful Pope Symmachus on the ground that he was first elected and chosen by a large majority. To prevent the recurrence of a schism, Symmachus convoked a Council in 499, which passed several canons regulating the manner of Papal elections. Soon after, the schism was renewed, the partisans of the antipope falsely accusing Symmachus of the gravest crimes. But he was acquitted by the Council, commonly called " Syn- odus Palmaris," which, with his consent, was convoked by Theodoric in 501, and to which he voluntarily submitted his cause, though the assembled bishops had declared that the Pope could not be judged by his inferiors. Symmachus declared the Monophysite Emperor Anasta- sius excommunicated for his hostile attitude towards the Church and the orthodox bishops. 238 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 285. Pope Hormisdas governed the Church nine years, A. D. 514- 523. The memorable event of his pontificate was the healing of what is known as the Acacian schism, after it had lasted thirty-five years, from A. D. 484 to A. D. 519. Peace and communion were restored between the two churches by the acceptance of a profession of faith — commonly called the " Formula of Pope Hormisdas " — which was signed by the emperor, the patriarch of Constantinople and the East- ern bishops. 286. John I., A. D. 523-525, at the request of King Theodoric undertook a mission to Constantinople to obtain from the Emperor Justin religious liberty for the Arians and the restoration of their churches. The great veneration shown to the first Pope who had visited Constantinople, was an evidence of the high estimation in which the Bishop of Rome was then held even by the Eastern Church. Theodoric, displeased with the issue of the embassy, had the Pope cast into prison, where he died May 27, A. D. 526. At the urgent demand of Theodoric, the Roman clergy consented to elect Felix IV., A. D. 526-530, on condition, however, that the ancient freedom of Papal election should be thenceforward inviolable. To this Pope are ascribed the twenty-five canons adopted by the second Council of .Orange, A. D. 524, against the Semi-Pelagians. 287. The election of Boniface II., A. D. 530-532, was disputed by one Dioscorus ; but the Church was saved from schism by the death of the antipope a few weeks afterwards. At a Synod held at Rome, Boniface appointed his own successor in the person of the Deacon Yigilius, but annulled the act in a subsequent Council. Of his successor, John II., A. D. 532-535, but little is known. Pope Agapetus, A. D. 535-536, was obliged by the Gothic King Theodotus to undertake an embassy to Constantinople in order to divert the Emperor Justinian from his expedition into Italy. It was on this occasion that Agapetus, in spite of the Emperor and Empress, refused to approve the translation of Anthimus, the Monophysite bishop of Trapezunt, to the see of Con; stantinople ; in his stead Mennas was appointed and consecrated by the Pope. Agapetus died at Constantinople ; his body was taken to Rome. 288. The history of the two succeeding Pontiffs is, as yet, not fully cleared up, and some documents incriminating Vigilius are ad- mitted to be supposititious. Through the influence of Theodatus, king of the Goths, Silverius was promoted to the Papacy, A. D. 536- 540. At the instigation of the violent and crafty Empress Theodora, this holy Pontiff, because he peremptorily refused to reinstate Anthi- mus, was falsely accused of a treacherous understanding with the POPES OF THE SIXTH CENTURY. Goths, and by her orders, Belisarius, who had just taken Rome, sent Silveriiis into exile, A. D. 538. At the command of the Empress, the deacon Vigilius, the apocrisiarius, or papal envoy, at Constantinople, who had promised to restore Anthimus and reject the Council of Chalcedon, was proclaimed Pope. For over two years, Vigilius usurped the place of Silverius, till A. D. 540, when the latter died of hunger or, according to another account, was murdered. 289. By the ratification of the Roman Church, Vigilius became lawful Pope, A. D. 540-555, and atoned for his unlawful occupancy of the papal chair, by the fidelity with which he fulfilled its duties. He renewed the excommunication of the Eutychians, expressed his firm adherence to the four General Councils and the Doctrinal Letter of Pope Leo, and courageously resisted the wicked endeavors of Theo. dora. At the invitation of Justinian, Vigilius in 546, repaired to Con- stantinople, where he was forcibly retained, from A. D. 54*7 to A. D. 554. He died in Syracuse on his way to Italy. The course adopted by this Pope in the Monophysite heresy and with regard to the *' Three Chapters," is related in the respective sections. Another account re- gards the intrusion and conduct of Vigilius before his elevation a mere fabrication of his schismatical enemies; it endeavors to show that Silverius was exiled solely for political reasons, and that Vigilius was not elected Pope until after the death of Silverius. It is to be noted that Cassiodorus and other trustworthy contemporary writers do not mention the usurpation and subsequent repentance of Vigilius at all; and that the letter, which that Pope is said to have written in 538, at the request of the Empress Theodora to the heads gf the Monophysites, and in which their teaching is approved, is of very doubtful authenticity. 290. On the extinction of the Gothic power in Italy, A. D. 553, the Emperor Justinian assumed the right of confirming the election of a new Pope, and required the payment of a certain tax to the im- perial court, a pretension which the Gothic kings had enforced on various papal elections. Thus, Pelagius L, A. D. 555-560, John III., A. D. 560-573, and Benedict I., A. D. 5*74-578, were successively con- firmed by Justinian and his successors. The confirmation was not waited for on the election of Pelagius II., A. D. 578-590, it being im- possible to obtain it, on account of the siege of Rome by the Lom- bards. The tax was afterward remitted by Constantine Pogonatus, in 680, who also, in 684, completely restored the ancient freedom of papal election. 291. Pelagius I. confirmed the approbation of the Fifth General Council by his predecessor, and succeeded in appeasing the Western 240 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. bishops, those of Northern Italy excepted, on the subject of the "Three Chapters;" whicli had been condemned by that Council. In the reign of John III., occurred the invasion of Italy by the Lombards under Alboin, in 568. The ravages of these barbarians brought great dis- tress upon the country and the Church. Pope John III. and his suc- cessors vainly endeavored to reconcile with the Church the Venetian and Istrian bishops, who had obstinately refused to accept the Fifth Council and the condemnation of the " Three Chapters." 292. With just pride may we regard the glorious line of the Roman Pontiffs of the first six centuries. Out of the sixty-three Popes, who preceded St. Gregory I., the greater number sealed their faith with their blood, and all, a few only excepted, are honored as Saints by the Church. But even these few that have not been enrolled among the Saints, have none the less been eminent for the purity of their lives and for their zeal and constancy in defending the ortho- dox Faith. SECTION LXXX. GREGORY I. THE GREAT THE POPES TO THE CLOSE OF THE SEVENTH CENTURY. Pontificate of Gregory the Great — John the Faster — Universal Patriarch — Patrimony of St. Peter— Beginning of Temporal Power of the Popes — Successors of Gregory — Pantheon — Pope Honorius — His Apostolic Zeal — Successors of Honorius — Pope St. Martin I. — His Martyrdom— Pope Vitalian. 293. The pontificate of Gregory I. the Great, A. D. 590-604, is one of the most illustrious in the history of the Church. With inde- fatigable zeal Gregory labored in converting or regaining heretics or schismatics, in reforming monasteries, and in restoring and enforcing everywhere ecclesiastical discipline. To the labors of Augustine and his monks sent by this Pope, England owes her conversion to Chris- tianity. The conversion of the Arian Lombards, as well as the preservation of many in the Catholic faith, during those critical times, is to a great extent due to St. Gregory. In Africa, he put down the Donatists and, in Constantinople, he energetically opposed the pretensions of the patriarch John the Faster to the title of "Ecu- menical, or Universal Patriarch," assuming for himself the title of " servus servorum Dei," or " Servant of the Servants of God," which, ever since, has been used by the Roman Pontiffs. Gregory, in rejecting for himself the more ambitious title, did so, not because he denied his having the Supremacy of spiritual jurisdiction over the whole Church, including his brethren in the episcopate, but because ORE GORY THE GREAT. 241 of the meaning which might be attributed to it, namely, that of being, strictly speaking, the one^ or sole bishop. 294. The Roman Church in these times possessed extensive estates, called the " Patrimony of St. Peter," in Africa, Gaul, Sicily, Corsica, Dalmatia, and all over Italy, by means of which the clergy, the monasteries, and the indigent classes were supported. Each of these estates was entrusted to a distinct administrator called " Rector," or " Defender." Property in these ages brought with it dominion over the occupants of the soil, whence the defenders, or agents, of the Church of Rome possessed a civil and even criminal jurisdiction over their tenants. The heedless negligence of the Eastern Emperors and the public danger forced the Popes to assume the greater part of even the civil administration. Thus we find Gregory adopting measures for the protection of the Romans against the Lombards, and, in several instances, directing military movements for the defence of various parts of Italy. He afterwards negotiated and made peace with the Lombards, which shows that the position of the Pope was almost equivalent to that of an independent prince. Although the Bishop of Rome was not as yet a temporal sovereign, still his spiritual power was surrounded with a secular influence so great that he had almost the rank of a prince. And cheerfully did the people obey the Pope, whom they regarded as their common father and protector. 295. The glorious pontificate of Gregory the Great was followed by the brief reigns of Sabinianus, A. D. 604-605, and Boniface III., A. D. 606. Boniface III. obtained from the Emperor Phocas, A. D. 602-610, a decree acknowledging the Roman Church the " Head of all the churches," and forbidding the bishops of Constantinople to usurp the title of "Universal Patriarch." The assertion, that from this epoch dates the Papal Supremacy, is too absurd to need refuta- tion. Boniface IV., A. D. 607-614, obtained the grant of the famous Pantheon, which he dedicated to divine worship under the invocation of the Blessed Virgin and all the holy martyrs. St. Deusdedit, A. D. 615-618, is celebrated particularly for his love for the poor. His successor Boniface V, A. D. 619-625, evinced great zeal, especially for the Anglo-Saxon Church. 296. The pious and peaceable Honorius, A. D. 625-638, likewise manifested great zeal in spreading and confirming the faith in the British Isles. He had the happiness of seeing the conversion of Edwin, king of the Northumbrians ; he sent into Britain St. Birinus, who baptized Cynegils, king of the West-Saxons ; he founded the see of Dorchester, and induced the Irish and Scotch to conform to the 242 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. Roman usage of celebrating Easter. The same Pontiff also succeeded in extinguishing the schism which had for seventy years divided the churches of Istria on the question of the " Three Chapters." Ilono- rius has been charged with having outraged the Catholic faith in his two letters to the patriarch Sergius, which, though entirely orthodox, were serviceable to the cause of heresy. They drew censure on his memory, as if he were responsible for an error which he did not at first suspect and instantly condemn. But it must be remembered that these letters were not issued ex cathedra., as they were not addressed to the Church at large ; neither do they teach any doctrine whatever as obligatory on all Catholics. The succeeding Popes, Severinus, A. D. 639, John IV., A. D. 640-642, Theodore, A. D. 642-649, and St. Martin I., A. D. 649-655, formally condemned the Monothelites and the two imperial edicts, called Ecthesis and Typos, which forbade all controversy on the subject of Two Wills in Christ. For this opposi- tion. Pope Martin, by order of the Emperor Constans II., was forcibly carried to Constantinople, and, after many sufferings, died a martyr in exile. To prevent the intrusion of a Monothelite into the Papal office, the Romans, after the banishment of St. Martin and with his consent, chose Eugenius I. to govern the Church, A. D. 655-657. Pope Vitalian, A. D. 65*7-672, appointed the pious and learned monks Theodore of Tarsus, and Adrian an African, respectively archbishop and abbot of Canterbury. The school of Canterbury which they founded for the education of the clergy, subsequently became famous for learning. Nothing of importance is to be related either of Pope St. Adeodatus, A. D. 672-676, or of Pope Donus, A. D. 676-678. 297. Under Pope St. Agatho, A. D. 678-681, St. Wilfrid, bishop of York, came to Rome for redress against his persecutor, king Egfrid of Northumbria. Agatho, by his legates, presided over the Sixth Gen- eral Council, convened in 680 against the Monothelite heresy, which he confuted in a learned Dogmatic Epistle. This Council, which accepted Agatho's epistle as a rule of faith, was confirmed by his successor, St. Leo II., A. D. 682-684, who, as mentioned elsewhere, also translated its acts into Latin. I BAPTISM, CO:NFIRkATION, AND PE NANCE. 243 SECTION LXXXI. SACRAMENTS OF BAPTISM, CONFIRMATION, AND PENANCE. Baptism — Ceremonies connected with this Sacrament — Confirmation — Es- sential Kite— Sacrament of Penance — Teaching and Testimonies of the Fathers— Necessity of Confession — Office of Penitentiary Priest abolished — Canonical Epistles and Penitentials. 298. In conformity with the teaching of the Apostles, the Fath- ers of this epoch invariably call Baptism the " Sacrament of Faith," " lUununation," " Second Birth," " Regeneration," " Holy Bath," " God's Work," or " Seal and Burial, and Planting in Christ." The principal ceremonies connected with the administration of this sacra- ment, which are all taken from the Holy Scriptures, or from some of the great truths of Christ's religion, were these: 1. Imposition of hands upon the head of the candidate; 2. Touching of the ears and nostrils accompanied by the word " Ephpheta;" 3. Use of blessed salt, which was administered as an emblem of true wisdom and of spiritual things; 4. Renunciation of Satan and his works; 5. Exorcism, whereby, as St. Augustine remarks, "the inimical power of Satan, who, hitherto has had the unbeliever in his power, is broken;" 6. Signing with the sign of the cross, and anointing with holy oil and chrism; 7. Profession of faith in the Blessed Trinity; 8. Clothing of the baptized in a white garment, as an emblem of innocence and of the spotless purity with which the soul of the baptized is adorned. The white garments were worn by the newly baptized from Easter until the Sun- day after, which was from this circumstance called "Dominica in Albis," Sunday in white, Whitsuntide; 8. Lastly, lighted tapers, which were placed in the hands of the baptized, or of his sponsor, as an emblem of the light of good example as well as of the illuminating grace conferred by this sacrament. 299. Confirmation was always distinguished from Baptism and regarded as a distinct sacrament. In the preceding epoch. Confirma- tion, as a rule, immediately succeeded Baptism; in this epoch, how- ever, because priests were permitted to baptize more frequently than formerly, the two sacraments were separated. At an early period, the newly baptized was presented to the bishop, and by the imposi- tion of hands and the anointment with chrism, received the Holy Spirit to direct and support him in combat with his spiritual enemies. »300. The praxis and regulations of the Church regarding the ad- ministration of the sacrament of Penance, in general, remained the Bame as in the preceding epoch. The Fathers of this epoch are unan- imous in distinctly asserting: 1. The priestly power of binding and 244 EISTOBT OF THE CHURCH. loosing; and 2. The necessity of a detailed confession of sins on the part of the penitent. St. Ambrose claims the exercise of this power to be the exclusive prerogative of the priesthood, and St. Chrysostom calls it a superhuman power. To exercise this twofold jurisdiction — of forgiving and of retaining sins— it was necessary to learn the irregu- larities and disposition of the penitent; and from the earliest ages, we behold the faithful Christian at the feet of the confessor, acknowl- edging in public, or in private, the nature and number of his trans- gressions. 301. " Go confidently to the priest," St. Gregory of Nyssa writes, " and lay open to him the secrets of thy heart and the depths of thy soul, as thou wouldst expose the wounds of thy body to a physician. Have no false shame; thy honor will be sacred in his keeping the secret, and thy soul's health secured." " How can you expect your sins to be forgiven," asks St. Chrysostom, " never having confessed them?" . . . It is not enough to call ourselves sinners in general: we must recall our sins and specify them one by one." In reply to the objection of heretics, that God alone can forgive sins. Bishop Pacianus of Barcelona, about A. D. 370, says: " It is true that God alone can forgive sins; but what God performs through his priest, he performs by His power. Hence, whether we baptize, or admonish to penance, or absolve the penitent, we do it by the power of Christ." And St. Ambrose: "When our Lord said: ^Receive ye the Holy Ghost, whose sins ye remit, they are remitted unto him,' He showed it was by the Holy Ghost that sins are forgiven Men (priests) remit sins in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost, not in their o.wn name." 302. Lesser, or venial sins, of daily commission neither excluded from communion nor were necessarily to be confessed; prayer, espec- ially the recital of the Lord's Prayer, and works of penance were be- lieved to be sufficient means for obtaining remission of such sins. " This prayer (Lord's Prayer)," says St. Augustine, " wholly blots out the lesser and daily sins." Graver crimes required a detailed con- fession to be made either in private or in public to the bishop, or the penitentiary priest. Public confession was never required, except when the sins were public and demanded a public reparation; public confession of secret sins was permitted and counselled only in certain cases as a penance, and when no inconvenience or scandal was to be apprehended. When, in the year 396, the public confession of a distinguished matron became the occasion of a great scandal, N.ectarius, patriarch of Constantinople, abolished the office of the penitentiary priest. From that time, public confession fell into nOL T B UGEARIST. 345 disuse in the East, and later on, also, in the West; but private, or auricular, confession, which had been practiced from the time of the Apostles, remained the same. No person, however great in the world, was exempt from the obligation and the common rules of doing penance. The example of Emperor Theodosius the Great and of Fabiola, one of the wealthiest and most illustrious ladies in Rome, and a contemporary ot St. Jerome, who also wrote a memoir of her in a touching letter to Oceanus, are sufficient evidences of the rigor, as well as the impartiality, of the ancient Church. 303. To cause the sacrament of Penance to be administered with becoming dignity and uniformity, distinguished prelates of both the Eastern and the Western Church issued Canonical Epistles giving instruction on the subject. Such Canonical Epistles and Instructions were published in the East by St. Basil, St. Gregory of Nyssa, Am- philochius of Iconium, and St. Athanasius and his successors, Timotheus, Theophilus, and St. Cyril of Alexandria; in the West by St. Ambrose and Pacianus of Barcelona. Still later, Penitentials — penance books — were compiled for the instruction and guidance of priests. The most celebrated of the Penitentials published in the West, is the " Pcenitentiale Romanum " ; in England, St. Theodore of Canterbury, Archbishop Egbert of York, and Venerable Bede, published useful Penitentials for the same purpose. SECTION LXXXII. HOLY EUCHARIST. Real Presence — Teaching of the Fathers — Frequent Communion — Under Both Kinds — Pope Gelasins— Sacrifice of the Mass — Testimonies of the Fath- ers—Belief of the Ancient Church — Liturgies of the Eastern Church — Roman Liturgy— Ambrosian and Mozarabic Liturgies. 304. No doctrine of the Christian religion is affirmed with greater unanimity by the ancient Church, than the truth of the Real Presence of Our Lord in the Eucharist and of the Eucharistic sacrifice. When speaking of this sacrament, the Fathers of this epoch use language that leaves no room for doubt. St. Cyril of Jerusalem thus addressed the faithful: "Contemplate, therefore, the bread and wine not as bare elements; for they are, according to the Lord's declaration, the Body and Blood of Christ; though your senses rebel against this, let your faith be your guide. Judge not the matter from taste, but from faith be fully assured, without misgivings, that thou hast been vouch- safed the Body and Blood of Christ." " Be fully persuaded, that what seems bread, is not bread, though bread by taste, but the Body of Christ; and that what seems wine, is not wine, though the taste will have it so, but the Blood of Christ." 246 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 305. St. Augustine is no less positive in affirming the same truth : " You ought to know what you have received, and what you are going to receive, and what you ought to receive daily. The bread which you behold on the altar, sanctified by the word of God, is the Body of Christ; the chalice, or rather what it contains, sanctified by the word of God, is the Blood of Christ." St. Maruthas, bishop of Tagrit, expresses the belief of the Syrian Church regarding this doctrine in these terms: "If Christ had not instituted the Blessed Sacrament, the faithful of after-times would have been deprived of the commun- ion of His Body and Blood. But now so often as we approach the Body and Blood of Christ, and receive them upon our hands, we believe that we embrace His Body, and are made of His flesh and His bones, as it is written. For, Christ did not call it a type, nor a symbol; but said truly: This is my Body and this is my Blood." Another Syrian writer, Barsalibaeus, has the following: "As Jesus himself appeared to be a man, and was God, so do these things appear to be bread and wine, but are really the Body and Blood of Christ. So, also, when the Holy Ghost descends upon the altar, He changes the bread and wine, and makes them the Body and Blood of the Word " (Transubstan- tiation). 306. To communicate daily, or as often, at least, as they assisted at the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass, was a practice introduced by the fervor of the first converts,and considered a duty by the early Christ- ians. " Let the faithful," St. Ambrose writes, " hear Mass daily and receive Holy Communion every Sunday; during the season of Lent they should also hear Mass daily, and, if possible, also communi- cate." For several centuries, those who neglected Holy Communion for three successive Sundays, were declared excommunicated. But with the fervor of the Christians, the devotion to the Holy Eucharist insensibly declined; frequency of communion was left to the piety of each individual, and the precept was finally, by the Council of Agde in Gaul, A. D. 506, confined to the three great festivals of Christmas, Easter, and Pentecost. 30V. Holy Communion, as a rule, was received under both kinds, especially when administered in public. However, it was left free, even in this epoch, to receive under one kind or both. The manner of administering the Sacraments is a matter of discipline, and is con- sequently subject to the discretionary power of the Church, which regulates it according to circumstances, in various places or at various periods. Hence, in order to discover the Manicheans, who regarded wine as a production of the evil Spirit, Pope Gelasius ordered that all tlie faithful should receive Communion under both kinds. The HOLT EUCHARIST. 2^11 Fathers of this epoch state the custom of Bishops sending the Blessed Eucharist one to another, of deacons carrying it to the sick, and of hermits taking it with them and keeping it in their cells ; in all these circumstances, it was generally received under one kind only. 308. Whenever the early Fathers and Christian writers mention the Eucharistic Sacrifice, the most lofty epithets display their senti- ments. They invariably call it an " awful, august, and tremendous " sacrifice. It is to them " the celebration of the most sacred mystery, the celestial sacrifice, the oblation of a saving victim, of a spotless victim, born of the Virgin Mother; the sacrifice of propitiation for tlie sins of men, and the renewal of the Passion and Death of Christ." To assist at this sacrifice daily, they considered a laudable and whole- some practice ; to be present at it every Sunday and holiday, they declareed a duty for every Christian. 309. The belief of the ancient Church and the teaching of the early Fathers regarding the Eucharistic Sacrifice may be expressed in the following : 1, The Victim offered in the Holy Eucharist they affirm, in express terms, to be the Body and Blood of Christ. 2, The sacrifice of the Holy Eucharist they assert not to be distinct from, but identically the same with that offered on the Cross. 3, The offer- ing of this holy sacrifice they declare to be an especial oftice, com- mitted by Christ to the Apostles and their successors. 4, Of all the resources which religion offers for obtaining God's mercy and grace, they declare the Eucharistic Sacrifice to be the most efficacious; its influence is not confined to the living, but it also releases from their bonds the souls of the dead. 310. In the celebration of the Mass, different rites, or formulas, called Liturgies, were followed by different churches. But amid some accidental variations, the more important parts, the invocation or collect, the consecration, the breaking of the sacred host, and the communion, which are ascribed to the Apostles, occur in all the an- cient Liturgies and were observed with scrupulous fidelity. The principal differences between the various Liturgies are in the i:>repara- tory part of the sacrifice: in the Canon, besides the parts mentioned, they all contain the Preface, the Commemoration of the living and the dead, and the Lord's Prayer. 311. Of the Eastern Liturgies, of which several are named after some Apostle, the most noted are: 1. The Liturgy, contained in the eighth book of the Apostolic Constitutions. It affects to have been the joint work of the Apostles, like the Creed, it is called after them, and was probably in general use during the first four centuries. Its con- secration-prayer is called the Constitution of St. James the Great. 2. 248 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. The Liturgy of St. James, first bishop of Jerusalem, used in the Church of Jerusalem; 3. The Antiochian Liturgy, which is ascribed to St. Clement, by some to St. James the Apostle; 4. The Alexandrian Liturgy is attributed to St. Mark, but also called after St. Cyril, from whom it received its complete form; 5. The Liturgies of St. Chrysos- tom and St. Basil have to-day almost undisturbed sway in the Eastern Churches, and are used by. Catholics and Schismatics alike. 312. Of the Liturgies of .the Western or Latin Church, the Roman is the oldest and most celebrated; its Canon has remained unaltered since the sixth century. The Roman Sacramentary, which at an early date received the name of Missal, was revised by Popes Gelasius and Gregory the Great. Of the other Liturgies of the Western Church, the Ambrosian and Mozarabic are mentioned as the most remarkable ; the former is peculiar to the Church of Milan, and is attributed to the Apostle St. Barnabus, but called after St. Ambrose, by whom it was revised. The Mozarabic, so called from its being adopted by the mixed population of the Goths and Arabs in Spain, is confined to the city of Toledo. Some ascribe it to St. Isidore of Seville. As for the so-called Galilean and Lyonese Liturgies, they are now things of the past, having been superseded by the Roman Liturgy. SECTION LXXXIII. EREMITICAL AND MONASTIC LIFE. Origin of Monastic State — Three Classes of Monastics — Origin of Anchorites —St. Paul the Hermit — Origin of Ccnobites — St. Anthony — St. Ammonius ^St. Pachomius — SS. Macarii — St. Hilarion — St. Basil — Basilians — Stylites — St. Simeon — Founders of Monasteries in the West — Armagh, Bangor and Luxeuil— St. Benedict — Benedictine Rule — Propagation of the Benedictine Order — Social Results — Benedictine Families. 313. In the East. The Monastic state, which aims at a higher Christian perfection in the observance of the evangelical counsels, was developed in the Church only by slow degrees. History distin- guishes three grades of monastic life, or rather, three classes of monas^rics ; viz.. Ascetics, Anchorites or Hermits, and Cenobites or Monks. In the very first ages of the Church, there were and could be as yet no regularly constituted cloisters, in the strict sense of the word, yet numerous ascetics (continentes,) were found, who, living in the heart of their families, and without quitting the world, led a life of virginity or celibacy, and devoted themselves to works of piety and penance. 314. The origin of the Christian Anchorites is referred to the time of the Decian persecution. Many of the Christians who had then fled into the deserts to escape persecution and the dangers of EREMITICAL AND MONASTIC LIFE. 249 the world, did not return after the storm had subsided, but voluntarily remained, leading a life of contemplation, devoted to God and the salvation of their immortal souls. These solitaries, or hermits, soon became very numerous, especially in Egypt. Amongst the earliest was St. Paul of Thebes, who fled during the Decian persecution into the desert of the Thebais, and lived there in a cave to the great age of one hundred and thirteen, practising austere penance and occupied in prayer and contemplation. This holy anchorite, called "the Father of ermits," died A. T>. 340. His life was written by St. Jerome. 315. From the eremetical life developed the cenobitical and monas- tic institution. The name " cenobite," or monk, was given to all who lived in conventual seclusion under the direction of a superior, whilst that of "hermit" was reserved for solitaries. The true founder of the cenobitical life was St. Anthony. Born in Egypt of rich and virtuous parents, A. D. 251, he, after dividing all his possessions among the poor, retired into the desert, where he lived for twenty years the life of a hermit. The fame of his miracles, and still more the power of his w^ords and example, drew about him many followers, who, under his guidance, desired to devote themselves to this new life. He became the director of a number of anchorites who dwelt in detached cells, forming a community called a " Laura." This venerable patriarch of the Cenobites died A. D. 356, at the age of one hundred and five. There are extant seven authentic letters and an " Exhortation to the Monks" by St. Anthony. His life was written by St. Anthanasius. 316. This new manner of life, called by the ancients an "angel- ical life," and a "higher philosophy," found many admirers and followers. St. Ammonius, the friend of St. Anthony, established similar communities in the Nitrian deserts in Upper Egypt, where 5000 cenobites soon assembled under his direction. St. Pachomius, a disciple of the holy hermit Palemon, was the first who drew up a Rule for monks, and the founder of the first monasteries. The pious recluses living under his direction went by the name of monks, that is, solitaries, and their secluded habitations were denominated monas- teries, or mansions of the solitaries. About the year 340, he founded a monastery on the island of Tabennae in the Nile, in which his monks lived under the same roof and after the same Rule. His disciples becoming very numerous, he founded eight other monasteries — seven for men, and one, under the direction of his sister, for women — all recognizing a common superior, called Abbot or Archimandrite. At his death, in 348, the order founded by him numbered 7,000 monks, and in the fifth century it counted as many as 50,000. The Rule of St. Pachomius was translated into Latin by St. Jerome. In Upper 250 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. Egypt the two Macarii, the elder and the younger, founded monaster- ies in the desert of Scete ; and near Arsinoe, St. Serapion was superior over ten thousand monks. 317. From Egypt, monastic life rapidly spread over Palestine, Arabia, Syria, Mesopotamia, Persia, and Asia Minor. St. Hilarion, a disciple of St. Anthony, and St. Basil the Great, were founders of numerous monasteries, the former in Palestine, and the latter in Pontus and Cappadocia. The order founded by St. Basil spread rapidly throughout the East where his Rule became the basis of all other monastic institutions. Before the death of its founder, it count- ed over eighty thousand monks and is to this day the principal order in the Greek and Eastern Churches. The celebrated Laura of St. Sabas (died A. D. 532), a short distance from Jerusalem, contained over a thousand monks, and was enlarged in the sixth century by the addi- tion of the so-called New Laura. Eustathius, bishop of Sebaste, pro- pagated the monastic life about the same time in Armenia. In less than half a century all the deserts, from the borders of Lybia to the Caspian Sea, were peopled by monks and hermits. The ancient mon- asteries consisted not of single buildings, but frequently comprised whole villages and cities, numbering the monks by thousands. About the year 372, there were over one hundred thousand monks in- Egypt alone. 318. Another class of Anchorites were the Stylites, or solitaries, who lived on the tops of columns or pillars. The originator of this extraordinary mode of Christian asceticism, was St. Simeon Stylites. He spent thirty years on the top of a pillar near Antioch, where he lead a most austere life, preaching with truly apostolic power and wonderful success, to the populous nomadic tribes that flocked to him from the vast Syrian desert, Arabia, and even Persia. He died, A. D. 459. His example was followed by Daniel, a priest of Constanti- nople, and St. Simeon the Younger. 319. Communities and cloisters of women were likewise founded at a very early period. The sister of St. Anthony presided over the lirst female community ; and St. Pachomius and St. Basil each drew up a Rule for the cloisters which their own sisters governed. These pious female recluses were called " nuns," the Egyptian name for virgin. They, too, became very numerous ; several cloisters contained as many as 250 holy virgins (Virgines Deo sacrae, Sanctimoniales) under the direction of a superioress, called " Ammas," that is, mother. 320. In the West. From the East, monastic life was transplanted to the "West, where it was flrst made known by St. Athanasius, when EREMITICAL AND MONASTIC LIFE. 251 he came to Rome to invoke the protection of Pope Julius, A. D. 340. Monastic establishments were founded by St. Eusebius of Vercelli and St. Ambrose in Italy; by St. Martin of Tours, St. Honoratus, and Cassianus in Gaul; by St. Augustine in Africa; and by St. Patrick in Ireland. The Irish monasteries of Armagh, Bangor, and Clonard subsequently became famous centres of learning. St. Columbanus, a monk of Bangor, founded the monasteries of Luxeuil in Burgundy, and Bobbio in Italy. 321. But monasticism owes its existence and propagation in the West principally to St. Benedict. Born in 480 at Nursia in Umbria, of noble parentage, Benedict, at the age of fourteen, withdrew into the wilds of Subiaco, in the Apennines. Here he lived for three years in a deep and almost inaccessible cavern. His reputation for sanctity and his miracles soon gathered a number of disciples around him, for whom he erected twelve monasteries. In 529, he retired with a few monks to Monte Cassino, where, on the site of an ancient temple of Apollo, he founded a monastery, which became the glorious monastic centre of the West. Besides, several other monasteries were founded by St. Benedict; amongst these, one for women, which he placed un- der the direction of his sister St. Scholastica. St. Benedict, who is called the patriarch of the Western monks, died, A. D. 543. 322. The Rule of St. Benedict, which very appropriately has been called a " Summary of the Christian Religion," is a masterpiece of enlightened wisdom and prudence. Its precepts are few and simple. In seventy-three chapters, it contains a collection of regulations in- tended to train men in detachment from the world, and in the acqui- sition of Christian perfection, through the practice of the evangelical counsels. In it we find the duties and observances of the monastic life clearly defined. The evils, arising from the custom of monks con- tinually passing from one convent to another, are prevented by the " vow of stability " binding each member to remain always in the same community. The Benedictine Rule gradually superseded all other Rules in the West, as for example the Irish Rule of St. Colum- ban, that of St. Martin in France, and those of SS. Fructuosus, Csesarius and Isidore in Spain. In the ninth century, it was formally adopted throughout the dominions of Charlemagne, and later on, it was received in all the Cathedral monasteries of England. 323. The order founded by St. Benedict spread rapidly and widely. It was established in Sicily by St. Placidus, in Gaul by St. Maurus, both disciples of St. Benedict ; in Britain by St. Augustine, and in Germany by St. Boniface. Xo other Religious Order can 252 HISTORY OF THE CIIURVH. claim to have done so much for the conversion and civilization of the world. The monks planted Christianity in England, Friesland and Germany; and the Scandinavian North received with the true faith its first monasteries as well. For centuries the Benedictines^ were the principal teachers of youth in all branches of science and art. 324. Out of this order, rose, in the process of time, various new monastic families, such as the orders or congregations of Cluny, the Camaldolensians, Yallombrosians, Cistercians, Carthusians, Trappists, besides a multitude of institutes for women. From it also arose the famous congregation of St. Maur, so well known for its biblical, pat- ristical, and historical works, and for its learned members. In the height of its prosperity the Order counted thirty-seven thousand monasteries, from which, it is stated, there have come forth four thousand bishops, sixteen hundred archbishops, two hundred cardi- nals, twenty-eight popes, and five thousand canonized saints. SECOND PERIOD. Medieval Church History. FROM THE CLOSE OF THE SEVENTH TO THE BEGINXING OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY, OR, FROM A. D. 680 TO A. D. 1500. FIRST EPOCH. FROM THE CLOSE OF THE SEVENTH CENTURY TO THE GREEK SCHISM OR, FROM A. D. 680 TO A. D. 1054. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. Middle Ages— The Church the Parent of Modern Civilization — Increase of Ecclesiastical Power — The Church, however, not Supreme — Dr. Brown- son's Views— Glance at Mediaeval History — Conflict with Civil Authority — Dark Ages — Exaggeration of Certain Writers. 1. The present period, including, what are known as the Middle Ages, was in a special manner the era of the triumph of the Church over barbarism, in the conversion of the Northern nations during the first epoch, and in the revival of religious life and letters during the second. Throughout this period of nearly ten centuries Catholic Christianity w^as the religion of all the Western nations of Europe. The Church became the connecting link between the barbarian world md the old nationalities, and by opening the way for the fusion of the fraces, she became the parent of modern civilization. 2. Everything throughout this long period tended to advance and [consolidate the influence and power of the Church. For the manifold blessings which they had received from the Church, the grateful na- 254 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. tions gradually clothed her, even in temporal matters, with an almost unlimited power. In the midst of the many miseries and calamities which afflicted the Christian nations of Southern Europe during the earlier part of this period, the Roman Pontiffs had become the com- mon refuge of all the unfortunate. For this, the gratitude of the people forced upon the Papacy the temporal sovereignty and gave the Roman Pontiffs their temporal crown. Thus, the Middle Ages show us the Papacy controlling kings and people, not by any usurpa- tion of power, but by a necessary consequence of her mission, and as if by the very logic of events. 3. However, we are not to conclude that the Church during the Middle Ages was in fact, as well as by right, absolutely supreme even over the secular order, and that she had all things her own way. " The assumption," Dr. Brownson writes, " that the Church reigned quietly and peacefully during the Middle Ages, is warranted by no authority and is contradicted by the whole history of the period. A simjile glance at its history will suffice to dissipate the illusion, that the Middle Ages were all the work of the Church, or that she worked throughout them comparatively at her ease. Those ages open with the destruction of the "Western Roman Empire and the permanent' settlement of the Northern barbarians on its ruins. . . . Over the vast extent of the once flourishing, wealthy, and highly civilized and christianized provinces of the Empire, you see nothing but ruined cities, deserted towns and villages ; large tracts of once cultivated land becoming wild, a thin population composed of miserable, trembling slaves, and rude, arrogant, and merciless barba- rian masters. The churches and religious houses have been demol- ished or plundered ; the schools and other institutions of learning, so numerous and so richly endowed under the Empire, have disappeared ; the liberal arts are despised and neglected ; the domestic arts, except a few, are lost or forgotten ; war, pillage, general insecurity, misery, and want have loosened all moral restraints, unchained the passions, and given free scope to .vice and crime ; the clergy are few, poor, and illiterate ; for their conquerors, as subsequently in Ireland, have left them no means of education. . . . The barbarian conquerors, moreover, are not all even nominally Catholic. Many of them are Arians ; more of them are Pagans, still adoring their old Scandina- vian or Teutonic deities, and looking with proud disdain on the Christian's faith and the Christian's worship. . . . Ireland alone, at this period, is a Catholic oasis in the immense desert of heresy and barbaric infidelity." INTBOD UCTOR T REMARKS. 255 4. " Nor was it only at the beginning of the Middle Ages," Dr. Brownson continues, " that the Church found herself in face of a hos- tile world. The hostility continued till the close of the period. It was in the Middle Ages, we must remember, that Mohametanism, breaking forth with wild fanaticism for eight hundred years, devas- tated the fairest and most fertile regions of the earth ; that the Icono- clasts persecuted the Church and sought to prepare it for Islamism ; the Greek schism originated and was consummated ; the Saracens rav- aged the South of Italy and France and established themselves in Spain ; the dissolute Albigenses renewed the heresy of Manes and perpetrated their horrors ; the Beghards, Wicliffites and other secta- ries arose." 5. " During these same ages," to quote Brownson again, "there was scarcely a moment of peace between civil and ecclesiastical pow- er. The civil authorities never ceased to encroach on the spiritual, and the Church was obliged to maintain a constant and severe strug- gle to prevent herself from being swamped, so to speak, by the State. In order to protect society and herself against armed heathenism, Mohametanism, and other barbarism, the Church was obliged to re- vive, or suffer to be revived, in Charlemagne, the Western Roman Empire, before Europe was prepared for it ; and ever after she was but too happy when in his successors she did not find, instead of a pro- tector, a cruel, oppressive, and sacrilegious spoiler. Rarely was there a " Kaiser " of " the Holy Roman Empire," from Charlemagne to Charles the Fifth, that respected the freedom of the Church, that al- lowed her to exercise her spiritual discipline without his interference; that permitted her without restraint to manage her own affairs, or that . 732, Pope Gregory III. sent Boniface the pallium, made him Yicar Apostolic with full 263 HISTOBY OF THE CHURCH. powers to consecrate bishops and erect dioceses, and appointed him superior not only of the German, but also of the Gallic prelates. 25. In 738, Boniface made his third and last pilgrimage to Rome. Returning with increased powers, he proceeded to settle the ecclesi- astical divisions of Germany. Bavaria he divided into the four bish- oprics of Salzburg, Ratisbon, Freisingen, and Passau. In A. D. 741, he founded in Franconia, Hesse, and Thuringia the bishoprics of Eichstadt, Wiirzburg, Buraburg, and Erfurt. The next object of the apostolic archbishop was to insure a permanent supply of missionaries. With this view he erected several monasteries. The most famous among these was that of Fulda, over which he placed his beloved disciple Sturm (or Sturmio), a Bavarian, who had long worked under him in the conversion of the heathen Germans. The abbey of Fulda continued to flourish after the death of its founder, and within the space of a few years contained four hundred monks. Between the years 742 and 746, Boniface held several Synods at which he reformed abuses and established excellent rules for the government of the churches in Germany. The Council of Soissons, A. D. 744, among other things, condemned the heresies of Adalbert and Clemens. 26. In A. D. 747, Pope Zacharias appointed Boniface archbishop of Mentz and primate of Germany. By order of the same Pope, the Saint, in 752, crowned Pepin the Short, king of the Franks. For more than thirty years, Boniface had devoted himself to the sal- vation of Germany. Having completed this great task, he resigned his archiepiscopal see to his disciple Lullus, in order to undertake the conversion of the Frisians. He had already converted several thou- sands of this nation, when the great Apostle of Germany terminated his holy and useful life by a glorious martyrdom. He was attacked and slain, together with his companions, by a band of pagan Frisians, A. D. 755. The remains of the illustrious martyr were deposited in the monastery of Fulda. SECTION III. CONVERSION OP THE SAXONS CHRISTIANITY IN SCANDI- NAVIA. Mission of St. Willehad — Subjugation and Conversion of the Saxons— Foun- dation of Bishoprics — New-Corvey— St. Anscharius, Apostle of the North —St. Anscharius in Denmark — In Sweden — Christianity in Norway — In Iceland — In Greenland — In America. 27. The fate of St. Boniface did not arrest the zeal of his coun- trymen for the conversion of the heathen. The first that added a new people to the Church was St. Willehad, a Northumbrian priest. CONVERSION OF THE SAXONS. 268 who with the permission of his diocesan, sailed, in 772, to the north- ern coast of Germany. Wigmode, the country lying between the rivers Weser and Elbe, became the principal theatre of his zeal. With irresistible eloquence Willehad preached to the barbarians the doctrine of the Gospel, and his labors were rewarded with great suc- cess. When the Saxons made a last effort to throw off the yoke of the Franks, the Christians were the first victims of their fury. The churches erected by Willehad were demolished, five of his associates were massacred, and the missionary himself escaped with difficulty to Friesland. He returned after two years and was ordained first bishop of the Saxons. On the right bank of the Weser he built a cathedral and laid the foundation of the city of Bremen. St. Wille- had died, A. D. 789, leaving St. Willerich for his successor in the see of Bremen. 28. The evangelization of the brave and warlike Saxons, embra- cing the Westphalians, the Eastphalians, and Angles, had been attempted by St. Eligius and the two Anglo-Saxon brothers, Ewald, in the seventh century, and St. Lebwin of Daventer in the eighth, but with hardly any success. The proud Saxons obstinately resisted the introduction of Christianity into their country. Notwithstanding repeated defeats, they continued to make" predatory incursions into the Frankish territory, where they demolished the churches, put many of the Christians and their priests to death, and led others away into captivity. 29. Charlemagne, at last, after an obstinate and dreadful war, which lasted thirty-three years, destroyed their aggressive power and forced them to accept Christianity. Their chiefs, Wittikind and Alboin, in 785, consented to receive baptism. But the indomitable Saxons soon after broke out again into open rebellion, and the war was continued, with some interruptions, till A. D. 804, when Charle- magne succeeded in inducing the people to acknowledge his author- ity and embrace Christianity. Through no motives of ambition or avarice did Charlemagne undertake this destructive war against the Saxons, but for the defence of his oppressed subjects. 30. To secure the continuance of peace and firmly establish Chris- tianity in Saxony, Charlemagne erected, with the approval of the Pope, the eight bishoprics of Halberstadt, Verden, Bremen, Hildes- heim, Paderborn, Minden, Osnabriick, and Miinster. Among those who labored most zealously for the conversion of the Westphalians, was St. Ludger, first bishop of Miinster, who also founded the great monastery of Werden. He died, A. D. 809. Of still greater impor- tance, especially for the diffusion of Christianity in the North, was 264 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. the Benedictine monastery of New-Corvey on the Weser, the cele- brated offshoot of Old-Corvey in Picardy, founded in the year 823 by Abbot Adelhard. Thence apostolic missionaries issued forth into all parts of Germany, penetrating even the Scandinavian kingdoms of the North. 31. Among the most famous members of New-Corvey, was St. Anscharius, " the Apostle of the North." He had been preceded in the preaching of the Gospel in Denmark by St. Wilfrid of York, St. Willibrord, the Apostle of the Frisians, Willehad, first bishop of Bremen, and the archbishop Ebbo of Rheims. The efforts, how- ever, of these men met with but little success. When King Harold of Denmark, who had sought refuge with the Emperor Louis the Mild, and received baptism at Mentz, returned to his country, An- scharius, and Audibert, also a monk of Corvey, accompanied him, A. D. 827. But Harold being again expelled, the missionaries were com- pelled for a time to leave their field of apostolic labors. 32. Anscharius, in 829, accompanied the imperial embassy to Sweden, where he made many converts and built several churches. In 832, Pope Gregory made him archbishop of Hamburg and apos- tolic legate for the North ; to this appointment the See of Bremen was added in 847. Anscharius went repeatedly to Denmark and Swe- den, to deeply plant and propagate the faith in those countries. Like another St. Boniface, Anscharius, with immense toil and privations and amidst many dangers, succeeded in firmly establishing Christian- ity in Denmark and Sweden. After an apostolate of thirty-four years, he died, A. D. 865. Rembert, Unni, and especially Adalbert, the successors of Anscharius in the see of Hamburg, continued the missionary work in Denmark and Sweden. The infant Church in these countries for some time was violently opposed, and its profes- sors persecuted by the heathens. But Christianity at last gained a decisive victory in Denmark, under Canute the Great, A. D. 1014-1030, and Canute the Saint, A. D. 1080-1086; and in Sweden under St. Eric IX., A. D. 1155-1160. Lund became the metropolitan See of Den- mark, and Upsala that of Sweden. 33. The Norwegians obtained the first knowledge of Christianity on their piratical expeditions into Christian lands. The kings, Harold Harfager, or Fair-Haired, A. D. 872-885, Hacon the Good, his son, who had been educated and baptized in Eng- land, made an attempt to introduce Christianity in Norway, but met with much opposition on the part of their heathen subjects. Olaf I. destroyed many pagan temples, but was killed in battle with the Danes and Swedes, A. D. 1000. Olaf II., the Saint, A. D. 1019- I r CHRISTIANITY AMONG THE SCLAVONIANS. 265 1033 finally completed the work of his predecessor and, with the aid of German and English missionaries, succeeded in solidly establishing Christianity and organizing the Church in Norway. He fell in a bat- tle against his heathen subjects, who had allied themselves with the Danes. After his death Christianity made still greater progress. In 1148, Drontheim was made an archbishopric with the sees of Bergen, Hammer, and Stavanger as its suffragans. 34. Iceland, which was discovered by the Norwegians in 861, is indebted to King Olaf I. of Norway, for the introduction of Chris- tianity. In the year 1000, the Christian religion was universally re- ceived in Iceland by a popular assembly. In 1056, Adalbert, arch- bishop of Bremen, by order of the Pope, consecrated Isleif first bishop of Skalholt ; he died in the odor of sanctity, A. D. 1080. Benedictine and Augustinian monks founded monasteries in Iceland, and a second bishopric was founded in Horlum, in 1107. 35. The Icelanders, under Eric the Red, discovered Greenland in 892, and planted a colony there comprising two cities, with sixteen churches and two monasteries. In 1055, Adalbert of Bremen conse- crated Albert first bishop of Greenland, who established his see at Gardar. From Greenland Christianity is said to have been propagated to America. About the year 1001, Leif, son of Eric the Red, discov- ered Helluland, Markland, and Vinland, which are supposed to be modern Labrador, Nova Scotia and New England. Most of the Northmen in America were converted by the missionaries whom Leif led with him from Norway, where he himself had been induced by King Olaf I. to embrace the faith. Of these missionaries the most celebrated was Eric, who was consecrated first American bishop at Lund, in Denmark, by Archbishop Adzer, in 1121. Icelandic histori- ans ascribe the first discovery and evangelization of their island as well as of the North American coast lands to the Irish, the latter country being named by them " Irland it Mikla," or Greater Ireland. SECTION IV. CHRISTIANITY AMONG THE SCLAVONIC NATIONS SS. CYRIL AND METHODIUS, APOSTLES OF THE SCLAVONIANS. Sclavic Nations — Conversion of the Croats and Carinthians — SS. Cyril and Methodius — Conversion of the Khazars— Conversion of the Bulgarians — King Bogaris — Separation of Bulgaria from Rome— Conversion of the Moravians — Cyrillic or Sclavic Alphabet — Sclavonic Liturgy. 36. The Sclaves, or Sclavonians, a very numerous and powerful group of nations of the Aryan, or Indo-Gemnanic, race, who anciently were designated as Scythians and Sarmatians, during the sixth and seventh centuries, possessed themselves of the whole of Eastern ^6 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. Europe, a territory extending from the rivers Elbe and Saale to the river Don and the Ural mountains, and from the Baltic Sea to the Adri- atic. They were rude, warlike, and chiefly pastoral tribes, inaccessible alike to civilization and the Christian religion. The conversion of the different Sclavic nations was undertaken, with various success, by both the Latins and the Greeks. The Croats, or Croatians, between the river Drave and the Adriatic, were the first of the Sclavonians to embrace the Christian faith. At the instance of their prince, Porga, mission- aries were sent from Rome, who, in 680, baptized him and many of his people. Toward the close of the eighth century, the Carinthians in Styria, Carinthia and Carniola, were converted by priests sent from Salzburg by the archbishops Vigilius and Arno. The Serbs, or Ser- vians, whose territory included also Bosnia, had been instructed in the faith by Roman priests during the reign of the Emperor Heraclius, but they having rejected the Christian religion, were recovered from their idolatries, about A. D. 868. 37. The beginning of Christianity among the Moravians, who, in 534, settled in the territory of the ancient Quadi and founded the em- pire of Great Moravia, was due to priests sent from Salzburg. But the converciion of the Moravians and other ^clavic tribes was the work especially of SS. Cyril and Methodius, deservedly called the ** Apostles of the Sclavonians." They were brothers, born at Thessa- lonica, of an illustrious senatorial family. Cyril, or Constantine, as he was called in baptism, became a monk and received priestly or- ders ; his learning and knowledge of languages gained him the name of Philosopher. Methodius, after attaining high civil honors, also embraced the monastic state. 38. When, in 848, the Khazars on the north shore of the Euxine asked the regent Empress Theodora for missionaries to instruct them in the faith, Cyril was charged with this important mission. In a short time he succeeded in bringing the king and many of his nation to the teachings of the Gospel. Leaving several priests in charge of the mission, he returned to Constantinople, and took with him the re- mains of Pope St. Clement L, which he had discovered at Cherson in the Crimea. 39. Cyril's next mission was to the Bulgarians and Moravians, in which his brother Methodius assisted him. Radislav, the prince of the Moravians, having heard of the great success of Cyril in the conversion of the Khazars, through the Emperor Michael III., secured the services of the two missionaries for his people. Both brothers «et out for Moravia in the year 864. On their way to that country they passed through Bulgaria. Bogoris, king of Bulgaria, already CHRISTIANITY AMONG THE SCLAVONIANS. 267 inclined to Christianity by the influence of his sister, who had em- braced it in her long captivity at Constantinople, was so moved by the eloquence of Cyril, and as later writers add, by a picture of the last judgment, the work of Methodius, as to ask for baptism. He took the name of Michael. Upon the news of his conversion, the nobles of Bulgaria rose in open rebellion against the king. But the faith of Bogoris was firm ; with the cross on his breast, he marched out to meet the rebels and easily defeated them. 40. Bogoris, either from the evident interest which the Christian religion had awakened in his mind, or with political objects, aspired to enter into relations with Latin Christendom. Ambassadors of the Bulgarian king appeared in Rome to ask for Latin missionaries and to request the advice of the Pope on certain matters of faith as well as morals. Pope Nicholas I. sent as missionaries to Bulgaria the Bishops Paul and Formosus. The answers of the Pope to the ques- tions submitted by the king, were in a tone mild and parental ; he respected national customs and sought in general with wise discre- tion and moderation to mitigate the ferocity of a savage nation. But shortly after, the Latin missionaries were dismissed and replaced by Greeks ; and in spite . of the Pope's protest, the patriarch Ignatius consecrated an archbishop for Bulgaria ; this was followed by the erection of ten bishoprics, all under the jurisdiction of Constantinople. The Bulgarians w^ere drawn into the Greek schism, in which they have remained till the present day. 41. The mission of Cyril and Methodius in Moravia was crowned with wonderful results. They baptized Radislav, the king, and securely established Christianity in his country. Cyril invented a Sclavic alphabet, called after him the " Cyrillic," and, with the aid of his brother, translated the Holy Scriptures into Sclavonian. The " Cyrillic " (Kyrilitza) is still in use among the schismatical Sclavonians (Russians, Serbs, Bulgarians, etc.) and the united Sclavonians of the Greek rite ; while the Catholic Sclavonians use the " Glacolitic," or old Sclavonic, which some attribute to St. Jerome. The Western Sclavonians (Poles, Bohemians, etc.) make use of either the Latin or German letters. 42. Cyril and Methodius labored zealously among the Moravians for four years and a half. They preached, and also held divine servi- ce, in the Old Sclavic tongue. At this the German priests from Salzburg took offence and complained to the Pope. Nicholas I. . summoned the brothers before him, and they immediately repaired to Rome, taking with them the precious remains of St. Clement. On their arrival, Hadrian II., who had meanwhile succeeded Nicholas I., 268 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. received the missionaries with great favor, raised them both to the episcopal dignity, and also approved for the Sclayonians the use of their native language in celebrating Mass and in reciting the divine office. This privilege was confirmed by Pope John VIII., Hadrian's immediate successor; again, by Innocent IV., in 1248; and at the present day. Mass is said in Sclavonic by quite a large body of Cath- olics. Cyril died at Rome, A. D. 869. Methodius, having been appointed Papal Legate and Metropolitan of Moravia and Pannonia, returned to continue his missionary labors among the Sclavonians, which extended also to Bohemia. He died after a laborious, but glorious, apost6late of twenty-three years, in 885. SECTION V. — CHRISTIANITY AMONG THE SCLAVONIANS, CONTINUED THE BOHEMIANS, POLES, AND RUSSIANS — CONVERSION OF HUNGARY. Conversion of the Bohemians— SS. Ludmilla and Wenceslaus — Foundation of Bishoprics — Conversion of Poland — King Boleslas— Martyrdom of St. Stanislaus— Christianity among the Russians— Wladimir the Great— The Magyars — Their Ravages — Conversion of Hungary— King St. Stephen — Foundation of Bishoprics. 43. The Bohemians derived from Germany their first knowledge of Christianity. In the year 848, fourteen Bohemian nobles with their families were baptized at Ratisbon. But the evangelization of Bohemia is commonly ascribed to St. Methodius. In the year 874, he baptized Duke Boriwoy and his wife, afterwards the sainted Lud- milla, and was engaged by that prince to assist in converting his people. Ludmilla outlived her two sons, successively dukes of Bohe- mia ; but she had watched with a mother's care over the education of her grandson Wenceslaus, under whose reign Christianity won the complete conquest of Bohemia. Ludmilla was treacherously mur- dered by her heathen daughter-in-law, Dahomira, A. D. 927. Prince Wenceslaus also fell a victim to pagan fury, being murdered by his brother Boleslas I., surnamed the Cruel. Paganism enjoyed only a temporary victory, for soon Otho I. compelled Boleslas to restore the Christian religion in Bohemia. Under Boleslas II., called the Pious, Christianity completely triumphed. He founded, with the approval of Pope John XIII., the archbishopric of Prague, in 972. 44. The Emperor Otho I. did much for the conversion of the Sclavonians in Meissen and Lusatia, obtaining missionaries for them. With the sanction of the Pope, he founded the archbishopric of Mag- deburg, with Meissen, Merseburg, Havelberg, and Posen as suffragan sees. Among those who labored most zealously for the conversion of CHRISTIANITY AMONG SOLA VO NIANS. 269 the Sclavonians in Germany was St. Benno, bishop of Meissen, in the time of Henry TV. 45. From Bohemia, Christianity was carried to Poland. iDuke Minceslas I., who was married to the Bohemian princess Dom- brawka, received baptism in the year 966, and his example was soon imitated by the greater number of his people. His successor, the powerful Duke Boleslas I., A. D. 992-1025, completed the christian- ization of Poland by the erection of numerous churches and monas- teries. He founded the archbishopric of Gnesen, with the suffragan sees of Kolberg, Cracow and Breslau. His son, Casimir I., greatly promoted Christianity throughout the kingdom. Boleslas II., a tyran- nical prince, slew, A. T>. 1079, St. Stanislaus, bishop of Cracow, who had reprimanded him for his vicious conduct. For this atrocious act Pope Gregory VII. excommunicated him, and he died in exile. 46. The Russians received the first Christian missionaries from Constantinople, and embraced Christianity without much opposition, under Wladimir I. the Great, A. D. 980-1014, grandson of the prin- cess St. Olga, who, A.D. 955, had become a Christian at Constantinople, taking the name of Helen. The first bishoprics were those of Kiew, Novgorod, and Rostow. From the Bulgarians, the Russians adopted the Sclavic liturgy and the Cyrillic alphabet. Owing to its hierarchial subordination to the patriarchate of Constantinople, the Russian Church, which remained united with Rome to the fifteenth century, was drawn into the Greek schism. 47. The pagan Magyars, a warlike people of the Finnish race, migrated, about A. D. 890, from Asia into ancient Pannonia, whence they made frequent incursions into other countries. For more than half a century the savage Magyars, even more terrible than the Islamite Saracens, were the common terror of Christendom. Their frequent irruptions wasted nearly the whole of Germany, devastated Southern [France and Northern Italy. Bremen on the Baltic, the monastery of St. Gall near Lake Constance, and Pavia with its forty-three churches, were burned. Various defeats, notably those near Merseburg, in 933, by King Henry the Fowler, and on the Lech by Emperor Otho I., fin- rally broke their aggressive power. Gradually they settled within the limits of modern Hungary, and at the beginning of the next century Christianity had entirely subdued them and arrayed this valiant na- tion as a future outguard against the Mohammedan Turks. 48. The Greek monk Hierotheus of Constantinople, who was consecrated bishop of Hungary, made the first attempt to christianize the rude Magyars, with what success is not known. The bishops Piligrim of Passau, Wolfgang of Ratisbon, and Adalbert of Prague, 270 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. labored among them with much fruit, during the reign of the three Othos. Duke Geisa was induced to embrace Christianity by his Christian wife, Sarolta, and very much promoted the conversion of his people which was almost completed by his son, St. Stephen I. On the death of Geisa, an insurrection of the Magyars against the for- eign religion was suppressed. The first act of Stephen, A. D. 997- 1038, on ascending the throne, was to unite himself to Latin Chris- tendom. By his marriage with Gisela, the sister of Emperor Henry II., he became closely connected with Catholic Germany whose civil- ization he sought, by every means, to introduce among his subjects » 49. Assisted by German and Bohemian priests, Stephen suc- ceeded in extending the Christian religion over the whole kingdom ; throughout the land rose churches and monasteries. He sent an em- bassy to Pope Sylvester II., and received from him the present of a royal crown and a papal edict empowering him to regulate the eccle- siastical affairs of his realm. He founded the archbishopric of Gran with ten suffragan sees, and erected monastic hospices for his subjects at Jerusalem, Rome, Ravenna, and Constantinople. His religious zeal gained him the title of Apostolic King from Pope Sylvester II., with the right of having the cross borne before him. Unfortunately his son, St. Emmeric, died while still young. After the death of St. Stephen, a powerful reaction against Christianity followed ; but un- der Bela I. and Ladislas I., the resistance of the defenders of Pagan- ism was broken, and Christianity became firmly established in Hun- gary. SECTION VI. STATE OF THE CHURCH IN IRELAND. Ireland the Holy Isle— Happy Condition of the Irish Church— A Nursery of Learning— A Monastic Church— Numerous Bishops and Episcopal Sees in Ireland— Chorepiscopi— Missions of the Irish— Foreign Irish Monas- teries—Monasteries of Clonard and Bangor— Their Founders— Loyalty to the Holy See— Disciplinary Differences — Irish Synods — Danish Inva- sion—Depredations of the Danes— Battle of Clontarf— Effects of the Invasion— Ecclesiastical Abuses — Royal Bishops. 50. From the time of the apostleship of St. Patrick, the Christian religion was firmly established in Ireland. The Gospel had spread from one end of the island to the other, and early in the sixth century there was not a trace of Paganism left. Monasteries and churches covered the land, and a great number of schools were founded, which became renowned throughout all Europe. The Irish Church soon grew into an important nursery of learning and religion for other nations. In those happy days, Ireland was called " New Rome," or the "Holy Isle," and people flocked from all parts of Europe to take THE CHURCH IN IRELAND. 271 refuge from the miseries on the continent, or to devote themselves to study and the practice of piety in the undisturbed retirement of the Irish monasteries. 51. A well-known historian of our day, D5llinger (quoted by Car- dinal Newman), describing the happy condition of the Irish Church during this period, says : "During the sixth and seventh centuries, the Church of Ireland stood in the full beauty of its bloom. The spirit of the Gos-pel operated amongst the people with vigorous and vivifying power ; troops of holy men, from the highest to the lowest ranks of so- ciety, obeyed' the counsels of Christ, and forsook all things, that they might follow Him. There was n^t a country in the world, during this period, which could boast of pious foundations or of religious com- munities equal to those that adorned this far-distant island. Among the Irish, the doctrines of the Christian Religion were preserved pure and entire ; the names of heresy or schism were not known to them ; and in the Bishop of Rome they acknowledged and venerated the Supreme Head of the Church on earth, and continued with him, and through him with the whole Church, in a never interrupted commun- ion. The schools of the Irish cloisters were at this time the most celebrated in the West." 52. "Many Anglo-Saxons," the same historian continues, "passed over to Ireland, where they received a most hospitable reception in the monasteries and schools. In crowds, numerous as bees, as Aid- helm writes, the English went to Ireland, or the Irish visited England, where the Archbishop Theodore was surrounded by Irish scholars. Of the most celebrated Anglo-Saxon scholars and saints, many had studied in Ireland. Among these were St. Egbert, the author of the first Anglo-Saxon mission to the pagan continent, and the blessed Willibrord, the Apostle of the Frieslanders, who had resided twelve years in Ireland. From the same abode of virtue and of learning came forth two English priests, both named Ewald, who, in 690, went as messengers of the Gospel to the German Saxons, and received from them the crown of martyrdom. An Irishman, Mailduf, found- ed, in the year 670, a school, which afterwards grew into the famed Abbey of Malmesbury. Among his scholars was St. Aldhelm, after- wards abbot of Malmesbury, and first bishop of Sherburne, or Salis- bury, and Avhom, after two centuries, Alfred pronounced to be the best of the Anglo-Saxon poets." 53. A remarkable phenomenon of the early Irish Church was the extraordinary development and preponderance of the monastic ele- ment. The Irish Church seems to have been organized more on a monastic than on a diocesan basis. There was a great number of 272 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. monasteries founded on the first establishment of Christianity in Ireland by St. Patrick. Several of these monasteries were at the same time bishoprics, and the dignities of bishop and of abbot were frequently united in the same person. In some instances, the author- ity of the bishops, though in their episcopal functions they preserved the superiority of their order, was subordinated to the jurisdiction of the abbots, even when the latter did not share the episcopal rank. 54. From ancient Irish canons and annals, it appears that bishops and episcopal sees were far more numerous in the early Irish Church than they usually were in other parts of Christendom. Besides the ordinary bishops, the earliest Irish •records make mention also of assistant bishops and chorepiscopi. The custom of appointing chor- episcopi seems to have continued in Ireland much longer than in any other part of the Western Church. 55. Ireland in this happy period became the benefactress of almost every nation in Europe. Many holy and learned Irishmen left their homes to proclaim the faith to other nations, or to establish monasteries in distant lands. Such were, to mention a few of the more prominent, St. Columbkill, the Apostle of the Picts ; St. Aidan, the successful Apostle of Northumbria ; St. Fridolin, who after long labors in France, established himself on the Rhine ; St. Columbanus, who preached in France, Burgundy, Switzerland, and Lombardy ; St. Kilian, the Apostle of Franconia, and St. Virgilius, a celebrated mis- sionary and co-laborer of St. Boniface in Germany, and afterwards bishop of Salzburg. Irish missionaries went to preach the faith in the islands north of their country, the Hebrides, the Faroe Isles, and even Iceland, which, it is said, was colonized by the Irish before the Norwegian pirates landed there. They evangelized all of Scotland and completed the work of the conversion of England begun by St. Augus- tine and his companions. 56. The foundation of many of the English sees and continental monasteries is due to Irish missionaries. The Northumbrian diocese was for many years governed by Irish bishops ; from the famous abbey of Lindisfarne the monastic institute was rapidly diffused through the neighboring kingdoms of Bernicia, Mercia, and ^ast- Anglia. "It has been calculated," Thebaud in his "Irish Race" writes, "that the ancient Irish monks held, from the sixth to the ninth eentury, thirteen Irish monasteries in Scotland, seven in France, twelve in Armoric Gaul, seven in Lotharingia, eleven in Burgundy, nine in Belgium, ten in Alsatia, sixteen in Bavaria, fifteen in Rhaetia, Helvetia, and Suevia, besides several in Thuringia and on the left of the Rhine." THE CHURCH IN IRELAND, 373 57. Among the most prominent monastic institutions, founded in Ireland in the sixth century, were the monasteries of Clonard and Ban- gor, each of which had three thousand monks. Clonard was founded by St. Finian. It was a famous seminary of sacred learning, and its holy founder, who is generally known as the " Preceptor of the twelve Apostles of Ireland," became the master of many Christian teachers. Finian died in the year 550. Bangor, in the County Down, was founded by St. Comgall, a disciple of St. Finian at Clonard. For the direction of his monks, Comgall drew up a Rule, which was consid- ered one of the chief Rules in Ireland. St. Comgall died, A. D. 601. This eminent Saint is justly reckoned among the Fathers of the Irish Church. These famous monasteries, with that of Jona, were the three great lights of the Irish Church, and were already in vigorous operation when St. Augustine and his companions first set foot in Kent, A. D. 596. 58. Loyalty to the See of St. Peter was one of the distinguishing characteristics of the early Irish Church. The assertion that the Church of St. Patrick held itself independent of Rome and differed from her even in points of doctrine, is wholly unfounded. For one or two centuries, it differed indeed, from the Roman rule in respect to the time of celebrating Easter, the form and size of the monastic tonsure,^ and certain ceremonies of baptism — questions which in no way involve any point of doctrine. When the dispute relative to the time of celebrating Easter agitated the Irish, the synod of Magh-lene, in 630, resolved to refer the whole question to the Holy See. A dep- utation was accordingly despatched to Rome for that purpose, and the Roman practice on this point adopted, A. D. 633. A few years later, A. D. 640, the bishops of Northern Ireland also met in Council and endeavored to establish a like harmony in- their dioceses. 59. For several centuries, the Irish continued in the happy enjoy- ment of undisturbed peace. The invasion of the Danes was the com- mencement of a long series of misfortunes and sufferings for that gallant nation. For two centuries, the Scandinavian barbarians, under their sea-kings, repeated their visits and devastations. Their first descent is mentioned by the Four Masters as taking place on the coast of Antrim, in the year 790. Every district of the island was visited by the rapacious Danes, and the face of the country was frightfully 1. Ecclesiastical tonsure seems to have come into general use after the persecutions, in the fourth or the fifth century. Three different forms of tonsure were at this time in use among ecclesiastics and monks: 1, The tonsure of St. Peter, or the Roman, consisted in shaving or clipping the crown of the head, leaving a circle of hair all around it. 3. The tonsure of St. Paul, which some monks used also in the West, consisted in shaving the whole head. 3, The tonsure of St. John, which was in use among the Irish and Britons, was a semicircle, the hair being shaved from ear to ear above the forehead. By its adver- saries it was called the tonsure of Simon Magus. 274 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. changed by their ravages ; the unfortunate inhabitants who escaped the sword of the savage enemy were compelled to take refuge in the forests and amid the rocks of mountains. Religion was the first to suffer ; the Danes, as was usual with them, first attacked the churches and monasteries ; and the rich harvest which they found, induced them to return again and again. Armagh with its cathedral and monasteries was plundered four times in one month, and in Bangor, nine hundred monks were slaughtered in a single day. 60. The contest with the Danes continued for more than two centuries, during which period Ireland was subjected year after year to the incursions of the Northern pirates. Throughout the whole of this long course of oppression and persecution,- the Irish had never ceased to resist the barbarian invaders, and, at length, under the brave monarch Brian Boroihme, the latter were completely defeated ai the great battle of Clontarf, A. D. 1014. The Danes were driven out of the country, or those who remained soon amalgamated with the inhab- itants. 61. This long struggle with the Danes was attended with many evils. The baneful effects, or results, of the Danish invasion were : 1. The interruption of studies on the universal scale on which they had previously been conducted ; 2. The utter relaxation of ecclesias- tical discipline among the clergy ; and 3. The spread of ignorance and a general decay of piety among the people. Among the ecclesi- • astical abuses that sprung up in this period was the seizure of church property by the laity, and the practice of uniting the episcopal and royal authority in one person. Thus, Olchobair MacKennedy, about the middle of the ninth century, was both bishop of Emly and king of Cashel. 62. The most famous of these royal bishops was the scholarly and warlike Cormac MacCuUinan, bishop of Cashel and king of Mun- ster. He was the author of the famous book known as the " Psalter of Cashel." About the year 927 the Metropolitan See of Armagh was usurped by the powerful Lords of Armagh by whom it was retained for two hundred years. These men, though they had never received priestly orders or episcopal consecration, assumed the title, as well as the jurisdiction and prerogatives of metropolitans, except purely spiritual functions, which they left to bishops to perform. After the final expulsion of the Danes, the Irish began to rebuild their churches and public schools, and to restore religion to its prim- itive splendor. r THE CHURCH IN ENGLAND. 275 SECTION VII. STATE OF THE CHURCH IN ENGLAND. Successors of St. Augustine — Theodore, Archbishop of Canterbury — His Associates — His Labors — St. Wilfrid of York — Death of Archbishop Theodore — Benedict Biscop — The Church under the Heptarchy — Descents of the Danes — Their Ravages— Decline of Piety and Learning — Alfred the Great— His Efforts to restore Learning and Ecclesiastical Discipline — His Writings — The Church under the Successors of Alfred — St. Dun- stan — His Reforms — Renewal of the Danish War— Accession of Canute the Great. 63. Of the five archbishops who succeeded St. Augustine in the see of Canterbury, the last only, Deusdedit, was of Saxon origin. At his death in 665, the pious priest Wighard was chosen his suc- cessor and sent to Rome to receive episcopal consecration. Here he died, whereupon Pope Vitalian placed Theodore, a Greek monk of Tarsus, in Cilicia, in the see of Canterbury. To great austerity of life, Theodore added extensive learning and a perfect knowledge of ecclesiastical discipline. In company with his friend the learned Abbot Hadrian, an African, and the saintly Benedict Biscop, an Anglo- Saxon monk, Theodore arrived in Britain in A. D. 669. 64. The mission of Theodore and Hadrian had a great influence over the organization of the Anglo-Saxon Church, and their arrival forms a new era in the ecclesiastical history of Britain. They were learned and energetic ; equally skilled in theological and secular sciences, and labored strenuously for the reformation of morals, the diffusion of knowledge and the revival of Christian life among the Anglo-Saxons. Having been invested with jurisdiction over the whole of Britain, Theodore made a general visitation of the churches, everywhere correcting abuses and restoring eclesiastical discipline. 65. In 673, Theodore summoned a Council at Hertford, which enacted many laws for the regulation of the power of the bishops, the rights of the monasteries, the keeping of Easter, on divorces and unlawful marriages, and provided for the erection of new bishoprics. At the request of King Egfrid of Northumbria, the personal enemy of St. Wilfrid of York, Theodore consented to divide the extensive diocese of York into three sees ; so, by the appointment of three bishops, Wilfrid was entirely superseded in his diocese. Wilfrid appealed to Rome, and set out to lay his case before the Pope. Pope Agatho in a Roman synod decided in his favor, and issued a mandate for the re-instatement of Wilfrid in his see. Theodore, accepting the papal decision, became reconciled with St. Wilfrid, and, at the ap- proach of death, demanded him as his own successor. 66. The education of the clergy, the primate entrusted to his 276 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. friend Hadrian, and the school opened by the latter at Canterbury, became a famous seat of learning, and was frequented by students from every part of the island. For the instruction of youth, schools were founded in different parts, in which Greek, Latin, mathematics, and astronomy were taught. Theodore, who is reckoned among England's great saints, died in the year 690. After a vacancy of two years, St. Brithwald, abbot of Reculver, succeeded him in the see of Canterbury, over which he presided for nearly forty years, till A. D. 731. He was the eighth archbishop who had filled that see. Hadrian, the illustrious fellow-laborer of Theodore, survived him twenty years. He died A. D. 710. 67. Benedict Biscop, the other co-laborer of Theodore, was the founder of two celebrated monasteries at Weremouth and Jarrow. He made several journeys to Rome, and each time brought back a valuable collection of books, as well as a large supply of relics and images for his monasteries. He diei A. D. 690. His memory has been transmitted to posterity by his disciple. Venerable Bede, in his " Lives of the Abbots of Weremouth." England, and even Europe, owes much to the zeal of Benedict Biscop ; for the civilization of the eighth century may be said to have rested on the monasteries he founded, which produced Bede, and through him the school of York, Alcuin and the Carolingian school, on which the culture and learning of the Middle Ages were based. 68. Under the Heptarchy, the Anglo-Saxon Church was conspicu- ous, for a period of over two hundred years, for the virtues and learning of many of its members. Venerable Bede, speaking of the flourishing condition of the country and the piety of its inhabitants during this period, says : " Never were there such happy times in Britain since she was conquered by the Angles. Her kings were Christian heroes, the terror of their enemies, and the whole nation was striving after one high end." The glory which reflected on the ancient Anglo-Saxon Church is evident from the fact that no less than twenty-three Saxon kings, and sixty queens and members of royal families are honored as saints. But the piety and virtues which had so brilliantly illuminated the Anglo-Saxon Church, began to disap- pear ; the zeal and devotion, which had formerly characterized the monks and clergy, gradually relaxed ; and even the love of science was extinguished. This decline of piety and knowledge, which orig- inated in the indolence of the natives, was rapidly accelerated by the exterminating sword of the Danes. 69. As early as the year 787, the Danes had begun to harass the separate Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. Toward the end of King Egbert's THE GHURCR IN ENGLAND. 277 reign — the first who united the several monarchies under one crown — they recommenced their incursions along the British coast. Though frequently repulsed, the northern barbarians were in no wise discour- aged, but, returning each year in larger numbers, they renewed their invasions, and involved, for more than half a century, the whole island in devastation and ruin. Everywhere they destroyed the churches and monasteries, and massacred every priest and religious person whom they met on their route. 70. The English Church at this period presented a melancholy spectacle. In consequence of the incessant wars, the laity had degen- erated ; the clergy were dissolute and illiterate, and the monastic order was well nigh extinguished. Learning had wholly disappeared among the Anglo-Saxons. " There was a time," King Alfred writes, " when foreigners sought wisdom and learning in this island. Now "we are compelled to seek them in foreign lands. Such was the ** general ignorance among the Saxons that there were very few who " could understand the service in English, or translate a Latin epistle " into their own language." 71. It devolved upon Alfred the Great, A. D. 871-901, to devise and apply the remedies for these evils. Having vanquished the bar- barian invaders, who were compelled either to leave the country or to embrace Christianity, he turned his whole attention to the civiliza- tion and moral improvement of his people. He founded and pub- lished a new code of laws ; built or restored many magnificent churches, and founded several monasteries, besideg a rich nunnery at Shaftesbury, in which his daughter Ethelgiva was the first abbess. To revive the study of literature in his realm, Alfred restored the public schools and multiplied them ; he collected and formed new libraries ; he solicited the assistance of the most distinguished foreign scholars, and invited the nobility and clergy to profit by their instruc- tions. The fruit of his own industry and application is manifest in the numerous translations from the Latin which he published. He translated Orosius' Universal History, Venerable Bede's Church History, the " Pastoral Rule " of St. Gregory, the treatise of Boethius on the " Consolation of Philosophy," besides extracts from the works of St. Augustine. In these undertakings Alfred was nobly aided by Bishops Plegmund of Canterbury, and Werfrith of .Worcester. 72. Alfred lived to see the result of his efforts. After his death, however, piety and learning again declined. The reigns of his imme- diate successors were much disturbed by civil wars and fresh inva- sions by the Danes. Owing to the wars, which for half a century engaged the whole nation, the appointment of bishops for vacant sees 278 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. was generally neglected ; in consequence of which, corruption again crept into monasteries and convents, and incontinency became preva- lent among the clergy. These disorders continued, to the great scandal of the people, till the accession of King Edgar in 957. This noble monarch strenuously assisted St. Dunstan in his efforts to bring about a general reformation. 73. Dunstan, born in the year 925, was of noble family, and was a nephew of the Bishops Athelm of Canterbury, and Elphege of Win- chester. About A. D. 942, he became abbot of the then ruined mon- astery of Glastonbury, which he restored at the royal expense. He enjoyed the favor of Kings Edmund and Edred, who were guided by his advice in the government of the kingdom. But on the accession of Edwy, a profligate youth, Dunstan was banished from the kingdom and his monastery dissolved. He spent a year in exile, when he was recalled by King Edgar, who made him his principal counsellor, promoted him to the bishopric of Worcester, and, on the death of St. Odo, A. D. 960, advanced him to the primatial see of Canterbury. 74. Seeing himself at the head of the Saxon Church, Dunstan at once determined to undertake a general reformation of all classes, and to restore among his countrymen the severity of ancient discipline. In this praiseworthy undertaking .he was nobly supported by King Edgar and assisted by his two disciples. Bishop Ethelwold of Win- chester, and Bishop Oswald of Worcester. Their first endeavor was to elevate the monastic order from the lamentable state into which it had fallen. Old monasteries were restored and new ones founded and peopled with monks who were stricter observers of religious du- ties. The most eminent of these religious were gradually raised to the higher dignities of the Church. A national Council held at London, A. D. 969, enacted that every priest and deacon should be compelled either to live chastely or resign his benefice. Dissolute and incontinent priests were ejected, and in their places monks of stricter morals and better religious deportment introduced, to whom also in many instances was transferred the right of choosing the bishop in case of a vacancy. These reforms were received with joy by the friends of religion, but they also created great animosity between the clergy and the monks. 75. After the death of St. Dunstan, A. D. 988, the conflicts be- tween the Anglo-Saxons and the Danes again broke out. The horrors which had marked the greater part of the ninth century, were re- newed and culminated in a general massacre of the Danes on St. Brice's day, A. D. 1002. To avenge the blood of his countrymen, THE CHURCH 'IN FRANCE AND SPAIN 279 Sweyn, king of Denmark, began a most destructive war, which cov- ered England with devastation and ruin. Canterbury suffered all the calamities of a disastrous siege ; Elphege, its archbishop, was cruelly put to death, A. D. 1011. This disastrous war terminated in the sub- jugation of England; Canute, the son of Sweyn, in the year 1017, united the crown of England with that of Denmark. SECTION VIII. STATE OF THE CHURCH IN FRANCE AND SPAIN. Merovingian Kings — Their Depravity — State of the Church — Dagobert I. — Accession of Pepin — Spain under Mohammedan Rule— Oppression of the Church— Persecution of the Christians— Council of Cordova— Grad- ual Revival of the Spanish Nation— Spanish Kingdoms. 76. France. It is difficult to conceive a darker and more odious state of society than that of France under the Merovingian kings, as described by St. Gregory of Tours. Some of the descendants of the great Clovis, indeed, were zealous for orthodoxy, and defended the Church against the Burgundians and Arian Visigoths ; but they soon became very depraved ; wild incontinence and a savage pride and cruelty characterized the reigns of most of the Merovingians. Assas- sinations and fratricides, with licentiousness and debauchery, reigned supreme. Some of the Merovingian kings took as many wives, either at once or successively, as suited their passions or their pol- itics. 77. The scandalous conduct of the Merovingian rulers was a source of much grief to the Church, and exercised a demoralizing influence upon the people. Bishops who had the courage to rebuke the royal libertines were sent into exile. In fact, the despotic Mero- vingians frequently interfered in the episcopal election, arbitrarily appointing or deposing bishops, to the great detriment of the Church. A period of brighter promise seemed to commence with the accession of Dagobert L, who, in the year 628, became sole king of the Franks. His chief counsellors and instructors were St. Arnulf, bishop of Metz, and Pepin the Elder as mayor of the palace, the founder of the Carlo- vingian house. But after the retirement of these two excellent men from court, Dagobert gave himself up to rapacity and licentiousness. He repudiated his wife Gomatrude, married a Saxon slave named Mathildis, then another, Regnatrude. 78. Notwithstanding the depravity of her rulers, France, in those days of lawlessness and violence, could boast of good and holy men, who exercised a beneficial influence on their age and country; of dis- tinguished prelates, famed far and near as prudent and faithful shep- herds of their flocks; and of zealous missionaries, who carried the 280 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. light of the Gospel to the heathen. Such were St. Leodegarius, bishop of Autun; St. Prix, or Priest, bishop of Clermont; St. Aman- dus, and St. Lambertus, bishops successively of Mastricht ; St. Deo- datus, bishop of Nevers ; St. Agilulphus, archbishop of Sens; St. Owen, archbishop of Rouen and chancellor of the realm under Dago- bert I.; St. Eligius, bishop of Noyon ; and the abbots SS. Eustasius and Agilus of Luxeuil. 79. As dissensions and civil wars first weakened the power of the Merovingians, so indolence and incapacity completed their downfall. The monarchy was soon torn by internal dissensions, and the country ravaged by the inroads of the Saracens. The government was wholly administered by the mayors of the palace. With the assent of Pope Zacharias, Pepin the Short in a general assembly of the nation, had Ohilderic III., the last Merovingian, deposed and himself proclaimed king of the Franks, A. D. 752. 80. Spain. After the overthrow of the Yisigothic kingdom, A. D. 711, nearly the whole of Spain fell under the yoke of the Saracens. Abderrahman I., surnained the Wise, in the year 756, established an independent Caliphate at Cordova, which attained a high degree of prosperity. While the Saracens, or Moors, as they were called, held sway in Spain, the Church, at times, enjoyed, indeed, a partial tolera- tion, but was constantly subjected to tyrannic oppression. 81. Those of the Christians who still continued to live among the Arabs, hence called Mozarabians, or mixed Arabs, were deprived of their civil rights ; for the free exercise of their religion they were compelled to pay a heavy monthly capitation tax. Besides, the fa- naticism of the Mohammedans, while constantly interfering with their sacred rights, subjected the Christians to all kinds of indignities and cruel exactions, and finally gave vent to bloody persecutions in the ninth and tenth centuries, under Abderrahman II., Mohammed I., and Abderahman III. The Spanish Christians encountered martyr- dom with such joy and in such great numbers that the Council of Cordova, A. D. 852, expressly forbade them to voluntarily surrender themselves to the Mohammedan authorities. Prominent martyrs in this persecution were the priest Perfectus of Cordova, and Eulogius, archbishop of Toledo. 82. A remnant of the ancient Gothic monarchy had preserved its national liberty and independence in the mountainous districts, and for several centuries waged a successful warfare, which was generally an offensive one, against the Mohammedan conquerors. Amid this continual warfare, the Christian kingdoms of Leon, Na- varre, Castile, Arragon, and Portugal gradually arose. Throughout POPES UNDER BYZANTINE RULE. 381 this long period of trial and conflict, the Christians preserved their ancient ecclesiastical organization, consisting of twenty-nine episcopal and three archepiscopal sees. The Councils of Tolosa, A. D. 1055, and of Jacca, A. D. 1060, sought to unite the Spanish Church more closely with the Apostolic See, and to reform ecclesiastical discipline, which had, amid continual oppression and conflict, greatly relaxed. CHAPTER II. RELATION OF THE PAPACY TO THE EMPIRE. SECTION IX. THE POPES UNDER TllE BYZANTINE RULE. Subordination of Popes — Their embarrassing Condition — Last Popes of the Seventh Century— Popes John V. Conon, and Sergius L— John VI— John VII — Sisinnius — Constantine — Gregory II — His Conflict with Leo the Iconoclast — Gregory III — Appeal for Aid to Charles Martel— Zacharias. 83. The political position of the Popes since the pontificate of Agatho, became extremely difficult and embarrassing. They were obliged to struggle constantly with civil princes for the recognition of their spiritual supremacy, as well as for their temporal rights and and independence. On the one side, the warlike Lombards aiming at the conquest of all Italy, constantly harassed Rome and menaced the independence of the Holy See. On the other hand the meddlesome and despotic Byzantine emperors, though unable to protect their own dominions in Italy, pretended to an all-commanding voice, even in spiritual matters. The desire to ignore the authority of the Popes, which many of the Greek emperors posessed, and to impose their own instead, even in matters of faith, was productive of the most lament- able confusion in the Church, and was the cause of much bitter trouble to the Holy See. The situation of the Popes was the more perilous inasmuch as the iconoclastic controversy was raging at the time with the most bitter animosity. 84. The Popes Leo IL, Benedict IL, John V., Conon and Sergius I., were the last of the seventh century. Emperor Constantine lY. Pogonatus continued upon friendly footing with Popes Leo II. , A. D. 682-684, and Benedict II. , A. D. 684-686, to whom he gave many proofs of his respect and deference to the Roman See. An edict of the em- peror enacted that the Pope elect might at once proceed to his consecra- tion without awaiting the imperial confirmation. Justinian II. however, did not at all resemble his magnanimous father. He renewed the 282 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH pretentions of former emperors, requiring that the election of the Popes should take place in the presence of the Exarch of Ravenna. Justinian is likewise responsible for the abolition of the clerical celibacy in the Eastern Church ; the second TruUan Council con- voked by him made celibacy obligatory only on monks and bishops. 85. After the short pontificates of John V., A. D. 686, and Conon, A. D. 687, an attempt was made by the imperial Exarch John to place the archdeacon Paschalis in the papal chair, but the Romans resisted and elected the saintly Sergius I. Sergius I., who reigned from A. D. 687 to A. D. 701, refused to sanction the TruUan Synod, which assem- bled in 692 at the summons of the emperor Justininian II. Irritated by this refusal the haughty emperor sent orders for the apprehension and transportation of the Pope to Constantinople. But the Romans, and even the imperial soldiery, rushed to the defense of the Pope, and only for his intervention, they would have torn Zacharias, the imperial officer, to pieces. 86. The eighth century opened with the pontificate of John VI., A. D. 701-705. Scarcely had he ascended the papal throne, when the usurper Tiberius III. sent the Exarch Theophylactus to Rome to compel the ratification of some unjust measures. But the indignant people and military again rallied together and would have laid violent hands upon the exarch, had not the Pope interposed. The Pope induced the Lombard Duke of Benevento, who had made a predatory invasion into Campania, to withdraw into his own territory, and redeemed all the captives which the Lombard had taken. John VI., as also his successor, John VII., A. D. 705 — 707, refused, when asked by the emperor, to approve the Trullan Council. 87. On the death af John VII., Sisinnius was chosen Pope, but died twenty days after his election. He was succeeded by Constan- tine, a Syrian, A. D. 708-715. At the urgent invitation of Justinian II., Constantine, in 710, undertook a journey to Constantinople, where he was received with great honors. Th^ emperor, wearing his crown, prostrated himself before the Vicar of Christ and kissed his feet. A formal approbation of the council in Trullo, however, was not to be obtained from the Pope, wjio consented to recognize only such of its acts as were not contrary to the decrees of the Apostolic See. The attempt of Philipicus Bardanes, the assassin of Justinian, to re-establish Monotheletism, was opposed by Constantine with apostolic vigor. The fall of the usurper and the promotion of Anastasius II., a pro- foundly Catholic prince, restored peace to the troubled Church. Anas- tasius, after three years, was dethroned by Theodosius II., who, in turn, was driven from the throne by Leo III, the Isaurian. POPES UNDER BYZANTINE RVLE. 283 88. Pope Gregory II., A. D. 715-731, was a worthy successor of his illustrious namesake, Gregory the Great. He was a man of rare virtue and equally renowned for learning and administrative ability. The endeavors of the iconoclast Leo III. were resisted by Gregory witn all the force of his apostolic authority. The maddened emperor sought to rid himself of the courageous Pontiff ; every effort was made to seize his person and to take his life ; but the Romans and the Italians, including even the Lombards, rallied about the Pope and routed the imperial troops that were sent against Rome. While opposing the emperor, when he attacked the faith of the Church, Greg- ory nevertheless upheld his authority in Italy. He used all his influ- ence to appease the people and to sustain their allegiance to their sover- eign, and effectually opposed their repeated attempts to* elect a new emperor. When the Lombard king, Luitprand, threatened the Holy City, Gregory went forth to meet him. The Lombard, over-awed by the commanding sanctity of the Pope, cast himself at his feet, put off his armor, his royal mantel, and his crown of gold, and offered them at the tomb of the Apostle St. Peter. Gregory rebuilt the ruined walls of Rome and restored the monastery of Monte Cassino, which, one hundred and forty years before, had been destroyed by the Lombards. 89. Gregory III., A. D. 731-741, with equal vigor defended Catholic faith against the heresy of the Iconoclasts, which heresy he solemnly condemned in a Roman Council, A. D. 732. To punish the Pope for this daring deed, the Isaurian confiscated the estates of the Roman Church in Calabria and Cicily, and transferred Greece and Illyricum from the Roman to the Byzantine patriarchate. Under the pontificate of Gregory III., occurred the great victory of Charles Martel over the Saracens, near Poictiers, in the year 732. This vic- tory checked the power of the Moslems, and saved Western Europe from their menacing domination. Gregory, in 739, invoked the aid of Charles Martel against Luitprand, the Lombard king, who, after having subdued the Exarchate, invaded the Roman territory and laid siege to Rome. Charles sent an embassy to Italy, and Luitprand soon after raised the siege. 90. Pope Zacharias, A. D. 741-752, succeeded in conciliating the Lombards and saved the Roman Duchy from their further invasions. By a visit to King Luitprand, he obtained peace for the Exarch of Ravenna and the restoration of the captured town to the emperor. Upon Rachis, successor of Liutprand, the dignified appearance of the Pope made such an impression that the king relinquished not only his conquests, but the world also, and became a monk in the monastery of Monte Cassino. Pepin the Short, son of Charles Martel, availing 284 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. himself of a decision of Pope Zacharias, that the Franks might lawfully unite in the same person the title and authority of king, had himself crowned king of the Franks by St. Boniface, A. D. 752. SECTION X.— TEMPORAL DOMINION OP THE POPES — PAPAL STATES STEPHEN III. HIS SUCCESSORS. Origin of Papal Dominion— Popes the Protectors of Rome— Misrule of the Greeks — Lombard Invasion— Stephen III. appeals for Aid to Pepin — Grant of Pepin — Papal States— Title of Patrician — Paul I. — Stephen IV. — Hadrian I. — Grant of Charlemagne. 91. The pontificate of Gregory the Great had been the epoch at which had commenced at least the independence of the Roman See. The temporal dominion of the Popes may be said to have begun with the natural and gradual acquisition of landed property, which in those times carried with it princely authority over the tenants and inhabi tants of the estates. The final attainment of independent, sovereign authority by the Bishops of Rome was but the necessary consequence of the then existing political circumstances in Italy. Shortly after the downfall of the Western Empire, the Ostrogoth Theodoric made himself master of Italy. Under this prince, the Bishops of Rome exercised a predominant influence over even civil matters. In the edsolation and distress which accompanied the dissolution of the Empire, not only had the Popes on many occasions to provide for the needs of impoverished churches, but often for the wants of a whole province. 92. Under Justinian I., the Ostrogoth kingdom was overthrown ; Italy became a province of the Eastern Empire and was governed by exarchs residing at Ravenna. , In the year 568, the Lombards under Alboin subdued the greater part of Italy and compelled the Byzantine emperor to confine himself to his Exarchate, the Pentapolis along the Adriatic from Rimini to Ancona, the Duchies of Rome and Naples, and Calabria. A period of fearful anarchy now began. for Italy, which became the theatre of the continued wars of the barbarian invaders. While the imperial Exarchs were gradually losing power in the peninsula, the Bishops of Rome in those times were often the only protectors of the people from the incursions of the Lombards. The weakness or neglect of the Eastern emperors compelled them to con- sider the temporal safety of their country, which more than once was saved from a hostile invasion by their courageous interference. As in former days Leo the Great stopped and turned back the barbarian hordes of Atilla and Genseric, so Gregory the Great by his skill and TEMPORAL DOMINION OF THE POPES. 385 eloquence stayed the fury of the advancing Lombards ; so, also, Popes Gregory II. and Zacharias confronted the Kings Luitprand and Rachis, and persuaded them to withdraw their troops, and even to resign their conquests. 93. The misrule of many of the Greek emperors, their exactions, and their meddling with religious matters kept Italy especially, in a state of chronic rebellion. The Popes were often the only ones that acknowledged the actual government of the emperor. From the beginning of the eighth century a desire for self-government began to agitate the Italians. They began to look on the Bishop of Rome as their natural ruler, their defender, and their protector against all foreign power. It was easy to see that the Byzantine rule in Italy was near its end, which at length was brought about by the unut- terable folly of the iconoclastic emperors. 94. The Lombards, profiting by the general uprising against the imperial authority, prepared for the entire subjection of Italy. King Aistulph in 752 took possession of Ravenna and its dependent pro- evinces, and put an end to the Greek dominion in that part of Italy. He resolved to make himself master also of Rome. Pope Stephen III., A. D. 752-757, neglected no means to induce the Lombard to desist from his project; but Aistulph remained inexorable. Abandoned by the Greek emperor, and unable to cope with the Lombards, Stephen formed the resolution of visiting in person the court of Pepin to implore the assistance and protection of that gallant prince. Pepin received the Pope with all the honors due to the Vicar of Christ, and solemnly bound himself to place him in the possession of the sove- reign dominion of Rome and the Exarchate. 95. Pepin first attempted peaceful negociations with Aistulph; but these being refused, he, in two expeditions, A. D. 754 and 756, compelled the Lombard to surrender the Exarchate and all the cities which he had taken from the Roman Church. Pepin, by a solemn •deed, placed on the tomb of St. Peter, together with the keys of the cities, donated, or rather restored to the Roman See the territory which his valor had recovered. The district comprehended in all twenty-two towns, situated chiefly on the Adriatic. 96. Thus the Pope became an independent temporal sovereign. By the gift of Pepin, this large part of Italy became the kingdom of the Bishop of Rome, and was laid the foundation of what are called the Papal States. These states having been donated to the " Apos- tolic See," and being the property, the "Patrimony of St. Peter," belong not to any Pope, as an individual, nor to any family for action, I)ut to the entire Catholic Church. The protection of the Holy See, 288 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. which the Byzantine emperors had so basely neglected, was trans- ferred to the Frankish king, with the title of " Patrician of Rome," which conferred upon him a certain amount of patronage and a voice in certain matters relating to the temporal weal of the Roman Church. 97. On the death of Pope Stephen III., Paul, his brother, was raised to the Chair of St. Peter, A. D. 757-767. His pontificate, on the whole, was a period of peace. Desiderius, till he had secured the Lombard throne, remained on terms of unity with the Pope ; but the old irreconcilable hostility soon broke out again. The Pope implored the intervention of Pepin to compel the Lombard to surrender what he unjustly withheld from the Roman See. 98. Upon the death of Paul I., Toto, duke of Nepi, by armed force, placed his brother Constantine, a layman, in the papal chair, whom George, bishop of Praeneste, was forced to consecrate. After holding the usurped office thirteen months, the intruder was overthrown and Stephen IV. lawfully elected Pope. To prevent the recurrence of a like intrusion, the Council of Lateran, held in 769, prohibited the elec- tion of a layman to the Papacy and all interference of the laity in papal elections. The pontificate of Stephen IV., A. D. 768-772, was much disturbed by the rivalries between the Frankish and Lom- bard factions, who, contending for the mastery in Rome, committed many acts of violence, which the Pope was not always able to pre- vent. The marriage of Charles, afterwards called the Great, with Desiderata, the daughter of Desiderius, was justly condemned by the Pope, because of the existence of a former wife of Charles, and also because of the dangers to the Holy See which such an alliance necessarily involved. 99. The promotion of Hadrian I., A. D. 772-795, coincides with the first year of Charlemagne's sole rule over the united monarchy of the Franks. The new Pontiff was bound to the Frankish King by ties of the warmest friendship. Desiderius, continuing to harass the Roman territory with repeated incursions, Hadrian had recourse to Charle- magne, who, in 774, put an end to the Lombard rule and he himself assumed the title of King of Lombardy. Charlemagne confirmed the donation of territory made by his father to the Roman Church, and, by a new grant, added the island of Corsica, the provinces of Parma, Mantua, Venice, and Istria, and the Duchies of Spoleto and Benevento, Of these, however, only Spoleto and Benevento passed into the actual poossession of the Popes. I HOL 7 R DMA N EMPIRE. 287 SECTION Xr. THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE — POPE LEO III. AND CHARLE- MAGNE. Accession of Leo III. — Charlemagne crowned Emperor of the West— Coro- nation of Emperor the Free Act of the Pope — Imperial Dignity not Her- editary — Idea of the Empire — Secular Influence of the Pope — Relations of the Two Powers— Charlemagne's Devotion to the Church — His Death. 100. On the day following the death of Hadrian I., the unanimous vote of the clergy and people raised Leo III. to the pontifical throne. His pontificate, A. D. 795-816, and that of his great predecessor were of much longer duration than usual. Leo immediately wa*ote to Charlemagne acquainting him with his election, and requesting him to continue his protection over the Roman See and State. He sent the king, with other gifts, the standard of the city of Rome and the keys of the Confession, or Sepulcher, of St. Peter, not, as many have pretended, in recognition of Charles' sovereignty over the Roman Republic and the Holy See, but as a token of deference and devotion to his person. 1.01. The Popes had contemplated for some time, it appears, the elevation of their powerful protector to the imperial dignity. Had- rian I. predicted that the world Avould, at some future time, see a new Constantine in Charles the Great. The grand project was, at last, carried out by Leo III. At his request, Charlemagne, in the year 800, came to Rome to quell a rebellion in which the Pope came very near losing his life. Charles celebrated the festival of Christmas in St. Peter's, and whilst kneeling in prayer before the Confession of the Apostle, the Pope crowned and proclaimed him Emperor, amid the joyful acclamations of the people : "To Charles, Augustus, crowned by God, great and pacific emperor of the Romans, long life and vic- tory." The Roman Empire of the West, after a vacancy of 324 years, w^as thus restored by the Pope, in the person of Charles the Great. 102. The coronation and subsequent anointing of Charles as Em- peror of the West — an event of great significance to the Church — was the free act of the Roman Pontiff. " Leo III, on the day of Charles' coronation," writes Cardinal Herguroether "was able, in the face of the whole world, to claim as his own act the emperor's elevation to the imperial dignity, for the defence and protection of the Church. He acted in this matter as the head of the Church; not, as many have pretended, merely as the instrument of Charles' policy. There is no historical foundation for such an assertion. He acted primarily as spiritual head of the Church, though he was at the same time civil head of the Romans. The Roman people, who could not have given 288 HISTORY OF TME CHURCH. a protector to the Universal Church, added to Charles' elevation those joyful acclamations which are a sign of its completion. In later times it was universally acknowledged that only a prince anointed and crowned by the Pope could possess the full imperial dignity." 103. Charles did not receive the title of emperor by right of con- quest, but from the Pope. He came to Rome, not as conqueror, but in compliance with the prayer of Leo III. He came as protector of the Holy See, an office held by him, as well as by his father and grandfather, in virtue of the patriciate conferred upon them by the Popes. He did not owe his elevation to the conquest of Rome and Italy. In crowning Charles the Great emperor of the West, the Pope had no intention of conferring upon him an hereditary dignity, neither of relinquishing for the future his right of electing the most suitable protector for the Holy See. No historical witness confirms the supposition that the dignity conferred was hereditary ; everything speaks to the contrary. 104. The imperial dignity included, according to the ideas at that time, the protection of the Church and the supreme guidance of Christian nations in civil affairs. The coronation added no new power, nor did it confer upon the emperor any territorial jurisdiction, but only a supremacy of honor over other sovereigns, enjoining upon him the duty, above all other princes, of defending the Church and maintaining her rights. It was necessary that some powerful mon- arch should be endowed by the Pope with a special preeminence among other sovereigns as the protector of his civil princedom and of his spiritual supremacy. For this reason Charlemagne styled himself the "devoted Defender and humble Protector of the Holy Church and of the Apostolic See." 105. " From that time," writes Archbishop Kenrick, "the Bish- op of Rome necessarily enjoyed an immense itifluence over the em- pire, and the kingdoms which arose under its shadow ; and he was regarded by princes and people as their father and judge. He created a new order of things, assigning to each potentate his place in the political world, and controlling by laws the movements of each, in order to maintain the general harmony. His relations to the empire were most direct, since he determined who should elect the emperor, and exercised the right of examining whether the individual chosen was admissible. The power exercised by the Popes in designating the emperor, and giving the royal title to the chiefs of various na- tions, in a word, regulating the whole political order, cannot fairly be branded as an usurj^ation, since it was vested in them by the force no LY R OMAN EMPIRE. 389 of circumstances; their spiritual office placing them at the head of the Christian world, and inspiring confidence in the justice and wisdom of their acts. It was not a result of positive concessions made by the respective nations, although it was acquiesced in and confirmed by the free and frequent acts of people and princes. Neither was it a divine prerogative of their office; but it naturally grew out of their ecclesiastical relations, and was strengthened and sustained by their sacred character." 106. The elevation of Charlemagne to the imperial dignity in- augurated a close alliance between the Papacy and the Empire, the Church and the State. At the head of Christianity stood two men anointed by God — the Pope chosen by Him to wield the spiritual power for the good of mankind, and the new Roman Emperor, elect- ed freely by the Pope to control the froward and unbelieving by means of his temporal power, and bo support the Church in the dis- charge of her pastoral office. How wise and serviceable this relation- ship between the spiritual and the temporal powers was, the history of the following centuries abundantly proves. For want of powerful protectors, who were equal and faithful to their vocation, the Church was in a deplorable condition at the end of the ninth century and the first half of the tenth. 107. This holy alliance between the Church and the Empire was fully recognised by Charlemagne. Whilst he reigned, the harmony between him and the Pope was in no wise disturbed. This truly great monarch consecrated his power, his intelligence, and his gift of government to a higher end — to the defence and exaltation of the Church, and the promotion and propagation of the Christian religion, also among the heathen nations of the West. Charlemagne enter- tained a filial veneration for Christ's Vicar on earth, whom he con- sulted in all important affairs. Thus, in 806, he submitted to the Pope his plan of dividing his empire among his three sons. Four times Charlemagne went to Rome, and twice he had the happiness of receiving the Pope in Germany. After a glorious reign of forty-seven years, the great Emperor died in the seventy-second year of his age, in the year 814. He was buried at Aix-la-Chapelle. At the solicitation of Emperor Frederic HI., Charlemagne was canonized by the anti- pope Paschal IH., A. D. 1165. As no ligitimate Pontiff ever annulled the act, Charlemagne received the title and honors of a saint in some parts of Germany, France and Belgium. 290 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. SECTION XII. — SUCCESSORS OF LEO III. Emperor Louis the Pious — Paschal I. — Eugenius II. — Valentinus — Gregory IV.— Sergins II.— Leo IV.— Leonine City— Benedict III.— Fable of Papess Joan. 108. At the diet of 813, Charlemagne, with the sanction of the Pope, had appointed his only surviving son, Louis, as his colleague and successor in the empire. Louis, surnamed the Pious, or the Mild, A. D. 814-840, possessed, indeed, the virtues and sentiments of his great father, but lacked his energy, his loftiness of views and firmness of purpose. His vacillating disposition and impolitic measures drew contempt on his authority, and finally brought misery upon him, and disorder on the empire. Twice he was outraged and deposed by his own sons, but reestablished by his affectionate subjects. The young emperor was crowned, together with his consort Hermingard, by Pope Stephen V., successor of Leo III., at Rheims, A. D. 816. Shortly after his return to Rome, Stephen died, having reigned only seven months. 109. On his death, Paschal I. was unanimously chosen and com- pelled to assume the pontificate, A. D. 817-824. He sent an embassy to Emperor Louis to renew the existing friendly relations between the Holy See and the Empire. By a new decree, the emperor, A. D. 818, confirmed and somewhat enlarged the donations made to the Roman See by his father and grandfather. In 822, he shared with his eldest son, Lothaire, the government of the empire, and declared him King of Italy. The young king was crowned emperor by the Pope at Rome the following year. 110. Already that turbulent spirit of the Roman people, which afterwards, in fierce strife with the nobility and the lawless petty sover- ereigns, degraded the Papacy to its lowest state, was breaking out, and began to disturb papal elections. The election of Eugenius 11. , A. D. 824-827, the candidate of the clergy and the nobility, gave rise to popular disturbances, which were quieted only by the speedy arrival of King Lothaire in Rome. To prevent the recurrence of similar dis- orders, this prince, conjointly with the Pope, published a constitution providing for the safety of the Sovereign Pontiff, and making obedi- ence to the Pope and to the magistrates appointed by him obligatory upon all. On this occasion also Lothaire is said to have published a decree requiring that the consecration of the Pope should take place in presence of the imperial ambassadors, and after the Pope-elect had SUCCESSORS OF LEO III. 291 taken the oath of fealty to the emperor. But the authenticity of this decree is very doubtful. Pope Eugenius, in 827, convened a Council, in which wise measures were adopted for the reform of Church- discipline. 111. After the brief pontificate of Valentine, who reigned only forty days, Gregory TV. ascended the Apostolic Chair, A. D. 827-844. The quarrels among the imperial family were to him a source of much sorrow and disquietude. It was during his pontificate that the sons of Louis the Mild twice rose in arms against their father, A. D. 830 aud 833. Gregory, deeming it his duty to act as mediator, set out for Gaul to prevent so unnatural a conflict. Lothaire forcibly detained the Pope in his camp, and thus made him the apparent abet- tor of the infamous treason. Louis was taken prisoner by his sons ; and, to make it impossible for him ever to reign again, Lothaire forced his father into the rank of penitents and shut him up in a monastery at Soissons. All this was approved by certain bishops at an assembly at Campiegne. Pope Gregory, however, never acknowledged the ab- dication of Louis; and a numerous assembly of bishops and nobles at St. Denys, A. D. 834, declared the resignation of the aged emperor, which had been extorted by force, null and void, and solemnly re- stored him to the imperial dignity. After the death of Louis the Mild, his sons took up arms against one another. The fratricidal strife was finally settled by the famous Treaty of Verdun, by which the empire of Charlemagne was divided into the three kingdoms of Italy, France and Germany. Lothaire, with the title of emperor, re- ceived Italy. 112. Upon the death of Gregory IV., Sergius II. was elected, and, on account of the menacing usurpation of the papal throne by the deacon John, was immediately consecrated without the sanction of the emperor. During his pontificate, A. D. 844-847, the Saracens ravaged Southern Italy and even threatened Rome. It was Serguis that built the Scala Sancta, or* sacred Stairway, near the Lateran Basilica. The eight years of Leo's IV. pontificate, A. D. 847-855, were employed chiefly in arming and defending the Roman State against the Saracens, over whom he gained a complete victory. He encom passed the Vatican hill with walls and towers, and founded what has since been called after him the " Leonine City." In 850, he crowned Louis II., son of Lothaire, emperor; and three years later, A. D. 853, the young Alfred of England, afterward surnamed the Great, in com- pany with his father Ethelwolf, came to Rome and was anointed king by the Pope. In 850 and 853, the Pope held Synods at Rome, at which canons were enacted enforcing ecclesiastical discipline. 292 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH 113. Leo IV. was succeeded by Benedict III., A. 855-858.^ His election was opposed by the ambassadors of Emperor Louis II., who supported the pretensions of the antipope Anastasius. But the constancy of both clergy and laity obliged the imperial messengers to recognize the lawful Pontiff. Benedict III. is praised for his meekness and forbearance towards his adversaries. He beautified many churches, and, in conjunction with King Ethelwolf, re-opened the English college in Rome. The pontificate of Benedict HI. is memorable for the intrusion of Photius into the see of Constantinople, which led to the estrangement and final schism between the Latin and Greek Churches. SECTION XIII. PONTIFICATE OF NICHOLAS I. THE GREAT THE PAPACY TO THE CLOSE OF THE NINTH CENTURY. Nicholas I.— Great Events of his Pontificate — Ignatius and Photius— John of Ravenna— Hincmar of Rheims — Divorce of King Lothaire — Pope Nich- ' olas interferes — Pope Hadrian II. — Lothaire at Rome — Hincmar of Laon — John VIII. — His embarrassing Position — Saracen Invasion— Princes of Italy — Coronation of Charles II. and Charles HI. — Marinus — Hadrian HI. — Stepnen VI. — Formosus. 114. Benedict III. was succeeded in the Papacy by his deacon, the highly gifted and energetic Nicholas I., A. D. 858-867. His in- flexible firmness in maintaining the rights of the Holy See against arrogant metropolitans ; his championship of oppressed innocence against royal tyranny; and his heroic character and magnanimity in times of peril and affliction, won Nicholas the surname of Great. Three important events signalized his pontificate, — the outbreak of the Greek schism; the prohibition of the divorce of King Lothaire from his Queen Theutberga; and the successful assertion of papal supre- macy over presumptions prelates. 115. Ignatius the lawful patriarch of Constantinople, on the false charge of high-treason, had been unjustly deposed, exiled and 1. The story that between the pontificates of Leo IV. and Benedict III. the papal throne was occupied for more than two years by a woman— Papess Joan— is now univer- sally pronounced a fable by even Protestant writers. 1. The interval between the death of Leo IV., which took place July 17th, 855, and the accession of Benedict III., who was elected in the same month and consecrated September 29th of the same year, leaves no room for the imaKlnary reig-n of a papess, for which two years and a half are claimed. 2. Hincmar of Kheims, in a letter to Pope Nicholas I., observes that the messenger whom he had sent to Leo IV., learned on the way the news of that Pontiff's death, and on his arrival at Home found Benedict III. on the throne. 3. The story is not mentioned by any of the Latin or Greek writers f x'om the ninth to the thirteenth cen- tury. It made its first appearance about the year 1240 or 1250— nearly 400 years after its supposed date ; beinf? first mentioned in the chronicle of Martinus Polonus and by Ste- phen of Bourbon who died, the former in 1378, and the latter in 1261. 4. Photius, who searched for whatever mig-ht cast odium upon the Roman Church and the Popes, does not mention the fable. 5. As regards the statement of Anastasius the Librarian of the ninth century, and Marianus Scotus of the eleventh century, it is established beyond a doubt that the story was interpolated into their works, since some manuscripts and earl- ier copies of their writings do not contain it. PONTIFICATE OF NICHOLAS I. 293 treated with the greatest inhumanity by the licentious Caesar Bardas. The persecuted prelate implored the judgment and protection of the Head of the Church. With admirable constancy Nicholas maintained^ the cause of Ignatius and refused the recognition of the usurper Pho- tius. He likewise forced the haughty archbishop John of Ravenna to submission, compelling him to make restitution to the parties he had wronged, as well as to the Roman See for seizing its estates. 116. Against Hincmar, archbishop of Rheims, the most learned, political, and powerful ecclesiastic in France, Nicholas defended with firmness the right of suffragan bishops to appeal to the Pope, and condemned the unlawfulness of deposing a bishop without con- sulting the Holy See. Two synods, presided over by Hincmar, had deposed Rhotadius, bishop of Soissons, and sentenced him to impris- onment for appealing to the Holy See. Nicholas promptly annulled the sentence and reinstated Rhotadius. 117. In regard to Lothaire, king of Lorraine, who had divorced his wife Theutberga to marry his concubine Waldrada, Nicholas with a like apostolic firmness maintained the sanctity and indissolubility of marriage. He compelled the king to put away the concubine and take back his lawful wife, annulled the synodical decrees authorizing the divorce and the adulterous alliance, and deposed the prelates — Archbishops Giinther of Cologne and Teutgand of Treves — through whose intrigues the iniquitous judgment had been secured. With steadfast severity the Pope persisted to the end in his resistance to the intercession of the emperor Louis and of many German bishops, and even to the supplication of the unhappy queen, who implored the dissolution of her marriage with Lothaire. 118. Nicholas was succeeded by Hadrian II., A. D. 867-872, who resolutely maintained, though not perhaps with equal judgment and* success, the principles of his great predecessor. Yielding to the influ- ence of Emperor Louis, he at length removed the excommunication from Waldrada, and restored her to the communion with the Church; he also admitted King Lothaire to Holy Communion after that prince had testified under oath that he had held no communication with Waldrada since her excommunication by Pope Nicholas. The sudden and miserable death of the king, which occurred shortly after, was generally regarded as a just punishment of God. Hadrian like- wise espoused the cause of the younger Hincmar, bishop of Laon, against his uncle, Hincmar of Rheims, by whom he had been deposed without authority from the Pope. 119. The position of John YIIL, A. D. 872-882, a vigorous and indefatigable Pontiff, was embarrassing in the extreme. During his 294 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. whole pontificate Rome was continually in danger of falling into the hands of the Saracens. These invaders had now obtained a firm foot- ing in Southern Italy, whence they made predatory incursions into the papal territory, and even threatened Rome itself. The Pope, in the most urgent and suppliant language, appealed for aid to Charles the Bald, whom, in 875, he had crowned emperor. " If all the trees in the forest," such are the words of the Pope, " were turned into tongues, they could not describe the ravages of these impious pagans. The devout people of God are destroyed by a continual slaughter; he, who escapes the fire and the sword, is carried a cap- tive into exile. Cities, castles and villages are utterly wasted and without an inhabitant. The bishops are wandering about in beggary, or fly to Rome as the only place of refuge." 120. Yet even more formidable to the Holy See than the Saracens were the petty Christian princes of Italy. In some parts of Italy had gradually arisen independent dukes and princes, who, far from check- ing, only helped to increase the existing evils, and even made common cause with the Mohammedans. There were the Lombard dukes of Benevento and Spoleto, the dukes of Naples, and the princes of Capua, Amalfi and Salerno. They were ready on every occasion to plunder the patrimony of St. Peter, and to enrich themselves, or enlarge their dominions at the expense of the Holy See. On the vacancy after the death of Pope Nicholas, Lafhbert of Spoleto had occupied and pil- laged Rome, sparing neither monastery nor church. The Neopolitans and neighboring princes formed an alliance with the Saracens, which the Pope used every means to break. 121. Under these distressing circumstances. Pope John appealed for aid, first to Charles the Bald, and after the latter's death, in 877, to his son, Louis of France. But the Carlovingian princes were unable or unwilling to grant the help and protection solicited by the Pope ; he was obliged to purchase the safety of Rome by the pay- ment of an annual tribute to the Saracens. In 881, the Pope bestowed the imperial crown on Charles III. the Fat, who once more united, under one rule, the whole dominion of Charlemagne. For his inca- pacity and cowardice, however, Charles was deposed by his own vassals, A. D. 887. He was the last emperor of the Carlovingian dynasty. Pope John died without having accomplished the great object of all his zeal and endeavors during the ten years of his troublesome pontificate — the liberation of Italy from Saracen invasion. 122. Popes Marinus, A. D. 882-884, and Hadrian III., A. D. 884- 885, reigning only a little over two years, adorned the Papacy by their many virtues. In the pontificate of Marinus occured ^Jje destruction EN8LA VEMEMT OF THE HOL T SEE. 295 of the celebrated monastery of Monte Cassino by the Saracens. Stephen VI., A. D. 885-891, was universally revered for his zeal and boundless charity. He was succeeded by Formosus, A. D. 891-896. The disturbed affairs of Italy, and the oppressions perpetrated by the factions of Lambert, duke of Spoleto, and Berengar, duke of Friuli, who both aspired to the kingdom of Italy and the imperial crown, caused the Pope to summon Arnulf, king of Germany, to come to the relief of the Holy See and Italy. Arnulf obeyed the summons, made a forcible entry into Rome, released the Pope whom the Lam- bertine faction, having gained the upper hand, had thrown into prison, and was by him crowned emperor, A. D. 896. SECTIOX XIV. THE PAPACY FROM THE DEATH OF FORMOSUS TO JOHN XII ENSLAVEMENT OF THE HOLY SEE. Iron Age— Anarchy in Italy — Humilitating Condition of the Roman See — Boniface VH. — Stephen VII. — Formosans and Anti-Formosans— Rom- anus — Theodorus — John IX. — Benedict IV. — Leo V. — Sergius III. — Counts of Tusculum — John X. — Rapid Papal Succession — Alberic Prince of Rome — John Xll. 123. We come now to the darkest period in the history of the Church, commonly called " the iron age," because of the general de- cay of morals and learning which characterized that epoch. Europe was then in a state of fearful convulsions and disorders, caused by the decline of the imperial authority and by the ceaseless incursions of the Saracens and other barbarians. This was particularly the case with Italy, where the strife of contending races and factions raged with the utmost fury, and where rival princes, being unrestrained by the imperial power, which had been suspended for forty years, knew no limits to their ambition. Guy and Lambert of Spoleto, Louis III. of Burgundy, Berengar of Friuli, Hugh and Lothaire of Provence, and Berengar of Ivrea, strove for, and successively obtained, the mastership of the distracted country. The Saracens and Hungarians, who overran Italy, spread desolation all around and pushed their incursions to the very walls of Rome. 124. For want of a protector, able and willing to preserve peace and order among the petty princes and states of Italy, and to defend the Pope and his principality against the rebellions and intrigues of powerful nobles and opposite factions, the Roman Church was in a lamentable condition during the first half of the present century. The papal throne had became an object of fierce, and, at times, sanguin- ary strife. Whoever now obtained the mastery of Rome by any 296 HISTORY OB' THE CHURCH. means of violence, intrigue or factions, arrogated the right of nomin- ating the Head of Christendom. The petty tyrants, who ruled at Rome, held the Apostolic See in a long and disgraceful servitude, and thrust into the Chair of St. Peter their creatures, their kinsmen, or their own sons, who, as might be expected, were not always worthy of that high and responsible position. " But these Popes," Gibbon well remarks, " were chosen, not by the Cardinals, but by their lay patrons." God permitted these trials to show that the government of His Church depends, not like other governments, upon the virlues or vices of its representatives, but on His divine power. 125. "We need not be surprised," says Archbishop Kenrick, "that daring and licentious men, under such circumstances, were sometimes seen to occupy the highest places in the Church ; but we must admire the overruling providence of God, which preserved the succession of Chief Pastors, and gave from time to time bright exam- ples of Christian virtue. The scandals of those ages menaced, indeed, with destruction the Church, which drifted like a shattered vessel, whose pilot had uo power or care to direct her course, whilst wave on wave dashed over her, and no light beamed on her but the light- ning flash, as bolt after bolt struck her masts; but He who controls the tempest slept within her, and in His own good time He bade the storm be still, and all was calm and sunshine." 126. The elevation of !Arnulf to the imperial dignity by Formo- sus, had greatly incensed the Italian party, and the death of this able and zealous Pontiff left Rome, torn by the factions of the rival emper- ors, in a state of dissension. During the short period of eight years, nine Popes followed in rapid succession. The immediate suc- cessor of Formosus, Pope Boniface VI, A. D. 896, reigned only fifteen days, when the party of Lambert succeded in intruding the fanatical Stephen VII., A. D. 896-897, into the papal chair. He was the first Pope who grievously disgraced his high office. Yielding to party, spiritj he had the body of Formosus unearthed, and in a Council assembled for that purpose, declared his election to the Papacy irreg- ular ; after cutting off three fingers of the right hand, the body was cast into the Tiber. The ordinations which Formosus had conferred were declared invalid. The barbarity of this act, which, it is consol- ing to know, were committed by an intruder, aroused the indignation of the people, by whom the perpetrator of the outrage was seized and strangled in prison. 127. Rome had now become the seat of discord and party-strife; two rival and mutually hostile factions — the Formosans and Anti- ENSLAVEMENT OF THE HOLT SEE. 297 Formosans, or party of Lambert — fiercely opposed each other. The two succeeding Popes — the pious Romanus and the mild Theodorus II. — survived their promotion each only a few months. Theodorus aimed at reconciling the parties and solemnly reinterred Formosus; the body of the ill-treated Pontiff, which had been found by fishermen in the Tiber, was again deposited in the papal vaults and the clerics ordained by him were reinstated. The pontificate of the active and energetic John IX., A. D. 898-900, who labored most zealously to heal the evils of his time, closed the ninth century. A Roman Coun- cil held under him, annulled the unprecedented judgment passed on Pope Formosus, and solemnly restored his memory. The orders which he had bestowed were confirmed, and re-ordinations condemned. 128. The year 900 was inaugurated by the accession of the vir- tuous and benevolent Benedict IV., A. D. 900-903. The unfortunate Louis of Provence was crowned emperor by him, in 901. Leo V., A. D. 903, who is praised for the singular purity of his life, was imprisoned, and the Papacy usurped by a certain Christopher. The usurper, after six months, was dethroned to make room for Sergius III., A. D. 904- 911. The moral character of Sergius is grievously assailed by Luit- prand, a contemporary writer, whose testimony, however, is weakened by his known hostility to the counts of Tusculum, to whom Sergius was related, and by his partial devotion to the imperial interests.^ Flodoard and Deacon John, other contemporary writers, represent Sergius as a favorite with the Roman people and a kind and active Pontiff, w^ho labored strenuously for the restoration of ecclesiastical discipline. With the exception that he was an opj^onent of Pope Formosus, he is guiltless of the charges brought against him by the slanderous Luitprand. 129. After the brief pontificates of Anastasius III., A. D. 911- 913, and Lando A. D. 913-914, who were reduced to inactivity, the Apostolic See w as held in a disgraceful servitude by the counts of Tusculum, for a space of fifty years, during which period three notor- ious women — Theodora and her daughters, Marozia and Theodora — had an almost absolute sway over papal elections. 130. On the death of Lando, John X. was called to the Papacy A. D. 914-928. He was a near relative, according to some, the nephew of the elder Theodora. Upon this fact the lying Luitprand built up his grievous accusations against that Pontiff, whom he 1. Luitprand, bishop of Cremona, lived about the middle of the tenth century. He was the author of several historical works containing' a f rig-htful picture of the depravity of the ag-e. But the truthfulness of his statements is very much shaken by the loose- ness of his own life and his courtly servility. Being- a courtier of Otho I. and a violent adherent of the German party, he was bitterly hostile to the Italian party, and all the Popes who favored it. 298 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. charges with gross licentiousness. The conflicting statements of Luitprand are a sufficient proof of the falsehood of his allegations. By other contemporary writers, John X. is represented as a Pontiff of unimpeachable conduct, whose reign was eminently useful to the Church. The extraordinary ability which he exhibited as archbishop of Ravenna, had pointed him out as the one best qualified to occupy the papal chair at that critical time. Pope John displayed great activity and energy for the liberation of Italy from the Saracens. He united the Italian princes into a powerful confederacy, and placing him- self at the head of the combined army, he utterly routed the Moslems and freed the country from their power, A. D. 916. John next mani- fested a disposition to break the power of the Tuscan tyrants, and free the Papacy from its degrading dependency. But his noble en- deavors were anticipated by the party of Marozia. He was surprised in the Lateran palace by this daring woman ; his brother Peter was killed before his face, and the Pope himself thrown into prison, where shortly after he died, it is said, by violence. 131. After the two short and, perhaps, abbreviated pontificates of Leo VI., A. D. 928-929, and Stephen VIII., A. D. 929-931, Marozia caused her own son by her first husband, Alberic I., to be elected Pope, under the name of John XI., he being then only twenty-five years old, A. D. 931-936. The youthful Pontiff was wholly dependent on his mother, and, after her banishment from Rome, on his still younger step-brother, Alberic II., who, with the title of " Princeps Romae," reigned as absolute sovereign over Rome, and kept the Pope, his brother, in strict captivity during his lifetime. 132. The rule of Prince Alberic, which lasted twenty-two years, was conducted with ability, justice, and moderation. The elections of Popes during his reign were free and peaceful, and the best men among the Roman clergy were chosen. Such were the pious Leo VII., A. D. 936-939, and Stephen IX., A. D. 939-943, who were wholly devoted to the work of peace and the interests of the Church; and the two saintly Pontiffs, Marinus II., A. D. 943-946, and Agapetus II., A. D. 946-956, who distinguished themselves by their zeal for re- form. Notwithstanding the personal worth of these Popes, they were nevertheless obliged to submit to the dictatorship of Alberic. 133. Prince Alberic was instrumental in restoring the temporal sovereignty to tlie Popes. Shortly before his death, in 954, he induced the Romans to promise that they would elect his son Octavian, Pope, on the first vacancy in the Holy See. Octavian, accordingly, after the death of Agapetus II., assumed the pontificate, although he was then but eighteen years old, A. D. 956-964. He took the name of John PAPACY AFTER RESTORATION OF THE EMPIRE. 299 XII., being the lirst Pope who thus changed his name. This youthful Pontiif, whose training and conduct in no wise befitted him for his exalted office, was an unworthy occupant of the papal chair, upon which he brought disgrace by his dissolute life. But the Church, then in a most humiliating state of bondage, cannot be held responsible for the outrageous conduct of this young profligate, who was not her choice, but who had intruded himself into the pontificate by means of the temporal power which he inherited from his father. SECTION XV. THE PAPACY AFTER THE RESTORATION OF THE EMPIRE, UNDER OTHO I. THE GREAT. Otho I. — Restoration of the Empire— Deposition of John XII.— Leo VIII. Antipope— Reinstatement and Death of John XII. — John XIII.— Otho's Conduct towards the Holy See— Creseentius— Benedict VI.— Boniface VII. Antipope— Benedict VII.— John XIV.— John XV.— Otho III. in Rome — Gregory V. — Sylvester II. 134. Upon the death of King Lothaire, in 950, Berengar of Ivrea, grandson of Emperor Berengar, became King of Italy. Adelaide, the widow of Lothaire, Berengar wished to marry to his son Adalbert. But she sought and obtained the protection of King Otho I. of Ger- many, who married her and was crowned king of Lombardy, A. D. 951. Thy tyranny of Berengar caused Pope John XII. and the Italian nobles to invoke the aid of Otho. The gallant king of Ger- many again marched into Italy, and having deposed Berenger, pro- ceeded to Rome, where he was crowned Emperor, A. D. 962. Thus, after a vacancy of thirty-eight years, the Empire of the West was a second time restored, and from that time the imperial dignity remained permanently with the kings of Germany. 135. Otho I. promised under oath to respect and uphold the authority of the Pope, and, by a new diploma, secured to him the states that had been donated to the Holy See by Pepin and Charlemagne. The Pope and the Romans, on their part, swore to hold no connection with the enemies of the emperor. John, however, violated these promises, and entered into an alliance against the emperor with the Greeks and Adalbert of Ivrea. The faithlessness of the Pope, and the loud complaints about his unedifying conduct caused Otho to hasten again to Rome, where he called a Synod, which deposed John XII., and chose in his stead Leo VIII. After the departure of Otho, John, returning to Rome, drove out the antipope and retaliated upon all who sided with the emperor. Shortly after, John suddenly fell sick and died . Thus providence had vindicated his rights by restor- 300 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. ing him to the Papacy; and on the other hand, by his sudden death, brought his disgraceful career to an early close. 136. The Romans, instead of closing the schism by choosing Leo VIII., the protege of the emperor, elected Benedict V., a man of great virtue and learning, and swore to defend him, even against the emperor himself. On receiving this news, Otho returned, besieged and took Rome and reinstated Leo VIII. Benedict, the lawful Pon- tiff, was carried away into Germany and kept in captivity at Hamburg, where he died the following year, 965, surviving his rival three months. With the concurrence of the ambassadors of Otho, the Romans elected John XIII., A. D. 965-972. The severity with which the new Pope maintained his sovereign rights against the nobility, caused an insurrection against him ; he was seized and held in prison for ten months. Otho, on learning this, hurried to Rome and inflicted a summary punishment upon the authors of the revolt, A. D. 966. The following year the emperor's son, Otho II., received from the Pope the imperial crown. 137. Otho I. died in the year 973. He well deserves the name of Great, notwithstanding his grievous errors and wrongs toward the Holy See. The return of the old disorders at Rome, made, perhaps, his intervention necessary ; but he certainly carried it too far with regard to Popes John XII. and Benedict V. His example became a f>recedence for subsequent emperors, some of whom interfered more than it was meet in ecclesiastical affairs and in the election of Popes, to the great detriment of the Holy See and the Church in general. 138. The death of Otto I. was the signal for new outbreaks and disturbances in Rome. An attempt was made to overthrow the imperial power in Italy. The movement was headed by Crescentius, or Cencius, who is supposed to have been a son of Theodora, the sister of the notorious Marozia. Having made himself master of Rome, Crescentius oppressed, imprisoned, and even murdered the Popes favoring the imperial power. Pope Benedict VI., A. D. 972-974, successor of John XIII, was dethroned, imprisoned in the castle of St. Angelo, and finally strangled; and Cardinal Franco, a partisan of Cres- centius, intruded into the Chair of St. Peter as Boniface VII. After one month, however, the intruder was dispossessed by the Romans and fled to Constantinople. With the assent of Otho IL, the bishop of Sutri was enthroned as Benedict VII., A. D. 975-983. He excom- municated Cardinal Franco, the antipope, and governed the Church with vigor and great prudence. 139. Benedict VII. was succeeded by Peter, bishop of Pavia and chancellor to Otho IL, as John XIV., A. D. 983-985. The premature I PAPACY AFTER THE RESTORATION OF EMPIRE. 301 death of the emperor in 983, was the signal for a fresh revolt in Rome. Cardinal Franco returned to Rome, and, with the aid' of the Crescen- tians, dethroned the Pope, confined him in the castle of St. Angelo, and there left him to die of hunger. But the early and sudden death of the antipope enabled the Roman clergy to elect a worthy Pope in the person of John XV. (A. D. 985-996), who governed with great prudence and success, notwithstanding the many difficulties of his po- sition. In the meantime, the son of Crescentius, called Crescentius II., or Numentanus, had seized upon the Roman principality and made himself patrician and governor of Rome. His tyranny obliged the Pope to leave Rome, and to invite the young emperor-elect, Otho III., to his aid, A. D. 996. 140. On his arrival at Rome, Otho found the Roman See va- cant by the death of John XV. ; through his iniluence, his cousin Bruno, a man of extensive literary acquirements, was raised to the papal chair as Gregory V., A. D. 996-999. He was the first German Pope. By him, Otho was crowned emperor. After the departure of Otho, Crescentius renewed his insurrection, drove out Gregory, and caused the elevation of John Philagathos, bishop of Piacenza, to the Papacy, who assumed the name of John XVI. Otho returned, and in company with Gregory, entered Rome. The antipope was severely punished, and Crescentius, the author of the revolt, together with twelve of his principal adherents, was beheaded. Pope Gregory la- bored zealously for the reformation of ecclesiastical life; but his life of usefulness was cut short by a premature death. 141. Gregory was succeeded by the first French Pope, the famous and learned Gerbert, former tutor of Emperor Otto III. He assumed the name of Sylvester II., A. D. 999-1003. Xo Pope so truly gi-eat had occupied the papal chair since the time of Nicholas I. He dis- played great zeal, talent, and severity in his administration, especially in reforming and elevating the clergy. His uncommon knowledge of the fine arts and sciences, and his rapid elevation to the highest dig- nities in the Church, caused him, in a barbarous age, to pass for a magician. To King Stephen of Hungary and his successors he gave the title of " Apostolic Majesty " and the right to have the cross borne before him. Sylvester was the first Pope that conceived the idea of arming Christendom for delivering the Holy Land from the hands of the Mussulmans. But this plan perished with the death of Otho III. in 1002, whom the Pope followed to the grave in the suc- ceeding year. Otho III. entertained the idea of transferring the cap- ital of the empire to Rome, but was prevented from carrying it u)nt by his early death. 302 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. SECTION XVI. THE PAPACY FROM THE DEATH OF SYLVESTER II. TO THAT OF LEO IX. RENEWED DEPENDENCY OF THE HOLY SEE. John Crescentius Lord of Rome — Popes under his administration — Tuseulan Popes — Benedict VIII. — Emperor Henry II.— John XIX. — Emperor Con- rad II. — Benedict IX. — Gregory VI. — Papal Schism — Emperor Henry III. — German Popes— Clement II. — Damasus II. — Leo IX. — Robert Guiscard. 142. After the death of Otho III. and Pope Sylvester II., the Roman pontificate again became the prey of Italian factions. The Crescentian family, under John Crescentius, regained predominance in Rome and maintained it during the pontificates of John XYII., which lasted only five months, of John XVIII., A. D. 1003-1009, and Sergius IV., A. D. 1009-1012; the last two ruled the Church in peace. and with honor to themselves. After the death of John Crescentius in 1012, the dominion of this family passed over to the counts of Tusculum, who retained it for thirty years; they, as a rule, placed their rela- tives on the papal throne. 143. Benedict VIII., A. D. 1012-1024, was the son of the count of Tusculum, but proved a most worthy Pontiff, who spared neither weariness nor exertion to restore to his high oflice the value it had lost. An antipope, named Gregory, set up by the opposite party, forced Benedict to leave Rome. He was restored to his see by the em- peror St. Henry II. of Germany, who with his wife, the sainted Cun- igunda, received from him the imperial crown, A. D. 1014. The in- defatigable Pontiff labored strenuously for church-reform, and held several Councils, the decrees of which the emperor confirmed as laws of the empire. The Pope and the emperor planned the convocation of a General Council for the purpose of effecting a universal and thor- ough reformation of morals and discipline, but were prevented from carrying out this grand project by their premature death. With Henry II. ended the Saxon line of emperors. He was canonized in 1146 ; his empress, Cunigunda, in 1200. 144. Benedict's brother, Romanus, succeeded him in the pontifi- cate, under the name of John XIX., A. D. 1024-1032. His reign of eight years was a laudable administration. In 1027, he conferred, in the presence of the kings of Burgundy and Denmark, the imperial crown upon Conrad II. of Germany, with whom the Franconian dynas- ty ascended the German throne. Upon the death of this Pope, his brother, Count Alberic, notwithstanding the remonstrances of the cardinals, secured, by liberal -contributions among the people, the election of his son, Theophylact, a youth of eighteen, as Benedict IX., A. D. 1033-1044. ^ PAPACY FROM SYLVESTER II. TO LEO IX. 303 145. During the eleven years of his reign, under the protection of the Emperor, and supported by the power of his family, this papal youth harrassed the people by his capricious tyranny, and disgraced the Apostolic See by the wanton conduct of his life. The Romans, disgusted with his disorders, expelled him ; but he was restored by Emperor Conrad. In 1044, he was driven away a second time, when an antipope, styled Sylvester III., was intruded on the throne for three months. To free the Holy See from the degradation to which it had sunk in consequence of the bribery and tyranny of the nobles, Gratian, a distinguished and respected Roman archpriest, by offering a large subsidy in money, induced Benedict to resign and withdraw to private life. Gratian was then himself canonically elected Pope, under the name of Gregory VI., A. D. 1044-1046. But Benedict soon repented of his resignation, and renewed his pretensions to the Papacy. There were now three claimants to the Papal office — Benedict IX., who had formally abdicated ; Sylvester III., the antipope ; and Gregory VI., the now legitimate Pontiff. 146. To put an end to the schism, Henry III., successor of Con- rad II., was invited to interpose his aid. On his arrival in Italy, he caused Gregory VI. to call a Council, that the claims of the rival Popes might be examined and measures be adopted to restore peace and order. The Council, which met at Sutri in 1846, set both Sylvester jand Benedict entirely aside, and confirmed the resignation of Gregory VI., who disclaiming most solemnly all selfish motives in assuming the pontificate, abdicated of his own free will. Accompanied by his disciple Hildebrand, he went into exile to Germany, where he died in 1048. 147. Upon the recommendation of Henry III., three German bishops successively ascended the papal throne.^ Suidger of Bamberg, as Clement II., reigned only nine months, A. D. 1046-2047. He crowned Henry emperor, and held a Council at Rome for the extirpation of simony. His successor, Damasua II., survived his enthronization only twenty-three days; before his elevation to the pontificate he was bishop of Brixen. 148. On the premature death of Damasus II., the pious and learned bishop Bruno of Toul, after a long resistance, finally con- sented to accept the papal dignity, on the condition, however, that he should be freely elected by the clergy of the Roman Church. He was enthroned as Leo IX., A. D. 1049. With his accession began the 1. It must be acknowledged, that the worst scandals of those times were given by- Romans, or other Italians raised to that high eminence by the prejudices and partiality of their countrymen, or still more by the swords of their kinsfolk, and that the splendor and glory of the pontificate were restored by Popes of German origin, or who rose to ■office under imperial protection.— Kenrick. 304 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. dawn of better and brighter days for the Papacy. He resumed and carried on with untiring zeal the great work of reformation begun by Clement II. His pontificate was one continued journey, undertaken for the purpose of enforcing everywhere ecclesiastical reforms. In Italy, France, and Germany numerous Councils were held and presided over by the Pope in person. Severe laws were enacted for the extir- pation of the then prevailing vices of simony and clerical incontinence. 149. The pontificate of Leo IX. was troubled by the Norman invasion. Under their famous chief, Robert Guiscard, the Normans ravaged and devastated Lower Italy and the Papal States. Leo enlisted an army to expel these barbarous freebooters from the peninsula. But the expedition failed, and the Pope himself was taken prisoner. The conquerors, beholding in their captive the Vicar of Christ, knelt before him and asked his blessing. Guiscard promised to support the Pope against hi^ enemis, and was invested by him with the lands- which he had conquered or would conquer from the Saracens. With the successful though short pontificate of Leo IX. closes the first. epoch of the Middle Ages. He died A. D. 1054. CHAPTER III. CATHOLIC SCIENCE AND LITERATURE. SECTION XVII. GENERAL STATE OF LEARNING IN THIS EPOCH EN- DEAVORS OP THE CHURCH TO PROMOTE LETTERS. Decline of Literature—Its Causes— Preservation of Learning— Causes that prevented the total Extinction of Learning— Literary Popes — Their Measures to promote Learning— Cathedral and Conventual Schools- Primary Schools— High Schools— Monks and Monasteries— Charlemagne —His Palatine School— Famous Scholars —Famous Monastic Schools— The Irish Church a Nursery of Learning— Testimony of Bede— State of Learning in England. 150. During the disturbances which followed the fall of the Roman Empire in the West, and the establishment of barbarian nations on its ruins, learning rapidly declined in Italy and Southern Europe generally. The conquests of the northern nations, and the ceaseless incursions of the Saracens and Hungarians again plunged the greatest part of Europe into the barbarity and ignorance from which it had slowly emerged during the lapse of several centuries. In their ruthless career of destruction, nothing w^as spared by the GENERAL STATE OF LEARNING, iii^^^'^n»B»' barbarian hordes. Churches and monasteries, those sanctuaries of piety and learning, were destroyed ; once flourishing schools were <;losed and abandoned, and their libraries consigned to the flames — an irreparable loss in those days, when we consider that obtaining and multiplying books was attended with so much labor and difficulty. 151. It would, however, be unfair to assert that literature in those days was utterly neglected, and that all desire for learning had died out. There were always some learned men, who exercised a benefi- cial influence over their age ; zealous and holy bishops, who strove ardently to promote learning and science ; and wise rulers, such as Charlemagne, and Otho the Great in Germany, and Alfred in England, who counted it among the first of their duties to provide for the instruction of their people. That the light of science in these ages was not wholly extinguished, was owing especially to the solicitude of the Church, and the industry of the monks, who continued to culti- vate knowledge with an ardor such as religion alone can inspire. 152. "The preservation of ancient learning," says Hallam, "must be ascribed to the establishment of Christianity. Religion alone made a bridge, as it were, across the chaos, and has linked the two periods of ancient and modern civilization. . . . The sole hope for literature depended on the Latin language, which three circum- stances in the prevailing religious system conspired to maintain : The Papal supremacy, the monastic institutions, and the use of a Latin liturgy." A continual intercourse was kept up in consequence of the first, between Rome and the several nations of Europe, and made a, common language necessary in the Church. The monasteries beld out the best opportunities for study and were the secure reposi- tories for books. All ancient manuscripts were preserved and multi- plied in this manner, and could hardly have descended to us through any other channel. The Latin liturgy, and the reading and study of the Latin Yulgate, caused the Latin to be looked upon as a sacred language, and contributed not a little towards the preservation of learning. But the Church not only saved science and literature from universal destruction ; she also caused the barbarian tribes, whose destructive invasions had been so detrimental to the cause of letters, gradually to imbibe and adopt the principles of true civilization. 153. Notwithstanding the general decline of learning, the Popes continued to be distinguished for their personal attainments, as well as for their zeal in diffusing knowledge and science. Superior liter- ary acquirements generally graced the successors of St. Peter. Leo II. was a most eloquent and learned Pontiff ; Benedict II., John VI., and John YII. were respected for their knowledge of Sacred Scrip- 306 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. ture ; and Popes Gregory II., Gregory III., Zacharias,' Stephen III., and Hadrian I., in the eighth century, were remarkable for their extensive knowledge and great literary attainments. In the ninth century, we find Popes Leo III., Eugenius II., Gregory IV., Sergius^ II., Leo IV., Nicholas I., and Stephen V., who were not only learned themselves, but had courts remarkable for their literary character. Sylvester II. was, beyond question, the greatest and most accom- plished scholar of his age. 154. The praise of having originally established schools, belongs- to the Church. They came in place of the imperial schools over- thrown by the barbarians. Monasteries and episcopal sees became special nurseries of learning. Wherever a cathedral church or a mon- astery was erected, there also a school, with a library attached, was opened for the education of the clergy and the literary improvement of the people in general. In some places, at least, for the instruction of the young, primary schools were established. Popes Eugenius IL and Leo IV. labored zealously to dissipate the ignorance which then prevailed. The former in a Roman Synod, A. D. 826, enacted that schools should be opened in cathedral and parish churches, and where- soever they might be deemed necessary. Flourishing high schools existed in Italy, at Rome, Florence, Pavia, Turin, Ivrea, Cremona, Verona,' Vicenza, Fermo, and Friuli, not to mention the monastic schools of Monte-Cassino, Bobbio and elsewhere. Italy was still considered the center of literature, and students flocked thither from all parts of Europe to receive an education. 155. The monks especially distinguished themselves by collecting and compiling books and founding schools and libraries. In every monastery a considerable portion of time was daily allotted to the copying of books, and thus by their untiring industry the monks preserved and transmitted to us the precious treasures of the ancient classics and Christian literature. Libraries and schools for the educa- tion of youth were attached to most of the monasteries, many of which were famed far and near as seminaries of learning and repositories of science. 156. The revival of literature in France, as well as in Germany, was principally due to the efforts and generous encouragement of Charlemagne. With a view to his own improvement and that of his people, he invited men of learning and erudition from all parts to his court, and with their help established in the principal towns of his empire, schools for the purpose of promoting the study of every true and useful branch of knowledge. Among these, the most celebrated were Alcuin, a learned Anglo-Saxon, whom Charles called his master. GENERAL STATE OF LEARNING, 807 and whom he placed at the head of his Palatine school ; Paul Warne- fried, or Paul the Deacon, a Lombard, his preceptor in Greek, and Eginhard, his secretary and biographer. Among the other sages pat- ronized by Charlemagne, were Paulinus, patriarch of Aquileja, cele- brated for his virtues and learning ; Theodolphus, bishop of Orleans, and two metropolitans of Milan, Peter and Odelbertus. 157. The cathedral and conventual schools, erected or restored by Charlemagne, flourished the best, having had time to produce fruits, under his successors. Many monasteries in France and Germany, among others, Tours, Corvey, Rheims, Aniane, St. Gall, Fulda, Reichenau, and Hirsau vied with one another in learned pursuits. Especially famous as a center of ecclesiastical training and general culture was the abbey of Cluny in France. From the abbey of Cluny, which in the eleventh and twelfth centuries acquired great celebrity, flowed forth, as from a fountain, a new desire for learning and literary pursuits. 158. Soon after her conversion to the faith, Ireland became and for three centuries continued to be the great nursery of learning and religion. While almost the whole of Europe was desol^tted by war, peaceful Ireland, free from the invasions of external foes, opened to the lovers of learning and piety a welcome asylum. The strangers, who visited the Holy Isle from Britain and from even the most remote parts of the Continent, received from the Irish the most hos- pitable reception, free instruction, and even the books that were necessary for their studies. We are told by the Venerable Bede and other ancient writers, that the Irish Church in its golden age was celebrated for the sanctity as well as the general learning of its priests and monks ; that it had libraries and flourishing schools from which learning was often imported into other countries ; and, they add, that not only England, but the whole of Europe, received instructions from that island, to which there was a general resort of scholars as to an emporium of science. 159. In Ireland, more than anywhere else, each monastery was a school, in which many missionaries and doctors were educated for the service of the Church and the propagation of the faith and Chris- tian civilization in other countries. From the Irish monasteries issued numberless copies of the Holy Scriptures and the Fathers — copies which were distributed throughout Europe and which are still to be found in the continental libraries. " To give one instance of the flourishing condition of her institutions of learning during the period in question," writes Archbishop Spalding, " it is well known that the monastery of Bangor contained no less than three thousand 308 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. monks, besides scholars almost innumerable. Fired with enthusiasm, Irishmen visited almost every country in Europe, leaving behind them splendid institutions of learning and religion, — for these two always went hand in hand. Irishmen established the monastery of Lindisfarne in England, of Bobbio in Italy, of Verdun in France, and of Wiirtzburg, Ratisbon, Erf urth, Cologne, and Vienna in Ger- many ; — to say nothing of their literary labors in Paris, throughout England, and elsewhere." 160. The appointment of the learned Theodore of Tarsus for the see of Canterbury resulted in great literary advantage to England. The archiepiscopal palace and the monastery of the Abbot Hadrian became normal schools for the whole country. The conventual schools of Canterbury, Glastonbury, Lindisfarne, Jarrow, Weremouth, and York were eminent seats of culture and learning. Even the nuns pursued the path of learning with ardor, and there are several instan- ces of their knowledge, liot only of Latin, but also of Greek and the works of the Fathers. The immortal Alfred was most active, both in restoring and promoting the study of science and of every useful art among his subjects. After Alfred, letters were much indebted to the exciting zeal of the celebrated Archbishop Dunstan. The knowl- edge which he had acquired from the Irish ecclesiastics, he liberally imparted to his pupils, and from his monastery, Glastonbury, diffused a spirit of literary improvement throughout the realm. His efforts were nobly supported by his disciple, Bishop Ethelwold of Winchester. From the school which Ethelwold founded at Winchester and superintended in person, teachers were distributed for the different monasteries in the kingdom. SECTION XVIII. CHRISTIAN SCHOLARS AND AVRITERS THEIR WORKS. Rabanus Maurus— Other German Scholars — French Writers — Gerbert — Irish Scholars — St. Cummian — Adatiinan — St. Virgilius — His ControvenBy with St. Boniface — Dungal — Erigena — English Scholars — Aldhelm — Bade — Alcuin. 161. The most distinguished German scholar flourishing in this epoch was Rabanus Maurus. He was a monk of the abbey of Fulda, and Alcuin's most noted pupil. He was the chief teacher in his mon- astery, and his school became so celebrated that pupils from all quar- ters flocked to Fulda. Rabanus was afterwards raised to the see of Mentz, which he adorned by his virtues as he had adorned Fulda by his learning. He died about A. D. 856. The general opinion was ^* that Italy had not seen his like, nor Germany produced his equal." CHRISTIAN SCHOLARS AND WRITERS. 309 His principal work " De Institutione Clericorum," written originally for the instruction of his own scholars and their pupils, exercised a great and beneficial influence upon all the cloister-schools in the Frankish Empire. His work " De Universo" is a sort of universal encyclopaedia of the arts and sciences then known. 162. Walafried Strabo, the disciple of Rabanus Maurus, and abbot of Reichenau, was the author of numerous exgetical writings which were held in high esteem during the Middle Ages. His death occurred A. D. 849. His contemporary, Bishop Haymo of Halber- stadt, left, besides a Church History, also some w^orks on exegesis. Bruno, brother of Otho the Great, and archbishop of Cologne, contrib- uted much to the cause of science. As chancellor of the Empire he re-opened the Palatine school, invited learned Irish priests to the im- perial court, and by every means endeavored to raise the standard of the cloister-schools. We must not omit to mention here the name of the celebrated Roswitha, a Saxon nun. She flourished in the reigns of the Othos, and was the most accomplished woman of her age. She spoke Latin, and even Greek, fluently, sung the deeds of Emperors Henry I. and Otho the Great in elegant Latin verses, wrote many lives of the Saints, and also composed religious dramas, in which she cele- brates the triumph of the chastity of Christian virgins. 163. Of the French writers of this epoch, we must mention Druth- mar, the Grammarian, a monk of Corvey, who had gained some reputa- tion as a Greek and Hebrew scholar; Angelolmus, a Benedictine of Lux- euil, who wrote commentaries on the Scriptures of considerable merit ; Hincmar, archbishop of Rheims, the greatest canonist of his time, whose many controversial writings are valuable contributions to the history of his age ; and Flodoard, the author of a history of the Church of Rheims. Paschasius Radbertus, abbot of Corvey, has left, besides biblical commentaries, a comprehensive treatise " On the Body and Blood of the Lord," in which he sets forth, with great pre- cision, but in terms then not in vogue among theologians, the be- lief of the universal Church regarding the Blessed Sacrament. Anas- tasius, Roman Librarian (died A. D. 886), compiled the lives of a number of Popes from three Byzantine authors, to which he added others of his own composition. 164. But the most accomplished scholar of this epoch was the cele- brated Gerbert, who became Pope, taking the name of Sylvester II. He was born in Auvergne of obscure parentage, about A. D. 920. When a young student he was taken to Spain, where he visited Cor- dova and Seville, and profited by the mathematical science taught in the Mohammedan schools. He became precejJtor to Otho III., and 310 . HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. subsequently to Robert, son and successor of King Hugh Capet of France. His learning, which comprised poetry, mathematics, astronomy, and the natural sciences, as well as the whole of theology, is described to have been prodigious. The fame of his learning raised the school of Rheims to a high reputation. By his writings, as well as by his ex- ample and exhortations, he gave a fresh impetus to study, and drew to his side a numerous crowd of enthusiastic disciples. The most illustrious of these was Fulbert, bishop of Chartres, who became the master of many accomplished scholars. Gerbert is said to have intro- duced the use of Arabic figures in arithmetic, which he jDrobably ac- quired in the school of Cordova. 165. Venerable Bede informs us that before and about his time the Irish Church possessed many eminent scholars. Among the ear- liest Irish scholars are named Cummian and Adamnan. St. Cum- mian, an Irish monk, flourishing in the first half of the seventh century, was instrumental in procuring the adoption of the Roman rule regarding the celebration of Easter by the Irish. His well known paschal treatise, A. D. 634, addressed in the form of an epistle to Segienus, abbot of Hy, gives us a lofty idea of the erudition of the author, as well as of the solid learning which Ireland could then give her priests. He also left a collection of penitential canons, entitled "Liber de Penitentiarum mensura." Cummian died, according to the Four Masters, in the year 661. 166. Adamnan, a near contemporary of St. Cummian, flourished in the latter half of the seventh century. He was the ablest and most accomplished of St. Columbkill's successors at Hy. Of Adam- nan's learning we have the highest testimony in the statements of Bede and Alcuin, the former calling him a " holy and wise man, well versed in the science of the Holy Scripture," while Alcuin classes him among " the celebrated Fathers of the Irish." His undoubted writ- ings are the work " De Locis Sanctis," of which Bede has transferred large portions into his Ecclesiastical History, and the " Life of St. Columbkill," which has been pronounced the most complete biography of the Middle Ages. 167. In the eighth century, another Irish monk, Virgilius, shed a lustre on his native country by his learning as well as by his virtues. He was a celebrated missionary in Germany with St. Boniface, and subsequently was appointed bishop of Salzburg by Pope Stephen II. He is designated by his German biographers as " the most learned among the learned." It was while sharing the missionary toils of St. Boniface, that Virgilius became involved with him in controversy. The disputed questions turned on the validity of the baptismal form, CHRISTIAN SCHOLARS AND WRITERS, , 311 when mispronounced through ignorance,^ and the existence of antipo- des. Virgilius in both instances held the affirmative. Pope Zacharias, to whom the questions were referred, virtually gave his approbation to the opinions of Virgilius ; he declared that the want of grammatical knowledge in the minister could not invalidate the efficacy of the sacrament, and censured the opinion of Virgilius regarding the exist- ence of antipodes only, because it had been represented ignorantly to him as a belief in another race of men, who descended not from Adam and were not redeemed by Christ, which would be heresy. 168. Dungal, in the beginning of the ninth century, one of the most learned men of his time, was an excellent theologian, poet and scholar. When Claudius, bishop of Turin, openly attacked the use of holy images, Dungal came forward as a learned apologist in their be- half in a work entitled, " Responsa contra Perversas Claudii Senten- tias," A. D. 827. His reply to Charlemagne on the two solar eclipses which happened in the year 810, proves the writer to have been well acquainted with all that the ancients had taught upon the subject. He was appointed chief teacher in the great school at Pavia by Lothaire n. Another eminent Irish scholar of this period is Sedulius, abbot of Kildare, who won fame by his commentaries on the Gospels and on the Pauline Epistles. 169. But the greatest scholar of this epoch, after Gerbert, or Pope Sylvester II., is the learned and subtle John Scotus, whose distinctive surname of Erigena seems to point clearly to Ireland as his native country. The fame of his talents and learning caused Emperor Charles the Bald to invite him to his court and place him at the head of the Palatine school. He is said to have been master of the Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic languages. He was perfectly familiar with the writings and systems of the Greek philosophers, and with the works of the Fathers of the Church, both Greek and Latin. At the solicita- tion of his royal master, he translated the mystical works of Dionysius the Areopagite, which were then deemed genuine. He became in- volved in the predestinarian controversy against Gottschalk. His treatise on the Eucharist, now lost, excited much controversy in a later age ; and his principal work " De Divisione Naturae" was condemned by Pope Leo IX in 1050. The wild theories, advanced by Erigena in this and other w^orks, justly exposed their author to the 1. In administering' the sacrament of Baptism, some ignorant priest was wont to say, " Baptizo te in nomine Patria et Filia et Spiritua Sancta," instead of " Patris, et Filii, et Spiritus Sancti." St. Boniface judged that the sacrament thus administered was invalid; St. Virgilius, however, distinguishing with more precision between the accidental and essential parts of the sacrament, pronounced it his opinion that the baptism, in the case at issue, was valid. 312 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. censures of .the Church. At what period Erigena died is not clearly ascertained. 170. Among the most learned of the Anglo-Saxons, flourishing in this period, are St. Aldhelm, VeneraJble Bede, and Alcuin. St. Aid- helm, whom Alfred the Great calls " the prince of English poets," lived towards the close of the seventh century. He was a pupil of Mailduf , founder of the abbey of Malmesbury, and Hadrian, the abbot. The school which he founded in the abbey of Glastonbury, became for a time the most celebrated in the island. He was the first English- man who composed a work in Latin. He is* chiefly known by his two w^orks "De Virginitate," and "De Laude Virginum," the latter in verse. 171. Bede, who from his superior learning and admirable virtues received the appellation of "Venerable," was born about A. D. 673. He was educated by the monks of Jarrow and Weremouth, his first instructor being Benedict Biscop himself. The proficiency of Bede in all branches of learning was considerable, and the diversity as well as the extent of his reading remarkable. His ardent and com- prehensive mind embraced every science which was then studied. In his own catalogue of books, which he composed, we find commentaries on most of the books of the Scripture, treatises on physics, geography, astronomy and all the sciences of the period, lives of Saints, and ser- mons. But his Ecclesiastical History of the Anglo-Saxons, in five books, from the landing of Julius Caesar to the year 731, is the most celebrated of his works. Venerable Bede died A. D. 735. 172. Alcuin was born at York about the time of Venerable Bede's death. He was a pupil of Egbert, archbishop of York, himself a dis- ciple and friend of Bede, and the patron of the learned. He succeeded that prelate as master of the then flourishing school of York, until, at the invitation of Charlemagne, he joined the imperial court in 782, taking charge of the Palatine school. The Emperor himself did not disdain to become his pupil. The talents of Alcuin were great, and his acquirements considerable when compared with the literary attain- ments of his age. His many works comprise chiefly treatises on religion and other associated points. For the use of his pupils he wrote, in the form of dialogues, treatises on most of the sciences. To him the Caroline books, and the canons of the Council of Frankfort, have been generally ascribed ; and his writings against Felix and Elipandus exposed the errors of those innovators. Alcuin died A. D. 804. IGONOCLASM. 818 CHAPTER IV. HERESIES AND SCHISMS. SECTION XIX. ICONOCLASM SEVENTH ECUMENICAL COUNCIL, A. D. 787. Veneration of Sacred Images— Iconoclasm— Leo the Isaurian — Edicts against Images — Gregory II. — Gregory III. — Patriarch Germanus — His Degradation — Patriarch Anastasius. — Constantine Copronymus Emperor — Persecution — False Synod of Constantinople — Leo IV. Em- peror — Irene Empress— Restoration of Images— Seventh General Council — Decision of the Council — Renewal of Iconoclasm— Leo the Armenian against Images— Theophilus a Cruel Persecutor— Theodora Empress — Close of Iconclasm — Result of the Controversy— Council of Frankfort — Caroline Books. 173. The use of images in the Church dates from very remote antiquity. This is sufficiently proved from the monuments of the Apostolic age, and from the numerous symbols and images of Christ, the Virgin, the Apostles, and biblical personages which adorn the Roman Catacombs ; many of these symbols belong to the first and second centuries. The Greeks, who even in our days show a greater zeal and display in the veneration of holy images than the Latins, by their exaggerated devotion paid to sacred symbols, at this period, gave occasion for the rise of a violent reaction, the iconoclastic persecu- tion, the origin of which is usually ascribed to Emperor Leo, surnamed the Isaurian, A. D. 716-741. Ignorant of sacred and profane letters, and a fell barbarian, risen from the ranks of a common soldier to the imperial purple, Leo took upon himself to bring against the whole Church an accusation of the grossest idolatry, because she approved the use and veneration of the pictures of Christ and the Saints. Po- litical motives seem to have moved Leo to declare war against images. His intercourse with Jews and Saracens had inspired him with a hatred of holy images, which, in his opinion, were the chief obstacle to their conversion to Christianity. To this may be added the example of the Caliph Zezid II., who, in 722, commenced a destructive war against sacred pictures in Syria. This was urged upon the Isaurian for imitation by his chief counselors, the renegade Beser, and the bishops Constantine of Xacolia in Phrygia, Thomas of Claudiopolis, and Theodosius of Ephesus. 174. Leo, in 726, published an edict, enacting the immediate^ removal of all pictures of Saints, and of all statues and crucifixes from churches and public places. In vain did the whole Christian world rise up against the imperial mandate. St. Germanus, patriarch of 314 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. Constantinople, protested against it ; and St. John Damascene, the greatest theologian of his time, opposed it with voice and pen. The promulgation of the imperial edict was the occasion of violent tumults and popular outbreaks throughout the- empire. In the East there was a rebellion in the Cyclades, and a revolt in the capital ; the latter was •quelled only after much bloodshed. The iconoclastic policy of Leo met with still greater resistance in Italy. The Romans refused to <^omply with the imperial edict, and Gregory II., with apostolic vigor, remonstrated against its enforcement. In the epistles which he wrote to the emperor, A. D. 727, the Pope warned him to desist from his rash and fatal enterprise, and solemnly protested against the imperial interference in purely ecclesiastical matters, as well as against the •charge that the Church had for centuries sanctioned and practiced idolatry. Gregory III. also, by letters and embassies, sought to dis- suade Leo from his senseless war against holy images. A Synod held at Rome in 731 by Gregory, pronounced excommunication against all who denied that veneration was due to holy images. 175. Everything, however, was in vain. Leo, who claimed to be ^' bishop as well as emperor," in 730 issued a second edict ordering the destruction of all religious pictures throughout the empire. St. Germanus was made to resign, and retired to a convent ; he died, A. D. 740. Anastasius, a temporizing priest, was thrust into the patri- archal See. To the great scandal of the people, the crucifixes and statues were demolished or burned, and the paintings on the walls ef- faced. Fearful riots and massacres occurred in consequence, and many iconolators, especially monks, paid with their lives their zeal rand veneration for holy images. 176. The war against images was pursued with equal zeal by Leo's son, Constantine V. Copronymus, A. D. 741-775. He even sur- passed his father in acts of violence. In 754, he assembled a Council of 338 bishops at Constantinople, at which neither papal envoy nor a single patriarch assisted. The See of Constantinople having be- come vacant by the death of the intruder Anastasius in 753, Theo- dosius of Ephesus presided. In compliance with the imperial man- date, the assembled bishops, though admitting the lawfulness of the veneration of the Saints, declared holy images to be an invention of the devil and all honor paid to them to be idolatrous. Excommuni- cation and severe punishments were decreed against all makers and worshippers of images. This enactment was not suffered to be a 4ead letter. The decision of the pseudo-synod was carried out by Constantine with the utmost severity. He began and maintained till the end of his reign a most vigorous persecution against the advocates IGONOGLASM. 315 of holy images. He even compelled his subjects to take an oath never again to venerate images. The tyrant turned the whole tide of his wrath against the monks, who were boldest in defending the ven- eration of holy images. Among the martyrs that suffered in this reign, the most celebrated were the Abbots John and Stephen, and Peter surnamed the Calybite. 1*7 7. Leo lY., A. D. 7 75-680, though adhering to the same poli- cy, was less severe in enforcing the cruel laws of his father against image veneration, and the persecution ceased under his short reign. After his death, the Empress regent Irene undertook the restoration of images. In 784, the patriarch Paul abdicated and retired into a cloister ; his dying words bemoaned his past opposition to sacred images. Tarasius, a man of many virtues and great learning, was promoted to the patriarchal dignity, which, after some reluctance, he consented to accept on a promise that the orthodox belief and the unity of the Church should be restored, and a General Council be call- ed for that purpose. 1*78. With the concurrence of Pope Hadrian I., the Seventh Gen- eral Cmmdl, at which the papal legates presided, convened, first at Constantinople, but, on account of the violent opposition it met with, adjourned to Nice, A. D. 787. Three hundred and fifty bishops were present. The acts of the pseudo-synod of 754 were rescinded. Dis- tinguishing between the homage of veneration given to the Saints and their images, and the homage of adoration (latria, direct divine wor- ship) due to God alone, the Council declared the veneration of holy images to be in conformity with the Scriptures and with the teach- ings of the Fathers and the Councils. The decision of the assembled Fathers was: "That besides representations of the Holy Cross, sacred images of our Lord, of the Immaculate Mother of God, of the holy Angels and the Saints are fitly to be placed in churches and other places; that it is lawful to offer them salutations and homage, though not that supreme worship called Latria, which belongs to God alone; for the honor paid to an image passes on to the original, and whoso venerates the image, venerates him whom it represents." 179. From this time the iconoclast controversy dropped until the ninth centurj", when the strife and the persecution of the faithful was renewed with increased violence under the reigns of Leo Y. the Armenian, A. D. 813-820; Michael 11. Balbus, A. D. 820-829, and Theophilus, A. D. 829-842, who was the most cruel of the iconoclastic emperors. The Empress Theodora, at length, put an end to this dis- turbance by re-establishing the use of holy images. The Synod which she summoned at Constantinople in 842, adhered to the decisions of 316 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH, the last General Council of Nice ; the feast of Orthodoxy was insti- tuted to commemorate the final overthrow of Iconoclasm. The only success of the iconoclastic controversy, which had disturbed the Church more than 120 years, consisted in preparing the way for two results of vast importance to Christiandom: the establishment of the temporal power of the Popes, and the restoration of the Western Empire. 1 80. Pope Hadrian I. had a Latin translation of the Seventh Council made, which he sent th Charlemagne. An unfortunate mistake of the translator was the cause of a grave misunderstanding on the part of the Prankish bishops regarding the real doctrine of that Council. In their reply to the Pope they severely censured and protested against the supposed errors of the Xicene Synod. Misled by this same faulty translation, the Great Western Council of Frankfort, A. D. 794, in its second canon, repudiated the doctrine wrongly imputed to the Fathers of Nice, and charged Pope Hadrian with having favored the superstition of the Greeks. 181. A fuller refutation of the Seventh Council is given in the Caroline Books, so called because they were composed, as is reported, by order of Charlemagne. From this work, however, it is clear beyond doubt that the Council at Frankfort never condemned the true doctrine defined at Nice. What it did condemn, was the opinion falsely attributed to Bishop Constantine of Constantia in Cyprus, for which it held the Fathers of Nice responsible, viz.:that Latria — the homage of adoration — the same as that due to the Trinity, was to be given to images. Pope Hadrian, to set right the erroneous apprehen- sion of the Prankish bishops, forwarded to Charlemagne a dignified reply defending the Council of Nice, and explaining the true doctrine on the veneration of images. Seeing that there was no real difference of faith between the Nicene and Gallic prelates, the Pope, although he approved its teaching, yet for the present prudently abstained from giving the Seventh Council that solemn confirmation which nec- essarily involved the enforcement of the decrees as a condition of communion. SECTION XX. ADOPTIONIST HERESY PREDESTINARIANISM. Adalbert and Clement — Their'Errors— Bishops Elipandus and Felix — Heresy of Migetius — Adoptionist Heresy— Its Condemnation — Refutation of » Adoptionism— Gottschalk— His Errors — Controversy on Predestination — Rabanus Maurus— Erigena — Council of Tousy. 182. In the time of St. Boniface, two impostors disturbed the in- fant Church of Germany. The one, Adalbert, a Gaulish fanatic, who I ADOPTIONIST HERESY. 317 pretended to know the secrets of hearts and to have received relics from an angel and a letter from Christ, imposed upon the new con- verts by distributing his own hair and the parings of his nails as relics, and causing houses of prayer to be dedicated to his honor. The other, Clement, an Irishman or Scotchman, rejected the canons and laws of the Church, celibacy, and the scriptural interpretations of the Fathers; he held erroneous opinions concerning predestination, and as- serted the redemption and deliverance of all the damned by Christ in his descent into hell. The two imposters were condemned in the Synod of Soissons in 744, and the sentence was confirmed by Pope Zacharias in a Synod at Rome in 745. 183. The first important theological controversy in the West concerning the person of Christ, was called forth by the heresy of the Adoptionists. The first advocates, if not the authors, of this heresy, were Elipandus, archbishop of Toledo, and Felix, bishop of Urgel in Catalonia. A certain Migetius, explaining the mystery of the Trinity in a Sabellian sense, maintained a triple Incarnation, or, manifestation of God, as he called it, viz.: of the Father in the person of David; of the Son in the person of Christ; and of the Holy Ghost in the person of St. Paul. Elipandus, in refuting Migetius, whom he con- demned in the Synod of Sevilla in 782, declared that Christ as Logos, or according to his divine nature, was truly and properly the Son o God; but as man, or according to his human nature, he was only the adopted son of God. This theory was but the renewal of the Pho- tinian heresy of " two sons of God," and of the Nestorian error of " two persons in Christ." Felix of Urgel warmly approved the heret- ical views of Elipandus, and defended them with his wonted skill and learning. 184. The adoptionist heresy was condemned by the Synod of Ratisbon in 792. Felix recanted, and confirmed his recantation be- fore Pope Hadrian I. in Rome, while Elipandus remained obstinate. But after his return to Urgel, Felix re-affirmed his adoptionist views. This caused Charlemagne to summon another Council at Frankfort in 794, by which Adoptionism was again condemned. Pope Hadrian, in a Roman Council, confirmed the decree of Frankfort. At the request of Charlemagne, the learned Alcuin wrote a formal refutation of Adoptionism. Paulinus of Aquileja, Archbishop Richbod of Treves, and Bishop Theodulph of Orleans, joined in the controversy and wrote against Felix. Finally, at the Synod of Aix-la-Chapelle in 798, Felix, after a six days' discussion of the subject with Alcuin, again solemnly recanted his error. He was now committed to the charge of Archbishop Leidrad of Lyons, where he died in 816. Elipandus, 818 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH, it seems, persisted in his error till his death in 800. The sect soon be- came extinct. 185. Three centuries had elapsed since the Gallic priest Lucidus first started the controversy on predestination. His errors were now revived by Gottschalk, a wandering monk of the monastery of Orbais, in France, and a disciple of the learned Rabanus Maurus. Gottschalk blasphemously asserted that God predestinates to good as well as to evil, and foreordains some — the elect — to eternal life, and others — the reprobate — to eternal death. As the elect cannot help being saved, neither can the reprobate help being damned. For these latter, he maintained, the sacraments are but empty forms and ceremonies. Christ, he said, died only for the elect, who alone are the objects of his merciful redemption. This heresy was condemned in the Councils of Mentz, in 848, and of Quiercy, in 849, presided over respectively by Rabanus Maurus and Hincmar of Rheims; Gottschalk was himself com- mitted to the charge of the latter who sentenced him to corporal punishment and to confinement in a monastery. 186. The intricate questions which predestinarianism raised on free will, divine fore-knowledge, the necessity of divine grace, and on the death of Christ for all men, became the subjects of a serious con- troversy, which for some time, agitated theological minds. Remigius, archbishop of Lyons, Prudentius, bishop of Troyes, Lupus, abbot of Feri^res, and the monk Ratramnus defended Gottschalk, believing him to be innocent of the errors imputed to him, and accused his ad- versaries of Semi-Pelagianism. Both sides agreed in doctrine, and differed only as to the use and meaning of terms, which were after- wards more clearly defined. At the request of Hincmar, John Scotus Erigena also took part in the controversy, and in 851 published a trea- tise " On Predestination," which was hotly assailed for the many er- rors which it contained. The controversy was finally brought to a close at the National Council of Tousy, in 860; the bishops of both sides published a Synodical Epistle, explaining the Catholic doctrine against the Predestinarians as well as against the Semi-Pelagians. SECTION XXI. THE GREEK SCHISM. Causes of Separation— Origin of the Schism— Bardas— Deposition of Igna- tius—Elevation of Photius— Pope Nicholas!.— Council at Constantinople —Condemnation of Photius — Accusations against the Latins. 187. Before relating the history of this great schism, it may be well to note briefly the chief causes and events which gradually sun- dered, and at last completely separated the Greek Church, and, with GREEK SCHISM. 319 it the greater part of the Eastern nations, from the Western or Latin Ohurch, with which they had been in full communion for the first eight centuries. 1. A constant source of dissension between the East and the West, was, besides the difference of rite, discipline, and lan- guage, the antagonism which existed between Rome and Constantino- ple, and the national aversion which the Greeks always entertained toward the Latins. Proud of their pretended superiority in profane .and religious science, the Greeks looked upon the Latins as barbari- ans, who, in their opinion, were incapable of understanding and arguing on the mysteries of religion. The Latins, in their turn, rightly regarded the restless and subtle Orientals as the authors of every heresy that threatened the doctrine and disturbed the peace of the Church. Out of the fifty-eight bishops, who held the see of Constantinople, from Metrophanes, A. D. 315, to Ignatius, no less than twenty-one were heretics, or suspected of heresy. 2. The iconoclastic controversy, and ^«specially the establishment of the temporal power of the Popes, contributed much to irritate and increase the animosity of the Greeks toward the Romans, and the Holy See in particular. 3. The cause of the greatest offence to the Greeks and the Byzantine emperors was the preference which the Romans had given to the alliance of the Franks, and the re-establishment of the Western Empire by the Popes. 188. 4. But the real and immediate cause of the schism is to be traced to the ambition of the patriarchs of Constantinople. The splendor of the imperial capital led them to desire a style and title suitable, as they thought, to the dignity of the bishop of New Rome. They aspired to a power, as far as possible, equal to that of the Bishop of ancient Rome, from whose authority they strove to withdraw them- -selves. 5. The Second General Council of Constantinople, and the fourth of Chalcedon, unfortunately seconded and supported the ambi- tious wishes of the Byzantine patriarchs by enacting canons which •decreed that the bishops of Constantinople, which they called New Rome, should be second in rank and enjoy equal privileges in eccle- siastical matters with the bishops of ancient Rome. But these canons, iontaining the germ of schism, were promptly annulled by the Popes, iwho always opposed the ambitious pretensions of the prelates of ;Constantinople, and jealously guarded against encroachments which bhey saw were only the forerunners of greater and more fatal usurpa- tions. 6. To these causes we must add the despotical interference of le Byzantine emperors in purely religious matters, and the state of servitude to which they had reduced the clergy, both by honors and riches, and by menaces and persecutions. 189. The prime author of the Greek schism was Photius, an in- 820 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. trader in the patriarchal See of Constantinople. On the death of the sainted Methodius in 846, Ignatius, son of Emperor Michael I., pre- decessor of Leo the Armenian, was elected patriarch of Constanti- nople. The then reigning emperor was Michael III., a licentious and intemperate prince, who spent his time in sumptuous feasts, degrad- ing shows and mock exhibitions of the Christian worship. He was wholly under the influence of his uncle Bardas, brother of the Em- press Theodora, a man of great ability but depraved morals. On ac- count of his scandalous conduct, and incestuous relations with his own daughter-in-law, Bardas was publicly denied Holy Communion by Ignatius. For this repulse, Bardas vowed vengeance, and formed the determination to ruin the patriarch in the eyes of the emperor. In order to secure the full exercise of authority, he persuaded the young emperor not only to remove his mother and his sisters from court, but to force them also to take the veil. Ignatius steadily resisted the imperial commands to dedicate the unwilling votaries to a relig- ious life. For this refusal, he was arraigned for high treason and im- prisoned in a monastery on the island of Terebinthus; in his stead,, the emperor, disregarding the canons of the Church, appointed the crafty Photius patriarch, A. D. 857. 190. Photius was of illustrious birth, possessed great accomplish- ments of mind and body, and was esteemed the- most learned of his age; but his unbounded ambition and hypocrisy tarnished the lustre of these qualities. He was then only a layman; but he contrived in six successive days to pass through the inferior orders up to the patri- archate; he was ordained, and consecrated bishop by Gregory Asbes- tas, the deposed bishop of Syracuse, and the bitter opponent of Igna- tius. The greater number of the bishops, either through fear or favor, basely consented to the change, whilst the people remained faithful to their legitimate patriarch. 191. To secure himself in the See which he had usurped, Pho- tius resorted to fraud and violence. Every means was employed to force from Ignatius a resignation of his See. But as no power or persuasion could induce Ignatius to resign his patriarchal dignity, he was declared to be deposed, and, after suffering much cruel ' treatment, banished to the island of Mytelene. The bishops of his party like- wise were deposed and exiled, and all who remained firm to Ignatius were subjected to cruel persecution. In the meantime Photius sought by deceiption to obtain from Pope Nicholas I. an approval of his intrusion. He sent legates to Rome who were charged to inform the Pope that Ignatius had voluntarily renounced the episcopal dignity and retired to a monastery, and that Photius had been canonically elected and forced OREEK SCHISM. 321 to accept the dignity. The emperor, too, sent his representative with a letter requesting the Pope to restore discipline, and root out the heresy of Iconoclasm. 192. Pope Nicholas I., too clear-sighted to be imposed upon, in- deed sent legates — the Bishops Rodoald and Zachary — to Constan- tinople, with letters to the emperor and Photius; they were charged merely to examine into the- case of Ignatius, and then report thereon to the Holy See. They, however, proved unfaithful to their high trust. Influenced, partly by threats, partly by gifts, they favored the cause of the intruder. At a Synod of 318 bishops, meeting at Con- stantinople, in 861, at which for appearance sake they were permitted to preside, the legates confirmed the deposition of Ignatius notwith- standing his appeal to the Pope, and decreed Photius to be. the rightful patriarch. 193. The sentence of Ignatius' deposition by the Synod of Con- stantinople had been communicated to the Pope, with letters from Photius and the emperor. But Nicholas was not to be deceived. Finding that his legates had violated his instructions, he disclaimed their acts and declared them excommunicated. In the meantime. Abbot Theognostus, the messenger of Ignatius, arrived in Rome with a full account of all that had passed at Constantinople. Nicholas summoned a Council in which he solemnly annulled the deposal of Ignatius and the elevation of Photius whom he condemned as a usurper. All the acts of Photius were declared null and void; those ordained by him were suspended, and the ill-treated Ignatius was commanded to be restored to his see. These decrees the Pope com- municated to the emperor and the Christian world. 194. Photius now throwing off his mask proceeded to a formal schism. In 869, he called a Synod, at which he assumed to formally excommunicate the Pope. Twenty-one obsequious bishops signed the daring act. The wicked endeavors of the intruder were considerably aided hy the controversy which was then going on regarding the question of jurisdiction over Bulgaria. The Bulgarians had been converted by the Greeks; but their king Bogoris asked Pope Nicholas for Latin missionaries, and also, that his kingdom be united with the Roman, instead of the Byzantine, patriarchate. Nicholas granted the request and published his celebrated " Responsa " for the instruction of the Bulgarian neophites. 195. Confident of the sympathy of the Eastern prelates on the Bulgarian question, Photius took occasion of this fact to support him in his usurpation of the See of Constantinople. He published a circular to the patriarchs and bishops of the East, in which he openly 322 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. accuses the See of Rome and the Latin Church of heresy, and of departing from ancient and canonical discipline. Among the accusa- tions against the Latins were: 1. That they observrd Saturday as a fast; 2. That they shortened Lent by one week, and permitted the use of milk and cheese (Lacticinia) on fast-days; 3. That they enjoined celibacy and despised priests living in the married state; 4. That they restricted the right of conferring the sacrament of confirmation to bishops; and 5. That they changed the Symbol of the creed by the addition of the Filioque., teaching the procession of the Holy Ghost from the Son as well as from the Father. These were but pretext* for division, the real cause being the total denial of the Papal suprem- acy by the Greeks. SECTION XXII. EIGHTH ECUMENICAL COUNCIL REVIVAL OF THE GREEK SCHISM BY MICHAEL CERURALIUS. Basil the Macedonian Emperor— Exile of Photius — Reinstatement of Ignatius — Eighth General Council— Death of Ignatius — Reinstatement of Photius —Acknowledged by Pope John VIII.— Leo VI. Emperor— Banishment of Photius — His Death — Restoration of Peace — Revival of the Greek Schism — The Patriarch Michael Cerularius — His Accomplices — Charges against the Latins — Pope Leo IX.— Excommunication of Cerularius. 196. The assassination of the unworthy Emperor Michael, sur- named the Drunkard, put a stop for the present to the machinations of Photius. The false patriarch fell with his patron. The first act of the new Emperor Basil the Macedonian was to depose and banish Photius and recall the much tried Ignatius to his see, A. D. 867. Basil, with the advice of Ignatius, wrote to the Pope to inform him of the change and request him to assemble a General Council, in order to heal the wounds inflicted on the Church by the schism of Photius. 197. Pope Nicholas having meanwhile died, his successor, Ha- drian XL, convened the Eighth General Council to restore peace to the Greek Church. The Council was opened in the Church of St. Sophia, at Constantinople, A. D. 869. The papal legates presided. Ignatius was declared the legitimate patriarch, and Photius forever deposed from all clerical orders. The acts of the Council were sub- sequently confirmed by Hadrian. After the adjournment of the Council, the question of jurisdiction over Bulgaria was discussed between the papal legates, the Patriarch Ignatius, and the Bulgarian ambassadors. Notwithstanding the protest of the papal legates, after their departure, Bulgaria was assigned to the patriarchate of Constan- tinople, and ever since has recognized its dependence on that see. I t. GREEK SCHISM. 323 198. Photius meanwhile succeeded in regaining the favor of the emperor, who, on the death of Ignatius, A. D. 877, re-established him on the patriarchal throne. At the urgent request of the emperor and the Oriental patriarchs, Pope John YIII., moved by unquestionably serious reasons of policy, consented to recognize Photius, on the con- dition, however, that he should in a public Synod apologize for his former conduct and acknowledge the jurisdiction of the Roman See over Bulgaria, He also sent legates to Constantinople to execute this decree of mercy. 199. But Photius would not brook submission, and resorted to his old arts. At a numerously attended Synod, in 879, over which he presided himself, the Eighth Council was abrogated, the doctrine of the " Filioque " rejected, and the acts of Popes Nicholas and Hadrian condemned. The letters of Pope John VIII. were read, but in a mutilated and falsified translation. The papal legates being ignorant of the Greek language, and completely outwitted by the crafty Greeks, confirmed the enactments of the false Synod. On learning these disgraceful transactions. Pope John excommunicated both Photius and the faithless legates, and annulled the decrees of the pseudo- synod. This was occasion for a new rupture between Rome and Constantinople. Photius, however, remained in possession of the see he had usurped as long as Emperor Basil lived. But the son and successor of Basil, Leo VI. the Philosopher, caused the sentence of the Roman Pontiffs to be executed. Photius was deposed and exiled to a monastery, this time not to return, A. D. 886. His successor in the patriarchal see was Stephen, the brother of the emperor. Photius died in the year 891. 200. From that time, there was peace between Rome and Con- stantinople until toward the end of the tenth century, when the Patriarchs Sisinnius and Sergius renewed the old accusations against the Latins. Eustachius, who succeeded Sergius, applied to Pope John XIX. for the title of "Ecumenical Patriarch." The request being refused, the name of the Pope was omitted from the dyptichs by the angry patriarch. In the year 1034, the ambitious and turbulent Michael Cerularius was made patriarch. He revived the Photian schism. His chief accomplices were Leo of Acrida, Metropolitan of Bulgaria, and Nicetas Stethatus, a monk of the monastery of Stud- ium. At the instance of Cerularius, Leo circulated a document in which the following charges were brought against the Latins as so many grievances : 1. The use of unleavened bread in the holy sacri- fice ; 2. Fasting on Saturdays in Lent ; 3. The eating of blood and things strangled ; and 4. The omission of the " Alleluja " in Lent. 824 ^ HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 201. This was the beginning of new troubles. Pope St. Leo IX. addressed an eloquent letter to the schismatical prelates, in which he refuted their puerile incriminations. He also sent three legates, the Cardinals Frederic (afterward Stephen IX.) and Humbert, and Arch- bishop Peter to Constantinople to settle the prevailing difficulties. They were well received by the Emperor Constantine IX, but the haughty Cerularius persistently refused all communication with them. Finding all their efforts useless, they proceeded to spiritual penalties. On July 16, A. D. 1054, the legates deposited on the altar of St. Sophia the excommunication of Cerularius and his adherents, and then depart- ed for Rome. From this period, the definitive separation of the Greek Church from that of Rome is generally dated, though communication between them was at times resumed. After several ineffectual at- tempts at reunion, the evil became desperate in the fifteenth century, when the sword of the Mussulman was employed by Divine Provi- dence to punish the obstinacy which no condescension on the part of Rome could cure. .SECTION XXIII. CONTROVERSY ON THE HOLY EUCHARIST HERESY OF BERENGARIUS. Paschasius Radbertus— His Treatise on the Eucharist— Reply of Rabanus Maurus and Ratramnus — Erigena — His Opinion on the Eucharist — Berengarius— His Heresy— Condemned by Councils— His Recantations— His Death. 202. The doctrine of the Real Presence of Christ in the Holy Eucharist had been the constant belief of the Christian world from the time of the Apostles. Up to this period this adorable sacrament had never been a subject of dispute. The first controversy on the Eucharist was called forth by Paschasius Radbertus, abbot of Cor- vey, a man distinguished both for his learning and the sanctity of his life. In a treatise, entitled " On the Body and Blood of the Lord," he explained the doctrine of the Church on the Eucharist with accuracy and fullness, but in terms which were then not in use, and which were liable to be misunderstood. Laying special stress on the identity of the physical and Eucharistic Body of Christ, he advanced the view that " The Flesh (of Christ in the Eucharist) was none other than that which was born of the Virgin Mary, and in which He suffered on the Cross and rose again from the grave." 203. This view of Paschasius was especially opposed by Ra- banus Maurus, and Ratramnus, a monk of Corvey. Making a dis- tinction between the natural and sacramental Body of Christ, they CONTROVERSY ON THE EUCHARIST. 325 maintained a formal difference between both, and held that the Eucharistic Body of Christ was in substance, indeed, identical with the Body which Christ took from the womb of Mary, but differed in form and appearance. Scotus Erigena also took part in the contro- versy. Without expressly denying the Real Presence, he considered the Eucharist a mere symbol and memorial of the Body and Blood of Christ. The treatise of Erigena on the Eucharist was condemned by the Council of Vercelli, in 1050. The celebrated Gerbert in a mast- erly treatise defended the teaching of Paschasius, showing that there existed no real difference of belief between him and his orthodox opponents. 204. In the preceding controversy, the Real Presence had not really been called into question. Berengarius of Tours was the first that impugned the presence of our Lord in the Holy Eucharist and the doctrine of Transubstantiation, and thus anticipated the Sacra- mentarians of a later age. He was^ born about A. D. 1000, and was made Archdeacon of Angers and appointed Scholasticus, or Master, of the cathedral-school of Tours. Adopting the erroneous tenets of Erigena on the Sacrament of the Altar, Berengarius held that Christ was only spiritually present in the sacred elements, which in every respect remained what they were, and that a certain efficacy was imparted to them by the faith of the individual. Hugh, bishop of Langres, and Adelmann, Scholasticus of Liitich, who had been his school-fellows under the celebrated Fulbert of Chartres, kindly warned Berengarius of the novelty of his doctrine, which stood in opposition to the faith of the whole Church. But being supported by the king of France and other persons of influence, Berengarius disregarded the friendly admonitions. In a letter to Lanfranc, then Prior of Bee, he openly espoused the erroneous doctrine of Erigena on the Eucharist. The matter was referred to Rome, and his errors, together with those of Erigna, were condemned by Pope Leo IX. in the Councils, which were held at Rome and Vercelli, in 1050; Beren- garius himself was excommunicated until he would recant. 205. In 1054, a Synod was held at Tours by the papal legate Hildebiand, and there Berengarus made and signed a confession of faith, acknowledging that " bread and wine after the consecration are the Flesh and Blood of Christ.." As he continued, however, to teach his heresy, he was, in 1059, cited to Rome by Pope Nicholas II., and there, before a Council of 113 bishops, Berengarius made a new recantation, and signed a new confession of faith, affirming that *' the bread and wine placed on the altar, are, after the consecration, not only the sacrament, but also the true Body and Blood of our Lord.'* 826 HISTORY OF TEE CHURCH. 206. Nevertheless, the fraudulent heretic having returned to France, relapsed into the condemned errors, and spoke detractingly of the Pope, and the Roman See, which he called the " See of Satan." Pope Alexander II. in vain exhorted him no longer to scandalize the Church. Cardinal Hildebrand, who in the meantime had ascended the papal throne as Gregory VII., summoned Berengarius once more to Rome, and, in the Councils held in 10*78 and 1079, obliged him to confess that he had till then erred on the mystery of the Eucharist, and to declare, under oath, that the "Bread of the altar is, after conse- cration, the true Body of Christ, the same which was born of the Virgin, which died on the Cross, and is now seated at the right hand of the Father in heaven." But the obstinate heretic continued to teach as before, and accused Gregory VII. of inconsistency and par- tiality. He made a last recantation at the Council of Bordeaux, in 1080, after which he became silent. He is said to have died in the communion of the Church, in 1088. CHAPTER V. CONSTITUTION AND DISCIPLINE. SECTION XXIV. THE CHURCH IN HER RELATION TO THE STATE. SUPREMACY OF THE POPES. Close Union between Church and State— Advantages to Society — Truce of God — Influence of the Clergy, especially the Bishops— Exalted Position of the Popes — Acknowledgment of the Primacy— Exercise of the Pri- macy—Counsellors of the Pope— Cardinals. 20V. The Middle Ages pre-eminently were ages of religion and of faith. Religion was the foundation and mainstay of society; the spirit of Christianity penetrated every action of public and private life, animating not only the higher classes, the nobles and the clergy, but thoroughly penetrating and forming the masses. Hence that close union between Church and State which was considered essential to the general welfare of society, and a pledge of happiness and pros- perity. As submission to temporal powers was enjoined by the Church, so submission to the Church was, on their side, enforced by the temporal rulers upon their subjects. The laws of the Church were confirmed by the sovereign as laws of the land, and their observance was enforced by the infliction of external punishment. In. the East the emperors regularly confirmed the decrees of General Councils ; RELATION OF CHURCH AND STATBt 327 in the West the Carlovingian rulers in legislation adhered closely to the canon law of the Church. 208. If the Church was assisted by the power of the temporal rulers, the temporal rulers in return were much indebted to the bene- licient influence of the Church. It was she who tamed the rude and lawless spirits and subdued the outbursts of wild passion, and more than once prevented society from relapsing into foi-mer barbarism. At the Reichstag of Constance, in 1043, the emperor Henry III. in vain endeavored to establish a general peace. The Church was forced to lend her superior authority to confirm the imperial enactments for the maintenance of law and order ; she introduced, and, by the inflic- "tion of ecclesiastical censures, enforced the observance of the "Truce of God." Every week, from Wednesday evening till Monday morn- ing, from the first day of Advent till eight days after Epiphany, and from the beginning of Lent until eight days after Pentecost, all feuds were to cease under pain of excommunication. This "Truce of God" prevented countless crimes, introduced milder and gentler manners, and placed a wholesome restraint upon the turbulent spirit of the age. 209. From this close union between the two powers, it followed necessarily that the clergy should, by their superior learning and intelligence, exercise a powerful influence and take an active part in all the weighty affairs of their country. Mixed parliaments (concilia mixta) were formed, composed of lords spiritual and temporal, that is, the prelates of the Church and the chiefs of the nation. These lords spiritual and temporal chose the king, who had, before receiving the crown from the hands of the Church, to promise by solemn oath to fulfill all his obligations towards his subjects and the Church. Bishops and abbots filled the posts of chancellor and ambassador at the various courts ; they were, on account of their piety and learning, the most valued and trusted councillors of the sovereigns, and above all they were the advisers and spokesmen in the assembly of the nation. 210. But greater yet was the influence the Bishops of Rome exercised upon society. As head of the Church universal the Pope was held in the highest veneration by the Christian nations. All Christian nations formed one family — Christendom united in one faith. In the Bishop of Rome this family possessed a head, and the successor of Peter was honored by all as their common father and the Vicar of Christ. Emperors and kings addressed him as " father," and were in turn called by him " sons." Hence the Pope was repeatedly called upon by princes and people to interpose his authority and act as medi- ator, or arbitrator, in the disputes of individual nations. Gregory IV. felt obliged to mediate between Louis the Pious and his sons. While 328 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH the imperial troops besieged the capital of Hungary, the king, An- drew, sought the mediation of Pope Leo IX., who willingly undertook the journey to Germany, in order to procure peace. 211. The Christian writers and Councils of the present epoch are unanimous in testifying the general recognition of the papal suprem- acy throughout all Christendom. Venerable Bede says, that Gregory *' was invested with the first," that is, supreme " pontificate in the whole world, and was set over the churches converted to the faith." The celebrated Alcuin avows that " the Lord Jesus Christ constituted Peter shepherd of His chosen flock ; " and acknowledges Hadrian I., the actual Pontiff, as "Vicar of Peter, occupying his chair, and inheriting his wonderful authority." The bishops assembled at the first German Synod, held in the year 742, promised, under oath, to render " canonical obedience to the Pope; " and those summoned by Charlemagne to examine into the charges falsely brought against Pope Leo III., promptly declared that " it was the right of the Pope to judge them, but not theirs to judge him." 212. The authority and spiritual supremacy of the Popes was manifested: 1. In the promulgation of general laws for the govern- ment of the entire Church; 2. In the exercise of judiciary powers over bishops, including patriarchs, notably when appeals were made to the Holy See; 3. In the deposition of bishops; 4. In calling foreign bishops to attend Councils held in Rome; 5. In conferring the pallium and the right to exercise metropolitan rights to archbishops; and 6. In appointing bishops as " Vicars Apostolic " to represent the Holy See in foreign countries. Papal legates convoked and presided over National Councils. 213. From early times the chief counsellors and assistants of the Pope were, besides the regionary deacons and archpriests of the principal churches at Rome, the neighboring bishops (episcopi subur- bicarii), especially those of Ostia, Portus, Albano, Silva Candida (Santa Rufina), Praeneste (Palestrina), etc. Thus in the process of time an ecclesiastical senate — the College of Cardinals — was formed to advise and assist the Pope in the government of the Church. As early as A. D. 769 seven Cardinal bishops are recorded; the title of Cardinal, however, we find in use since the beginning of the seventh century. At first it was applied to all ecclesiastics permanently in charge of churches, particularly to those attached to cathedrals. Pope Pius y. in 1567 ordained that it should henceforth be exclusively applied to the members of the Sacred College, or Cardinals of the Roman Church. ECCLESIASTICAL LEGISLATION 82fr SECTION XXV. ECCLESIASTICAL LEGISLATION FALSE DECRETALS. Law of the Early Church — Collections of Canons — Collection of Dionysius— Pseudo-Isidorian Collection, or False Decretals — Their Origin and Object — View of Mohler — No Change in Discipline wrought by them. 214. In the early ages, the Sacred Scriptures, tradition, and the disciplinary rules laid down by the Apostles, or apostolic men, consti- tuted the law of the Church in the East as well as in the West. Later on, however, Church-synods framed numerous canons for the regula- tion of ecclesiastical discipline and the government of the particular churches. Thus the Council of Nice, besides its dogmatic decrees,, framed a number of canons, which, together with those of subsequent Councils, were translated into Latin and widely circulated in the West. The celebrated and very ancient collection referred to in the Council of Chalcedon, contained 166 canons, enacted respectively by the Councils of Nice, Ancyra, Neo-Caesarea, Gangra, Antioch, Lao- dicea, and Constantinople. 215. Up to this period there existed various other collections of canons and papal decretals in the Latin church. Of these, the collec- tion of Dionysius Exiguus was most generally in use. The work is- divided into two parts : the first part contains the canons of Councils; the second, the decretal epistles of the Sovereign Pontiffs from Siri- cius to Anastasius II. This collection, though never expressly ap- proved by the Holy See, attained great influence throughout the whole Church. Pope Hadrian I. presented it, with some additions, to Char- lemagne, in order that it might serve as the code of laws for the gov- ernment of the churches in the Prankish Empire. The collection wrongly ascribed to St. Isidore of Seville contained, besides the canons and decretals of Dionysius, additions from the Fathers and Spanish Councils. 216. About the middle of the ninth century, a new and largely increased code of canons came in use ; first in the Prankish Empire,, and then also in other countries. It appeared under the assumed name of Isidore Mercator, or Peccator, and is now generally known as the Pseudo-Isidorian collection, or False Decretals. This collection contains, besides questions of ecclesiastical law, also treatises on dogmat- ical and moral theology, liturgy, and penitential discipline. It is divided into three parts, of which the first contains the canons of the Apostles,, and sixty decretals of the earlier Popes, from Clement I. to Melchiades. The second part contains a number of conciliar canons, beginning with the Council of Nice, and ending with the Second Council of Seville, A. D. 619. Many of these canons are unauthentic. The third 330 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. part is made up of the decretal letters of the Popes from Sylvester I. to Gregory II. Of these, about forty were compiled by the author himself. * 217. The author of this elaborate collection is unknown. It has been variously ascribed to Benedictus Levita of Mentz, to Paschasius Radbertus, to Otgar, archbishop of Mentz, and to Agobard, arch- bishop of Lyons. MOhler calls this collection a pious fraud, and the work of a pious, but over-zealous theologian. He dates its composi- tion between the years 829 and 845, and the place of its origin he believes to have been Mentz. Others, however, think that it came from Rheims. The collection meeting a palpable want, was, without any suspicion, universally accepted as an authentic exposition of general ecclesiastical discipline. 218. The main object of the author in compiling this collection, was to defend and maintain, by principles already universally acknowl- edged, the dignity and prerogatives of the Roman Church ; the rela- tion of the Holy See to metropolitans and provincial synods, and of suffragan bishops to their metropolitans ; and the independence of the the spiritual power from the secular. He aimed at relieving the bishops and the inferior clergy from the tyranny of the metropolitans, who were but too frequently the tools of the secular power. But no essential change was introduced in ecclesiastical discipline by these false decretals, which were but the expression of the principles and tendency of the age. Pseudo-Isidore merely attributed to Popes of the first three centuries what was declared by Popes and Councils of a later period. 219. Of the unknown author, the learned MShler says : "If we examine carefully these invented decretals, and try to characterise their composer in accordance with their general import and spirit, we must confess that he was a very learned man, perhaps the most learned man of his time, and at the same time extremely wise and intelli- gent, who knew his age and its wants as few did. Rightly he perceived that he must exalt the power of the centre — that is, the power of the Pope — ^because by this power only was deliverance possible. Nay, if we would pass an unconstrained judgment, we may venture even to call him a great man." 220. The Pseudo-Isidorian collection was regarded as genuine during the whole of the Middle Ages, that is, from the ninth to the fifteenth century; no one thought of questioning the genuineness of the papal decretals which it contained. The first doubts as to their authenticity were raised about A. D. 1400 by Laurentius Valla, canon of the Lateran. As early as 1431 Nicholas of Cusa proved the CLERGY AND RELIGIOUS ORDERS. Iforgery of the Donation of Constantine as well as of the writings Fattributed to Popes St. Clement, St. Anastasius, and St. Melchiades. ^hat the Isidorian collection is a forgery, at least in part, there can be no doubt at present. The Pseudo-decretals wrought, however, no material change in the discipline of the Church. So much is certain that the Popes had nothing to do with their compilation; and their authority derived no confirmation, much less an increase of power from the False Decretals. SECTION XXVI. THE CLERGY AND RELIGIOUS ORDERS. Degeneracy of the Clergy— Its Causes— Holy Bishops— Illustrious Person- ages among the Laity — Relaxation of Monastic Discipline — St. Benedict of Aniane— Abbey of Cluny— Orders of Camaldoli and Vallombrosa. 221. The clergy, it must be confessed, in this epoch, were not always at the height of their divine calling and mission. It is easy to see how greatly, in consequence of the prevailing disorders, educa- tion must have suffered. The clergy for the most part shared in the general ignorance and torpidity, while the common people became more and more barbarous. In some countries the clergy were so utterly destitute of the very elements of learning and general culture, that it was necessary to reduce the standard of fitness for holy orders to the lowest possible requirements. Before the invasion of England by the Danes, King Alfred tells us that churches were indeed well furnished with books; but the priests got little good from them, as the works were written in a foreign language, which the priests did not understand. 222. Amid the frequent and violent disturbances which occurred during this eventful period, the vigilance of the bishops often relaxed and the lower clergy grew daily more dissolute. There arose a class of men whose ignorance could not comprehend, or whose passions refused to obey, the prohibitory statutes of the Church. In many places the celibacy of the clergy was wholly ignored; and impunity promoted the diffusion of the scandal. This degeneracy of the clergy was, in a great measure, due to the interference of secular power in the domain of the Church, and especially to the intrusion of unworthy men into the episcopal sees and even the Papacy. 223. But while many of the clergy dishonored their dignity by the irregularity of their lives, others, and these not a few, adorned it with many illustrious virtues. It was in the tenth contury, which has been the most decried of all in this respect, that many holy bishops lived, and strove zealously to restore among the clergy the 832 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. severity of the ancient discipline. Illustrious among these were, in Italy, Ratherius and Atto, successively bishops of Verona; in Ger- many the Bishops Willigis of Mentz, St. Wolfgang and St. Ulrich of Ratisbon, St. Conrad of Constance, Piligrim of Passau, Bernward of Hildesheim, St. Adalbert of Prague, and St. Bruno, brother of Otho I., of Cologne; in France, St. Gerard of Toul; and in England the Bishops Dunstan, Oswald and Ethelwold. 224. Nor did holiness fail in this epoch among the laity; the calendars are crowded with the names of great saints and other illustrious men and women. Among the emperors and kings we name Charlemagne, Otho the Great, Henry II., Alfred, Canute, St. Edward and St. Edmund martyrs, St. Edward the Confessor, Brian Boroihme, St. Ferdinand, St. Stephen, St. Olaf, and Wladimir. As illustrious models of sanctity and charity among empresses and queens we mention St. Adelaide, St. Cunegunda, St. Mathilda, Theophanea, and Olga. 225. To give an idea of the flourishing condition of the monastic state and the sanctity of many of its members during the early part of the present epoch, it will be sufiicient to enumerate the names of the more illustrious representatives of monasticism. These are Pat- rick, Columbkill, Cummian, Dongal, Augustine and his companions, Theodore, Hadrian, Benedict Biscop, Columbanus, Gall, Severin, Fridolin, Valentine, Kilian, Emeramnus, Rupertus, Corbinian, Bon- iface, Willehad, Bede the Venerable, and Alcuin. But, while the reputation of the clergy was, especially in the ninth and tenth centu- ries, dimmed by their ignorance and degeneracy, the monastic profes- sion had also rapidly sunk into insignificance and contempt. Exces- sive wealth, exemption from episcopal jurisdiction, and the govern- ment of lay abbots brought on great disorders; many monasteries, whose members had at one time been distinguished for their strict observance of rule, their piety and learning, became prominent for their irregularities and disregard of all discipline. 226. St. Benedict of Aniane, encouraged by Louis the Mild, con- ceived and carried out the idea of restoring among his monks the severity of the ancient discipline. They soon became models of order and piety for other monasteries, and contributed much to the revival of letters. But owing to the disturbances arising from the strife of contending parties within the Prankish Empire, the reforms of Bene- dict did not exert any permanent influence. He died A. D. 821. 227. Very important and extensive, however, became the influ- ence of the abbey of Cluny in France. It was founded in 910 by Bernard, a member of a noble Burgundian family, and was raised by CLERGY AND RELIGIOUS ORDERS. CSS his successors, the abbots Odo, Aymar, Majolus, and particularly Odilo to high renown. From Cluny a desire for learning and for strictness of monastic discipline sprung up anew. This asylum of piety and learning had a number of branch houses in many other countries, all recognizing the jurisdiction of the abbot of Cluny, and holding strictly to the Benedictine rule. 228. We must not forget to mention the two new orders of Cam- aldoli and Yallombrosa. The former was founded by St. Romuald in 1012. The Camaldolites, who observed the Benedictine Rule in its stricter form, were divided into Cenobites, living in ordinary monas- tories; hermits, who passed their lives in Lauras, and recluses, who never quitted their cells. The order of Yallombrosa founded in the year 1038 by St. John Gualbert, a member of a noble Tuscan family, was still more austere than that of the Camaldolites. Gualbert left about twelve monastories at his death., which occurred in 1073. SECOND EPOCH. FBOM THE GREEK SCHISM TO THE BEGINNINa OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY, OR, FROM A. D. 1054 TO A. D. 1500. E^TKODUCTORY REMARKS. Catholic Europe a Great Family of Nations— Leading Ideas — Close Union between Church and State— Mediatorial Office of the Roman Pontiffs- Archbishop Kenrick— Achievements and Triumphs of the Church— Car- dinal Newman. 1. The Epoch now to be reviewed, the most eventful and inter- esting, perhaps, of all ecclesiastical history, exhibits the full develop- ment of the Western Christian Nations into one great family, under the guidance of their common mother — the Church. The universality of the Church having triumphed over their selfish interests, united the various peoples of Western Europe into a great Christian com- monwealth — Christendom — of which the Bishop of Rome was the acknowledged Head. It was in this Epoch that the Papacy attained its full height. The two ideas then relished and realized, were Free- dom and Religion. The Church, the custodian of Religion, was at the same time the guardian of Freedom. 2. Thence came that close alliance between the Church and the State; the one aided and supplemented the other. This also explains the frequent interposition of the Popes in settling many controversies among princes, and internal dissensions in kingdoms. To the judg- ment of the Roman Pontiff, which was regarded as the expression of right and justice, both rulers and subjects confidently submitted their, grievances and disputes for adjustment. The right of the Pope to judge Christian princes, and decide differences which might arise among nations, was scarcely ever questioned; and his rulings were almost invariably accepted without a murmur. n INTU OD UCTOR Y REMARKS. 335 3. Speaking of this mediatorial authority exercised by the Popes in the Middle Ages, Archbishop Kenrick observes : " It seemed a common instinct of all Christian nations to appeal to his (the Pope's) justice, for the redress of every grievance for which the local author- ities proved insufficient, and to implore his power for the punishment of those whose station placed them beyond the reach of municipal law. He was, in fact, by common consent, judge, not only in causes strictly ecclesiastical, or in the private concerns of obscure individ- uals, but in civil matters, where flagrant wrongs were perpetrated by crowned heads. He was called to interpose his authority; he was T3lamed if he hesitated; he was feared by delinquents of every class, \>j the haughty baron and the proud emperor, as well as by the humble vassal; and when the thunder of his censure rolled, the prison doors flew open, the hand of avarice let fall the wages of in- justice, and the knees of the oppressor beat together." 4. This Epoch was an age of great activity and intellectual energy. The stirring events and grand achievements which mark this era will ever remain in the remembrance of man. Such were the exciting struggles of the Church with the temporal powers for the maintenance of her inalienable rights and the independence of her hierarchy; such, too, were the crusades, which attempted to re-unite the East with the AVest. The wonderful enthusiasm which thrilled the West for the liberation of the Holy Land, contributed much to the circulation and interchange of knowledge. To the great intellec- tual activity of those times are likewise owing the establishment of many universities, the erection of numerous grand cathedrals through- out Europe, the foundation of the great military and monastic orders, the development of the science of theology, both scholastic and myst- ical, and the splendid achievements in every department of science and in every branch of art. 5. A Church which achieved results so glorious, and accomplished triumphs so grand and so numerous, as this epoch exhibits, must call forth feelings of love, pride and gratitude. But, alas, these feelings are alloyed with grief and sorrow. As this epoch was drawing to a close, " the Christian world," says Cardinal Newman, " was in a more melancholy state than it ever had been either before or since. The sins of nations were accumulating that heavy judgment which fell u^Don them in the Ottoman conquests and the Keformation. There were great scandals among Bishops and Priests, as well as heresy and insubordination. As to the Pontiffs who filled the Holy See during that period, I will say no more than this, that it did not please the good Providence of God to raise up for his Church such heroic men 336 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. as St. Leo, of the fifth, and St. Gregory, of the eleventh century. For a time the Popes removed from Italy to France; then, when they re- turned to Rome, there was a schism in the Papacy for nearly forty years, during which time the populations of Europe were perplexed to find the real successor of St. Peter, or even took the pretended for the true one." CHAPTER L I. PROPAGATION OF CHRISTIANITY. SECTION XXVn. PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY IN NORTHERN EUROPE. Conversion of Northern Nations— Mecklenburgians— Pomeranians— St. Otho — Finns — St. Henry of Upsala — Riigians — Livonian — Prussians — St. Bruno — Kniglits of Prussia — Conquest by the Teutonic Knights — Chris- tianity in Denmark — In Sweden — In Norway. 6. The great work of evangelizing the heathen was continued throughout this epoch, and the Church received vast accessions, es- pecially in Northern Europe. These conversions, however, owing to the invincible pride and savage character of the Northern nations, were in most instances mainly accomplished by violence and the force of arms, and not, as in preceding ages, by the power of persuasion. The Pomeranians, Prussians, and the tribes inhabiting Finland, Li- vonia, and the isle of Riigen, embraced the faith, because neighbor- ing Christian princes, who had subjugated them, were, in self-defence, forced to offer them the alternative of becoming Christians or suffer- ing extermination. v. The conversion of the Sclavonians was continued in this epoch. The Sclavonians of Mecklenburg owe their conversion principally to their prince Gottschalk, who, after becoming a Christian himself, in- duced his subjects also to embrace the faith, about the year 1050. In Pomerania the Gospel had been preached by Polish priests, during the eleventh century, but with little fruit. The continuous insurrec- tions of the stiff-necked inhabitants frustrated every effort to intro- duce Christianity into that country. The episcopal see of Kolberg ceased with the death of its first bishop, Reinbern, in 1013. Duke Boleslas of Poland having at last completely subjugated the Pomera- nians, invited St. Otho, bishop of Bamberg, to undertake their con- version. Appointed papal legate by Pope Calixtus 11., Otho, in 1124,, CHRISTIANITY IN NORTHERN EUROPE. 337 entered Pomerania where he was well received, and vast numbers were baptized in the cities of Camin, Julin, and Stettin. Adalbert, the friend and companion of Otho, was appointed bishop of Julin. Otho returned to Bamberg, where he died in 1139. 8. The Finns, were constrained to receive baptism by St. Erich IX., king of Sweden, in 1157. St. Henrj, bishop of Upsala, became their first apostle, but was murdered by them in 1158. The conver- sion of this rude and warlike people was not finished till the end of the following century, when Thorkel Knutson, regent of Sweden, headed a crusade against them and completed their subjugation. An episcopal see was established at Radameki, but was removed to Abo, in 1300. The inhabitants of the isle of Eiigen, in the Baltic Sea, were the last of the great Sclavonic family to embrace the Christian faith. In 1168, Arkona, the capital of the island, was taken by Waldemar, king of Denmark, and the monstrous wooden idol with four heads, called "Suantovit," a corruption of "St. Vitus," was demolished; whereupon the Kiigians consented to be baptized. 9. In 1186, Meinhard, an Augustinian monk of the monastery of Siegberg, preached the Gospel in Livonia and made some converts. He built a church at Yxkiill, and of this place he was appointed and jonsecrated bishop, by order of the Holy See, in 1191. His successor, jBerthold, led a crusade against the Livonians, but fell in battle. Al- ^brecht, third bishop of Yxkiill, headed a second crusade against the >agan inhabitants and put an end to their ravages. He transferred le episcopal see to Riga, a city founded by himself on the Dwina. fFor the protection of the Christians and their churches, Albrecht, in 1201, founded the order of the Sword-Bearers, which was approved by ^the Holy See, and, in 1237, affiliated to the Teutonic Order. The po- ipulation of Esthonia, Courland, and Semgallen, were next subjugated jiby the energetic bishop, Albrecht, and led to adopt Christianity. IDorpat became the episcopal see of Esthonia; Seelburg of Semgallen; ["and Wirland and Reval of Courland. 10. The intractable and ferocious Prussians, on the Baltic Sea, resisted the longest of all the introduction of Christianity into their ^country. Indeed, as late as the thirteenth century, when Christianity had everywhere else triumphed over Paganism, we see the Prussians clinging obstinately to idolatry. St. Adalbert, bishop of Prague, who first attempted the conversion of these fanatical idolaters, was mur- dered in 997. In 1008, St. Bruno, a Benedictine, who had been com- missioned by Pope Sylvester II. to preach the Gospel in Prussia, also suffered martyrdom. Christian, a Cistercian monk of the monastery of Oliva, near Danzig, was more successful ; he is often called the 388 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. "Apostle of the Prussians," and, in 1214, he was consecrated their bishop. 11. The continuous ravages by the heathen Prussians against the Christian population, caused Bishop Christian to found the Order of the " Knights of Prussia " and to lead a crusade against the irrepres- sible Pagans. A bloody war ensued, which lasted about sixty j^ears. The "Knights of Prussia," having met with a disastrous defeat, the Teutonic Knights, at the instance of Christian, undertook the con- quest of Prussia, and under the lead of the Grand Master, Herman of Salza, succeeded in reducing the ferocious inhabitants to submission, in 1283. Pope Innocent IV., in 1243, established the three bishoprics of Culm, Pomerania, and Ermeland, to which afterwards was added a. fourth, at Samland. Besides Christian, Bishop William of Modena, and St. Hyacinth, one of the first members of the Dominican Order, were zealous apostles of the Prussians. The last country in Europe to receive the Christian religion, was Lithuania. Jagellon, duke of Lithuania, on becoming king of Poland, in 1386, accepted the Gospel and persuaded all his subjects to become Christians. 12. In Denmark, Christianity was, from its first planting, in a flourishing condition. In the reign of Canute II., surnamed the Great, who afterwards succeeded Edmund, the Ironside, on the English throne, many of his Danish followers embraced the faith in England, while many of the English ecclesiastics labored in the Danish mission. Amongst the latter was St. William, who conjointly with Swein, son and successor of Canute in his Danish dominions, largely aided in the propagation of the faith. About two centuries later, St. Hyacinth be- came a zealous apostle of this nation. 13. The progress of Christianity in Sweden was greatly impaired and retarded by repeated civil wars, arising chiefly out of the endless contests between rival dynasties. About the middle of the twelfth century, St. Henry, an Englishman, together with his countryman. Cardinal Nicholas Breakspeare, apostolic legate and afterwards Pope Adrian IV., labored strenuously to establish and confirm the faith in Sweden. Upsala was raised to the dignity of an archbishopric; and, in 1160, Pope Alexander III, created the archbishop of that see, metro- politan and primate of the Swedish Church. 14. In Norway, King Harald, who succeeded his brother, St. Olaf n., violently arrested the spread of the faith. He persecuted the Christians and encouraged the Pagans. Many suffered martyrdom under him. But in 1035, Magnus, the son of St. Olaf, was called to the throne of Norway. This prince did much for the preaching of the Gospel in his kingdom. He rebuilt the cathedral of Drontheim, MISSIONS TO THE HEATHEN. 339 which he wished should be dedicated under the invocation of his sainted father. The archbishopric of Drontheim counted nine suffra- gan sees, and its jurisdiction extended over the Faroe Islands, Iceland, and Greenland. About the year 1140, Cardinal Nicholas Breakspeare, as papal legate, had official duties assigned him in Norway, of which he is often called the Apostle. In the next century the Polish Domi- nican, St. Hyacinth, preached in that country with consoling results. SECTION XXVm. MISSIONS TO THE HEATHEN AND MOHAMMEDANS IN ASIA AND APRICA. Christianity among the Tartars — Prester-John — Christianity among the Mon- gols — John of Monte Corvino — Attempts to Convert the Mohammedans — Result — Congo Mission. 15. In Central Asia, the Nestorians, being specially favored by the Mohammedan rulers, had made considerable headway: their sect ex- tended from China to Palestine, all over Mesopotamia, Persia, Chaldea, Arabia, Egypt, and even India. Among their converts is named Owang-Khan, a Tartar king, who is said to have embraced Christian- ity in the beginning of the eleventh century, and caused his subjects to imitate his example. He was at once ruler and priest of his people, and l^ecame known in the West, by the name of Prester-John (Priest- king). The Popes, desirous of uniting the converted nation with the Latin Church, sought to establish relations with their prince. An am- bassador from one of the successors of Prester-John coming to Rome, in 1177, was consecreated bishop by Alexander HE., and sent back to his country to accomplish the union of the Tartar nation with the Koman See. 16. But this Christian kingdom was overthrown by the Mongols, in 1202, who afterwards subjugated a great part of Asia, and overran Europe as far as Hungary and Poland. Attempts were made by the Popes and by St. Louis IX. of France, to convert the rude Mongols to Christianity. The Dominican and Franciscan friars, who were sent to carry the light of faith into Tartary, were well received; but they met with little success. 17. The mission of the celebrated Franciscan, John of Monte Cor- vino, among the Mongols in China was more successful. He built two churches at Kambalu (now Peking), baptized six thousand con- verts, and translated the New Testament and the Psalms into the Mongolian language. On hearing these happy tidings, Pope Clement v., in 1307, nominated the zealous missionary archbishop of Kambalu, and sent more missionaries, among them several bishops, to Tartary 340 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. and China. But the expulsion of the Mongols from China, in 1368, was followed by the suppression of Christianity in that country. 18. In this epoch also, attempts were made to carry the faith among the Mohammedans in Asia and Africa. During the siege of Damietta, by the Crusaders, in 1219, St. Francis of Assisi undertook to preach the Gospel to the Saracens; but, though admired as "a man of God " even by the Sultan, he gained no disciples. He afterwards sent six friars of his order to Morocco, five of whom suffered death by decapitation. Many other fervent preachers of the mendicant orders met with a like cruel treatment. In the single year 1261, more than two hundred Franciscans were martyred by the Mussulmans; and not long after one hundred and ninety Dominicans received from the same hands the stroke of death. The intrepid Raymundus LuUus, after repeated attempts to preach Christianity to the inhabitants of Tunis and Brugia, shared a similar fate; he was stoned to death by the Mus- sulmans, in 1315. 19. All these efforts to convert the Mohammedans, owing to their pride and invincible prejudice, were quite barren of expected results. We find, however, in the fourteenth century, bishops of the Dominican order, at Morocco, tanger, and Brugia. Under Portuguese auspices, three Dominican friars opened, about the year 1491, a promising mis- sion on the Congo, in Western Africa. The Spaniards and Portuguese, while extending their conquests, were full of zeal for the propagation of the faith. The inhabitants of the Canary Islands were converted in this epoch, and the settlement of the Portuguese in India was dis- tinguished by similar blessings. Immediately upon the discovery of America, the religious orders, especially the Dominicans, Franciscans, Augustinians, aud Trinitarians, vied with one another in preaching the Gospel to the benighted aborigines of the New Continent CRUtiADES. 341 11. THE CRUSADES. ■SECTION XXIX. THE FIRST CRUSADE UNDER GODFREY OF BOUILLON KINGDOM OF JERUSALEM. « Pilgrimages — Capture of Jerusalem — Treatment of Christians — Scheme of Sylvester 11. and Gregory YII. — Peter the Hermit — Urban II. — Council of Clermont — First Crusade — Godfrey of Bouillon, King of Jerusalem — His Successors. 20. Pilgrimages to Jerusalem, and the places consecrated by the presence and miracles of our Divine Saviour, were common in the earliest ages of the Church. St. Jerome informs us that, from the Ascension to his own time, a ceaseless stream of pilgrims resorted to Palestine, to visit the localities that had been hallowed by our Blessed Lord's life and sufferings. Our Saint's example itself drew many, among whom were several noble matrons of Rome, to the Holy Land. The discovery of our Lord's Sepulchre, the finding of the true Cross, and the building of magnificent churches over the Holy Sepulchre and other shrines, by St. Helena and Constantine the Great, did much to encourage the practice. These pilgrimages began to multiply very rapidly in the tenth century, in consequence of an opinion very gen- erally diffused, that the end of the world was at hand. Many persons sold their estates, and emigrated to Palestine, to await the coming of the Lord. 21. The capture of Jerusalem by the Caliph Omar, in the sev- enth century, did not interrupt these pious journeys. Omar, and his successors, tolerating Christian worship, protected and even encour- aged pilgrims, whose arrival brought them considerable profit. A change took place in the treatment of the Christians in Palestine, when, in 969, the Fatimites, or Egyptian Sultans, became masters of Jerusalem. In 1010, there was a fierce persecution of the Christians, by the fanatical Sultan Hakim. The church of the Holy Sepulchre and other Christian temples in Jerusalem and the neighborhood, were razed to the ground, and pilgrims Avere subjected to every extortion and outrage that fanaticism could devise. This persecution, after a while, relaxed, and pilgrims were permitted, on the payment of a heavy capitation-tax, to resume their devotions. But, when, in 1072, the Seljukian Turks under Melek Shah conquered Palestine, the native Christians, as well as the pilgrims, were most cruelly oppressed and treated with every sort of contumely and indignity. 22. The sufferings of the Eastern Christians, and the oppression which pilgrims were forced to endure, at the hands of the fanatical 342 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. Turks, excited universal indignation in Europe. At the close of the tenth century, Pope Sylvester II. entreated Christendom to succor the suffering Church of Jerusalem, and to redeem the Holy Sepulchre from the hands of the infidels. The scheme of arming Christendom for the deliverance of the Holy Land from Mohammedan tyranny, was fondly cherished also by Gregory VII., who was prevented from plac- ing himself at the head of a crusade, only by the complicated affairs of the "West. The plan was taken up again, and finally carried into exe- cution, by the activity of Urban II., and the eloquence of Peter the Hermit. 23. About the year 1093, Peter, a pious and holy hermit of Amiens, in France, undertook a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. The desolation of the Holy Places, the sufferings and despair of the Christians, and the pitiable complaints and entreaties of the patriarch Simeon, filled his soul with indignation and compassion. Keturning from the Holy Land, the pious pilgrim presented himself to Pope Urban II., who warmly approved the idea of organizing a crusade for the deliverance of Jerusalem, and charged Peter with the preaching of the holy war, which he did with wonderful effect. Wandering from land to land, Peter everywhere repeated the tale of woe and sufferings, to which the Christians in the East were subjected. Most far-reaching was the agitation produced by the preaching of the eloquent hermit. Christen- dom, then, felt the disgrace involved in allowing the Holy Places to be possessed and profaned by the fanatical Turks. 24. "While the zealous indignation that the insults and cruelties of the Turks had aroused throughout Europe, was at its height, the Byzantine emperor, Alexius Comnenus, fearing the Turks would soon take his capital, implored the succor of the "West. In the Councils of Piacenza and Clermont, Pope Urban eloquently recommended and urged the holy enterprise for the deliverance of Jerusalem. Thou- sands of clergymen and laymen, congregated in the open air, received the proposals with acclamation and with the enthusiastic cry: "God wills it!** Multitudes at once donned the badge of the Cross, as the symbol of their enlistment for the holy cause. Pope Urban granted to all the faithful who should take up arms against the infidels in the spirit of true piety and penance, full remission of all canonical penal- ties laid on them for their sins. * Bishop Adhemar, of Puy, who had 1. "The idea of encouraging the crusades by indulgences," observes Archbishop Kenrick, "has afforded abundant niatrer of reproach. These, however, were intended to reward tlie generous devotedness with which the Crusaders undertoolc a long and toilsome journey, and ex- posed their lives in a just war connected with relijrion. The condition of true penance was always prescribed in order to gain tiiem; and, in fact, multitudes of most abandoned sinners were won to Christ, by the assurance of unqualified lorgiveness to the penitent Crusader . . . Contri- tion of heart, with the humble confession of sin. is invariably required in the Bulls of Eugene III., Gregory VIIL, Innocent III., and the other Pontiflfe." Primacy, Ch. VII., p. 333. CRUSADES. 343 already been in the Holy Land, was named papal legate and spiritual leader of this First Crusade. 25. A mighty enthusiasm took possession of all hearts. Every- where men were arming themselves with assiduous zeal, and a new spirit seemed to have enlivened the nations. Strife, feud, and oppres- sion everywhere ceased; old enemies became reconciled, and many a criminal presented himself to begin life afresh, and atone for his past misdeeds, by engaging in the holy campaign. Thousands were too im- patient to await formal organization, and in spring 1096, a disorderly and half-armed force marched through Germany and Hungary on their way to Constaninople ; but for want of equipment and discipline, they perished miserably. Another unruly crowd which, after a bloody persecution of the Jews, set out unter the priest Gottschalk and Count Emicho of Leiningen, fared no better. 26. At last a stately army numbering over a half a million valiant warriors, such as Europe and Asia had not seen for a long time, set out by way of Constantinople, for Asia Minor. None of the sovereigns of Europe took active part in the First Crusade; but many of their vassals and a great number of the inferior nobility most earnestly and generously engaged in the undertaking. The most distinguished among these were the brave and noble Godfrey of Bouillon, Duke of Lower Lorraine; Robert, Duke of Normandy; Hugh, Count of Ver- mandois; the powerful Count Raymond of Toulouse; Count Robert of Flanders; Bohemund, Prince of Tarentun, and his brave nephew, Tancred. The siege and capture of Nice was the first important deed of arms achieved by the crusaders. A great victory over the Sultan Soliman, near Dorylseum, in Phrygia, opened a passage into Syria. Antioch was captured after a siege of unparalleled difficulty, and fin- ally, on July 15, 1099, Jerusalem fell into the hands of the crusaders, and became the capital of a new kingdom. 27. Godfrey of Bouillon was proclaimed King of Jerusalem, but the pious and valiant hero, refusing to wear a crown of gold where the Saviour had borne a crown of thorns, declined the title of King, and styled himself simply "Protector of the Holy Sepulchre." After winning a glorious victory at Ascalon, over the far superior army of the Egyptian Sultan, Godfrey died in the course of the following year. Baldwin, his brother and successor, assumed the title of King, and transmitted the throne to his cousin, Baldwin II., whose posterity continued to reign in Palestine, until the overthrow of the kingdom by Saladin, in 1187. For the maintenance of the newly founded king- dom of Jerusalem, several minor states were established. Edessa, on the Euphrates, under Baldwin, brother of Godfrey of Bouillon, de- 344 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH fended Jerusalem on the East, while the principality of Antioch, which was assigned to Prince Bohemund of Tarentun, and Tripoli, in Syria, guarded it on the North. SECTION XXX. THE CRUSADES, CONTINUEp. Fall of Edessa — St. Bernard — Second Crusade — Its wretched End — Fall of Antioch — Sultan Saladin — Fall of Jerusalem — Third Crusade — Frederick Barbarossa — Fourth Crusade — Latin Empire — Fifth Crusade — Sixth Cru- sade — Treaty of Frederick II. — Disasters of the Christians in Palestine- Seventh Crusade — St. Louis IX. — ^Eighth Crusade — Results and Advant- ages of the Crusades. 28. Seven distinct Crusades — not counting the "Children's Cru- sade" — followed the first grand movement; they were all either un- successful or productive of only transitory advantages. The Christ- ians in the East had continually to sustain severe encounters with the infidels, and their situation became extremely precarious when, in 1144, Edessa, justly regarded as the bulwark of the Kingdom of Jeru- salem, was taken and destroyed by the powerful Sultan Zenki of Mosul. At this juncture, Pope Eugenius III. commissioned St. Ber- nard to preach the Second Crusade. Conrad in., of Germany, and Louis VII., of France, assumed the Cross, and, in 1147, they set out, each with an imposing army, for Palestine. But the perfidy of the Greeks and the temerity and licentiousness of the crusaders were the chief causes of the disastrous issue of this promising expedition. The two armies were almost wholly destroyed by the Turks. Both mon- archs, however, reached Palestine, and, with their shattered forces, made an attempt to take Damascus, but failed, after which they re- turned to Europe. 29. This disgraceful termination of an expedition, from which so much had been expected, diffused feelings of melancholy and surprise throughout Christendom. St. Bernard, the prime author of the cru- sade, had to encounter many bitter reproaches, especially from the princes. But undaunted by these accusations, the Saint pointed out the follies and vices of the crusaders, as the true causes of their fail- ure. When, in 1148, Antioch also was in danger of being conquered by the infidels, the old enthusiasm for the Holy Land seemed to flame forth anew. St. Bernard and Abbot Suger formed the project of a new expedition to the Orient. The French king assented, and St. Bernard was designated the agitator for another crusade. Still, the unwillingness of Emperor Conrad III., and the deaths of Suger, his confidential adviser, and of Pope Eugenius III., served to restrain CRUSADES. 345 the ardor of the West, about to break out anew. St. Bernard waa deeply grieved by this failure in setting on foot a new expedition. Broken down by disease and toil, he died, in 1153. 30. Internal discussions, also, greatly paralyzed the strength of the Christians in the East, and hastened the ruin of all the Latin estab- lishments in Palestine, which the gallant Templars, and the Knights of St. John labored in vain to avert. The kingdom of Jerusalem was in dire distress, when the celebrated Saladin, Sultan of Egypt, resolved upon the conquest of Palestine. The battle of Tiberias was decided against the Christians. King Guy and the Holy Cross fell into the hands of the conqueror. Following up his victory, Saladin, in rapid succession, took Acre, Caesarea, Joppa, and, finally, Jerusalem also, D. 1187. 31. The news of the fall of the Holy City fired the nations of Europe and gave rise to the Third Crusade. The most powerful mon- archs of the West, Frederick Barbarossa of Germany, Philip Augustus of France, Kichard Coeur-de-Lion of England, William of Sicily, rallied under the standard of the Cross. The emperor Frederick, tak- ing the way by land to Asia Minor, defeated the Turks in several battles and took the city of Iconium. But in the midst of his victor- ious career, he was drowned in the river Calycadnus. The army pro- ceeded to Palestine and took part in the siege of Acre, which, after the arrival of the French and English forces, was forced to surrender, in 1191. Yet, owing to the quarrels between the kings of France and England, and the dissensions among the crusaders, nothing more was effected. Philip returned at once to France. The English king, after concluding a treaty which secured to the Christians, besides Antioch and Tripolis, the sea-coast from Tyre to Joppa, and undisturbed access to the Holy Sepulchre, hastened homewards. 32. The Fourth Crusade, which was undertaken in 1202, at the instance of Pope Innocent HI., was headed by no great sovereigns. Baldwin of Flanders, and Boniface, count of Montferrat, were its principal leaders. But this Crusade was diverted from its original design, to the siege and conquest of Constantinople which became the seat of the new Latin Empire, with Baldwin of Flanders as emperor; while Boniface of Montferrat was proclaimed king of Thes- saly and Morea. The Latin Empire under five emperors, lasted little more than half a century, or till the year 1261, when Cons tan tino^^le was recovered by the Greeks, and the hopes of uniting the Latin and Greek Churches, which the possession of the Byzantine capital had in- spired, were again doomed to be blighted. During the pontificate of Innocent IH., occurred the singular expedition, known as the "Child- 346 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. ren's Crusade." In 1212, several thousand boys — by some estim- ated as high as twenty thousand — left their paternal homes, for the purpose of making a pilgrimage to the Holy Sepulchre; but the greater part perished by hunger and exhaustion, and the rest were sold into slavery to the Mohammedans. 33. In 1217, Pope Honorius III. inaugurated the Fifth Crusade, which was conducted by King Andrew II. of Hungary, and Duke Leopold of Austria. After a short campaign in Palestine, Andrew, disgusted at the dissensions among the Eastern Christians, returned home. Duke Leopold remained, and, having received reinforcements from France, England, and Italy, undertook, in connection with John of Brienne, titular king of Jerusalem, an expedition against Egypt, where several important successes, including the taking of Damietta, the key to Egypt, were obtained. Yet the hopes of Christendom were dashed through the treacherous neglect of Frederick II., to support the cause of the crusaders, in repeatedly postponing his promised ex- pedition to Palestine. 34. It was not till 1228, that Frederick 11., who was then under the ban of excommunication, entered upon his long delayed crusade, which is ranked as the Sixth, although having little of a religious ob- ject. In sheer mockery of the papal excommunication he set out with a small force for the Levant, where he engaged in a mimic warfare against the Saracens. His conduct in the Holy Land, and his secret negotiations with the Saracens were not conducive toward placing him in a favorable light before Christendom. Frederick concluded a treaty with the Sultan Camel, by which free access to Jerusalem and other holy places was guaranteed to the Christians, and a truce of ten years accorded. He visited the church of the Holy Sepulchre, and, because no ecclesiastic would perform the ceremony, with his own hands placed the crown on his head. 35. The treaty of Frederick was injurious to the Christian cause, and its evil consequences soon manifested themselves. Even in 1230, Jerusalem was stormed by a horde of Saracen fanatics who killed many Christians, and ravaged the Holy City. The Christians suffered many reverses also in other places. Their condition became still worse when, in 1244, the savage Khorasmians, flying before the Mon- gols, threw themselves upon Palestine, and scaled the walls of Jeru- salem, where they destroyed the Holy Sepulchre and perpetrated un- speakable horrors upon the inhabitants. The flower of Christian chivalry fell at Gaza, beneath the blows of the infidel. Jerusalem fell permanently into their possessions, while Acre, and a few other towns on the coast, were all that remained to the Christians. r : CRUSADES. 347 36. These disasters caused Innocent IV. at the Council of Lyons, A. D. 1245, to proclaim the Seventh Crusade. Si Louis IX. of France was the only prince in Europe that responded to the appeal. He un- dertook the two last crusades. In the first, he landed, in 1249, at Damietta in Egypt, and easily made himself master of the city. But the rash behavior of the Count of Artois, the king's brother, caused the ruin of this crusade. The army, already thinned by sickness and famine, was utterly routed and the king himself made a prisoner and forced to purchase his freedom by the payment of a large ransom. After his release, the pious king spent four years more in Palestine, visiting the Holy Places, and strenuously exerting himself in behalf of the Christian cause. The death of his pious mother, Blanche, the queen-regent, compelled him to return to France. 37. Twenty years later, Louis IX. placed himself at the head of the Eighth Crusade, which he directed against Tunis in Northern Africa, whence the Egyptian Sultans were receiving great support against the Christians. A pestilential disease raged in the crusading army, and, after numbers of brave soldiers had fallen, the king him- self was carried off in 1270. His son, Philip III., concluded an honor- able peace, and, with the remnants of the army, returned home. The fate of Palestine was for a time deferred by the valor of King Ed- ward I. of England, who extorted a ten years' truce from the Sultan. The subsequent efforts of Gregory X. and other Pontiffs, to arouse the energy of the Christian princes to the rescue of the Holy Land, were fruitless. Acre, or Ptolemais, the last stronghold of the Christians, after an heroic defence, was captured by the infidels, in 1291. 38. Although the crusades did not fuUy attain their immediate object, the entire recovery and preservation of the Holy Land, yet great and invaluable were the advantages to religion and society which they produced. — 1. The crusades re-awakened the Faith, slum- bering in mam^, and secured its triumph over the rising rationalism of the age. These popular expeditions, undertaken in the name of religion and humanity, aroused, by the memories they recalled, the religious feelings of the Middle Ages, as nothing else could have aroused them. — 2. They were no less profitable to society, not only by the encouragement they afforded to science and art, and the impetus they imparted to commerce, but also in re-establishing and preserving peace and concord among Christian nations. Contemporary writers tell us that the preaching of a crusade produced everywhere a marvel- ous change: dissensions were healed; wars, with their horrors and crimes, were suddenly brought to an end; strifes among petty princes and chieftains, who were ever quarrelling among themselves, or with 348 HISTORY OF TEE CHURCH. their sovereigns, and whose restlessness had, until then, brought so many evils on the fairest portions of Europe, gradually disappeared, and other public disorders ceased. — 3. The crusades were of the great- est importance in preserving the safety of Europe. They were from their commencement virtually defensive wars, waged to repel Turkish aggression, and preserve the Catholic nations from the Mohammedan yoke. They preserved Europe for centuries from her hereditary foe. — 4. Through the crusades the institution of chivalry attained its full development, as they gave occasion for the establishment of new orders which presented a model of chivalry, and combined all the knightly virtues. — 5. That the clergy derived an increase of power and wealth from the crusades, is historically untrue. On the contrary, the clergy, from the Pope down to the lowest ecclesiastic, contributed the greater part of the subsidies levied for the recovery and defence of the Holy Land. From those wars, the Popes sought no accession of power or augmentation of territory; they cheerfully left to the cru- saders the conquered country, with the spoils and honors of war. The crusades did not, and could not, add to the papal power; but the pre-eminence and influence of the Pope, which result from his office and dignity as Head of Christendom, were mainly and essentially in- strumental in setting on foot these vast movements of the European powers, for the reconquest of the Holy Land. STATE OF THE CHURCH. 349 CHAPTER n. EELATION OF THE PAPACY TO THE EMPIRE. SECTION XXXI. STATE OF THE CHT?KCH IN THE ELEVENTH CENTURY. Dominant Evils — Simony — Abuses consequent to Simony — Clerical Incoiitin> ence— St. Paul on Holy Celibacy — Its Advantages — Neglect of Celibacy — Eminent Bishops — Lay Investiture — How Introduced — Its Prevalence — Vassalage of Bishops — Homagium — Political Influence of Churchmen — Disadvantages and evil Consequences. 39. Before resuming the history of the Papacy, it may be well to take a glance at the condition in which the Church found herself at the beginning of this epoch. The dominant evils of the time, as then deplored by all zealous churchmen, were simony, or the sale of eccle- siastical benefices; incontinence, or the marriage of the clergy, and lay investiture of prelatial dignities and insignia. Simony and incon- tinence had struck deep roots among the clergy of almost every country in Europe. These evils began during the enslavement of the Papacy in the tenth century; the scandal spread, and had now con- tinued so long that the inferior clergy pleaded custom for their ir- regularities. These crying abuses were the cause of much bitter grief to the Church, and subsequently became the occasion of a fierce strife, which continued for half a century, between the Papacy and the sec- ular power. 40. To guard the sacred ministry against the intrusion of un- worthy persons, the Church, adopting the maxim of the Prince of the Apostles, St. Peter, enacted stringent laws against simoniacal prefer- ments to spiritual offices. But simony w^as the common reproach of the clergy of Italy, France, and Germany, in the eleventh century. St. Abbo, abbot of Fleury, who flourished in the beginning of the ele- venth century, in his Apologeticus, tells us that ecclesiastical positions, from the episcopate down to the lowest parochial cure, were often venal, and hence fell into the hands of ignorant and immoral persons. Kings and princes usurped the right of naming bishops, abbots, and others to ecclesiastical offices, which often were sold to the highest bidder. Every spiritual dignity and function became an object of barter and sale. The evil worked downwards. The bishop, who had 350 HISTOBY OF THE CHURCH. obtained his see by purchase, indemnified himself by selling the in- ferior prebends, or cures. 41. The evil of simony was the fruitful source of great abuses and scandals in the Church; it trampled down every barrier of ecclesiasti- cal discipline. The sacred ministry was frequently disgraced by men who assumed its functions and obligations, not from pure and holy motives, but from mercenary inducements. It undermined the power and authority of the clergy. The priest or bishop laboring under the imputation of simony, which from its odious name was acknowledged to be a crime, almost heresy, was naturally held up, by the decrees of Popes and Councils, as a hireling, and as an object of horror and con- tempt, rather than of respect. Against the vice of simony, especially Gregory VII., St. Peter Damiani, and other holy prelates inveighed with such great earnestness, employing all their power and influence for its extirpation. 42. "With this widespread simony was, as might be expected, clo- sely connected the other great vice of the age, incontinence, or mar- riage of the clergy. The doctrine and example of Christ taught his first disciples to hold the virtue of perfect chastity in the highest esteem. The Apostle of the Gentiles proclaimed to the faithful the paramount advantage that belongs to the state of celibacy. While the married man was, according to St. Paul, solicitous for the things of this world, the unmarried person, on the contrary, was concerned only for those things that belong to the Lord, how he may please God. 1. Cor. vii. 32-33. The lesson contained in these inspired maxims had induced the Church, from the beginning, to enjoin cel- ibacy as an obligation on the clergy in higher orders. To seciue their entire affection and service to her cause, she ever persevered in rigidly excluding her priests from the married state. 43. The rule of celibacy, however, was openly violated during the ninth and tenth centuries, especially in Italy, Germany, France, and England; the abuse made incessant progress till the middle of the eleventh century. The writings of St. Peter Damian exhibit a gloomy picture of the extent of clerical incontinence, in his days. The Church had many unworthy ministers, because the princes of the world had thrust them upon her; she had to weep over rampant immorality, which in her bondage she was unable to check. 44. But while many among the clergy grieved the Church by their vicious and wanton life, others, not a few, consoled and edified her by their many illustrious virtues as well as by their zeal in en- forcing ecclesiastical discipline. There were many illustrious exam- ples of purity and perfection in the sanctuary and in the cloister, and STATE OF THE CHURCH. 351 many worthy prelates who employed every means to insist on the canonical observance of celibacy among their clergy. The most emin- ent of the bishops who thus labored to reform abuses in Germany were Meingaz und Poppo of Treves; Heribert und Piligrinus of Co- logne; Willigis and Aribo of Mentz; Burchard of Worms; Thietmar of Osnabruck; Bemward and Godehard of Hildesheim; Sibert and Bruno of Minden; Meinhard and Bruno of Wiirzburg; and Unuman of Bremen. 45. The Church never relaxed in her work of reforming ecclesias- tical abuses and in exacting clerical celibacy. Witness the great number of Synods that were held in the eleventh century, in which reformatory statutes were enacted and simoniacal bishops and incon- tinent priests were deposed and excommunicated. The Synod of Kheims, in 1049, enacted, that no one should presume to receive epis- copal consecration, who had not first been elected by the clergy and the people. When papal elections ceased to be under the restraints of secular interference, the Popes, especially Gregory VII., began at once the difficult but needed task of elevating the delinquent portion of the clergy from its degraded condition. 46. The right of investiture, as claimed by the German emperors and other princes, was viewed by all zealous churchmen of the time as the real and chief cause of these evils in the Church. The humble condition of the Church in the early ages, made the secular rulers but little solicitous about the appointment of bishops or other spiritual functionaries. But, when kings themselves embraced the Christian religion, the importance of exercising a certain control over ecclesias- tical elections, naturally attracted their attention, and they soon be- gan to demand that such clergymen only, as found favor with them, should be promoted to the episcopal digjiity. By this means, they hoped to strengthen the stability of their throne, and to secure the support and influence of the clergy against powerful vassals. 4Y. Such, especially, became the rule in the kingdoms^ founded on the ruins of the Roman Empire — Italy, France, Germany — and in Eng- land. Piety or policy had led many of the Western princes to endow the Church generously, and clothe her ministers with power and honors. In many countries churchmen obtained extensive landed estates, including even castles and cities; kings and emperors, partic- ularly Otho I., conferred a large portion of the crown-lands, which had formerly belonged to vassals, upon bishops and abbots, who in this manner acquired seigniorial rights, and thus, virtually, became them- selves the vassals of their sovereign. iSi HISTORY OF THE CHUBCIL 48. Furtliermore, the tenure of Church property, in those times, was likened to that of lay fiefs; bishops and abbots, like lay vassals, had to take the oath of personal and feudal fidelity (vassalagium, or homagium) to their liege lord, by which they bound themselves to serve the king in war, to appear at his call at court, and to remain subject to his juris- diction. The taking of the oath was followed by the investiture of the temporalities of the see, which the feudal lord conferred by put- ting the ring and crosier into the hands of the newly-elected, or even the merely nominated prelate. This custom led to the worst of con- fusions; for the ring and the crosier being in themselves the sym- bols of spiritual dignity and jurisdiction, the idea gradually arose that princes possessed the right and power of conferring, not the tem- poral possessions only, but the spiritual office as well. This explains the opposition of the Popes to the practice of investiture by the deliv- ery of the ring and the crosier, which arose partly from the simoniacal traffic in ecclesiastical benefices, and partly from the seeming com- munication of spiritual power by these symbols. 49. The great political power, which churchmen acquired under the feudal system, and the close union existing between the priesthood and the secular power added, indeed, great outward splendor and authority to the Church; but they, also, opened the way to great abuses and scandals. By degrees, secular princes not only laid claims to confer the temporalities attached to a see, but, also, usurped the right of nominating to bishoprics and abbacies, even without the con- sent and concurrence of the Holy See. The liege lords, believing that, with the fiefs, they had also the disposal of the ecclesiastical dignities attached to them, generally enforced them, without regard to other qualifications, and often in defiance of all ecclesiastical laws, upon persons of whose personal fealty they were assured, or who were nearly allied to them by ties of blood. Thus it happened that boys of five years, and ignorant and wicked favorites of kings and power- ful nobles, were intruded into bishoprics and abbacies. Piety, learn- ing, virtue, and even celibacy, in many instances, were not considered necessary qualifications for the episcopacy. Ecclesiastical offices and benefices became filled by unworthy clerics who, instead of edifying the faithful, caused grievous scandal. Such were the evils result- ing from lay investiture, by means of which the Church was held in bondage, and her children deprived of her motherly care and protec- tion, were committed to faithless hirelings. n PREDECESSORS OF GREGORY VIL 353 SECTION XXXII. PREDECESSORS OF GREGORY VII. Leo IX. — His Zeal for Reform — Peter Damian — Hildebrand — Victor II. — Council at Florence — Godfrey ofLorraine — Stephen IX. — Nicholas 11. — Benedict X. , Antipope — Lateran Council — Papal Elections transferred to the Cardinals — Norman Alliance — Robert Guiscard — Alexander II. — Pa- taria— Honorius II. , Antipope. 50. To reform the abuses and scandals which simony and lay in- terference caused in the Church, required the zeal and energy of an Apostle in the chief pastor. Such a Pontiff was Leo IX. With his accession, a better and brighter era commenced for the Church. He, immediately, inaugurated the necessary work of reforming irregular- ities among the clergy; throughout Italy, he enforced vigorous meas- ures against simony and incontinence. Nor did he confine his zeal for reformation to the city of Rome or Italy; it comprehended the whole of Latin Christendom. St. Peter Damian, and Hildebrand, the greatest churchman, perhaps, of all ages, whom Leo appointed sub- deacon and treasurer of the Roman Church, nobly aided the Pope in his reformatory endeavors. With an energy, which foreshadowed his future greatness, Hildebrand soon improved the impoverished con- dition, to which the Holy See had been reduced in consequence of the arbitrary disposal of its estates by Emperor Henry m. of Germany. ' 51. On the death of Leo IX., the clergy and people thought of electing Hildebrand as his successor. When he declined the dignity, it was determined to send an embassy to Germany, at the head of which was Hildebrand himself, to request the emperor to name a can- didate for the Papacy. Gebhard, bishop of Eichstadt, and counselor of the emperor, a man of consummate abilities, was designated as the one to be chosen by the Romans. Yielding to the pressing entreaties of Hildebrand and the emperor, Gebhard accepted the nomination, on the express condition, that the emperor would restore to the Holy See the rights and possessions which had been withheld. Having been elected at Rome, he was installed as "Victor H. A. D. 1054 — 1057. He was the fifth German Pope. 52. Victor II. continued the reforms begun by his predecessors. He held a Council in the presence of the emperor at Florence, in which decrees were enacted against the alienation of church property, and the prevailing vices. Hildebrand was sent into France as legate, to complete the ecclesiastical reform commenced by the preceding Pope. Henry III. restored to the Roman See, as he had promised, the Duchy of Spoleto and the County of Camerino, and, when dying, A. D. 1056, 164 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. ♦ appointed the Pope regent of the Empire, and guardian of his infant son, Henry IV. Pope Victor did not long survive his imperial friend; he died the following year at Arezzo in Tuscany. 53. On the death of Henry m., Godfrey, Duke of Lorraine, who was married to Beatrice, the widow of Boniface, margrave of Tuscany, was created "Patricius of Rome." "When the unexpected intelligence of Pope Victor's death arrived at Rome, the Cardinal Frederic, brother of Godfrey, was, much against his will, elected, and at once conse- crated under the name of Stephen IX., A. D. 1057 — 1058. The new Pontiff was a man of the loftiest and most determined spirit. As legate of Leo IX., at Constantinople, he had asserted the Roman supremacy in the strongest terms against the haughty patriarch Michael Cerula- rius. Stephen continued the measures of reform adopted by his pre- decessors against ecclesiastical abuses; only men of merit were raised to ecclesiastical dignities, among whom Peter Damian was created by him bishop of Ostia and cardinal. 54. Before his death, which occured after a useful pontificate of only nine months. Pope Stephen had commanded the Romans, under pain of excommunication, not to proceed to the election of a Pontiff until the return of Hildebrand, who was then on a mission to the Ger- man court. But the Roman nobility and the inferior orders among the clergy disregarded this prohibition, and, with the support of the Tusculan party, set up John, bishop of Velletri, as Benedict X. The cardinals, protesting against this intrusion, were compelled to leave IRome. On learning the appointment of an antipope, Hildebrand summoned the exiled cardinals to Sienna, and there, Gerard, bishop of Florence, a man of great learning and ability, was chosen under the jiame of Nicholas 11., A. D. 1059 — 1061. The antipope Benedict at once submitted to the lawful Pontiff, and received absolution. 55. The brief, but useful, pontificate of Nicholas 11. is marked by two events of great importance — the decree for the election of the pope by the cardinals, and the alliance with the Normans. To rescue papal elections from the partisan influence of the Romans, and from all undue interference of secular princes, Nicholas in a Synod held, in 1059, in the Lateran palace, passed a law to the following effect: 1. — The election of a Pope is reserved exclusively to the cardinals ; 2. — To the emperor, who personally attained this privilege from the Holy See, is allowed only the prerogative of ratifying the election; 3. — If a^ worthy person can be found among the Roman clergy, he is to be pre- ferred; otherwise a foreigner shall be elected; 4. — If a proper election eannot take place in Rome, it may be held anywhere else. PBEDECJESSOBS OF GREGORY VII. 355 56. By this decree Nicholas laid the foundation of that celebrated mode of papal election in a conclave, and, as far as possible, prepared the way for an absolute emancipation of the Papacy from the imperial control, as also removed from the Romans, and, later on, from Italians generally, any grounds, under the pretext of the spirit of nationality, for rebelling against the Temporal Power of the Popes. Nicholas, in 1061, added another decree, by which it was distinctly stated, that the election conducted in the foregoing manner, at once placed the Pope- elect in pbssession of plenary apostolic authority, and, consequently, the emperor's confirmation was not necessary to render the election valid. 5Y. The second important event of the pontificate of Nicholas 11. was the conversion of the hostile Normans into the faithful allies and protectors of the Roman See. By the famous treaty of Melfi, which he concluded, in 1061, with the Norman chiefs, Richard and Robert Guiscard, Nicholas invested the former in the principality of Capua, and the latter in the dukedom of Apulia and Calabria, and in the is- land of Sicily, which Robert was to reconquer from the Saracens. The Norman princes took the oath of fealty to the Pope, and promised to protect the Roman Church against its enemies and secure the freedom of papal elections. The Norman dominion in Lower Italy was destined to become the bulwark of the Holy See against the Italian factions and tyrants, and against the German emperors themselves. 58. After a vacancy of about three months, Anselm, bishop of Lucca, was elected, chiefly through the influence of Hildebrand; he took the name of Alexander 11., A. D. 1061 — 1073. He had given proof of his virtue, and of his zeal for clerical celibacy, while yet only a priest at Milan, where the practice of simony and marriage was quite gen- eral among the clergy, and countenanced even by the simoniacal arch- bishop Guido. He boldly denounced clerical corruptions, especially against the anomaly of a married clergy. "With the two Milanese priests, Ariold and Landulf, he bound himself in a holy league, called "Pataria," for the extirpation of simony and the enforcement of clerical celibacy. To rid himself of the disagreeable monitor, Guido had An- selm promoted to the see of Lucca. 59. The election of Alexander IL, having been made without the consent of Henry JJV., gave great offense to the court of Germany. Under the auspices of the Empress Agnes, mother of the young mon- arch, a diet met at Basle, composed of German and Italian nobles, which annulled the election of Alexander 11., and set up an antipope, Cadalous, bishop of Parma, who took the name of Honorius 11. His intrusion at once aroused the indignation of all the well-disposed, and 356 HISTOBY OF THE CHUECH. was the cause of great confusion and much bloodshed in Italy. Fin- ally, the diet of Augsburg, in 1062, and the Council of Mantua, in 1064, ended the schism by declaring in favor of the lawful Pontiff. This happy result was mainly due to Archbishop Hanno of Cologne, tutor of Henry IV. and administrator of the Empire. Cadalous, never- theless, though abandoned by his abettors, never renounced the title of Pope; he died, almost forgotten by the world, about A. D. 10 T 2. 60. Pope Alexander with vigor and ability prosecuted the work of reformation; by legates, as well as by numerous synods, held in Italy, France, Germany, and Spain, he labored effectually for the cor- rection of existing abuses, and the restoration of ecclesiastical dis- cipline; he fearlessly resisted the intrusion of unworthy bishops into episcopal sees through the influence of princes and nobles. The contest at Milan and in other parts of Upper Italy against the simon- iacal and married clergy, was continued by the " Patarines " with much success. After the death of Ariold, who was assassinated at the in- stigation of the Simonists, in 1066, Herlembald, brother of Landulf, assumed the lead of the "Pataria." Pope Alexander bestowed upon him the consecrated banner of St. Peter, and appointed him standard- bearer of the Roman Church in her holy warfare against the Simon- ists, and against the Nicolaitans, as the advocates of clerical marriage were called. The petition of the licentious Henry TV. for a divorce of his marriage with Bertha, Alexander 11. rejected, and severely reproved the royal libertine for his excesses and crimes. Shortly before his death, the resolute Pontiff excommunicated Henry's counselors, who were addicted to the practice of simony, and summoned the king him- self to Rome. SECTION XXXni. PONTIFICATE OF GREGORY VU. Election of Gregory YII.— His Antecedents— Confirmation of Gregory's Elec- tion by Henry lY.— Chief Object of Gregory's Pontificate — His Views and Principles — Decrees against Simony and Incontinence — Opposition of the Married Clergy — Suspension of Bishops — Synod of Rome— Decree against Lay Investiture. 61. The funeral obseqmes of Alexander IE. had scarcely been terminated, when the unanimous voice, both of the clergy and the people, called the archdeacon Hildebrand to the Papacy, and the car- dinals hastened to confirm the choice. With reluctance, Hildebrand finally accepted the proffered dignity, which he had sought in vain to avert. In memory of his former friend, Gregory VI., whom he highly revered, he took the name of Gregory YIT<, A. D. 1073 — 1085. PONTIFICATE OF QREOOBY VII. 357 Gregory, then sixty years of age, for the previous twenty-foiir years had wielded a paramount influence in the affairs and government of the Church. As confidential adviser of the five preceding Popes, he had aided in planning and carrying out the much needed reforms; and as papal legate in Italy, France, and Germany, he had displayed great prudence and vigor in correcting abuses, and restoring eccle- siastical discipline ; but he had also learned the many difficulties that would beset a Pope who endeavored to govern the Church as became the spiritual head of Christendom. 62. Gregory commenced his reign with calmness and prudence. To comply with the decree of Nicholas 11. requiring the imperial assent, he despatched messengers to Henry IV. to inform him of his elevation, and receive his consent. It is said that, at the same time he warned Henry not to sanction his election, adding that, if he were recognized as Pope, he would no longer patiently endure that mon- arch's odious and flagrant excesses. Gregory, bishop of Vercelli, the chancellor of Italy, was sent to Kome to signify the imperial assent. This is the last instance of a papal election being ratified by an em- peror. 63. The avowed object of Gregory's pontificate was to secure the freedom of the Church and purify the sanctuary from the evils which had been injected into it by feudalism and the interference of the sec- ular power. For this end, he at once set himself to reform the abuses and scandals, the existence of which he constantly deplored in his letters. "The Eastern Church," he writes, "has lost the true faith, and is now assailed on every side by infidels. In whatever direction one turns his eyes — to the West, to the North, or to the South — every- where are to be found bishops who have obtained the episcopal office in an irregular way, whose lives and conversation are out of harmony with their sacred calling, and who perform their duties, not from love of Christ, but from motives of wordly ambition. There are no longer princes now who set God's honor before their own selfish ends, or who allow justice to stand in the way of their ambition." ^ 1. Gregory frequently expressed his guiding principles in Ms letters and encyclicals. " Our one wish," he says, "is that the wicked may be enlightened and return to their Creator. Our one longing is to see Holy Church, now trodden under foot, in confusion, and divided into vari- ous parties, restored to her ancient beauty and strength. Our one endeavor and aim is that God may reign in us, and that we with our brethren, and tliose who persecute us, may become worthy to enter into eternal life." Again he writes: '-The princes of the people and the princes of the priests come out with great multitudes against Christ, the Son of the Almighty God, and against His Apostle Peter, to destroy the Christian religion, and spread the perversion of heresy. But, by the grace of God, neither threats, nor persuasion, nor promises of earthly honor, will avail to withdraw from Him to their impiety those who trust in the Lord. They have entered into a league against us, because we cannot be silent when the Church is in danger, and because we resist those who feel no shame in reducing the Bride of Christ to slavery. A woman, how poor soever, may lawfully take a husband according to the laws of her country and her own Avish; but the will of wicked men and their horrid devices would prevent Holy Church, the Bride of God and our 358 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 64. Gregory boldly commenced his work of reform with the clergy. With great vigor and circumspection he proceeded against such bishops and abbots, as had obtained their appointments uncanonically from temporal princes, and against simonists and married priests. In a Synod at Rome, A. D. 1074, he revived all the old decrees against simony and incontinency, and, moreover, ordained that all ecclesiastics who had obtained their benefices or dignities by purchase, should be deprived of all their powers and rights, and that all married priests should be deposed at once. In order to give effect to this decree, he prohibited the faithful to assist at the mass of such priests, or to receive the sacraments at their hands, thus making the people the executors of his energetic measures. These enactments were nothing new, as they were based upon similar decrees of previous Popes, and enforced only what was law in the Church from the beginning. 65. The efforts of Gregory to enforce the observance of celibacy, met with a decided opposition on the part of the married priests, es- pecially in Upper Italy, France, and Germany. All manner of objec- tions were urged against the obligation of the rule of celibacy. Many of the married priests who cited passages of our Lord's teachings (Math. xix. 11), and of St. Paul's (1. Cor. vii. 2. 9; 1. Tim. iii. 2) in sup- port of their position and against the Pope, went so far as to declare that they would rather renounce the priesthood than their marriage contract; and that "the Pope, if men were not good enough for him, might go seek angels to preside over the people !" Bishops who undertook to enforce the papal decrees were resisted, sometimes even assaulted. John, archbishop of Rouen, daring in a public synod to prohibit under anathema the priests to retain those whom he called their concubines, was overwhelmed with a shower of stones, and driven out of the church. When the abbot of Pont-Isere, at a Council at Paris, dared to say that the papal decree must be obeyed, he was dragged out of the assembly, struck in the face by the king's servants, and hardly rescued alive. Prominent among those opposing the papal decree re- garding the rule of celibacy, was Otho, bishop of Constance, who even encouraged his priests to marry. 66. Pope Gregory, however, by no means intimitated by this op- position, refused to depart in the least from what he rightly deemed the true ideal of the priesthood. Hence, in a second Synod, held at Rome, the following year, he renewed the decrees against simony an< Mother, from adhering lawfully, according to God's laws and her own desire, to her Bridegroom upon earth We cannot suffer that heretics, adulterers, and usurpers should stand in the place or fathers to the children of the Church, and should brand them with the dishonor ol adultery." CONFLICT WITH HENBY IV. 359 clerical incontinence. The bishops Sicmar of Bremen, Werner of Strassburg, Henry of Spires, Herman of Bamberg, William of Pavia, Cunibert of Turin, and Dionysius of Piacenza, who were guilty of sim- ony, or of opposition to the Holy See enforcing ecclesiastical reforms, were interdicted from the performance of their functions. 67. To strike the evil at its root, Gregory in the same synod pro- hibited under pain of excommunication the practice of lay investiture, withdrawing from the laity once and for all, the power of appointing to spiritual offices. He enacted that, "if any person should accept a bishopric or an abbacy from the hands of a layman, such one should not be regarded as a bishop or an abbot, nor should he enter a church until he had given up the benefice thus illegally obtained. And, if any person, even though he were king or emperor, should confer the in- vestiture of an ecclesiastical office, such one should be cut off from the communion of the Church." ^ Finally, he excommunicated the counselors of the German monarch, who were addicted to the shameful practice of selling ecclesiastical benefices to the highest bidder. These sweeping enactments produced a great excitement, especially in Ger- many; they were the unavoidable cause of that bitter strife betw^een the Church and the Empire, known in history as the "Contest of In- vestiture ;" but they also served to purify the sanctuary from the evils which had been introduced into it by the barbarism of the age; and they finally secured the freedom of ecclesiastical elections and the emancipation of the hierarchy from the thraldom of secular au- thority. SECTION xxxiv. Gregory's vn. contlict with henry tv. Gregory's Admonition — Henry's Reply — Saxon Revolt — Breach between Em- peror and Pope — Henrj- Summoned to Rome — Gregorj^ seized by Cen- clus — Proceedings of Henry — Conventicle of Worms — Declaration against the Pope — Synod of Piacenza — Henry's Insulting Letter to Gregory — Synod at Rome — Excommunication and Release from the Oath of Alle- giance — Gregory's Object — Diet at Tribur. 68. Pope Gregory could not hope to carry out his plan for reform- ing the Church, without the co-operation of the temporal princes. From some of them, at least, he had every reason to expect the most determined opposition. Hence, he sought, from the very commence- 1. These provisions were neither arbitrary nor innovative; they were supported by a series of previous canons, and Gregory only revived what had been made law by preceding Councils; as for instance, by the Seventh General Council under Hadrian I., which ordained that " every ap- pointment of a bishop, priest, or deacon, made by secular princes, should be considered void, according to the canon which enacts that: "If a bishop has obtained the charge of a church through the influence of secular princes, he shall be deposed and cut off, together with all those who hold communion with him." 360 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH ment of his pontificate, to secure for the grand object he had in view, the favor and support of the sovereigns of Europe, especially of Henry rV. of Germany. His first overt act relating to the German monarch was a kind admonition to him to become reconciled to the Church; to abstain from simoniacal presentations to ecclesiastical benefices, and to render due allegiance to the Holy See. He expressed a desire to negotiate with the prince upon some agreement for the regulation of ecclesiastical affairs, particularly appointments to ecclesiastical bene- fices, in Germany. The admonition reached Henry in the most peril- ous time of his war with the Saxons, who had taken up arms against his tyrannical rule. He wrote to the Pope a submissive letter, in which he called him father, acknowledged that he had invaded the territory of the Church, and preferred unworthy persons to ecclesias- tical dignities. He testified repentance for his misdeeds, and prom- ised amendment and obedience, beseeching counsel and assistance from the Pope. 69. But no sooner had Henry put down the Saxon insurrection, than he broke through all restraints; his insolence caused him to dis- regard all former promises, and set the admonition of the Poj)e, and the laws of the Church at defiance. He reinstated the excommuni- cated counselors, oppressed the Saxons with increased severity, and continued the practice of investiture, selling bishoprics, and even rob- bing churches of their precious stones to bestow them upon his con- cubines. Pope Gregory, who had been appealed to by the Germans, could not be indifferent to these scandals, to these flagrant violations of all human and divine rights. He kindly warned the German sov- ereign, both by letter and private embassy, to change his conduct and repair whatever evil he had done; but in vain. 70. Without fear or shame, Henry ill-treated the papal legates, and insultingly dismissed them, who, thereupon, were compelled to summon him to Rome, to answer before a synod the charges of the grave crimes imputed to him. Contemporary writers specify those crimes, namely, utter disregard of the public interests, the cruel op- pression of his subjects, the arbitrary and disgraceful proceedings with regard to bishoprics, the dishonor of the wives and daughters of the princes, the banishment of guiltless prelates and nobles, and the butchery of many innocent persons. 71. In the meantime, a conspiracy was formed against the Pope, in Rome itself, by some of the nobility, whose extortions and j)illages he had stopped. Cencius, the leader of the conspirators, seized upon the person of the Pontiff while celebrating Mass on Christmasday, and threw him into prison. But the indignant Romans soon rescued the CONFLICT WITH HENRY IV. 861 Pope; Cencius would have been torn to pieces but for Gregory's inter- vention. In all probability, Henry, and Guibert, archbishop of Ra- venna, were the secret instigators of this outrage against the Pope. 72. Henry, dreading excommunication, sought to forestall it by the sacrilegious attempt to depose the Sovereign Pontiff. In the be- ginning of the year 1076, he hastily convened at Worms the princes and prelates devoted to his cause, and procured a sentence of deposi- tion against Gregory. Of the bishops present only two, Adelbert of Wurzburg, and Herman of Metz hesitated to sign the sentence; but being offered the alternative of either signing or disclaiming their allegiance to the monarch, they, also subscribed. "This shows," says the Protestant Neander, "to what extent these bishops and abbots were willing to be employed as the blind tools of power, and how much they needed a severe regent at the head of the Church." The simoniacal bishops of Lombardy, at Henry's bidding, hastened to approve, at the Synod of Piacenza, the disgraceful action of the assem- bly at Worms. Thus the unhappy conflict which produced so much injury to the Empire, began with a crime that threatened to plunge the whole Church into the direst confusion. 73. The mock sentence of the conventicle of Worms was an- nounced to the Pope in a letter addressed in the following arrogant and insulting terms: "Henry, not by usurpation, but by God's ordi- nance. King, to Hildebrand, no longer Pope, but a false monk." It accused Gregory of having usurped the Papacy, and of tyrannyzing the Church, and commanded him to leave at once St. Peter's chair and the government of the Roman Church ! In another letter, Henry announced to the Romans that, as Patrician, he had deposed the Pope, and called upon them to compel Gregory to surrender the Apostolic Chair and make way for one whom he himself would choose. 74. Meanwhile Gregory had summoned a Council to meet in Rome the following month. Just as he was opening the Synod, the Pope received the sentence of deposition which Henry had the audacity to send him. Thereupon, at the instance of one hundred and ten bishops, and in the presence of the Empress-mother Agnes, he solemn- ly excommunicated Henry, released his subjects from their oath of allegiance^ forbade him to exercise his right of government,^ and de- posed and excommunicated the prelates who had concurred in the 1. "This," savs Cardinal Hergenroether, "was neither a deposition nor a deprivation; it was merely a suspension, and was, according to the usage of the lime, a necessary consequence of the excommunication; for none of the faithful could hold intercourse with an excommunicated person, and no one being excommunicated was capable ol governing, as long as he remained under the ban. It was not an irrevocable sentence, but a measure to endure until the required satislaction should be performed; if, however, the obstinacy continued for a year, the sentence was definitive. 362 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. proceedings at Worms. Those prelates who had assented from com- pulsion, were allowed time to make their peace with the Holy See. He reserved it to himself to absolve from this excommunication; other- wise, time-serving, or unfaithful, bishops might have absolved the monarch without requiring due satisfaction. It was Gregory's object to move Henry to repentance, not to deprive him of his crown. Hence, he warned the German Princes not to proceed at once to the election of a new sovereign, but to urge Henry to repentance, granting him time to make peace with the Church and thus save his throne. 75. Henry, at first, affected to treat the sentence of the Pope with contempt, and determined to revenge himself. But the excommunica- tion of the German Sovereign created a great sensation among his subjects, who began gradually to avoid his company. His party was daily decreasing in numbers. In October, 1076, the German princes, headed by Rudolph of Swabia, Henry's brother-in-law, met at Tribur, near Darmstadt, to consider the election of a new ruler, which was prevented only by the interposition of the Pope and his legates. The princes, weary of Henry's misgovernment, agreed that his case should be decided at a diet to be held, under the direction of the Pope, at Augsburg, in February, 1077: that, in the meantime, Henry should give up the administration of public affairs, perform no act of supreme authority, and hold no intercourse with his excommunicated coun- selors; and, if not reconciled to the Church within a year, he was, "by an ancient law of the Empire," to be considered deposed from the throne. SECTION XXXV. THE CONFLICT WITH HENRY IV, CONTINUED. Henry lY. at Canossa — Reconciliation — Faithlessness of Henry — Election of Henry — Election of Rudolph of Swabia — Gregory Unconnected with this Election — Guibert of Ravenna, Antipope — Death of Rudolph — Henry in Italy — Siege of Rome — Election of Hermann of Luxemburg — Occupation of Rome — Succors from the Normans — Retirement and Death of Gregory. 76. To escape the loss of his throne, Henry submitted to the con- ditions prescribed by the assembly of Tribur; but as he had to fear the worst from the coming diet, he sent word to the Pope that he pre- ferred to have his case tried before his Holiness in Rome, rather than to risk a trial at Augsburg. Gregory, however, who did not wish to forestall the action of the diet, declined to accede to the request. To secure absolution before the meeting of the much dreaded diet, Henry resolved to anticipate the journey of the Pope to Germany. He set out for Italy in the exceptionally cold winter of 1076-77, and unex- CONFLICT WITH HENRY IV. 363 pectedly appeared at Canossa, whither Gregory, who was then on his way to Germany, had withdrawn on hearing of Henry's arrival in Italy. Clad in a penitential garb, the excommunicated monarch remained for three days before the gates of the castle occupied by the Pope, beg- ging absolution from excommunication/ 77. Henry's sudden appearance somewhat perplexed the Pope, ior, by taking this journey, the German monarch had broken the condition imposed on him, of awaiting the Pope at Augsburg; and Gregory neither wished nor dared to pass judgment on the accused sovereign at a distance from his accusers. As Henry, seeing that the possession of his crown depended on his immediate absolution, now declared himself ready to make all necessary promises, Gregory could resist no longer; he granted him absolution, with reservations, how- ever, in case of relapse. The Pope immediately sent a messenger to inform the German princes of that absolution, at the same time ac- quainting them with the reasons of his own action, as well as with the terms which Henry had accepted. One of the conditions most insisted upon by the Pope, was that Henry should appear before a diet to an- swer the charges brought against him by the princes. 78. Henry's repentance was of short duration. The barons and evil-doing bishops of Lombardy being much displeased with the reforms of Gregory, induced Henry to disregard the obligation of the covenant at Canossa. They openly spoke of deposing the Pope, and an attempt was made to seize his person, which, however, happily failed. Gregory being prevented from going to Germany, the pro- posed diet at Augsburg could not take place. But, already in March, 1077, the German princes, contrary to Gregory's wish, had elected Duke Eudolph of Swabia king in Henry's place. This plunged Ger- many at once into a civil war.'' Gregory remained neutral in this civil strife, but made every effort to effect a compromise between the con- testants. The consequence was, that both parties were displeased with the Pope. 1. The affair of Canossa was not so dreadful as is represented by some writers. Henry dia not remain Jjarefoot in tlie snow before the gates of the castle for three successive days and nights; he returned to his lodgings at nightfall; neither was he destitute of all clothing; he wore ''the garb of penance," or hair-cloth shirt over his ordinary dress. The penance which Henry per- formed at Canossa, was in no way imposed upon him by the Pope, but was freely undertaken as a proof of amended dispositions; it was a punishment not uncommon in those days, and was not considered degrading. The apparent severity of Gregory was fully justified by the speady and aggravating relapse of Henry into his usual excesses. 2. "This civil war," writes Cardinal Hergenraether, "can no more be laid to Gregory's charge than the one before it, which was occasioned by Henry's oppression of the Saxons. He had no part in Rudolph's election, and the flame of civil strife was kindled by Henry's faithless violation of treaties. Nay, Gregory was bitterly reproached by Rudolph's followers for not de- claring himself positively against Henry, and for still clinging to the hope of his conversion . . . In reply to this reproach, Gregory, on the 1st of October, 1079, declared to the followers of Rudolph that it was the more unjustificable in them, to accuse him of an inconsiderate policy, since no one more than he had to suffer from Henry.'' 364 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH 79. Henry, in the meantime, made himself guilty of fresh crimes. He employed every means to hinder the meeting of the diet which was to settle the dispute between him and his rival. He recommenced the practice of investiture, and even appointed bishops to sees already filled. Thus it occured that many bishoj)rics had two claimants, the one belonging to the party of Henry, the other to that of Rudolph. ;The whole policy and conduct of Henr}^ made it evident that he was only trifling with Gregory, and awaiting an opportunity to set him at defiance altogether. The Pope, at last, after all his endeavors to bring Henry to a better mind, and effect a reconciliation, had been unavailing, renewed on him the sentence of excommunication, at a Synod held in Rome, A. D. 1080, and at the same time acknowledged Rudolph as king.^ 80. Henry met the papal sentence by assembling the rebellious bishops of Germany and Italy at Mentz and Brixen; they declared Gregory deposed f rom the Papacy, and elected as antipope, under the name of Clement III., the excommunicated Archbishop Guibert of Ravenna. After the death of Rudolph, who fell in battle the same year, Henry proceeded to Italy to install his antipope. He ravaged the possessions of the Pope's faithful ally, the countess Mathilda, and prevented her from rendering support to the Holy See. Gregory's distress was at this moment extreme: he was without all hope of earthly assistance. Still, he remained firm and declared that he would rather sacrifice his life than foresake the path of justice. 81. For three successive years, Henry encamped under the walls of Rome, but the Romans maintained their fidelity to the Pope. Fin- ally, in 1083, by surprise he got possession of the Leonine city and St. Peter's church; he, then, asked Gregory who had retreated to the castle of St. Angelo, to crown him Emperor, promising to abandon the antipope. But the Pope rejecting the offer, replied that the excom- municated monarch must first of all perform satisfactory penance, and thus obtain absolution. This Henry refused to do; but he agreed to leave the decision of the contest to a council which the Pope convoked in November, 1083. Notwithstanding his sworn promise to allow free 1. It Is an unfounded assertion that Gregory treated all princes as vassals of the Holy See. His letters speak only of a religious obedience in matters purely ecclesiastical. The principle he wished to enforce was, that all princes should acknowledge the supremacy of God's law, and rec- ognize Him as the source of their own jurisdiction and power, and, consequently, they should not make their own will the supreme law, but be guided by the law of God, as announced to them by the Church. To enforce this was not merely his right, but his most solemn duty. "If," wrote Gregory, "we should suffer princes to rule as they please, and to trample God's justice under foot; if we should silently consent to this, we should receive their friendship, gifts, works of sub- mission, praise, and much honor. But as to do this does not accord with our office and our duty, there is nothing which, by the Grace of Christ, can separate us fi-om His love; it is safer for us to die than to abandon His law. r I CONFLICT WITH HENRY IV. 365 passage to all wishing to attend the council, the treacherous prince prevented the bishops under his dominion from going to Rome. 82. During Henry's absence in Italy, Count Hermann of Luxem- burg was elected king by the German princes; but he lacked the 2:)(3wer and foresight to profit by the weakness which, at that time, existed among the partisans of the excommunicated sovereign. In 1084, Henry came a fourth time to Rome, and succeeded in forcing an entrance into the city. He called a synod, which renewed the sentence of deposition on Gregory, had his antipope enthroned and himself crowned Emperor by him. But he was obliged to retreat before the advancing force of Duke Robert Guiscard, who came to the assistance of the Pope, besieged in the castle of St. Angelo. The Normans, after taking the city by storm, committed great excesses which the Poj)e was unable to prevent. Gregory moved to Monte Cassino, and thence to Salerno, where, after renewing the excommunication of Henry and the antipope, he died on the 25th of May, 1085. The last words of the dying Pontiff were: "I have loved justice and hated iniquity, and therefore do I die in exile." 83. Gregory VII. did not live to see the cause he so nobly and courageously defended, victorious. But it cannot be said with truth that he failed in obtaining the aim he had in view. " He succeeded," to repeat the words of Cardinal Hergenroether, "in his principal ob- ject of putting an end to investiture as practised under Henry TV., and of establishing the free election to church offices, which had be- come a vital question. His idea of delivering bishops and abbots from all feudal service was followed up by Urban II. and Paschal 11., and again, more emphatically at the treaty of Sutri, in 1111, though this latter had been only a secondary, not a primary, object with Gregory. That the faith of the nations was strengthened, and the dignity of the priesthood publicly recognized; that greater purity was assured among the clergy, and more firmness among the bishops; that the Church was preserved from the danger of her offices becoming hered- itary, and from the formation of a priestly caste; and that new religious societies, full of true zeal, arose — these were some results of Gregory's conflict, and truly they were not insignificant" Zm HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. SECTION XXXVI. SUCCESSORS OF GREGORY VII CONTEST OF INVESTITURES. prolonged Vacancy in the Holy See— Victor III.— Council of Beneventum— Urban II. — His Activity — Council of Clermont — Homagium— Extraordi- nary Grant to Roger I. of Sicily — Charges against Henry IV. by the Empress — Paschal II. — Lateran Synod — Death of the Antipope — Revolt of the Younger Henrj' — Henry IV. a Prisoner — His Death — Hostility of Henry V. against the Church— Paschal II. in France— Henry V. in Italy — Treaty of Sutri — Paschal II. a Prisoner — ^'Privilegium," or -Treaty between Pope and Emperor — Lateran Synod — Gelasius II. — Flies to Gaeta — ^^Burdinus Antipope — Calixtus II. — Excommunication of the Em- peror—Concordat of Worms— Ninth Ecumenical Council. 84. Gregory VII. had died in exile, overpowered, but not subdued. His mantle descended upon his successors, who strenuously persev- ered in the great contest for ecclesiastical independence, and, finally, after a fierce and prolonged struggle, achieved the freedom of the Church from the thraldom of the secular power. When dying, Gre- gory VII. recommended Desiderius, abbot of Monte Cassino; Otho, cardinal-bishop of Ostia; Hugo, archbishop of Lyons; and Anselm, bishop of Lucca, as worthy of the Papacy. Of these, Desiderius, the esteemed friend of the late Pontiff, was, even in Salerno, chosen and urged to accept the pontificate. But on account of the desolate con- dition of the Church and his infirm health, he steadily resisted for a whole year. Being again chosen at a second election, held at Rome in May, 1086, he once more shrank from the dignity, but, after a fruit- less resistance of nearly two years, finally yielded to the urgent prayers of the Synod of Capua, and consented to assume the burden of the Papacy. 85. Escorted by the Normans and the princes of Salerno and Ca- pua, Desiderius entered Rome, w^hich was then in the possession of the antipope Guibert, and was enthroned in St. Peter's church as Victor in., A. D. 1086-1087. Owing to the machinations of the im- perialists, the new Pontiff dared not remain long in Rome; he retired again to Lower Italy. Although laboring under the infirmities of age and sickness, and surrounded by almost insurmountable difficulties, Victor succeeded in collecting a large army against the African Sara- cens, who had invaded Italy, and gained a complete victory over them. In August, he held a Council at Beneventum, which renewed the ex- communication of the antipope, and the condemnation of simony and lay investiture. To this was subjoined the prohibition of receiving the sacraments at the hands of the " Henricians," as the imperialist clergy were called. A month later, Victor died at Monte Cassino, after recommending Cardinal Otho, bishop of Ostia, for the Papacy. r SUCCESSORS OF GREG OUT VII. 367 86. Rome being held, at the time, by the antipope, the election of a new Pope could not take place till six months after the death of Victor IIL, when the cardinals met at Terracina, and there unanimous- ly chose Otho of Ostia Pope, under the name of Urban 11., A. D. 1088- 1099. He was a most active and influential Pontiff. He celebrated no less than twelve Councils. The excommunication against the anti- pope and his adherents was renewed by him, and stringent laws were passed, especially at the Council of Melfi, in 1089, against simony, clerical marriage and lay investiture. He further pronounced three distinct excommunications: the first, against Henry IV. and the anti- pope Guibert; the second, against their counselors and adherents, and against the simoniacal ecclesiastics; the third, against all those communicating with persons under the solemn ban. 87. To liberate the priesthood from the shackles of feudal servi- tude. Urban, in the celebrated Council of Clermont, A. D. 1095, passed a canon which prohibited bishops and priests to take the oath of fealty (homagium) to either king or other layman. The feudal oath, in those days, was interpreted by some princes to signify on the part of the vassals absolute obedience to his liege lord, and the obligation to render him service under all circumstances. A refusal of the feudal duties, even from religious motives, was regarded as a violation of the homagium and as felony. By virtue of this oath, which placed ec- clesiastics in absolute dependence on their feudal lord, princes pre- sumed to prohibit bishops to attend synods, and even to obey the sum- mons of the Pope. 88. Meanwhile, Henry IV. persevered in his evil course, waging war against the Church and its lawful Pontiff. He continued to dis- pose arbitrarily of ecclesiastical benefices, conferring them upon un- worthy partisans. Henry's tyranny and obstinacy in schism kept up a strong opposition to his rule among the German princes, and the civil war raged with varied success till A. D. 1090, when Egbert of Thuringia, sucessor of Herman, was assassinated. Being rid of his rival, Henry marched again into Italy, with the intention of deposing the legitimate Pontiff. Urban was compelled to flee; of all the princes, the magnanimous Countess Mathilda alone remained loyal to the Holy See. To strengthen the power of the church party, the Pope had effected a matrimonial union between the countess and Guelf, the son of the powerful duke of Bavaria, whose family was most equal to cope with the imperial power. However, on learning that she had long since (A. D. 1077) willed her extensive possessions to the Holy See, Guelf at once deserted her. 368 HISTORY OF THE CHUHCH. 89. Yet, the star of Henry IV. was actually on the decline. Many of his adherents would no longer recognize the authority of his anti- pope. His eldest son, Conrad, who was crowned king in 1087, deserted the cause of his excommunicated father, while Henry's second wife, Praxedis, publicly confessed before two synods the shameful excesses of her libertine husband. In 1093, Pope Urban was permitted to re- turn to Rome, while the antipope Clement was compelled to seek the protection of Henry. It was at the Council of Clermont that Urban proclaimed the First Crusade. He lived long enough to learn the first success of the crusaders in the capture of Edessa and Antioch, in 1099. Jerusalem, too, was taken a fortnight before his death. 90. In recognition of the services rendered by Roger I. of Sicily, who freed that island from the Saracen yoke. Urban is said to have granted that prince an unwarranted power in even purely spiritual matters, creating him and his successors "Perpetual Legates of the Apostolic See " in that country. The legatine powers and privileges claimed by the rulers of Sicily, in virtue of the pretended grant of Urban, constituted what is called the " Monarchia Siciliae Ecclesiastica," which gave rise to many sharp controversies in subsequent centuries between the Holy See and the Kings of Naples. 91. Urban 11. was succeeded by Cardinal Rainer, a monk of Clugny, as Paschal II., A. D. 1099-1118. The new Pontiff pursued, indeed, the same policy as Gregory YTI., but did not possess the same firmness of character and knowledge of the world. In the Lateran Synod of the year 1102, he renewed the prohibition of lay investiture and the ban against Henry IV. For a time, Henry expressed a desire of being reconciled with the Holy See, but was restrained by his par- tisans, who, after the death of Clement, in 1100, continued to appoint successors to that antipope. In 1104, Henry's ^ younger son, Henry V., rose in arms against his father, whom he took prisoner and compelled to abdicate. The aged ex-monarch escaped from confinement, and sought refuge at Liege, where, bowed down by misery and misfortune, he ended his days in 1106. Having died under the ban of the Church, his corpse was denied Christian burial till five years later, when it was allowed to be interred in the imperial vault at Spire. 92. The Church gained nothing by the accession of Henry V., who imitated his father in encroaching on ecclesiastical authority 1. " It is by no means proved that Rome procured Henry V.'s desertion of liis father, obstinate and excommunicated though he was. This much we know, that Henry V. pretended that he re- quired nothing of his father but the restoration of the peace of ihe Church and his reconciliation with the See of Rome; and sent deputies to Paschal II.. received absolution from censures, and dispensation from the oath he had taken, not to seize the government during the lifetime of his father. This the Pope could all the better grant, as he had long ceased to consider Henry IV. the lawful sovereign."— Cardinal Hergenraether. S UCCESS OBS OF G REG OR Y VIL 369- He continued to invest bishops, claimed even the right of appointing them, and proved himself a bitter, but cunning, enemy of the Papacy. On learning the dispositions of the new king, Paschal 11., instead of going to Germany, as he was invited, passed into France, where he called upon Philip I. and his son Louis VI., to lend their aid against Henry and the enemies of the Church. When the Pope refused to accede to the demands of Henry's ambassadors insisting upon the restoration of the right of investiture, they uttered the threat that their master would decide the question by the sword, in Eome ! This was no idle threat. 93. In 1111, Hemy crossed the Alps, at the head of a powerful army. Before entering Rome, he concluded a treaty with Paschal at Sutri, by which the king pledged himself that, on the day of his coro- nation, he would solemnly renounce investiture, and the Pope, in re- turn, agreed to surrender all royal fiefs held by the Church, and to command the bishops to resign to the king such feudal dependencies. But the Pope was soon disappointed by Henry's pertinacity in assert- ing that obnoxious prerogative, which had occasioned so much of his father's misery. The king persistently refused to part with the right of investiture; and, when Paschal thereupon refused to crown him, the tyrannical prince cast the Pope and a number of his cardinals into jDrison. A furious conflict ensued between the Romans and the German soldiery, in which the king's life was with difficulty saved. For two months. Paschal repelled every threat of the perjured king. At length, overcome by the entreaties of many bishops, and fear- ing a fresh schism, he yielded, and signed a new treaty, by which he conceded to Henry the right of investing bishops, by ring and cro- sier, and added the promise not to excommunicate either the insti- gator or the perpetrators of the outrages to which he and his cardi- nals had been subjected. Henry was, then, crowned emperor by the Pope. 94. The "Privilegium," as the treaty between Pope Paschal and King Henry was called, became the subject of much controversy. A num- ber of bishops denounced lay investiture even as heretical, and vari- ous synods in France and Germany pronounced sentence of excom- munication against Henry, for having used violence against the Head of the Church. The Lateran Synod of 1112, at which Paschal declared himself ready to abdicate the papal dignity, condemned the "Privile- gium " as null and void, and demanded of Henry to resign all preten- sions to investiture; but out of regard for the Pope's oath, the Fathers abstained from passing any censure on the emperor. In 1116, Henry again crossed the Alps, for the purpose of enforcing the observance 370 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. of the "Privilegium." Paschal left Rome, but upon the Emperor's with- drawal, returned and died after a few days. 95. To obviate any interference by the emperor, the Cardinals, with little delay, elected Cardinal John of Gaeta, as Gelasius 11., A. D. 1118-1119. The unexpected appearance of Henry before Rome ob- liged the newly-elected Pope to seek refuge in Gaeta, where he was consecrated. When the new Pontiff refused to confirm the treaty of Paschal II., Henry ventured to set up an antipope — the excommuni- cated Archbishop Burdinus of Braga as Gregory VIII. Gelasius excom- municated both the emperor and his antipope. Being unable to maintain himself in Rome, Gelasius sought refuge in France, where, after hold- ing a synod at Vienne, he died in the monastery of Clugny. 96. On the recommendation of Cardinal Cuno, who had declined the Tiara, Guido, archbishop of Yienne, was chosen Pope under the name of Calixtus 11., A. D. 1119-1124. One of the first acts of the new Pontiff was to convoke a Council at Rheims, which, after fruitless attempts on the part of the Pope, to induce Henry Y. to abandon his. claims, solemnly excommunicated the emperor and his antipope, and released the Germans from their oath of allegiance, until their sover- eign should adopt better sentiments. After the Council, Calixtus has- tened to Rome. The antipope, who had fled, was overtaken and con- signed to the monastery of Cava, where he died without having ab- dicated the usurped dignity. 97. At length, the charitable admonitions and prayers of Pope Calixtus prevailed on Henry Y., to come to an agreement with the Holy See. Dreading the fate of his unhappy father, the emperor saw the necessity of relinquishing his claims, and subscribed the famous Concordat of Worms, A. D. 1122, which put an end, after a period of more than fifty years, to the contest of ecclesiastical investitures. By this compact the emperor resigned forever all pretence to invest bishops by ring and crosier, and recognized the libertj^ of ecclesias- tical elections. In return, the Pope conceded that elections should be made in the presence of imperial officers, without violence or simony, and that the new bishop should receive investiture of their fiefs from the emperor %j the sceptre. 98. The Concordat of Worms, or Calixti^n Treaty, as it also waa called, was solemnly ratified by the First Council of Lateran, or Ninth Ecumenical Council, which Calixtus had convoked for that purpose, in 1123. The same Council, which was attended by more than three hundred bishops, renewed, in twenty- three canons, the censures against simony and clerical marriages. The Treaty of Worms was hailed with great joy by all Christendom, and the remainder r r of I m FROM HONORIUS 11. TO HADRIAN IV. 371 Henry's reign was passed in peace with the Church. At his death, in 1125, the male line of the Franconian Emperors was at an end. It is thus that God often cuts off the race of sovereigns who abuse their authority, to the prejudice of the Church. SECTION XXXVn. FROM THE ACCESSION OF HONOEIUS II. TO THE ELECTION OF HADRIAN IV. The Frangipani and Leoni — Honorius II. — Affairs in Germany — Lothaire XL —Innocent II. — Schism of Peter de Leone — Influence of St. Bernard — Innocent II. in France — Acknowledged by France, England and the Em- pire — End of the Schism — Tenth Ecumenical Council — Its Canons — Inno- cent Prisoner of the Normans — Itahan RepubUcanism — Arnold of Brescia — Celestine II. — Lucius II. — Eugenius III. — Anastasius lY. 99. Upon the death of Calixtus 11. and Henry Y., both the papal tiara and the imperial crown became objects of contention. The Frangipani and Leoni, wealthy and influential Roman families, both aspired to dictate concerning the papal dignity. The cardinals first elected Cardinal Theobald as Celestine 11. ; but when the power- ful Robert Frangipani designated Cardinal Lambert of Ostia for the Papacy, Theobald resigned his claims, whereupon Lambert was form- ally elected as Honorius IL, A. D. 1124-1130. In Germany, Duke Frederic of Swabia, grandson of Henry lY., contended with Leopold of Austria and Lothaire of Saxony for the royal dignity. The diet of Mentz, A. D. 1125, voted the crown to Lothaire 11. The new King of the Romans^ was well affected towards the Church; he confirmed the Concordat of Worms, abolished the practice of conducting the election of bishops in the presence of the emperor or his representatives, and was satisfied with the oath of fidelity, instead of the homagium, from the bishops. 100. On the death of Honorius IL, a dangerous schism began. 'Those of the cardinals who had the welfare of the Church at heart, elected the pious and learned Cardinal Gregory Papareschi, who re- luctantly assumed the papal dignity under the name of Innocent 11., A. D. 1130-1143. A party of wordly-minded cardinals set up as anti- pope Peter de Leone, son of a recently converted Jewish family, whose wealth commanded great influence at Rome. He was crowned with 1. This title was given to the elected King of Germany before his coronation by the Pope. Only a prince crowned by the Pope could possess the full imperial dignity. Speaking of the right over Italy acquired by the emperor-elect, Hallam says: "It was an equally fundamental rule, that the elected King of Germany could not assume the title of 'Roman Emperor' until his consecration by the Pope. The middle appellation of ' King of the Romans ' was invented as a sort of approxi- mation to the imperial dignity." 372 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. the title of Anacletus II. The Romans who had been gained over by a • lavish distribution of money, declared in favor of the antipope. Inno- cent was obliged to flee into France. Chiefly through the influence of St. Bernard, the famous abbot of Clairvaux, to whom the decision had been referred, Innocent was acknowledged as the rightful Pontift' in France, and, shortly after, also in Germany, Spain, England, Castile, and Arragon. Of all the princes of Europe, Duke Roger of Sicily alone, bribed by the grant of the royal title, adhered to Anacletus. 101. In 1131, Innocent had a meeting with the French King Louis VI., at Orleans; with Henry I. of England, at Chartres; and at Liittich, with Lothaire of Germany, who promised to reinstate the Pope in the possession of Rome. Accordingly, Innocent set out for Italy and, in 1133, entered Rome with Lothaire and crowned him em- peror, in the Lateran Basilica. In 1136, Lothaire marched a second time to Rome to defend the cause of Innocent against the antipope and Roger of Sicily. Lothaire died in 1137; the following year also the antipope departed this life. The partisans of Anacletus elected, indeed, a successor in Victor IV., but he was persuaded by St. Bernard to submit to the authority of Pope Innocent. This closed the schism, after it had lasted about eight years. 102. To repair the evils and disorders caused by the late schism, Innocent, in 1139, convened the Second Lateran, or Tenth General Council. Never had Rome or any other city of Christendom beheld so numerous a Council as this, which was attended by a thousand bishops, countless abbots and ecclesiastical dignitaries. Innocent, presiding in person, opened the first session with an eloquent address to the assembled Fathers. The Council passed thirty canons, renewing, for the most part, the censures of former synods against simony, clerical incon- tinence, and lay investiture. Besides, it condemned the errors of Peter Bruis and Arnold of Brescia, deposed all those who had been raised to ecclesiastical dignities by the antijiope, and excommunicated Roger of Sicily, who still refused submission to Innocent. 103. To recover the possessions which Roger of Sicily had unjust- ly seized. Innocent marched in person at the head of an army against that prince. But the expedition failed; the Pope himself was taken prisoner and was obliged to sign a treaty by which he granted Roger absolution from excommunication, the freehold of Apulia and Capua, and confirmation in the possession of Sicily with the title of King. In the latter years of his pontificate. Innocent had to witness the out- break of revolution in Italy. Memories of the ancient Roman Repub- lic began to disturb the popular mind, which was aroused especially by the fanatical preaching of Arnold of Brescia. Rome, following the FROM HONOEIUS II. TO HADRIAN IV. 373 example of other Italian cities, renounced the temporal authority of the Pope, and began to form itself into a republic, by restoring, in spite of the protests of Innocent, the Constitution and Senate of an- cient Kome. The new republicans professed to the Pope their sub- mission to his spiritual authority, to which he should now confine him- self, and that the clergy must content themselves, from that time, with the tithes and the voluntary offerings from the people. 104. Under Celestine II., who reigned a little over five months, Arnold of Brescia returned to Kome, to assist in firmly establishing the Republic. Under Pope Lucius 11., A. D. 1144-1145, the Romans elected a patrician, to represent the ancient Consuls. In an attempt to quell an insurrection of the republican rebels, Lucius was mortally wounded with a stone. Two days after his death, the pious Cistercian Bernard of Pisa, and abbot of St. Anastasius, a monastery founded at Rome by St. Bernard of Clairvaux, ascended the papal throne as Eu- genius III., A. D. 1145-1153. Owing to the disturbed state of Rome, the new Pontiff was consecrated in the monastery of Farfa, and took up his temporary abode at Viterbo. "The Senate and Roman People" sent pompous letters to Conrad ni. of Germany, inviting him to take up his residence in Rome. Eugenius also invited the German king to come to his assistance and restore the papal sovereignty over Rome. Conrad, however, either would not, or, owing to the disturbed affairs of Germany, could not, come to Italy and, consequently, he never received the imperial crown. Eugenius excommunicated the Patrician Jordanes, and finally succeeded in re-establishing at Rome his own authority. 105. The outbreak of fresh disturbances at Rome, and the alarm- ing news of the fall of Edessa, in 1144, and other defeats and disasters of the Christians in Palestine, caused Eugenius to proceed to France and Germany, where he inaugurated the Second Crusade, the preach- ing of which he commissioned to St. Bernard. He held . councils in Paris, Treves, and Rheims, and visited Clairvaux, where he had been a monk. In 1149, Eugenius returned to Italy, and, aided by King Roger of Sicily, re-entered Rotne. The Romans who, during his ab- sence, had again established the Republic, were forced to submit to his authority. But Eugenius was compelled to leave Rome a third time, and retired into Campania; he w^as called back, however, by the Romans, the year before his death. His successor, the aged Anasta- sius IV., noted for his charities during a desolating famine, reigned only sixteen months, A. D. 1153-1154. 374 - . HISTORY OF THE CHUBCH. SECTION XXXVin. CONFLICT OF FREDEBICK I. WITH THE CHURCH HADRIAN IV. AND ALEXANDER III. Antecedents and Election of Hadrian TV. — Fall of the Roman Republic— Deatli of Arnold of Brescia — Frederick Barbarossa — Schemes of the Holien- staufens— Coronation of Frederick— His Conduct towards the Church— The Pope's Letter to Frederick — Decrees of Roncaglia — Guelfs and GWi- bellines — Alexander III. — Schism — Antipope Victor IV. — Alexander in France — Frederick in Italy — Peace of Venice — Eleventh Ecumenical Council— Lucius III. — Urban III. — Gregory VIIL— Clement III.— Cele- stine III. 106. Nicholas Breakspeare, the only Englishman that ever sat on the papal Chair, was elected to succeed Anastasius IV. The son*of poor parents, he left his native country in search of learning, became n, monk, and afterward abbot of St. Rufus, at Aries. Coming to Rome, he so won the favor of Eugenius III., that he was detained, raised to the cardinalate and sent on a mission as Apostolic Legate to the North- ern kingdoms of Sweden and Norway. On his return to Rome, he was raised to the Papacy as Hadrian IV., A. D. 1154-1159. He was a man of great virtue, high fame for learning, and remarkable eloquence. To bring rebellious Rome back to obedience, Hadrian placed the city under an interdict and banished Arnold of Brescia, who was sub- sequently arrested, and, by order of the prefect of the city, tried and executed at Rome. 107. But the Papacy was menaced with a more serious danger, arising from the unbounded ambition of the Hohenstaufen emperors. On the recommendation of the late king, Conrad III., his nephew, the great Hohenstaufen prince, Frederick Barbarossa, was raised to the German throne, in 1152. With him commences the great struggle between the Papacy and the House of Hohenstaufen, which continued for*a whole century. Disregarding the whole historical development of the Christian Roman Empire, the Hohenstaufens sought to estab- lish an absolute, universal monarchy, restore the rights and i3rerog- atives of the Roman Emperors of old, and reduce everything to sub- mission, even the Pope, whom they hoped would subserve their am- bitious designs of universal dominion. 108. In 1155, Frederick crossed the Alps at the head of a formid- able army. After receiving the Iron Crown at Pavia, he proceeded on his way to Rome, to receive the Imperial Crown at the hands of the Pope. In his first interview with Hadrian at Sutri, Frederick at first refused to conform to the usual etiquette observed at such CONFLICT WITH FBEDERICK I. 375 meetings by former emperors and prescribed even by German law: he would not hold the stirrup, while the Pope dismounted. The Pontiff, in turn, denied him the usual courtesy of the kiss of peace. Frederick^ finally, submitted, was solemnly conducted to Rome, and there crowned emperor by the Pope. 109. But the good understanding between the Pope and the em- peror was of short duration. The treaty which Hadrian had con- cluded with "William of Sicily, whom he invested with Apulia and acknowledged king of Sicily, greatly irritated Frederick. By this treaty, Frederick was deprived of a pretext of making war on William, and thus of conquering and becoming master of all Italy. Frederick, by his arbitrary appointments to bishoprics, also violated the Concor- dat of Worms, and did nothing for the release of the archbishop of Lund, who had been robbed and taken prisoner in his dominions, al- though the Pope urged him to this duty. 110. Hadrian, by letter expostulated with Frederick on these grievances, reminded him of the imperial crowm, w^hich he had con- ferred, and declared his willingness to bestow, if possible, still greater benefits. The phrase, ''heneficia majoi^a," employed in the papal letter, was wdllfuUy misinterpreted and made a pretext of complaint and bitter invective against the Holy See. Frederick, in a public mani- festo, appealed to the Empire against what he called the insolent pre- tensions of the Pope; accused Hadrian of wantonly stirring up hostil- ity between the Church and the Empire ; prohibited the clergy from going to Rome, and, at the same time, endeavored to win over the bishops of Germany to his side. The difficulty was, for the present, adjusted by the prudence of Hadrian, who, in a second letter, gave an explanation of the matter, with which Frederick expressed himself satisfied. 111. However, the reconciliation of Frederick with the Pope waa not complete, and Hadrian soon had further cause to complain of the emperor, for his arbitrary appointments to ecclesiastical benefices, and his encroachments on the rights and prerogatives of the See of Rome. In 1158, Frederick descended for a second time into Italy, and in the decrees of Roncaglia had his pretended imperial rights determined according to the code of Justinian. Under pretense of restoring things to what they had been in ancient times, the emperor had him- self invested with rights and prerogatives which did not at all belong to him. Princes and cities were obliged to give up their sovereign rights and special privileges, and the Church, especially, was deprived of many immunities and revenues. Notwithstanding his solemn oath, to secure to the Holy See all its rights and possessions, Frederick 376 IIISTOKY OF THE CHURCH. seized the whole domains of the countess Mathilda, laid a tax upon the possessions of the Roman Church, and, in open violation of the Concordat of Worms, arbitrarily appointed bishops to the sees of Co- logne and Ravenna. Hadrian sent him a solemn admonition; death alone prevented the Pope from excommunicating the presumptuous emperor.* 112. Even during the lifetime of Hadrian IV., the Ghibellines," or imperialists, were preparing, in the event of the Pope's demise, to pro- mote an avowed adherent of the emperor to the papal dignity. But, with the exception of three, all the cardinals agreed in the choice of Cardinal Roland of Siena, chancellor of the Roman Church, who was reluctantly inducted into the sublime office under the title of Alex- ander HI., A. D. 1159-1181. He was opposed by Octavian, as antipope under the name of Victor IV., who had received the votes of only two cardinals. Frederick espoused the pretensions of the antipope in whom he hoped to find a willing instrument to his ambitious designs. In vain did Alexander's electors, whose right he thus violated, remind the emperor of his duty of protecting the Church. To keep up an ap- pearance, at least, of neutrality, Frederick assembled a council at Pavia, which was to settle the dispute; but he gave his decision be- forehand, by addressing Victor as Pontiff, and Alexander only as Car- 1. The supposed Bull of Pope Hadrian IV., purporting to grant the Investiture of Ireland to Henry II. of England, irom the latest researches on the subject, must be pronounced a forgery. We subjoin here a summary of an article in which the learned Dr. P. H. Moran. now Cardinal Arch- bishop of Sidney, answers the arguments in favor ol the genuiness of the so-called Bull of Had- rian. I.— As Cardinal Moran observes, even the lorged Bull prescinds from all title of conquest; it makes no gift or transfer of dominion to Henry II., who was only authorized to visit Ireland as a friendly monarch and help in restoring religion in that island which was then falsely said to be on the decline. 2.— The supposed Bull had no part whatever in the submission of the Irish to English rule. The document was not published til) the year 1175; no mention of it was made in Ireland, till long after the conquest of the island by Henry, which must be ascribed to the irapos- mg and powerful force at the command of the English king 3.— The supposed grant was Icept a strict secret for twenty years, that is from 1155 to 1175. It was not referred to by Henry when he invaded Ireland, nor even by the Council of Cashel in 1172, at which a papal legate presided. 4.— The statement of John of Salisbury in his " Metalogicus," that as envoy of tJie king to the papal court, in 1155, he secured from Hadrian the supposed grant of Ireland to Henry, is evidently an interpolation, which probably was not inserted till many years after the invasion of Ireland by the English. 5.— The three Bulls of Alexander 111., who succeeded Hadrian IV.. which are quoted in Henry's favor, do not at all corroborate the genuiness of the l^ull in question; on the contrary, they furnish an unanswerable argument against it, since they wholly ignore any bull of Hadrian, and any grantor investiture from the Holy See. 6.— The statement that the liulls of Popes Ha, Celestine re-enacted the Conclave Law of Gregory X., and issued a new constitution, declaring that the Pope might resign his dignity, and that the Sacred College was competent to receive such resignation. His successor, Boniface VIII. , ' justly fearing that a schism might be caused by artful persons, who would misuse the holy man's simplicity, kept him in close, but honorable, confinement in the castle of Fumone, near Anagni, until his death in 1296. SECTION XLHI. THE CHUKCH IN FRANCE. Accession of Hugh Capet — Church and State — Abuses — Their Causes — Efforts of the Church at Reformation — Synods — Flourishing Schools — Philip I. — His Scandalous Conduct — Philip Augustus — His Immoral Divorce and Marriage — Louis IX. 149. On the extinction of the Carlovingian race, in 987, a new line of kings ascended the French throne in the person of Hugh Capet. The founders and supporters of the new djTiasty against the powerful nobles, were principally the bishops; the coronation and anointing of Capet by the Church gave him, in the eyes of the French nation, a valid claim to the royal dignity. The kingdom had need of the assist- ance of the Church, and the Church of the kingdom. The nobles had begun to exercise a power over the bishops, which could not but prove detrimental to the independence of the hierarchy. They endeavored 1. Speaking of the influence Pope Boniface VIII. is said to liave had on the abdication of his predecessor, Archbishop Kenrick observes: " If lie (Boniface VI 11.) advised the holy Pontifl" Cele- stine to abdicate an otllce to whose duties he was inadequate, it need not be ascribed to secret aspirations after the Tiara, for which, however, his eminent knowledge and determination of character qualified him. The imprisonment of the unambitious hermit, which has brought cens- ure on Boniface, may have been necessary to guard against the wiles of bad men, who might abuse his simplicity to cause a schism, by persuading him that he coulNl not lawfully part with the power which God liad committed to him.'' rrimacy, ch. IX., p. 419. 390 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. to make the bishops their vassals, and gave to them the investiture of the temporalities of their bishoprics. In this the hierarchy beheld an attack upon their ancient freedom. Hence, the bishops, too weak to defend themselves against the oppression of the nobles, required the assistance of a powerful protector. 150. Much confusion arose at this time from the discussions be- tween the secular and the regular clergy, the bishops and the abbots. Some bishops required from the abbots an oath of fidelity, and en- deavored to deprive the monasteries of all their tithes, which, it was asserted, the monks had usurped from the secular clergy. But a more flagrant abuse on the part of the clergy was the ever increasing viola- tion of the law of celibacy. In Normandy and Bretagne especially, this, law of the Church was, in the tenth and eleventh centuries, violated without scruple. And no wonder. The rude and ignorant Normans, who but recently had embraced the Christian faith, did not shrink from intruding themselves into the clerical state; they continued, when ecclesiastics, to live in every respect as laymen; they had wives and concubines. Even bishops, such as Kobert and Mauger of Kouen, Sigf ried of Mans, and Quimper in Bretagne, lived in public matrimony. With these scandals simony was in close connection. The nobility made public traffic of bishoprics and abbeys; ecclesiastical benifices were squandered upon their relatives or sold to the highest bidders. • 151. The Church made many efforts to remedy these evils, and restore ecclesiastical discipline and purity of morals. Eighty Synods were held in France during the eleventh century, which all engaged in devising means against the lawlessness and rapacious anarchy of the laity, and the incontinence and simony of the clergy. Notwith- standing these disorders, which were great impediments to learning, there existed in France flourishing schools atEheims, Chartres, Tours; in the abbey of Marmontiers, which had been reformed by St. Majolus of Cluny, and in that of St. Benignus, at Dijon. But far superior to these schools was that of Bee, in which Lanfranc, the most learned theologian of his age, and after him, his still more illustrious pupil, St. Anselm, directed the studies. These schools were the seminaries from which many eminent bishops went forth. 152. King Philip I. was the cause of much grief to Popes Gre- gory yn., and Urban 11., both on account of his practice of sim- ony and his immoral conduct. In a brief of the year 1073, Gregory Vn. complains of the king's oppression of the Church and his base traffic in Church benefices, and threatens to punish his surly ob- stinacy with ecclesi|istical censures. Finding the king still obdurate, the Pope addressed an encyclical letter to the French bishops, in THE CHURCH IN FRANCE. 391 which he laments the ruin of France, the multitude of crimes, and the impiety that prevailed, laying all to the charge of the simoniacal and dissolute king. He calls upon the bishops to warn the king solemnly; and, if he still remained stubborn, to lay him under a ban, and France under an interdict. Many of the French bishops manifested great weakness and indifference, and some even openly sided witli the king. Hence, the papal legate, Hugh of Die, at the Synods which he held in 1076 and 1077, occupied himself principally in punishing delinquent prelates. In 1080, Gregory VII. definitely removed Archbishop Ma- nasses of Rheims from his see. King Philip, who refused to rec- Q^^^r^r, +1.^ oT.+ipope of Henry IV., became reconciled with the Holy ^^^9, and thus, for the present, warded off the blow that threatened him. 153. But later, he was the cause of a great scandal, when, in 1092, on a frivolous plea of consanguinity, he divorced his wife Bertha, who was the mother of his heir. Prince Louis VL, and openly lived in adult- ery with Bertrada, the eloped wife of Count Fulk of Anjou. The bishop of Senlis had the weakness to bless this act of twofold adultery, whilst the learned canonist Ivo, bishop of Chartres since the year 1090, earnestly but vainly remonstrated against this adulterous union; for his ingenuous zeal, the courageous prelate was imprisoned. There- upon the papal legate, Archbishop Hugh of Lyons, at the Synod of Autun, in 1094, solemnly excommunicated Philip for his unlawful and adulterous conduct. Pope Urban 11., to whom the king appealed, confirmed the sentence of his legate. Philip now promised to put away Bertrada, but soon broke his promise. The scandalous affair was, at last, brought to an end, in 1104, at the Council of Paris, when Philip and Bertrada, submitting to the canonical penances, were re- conciled to the Church. Philip died in 1108, after having, together with his son Louis, promised the Pope to protect the Holy See against the tyranny of Emperor Henry V. Bertrada ended her days in the convent of Fontevrault. 154. During the twelfth century a large number of diocesan synods were celebrated in France. The French nation was distin- guished for its loyalty to the Holy See, and the French Church became illustrious by its number of learned and holy men. A serious discord, however, arose between Pope Innocent 11. and Louis VIL, owing to the king's interference in episcopal elections. Peter de la Chatre had been canonically elected archbishop of Bourges, and as such was con- firmed by the Pope; but the king obstinately refused to recognize the new archbishop. For this. Innocent finally placed France under an interdict, which compelled Louis to respect the independence of epis- copal elections. 392 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 155. Still more threatening were the matrimonial affairs of King Philip Augustus. On a false pretext of affinity, Philip obtained the annulment of his marriage with Ingeburga, sister of the Danish king Canute U., by a Council of venal bishops assembled at Compiegne. The hasty divorce was promptly annulled by Pope Celestine III. But in defiance of the Pope's warning against contracting a new alliance, Philip Augustus, in 1196, married Agnes of Meran. Pope Innocent m., who succeeded Celestine HE., made every effort to induce the misguided king to sever his unlawful union with Agnes, and return to his legitimate wife; but in vain. The Pope, therefore, excommun- icated Philip and his concubine, and laid France under interdict. After resisting for eight years, Philip, submitting himself to the Church, dismissed Agnes, and took back Ingeburga. Thus the firm- ness of the Holy See at last obtained the victory.^ 156. Louis Vin. led a crusade against the Albigenses, who were ransacking the South of France and waging war against the Church. After a short and successful campaign, he died, A. D. 1226, leaving the Crown of France to his son, Louis IX., then only eleven years old. A more perfect type of Christian royalty and probity than Louis IX., the pious and holy king of France, has hardly ever been seen before or since on any throne. During his minority, his mother, the pious Blanche of Castile, took possession of the regency and governed the kingdom with great prudence and ability. To her pious care and at- tention, Louis was indebted for that excellent education which formed an illustrious king, a renowned hero, and a great Saint. Louis was truly the father of his subjects; his only care was the welfare of his people and the promotion of religion and piety in his realm. His prudence and valor^ his justice and integrity, as well as his bene- volence and many virtues, raised France to a plane of much higher influence than she had occupied under his predecessors. In the strife between Gregory IX. and Frederick 11., he at first maintained an im- partial and dignified neutrality; but he afterwards sided with the Pope, and labored earnestly, though ineffectually, to reconcile the em- peror with the Church. The Pragmatic Sanction of 1268, ascribed to St. Louis IX., is a forgery and the work of a later period. 1. ♦' Never," says De Maistre, " have the Popes and the Church, in general, done a more signal service to society, than in checking, by the power of ecclesiastical censures, the tendency of rulers to overstep the bounds of wedlock. The sanctity of the marriage-tie, that great foundation ol public happiness, is especially of the most vital importance in royal families, where its breach breeds incalculable evils. Had not the Popes, while the Western nations were still in their youth, held a power to master the princely passions, sovereigns, going from one caprice to another, from one abuse to a greater, would at last have probably established the law of divorce and even of polygamy; and disorder repeated, as it always is. through the downward grades of society, must have reached a depth of license, which no eye can fathom." r i BONIFACE VIII. AND PHILIP THE FAIR. 393 SECTION XLIV. BONIFACE VIII. AND PHILIP THE FAIR OF FRANCE. Election of Boniface Yin. — Political Affairs of Europe — Boniface and Sicily — The Colonnas — Boniface and Germany — Pliilip the Fair of France — Edward I. of England — Mediation of the Pope— Bull "Clericis Laicos" — Edict of Philip — Reconciliation — Violent Acts of Philip — Mission of the Bishop of Pamiers — Bull " Ausculta Fill "—The Short Bull— Convention of the States — Synod at Rome — Bull "Unam Sanctam" — William Noga- ret — Charges against Boniface — Reply of the Pope — Treacherous Attack on the Pope — Death of Boniface. 157. In strict compliance with the law of Gregory X., the Sacred College chose the learned and highly-gifted Cardinal Benedict Gae- tano to succeed Celestine Y. He took the name of Boniface YIII., A» D. 1294-1303. He was of a noble family in Anagni, and a near relative of Popes Innocent III., Gregory IX., and Alexander lY. To evade the baneful influence of the Neapolitan court, Boniface at once set out for Rome.^ The pontificate of this truly great, but much calumniated Pope, occurred when the political affairs of Europe were extremely complicated. The Greeks had returned to their schism; Christendom had lost its last foothold in Palestine; Scotland and France were at war with England; Castile was engaged in a struggle with Arragon; Naples with Sicily; and Germany was divided between Albert of Austria and Adolph of Nassau. The policy of Boniface was to estab- lish peace among the States of Europe and unite them in a great crusade for the recovery of the Holy Land. 158. With this view, Boniface proposed his mediation between the contending parties. His efforts to bring Sicily back under the dom- ination of Charles II. of Naples met with failure; the Sicilians pro- claimed Frederick of Arragon their king, who, not heeding the papal excommunication, plunged Sicily into a war which lasted till the year 1302. Then a treaty was concluded which left Frederick in the pos- session of the kingdom Trinacria for life, after which it was to pass back to the king of Naples. The Colonnas, a powerful Roman family, gave Boniface much trouble. Two cardinals of that name, James and Peter, entertained a secret alliance with Frederick of Arragon and the Sicilians, then at war with the Pope. Besides, Cardinal James Colon- 1. His coronation at Rome was attended witli extraordinary magnificence. Tlie common statement that Boniface VIII. was ttie first wearing a double crown, is not auttienticated. Inno- cent III., in a painting, made prior to tlie time of Boniface, is represented witli a second crown. Nicliolas I. is said to have been the first to unite the princely crown with the mitre. To this In- nocent III. seems to allude when in a sermon he says: " The Church has given me a crown as a symbol of temporalities; she has conferred on me a mitre in token of spiritual power; a mitre for the priesthood — a crown for the kingdom.'' Clement V., or, more probably, Urban V., is supposed to have first used the triple crown, called Tiara ( rrire«:uum, Mitra turbinata). 394 HI8T0BY OF THE CHUBCIL na, who was the administrator of the family-estate, unjustly withheld from his brothers the property belonging to them. They appealed to the Pope, who in vain insisted that the two cardinals should do justice to their family and sever their connection with Sicily. But these fled to their castles, and although they had given their votes in favor of Boniface, they now openly asserted the illegality of his election, on the ground that the abdication of Celestine V. was uncanonical. They were deprived of their dignities and excommunicated; and, because they continued fomenting revolt, their castles, and their city, Pales- trina, were destroyed by the papal troops which were under the com- mand of Landulf, brother of Cardinal James Colonna. The two rene- gade cardinals took refuge in France. 159. In Germany, Boniface interposed between Adolph of Nassau and Albert of Austria, who were rivals for the Imperial Crown. Adolph had been chosen king of Germany in place of Albert, the son of Rudolph of Hapsburg; but he was a man of little account and un- able to maintain his authority. The German princes, becoming dis- pleased with him, declared him deposed, and in his stead, elected Al- bert. Adolph, appealing to the arbitrament of war, was conquered, and, as it was reported at the time, slain by his rival. Boniface at first refused to recognize Albert, and summoned him to Borne to answer the charge of murder and high treason. He finally confirmed the ap- pointment of Albert, who in the meantime had been re-elected King of the Romans by the i^rinces of Germany. In 1308, Albert was mur- dered by his nephew John. 160. It was not long after his elevation to the Pontificate, before Boniface became embroiled in a serious conflict with the French king. Philip the Fair of France and Edward I. of England attacked in a very* high-handed manner the immunities of the Church. Both kings carried on a fierce war principally by the money obtained from the arbitrary taxation of the Church, against which the prelates of the two realms vainly remonstrated. The bishops appealed to Rome for redress. Boniface, who considered it his duty as Pope to prevent the shedding of blood amongst Christians, obliged the two princes to sign a truce, and, in 1296, issued a Bull, known by its initial words, " Clericis laicos," forbidding, under pain of excommunication, in every kingdom, the levy or payment of taxes on Church propertj^ without the express permission of the Holy See. 161. Though France was not particularly named, Philip under- stood himself to be intended; he retaliated by an edict banishing all foreign tradesmen, and prohibiting all export of money, gold, arms, and even provisions, without his written permission. This measure r BONIFACE VIII. AND PHILIP THE FAIR. 395 was equivalent to a prohibition of all subsidies and pecuniary assist- ance to the Holy See. The vigor with which Philip resisted the papal bull, and the little assistance which the Pope received from the French bishoj)S, constrained Boniface to modify his prohibition somewhat, and to allow the levying of subsidies in cases of necessity. Boniface did all he could to appease the French king. He granted him further privileges, and, in 129*7, completed the canonization of his grand- father, Louis IX., which gave general satisfaction in France. The Pope also succeeded in effecting a reconciliation between France and England, whose kings had chosen him arbitrator; not, however, as Pope, but only as a private individual. 162. For a few years after the doubtful settlement of the difficult- ies above mentioned, Boniface and Philip seemed reconciled to each other; but, in 1301, the latter occasioned new and more serious troubles to the Pope. Complaints of the oppression practiced on the Church by the French king, had become still more frequent than be- fore. Philip not only took for himself the revenues of vacated sees and abbeys, but he also seized their landed property. To this was added the treacherous assault on Count Guide of Flanders, who being taken and held a prisoner, appealed to the Pope for assistance. All this obliged Boniface to remonstrate with the faithless and despotic Philip, who was forming plans for the complete subjugation of the Papacy. 163. Boniface sent Bishop Bernard of Pamiers, as his legate to France, to expostulate with the king concerning the many royal ag- gressions upon ecclesiastical privileges. In violation of all right, Philip put the papal envoy under arrest, with a view to prosecute him for high treason. In reply to the insolent demand to degrade his legate and deliver him up to secular authority, Boniface published several bulls addressed to the king and the clergy of France. He de- manded the release of his legate, recalled all privileges with regard to tithes and Church property, and commanded the French bishops to attend a synod which he called at Kome, in order to consult them on the affairs of France. In the Bull, " Ausculta Fili," the Pope admon- ished the king, with the authority of a father, applying to himself the words of the Prophet Jeremiah: "God has placed us over kings and kingdoms, to root up, pull down, waste, destroy, build up and plant in His name and by His doctrine." 164. The despotic monarch ordered the papal bull to be publicly burnt, and in its stead, a forged document, the so-called "Short Bull," was published, in which Boniface is made to claim supreme authority even in political affairs, and to say that the king was to be subject to 396 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. the Pope both in spiritual and in temporal matters, that he must con- sider his kingdom as a papal fief.* To baffle any further measures of the Pope, Philip, in 1302, assembled at Paris a parliament of the three Estates of his kingdom, — the Clergy, Nobility, and Commoners. At this assembly, Peter Flotte, the king's chancellor, brought forward bitter complaints against the Pope, whom he falsely accused of mak- ing claim to the temporal domination of France. The Nobles and Commoners consented to whatever was asked in the name of the king; in their insolent letters to the cardinals, they even denied Boniface the title of Pope. The clergy who were intimidated by the charge of treachery to their country, likewise submitted to the dictates of the king. A letter was directed to the Pope, in which the king called him a fool (tua maxima fatuitas), declaring any one mad who should dare to contest with him his "ecclesiastical rights!" 167. Notwithstanding the king's prohibition, many French prel- ates — in all thirty-nine bishops and six abbots — attended the Synod at Rome, for which their property was ordered to be confiscated. In that Synod, Boniface promulgated his famous Bull denominated " Unam Sanctam." Without special reference to France, the Bull de- clares the duty towards the Pope to be general. After explaining the relations between Church and State, between the Spiritual and the Temporal power, it affirms that the temporal power is of its nature subordinate to the ecclesiastical, as earthly are to heavenly things; and defines the obligation which is incumbent on rulers, as well as their subjects, of submitting in spiritual matters to the authority of the Vicar of Christ. "We declare to every creature, we affirm, define and pronounce, that it is altogether necessary for salvation, to be sub- ject to the Roman Pontiff." No more is taught in this document, as of faith, than what all Catholics in every age have held, namely, that subjection to the Bishop of Rome in matters of salvation is a necessary duty. 166. Even before the publication of this Bull, the blind hatred of the French king hurried him on to extreme measures. In an extra- ordinary sitting of the States-General, the king's chancellor, the vio- lent William Nogaret, preferred virulent charges of heresy, infidel- ity, even theft and robbery against Boniface, who had already for nine 1. What Boniface did say, was not that the Sovereign Pontiff is direct master of all civil gov- ernments, but that as Vicar of Christ, he is placed above all those who rule on earth, in order to keep the Rulers, as well as their subjects, in the way of the Divine Law, for every breach of which bolii are aliice amenable to the Tribunal of the See of Peter. Boniface In his reply remarks: " We declare that we do not desire to trespass on the king's jurisdiction in anything. But neither the king nor any other Christian can deny that in matters of sin he is subject to us." Tlie cardinals also, in their answer to the French Nobles, empliatlcally contradicted the charge that the Holy Father had ever written, or allowed his nuncios to say, that King Philip was subject to him in temporal matters as regarded his kingdom, and that he had received It as a flef from the Holy S<'«.'. BONIFACE VIIL AND PHILIP THE FAIR. 397 rears exercised the full authority of Pope, had been the chosen arbiter of kings in their quarrels, and whose life and orthodoxy had been till then above all suspicion. These monstrous charges were repeated be- fore the States-General, by William Plasian. In twenty -nine articles, he produced as many vile accusations against the Pope; for instance, that he had not been legitimately elected; that he was guilty of the death of his predecessor Celestine V. ; that he denied the immortality of the soul, eternal life, and transubstantiation; that he encouraged idolatry, practiced simony, and compelled priests to violate the seal of confession; — calumnies which had been circulated by the Colonnas and other enemies of the Pope. 167. The king, in reply to these charges, so flagrantly false and silly, hypocritically assured the assembly that he would use his utmost power for the convocation of a General Council, in order to have the false Pope deposed, and then for the first time in the history of France, appealed to the future General Council and the future lawful Pope against any censures of Boniface. All possible measures were taken, to obtain the assent of the clergy and the University of Paris. Five archbishops, twenty-one bishops, and a few abbots, had the weakness to subscribe to this unecclesiastical appeal to a General Council ! The abbots of Citeaux, Clugny and Premontre, and many Italian monks were imprisoned for refusing to subscribe. "Whoever did not consent to this audacious appeal was considered a traitor. As soon as the bearer of the papal Bull " Unam Sanctam " entered France, he was ar- rested and thrown into prison. The cardinal-legate who remonstrated and demanded the delivery of the papal letters, was treated with in- dignity and obliged to flee from France. 168. On learning these scandalous proceedings, Boniface, in a public Consistory, exonerated himself by a solemn oath, of the mon- strous charges brought against him. He issued several bulls, repre- hending the French canonists and bishops for their weakness, and censuring the accusations and slanders current in France, as well as the appeal to a General Council. Still, to allow him time, Boniface did not yet excommunicate Philip, but only threatened him with the censures of the Church. This leniency was soon ill repaid by an act of brutal and treacherous violence on the part of the king's minions, at the instigation, at least with the knowledge and approval, of their royal master. 169. Nogaret, who had taken an active part in all the proceedings against Boniface, was secretly despatched by the king into Italy to arrest the Pope. Accompanied by an armed force, Nogaret and his accomplice, Sciarra Colonna, brother of Cardinal Peter Colonna, ap- 898 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. peared before Anagni, whither the Pope had gone without guards. When the French emmissaries prepared to seize his person, Boniface who was nearly eighty-six years old, acted with composure and dig- nity. Robed in pontifical attire and the insignia of his office, and seated on the papal throne, he awaited the approach of the audacious intruders. He declared that, "as he was betrayed and taken like Christ by treachery, he would die as the Vicar of Christ." The Pope was held a prisoner for two days, after which he was rescued by the inhabitants of Anagni and returned to Rome, where he was received with joy. But the indignities offered to his sacred person, resulted in his death. Forgiving his enemies, he died of a violent fever. The fable, that the magnanimous Pontiff killed himself in madness, or died in a fit of despair, is refuted by the fact that his body, in 1605, three hundred years after his death, was found entire, with no trace of a wound discernible. 170. Public opinion, even among Catholics, was once divided, as to the true character of this Pope. While the Ghibelline poet Dante fiercely assailed him, because Boniface was a decided Roman and Guelph, calling him "the prince of modern pharisees" and "the high- priest whom evil take," the erudite Petrarca styles him "the marvel of the world." Cardinal Wiseman concludes his able vindication of this much maligned Pope by saying: "Although the character of Boniface was certainly stern and inflexible, there is not a sign of its having been cruel and revengeful. Throughout the whole of his history, not an instance can be found of his having punished a single enemy with death . . . Moreover, we do not find in any writer, however hostile to him, the slightest insinuation against his moral conduct or character; and this is not a little in one, who has been more bitterly assailed than almost any other Pontiff. The charge of avarice, which has been often repeated, may well be met by the liberality displayed in his ecclesiastical endowments and presents. His justice seems to have been universally acknowledged ... Of his literary acquirements we need not speak; no one has disputed them; and the Sixth Book of Decretals will attest them so long as Christ's undying Church shall last." The learned Mohler adds: "What Boniface desired to effect was explained by the principles on which the Popes had acted for a long time. The failure of his plans did not lie with him, but in the import- ant changes of the time. When the Papacy was obliged to descend again from the heights to which it had attained in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, it could not have been done with more dignity than by Boniface VIII., and in the manner in which he conducted himself during his pontificate." THE POPES IN AVIGNON. 399 SECTION XLV. TKANSLA.TION OF THE HOLY SEE TO AVIGNON POPES BENEDICT XI. AND CLEMENT V. Benedict XI. — His Conciliatory Measures — Schemes of Philip the Fair — Elec- tion of Clement Y. — Papal Residence at Avignon — First Acts of Clement Y. — Fifteenth General Council — The Templars — Accusations against the Order — Suppression of the Templars — Clement Y. and Germany. 171. The immediate successor of Boniface Viii., the sainted Bene- dict XI. held the pontificate only about nine months. A man of mild and gentle disposition, he endeavored, in the most moderate and con- ciliatory manner possible, to compose the difficulties witb France. He absolved King Philip from excommunication, withdrew the censures resting upon the French prelates and canonists who had refused to obey the summons of Boniface Yiii., and removed the condemnation published against the Colonnas, yet without restoring these to their dignities. He also modified the constitution " Clericis laicos," and con- demned only the exaction, but not the payment, of taxes by the clergy to the laity. 172. Benedict pronounced sentence of excommunication against Nogaret, Sciarra Colonna, and their accomplices in the outrage against Boniface YIII. at Anagni, and summoned them before his tribunal, to receive judgment. This outrage at Anagni was still causing great indignation, even in France, against Philip and Nogaret. To vindicate their past conduct, these branded the late Pope as the originator of the strife, and sought to have him condemned as a heretic. For this purpose, they endeavored, in every way, to win over Benedict and the cardinals, and demanded the convocation of a General Council for the judgment of Boniface. Benedict, who would not consent to the proposals of Philip, died suddenly, as is supposed, by poison, A. D. 1304. 173. After a prolonged conclave of eleven months, Bertrand die Got, archbishop of Bordeaux, was elected by the influence of the French king, and was known as Clement Y., A. D. 1305-1314. Not- withstanding the urgent invitations of the cardinals, he declined to go to Eome, had the ceremony of his coronation performed at Lyons, and fixed his residence at Avignon. In this city, although not then within the kingdom of France, the Papal See fell under an irksome dependence on the French court, for more than seventy years, — a period which by Italian writers is called the Babylonish Captivity of the Papacy. No sooner had Clement Y. assumed the government of the "Church, than Philip repeated his proposal for the condemnation of 400 HISTORY OF THE CHUBCH. Boniface Vm., and shortly after added the haughty demand to sup- press the order of the Templars. 174. To elude the delicate questions, Clement endeavored to con- tent the king by liberal concessions. He absolved Philip from any censure he might have incurred, allowed him an ecclesiastical tithe for five years, created nine French cardinals, restored the Colonnas to their dignity and former rights, and entirely abrogated the Bull "Clericis laicos." As to the Bull "Unam Sanctam," he declared that it should in no way prejudice the interests of the king and the French nation. 175. But as Philip did not desist to urge his accusations against Boniface Yin. and the Templars, Clement finally ^yielded to begin legal investigations, and summoned before his tribunal the accusers of the deceased Pope and of the Templars. But unwilling to assume the responsibility of deciding questions of so great importance, he convoked the Fifteenth General Council. It opened at Vienne, in 1312 and was attended by one hundred and fourteen bishops and arch- bishops, among whom were the patriarchs of Alexandria and Antioch. The charges against Boniface were there pronounced groundless, and he was declared to be a rightful Pope. 176. The Templars by their extensive wealth and power had gravely alarmed the European potentates of the time, and in partic- ular had drawn upon themselves the jealousy of the French king. This sovereign, therefore, vowed their destruction, and induced the Pope to have judicial investigations instituted into the orthodoxy and morality of the order. It was asserted that the order was corrupt, heretical, and immoral; that its members were worshipping an idol and practicing unnatural lust. Even prior to the meeting of the Council, a number of Templars were summoned before the ecclesias- tical tribunals. The Pope himself granted a hearing to seventy-two prominent members of the order, who freely confessed themselves guilty of heresy and obtained absolution. Philip would not await the tardy decision of the Pope. Everywhere throughout France, the knights of the order, including the Grand-Master, Jacques Molay, were all arrested on the same da/; their property and estates were seized and confiscated. The Pope vainly protested against the arbi- trary arrest of a whole religious order which was under the special protection of the Holy See. Philip, in 1310, caused the pliant arch- bishop of Sens, one of his creatures, to try and condemn forty-five Templars; and these, by command of the king, were burned at the stake. Similar scenes were enacted in other places. 177. Clement was dissatisfied with the precipitancy of the kin^ THE POPES IX AVIGNON. 401 but to stay the proceedings would have been to avow himself the abettor of guilt. He, therefore, reserved the final decision in the affair of the Templars for the General Council. With the approval of that body, he published a bull, suppressing the order, not by way of a final judgment on the guilt of all its members, but by the plenitude of his power, and as a measure of expediency, because the interests of the Church required the dissolution of the institute. That the property of the Templars might be devoted to the same purposes for which it had been originall}^ given, it was assigned to the Knights Hospitallers. In France, however, the estates of the order were, for the most part, confiscated by the king. Finally, in 1314, Molay, the Grand Master, and Guy of Auvergne, the Grand Preceptor of the Templars, were tried by order of the king, and condemned to the stake for retracting their former confessions.^ 118. In Germany, Pope Clement supported Henry of Luxemburg against Charles of Valois, brother of Philip the Fair, in his claim to the Imperial Crown. Henry led an expedition into Italy, and was crowned emperor by a commission of five cardinals appointed for that purpose by the Pope. The administration of Rome and the Ecclesias- tical States were conducted, in the Pope's name, by three cardinals. — "The memory of Clement V.," Archbishop Kenrick observes, "comes down to us charged with having ambitiously intrigued for the Tiara, by promising to Philip the Fair to rescind the acts of Boniface, and to condescend to his will on some other important point, not then dis- closed. This compact originally rests on the authority of Villani, a partisan of the schismatic al Louis of Bavaria . . . But the suppression of the Knights Templars, which resulted in the capital punishment of a large number of them, by the authority of PhiHp, was a measure of fearful responsibility, the justice of which is an historical problem perhaps never to be solved. His permission for the opening of the process against the memory of Boniface, which is objected to him as an act of criminal condescension, was probably given in the confidence that it would result, as in fact it did, in his entire acquittal." Primacy. Part ni., Ch. IX. 1. While, on the one hand, it was alleged that confessions, inculpating the order of the Tem- plars, were made freely and without constraint by many of its members, on the other hand, it has been asserted that damnatory evidence was wrung from them by torture. Judicial torture was, in ihose ages, deemed a necessary means for discovering guilt, and formed a rigorous feature in the examination of such as were accused of crime. But as regards tiie trials of the Templars in France, as the learned Dr. Jungmann has shown, it must be observed that, at least, in many in- stances, the ordeal of torture was not at all employed; many Templars, including prominent members of the order, voluntarily admitted their guilt, without the least violence having been done to them. In the process, for instance, conducted by the papal commissioners at Paris, fi"om 1309 to 1311, in which, besides other witnesses, as many as 225 Templars were examined, the ju- dicial torture came not at all into operation, so much is certain, tnat the Grand Master Molay was subjected to no torture. When examined by the Papal Inquisitor, in 1307. he freely confessed, that on his reception into the order, '*he was made to deny Christ and spit upon the Crucifix, and that, by his command, the same was done by the postulants who were received by htm, after lie Tjecame Grand Master of the order." 402 EI8T0RY OF THE CHURCH, SECTION XLVI. JOHN XXn, AND HIS SUCCESSORS IN AVIGNON. Prolonged Conclave — Pope John XXII. — Spiritual Franciscans, or Fratricelli — Michael Cesena — William Ockham — Louis of Bavaria — His Conflict with the Holy See — Antipope Nicholas Y. — Benedict XII. — Scandalous Con- duct of Louis — Clement YI. — Innocent YI. — Compact of the Cardinals- Emperor Charles lY.— Golden Bull — State of Rome— Rienzi — His Fall — Urban Y.— His Administration— Gregory XL — Return to Rome. 179. After the death of Clement Y., the Holy See remained vacant two entire years, when Cardinal James of Osa was chosen and crowned as John XXIC., A. D. 1316-1334. The new Pontiff, a promotor of letters, and himself a man of extensive learning, displayed a marvel- lous administrative talent and activity, issuing, during the eighteen years of his pontificate, no fewer than 60,000 documents. The imme- diate creation of seven French cardinals, seemed to indicate the resolve to make France the permanent abode of the Papacy. The Pope's so- licitude was soon aroused by the divisions in the Franciscan Order. An extreme party of Franciscans, called Spiritualists, or Fratricelli, who denied the right of the order, even as a community, to hold prop- erty, refused to accept the milder interpretation of the primitive rule by the Holy See, disavowing the authority of the Pope to dispense from their rule, which they strangely claimed to be equal to the Four Gospels! 180. The excesses committed by the Spiritualists against the Con- ventuals, or less rigid members, obliged Michael de Cesena, the General of the order, to implore the assistance of the Pope, by whom the fanatics were condemned. But soon a new contest broke out among the Conventuals themselves. A party, headed by Michael de Cesena and the learned William Ockham, defended as an article of faith, that "Christ and his Apostles never possessed any property, in common or individually." The proposition was condemned by Pope John. Cesena and Ockham, refusing to submit, fled to Germany, and there incited Louis the Bavarian against the Pope. 181. After the death of Henry YH., in 1313, the Crown of Ger- many was claimed by Louis of Bavaria and Frederick of Austria. The electors of the rival kings applied to the Pope for recognition of their respective candidates. John wrote to Louis and Frederick, as well as to the German princes, exhorting them to an amicable settlement of the contest. But neither of the parties would give way, and a resort to arms was decisive in favor of Louis (A. D. 1322). Without awaiting the papal confirmation, Louis had assumed the imperial title, and, in TEE POPES IN AVIGNON, 403 fact, had all the while acted as emperor, contrary to all ancient prec- edents, and in violation of the acknowledged right of the Holy See. In reply to the Pope's warning to desist from exercising the usurped rights until his election had been confirmed, Louis loaded the Pontiff with bitter reproaches, charging him with favoring heresy, and, at the instance of the heretical Fratricelli, demanded a General Council to depose him! 182. At last, in 1324, the Pope excommunicated Louis. The deluded prince retorted by issuing, through the Spiritualists, a violent manifesto against the Pope, calling him a heretic, and appealed to a General Council! In 1327, Louis led an army into Italy; had himself crowned at IVIilan, with the Iron Crown by two deposed prelates, and at Eome with the Imperial Crown by Sciarra Colonna, the notorious companion of Nogaret; pronounced the Pope deposed, even deserving of death; and, to complete the sacrilegious farce, created the antipope Nicholas V. But this daring step caused a general movement against Louis in Italy, which compelled him to hasten back to Germany. John renewed his former sentence against Louis, and also excommun- icated Michael de Cesena and "William Ockham, the chief advisers of the misguided prince. The antipope, who was also obliged to fly from Italy, submitted to the authority of John, who treated him, until his death in 1333, with much kindness.^ 183. The gentle Benedict XTE., A. D. 1334-1342, was an eminent canonist and theologian, and a severe reformer. He meditated the restoration of the Holy See to Rome, but was resisted in this effort by the cardinals. His endeavors for a reconciliation with Louis the Bavarian were opposed by the kings of France and Naples. Louis in a constitution of 1338, declared "that the imperial authority was de- rived immediately from God, that the Emperor could not be judged by the Pope, but that the Pope could be judged by a General Council." The Church in Germany, which was still under the interdict, was in a miserable condition. Great offense was given, when Louis, by virtue of his imperial authority, assumed to dissolve the marriage of Mar- garet, heiress of Carinthia and Tyrol, with Prince John of Bohemia, 1. Concerning the Beatific Vision, the question was at the time discussed among theologians, whether the Blessed in Heaven saw God face to face, before the day of Judgment. Pope John, in a work written before his Pontificate, and afterwards in a sermon, expressed it as iiis private opinion, that the Saints will enjoy the Beatific Vision, only after the General Judgment. For this he was charged with heresy by the heretical Fratricelli. But John cleared himseif by stating that he had simply advanced a private opinion, without any intention of pronouncing a dogmatic definition. The University of Paris, holding the contrary opinion, asked the Pope to settle the question bv an apostoUc decision. To silence any misrepresentations on the subject, John, on his death-bed. made a public profession of the orthodox faith, confessing "that the Saints are In heaven, where they see God face to face." His successor, Benedict XII. published a bull determin- ing the question, that the souls of the Blessed immediately behold God ; and th econtroversy wtis finally closed by the Council of Florence which defined, that the purified souls "are at once re- ceived into Heaven and clearly see God Himself as He is, in three Persons and one Substance." 404 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. and espoused her to his son Louis, to whom, besides, she was related in the third degree of consanguinity. In vain did the Pope protest against this immoral divorce. 184. Benedict's successor, Clement VI., A. D. 1342-1352, displayed, indeed, great splendor and magnificence on the pontifical throne, but he is eulogized also for his culture and eloquence, and his great char- ity and generosity. His charity was fully exhibited toward the vic- tims of the great plague of 1348, and toward the Jews whom he pro- tected against an angry populace. Nothwithstanding the urgent re- quest of the Romans to take up his residence in Rome, he remained in Avignon. His purchase of the city and dependencies of Avignon from Queen Joanna of Naples, seemed to indicate his design of per- manently establishing the papal residence in France. 185. Clement renewed the excommunication, launched by his pre- decessor against Louis of Bavaria, who was continually vacillating between haughty defiance of the Pope and abject submission. The exactions of this unprincipled sovereign, as well as his oppression of the Church, his usurpation of papal rights and arbitrary appointments to bishoprics and benefices, at last aroused a formidable opposition against him in Germany. In 1346, at the instance of the Pope, the princes, weary of a ruler who had brought disgrace and ruin upon the Empire, chose Prince Charles of Bohemia for king of Germany. Louis died the following year, while preparing for war against his rival. Upon the death of Giinther of Schwarzburg, who had been set up as king by the Bavarian party, all Germany recognized Charles IV. 186. The first act of Innocent YI., A. D. 1352-1362, was to rescind a statute, or compact, of the Conclave, which the cardinals had separ- ately agreed upon. By this compact, which would have raised the Sacred College to an independent, dominant, and autocratic body, the future Pope would bind himself not to increase the number of car- dinals, nor nominate for, nor depose from, the higher offices of the Roman Church or the Papal States, without the consent of two-thirds of the College. In 1355, King Charles IV., having renewed to the Pope all the promises of former emperors, received in Rome the Im- perial Crown from two delegated cardinals. In the same year, Charles issued his famous Oolden Bull, which reserved the right of electing the king of Germany to seven electors — the four lay fiefs, Bohemia, Sax- ony, Brandenburg, and the Palatinate; and the three great archbish- oprics of Mentz, Treves and Cologne — and decreed, that the majority of votes sufficed for an election. 187. Rome, for nearly fifty years deserted by the Popes, had passed imder the tyrannical yoke of the rapacious nobles, whose houses were 1 THE POPES IN AVI&NON. 405 fortified castles, and whose armed dependents kept the city in a per- petual turmoil. Disorders of every kind, tumult and robbery pre- vailed in the streets. In the midst of this confusion, Nicola di Rienzi, an obscure man, conceived the project of restoring Rome to her an- cient greatness. He succeeded in disarming the nobility; had him- self proclaimed Tribune of Rome ; and, with the approval of the Pope, was placed at the head of a new government. But his rule, which at first realized the fairest hopes, was of short duration. His excesses and tyranny caused his downfall; he was forced to abdicate and flee the city. 188. Meanwhile, Rome having returned to its former state of anarchy, Pope Innocent sent Cardinal Aegidius Albornoz with an army into Italy, through whose tactics and energy the revolted Papal States were soon reduced to submission. Rienzi obtained permission to return to Rome, and was appointed Senator by Albornoz. But his extravagance and tyranny once more aroused the people against him, and he lost his life in a popular sedition, in 1354. 189. Urban V., A. D. 1362-1370, himself a shining pattern of every virtue, strove to make the papal court a model of Christian life. He enforced in every department severe discipline, and rigidly examined the attainments and morals of those whom he preferred to honors. He was a munificent patron of learned men, and most liberal to the poor. One of his first cares was to carry on the expedition for the recovery of the Holy Land, begun by his predecessor, and opened by the Sainted Peter Thomas of Salinose. The crusaders took Alexandria; but, left without support, they were compelled to abandon the place. 190. Convinced that the residence of the Popes at Avignon was injurious to the interests of the Church, Urban determined to return to Rome. Not heeding the murmurs of the cardinals, he, in 1367, set out for Italy, and on reaching Rome, was received amid great rejoic- ings. All the cardinals followed him, with the exception of three who would still cling to Avignon. In 1369, the Greek Emperor, John V. Palaeologus coming to Rome, abjured the schism and negotiated for the reunion of the Greek with the Latin Church. But the efforts of the Pope to unite the Western princes in defence of Constantinople against the Turks, were unsuccessful. The factious and turbulent spirit of the Italians, and the unquiet state of Rome, induced Urban, notwithstanding the entreaties of the pious Franciscan, Pedro, prince of Arragon, and the warning of the Swedish princess, St. Bridget, that a speedy death awaited him in France, to re-transfer the papal res- idence to Avignon, A. D. 1370. He died three months after, in that city. 406 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 191. To Gregory XL, A. D. 1370-1378, who was the nephew of Clement VI., belongs the merit of having put an end to the "Babylon- ish Captivity" of the Popedom in Avignon. The hostility of the Vis- conti of Milan and of the Eepublic of Florence to the Roman Church, and the efforts made by many papal cities, to throw off their allegiance to the Pope, convinced Gregory that none but the Pope himself could restore papal power in the States of the Church. Yielding to the solicitations of St. Catharine of Siena and of the Romans, who insisted that the residence of the Pope in Rome was necessary to prevent a schism, Gregory, in 1377, despite the opposition of the cardinals, left Avignon for Rome where he was greeted with transports of joy. He was accompanied by all the cardinals except six, who preferred linger- ing at Avignon. Yet as Rome was no secure place of abode, Gregory meditated a return to Avignon, which was prevented only by his death. To avert in the event of his death the danger of an interreg- num or schism, Gregory, by a special bull empowered the sixteen car- dinals, who had accompanied him to Rome, to elect at once a successor by simple majority, without holding a conclave, or awaiting the ar- rival of the cardinals then at Avignon.* SECTION XLVn. THE SCHISM OF THE WEST, OE, THE GREAT PAPAL SCHISM. Election of Urban YL— His Character— Breach between Urban and the Car- dinals— Antipope Clement YII. — Schism — Affairs of Naples— Arrest of Cardinals — Death of Urban YI.— Boniface IX. — Endeavors of the Christian Nations to put an End to the Schism — The Sorbonne — Death of Antipope Clement YII. — Antipope Benedict XIII. — His Character — National Councils at Paris — Benedict besieged at Avignon— Innocent YII. 192. After the death of Gregory XI., the Romans, fearing the election of a Frenchman, and the restoration of the Holy See to Avi- gnon, earnestly insisted at the conclave, that a Roman, or at least an Italian, should be chosen Pope. Accordingly, the sixteen cardinals, then assembled in conclave, elected Bartholomew Prignano, arch- bishop of Bari, who assumed the name of Urban YI., A. D. 1378-1389. The new Pontiff was recognized also by the absent cardinals at 1. "The long absence of the Popes from Rome," observes Archbishop Kenrlck, " during their stay at Avignon, which, like the captivity of Babylon, as the Romans sarcastically designate it, extended to about seventy years, affords no reason for questioning the succession, because the authority of a bishop does nor depend on his residence in his see. Those Pontiffs vi^ho resided at Avignon were truly Bishops of Rome, having been elected under this title by the college of car- dinals, to fill the Place of Peter. They governed that See by means of a Cardinal Vicar, whilst they personally applied themselves to the government of the universal Church." Primacy, Part I., uu. 18. r \ SCHISM OF TEE WEST. 407 Avignon. A subsequent election, which confirmed the first; the acquies- cence of all the cardinals who, during several months, continued to acknowledge him in public documents addressed to the bishops throughout Christendom; their assistance at his coronation; and the homage rendered to him by all, must needs remove every doubt regard- ing the freedom and legitimacy of Urban's election. 193. Urban was a stern reformer, and a man of great merit and integrity; but his seeming harshness and severe reproaches soon alien- ated from him the minds of the cardinals. The French cardinals, es- pecially, resented what they judged to be the imperiousness and un- due inflexibility of the new Pontiff. They began to rumor that his election was compulsory and therefore invalid. These, eleven in all, with Peter de Luna, a Spaniard, retired to Anagni, and under the pretext that the election of Urban was void, declared the Holy See vacant, and chose the warlike Cardinal Kobert of Geneva, who took the name of Clement VII. The three Italian cardinals, who hfad Ibeen decoyed to Anagni, had no part in this election; neither did they enter any protest, and from that time kept aloof from Urban. Fearing for his own safety in Italy, although Queen Joanna of Naples at once espoused his cause, Clement embarked in all speed for France, and abode at Avignon. 194. Thus began the great schism which divided Western Chris- tendom for thirty-nine years (A. D. 13*78-1417). The nations, support- ing the one or the other of the papal claimants, were : France, Naples Castile, Arragon, and Scotland adhered to the antipope Clement, as the free choice, as it was contended, of the cardinals; while the rest of Italy, with Germany, England, Hungary, Portugal, and the Scan- dinavian kingdoms remained faithful to Urban, on account of the priority of his election, and its free ratification by the entire Sacred College for a considerable time. 195. The disastrous schism produced the most lamentable results, especially in the kingdom of Naples, which became the field of bloody strife. The childless Queen Joanna was persuaded to set aside the claims of her cousin, Charles of Durazzo, the lawful heir to her realm, and adopt in his stead Louis of Anjou, brother of the French king, thus inflicting on Naples all the miseries of a French invasion and civil war. Pope Urban excommunicated and deposed the Queen, and invested Charles in the kingdom of Naples. Joanna, abandoned by her subjects, was taken prisoner, and, by order of Charles, put to death, in 1383. 196. But the new king of Naples did not at all realize the hopes which the Pope entertained of him; he refused to redeem the prom- 408 HISTOUY OF THE CHURCH. ises which he had made at his coronation. Urban excommunicated the faithless prince, and placed Naples under interdict. In the meantime, the Sacred College had been re-organized by the creation of twenty-nine cardinals. Six of these having entered into a proven conspiracy with the king of Naples against Urban, were cast into prison, where some of them died; the rest were put to death, with the exception of Cardinal Eston, an Englishman, who at the intercession of his sovereign, Richard 11., was spared. Urban was besieged by Charles in Nocera, but escaped to Genoa. In 1388, he returned to Rome, and was preparing an expedition against Naples, when he died. 197. The antipope Clement VII. and his cardinals had some vague hope, that upon the death of Urban, the Italian cardinals would rec- ognize him as Pope. But these refusing to acknowledge an intruder, proceeded, immediately after Urban's death, to the election of Peter Tomacelli, who took the title of Boniface IX., A. D. 1389-1404. Boni- face, a pious and mild Pontiff, but too indulgent to his relatives, re- established the papal authority in Rome, restored the cardinals de- posed in the preceding reign, and hastened to make terms with the royal family of Naples. He recognized young Ladislaus, son of Charles m., as the legitimate king, and energetically supported him against Louis of Anjou, who was compelled to withdraw to France. 198. A general discontent with the existing state of affairs pre- vailed throughout Christendom, and engendered a loud demand for a sj)eedy termination of the calamitous schism. Religious men of both parties, deploring the many evils resulting from the division, labored earnestly for the restoration of the peace and unity of the Church. The University of Paris, the Sorbonne, was particularly prominent in its endeavors to put an end to the schism. It presented a memorial to the king, in which it recommended three methods for the settle- ment of the difficulty: Cession, or resignation of the two Pontiffs; ar- bitration, that is, discussion and determination of contested claims by acceptedly imj)artial judges; or, finally, the convocation of a General Council. The University, at the same time, addressed a strong letter to Clement VII. at Avignon, which so affected him that he was seized with sudden illness and died, A. D. 1394. 199. Fearing the interference of the Sorbonne and the French court, the cardinals at Avignon hastened to elect the ambitious and crafty Peter de Luna, who, under the title of Benedict XIII., con- tinued the schism for twenty-three years longer. Before his election, Benedict had promised under oath that, if elected, he would do all in his power to end the schism, and, if necessary, should at once resign all claims to the Papacy. But when elected, he steadily refused to SCHISM OF THE WEST. 409 make good his promise. He adroitly succeeded even in bringing over to his side the learned Nicholas de Clemangis, rector of the Sorbonne, and St. Vincent Ferrer, the Thaumaturgus of the age; and induced Peter d'Ailly, the greatest theologian of the day, to accept a bishopric at his hands. Amid the existing confusion, it became difficult for even the most enlightened and conscientious men to pronounce with cer- tainty which of the two claimants was the legitimate Pontiff. 200. When called upon by the French national assembly, con- vened at Paris, in 1395, to resign, Benedict refused, and was successful in persuading the University of Toulouse* to espouse his cause. Dis- gusted with his tergiversation, France, in another national assembly, held in 1398, resolved on the unconditional "subtraction," or with- drawal, of allegiance and adhesion to Benedict's "obedience." The re- fractory Pontiff, abandoned by all his cardinals, except two, was kept for five years a close prisoner at Avignon. But escaping, and being as adroit as he was obstinate, he regained popular favor, and France once more returned to his " obedience." Meanwhile, Emperor Wen- ceslaus and King Richard 11. of England, adopting the policy of the French king, ventured to compel Pope Boniface to resign; but both princes were deposed by their own subjects. In place of "VVenceslaus, Ruprecht of the Palatinate was elected king of Germany; his election was confirmed by Boniface, in 1403. 201. Innocent YII., A.D. 1404-1406, the successor of Boniface IX., had the esteem of all by his great learning, exemplary piety, and simple manner of living. Before his election, lie had, with the other cardin- als, solemnly sworn to concur with all his power, towards effecting the union of the Church, even by the abdication of the Sovereign Pontificate. He contemplated for this purpose the convocation of a General Council, but was prevented from carrying out his resolution, by the revolt of the Romans and his untimely death. SECTION XLVin. THE SCHISM OF THE WEST, OK, THE PAPAL SCHISM, CON- TINUED SCHISMATICAL COUNCIL OF PISA. Gregory XII. — Makes Overtures of Peace — His Protest against the illegal Calling of a Council — Council of Pisa — Both Popes deposed — Election of Alexander V. — The Catholic World divided between Three "Obedi- ences" — John XXIII. — His Character — Illegitimacy of the Council of Pisa. 202. Before proceeding to a new election, the Urbanists, or Roman cardinals, singly pledged themselves by oath that, whosoever of their number should be chosen Pope, would resign the papal dignity so 410 HISTORY OF IHE CHURCH. soon as the Avignonese rival should abdicate or die. The election of Gregory XII., A. D. 1406-1416, a man of sterling virtue, and sin- cerely desirous of peace, seemed thus to warrant the speedy termina- tion of the schism. His first act was a letter to the antipope Benedict, in which he expressed his willingness to resign, if the Avignonese claimant would do the same. Gregory's letters to the Sorbonne and the king of France, declaring his readiness to yield his right for the peace and union of Christendom, were received and read with joy. A meeting of the two Popes was arranged to be held at Savona, in 1407. Benedict came to the appointed place with a strong escort; but Gre- gory, fearing, not without some ground, intrigues and snares for his arrest, cancelled his engagement. 203. All hopes of an abdication of the rival Popes having van- ished, the cardinals of both "obediences" abandoned them, met at Leg- horn (Livorno), and resolved on calling a Council at Pisa, and requir- ing at the same time the two claimants to either abdicate, or submit their claims to the future Council. Gregory, protesting against the illegal proceeding of the cardinals, demurred "that judgment had been given against him, though there had been no judge, and that the Council had been convoked only to ratify the verdict which the car- dinals had already rendered." Pointing out the dangerous precedent, which this manner of acting exhibited, he added that, "since the right of convoking a General Council belonged to the Pope, he was willing to convoke such a Council in some other place, but that he could not attend the Council of Pisa, without degrading the pontifical authority." 204. Notwithstanding his entreaties and warning, the greater part of Christendom renouncing obedience to Gregory, went over to the cardinals. The Council summoned by the latter met at the appointed place, in 1409, under the presidency of Guido de Malesec, the senior cardinal. There assisted at it twenty-four cardinals of both "obedi- ences," four patriarchs, about two hundred archbishops and bishops in person or by proxy, besides a great number of generals of orders, abbots, doctors, deputies of universities, and ambassadors of nearly all' the European sovereigns. Kings Kuprecht of Germany and Ladis- laus of Naples alone remained faithful to Gregory; while Spain, Por- tugal and Scotland adhered to Benedict. 205. The Council of Pisa, guided by the counsels of such men as Peter d'Ailly, bishop of Cambray, John Gerson,^ chancellor of the Sor- 1. Gerson, in a work entitled "De Auferil)llitate Papae al) Ecclesla." maintained that there were certain cases in which the Pope might he legally deposed. " When the Church," he argued, "has no visible head, either because he is corporally, or politically, dead, or because there remains bCHTSM OF THE WEST. 411 "bonne, and Peter d'Anchorano, a learned jurisconsult of Bologna, de- clared itself canonically convoked and constituted by the two colleges of cardinals blended in one, and to be the laivful representative of the Universal Church, with power to judge and depose the rival Popes. Setting aside the protest of King Kuprecht in favor of Gregory and iigainst the legality of its meeting, the Synod cited both Pontiffs to appear before it; on their failing to obey the summons, it decreed that all Christians ought to renounce all obedience to both claimants. It proceeded to depose them as contumacious and schismatical, and declared the Holy See to be vacant; lastly, it ordained the holding of a conclave, from which came forth Cardinal Philargi as Alexander Y. After passing some decrees for the reform of existing abuses, the Pathers adjourned, agreeing to meet again in three years and take up the reformation of the Church, in its Head and members. 206. As the far-seeing king Euprecht had predicted, the Church, to her great dismay, now, instead of two, had three claimants to the Papacy. Naples, some cities in Italy, and King Buprecht, but not the German Empire, supported Gregory; Arragon, Castile, Sardinia and Scotland remained true to Benedict; while Alexander was recognized in the rest of Christendom. Alexander, after a pontificate of only ten months, was succeeded by Cardinal Balthasar Cossa as John XXm. John, more remarkable for his military, than his religious, qualifica- tions, is described as a man of great administrative ability, a clever politician, and bold soldier. He supported Sigismund of Hungary against the other claimants to the Empire, and Charles of Anjou against Ladislaus. In 1412, he convened at Eome the Council which had been agreed upon at Pisa. However, only a small number of bishops attended the Synod, which, after condemning some proposi- tions of Wy cliff e and Huss, adjourned, without having done anything toward effecting that, much spoken of, reformation of the Church. 207. While some theologians, as for instance, Natalis Alexander, Raynoldus, Ballerini, and others affirm that both the Council of Pisa and the Pope it created were legitimate, the more common opinion in the Church has ever rejected that assembly as schismatical. "Neither ecclesiastical authority," says Hefele of this Council, "nor the most trustworthy theologians have ever numbered it among the Ecumenical Councils." There can be no truly Ecumenical Council except when convened by the Head of the Church, and the acts of no Council have a binding force save when confirmed by the Pope. Hence, St. Antoni- no hope that the faithful will ever submit to him or his successors, she then may proceed to give herself a new and undisputed Head, by means of a General Council convoked by the cardinals, or even by the assistance and instrumentality of some prince or other Christian." 412 HISTORY OF THE CHUBCH. niis and many others in his time, deeming the proceedings at Pisa utterly void, refused to recognize Alexander V., whose election only served to aggrevate the evil. "Alexander," argues Cardinal Hergen- raether, "was not legitimate any more than the Council of Pisa. For the latter was neither convened by the entire Church, nor by the legitimate Pope, nor was it universally recognized. The cardinals had no power to convoke a General Council, at least not during the lifetime of Gregory XII., who up to that time had been acknowledged as the legitimate Pontiff. But if he was the legitimate Head of the Church, he could not cease to be so by the decree of a headless as- sembly. There existed no right to depose the Pope. If Gregory per- jured himself, he certainly sinned, but could not loose his pontificate. But if there existed no right to depose the Pope, there existed also no right to appoint a new one." SECTION XLIX. COUNCIL OF CONSTANCE CLOSE OF THE SCHISM POPE MAETIN V. The Catholic World longs for Unity — Emperor Sigismund— Council of Con- stance — Its Object — Mode of Voting — Cardinal Filastre — Charges against John XXIII.— His Flight — Is Deposed and Submits— Abdication of Gre- gory XII. — Deposition of Benedict XIII. — Election of Martin Y.— Con- cordats— Authority of the Council of Constance. 208. The action of the Council of Pisa had only resulted in in- creasing the existing confusion in the Church; neither Gregory nor Peter de Luna would consent to make a renunciation in favor of the Pope chosen by that body. This state of things Christendom could no longer endure; it longed for peace and the unity of Church; its most illustrious representatives, and the great powers, headed by the emperor Sigismund, made every effort to terminate those dire di- visions in the Church. This could be accomplished only by a General Council — a council of greater authority, more fully representing the Church and the whole hierarchy than that of Pisa. 209. The sudden invasion of the treacherous king Ladislaus into the Roman territory, compelled John XXHI. to seek protection from Sigismund. John consented very reluctantly to the imperial demand to call a General Council in some German city, for the termination of the schism. In concert with the emperor, he summoned a General Council to open at Constance, in November, 1414, with the threefold object of extinguishing the schism, and uniting the Church under one acknowledged Pope; of reforming the Church in its Head as well as members; and of extirpating heresy. COUNCIL OF CONSTANCE. 413 210. The Council, which was opened by John in person, was at- tended by three patriarchs, twenty-nine cardinals, about one hundred and eighty bishops, over one hundred abbots, and three hundred doctors in various degrees, and numbered in all as many as eighteen thousand ecclesiastics of all ranks. Among the most prominent mem- bers were Cardinals Filastre of Rheims, Zabarella of Florence, and Peter d'Ailly of Cambray, and Gerson, the famous chancellor of the Sorbonne. Despite the remonstrances of John and his partisans, the assembly declared itself independent of the Council of Pisa, and agreed to receive and admit the ambassadors of Gregory and Bene- dict as paj)al legates. 211. To neutralize the preponderance of the Italian bishops, who composed nearly one half of the voters, and who were almost univers- ally in the interests of John XXTTT., it was determined that, on ques- tions relating to the union of the Church, the right of su&age should not be confined to bishops, but should be extended to abbots, chap- ters, deputies of universities, doctors, and ambassadors of the Christian rulers; and that the voting in the Council be by nations, and not by individuals. The nations were: 1. — The Italians; 2. — The French; 3. — The Germans, comprehending the Poles and Scandinavians; 4. — The English. To these the Spaniards, who had not joined the Council at its opening, were afterwards added, as the fifth nation. 212. As a means of restoring the union of the Church, Cardinal Filastre proposed the simultaneous abdication of the three claimants, and the election of a universally acknowledged Pope. The adoption of this proposition by the Council, and especially the publication of an anonymous memorial, containing serious charges against his person and private character, destroyed every hope for John, and utterly de- prived him of "his wonted courage and discretion. In the second Ses- sion, indeed, he formally promised under oath to resign, provided Gregory and Peter de Luna would do likewise; but, lest he should be held to his promise, he secretly fled from Constance, and threatened to dissolve the Council. 213. Irritated, rather than discouraged, by the flight of John, the assembled Fathers continued theu' sittings, proclaimed the complete independence of the Council, and its supremacy over the Pope. From the third to the fifth sessions, they were busied in passing a series of revolutionary resolutions, which declared that a Pope can neither transfer nor dissolve a General Council, without the consent of the latter, and hence the actual Synod might validly continue its work, even after the flight of the Pope; that the holy Synod of Constance was a truly Ecumenical Council, representing the whole Church, hav- 414 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH ing its power immediately from Christ — to whicli all of every rank, including the Pope, were obliged to submit in matters of faith, in the extirpation of schism, and in the reformation of the Church both in its Head and its members; and that every person, even a Pope, that should obstinately refuse to obey that Council, or any other lawfully assembled, would be liable to such punishment as might be decreed in the premises. 214. In the meantime, fruitless negotiations were carried on with the fugitive Pope. At last John, having failed to make the cession of his papal office, as demanded, was cited to answer for fifty-five grave, but exaggerated, charges against his private life and late conduct. Brought back to Constance, the Council pronounced sentence of depo- sition against him, which he shortly afterwards ratified by his formal resignation. In this manner, the illegal action of the illegitimate Council of Pisa was undone by another illegitimate Synod. The Council further decreed, that neither the deposed Pope, nor the other two claimants, could ever again be elected to the Papacy. John XXIII. was held in safe custody till 1419, when Pope Martin V. procured his liberty and made him Cardinal bishop of Tusculum. The edifying life, which he led from the time of his deposition, terminated in the same year. 215. Gregory XH., who had previously pledged himself to resign his dignity, the moment the other contestants should withdraw, has- tened to redeem his promise. He sent Lord Malatesta of Rimini to Constance, to assure the emperor, that he was ready to make a full renunciation of the Papacy, on condition that the Council, acknowl- edging his authority, would allow itself to be legally convoked by bim, and that no one of the other " obediences " should preside in the session in which he was to make such renunciation. Being the only rightful Pope, Gregory felt that this measure was necessary, to secure both the legitimacy of the Council and the legality of the ensuing Pontifical election. On the acceptance of this proposition, Gregory, on July 4, 1414, issued a bull convoking the Council from that date, and giving thenceforth canonical validity to its Acts, after which, in the fourteenth session, he proffered his unreserved resignation of the Papacy. In a subsequent letter to the Council, he subscribed himself simply "Cardinal Angelus." To reward his magnanimity, the Synod appointed him to the bishopric of Porto and Legate Apostolic of An- cona. He died in the odor of sanctity, in 1417. 216. The antipope Benedict XIIL, in spite of the entreaties of the emperor Sigismund,. and of the king of Arragon, stubbornly refused to abate his pretensions. The Spaniards then withdrew from his COUNCIL OF CONSTANCE. 4:5 "obedience." On the return of tlie embassy, which had been sent to urge his resignation, the process against him was commenced; it terminated with his deposition. Peter de Luna, abandoned by all his adherents, excepting the little town of Peniscola, where he resided, continued jDcrsistently to assert his pretensions till his death, in 1424. 217. After the abdication of Gregory XII. the Holy See remained Tacant for nearly two years. The English and Germans argued that reform should precede the election of a Pope; the other nations took the opposite view. Then, after all Catholic nations had given ample proofs of submission and lasting fidelity, the Council of Constance ar- ranged for the election of a Pope. The conclave, consisting of twenty- three cardinals, and a representative delegation of thirty prelates, six for each nation, on November 11, 1417, elected Cardinal Otho Colonna, who took the name of Martin V., A. D. 1417-1431. 218. The new Pope, who was a man of great ability and undis- puted integrity, at once appointed a Committee on Reformation; but the recommendations on reform submitted by this committee were not accepted by the Council. The wants of the various nations rep- resented in the Council were so conflicting, that they would not admit of any 'definite and satisfactory arrangement; wherefore, the Pope presented a counter-plan of reform, and concluded separate Con- cordats with the several nations, by which some of the worst abuses were corrected. Besides, seven general decrees on reform were passed by the Council and confirmed by the Pope. Another Council, which Martin agreed to convoke after five years at Pavia, was to take up and complete the work of the much needed reformation. 219. Martin approved the earlier decrees of the Council reprobat- ing the errors of Wycliffe and Huss; but condemned the opinion assert- ing the right of appeal from the Pope to a General Council. He issued a special bull, declaring "that it was unlawful for any one, either to appeal from the judgments of the Apostolic See, or to reject its decisions in matters of faith." Lastly, after confirming all that had been done and decided conciliariter by the Synod, that is, such decrees only as were enacted according to the canonical rules govern- ing an Ecumenical Council. Martin formally dissolved the Council in its forty-fifth session, April 22, 1418. 220. Regarding the ecumenical authority of the Council of Con- stance, Hefele arrives at the conclusion, that all those decrees, in the enactment of which, according to Pope Martin's distinction, the con- ciliar rules had been observed (quae conciliariter determinata, con- clusa et decreta fuissent), and which, according to the declaration of Martin's successor, Eugenius IV., contain "nothing detrimental to 416 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. the rights, dignity, and supremacy of the Apostolic See " (absque prae- judicio juris, dignitatis et prae-eminentiae Sedis Apostolicae), are un- questionably to be accepted as ecumenical; while those decrees to which this test does not apply, must be looked upon as reprobated. There can be no doubt that the Council of Constance, from its forty- second to the forty-fifth sessions, at which the lawful Pope presided, was a regular General Synod, and, consequently, is to be called the Sixteenth Ecumenical Council of the Church. 221. Of the earlier sessions of this Council Cardinal Hergen- roether observes: — "They (the decrees) were arrived at without due consultation, and by voting according to nationality, which was for- bidden by Church legislation. The party of the antipope John XXIII.> who had convoked the Council, was alone represented. Its decisions are -opposed to the decisions passed by the Second Council of Lyons, or Fourteenth General Council, by the Council of Florence, and by the Fifth Lateran Council, by which they were condemned and re- pealed. It was only after the lawful Pope, Gregory XII., convened the Council and then renounced his dignity, and Martin V. was duly elected, that the assembly formed a regular General Council. Martin V. only approved those decrees which the Council had passed, upoji mat- ters of faith, in a conciliar manner.'* Cath. Church and Chr. State. SECTION L. POPES MARTIN V. AND EUGENIUS IV COUNCIL OF BASLE. Martin V. in Rome — Council of Pavia — Eugenius lY. — Council of Basle — Its Object — Julian Cesarini — Conflict between the Pope and the Basilians — Nicholas of Cusa — Proceedings at Basle — Reconciliation — Synodical Acts of Basle— Dissolution of the Council — The Basilians in open Rebellion against the Pope — Cardinal L'Allemand— Revolutionary Decrees— Anti- pope Felix Y. — Close of the Schism. 222. Martin Y. prudently declined the invitation of the French, to re-establish the Holy See at Avignon, as well as that of Em- peror Sigismund, who offered him Basle, Strasburg, and Mentz, from which to select the papal residence. He returned to Italy; but, Rome being then occupied by the Neapolitans, he tarried at Florence till 1420, when he entered Rome amidst the loud rejoicings of the people. Martin exerted all his efforts to restore industry and com- merce in the Papal States, and carry out the reforms inaugurated at Constance. In pursuance of a decree by the Fathers of Constance, he convoked a Council for 1423, to meet at Pavia, which shortly after was transferred to Siena. Owing to the small number of bishops attending the Council, and the dissensions which arose among its COUNCIL OF BASLE. 417 members, Martin declared it dissolved, and convoked another Council to assemble at Basle, in 1431. But he died the day before the opening. 223. Eugenius IV., A. D. 1431-1447, the nephew of Gregory XII., immediately addressed himself to the projected reforms. He con- firaied the convocation of the Council of Basle, as well as the appoint- ment of Cardinal Julian Cesarini, as papal legate and president of the the assembly. The Council opened under John of Polemar and John of Kagusa, delegates of Cardinal Cesarini, who was at the time en- gaged in endeavoring to effect a reconciliation with the Hussites. But very few prelates were in attendance. On his arrival in Basle, Cesarini sent a messenger to Kome, to acquaint the Pope with the state of affairs. 224. In the meantime, the prelates at Basle, consisting of only three bishops and fourteen abbots, held their first public session; they declared their assembly a lawfully convened Council whose object was defined to be: 1. — The extirpation of heresy; 2. — The establishment of peace among Christian princes; 3. — The reformation of the Church in its Head and members. Four deputations were formed, not, as at Constance, according to nationalities, but according to the matters to be treated: 1. — Of faith; 2. — Of pacification; 3. — Of reformation; and 4. — Of general matters (Deputatio fidei, pacis, reformationis, et com- munis). 225. The small attendance of bishops at Basle, but especially the proposals for a reunion made by the Greeks who, however, desired the Council to meet in some Italian city, induced the Pope to dissolve the Council and convoke a new one to open at Bologna eighteen months later. The cardinal legate obeyed, and declined to take his seat as president of the Council then holding. But the bishops at Basle vehemently opposed the removal of the Council, which, they alleged, would exclude all hopes of reconciling the Hussites. They continued their sessions, elected Philibert, bishop of Coutances, as president of their assembly in place of Cesarini, and proceeded to act, at first, independently of the Pope, and, soon after, against his author- ity and person. 226. A serious oonflict between the Pope and the Fathers at Basle now ensued. The extreme assertion of Gerson, as to the supremacy of a General Council over the Pope, found a new and eloquent ad- vocate in the learned Nicholas of Cusa. The Council of Basle adopted the doctrine, and, in its second session, which was attended by only fourteen bishops, renewed the decrees of the Council of Constance, proclaiming the superiority of an Ecumenical Council over the Pope; 418 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. it consequently denied the power of the Pope to dissolve or transfer a. General Council, without its consent. In its subsequent sessions, the recalcitrant conventicle commanded the Pope to withdraw his bull of dissolution; cited him and his cardinals to appear at Basle, and threatened them with further action, if they, in three months, did not obey the summons. Finally, in the tenth session, the Fathers of Basle, who, in the interval, had increased to the number of five cardinals and forty-one prelates, proceeded to declare Eugenius contumacious! 227. Eugenius, finding that he could not bring over the prelates of Basle to his opinion, began to waver, and sent four legates to Basle with authority to negotiate with the assembled Fathers, on the con- tinuance of the Council. He also published a bull, explaining the reasons why the Pope had hitherto objected to holding the Council at Basle, and the considerations which now induced him to allow its con- tinuance in that place, as well as to send legates thither. But his legates were ill received, and his overtures rejected as unsatisfactory. The refractory prelates, in the eleventh session, went so far as to menace the Pope with suspension and deposition, for refusing to rec- ognize the arrogant pretensions of their conventicle. 228. On learning the revolutionary measures adopted at Basle^ Pope Eugenius, in 1433, issued a bull annulling all such decrees of the assembly as were derogatory to his dignity and the authority of the Holy See, at the same time signifying his willingness to continue the Council. At last, revoking his bull of dissolution, he consented to acknowledge the assembly of Basle as a lawfully convened Council, under the express condition, however, that his legates would be ad- mitted to preside at its sessions, and that all decrees derogatory to his person and the prerogatives of the Holy See, would be repealed. Meanwhile, some of the Italian princes, taking advantage of the em- barrassing condition of the Pope, commenced war upon him and in- vaded the Papal States. The Bomans also rose in arms and besieged the Pope in his palace, which compelled him to escape in disguise to Florence. 229. But happily, through the efforts of Sigismund, who was crowned emperor in Kome, in 1433, a reconciliation was now brought about between the Pope and the Fathers of Basle; the latter declared themselves satisfied with the terms of the Pope. From this period, all sessions, from the sixteenth to the twenty-fifth (Febr. 5, 1434, to May 7, 1437), were held under the presidency of the papal legates. A number of decrees was passed by the Council, which apply to the ex- tinction of heresy, the establishment of peace among Christian rulers, and the reformation of the faithful. These are the only Acts of the COUNCIL OF BASLE. 419 Council of Basle that are recognized as truly synodical, and that were approved bj the Holj See. 230. Still, before long, the Council again engaged in a contest against the Pope. Returning to their former schism, the Fathers re- newed the declaration of the supremacy of a General Council over the Pope, and, without consulting the latter, adopted a decree for the reform of the Roman Chancery, and enacted laws which tended to subject both the Holy See and the Sacred College to their authority. Great efforts were also made to interfere in the negotiations with the Greek Emperor, on the subject of the proposed reunion of the Greek and Latin Churches, though without si'ccess. A division arose on this question among the members of the Council. "While the majority, headed by the cardinal archbishop L'Allemand of Aries, voted for continuing the Council at Basle or Avignon, the minority favored Florence or some other Italian city. 231. This caused Pope Eugenius to dissolve, once more, the Council of Basle, and to transfer its sessions to Ferrara, Sept. 1437. Public opinion now turned in favor of the Pope, and the more moderate of the prelates began to withdraw from the Council. The cardinals, ex- cepting L'Allemand, and nearly all the prelates of rank, in obedience to the Pope's mandate, repaired to Ferrara. A scanty number of bishops and abbots, with about four hundred priests and doctors, who were all granted the right of suffrage, remained, and, under the presidency of the fanatical L'Allemand, continued the sessions of the now schismatical Council. 232. The malcontents of Basle, exasperated by the general defec- tion from their conventicle to the Council of Ferrara, now proceeded to revolutionary extremes. The following propositions respecting the subjection of the Pope to a General Council were defined by them as articles of faith: 1. — That a General Council is superior to the Pope; 2. — That the Pope cannot dissolve, or transfer, or adjourn a General Council; 3. — That, whoever denies these articles is a heretic. They, furthermore, excommunicated the Council of Ferrara, and cited its members before the Basle tribunal; finally, in their thirty-fourth ses- sion, which was attended by only seven bishops, thej^ presumed to depose Eugenius, in whose stead they thrust Amadeus of Savoy. 233. The antipope, who took the name of Felix V., was recog- nized outside of his hereditary states by only a few universities and minor princes. The schismatical assembly remained in session till 1443, when it adjourned to Lausanne. After playing his miserable part for ten years, Felix abdicated, and his party put an end to the schism laj reco^-nizing the pontificate of Nicholas V. Felix, 420 mSTOBT OF THE CHUECH. •who is the last antipope recorded in history, died in 1451. "The Council of Basle," Cardinal Hergenroether says, "which a contem- porary writer (Traversari) called a seminary of heresy, was headless and schismatical, and never met with recognition from the Church. Eugenius IV. confirmed the holding of the Council, but only under two conditions, which were not fulfilled. These conditions were : first, that everything which that Council had done contrary to the author- ity of the Apostolic See, should be declared null and void; second, that his legates should have* the virtual presidency. He never, how- ever, ratified the canons of this assembly." SECTION LI. THE SEVENTEENTH ECUMENICAL, OR COUNCIL OP FEREAEA AND FLORENCE REUNION OF THE GREEK, AND OTHER EASTERN CHURCHES. The Greek Church— Attempts of the Popes to Reunite the Greeks— The Greeks in Ferrara — Principial Questions — Eminent Latin and Greek Theologians— Procession of the Holy Ghost — Primacy of the Roman See — Definition of the Council — Decree of Reunion— Results — Reunion of Other Oriental Churches — France and the Council of Florence. 234. The Council of Basle was transferred to Ferrara, and after- wards to Florence, chiefly for the purpose of reuniting the Greek with the Latin Church. Several conventions were held during the thir- teenth and fourteenth centuries, to close the Greek Schism; but any Reunion accomplished was never of long duration. The reconciliation effected under Emperor Michael II. Palaeologus at Lyons, in 12 74, lasted but a few years; Andronicus 11. Palaeologus rejected the ar- rangement and threw the Empire back into schism. New attempts at reconciliation were made, in 1330, by Andronicus III. Palaeologus, who was hard pressed by the Turks. Negotiations for the Reunion were also carried on between the emperor of Constantinople and Popes John XXII., Benedict XII., Clement VI., and Innocent YI. Emperor John V. Palaeologus, in 1369, abjured the schism and was received into Catholic communion, by Urban V. 235. At last the emperor John VII. Palaeologus applied to Pope Eugenius TV. for Reunion with the Roman Church, as the only hope of saving his tottering Empire from the Ottoman power. He accepted the invitation of the Pope to the Council of Ferrara, which opened in January, 1438. Seven hundred Greeks sailed from the Bosporus for Eerrara, on board the fleet placed at their disposal by Eugenius, who likewise defrayed all expenses for their maintenance while attending the Council. The emperor, the patriarch Joseph of Constantinople, COUNCIL OF FLOREXCE. 421 Bessarion, the famous arclibisbop of Nice, and deputies from the other patriarchs, were among the number. 236. The Greeks, who arrived at Ferrara early in March, were received with great solemnity by the Pope. On April 9 th, the united Council was solemnly declared in session. The principal questions proposed for discussion were: 1. — The Procession of the Holy Ghost; 2. — The addition of the "Filioque" to the Symbolum; 3. — Purgatory, and the nature of purgatorial j)unishment; 4. — The Beatific Vision of the Blessed in heaven; 5. — The use of leavened or unleavened bread in the Mass; and, 6. — The Primacy of the Roman See. Prominent among the Latins, in defending the doctrines of the Roman Church, were Cardinals Cesarini and Albergati; Archbishop Andrew of Rhodus, Ambrose Traversari, general of the Camaldolensians, and the two learned Dominicans, John Torquemada (Turrecremata), and John of Ragusio, or Montenegro. Of the Greeks, taking part in the discus- sions, the most eminent were the learned Bessarion, archbishop of Nice, Isidore, archbishop of Kiew, Dorotheus, archbishop of Mytelene, and the two most bitter opponents of the Reunion, the archbishops Mark of Ephesus, and Anthony of Heraclea. 237. The discussion on the Procession of the Holy Ghost ex- tended through fifteen sessions, after which, the plague breaking out at Ferrara, the Council was removed to Florence. In this city, the Fathers continued to deliberate from 1439 to 1442. The debates on the great dogmatic questions of the Procession of the Holy Ghost and the Primacy of the Pope were prolix and often violent. The Greeks finally accepted the Latin terminology, viz : "that the Holy Ghost proceeds from the Father and the Son" and consented to the addition of the word, "Filioque" to the Creed. 238. The other points of difference were agreed upon with less difficulty. It was defined, that either leavened or unleavened bread may be used at the Mass, each Church being allowed to maintain its own usage ; that the departed souls of the just, when thoroughly puri- fied, go straight to Heaven, and the departed souls of the wicked descend at once to Hell; that departed souls not perfectly purified are detained in Purgatory, where their sufferings may be shortened or al- leviated by the sacrifice of the Mass, prayers, and other good works of the faithful on earth. The discussions on the Primacy of the Roman See were much more keen and protracted. The emperor, particularly, was averse to admitting the papal prerogatives. He was willing to concede the pre-eminence of the Roman Pontiff, but objected to the Pope's right of convoking General Councils, without the consent of 422 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. the emperor and the patriarchs; of demanding obedience from the patriarchs, and of receiving appeals from their decision. 239. At last, by the interposition of Bessarion and Isidore, the emperor consented to acknowledge the Papal Primacy, whereupon the Council defined that ''the Holy Apostolic See and the Roman Pontiff hold the Primacy over the whole world; that the Roman Pontiff vi the successor of Blessed Peter, Prince of the Apostles; that he is the true Vicar of Christ, the Head of the whole Church, the Father and Teacher of all Christians; and that to him, in Blessed Peter, full power has been given by our Lord Jesus Christ, of feeding, riding, and governing the Universal Church; as is also contained in the Acts of the Ecumenical Councils, and in the sacred canons." The Decree of Reunion was signed by the Pope and the em- peror, and all the members of the Council, except Mark of Ephesus and the bishop of Stauropolis; and, on July 6, 1439, it was solemnly published, having been read in Latin, by Cardinal Cesarini, and in Greek, by Bessarion. Soon after the Greeks left Florence for their homes; Bessarion and Isidore, who had zealously exerted themselvea for the Reunion, were raised to the cardinalate. 240. Yet the happy results thus secured at Florence were soon- dissipated; the greater portion of the Greek people opposed it, and, as early as 1443, the three patriarchs of Alexandria, Antioch, and Je- rusalem formally condemned the Florentine decrees. Unfortunately the noble patriarch Joseph of Constantinople had died during the Council, and the new patriarch, Metrophanes, who was equally well disposed to the Reunion, was unable to withstand the tide of popular feeling and the intrigues of Mark of Ephesus and other enemies of unity. His successor, Gregory Mammas, a strenuous advocate of the Reunion, was deposed in a synod at Constantinople, in 1450. His im- mediate successors, Arsenius and Gennadius, were hostile to the Florentine Decree, but they were compelled by the emperor Con- stantine, who honestly favored the Reunion, to resign their sees. Cardinal Isidore, the fugitive metropolitan of Kiew, as Legate Apos- tolic, succeeded in having the Florentine decrees promulgated at Con- stantinople, in 1452. But the following year, 1453, the Turks stormed and took Constantinople, when the Sultan Mohammed 11., the con- queror of the Eastern Empire, caused Gennadius to be elected to the patriarchate. Thus, by Greek perfidy and Turkish fanaticism, the last hope of a Reunion of the East and West was destroyed. 241. The Council remained in session at Florence for several years, to afford the other Oriental schismatics an opportunity of re- uniting with the Church. In 1439, the Armenians, in 1441, the Ethi opian king Constantine, in 1442, the Jacobites of Syria, and in 1443 J NICHOLAS V. AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 423 the Bosnians were received into Catholic communion, and Eugenius issued special instructions for the united nations, containing a full exposition of Catholic doctrines and usages. Their example was fol- lowed by many Christians in Syria and Mesopotamia, and by the Chaldeans, Nestorians, and Maronites in Cyprus, who, with their bishops and clergy made their submission, in 1445, at Rome, whither the Pope had transferred the Council, in 1443. The Council finally closed its sessions in the Lateran Basilica, October 25, 1445. 242. For a time, certain G-allican writers denied the ecumenical authority of the Council of Florence, because, maintaining the super- iority of a General Council over the Pope, they held that Eugenius exceeded his powers in removing the Council from Basle to Florence. The French element was predominant at Basle. King Charles VII., in 1438, forbade the French bishops to attend the Council of Ferrara, and, in 1448, declared to the legates of Eugenius, that he would never acknowledge the Council. Even at Trent the French objected against the Florentine decrees on the Papal authority. SECTION UI. THE CONCORDATS UNDER EUGENIUS IV NICHOLAS V ^HIS SUCCESSORS. Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges— Affairs of Germany— Diets— Concordat of Princes— Concordat of Vienna— Nicholas V.— His Activity— Calixtus III. — Pius II. — His Antecedents — His Efforts to arm Christendom against the Turks— Paul II. — Sixtus IV. — Conflict with Florence. 243. During the conflict between Eugenius IV. and the Council of Basle, France and Germany remained in a state of neutrality. Yet, both countries showed a certain leaning toward the schismatical Council, which appeared to them an available opportunity for the exten- sion of royal prerogatives at the expense of the Church. In 1438, at the summons of King Charles VII., the French clergy assembled at Bourges, and there framed what is known as the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges. The Pragmatic Sanction admitted certain of the decrees of Basle; others it modified. It adopted the decrees, declaring a General Council superior to the Pope, abolishing Papal reserves and expectatives, and restricting appeals to Rome to the graver causes. In vain did the Popes protest against the Pragmatic Sanction, which has been rightly regarded as the fountain-head of Gallicanism. 244. Following the example of France, the German princes, in three successive diets at Mentz, Niiremberg, and Frankfort declared their determination to maintain strict neutrality in the contest be- 424 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. tween Eugenius and the Council of Basle. The eloquence and argu- ments of Cardinal Cervantes and Nicholas of Cusa, who appeared at the diets as the legates of Eugenius, were unavailing; they could not persuade the princes to throw off their inglorious neutrality, and at once espouse the cause of the Pope against the schismatics of Basle. This state of suspense was the cause of dire divisions and much con- fusion in the Church of Germany. 245. When, in 1445, Eugenius deposed the archbishops of Cologne and Treves, because of their declaration in favor of the Basilians and the antipope, the situation became all the more aggravated. The German princes, taking up the cause of the deposed prelates, pro- tested against this proceeding of the Pope, as an illegal exercise of his authority. The refusal of Eugenius to revoke his sentence of de- position, threatened to cast Germany wholly on the side of the schis- matics. But, through the efficient services of Aeneas Sylvius Piccolo- mini, afterward Pope Pius H., who was dispatched by Emperor Fred- erick in., on a special mission to Rome, the difficulty was settled. Aeneas succeeded in bringing about an understanding between the German princes and the Pope, thus inflicting a death-blow to the as- sembly at Basle, whose dissolution speedily followed. An agreement in four articles, known as the Concordat of the Princes, was ratified by Eugenius, two weeks before his death, in 1447, whereupon the German ambassadors yielded obedience to the rightful Pope. 246. The first care of Nicholas V., A. D. 1447-1455, was to give union to the Church and aid to the tottering Empire of the East. The schism of Basle was happily brought to a close and a new treaty — the Concordat of Vienna — concluded with the Emperor Frederick HI., in 1448, regulated the appointments to ecclesiastical dignities in Ger- many, and, in many points, modified the " Concordat of the Princes,'' which Eugenius had been constrained to sign. In 1450, Nicholas celebrated the General Jubilee, and, in 1452, bestowed the Imperial Crown on Frederick III. of Germany — the last "Roman Emperor" who received the crown from the hands of the Pope. 247. Nicholas devoted all his energy to the recovery of Constan- tinople from the hands of the Turks. He had sent a fleet to the assis- tance of the Greeks, which, however, arrived too late. Himself learned, Nicholas was a liberal patron of letters. He expended large sums in j^urchasing and collecting books, manuscripts or copies of them, and encouraged the translation into Latin of the Greek Fathers and classical works. To him also is accredited the foundation of the Vatican Library, which he enriched by an addition of five thousand volumes. NICHOLAS V: AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 425 248. Calixtus m., A. D. 1455-1458, a Pontiff of remarkable firm- ness, likewise employed all his endeavors to unite all Christendom in an expedition against advancing Mohammedanism. But his efforts were met with cool indifference on the part of the Christian powers. He himself, then, raised and equipped an army to aid the Hungarians against the invading Turks; and, to obtain the divine assistance for the Christian warriors, he ordered the Lord's Prayer and the Angelic Salutation to be recited by the faithful at noon; whence originated the " Angelus." To his efforts mainly is to be attributed the great vic- tory of the Christians at Belgrade, in 1456. Calixtus also was a lover of letters, and made large additions to the Vatican library. 249. On the death of Calixtus III., the eminent jurist and cele- brated poet, Aeneas Sylvius, ascended the papal throne, as Pius 11., A. D. 1458-1464. In his former years, he had sided with the Council of Basle, and, though a layman, acted as secretary to that assembly and the antipope, Felix V. It was then that he wrote his " History of the Council of Basle," and other works in defence of the supremacy of General Councils, which he afterwards retracted. He was, subsequent- ly, appointed Imperial Secretary by Frederick m., and Apostolic Sec- retary by Eugenius IV. Nicholas V. made him bishop of Triest, and afterwards of Siena; Calixtus 111. created him cardinal, and, at the death of that Pontiff, he succeeded him in the Popedom. 250. Few men of more consummate ability than Pius 11. had sat in the chair of St. Peter. The ruling idea of his pontificate was the organization of a universal league, embracing all Christendom, against the Turks. He summoned an assembly of all the Christian powers to be held at Mantua. At the same time, he undertook the conversion of the Sultan Mohammed II., to whom he addressed a long and elab- orate epistle. But the efforts of the energetic Pontiff met with no en- couragement from the western nations. Notwithstanding this failure, Pius maintained his courage; he placed himself at the head of an army and set out for Ancona. Here, death thwarted the designs which the magnanimous Pontiff had formed for the glory of Christendom. By a special bull, Pius II. condemned appeals from the Pope to a future General Council, and, by another, he formally withdrew what he had written in defence of the Council of Basle and the supremacy of General Councils. 251. The character of Paul 11., A. D. 1464-1471, who was a liberal patron of arts and letters, has been unjustly assailed, particularly by Platina, out of spite for abolishing the office of abbreviators in the Papal Chancery, among the clerks of which great abuses prevailed. He is censured for his excessive prodigality, and for raising three of 426 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. his nephews to the dignity of cardinals. Nepotism, however, was xmiversally practiced in those days, and considered less odious than at present. 252. Sixtus rV., A. D. 14Y1-1484, like his immediate predecessors, a munificent patron of literature, largely increased the Vatican library, huilt, besides several other churches, the celebrated Sixtine chapel, and adorned Rome with many magnificent edifices. He placed the ** Seraphic Doctor," Bonaventure, on the calendar of saints, sought to put an end to the controversies between the Thomists and Scotists, and condemned the errors of Peter of Osma, a professor of Salamanca. His principal efforts were directed toward uniting the Christian princes in a league against the Turks. But he met with hardly any success; the greater powers refused to obey his call. 253. Pope Sixtus lY., it is alleged, tarnished his otherwise blame- less and useful pontificate by favoring his relatives too much. Four of his nephews he raised to the cardinalate ; two others became suc- cessively prefects of Rome. But they all proved themselves worthy of their dignities: the cardinals were men of high probity and great ability, while the two prefects endeared themselves to the people by liberality and munificence. Besides, it must be remembered that the promotion of their relatives to posts of trust and power was, for the Popes, in those days, a necessary safeguard against the many Italian factions. 254. Sixtus became embroiled in a bitter strife with the Florentine Republic, and the powerful family of the Medici, who sided with the Pope's enemies and refused to admit Francesco de Salviati, as arch- bishop of Pisa. The conspiracy of the Pazzi, a noble family of Flor- ence, which resulted in the assassination of Julian de Medici, drew upon Pope Sixtus the false suspicion that he had been accessory to the plot. The Florentine magistrates, without previous recourse to the Holy See, put to death archbishop Salviati and other ecclesiastics, charged with participating in the conspiracy. For this they were ex- communicated, and Florence was laid under interdict. But the Flor- entines paid no attention to the papal censures, and appealed to a General Council. The quarrel was finally settled, but only after the Florentines had given satisfaction for the execution of the ecclesias- tics. Sixtus was also involved in a conflict with the Venetians, whom he was compelled to place under interdict. But they too, appealed to a General Council, and commanded the clergy to disregard the papal censures, banishing such as disobeyed the civil mandate. LAST POPES OF THIS PEBIOD. 427 SECTION Lin. THE LAST POPES OF THIS PERIOD ^FTFTH LATERAN COUNCIL. Innocent YIII. — His Pontificate — Lorenzo de Medici— Prince Dshem — Alex- ander YI. — His Antecedents — His Nepotism — Affairs of Naples — Bull of Partition — Charges against Alexander YI. — Pius III. — Character of Julius II. — League of Cambrai — Schismatical Council of Pisa — Eight- eenth General Council — Its Objects — Leo X. 255. Considering the irregularities of their youths and the cor- ruption of their reigns, we must pronounce the election of the two succeeding Pontiffs a disgrace to the Sacred College, and a scandal to the Church. Cardinal John Baptist Cibo, a Grenoese, succeeded Sixtus lY. as Innocent YITE., A. D. 1484-1492. After a loose life in youth, lie was married. On the death of his wife, he entered the ecclesias- tical state, in which his conduct, as well as his ability, won general esteem, and secured his promotion to the episcopate under Paul II., to the cardinalate under Sixtus lY., and finally to the government of the Universal Church. , 256. His successful efforts in effecting a reconciliation between the rival houses of the Orsini and Colonnas, and restoring peace and order in the Papal dominions, procured Innocent the title of "Father of the Country." Innocent succeeded also in concluding an alliance with the powerful Lorenzo de Medici, the bitter opponent of the pre- ceding Pope. On Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, after their con- quest of Granada, in 1492, he conferred the title of "Catholic Majesty." In the prolonged dispute between the two rival houses of Lancaster and York of England, Innocent decided in favor of the latter. But much needed reforms were neglected, and crying abuses at the Papal court were allowed to continue. To fill his depleted treasury. Innocent in- creased the number of curialistic offices, which were conferred for high sums. For keeping in custody Prince Dshem, the brother and rival of Sultan Bajazet 11. of Constantinople, the latter jDaid the Pope annually forty thousand ducats. 257. The pontificate of Alexander YL, who reigned from A. D. 1492 to 1503, was a time of degradation for the Holy See, and a calam- ity to the Church. This Pope was of the Borgia family, and his mother a sister of Calixtus III., who, when becoming Pope, made his nephew, then a military officer, bishop of Yalencia, and shortly after created him cardinal and vice-chancellor of the Roman Church. Before his elevation to the Papacy, he became the father of four children, by a Roman lady of noble family. His election to the Papacy was accom- plished by bribery. Alexander possessed, indeed, all the qualities of an able and valiant ruler, but utterly lacked the virtues of a Pontiff. 428 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 258. When raised to the Papacy, Alexander availed himself of every means to enrich and elevate his family. His son Juan was created Duke of Gandia; another son, the vicious Caesar Borgia, was nominated a cardinal; on the death of his brother, Caesar succeeded him in his titles and estates, and, having never received holy orders, was married to a French princess and created duke of Valentinois. To this was added the dukedom of Romagna by the Pope, who also gave to the sons of his daughter Lucretia large tracts of territory taken from dispossessed Italian princes. 259. Alexander formed a league with the king of Naples against Charles Vm. of France, who laid claim to the Neapolitan Crown. Un- able, however, to prevent the invasion of Italy by the French, the Pope hastened to make terms with Charles, promising him the investiture of Naples. But no sooner had Charles gained possession of Naples, than Alexander formed a powerful coalition, composed of Venice, Milan, Spain, and the emperor Maximilian I., which compelled the French king to withdraw from Italy. Alexander ,now directed his efforts toward strengthening his power in the Papal States, which were then in a very disturbed condition. His son Caesar Borgia succeeded in crushing and expelling the petty tyrants who had made themselves independent of the Holy See. It was under the reign of Alexander that the eloquent, but eccentric Dominican, Jerome Savonarola, made war upon tem- poral rulers, including the Pope, denouncing their corruption and ex- cesses. He was condemned to death and executed at Florence, in 1498. 260. This pontificate was contemporary with the Discovery of America by Christopher Columbus, and one of Alexander's first acts was the publication of a buU,^ known as the "Bull of Partition," which pro- vided for the propagation of the Christian faith in the recently dis- covered regions, and divided the New "World, that is, the countries dis- covered, or to be discovered in the future, between Spain and Portugal. The bull of this Pontiff, forbidding the publication of new books. 1. By this bull, a line of demarcation was drawn from the North Pole south thirty-seven degrees west of Cape de Verde Islands. What lay to the West was to belong to Spain, and what to the East to Portugal. In relation to this partition of the New World, Cardinal Hergen- roether observes: "No Pope has ever taught, nor has any grave theologian ever maintained, that the Pope lias authority to bestow the dominions of unbelieving princes upon believers, merely at his own discretion, and to give away at will lands not belonging to him. The bull of Alexander VI. (1493), which is specially cited in proof of this claim, was by no means intended to partition the world, but to direct the course of Spanish ships, to hiuder disputes between Christian princes, especially between Spain and Portugal; and, on the other hand, to secure the spread of Christianity. In all matters concerning the acquisition of territory and voyages of discovery made by Christian kingdoms, the Pope, as their recognized arbiter, had the right of decision; and, in matters concerning the spread of Christianity in newly-discovered lands, he had the same right, as Head of the Church. Just as patents are now given for inventions, and copyrights granted for compositions in literature and art, so, in former days, a Papal Bull and the protection of the Roman Church were found convenient means for securing fruits acquired with toil and difficulty, all other claimants unjustly desirous of taking them for themselves being held back by the censures of the Church .... A Papal constitution In that day had as much force as a European treaty In our own, and even more." Cath. Church and Chr. State. LAST POPES OF THIS PEKIOD. 429 without the approbation of the ecclesiastical authority, tended to check the spread of heretical and other obnoxious writings. 261. The hatred entertained for the rule of Alexander VL led men to charge him with imaginary crimes, and to greatly exaggerate his real failings. The horrible crimes of which this Pope and his chil- dren, especially Lucretia, stand accused, were but the inventions of malice ; these atrocious calumnies, as W. Roscoe, an eminent Protestant historian has shown, are traceable to the revengeful journalists of the day. The implacable hostility of the Reformers, and the resentment of France, because of the political attitude of Alexander VI. to that country, have contributed not a little to blacken his memory. Besides, the deeds of violence committed by Caesar Borgia in the Pope's name, added much to bring disgrace on his father's pontificate. Yet enough is known, which compels us to acknowledge that the elevation of Alexander VI. was disgraceful, and his government calamitous. But the errors of his private life never affected his conduct as Pope. He made several wise decrees and patronized learning; in his many constitutions, he never taught or commanded anything contrary to faith and morals. 262. To Alexander VL succeeded the virtuous cardinal Francis Piccolomini, a nephew of Pius IL, whose name he took. But the worthy Pontiff, who was earnestly desirous of reforming the Church in its Head and members, survived his elevation only twenty-six days, when the energetic and valiant Julius IL was called to the Papacy, A. D. 1503-1513. Julius, the nephew of Sixtus IV., was an enemy to nepotism, a liberal patron of arts and letters, and in heart and action a brave soldier and valiant ruler, such as the Roman See then needed. His highest aim being the restoration of the Papal States, and the re- establishment of Italian unity, he directed all his efforts toward sub- duing the petty Italian tyrants, and freeing the Peninsula from foreign domination. This necessarily drew him into military undertakings, which have brought upon his memory unmerited reproach. Julius, however, never undertook a needless campaign, nor conquered a terri- tory to which the Holy See had no claim. 263. One of the first acts of Julius, on coming to the Papal throne, was to reduce the refractory nobility to submission, and eject Caesar Borgia from the Papal dominions. The duchy of Romagna, with Perugia, Bologna, and other cities, were again annexed to the States of the Church. In 1508, Julius fonned the League of Cambrai against the Venetians, who held Faenza, Rimini, and other territories of the Church. When he had attained his object, and the Venetians ceded to him the places they but lately possessed in the Papal States, Julius relieved them from excommunication and withdrew from the League. 430 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. The Duke of Ferrara, a rebellious vassal of the Holy See and the ally of France, was dejDOsed and banished the country. 264. Julius next resolved to free Italy from French rule. In 1511, the Holy League vras formally concluded between the Pope, Venice, and Spain against France. The result was the expulsion of the French from all Italy. This conduct of Julius greatly irritated Louis Xn. of France, who, at the instance of his prelates and several discontented cardinals, presumed to assemble a General Council against the Pope. The schismatical conventicle was opened at Pisa, in November, 1511, by only fourteen, chiefly French, bishops and three cardinals. The emperor Maximilian I., though approving the project of convoking a General Council, had yet no inclination to send a single bishop from Germany to the conventicle of Pisa, which was gen- erally understood to be held merely for political purposes. The schismatics, after renewing the decrees of Constance, proclaiming the supremacy of General Councils, and declaring the Pope suspended, were compelled to remove their assembly to Milan, and thence to Lyons, where it vanished away like a phantom amid general ridicule, A. D. 1512. 265. To crush the schism in its beginning. Pope Julius laid France under interdict, excommunicated the Pisan prelates as schis- matics, and convoked at Bome the Eighteenth General, and Fifth Lat- er an y Council. The Council which opened in May, 1512, was attended by fifteen cardinals, and seventy-nine bishops, afterwards, one hun- dred and twenty, mostly Italians. Its objects were: 1. — The re-estab- lishment of peace among Christian princes; 2. — A crusade against the Turks; and, 3. — The reformation of the Church in its Head and its members. The Pisan decrees were annulled, the interdict over France confirmed, and the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges condemned. 'The Council defined the "authority of the Pope over all Councils," and condemned the opinion holding that the intellectual soul is mortal, or only one in all men, or, that these propositions were true, at least, philosophically. Pope Julius died during the fifth session; he was succeeded by Leo X., who resumed and continued the Council till March, 1517, when it was closed. THE CHURCH IN ENGLAND. 431 SECTION LIV. THE CHURCH IN ENGLAND UNDER THE NORMAN KINGS. Xing Canute — His Zeal for Religion — Edward the Confessor — Robert of Can- terbury — St. Wulstan of Worcester — William the Conqueror — His Eccle- siastical Policy — Councils — Deposition of Stigand — Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury — Oppression of the Church by William II. — Anselm made Archbishop of Canterbury — His Conflict with the King — Council at Rock- ingham — Anselm's Contest with Henry I. — Settlement of the Contro- versy — Death of St. Anselm — Archbishops Ralph of Canterbury, and Turstin of York — Accession of Stephen — Woeful State of Society — Synods of Winchester and London. 266. Once firmly seated on the English throne, King Canute en- deavored by every means to conciliate his new subjects. By his firm, yet humane and impartial administration of justice, his zeal for religion and earnest support of the Church, he sought to heal the wounds which the Danish conquest had inflicted upon the vanquished nation. His Christian sentiments, his many religious foundations, and his rev- erence for the clergy and holy places, gained him the high esteem of Christendom. Though Canute generally resided in England, he frequently visited Denmark, carrying with him pious missionaries, to civilize and instruct his countrymen. In 1027, he made a pilgrimage to Eome, where he assisted at the coronation of Emperor Conrad 11., and obtained the redress of some grievances under which the English Church labored. The rule of this king, which lasted for eighteen years (A. D. 1017-1035), brought many blessings upon England. 267. The brief reigns of Canute's two successors were followed by the paternal rule of Edward the Confessor. To promote religion and the general welfare of his people was the principal care of this saintly monarch. His virtues and kingly qualities earned him popular respect, and long did the English cherish a grateful remembrance of his peaceful and happy reign. Some of the prelates, however, who had procured their position during the Danish wars by usurpation and simony, were the very opposite of their sainted monarch. There were, indeed, not wanting zealous servants of God in the hierarchy, such as Archbishop Robert of Canterbury, and St. Wulstan of Worce- ster. The former was expelled by the Anti-Norman party, and his see was usurped by Stigand, who obtained the pallium from the antipope Benedict X. Pope Alexander 11. suspended the intruder, who, how- ever, contrived to maintain himself in office till he was driven out under the succeeding reign. One of the last acts of Edward was the erection of Westminster Abbey, which was consecrated shortly before his death, in 1066. The surname of "Confessor" he obtained from Alexander III., by whom he was canonized, in 1161. 432 HISTOUY OF THE CHURCH. 268. The policy of William I., surnamed the Conqueror, whose reign was contemporaneous with the period of the great Hildebrand^ contributed much towards linking the English Church more firmly to the centre of Christendom. Ecclesiastical administration was sep- arated from the secular; and civil magistrates were directed to enforce the decisions of the bishops. In the general relaxation of learning and discipline, William found a justifiable excuse for procuring the deposition of many Anglo-Saxon bishops, and supplying their places with Norman prelates. At his request, Pope Alexander 11. sent three legates to England, Ermenfrid, bishop of Sion, and the cardinals Peter and John. Councils were held at Winchester and Windsor, in which Stigand, the intruded primate of Canterbury, and several other bishops and abbots were, on account of their immorality, formally de- posed. Yet the attempt of the king, to reward the services of some of his military officers with ecclesiastical benefices, was firmly resisted by the Holy See. 269. With few exceptions, the new bishops were men disting- uished for their virtues and talents, and by their zeal for discipline and reform. The most illustrious of them was the celebrated Lan- franc, abbot of Caen, in Normandy. On the deposition of Stigand, Lanfranc was, by the command of both the Pope and the king, com- pelled to accept the new vacant see of Canterbury, A. D. 1070. Soon after, he went to Eome for the pallium. Pope Alexander II., who had once been his pupil, received the renowned master with the greatest honors. Ketuming, Lanfranc worked energetically to remedy the evils which then afflicted the Church in England. He was able grad- ually to fill the episcopal sees with worthy prelates, to re-establish monastic discipline, and to reform local ecclesiastical abuses. 270. King William ably seconded the noble exertions of the Primate. The scheme of his brother Odo, bishop of Bayeux, who as- pired to the Papacy, the king practically defeated by holding him in close confinement. William, however, prohibited appeals to Kome, and persistently refused to give up the usurped right of investiture. Pope Gregory VII., at the time sufficiently engaged, being involved in a bitter contest with Henry IV. of Germany, and having no accurate in- formation of the circumstances occurring in England, was prevented from resisting this encroachment upon ecclesiastical right. 271. After the death of the Conqueror, in 1087, the Church in England was sorely aggrieved by the tyranny and extortions of his son and successor, William II., called the Eed, or Kufus. The death of Lanfranc, in 1089, leaving him without any restraint, the rapacious prince commenced j^lundering churches and monasteries. The rev- TEE CHURCH IN ENGLAND. 433 €nues of every vacant see and prelacy were seized; to further enricli the royal exchequer, episcopal elections were purposely delayed. Struck with remorse during a dangerous illness, William II. resolved to atone for his sacrileges. He restored the estates which he had taken from the different churches; and, urged by his nobles, he nominated the learned Anselm, abbot of Bee, in Normandy, to the see of Canter- bury. Only on the king's promise, to resign the temporalities belong- ing to the see of Canterbury, to follow his counsels in things spiritual, and to acknowledge Urban II. as rightful Pope, did Anselm, at last, ious monarch. He founded, or restored, the six bishoprics of Dun- blane, Brechin, Aberdeen, Eoss, Caithness, and Glasgow; he built several monasteries, providing amply for their support. Among his foundations were the cathedrals of Aberdeen and Dunkeld, and the abbeys of Holy Eood, Kelso, and Melrose. Malcolm IV., and his brother William (surnamed the Lion), were also founders of monas- teries. William, in consequence of his refusal to permit John Scot to be consecrated bishop of St. Andrews, was excommunicated by Pope Alexander m., and his kingdom was laid under an interdict, which was, however, removed by Lucius m., in 1182. 319. The Scottish Church was, from early times, subject to the archbishop of York. This led to many disputes, especially in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, when the kings of England made use of the ecclesiastical subordination of Scotland to bring about its polit- ical dependence. At the Synod of Koxburgh, in 1125, at which Car- dinal John of Crema, the papal legate, presided, the Scottish bishops objected against the claim of the archbishop of York to metropolitical jurisdiction over their churches. But Innocent 11., in 1131, confirmed the metropolitan authority of York over Scotland. However, in 1192, Pope Celestine HI., at the prayer of King William, declared the in- dependence of the Scottish Church, which he placed directly under the Koman See. 320. The English monarchs continually sought to extend their feudal supremacy over Scotland. The Scotch, in order to avert the dependence of their country on England, had recourse to the protec- tion of the Holy See, and declared that their kingdom belonged of right to the Church of Kome, of which it was a fief. When, on the death of the Maid of Norway, in 1290, disputes arose about the suc- cession to the Scottish Crown between the families of Bruce and Baliol, Edward I. of England sought to compass the absolute depend- ence of Scotland. The Scotch appealed to the Pope, as to their acknowledged liege-Lord. Pope Nicholas lY. and, after him, Boni- face Yni., admonished the English monarch, not to prosecute the war against Scotland which, they claimed, on the strength of a volun- tary surrender by the Scotch rulers, belonged, in full ecclesiastical right, to Kome.* 321. During the war for Independence, the Scottish hierarchy was strongly opposed to English annexation; and it was in great measure 1. The origin of this claim is obscure, but it had been asserted before this, on more than one occasion. Compare Lingard's note, Vol. Ill, c. 3, in which the learned author clearly shows that it is certainly more ancient than Boniface VIII. and was first advanced by the Scots themselves, when they appealed to the Roman See for aid against the English. 450 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. due to the patriotic support of the clergy, that Bruce was in the end successful. The Scottish bishops, such as "William Lamberton of St. Andrews, Robert Wishart of Glasgow, and David Moray of Moray (founder of the Scot's College at Paris), acted a principal part in aid- ing that patriotic chief to restore the independence, and the violated rights and liberties of his country. During the following period, which was a time of almost continued struggle between the Crown and the baronage, the clergy quite invariably sided with the king. 322. Scotland was without a metropolitan see until 1470, when St. Andrews was raised to the dignity of an archbishopric; Glasgow received the same honor somewhit later. tTt^/Ipt. ■o'or':^ri"^ """tt ^ f^pre were nine bishoprics; under Hadrian IV., ten. But in consequence of the protracted wars and intestine strifes, the estates of the Church were laid waste, and some episcopal sees remained vacant for a long- time. During this period the Church did much to promote the civil-^ ization and instruction of the people. Schools were attached to cathedrals and monasteries, in which statesmen, as well as ecclesiastics^ of those days had received their education. CHAPTER m. CATHOLIC SCIENCE AND LITERATURE. SECTION LX. FOUNDATION OF UNIVERSITIES. Intellectual Awakening— Endeavors of the Popes to promote Learning- Origin of Universities — University of Paris — Other French Univers- ities—Foundation of Universities in Italy— In Germany— In Spain— Uni- versities of Oxford and Cambridge — Scottish Universities— Sorbonne — Influence of Universities. 323. At the commencement of the present epoch, a great increase of intellectual activity was noticeable throughout Christendom. This was owing principally to the reformatory efforts of the Popes, who sought, in every possible way, to establish law and order, and to pro- mote every study that could improve and elevate the mind. The clergy, with their benefices and even with their patrimony, continued : to foster education in every branch, as well as to advance all profit- able industries. In the schools connected with the cathedrals and. I FOUNDATION OF UNIVERSITIES. 451 religious houses, gratuitous instruction was imparted to all thirsting for knowledge. The cathedral and cloister schools in the larger cities, were the germs from which grew, under the patronage of the Church, the grammar schools and universities of later times. 324. But not only in their germ, but in their incorporation and full status also, are Universities* ecclesiastical in their origin; their foundation was due to the zeal of the Popes, and to the activity and liberality of churchmen. Almost in every instance the founder was either a Pope, or one of the various Church dignitaries. The sovereign Pontiffs, both by word and example, encouraged the founding of in- stitutions of learning. "Of the many blessings," sair) Pope Pine TL, "which mortal men can, by the grace of God, obtain in this life, knowledge is not the least. The pearl of knowledge makes a man like to God, leads him to investigate the secrets of nature, is an aid to the unlearned and raises one of humble birth to the highest distinc- tion. 'V\^erefore, the Holy See has ever encouraged the cultivation of the sciences and of letters, and opened institutions of learning, in order to bring the boon of knowledge within the reach of all." The Popes granted to universities special charters of privileges, and even provided them with chancellors and professors. "From Kome, as from a centre, as the Apostles from Jerusalem," observes Cardinal Newman, "went forth the missionaries of knowledge, passiug to and fro all over Europe." 325. Of the universities, that of Paris is perhaps the oldest; it was celebrated for Philosophy and Theology. " The reputation of the school of Paris," says Fleury, "increased considerably at the com- mencement of the twelfth century under William Champeaux and his disciples at St. Victor's. At the same time, Peter Abelard went thither and lectured with great applause on the Humanities and the Aristotel- ian Philosophy. Alberic of Rheims, Peter Lombard, Hildebert, Robert Pullus, or Pulleyn, the abbot Rupert, Hugh of St. Victor, Albertus Magnus, and the 'Angelic Doctor,' also taught there." The University oi Paris was regarded as the model and rule in learning, for other universities. The other French universities were those at Montpel- lier, Toulouse, Lyons, Avignon, Bordeaux, Valence, Nantes, and Bourges. 326. Li Italy, Salerno was famous for Medicine; while Bologna became, under L-nerius, or Werner, the great Law-school of Christen- 1. The term " universitasy which, In Roman Law, is synonymous with collegium, was. in- the Middle Ages, appropriated to a corporation of either masters (universitas magistrorum), or of scholars (universitas scholarium). According to others, a university was so called from its pro- fessing to teach all sciences. The place of teaching was called " Schola,-^ or ''Studium Generate.^'' 452 mSTOBY OF THE OHUMCE. dom. Besides the Italian youths, at times no fewer than ten thousand foreign students frequented the University of Bologna. In 1262, there were at this university 20,000 students. The other Italian universities at Eome, Padua, Naples, Piacenza, Perrara, Perugia, Pisa, Pavia, Pa- lermo, Turin and Florence, were also in a flourishing condition. The college in Kome, called the Sapienza, founded by Innocent IV., in 1244, was richly endowed and elevated in rank by Boniface Vm., from whose time it was known as the Roman University. 327. The oldest German university is that of Prague, which was founded by Emperor Charles IV., in 1348. Its fame attracted students even from Norway, Ireland, Spain, Naples, and Cyprus. Besides the Universities of Vienna, Heidelberg, Cologne, and Erfurt, which arose in the fourteenth century, nine more were founded in the course of the fifteenth century. In the Scandinavian Kingdoms, we find the Uni- versities of Copenhagen and Upsala, and in Poland, the University of Cracow, which, in 1496, counted as many as 15,000 students. The oldest and most celebrated Spanish university was Salamanca, founded about the middle of the thirteenth century. There were, besides, in Spain and Portugal, the Universities of Valladolid, Coimbra, Valencia, Saragossa, Avila, Alcala, and Seville. 328. In England, the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge were modeled on the University of Paris. Oxford began to be largely fre- quented in the reign of Stephen; in 1231, it is said to have numbered as many as 30,000 students. The first Scottish university was founded at St. Andrews, in 1411, by Cardinal Henry Wardlaw. This was fol- lowed by the foundation of the Universities of Glasgow, in 1450, by Bishop Turnbull, and of Aberdeen, in 1494, by Bishop Elphinston. The establishment of the University of Dublin was begun by Archbishop Leach, who, in 1311, obtained of Clement V. a brief for the under- taking. 329. In connection with the universities, colleges, or HaUs, and "burses, or Gonvictoria, were founded for the maintenance of poor scholars. One of the oldest colleges attached to the University of Paris was the " Sorbonne." It took its name from the founder, Robert de Sorbon, aulic chaplain to St. Louis IX., who, in 1250, founded a college for the maintenance of theological students. Throughout Christendom, the universities were held in the highest regard. The most important questions were submitted to them for arbitration, by even kings and emperors. "The multiplication of literary institu- tions," observes Archbishop Kenrick, "filled with crowds of eager students, is an incontrovertible proof of a high esteem for learning, which was plainly the result of the reiterated efforts of successive i SCHOLASTIC AND MYSTICAL THEOLOGY. 453 Pontiffs. The light which long glimmered, and seemed almost ex- tinct, was kindled anew by their breath, until it grew into a flame, illumining the nations that had long sat in darkness." SECTION LXI. SCHOLASTIC AND MYSTICAL THEOLOGY. Era of Scholasticism — Scholastic Theology — Its Aim and Chief Business — Re- lation of Theology to Philosophy — Doctrine of Universals — Nominalists — Reahsts, extreme and moderate — Mystical Theology — Not Antagonistic to Scholastic Theology. 330. The literary revival, a movement of immense import, awak- ened the most intense interest, especially in speculative researches. In this age was» constructed what is called "Scholastic" theology. Scholastic theology meant speculative theology, or theology scientific- ally demonstrated and illustrated. In the preceding ages theologians occupied themselves chiefly with investigating the proofs of Catholic doctrine in Scripture and tradition; if we except some of the earlier Fathers, little was done for a systematic and scientific treatment of the great verities of revelation. From this time, however, theologians, pursuing a more methodical process of thinking, endeavored to ar- range the doctrines of the Church into a scientific system, mainly ac- cording to the rules and methods of the Aristotelian philosophy. 331. Scholastic theology, in its general j)rinciple, is an alliance between faith and reason. The aim of the Scholastics in their in- vestigations was to expound, illustrate, and clear from objections the doctrines of natural and revealed religion, in a dialectical method and by dint of philosophical reasoning. Hence, the chief business of Scholastic theology is: 1. — To clearly define the meaning of the re- vealed truths, point out their essential and logical connection, and illustrate and confirm them by philosophy; 2. — To defend faith against infidels and heretics, and answer the objections drawn from other sciences; and 3. — To exhibit the relations, and demonstrate the har- mony existing between faith and reason. 332. To the Scholastics, theology and philosophy were two distinct and independent sciences, each having its own province. Theology, however, they considered superior to philosophy, because divine rev- elation, as a principle and source of knowledge, surpasses reason, and, also, because the revealed truths are themselves of a higher, that is supernatural, order, many of which, such as the mysteries, are above reason. The Scholastics, therefore, regarded philosophy as the hand- maid of theology. "Philosophia Theologiae ancilla." For, philosophy 454 mSTOBY OF THE CHUBCH. prepares the way for faith by proving from reason the truths of na- tural religion, such as the spirituality and immortality of the soul, the existence of God, and the like; and further shows that the revealed truths, though beyond the comprehension of the human mind, yet by no means are contrary to reason. Hence, whenever the philosopher finds his conclusions at variance with theology, he must correct them by the higher and infallible teachings of faith. It is a Scholastic axiom, " that nothing can be true in philosophy which is false in theol- ogy," since God, who is the author both of revelation and reason, can- not contradict himself. 533. Gictxo advantages, indeed, accrued to theology from the ap- plication of philosophy to religion. Still, philosophical questions, necessarily awakened sharp, and often difficult, controversies. The earlier Scholastics were wholly occupied with the ij;itricate question relating to universals and their objective value. The dispute, it is true, was of high antiquity, taking its rise in the schools of Plato and Aristotle; but it was now revived with uncommon ardor. The great philosophical question of the day turned upon the "reality of uni- versals". An universalia sint realia? 334. There were the Nominalists, like Koscelin, who affirmed that universals had no reality whatever; (Universalia nee ante rem nee in re) ; that they were but empty names (nomina, flatus vocis), and noth- ing more than mere conceptions of the mind (which is Conceptualism), and mental abstractions from individual things. There were the ex- treme Realists, who asserted not only the reality of universals in things, but also that they have an existence independently of the in- tellect, whether considered in the mind of the Creator, or in individual beings (Universalia post rem). Lastly, there were the orthodox, or moderate Realists, like St. Anselm, and St. Thomas, who held that uni- versals have no subsistence for themselves, but are inherent in things (Universalia in re), whence they are derived by the mental process of abstraction. 335. The same age also saw the rise of Mystical theology. While Scholastic theology is speculative. Mystical theology is contemplative and experimental. "The essence of Mysticism," says the illustrious. Gerson, "is to know God by the experience of the heart. By means of love, which raises the soul to God, we attain to an immediate union with the Divinity. While the object of speculative theology is truth, Mystical theology aims at goodness and holiness itself. Scholasticism and Mysticism correspond to the faculties by which the soul knows and desires, comprehends and loves; and by all these means may lead DISTINGUISHED SCHOOLMEN. 455 to God. Scholasticism must guide and maintain Mysticism within the boundaries of truth." 336. It is an error to suppose that Mysticism was antagonistic to Scholasticism. The Mystics were often severe logicians, and the Scho- lastics had all the fervor of Mystics. "While Scholasticism consists in speculation and tends to acquire knowledge, Mysticism consists in contemplation and tends to improve divine love. Mysticism employed the same dialectic methods in use among the Scholastics; at the same time, it aimed at holy and intimate union with God, disposing the soul for all the other means of Grace. The great representative expound- ers of true Mysticism were St. Bernard, St. Anselm, St. Thomas Aqui- nas, St. Bonaventure, Hugh, and Richard of St. Victor, Gerson, and Tauler. SECTION LXII. ST. ANSELM ABELARD ST. BERNARD PETER LOMBARD. Abbey of Bee— Its Origin— Lanfranc— Distinguished Pupils— St. Anselm, ''Father of Scholasticism" — Abelard — Biographical Notice — His Errors — His Death — St. Bernard — Founds Clairvaux — His Great Influence — His Writings — Gilbert de la Poree — His Tritheism — Peter Lombard — His Four Books of the Sentences. 337. In 1040, Herluin, a Norman knight, founded the abbey of Bee, in Normandy, which soon grew into a famous seat of learning. The representation of this school was owing chiefly to the learning and efforts of Lanfranc and St. Anselm, its first masters. Lanfranc, a native of Pavia, after studying in various schools, in 1042, entered the new monastery of Bee, of which he shortly after became prior. His fame soon attracted pupils from all parts of Europe. Bee may be con- sidered the origin of universities, which soon began to be established in every country, after the model of that renowned institution. Many eminent scholars issued from this school, among whom were Pope Alexander 11. ; the learned Guitmund, archbishop Averse ; Ives, bishop of Chartres, the restorer of Canon Law in France; and the celebrated St. Anselm. In 1062, Lanfranc became abbot of the new monastery which "William I. of England had enabled him to found at Caen; whence, in 1070, he was promoted to the archbishopric of Canterbury. 838. Anselm succeeded his master, as prior of Bee, of which, on the death of Herluin, in 1078, he was also chosen abbot. His adminis- tration imparted a high intellectual tone to the whole monastery, and made Bee inferior to none in learning. He is regarded as the earliest of the Scholastic theologians, and is sometimes called the "Father of Scholasticism." He did not, indeed, construct a complete sum, or 456 HISTOBY OF THE CHUBCH. system, of theology, but his various works are so many formal treatises on the principal parts of theological science. 339. He composed elaborate tracts "On the Freedom of the Will," "On Original Sin," "On the Fall of Satan," "On the Procession of the Holy Ghost," and "On the Agreement of Divine Foreknowledge, Predestination, and Grace with Free Will." His " Monologium " and "Proslogium," respectively, treat of the Existence of God, and of the Holy Trinity and the Divine Attributes, while his work, entitled "Why God was made Man," is a learned exposition of the Incarnation and Redemption. Against the Nominalistic theory of Roscelin, which was <3ondemned by the Council of Soisson, in 1092, Anselm wrote his work " On the Belief in the Trinity, and the Incarnation of the Word." In the works of St. Anselm is found the celebrated Ontological argument (argumentum ontologicum) for the Existence of God, deduced from the Idea of an infinitely perfect Being. His extraordinary erudition won for him the surname of "the Augustine of the Middle Ages," and, in 1720, the honor of being numbered among the Doctors of the Church, by Pope Clement XI. 340. Of quite a different stamp from St. Anselm, was the highly- gifted, but proud and haughty, Peter Ahelard. Born near Nantes, in 1079, Abelard, after studying under Roscelin, betook himself to Paris, iind became the pupil of the learned William of Champeaux, founder of the celebrated abbey of St, Victor, and afterwards bishop of Cha- lons. His progress was so rapid, that he soon outstripped his master. In two public disputations, which he held with William, he came off triumphant. Abelard, though then only twenty-two years old, opened a school of his own, at Melun, and, subsequently, at Paris, Corbeil, and at " the Paraclete," a monastery founded by him near Troyes. 341. Everywhere large numbers of scholars thronged to his lec- tures, as his eloquence was simply wonderful. He surprised his con- temporaries by the brilliancy of his genius, the ready flow of his lan- guage, and the subtlety of his reasoning. Among those who sought his instructions, was Eloise, the niece of Canon Fulbert. But the ac- quaintance with this accomplished lady proved fatal to his honor. To cover his ignominy, the unhappy man retired to the monastery of St. Denis, and became a monk, while Eloise took the veil at Argenteuil. Abelard opened a school at St. Denis, which was soon frequented by <;rowds of eager students from all parts. But his novel views on the subject of the Holy Trinity, brought him into conflict with the Church. His foremost opponent was St. Bernard. 342. Of the novel doctrines advanced by Abelard, we quote: 1. — The Father alone is All-powerful; the Son is inferior in power to the DISTINGUISHED SCHOOLMEN. 457 Father, and the Holy Ghost is inferior to the Son; 2. — The Holy Ghost, proceeds from the Father and the Son; but He is not of their sub- stance; He is the soul of the world; 3, — God cannot accomplish more than he has accomplished and intends yet to accomplish; 4. — Christ assumed flesh, not to redeem man from the bondage of the devil, but to instruct him by word and example; 5. — Not the guilt, but only the punishment, of the sin committed by Adam, is propagated in his pos- terity; 6. — Man can do good by his own free will, and without the as- sistance of Divine Grace; and 8. — No sin is committed through con- cupiscence or ignorance. His errors were condemned by the Council of Sens, in 1140. Abelard appealed to the Pope, but, on his way to Kome, he took sick and sought refuge with Peter the Venerable, abbot, of Clugny. Here he spent his last days, and died peacefully and re- conciled with St. Bernard and the Church, in 1 142. 343. The great St. Bernard, the adversary of Abelard, is one of the most remarkable characters in the history of the Church. Born, in 1091, of an old patrician family, he entered, in his twenty-second year, with some thirty of his kinsmen and friends, the order of Cite- aux, of which he is sometimes regarded as the second founder. After two years, the abbot, St. Stephen Harding, an Englishman, sent Bernard to found a new abbey at Clairvaux, which soon rose to great celebrity. He was consecrated abbot by "William of Champeaux, the great dialectician and teacher of Abelard. The fame and influence of Bernard spread rapidly. "He united in himself," as the learned Hurter well observes, " the qualities of the most perfect contemplative monk with those of the most profound politician .... His judgment decides who is the rightful successor of Peter; and he it is who shields the Church from new dangers engendered by rash teaching. Popes follow his counsels like humble monks. He is offered and refuses bishoprics and archbishoprics; but, wherever he appears, greater honors are shown to him than to the bishops and archbishops of the most famous sees." Bernard died in 1153. 344. The works which St. Bernard has left behind him are as var- ious, as they are numerous, and consist of sermons, epistles, and moral treatises. His letters, which are no less than 404, record many histor- ical facts, interspersed with sage reflections and apposite advice. Of his sermons he delivered 86 on the Book of Canticles to his monks. His most famous work is his treatise De Consider atione, addressed to Eugenius m., who had been his pupil, in which he states, without disguise, what are the duties of the chief pastor, and urges the neces- sity of reforms. He acquired the appellation of the Mellifluous Doctor 458 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. {Doctor mellifluus); and, on account of the value of his writings, he was numbered among the Doctors of the Church, by Pius Vm. 345. Gilbert de la Poree, bishop of Poitiers, an extreme Kealist, fell into the error of Tritheism, asserting a real distinction between the divine Essence, or Being, and God, and the three Divine Persons, whom he considered as numerically distinct units. This error was censured, at the instance of St. Bernard, in a Synod held at Rheims, in 1148, at which Pope Eugenius HE. was present in person. Gilbert submitted to the judgment of the Church, and was allowed to return to his diocese. 346. Among the numerous scholars of Abelard, Peter Lombard acquired the highest distinction in the theological schools of Europe. He lectured at Paris with much success till 1259, when he was chosen bishop of that city. His famous " Four Books of the Sentences," from which he is denominated the Master of the Sentences (Magister Senten- tiarum), became the favorite Manual of the theological schools during the Middle Ages, and the text of innummerable commentaries. The first book treats of God and the Trinity; the second of the Creation, and rational creatures; the third of the Redemption, of virtues and vices, and of the gifts of the Holy Ghost; the fourth of the Sacra- ments and of the last things. Peter died in 1164. He was suc- ceeded, in the professorship at Paris, by Peter of Poitiers, one of his most distinguished pupils, who also edited "Five Books of Sen- tences." SECTION LXin. ALEXANDEE OF HALES — ALBEETUS MAGNUS ST. THOMAS OF AQUIN ST. BONAVENTURE DUNS SCOTUS. Mendicant Orders — Contributed to the Study of Aristotelian Philosophy- Versions of Aristotle— Alexander of Hales — His Sum of Theology— Albertus Magnus — St. Thomas Aquinas — His Authority — Biographical Sketch— His Summa Theologies- St. Bonaveuture — His Writings— Dis- tinguished Scholars of Aquinas— Duns Scotus— Thomists and Scotists — Writings of Duns Scotus— Other Distinguished Schoolmen. 347. Besides the establishment of new schools and universities, the foundation of new monastic orders was the principal means by which, in this epoch, a general intellectual improvement was inaugu- rated, and an increased energy was given to scientific pursuits. The Mendicant Orders, especially, greatly contributed to diffuse knowledge, and promote, in particular, the study of the Aristotelian philosophy. Up to thi" period, the only works of Aristotle, known in the West, were his treatise " On Categories," and his " Organon," or Logic, which DISTINQUI8HED SCHOOLMEN. 459 had been translated into Latin by Boethius. There existed, indeed, translations of Aristotle's physical and metaphysical writings, from the Arabic, as well as learned commentaries on his general philosophy, by the famous Arabian philosophers, Avicenna and Averroes; but these translations being adulterated with the errors of the Arabs and Jews, met with great opposition, and their use was repeatedly forbid- den by the Church. 348. In the beginning of the thirteenth century, however, the works of Aristotle having been translated directly from the original ■Greek, the philosophy of the Stagyrite came into more general vogue and acquired a high estimation among Catholic schoolmen. Aristotle was regarded as the great representative of human reason. The great Scholastic theologians, Alexander of Hales, Albert the Great, St. Thomas of Aquin, and Duns Scotus, differing as they did on many questions of philosophy, were all Aristotelians. 349. Alexander of Hales, born in Gloucestershire, England, was one of the greatest theologians that the Middle Ages produced. He was reared in the monastery of Hales, whence he derived his surname, while he received his higher education at Oxford and Paris. In 1222, he became a Franciscan monk, and was the first of his order that lec- tured at the University of Paris, where he taught philosophy and theology with great applause. Of the Schoolmen, Alexander was the earliest acquainted with all the works of Aristotle, whose philosophy he was also the first to apply to the treating and solving of theolog- ical questions. Besides his commentary on the Methaphysics of Aris- totle, the first of the kind on that work, he constructed, by order of Pope Innocent lY., a Sum of Theology, which, having been examined by a committee of seventy doctors, was recommended by the Pope, as a comj)lete manual to all masters and students of theology. On account of his extensive and deep erudition, his contemporaries called him the ''Irrefragable Doctor" (Doctor irrefragabilis), and the ''Monarch of the Theologians" He died in 1245. 350. The most remarkable man in his time, for varied acquire- ments, was Albertus Magnus, the celebrated master of St. Thomas of Aquin. He was of a noble Swabian family. He studied at Paris, Pa- dua, and Bologna. Upon entering the Dominican Order, he was em- ployed as teacher in various places, especially at Cologne. In 1260, he was unwillingly promoted to the bishopric of Eatisbon, which he relinquished after two years, when he returned to public teaching. His contemporaries, marvelling at his extensive learning, called him the " Universal Dotcor" (Doctor universalis), and the "Second Aristotle" 460 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. He died in 1280, leaving numerous works, which fill twenty-one folio volumes. 351. But of all the Scholastics, St. Thomas of Aquin has left the greatest name. He is next to St. Augustine justly reputed the greatest theologian and doctor of the Church, as well as the greatest Christian philosopher. Thomas was born at Rocca Sicca, near Naples, in 1225; his family was connected by marriage with the Hohenstaufens. His early education was entrusted to the care of the Benedictines of Monte Cassino. After completing his studies at the University of Naples, he entered the Dominican Order, and became the scholar of Albertus Mag- nus at Cologne and Paris; at the latter place he received his academic degrees. He taught with universal admiration at Cologne, Paris, Bo- logna, Naples, and other places; he was equally famous as a preacher. Ecclesiastical honors, including the archbishopric of Naples, he stead- fastly refused. Called by Gregory X., to assist at the Ecumenical Council of Lyons, in 1274, he fell sick on the journey and died in the Cistercian monastery of Fossanova, before he had completed his fif- tieth year. He was solemnly canonized by John XXIL, in 1323, and ranked among the great Doctors of the Church, by Pius V., in 1567. 352. St. Thomas of Aquin, who is styled the "Angelic Doctor" {Doctor Angelicus), and the "Prince of the School," has left numerous works. He wrote commentaries on the works of Aristotle, on the Master of the Sentences, and on many books of Scripture, besides a number of minor works, treatises, hymns, and sermons. The crown of all his work is his celebrated " Summa Theohgica," which for method, scientific precision and depth, and purity of doctrine, has nothing like it among the productions of Scholastic theologians. This wondrous masterpiece is divided into three parts, of which the first treats of God and Creatures; the second, which is a kind of Moral Theology, in its first subdivision (Prima Secundae), considers the moral actions and duties of man, in general, while the second subdivision (Secunda Secun- dae) explains them in detail; the third part treats of the Incarnation the Sacraments, and the last things. Next in excellence, is his " Sum- ma Fhilosophica," in four books, an apologetical work, written at the request of St. Raymond of Pennafort. 353. Contemporary with St. Thomas of Aquin was St. Bonaven- ture, also a native of Italy, who studied with him, and taught with great success at the University of Paris. Bonaventure was born in 1221, and was a pupil of Alexander of Hales. He entered the Order of St. Francis, of which, in 1256, he was chosen General. Gregory X., in whose election he had been instrumental, created him cardinal, and bishop of Albano, in 1273. He was an eminent teacher and writer. I I DISTINGUISHED SCHOOLMEN. 461 and his soul was as angelic as his intellect was bright and profound. His great learning, and, still more, his angelic love of God, obtained for him the title of the '^ Seraphic Doctor" (Doctor Seraphicus). The prominent feature of his writings is their practical tendency; he com- bines the mystical with the speculative element. Of his principal works we mention his " Hexahemeron," his ^' Life of Christ," his Commentary on the Sentences of Peter Lombard, his " Reductio Artium Liberalium ad Theologiam," his " Centiloquium " and "Breviloquium." The last named was recommended by Gerson to young theologians, as a com- jjlete, and at the same time, a rich exposition of Catholic dogma. Bo- naventure died at the Council of Lyons, in 12 V4, a few months after the death of St. Thomas of Aquin. He was canonized, in 148*2, by Sixtus rV., and, in 1587, he was declared a Doctor of the Universal Church, by Sixtus V. 354. Among the many scholars of St. Thomas of Aquin, the most distinguished were Peter de Tarentaise, who became Pope Innocent v.; Aegidius Colonna (d. 1316), an Augustinian, and archbishop of Bourges; and Hervaeus Natalis (d. 1323), who became Master-Gen- eral of the Dominican Order and Rector of the University of Paris. Some of the doctrines advanced by St. Thomas, however, called forth animated, and, at times, violent, controversies among the learned. The doctors of the Sorbonne, and of Oxford, went so far as to censure sev- eral propositions of the great Master, as erroneous. 355. The most noted opponent of St. Thomas of Aquin was John Duns ScotuSj who undertook to controvert the Angelic Doctor, on various questions of philosophy and theology. Of the Scholastic theology, there were thenceforward two great schools, the Thomist and Scotist; the former had its adherents chiefly in the Dominican, the latter in the Franciscan Order. Little is known of the early life of Duns Scotus. He was probably a native of Ireland, though some affirm he was an Englishman; others, a Scotchman. The date of his birth is variously given as 1265 and 1274. He became a Francis- can, and succeeded his master, William Ware, in the chair of philos- ophy and theology, at Oxford. He taught afterwards at Paris, and then at Cologne, where he died suddenly, in 1308. 356. Duns Scotus was as profound as he was acute, both as a philosopher and as a theologian. While professor at Oxford, he pen- ned his comments (the Oxonian Commentaries) on the "Four Books of the Sentences" of Peter Lombard; and, while teaching in Paris, he wrote the " Reportata," which is a revised and abridged edition of the " Opus Oxoniense." Duns Scotus, the great light of the Franciscans, was the glorious defender of the Immaculate Conception of the 462 mSTOBT OF THE CHURCH. Blessed Yirgin, a doctrine of wliich his order was ever tlie cliampion. Although dying before his fortieth year, his works comprise twelve folio volumes. For his polemical acuteness, he was called the " Suh- tile Doctor " (Doctor subtilis). The " Scotists " regarded him as their leader, in their disputations with the "Thomists." 357. Of the other men celebrated for their learning and their writings, it will be sufficient to name Boger Bacon, the " Wonderful Doctor" (Doctor mirabilis, d. 1294), an English Franciscan, whose fame AS mathematician and philosopher was widespread; Eaymundus Lul- lus, the "Enlightened Doctor" (Doctor illuminatus), whose writings, though excellent and learned productions, manifest, however, an ex- cessive deference to reason; Vincent de Beauvais (d. 1264), the great compiler and cyclopaedist of his age, and instructor to the sons of St. Louis IX.; John of Salisbury (d. 1180), the confidential adviser and biographer of St. Thomas of Canterbury, and author of the "Poli- craticus," in which he attacks the vices of the age, particularly those of the court of Henry II.; William Durandus, the "Most Resolute Doc- tor" (Doctor resolutissimus, d. 1332), professor at the Sorbonne, and subsequently bishop of Meaux; William of Ockham, pupil and oppo- nent of Duns Scotus, and the champion of the Fratricelli, or Spirit- ualists; Thomas Bradwardine, called the "Profound Doctor" (Doctor profundus, d. 1349), who became chancellor of the University of Ox- ford, and archbishop of Canterbury; John Gerson, who was known as the "Most Christian Doctor" (Doctor Christianissimus, d. 1429); and St. Antoninus, an eminent moralist and historian, who died archbishop of Florence, in 1459. CHAPTEK IV. HERESIES. SECTION LXIV. MINOR SECTS. Else of Sects — Tanchelin of Antwerp — His Abominations — Eudo de Stella — Peter de Bruys— His Errors — Henricians — Arnoldists — Waldenses— Their Particular Errors, and their Condemnation— Amalricians— William Of Paris, and David Dinanto— Their Pantheistical Teachings— Brethren and Sisters of the Free Spirit— Apostolical Brethren. 358. This epoch mourned the rise of a great number of fanatical sects, which spread abroad in the West under the various names of Petrobrusians, Henricians, Bogomiles, Waldenses, Cathari, and Albi- genses. The tenets of all these sects were of a most pernicious char- MINOR SECTS. 463 •acter; they infected almost all classes of society and penetrated even amongst ecclesiastics and religious. Under the pretext that the Church had lost her original purity and simplicity, these sectaries de- claimed against her power and wealth, and not only repudiated her doctrines, but sought to undermine all authority, both secular and ec- clesiastical. 359. Tanchelin of Antwerp, an illiterate and fanatical demagogue, became the founder of a sect in the Netherlands. He proclaimed him- self the Son of God and the spouse of the Blessed Virgin. He rejected the priesthood of the Church, and the Sacraments, especially the Holy Eucharist, as unnecessary for salvation. He was guilty of all sorts of blasphemy and the greatest licentiousness, seducing many women, who, in their frenzy, delivered to him their daughters. He sur- rounded himself with a body-guard of three thousand armed men, and feasted sumptuously on the spoils of plundered churches and monas- teries. Tanchelin was slain, in 1124, but his sect survived him. St. Norbert preached against the sectaries, and succeeded in bringing back the deluded citizens of Antwerp to the Church. 360. Another wild teacher was Eon, or Eudo de Stella, an uncouth rustic, who revolutionized Bretagne and G-ascony, about the middle of the twelfth century. He also gave himself out as the Son of God, and as "he that should come to judge the quick and the dead." He as- sumed almost kingly power and was accompanied by great numbers of followers, who perpetrated great outrages, plundering churches and monasteries. He was finally seized s-nd cast into prison where he died shortly after. 361. About the same time, Peter de Bruys, a deposed priest, and Henry the Deacon, an apostate monk of Clugny, excited, by their fanat- ical preaching, the populace in Vie South of France. Peter the Venerable, abbot of Clugny, who wrote against these heresiarchs, arraigns Peter de Bruys as rejectinof: 1. — Infant Baptism; 2. — The Real Presence in the Holy Eucharist; 3. — The building and using of churches, since God might be worshipped in any place, even in stables; 4. — The wor- ship of the Holy Cross, which, he said, ought to be rather an object of horror than of veneration; and 5. — Prayers and oblations for the dead. His followers, who were called after him " Fetrobrusians/' : committed many enormities, especially against priests and monks. <'The people," writes Peter the Venerable, "are rebaptized, altars thrown down, crosses burned, meat publicly eaten on the day of the Lord's Passion, priests ill-treated, monks imprisoned, or compelled to marry by violence or by torture." The Council, of Toulouse, in 1119, invited the civil power to restrain the excesses of these fanatics. 464 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. Peter de Bruys, while engaged on Good Friday at St. Gilles, near Aries, in burning a pile of crucifixes, was seized by an excited multi- tude and cast into the flames, which he had lighted. 362. To the errors of Peter Bruys, Henry the Deacon, "the heir of his wickedness,"as he was called by Peter the Venerable, added many more. His rude eloquence, and his ostensibly ascetic life gained him many followers, especially among the nobility. The Henricians, as his adherents were called, committed many acts of violence against the clergy. At the request of Pope Eugenius III., St. Bernard and Peter the Venerable hastened to the assistance of the oppressed clergy,, and succeeded in putting down the heresiarch and in restoring reli- gion among the deluded people. St. Bernard found, so he writes,, " the churches without people, the people without priests, the priests- without respect, the Christians without Christ, God's holy places pro- faned, the sacraments no longer held in honor, and the holy days without their solemnities." On the arrival of the Saint, Henry took to flight, but was seized and delivered over to the papal legate. Car- dinal Alberic. He is said to have died in prison. 363. The Arnoldists, who took their name from the impetuous Arnold of Brescia, are said by some writers to have held the errors of the Petrobrusians regarding Infant Baptism and the Holy Eucharist. Their special doctrine was that secular and religious power ought not to be invested in the same person; that salvation was impossible to a priest holding property, to an ecclesiastic exercising temporal power; and, consequently, that church property might be lawfully seized by laymen. They were branded as heretics by Pope Lucius in., and al- so in a law of Frederick II. 364. The Waldenses derive their name from their founder, Peter Waldo, a rich merchant of Lyons. The sudden death of a near relative caused him to retire from the world and dedicate himself to a life of poverty and to the instruction of the people. He conceived the de- sign of bringing back the Church, which, in his opinion, by its wealth and temporal possessions, had become corrupt, to primitive and apos- tolical simplicity. He gathered disciples around him and sent them two by two into the neighboring villages to preach the Gospel. They were known as the " Poor Men of Lyons," while they styled themselves the "Humble Ones," from their affected humility. 365. The earlier Waldenses probably contemplated no secession from the universal Church, and were treated at first as Schismatics, for usurping the functions of the priesthood and refusing obedience to the ecclesiastical authorities. Although mere laymen, they pre- sumed to preach, notwithstanding they had been interdicted by their MINOB SECTS. 465 lordinary, and by Pope Alexander III. Pope Lucius m., in 1184, formally excommunicated them, together with other heretics. But they refused to submit, and persisted in preaching, claiming that they had a divine mission therefor, and that, consequently, they must obey Ood rather than man ! 366. Their rebellion against the Church naturally led the "Wal- denses into heresy. The Church of Kome, they asserted, ceased to be the true Church, from the time that it possessed temporalities. They repudiated the priesthood and the entire ritual system, except Com- munion and preaching, rejected prayers for the dead. Purgatory, fes- tivals, and the invocation of the Saints; and claimed the right to preach and administer the sacraments for laymen, and even for women. They devoted much of their time to the reading of the Bible, of which they admitted only a literal interpretation. Peter Waldo is said to have labored last and died in Bohemia. His sect spread through Southern France, Upper Italy, Bohemia, and even Spain. The Wal- denses have maintained themselves in the mountains of Dauphine and i;he Piedmontese Alps, down to the present day. In the sixteenth century, they united in Bohemia with the Hussites, and in France with iihe Calvinists. 367. The Amalricians, so named from Amalric of Bena, a famous professor at the University of Paris, were a pantheistical sect. Fond of new-fangled opinions, Amalric taught " that no one could be saved, imless he believed himself a personal member of Christ;" for, he said, in Qhrist all have personally suffered, and borne the death of the Cross. The University of Paris condemned his teaching and deprived liim of his professorship; he appealed to Rome, but Pope Innocent m. confirmed the sentence and obliged him to retract. He died shortly after, of grief. 368. The pantheistical views of Amalric were further developed and propagated by his disciples, William of Paris and David Dinanto^ The underlying principle of their teaching was that " all things are one, and one is all; this all is God; ideas and God are identical" God the Father assumed flesh in Abraham; God the Son in Mary; and the Holy Ghost daily becomes incarnate in every Christian." They de- nied the distinction between virtue and vice, and put forward the impious assertion that "whosoever lives in the Holy Spirit, cannot stain his soul with the guilt of sin, even though he should be a forni- cator; each of us is Christ; each of us the Holy Spirit." 369. From this sect sprung a party of fanatics known under the name of "Spiritualists," or Brethren and Sisters of the Free Spirit. They spread, in the thirteenth century, chiefly through France, Italy iee HISTORY OF THE CHURCH and Germany. Owing to their professional character as beggars, they were also called Beghards and Beguines. They denied the difference between good and evil works and maintained that the soul, which is a portion of the divine substance, could not be stained by sensual ex- cesses. On their wanderings, they were accompanied by women called " sisters," and freely indulged in the grossest abominations. 370. The "Apostolical Brethren," founded, about the middle of the thirteenth century, by Gerard Segarelli of Parma, were a kindred sect. They denied the meritoriousness of good works, and rejected marri- age, but lived in licentious intimacy with females, their so-called " sis- ters." After the execution of Segarelli, in 1300, Fra Dolcino of Ver- celli became their leader, who, together with his female companion, Margaret, suffered death at the stake. 371. To these some add the Flagellants, so called from the scour- ges fjiagella), with which they lashed their naked shoulders. They first appeared at Perugia, in 1260, and thence spread with rapidity over the rest of Italy, and into France, Germany, and Poland. A com- pany of a hundred and twenty Flagellants landed in London in the time of Edward m., but they found no sympathy among the English people. Large numbers of persons of every age, sex, and rank marched two by two in procession through the streets, and from city to city, publicly scourging themselves, or each other, till their naked backs streamed with blood — to appease, as they pretended, the divine wrath. They were wont to scourge themselves twice a day, for thirty-three days, in honor of the thirty-three years which Christ lived upon earths The secular magistrates, finding that the Church did not sanction the movement, began to prohibit the Flagellant processions. After the black death, which ravaged all Europe in the middle of the fourteenth century, they again appeared. In 1349 Clement VI., condemned their practices. But they refused submission and gave way to many extra- vagances. As Gerson says, " contempt of the priesthood, rejection of Sacraments, extortion, robbery, and all manner of vices marked their presence." SECTION LXV. THE NEW-MANICHEANS — OATHARISTS ^ALBIGENSES. New-Manichean Sects — Paulicians— Bogomiles— Catharists, or Albigenses^ — Their Tenets — Their Idea of Moral Perfection — Their Hierarchy — Cor- ruption of their Morals — Endeavors of the Popes for their Conversion — Crusade against the Albigenses — Simon of Montfort. 372. The tenets and practices of the ancient Manicheans were re- vived and propagated in the East, by the Bogomiles, and in the West, by the Catharists, and the Albigenses. They all owed their tenets ta NEW'MANICHEANS. 467 the Paulician sect, organized by a certain Constantine of Samosata, in the seventh century, which gradually increased its numbers and ex- tended its influence westward to Thrace anJ Bulgaria, and thence passed into Italy and the South of France. 373. The Bogomi is had for their founder one Basil, a Bulgarian monk, who lived in the twelfth century. Their tenets resembled very much those of the ancient Manicheans. They believed that God had two sons, Satanael, the seducer and chief of the fallen angels, and crea- tor of the material world; and Christ, whom He sent into this world to destroy the power of Satanael. They rejected the Old Testament and part of the New, abhorred the Holy Eucharist, condemned the Invoca- tion of the Saints and the use of images and churches, repudiated mar- riage, and would not recognize any liturgy, except the Lord's Prayer. They were detected at their impious work in the Greek Empire, during the reign of Alexius Comnenus, by whom Basil was condemned to the flames, in 1119. 374. From the East, the New-Manicheans flocked into Western Europe, where they appeared under a variety of names, such as Bul- garians, Puritans, Paterines, Good Men, and above all, Catharists. The Catharists were very numerous in Upper Italy and Southern France, especially among the nobility. In the latter country, they became con- spicuous under the name of Albigenses, a word derived from the town of Alby, in Languedoc, where a Council was held in 1176, which con- demned their teachings. From France, they reached along the banks of the Rhine into Germany, and, about the middle of the twelfth cen- tury, they turned up in England. 375. The tenets of the Catharists, or Albigenses, may be reduced to the following heads: 1. They asserted the co-existence of two eternal principles, or supreme beings; the one good, the other evil; the former, the creator of the invisible spiritual world and author of the New Testament; the latter, the creator of the material world and author of the Old Testament. — 2. The source of all evil, consequently, of sin, in this world, is matter, which they called a production of the evil principle. — 3. The prince of darkness seduced a number of the heavenly spirits, who, in punishment of their sin, were imprisoned in material bodies and form now the human race ! — 4. The Catharists denied all the fundamental doctrines of the church, as the Trinity, In- carnation, Redemption, Resurrection, and the Sacraments. — 5. They denied also the Humanity of Christ, whom they called a spirit subject to the good God, and who was not born of, but merely passed through, the angel Mary, and appeared in a body which he had brought down from heaven ! 468 HISTOBY OF THE CUUBCE. 376. The members of the sect were divided into two classes: the "Perfect," who professed a higher perfection; and the "Believers," or common Christians, who composed the great majority of the sect. The highest moral perfection they placed in the freedom from matter; hence, in the want of earthly goods, in abstaining from all animal food, and from marriage. But only the Perfect were bound to these laws and practices : the Believers could live in marriage, possess temporal- ities, and even give themselves to a lawless and licentious life, pro- vided they would receive, before their death, what they called the " Consolamentum" (Consolation.) They laid great stress on the " Con- solamentum," which seems to have been their distinctive rite. It was imparted by the imposition of the hands. By means of this rite, the common " Believers " advanced into the higher class of the " Perfect." 377. The hierarchy of the Catharists, or Albigensians, consisted of deacons, two vicars-general — the one was called the elder son; the other, the younger (filius major et filius minor) — bishops, and a college composed of seventy-two ministers. The bishops were chosen from the class of the Perfect. They had, besides, a Supreme Bishop, or Pope, who, it is said, dwelt among the Bulgarians, on the confines of Croatia and Dalmatia. In 1167, Niquinta, or Niceta, the Albigensian Pope presided over a synod of his sect, at Toulouse. 378. The Albigensians had attained, in the South of France, a power which threatened the very existence of the Church and State. They seemed waging with the Church a war of life and death. Like highway robbers, they overran and pillaged the country, massacred the Catholic inhabitants, violated their wives and daughters, plundered and burnt the churches and monasteries, and trampled under foot the Holy Eucharist. All endeavors were made to convert them, but with- out success : the decrees of Councils against them produced little or no effect. They continued to multiply and spread, and found powerful protectors in Count Kaymond VI. of Toulouse, and Viscount Roger 11. of Beziers. 379. Innocent m. sent legates and missionaries to Languedoc, to oppose the growth of the heresy. In 1206, Bishop Diego of Osma, and his sub-prior, St. Dominic, also engaged in a mission in the Albi- gensian territory, the result of which was the conversion of vast numbers: of heretics. The murder of the papal legate, Peter de Cas- telnau, in 1208, caused the Pope to proclaim a crusade against the law- less sectaries. The command of the war, which opened in 1209, was given to the gallant English crusader, Simon de Montfort. The cam- paign lasted six years and ended with the total defeat of the Albi- INQUISITION. 469 gensians/ The conquered territories were adjudged to Simon de Montfort, who was styled " the gallant champion of the Cross and in- vincible defender of the Catholic Faith." But the war broke out afresh and became political; in its progress great atrocities were committed. It was not until 1227, that the turbulent fanatics were at last reduced to submission, to which the preaching of St. Dominic, aided by the " Devotion of the Most Holy Rosary," instituted by him, largely contri- buted. SECTION LXVI. THE PUNISHMENT OF HERESY SPANISH INQUISITION. Conduct of Constantine and other Emperors — Imperial Inquisitors — Con- ciliar Enactments against Albigensian and kindred Sects — Laws of Frederick II. — Ecclesiastical Inquisitors — Council of Toulouse — Estab- lishment of Ecclesiastical Inquisition — Spirit of Inquisitors — Spanish Inquisition — Wholly diflfers from Ecclesiastical Inquisition — Its Object — Treasonable Designs of the Moors and Jews — Opposition of the Popes — Autos-da-Fe— Burning of Witches. 380. In the first ages of the Church, the punishments inflicted on heretics were purely ecclesiastical and spiritual. Obstinate heretics were excommunicated, or banished from the community of the faithful. But ever since the conversion of the Roman Emperors to Christianity, apostasy and heresy were justly reckoned amongst the gravest civic crimes, and were punished as state offences, being really high treason against the Divine Majesty, the source of all authority. Constantine the Great, in 316, issued a severe edict depriving the Donatists of their churches, and banishing the most stubborn of their leaders. In 325, he ordered the banishment of Arius and two bishops of his party. Severe measures, including even capital punishment, were em- ployed by later Christian emperors, both for the extermination of heathenism and the extirpation of heresy. In 385, Emperor Maximus, in order to suppress the Priscillionists, commanded their leaders to be executed, notwithstanding Pope Siricius and the bishops, St. Martin and St. Ambrose, loudly condemned the shedding of the blood of heretics. From 435, death was the penalty decreed for those who led others to adopt the errors of any sect. 381. Long before the establishment of the ecclesiastical Inquisi- tion in the thirteenth century, Christian princes were wont to appoint 1. Hurter, the learned biographer of Innocent III. says: "Although great excesses may have been perpetrated in the South of France against humanity and justice, in the course ol these six years, and although the forces sent thither to re-establish 'the authority and the faith of the Church, carried on instead a war of indiscriminate rapine, stiir Innocent cannot be held respons- ible for either. His orders were not carried out, and he was led by false reports to take measures which he would never have taken, had he known the true state oi affairs." 470 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH " Inquisitors/' or " Inquirers/' of heretics. Thus, Theodosius I. com- manded the Praetorian Prefects to appoint Inquisitors, to discover and punish the Manichean heretics. For several centuries, all casea of heresy came before the ordinary civil courts; but in the course of time, the examination of the charge of heresy devolved upon the bishops. The Councils specified the manner of treating heretics, as. well as the punishment to be inflicted on those remaining obdurate. 382. The spread of the Albigensian and kindred sects, in the- twelfth and thirteenth centuries, justly excited the alarm of the civil as well as the ecclesiastical authorities. Popes and Emperors united in employing stringent measures for the suppression of these disturbers of society. The Third Lateran Council, in 1179, and the Council of Verona, in 1184, at which Emperor Frederick I. was present, forbade the support and defence of heretics and all intercourse with them, and further enacted that those convicted of heresy and remaining obdurate should be delivered over to the secular power for punishment. In 1215, the Twelfth General Council renewed the decrees of former Synods, and particularly enjoined on bishops the searching out of heresy and its suppression in their dioceses. 383. " QucwsUores Jidei," or ecclesiastical Inquisitors, were first ap- pointed in the thirteenth century, by Innocent III. In 1206, this energetic Pontiff sent several Cistercian monks, among them Peter of Castelnau, as his legates to the South of France, in order to oppose the Albigenses, and charged them to use all diligence for their dis- covery and conversion; but, if the obstinacy of the sectaries continued,, to call in the aid of the civil power. The laws published, in 1220, by Frederick II. subjected the Albigenses to the penalty of death; and an edict, published in 1224, by the same emperor, gave civil force to the sentence of the Inquisitors. 384. As yet, however, a tribunal of Inquisition did not exist. The Council of Toulouse, held in 1229, maybe regarded as having estab- lished and organized what is called the Ecclesiastical Inquisition. This Council provided against the spread of heresy, chiefly by the institution of special tribunals. It ordered that in every parish a priest and several respectable laymen should be appointed to search out heretics and denounce them to the civil and ecclesiastical author- ities. In order to guard innocent persons against false and slanderous- accusations, it provided, that no one should be punished as a heretic before having been declared such, by the bishop, or some properly authorised ecclesiastic. 385. The means employed by the ecclesiastical Inquisitors were preaching, exercises of piety, and other ordinary appliances of Christian INQUISITIOK 471 zeal. Comparatively but few heretics, and such only as had oeen con- victed of acts of violence and open rebellion, were made to exp^^rience the extreme rigor of the law. The culprit, when found guilty, was handed over to the civil authority, with the invariable prayer +h it " he might be spared and not condemned to death." It is quite unti ue 1 u b all those condemned for heresy and delivered up to the civil tribunal vvere punished with death. Very many were liberated, with a small fine or short imprisonment, and the amount of punishment was always pro- portioned to the offence. The Inquisition was gradually transferred from the bishops to the Dominicans, by whom it was introduced into almost all parts of Europe. As a matter of corrpf^. the institution be- came very odious to heretics, which not unfrequently resulted in the murder of the Inquisitor. Conrad of Marburg was assassinated in 1233; and St. Peter the Martyr, in 1252. 386. The Inquisition introduced in Spain, by Ferdinand and Isabella, was wholly different from that established by the Church. "While the former was a purely political institution, designed for the punishment of Jewish and Moorish disloyalty, the latter was an ecclesi- astical tribunal, and, in fact, a court of equity, protecting the innocent against false accusations, and offering pardon to the guilty ones. By their immense wealth, by their alliances with the most influential families, the Jews had become very powerful in Spain. A great part of the riches of the country had passed into their hands, and almost all Christians found themselves their debtors. They possessed ex- ceptional privileges, such as the Christians did not enjoy; they formed a people within another people. Besides, proselytism, carried on by the Jews, had reached an alarming degree. 387. All this naturally aroused the hatred of the people against the Jewish nation. The well-founded fear of a union between the Jews and the Moors, the enemies of the monarchy, or''y heightened Spanish animosity. In 1473, the Jews even sought to obtain posses- sion of the fortress of Gibraltar, the key of Spain. Still more odious, than the real Jews, were the Judaizing Christians, or " Maranos " — im- pure men — as they were contemptuously called by the people. A great many converts from Judaism were hardly sincere; they remained still secretly attached to their old religion. It was these pretended con- verts that the Inquisition punished, and not the real Jews. Many of them were found among the priesthood: even episcopal sees are said to have been sometimes usurped by these audacious hypocrites. 388. The indignant people, justly apprehensive of the danger which the Jews threatened to bring upon the nation, loudly demanded of the government to proceed with severity against the disguised 472 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH enemies of their country and religion. In 1481, Ferdinand and Isa- bella, after vainly trying milder means to arrest the progress of con- cealed Judaism, established the Inquisition throughout the Spanish dominions. The first judges of the tribunal were two Dominicans. The persons appointed inquisitors, though ecclesiastics, were em- ployed not as servants of the Church, but as functionaries of the State ; they received from their sovereigns their appointment and in- structions. The grand inquisitors Thomas Torquemada (1483-98) and Didacus Deza (1498-1506) relied chiefly upon the authority of the State. 389. The expulsion of the Jews, in 1492, and of the Moors, in 1500, furnished the Inquisition with abundant occupation. The Jews had provoked their banishment by their brutalities and acts of viol- ence; they were accused of defacing crucifixes, profaning sacred hosts, and even of infanticide. Many thousands submitted to baptism; but about one hundred thousand, preferring exile to conversion, left the country. On account of their repeated revolts the Moors, also, were offered the alternative either to become Christians, or to emigrate. The greater number remained and were baptized. To guard the "new Christians" against a relapse, both the "Maranos," and "Mo- riscos," or baptized Moors, were placed under the jurisdiction of the Inquisition. 390. Pope Sixtus IV. had confirmed the establishment of the In- quisition in Spain; but he soon had cause to complain of its practices. The Popes uniformly condemned the abuses and severity of the tri- bunal; they accepted appeals against the Spanish inquisitors, and in many instances interposed by absolving numbers of persons who fled to their clemency from the national judges. The cruelties of the Spanish Inquisition, however, have been greatly exaggerated, and the horrible excesses imputed to this tribunal by the lying Llorente * were not at all committed. The celebrated Autos-da-Fe, or Acts of Faith, which hostile writers have represented as monstrous fires, kindled for the burning of heretics, were, on the contrary, regarded in Spain as acts of mercy, rather than cruelty ; they were a form of reconciling culprits to the Church, and were, as a rule, bloodless. But few of the inquisitorial processes terminated with the death of the accused. 1. •' This writer was, in 1789, and the two following years, secretary of the Spanish Inquisition; but he was subsequently deprived of his office and sent to do penance in a convent, for breach of confidence; it being discovered that he had denunciated to some philosophers the secrets which he was sworn to keep. On the invasion of the French, he attached himself to the interests of Joseph Bonaparte, who placed at his service the archives of the Inquisition, many of which he burned — a fact which betrays an apprehension that their examination would expose his misstate- ments. His history of the tribunal, although professedly composed from authentic documents, is a most malignant misrepresentation of its spirit and proceedings. It betrays a deadly hatred against the Catholic Church, the Pope, the religious orders, and the clergy generally, and a deep -sympattiy with the deistical clubs." Kenrlck. Primacy, Oh. IX. JOHN WYCLIFFE. 473 391. If we remember the number of persons burnt as witches in Germany alone, the number of criminals of various kinds condemned by the Inquisition in Spain cannot appear extravagant. These unfor- tunate persons were persecuted just as much in Germany as in Spain, and more mercilessly yet by Protestants than by Catholics. In the Pro- testant town of Nordlingen, in Bavaria, the population of which was estimated at the time at about 6000, no less than thirty-five witches were burnt within the years 1590-94. The reformer Beza reproaches the French Parliaments with negligence in the persecution of witches; and Walter Scott owns that, the more Calvinism extended in England, the more numerous became the trials for witchcraft. England was the last country in Europe to abolish the barbarous custom of burn- ing at the stake, an instance of which occurred yet in the reign of George 11. No witches were ever burnt in Rome, and more than seventy years before the Protestant Thomasius shook the belief in witches amongst his co-religionists, the Jesuits Adam Tanner and Frederick Spee had already done so amongst Catholics. The last witch burnt in Europe was sentenced in the Canton Glarus by a Protestant tribunal, as late as IV 83. SECTION LXVn. JOHN WYCLIETE THE LOLLAKDS. Precursors of the Reformation— John Wycliffe — Earlier Events of his Life — Animosity of Secular Clergy against the Mendicants — Wycliffe inveighs against the Clergy — His Poor Priests — Is summoned before the Primate — His Translation of the Bible — His Tenets on the Scripture and the Eu- ^arist — Rising of the Commons — Synod at Lambeth — Death of Wycliffe His Doctrines — His Condemnation — The Lollards — Their Petition — Measures for their Suppression. 392. The Englishman, John Wycliffe, and the Bohemian, .John Huss, are sometimes styled, the Precursors of that great religious re- volution, called the Protestant Keformation. For not only were they bitter opponents of the Church, and the champions of pure Presby- terianism, but their tenets regarding the Papacy, hierarchy, predes- tination, private interpretation of the Scripture, Sacraments, venera- tion of the Saints, and other Catholic doctrines and practices, were nearly the same as those propagated by the Kef ormers of the sixteenth century. English Protestants especially trace their origin to Wycliffe, and call him the "Father of the English Keformation." 393. John Wycliffe, a native of Yorkshire, was born about 1324.. He made his studies at Oxford under Thomas Bradwardine, became a 474 HISTOBY OF THE CHUBCH. Fellow of Merton College, and in 1361, Master of Balliol College, and Warden of Canterbury Hall, founded by Archbishop Islip. Shortly afterwards he was preferred to the Kectory of Fylingham, which, in 1368, he exchanged for that of Lutterworth, where he remained until his death. He soon made himself notorious by the haughty license with which he censured the doctrines of the Church and actions of his superiors. His rancor is said to have arisen from disappointed ambi- tion, Wycliffe having failed to obtain the vacant see of Worcester. 394. Considerable ill-feeling was exhibited at the time by the mas- ters and doctors belonging to the secular clergy against the friars of the different orders. The reputation and prosperity of the new Men- dicant orders awakened the jealousy of their rivals. Fitz-Ralph, Arch- bishop of Armagh, who before his elevation to the Irish Primacy, had been chancellor of Oxford, openly accused the Mendicants of novel practices, maintaining that the poverty of Christ was not like that of the friars voluntary. Wycliffe took an active part in the controversy and went so far as to maintain that a life of mendicity was repugnant to the Gospel, and that to enter a Mendicant Order was to forego all hope of heaven. In 1366, he wrote against the payment of the annual tribute, which King John had granted to the Holy See. Some years after this, he went as one of the Royal Commissioners to Bruges to settle with the Papal Envoys the disputed question of " Provisions." 395. In 1372, having been made doctor of Theology, Wycliffe be- ^an openly to attack the hierarchy, particularly the Pope, whom he denied to be the Yicar of Christ and the Head of the Church militant. He inveighed against the beneficed clergy, the monastic, and now particularly, the Mendicant orders. He asserted that the laity could lawfully take away from the clergy their possessions if they judged that a bad use was made of them. " The fanatical reformer led appar- ently an austere* life, was meanly clad, and went even barefoot. He collected a body of fanatics, whom, under the name of " Poor Priests," he sent out to preach his doctrines throughout the country without the license, and even in opposition, to the authority of the bishops. 396. Meantime eighteen propositions, charging the author with heresy, had been selected from the writings of Wycliffe, and were laid before Pope Gregory XL Wycliffe had already been summoned to answer for his doctrines before Bishop Courtenay in London. When he appeared, he was accompanied by the Duke of Lancaster, and Per- cy, the Lord Marshal. The insolent bearing of these two noblemen, caused the assembly to break up, and Wycliffe was allowed to with- draw. In consequence of a papal command, another assembly was held at Lambeth, to which Wycliffe was cited. But nothing was JOHN WYGLIFFE. 476 effected. The weak primate, Sudbury, contented himself with simply forbidding the heretic to lecture or write on the subject in dispute. 39*7. But Wycliffe persisted in his defiance of the Church. Though ignorant of the Greek and Hebrew languages, he undertook the dif- ficult task of translating the Vulgate Bible into English.' He re- jected the deutoro-canonical books, held that the Holy Scripture was the only Rule of Faith, and asserted the right of every Christian to explain and interpret its meaning. In 1387, he lectured on the Eu- charist and gave great offence by his denial of Transubstantiation, which he declared to be contrary to Holy Writ, and propounded in its stead the tenet of "Consubstantiation." The chancellor, William Berton, called a council of twelve doctors, who declared the doctrine of Wycliffe new and heretical. AVycliffe was now debarred from teaching in the university. 398. In the same year occured the terrible rising of the Commons. The itinerant preachers of Wycliffe, by their fanatical denuncia- tions had considerably aided, if not produced, the general insubord- ination. Sudbury, the archbishop, was murdered. Courtenay, the new primate, lost no time in proceeding against the heresiarch. A pro- vincial synod assembled at Lambeth, in 1382, formally condemned twenty-four propositions extracted from the writings of Wycliffe. The sentence was confirmed by the Pope, and Wycliffe was obliged to re- tire to his living in Lutterworth, where he died in 1384. 399. The doctrine of Wycliffe, as set forth in his most celebrated work, iihe Trialogus, is a rude compound of Pantheism, Fatalism, and Predestinarianism. He taught: — 1. All is God; every creature is God; anything, the idea of which exists in the mind of God, is God himself. — 2. Creation was but a necessary emanation of God, and whatever did take place, the evil as well as the good, took place by a law of necessity to which God himself is subject. — 3. Some men are predestined to eternal glory, others to eternal damnation. The prayer of the latter availeth nothing. — 4. In the ancient Church there were only priests and deacons; the episcopacy and other hierarchical degrees are the device of clerical ambition. — 5. The Church of Rome is the synagogue of Satan; the election of the Pope by the Cardinals was introduced by the devil. — 6. No bishop or priest in the state of mortal 1. Wycliffe's translation of the Bible was not, as some have maintained, the first ever attemptea. "If histories be well examined," says Foxe, the Martyrologist, "we shall find both before the Conquest and after, as well before John Wycliffe was born or since, the whole body of the Scriptures by sundry men translated into this our country tongue." And the celebrated Sir Thomas More, an unquestionable authority, writes: " The whole Bible was, long before Wycliffe's days, by virtuous and well learned men translated into the English tongue and by good and godly people with devotion and soberness well and reverently read." Blunt. The Reformation of Eng- aud. Vol. I. pp. 504, 505. 476 histohy of the church. sin can validly administer the sacraments. Laymen may confirm as well as baptize. Oral confession of sin is unnecessary. — 7. The sub- stance of the bread and wine is not changed in consecration, and the consecrated bread is not Christ's Body. — 8. Worship of images is unlawful. To pray to the Saints is superfluous ; many of those persons so called are in hell. 400. In 1411, a Council held in London, by Archbishop Arundel, condemned forty-five of Wycliffe 's propositions. The Council of Con- stance, at which the great English Carmelite, Thomas of Walden, was present, in its eighth session confirmed the condemnation of the "Wyc- liffite errors, and ordered the writings of the heresiarch to be burned and his remains to be removed from consecrated ground. The sen- tence was ratified by Martin V. and strictly carried out, in 1428, by Bishop Flemyng of Lincoln. 401. The " Poor Priests " founded by Wycliffe continued to excite the passions and prejudices of the populace against the Church and the clergy. Among these men Hereford, Patrington, Parker, Swinderby and Purvey, were conspicuous. The Lollards, as the followers of Wyc- liffe were called, soon became very turbulent and threatening. They circulated libels against the clergy, as gross as they were vague. In 1394, they presented to Parliament a remonstrance against the Papacy, celibacy, transubstantiation, auricular confession, pilgrimages, and capital punishment. 402. The audacity of the Lollards had the effect to unite both Lords and Commons in a petition to the king for legal redress. In 1401, the Act "De Hseretico Comburendo " was passed, which made death by fire the penalty for heresy. The first victim of this severe enactment was William Sawtre, the apostate rector of Lynn. John Oldcastle, commonly known as Lord Cobham, and several other Lol- lard leaders, were tried and executed, in 1417. During the reign of Henry V. (A. D. 1413-22), LoUardy was prosecuted with so much rigor as to become almost entirely extinct. The remaining Lollards in the sixteenth century united with the Anglican Church; in Bohemia their tenets were adopted by the Hussites. JOHN HUSS. 477 SECTION LXVm. JOHN HUSS THE HUSSITE WAB. John Huss— Influence of the Principles of Wycliffe in Bohemia— University of Prague — Feuds between the Germans and Bohemians— Huss Rector of the University— His Excommunication — Former Friends— Banishment of Huss — At Constance — His Trial — His Doctrines — Refuses to retreat — Condemnation of Huss — His Execution no Breach of Faith — Jerome of Prague— Hussite Factions— Compact of Prague — ''Utraquists and Sub- unists " — Bohemian and Moravian Brethren — Other Precursors of the Re- formation — John "VYesel — John Wessel — John van Goch — Herman Ruis- wick — Jerome of Savonarola. 403. From England the heresy of "Wycliffe was, about the begin- ning of the fifteenth century, transplanted into Bohemia, where John Huss became its chief propagator. Bom about 1369, at Hussinecz, a Bohemian village, he was a man of great eloquence and an accomp- lished scholar. He became professor in the University of Prague, which was then in a most flourishing condition, confessor to Queen Sophia, and preacher in the chapel of Bethlehem, which had been founded, especially for the preaching of the G-ospel to the poorer classes. Just at this time the writings of Wycliffe were brought from Oxford to Prague; they were perused with delight and avidity by Huss and his disciples. Among the most ardent advocates of the Wycliffite teachings were Nicholas Faulfisch and Jerome of Prague. Huss him- self transla|ted Wycliffe's Trialogus into Bohemian. 404. The University of Prague was at this time rent with feuds between the Germans and Bohemians : but hitherto the Grermans, con- sisting of three nations — the Saxon, Bavarian, and Polish — had main- tained the ascendency. At their instance forty-five articles of Wycliffe were, in 1408, condemned by the University, and the reading of his works was prohibited by Archbishop Sbinko of Prague. This so irri- tated the Bohemian party that every means was employed to oust the Germans from the university. At length, Huss obtained from King Wenceslaus an ordinance giving special privileges to the Bohemian over the foreign nations. The Germans, to the number of thirty-thous- sand, left the city; a great part wandered to Leipsic and founded a rival university. Huss became Rector of the University of Prague; he now preached boldly and without reserve the doctrines of Wycliffe — doctrines subversive of all order, ecclesiastical and civil. 405. To forestall excommunication from the rightful Pope Gregory XII., Huss induced the king to recognize the authority of Alexander V. ; Sbinko, the archbishop, also had to submit to the Pisan Pontiff. Having obtained a bull from Alexander V. for the suppression of the 478 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. Wycliffite doctrines, Sbinko ordered two hundred volumes of the English heresiarch to be burnt, then suspended and, finally, excommu- nicated Huss. The sentence was confirmed by John XXIII., and the city of Prague was placed under interdict so long as Huss should be allowed to remain there. But to this Huss paid no regard ; he ap- pealed from the Pope to a General Council, and continued to preach and pour forth his coarse and loose invectives against the Papacy, the hierarchy, and the clergy. 406. The excesses committed by the partisans and at the instiga- tion of Huss, caused many of his former friends to withdraw from him. Chief among them were Stanislaus and Peter Znaim, Stephen of Palecz, Andrew of Broda, and Michael de Causis, who now turned against him and became his accusers. At the instance of King Wen- ceslaus, Huss for a time left Prague; he withdrew to the protection of some Bohemian nobles who were friendly to him, and employed him- self chiefly in writing various works, some in Latin, some in his native tongue which spread with rapidity. His retirement served only to inflame the anger of his partisans; the infection of his errors soon spread throughout Bohemia, and was propagated by Jerome of Prague throughout Poland and Moravia. 407. The Council of Constance having meanwhile assembled, Huss, who had appealed to a General Council, was prevailed upon to appear before that assembly by the emperor Sigismund. Provided with a safe-conduct, which secured to him protection while on his journey and liberty in pleading his cause, Huss entered Constance. He was welcomed by John XXIII., who even absolved him from excommuni- cation, restraining him only from preaching and saying Mass. For some time Huss was allowed to converse freely with all. But as he continued to say Mass and to preach to the people, he was finally placed under custody. 408. Huss had three public hearings before the Council. Thirty articles, extracted chiefly from his "Treatise on the Church," were condemned. In this work the heresiarch asserts : — 1. The one holy and universal Church consists wholly of the predestined. None but the elect can belong to the Church of Christ. — 2. Peter never was the Head of the holy Catholic Church. The Papacy owes its origin to imperial favor and authority. — 3. A priest though excommunicated, provided he believes the sentence unjust, ought to continue to preach and exercise his functions, in spite of the ecclesiastical prohibition- — 4. The claim of the Church to the obedience of her members is a pure invention of priests and contrary to Holy Scripture. — 5. No ruler, spiritual or temporal, has any power and jurisdiction, if he be JOHN HUSS. 479 in mortal sin. Huss admitted to the day of his death many Catholic doctrines which Wycliffe had rejected, such as the Real Presence, the Sacrifice of the Mass, and some others. 409. Huss was ^called on to retract his doctrines. His former friends, Stephan Palecz and Michael de Causis, cardinals and bishops, and even Emperor Sigismund earnestly besought him to make at least a modified disavowal of his errors. But his indomitable obstinacy frustrated every well-meant endeavor. At length the Council solemnly declared him an obstinate heretic, degraded him from the priesthood, and transferred him to the civil authorities. In accordance with the penalty of civil law which jnade heresy punishable with death, Huss was burnt at the stake, July 6, 1415. His friend, Jerome of Prague, met with a similar fate the following year.* 410. The news of the death of Huss incited his followers in Bo- hemia and Moravia to a furious religious war. They raised an insur- rection in Prague and stormed ihe houses of Catholics who were op- posed to Huss; they ill-treated, and even murdered priests, who refused to administer the chalice to the laity. Utraquism, or Com- munion under both kinds, became their distinctive characteristic, and the chalice was adopted by them as the symbol of their cause. In 1419, they rose in arms against the imperial government. Nicholas Hussinecz and John Ziska placed themselves at the head of the insur- rection. Terrible excesses were committed by the Hussites; during a war whicl\ lasted thirteen years, they indiscriminately murdered priests and monks, and laid a great number of churches and convents in ashes and many cities waste. All Bohemia was soon in the hands of the rebels. Several crusades were sent to the aid of the emperor Sigismund, but with no result ; the imperial troops fled in dismay before the fury of the fanatical Hussites, who carried their ravages even into Austria, Hungary, and Germany. The name of Ziska became a terror to the neighboring nations. 411. After the death of Ziska, in 1424, the Hussites became divided into four conflicting parties — the Taborites under Procopius the Elder; the Orphans under Procopius the Younger; the Horehites 1. The execution of Huss cannot riglitly be looked upon as a breach of the safe-conduct sgranted to him by the emperor. This safe-conduct, as the tenor of the document shows, gua- ranteed protection and assistance in coming to Constance and a fair trial before the Council; but it did not, nor could exempt him from punishment if found guilty. It was never understood either by the emperor or by Huss himself, to bar the sentence of the Council, to which the latter had appealed, and to whose decision he had expressea his willingness to submit even though it should decree the punishment of heretics. Even the Hussite nobles, in their bitter and violent address to the Council of Constance, make no mention whatever of any violation of the safe-conduct. It was only at a later period that this charge was brought forward by the Hussites.— It is historic- ally untrue that the Council of Constance enacted a decree declaring that no faith was to be kept with a hpretic. The decree referred to, only declares that the Church has an inherent and wholly independent jurisdiction in the exercise of which she cannot be restrained by even the emperor's special enactement, adding, however, that a prince is bound to strictly keep his promise unless by so doing he would violate the right of another. 480 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. and Galixtmes. After much negotiation the Synod of Basle succeeded in reconciling the more moderate Calixtines. By the Compact of Prague, in 1433, the Synod conceded to them Communion under both kinds, besides several reforms on certain points of discipline. The Taborites and Orphans, however, rejected the Compact and continued their incendiary course till 1434, when they suffered a crushing defeat near Prague and the two Procopiuses were killed. By the treaty of Iglau, in 1436, the greater number of them returned to the unity of the Church. The united Hussites went under the name of Utraquists, while the Catholics who adhered to the old discipline of the Church, were called Subunists, or communicants under one kind. Nevertheless, a great number of the Hussites continued in their separation from the Church until the preaching of the eloquent St. John Capistran — between 1451 and 1453 — effected a general reconciliation. Only a small remnant of extreme Hussites persisted secretly in their schism, and formed the sect known under the name of Bohemian and Moravian Brethren. ; ■ 412. There were other heresiarchs and zealots of less note who are sometimes, though some of them unjustly, reckoned among the forerunners of the Reformation, namely John Wesel, John Wessel, John van Goch, Herman Euiswick, and Jerome of Savonarola. John Wesel, a professor at Erfurt, inveighed against the hierarchy, rejected transubstantiation and indulgences, and denied the right of the Church to expound the Scriptures, which, he asserted, belonged to Christ. He was sentenced to confinement in the Augustinian mon- astery at Mentz, in 1479, where he died two years later. His contem- porary, John Wessel, a native of the Netherlands, although imbued with principles of a false mysticism and often inaccurate and ambi- guous in his expressions, was by no means an avowed heretic. The errors imputed to him must be ascribed to the stubborn persistence of the Protestants in claiming him as a forerunner of Luther. 4.13. Another Netherlander, John van Goch, asserted that Christi- anity had been adulterated by error, a defect which it was his mission to correct. He rejected tradition and religious vows, and was the first to advance the erroneous doctrine of justification by faith alone^ He died, in 1475. Herman Buiswick, likewise a native of the Nether- lands, asserted the eternity of matter, and denied the creation of the angels by God, the existence of hell, and the immortality of the human soul. Christ was to him an imj)ostor, the Christian religion a fraud, and the Bible a book of fables. He was burned at the stake, in 1512^ 414. The well-meaning, but overzealous and eccentric Jerome of Savonarola, a Dominican, does not at all deserve to be numbered BELIQIOUS LIFE. 481 among the precursors of the Eeformers. A severe censor of morals, Savonarola appears to have been actuated by the best of intention in denouncing the corruptions of the age ; but his eccentric and violent temper carried him beyond the bounds of moderation. He never deviated, in the least, from the Catholic faith, and always maintained that, whosoever separates himself from the Koman Church, separates himself from Christ. His greatest fault was disobedience to the Church and disregard of her censures. Savonarola, with two other Dominicans, was sentenced to death and executed by order of the J'lorentine Council, in 1498. CHAPTEK V. CONSTITUTION AND DISCIPLINE. SECTION LXIX. RELIGIOUS LEFK Preachers of Penance — St. Anthony of Padua — St. Yincent of Ferrer — St. John Capistran — St. Bernardin of Siena — Scandals and Abuses — Morality of Monasteries— The Episcopacy— Monuments of the Faith — Saints of this Epoch. ( 415. Whenever the Church found herself in embarrassing straits, she always received the promised help from God. Thus, when, in this Epoch, schism and numberless heresies seemed to threaten her very existence, and a wide-spread relaxation of morals had crept in amongst all classes, Divine Providence raised up powerful preachers of penance, who, travelling from place to place, and from country to country, aroused thousands out of their fatal lethargy. Among* the most eminent preachers of those times may be reckoned St. Peter Damian, St. Yves of Chartres, Hildebert of Mans, Godfrey of Bor- deaux, Nicholas de Clemangis, John Gerson, John Tauler, Henry Su- so, Gabriel Biel, but above all St. Bernard of Clairvaux, and the great founders of Religious Orders, St. Norbert, St. Francis of Assisi, and St. Dominic. 416. The members of the Mendicant Orders, especially, devoted themselves to preaching and to the instruction of the people. St. An- thony of Padua preached with wonderful success in Italy, France, and Spain. " His Sermons," says his biographer, " were flames of fire, im- possible to withstand, which aroused numbers of sinners and crimin- 482 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. als to penance." He died at the age of only thirty-six, in 1231. St. Vincent Ferrer, a Dominican, was the most conspicuous preacher of his age. He travelled not only through Spain, France, Italy, and a part of Germany, but, at the invitation of the English king, Henry IV., he preached also in the chief towns of England, Scotland, and Ireland^ Everywhere enormous crowds, sometimes as many as 80,000, gathered around him. He converted a prodigious number of Jews and Moham- medans, heretics and schismatics. He knew only Spanish and Latin, but, when preaching in his native language, he was understood by men of all nations. He died in 1419. 417. A like zeal and power in preaching characterized St. John Capistran, a Franciscan. He traversed Italy, Austria, Moravia, Bo- hemia, Hungary, Poland, and part of Germany, everywhere preaching with wonderful fruit. He received the abjuration of 11,000 Hussites. To his zeal and eloquence principally, is ascribed the great victory, which, in 1456, the Christians, under the gallant Hunniades, gained at Belgrade, over Mohammed II. St. Capistran died the same year. His contemporary, St. Bernardin, of Siena, deserves also special mention, as a preacher of penance. He preached in nearly all the cities of Italy, and the effect which his sermons everywhere produced, is said to have been indescribable. He died, in 1444. 418. Abuses and scandals have at all times occured in the Church.. They existed in the time of the Apostles, and continued to exist in every subsequent age. Such disorders, however, should be put to the charge of human frailty and perversity; they can furnish no argument against the Church, whose Founder plainly forwarned His followers that " Scandals must needs come, though woe to those by whom they come." Scandals and abuses can never justify revolt against the Authority of the Church which rests, not on the personal merits of those who exercise it, but on the commission of Christ, who imparted it. St. Augustin says : " When, either through the neglect of prelates^ or by some necessity, or through unknown causes, we find that wicked persons are in the Church, whom we cannot correct or restrain by ecclesiastical discipline, let not the impious and destructive presump- tion enter our heart that we should imagine ourselves obliged to sepa- rate from them." 419. Notable as the disorders may have been in many places, during this Epoch, they were far from being as general and as enor- mous as they have been represented. There were many illustrious examples of purity and perfection, among the clergy and laity. In the cloister, especially, there were many who were zealous and faithful to their vocation. To this, even Luther bears witness, when he says: "I RELIGIOUS LIFE. 483 have seen many Popish monks who with much zeal did great and hard works, in order that they might become just and obtain salvation." 420. We meet, it is true^ in contemporai:y ascetical writers, with many severe censures of the lives of the monks in those times. "But it is to be observed," says Blunt, a learned Protestant historian, in his "Reformation of the Church of England" (Vol. I. p. 354) "that such censures were generally aimed at something very different from what we understand by immorality or irreligion. T\Tien ascetical censors complained that the monks were wanting in religion, it was the religio of the monastery and the rule of the Founder that they had in view: when that they were wanting in devotion, it was in that exalted devo- tion of Saints, to which few persons in ordinary life ever attain: when that they where self-indulgent, it was in such self-indulgence as fail- ing to wake for the choir service of the night-hours, or taking a morsel of meat during long bread-and-water fasts: when that luxury was overwhelming the monastic system, it was because the guest- house was too sumptuous in its hospitality, or the straw mattresses of the monk's cells made somewhat less hard than formerly. The cen- sures of ascetical writers must, therefore, be understood according to their original intention, and laxity in respect to ascetic discipline must not be confounded with what is understood by the Christian world at large, as luxury or laxity of morals. "Bloated monks" are a common Protestant ideal, but they to whom the term was applied were pro- bably no more commonly degenerated as monks than the "bloated aristocracy " of a republican ideal are commonly degenerated as gentle- men." 421. Wars, civil dissensions, and the intrusion by secular rulers of unworthy men into episcopal sees, had concurred to produce an alarming decay of ecclesiastical discipline and a lamentable relaxation of morals; many ecclesiatics were found wanting in those virtues, which their sacred calling required. But in spite of all passions, faith was still living: there still existed a deep reverence for religion and its ministers. Notwithstanding the frequent obtrusions of unworthy prelates by the secular rulers, the Church possessed within her pale a great number of excellent bishops who were faithful shepherds of their flocks, and who, by their many virtues, shed great lustre upon the episcopate. This was particularly the case in the fifteenth century. 422. We meet at this period with such eminent men as St. Laur- entius Justinian, first Patriarch of Yenice, (d. 1455); St. Antoninus^ archbishop of Florence (d. 1459); Cardinal Nicholas de Cusa, bishop of Brixen (d. 1464); John von Dalberg, bishop of Worms; John Rhode, 484 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH archbishop of Bremen; Cardinal Matthew Lang, archbishop of Salz- burg; Cardinals John Kempe and Thomas Bourchier, successively archbishops of Canterbury; Cardinal George d'Amboise, archbishop of Rouen; the illustrious Cardinal Francis Ximenes, archbishop of Tole- do, and a host of others who were models of faithful pastors, distingu- ishing themselves by their piety and learning, as well as by their great zeal for the furtherance of faith, morality, and education. 423. To see in what manner faith influenced men's hearts, and moved them to great deeds, we have but to recall the numberless religious, educational, and charitable institutions which were founded during this Epoch. The great number of monasteries, schools, and uni- Tersities founded everywhere during those times are imperishable monuments of a living faith. And the stately basilicas and cathedrals of Italy, France, Spain, Belgium, Germany, and England, most of which were built or commenced in this Epoch; the interior richness of the churches, and the splendor with which the divine offices were celeb- rated — all this must excite our admiration, as bearing witness to the deep piety and living faith of those ages, as well as to the salutary and fruitful power which the Church then possessed over the minds of men. "If we consider," says Hurter in his Life of Pope Innocent HI., " the number of such buildings that were begun and completed during the course of one single century, principally by bishops and their chapters, the question at once occurs to us : How was it possible? Where could the money have come from? History gives us the answer: Through cheerful co-operation, and an heroic devotion, of which faith was the moving power. He that could give nothing else, could at least give himself, that is, could give his labor freely." 424. But the most glorious proof of the true spiritual life in this age were the many great Saints then flourishing in the Church. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, we find, besides those men- tioned elsewhere, St. Andrew Corsini, bishop of Fiesoli; St. John Nepomucen, who, because he would not violate the seal of confession, was drowned by order of the Emperor Wenceslaus, in 1383; St. John Columbini, founder of the Jesuati; St. Agnes of Monte Pulciano; St. Juliana Falconieri: St. John Cantius, a secular priest; St. John of Sa- hagun; St. Didacus; St. Casimir and St. Ferdinand, the former a prince of Poland, the other of Spain; St. Elisabeth, queen of Portugal; St. Joanna of Valois, queen of France and foundress of the order of the Annunciation; with a bright array of others, in every state of life, whose memories adorn the sanctuary of the Church. 425. The power of divine Grace was manifested, in a special manner, in St. Elisabeth of Thiiringen, the mother of the poor (d. 1231); ECCLESIASTICAL LEGISLATION. 485 in the holy abbesses, Hildegardis, Mech tildes, and Gertrude; in St. An- gela of Foligni; in the Seraphic Catharine of Siena (d. 1380); St. Bridgit of Sweden, foundress of the Bridgittines, or Order of our Saviour (d. 1373), and her sainted daughter Catharine of Sweden; in Joanna d'Arc, the heroic Maid of Orleans (d. 1431); in St. Colette, who founded a stricter branch of the Poor Clares (d. 1435); in St. Frances of Kome, foundress of the Collatines, or Oblates (d. 1440); in St. Ca- tharine of Bologna (d. 1463), and in St. Catharine of Genua (d. 1510). In Switzerland, the Blessed Nicholas of Fliie (d. 1487) led a life so holy and so nearly emancipated from all human needs, that man's science entirely fails to explain even its possibility. SECTION LXX. ECCLESIASTICAL LEGISLATION PENITENTIAL DISCIPLINE STUDY AND VERSIONS OF THE BIBLE. Decretum Gratiani — Other Collections of Decretals — Cessation of Public Pen- ance — Indulgences — Jubilee — Annual Confession and Communion en- forced — Communion under one Kind — Festival of Corpus Christi — The Bible — Its Reading recommended — Perverted Use of Vernacular Bibles — Restrictions with regard to Vernacular Versions — Early and Mediaeval Translations 426. As the jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical tribunals extended to a variety of persons and causes, it became necessary to establish a uniform system for the regulation of their decisions. Hence, Gratian a Benedictine monk and professor of Canon Law at Bologna, publ- ished, in 1151, his celebrated Manual, entitled " Concordantia discord- antium Canonum," but which is now commonly known as the Decretum Gratiani. The work is divided into three parts, treating respectively of ecclesiastical persons, ecclesiastical judicature, and the Liturgy of the Church. Gratian's collection, though never receiving the formal approbation of the Holy See, acquired great authority in the Schools, and superseded all other collections in the West. It fell short, how- ever, of what was required, in the progress of ecclesiastical jud- icature. 427. Hence, Pope Gregory IX. caused the "Five Books of De- cretals," which bear his name, to be published by St. Kaymond of Pennafort, in 1233. These consist almost entirely of decretals, issued by the Popes from the time of Gregory I. to that of Gregory IX. him- self. Boniface VIIL, in 1298, added a "Sixth Book of Decretals," containing Papal Constitutions, promulgated since the pontificate of Gregory IX. New collections of Papal Constitutions were published l>y subsequent Pontiffs under the name of " Clementinae," containing I 486 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. the decretals of Clement V., and of " Extravagantes " of John XXIL, which contain the constitutions of that Pontiff. 428. During this Epoch, the rigor of penance was greatly relaxed; the imposition of public penance, though still in use, became less frequent, till at length it wholly disappeared. The ancient penitent- iary discipline was no longer enforced. If a penitent gave tokens of a sincere sorrow, he was granted absolution before the performance of penance. Kemission of the canonical penalties was freely granted, or such penalties were commuted into works of piety, e. g. prayers, fastings, and almsdeeds. As a rule, however, those remissions, or Indulgences, were partial. 429. Plenary Indulgences were first granted to the Crusaders. Thus, Pope Urban 11. in the famous assembly at Clermont, offered a general remission of penance, or plenary indulgence, to those who joined the Crusade. Later on, Plenary Indulgences were given also to those who, in making pilgrimages to holy places, complied with the prescribed conditions. The Great Indulgence of the Jubilee was accorded first by Boniface Vm., in 1300. On this occasion, two hundred thousand pilgrims are said to have visited the holy shrines at Home, while at the next great Jubilee, granted by Clement VL, in 1350, the number of pilgrims is reported to have reached a million. Urban VI. in 1389, reduced the cycle of the Jubilee to thirty- three years, and Paul 11., in 1470, to twenty-five. 430. To bring out more clearly the Catholic doctrine of the Real Presence in the Eucharist, the Fourth Lateran Council adopted the word Transubstantiation, defining that at the Consecration of the Mass the substance of bread and wine is entirely changed into the sub- stance of the Body and Blood of Christ. The same Council made annual confession obligatory on all Christians having attained the use of reason, and established the rule of communicating at least once a year, and that about Easter time. To guard the Blessed Sacrament from irreverence, and to counteract the error of certain heretics who held that Christ is not received whole and entire under either species^ the custom was introduced, in the Latin Church, of administering Holy Communion under the species of bread alone. The Council of Constance, to meet the errors of the Hussites, made this custom of universal obligation in the West. 431. The revelation made to B. Juliana, a holy religious of Liege, caused Robert, bishop of that city, to institute the Festival of Corpus Christi, which he ordered to be kept throughout his diocese. Moved by the miracle of Bolseno, and by the desire to promote the devotion to the Blessed Eucharist, Urban IV., in 1264, commanded the celebra- ECCLESIASTICAL LEGISLATION. 487 tion of the Festival throughout the Church; and Clement V., in 1311, assigned its observance to Thursday following Trinity Sunday. At the bidding of the Pope Urban TV., St. Thomas of Aquin composed the beautiful Office of the Blessed Sacrament, which is still used in the Church. 432. Believing the Sacred Scriptures to be divinely inspired writ- ings, the Church, at all times, repommended their perusal and study to the people. In no instance did the Church ever prohibit the read- ing of the Bible in the original text, or in authentic versions; neither did she ever forbid translations to be made into the language of any country. But when the heresies of the Waldenses and Albigenses arose, there was danger from corrupt translations. These heretics appealejd to the Bible, in justification of their assaults upon civil and ecclesiastical authority, and insisted that the people should judge the Church by their own interpretation of the Scripture. These evils elic- ited restrictions from the Councils of Toulouse (1229) and Tarragona. (1234) with regard to vernacular versions. "The lawless political principles of Wyckliffe," says Blunt, " and the still more lawless ones of his followers, created a strong prejudice against vernacular trans- lations of th^ Scriptures, on the part of the rulers of England, both in . Church and State. The Bible was quoted in support of rebellion and of the wildest heresy." 433. That the Bible was scarce, or its reading neglected, is his- torically untrue. " There has been much wild and foolish writing," the same author observes, " about the scarcity of the Bible in the age, preceding the Reformation. It has been taken for granted that Holy Scripture was almost a sealed book to clergy and laity, until it was printed in English by Tyndale and Coverdale, and that the only real source of knowledge respecting it, before them, was the translation made by "Wyckliffe. The facts are that the clergy and monks were daily reading large portions of the Bible, and had them stored up in their memory, by constant recitation : that they made very free use^ of Holy Scripture in preaching, so that even a modern Bible-reader is astonished at the number of quotations and references contained in mediaeval sermons : that countless copies of the Bible were written out by the surprising industry of cloistered scribes : that many glosses ^ or commentaries were written which are still seen to be full of pious and wise thoughts: and that all laymen who could read were, as a rule, provided with their gospels, their psalters, or other devotional por- tions of the Bible The clergy studied the word of God, and made it known to the laity: and those few among the laity who could 488 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. read had abundant opportunity of reading the Bible either in Latin or in English, up to the Reformation period." 434. It has been asserted by Protestants that Wycliffe's and Luther's translations of the ScrijDtures first made them accessible to the laity. This is not true. Long before these publications, there existed translations of the Bible in almost every language spoken in Christendom. The celebrated Sir Thomas More assures us that there were English versions of the Bible, long prior to Wycliffe and Tyndale. Between the invention of printing by John Guttenberg, about the middle of the fifteenth century, and Luther's outbreak, no less than fifteen editions of the whole Bible, to say nothing of portions, were issued in High German, and five in Low German. In Italian, eleven complete editions of the Bible appeared before the year 1500; and more than forty editions are reckoned before the appearance of the first Protestant Italian version. An equally large number of translations in the French language appeared during the same period. SECTION LXXI. NEW RELIGIOUS ORDERS. New Orders — Decree of Fourth Lateran Council — Congregation of Cluny — Peter, the Venerable — Order of Grammont— Carthusians— St. Bruno — Cistercians— St. Robert — St. Bernard— Premonstratensians — St. Norbert — Order of Fontevrault. 435. No period in ecclesiastical history witnessed the rise of so many new religious orders as the present one. These in part adopted the Rule of St. Benedict, or that of St. Augustine, adding to it particular constitutions; or chose for themselves another rule suited to the needs of their age and the special end for which they were founded. The large number of orders already existing caused the Fourth Lateran Council, in 1215, to forbid the founding of any new orders. Yet the same period gave birth to a new class of orders, the Mendicants — Franciscans, Dominicans, Carmelites, and Augustin- ian Hermits — who were destined to sustain by example, preaching, and education the cause of the Church, which then was menaced by numerous heresies. 436. The Congregation of Cluny, this celebrated branch of the Benedictine Order, began rapidly to decline under the lax rule of Abbot Pontius ; but his successor, Peter, the Venerable, the contem- porary and friend of St. Bernard, restored it to its primitive rigor and reputation. Two thousand monasteries recognized him as their su- perior. Popes Gregory VII., Urban 11., and Paschal 11. had been RELIGIOUS ORDERS. «» monks of Cluny. The schismatic attitude of Abbot Hugh m., who was a partisan of the antipope Octavian, led to much confusion and relaxation of discipline. The famous monastery of Monte Cassino, whence proceeded so many distinguished men and eminent ecclesias- tics, also had lost much of its former rej^utation. 437. Order of Grammont. The Order of Grammont, so called from "Grand Mont," near Limoge, in France, whence it took its origin, was founded by St. Stephen of Tigemo, in Auvergne. It re- ceived the approbation of Pope Gregory YII. Stephen, who died in 1124, adopted for his order the Benedictine Kule; he enjoined more- over the observance of absolute poverty, forbidding the community to receive or hold any estates or possessions whatever. Stephen of Lisiac, the fourth prior, framed for the order a new rule, which was approved by Clement m., in 1188. In 1317, Pope John XXII. re- formed the rule and raised Grammont to the rank of an abbey, which then had under it thirty-nine priories. 438. Carthusians. The founder of the Carthusian Order was St. Bruno of Cologne. With six companions, Bruno retired into the desert of Chartreuse, near Grenoble, and there laid the foundation of his new order. This was in 1086. Following the Benedictine Rule, the Carthusians were known for the severity of their discipline. They lead a contemplative life and devote a portion of their time to manual labor. Bruno was summoned to Rome by Urban II., who had been his pupil. After founding two new convents in Calabria, he died in 1101. Guigo, the fifth prior of the Chartreuse, made a collection of the customs and statutes, observed by the Carthusians. 439. Cistercians. Of the illustrious Order of Cistercium (Citeaux) St. Robert of Molesme is regarded the founder. Robert left the mon- astery which he had founded at Molesme, and with twenty zealous monks retired into the thick forest of Citeaux, where he foi-med a new order. This was in 1098. Being recalled after a time to Molesme, he left Citeaux under the direction of Alberic. After Alberic's death in 1109, Stephen Harding, an Englishman, became abbot. It was he who drew up the first code of Cistercian statutes which received the. approbation of Cahxtus 11., in 1119. The austerities practised at Citeaux seemed at first to threaten the community with extinction. The accession of St. Bernard with thirty young men, mostly of noble birth, gave it new life. The order now began to flourish. Within the next three years, the four famous monasteries of La Ferte, Pon- tigny, Clairvaux, and Morimond were fcninded. By the middle of the twelfth century, the number of abbeys had increased to five hundred; 490 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. & century later to eighteen hundred. A monastery of Cistercian nuns was founded by Abbot Stephen, in 1125. St. Robert died, in 1110. 440. Premonstratensians. About the same time, 1119, St. Norbert founded his order of regular canons, in the valley of Premontre, near Laon. Norbert gave to his followers the white habit and the Rule of St. Augustine, with certain constitutions framed by himself, and en- joined on them study, the office of preaching, and the care of souls. The order, which was approved by Pope Honorius II., in 1126, ex- tended itself throughout Europe, and its labors were especially blessed in Germany and the Northern kingdoms. There were at one time a thousand Premonstratensian abbeys. St. Norbert died archbishop of Magdeburg, in 1134. 441. Order of FontevrauU. This order was founded by Robert of Abrissel, in 1094. Robert was professor of theology at Paris, and coadjutor to the bishop of Rennes; but divesting himself of these em- ployments, he retired into the forest of Craon and built a monastery at La Roe. Urban 11. confirmed his institution and, appointing him apostolic missionary, ordered him to preach the First Crusade. In 1100, Robert founded at Fontevrault, on the Vienne, two monasteries — one for men, the other for women — and gave their inmates the Rule of St. Augustine for their guidance. He dedicated his order to the glory and honor of the Blessed Virgin; and following the example of our Lord, who, when dying, committed St. John to the care of His Mother, he placed all his convents, including those of men, under the jurisdiction of the abbess of Fontevrault. The order was approved by Pope Paschal II., in 1113, and soon spread over the continent of Europe. It numbered several thousand monks and nuns at the death of the founder, in 1117. SECTION LXXII. MENDICANT ORDERS. Mendicants— St. Dominic — His Mission to the Albigenses— His Order of Preachers — Tertiary Order of St. Dominic — St. Francis of Assisi-^His Order— Poor Clares— Third Order of St. Francis— Carmelites— Augustin- ian Hermits- Servites — St. Juliana Falconieri — Minims — St. Francis of Paola. 442. To crush the dangerous errors of the Albigenses and other sectaries, who contemned the authority of the Church, declaring her sinful and corrupt, apostolic men were needed, who should by word and example win back the erring, and who, to outward poverty and austerity of life, should unite» the most perfect faith and loyalty to the Church. Such men God now sent by means of the Mendicant Orders. I MENDICANT ORDERS. 491 These are distinguished from the earlier orders by their object as well as by their rule. To a life of contemplation they unite an active course of teaching and preaching; and not the individual members only, but the communities also live on alms, whence they are called Mendicant, or begging, orders. 443. Dominicans. The founder of this celebrated order, St. Do- minic, was bom, in 1170, in Spain. After completing his studies, he was ordained a priest by Diego, bishop of Osma. Soon after being appointed canon, he preached with great power and success in many places. In 1104, he accompanied his bishop, who was a man of great earnestness and piety, on a mission to France. The southern provinces of that country were then infected with the heresies of the Albigenses. With the sanction of Pope Innocent III., Diego and Dominic devoted themselves to the conversion of these heretics. The former being obliged to return to his diocese, Dominic continued the mission alone with much zeal and fruit. It was then that our saint propagated the use of the Holy Rosary, which was revealed to him in a vision by the Blessed Virgin. 444. Mteij spending ten years in this toilsome mission, St. Domi- nic, in 1215, founded a new order, the chief object of which should be to furnish to the Church zealous preachers and missionaries for the instruction of the faithful, and the conversion of the heretics. He selected the Rule of St. Augustine for the use of his order, adding certain statutes, which were borrowed chiefly from those of the Pre- monstratensians. The habit which he gave to his religious* was a white tunic and scapular, with a long black mantle from which they were called " Black Friars." Pope Honorius III., in 1216, approved the new society under the title of " Preaching Friars " {Fratres Praedi- catores). The same Pontiff appointed Dominic "Master of the sacred Palace " (Magister sacri Palatii "), which office to this day is held by a member of the order. 445. About this time also St. Dominic founded an order for wo- men, to whom he gave the rule of the Friars, and a Tertiary Order {Ordo militiae Christi) for people living in the world. St. Catharine of Siena, and St. Rosa of Lima both belonged to this Third Order. The order of the Preaching Friars spread everywhere; in 1221, it numbered already sixty convents, which were divided into eight pro- vinces. Whilst missionaries of this order were preaching the Gospel with much zeal and fruit to both Christians and heathen, many of their brethren were laboring as professors and teachers in the univer- sities and public schools. St. Dominic died, in 1221, leaving his order firmly planted in Europe. This order has contributed to the Church, 492 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. besides countless Saints, three Popes, sixty cardinals, about a hundred and fifty archbishops, and upwards of eight hundred bishops. 446. Franciscans. This order is named after its founder, St. Fran- cis of Assisi, who was born in 1182. When twenty-five years old, Francis left his father's house to embrace a life of strict poverty. Many disciples soon gathered around him, and their number^ induced him to draw up for them a common rule of life, of which absolute poverty is the essential principle. Not only were the individual members for- bidden to hold any property whatever, but neither could they hold any as a community, and were wholly dependent for their subsistence on the charity of the Christian people. The habit which Francis gave his followers was a gray gown of coarse cloth, with a cowl attached to it, whence they were also called " Gray Friars." Honorius III. solemnly confirmed the order, in 1223. 447. The new order founded by St. Francis made wonderful progress. The little chapel of our Lady of the Angels, called Porti- uncula, near Assisi, became its central house. From this humble be- ginning thousands of monasteries were planted in all parts of Chris- tendom. At the first general chapter, held at Assisi in 1219, upwards of five thousand friars were present. Besides his order for men, St. Francis founded one also for women, commonly called Poor Glares, after St. Clara of Assisi, who was the first of her sex to embrace this manner of life. In 1224, St. Francis gave a written rule to St. Clara and her community, which was approved by Innocent IV, in 1246. "Within a few y^ars the order had spread in Italy, France, and Spain. In ad- dition to these two orders, St. Francis founded the Third Order, for persons living in the world and desirous of sharing the privileges and graces of the religious state. St. Louis IX. of France, and St. Elisa- beth of Hungary both belonged to this order. St. Francis, after re- ceiving the sacred stigmata, or marks of our Lord's Passion, died in 1226. 448. Carmelites. A crusader, Berthold of Calabria, is regarded as the founder of the Carmelite Order. With a few companions, he re- tired, in 1156, to the Mount of Carmel, in Palestine, where they lived as hermits in separate cells. The increasing number of his followers made it necessary to build a monastery. The rule composed for the use of the order by Albert, patriarch of ^Terusalem, was approved by Pope Honorius III., in 1226. The conquest of Palestine by the Sara- cens, made it impossible for the Carmelites to live there in peace ; they passed into Europe and established themselves in various countries. In 1247, Innocent TV. confirmed them as a Mendicant Order under the title of "Order of Friars of our Lady of Mount Carmel." From their MENDICANT ORDERS. 493 white cloak and scapular, they became popularly known as " White Friars." Under St. Simon Stock, an Englishman, its sixth General, the order was rapidly extended. To this saint is ascribed the intro- duction of the Scapular. 449. Augustinian Hermits. These Hermits regard the great St. Augustine of Hippo as their patron and the composer of their rule, if not as their founder. In 1256, Pope Alexander IV. united several ex- isting religious communities under the title of " Hermits of St. Augus- tine," giving to them the rule ascribed to that Father. Lanfranco Sep- tola of Milan became their first General. They were regarded as fri- ars, and Pius V. aggregated them to the other Mendicant Orders, in 1567. 450. Servites. The "Order of the Servants of the Blessed Virgin," commonly called Servites, owes its origin to the zeal and piety of seven Florentine merchants. After distributing their goods to the poor, they retired to Monte Senario, near Florence, where they dwelt in cells as hermit^. This was in 1233, which is regarded as the date of the foundation ' of the order. They subsequently became a monastic community under the special patronage of the Blessed Virgin. They ivdopted the Augustinian Rule, and for their habit a black tunic with a scapular and cape of the same color. Under St. Philip Beniti, the tifth general, the order spread rapidly, chiefly in Italy and Germany. St. Juliana Falconieri is regarded as the foundress of the Servite Third Order. The Servites were approved by Alexander r\^, in 1255. Inno- cent Vili. declared the Servites a Mendicant Order, bestowing on them the privileges enjoyed by the other Mendicants. 451. MiniTYis. This name is commonly given to the religious of the order of ^linim-Hermits. founded by St. Francis of Paola, about the year 1436. The rule of this order surpasses even that of the jVIinorites, or Franciscans, in austerity; to the usual three monastic vows, St. Francis added as a fourth, perpetual Lent and abstinence, not only from meat, but also from eggs and milk. In 1473, Pope Sixtus IV. gave his sanction to the new congregation, and named Francis its first superior-general. In 1495, Pope Alexander VI. form- ally confirmed the community as a Mendicant Order under the title of " iMinim-Hermits," giving it all the privileges possessed by the Mendi- cant Friars. Notwithstanding its extreme severity, the order spread rapidly through Italy, France, and Sj^ain; within a few years it num- bered four hundred and fifty convents for men, and fourteen for women. St. Francis, who died in 1507, was canonized in 1519 by LeoX. 494 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH SECTION LXXni. MILITARY ORDERS OTHER RELIGIOUS CONGREGATIONS. Knights of St. John — Templars — Teutonic Knicchts — Brotliers of the Sword — Order of Calatrava — Order of San Ja«2:o — Trinitarians — Order of Mercy — Antonines — Hospitallers — Cellites — Gilbertines — Humiliati— Celestin- ians — Bridgittines — Olivetans — Oblates — Beguines — Jeronymites — Clerks and Brothers of the Common Life. 452. Knights of St. John. The crusades gave rise to the establish- ment of the religious military orders, which were formed in Palestine, and became one of the chief bulwarks of the Christian power in the East. The Knights of St. John, otherwise called Hospital er, " The Institutes of the Christian Religion^'* {Institutio Heligionis Christiance)^ which he dedicated to the French king, Francis I. In this work, Calvin, with much skill and learning, elaborates his. religious system, which is based on the stern theory of Predestination. 147. At the instance of Farel, Calvin, in 1536, settled at Geneva, as preacher and professor of theology. Here he exercised a controlling influence, even in temporal affairs. He compelled the people to abjure the Papacy, abolished all church festivals, and introduced rigid regulations of discipline. His arbitrary and despotic measures aroused a strong opposition against him, which resulted in his expul- sion from the town. He went to Strasburg, where he married, and organized a congregation which adopted his tenets and discipline. His party at Geneva, having meanwhile gained the ascendency, recalled him, in 1541, and from this time Calvin ruled Geneva with supreme command, exercising an absolute power in temporal as well as in spiritual matters. He established a Consistory, or tribunal of morals, composed of twelve laymen and six ministers, whose office it was to take cognizance of all infractions of morality, including even dancing and similar amusements. Imprisonment and severe penalties were often inflicted for slight offences. Public worship was organized with extreme simplicity, preaching and instruction forming the chief part thereof. Images, and all sorts of decorations were excluded from the churches. The constitution of the Calvinistic sect was rigidly Presbyterian. 148. The distinguishing characteristic of Calvinism is the doctrine of absolute predestination. According to this doctrine, God ordains some to everlasting life, others to everlasting punishment. The decree of predestination, the consequence of Adam's fall, is eternal and immutable. The whole nature of fallen man is utterly corrupt, and devoid of all goodness; man has an unconquerable tendency to da wrong. As man is acting under divine impulse which is irresistible, it follows that there can be no question of merits foreseen on account of which God predestines some to salvation, others to eternal damna- i GAL Vims TIC MO VEMENT. 651 tion. With Luther, Calvin taught justification by faith alone, which, according to him, consisted not in man's real sanctification, but in the guilt of sin not being imputed to him. With Zwingle, he agreed in teaching that the Lord's Supper was a figure only, of the Body and Blood of Christ. He denied transubstantiation, but held that at the moment of communion, a divme power, emanating from the Body of Christ, which is now in heaven, is communicated, but only to those predestined to eternal life. 149. Calvin could brook no contradiction. His language was. often quite as vulgar and coarse as that of Luther. In his '• Insti- tutes," he calls his adversaries " wicked men, rogues, drunkards, slanderers, fools, madmen, furious beasts, impure dogs, pigs, asses, and vile slaves of Satan." The opposition party, who went under the name of " Libertines, or Patriots," charging him with tyrannizing over the c©nsciences of men, were made to feel the full force of his dictatorial power. Sebastian Castellio, a famous preacher and trans- lator of the Bible, and Bolsec, a physician, were banished from Geneva, for disputing the doctrine of predestination. Members of the Council were imprisoned for speaking disrespectfully of the "Reformer," while the preacher, James Gruet,who had called him a dog and the Consistory tyrannical, was tortured and beheaded, in 1547, by Calvin's order. In 1553, Calvin had Michael Servetus, a Spanish physician, burnt at Geneva, over a slow fire, for his work against the Trinity.^ The "Libertine," Berthilier, underwent a like punishment. Valentine Gentilis, who accused Calvin of heresy against the Trinity, was compelled to apologize publicly ; but was nevertheless beheaded at Berne, in 1566. Nor was this intolerance confined to the city of Geneva ; the new gospel was forcibly introduced also among the peasantry, who were compelled to listen to the sermons of the "reformed" preachers. Abstinence on Friday and Saturday was punished with imprisonment. 150. To insure permanency to his system, Calvin founded at Geneva an academy of theology and philosophy, in 1558. Young^ men, from all countries of Europe, flocked to this nursery and semi- 1. Calvin justified the burning of Servetus in a special work, and his deed was approved by Beza, and by Melanehton in a letter he wrote to him and in a special treatise. Gibbon saj's: " I am more deeply scandalized at the single execution of Serve- tus than at the hecatombs (?) which have blazed in the Auto da Fes of Spain and Portugal. 1. The zeal of Calvin seems to have been envenomed by personal malice and perhaps of. envy. 2. The deed of cruelty was not varnished by the pretence of danger to the Church or State. In his passage through Geneva, Servetus was a harmless stranger, who neither preached, nor printed, nor made proselytes. 3. A Catholic inquisitor yields the same obedience which he requires, but Calvin proscribed in Servetus the guilt of his own rebellion." Decline and Fall. Chap. liv. Note. 553 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. nary of the "reformed faith." The ecclesiastical organization of Calvin became the model for other Protestant countries. It was adopted by the reformed Churches of France, Holland, Germany, Poland, England, and Scotland. In all these countries the Calvinistio principles prepared popular insurrections against the lawfully consti- tuted authorities. Calvin openly preached armed resistance to princes who opposed the introduction of his "gospel," and defended the proposition that the people might take up arms and expel or depose their rulers, if they were bad or hostile, or threatened their "religion." Calvin died in 1564. Theodore Beza, his faithful friend and biographer, succeeded him in the government of the " reformed Church." 151. A more cheerless and repulsive system than that of Calvin, ■ecclesiastical history does not record. It outrages the principles of natural as well as revealed religion. How revolting the doctrine which calls God the author of all evil and makes him issue forth his decrees of election or reprobation, irrespective of merit or demerit, inflicting eternal torments on innumerable souls which never could be saved, and for whom the Son of God did not die ! No system of pretended religion could go further in atrocity than this. It generated in its disciples a spirit of arrogant self-sufficiency, which made them I)elieve that all men, not belonging to their sect, were the enemies of God and had God for their enemy, and look upon them as the neces- sary objects of the blind wrath of God, cast off by him and reprobate from all eternity, for whom " the elect " can feel no more pity than for the arch-fiend himself. The " Papists," in particular, were worse than idolaters, and to root them out was only to render a service to God. Happily, in our titiies, theserevolting doctrines have been radi- cally modified, having long since lost their hold on Protestants of the better class. DIVORCE QUESTION. 553 III. THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND. SECTION XV. HENRY VIII. (a. D. 1509 1547) — THE DIVORCE QUESTION. Accession and Marriage of Henry VIII.— Cardinal Wolsey — Henry's contro- versial Answer to Luther — His early married Life with CathariDe of Arragon — Anne Boleyn — The King's Scruples — A Divorce demanded of the Pope— Pliable Bishops— The Pope refuses to decree Nullity of Marriage — Appoints Legates to hear the Cause — Appeal of the Queen — The Pope inhibits a New Marriage— Wolsey's Disgrace— His Death — Thomas Cranmer — Opinions of the Universities — Remonstrance of Lords and Commons — The Pope prohibits Sentence of Divorce — The King separates from the Queen— Death of Queen Catharine. 152. England continued to hold communion with the Roman See, until the criminal passions of Henry YIII. produced a violent schism and prepared the way for the present Anglican Establishment. Henry VIII. was the second son of Henry VII. His elder brother, Prince Arthur of Wales, born in 1488, was married to the Princess Catharine of Arragon, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, in 1501; he died three months afterwards. Henry YII., desirous of maintaining the family alliance with the House of Spain and, unwilling to restore Catharine's rich dowry, looked forward to a marriage between his widowed daughter-in-law and his younger son Henry. Such a marriage being within the forbidden degrees, a dispensation was applied for, and given by Pope Julius 11. Dec. 26. 1502. Yet the marriage was not celebrated till six weeks after the death of the old king, in 1509. 153. Henry YIII.'s chief adviser was Thomas Wolsey, who, by his abilities and by royal favor rose to the highest dignities in Church and State. Born at Ipswich, in 1471, young Wolsey was educated at Magdalen College, Oxford, where he obtained his degree when hardly fifteen. Wolsey soon secured the notice of Henry YII., who made him dean of Lincoln. His advancement, under Henry YHI., was rapid and brilliant. He became almoner to the king, and in quick succession was promoted to the bishopric of Lincoln, the archbishopric of York, and the office of Lord Chancellor, which dignities were crowned, in 1515, by the reception of a cardinal's hat from Pope Leo X. and the appointment to be Legatus a latere for England. He was devoted to the interest of the king, more so yet, perhaps, than to those of the Church, and was bent upon exalting the royal authority. 154. In his earlier years, Henry YIH. had been remarkable for his attachment to the religion of his forefathers and his zeal in upholding the ancient faith against the new heretics. He took a prominent 554 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. position against LiUther, not onl}^ by prohibiting his books within the English dominions, but also by entering the lists against the German Reformer. In 1521, he published a Latin treatise, entitled "^ Defence of the Seven Sacraments against Martin Luther^'''' which he dedicated to the Pope. The book received the highest approval of the Pontiff, who conferred upon its author the title of "Defender of the Faith," a title which neither Henry nor his successors have deemed it inconsistent to retain to the present day ! ^ 155. During more than seventeen years, Henry lived with his queen without the least sign of a scruple respecting the validity of their marriage. While her union with Arthur had never been con- summated, Catharine bore Henry five children; but they all died in their infancy, except one daughter, afterwards. Queen Mary. During this period Henry proved anything but a faithful husband. An illegitimate son, Henry Fitz-Roy, by Elizabeth Blunt, was created Duke of Richmond, and educated as heir-apparent, but he died at the age of seventeen. 156. Among the fairest and gayest ladies of the royal court, was Anne Boleyn, who soon won the heart of Henry. But as Anne was resolute in her determination not to be the king's mistress, although she was not unwilling to become his wife and queen, a desire for a divorce all at once took possession of Henry's mind. He affected scruples respecting the validity and lawfulness of his marriage, believ- ing that he was living in sinful wedlock, because he was married to his brother's wife, and that Providence had cut off his male progeny in punishment of his sinful connection. By whose suggestion, the idea of a divorce was first presented to the king, it is not easy to determine. Some point to the French king; others, to Wolsey; while Cardinal Pole states that Anne Boleyn herself suggested it, by means of certain friends at court. 157. From the year 1527, we find Henry pressing Pope Clement "VII. to grant a divorce. He sought to establish his case on three grounds: — 1. That the bull of Julius H., granting the dispensation, had been obtained under false pretences; — 2. That it had been solicited with- out the consent of Henry, the party chiefly interested in it; — 3. That no dispensation could legalize marriage with a brother's widow, because 1, "That the treatise In defence of the seven sacraments, which the king published, ■was his own composition, is forcibly asserted by himself; that it was planned, revised, and improved by the superior judgment of the cardinal and the bishop of Kochester (Wolsey and Fisher), was the opinion of the public"— Lingard. It has been very generally admitted that Fisher, if he was not the author, had at least a considerable hand in the work. He also published a Defence of the king's treatise against Luther's "Captivity of Babylon." DIVORCE QUESTION. 555 such a union, from the plain testimony of the Scripture (Lev. xviii. ]6, and xx. 21, and Marc. vi. 18.), was forbidden by the law of God, and consequently beyond the power of even the Holy See to allow. Consulting only his passion, the licentious prince would not notice that the Baptist declared it unlawful for Herod " to have his brother's i(;i/e," only because her husband was still living; and that among the Jews leviratical marriage was even commanded by the Law of Moses. 158. The English bishops, with one exception, were all found pliant to favor the scheme of the divorce. That one exception was Bishop Fisher of Rochester, who always expressed himself strongly against the divorce, maintaining that what had been done by the Pope's dispensation could not now be undone. Henry's envoys at Rome, Dr. Gardiner and Dr. Fox, left no stone unturned to extort from the Pope immediate consent to the divorce, or a permission for the king to remarry without any divorce at all. But neither pleadings, nor promises, nor threats, could move Clement to grant Henry's most unjust request; neither would he issue a decretal bull declaring that the pro- hibition in Leviticus admitted of no exception or dispensation. 159. The Pope, however, granted a dispensation to Henry, in case the former marriage proved to be invalid, to marry any person, even if she were related to him in the first degree of affinity.^ He, moreover, consented to have the case tried in England, and appointed Cardinals Campeggio and Wolsey, his legates, to examine into the facts upon which Henry rested his application. Campeggio, who held the English bishopric of Salisbury, had been asked for as judge in the divorce case, from the belief that he would favor the king's cause. He bore special instructions from the Pope to bring about, if possible, a reconciliation between Henry and the Queen, but under no circum- stances to pronounce sentence before consulting the Holy See. 160. After long delays, the two legates opened their court in the Parliament chamber at the Blackfriar's palace and summoned the King and the Queen to attend in person, on June 18, 1529. But the Queen disdained to plead before the legates, who being English sub- jects, were looked upon as the king's partisans. Following the advice of Bishop Fisher, her counsellor, Catharine appealed to the Pope. The Pontiff having received the formal appeal of the Queen, avoked 1. "This dispensation," says Canon Flanagan (Vol. II. p. 37, note) "evidently refers to AnneBoleyn; and as it was to relax the impediment of even the first degree of afllnity, it points to the known fact of Mary Boleyn, Anne's sister, having- been the royal con- cubine. What a face of brass must Henry have had, to pretend to have a scruple at the supposition of being within the first degree of affinity to his queen Catharine, and yet having none to enter upon a marriage with Anne Boleyn, whom he knew well, thi-ough his own sinful connection with her sister Mary, to be in that very same first degree of aflGinity." 556 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. the cause before himself by brief of July 15, 1529. This was followed on March 7, 1530, by an inhibition, interdicting the English monarch from marrying while the divorce case was yet under adjudication. 161. The Pope's action in thus remanding the case having put an end to the trial. Cardinal Campeggio returned to Rome, Henry now became furious; his wrath fell at once on Wolsey, to whose indecision, chiefly, Anne Boleyn attributed the failure of the royal plans. Prose- cuted in 1529, under the "Statute of Prgemunire," "Wolsey was deprived of the Great Seal, and all his personal property, which was declared forfeited to the Crown; in his place Sir Thomas More became Lord Chancellor. The year after, Wolsey was again arrested on the charge of high treason. On his way to London, the fallen minister died at Leicester, Nov. 29, 1530, uttering a little before his death these remark- able words: " Had I but served my God as faithfully as I have served my king. He would not have thus abandoned me in my gray hairs. But this is my just reward for my pains and study, not regarding my service to God, but only my duty to my prince." 162. To bring further pressure to bear on the Pope, Henry, by the advice of Thomas Cranmer, domestic chaplain of the Boleyn family, had the question of the papal power to grant a dispensation for a marriage with a brother's widow, submitted to the chief universities of Europe. Through the influence of bribes and intrigues, a favorable reply was wrung from Oxford and Cambridge and a few French uni- versities, while those of Germany, including even the Protestant faculties, condemned the divorce.^ In the place of these opinions, which fell short of his expectations, Henry deemed it more prudent to substitute a menacing remonstrance to the Holy See, subscribed by a large body of Lords and Commoners, in which complaint was made of the Pope's partiality and tergiversation. Clement replied, justifying himself as acting according to law and conscience; and to meet the interference of the universities, the Pope, in 1531, issued a brief, by which he inhibited any person or court from pronouncing sentence of divorce between Henry and his lawful Queen, and reserved the cause to himself. 163. About this time the final separation between Henry and his Queen took place. Catharine being ordered to leave the royal palace, removed to Ampthill, where she spent the remainder of her life. She was no longer treated as Queen, but as princess-dowager. 1. Luther and Melanchton openly condemned Henry's plan of divorce. The former declared that he would rather allow the king-, after the example of the patriarchs, two wives than sanction the divorce. Melanchton was of the same opinion, and further added: "We believe the law of not marrying a brother's wife may be dispensed with, although we do not believe it to be abolished !" r ROYAL SUPREMACY. 557 Henry did not cease trying to procure from her the resignation of her rights as his wife and Queen and the withdrawal of her appeal to the Pope. But she remained firm in her just contention that she was the king's wife by decree of the Holy See and lawful marriage, and, until the Court of Rome declared against her marriage, she would maintain her rights as wife and Queen. She died in 1536; on her death-bed she wrote to her " Dear Husband and King " a touching letter, assuring him of her forgiveness, and commending to his care their daughter Mary. SECTION XVI. HENEY VIII., CONTINUED ESTABLISHMENT OF ROYAL SUPREMACY. Henry wavers, but is confirmed in his Resolution — Thomas Cromwell — The Clergy in Praemunire — The Convocation of 1531— Acknowledges the King Head of the Church — Submission of the Clergy — The Pope writes to Henry — Appeals to Rome forbidden— Henry marries Anne Boleyn — Cranmer made Archbishop — He pronounces a Divorce — The Pope annuls it — Excommunication of Henry — Act of Supremacy — Statutes respecting the Church— Separation of England from the Catholic Church. 164. AH expedients to obtain the much desired divorce had been exhausted. Henry saw that it was impossible to overcome the opposition of the Queen and of her imperial nephew, Charles V., and that it was equally vain to expect the consent of the Pope. He impudently complained that he had been deceived by the false assur- ance that the papal approbation might be easily obtained! He began to waver, and thought of abandoning the project of divorce altogether, when the crafty Cromwell induced him to persist. This bold and unscrupulous advice gave a new turn to events, which led the way to the entire separation of England from the See of Rome. 165. Thomas Cromioell^ born of obscure parentage, served in his early youth as a common soldier in the wars of Italy. Returning to England, he studied law and entered the service of Wolsey, who employed him as his agent in suppressing the smaller monasteries for the endowment of various colleges which the Cardinal had founded. In this occupation Cromwell was unscrupulous and became very unpopular. On the fall of Wolsey, he passed over to the service of the king. In a private interview with Henry, Cromwell advised him to disavow the papal authority, declare himself head of the Church within his realm, and obtain a divorce from his own ecclesiastical courts! The advice struck Henry; he made the artful man a member of the Privy Council, and soon afterwards a Secretary of State. 166. To secure the submission of the clergy to the scheme contrived 558 HISTOBY OF THE CHURCH. by Cromwell, Henry threatened them with the penalties of Praemunire. A year had passed since Wolsey, through pusillanimity or motives of prudence, had, notwithstanding the royal license under the great seal, pleaded guilty of a breach of that monstrous statute. On the ground of his conviction, the whole clergy were brought under the same law, because, by admitting Wolsey's legatine authority, they had become his "fautors and abettors," and were consequently liable to the same penalties. 167. Henry, at the suggestion of Cromwell, determined to use the opportunity for the purpose of exacting from the clergy a definite declaration of the royal supremacy. In 1531, the Convocation was held, and its members were told that pardon for their offence could be purchased only by the payment of a heavy fine and by the acknowl- edgment of the King as " the chief protector and only supreme head of the clergy and Church of England." To the first demand, the assembled prelates consented at once, promising to pay a hundred thousand pounds (in modern money about one million and a half ) ; against the second they struggled hard, but finally assented to a qualified recognition of the royal supremacy "as far as the law of Christ would allow " (quantum per Christi legem licet). 168. Thus the Convocation officially recognised the supremacy of the Crown over all persons, ecclesiastical as well as secular. This incidental declaration of the royal supremacy was followed in the succeeding year by its more positive acknowledgment, which is generally known as " the Submission of the Clergy." By it, the Convocation agreed: — 1. That no new canons or constitutions should be passed or enacted without the king's sanction; — 2. That a review of the existing canons should be made by a Commission of thirty-two persons, to be appointed by the king, and that all constitutions inter- fering with the royal prerogative should be repealed. In 1534, this submission was embodied in an act of Parliament, called the " Statute of Submission.'*'* 169. When the tidings reached the Pope that Catharine was banished from court and that Anne Boleyn occupied her place, he wrote to the king, attempting to awaken in him some sense of justice and feelings of penitence. In November 1532, Clement signed a brief, declaring Henry excommunicated if he did not separate from his mistress, and forbidding marriage with her till the case was tried. But the time was past when Henry sought conciliation; he now resorted to intimidation. At his bidding, Parliament, in 1533, forbade all appeals to the papal court, and, on a petition of the clergy in convention, granted power to the king to suspend the payment of r 1 ) BOYAL SUPREMACY. 559 annates, or first-fruits, to the Holy See. The Convocation even prayed that, in case the Pope should persist in requiring such payments, the obedience of England should be withdrawn from the See of Rome. ITO. Henry had gone too far to retrace his steps. On January 25, 1533, he was privately married to Anne Boleyn, who was found to be with child. The ceremony was performed by Dr. Rowland Lee, one of the royal chaplains. The marriage, however, was carefully kept secret, in order not to intercept the papal confirmation for the appoint- ment of Cranmer to the See of Canterbury, which had become vacant by the death of Archbishop Warham, in 1 532, Clement YII. confirmed Cranmer's nomination and his consecration took place in March 1533. Cranmer accepted the office of Archbishop, and by his proctor at Rome swore obedience to the Pope, and made a solemn profession of the Cath- olic faith, which pledges he gave personally again at his consecration. Yet, before receiving that solemn rite, the deceitful prelate in the presence of witnesses swore, that by the oath of obedience to the Pope, which,for the sake of form he was to take, he did not intend to bind himself to anything contrary to the law of God, or prejudicial to the rights and prerogatives of the king, or prohibitory of such reforms as he might deem useful to the Church of England! 171. Cranmer suited,in every respect, the wishes of the king. He bad shown his zeal for the royal cause in writing a book in favor of the " Divorce." While in Germany, he was infected with the teaching of Luther, and, though a priest, was secretly married to the daughter of Osiander, a prominent " Reformer," — a marriage, which he ever took great pains to conceal. The first act of the new primate was the divorce of Henry from his lawful Queen. He at once laid the question of the king's marriage before the Convocation, which voted, that, marriage with a brother's widow being contrary to the law of God, the dispensation of Pope Julius II. had been beyond the papal power, and the marriage which it authorized was void. Despite the prohib- itory brief of the Pope, Cranmer, in May 1533, pronounced his decision, declaring that the marriage with Catharine was void and the union with Anne Boleyn a lawful wedlock. The new Queen was shortly after crowned by him with great pomp. On Sept. 7, she gave birth to a daughter, Elizabeth. 172. When the report of Cranmer's proceedings reached Ropie, Pope Clement, by brief of July 12th, promptly annulled the presump- tuous judgment, and declared that Henry and Anne had incurred excommunication. To forestall the papal sentence, the king and his primate had appealed to a General Council. In the spring of the following year, the Pope published his long-delayed decision, which 660 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH asserted the lawfulness of Catharine's marriage, condemned the pro- ceedings against the Queen of injustice, and commanded Henry ta restore her to her rights. Yet, not to imperil the condition of the English Catholics, Clement refrained from further measures. But his successor, Paul III., on Aug. 30. 1535, signed a bull formally declaring Henry excommunicated, his children, by Anne, illegitimate and incap- able of inheriting the Crown, and the king's subjects free from their oath of allegiance and fidelity. The papal sentence, however, was not published till December 1538. 173. The annulment of Henry's adulterous union with Anne Boleyn by the papal court, was the signal for more decisive measures against the See of Rome. The king and Parliament united to complete the national schism. A series of acts were passed, in 1534, abolishing- papal jurisdiction in the realm, and making the king " Supreme Head of the English Church.'*^ By the " Act of Supremacy "^ authority in all matters ecclesiastical was vested solely in the Crown, and by the " Oath of Supremacy,'''* enforced by the same act, all officers, civil and ecclesiastical, were required to recognise the spiritual supremacy of the king, and abjure that of the Pope; those refusing to take the oath were adjudged guilty of high treason. 1Y4. By another act, the election of bishops was indeed conceded to the chapters, but they were, with bitter irony, commanded, on pain of Praemunire, always to choose the person named by the king in his letters missive. The archbishop of Canterbury was empowered to grant dispensations hitherto reserved to the Pope, and to receive appeals; from the archbishop's tribunal, suitors were allowed to appeal to the royal chancery. The Pope's name was no longer heard in the land; it was erased from all church books. The clergy were commanded to preach the new doctrine of "royal supremacy" to the people, and the schoolmasters to teach the same to their pupils. It is a sadly amazing fact that the English bishops, with the one exception already named, were found so pliable as to endorse these innovations by declaring, in 1534, that "the Bishop of Rome had no more authority conferred on him by God in this Kingdom of England than any other foreign bishop." 1. The "Statute of Supremacy" ordered that the king- "shall be taken, accepted, and reputed the only head on earth of the Church of England, and shall have and enjoy annexed and united to the imperial crown of his realm as well the title and state thereof as all the honors, jurisdictions, authorities, immunities, profits, and commodities to the said dignity belonging, with full power to visit, repress, redress, reform and amend all such errors, heresies, abuses, contempts and enormities, which by any manner of spiritual authority or jurisdiction might or may lawfully be reformed."— To solace the English monarch for the burden of his new dignity, he was assigned the flrst-f ruits of ah benefices, offices, and spiritual dignities, and the tenth of annual incomes of all livings. n VICTIMS OF ROYAL SUPREMACY. 581 SECTION XVII. VICTIMS OF EOYAL SUPEEMACY ENFORCED DISSOLU- TION OF MONASTERIES. Henry, Head of the English Church— Cromwell, Vicar General— Enslave- ment of the Episcopate — Dissolution of Monasteries — The Pilgrimage of Grace— Suppression of the Greater Monasteries— Act of Succession- Execution of Fisher and More— Cardinal Pole— Execution of Pole's Mother — Arrest and Execution of Anne Boleyn— Execution of Crom- well — Efforts of the German Reformers — The Book of Articles— The Statute of Six Articles — The " Institution of a Christian Man" — Execu- tions of Heretics — Death of Henry VHI — Number of Catholic Martyrs under his reign— Desire for Reunion with the Roman Church. 175. Henry soon made it appear that the novel position assigned him by his fawning courtiers really meant something. He formally took the title of "on earth, supreme ruler of the English Church," and appointed Cromwell "the royal vicar-general, vice-gerent, and principal commissary, with all the spiritual authority belonging to the king as head of the Church." To extort from the clergy a practical acknowledgment of the royal supremacy, all the dignitaries of the Church were suspended for a time; on their recognizing the king's {Spiritual authority, they were restored to the exercise of their usual powers. To repress opposition against these and other intended innovations, it was made high treason not only to deny to the king the dignity, title, or name, of his royal estate, but also to call him heretic, tyrant, or infidel. 176. A second step in the way of reform followed hard on the enslavement of the episcopate. The bold stand which the Carthu- sians and other religious had made against the royal assumption of spiritual authority, was not to be forgiven. Irritated by their oppo- sition and tempted by their wealth, Henry resolved on the ruin of all monasteries within his dominions. With this view, a general visita- tion of the monasteries was enjoined by the " head of the church," which work, the "royal vicar-general" accomplished in a manner worthy of a grasping tyrant. The effect of this visitation was the immediate breaking up of many monasteries and the passage of a bill, in 1536, for the suppression of the smaller monastic houses whose income fell below two hundred pounds a year. Of the thousand monasteries which then existed in England, nearly four hundred were suppressed under this first " Act of Dissolution;" their revenues were granted to the Crown. 177. These spoliations, but particularly the religious innovations introduced by Henry, created great popular discontent, which ripened into an open revolt, in 1537. The Pilgrimage of Grace, as the rising 9 683 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH was called, headed by Robert Aske, was joined by most cf the nobility of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire; 30,000 men appeared in arms, demanding a reunion with Rome, the restoration to Princess Mary of her right of succession, to the despoiled monks the posses- sion of their monasteries, reparation of the wrongs done to thy Church, and above all, the expulsion of Henry's chief counsellors, Cromwell and Cranmer. The king's promises and concessions induced the insurgents to disband. Instead, however, of keeping hisv pledged word, the faithless prince had the leaders of the movement arrested and put to death. The country was covered with gibbets and whole districts were given up to military executions. A heavy vengeance fell particularly on the clergy and monks who had in any way compromised themselves in the uprising. Twelve abbots were of the number of those brought to the scaffold. 178. The "Pilgrimage of Grace" was made a pretext for the suppression of the remaining monasteries. They were charged with duplicity in the late armed remonstrance. The new visitation appointed for all the monasteries of the kingdom was carried out with great barbarity. Many monuments of art were destroyed, valuable manuscripts and whole libraries scattered to the winds. The shrine of St. Augustine, the Apostle of England, and that of St. Thomas k Becket, which had been the glory of the English nation, were ransacked and despoiled. The bones of the latter, by order of the king, were exhumed and publicly burned, as a warning to the living of the consequences of resisting the king's spiritual authority. In 1540, a second " Act of Dissolution" was passed, authorizing the suppression of all monasteries in England and placing all their prop- erty in the hands of the king. In 1542, an act was passed giving over to the king the revenues of colleges and hospitals. By this act, 90 colleges, 110 hospitals, and 2,3*74 chantries and free-chapels were suppressed. It is supposed that the annual value of the monasteries and hospitals of which the king took possession was about two mil- lions four hundred thousand pounds in modern money. The suppres- sion of the monasteries failed, however, to benefit the nation or to lighten the burden of the people, as had been promised. Its most conspicuous results were the increase of pauperism and the decay of learning.* 1. "The suppression of monasteries poured in an Instant such a torrent of wealth upon the crown as has seldom been equalled In any country by the confiscations follow- ing- a subdued rebellion. The clear yearly value was rated at £ 181,607; but was in reality, if we believe Burnet, ten times as great; the courtiers undervaluing those estates in order to obtain grants or sales of them more easely. The greater part was dissipated in profuse grants to the courtiers, who frequently contrived to veil their acquisitions under i VICTIMS OF ROYAL SUPREMACY, 563 179. With unheard of cruelty, Henry persecuted all who op- posed his innovations. He stained his reign with the blood of many, often noble, victims. The " Act of Supremacy," as already stated, strongly intrenched the king in all his usurpations. The " Act of Succession," passed in 1534, pronounced the i^arriage with Catharine illegal and null, and that with Anne Boleyn lawful and valid. The same act annulled the title of Catharine's daughter, Mary, and settled the Crown on the children of Anne. To speak against the second marriage was made misprision of treason. The "Oath of Succession," which every Englishman was compelled to take under penalty of high treason, was made the test of loyalty. 180. Under these acts, England's two best men. Bishop Fisher of Rochester, the preceptor of Henry YIII., and Sir Thomas More who had lately resigned the chancellorship, were condemned, in 1535, to die as traitors, because of their disapproval of the king's divorce and their opposition to the royal supremacy. While a prisoner in the Tower, Fisher was created Cardinal by Paul III., but the king re- fused to allow the emblem of this dignity for the glorious confessor to be brought into his dominions. The ruthless monarch took a spite- ful revenge on his kinsman, Cardinal Reginald Pole. Rather than acquiesce in the religious changes, Pole gave up all prospects of the highest ecclesiastical preferments and retired to the continent. He even arraigned Henry for his second marriage and wrote a book on the " Unity of the Church^'' condemning royal supremacy. Failing to procure the extradition of the fearless champion of right, for which he had offered fifty thousand ducates, the tyrant had the cardinal's mother, the venerable Countess of Salisbury, his two brothers, and other relations, arrested and brought to the block, in 1539. 181. Henry VIII. was as brutal to his wives as he was cruel to his dissenting subjects. But a few months after the edifying death of Queen Catharine, her supplanter, Anne Boleyn, was suddenly charged with adultery and sent to the tower. The servile Cranmer, ever ready to lend himself to every caprice of the heartless monarch, declared null, from the beginning, the marriage of Henry with Anne which he himself had sanctioned. A few days later, the unfortunate queen was condemned and executed. Henry is said to have wept at the death of Catherine; but as if to show his contempt for the mem- ory of Anne, the heartless prince arrayed himself in white on the cover of a purchase from the crown. It has been surmised that Cromwell, in his desire to promote the Reformation, advised the king to make this partition of abbey lands to the nobles and g-entry, either by grant, or by sale on easy terms, that, being thus bound by the sureties of private interest, they might always oppose any return to the dominion of Rome." Jlallam. Constit. History. Ch. II. 564 BISTORT OF THE CHURCH. day of her execution, and on the following morning was married to the Lady Jane Seymour, with whom he already had an intrigue of some duration. In 1537, this queen died in giving birth to a boy, the future Edward YI. 182. By the advice of Cromwell, Henry now agreed to marry the Lutheran Princess Anne of Cleves. But the licentious monarch was disappointed in his new wife and sought to rid himself of her. This unsuccessful marriage hastened the downfall of Cromwell. He was arrested and condemned by "Bill of Attainder;"^ he perished on the scaifold, lamenting his sins and declaring that he died a Catholic, A. D. 1 540. His execution was quickly followed by the divorce of Henry's fourth queen. Cranmer, who dissolved the king's marriage with Catharine and the adulterous match with Anne Boleyn, was now called upon to divorce Henry from Anne of Cleves. "Within a month, Henry married Catharine Howard, who was shortly after arrested on a charge of adultery and beheaded. She was replaced by a widow, Catharine Parr, who, fortunately, outlived the royal monster. 183. So far Henry's innovations had not extended to dogma ; he had not affirmed any proposition then contrary to the defined teach- ings of the Catholic Church. He was only a schismatic, or separatist, inasmuch as his difference with Rome was confined to the rejection of papal jurisdiction and supremacy. The efforts of the German Re- formers to win the English monarch to embrace their cause and teach- ings were unavailing. The attempt to unite the Lutherans in one common doctrine with the Church of England, failed so soon as the Sacraments came under consideration, and a union with the continen- tal Protestants proved to be hopeless. 184. With a view of putting an end to the religious contentions, Henry VHL, in 1536, published the ^^Booh of Artides,^^ sls a standard of English orthodoxy! This work professed the belief of the seven Sacraments, Justification, Invocation of the Saints, Purgatory, and the usefulness of Images, but strongly inculcated royal supremacy and passive obedience to the king. This was shortly followed by " The 1. "A Bill of Attainder" was a legislative act. which declared a person or persons attainted or convicted for alleged crimes with judgment of death. The hearing of evidence might be dispensed with in such a mode of procedure; even the presence of the accused was considered unnecessary. The judges whom Cromwell consulted on the subject, decided that Parliament could condemn a man to die for treason without hearing him, and that an attainder could never be reversed in a court of law, on the ground that there can be no authority superior to statute. The kinsmen of Cardinal i'ole, Including his aged mother, were thus cut off by Bill of Attainder. By a just retri- bution of Providence, Cromwell himself was made to feel the iniquitous measure, which ho first employed against others. When under trial, he was not allowed to speak in his own defence. VICTIMS OF ROYAL SUPREMACY. 565 Godly and Tious Institution of a Christian Man,^^ commonly known as "TTie Bishop^s Book,^^ which was but an expansion and explanation of the "Articles." It consists of an Exposition of the Creed, the seven Sacraments, the Ten Commandments, the Lord's Prayer, and the Ave Maria.^ 185. Free discussion of dogmatic questions was not according to Henry VIII.'s views. To abolish diversion of opinions in certain articles concerning the Christian Religion, Henry, in 1539, caused Parliament to enact the Statute of Six Articles^ more commonly known as the "Bloody Statute," also as the "whip with six strings." These articles affirmed Transubstantiation, the reception of Holy Communion under one kind, Clerical Celibacy, the observance of Yows, private Masses, and Auricular Confession. By a statute of ]533, offences against the See of Rome were declared not to be heresy. The Bill of the Six Articles specified what opinions were heretical, and any infringement, or violation, of this statute was severely punished with forfeitures and death.^ Henry's last attempt to define a creed for his subjects was the publication, in 1543, of the ^^ Necessary Doctrine and Erudilimi for any Christened Manf'^ commonly known as the ^'King^s Booh.^^ It was an enlarged and amended edition of the "Institution." 186. It is nof the province of a compendium of history to men- tion all the barbarous executions which disgraced the reign of the tyrannical Henry VIII. Persecutions raged against Catholics and Lutherans alike. The former were hanged and quartered as traitors, the latter burned as heretics. An individual, named Lambert, was tried by the king in person, and condemned to be burned, for deny- ing the real presence. Twenty-six executions for heresy occurred between 1533 and 1546. In 1535, twenty-five German Anabaptists were tried, of whom fourteen were condemned to be burned. The unscrupulous Cranmer, under whose direction these trials were con- ducted, did not hesitate to condemn others to the stake for the denial of opinions which he himself afterwards rejected, when he had nothing more to fear. 1. "The Institution," Dr. Ling-ard says, "is chieflj' remarkable for the earnestness with which It refuses salvation to all persons out of the pale of the Catholic Church, yet denies the supremacy of the Pontiff and inculcates passive obedience to the king-. It teaches that no cause whatever can authorize the subject to draw the sword ag-ainst his prince; that sovereigns ax*e accountable to God alone; and that the only remedy ag-ainst oppression is to pray that God would changre the heart of the despot, and induce him to make a rig-ht use of his power." 2. Cranmer with other bishops at first offered much opposition to the enactment which enforced clerical celibacy, but, finally, in deference to the king-, voted for it. To avoid the consequences of the Statute, he despatched in haste his children, with their mother, to ber friends in Germany. 566 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH 187. Henry YIII. died in 1547, leaving his kingdom a moral and financial wreck. The last eighteen years of his reign were one con- tinued source of rapine, oppression, and bloodshed. During those years the tyrant sent to the scaffold a countless number of the nobility, clergy, country gentry, and many persons of other classes. He ordered the execution of two queens, two cardinals, two archbishops, eighteen bishops, thirteen abbots, five hundred friars and monks, thirty-eight doctors of divinity and law, one hundred and ten ladies, besides a great number of gentlemen and commoners. 188. A near contemporary, Nicholas Sanders, in his ^''History of the English Schism,^^ asserts that shortly before his death, King Henry Vni. contemplated a reconciliation with the Holy See. But the crowd of flatterers that surrounded him, afraid lest the return of the kingdom to the obedience of the Church would force them to part with the ecclesiastical lands, dissuaded the dying monarch from carrying out the design. Henry's three surviving children success- ively occupied his throne; but they all died childless, and his family became extinct. Thus Providence cut off the race of a powerful sovereign for abusing his authority to the prejudice of the Church. SECTION XVin. INTRODUCTION OF PROTESTANTISM UNDER EDWARD VI. (a. d. 1548 — 1553.) Accession of Edward VI — Council of Regency — Cranmer's Duplicity — New Commissions to the Bishops — Foreign Religionists— Religious Innova- tions—Book of Homilies — Laws respecting Religion— Book of Common Prayer — Articles of Religion — Code of Ecclesiastical Laws — The Mass- prohibited— The Majority of the Nation in favor of the old Religion- Cruel Laws against Paupers. 189. By an act of Parliament, passed in 1544, it had been provided that the crown should pass to Edward, Henry's son by Jane Seymour, and on Edward's death without issue, to Mary, the daughter of Catha- rine of Arragon. Should Mary die without issue, the crown was to go to Elizabeth, child of Anne Boleyn. At the same time power was granted to the king to make further provisions by will. As Edward was but nine years old, Henry had appointed a Council of regency, consisting of sixteen members, most of whom were men of the *'new learning," who were either friendly to the continental Reformers, or influenced by self-interest to acquiesce in their policy. But in defiance of this provision, the young king's uncle, Edward Seymour, Earl of Hertford, afterwards Duke of Somerset, had himself appointed ^' Protector of the king's dominions and governor of his person," and assumed supreme control of the realm. 190. Henry VIII. had no sympathy with the German Reformers I EDWARD VI. 56r he would allow of no change in religion, save the abolition of papal supremacy which he claimed for the Crown. Even Cranmer, though favoring the teaching of Luther and Melanchton, accomodated himself, externally at least, to the religious views of his monarch. It would have cost him his life, if he had acted otherwise. But no sooner had the old king died, than the wily prelate manifested his real sentiments. "This year," writes a contemporary, "the archbishop of Canterbury did eat meat openly in Lent in the Hall of Lambeth, the like ot which was never seen since England was a Christian country." 191. With the assistance of the royal Protector and foreign religion- ists — Bucer, Martyr, a'Lasco, Knox, and others^ — Cranmer under- took to change the religion of the English nation. Acknowledging that all authority, ecclesiastical and secular, emanated from the Crown, and that his powers had expired with the demise of the king, he petitioned the youthful successor to be restored to his former juris- diction, and compelled his brother bishops to do the same. This degrading act was followed by a rapid succession of sweeping changes. To prepare the way for the intended innovations, a general visitation of the Church was determined on, and a promise of obedience exacted from the clergy to a series of. insidious injunctions regarding faith and discipline. 192. By these injunctions, which were thirty-seven in number, bishops were inhibited from exercising their ordinary jurisdiction and all clergymen from preaching, unless under a special license from the Crown; preachers were strictly commanded to announce nothing from the pulpit beyond what was contained in the Book of Homilies^ and Erasmus' ^'Paraphrase on the New Testamentf images and even altara 1. Martin Bucer and Peter Martyr, two apostate friars, each living- in concubinage with a nun, came, the one from Strasburg-, the other from Florence, and wore appointed professors of Divinity at Cambridgre and Oxford respectively. They strong-ly opposed the doctrine of Christ's presence in the Eucharist as set forth in the "First Prayer-Book" of Edward VI., and most of the alterations suggested by Bucer in his book entlMed "A Censure," were adopted in the "Second Prayer-Book."— John a'Lasco, a Polish nobleman, was appointed "Superintendent" of all the foreigners in the metropolis, and nominated one of the thirty-two Royal Commissioners to frame new ecclesiastical laws. for the Established Church.— John Knox, the Scottish Reformer, became chaplain to the King and itinerant preacher throughout the kingdom; he was consulted on the composition of Cranmer's forty-two Articles — See Dr. Fr. G. Lee, King Edward VI., Supreme Head. 2. They were twelve in number, which had been prepared some years before by Cranmer, Bonner, and others, for Convocation. They now form the first part, or "former book" of the Homilies, authorized by the 3oth of the Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion. The Council issued a proclamation forbidding all sermons "till one uniform order be made for preaching. Meantime the clergy and people are to betake themselves to prayer and patient hearing of the godlj' Homilies." A second Book of Homilies was published in 1563. C68 HISTORY OF TEE CHURCH. were removed from the churches, and certain ceremonies and pious practices, which were alleged to be superstitious, were abolished. Parliament next, by a series of acts, abrogated the elective rights of chapters and substituted direct nomination of bishops by the Crown; it enacted that bishops should no longer act in their own name in matters ecclesiastical, but in the name, and as ministers, of the king; it repealed the Six Articles of Henry VIII.; ordered the administration of Com- munion under both kinds; and, finally, appropriated all funds and endowments of chantries, hospitals, colleges, free-chapels, and guilds, for the use of the Crown. 193. These changes prepared the English people for the two fatal measures, the adoption of a new liturgy and the abolition of clerical celibacy. *' The Book of Common Prayer and dhe Administration of the Sacraments,^'* as the new liturgy was called, soon replaced the Mis- sal and the Catholic Ritual. A rigorous ^^Act of Uniformity,^'' passed by Parliament, in 1549, ordered the use of the "Book of Common Prayer" on penalty of forfeiture of one year's revenue and six month's imprisonment, with heavier punishment for the repeated of- fenses,^ and all persons were commanded, under pain of imprison- ment, to attend the " reformed worship". A formal Statute of the same Parliament gave priests the right to marry. 194. To establish uniformity of belief, Cranmer was authorized to prepare a code of orthodox doctrines ! He drew up " Forty-two Articles of Religion,^'* setting forth the doctrines adopted by the " Re- formed English Church." The new profession of faith, which was a compilation of Catholic, Lutheran, and Calvinistic tenets, was ap- proved by Convocation, and, shortly before his death, ordered by the young king to be subscribed to by all schoolmasters, churchwardens, and clergymen. 195. To complete his work of "reform", Cranmer resolved on revis- ing the Canon Law, and composed " The Hejormation of Ecclesiastical LawsP In this new canon law, the belief in Transubstantiation, in the Supremacy of the Pope, and the denial of justification by faith alone, were declared herej^y, and all that refused to abjure such doc- trines, were to be consigned to the flames. But, fortunately, the new 1. This first Prayer-book of Edward VI., which was but a spoiled and mutilated translation of the Roman Missal and Breviary, leaving- out the very best parts, was re- vised and corrected within three years, because, althougrh done "by the aid of the Holy Ghost," It was found to contain several superstitious observances, such as the Invoca- tion of the Blessed Virg^in, Prayers for the dead, Exorcisms, Anointing: with oil in Bap- tism, and use of Vestments. The Prayer-book was abolished under Mary. Havlnjar been airh">rized ag-aln under Elizabeth, Parliament abolished It under the Commonwealth, l)ut subsequently sanctioned it. under Charles II. r EDWARD VI. SeO- code did not receive the royal sanction. Before it was completed, Edward VI. died, June 21, 1553. 196. The two rulers of England throughout the reign of Edward VI. — Somerset and Northumberland — headed the innovating party which eventually destroyed the Old Religion and obtruded a new one on the people whom they had duped and misled, and whom, by every means in their power, they compelled to conform to the worship of the new-fangled Church. The Mass was declared to be an act of rank blasphemy and sheer idolatry. To hear Mass was to participate in an idolatrous worship. To indirectly permit the Mass to be said, even privately, was to give license to sin and idolatry. Any one saying or hearing it, was liable to the sharpest and swiftest punish- ment. Hence all "massing priests," "mass-mongers," and "mass- hearers" were exposed to a most bitter and relentless persecution. 197. The great bulk of the English people, retaining a strong attachment to the faith of their fathers, was totally opposed to the religious changes. When orders were issued for abolishing the ancient liturgy and introducing the new form, signs of ferment became visible throughout the country, and everywhere men pro- tested against the novelties and called for the retention of the old system. The cruel enactments against paupers,^ the ruthless desecra- tion of churches and sacrilegious destruction of altars, and the gross immorality of the "reformed" clergy^ at last brought popular discon- tent to a climax. Formidable insurrections broke out in various parts of the kingdom. Everywhere men protested against the new changes and called for the maintenance of the old system. Patriots of all classes in Yorkshire, Devonshire, and the midland counties refused ta 1. In times of scarcity, the clergy and monies were the support of the poor; but the suppression of the monasteries and the confiscation of church property stopped this usual and abundant channel of charity. The number of mendicants that now wandered through the country, clamoring for bread, became alarming. But, instead of alleviating their sufferings, Parliament, in 1547, passed an act against these unfortunates, such as the most barbarous states have never issued. " Whoever lived idly or loiteringly for the space of three days," was to be branded as a vagabond, with the letter V on his breast, and was to be doomed for two years to be the slave of his informer. Bread and water were to be his food and drink, and his master was authorized to fix an iron ring around his neck, arm, or leg, and compel him to " labor at any work, however vile it might be, by heating, chaining, or otherwise." If the wretch absented himself for a fortnight, the letters was burnt on his cheek or forehead, and he became a slave for life; and if he thus offended a second time, his flight subjected him to the penalties of felony. See Waterworth, " Historical Lectures on the Reformation," p. 165. Also Spalding, History etc. Vol. II, p. 111. 2. Robert Holgate, the " reformed Archbishop of York," took away the wife of one Norman, on whose complaint the episcopal raptor was sent to the Tower, Poynet, the favorite chaplain of Cranmer, who usurped the See of Winchester, lived with the wife of a butcher, who had surrendered her to the worthy prelate, for and in consideration IC 670 HISTORY OF TEE CHUBCH. receive the new service and demanded the restoration of the Mass, as well as a partial re-establishment of the suppressed monasteries. German and Italian mercenaries had to be introduced to stamp out the revolt. Thousands of insurgents died on the field or the gibbet; martial law was everywhere proclaimed and the religious changes were forced on the people by foreign bayonets. SECTION XIX. THE RESTORATION UNDER QUEEN MART. (a. d. 1553—1558.) Accession of Queen Mary— Her former Treatment by the Reforming Party- Deprived Catholic Bishops Re-instated— Mary's two Principal Objects— Par- liament of 1553 — Acts of Edward VI. respecting Religion repealed — Cardi- nal Pole — Reunion with Rome— Bishop Gardiner — Character of Mary — Causes which provoked Persecution — Conduct of Protestants — Execution of Cranmer— Other Executions. 198. The accession of Queen Mary was received with great joy by the whole nation, excepting the not numerous reforming party, which, headed by Cranmer, Ridley, and the Duke of Northumberland, had conspired to set her aside and place on the throne her youthful cousin, Lady Jane Grey. Under the preceding reign, Cranmer had employed all his influence in getting the bishops to adopt his inno- vations and introduce them in their dioceses. The majority, it appears, had acquiesced in the changes. Those of the bishops who had opposed the innovations — Gardiner, Bonner, Tunstall, Vasey, Day, and Heath — were deprived of their sees. Gardiner and Bonner, the most outspoken and eminent opponents of the innovating faction, Were in prison. Every means had been resorted to to compel Prin- €ess Mary, especially, to conform to the " Book of Common Prayer." She was subjected to many vexations, for allowing Mass to be celebra- ted in her private chapel ; her chaplain and officers were imprisoned, but nothing could shake her resolution. She answered, " that her soul was God's and her faith she would not change. Rather than use any other service than that used at her father's death, she would lay her head on a block and suffer death." of a stipulated amount. "These shocking facts respecting the bishops," writes the Protestant Dr. Blunt (Vol. II, p. 151), "are supplemented by the evidence of a contempo- rary writer, who says of the clergy generally, who married in Edward VI's time, that they cared not what women they married, common or other, so they might get them wives. For true are St. Paul's words : They enter into houses, bringing into bondage women laden with sin. The women of these married priests were such, for the most part, that either they were kept of others before, or else as common as the cart-waj', .... using their bodies with other men as well as with their supposed husbands. .... Archbishop Cranmer himself was twice 'married,* and Mrs. Cranmer mar- ried two other husbands, after • losing the Archbishop."— See also Dr. Lee, King Edward VI. r BESTORATION UNDER MARY 671 199. Mary's first act was to liberate the deposed bishops, and other Catholic and Protestant state prisoners, lawlessly detained ■during the late reigns. The bishops were instantly restored to their sees. Gardiner, who was appointed Lord Chancellor, performed the coronation ceremony according to the ancient rite. Mary's treatment of those who had endeavored to deprive her of her Crown was exceedingly merciful. Only three of the ringleaders of the rebellion against her — the Duke of Northumberland, John Gates, and Thomas Palmer — suffered the penalty of high-treason. She refused to bring Lady Jane Grey, though by no means blameless, to trial ; it was not until after the rebellion headed by her father, the Duke of Suffolk, and Thomas Wyatt, that the unfortunate lady and her husband were executed. 200. On ascending the throne, the two principal and dearest objects of Mary were the removal from herself of the stain of illegiti- macy and the restoration of the Catholic Religion. To the first she anticipated no opposition; but great obstacles were expected regarding the second. For though Cranmer's *' new church " counted but few adherents amongst the people, yet there were the church plunderers to deal with. The acknowledgment of the papal authority, it was feared, would entail the restoration of church property, the greater part of which had been seized eighteen , years before, and in the plunder of which, thousands of families of rank and influence, in one way or the other, had become sharers. 201. Notwithstanding these diflSculties, the Queen, proceed- ing with caution and moderation, soon saw her designs realized. Parliament, which met in 1553, legalized the marriage of the Queen's parents, annulled all the laws of Edward VI. respecting religion, and re-established the form of Divine Service as it existed in the last year of Henry VIII. The religious changes of Cranmer were declared null and void, the altars were replaced, the Prayer Book was set aside, and the Mass was restored. The foreign " Gospellers " were ordered to leave the country and the married priests were deprived of their I)enefices ; the Protestant bishops were removed and Catholic prelates appointed in their stead. 202. To smooth the way for the reunion of the kingdom with the Church, Pope Julius III., on petition of the Queen, issued a bull, granting the holders of ecclesiastical property full right to possess and keep the same. The Queen, however, considering the impov- erished state of the Church, judged it her duty to restore to it such ecclesiastical property, as during the late reigns had been vested in the Crown. Cardinal Pole was sent as legate to England, to complete 573 HISTORY OF TEE CEURUH. the work of reconciliation. In full session of Parliament, the Cardinal, on Nov. 30, 1554, in the Pope's name, solemnly absolved "all those present and the whole nation from all heresy and schism and restored them to the communion of Holy Church." After this solemn act. Parliament repealed all laws passed since the twentieth year of Henry VIII. against the Apostolic See. 203. Mary's leading adviser in civil matters was Dr. Stephen Gardiner, one of the most distinguished ecclesiastical statesmen of this period. Born between 1483 and 1495, Gardiner became Sec- retary of State under Henry VIII. In 1531, he was appointed bishop of Winchester. In the case of Henry VIII's disastrous divorce from Queen Catharine, he warmly espoused his master's cause and acted a prominent part, both as ambassador to the Holy See, and as the king's advocate in the Legatine court before Cardinals Wolsey and Campeggio. He also accepted the royal supremacy, which he defended in his well-known treatise: ^^On True Obedience."*^ But on becoming fully aware of the evil he had so greatly aided, he devoted his whole energies to make atonement for his error. He offered the most determined resistence to Cranmer's innovations, for which he was deprived of his see and held in close confinement during the reign of Edward VI. In his memorable sermon, which he preached at St. Paul's Cross in the* presence of King Philip and the notables of the realm, he lamented his former conduct, and exhorted all who had fallen with him, to return with him to the "one fold " of the "one shepherd." His death, which occurred in November, 1555, was a subject of deep regret to the Queen, who lost in him her most faithful minister.^ 204. Mary herself was humane and disposed to be tolerant; she was averse to encroach upon other men's consciences. When she came to the throne, she assured her counsellors that " she meant graciously not to compel or strain other people's consciences." But this for- bearance was soon abused. The reformed preachers were her most bitter enemies, as they had been the most active opponents of her accession; many of them were implicated in the rebellions of Suffolk and Wyatt. They publicly styled her Jezabel, and declared it to be contrary to God's word to be governed by a woman. They circulated 1. Protestant writers have ascribed the politico-religious persecution under Mary to Bishop Gardiner, "more from conjecture and prejudice than from real information." The contrary must be maintained. Gardiner wrote to the Council stating that "he would not obey any order that might be Issued to him for burning heretics in his diocese." Mackintosh observes that "Gardiner and the majority of the Papal bishops were opposed to the persecution of Reformers."— See J. Gillow, Bibliographical Dictionary of the English Catholics. Vol. II. RESTORATION UNDER MARY 573 the most incredible tales, and the most atrocious calumnies against her person and against the Catholic Church. In some places gross excesses were committed by the disciples of the new doctrines, who sometimes assailed the Catholic clergy in the discharge of their sacred f!Tnctions, and continually formed schemes for overthrowing the Queen's government. These and other provoking causes led Mary to adopt severe measures for the suppression of obstinate dissenters, contrary to the advice of Cardinal Pole and other Catholic prelates, who were averse to persecution. 205. The number of those suffering the penalty of death under the reign of Queen Mary, is variously fixed at between two and three hundred. We must deplore these executions, which can only be ascribed to a mistaken policy adopted under great provocation. No principle of the Catholic religion dictated it. Unfortunately, Mary lived in an age of religious intolerance when punishment, for what was considered heresy, was universally held right and necessary by ruling princes. The persecution seems to have originated in the Privy Council and to have been adopted merely as a measure of State policy, in conformity with the then prevailing maxims and examples of every state and party. Besides, it must be observed that the majority of those executed under Mary, suffered for high treason and felony. The most noted sufferers were Cranmer, Ridley, and Latimerj who were now made to feel the punishment which they had so often visited upon others, — Catholics and Anabaptists. They had all changed their opinions more than once, Cranmer making no fewer than seven recantations, in hopes of saving his life. Mary died on Nov. 17, A. D. 1558. Protestants have very unjustly styled her " Bloody Mary;" yet, if compared with the two preceding reigns and that of her sister and successor, Elizabeth, hers was far less bloody.^ Cardinal Pole, who, on the removal of Cranmer, had become archbishop of Canterbury, died a few hours after Queen Mary. 1. Sixty individuals suffered under Mary in consequence of partaking in Wyatt's insurrection. In a rising- of much less danger Elizabeth sacrificed hundreds. Compare the treatment of the insurgents in 1745, under George II., with that of Mary, and her character will not suffer by the contrast. "In Elizabeth's reign," Blunt says, "a vast number of priests and others were executed for Popery, by the halter and the butcher's knife, and at least three persons were burned for Protestant heresies I" 57i HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. SECTION XX. REVIVAL OF PROTESTANTISM UNDER ELIZABETH. THE NEW CHURCH " BY LAW ESTABLISHED." Accession of Elizabeth — Acknowledged by the English Catholics — Eliza- beth's Intentions respecting Religion — Resolution of the Catholic Pre- lates — Elizabeth and the Pontiff— Ecclesiastical Enactments— Opposition of the Catholic Clergy— Catholic Bishops imprisoned — Firmness of the Catholic Prelates— Foundations of Anglican Hierarchy— Embarrassment — Parker's Consecration— The Validity of Anglican Ordinations Disputed — Thirty-nine Articles of Religion— Their History — Puritans— Brownists. 206. On the death of Queen Mary, in 1558, her half-sister Eliza, beth ascended the English throne, withoilt opposition. In the eyes of the Catholic world, Elizabeth was utterly illegitimate, being the daughter of Henry VIII. and Anne Boleyn, and born during the life- time of the rightful Queen Catherine; while the only lawful heir to the throne was Mary SUiart of Scotland, grand-daughter of Margaret, sister of Henry VIII., and who afterwards married James IV. of Scotland. But, by the Act of Succession of 1539, the Crown was secured to Elizabeth. A subsequent law, declaring Henry's marriage with Anne Boleyn null and void from the beginning, virtually abro- gated the former, and excluded Elizabeth from the throne. This law was still upon the statute book; yet Elizabeth, who, by will of her father, had been declared, in the event of Mary's dying without issue, to be her rightful successor, was acknowledged Queen with acclama- tion by her Catholic subjects, both houses of Parliament acquiescing in the declaration of the Catholic bishops, " that of her right and title, none could make any question." But the loyalty of the Catho- lics was soon very ill requited by the deceitful Queen. 207. It is possible that Elizabeth, on ascending the throne, was really indifferent on the subject of religion. But the daughter of Anne Boleyn — whose marriage with her father, two Popes had declared to be null and void — found it to her interest to discard the Catholic religion, which declared her illegitimate, and to throw herself into the arms of the Protestant party, which, in her opinion, could alone give stability to her throne. Her first care was to choose for coun- sellors men who were known to be favorable to the " new religion." Sir William Cecil, who, like herself, had conformed under the last reign, was appointed Secretary of State, and Nicholas Bacon, a Protestant, Lord Chancellor, in place of Archbishop Heath.^ 1. It has been said that when Came, the English ambassador at Rome, informed Paul IV. of the accession of Elizabeth, the Pope replied ** that he was unable to discover in Elizabeth, being illegitimate, an unquestionable right to the English throne; that the Qneexx of Scots claimed the crown, as the nearest legitimate descendant of Henry VII.; r TEE CHURCH ESTABLISHED BY LAW. 575 208. The first indication of the Queen's intentions, was her proclamation, forbidding the clergy to preach without her royal license! This interference, as well as her command to the bishop of Carlisle not to elevate at Mass the sacred host, startled the bishops; they resolved not to assist at her coronation. Bishop Oglethorpe, of Carlisle, was at last prevailed upon to perform the ceremony, when Elizabeth took the customary oath " to maintain the laws, honor, peace, and privileges of the Church, as in the time or grant of King Edward the Confessor." 209. A Parliament, which met in 1559, enacted a variety of sweeping statutes which dissipated the last hopes, if any they yet entertained, of the Catholics. The acts, which under Mary restored Catholic worship and re-established the independent jurisdiction and legislation of the Church, were repealed, and those passed under Henry VIII., in derogation of the papal authority, and under Edward VI., in favor of the Calvinistic reforms, were, for the most part, revived. The " Act of Supremacy," which declared the Queen "supreme governess in all matters, spiritual and temporal," excluded from office,in Church and State, every Catholic who was not prepared to sacrifice his conscience and his faith to his temporal interests. By the "Act of Uniformity," the " new and amended " Book of Common Prayer of Edward VI. was restored, and its use made compulsory. For the use of any but the new liturgy, and for asserting the Pope's supremacy, forfeiture, imprisonment and death were the successive penalties for repeated offences. 210. The bishops unanimously opposed all and each of these acts, and did their utmost to prevent their passage. The clergy in convocation adopted five articles which affirmed their belief in tran- substantiation and other Catholic doctrines, and their acceptance of the supreme authority of the Popes '' as vicars of Christ and supreme rulers of the Church; " they strongly protested that " the authority in all matters of faith and discipline belongs, and ought to belong, only to the pastors of the Church, and not to laymen." But their remonstrances were disregarded, and to terrify the rest, three of the most zealous of the bishops were imprisoned. In Parliament itself, but that if Elizabeth submitted her claim to the Holy See, she would be treated with every consideration. The whole of this narrative Lingard (vol. vii., p. 253) declares and proves a fiction, which was invented by the enemies of the Pontiff, to throw on him the blame of the subsequent rupture between England and Rome. Hallam says: "This remarkable f act,which runs through all domestic and foreign histories, has been disputed, and, as far as appeai-s, disproved by the late editor of Dodd's Church History of England, on the authority of Caime's own letters in the State Paper office." Hallum, Constitutional History. Vol. I., p. 118. Note. 576 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. the ecclesiastical bills experienced a most vigorous opposition; they were passed by a majority of only three votes. The absence of the imprisoned bishops and the creation of new Protestant peers had secured their passage. 211. Every device was resorted to, to force the compliance of the bishops with the Acts recently passed. But they all stood firm, with one exception, only Kitchin of Llandaff was weak enough to take the oath of supremacy. The recusant prelates were deprived of their sees and committed to custody, some of them pining away in life-long imprisonment. Of the inferior clergy, too, a large number, about half, remained steadfast in their faith, while the other half, from fear or other motives, consented to abjure the Pope and take the oath of supremacy. The terrors of the penal laws, and espe- cially the ruinous fines imposed for "recusancy" — as the wilful absence of Catholics from Protestant worship was called — com- pelled many of the gentry and nobility to seek in other lands the liberty of worshiping God according to their consciences. 212. It now devolved on the Queen to provide a new hierarchy for her establishment. This, however, was no easy matter. It became a question, how to procure the consecrators of her new "prelates," three bishops, at least, being necessary for a full canonical consecration and there being left only one diocesan bishop, Kitchin of Llandaff. Knowing that the real episcopal character was vested in the persons of the deposed Catholic bishops, Elizabeth, although reluctantly, addressed herself to these. She first applied to Archbishop Creagh of Armagh, at the time a prisoner in the Tower, and next to four other Catholic prelates, urging them to consecrate Matthew Parker, whom she had appointed successor to Cardinal Pole in the see of Canterbury. But they all, including even the obse- quious Kitchin, resolutely refused to act. 213. Elizabeth next issued a mandate to William Barlow and other nominal bishops, naming them as her commissioners for Parker's consecration and supplying, "on account of the necessity of the thing and the urgency of the time, by virtue of her ecclesiastical supremacy every defect, which might attach to any of the parties ofiiciating." Parker, accordingly, was consecrated by these men. Barlow "ofiicia- ting," according to the Ordinal of Edward VI., on December lY, 1559, more than a year after he had been appointed by the Queen.* 1. The validity of Anglican ordinations rests wholly on the validity of Parker's consecration. This, however, has been denied for weighty reasons from the very Infancy of the "Established Church." 1. The fact itself of Parker's "consecration," such as it was, has been seriously questioned. No contemporary Protestant historian relates it. It was not till 1613—58 years after the alleged fact— that Francis Morau. chap- THE CHURCH ESTABLISHED BY LAW. 577 A few days after, Parker "confirmed" the election of Barlow and Scory, who had "confirmed" his own; and, with their assistance, "confirmed and consecrated" the new "prelates" appointed by Elizabeth in place of the "deposed" Catholic bishops. Thus was laid the foundation of a new fabric, called "^Ae Church by Law EstablishecV 214. In 1562, the Convocation promulgated the Articles of Edward YI., which were considerably altered and reduced to thirty-nine, as the distinct creed of the newly " Established Church." "While the Thirty-nine Articles inculcate the necessity of believing in the Trinity, the Incarnation and Redemption, and of accepting the three creeds — of the Apostles, of Nice, and of St. Athanasius — they reject the doc- trines of Purgatory and Transubstantiation, the Veneration of images and holy relics, and the Invocation of the Saints, as repugnant to the word of God. They teach the Lutheran doctrines of " Justification by faith only," and of the sufficiency of the Holy Scriptures for salvation, asserting that all doctrines, taught by Christ and His Apostles, are therein recorded. They, moreover, declare that general councils may err; that such assemblies cannot meet without the assent of princes; that the Pope has no jurisdiction in the realm of England, but that the English sovereign has supreme authority over all estates, ecclesias- tical or temporal, and in all church matters; and that the "Established Church " has power to decree rites and ceremonies, and authority in controversies of faith.^ lain of the Archbishop of Canterbury, appealed to the Lambeth Register, to prove the fact of Parker's "consecration." 2. Barlow himself, who "consecrated" Parker, was not consecrated; no record of his consecration is In existence; he was, at the most, only a bishop-elect. 3. Considering the religious persuasion of the consecrator, it -would bo, at the best, very doubtful whether he could have had the required Intention in performing the ceremony. Barlow believed episcopal consecration a mere idle cere- mony and the imposition of hands unnecessary; in his opinion the nomination for the office by the sovereign was of itself sufficient and equal to any consecration ! 4, The "consecration" of Parker, which was performed according to the Ordinal of Edward YI., was invalid on account of the nullity of the form, which mentions neither the order to be conferred nor the peculiar functions and duties incumbent on a bishop. The "Established Church" seems to have felt this insufficiency. To remedy the defect, the Convocation changed and improved the form of consecration, in 1662— just one hun- dred years too late, to save Anglican orders ! Those desiring a more detailed treatment of this interesting question, are referred to the works of Archbishop Kenrick, "On An- glican Ordinations;" of Bishop Ryan, "Claims of an Episcopal Bishop to Apostolical Succession;" and of J. D. Breen, "Anglican Orders: Are they Valid?" 1. See Lingard, vol. vli., note K., where the author analyzes the divergencies of the Anglican system from the Catholic belief .—The Thirty-nine Articles were sanctioned by Parliament in 1571, and a statute was enacted requiring subscription from all candidates for the ministry. No one could teach, or even enter a university, without subscribing to these Articles. These disabilities were removed by the University Tests' Act of 1871. The Clerical Subscription Act of 1866 exempted also the clergy from subscribing, and substituted a declaration of assent to the Thirty-nine Articles and the Prayer-Book. Thus the Articles ceased to be used as a standard of orthodoxy in the Anglican Church, at least for the laity. 11 678 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 215. The new Church was no sooner established than dissensions arose among its adherents, especially the clergy. Many of that body^ imbued with Calvinistic ideas, objected to the institution of Episcopacy and to the new liturgy, as being still too Roman. To secure uniform- ity, Parker issued his book of "Advertisements," containing orders and regulations for the discipline of the clergy. Such as refused to conform to the new service were called Puritans, or Norv-confoi'mists. A party of ultra- Puritans, regarding the *' Established Church " as impure, refused to hold communion with it, and formally separated themselves, whence they were called Separatists, or from their leader, Robert Brown, Brownists. In 1593, a statute was passed imposing the penalty of imprisonment upon any person not conforming to the new " worship." SECTION XXI. THE SUFFERINGS OF THE ENGLISH CATHOLICS UNDER ELIZABETH. Pius IV. and Elizabeth— Acts of Parliament— Elizabeth rejects the Inter- cession of Emperor Ferdinand— Northern Insurrection— Object of the Insurgents— Massacre of Catholics— Excommunication of Elizabeth — Object of the Sentence— Ridolfi's Conspiracy— Enactments against Catho- lics—Court of High Commission— Catholic Martyrs under Elizabeth- Catholic Loyalty— Dr. Allen— Establishes a Seminary at Douay— Other Seminaries— Elizabeth's last Days— Her Private Life. 216. The Holy See regarded with sorrow and alarm the second apostasy of England from the Catholic faith and the sufferings of the Catholics in that country. Immediately on his accession. Pope Pius rV., made friendly overtures to Elizabeth, assuring her of his good will, and that he earnestly desired to accord her whatever she might wish for establishing and strengthening her royal dignity. He determined to send a special legate to the English Queen to confer with her, and to invite the attendance of ambassadors at the Council of Trent which was about to meet again. But the Papal legate was not allowed to come to England. In reply to a decision of a com- mittee of theologians at the Council of Trent, condemning attend- ance at Protestant worship as sinful, more severe laws were enacted against Catholics. 217. In 1563, Parliament extended the obligation of taking the oath of supremacy to the whole Catholic population, and made the first refusal punishable with forfeiture and imprisonment, while a second refusal subjected the recusant to death as in case of high treason. In vain did Lord Montague plead in behalf of the persecu- ted Catholics, who were proscribed for the mere refusal to apostatize. In vain, also, did Emperor Ferdinand I. intercede with the Queen, SUFFERINGS OF THE CATHOLICS. 579 requesting licr to free her Catholic subjects from the dangers of that barbarous law, and to allow them the use of, at least, one church in every city. In her answer to Ferdinand, the inperious princess flatly refused to grant toleration to those who disagreed with her in re- ligion! 218. The insurrection in the North, which was incited in 1569 by two Catholic noblemen, for the liberation of Mary Stuart, con- tributed to aggravate the already pitiful condition of the English Catholics, though the latter had flocked in large numbers to the royal standard to quell the rebellion. It was followed by a closer confine- ment of the hapless Queen of Scots, and an indiscriminate massacre of the northern Catholics, of whom no fewer than eight hundred are said to have perished by the hands of the executioners. When Pope Pius V. learned of these cruelties, and that Elizabeth was endeavoring to bring the Queen of Scots, an independent sovereign, to trial, he at last, in 1571, published the long-expected bull which declared the English Queen excommunicated, and absolved her subjects from their allegiance.^ 219. From this time forward, Elizabeth and her Parliament proceeded with ever increasing severity against the adherents of the Catholic religion. The almost countless penal statutes passed during the last thirty years of Elizabeth's reign, completely outlawed the Catholics and exposed them to a continual risk of martyrdom. Communication with Rome, and obedience to the Papal authority were declared high treason. "Recusancy," and attendance at Catholic worship were visited with the severest penalties. Any one absenting himself from church for a month, was to pay 20 pounds. The saying of Mass was punishable by a year's imprisonment and a fine of 200 marks; the hearing of Mass, by a fine of 100 marks and the 1. " The grounds of this sentence were her illegitimacy, the declaration of which stood unrepealed on the statute-book of England; her profession of heresy, which, by the ancient fundamental law of England, as in other Christian countries, induced the forfeiture of regal power; her crimes against religion, and especially her persecution of ner Catholic subjects. The special object, however, of the Bull of Pius V., was to rescue the Queen of Scots from impending death ; a circumstance which does honor to his humau' ity. In the sentence of deposition, St. Pius followed the precedents of holy and eminent Pontiffs, and relied on grounds which in themselves were not trivial; but the temporal supremacy of Rome had passed away, and the strength of the Catholic faith was to be manifested in the patient endurance of persecution, over which it was finally to tri- umph." Kenrick, Primacy, Part II, chap. IV. That Pius V. plotted with Ridolfl, a Florentine, the assassination of Queen Eliza- beth, is a malicious fabrication. Ridolfi's design of assassination has never been proved, and not a shadow of evidence exists to show that the noble-minded Pontiff, who is revered by all Catholics as a saint, in any way even favored, much less instigated such a plot. No word of the plot or intended assassination, is to be found in any of the contemporary slate papers. See H. T. D. Ryder, Catholic Controversy, Part II. charge V. 580 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. same term of imprisonment. In 1584, laws proscribing the whole body of the Catholic clergy were rushed through Parliament. All Jesuits and priests were commanded on pain of high treason to leave the country within forty days; anyone harboring or concealing a priest was adjudged a felon and deserving of death. In 1593, laws were enacted which forbade Catholics to travel five miles from their homes; they were excluded from Court, Parliament, and all offices of trust and deprived of the right of voting. 220. Nor were the statutes merely designed for terror's sake, to keep a check over the disaffected, as some vrould pretend. They were executed in the most sweeping and indiscriminating manner. The "Court of High Commission" — the English Inquisition! — was erected for carrying out these barbarous enactments. It consisted of forty-four commissioners, twelve of whom were bishops. These commissioners were to inquire into all accusations brought under the Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity and other ecclesiastical laws. They were to try all persons charged with acting contrary to the new worship, and to enforce the laws against recusants. They made their power felt by fines and imprisonment, limited by no rule but their own pleasure. They ransacked the houses of the people by pursui- vants and spies, and violated their consciences by administering the oath of supremacy, terrorizing them with the rack and other tortures.^ 221. The penal laws against the Catholics were executed with relentless cruelty and the persecution increased yearly in violence and inhumanity. Under these laws, according to the lowest calculation, 128 priests and members of religious orders, and 58 laymen were put to a cruel death for no other cause than their ministry and religion Four women are shown to have been sentenced to death for the crime of harboring priests. Besides, hundreds, if not thousands, died of hardships in the horrible prisons of those days. The more distin- guished Catholic martyrs under Elizabeth were Father Cuthbert Mayne, the Jesuits, Campian and Parsons, and Queen Mary Stuart, who, after an imprisonment of nineteen years, was beheaded in 1587. That the one leading cause of the condemnation and death of the 1. "The rack was seldom idle in theTower for all the latter part of Elizabeth's reigrn." Hallam. For an account of the different instrutnents of torture employed under this reign a;?ainst Catholic recusants, see Waterworth, Lecture VI. p. 397, note; and Lingard, Vol. VITI. note E. Fines and imprisonment were of course the most usual punishments decreed ag-ainst Non-conformists, but the pillory, whipping", and cutting* off the ears were freely resorted to. Bishop Aylmer, of London, is said to have sent a young- lady to bo whipped for refusing: to conform. In 1577, Roland Jenks, a Catholic bookseller, was condemned by the Convocation to have his ears nailed to the pillory, and to deliver himself by cutting them off with his own hand ! SVFFERINGS OF THE CATHOLICS. 581 unfortunate Queen of Scots was her religion, is undeniable. Again, the enormous amercements for recusancy, especially, weighed heavily on the English Catholics. By these ruinous fines, the rich were impoverished, and the middle class reduced almost to beggary. 222. And yet, notwithstanding this barbarous treatment, the Catholics in England continued loyal to the Queen and her govern- ment. It is a remarkable fact that all who were martyred for their faith under this reign, with one solitary exception, acknowledged Elizabeth as their lawful Queen, and that not a single Catholic in England is khown to have openly favored and aided the Spanish party. When, in 1588, the "Invincible Armada" threatened the English shores, "it was then," writes Hallam, "that the Catholics in every county repaired to the standard of the lord-lieutenant, imploring that they might not be suspected of bartering the national independ- ence for their religion itself. It would have been a sign of gratitude, if the laws depriving them of the free exercise of their religion had been, if not repealed, yet suffered to sleep, after these proofs of loyalty. But the execution of priests and other Catholics became, on the contrary, more frequent, and the fines for recusancy were exacted as rigorously as before." ^ 223. Death was rapidly thinning the numbers of the clergy, and there was danger that the True Faith in England might soon die out for want of a ministry. To prevent this. Dr. William Allen^ formerly principal of St. Mary's Hall, Oxford, opened, in 1568, a seminary in the new University of Douay, in order to train priests for England. A-ided by liberal contributions, he was enabled to send thither, in the course of five years, no fewer than a hundred missionaries. Similar institutions were founded at Rome and Madrid, in 1576; at Valladolid in 1589^ at St. Omer, in 1596; at Louvain, in 1606; and at other pla- ces. Dr. Allen, who was born in 1532, was created cardinal, in 1587, and two years later, archbishop of Molines. He died at Rome, in 1594. 1. The Anglican clerg-y g-enerally advocated the persecution of Catholics. Arch- bishop Parker complained of the Queen's lenity in not absolutelj' rooting- them out I It has frequently been asserted that the Catholic martj'rs under Elizabeth suffered for treason, and not for religion. If it was right to declare treason the profession of a religion which had been that of the nation for nine hundred years, then the English Catholics were traitors, but not otherwise. " It cannot be truly alleged," says Hallam, "that any greater provocation had been given by the Catholics than that of pertinaciously continuing to believe and worship as their fathers had done before them The statutes (enacted against Catholics) were, in many instances, absolutely unjust; in others, not demanded by circumstances; in almost all, prompted by religious bigotry, by excessive apprehension, or by the arbitrary spirit with which our government was administered under Elizabeth." G83 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 224. Elizabeth, who had been the author of so much grief to- others, was destined to close her life in sorrow and despair. Some time before her death, which took place on March 23, 1603, she became inconsolable and fell into a moping melancholy. She would sit silent in her chair for days and nights, refusing to go to bed. To those who sought to console her, she replied : " I am tied with an iron collar about my neck, and the case is altered with me." " Many have been dazzled with the splendor of her life," says Miss Strickland, in her Lives of the Queens of England, " but few even of her most ardent admirers, would wish their last end might be like^ers." When the archbishop of Canterbury and other prelates called to see her, the dying Queen was much offended at their sight and exclaimed : " Be packing ! " telling them she was no atheist, but knew full well that they were "hedge-priests" — thus expressing her contempt for that " hierarchy," which she herself had established. The private life of Elizabeth, who gloried in the title of the *' Virgin Queen," was sadly far from being a model of purity. Her amours with Leicester, Essex, and others, were open and notorious and have been detailed by even Protestant writers. Contemporaries designate the court of the " Virgin Queen," as a place in which all the enormities reigned in the highest degree. A proof of her profligacy, is her assent to an Act of Parliament, which secured the right of succession to her 7iatural issue} SECTION XXII. THE CONDITION OF THE CATHOLICS UNDER THE FIKST STUARTS. Accession of James I. — Disappointment of the Catholics — Their Treatment — James rejects the Intercession of the Spanish King — The Gunpowder Plot — Wrongfully ascribed to the Jesuits — New Penal Laws — Oath of Allegiance — Condemned by the Pope— Controversy respecting tfle Oath —Number of Catholic Martyrs under James— English Protestant Bibles— The English Mission governed by Archpriests — Archpriest Blackwell — Accession of Charles I. — Treatment of the Catholics— Fanaticism of the Puritans — Arminianism— Consequences of England's Apostasy. 225. On the death of Elizabeth, James VI. of Scotland, son of Mary Stuart and Lord Darnley, ascended the English throne as James I. (A. D. 1603-1625). He assumed the title of King of "Great Britain and Ireland." His accession was hailed with joy by the English Catholics, who were led to expect, if not religious freedom, at least a cessation of the cruel persecution under which they suffered. But 1. Gobbet, " History of the Protestant Reformation in England," Letter 10.— See Ling-- ard, Vol. VIII, note S., where the author gives some particulars about Arthur DudUy, one of the supposed children of Elizabeth by Leicester. THE CATHOLICS UNDER THE STUARTS. SSS their expectations were wofully disappointed by James. Under him the Catholics were treated with even greater severity than under the preceding reign, being subjected to all kinds of cruel vexations, through the intolerance of the Puritan faction. 226. Before he was securely seated on the English throne, James had, indeed, bound himself to the Catholics by a promise of toleration. But the fanaticism of the Puritans, who accused him of inclining to " Popery," caused the royal coward, called by Henry IV. of France, " the wisest fool in Christendom," to retract his promise. He is- sued a proclamation ordering the magistrates to put the penal laws against Catholics into immediate execution. Severe penalties were en- acted against Catholic parents who should send their children abroad to be educated in a Catholic college or seminary. A child or person so sent, was declared incapable of inheriting or enjoying property in Eng- land, unless, on his return, he should conform to the Established Church ! Nor could any one teach even the rudiments of grammar, in public or in private, without special permission, which, of course, was denied to non-conformists. 227. The alarmed Catholics petitioned the king for the free exercise of their religion in private houses, and a mitigation of the more oppressive laws ; they offered him a yearly sum in lieu of the penalties payable by law. The petition of the afflicted Catholics was supported by the Spanish ambassador, who assured James that Philip^ the Spanish monarch, would consider every indulgence granted to the English Catholics as done to himself. But James remained inexorable; he declared that he neither would nor could grant toleration to his Catholic subjects, for fear of offending the religious feelings of his Protestant subjects. He at once issued a proclamation banishing all the Catholic missionaries from the kingdom, and ordered the magis- trates to exact all arrears of the monthly payment for not attending Protestant worship. From the exacted fines for recusancy, the king derived a net annual income of thirty-six thousand pounds! Hundreds of Catholic families were ruined, being deprived of the last remnant^ of their property. 228. The great body of the English Catholics, though sadly dashed • in their hopes, submitted without opposition to the new inflictions after so many others they had endured, and patiently awaited the designs of Providence. But a few reckless and misguided men, driven to desperation by the tyrannous treatment of their Catholic brethren and the treacherous conduct of James, formed the wicked plan of destroying, by one blow, the authors of the persecution. They con- ceived the atrocious design called the GtmpoKder Plot., the execution 584 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. of which they fixed on the openiDg of Parliament, in November, ] 605. The conspirators acted entirely on their own blinded judgment, and their attempts to obtain ecclesiastical approval of the mad scheme had utterly failed. Nor did they receive any encouragement from the Catholic party; indeed, Lord Monteagle, a Catholic peer, to whom the plot was revealed, at once forwarded the information to the king. The conspirators were apprehended and executed. Among those who were executed, wrongfully accused of the gunpowder treason, were several Jesuits, who had no knowledge whatever of its existence, or like Father Garnet^ refused to violate the seal of confession.* 229. To a thinking mind, the late conspiracy must have proved the danger and impolicy of driving men to desperation by religious persecution. But the warning was lost, and the gunpowder plot was made the pretext for new rigors against Catholics. Catholics were forbidden to appear at court and to live within ten miles of the bound, aries of London. A new statute required not only attendance at the *' reformed worship," but also participation in the communion, as a test of conformity, and made it optional with the king to take the fine of twenty pounds a month from recusants, or two thirds of their lands. The house of a recusant might be searched, his books and furniture, having relation to his religion, might be burnt, and his horses might be taken from him at any time, by order of any magistrate. 230. In 1606, *' An act for the better discovering and repressing of Papist Recusants," enacted a new oath of allegiance, a kind of test- oath, which every Catholic was compelled to take under the penalties of perpetual imprisonment and the forfeiture of his personal property. This new oath became the cause of much confusion and dissension among the English Catholics. The missionaries were divided in opinion. While some maintained its lawfulness, others, particularly the Jesuits, condemned it as captious and as trespassing on the spiritual authority of the Pope. 231. The reigning Pope, Paul V., condemned the oath of allegi- ance as unlawful to be taken, because "it contained many things con- trary to faith and salvation." King James, who jDrided himself very 1. Hostile writers have ascribed the plot to the whole body of Catholics, and to the Catholic religrion, as if Catholics at large could be held responsible for the daring- deed of a few desperadoes, and the Catholic religion was answerable for a crime which it always abhorred and condemned. That the Jesuits were implicated in the plot is simply untrue; they, on the contrary, did all they could to hinder the plot, short of violating the seal of confession. Their innocence has been solemnly attested by the conspirators, both in their trial and on the scafiCcld. It is believed, even by Protestant writers, that the plot was a political contrivance, planned by Cecil, the prime minister, to furnish the g-overn- ment with a pretext for persecuting the Catholics as enemies of the state. See Cobbet, History of the Reformation, Letter XII. THE CATHOLICS UNDER THE STUARTS. 585 much upon his knowledge of theology, published an "Apology for the Oath of Allegiance," which Cardinal Bellarmin met with a "Response." The papal condemnation of the oath of allegiance was followed by the execution of several priests and the imprisonment of numerous Catholics. The prisons soon overflowed with Catholic recusants. In 1616, about 4,000 sufferers for religion were in prison ; and in 1622, we find 400 priests languishing in confinement. Twenty-five were executed for their faith, under James I., of whom 18 were priests.^ 232. The Catholic hierarchy having disappeared during Eliza- beth's reign, England was reduced to the situation of a missionary country, and the necessity for a recognized head of the Catholic clergy in that country had become very urgent. The Holy See, believing that the time for the restoration of episcopal jurisdiction was inopportune, appointed George Blackwell superior of the English mission, with the title and authority of *'Archpriest." This was in 1598. The arch- priest was to be assisted by a consultative body of twelve priests, and to govern the English Church, under the direction of a cardinal pro- tector. In 1608, Blackwell, on account of his course about the new oath of allegiance, which he obstinately defended as lawful, notwith- standing its condemnation by the Pope, was removed from oflSce and superseded by George Birkhead. The new archpriest governed with great tact, but was not able to effect much, in consequence of the fierceness of the persecution then prevailing* The government of the English mission under an archpriest continued till the year 1623, when William Bishop was appointed and consecrated Yicar- Apostolic for England. Dr. Bishop dying in 1624, Dr. Richard Smith was named his successor, but was compelled to withdraw into France. He died in 1655. 233. The accession of Charles I. (A. D. 1625-1649), caused no material change in the treatment of the English Catholics. Charlee, indeed, regarded the professors of Catholicity with no ill will, and 1. The reign of King James I. Is noted for the new transl|p.tion of the Bible, the so- called "authorized Version," made for the express use of the Anglican Church. The work was committed by the king to forty-seven churchmen, who were divided into six companies of translators, and was completed in 1611. It is commonly known as "Kingr James' Bible." Other English versions made by Protestants prior to this, were the fol- lowing:—!. The translation of William Tyndal, published in 1525.— 2. The translation of Miles Coverdale, afterwards bishop of Coverdale, in 1535.— 3. "Matthew's Bible," a revised edition of the preceding, published by John Rogers, under the name of Thomaa Matthew, in 1537.— 4. The "Great Bible" of Henry VIII., which was published in 1540, under the direction of Cranmer, whence it is also called "Cranmer's Bible."— 5. The ♦'Bishop's Bible," made under the supervision of Archbishop Parker and published in 1568.— 6. The "Geneva Bible," which was the work of English exiles in Geneva, where ifc •was first published, in 1560. That all these translations were full of gross errors, no un- prejudiced Protestant even, will now deny. See " Ward's Errata of the Protestant BxbU.** 12 586 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. would gladly have granted them toleration, but he had to cope with the bigotry and fanaticism of the English zealots. His consort, Mary Henrietta, of France, was a Catholic, and, by the matrimonial con- tract, he had promised free exercise of religion for his queen and her attendants, and some relaxation in the penal laws for the English Catholics. This was too much for the intolerant spirit of the Puritan faction. Whenever Parliament met, their sessions resounded with the cry of "No Popery," and the king was harrassed with petitions to execute more rigorously the penal laws against Catholic recusants and missionaries. Charles, unable to resist this outburst of popular frenzy, issued proclamations, commanding priests to quit the kingdom and Catholic parents to recall their children from foreign schools, in order to have them educated in Protestantism. He was even compelled to sign the death warrants of several priests, "to advance the glory of Almighty God." In this reign and during the great rebellion of Parliament against the king, twenty-three Catholics were martyred. 234. It was left for the unfortunate Charles I. to reap the bitter fruits of England's apostasy from the Catholic Church, The fanatical sect of Puritans, or Presbyterians, had grown very powerful. Adopt- ing the Calvinist doctrines and theory of Church government, they regarded the Episcopal, or High Church, party with great dislike, and aimed at obliterating every vestige that yet reminded of Catholic worship. They assumed to combat for "pure religion" and civil liberty, and proclaimed the duty of separation from the Established Church, which they charged with "Arminianism," a name which then came to be applied to all those who asserted the divine institution of the Episcopacy and the dependence of the Church on the Crown. Having gained the ascendency, they overthrew both the monarchy and the Established Church. Their rebellion culminated in the execu- tion of Laud, the archbishop of Canterbury, and lastly, of the king him- self, in 1649. The nation stood aghast at the crime of regicide, but Cromwell's "army of saints" held down every opposition with an iron hand, and "Presbyterianism" reigned supreme for the next twenty years. PROTESTANTISM IN SCOTLAND, 687 rV. THE REFORMATION IN SCOTLAND AND IRELAND. SECTION XXIII. PROTESTANTISM IN SCOTLAND. — JOHN KNOX. XUondition of the Clergy and People in Scotland prior to the Reformation — Abuse of Church Patronage — First Preachers against " Popery" — James v.— Schemes of Henry Vlll.of England— Assassination of Cardinal Bea- ton — John Knox — Scotch Nobility— First Covenant— Knox's Fanaticism — His " Rascal Mob" — Reformation at Perth and elsewhere— Destruction of Churches and Monasteries. 235. In no country of Europe, perhaps, was the progress of the " Reformation" more rapid, and the revolution which accompanied it, more radical and thorough, than in Scotland, This was owing chiefly to the pitiable condition of both the clergy and people and to the fanaticism and violence of the Scottish " Reformers." In the years preceding the "Reformation," there was great want of discipline among the clergy of Scotland, both secular and regular ; not that the whole clerical body had become corrupt, but its members were largely neglectful of their priestly duties and remiss in preaching and in instructing the flocks committed to their charge. The consequence • was that the people, not knowing their religion, often could not tell,' whether what the sectaries taught them was true or not. 236. This sad state of affairs was the necessary evil outcome of the scandalous abuse of Church patronage, and of the pernicioiife practice of conferring ecclesiastical benefices on laymen in commendam. The illegitimate sons of the king and nobles were commonly pro- vided for,by conferring on them the richest abbeys and priories.^ Such '^commendatories" enjoying the incomes of the benefices, and took the title of abbots or priors, but committed the duties of their office to others. Thbugh they seldom took orders, they were nevertheless ranked as clergymen, and by their vices brought disgrace upon the clerical state and the Church. Besides, the bishoprics being all in the gift of the Crown, they were not seldom conferred on men who, being void of all piety and zeal, concerned themselves little about the spiritual welfare of their flocks and the moral conduct of their inferiors. 237. The first preachers against "Popery" in Scotland appeared during the reign of James V. But, owing to the firmness of that 1. Thus five Illegitimate sons of James V. (amongst them James Stuart, after- wards Earl of Murray and Regent) were provided with some of the most lucrative benefices in the country. Patrick Hamilton (the Protestant "pro to-martyr of Scotland" ) was appointed to the rich abbey of Feme, merely because of his " noble" birth. 588 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. monarch and the vigilance of the two Beatons, (uncle and nephew)^ wlio succeeded one another in the archbishopric of St. Andrews, the " Gospellers" failed in their attempts against the Church. In 1525, the Scottish Parliament enacted laws prohibiting the preaching of new doctrines and the importation of heretical books. Patrick Hamilton, lay-abbot of Feme, was the first that suffered death for heresy under these laws. 238. Henry VIH, of England, who had declared himself " Head of the English Church," earnestly desired that the Scottish king, his nephew, should follow his example. But James, on whom a grateful people conferred the honorable title of the " Poor Man's King," refused, and continued true to the Church ; and, as if he meant to condemn the English schism, he, in 1541, caused his Parliament to pass laws in sup- port of the Catholic doctrine and the papal supremacy. Thereupon Henry declared war, with the avowed object of conquering Scotland, and of forcing the Scotch monarch to join in the new crusade against the Church of God. Unhappily for religion and Scotland, the Scotch nobles, many of whom favored the new doctrines, treacherously de- serted their king ; James was defeated and died heartbroken, in 1542. 239. The untimely death of James V., was most fatal to religion and to the kingdom. The infant queen — Mary Stuart — born only a few days before her father's death, became the object of contending ambitions, rivalries, and hates, which were to pursue her remorselessly to the melancholy end. Encouraged and supported by the English monarch, the "reforming" faction became more daring ; however, one powerful man was still in their way. This was Cardinal Beaton. An ardent defender of the Church, a far-sighted statesman and true patriot, Beaton resolutely opposed the designs of Henry VIII., and the "Reformers" upon the religion and independence of Scotland. To remove the barrier, the English monarch gave his sanction to a conspiracy for the assassination of the cardinal. Among the con- spirators were Wishart, "the martyr," and other persons of note. The conspiracy being discovered, Wishart was executed (1545). But another plot was soon set on foot with better success. Cardinal Beaton was foully murdered in his palace at St. Andrews, in 1546.^ 240. The assassination of Cardinal Beaton was the beginning of a movement, which ended in the overthrow of the lawful sovereign and 1. " If Lesley and his associates were not at first incited by Henry to murder the Cardinal, they were in the sequel powerfully supported by him. Notwithstanding the silence of contemporary historians, there are violent presumptions of the former ; of the latter there is undoubted certainty. During the siege, the conspirators received from England supplies both of money and provisions." W. Robertson, History of Scotland, Book II. PROTESTANTISM IN SCOTLAND. 58& of the Catholic religion in Scotland. The leader of the movement, its very life and soul, was the fanatical John Knox. Born in 1505, he was educated for the Church ; he took priestly orders, in 1530. To show his approbation of the murder of Beaton, over which he exulted as over a '^godly fact," he led 140 of his disciples to the aid of the con- spirators, who had taken refuge in the castle of St. Andrews. After the capture of the castle, Knox was carried a prisoner to France and sent to the galleys. Having obtained his release, he went to England, where he remained till the death of Edward YI., when he retired to Geneva and became the friend of Calvin. In 1555, he married Mar- jory Bowes. It was at Geneva that Knox wrote his *' Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous Regiment of Women^^'' which gave great offence to Queen Elizabeth. The work was a violent tirade against Mary of Guise, Regent of Scotland, and Mary, Queen of England. 241. Meanwhile, a fierce religious struggle was in progress. The Scottish Church was at the time enormously rich. Apart from the vast estates of the religious institutions, the annual revenue of the Church is said to have amounted to £350,000. Many of the Scotch nobles flocked to the "Reformation" banner, that they might lay hold on the treasures and lands of the Church I Protestant noblemen, headed by the Earls of Argyle, Glencaim, and Morton, in 1557, formed themselves into an association which took the name of " Con- gregation of the Lord" and signed a solemn bond — First Covenant — which pledged them to united support against the " Congregation of Satan", as they called the Catholic Church. " Abjuration of Popery and of Popish Idolatry," by which were understood the Mass, Invoca- tion of Saints, Veneration of images, and other Catholic practices, were the chief articles of their agreement. The people were exhorted by proclamation to "separate themselves from the Congregation of Satan, with all the superstitious abomination and idolatry thereof." Knox was invited to return to Scotland, for all things were now ready for setting up the new Kirh. 242. The return of Knox gave a new impulse to the fanaticism of the sectaries. The refusal of the queen-regent, Mary of Guise (mother of the Queen of Scots), to reform the religion of the kingdom in ac- cordance with the principles of the " First Covenant," was followed by riots throughout the country. Knox and his companions went about from place to place ranting against the enormities of idolatry and the infamy of the Pope — "the beast," "the man of sin," "the Antichrist" — and stirring up the multitude to pull down "the Synagogue of Satan", and exterminate "the Canaanites"! Inflamed by such vio- 590 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH lent invectives, " the rascal mob,'* as Knox himself called his follow, ers, rose in Perth, and with tumultuary violence, fell upon the churches, overturned the altars, destroyed images and pictures ; and proceeding next to the monasteries, demolished the magnificent Car- thusian abbey and other convents. In the language of " the Saints," as the sectaries called themselves, Perth was " reformed !" 243. In the same violent and barbarous manner, St. Andrews, Crail, Scone, Stirling and other towns and cities, including the cap- ital, were "reformed." The preachers, the fanatical Knox at their head, roused the people to arms, and wherever they came, they re- sumed their reformatory labor, " with Gospel in one hand and fire- brand in the other." Monasteries and monuments of art were de- stroyed, the ornaments of the churches, and often the churches themselves, were given to the flames. These outrages manifest the true character of Puritanism ; it is not only against "Popish super- stition," but against the " sublime and beautiful" that the Puritan revolts. SECTION XXIV. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE SCOTTISH '* KIRK." The "Lords of the Congregation— The Parliament of 1560 — Penal Statutes against Catholics— Establishment of the "Kirk" — Knox's Book of Disci- pline—Mary Stuart returns to Scotland— Her Proclamation regarding the reformed Religion — Knox, her relentless enemy — Fanaticism of the Reformers — The People at large not in favor of the new Doctrines — Plots against the Queen— Overthrow and Execution of the Queen of Scots — Her Character — Triumph of Protestantism— Presbyterianism established in Scotland— Form of Church Polity— Andrew Melville— Episcopal Oovernment abolished in the Kirk — Attempts to revive it under James VI., and Charles I. 244. The death of the queen-regent, in 1560, led to the triumph of Protestantism in Scotland. The young queen, Mary Stuart, being absent in France, the Catholics were left without protection. Cath- olic priests and bishops were driven from their houses, and the lands and the property of the Church were seized upon by the Protestant nobles in every part of the country. Not satisfied with their first claim of toleration for their religion, the "Lords of the congregation " — as the reformed nobles were thenceforth called — now openly aimed at establishing it on the ruin of the Old Faith. The Scottish Parlia- ment, in which the adherents of the "Congregation" greatly outnum- "bered the Catholics, after adopting the Genevan Confession of Faith, enacted laws for the total subversion of the Catholic Religion. Three acts were passed. The first abolished the Papal Supremacy in the realm ; the second repealed all previous acts in favor of Catholics ; r THE SCOTTISH KIRK. 591 the third prohibited the saying or hearing of the Mass, and enacted, for the first offense, confiscation of property and corporal punishment at the discretion of the judge ; for the second, banishment ; and for the third, death ! 245. Although these enactments never received the royal assent, they nevertheless obtained all over the kingdom the weight and au- thority of laws. In compliance with their injunctions, the Catholic Religion was everywhere overthrown and that recommended by the ■*' Reformers" established in its place. Not deeming it expedient to -depart altogether from the ancient system, Knox proposed, instead of IdI shops, to appoint " superintendents" in different parts of the king- dom, who were empowered to inspect the life and conduct of the other clergy. To give greater strength and consistency to his system, he composed the First Book of Discipline^ which, however, because it proposed the surrender of the confiscated Church property to the "re- formed teachers," did not receive the sanction of parliament. The nobles held fast the prey which they had seized ; and treated the pro- posal of Knox as a devout imagination, with the utmost scorn. 246. When Queen Mary Stuart returned to Scotland (1561), she made no attempt to restore the old religion ; she only demanded toler- ation for herself and her attendants and the free exercise of her re- ligion in her private chapel at Holyrood. In order to quiet the minds of those who had embraced the " reformed" doctrine, Mary de- clared, ** that until she should take final orders concerning religion, with advice of Parliament, any attempt to alter or subvert the relig- ion which she found universally practised in the realm, should be deemed a capital crime." A second proclamation to the same effect, she published the following year.^ The queen also committed the ad- ministration of affairs almost entirely to Protestants. Her chief ministers were James Stuart, her half brother, and Lord Maitland, both Protestants. 247. But nothing could satisfy the fanaticism of Knox and his partisans. The queen was constantly insulted and her servants were beaten and even threatened with death for attending Mass, which Knox continued to denounce as the grossest idolatry. '• One Mass," the fanatic declared, " was more fearful to him than if ten thousand armed enemies were landed in any part of the realm." The General Assembly of the Kirk had even the assurance to present to the queen a formal demand to abolish the Mass in her private chapel at Holy- rood, with the warning " that idolatry was not to be tolerated in the 1. Robertson. Book III, p. 111. 592 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH sovereign any more than in the subject," while the " Congregation"^ were discussing the question whether " the princess being an idolater ought to be obeyed in civil matters."^ 248. The people at large, especially m the northern counties, did not favor the new doctrines. They were Catholic at the core, and were opposed to Knox and his Kirk. But, unfortunately, at this time, a very large portion of the Scotch was held in the fetters of an iron feudalism that was as degrading as it was tyrannical. They were but the serfs and slaves of their masters, whose doings or behests they dared not question, much less oppose. Besides, the Catholic party was without a leader, and had to struggle, not only against the govern- ment which was in the hands of the Protestants, and against hundreds- of the most influential men in their own country who had em- braced the principles of the '' Reformation" from motives of self -ag- grandisement, but also against the whole might of England. 249. Knox and his partisans prosecuted the war against the Catholic Church with unabated and ever increasing rancor. Catholic worship was everywhere suppressed. Catholic laymen as well as priests were made to feel the rigor of the penal laws of 1560. In 1563, Arch- bishop Hamilton of St. Andrews was, with a number of other Catholics, imprisoned for " practising the idolatry of the Mass." How- ever it is only just to say, that in comparison with the wholesale butcheries of England, Scottish history supplies but few examples of the enforcement of capital punishment. Sentence of death was in. some instances pronounced upon Catholics, yet the penalty was gen- erally commuted into perpetual banishment. 250. The unfortunate Queen of Scots was powerless to quell the storm which Knox and other enemies of her faith had aroused against her authority and her person. The attitude of the Protestant Lords, who were all along encouraged and supported in their plots and trea- sonable attempts against their sovereign by the crafty queen and statesmen of England, became every day more threatening. Her unnatural brother, the Earl of Murray, headed the combination of the rebellious lords who forced her to sign a deed of abdication, A. D., 1. During the queen's absence on a "progress" in the North, the magistrates of Edinburg issued a proclamation commanding " all monks, friars, priests, nuns, adulter- ers, fornicators, and all such filthy persons, to remove themselves out of this town and bounds thereof, within .twenty-four hours, under pain of carting through the town, burning on the cheek, and for the third offense, to be punished with death." Mary, on her return to the capital rescinded the mandate; and so in the boorish language of Knox, "the queen took upon her greater boldness than she and Balaam's bleating priests durst have attempted before. And so murderers, adulterers, thieves, w— s, drunkards, idol- aters, and all malefactors, got protection under the queens wings, under color that they were of her religion. And so got the devil freedom again." Mac Leod, Queen of Scots. THE SCOTTISH KIRK. ^ 693 1567. Saving nothing but her faith, she fled to England, where, in- stead of an asylum, she found a dreary dungeon. 251. Abandoned even by her son, on whose affection she had rested her fondest hopes, the helpless princess, after a captivity of nineteen years, was brought to trial ; and upon a variety of slanderous and atrocious charges, was sentenced to death and executed by order of her sanguinary royal cousin, Elizabeth, A. D., 1587. Mary died with truly Christian fortitude, professing to the end the Catholic faith, which, even on the scaffold, she was rudely, but vainly, importuned to abjure by the fanatical Dr. Fletcher, Dean of Petersborough. Her private life and the motives that actuated her public career, so far as she was free to pursue it, have been triumphantly vindicated from the charges and insinuations of bigoted calumniators, by unimpeachable documentary histor}", given in the pages of the latest authors, worthy of the name of historians. Her character and bearing throughout the most grievous trials, are certainly among the grandest on record. 252. The overthrow of Mary Stuart involved the downfall of the Catholic party and the final triumph of Protestantism in Scotland. In 3 567, Parliament met ; all the acts of 1560 in favor of the Protestants were ratified ; new statutes to the same effect were enacted. It was provided that henceforth no prince should be admitted to the govern- ment without taking the oath to maintain the Protestant system. In fact nothing that contributed to efface every vestige of Catholicity, or to encourage the growth of the new tenets, was left undone. To secure uniformity in conventicle service, Knox compiled his Book of dymmon Order, that long continued in use in the Scottish Kirk, of which he is the acknowledged founder. He died in 1572 ;^ and his place was filled by the equally fanatical Andrew Melville. 253. The form of Protestantism established in Scotland was the ex- treme of Presbyteriamsm, w^hich Knox had drawn from the rigid school of Calvin. The new Kirk was in reality a religious republic, being governed by presbyters instead of bishops. The form of church polity included four elective courts, composed partly of ministers, partly of laymen. 1. The ^'Parochial Assembly" consisted of the presiding minister and lay elders. 2. The '* Presbytery" included several parochial assemblies. 3. The " Synod," or "Provincial Assembly," represented a proportionally larger division of the Kirk. 1. Knox was twice married. At the ag-e of sixty, he married a girl of sixteen, Margaret, daughter of Lord Ochiltree. Bj- contemporary Scotch writers Knox is charged ■with almost every moral turpitude. See Spalding, History of the Reformation, Vol. II, Jfote F. 594 , HISTORY OF THE CHURCH, 4. The " General Assembly" formed the Great Council of the national Church. It was supreme in matters of faith and discipline, and owed no allegiance but to Christ, its spiritual sovereign ! 254. This form of church polity is minutely laid down in the Second Book of Discipline^ which was chiefly the work of Andrew Melville. James VI., who succeeded to the government of the king-^ dom, in 15*78, manifested a great dislike to Presbyterianism, and, side by side with the ministers of the Kirk, maintained a small Protestant "hierarchy!" But these "bishops" — devisedly called by the Scotch people Tulchan bishops — were merely nominal, though receiving episcopal revenues ! In 1581, the General Assembly resolved ta abolish "episcopacy," and James was unable to prevent it. In 1592, Presbyterianism was formally established by Act of Parliament and confirmed by King James. 255. After his accession to the English throne, James again re- stored " episcopacy" in Scotland. No change, however, was made, in the established form of worship. The attempt made by Charles I., to substitute the English Prayer Booh, for the BooJc of Common Ordery led to the outbreak of the civil war. The Presbyterian party, in 1638, signed the Second Covenant, for the defense of their national church. Soon the whole country was in arms. The Scotch " Covenanters" united with the English rebels ; and, when after his defeat at Naseby in 1645, Charles took refuge among the Scots, they basely delivered their king to the English army, for the sum of £400,000. SECTION XXV. FUTILE ATTEMPTS OF THE KEFQRMERS IN IRELAND. Ireland under Henry VIII — Irish Parliament of 1536 — Acts in favor of the Reformation— Constancy of the Irish Bishops — Dr. Browne of Armagh — Suppression of Monasteries— Reformers' Attempts under Edward VI — Restoration under Queen Mary— Attempts to reform Ireland under Elizabeth — Penal Statutes — Suffering of the Clergy — Irish Martyrs— Geraldine War — Wholesale Confiscation — Catholic Ireland under James I., and Charles I. — Constancy of the Irish Catholics— Irish Col- leges and Seminaries. 256. The imperious Henry VIII., who was determined to rule in Ireland, as thoroughly and effectively as he ruled in England, bent all his energies to force the royal supremacy and his religious system on the Irish nation. He employed Thomas Cromwell to execute his will. The royal vice-gerent commenced his work by the same meas- ures which met with so great success in England. In 1536 a Parlia- ment was summoned from which the spiritual proctors, who had J REFORMATION IN IRELAND, 695 hitherto voted in the Irish parliaments, were excluded; it thus became an obedient tool in the hands of the English government. 257. It confirmed Henry YIII. and his successors, in the title of " Head of the Church of Ireland,^"* with power of correcting errors in religion ! All appeals to Rome were prohibited, and the Pope's au- thority was declared an usurpation. An " Oath of Supremacy" was imposed on all ecclesiastical and lay officers, and the refusal to take this oath was made high-treason. Other acts regarding the spiritual administration were passed in quick succession. The same Parlia- ment, in 1541, proclaimed Henry King of Ireland} 258. Henry's innovations in religion were viewed with abhorrence by the Irish. The bishops in a body, with Cromer, primate of Armagh, at their head, vigorously opposed them. Only Dr. Browne, an apostate English Augustinian, who, on the death of Archbishop Allen in 1534, had been thrust by Henry into the See of Dublin, fa- vored the impious changes. Browne, a rank Lutheran at heart, was commissioned by the king, and by Cranmer, his consecrator, to dis- seminate at once the novel teachings throughout Ireland. The intrud- ing prelate commenced the work of " reform," by demolishing the images and relics of the Saints in the churches of his diocese. Among the relics destroyed by the vandal *' Reformers," was the crozier of St. Patrick — " Staff of Jesus" — which had ever been highly venerated in Ireland. 259. The destruction of images and relics was followed by the suppression of the monasteries. The first grant of religious houses made to the king by the "Irish" Parliament of 1536, comprised three hundred and seven monasteries. In the following year, eight abbeys were suppressed ; and, in 1538, an order was issued for the suppression of all monasteries and abbeys. Many of the religious houses were totally destroyed and their inmates put to death, for their devoted at- tachment to the Catholic faith.** The pretext for the destruction of tbe monasteries w^as of course the same in Ireland as in England — th^ir need of " reformation." But the main incentive which stimu- lated the tyrannical Henry YIII. to the suppression of these institu- 1. " The Parliament which had fabricated the above named laws, and by which the schism of Henry VIIT, was introduced into Ireland, was the Parliament of the English province and not that of all Ireland; it was composed solely of Englishmen by birth or origin ; the ancient Irish had no seat in it; they were excluded from all offices in the militia and magistracy, which is the cause of their being scarcely ever mentioned by English writers." Mac Geoghegan. 2. See Cardinal Moran, History of the Catholic Archbishops of Dublin, where •• some particular instances of the sufferings of the Religious Orders" are recorded by the illustrious author. 596 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH tions, was, besides the desire to appropriate their treasures, his hatred for their inmates, who were the chief opponents of his "royal supremacy." 260. Under Edward VI. every effort was employed to thrust on the Irish people the new-fangled Anglican service. In 1550, the bishops were summoned before the royal deputy, Sir Anthony St. Leger, to re- ceive the new liturgy. Dr. Dowdall, who had been appointed by Henry VIII. to the primatial See of Armagh, vigorously opposed the inno- vation. His example was imitated by all the Irish bishops ; the only prelates who accepted the royal order, were Browne, of Dublin, Staples, of Meath, Travers, of Leighlin, and Lancaster, of Kildare — all Englishmen, who had been obtruded into their respective sees, under the preceding reign. 261. The accession of Queen Mary and the restoration of the Catholic worship were hailed by the Irish with great rejoicing. Dr. Dowdall, who, by his sufferings for the Catholic cause, had merited to be confirmed by the Holy See as successor to the deceased Arch- bishop Wauchop, of Armagh, convened a National Synod in 1554, at Drogheda, where decrees were passed providing for the cprrection of morals and restoring the ancient rights of the Church. The Irish Par- liament, meeting in 1556, annulled the ** Act of Royal Supremacy," and restored the authority of the Pope in spiritual matters. The Catholic faith was fully re-established throughout the whole island ; nevertheless, Protestants were left unmolested in the practice of their peculiar worship. Many Protestant families, who had to flee from England during Mary's reign, found a refuge and hospitable home in Ireland. 262. When Elizabeth succeeded to the English throne, a system of cruel oppression was inaugurated against Catholic Ireland, which continued, with little interial^sion, until the close of her long reign. In 1560, a Parliament was convened in Dublin, for the purpose of " setting up the worship of God as it was in England." Yet, the bill which re-established the royal supremacy, met with violent oppo- sition and was carried only by fraud and deception practised on the majority by the queen's agents. 263. It was decreed that the queen was the Head of the Church of Ireland, and that the ** Book of Common Prayer" should be used in- stead of the Roman Liturgy. A fine of twelve pence was imposed on every person who should not attend the new service ; bishops were to be appointed only by the Crown. All officers and ministers, ecclesias- tics or laymen, were bound to take the oath of supremacy. Any person REFORMATION IN IRELAND. 597 maintaining the spiritual supremacy of the Pope was to suffer the confiscation of all his property, for the first offense ; the penalties of Praemunire, for the second ; and be adjudged guilty of high-treason, for the third. In 1566, The Book of Articles, copied from the English Articles, was published as the standard of doctrine in the Church of Ireland, by order of the " Commissioners for Causes Ecclesiastical." 264. These laws were not destined to remain a dead letter ; they were enforced with the utmost severity, especially against the clergy. In 1561, Catholic priests and friars were prohibited from meeting in Dublin, or even sojourning within the city's gates. A price was set upon the heads of Irish priests, as upon the heads of wild beasts of prey ; they were compelled to wander from place to place and to fiee for safety to mountain recesses. In 1591, a royal proclamation commanded all the natives of Ireland to give to the government the names of the priests and religious who had visited their houses with- in the past fourteen months, and enacted the penalties of high- treason against any one harboring or relieving a priest. 265. The sufferings to which the faithful pastors of the Irish Catholics were subjected under the reign of Elizabeth, recall the worst days of Nero and Domitian. Bishops and priests were hunted down like wild beasts, and, when arrested, made to endure the most frightful tortures. Some priests were beaten with stones, on their tonsured heads, till their brains were exposed. Some had pins put beneath the nails of their fingers, or the nails themselves torn out by the roots. Some were racked or pressed beneath heavy weights ; whilst others actually saw their entrails protrude and their flesh torn from their bodies by iron combs. 266. Amongst the more illustrious Irish martyrs who suffered under Elizabeth for their faith, was the venerable Dermot O'Hurley, archbishop of Cashel : arrested by order of the Protestant "arch- bishop" of Armagh, he was slowly burned to death. Patrick O'Hely, Bishop of Mayo, was executed with an uncommon degree of barbarity. So were Bishops Walsh, of Meath, and O'Brien of Emly. Arch- bishop Creach, of Armagh, was chained, thrown into prison, and finally put to death by poison. An almost countless number of priests, secular and regular — the latter chiefly Franciscan and Cister- cian friars — were put to death for the exercise of their priestly functions. 267. Nor were the laity exempt from persecution. They were deprived of their liberties, in innumerable instances, of their property, and even of the opportunity of worship. Wherever the 598 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. English agents penetrated, the monasteries were ransacked and de- stroyed, the churches desecrated, and the altars overthrown. The Irish, notwithstanding their weak resources, were determined to put a stop to these high-handed acts of persecution. Having received promises of assistance from the Pope, and the King of Spain,^ they rose in revolt — " Geraldine War," 1579 — for the defense of their country and their faith. But the Irish chieftains — the Desmonds, O'Neills^ O'Donnells and others — not acting in concert, were defeated in detaiL 268. The usual sequel of every suppression of rebellion was the forfeiture of the lands of the insurgents to the Crown. Thus the estates of the Earl of Desmond, comprising 570,000 acres, were con- fiscated and bestowed on the English and Scotch adventurers who were to form the nucleus of that odious " Plantation" from which was to spring the turbulent faction to be known later on as the "Orangemen". The policy of the English government was not to subdue, but to destroy. By the advice of the poet Spenser, who him- self obtained large estates in Ireland, a plan for the extermination of the Irish race was definitely adopted ! Wholesale massacres of Irish Catholics by the English were of frequent occurrence. Even women and children were successively murdered. A well-planned famine removed the fugitives who escaped the sword. 269. The accession of James I., on whose promises they had rested their fondest hopes, brought the Irish Catholics no relief. Following in the steps of the late queen, James caused the existing penal laws to be put in force against the Catholic clergy and recusants, and commanded all priests and religious to withdraw from the king- dom. Confiscations continued as during the preceding reign. In 3 610, six whole counties in Ulster were by one decree declared the property of the Crown. In Dublin, Waterf ord, Westmeath, Longford and other counties immense tracts, amounting to over 400,000 acres,, were confiscated. The spirit of religious persecution under James, 1. " The Roman Pontiffs, as rulers of the Papal States, the Emperors of Germany, as heads of the German Empire, and the Kings of Spain and France, always covertly, and sometimes openly, received the envoys of O'Neill, Desmond, and O'Donnell, and openly dispatched troops and fleets to assist the Irish in their strugrgrle for their de factxy independence. All this was in perfect accordance, not merely with the authority which Catholic powers still recognized in the authority of the Sovereign Pontiff, but even with the new order of things which Protestantism had introduced into Western Europe, and which England, as henceforth a leading Protestant power, had accepted and eagerly em- bracM. By the rejection of the supreme arbitration of the Popes, on the part of the new heretics, Europe lost its unity as Christendom, and naturally formed itself into two leagues, the Catholic and Protestant. An oppressed Catholic nationality, above all a weak and powerless one, had, therefore, the right of appeal to the great powers." Thebaud, The Irish Race. r RE FORMA TION IN IRELAND. 599- was exhibited in many cruel executions. Bishop Conor O'Devany, of Down, suffered martyrdom with heroic constancy, in 1611. 270. Charles I., who succeeded James I., was disposed to grant to the Irish Catholics religious toleration and even allow them some other privileges — known as the " Royal Graces" — without taking the oath of supremacy. But the bigotry of the Protestant clergy would not allow the king to do justice to the Catholics of Ireland. In 1626, we find an assemblage of Protestant bishops, under the guidance of the famous Usher, archbishop of Armagh, denouncing toleration of the Catholic worship a heinous crime, and calling upon those in au- thority to resolutely oppose all "Popery, superstition, and idolatry." This declaration produced the desired effect. Charles ordered the penal statutes against the adherents of the old faith to be enforced, and the bitter persecutions of the Irish Catholics were renewed. 271. The horrible penal enactments by which the English gov- ernment sought to thrust the Reformation on Catholic Ireland, in- flicted frightful evils on that country; but they utterly failed of their object. The Anglican Establishment which had been imposed by brute force and was used as a means of anglicising the Irish, never got a firm footing in the island. The Irish people adhered firmly to the religion of their forefathers, and persecution served only to in- tensify their steadfastness in the Catholic faith and their loyalty to the Holy See. 272. By the penal statutes of Elizabeth and her successors, not only were Catholic schools interdicted at home, but the Irish youtk was prohibited to seek instruction abroad. To remedy this evil and to supply the persecuted Church of Ireland with missionaries, colleges, and seminaries were established in various places on the continent. Philip III., of Spain^took the lead in founding the Irish continental colleges. The cities of Madrid, Seville, Salamanca, Compostella, and Valence were adorned with institutions which for many years sup- plied the Irish Church with missionaries. Dr. Eugene Mathews,^ Arch- bishop of Dublin, was the founder of a new seminary for secular priests at Louvain. Owing to the various continental seminaries, the number of priests rapidly increased, and the succession of pastors was maintained uninterrupted in the Irish Church. 1. For particulars of the life of this zealous prelate and that of his distinguished successor. Dr. Thomas Fleming, who governed the See of Dublin under the most trying circumstances during the reigns of James I. and Charles I., the reader is referred to Cardinal Moran, " History of the Catholic Archbishops of Dublin." 600 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. V. THE REFORMATION IN FRANCE AND NORTHERN EUROPE. SECTION XXVI. — PROTESTANTISM IN PRANCE — THE HUGUENOTS. Spread of Protestantism — Causes — Fanaticism of the Huguenots — Plots and Insurrections— Elizabeth of England aids the Huguenot Rebels — Affair of Vassy — Civil War — Horrid excesses committed by the Huguenots — Massacre of St. Bartholomew — Pope Gregory XIII. — Number of Victims — Henry of Navarre — Edict of Nantes — Cardinal Richelieu — Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. 273. Various circumstances contributed to prepare the way for the introduction of Protestantism in France. The pernicious influ- ence which the sects in Southern France, especially the Waldenses, continued to exercise among the people ; the frequent conflicts of the French kings with the Popes, which could not but be hurtful to the cause of the Church ; their arbitrary interference in affairs purely ecclesiastical ; the appointment of bishops who afterwards proved more servile to the king, than obedient to the Holy See — these and •other circumstances concurred to pave the way for the new faith. 274. Moreover, Francis I. and his successors, by allying themselves with the Lutheran princes of Germany against the Catholic Emperor, had, though unwillingly, favored the spread of Protestant ideas in France, where Calvinism had already gained a wide-spread influence, especially among the nobility. Protestantism early numbered among its votaries persons of rank, and even princes of the royal blood. Berquin, the counsellor of state ; Bellay, the king's chamberlain ; his brother, the bishop of Paris ; Queen Margaret of Valois, the sister, and Madam d'Etampes, the profligate mistress of Francis I., were •ardent admirers of the new faith. The first Protestant community in France was organized at Meaux by William Farel, who is described by . Erasmus ^'^as the most arrogant, abusive, and shameless man he had ever met with.'' 275. Relying on the protection of their powerful patrons, the Huguenots, as the French Protestants were called, broke through all restraints of law and order. The emblem of the Redemption, a statue of the Blessed Virgin, or any sacred image would arouse their rage and provoke them to atrocious profanations. Among the intolerant, not to say, sacrilegious acts of the lawless sectaries were the mutilation of a public statue of the Virgin Mary and the Infant Jesus ; the post- ing of placards denouncing '' the horrible and great abuses of the Popish Mass ; " and other wanton deeds, which were calculated to isting the religious feelings of the Catholics. These outrages upon PROTESTANTISM IN FRANCE. 601 religion and public order caused Francis I. (1515-1547) and Henry II. (1547-1559) to adopt severe measures towards the Huguenots, and again enforce the old penal statutes against heresy and sacrilege. 276. During the minority of Francis II. (1559-1560) and Charles IX. (1560-1574), and while the queen-mother, the ambitious and intriguing Catherine de Medici, held the reins of power, the Huguenots grew daily more daring and turbulent. Headed by the Prince of Conde, and Admiral Coligny, they formed a revolution- ary party dangerous to the altar and the throne. By intrigues and secret conspiracies they sought to drive out the Catholic party of the Guises and to establish their new religion on the ruins of the old.- In 1559, at a general synod held at Paris, their theologians and preachers decreed that all heretics should be put to death ; the year following they formed what is known as the '^ Conspiracy of Am- boise," the object of which was to seize the king and usurp the government. The plot, however was unsuccessful. 277. The Calvinists formed not more than a hundredth part of the population ; yet, not content with the toleration which had been granted to them, they aimed at the destruction of the Catholic Church in France, even if necessary, by the overthrow of the existing form of government. For this purpose, they resorted without scruple to treasonable intrigues and alliances with Protestant England and Germany. They turned traitors to their country. By express treaty (Sept. 20, 1562) with the Huguenots, Queen Elizabeth sent them a force of 6000 men ; and in return, was put in possession of Havre and Dieppe. Envoys were sent to Germany to levy Protestant troops, who were to pay themselves by pillage and plunder, and to live at the cost of the " Papists.''' 278. To oppose the treasonable designs of the Huguenots, the Duke of Guise organized a league of the Catholics. Everything be- tokened war. An accidental affray, which Protestant writers term the " Massacre of Vassy," but in which the Calvinists were the aggresors, was the signal for the actual outbreak of hostilities. France was soon divided into two hostile camps that attacked each other with bitter animosity and religious fanaticism. Long and terrible was the con- test between the turbulent Protestant minority and the determined Catholic majority, who fought for their religion and their country. The civil war which began in 1562, lasted, with but brief intervals, until 1628, a period of about seventy years ; and long afterwards, the fire which continued to smoulder beneath the ashes, burst at times into flames. 279. Acting upon the resolutions of the Calvinistic Synod of €02 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. Nismes (1562), the Huguenots attempted to root out what they were pleased to call ''idolatry." Wherever it was possible, they put an end to Catholic worship, or violently interrupted it ; they forcibly compelled Catholics to listen to the sermons of their preachers and assist at Protestant services. They pillaged Catholic churches and monasteries and laid whole provinces waste. They burnt down hun- dreds of towns and villages, and as many as five hundred churches, and fifty cathedrals. In the little kingdom of Beam alone, no less than three hundred churches were destroyed by the insurgent Hugue- nots. 280. Led on by their preachers, the lawless sectaries committed profanations so atrocious that nothing else in history approaches them. At Rouen they destroyed the sepulchral monuments of the Norman dukes ; at Lyons they demolished the coffin of St. Bonaventure ; at Tours they threw the bones of St. Irenaeus and St. Martin into the river Seine ; at Plessis they broke open the coffin of St. Francis of Paula, and on finding the body incorrupt, dragged it through the streets and threw it into the fire ; and they pulled down the statue of Joan of Arc, the '' Maid of Orleans." Scarcely a monument of Christian art escaped their fury ; amongst the many libraries to which they set fire was also the famous library of Cluny which contained about 6000 precious manuscripts. 281. These acts of vandalism, committed in the name of ''the pure Gospel" and for "the overthrow of idolatry," were, as a rule, accompanied by bloodshed and murder. Priests and monks were murdered in great numbers, frequently by being thrown from the towers of their churches. In Sully, Coligny ordered thirty-five priests to be slaughtered ; in Pithiviers, he commanded all the priests to be slain. At the Council of Trent, the Cardinal of Lorraine reported three thousand religious to have been murdered within a few months because of their refusal to renounce their allegiance to the Apostolic See. Briquemont, a Huguenot leader, wore a necklace made of the ears of slain priests. In the Dauphine alone two hundred and fifty- six priests and a hundred and twelve monks were murdered. . 282. The Catholic laity fared no better. At Orthez, in Beam, Count Montgomery caused the slaughter of three thousand Catholics, including women and children. In the Dauphine, Baron des Arets forced Catholics to throw themselves down from a precipice on the pikes of his soldiers and made his children wash their hands in Cath- olic blood. In the civil wars which they stirred up in France, the ferocious Huguenots, wherever they happened to be in power, slaugh- tered unarmed Catholics by thousands. At Nismes, in 1567, the Hu- n PROTESTANTISM IN FRANCE G03 •guenots carried out a massacre in which several hundred Catholics perished. This terrible slaughter was called the Michaelade from the fact of its having occurred on St. MichaeFs day. 283. The atrocities perpetrated by the Huguenots but too often in- flamed the passions of the Catholics and enraged them to deeds of fearful retaliation. But here we must remember, that the Catholics, in most instances, acted only in self-defense against the Huguenots who were the offenders and aggressors ; and that whatever cruelties and excesses were committed by the Catholic party were done in obedience to regal authority. The Church, therefore, cannot be held responsible for deeds of cruelty which she ever condemns. Such is especially true of the Massacre of St. Bartholomew, in 1572. 284. In order to cement the peace of St. Germain-en-Laye (1569), which put an end to the third civil war, a marriage was concluded be- tween the young king of Navarre (Henry IV.,) and Margaret, the sis- ter of Charles IX. The Huguenot chiefs who had come to Paris to as- sist at the wedding, availed themselves of the occasion, and on August 23, concerted a plan for murdering the whole royal family and pro- claiming Henry of Navarre king of France. To anticipate the bloody and traitorous designs of the conspirators, Catharine de Medici, who w^as as unscrupulous as she was adroit in the management of affairs, persuaded her son, the king, to command the horrible Massacre of St. Bartholomeiv. Coligny and his chief counsellors were slain. The populace joined in the work of blood, and not only Paris, but several of the provincial towns that had suffered most from the Huguenots, now took a fearful reckoning. 285. When the tidings of the tragic event reached the Papal court,* Gregory XIII., the then reigning Pontiff, congratulated King Charles IX., on his escape from the plot against his life, and a service was held in thanksgiving for the preservation of the royal family, be- cause the deed had been represented to the Pope, as to the other sov- ereigns, as a necessary act of self-defense against the machinations of Coligny and the Huguenots.' But wiien he afterwards learned the true state of affairs, Gregory expressed his horror at the deed, even ^ " Charles IX., whose object it was to represent the deed in the most favorable liprht possible, had besought the nuncio not to despatch a courier until the royal message was prepared, and expressed the wish that his ambassador might be the first to bring the news to the Pope. Beauville (the French ambassador) represented to the Pope the danger and audacity of the plot that had been so fortunately frustrated, as well as the necessity for rigorous measures. . . This was how the affair was under- stood in Rome. On the 5th of September a Te Deum was sung in the Church of St. Mark, in thanks- giving for the preservation of the royal family and of the Catholic religion in France ; and on the 8th a solemn service was held In the church of the French nation. The service was not held in thanksgiving for the destruction of the heretics, but for the preservation of the King." Hergen- roether ; Church and State, Vol. H., 378. 604 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. with tears.' All Europe abhorred the horrible slaughter, the German Lutherans excepted, who regarded the massacre as a just punishment of God upon the Huguenots. 286. The number of victims in the cruel massacre cannot be ascer-> tained with accuracy ; but it has been much exaggerated by hostile writers. The most reliable account, corroborated by documentary evidences, estimates the number, for all France, at less than two thou^ sand. According to an old record of Paris, the grave-diggers of that city at the time buried eleven hundred bodies. Foxe, the martyrol- ogist, in his Acts and Monuments, commonly known as the Booh of Martyrs, gives the names of seven hundred and eighty-six, who perished in the inhuman slaughter.' 287. The bloody tragedy of Paris, which was but a political scheme, and had nothing whatever to do with religious interests, a& such, was followed by another civil war. The Huguenots who occupied the fortress of La Eochelle, established a council at Millaud, with power to raise troops, appoint commanders ; in short, assume all the functions of an independent government. To oppose this confederacy, the Catholics formed, under the gallant Duke Henry of Guise, a League for the protection of their faith, their churches and clergy. 288. The contentions and bloody conflicts between the Catholics and Calvinists continued, with constant alternation of war, truce,, and treaties of peace, during the whole reign of Henry III., till the ac- cession of Henry of Navarre, in 1589, who, to pacify the much distracted country, became a Catholic, and also granted the Protestants the Edict of Nantes (1598), whereby, according to Ranke, ''^ they were not only confirmed in the possession of the churches actually in their hands, but had also conferred upon them an interest in the public educationdl insti- tutions, equality with the Catholics as regarded the composition of Par- liament, and the occupation of a great number of fortified places ; and in general, were allowed a degree of independence, of which it might well be questioned, whether it was consistent with the idea of a state/^ > " When asked by the Cardinals wherefor he wept, Gregory answered : I weep at the means the king used, exceedingly unlawful and forbidden by God, to inflict such punishment. I fear that one will fall upon him and that he will not have a very long bout of it (will not live very long.) I fear too, that amongst so many dead, there died as many Innocent as guilty."— Guizot, History of France, Iv. p. 384. - " By some Protestant writers, the whole number of persons killed, has been exaggerated to the number of a hundred thousand : an account published in 1582, and made up from accounts, collected from the ministers in the different towns, made the number, for all France, amount to only 786 persons. Dr. Lingard, with his usual fairness, says ; If we double this number, we shall not be far from the real amount ! The Protestant writers began at 100,000 ; then fell to 70,000 ; then to 30,000 ; then to 20,000; then to 15,000; and at last to 10,000 ! All in round numbers ! One of them in an hour of great Indiscretion, ventured upon obtaining returns of names from the ministers themselves and then came the 786 persons In the whole."— Gobbet, History of the Reformation. Letter X. PROTESTANTISM IN THE NETHERLANDS 606 289. After the death of Henry IV., who fell by the poniard of a base assassin, in 1610, the Huguenots again grew restive and tur- bulent, and broke out in open war against their government. From 1617 to 1629, they excited no less than three civil wars. Cardinal Richelieu, prime minister of Louis XIII., at length, put an end to a bloody strife, which for nearly three quarters of a century had de- vastated France. The kind and persuasive efforts of the Catholic clergy, headed by such apostolic men as Sts. Francis de Sales and Vincent de Paul, brought great numbers of the Calvinists back to the Church. Louis XIV., in 1685, revoked the Edict of Nantes, and by despotic measures, (Dragonnades), which the Popes invariably con- demned, attempted to stamp out Protestantism in Fraace, and force its adherents into the Church.' This caused eighty-six thousand Huguenots to emigrate. SECTION XXVII. — PROTESTANTISM IN THE NETHERLANDS AND THE SCANDINAVIAN KINGDOMS. Repressive PoUcy of Charles V. — Revolt of Protestants — William of Orange — Edicts against Catholics — Catholic Martyrs — Christian II. of Denmark — Introduction of Lutheranism — Christian III. — The Reformation in Norway — In Iceland — In Sweden — Gustavus Vasa — Persecution of the Catholic Clergy — Diet of Westerces — The Church under the Successors of Gustavus Vasa. 290. To avert the evils which accompanied the Reformation in Germany from the Netherlands, Charles V., himself a native of that country, resolved to adopt a severe policy of repression. He had the Edict of Worms against Luther strictly enforced, and ordered the magistrates to carry out the existing laws against heretics. Henry Vaes and John Esch, in 1523, were burned for heresy. But in spite of this rigor, the Netherlands soon became the scene of commotions and in- surrections excited by the men of the '^^'new learning." 291. On the accession of Philip II., the Reformation had already made considerable progress in the Netherlands. The nobility, who coveted the possessions of the Church, supported the movement. An insurrec- tion of the Protestants broke out in 1566, during which great ravages were committed on churches and monasteries. The excesses of the Dutch Calvinists rivaled in atrocity those of the Huguenots in France.' 1 " It has been alleged that Pope Innocent XI. was privy to and an abettor of the design ; but in reality this was not the case. The Roman court would have nothing to do with a conversion effected by armed apostles ; Christ had not employed such means ; men should be led but not be dragged into the Church."— Ranke, History of the Popes. - A very graphic and complete account of the sacrilegious enormities perpetrated by the first champions of the Reformation in the Netherlands will be found in Prescott's " History of the Reign of Philip II." See also Spalding " History of the Reformation."— Vol. II. 606 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 292. The ambitious Prince William of Orange placed himself at the head of the reforming faction, and the obstinate contest which followed, ended in the loss of the seven northern provinces to the Spanish Crown. England, under Elizabeth, assisted the Dutch Prot- estants against their sovereign, and sent them both money and troops. Neither the severity of the duke of Alva, nor the abilities of Don John of Austria, the hero of Lepanto, nor the heroic qualities of Alexander Farnese, duke of Parma, could re-establish Spanish rule in the revolted provinces. Spain, in 1648, was obliged to acknowledge the independence of the *' Eepublic of the United Provinces.^' 293. William of Orange published edicts suspending Catholic worship in the States-General, as they were called ; Catholics, espe- cially priests and religious, were treated by the Dutch Calvinists with unexampled cruelty. Two of his officers, Sonoy and Van der Marck, slew all the priests and religious on whom they could lay hands. In 1572, nineteen priests of Gorcum were cruelly martyred by the soldiery of Orange. The persecution of the Catholics was not confined to Holland; it extended itself to all the Dutch colonies of the New World. The Catholic missionaries were special objects of hatred. 294. The subversive doctrines of Luther were propagated in the Scandinavian kingdoms soon after his apostasy from the Catholic Church. In DenmarTc, as well as in Sweden and Norway, the Kefor- mation was the work of the king and the nobles; the people were generally opposed to a change in religion. In every instance the •efforts of the first Gospellers were powerfully supported by the tem- poral rulers, who, in all their proceedings against the Church, were actuated by no other motive than that of ambition and avarice. It was the prospect of their own authority, and the desire of appropriating to themselves the ample possessions of the Church that gave life to their reformation projects. 295. As early as 1520, Christian II., a prince notorious for his profligacy and cruelty, sought to intrude Protestantism into Denmark. He favored the new religion with no other view than to increase his power by seizing on the possessions of the Church. In order to pre- pare the minds of the people for the contemplated change in religion, he brought a certain Martin, a Wittenberg preacher, to Copenhagen, and appointed him, against the united protests of the clergy and the people, to one of the parishes of the city. He forbade unmarried ecclesiastics to acquire property, and put to death the archbishop of Lund. 296. His successor, Fredrick I., (1523-1533) pursued the same course with persevering energy. By every means in his power he I PROTESTANTISM IN THE NETHERLANDS. 607 sought to undermine, in his realm, the Catholic religion, which at his coronation he had solemnly sworn to maintain. He secured to Lu- therans the same civil rights as were enjoyed by the Catholics; broke off all relations with the Holy See, and reserved to himself the right of appointing bishops from whom he exacted heavy fees on the occasion of their installation. Lutheranism spread rapidly. The city of Malmo suppressed the Catholic worship, and its example was followed by other cities and towns. 297. Frederic died in 1533, leaving two sons. Christian and John. Denmark being then an elective monarchy, the bishops opposed the succession of the elder son,who was known to be a friend of Luther, and favored the election of his brother, who had been reared a Cath- olic. But they at last consented to the election of Christian III., on condition that he would not be an enemy of the Catholic religion. Christian, however, had hardly ascended the throne when he had all the bishops arrested and cast into prison. A diet held at Copenhagen in 1536, decreed the confiscation of all church property, and the abolition of the Catholic worship in all the Danish dominions. 298. In 1537, Bugenhagen was invited by the king from Witten- berg to complete the work of reformation begun by Christian II. Bugenhagen appointed superintendents in the place of the deposed bishops, and organized the new Lutheran Church in Denmark. The Diet of Odensee (1539) confirmed the new ecclesiastical organization; and the Diet of Copenhagen (1546), stripped the Catholic Church of all her rights. Catholics were pronounced incapable of inheriting property or filling public offices. Catholic priests were commanded under penalty of death, to quit the kingdom; the same punishment was decreed for any one harboring a Catholic priest. 299. By the same tyrannical measures, Catholicism was destroyed in Norumy and Iceland, which were then subject to Danish rule. The Norwegians did not take kindly to the new doctrines. They were Catholic to the core and made the most determined resistance to the religious innovations. But, unfortunately, they were wholly at the mercy of the Danish government which took active measures to enforce the new religion on a reluctant people. In Iceland, likewise. Protes- tantism was established against the known and clearly expressed wishes of the people. John Areson, bishop of Hoolum, who opposed the introduction of Lutheranism with all his might, was put to death, and the disaffection of the Icelanders was overcome by the force of arms, 300. In Sweden, as in Denmark, the Reformation was wholly and exclusively the work of the Crown. Gustavus Vasa^ who delivered Sweden from the Danish yoke and became king in 1523, favored Prot- 608 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. estantism from political and mercenary motives. Aided by the- brothers Olaus and Lawrence Peterson, who had become zealous dis- ciples of Luther in Wittenberg, and by the apostate archdeacon, Lawrence Anderson, whom he appointed Chancellor, Gu8.tavu8 prepared the way for the subversion of the ancient faith and the establishment of the Lutheran religion in Sweden. 301. First by artifice and misrepresentation, and afterwards by open violence the wily monarch succeeded in procuring the triumph of Lutheranism over Catholicism. Those of the clergy who offered resistance were made to feel the wrath of the tyrant. The Dominicans were banished the country, while Archbishop Knut of Upsala, and Bishop Jacobson of Westerces were put to death, in 1527. 302. Intimidated by the royal despot, the Diet of Westerces, in 1527, enacted that the pure word of God, as taught by Luther, should be preached in all the churches of the kingdom, and sanctioned the confiscation of the property of monasteries. The king was made supreme in matters ecclesiastical, and the nobles were authorized to take back all the property which their ancestors, as far back as the year 1453, had bestowed on the Church. Sweden was thus severed from Catholic unity and the king acted thenceforth as head of the Swedish Church. 303. The change in religion was inaugurated by the abolition of clerical celibacy and the adoption of a new Liturgy in the vulgar tongue. The Assembly of Oerebro, in 1529, enacted that the Lutheran form of worship should be introduced throughout the country. To present the appearance that no change in religion was intended, many Catholic rites and practices, including the use of images and vestments, and even confession with absolution, were retained ; the places and even titles of the Catholic bishops were taken by Protestant pastors. Lawrence Peterson was appointed by the king archbishop of Upsala and married, as his brother Olaus had done before. 304. The religious innovations everywhere excited great indigna- tion and the people in many places rose in arms to oppose the obtru- sion of the new religion. But with the aid of foreign mercenaries, the royal reformer succeeded in stamping out the revolt and in forcing his reluctant subjects into conformity. Gustavus Vasa died in 1560. His son and successor, Eric XIV., was deposed for various cruelties, in 1568, when the second son, John III., was called to the throne. 305. John III., who was married to a Polish princess returned to the Church, making his profession of faith at the hands of Possevin, a distinguished Jesuit. He was desirous of re-establishing the Catholic I MINOR PROTESTANT SECTS. 609 religion in his realm. But owing to a refusal of the Holy See to accede to certain demands which it could not grant without compro- mising Catholic principles, John gave up the design. His son, Sigis- muud, who had been elected king of Poland, and had become a Catholic, was deprived of the Swedish throne by his uncle, Charles IX., under whom the Catholic faith was completely abolished from Sweden. SECTION XXVIII. MINOR PROTESTANT SECTS. Anabaptists — Their Religious System — Shocking Disorders — Mennonites — Bap- tists — Independents — Libertines — Antitrinitarians — Unitarians — Socinians — Arminians — Gomarists. 306. The Reformation in Germany had boasted an existence of only five years when, from the midst of its adherents, men arose who declared it to be insufficient. Such were the Gospellers of Zwickau, or Anabaptists, as they are commonly called. Alleging revelations from heaven, these sectaries proclaimed the natural equality of all men, the abolition of all authority and the establishment of a new '*^ Kingdom of God " on earth, where everything would be in common, without any individual calling anything his own property, or laying claim to any privilege. 307. They were called " Anabaptists y because they admin- istered anew the rite of baptism to those who joined their sect. They rejected infant baptism and held that every Christian was invested with the power of preaching the Gospel, and consequently, that the true Church stood in no need of ministers or pastors. Many also denied the divinity of Christ, and maintained the lawfulness of polyg- amy. An indescribable confusion prevailed in the minds of these sectaries, and a fearful fanaticism drove them on to every species of extravagance and violence. We need only to remind the reader of the atrocities committed by these turbulent fanatics in the Peasants^ War and at Miinster. As they had the inmost conviction that they did everything by the impulse of the Divine Spirit, all hope of opposing their errors by reasoning and instruction was utterly fruitless. 308. The excesses which the Anabaptists committed in Holland were likewise terrible, and rivalled in atrocity those perpetrated by the '^ Madmen of Munster.^' The sect was, in fact, becoming very dangerous by the contagious rapidity with which their socialist and infidel principles spread among the lower classes. They did much to- ward alienating the latter still further from the Church. The disorders occasioned by these rebellious enthusiasts, caused secular rulers to enact severe laws against them, and even to employ capital punish- ment to conquer their obstinacy. Luther demanded that the Ana- 610 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. baptists should be punished with fire and sword. Many of this sect suffered death in the Netherlands and in England. Fourteen were sentenced to be burned under Henry VIII., and eleven in Queen Elizabeth^s reign. 309. Tlie Anabaptists, the everlasting reproach of the Reformation, subsequently became known under the name of Memionites. Men no Simonis, a native of Friesland, and an apostate priest, joined the sect in 153G, and assuming their leadership, succeeded in appeasing their frenzy, and organized them into a community. He drew up a system of doctrine and discipline of a much more moderate nature than that of the earlier Anabaptists. The Mennonites reject infant baptism as useless ; they believe in the Millennium and assert the prohibition of oaths, the abolition of wars and that it is unlawful for Christians to hold public offices; on the other hand they enjoin obedience to the civil authorities as a religious duty. Menno died in 1561. 310. The sectaries in England who adopt the custom of adminis- tering the rite of baptism only to adults, are distinguished by the denomination of Baptists. With respect to infant baptism, they hold opinions similar to those of the Mennonites, but on other points cannot be distinguished from the English Calvinists, whence they are also called " Calvinistic,^^ or '^ Peculiar, '^ Baptists. Originally they be- longed to those Puritans who went under the name '^ Separatists,'* or '' Independents.'' In 1633, the Calvinistic Baptists separated from the Independents and founded a sect of their own. 311. The Libertines were a sect of fanatical Pantheists, that sprang up in the Calvinistic establishment. They first appeared in Flanders, in 1547, and thence spread into Holland, France, and Switzerland, where they gave Calvin much annoyance. They taught that God was the sole operating cause in man, the immediate author of all human actions, denied the distinction of good and evil, and held that those who have once received the Spirit of God, are allowed to indulge, without restraint, their appetites and passions, and tliat, therefore, for them, even adultery was no sin. 312. As early as 1530, the doctrine of the Trinity was denied by Michael Servetus, a Spanish physician, who, at Calvin's instigation, was burned at Geneva in 1553. The same doctrine was attacked by Valentine Gentilis, a Neapolitan. After having with difficulty es- caped the fiery death, destined for him by the Genevan Reformer, Gentilis was beheaded as an Antitrinitarian at Bern, in 1566. John Campaiius, a native of Juliers, disseminated similar errors respecting the dogma of the Trinity. He was cast into prison in his own coun- try, where he died in 1578. r MINOR PROTESTANT SECTS. 611 313. But none of these men succeeded in forming a regular and permanent sect. They left, however, some followers who became known as Unitarians. Unitarianism, which asserts the unity of per- son in God, was first propagated in Poland, whither it had penetrated almost contemporaneously with the heresies of Luther and Calvin. The most noted Unitarians were the two Italians, LcbUus Socinus, who died in 1562, and his nephew Faustus iSocinus, who died in 1604, They succeeded in elaborating the Unitarian doctrine respecting the Trinity into a system, and in forming its adherents into a community. Henceforward the Unitarians exchanged their name for that of "Socinians." 314. Socinianism is essentiaWjreitionalistic; its fundamental prin- ciple, being, that, both in the interpretation of the Scripture and in explaining and demonstrating the truths of religion, reason alone must be consulted ; that consequently, anything contrary to " Right Reason, '^ that is to say, to the understanding of the Socinians, must not be considered a revealed doctrine. Respecting God and the per- son of Christ, the Socinians hold the Father only to be God ; the Son of God to be a mere man, who was conceived of the Holy Ghost, and therefore called the Son of God ; the Holy Ghost to be a power and efficiency of the Deity. Christ was, before beginning His public min- istry, raised into heaven where he received his commission relative to mankind. They reject the vicarious satisfaction on the part of Christ, and the imputation of his merits as pernicious to morality. They declare justification to be a mere judicial act of God, whereby man is acquitted and absolved of all guilt ; finally, they deny original sin and the perpetuity of hell-punishment, and teach an annihilation of the damned. 315. Calvin's rigid theory on predestination encountered much opposition even in the bosom of his own sect. A very violent contest arose on that question among his followers in Holland. There the parties of '' Supralapsarians^' and " Inf ralapsarians" stood opposed to each other in battle array. The former asserted that, prior to the fall of Adam, the predestination to eternal felicity and damnation was already decreed ; the latter, that it was so subsequent to that event. Then, there were the '^ Arminians" and " Gomarists " wrangling on Calvin's tenets. Arminius, a preacher in Amsterdam, and, after 1603, a professor in Leyden, dissented from Calvin's severe doctrines on Free Will and Predestination, and adopted a system which he deemed less revolting to the reason of man. He was opposed by Gomar, his colleague at Leyden. 316. The controversy between the Arminians, also called ^' Remon- 612 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. straiits/^ from their '^ Eemonstrance " which, in 1610, they presented to the States-General, and the Gomarists, known also as '^Anti- Remonstrants,'^ led early, in the seventeenth century, to violent com- motions. Repeated, but ineffectual, attempts were made on the part of the civil authorities, to bring about a reconciliation between the con- tending parties. The National Synod of Dort, in 1618, upheld Cal- vin's doctrines, and condemned the Arminians as heretics, who, in consequence, were deprived of their situation, and even banished the country. Though much persecuted, the Arminians maintained them- selves as a distinct sect. SECTION XXIX. — CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION. Rapid Spread of Protestantism — Two Questions put and answered — Influences contributing to the General Result — Character of the Reformers — True Origin of Protestantism — Causes of its Rapid Progress — How Protestantism was propagated — Dr. Brownson — Reaction of Catholicity — Causes — Effects of the Reformation — Religious Strifes — Thirty Years' War. 317. Protestantism had spread, chiefly over Northern Europe, with astonishing rapidity. Before half a century had elapsed, it was not only firmly established in Northern Germany, where it had originated ; but its dominion extended over England, Scotland, Hol- land, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Switzerland, and Southern France. The German and Scandinavian States had adopted the doctrines of Luther, as taught in the Confession of Augsburg; while England, Scotland, Holland, Switzerland, and the French Huguenots had em- braced the Calvinistic faith. Efforts had been made, w^th more or less success, to establish the reformed doctrines also in Bohemia, Hungary, Transylvania, and Poland. 318. Naturally, we ask how is this rapid progress of Protestantism to be accounted for ? Is it that the Church had ceased to fulfill its mission among men ? Or is it that the doctrines of Christianity had become so overladen with new and superstitious teachings and prac- tices as to be completely hidden from the minds of the people ? If the promise of Christ that ^' the gates of hell shall not prevail against his Church " have any meaning, we must maintain that the Church, despite of scandals, has always been faithful to her mission, which is to proclaim revealed truth, and furnish men with means of sanctifica- tion. If we are to believe the Apostle, who, in speaking of the Church, declares her to be the object of the special love of Christ, and describes her '' as glorious, not having spot or wrinkle," we must recognize her as free from all error in her teaching, and from all superstition in her solemn worship, since God would not otherwise I CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF THE REFORMATION. 613 dwell in her as in his chosen temple, nor would she be ^' the house of the living God, the pillar and the ground of truth." 319. The Reformation does not owe its origin and progress to any of the causes to which they sometimes are ascribed, for instance, to the quarrel between the Humanists and Schoolmen; or the contention between the two rival orders, the Dominicans and Augustinians; or the preaching of indulgences; the invention of the art of printing; or the revival of literature and the arts; or to the discovery of America. All these influences may have contributed in some degree to the general result ; but they were in themselves not sufficient to produce that great religious revolution which, for a time, seemed to threaten the very existence of the Catholic Church. 320. But least of all, can we ascribe the rapid progress of the Re- formation to the personal influence and qualities of its recognized leaders. Not to Luther, Zwingle, or Calvin ; not to Henry VIIL, Edward YI., or Elizabeth of England ; not to Christian II. of Den- mark; not to Gustavus Yasa of Sweden. The Reformers were re- markable neither for their intellectual influence, nor their moral excellence. We see in them little to admire and much to lament and to censure. We find among them individuals who were too often false and treacherous; some who were even brutal and sensual; men who were ambitious and arrogant, who hated the Church because she stood against their sordid interests and unbridled passions. 321. Like the heresies of preceding ages. Protestantism owed its birth to the pride and the passions of its founders; while the causes of its spreading so widely are to be found in the tendencies of the age and the elements of which society was then composed. Such causes were in particular : 1. The estrangement of society from the Church and its general dislike of Rome, which had been brought about by the prolonged conflicts of the Popes with the German emperors, and sub- sequently with the French kings; 2. The existence of numerous abuses and a general relaxation of discipline, against which zealous bishops and churchmen had so loudly declaimed during two centuries; 3. The ignorance of the people, and the neglect, on the part of the clergy, of preaching and otherwise instructing the flocks committed to their charge; 4. The intrusion of worldly and even licentious men, generally of high birth, into the offices of the Church, coveted only for their wealth and power; 5. The wealth of the Church which had long excited the cupidity of the secular princes and the impoverished nobles ; 6. The doctrines of the Reformers so alluring to the sensual- minded man, such as that of justification by faith alone, of the use- lessness of good works and the like. These, and not the talents of a 614 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. few individuals, were the true causes of the deplorable revolution known as the ** Reformation/" 322. But more than all, the violence of princes and State author- ities helped to propagate Protestantism. According to the maxim which then gained acceptance among Protestants: ''Who rules the land, also rules religion," (Ciijus est regio, illius et religio), the religion of each country depended on the caprice of its ruling prince. Thus the Palatinate changed its religion four times in sixty years. First it became Lutheran, then Calvinist, then Lutheran again, and lastly Calvinist. 323. Almost in every instance the people were torn away from the old faith by the aid of the secular power. ^' The Reformers would have accomplished little or nothing/" remarks Dr. Brownson, * *' if politics had not come to their aid. Luther would have bellowed in vain, had he not been backed by the powerful elector of Saxony, and immediately aided by the Landgrave Philip ; Zwingle, and (Ecolam- padius ; and Calvin would have accomplished nothing in Switzerland, if they had not secured the aid of the secular arm, and followed its wishes ; the powerful Huguenot party in France was more of a political, than of a religious party, and it dwindled into insignificance as soon as it lost the support of the great lords. . . In Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, the Reform was purely the act of the civil power ; in the United Provinces, it was embraced as the principle of revolt, or of national independence ; in England, it was the work, confessedly, of the secular government and was carried by court and parliament against the wishes of the immense majority of the nation ; in Scotland, it was effected by the great lords, who wished to usurp to themselves the authority of the crown/" 324. Within the first fifty years of its existence, the Reformation attained its fullest development. Of all the nationalities of Europe, in the general apostasy from the Catholic Church, only Italy, Spain, Portugal, and Ireland remained wholly faithful. For a moment Prot- estantism seemed to triumph. But the triumph was not real. Notwithstanding the premature shouts of victory raised by the new sectaries, the old Church stood unconquered. She began to gain ground, and fully retrieved her losses, even in Europe. Vast bodies of Protestants, especially in Austria, France, Bavaria, and Poland re- entered her pale. 325. One leading cause of the reaction of Catholicity was the promulgation and general adoption of the decrees of the Council of Trent. The clearer definition of Catholic doctrine by that Council, » Essays, " Protestantism ends In Transcendentalism." CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF THE REFORMATION. 615. and the reform of discipline enforced by its enactments, opposed a powerful barrier to the further progress of the new heresy. In every land, except England and the Scandinavian kingdoms, a decline of Protestantism commenced, which, from that hour, no effort has been able to arrest. Thenceforward, the Church was everywhere triumph- ant, regaining much of what she had lost — a triumph, as Macau lay observes, *' to be chiefly attributed, not to the force of arms, but to a great reflux in public opinion.'' 326. The effects of the Eeformation on religion and society were the most deplorable. Bitter complaints were made by the Reformers themselves, of the increasing corruption of morals. We find Luther admitting that there was a worse Sodom under the Gospel than under the Papacy. He owned that insubordination, arrogance, and licen- tiousness, had become almost universal and that he would never have- begun to preach if he had foreseen these unhappy results. " Who- would have begun to preach,'' he writes, ^' if he had known beforehand that so much unhappiness, tumult, scandal, blasphemy, ingratitude and wickedness w^ould have been the result ? " 327. The Reformation everywhere became the fruitful source of political intrigue and discord, of long and cruel civil wars. The evil seed it had sown everywhere bore bloody fruit. The religious strifes in. Switzerland ; the revolts of the Huguenots in France, and of the Cal- vinists in the Netherlands ; the wars of the Peasants and Anabaptists in Germany ; finally, the wars of the Protestant princes of Germany against the Empire, were the natural results of the discord and hatred which the Reformers, by their revolutionary teachings, had enkindled among the peoples of Europe. It was the Reformation that made- England the scene of constantly recurring insurrections and civil wars from the Pilgrimage of Grace till the Great Rebellion, which brought Charles I. to the block. 328. The Thirty Years' War, which converted Germany into a vast field of desolation and horror, was the distinct legacy of the- Reformation. In this terrible war, — which lasted from 1618 to 1648« — the Catholic party, or League, was headed by the house of Austria, and the Protestant party, or Evangelical Union, was under the leader- ship of the Palatine Elector, Frederic V. The Catholic forces, under Tilly and Wallenstein, gained victory after victory, and Germany was in a fair way of recovering political and religious unity, when Catholic France interfered and came to the rescue of the Protestants. 329. Richelieu, the French prime minister, though a Cardinal of the Church, did not scruple to league himself openly with the Protes- tants and even enlist the Swedish King Gustavus Adolphus, against 616 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH the house of Austria, the bulwark of Catholicity in Germany. Thus the war, in which Spain also was embroiled by France, continued to rage till 1648, when the Peace of Westphalia put an end to the inter- necine struggle. Austria was humiliated, and valuable provinces were made over to France and Sweden, the nations that had helped the Ger- man Protestants to ruin their country. CHAPTER IIL HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. SECTION XXX. THE COUNCIL OF TRENT. Demand for a General Council — Obstacles — Paul III. — His Disposition towards a Council — Summons the Council of Trent — Opening of the Council — Pre- siding Legates — Number of Sessions — Decrees — Julius III. — Continues the Council — Decrees — Suspension of the Council — Marcellus II. — Paul IV. — Pius IV. — Resumes the Council — Decrees — Dissolution of the Council — — Results. 330. A General Council had been looked for by many as the only means of settling the religious differences that distracted Europe. Gharles Y. had been especially urgent for the convocation of such an assembly : eager to conciliate the Lutherans and secure their aid against France and the Turks, he had promised that the affair of religion should be laid before a General Council which he would induce the Pope to convene. At one time, Luther himself appealed from the Pope to a General Council ; and his followers were ever demanding, and appealing to such a tribunal. The Protestant leaders, however, were insincere in their demand for a Council. They clamored for its convocation only, because thus they gave a show of subordination, and loyalty to their pretensions, and gained time, which was essential to their success.' 331. Clement VII. found it impossible to hold a Council. The danger of the empire from the Turks; the war between Germany and France ; the political differences between the Pope and the Emperor ; the intrigues of the Lutherans — these and other events of great mag- nitude prevented its meeting. Besides, the Pope felt persuaded that a Council could not satisfy the minds of the Lutherans, en- ' For a fuller treatment of these and other matters to be noticed hereafter we refer the reader to the excellent HMory of ilie Council of Trent, by the Rev. J. Waterworth. THE COUNCIL OF TRENT. 61T venomed as they were against the authority of the Holy See, which, only, could convoke such an assembly and preside thereat. 332. Paul III., A. D. 1534-1549, who succeeded Clement VII., was long and favorably disposed towards the convocation of a General Council, and this disposition had much influence in his election. From the beginning of his pontificate his efforts for the summoning of such an assembly were unwearied. He sent Vergerius on a special mission to Germany, and issued letters to the bishops and Christian princes of Europe, proposing successively Mantua, Vincenza and other cities as places suitable for the holding of the Council. 333. The project of convoking a General Council was assented to by the Catholics, but obstinately opposed by the Protestants. Assem- bling at Smalkald, in 1537, the Lutheran princes drew up the pre- texts upon which they rejected the proposed Council.* They were upheld in their opposition by Henry VIII. of England, who refused to acknowledge any synod summoned by the Pope, claiming that to princes alone pertained the right of summoning such an assembly. But Paul III. persevered in his efforts, and after many years of anxious labor, he had the happiness of seeing these efforts crowned with the success which they deserved. The Peace of Crespy, which put an end to the bloody war between Charles V. and Francis I., at length ren« dered the Council possible, which Paul summoned to meet at Trent, a city on the confines of Germany and Italy. 334. The Holy Ecumenical Council of Trent opened Dec. 13, 1545 ^ and continued, though with several interruptions, through twenty-five sessions, till 1563, when it concluded its labors. The presiding leg- ates were the cardinals Del Monte, Cervino, and Reginald Pole. The work to be done embraced the propagation of the faith ; the extir- pation of heresies ; the restoration of peace and concord among Christians ; the reformation of morals, and the overthrow of the enemies of Christendom. 335. Ten sessions were held during the pontificate of Paul III. The first questions to be determined by the Council, related to the right and the mode of voting and the order of treating matters. It was agreed that, besides the bishops, also the generals of religious orders should be allowed to vote on matters of doctrine, and that the votes should be given by individuals, and not, as had been done at Con- ' " They required that the Council should be held In Germany, that the Pope should neither con- voke nor preside at it, adding other demands of a like nature, which could not be acceded to with- out at once sacrificing fundamental points of doctrine and jurisdiction. They were encouraged in their opposition to the Council by the ambassadors of France and England ; by the former power from political motives ; by the latter as a counterpoise to the hostility of Rome, occasioned by Henry's late marriage and proceedings in religion."— J. Waterworth. «18 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. stance, by nations. It was further decided, that both faith and dis- cipline should be treated together, and be made to proceed concom- itantly with each other. 336. In the fourth session, the important decree on Scripture and Tradition was adopted. The Council declared that it received both the written Word of God and the unwritten Traditions "with an equal affection of piety and reverence," and ordained that the Vulgate version should everywhere be accepted as authentic, and that no one should ^' presume to interpret the sacred Scripture contrary to the declared sentiment of the Church, or the unanimous consent of the Fathers." 337. In the fifth session, the doctrine of Original Sin was defined. In the sixth, the Synod promulgated the celebrated decree on Justi- fication, giving in clear and precise terms the teaching of the Church on that important subject. The Lutheran errors on free-will, grace, and justification were condemned in thirty-three canons. The decrees of the seventh session defined the Catholic doctrine on the Sacraments * in general, and on Baptism and Confirmation in particular. An epi- demic which broke out at Trent, necessitated the removal of the Council to Bologna. But as the imperial bishops refused to leave Trent, the Pope, who had some apprehensions of a schism, would not allow the Fathers at Bologna to publish any decrees, and, at length, in Sept. 1547, suspended the Council. 338. Paul III. died in Nov. 1549. His successor, Julius III., A. D. 1550-1555, re-opened the Council at Trent on May 1, 1551. During this second period of the Council, extending from the eleventh to the sixteenth session, the doctrines of the Sacraments of the Altar, Penance, and Extreme Unction were defined, and two reformatory decrees on the jurisdiction of bishops and the reformation of the clergy were passed. The war which had broken out between the Protestant princes and the emperor caused the Pope, in April 1552, to suspend the Council for two years. 339. After the short administration of Marcellus II., of only twenty-two days. Cardinal Caraffa ascended the Papal throne as Paul IV., 1555-1559. During his troubled pontificate no attempt was made to reconvene the Council of Trent. Paul IV. earnestly supported Queen Mary in her efforts to restore the Catholic religion in England. Charles V. having abdicated without consulting the Holy See, Paul refused to recognize the elevation of Ferdinand to the Empire. The Roman emperor, henceforward, not being crowned but merely " elect," had, from that time no other relations with the Holy See than those of other sovereigns. 340. Pius IV., A. D. 1559-1565, again convoked the Council of THE COUNCIL OF TRENT. 619 Trent, which was re-opened, at the seventeenth session, in January 1562. The decrees adopted, during this third period of the Council, ordered an ''Index of Prohibited Books " to be made, and defined the doctrines of the Sacrifice of the Mass, of Christian Marriage, of Purgatory, of the Invocation and Veneration of Saints and Holy Images, and of Indulgences. With the twenty-fifth session, the Fathers of Trent concluded their labors. " Thus the Council,'' says the Protestant Eanke^ ''that had been so vehemently demanded, and so long evaded, that had been twice dissolved, had been shaken by so many political storms, and whose third convocation, even, had been beset with danger, closed amid the general harmony of the Catholic world. It may readily be understood how the prelates, as they met together for the last time on the 4th Dec. 1563, were all emotion and joy Henceforth Catholicism confronted the Protestant world in renovated collected vigor."* 341. The Decrees of the Council of Trent were signed by two hundred and five prelates and confirmed by Pius IV., in his Bull, ^' Beiiedictus Deus/' Jslu. 26, 1564. Pius IV., also caused a " Tri- dentine Profession of Faith,'' containing a summary of the Council's dogmatical decrees, to be published. The " Catechism of the Council of Trent," drawn up by order of that assembly, appeared in 1566. It is also known as the " Eoman Catechism," and contains a precise and comprehensive statement of all that Catholics believe. The Tridentine decrees of our faith were received by all Catholic nations without restriction. France objected to some of the decrees on disci- pline as being opposed to the liberties of the Gallican Church or to the rights of the Crown. It was only after protracted delays that the disci- plinary enactments of Trent were introduced in France. 342. The Council of Trent must ever be regarded as one of the most important ever held in the Church. No former Synod treated so many important and difficult subjects with such marked ability, and defined so many doctrines with such precision and clearness. By its dogmatical definitions, it confirmed the faithful in their adherence and loyalty to the Church, and instructed them in the clearest manner concerning many articles of faith. By its disciplinary enactments, it inaugurated a genuine reformation of all classes and awoke new life and zeal in the Church. And though its efforts to re-unite those who were separated from the Church were vain, it yet stamped the new heresies with the seal of condemnation, and thus opposed a powerful barrier to ' Notwithstanding the refusal of Queen Elizabeth to join the Council, England was not entirely unrepresented at Trent. Besides Cardinal Pole who attended some of the earlier sessions. Bishop Goldwell of St. Asaph was present at the latter sittings under Pius IV. Ireland was represented by three bishops— D'Herlihy of Ross ; O'Hart of Achonry ; and McCongail of Raphoe. 620 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. their further progress. Before the Council, entire nations abandoned the faith of their fathers ; after the Council, no single instance can be adduced of any extensive revolt from the authority of the Church. SECTION XXXI. — OTHER POPES OP THIS EPOCH. Pius IV. — Congregatio Concilii Tridentini— Pius V. — Battle of Lepanto — Greg- ory XIII. —Gregorian Calendar — Sixtus V. — Clement VIII. — Paul V. — Gregory XV.— The " Propaganda "—Urban VIII. —Case of Galileo- Innocent X. — Peace of Westphalia. 343. In his bull of approbation, Pope Pius IV., made it the duty of bishops to introduce, without delay, and to execute faithfully the reforms inaugurated by the Council of Trent. He himself gave the example by his promptitude and perseverance in enforcing the pre- scribed reforms at Rome. He established a congregation of cardinals — Congregatio Cardinalium Co7iciUi Tridentini Interpretum — to which was assigned the special office of enforcing and interpreting the enactments of Trent. He also was the first to open, under the direc- tion of the Jesuits, an ecclesiastical seminary, as a testimony of his admiration of that wise regulation which ordained the erection of such an institution in every diocese. 344. On the death of Pius IV., mainly through the influence of St. Charles Borromeo, the pious Dominican, Cardinal Grhisleri, wa& chosen, who took the name of Pius V., A. D. 1566-1572. The pon- tificate of Pius v., though extending over a period of only six years was most advantageous to the Church. With indefatigable zeal he labored in restoring the discipline and enforcing the canons of reform- ation promulgated at Trent. He obliged bishops to reside in their sees and enjoined the strictest seclusion both of monks and nuns. 345. In France and Germany Pius V. upheld, with firmness and wisdom, the cause of the true faith against the innovations of the Reformers. He showed much sympathy for the ill-fated Mary Stuart, and, with every means in his power, the noble-minded Pontiff sought to rescue the hapless princess from the clutches of her blood-thirsty royal cousin. Alarmed at the progress of the Turkish power under Selim II., Pius represented to the Catholic courts the danger that threatened religion and civilization in Europe. By his efforts an alliance was formed between the Holy See, the Venetians, and Philip II., of Spain, and it is to his foresight and energy that .Christendom is indebted for one of the most signal victories recorded in history. The gallant Don John of Austria was given command of the Chris- tian armada, and in the celebrated battle of Lepanto (1571), the power of the Turks was forever broken. OTHER POPES OF THIS EPOCH. 621 346. Gregory XIII., who governed the Church from A. D., 1572 Ho 1585, continued the work of reform begun by his predecessors. • He established nunciatures in all the principal cities of Europe and L founded at Rome six colleges for the Irish, the Germans, the Jews, the Greeks, the Maronites, and the youth of Rome respectively. We are indebted to this Pope for the new calendar ; for it was by his order that the calendar was corrected, and the so-called " new style " introduced.' 347. Sixtus v., A. D., 1585-1590, who rose from the very hum- blest degree to the highest dignity in the Church, possessed all the qualities of a great Pontiff and ruler. By his prudence and firmness, and by a rigorous administration of the law he put an end to the dis- orders that then prevailed. He freed the Papal States from the banditti, regulated the finances, enlarged the Vatican library, improved and beautified Rome with many stately edifices, streets, and aqueducts. He fixed the number of cardinals at Seventy, and reorganized the administration of ecclesiastical affairs by appointing a number of new congregations of cardinals and other officers. 348. Popes Urban VII., Gregory XIV., and Innocent IX., reign- ing collectively only a little over a year, adorned the Papacy by their many virtues and their zeal for reform. The Pontificate of Clement VIII., A. D., 1592 — 1605, is remarkable for the reconciliation of Henry IV. of France in 1595, and the celebration of the great Jubilee in 1600, which is said to have attracted three millions of pilgrims to Rome. Clement is represented by his contemporaries as a man of uncommon abilities, of great discretion and prudence. 349. After the brief reign of Leo XI., who survived his election only twenty-six days, Paul V., was raised to the Papacy A. D., 1605- 1621. The new Pope became involved in a dispute with the Republic of Venice respecting the imprisonment of several ecclesiastics and the passing of laws which prohibited the founding of religious and char- itable institutions, and the acquisition of landed property by the Church, without State approval. He excommunicated the Doge and laid Venice under an interdict. The regular clergy who observed the papal sentence, were forced to leave the Venetian territory. The dispute was settled to the advantage of the Church through the mediation of the French king, in 1507. Paul introduced the '* Forty Hours' Adoration " and completed St. Peter's Church at Rome. ' TJie " G regorian Calendar " was immediately adopted by all the Catholic States. It was not introduced into Denmark, Sweden, and the Protestant States of Germany until the year 1700 ; in England as late as 1751. "■ The Protestant States," observes Hallam, "came much more slowly Into the alteration, truth being no longer truth when promulgated by the Pope." Russia and the Schlsmatical Greeks adhere still to the Julian Calendar. 622 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 350. Paul V. was succeeded by Gregory XV., A. D. 1621-1623. This Pope founded the famous Congregation De Propaganda Fide. He also gave to papal elections the rules and forms — by '^ Scrutiny," *' Compromise, and Quasi Inspiration" — which have ever since been in force. Urban VIII., A. D. 1623-1644, was a man of letters, and an elegant writer and poet, and a generous patron of learning. He en- larged the powers of the Propaganda and founded the college that bears his name — Collegium Urhanum — where young men of every nationality might be trained and prepared for the missions among the heathen and heretics. In the pontificate of Urban VIII., the cel- ebrated case of Galileo occurred which hostile writers have always used to represent the Church as an enemy of science. * 351. The pontificate of Innocent X., A. D. 1644-1655, deserves to be numbered among the most fortunate ; but its reputation has suffered somewhat from the undue influence which his sister-in-law. Donna Olympia Maldachina, was allowed to exercise over the admin- istration of ecclesiastical affairs. The charges made against his morals on that account are the fabrications of bigotry. His apol- ogist is the Protestant Ranke, who says of him : *' In his earlier career, as nuncio and as cardinal. Innocent had shown himself industrious, blameless, and upright, and this reputation he still main- tained." 352. By his Bull '^ Zelus domus Dei,'' Pope Innocent X. entered a solemn protest against the Peace of Westphalia, which brought the Thirty Years' war to a close. It was not against the peace, as such, nor against the entire treaty that the Pope made objections, but only * They forget that the system advocated by Galileo had been advanced, without censure, by the learned cardinal Cusa nearly two hundred years before : that It had been expressly maintained, with the encouragement of the Roman Pontiffs, by Copernicus, fully ninety years before the Congregation of the Index pronounced sentence against the Florentine astronomer. They forget too, that Prot- - estants were the first who vigorously opposed the Copernican system on the ground of Scripture. "Even «uchagreat man as Bacon," says Macaulay, " rejected with scorn the theory of Galileo." '" Had," says Kenrick, " Galileo confined himself, as he was repeatedly warned, to scientific demon- strations, without meddling with Scripture, and proposed his system as probable, rather than as IndubifAble, he would have excited no opposition." It Is rather unfair and ridiculous to call the Church an enemy of science because she forbids writers to adduce the Scripture in support of their views. No corporal punishment was inflicted In the case of Galileo ; and no dungeon was opened to receive him. On the contrary his disobedience and contempt were visited only with a slight pen- ance— to say once a week for three years the seven penitential psalms— and he was put under some .restraint— not in a prison— first with the archbishop of Siena, his personal friend, and afterwards In his own villa, near Florence. The decree of the Index against Galileo proves nothing against "Papal Infallibility ; It neither bears the Pope's name, nor any mark to show the Pope's Intention of defining a doctrine to be held by the whole Church. The decree In question was simply disciplinary, not doctrinal. " In 1624 (eight years after the Decree of the Index had been Issued), speaking of the new theory. Pope Urban VIII. said that the Church neither had condemned nor ever would oxjndemn the doctrine of the earth's motion as heretical, but only as rash." See " Irish Ecclesiastical Becord," September, 1886. r NEW RELIGIOUS ORDERS. 623 against certain articles which were prejudicial to the Church. The property of which the Church had been robbed by the Protestants was made over to them as their own forever. Lutherans were not only permitted the free exercise of their religion in numerous places, but were also admitted to certain bishoprics and other ecclesiastical dig- nities and benefices. A number of bishoprics and other Church l)enefices and properties were given to Protestant princes as perpetual fiefs. These and other articles were gross violations of the rights of the Catholic Church and of all Catholics in general. SECTION XXXII. NEW RELIGIOUS ORDERS. Society of Jesus — St. Ignatius — Labors and services of the Jesuits — Capuchins — Recollects — Alcantarines — Discalced Carmelites — Augustinians — Congregation of St. Maur— Clerks Regular — Congregations of Secular Priests— Congregations of Women. 353. This period was a very critical one and of great import for the Church. Heresy had attained alarming dimensions in Germany, Scandinavia, England, Scotland, and even in France and Italy. The discovery of America and of a new route to India had opened a vast field for missionary enterprise. Men were wanted to combat heresy at home, and to conquer new worlds abroad ; to revive the spirit of holi- ness in the clergy and to reform the manners of the people. This want for apostolic men, who would assist the Church in her arduous and difficult task, prompted the founding of new religious orders. 354. At the very period when Luther and the other Reformers hade defiance to the Holy See, Divine Providence raised up an order which should support the Chair of Peter against the new heretics ; sustain, by example, preaching, and education the cause of Catholic truth, and jarry the light of the Gospel to the heathen of distant countries. This order was the noble and famous Society of Jesus. St. Ignatius Loyola, its founder, was born in 1491, of a noble Spanish family and trained to the profession of arms. But touched by divine grace, he gave up that profession to devote his life to the service of the Church. 355. In instituting his order, the foundation of which was laid on the feast of the Assumption, 1534, Ignatius desired to create a spiritual militia which should be completely subject to the orders of the Vicar of Christ, and whose services should be ever ready to be employed by the Pope in whatever manner, and whatever part of the world he should judge best. The rules laid down for the government of the society all tend to this end. A fourth vow, that of under- taking at the bidding of the Pope any mission in any part of the 624 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH world is added to the other three vows of poverty, chastity, and obe- dience, which latter they declare to be the duty of every member of the Society. 356. The Society of Jesus became the vanguard of the Church in her conflict with Protestantism. The progress of heresy in Germany was checked, and thousands were converted from their errors by the labors of the Jesuits. Austria, Bavaria, and Poland, where heresy had reached alarming dimensions were confirmed in the Catholic faith, and, in the main remained true to the Church. The Jesuits being everywhere the support and bulwark of the Church, we cannot be surprised that they soon won the deadly hatred of the enemies of the faith. * 357. The common calumny of the Protestants, that the Catholic Church was hostile to learning, has been practically refuted by the numerous Jesuit colleges, founded in almost every kingdom of Europe, in which the humanities, philosophy, and the sciences were taught with great skill and success. The society of Jesus increased rapidly. When St. Ignatius died in 1556, it was firmly established in many countries of Europe and engaged in successful missions in Asia, Africa, and America. It possessed upwards of a hundred houses and colleges, and numbered more than a thousand members divided among twelve provinces. 358. Many Jesuits became martyrs of charity, others suffered act- ual martyrdom in China, India, Japan, and North and South America, Even European countries, where heresy prevailed, were watered with their blood. In England, where the first Jesuits arrived in 1580, they were hunted down like wild beasts. Fathers Cornelius, Walpole, Filcock, Campion, Briant, and Page were executed under Elizabeth; Father Oldcorne and the two Garnets under James I.' 359. The Capuchins, a branch of the great Franciscan Order, were instituted by Mattaeo di Bassi of XJrbino. Their special object is the strict observance of monastic poverty as prescribed in the Rule of St. Francis. They were to have ^jo revenues, but to live by begging. In 1528, they obtained from Clement VII. permission to wear beards and ' The advice given by Calvin that " the Jesuits, who most oppose us, should either be killed, or if this cannot well be done, driven away ; and at any rate, put down by lies and slander ; '' remains to this day the common watch-word of heretics and Infidels. " Use your best endeavors," the Gen- evan Reformer writes, " to rid the country of these scoundrels .... Such monsters should be dealt with as was done here In the execution of Michael Servetus, the Spaniard." * "From a rough calculation It would appear that, from 1540-1773, 21,000 Jesuits were employed in foreljfn missionary work. During this period 500 Jesuits are recorded to have won the martyr's crown ; some at the hands of the heathens, others through the persecutors of Northern Europe. Of these martyrs, 3 have been canonized, 75 beatified, and 27 declared venerable."— Catholic Missions, July 1886. I NEW RELIGIOUS ORDERS. 625 to use the long-pointed capuche, or cowl, from which they derive their name. The new Order spread rapidly and became very popular. The Capuchins labored, with much success, in reclaiming to the true faith numberless Protestants in Germany, Savoy, and Switzerland. There are other branches of the Franciscan Order called the Recollects and Alcantarines; the former founded, in 1500, by Blessed John Guadalupe, the latter in 1555, by St. Peter of Alcantara. Both are required to observe the original rigor of the institute. There is no essential difference between the two Orders ; the Alcantarines, how- ever, wear a white habit. 360. Special congregations, aiming at the strict observance of the original rule, arose, likewise, in other religious Orders. The Discalced Carmelites, both male and female, were instituted by St. Teresa. The new institute which was approved by Gregory XIII. in 1580, extended rapidly into all the Catholic countries of Europe. About the same time the Discalced Augustinians were founded by Father Thomas of Jesus. 361. Among the reformed monks, particular attention is due to the Maurists, who rendered such priceless services to the cause of secular and sacred learning. The Congregation of St. Maur, as this reformed institute called itself, was established in France in 1618, w^th the view of reviving the pristine austerity of the rule of St. Benedict, and for the advancement of literature and learning. Those famous and highly valued '' Benedictine editions " of the Greek and Latin Fathers, all came from members of the Congregation of St. Maur. 362. To spread an ecclesiastical spirit among the secular clergy, and reform the manners of the Catholic laity, were the principal objects of several new Orders. The ^' Clerks Regular " as the members of these communities called themselves, were priests, observing a common rule of life, and devoting themselves to the education of the clergy, the instruction of the people, the care of the sick and the orphans, the conducting of missions, and similar works. They were : 1. The *' Theatines,^' founded in 1524, by St. Cajetan and Archbishop Peter Caraffa of Theate, afterwards Pope Paul lY. ; 2. The " Clerks Regu- lar of Somascha,^' instituted by St. Jerome ^miliani in 1530; 3. The ^' Clerks Regular of St. Paul," or, '* Barnabites," also founded in 1530; 4. The " Clerks Regular, Minors," instituted in 1588 ; and 5. The ^^ Clerks Regular," or ''Servants of the Sick," founded by St. Camillus Lelis. Similar to the last-named were the '' Brothers of Mercy," founded by St. John of God in 1540, for the care of the sick in hospitals, to which they bind themselves by an additional vow. 626 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 363. Besides these, there were the *' Congregations of Secular Priests/' resembling in their aim and organization the preceding orders: 1. The '' Oratorians," founded by St. Philip Neri, in 1558 ; 2. The '^Oblates of the Blessed Virgin and St. Ambrose," instituted by St. Charles Borromeo in 1578; 3. The *' Piarists," or, "Fathers of the Pious Schools," an institute founded at Rome by St. Joseph Calasanctius, about 1600; 4. The '^ Lazarists," or "Fathers of the Mission," instituted by St. Vincent of Paul, in 1635; 5. The " Eudists," established by Pere Eudes, under the name of Jesus and Mary, in 1643; and 6. The " Sulpicians," or " Priests of the Con- gregation of St. Sulpice," a community founded by the sainted Jacques Olier, in 1642, — their chief object being the direction of ecclesiastical seminaries and the training of candidates for the priest- hood. 364. Among women, also, the religious life underwent a most beneficial awakening. The Order of the " Ursulines," so called because it is placed under the patronage of St. Ursula, was founded by St. Angela Merici, in 1537. The work of teaching was, from the beginning, the distinctive employment of this community. It received the papal approbation, in 1612. The holy widow Frances de Chantal,. under the direction of St. Francis de Sales, became the foundress of the " Order of Visitation." The venerable Margaret Alacoque, so well known in connection with the devotion to the Sacred Heart, belonged to this Order, which was approved by Pope Paul V. in 1618. 365. The " Institute of the Blessed Virgin Mary," was established by Mary Ward about 1603. These Sisters known, also, as " Loretto Nuns," in Germany as " English Virgins," are principally devoted to the care of female boarding institutions. The Order worked great good in England during the persecutions. "The institution of the " Sisters of Charity," also called " Grey Sisters," so famously known all over the world, owes its origin to St. Vincent of Paul, and vvas founded by him in 1634, while the " Sisters of the Good Shepherd," whose object is the reformation of fallen women, date from the year 1646. SECTION. — XXXIII. THEOLOGICAL CONTROVERSIES. Immaculate Conception. — Doctrine of the Franciscans — Of the Dominicans — Of the Council of Trent — Baius — His Errors — Controversy on Grace — Thomists and Molinists — Jansenius — His "Augustinus" — Jansenists. 366. In the twelfth century, the question concerning the "Im- maculate Conception " of the Blessed Virgin — that is, of her immu- nity, through the merits of her divine Son, from original sin — began I THEOLOGICAL CONTROVERSIES. 627 to agtiate the minds of theologians. The controversy was subsequently carried on with great warmth, especially between the Franciscans and Dominicans. The former following Duns Scotus, who thought it more consonant with the teachings of the Church and the testimonies of the Fathers, and more becoming the dignity of the Mother of God, that she never contracted original sin, defended the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception ; while the Dominicans, on the authority of St. Thomas Aquinas, who held that Mary was only sanctified in the womb after the animation of her body {post ejus animationem), denied that prerogative of the Blessed Virgin. 367. The Holv See, though delaying to declare it as an article of faith, invariably supported the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception. The Roman Pontiffs, — Sixtus IV., Pius V., Paul V., and Gregory XV. — approved of the Feast of the " Conception of the Blessed Virgin " and of the office composed for it, and forbade the contrary doctrine to be taught and preached. The Fathers of Trent, adopting the well-known declaration of St. Augustine that, when speaking of sin, the Blessed Virgin, on account of the honor of the Lord, must always be excepted, affirmed in the decree concerning original sin, that " it was not their intention to include in it the Blessed and Immaculate Virgin Mary, the Mother of God." 368. Michael Baius, doctor and professor of Theology at Louvain, misinterpreting the doctrine of St. Augustine, advanced new opinions on original justice, grace, and freedom of will. His lectures on these subjects excited much opposition among his academic colleagues, especially among the Franciscans. The principal errors couched in the doctrines of Baius are, that original justice is an integral part of human nature, and not a free gift of God; that fallen man, being utterly depraved in his nature, is incapable of doing good ; that all actions of man, in the natural order, are sinful; and that divine grace constrains man to be and to do good. In 1567, Pope Pius V. con- demned seventy-six propositions, representing the teachings of Baius, as erroneous and heretical, which sentence Gregory XIII. renewed in 1579. Baius, who died in 1589, submitted to the papal decision. But his tenets, which are hardly distinguishable from those of Calvin, struck root, and passed from his disciples to Jansenius in the next century. 369. The errors of Baius gave rise to an animated controversy between the Dominicans and Jesuits on the efficacy of grace and its relation to the freedom of the will. The Dominican theologians, adopting the Thomist theory on the subject, maintained that grace is efficacious of itself independent of the human will. Grace becomes 628 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. efficacious, as they expressed it, by "physical premotion " on the part of God, which is infallibly followed by the consent of the will on the part of man. 370. The Jesuits met the doctrine of intrinsic efficacy of grace and physicial premotion with a vigorous opposition. Louis Molina, in 1588, published his famous book, entitled Liberi ArUtrii cum Gratice donis concordia, in which he maintains that grace becomes efficacious by the consent of the will which accepts it ; and that God predestines those whom he foresees will correspond to grace. 371. The controversy waxed warm amongst theologians who be- came divided into two camps under the names of TJioinists and Mol- inists. Clement VIII. calling the whole matter before his tribunal, instituted the famous Congregation De Auxiliis for the examination of the question. After years of discussion, Paul V. in 1607 dismissed both parties, permitting them to hold their respective opinions, pro- vided they did not stigmatize their opponents with heresy. 372. The disputes were revived and inflamed by the treatise, which Jansenius, in 1640, published on grace and fallen nature. Cornelius Jansenius, born in 1585, was professor at Louvain; after- wards he became bishop of Ypres. Being averse to the theological views of the Jesuits, he concerted with his friend Hauranne, abbot of St. Cyran, a new system of doctrine concerning the working of divine grace. He published his system in a book which, from St. Augustine, of whose doctrine the author, as he professed, attempted to give a faithful statement, is entitled Augustinus. The book is in three parts ; the first contains a history of the Pelagian heresy ; the second and third treat of grace, fallen nature, and the Semipelagian errors. 373. Jansenius, who died in 1638, submitted his "Augustinus^' to the Pope's judgment, though he could not believe that the work contained doctrinal errors. But such it comprised. It gave rise to a new heresy, which denied the freedom of will and the possibility of resisting divine grace, wherefore Urban VIII., in 1624, condemned the work as reviving the errors of Baius; and Innocent X., in 1653, denounced as heretical five propositions, to which the errors of Jan- senius were reduced. 374. The " Disciples of St. Augustine,'' as the Jansenists styled themselves, making a distinction between what they called the question of right {qucBstio juris) smd the question of fact, {qucestio facti) were willing to admit that the five propositions condemned were false, but they denied that the book of Jansenius contained them in the sense condemned — a question of fact, on which, as they maintained, the Church might err. Alexander VII., however, in 1656, declared that I THEOLOGICAL SCIENCE AND RELIGIOUS LIFE. 629 the five propositions were contained in " Augustinus," and were con- demned in the sense in which the author used them. The leaders of the Jansenist party at this time were Antoine Arnauld, doctor of the Sorbonne, and Pascal, author of the famous "Provincial Letters/' SECTION XXXIV. — THEOLOGICAL SCIENCE AND RELIGIOUS LIFE. Literary Activity of the Clergy — Baronius — His ''Ecclesiastical Annals " — Bel- larmine — His Principal Works — Dogmatic and Moral Theology — Eminent Theologians — Canon Law — Exegetics — History — Saints of this Epoch — Sanctity of the Church. 375. All the different branches of science and literature, during the course of this epoch received a fresh impulse and a new degree of lustre and improvement. The eminent writers that adorned the Church, especially in Italy, France, and Spain, where the ecclesiastical sciences were cultivated with much ardor, were many in number. The Maurists and Dominicans, the Jesuits and Oratorians, and even the secular clergy counted in their ranks many persons, distinguished for their genius and erudition, who, by their theological or literary pro- ductions contributed much to the propagation and improvement of both sacred and profane learning. We shall here mention only those writers, with whom it is necessary for a student of ecclesiastical his- tory to be acquainted. 376. At the head of the eminent men, found among the regular clergy, must be placed the Cardinals Baronius and Bellarmme. Both obtained immortal fame, the one as historian, the other as controver- sialist. Baronius, a member of the Oratory, was the author of the famous "Ecclesiastical Annals," a work of stupendous research and learning, the equal of which has not been written to the present day. This work, which ranges from the year 1 of the Christian Era, to 1198, and which gained for the author the honorable title of *' Father of Ecclesiastical History," was undertaken to oppose the compilation of the ^' Centuriators of Magdeburg," a history of the Church written in an intensely Lutheran and hostile spirit. Baronius died in 1607. 377. The principal works of Bellarmine, a Jesuit, and nephew of Pope Marcellus II., are his '' Disjmtationes de controversis Ckristianm Fidei ArticuUs/' and " De Scriptoribus Ecclesiasticis," the latter a sort of Patrology. This renowned and formidable champion of the Catholic Church died in 1621. Other eminent controversialists, besides those already mentioned in the history of the Reformation, were Thomas Stapleton, professor at Douay, the Jesuit Gregory of Valentia, and the Cardinals Perron and Hosius. 378. A fresh impetus was given to the study of dogmatic theology 630 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. by the controversies with the Reformers on almost all the Catholic- dogmas, and with the Jansenists on the doctrine of grace. The greatest names among the dogmatic theologians, in this age, are, besides Bellarmine, his brother Jesuits, Vasquez (d. 1604), Suarez (d. 1617), Petavius (d. 1653), and Cardinal de Lugo (d. 1660) ; and the Dominicans, Cardinal Cajetan (d. 1534), Melchior Canus (d. 1560), Victoria (d. 1549), Bannez (d. 1604), and Alvarez (d. 1640). 379. Moral theology was treated in this period with greater com- pleteness, and arranged in a more systematic manner for practical use. In this sphere excelled, especially, Cardinal Toletus, (d. 1596); Molina, Laymann, Escobar, and Busenbaum, all of the Society of Jesus. In Canon Law conspicuous were Cardinals Parisius, Simonetta, and Cer- vantes, and Bishop Barbosa of Ugento (d. 1649). 380. Great advance was made in Biblical studies during the present epoch. The aid given to the study of exegefcics, especially by the fathers of the Society of Jesus, was remarkably valuable. To- prove this it is only necessary to cite such names as Maldonat (d. 1583) ; Salmeron, Toletus, and Cornelius a Lapide (d. 1637). An- other celebrated interpreter of the Scripture was William Estius,. chancellor of the University of Douay ' (d. 1613.) 381. Fathers Pallavicini, Rosweyde, and Bolland, of the Society of Jesus, obtained great fame as historians. The two last named conceived and carried out the great design of the famous " Bollandist Lives of the Saints.^' Pallavicini, who became Cardinal, was the author of a '^ History of the Council of Trent," a work written to refute the misstatements of Paolo Sarpi, an excommunicated Servite friar, on the same subject. 382. At the very time when the Reformers decried the Church as being degenerate and void of all higher life, she produced a glorious array of saints, whose holy lives were shining patterns of faith and heroic virtue. The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were adorned by such holy persons as St. Charles Borromeo, Cardinal, and Arch- bishop of Milan (d. 1584), so justly celebrated for his exemplary piety and his unparalleled liberality and beneficence ; St. Francis de Sales, Prince-Bishop of Geneva (d. 1622), who brought back by the power of his gentleness 72,000 Calvinists to the Catholic faith ; St. Vincent de Paul, the father of the poor and afflicted ; St. John of the Cross, co-laborer of St. Teresa in reforming the Carmelite Order ; St. John » At Douav, in Flanders, was begun, about 1580. the translation of the Holy Scriptures current among English speaking Catholics. Henc« the name of " Douay Bible." The divines who under- took the work were Drs. William Allen, afterwards cardinal. Gregory Martin, Richard Bristow, and John Reynolds. THEOLOGICAL SCIENCE AND RELIGIOUS LIFE. 631 of God ; and St. Philip Neri (d. 1595), honored to this day as the *' Apostle of Rome." 383. The Society of Jesus produced, besides St. Ignatius, its illustrious founder, such saints as Francis Xavier, the Apostle of India and Japan ; Francis Borgia, third general of the order ; Francis. Regis, the Apostle of Southern France ; Stanislaus Kostka (d. 1568) ; and Aloysius Gonzaga (d. 1591.) We meet, besides, at this period such eminent men as St. Turibius, Archbishop of Lima ; St. Thomas of Villanova ; St. Cajetan ; St. Pius V ; St. Peter Alcantara ; St. Camillus Lelis ; St. Joseph Calasanctius ; St. Joseph Cupertino, and many others. 384. Among the female saints flourishing in this time, we men- tion particularly St. Jane, Queen of France and foundress of the nuns of the Annunciation ; St. Teresa and St. Magdalena de Pazzi of the Carmelite Order ; St. Angela of Merici and St. Frances de Chantal, foundresses, the one of the Ursulines, the other, of the Visitation Order ; St. Catherine of Ricci, and St. Rosa of Lima, the first canon- ized saint of America — both of the Dominican Order. 385. The lives and examples of these saints, which could not but exert a beneficial influence on the masses of the people, loudly pro- claimed the sanctity of that Church which the self-styled Reformers were wont to denounce as degenerate and corrupt. Saints, properly so called, are to be found nowhere except in the Catholic Church, a fact which even fair-minded Protestants admit. ^' It is only in that Church," says Leibnitz, ^' which preserved the name and character of Catholic, that we find those superhuman examples of heroic virtue and spiritual life; but there they are everywhere manifested and cherished/' SECOND EPOCH. FROM THE MIDDLE OF THE SEVENTEENTH CBNTURT TO THE VATICAN COUNCIL, OK, PROM A. D. 1650 TO A. D. 1870. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. Macaulay on the Decline of Protestantism — Deplorable Results of the Refor- mation — Sects — Atheism — Dr. Brownson — Protestantism essentially Intol- erant — Led everywhere to Insurrection and Civil Wars — St. Bernard on the Perpetuity of the Church. 1. For three whole centuries, Protestantism had had full sway and perfect freedom of action throughout half of Germany and all of Northern Europe. What have been its progress and the practical results of its influence ? Macaulay in his famous Essay on the Popes answers the question by saying : ^' We often hear it said that the world is con- stantly becoming more and more enlightened, and that this enlight- enment must be favorable to Protestantism, and unfavorable to Cath- olicism. We wish that we could think so. But we see great reason to doubt whether this will be a well-founded expectation. We see that during the last two hundred and fifty years, the human mind has been in the highest degree active, that it has made great advances in every branch of philosophy, that it has produced innumerable inventions, tending to promote the conveniences of life yet we see, that, during these two hundred and fifty years, Protestantism has made no conquests worth speaking of. Nay, we believe that as far as there has been a change, that change has, on the whole, been in favor of the Church of Rome." 2. Christ came on earth to establish a Church which he endowed with absolute authority in matters of religion. He made her the mouth-piece of infallible truth : " The pillar and ground of the INTR OB UCTOR 7 REMARKS. 633 truth/' By rejecting that divinely constituted authority, and sub- stituting, in its steadjthe right of private judgment, the Reformers brought about a lamentable confusion of doctrine, and paved the way for a countless multitude of conflicting heresies. Sect after sect sprang into existence ; the countries in which Protestantism became predominant, literally swarmed with them. All, of course, professed themselves to be founded upon the Bible. In spite of every effort to coerce the licentious spread of schism, divisions still continued to multiply, and the eternal Truth was asserted to have taught as many different systems of faith, as there are expounders of the Bible. Such, then, was the influence of the Reformation on the doctrines of Christianity ! It found but one faith on the earth ; and it created a hundred new ones, all contradicting one another. 3. But Protesta^ntism is answerable for still greater evils : it log- ically leads to the denial of all religion, to atheism, and therefore, to nihilism — for to deny that God exists, is to deny that anything is. " Protestantism, as we now find it, and even as it was virtually, in the sixteenth century, '^ writes one of the most logical thinkers of the age. Dr. Brownson, " is not merely the denial of certain Catholic dogmas, is not merely the denial of the Christian revelation itself, but really the denial of all religion and morality, natural and revealed. It denies reason itself, as far as it is in the power of man to deny it, and is no less- unsound as philosophy, than it is as faith. It extinguishes the light of nature, no less than the light of revelation, and is as false in rela- tion to the natural order as to the supernatural. Even when Protest- ants make a profession of believing in revelation, they discredit reason." 4. Protestantism is essentially intolerant and hostile to the Cath-^ olic Church. Nowhere, on obtaining power, did it permit Catholics to enjoy the exercise of their religion,, even in private. '^ Protest- antism," the same Brownson remarks, " is really in its very nature and essence an earnest and solemn protest against religious liberty." In point of fact, the Reformers were themselves the most intolerant of men, not only towards the Catholic Church, but even towards each other, and Protestants have very generally violated the fundamental principle of their own sect — the right of private judgment — and, in the name of religious liberty, have practised the most cruel and unjust tyranny over man's conscience. 5. This assertion may seem harsh, but it is nevertheless true. A proof of it we see in their public protestation at the Diet of Spires m 1529, against the free exercise of the religion of their Catholic fellow- citizens, from which the Reformers and their followers received the «34 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. significant name *' Protestants." This is evident also from the teachings of the Reformers themselves. They defended the proposition that the people were authorized to take up arms, and resist, and even expel their rulers, if they oppressed the true religion — Protestantism — and introduced idolatry — Catholicism. The Lutherans in Germany, the Calvinists in Switzerland, and the Huguenots in France, received express approval from their preachers for their wars of religion. So •did the new believers in England, Scotland, and the Netherlands. 6. The pernicious doctrines broached by the Reformers, were bearing their fruit ; they everywhere led to insurrection and civil wars. Protestantism was in sympathy with every revolt against estab- lished authority, especially the authority of the Church. The Church was plunged into the greatest conflict with which she ever met since the time of her foundation by Christ. Neither the violence of the persecutions under the Roman Emperors, nor the fierce attacks of the early heresies on Catholic doctrines ; neither the devastating inroads of the Northern Barbarians, and later on, of the Turks ; nor the pro- longed contest between the Papacy and the Empire, had been so dan- gerous as the cruel warfare that has been waged against the Church of God ever since the outbreak of the Reformation. 7. But, "the Church of God," says St. Bernard, "has from the beginning been often oppressed and often set free. The arm of the Lord is not shortened, nor become powerless to save her. He will, without doubt, once again set free His Bride, whom He has redeemed with His blood, endowed with His Spirit, and adorned with heavenly gifts." "He will set her free, I repeat He will set her free." The Catholic Church, the work of God Incarnate, has a supernatural life, and the most secure pledge of endurance till the end of the world. Thousands of years may pass by, but she will neither decay nor alter. To her belongs the promise : "On this Rock I will build my Church, and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it." (Matt. xvi. 18.) " When we reflect on the tremendous assaults which she survived," Macaulay aptly remarks, " we find it difiicult to conceive in what way she is to perish/' MISSIONS TO THE HEATHEN. 635 CHAPTER I. PROPAGATION OF CHRISTIANITY. SECTION. XXXy. — MISSIONS TO THE HEATHEN IN ASIA AND AFRICA. Christianity in China — Dispute about Chinese Customs — Persecutions of the Christians — Christianity in India — Distinguished Missionaries — Missions in Tong-King — Inhuman Persecutions — Missions in Africa — In Polynesia. 8. In China, the Jesuits, especially Ricci and Schall, by their scientific attainments had won from the imperial house respect for the Christian religion and toleration for its professors. In spite of the civil wars which desolated the country, the Jesuit missions flourished. Christianity spread rapidly and missioners were always in demand. It was unfortunate that subsequently disputes about certain Chiiiese customs broke out among the missionaries, which did much to retard the progress of religion in China. For want of a better expression, the Jesuits had given to God the name Tien-tshu, (Lord of Heaven), or Shangti, (Supreme Emperor), and to the Trinity that of Xing (Holy). They also had tolerated among their converts, the observance of certain practices in honor of Confucius and departed ancestors, which, in their opinion, were purely civil, but which the Dominicans denounced as superstitious and idolatrous. 9. The Papal Legate, de Tournon, who, in 1706, had been sent to China to investigate the matter, condemned the customs tolerated by the Jesuits, and positively forbade the use of the words in question. The prohibition was confirmed by Pope Clement XI. in 1715, and again by Benedict XIV, in 1742. The condemnation of the Chinese Rites had a most prejudicial effect upon Christian missions. The conse- quence was a general persecution, which broke out in 1722, under the Emperor Yong-Tsching. A decree of extermination was published against the Christian religion ; all the missionaries were driven from their posts : more than three hundred churches were destroyed or turned to profane uses, and above three hundred thousand Christians were abandoned to the fury of the heathen. 10. The persecution which devastated the Church in China under Yong-Tsching, continued with increased rigor during the succeeding reigns, till the year 1820. A multitude of Christians, including 636 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. princes of the imperial family, magistrates, soldiers, merchants, women, and even children, obtained the crown of martyrdom, emulat- ing, amidst the most cruel torments, the heroism of the primitive con- fessors. Multitudes of converts, driven from their homes, died of starvation. But in spite of incessant persecution, Christianity con- tinued onward in its course in China. 11. In India, Christianity continued to make rapid progress under the direction of the Jesuit missionaries. The Blessed John de Britto converted great numbers of Gentiles, sometimes baptizing five hundred, and sometimes as many as a thousand catechumens in a day. He was beheaded by the king of Marova, in 1693. Francis Laynez, during an apostolate of more than thirty years, converted to God upwards of fifty thousand idolaters. Through the efforts of these heroic missioners and their successors, such as Fathers Martin, surnamed the '^ Martyr of Charity," Bouchet, Borghese, Diaz, and a host of others, the number of converts grew more numerous from year to year. There was hope that all India would become Christian. But a severe blow was dealt to these and other missions by the suppression of the Society of Jesus. 12. The work of evangelization, commenced so successfully in Tong-King, in the seventeenth century, was prosecuted by the Jesuits, Dominicans, and Lazarists with wonderful success. Christian com- munities abounded in all parts of the kingdom. In 1677, this flourishing mission was divided into the two vicariates of Eastern and Western Tong-King. In 1696, a violent persecution broke out in which upwards of forty thousand Christians are reported to have suffered for the faith. But in spite of sufferings and torments which awaited the Christians, the work of conversion went on. In Cochin- China also, the missioners had to undergo most trying experiences and to encounter constant dangers. Providence, however, blessed their labors, and their success was most marked and extraordinary. 13. In Corea. The first apostle of that ''^ Forbidden Land,^* was a young native who had embraced the .faith at Peking, in 1783. By means of books which he had brought from China, this first neophyte instructed his countrymen in the Catholic faith. In ten years there were 4,000 Christians in Corea. In 1794, the first mission- ary, James Tsin, from China arrived, and his labors in a few years increased the number of converts to 10,000. 14. This rapid progress of Christianity provoked a violent perse- cution which burst forth in 1795, and continued, almost without intermission, to the present time. Three bishops and a great number of priests and laics were put to death, some of them after enduring MISSION-S TO THE HEATHEN. 63 T terrible tortures. The Corea^, which, in 1828, was made a vicariate apostolic, became the '' Land of Martyrs." The result of the cruel persecution was a continued increase of converts. Before the out- break of the great persecution of 1866, there were 25,000 Christians ill the peninsula. Fully half that number, many in excruciating torments, died for the faith. The people of Corea show a strong disposition to embrace the faith and a rich harvest may be in store for the Catholic missions as soon as the Corean gates shall have been thrown open to foreigners. 15. A new light has dawned in our own day upon Africa, where, under the baneful influence of Islamism, Christianity had become all but extinct. Algeria , the largest and most important of the colonial possessions of France, contains upwards of 380,000 Catholics, nearly all French, Spanish, and Italian emigrants, distributed among three sees — the archdiocese of Algiers, and the suifragan sees of Oran and Constantine. The ancient archbishopric of Carthage, which was re-established in 1884, and includes the former vicariate of Tunis, has a Catholic population of 25,000 while the prefectures of Tripoli and Morocco count together some 7,000 Catholics. 16. The rest of Africa is fringed around on both coasts with Catholic missions, which are rapidly developing and extending over the whole of the " Dark Continent." Where, forty years ago, existed only two bishoprics. (Loanda and the Two Guineas), there are to-day fifteen vicariates and fourteen prefectures apostolic, worked by Mission- ers of Algiers, Fathers of the Holy Ghost, Jesuits, Lazarists, and other religious Orders. Adding to these the bishoprics of Northern Africa (including Egypt), and those of the Islands of Madeira and St. Thomas, the Azores, Canaries, and Cape de Verde Islands, we obtain twenty-five dioceses or vicariates, and nineteen prefectures apostolic, with a Catholic population of over 2,642,000.^ With a view to sup- plying the African missions with native priests, colleges have been founded at Cairo, Brussels, Lou vain, and in Malta, in which young negroes are educated for the clerical state. 17. In Polynesia, which comprises the numerous islands in the Pacific, the Church has achieved a marked success. In some of these islands, where the Catholic missioners have not been interfered with, the entire native population has been converted. In 1840, the whole of Polynesia, including New Zealand, was divided into two' vicariates 1 This Includes the prefectures of Madagascar and Mayotta. the vicariate of the Seychelles, and the bishoprics of St. Denis and Port Louis in the islands of Bourbon and Mauritius respectively which together have a Catholic population of more than 400,000. The mission of Madagascar, which dates from 1855, cootains some 24,000 Catholics in charge of French Jesuits. €38 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. — Western and Eastern Oceanica. Now there are in this vast region eleven dioceses and an apostolic prefecture with about 140,000 Catho- lics. About half of this number is to be found in the three bishoprics of New Zealand. SECTION XXXVI. — PRESENT STATE OP THE EASTERN, AND OTHER FOREIGN MISSIONS. * Disastrous Result of the Suppression of the Jesuits — The Condition of the Indian Missions— The Goa Schism— Establishment of a Hierarchy— Condition of the Missions of Further India — In China — In the Philippine Islands — In Japan. 18. The suppression of the Society of Jesus, followed, as it was, by the dispersion of the religious orders in Europe during the period of the French Revolution, was a severe blow to the Catholic missions through- out the world. For sixty years the Christians of India and China were abandoned to their own exertions. Yet, in spite of this great trial, without a parallel in the history of Christianity, nearly all the missions founded by the Jesuits, Dominicans, Franciscans, and other religious orders, either in Asia or America, by special Providence survived, and, as the following will show, are to-day in a more flour- ishing condition than they were before their abandonment." 19. Since the reorganization of the Indian missions under Gregory XVI., great progress has been made in the work of evangelization which necessitated the establishment of a number of new vicariates. The great mass of the Catliolics are to be found in the South of India, "where, in many districts, they form a considerable part of the popula- tion. The mission of Madura founded by Father de Nobile, counts over 188,000 Catholics, while the vicariate of Verapoly, which occupies the greater part of the native state of Travancore, once the scene of St. Francis Xavier's labors, numbers nearly 300,000, including about 100, 000 " Thomas Christians," or Nestorians, on the Malabar Coast, who were converted to the Catholic Church in the sixteenth and seven- teenth centuries. The island of Ceylon contains a Catholic population of over 200,000. 20. The Goa Schism, which arose in 1843, brought serious * For further particulars concerning the various missions, their position and present condition, the reader is referred to F. Werner's " Atlas of the Christian Missions," published in German and French. The introduction of 43 pages is divided into sections, filled with statistics and dates Tegarding the missions for each of the 20 colored maps which follow. See also A. H. Atteridge, S. J. " Notes on Catholic Missions, " London, 1884. ' " In India," says Marshall, author of ' Christian Missions ' " the prodigious fact was revealed that tnnre than one million remained, after half a century of utter abandonment, who still clung with Inflexible constancy to the faith which had been preached to their fathers, and still bowed the head with loving awe when the names of their departed apostles were uttered amongst them." EASTERN MISSIONS. 639; troubles to the Indian Church. By an old covenant with the Holy See, Portugal claimed a patronage over all the churches of India. After the country had passed into the possession of the English, the Portuguese government, though no longer able to execute the concor- dat, still refused to recognize the action of the Holy See in appointing bishops for the Catholics under British rule. For many 3'ears such appointments were made the pretexts of a schism, which militated greatly against the missions of southern India, and which the bishops and clergy of Goa and Macao did their best to perpetuate. In 1857, the schism was happily terminated, and thus several hundred thousand schismatics were reconciled to the Church. 21. The rapid progress of the Catholic Faith throughout the In- dian Empire having rendered the establishment of a hierarchy very desirable, the present Pope, Leo XIII., in 1886, converted all the existing vicariates into episcopal churches among which are eight archi- episcopal sees. Including the archbishopric of Goa and the three sees of Ceylon, there are now twenty-two dioceses in India, with a Catholic population of one million and a half. 22. In Further India, or Indo China, comprising the kingdoms of Burmah, Siam, and Annam, Catholicity has been making steady progress, in spite of the hostility of the natives towards foreigners and the religion of Christ. The missions of the two first-named king- doms have between 60,000 and 70,000 Christians under the care of six vicars apostolic and 120 missioners. In the Empire of Annam there were about 400,000 Christians, in 1820. This promising mission has heen the scene of cruel persecutions within the last sixty years. In the terrible persecutions, which tried the Church of Annam under the emperors Minh-Menh and Tu-Duc, five bishops and a large number of priests and laymen have sealed their faith with their blood. In our own day, under the provocation of the French invasion, (1882-1885), Christian blood has flowed in torrents. Hundreds of churches and religious institutions have been destroyed and thousands of Catholics have been massacred. But in spite of incessant persecutions, the mis- sions of Annam, which include eight vicariates, may be said to flourish exceedingly. They count some 600,000 Catholics, with over 500 priests, foreign and native. 23. In China great efforts have been made within the last fifty years to reconstruct the missions which heathen fanaticism had des- troyed during the late persecutions. The work of evangelization w^as much retarded by official hostility to foreigners and by the persecutions which the ^' Taiping Rebels," the sworn enemies of everything Chris- tian, raised against the Church. In 1870, a popular outbreak occurred 640 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. which resulted in the massacre of two Lazarists and forty-six Sisters of Charity. 24. Nevertheless the Church of China is growing every year, especially since 1858, when France and England compelled the Chinese government to grant the Christians the free exercise of their religion. At the present day there are in China Proper about half a million Catholics governed by twenty-six bishops and two prefects apostolic, while the dependencies of the Chinese* Empire — Thibet, Mondchuria, Mongolia, and Corea, — count some 46,000 Christians in charge of six vicars apostolic. 25. In the PMlUppine Islands, a Spanish possession, by far the greater part of the population is Catholic. There is a hierarchy com- posed of an archbishop and four suffragans, ruling over 5,500,000 subjects. The progress of the Church among the non-Christian pop- ulation, which is estimated at about 500,000, is very rapid. The Dutch Indies — Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and the Moluccas — form the vicariate of Batavia, which contains some 32,000 Catholics. In Sara- .'wak, in the north of the island Borneo, there is the prefecture of Labuan, where English missioners from Mill Hill have been at work since 1881. 26. In Japan, in spite of numberless persecutions, and utter abandonment for two long centuries, the Christians had not all per- ished. There were still to be found in the interior of the Empire many persons who secretly practised the religion of their Catholic ancestors, as is proved by the many martyrdoms which occurred even during the present century. As late as 1829, a woman and six men were crucified as '^ obstinate Christians. '^ In 1856, some eighty per- sons were discovered near Nagasaki professing the proscribed religion of Christ, for which offence they were subjected to cruel tortures and imprisonment. 27. A fresh persecution raged between 1867 and 1872. Many- hundred Catholic families were dispersed and exiled to pagan districts, and some 3,000 were thrown into prison. It was only at the instance of the foreign ambassadors, notably the American and English, that the persecution was brought to an end and the persecuted Christians obtained permission to return to their homes and to profess their re- ligion. Since then Catholicity is making rapid advances in Japan. There are two vicariates which contain about 30,000 Catholics, the increase in the last six years amounting to over 10,000. SCHISMATIC CHURCHES. 641 SECTION XXXVII. — PRESENT STATE OF THE GREEK AND OTHER SCHISMATIC CHURCHES. The Oriental Churches — Their Present Forlorn Condition — Their Aversion to Protestantism— Number of Orthodox Greeks — The Greek Patriarch of Constantinople —His Jurisdiction greatly Diminished — Other Greek Patri- archs — The Russian Church — Cause of the Schism — Efforts of the F'opes to restore Union — Patriarchate of Moscow — Peter the Great — The "Holy Synod " — Other Schismatical Churches — Their Present Degradation. 28. From a very early period, the numbers of the Eastern Cath- olics have been greatly diminished by the inroads of the Arian, Nes- torian, Eutychian, and other heresies. To-day the great majority of the Oriental Christians are, and have been for ten centuries, outside the pale of the Catholic Church. These are the Nestorians of Persia; the Syriac Jacobites ; the Schismatical Armenians; the Copts, or Mo- nophysite Christians, of Egypt and Abyssinia ; and the Schismatical Greeks and Russians. 29. The Oriental Churches prospered as long as they were in com- munion with Rome ; since the date of their separation they have constantly declined. Their long separation from the Chair of St. Peter has led them into many abuses and even errors. Torn from the trunk of the true Church, they are sapless branches, void of all intel- lectual life and activity. It is an undeniable fact that since their secession from Rome the Oriental Churches have not produced any great ecclesiastic nor saint, nor held one Council worth mentioning. 30. It is a notable feature in these Oriental Churches, that they reprobate the errors of Protestantism as obstinately as they reject the spiritual supremacy of the Roman Pontiff. In several successive syn- ods, held at Jerusalem and Constantinople, the Greek patriarchs energetically rejected the errors of Luther and Calvin. In 1638, a Greek Synod condemned and deposed the two patriarchs Cyril Lucaris of Constantinople, and Metrophanes of Alexandria, for holding Calvin- istic principles and for their attempts to unite the Orthodox with the Reformed Church. * 31. The Schismatic Greeks, or " Orthodox Greeks," as they call themselves, are estimated at 76,000,000. Of these 64,000,000 are in the Russian Empire, and about 12,000,000, in Turkey and other coun- ^ It is deserving of note that all the Oriental Churches, no matter how much separated from each other by sectional feelings and sectarian prejudices, unanimously agree with one another and with the Roman Catholic Church in all the doctrines rejected by Protestants— the Real Presence of our Lord in the Holy Eucharist, Transubstantiation, the Sacrifice of the Mass, the Veneration of Images, the Invocation of Saints, the number of the Sacraments— a proof that these articles of belief and these Catholic usages prevailed in the Church as early as the fifth century. 642 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. tries. The spiritual head of the Greek Church in the Ottoman Empire is the Patriarch of Constantinople. He is superior in raTik to the Patriarchs of Alexandria, Jerusalem, and Antioch, and assumes the title of ** Ecumenical Patriarch." He has not only spiritual, but also a kind of temporal jurisdiction ; as he is the supreme arbiter in all civil disputes between his subjects. In the discharge of his official duties, he' is assisted by a council, called the ''Holy Synod," which is- composed of twelve bishops of metropolitan rank. 32. The jurisdiction of the Patriarch of Constantinople, which formerly extended over all the Greeks and Bulgarians in the Ottoman and Russian Empires, has been greatly diminished within the last three centuries. The Eussian Church was emancipated by the erec- tion of a patriarchate at Moscow, in 1589, and made wholly indepen- dent by the foundation of the '' Holy Synod " at Petersburg, in 1721. The bishops in the kingdom of Greece declared their independence in 1833, and more recently also the Bulgarian Church asserted ita autonomy, and placed itself under an exarchate, or primate, who is independent of Constantinople. 33. The second place in rank belongs to the Patriarch of Alexan- dria. His jurisdiction extends over Egypt, Lybia, Nubia, and Arabia ; but he counts only about 5,000 subjects. Next comes the Patriarch of Antioch, whose jurisdiction extends over about 28,000 Greeks in Syria, Cilicia, Mesopotamia, Isauria, and other Asiatic provinces. The Patriarch of Jerusalem, who resides at Constantinople, rules over about 15,000 souls in Palestine. These patriarchs have their own officials and synods, and are independent of the Patriarch of Con- stantinople, with the exception that they can have relations with the Ottoman Government only through him. 34. The Russian Church agrees with the Orthodox Greek Church, both in doctrine and liturgy ; in administration, however, she is dis- tinct, being governed, not by a patriarch, but by the '' Holy Synod'* of Petersburg. The custom of receiving the metropolitans from Con- stantinople, on which she had been made dependent, could not but result in drawing also the Church of Russia into the schism of the Greeks, although the separation from Rome did not take place till half a century after. Thus, in the beginning of the twelfth century, Nicephorus, sent from Constantinople as patriarch of Kiew, then the principal see of the Russian Church, avowed himself a schismatic. Prince Alexander of Moscow, indeed, returned to the communion and died in the faith of the Catholic Church, in 1262 ; but under his successors the separation from Rome was rendered complete. 35. Repeated attempts at re-union were made by the Roman I SCHISMATIC CHURCHES. 643 Pontiffs, chiefly by Alexander TIL, Innocent III., and lastly by the Council of Florence. The bishops of Northern Russia, and the dukes of Moscow steadily opposed the union, while the metropolitan of Kiew and his eight suffragans accepted it, and remained in communion with Rome till 1520, when they also fell away into schism. All subsequent attempts of the Popes to unite the Russians with the Latin Church proved fruitless. 36. After the conquest of the Greek Empire by the Turks in 1453, the Czars of Moscow took occasion to free the Russian Church from all foreign dependence, and subject the ecclesiastical power to their own. This was accomplished in 1589 by the erection of the Patriarchate of Moscow. In that year Jeremiah 11. , Patria^rch of Constantinople, at the instance of Czar Feodor, raised Job, metro- politan of Moscow, to the dignity of patriarch, who was recognized as such also by the other Greek patriarchs. In order to complete the hierarchy of the Russian establishment, four metropolitan sees were instituted — at Novgorod, Kasan, Rostov, and Kroutitsk — and six archbishops, with eight bishops, were added to the ranks of the clergy. 37. In 1613, Michael Romanoff, the founder of the present im- perial family, was elevated to the throne. His third descendant was Peter, known in history as the Great. Under his reign the entire subjection of the ecclesiastical to the imperial power was completed. For, after the death of Hadrian, in 1700, Peter purposely left the patriarchate vacant, and then, in 1721, replaced it by the '' Holy Synod " which depended entirely upon the Czar. Though Peter did not, in his time, formally assume the title of Head of the Church, it was done by his successors.^ By the suppression of the patriarchate all danger of conflict between Church and State was, indeed, averted, but with it disappeared also the independence of the former, and much of its energy and vitality. It became practically the vassal of the Crown, and an important, even the most important, of the de- partments of State, under the absolute rule of the Czar. 38. The Czar is the real head of the Russian Church ; he can do everything but officiate. He nominates all the bishops as well as the meij^bers of the synod, who, on entering office, swear that ^' they recognize the monarch of all Russia as the supreme judge of this 1 " The members of the first synod had to humble themselves so far as to promise obedience to the Czarina Catherine, whom Peter had married in defiance of the canons, his legitimate wife being still alive. The Greek Church admits divorce in case of adultery ; but Peter did not forward that reason or any other cause which could nullify his first marriage. Besides, no ecclesiastical decision ever Intervened to declare the marriage void. The conduct of Peter recalls that of Henry VIII." Pro- fessor Lamy, in the " Dublin Review," April 1881. 644 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. ecclesiastical college." The bishops are all equal, and under the immediate jurisdiction of the Holy Synod, which has power to trans- fer, and even to depose them. They must be unmarried and are therefore chosen from the regular, or " black clergy." But the '* white" or secular clergy must be married, and are mostly sons of *' Popes," as the Kussian priests are called. 39. There are in the Russian Empire in all about 53 archbishop- rics and bishoprics with 36,000 parishes. In 1764, Catherine II., who assumed the prerogative of '' Defender of the Faith," confis- cated all the Church property.^ Since then the entire clergy receive their sustenance from the government. The Russian government does not allow members of the ^'Orthodox Church " to embrace any other confession of faith, nor, above all, to become Catholics. The most severe penalties — corporal punishment, exile, imprisonment — are incurred by those who are guilty of apostasy from the national Church. 40. The hierarchical constitution of the other schismatic com- munities in the East-^the Nestorian, Armenian, Jacobite, and Coptic — differs little from that of the Greek Church. They all have their own liturgy and ar.e governed by a '* Catholicos," or a Patriarch, to whom they render obedience. He confirms and consecrates the met- ropolitans and bishops, who are usually taken from the monks ; the secular clergy being married are debarred from these dignities. The condition of these once flourishing churches is most degrading. Having rejected the mild rule of the Vicar of Christ, they have become the handmaidens, or rather the slaves, of the State. The ignorance and corruptions of their priesthood are notorious. Simony and bribery prevail, to a dreadful degree, both among the higher and lower clergy. 1 " The religious establishments in Russia were very numerous and very wealthy; many were very ancient, with exclusive and peculiar privileges dating back anterior to any codified laws. There were in all 557 monasteries and convents, whose vast possessions comprised 130,000 peasant houses and many hundreds of thousands of serfs; the richest was the great Troitsa monastery, near Moscow, which owned 20,400 houses and upwards of 100,000 serfs, representing, at the present time, a value of nearly four millions sterling; then came the official property of the patriarchate, which was reckoned at 8,900 houses, and that of the see of Rostov, comprising 4,400 houses, with proportionate numbers of serfs."— A. F. Heard. The Russian Church. a See page 203, 8 306 ; and page 208, § 216. MISSIO^'^S TO THE SCHISMATICAL SECTS. 645 SECTION XXXVIII. — MISSIONS TO THE SCHISMATICAL SECTS OF THE EAST. United Greeks — Melchites — Graeco-Roumftnians — Ruthenian Catholics — Cath- olicity in the Balkan Countries — Armenian Catholics — Maronites — Syrian and Chaldean Catholics — Catholicity in Egypt — In Abyssinia — Marriage of the Clergy. 41. Great numbers of Greek schismatics were, from time to time, brought back to the Church, especially in the seventeenth and eight- eenth centuries. These retain their ancient rites and the canon law to which they have been accustomed, but acknowledge obedience to the Pope. The name of "United Greeks," given to the Greeks in communion with Rome, includes the Melchites in the East ; the Greeks in Italy, and the Graeco-Roumanian and Ruthenian Catholics. 42. The Melchite Church in Syria and Egypt, which dates from the conversion of the Greek Patriarch Athanasius of Antioch, in 1686, numbers upwards of 35,000 members. It is governed by four arch- bishops and five bishops, all subject to the Patriarch of Antioch, who also administers the patriarchates of Jerusalem and Alexandria, through vicars. The Greek Catholics in Southern Italy, who came thither from Albania and other parts of the Greek Empire, after its invasion by the Turks, are estimated at 30,000. They have their own clergy and follow the Greek rite, but in other respects are subject to the bishop of the diocese in which they live. 43. A re-union of the Greeks, or GrcBco-RomnafiianSy in Hungary and Transylvania, was accomplished in 1699, when their bishop, Theo- philus, became a Catholic. They number about 900,000 and form an ecclesiastical province with one archbishop and three suffragan bishops. The Ruthenian Catholics are numerous in Poland and the Austrian dominions. In Russian Poland there are some 250,000 Catholics of the Ruthenian rite ; in Prussia, 40,000, while Hungary and other Austrian provinces count as many as 2,000,000. They use the Greek liturgy translated into old Slavonic. 44. In the Balkan countries, including Bosnia, Herzegovina, European Turkey, the kingdoms of Greece, Roumania, and Servia, and the principalities of Montenegro and Bulgaria, there are ten archbishoprics, and seventeen bishoprics, or vicariates ; having a Catholic population of about 500,000. Among the schismatics in these countries, especially among the Bulgarians, there exists a strong and steadily growing feeling in favor of a re-union with the Catholic Church. The Catholics of Bulgaria are governed by an archbishop and two bishops of their own rite, with the title of Vicars Apostolic. 45. Among the Schismatic Armenians, especially of Asia Minor, U46 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. Catholicity is making rapid progress. An entire diocese of converted schismatics has been erected within the last twenty-five years. The Armenian Catholics have three archbishops and fifteen bishops, sub- ject to the Patriarch of CiliciU, whose jurisdiction extends over part of European Turkey, all Asiatic Turkey, excepting Palestine, and over Egypt. They count in all about 150,000 souls. The '^ Mechitarist Congregation" was founded in 1702 for the special purpose of in- structing and converting the Armenian nation. The present Pope, Leo XIII., in 1881, established in Asia Minor, an Armenian Mission, which he entrusted to the Jesuits, and in 1883, he founded at Eome a new ecclesiastical college for Armenians. 46. Besides the Melchite and Armenian Catholics, also the Mar- onites, and the '' Syrian " and '^ Chaldean Christians " in Asia have their own Patriarchs and bishops, and follow their own ritual. The Maronites in Syria were all re-united to the Church in 1182, after ab- juring the Monothelite heresy. They are reckoned at 150,000. ''The Maronite Patriarch of Antioch," has under his jurisdiction eight arch- bishops and one bishop, who rule over 400 parishes, and 500 secular priests. 47. The Syrian Christians, or Catholics, who are converts from the Jacobite, or Monophysite Church in Syria, in 1840, were cat- alogued at 30,000, which number has since been considerably increased by many conversions. They have four archbishops and eight bishops under the '' Syriac Patriarch of Antioch." The number of Catholics in Syria, including all rites, exceeds 347,000 ; while the Catholic pop- ulation of the Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem, is given at 22,000. 48. The Chaldean Christians, or converted Nestorians, are to be found chiefly in Persia, Kurdistan, Mesopotamia and Turkish Arme- nia. They are ruled by the " Chaldean Patriarch of Babylon," who has under him three archbishops, and as many bishops. In Persia there are some 17,000 Catholics under the spiritual care of four bish- ops. In Mesopotamia, Kurdistan, and the entire region watered by the Euphrates and Tigris, the Catholics of various rites, number between twenty and thirty thousand. 49. The progress Avhich Catholicity is making in Egypt, even among schismatics, is very encouraging. According to recent sta- tistics Egypt has a Catholic population of 84,000. This number in- cludes 12,000 Orthodox, or Catholic Copts; 4,000 Melchites, or United Greeks ; some 7,000 Catholics of the Syrian rite, and 2,500 Maronites. There are two vicariates Apostolic, one for the Latins, the other for the Copte ; a Delegation Apostolic, extending over Arabia ; one Pre- fecture Apostolic for Upper Egypt, and another for Lower Egpyt. MISSIONS TO THE SCHISMATICAL SECTS. ^t The Catholic Armenians are governed by an archbishop of their own rite, while the United Syrians are under the jurisdiction of the Syriac Patriarch of Antioch, and the Maronites under that of the ^laronite Patriarch on the Lebanon. 50. Great efforts have been made in the last forty years to convert the Copto- Ethiopians, or Abyssinians, who are closely connected in re- ligion with the Egyptian Copts. The labors of the Catholic inissioners were attended with the best results in spite of almost incessant persecu- tions. Including the converted Gallas, there are in Abyssinia to-day over 30,000 Christians living in communion with Rome. They are governed by two Vicars Apostolic, who have under their jurisdiction some forty priests, foreign and native. Educational institutions have been opened by the Capuchins. Among the Abyssinians as among the Greek Schis- matics there exists a bitter hostility to the Catholic Church, and all the influence of their metropolitan, or Abuna, is exerted to keep Catholic missioners out of the country, while on the other hand he encourages the settlement of Protestants. 51. As to the marriage of the clergy, the same rules prevail among the Orthodox, or United, Oriental Christians as among the Oriental Schismatics. The Holy See forbids all clerics to marry after the subdeaconate, but permits married men to be promoted to Holy Orders, who are allowed to retain their wives. The secular clergy are usually married. Married priests, however, are never promoted to positions of dignity, which are filled by the unmarried only. The patriarch, archbishops, and bishops are invariably taken from the monks. 52. The progress Catholicity is making ainong the schismatical sects of the East, the Russians excepted, is very promising. From the Libanus to the shores of the Bosphorus, along the coasts of Syria, Asia Minor, in the whole Archipelago, in the Balkan countries and Egypt, are spread the churches in union with Rome. Catholic mis- sionaries occupy Damascus, Aleppo, the Greek Isles, Smyrna, Con- stantinople, and Alexandria. They have penetrated into Persia, while in Armenia and Mesopotamia, throughout their whole extent, are found numerous churches in subjection to the chair of St. Peter. Thus the Catholic missionaries are everywhere at work in the East and are gradually preparing the way for the return of the schismatical sects to the Roman Church — the Mother of all Churches. «48 HISTORY OF THE CHURGH. CHAPTER II. HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. I. THE PAPACY. SECTION XXXIX. — ALEXANDEB VII. AND HIS SUCCESSORS. Alexander VII., and Louis XIV. of France — Christina of Sweden — Innocent XI. — His conflict with Louis XIV. — The Regale — The French Clergy — Declar- ation of 1682 — John Sobieski — Alexander VIII. — Fgnelon — Clement XL — His Controversy with Amadeus of Savoy — Benedict XIII.— Clement XII. — Benedict XIV. 53. After the death of Innocent X., the choice of the cardinals for Pope, fell upon Cardinal Chigi, who took the name of Alexander V^II., A. D. 1655-1667. The distinguished talents and virtues of the new Pontiff gave fair hopes of a happy and prosperous reign. But the arbitrary proceedings of Louis XIV. of France against the Holy See gave Alexander much annoyance and greatly embittered his life. It was in this pontificate that the Swedish Queen, Christina, daughter of Gus- tavus Adolphus, abjured Lutheranism, and sacrificing her crown, em- braced the Catholic faith. At the invitation of the Pope, who assigned her a yearly pension, the royal convert came to Italy and spent the re- mainder of her life at Rome, where she founded the Arcadian Academy. She died in 1689, and was interred beneath St. Peter's Church. 54. The two succeeding Popes, Clement IX., A. D. 1667-1669, and Clement X., A. D. 1670-1676, are spoken of by contemporary writers as persons endowed with every virtue becoming their exalted office and dignity. They rendered what help they could to the Vene- tians and Poles in their struggle with the Turks. The French king continued in his course to intrench upon the rights of the Church, and all remonstrances on the part of the Holy See were of no avail. 55. Innocent XL, A. D. 1676-1689, was a man of austere morals and distinguished for his eminent talents and virtues. On his accession to the throne, he applied himself with much zeal to revive ecclesiasti- cal discipline and displayed uncommon courage in defending the rights of the Church and the prerogatives of the Holy See. He had scarcely ALEXANDER VII. AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 64» ascended the Papal chair, when he became involved in warm contro- versy with the haughty Louis XIV. of France. 56. The subject of this controversy was the Regale, that is, the royal privilege of receiving the revenues of vacant bishoprics and of ap- pointing to certain benefices, the granting of which belonged to the in- coming bishop. Louis XIV. arbitrarily extended the Regale, which was established only in some dioceses, to all the episcopal sees of the realm. This was opposed by the bishops of Aleth and Pamiers ; and the Pope, to whom they appealed for protection, at once espoused their cause. 57. Unhappily the great body of the French clergy supported the king against the Pope; the conflict became more and more complicated, and finally culminated in the celebrated Dedaratioyi of the Gallican Clergy {Declarationes Cleri Gallicani), which, by order of Louis XIV., was drawn up, and approved by the bishops of France in their assem- bly of 1682, and defined what the courtly prelates were pleased to call the '^ Liberties of the Gallican Church." Innocent XL, promptly annulling the Declaration, severely censured the bishops who had taken part in the proceedings, and refused canonical confirmation to such as advocated the so-called " Gallican Liberties." Thirty-five bishoprics, were in consequence, left vacant. It was at the urgent re- quest of Innocent XL, that the gallant King Sobieski of Poland, has- tened to relieve Vienna in 1683, when besieged by the Turks. 58. Alexander VIIL, A. D. 1689-1691, a pontiff highly extolled for his moderation and prudence, obtained from Louis XIV., the res- toration of Avignon, which had been occupied by the French under the preceding pontificate. Innocent XII., who followed from 1691 to 1700, succeeded in terminating the great contest with France,, which had arisen from the famous Declaration of 1682. Louis XIV., in 1693, annulled, and the bishops of France retracted the Declaration, and the '' Four Articles," which it contained. It was by this Pope that the Book of the famous Fenelon, archbishop of Cambray, entitled '' Maxims of the Saints," was condemned. That excellent prelate, Fenelon, not only acquiesced in the sentence, but humbly announced it to his people from the pulpit; and in a pastoral addressed to the clergy, forbade the reading of his work. 59. The pontificate of Clement XL, A. D. 1700-1721, with which the eighteenth century opened, fell in troublesome times. The new Pope had scarcely taken possession of the Holy See, when he found himself involved in serious political confiicts. In the war that broke out in the beginning of his reign, between the houses of Aus- tria and Bourbon, concerning the Spanish succession, he resolved to- remain neutral, and sought to mediate. But his refusing to recog- 650 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. nize either of the two competitors, Phillip V., or Charles III., and to grant to either the investiture of the kingdom of Naples, offended both, and involved the States of the Church in all the calamities of the war. 60. Clement XI. had a controversy also with the new king of Sicily, Amadeus of Savoy, about the " Sicilian Monarchy," * as it is called, which the Roman Pontiffs had always objected to, as a man- ifest usurpation of the rights of the Church. He published a Bull, abolishing the Spiritual Monarchy, and when the king refused to give it up, placed the whole island under an interdict. Amadeus, thereupon, forbade the clergy to observe the sentence, and, on their refusal, 3000 ecclesiastics were driven into exile. Clement died after a pontificate of twenty-one years. He was universally beloved for his eminent virt- ues, and was well skilled in state affairs; but be was constantly brought into difficulties by the conflicting interests of the ruling houses. 61. After the brief pontificate of Innocent XIII., A. D. 1721- 1724, who was despoiled of Parma and Piacenza, Benedict XIII., A. D. 1724-1730, a Dominican, accepted with reluctance the papal dig- nity. He held a provincial council in the Lateran, in 1725, which enacted wise laws for the suppression of abuses and the reformation of morals, and terminated the dispute concerning the " Spiritual Monarchy of Sicily." But he was rudely treated by the Catholic courts, on account of inserting an historical fact in the office of St. Gregory VII. 62. His successor, Clement XII., A. D. 1730-1740, who first con- demned Freemasonry, was treated no better by the Catholic rulers. He became involved in complications with the courts of Turin, Vienna, and ]\radrid. The rights of the Roman See were everywhere despised, and the power of protesting was all it now possessed. Bene- dict XIV., A. D. 1740-1758, one of the most learned Popes that ever filled the Papal chair, yielded in the extreme toward civil rulers, and thus succeeded in preserving friendly relations with most of them. However, he gained little by the great concessions he made. He saw the beginning of the warfare against the Society of Jesus. > See paee 368. § 90. ~ SUPPRESSION OF TEE JESUITS. 651 SECTION XL. — PONTIFICATES OF CLEMENT XIII., AND CLEMENT XIV. — SUPPRESSION OP THE JESUITS. Clement XIII. — The Jesuits — Infidel Conspiracy against the Society — Foul Cal- umnies — The Jesuits expelled from Portugal, France, Spain, and Naples —Clement XIV. — The Bourbon Courts— Suppression of the Jesuits— Survival in Russia and Prussia. 63. Benedict XIV. was succeeded by Cardinal Bezzonico, who, on his election, took the name of Clement XIII., A. D. 1758-1769. The new Pontiff, a man of zeal and unwearied activity, was, throughout his whole reign, in painful controversy with the Bourbon courts. The dis- putes related principally to the Jesuits, to whom Clement was a devoted friend. The Society of Jesus performed wonderful educational and evangelical works throughout the Catholic world and even among the heathen. The Jesuits had great influence with all classes, because they were the confessors of the nobility and of the great, as well as being the educators of the young nobles. This circumstance explains the bitter hatred with which the order was persecuted by the enemies of the Church and of religion in general. 64. We find the persecutors of the Jesuits to consist, not of the com- mon people, nor of any honorable men among the higher classes, but of persons who, being devoid of faith and principle, hesitated at no falsehood, meanness, or cruelty, which could advance the base objects they had in view. In Portugal, it was Pombal; in France, Choiseul; in Spain, Aranda; in Naples, Tanucci; and in Parma, Tillot; all of them men who were in sympathy with the free-thinkers, and who had made it the main object of their lives to '^ limit," as they called it, '^the pretensions of the Church." There was no difficulty with rulers of the Bourbon type, such as Joseph I. of Portugal; Louis XV. of France; Charles III. of Spain; and Ferdinand IV. of Naples, who, hav- ing surrendered their power to ministers and courtesans, allowed them- selves to be deceived by forgeries and calumnies, or were intimidated by threats and false conspiracies. 65. The first attack on the Society of Jesus was made in Portugal by the all-powerful Marquis de Pombal, prime minister under Joseph I. Pombal, while Portuguese minister in England, had observed the docility of the Anglican clergy, and their submissiveness to the Eng- lish government. No sooner had he obtained the reins of power, than he formed plans for a national Church in Portugal, separated from the Holy See. As the Jesuits were the strongest defenders of the Papacy, he resolved on their suppression. 66. The means which Pombal adopted, were calumny and cruel per- 652 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. secutions. He caused writings, grossly defaming the Society of Jesus, to be circulated among the people. Every imaginary crime was attributed to the Jesuits. They were accused of conspiring against the State; of creating discontent among the Indians in Paraguay; they were even denounced as the instigators of, or accomplices in, an attempt upon the king's life. A royal edict of Sept. 3, 1759, declared the Jesuits as being traitors and assassins, and banished them from Portugal, and from the Portuguese colonies, both East and West. Pope Clement XIII., vainly appealed to the king in favor of the Society. All the Jesuits living in the Portuguese dominions, were seized and impris- oned, or deported to the States of the Church, while all their property was confiscated. The venerable Malagrida, who had passed a great portion of his life in the Brazilian missions, and two other Fathers, were, in their innocence, condemned to the stake. 67. In France, Choiseul, prime minister, and Madame de Pom- padour, mistress of Louis XV., united with Parliament and the free- thinkers to compass the ruin of the Jesuits. The reputation of the Society among the people had suffered greatly, in consequence of the failure of the commercial speculations of Father Lavalette, superior in Martinique. At the same time pamphlets were distributed over the land, attributing to the Jesuits preposterous crimes. They were charged with holding the pernicious maxim, that " the end justifies the means," and with defending the doctrine of tyrannicide.' In vain did French bishops point out the injustice of condemning an entire order, without cause, and petitioned for the preservation of the Society. In 1762, the Jesuit colleges were closed, by order of Parlia- ment, and two years later, a decree affirmed by the weak and licentious Louis XY., pronounced the suppression of the Society in France. Four thousand Jesuits were thus scattered at one blow. Though Clement XIII. declared the decree to be null and void, he accom- plished nothing. 68. The movement against the Jesuits now spread rapidly through the other countries under the Bourbon rule. Choiseul spared no effort to obtain their expulsion also from Spain and Naples. Charles III., of Spain, was, personally, well inclined towards the Society; but 1 The great Jesuit Bellarmlne expressly says on the subject : '* It Is unheard of that the murder of a prince should ever be permitted, even were he a heretic, a heathen, and a persecutor, and even were monsters to be found capable of committing such a crime."— St. Ignatius, the founder, desired that politics should be altogether excluded from his Society. But in the sixteenth century, all court affairs, all diplomatic negotiations, and even wars, had, more or less, a religious stamp. They all tended either to uphold, or stamp out Catholicity. Jesuits were thus obliged to share in the movement of ideas, social and political. When the general Aqua viva demanded from Sixtus V. that he should issue a decree, prohibiting any political activity on the part of the Jesuits, the Pope refused to accede to the request. SUPFBESSION OF THE JESUITS. 653 his minister, Aranda, who favored the principles of revolution, by- intrigues, and especially by forged letters, in which Father Ricci, the :reneral, declared the king a bastard, and not entitled to the throne, succeeded in making the weak and unsuspecting monarch believe that the Jesuits were conspiring against his person. 69. Upon this the wrathful Charles, in 1767, expelled with violence all the members of the Society of Jesus from his dominions, for reasons, which, as the crowned lunatic stated in his reply to the remonstrances of the Pope, " he had forever locked up in his royal heart. ^^ All the Jesuits in Spain and the colonies — to the number of six thousand — were arrested on the same day and shipped to the Papal States. In a similar cruel manner, the Society was suppressed in Naples, Parma, and Malta. 70. The Bourbon Courts next demanded from the Pope the sup- pression of the Society for the whole Church. When this was refused, they proceeded directly to attack the Holy See: France seized Avignon and Yenaissin; Naples, Benevento and Pontecorvo, while Parma and Modena harassed the Pope by rudely interfering with the duties of his office. But the aged Pontiff remained firm. In his distress, Clement turned for support to the Empress Maria Theresa, of Austria. But she refused to interfere, on the ground that the affair was one of state policy, and not of religion. Under the blows of so many assaults Clement XIII. died heart-broken. 71. The death of Clement XIII. was followed by a vacancy of over three months, occasioned by the intrigues of the Bourbon sover- eigns, who used every effort to secure the election of a Pope who would comply with their wishes. Cardinal Ganganelli, a Franciscan, who enjoyed their special favor, was, at length, elected under the name of Clement XIV., A. D. 1769-1774. He was no sooner seated in the Papal chair, than the Bourbon courts pressed him to suppress the Society of Jesus. Threats were used that kingdoms would throw off their allegiance to the Church unless the prayer were granted. 72. Clement XIV. felt the difficulties of his situation, and demanded time for reflection. He conceived it to be his duty to protect an order which had helped to support and defend the Church against heresy and infidelity, and which had been recommended by so many of his predecessors. At the same time he wished to avoid a rupture with those courts which had evidently the power, and seemingly the inclin- ation, to inflict serious wounds on the Papacy. He, therefore, hes- itated long before he took the decisive step to which he was driven by the Bourbon rulers. At length, yielding to their importunity, Clement XIV., on July 21, 1773, published the Brief Domimis ac ^654 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. Redemptor noster, by which he suppressed the Society of Jesus '' for the maintenance of the common peace," and directed that its members should enter either some other religious order, or the ranks of the secular clergy. In his decree of suppression, Clement made not the slightest reference to the charges brought against the Jesuits by their enemies. 73. The Society, then numbering 22^000 members, submitted -everywhere, without hesitation, to the will of the Pope. Father Ricci, the general, who was imprisoned in the Castle of St. Angelo, on his death-bed, solemnly protested his own and his order's innocence of the charges which had been brought against them. Frederic II. of Prus- sia, who declared that he had never found better priests in every respect than the Jesuits, permitted them to continue as an organized society in his states; while the Empress Catherine II. of Russia and her successor Paul I. not only approved of the Society, but gave the strictest orders that they were to remain in their dominions. SECTION. XLI. —PONTIFICATE OF PIUS VI. — JOSEPHISM — THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. Accession of Pius VI. — The Jesuits declared Innocent — Tendency of the Age — Josephism in Austria — Journey of the Pope to Vienna — Revolt of Belgium and the Netherlands — Ems Congress — Synod of Pistoja — French Revolu- tion — Its Causes — Opening of the States-General — National Assembly — Leaders of the Revolution — Civil Constitution of the Clergy — Courageous Bearing of the Clergy — Position of Pius VI. in respect to the Revolution — Massacres of Priests — Trial and Execution of Louis XVI. — ^Reign of Terror — Pius VI. forcibly carried to France — His Death. 74. After a protracted conclave of over four months, Cardinal Braschi ascended the Papal chair as Pius VI., A. D. 1775-1799. The new Pontiff, mild and affable, but firm in purpose, applied himself with zeal and energy to the work of reform in both Church and State. The trial of the Jesuits, begun under his predecessor, was brought to a -close; the commission charged with this duty, declared the Society of Jesus wholly innocent of the accusations brought against it by its en- emies. Unfortunately for the cause of religion, there seemed to be, dur- ing this pontificate, a general disposition to diminish, if not to under- mine, the Papal authority, even in Catholic countries. The courts of Madrid, Naples, and Florence continued to encroach on the immunities of the Church, claiming rights which were in direct opposition to the prerogatives of the Holy See. 75. The heart of the much harassed Pontiff was sorely afflicted, es- pecially by the *' reforms" of Emperor Joseph II. of Austria, whose PONTIFICATE OF PIUS VI 656 5irbitrary regulations, on purely ecclesiastical matters, were at variance with the interests of religion. Imbued with the principles of Febroni- anism, and of a false philosophy, Joseph arrogated to himself the right and duty of reforming the Church of Austria, as he had reformed the State. He abolished all diocesan seminaries and replaced them by gen- eral seminaries, thus taking the education and training of priests out of the hands of the bishops. He suppressed over 700 monasteries, and severed those which were spared, from their connection with Rome. Pa- pal Bulls and episcopal ordinances were subjected to the royal Placets Bishops were forbidden to confer Orders, and to apply to Rome for dis- pensations, without the emperor's permission. Joseph carried his in- terference in ecclesiastical affairs so far as to prescribe the kind and number of images and candles to be used in churches. 76. All these changes were introduced without consulting the Holy See ; and the rights of the bishops were as little considered as the wishes of the people, who viewed the innovations with little favor. But few of the Austrian bishops had the courage to oppose the schemes of the emperor, while many of the clergy openly espoused them. Remonstrances were treated with contempt; the non-conformance of some bishops was punished with fines, of others with exile. Pius VI., finding his most urgent warnings disregarded, resolved, in 1782, to visit Vienna, in the hope of diverting the deluded emperor from his disastrous career of reform. The people everywhere hailed the Pope, a true Peregrinus Apostolicus, with the utmost enthusiasm, and the emperor received him with great respect. But at the Austrian capital, the august visitor was treated with marked coldness, and even insolence, by the officious courtiers, especially by Kaunitz, the prime- minister. 77. Pius VI. returned to Rome, having accomplished nothing, Joseph remaining inflexible. But the deluded monarch dearly paid for his arrogant pretensions. His hasty and arbitrary reforms, out- raging the national feelings of the subjects of the imperial house, excited universal discontent, and were the occasion of disturbances in Hungary, Belgium, and the Netherlands, which at length terminated in open rebellion. This broke the heart of the irritable emperor, and hastened his death, which occurred in 1790. His brother and suc- cessor, Leopold II., abrogated most of the innovations, and thus restored peace to the empire. * "By the PZaceHs understood a custom prevailing in many States, according to which Papal Bulls and Briefs are subjected to the inspection of the civil power before they are permitted to be carried Into execution. From the word by which the assent of the sovereign is signified, it is called the Placet or Exequatur."— Lingard. 656 BISTORT OF THE CHURCH. 78. Unhappily for the cause of the Church, some of her digni- taries in Germany and Italy, seconded the proceedings of Joseph II. The " Ems Congress " acted on the same principles. Representatives^ of the spiritual Electors of Cologne, Treves, and Mentz, and of the arch- bishop of Salzburg, in 1786, met at Ems, and drew up a declaration in twenty-three articles — known as the Punctation of Ems — the object of which was to make the archbishops practically independent of the Holy See. All exemptions of religious orders were annulled; recourse to Rome for dispensations was forbidden; the oath of obedience, which bishops take to the Pope, was abrogated, etc. 79. Similar principles were asserted by the 8ynod of Pistoja^ which, under the presidency of Bishop Ricci, in 1787, passed a series of decrees that were diametrically opposed to the constitutions, as well as the teachings, of the Church. Owing to the firmness of the Pope and the vigorous opposition to the movements made on all sides, the danger of a schism was averted. The spiritual Electors, in 1789, formally renounced their pretensions, while the unecclesiastical decrees of Pistoja, were condemned by Pius VI., in 1794. 80. Amid all these different cares, Pius VI. had to witness the outbreak, and experience the horrors of the French Revolution, the effects of which proved so disastrous to both Church and State. That fatal revolution, which plunged France into an abyss of confusion and anarchy, was only the logical outcome of Protestantism, and the final result of the unsettled ness of faith, caused by the protracted wars of religion. It was the gathering in of the harvests, of which the seed had been sown by an earlier generation. The reformers had subverted the authority of the Church, and, as a necessary consequence, the authority of the State fell with it. 81. The chief causes which conspired in preparing the way for the French revolution, are to be sought in the machinations of the Jansenists and other sectaries, who, by their continued resistance to ecclesiastical authority, had done much harm among the French people; in the gross and scandalous licentiousness under the Regency of the Duke of Orleans, and during the reign of Louis XV. ; especially in that spirit of irreligion and infidelity, which had long been spread- ing itself in France, through the agency of secret associations, and under the influence of infidel philosophers, such as Voltaire, Rousseau, D'Alembert, and Diderot. This spirit of irreligion pervaded, more or less, all ranks, and was accompanied by corresponding dissoluteness of morals. Thus society had become ripe for revolution. Anarchy already existed in ideas, in manners, and in laws, before it developed into events. PONTIFICATE OF PIUS VI 657 82. The financial embarrassment brought on tlie government by the American war, in which France participated against England, forced Louis XVI. to call together the States-General. Deputies of the tliree Estates, to the number of 1200, of whom 600 belonged to the third Estate, assembled at Versailles in 1789. On the refusal of the clergy and nobles to sit with the commons, the latter constituted themselves an independent body, under the name of "National As- sembly,"^ and usurping all political and civil power in the kingdom, .soon revealed hostile intentions, both against the throne and the Church. 83. The National Assembly soon came wholly under the control of the revolutionary clubs of Paris — the Cordeliers and Jacobins. Among the ruling spirits of that body were Mirabeau, Sieyes, Treillard, Talleyrand, Dupont, Barnave and others; men, who in endeavoring to establish what were proclaimed as the " Rights of Man,"" brought about that fatal revolution, which eventually overturned, alike, the altar and the throne, and drenched France with the blood of thou- sands of its best citizens. 84. Among the early measures of the Assembly affecting the Church were : the confiscation of all Church property, and the " Civil Consti- tution of the Clergy."" The French clergy to relieve the distress of the nation, had voluntarily renounced their tithes. This generous offer, however, did not prevent the Assembly, on motion of the apostate bishop Talleyrand of Autun, from passing a decree, which stripped the Church of all her property. Ecclesiastical property to the amount of 400,000,000 francs, was thus by one stroke confiscated. 85. The " Civil Constitution of the Clergy"' reduced the num- ber of bishoprics from 136 to 83, a bishopric for each of the depart- ments into which France was divided; it decreed that bishops should be elected by the clergy, and interdicted their appointment by the Pope; abolished religious Orders, and made the reception of a Papal Bull or 'Brief, unauthorized by the government, a state offence. More- over, all the clergy were required to swear allegiance to the new con- stitution, under pain of forfeiture, and of being prosecuted as dis- turbers of the public peace. But the great majority of the French clergy, including 127 bishops, refused to take the oath, preferring exile and poverty to the sacrifice of their sacred obligations. Only four bishops, among whom was the notorious Talleyrand, and a very small minority of the priests gave in their adhesion to the new constitution. These were the '^ Jurors,"" or " Assermentes,"" while those refusing the oath were styled "Nonjurors,"" or "Insermentes."" 86. Pope Pius VI. acted with great vigor. In monitory letters and briefs addressed to the clergy and people of France, he condemned 658 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. the " Civil Constitution of the Clergy/*' severely censuring, and, at last,, suspending from office the ecclesiastics who had taken the oath. Ta avenge itself on the Pope, the National Assembly ordered the annexa- tion of Avignon and Venaissin. The more violent National Convention, which succeeded the Legislative Assembly, in 1792, decreed the banish- ment of all priests who would not take the revolutionary oath. More than 50,000 of the clergy came under this proscription.' Many hun- dreds of these devoted men, including one archbishop and two bishops, were massacred in Paris, Meaux, Chalons, Lyons, Rheims and other cities, with circumstances of revolting cruelty. All the bishops who refused to acquiesce in the alteration were driven from their sees, and a body of new bishops were consecrated by Talleyrand. Many of the non- juring priests, however, remained in France, secretly ministering to the faithful, at the risk of their lives. 87. Meanwhile, anarchy and infidelity spread over France with irresistible force. The monarchy was abolished and France declared a Republic. This was followed by the execution of Louis XVI., who was guillotined on Jan. 21, 1793. The pious but unfortunate prince was attended in his last moments by the Irish Father Edgeworth. The queen, Maria Antoinette, daughter of the great Empress Maria. Teresa, the king's sister, the Princess Elizabeth, and other members of the royal family, shared the same fate. The youthful Dauphin, Louis XVII., died in prison, the victim of neglect and cruelty. 88. The National Convention, bent on the annihilation of all supernatural religion, solemnly abolished Christianity and the belief in God, and in its stead decreed that the only deities in France should be "Liberty, Equality, and Reason." A solemn festival in which a woman of infamous character personated the goddess of Reason in the church of Notre Dame, marked the commencement of the new religion. The existence of God and the immortality of the soul was officially denied. 89. With Robespierre at the head of the State, a reign of terror began, which was inaugurated by the massacre of the friends of » " Amidst the various nations which have afforded an asylum and succor to the French clergy whom a strict adherence to their religion had exiled from their native soil, England, beyond a doubt, has the pre-eminence for generosity and compassion " Eight thousand of them were entertained in either England, Jersey, or Guernsey. . . By the benevolence of Government, the Royal Palace at Winchester was fitted up, and some seven hundred of the suffering exiles were supported there at the expense of the State. "The nation at large opened a subscription and every parish contributed Its part, the amount of which, in 1793, was £ 67, 000 The University of Oxford printed a fine edition of the Vulgate New Testament, and presented a copy to each of the French priests who desired to have one. The acts of kindness to the emigres, as they were called at the time, were universal over the whole kingdom. But the crowning act of charity was the grant by the House of Commons, on the proposal of William Pitt, of an annuity of £20 a year to each one of the exiles." Amherst— History of Cath- olic Ematicipation, Vol. I. PIOUS VIL—HIS SUCCESSORS. 659 religion and social order. Forty-four thousand Revolutionary com- mittees were appointed and as many guillotines were set up to clear France of every trace of Christianity and royalty.' Priests and nuns, and members of the nobility perished by thousands. Blood flowed in streams and neither age nor sex was spared. In the Vendee alone^ where so gallant a stand was made in behalf of religion and order, 900,000 were killed, among them 15,000 women, and 22,000 children. More than two millions are said to have perished by the wars and massacres of the Revolution. 00. With resistless fury, the Revolution poured like a torrent beyond the limits of France. The campaign of 1796, under General Bonaparte, made the French masters of Northern Italy ; ere long the Pope also was threatened in his dominions. It was in vain that Pius VI. pleaded his neutrality. He was forced to purchase peace by cessions of territory and exorbitant contributions in money and works of art. Nor was this all; the Pope was not an enemy like any other. His condemnatory briefs had still a great effect on the French people. The Directory at Paris demanded of him the revocation of these condemnations, and the recognition of the Civil Constitution. But this Pius VI. refused to grant. The French Directory now resolved to put an end to Papal rule. Rome was taken and pro- claimed a Republic, in 1798. The Vatican was invaded, and Pius VI., though begging to be permitted to die where he had lived, was taken a prisoner and carried to France, where he died at Valence in the eighty-second year of his age, A. D. 1799. SECTION XLII. — PIUS VII. — HIS SUCCESSORS. Election of Pius VII. — Napoleon Bonaparte — Restoration of the Catholic Church in France — The Concordat — Organic Laws — Coronation of Napo- leon — Pius VII. in Paris — Insolent Demands of the Emperor — Occupation of Rome by the French — Excommunication of Napoleon — Pjus VII. Removed to France — Brutal Treatment of the Pope — Napoleon's Divorce and second Marriage — Concessions wrung from the Pope — Fall of Napo- leon—Pius Vn. returns to Rome — The Papal States restored — Death of Pius VII. — His Successors. 91. On the death of Pius VI., unbelief and heresy exultingly proclaimed that the Papacy had ceased to exist, and that the end of the Catholic Church was come. But Providence still watched over his Church. Under the protection of Austria, the Sacred College, number- ' Under the sentence of these committees were guillotined 1,135 priests, 350 nuns, 2000 of the nobility, besides thousands of the lower classes. To these must be added 32,000 killed at Nantes, and 31,000 at Lyons. 660 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. ing then thirty-five cardinals, assembled at Venice, and there, March 14, 1800, elected Cardinal Chiaramonti, who took the name of Pius VII. Owing to the successes of the allied Austrian and Russian armies against the forces of the French Eepublic, the new Pope, who was a man of singular virtue and noble gifts of heart, entered his capital the following July, amidst the joyous acclamations of the Romans. 92. Napoleon Bonaparte, then First Consul, finding it impossible to govern a people destitute of religion, resolved, in accord with the sentiments of the great majority of the nation, to restore Catholic worship in France. Accordingly, on July 15, 1801, he concluded with Cardinal Consalvi, the special delegate of the Pope, a Concordat, whereby the Catholic religion, the practice of which had been pro- scribed since 1790, was re-established in France and recognized again as the Religion of the State. 93. The Restoration of the Catholic Church in France was attended with great difficulties and was to be effected only at the cost of extraordinary concessions. These Pius VIL, in the interests of so many millions of souls, considered necessary to make without, how- ever, sacrificing any Catholic principles. By the terms of the Con- cordat, the Pope agreed to a new division of the dioceses in France, reducing their number from one hundred and thirty-five to sixty, as well as to a new appointment of bishops, who were to be nominated by the government, but to receive Canonical Institution from the Holy See. He, moreover, granted the holders of Church property, alienated during the Revolution, full right to possess and keep it, and agreed to call upon the lawful bishops of the old dioceses to resign their sees in the interests of peace and unity,' and that the newly appointed bishops should take the oath of fidelity to the First Consul, who was recog- nized by the Pope as possessing all the rights and prerogatives enjoyed by the late king. On the other hand, the French Government guaranteed the free and public exercise of the Catholic religion in France, and promised a suitable annual grant for the support of the clergy. 94. But Napoleon showed his bad faith by appending to the Concordat, on his own authority, certain additional clauses, called Orga?iic Laws, which tended to place the concerns of the Church * Of the ia5 episcopal sees existing in France, in 1789, flfty-one titularies were dead and three had already handed in their resignation. Of the eighty-one surviving prelates, forty-flve acceded to the request of the Pope and offered their resignation ; but thirty-six refused to resign and were deposed by Apostolical authority. Of the flfty-nine '' Constitutional " bishops the Pope could not be expected to take cognizance ; they had to retire in obedience to the civil power from which they had received their appointment. Plus also abolished all the old episcopal churches with their chapters and priv- ileges ; and in their stead erected ten metropolitan sees and fifty bishoprics. PIOUS VII— HIS SUCCESSOBS. 661 wholly at the disposal of the Government and were a flagrant viola- tion of his agreement with the Holy See. Of these laws, which were ratiiied by the Corps Legislatif, April 5, 1802, the principal were: That no Bull, Brief, nor other missive from the Court of Rome, even though it should relate to individuals only, shall be received or put in force in France, without authority of government; that no council or diocesan synod shall be held without the express sanction of Govern- ment; that professors in seminaries shall teach the four articles of the Declaration of the French Clergy; that bishops shall be amenable for misdemeanors to the Council of State; that parish priests shall give the nuptial blessing only to those who can prove that they have been already married before a Civil Magistrate/'' Pius VII. earnestly, but vainly, protested against the " Organic Laws,^' which had been added to the Concordat, without his knowledge. 95. When in 1804, he was proclaimed Emperor by the French Senate, Napoleon requested the Pope to come to Paris and crown him, that his imperial dignity might receive the sanction of the Church. Pius VIT. felt extreme reluctance to perform the ceremony, but finally, after consulting with the cardinals, resolved to comply, notwithstand- ing the protest of Louis XVIII. His motive was to testify to Napo- leon his gratitude for the restoration of the Catholic religion in France and to obtain further advantages for the Church. At the ceremony of the coronation, however, (Dec. 2. 1804), the proud monarch, departing from all ancient precedents, would not have the Pope to place the crown on his head, but seizing it, crowned himself, and also placed the crown on the head of the empress. 96. In the course of the many interviews which he had with the Emperor, Pius VIL, indeed obtained several concessions for the Church, but could not prevail on him to revoke the '' Organic Laws " and restore to the Holy See the provinces of which it had been bereft. Inflated with success, Napoleon thought of retaining the Pope in France to make him the tool of his ambitious designs. He pressed him to re- move his court to Paris or Avignon, But these speculations were baffled by the firmness of Pius, who answered the emperor that, before leaving Eome, he had executed a formal act of abdication, and deposited it at Palermo, then under British protection, wfiich would be promulgated, if force should be used against his person. On this, Pius was suffered to return to Rome. 97. But the amicable relations thus apparently established, were soon interrupted by new demands from the emperor, with which it was impossible for Pius to comply. Napoleon wanted the Pope to annul the marriage of Jerome, the emperor's brother, with an Ameri- 662 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. can Lady, Miss Paterson; and crown another brother, Joseph, king of Naples; to close his ports against British vessels, and dismiss from liia court the ambassadors of such governments, as were at war with France; to abolish clerical celibacy and suppress the religious orders; and, finally, to acquiesce in the spoliation of the territories of the Church that had been seized by the emperor, and annexed to the Kingdom of Italy. 98. The refusal of the Pope to consent to these outrageous de- mands, hastened a rupture. In May, 1809, Napoleon issued from Vienna a decree ordering the annexation of the remainder of the Papal States to the French Empire, declaring Kome a free city of that monarchy, and settling on the Pope an annuity of two millions of Francs. Pius VII. replied by a Bull of excommunication, cutting off the Emperor and all his agents and abettors from the communion of the Church. On this, the courageous Pontiff, by order of Napoleon, was arrested and carried away a prisoner to Grenoble, thence to Savona, and lastly to Fontainebleau, in France. 99. During the five years of his captivity (1809-1814), Pius VII. was treated with great indignity and harshness, bordering even on cruelty. He was jealously debarred from all communication with the Church, and studiously kept in ignorance of the real state of affairs. He even was deprived of books and writing materials, and was not allowed to give audience, except in the presence of a guard. The Sacred Col- lege was dispersed, most of the cardinals languishing in exile, some in prison. But his courage failed not. The venerable old man courage- ously resisted the imperial despot, steadfastly refusing to enter into terms with him. 100. In his pride. Napoleon refused to recognize any bonds that could limit his ambition. To procure to himself a successor of royal blood, he repudiated his lawful wife Josephine, and, in 1810, was married to the archduchess Maria Louisa of Austria.^ On the Pope's refusal to confer canonical institution upon the bishops appointed by the emperor, the latter, in order to find some way of settling the diffi- culty, in 1811, assemblied a ** National Council " in Paris, but dissolved it again, when he found that the bishops could or would not second his arbitrary and violent proceedings against the Church and its Head. » A decree of divorce was granted by the French Senate, and was subsequently ratified by Card- inal Fesch, the emperor's nephew, as metropolitan of Paris and primate of Gaul, the alleged cause being that the formalities prescribed by the Council of Trent had not been observed, and that access to the Pope, then a prisoner, was impracticable. If not impossible. Thirteen of the cardinals who refused to attend the solemnization of Napoleon's marriage with Maria Louisa, were commanded by the wrathful emperor, to wear in future black Instead of red. This gave rise to the well-known distinction between the red cardinals, and hlack cardinals. I PIUS VII.— HIS SUCCESSORS 663 101. In Fontainebleau, whither he had been brought in 1812, Pius Yll., oppressed and harassed with the importunities of courtly prelates, and without a minister of State, or even a trusty friend, to Avhom he could turn for counsel in his perplexity, at length allowed himself in an unguarded moment to be persuaded to an arrangement which involved a virtual renunciation of some of his temponil and even spiritual rights. But no sooner had he discovered his error, than he immediately revoked the agreement which had been extorted from him.^ 102. But the high pretensions of Napoleon, who aimed at estab- lishing on the ruins of the conquered kingdoms a universal monarchy, and at making the Papacy the tool of his imperial omnipotence, were not destined to be fulfilled. The mighty emperor, was cast from his throne, while the humble Pontiff was restored once more to the pin- nacle of power. After the mad expedition to Russia, in which the weapons had literally fallen from the frozen hands of his soldiers. Napoleon was unable to withstand the arms of the European powers that had leagued against him. The battle of Leipsic (1813) proved the grave of his empire. By a singular disposition of Providence, Na- poleon was compelled, two months after the Pope had been set free, to sign his own abdication in the very same palace of Fontainebleau, in which he had maltreated the venerable prisoner. He was sent, first to Elba, and after his final overthrow on the field of Waterloo, in 1815, to the Island of St. Helena, where he died, sincerely reconciled with the Church, in 1821. 103. Pius VII. re-entered Rome in May 1814, amidst the rejoicings of his people and accompanied by the cordial good wishes of all civilized nations. Through all his troubles the much-tried Pontiff experienced much sympathy, even from the three great non-Catholic sovereigns — the Ozar of Russia, the King of Prussia, and the Prince Regent of Eng- land. A signal proof of their esteem for the venerable Pontiff may be found in the readiness with which they supported.at the ^'Vienna Con- gress " (1814), his demand that all his territories should be restored to him. By the ^^ Treaty of Vienna, ^^ the following year, the Papal States, with the exception of the territories situated on the left bank of the Po, which were held by Austria, and of the Comtat Venaissin and Avignon, which were retained by France, were recognized. 104. The efforts of Pius VII. were henceforth directed towards ' " He yielded for a moment of conscientious alarm," says Cardinal Wiseman (in his " Recollec- tions of the Last Four Popes "), "he consented, though conditionally, under false, though virtuous, impressions, to the terms proposed to him for a new Concordat. But no sooner had his upright and humble mind discovered the error than it nobly and successfully repaired it."— The Articles which Pius vn. was prevailed on to sign were published by Napoleon as the "Concordat of Fontainebleau," whilst they were intended by the Pope only as the basis of a future agreement. 664 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. healing the wounds the Church had received during his enforced ab- sence from the Apostolic See. One of his first acts, after his return to Rome, was the restoration of the Society of Jesus. He concluded, in 1817, a new Concordat with Louis XVIII., which restored that of Leo X. and Francis I. and abolished the '^ Organic Articles " in so far as they were contrary to the doctrine and laws of the Church. In addition to the dioceses re-established in 1801, forty-seven new sees were to be erected in France. Pius VII., notwithstanding his great age and suffer- ings, outlived Napoleon, and received the intelligence of his death with feelings of sincere sympathy. The great Pontiff, whose reign was the longest since St. Peter's, died Aug. 23, 1823. 105. Popes Leo XIL, A. D. 1823-1829, and Pius VIII., A. D. 1829-1830, continuing the work of their illustrious predecessor, gave their chief attention to restoring religion and learning in Rome and to averting the evils by which the Church was then more particularly men- aced. In their encyclicals they warned the faithful against religious indifferentism and secret societies, particularly Freemasonry. Both Leo XII. and Pius VIII. evinced their apostolic zeal and firmness, the one by granting bishops to the new Republics in South America, not- withstanding the protest of Spain; the other by his celebrated answer to the Rhenish bishops on the subject of mixed marriages, which the Prussian government claimed to regulate as belonging solely to the domain of the State. 106. In those days when the secret societies, notably the Car- bonari, aimed at the overthrow of all governments in Italy, and at secularizing the possessions of the Church, it required a man of strong iron will to take upon him the temporal and spiritual administration of the Church. Such a Pontiff was Gregory XVI., who ascended the Papal chair immediately after the outbreak of the Parisian revolution of 1830. His administration, A. D. 1831-1846, was characterized by firmness, fortitude, and statesmanlike prudence, and was noted for efforts at reforms, as well as for zeal in maintaining the purity of the Catholic faith. He condemned the rationalistic doctrines of Hermes and Bautainy and the extreme radicalism of De Lajnenais, and coura- geously supported the cause of the outraged German bishops against the Prussian government, and of oppressed Poland against Russian tyranny. 107. A munificent patron of the sciences and the arts, Gregory XVI. greatly increased the Vatican library, founded three museums, and promoted men of learning to the highest honors in the Church, among whom were Mezzofanti, the greatest linguist that ever lived, and Angela Mai, the discoverer and editor of many ancient works and PIUS IX. 665 manuscripts. In 1839, Gregory published the remarkable Bull, " In supre?no apostolat us fast igio^' against the sleLYe-trside, which did more to put down that infamous traffic than negotiations and royal prohibi- tions. The same year witnessed the canonization of St. Alphonsus Liguori, founder of the Redemptorists, and other saints. SECTION XLIII. — PIUS IX. Early History of Pius IX — His Election — Grants a Political Amnesty — Revolution of 1848— Pius IX flees to Gaeta — Restored to His Throne — Victor Emman^ uel — Papal States invaded — Rome taken — Important Ecclesiastical Acts- Definition of the Immaculate Conception— The Syllabus — Eighteenth Cen- tenary of the Martyrdom of St. Peter — Death of Pius IX. 108. In the long line of Popes, who ruled over the Church since the days of St. Peter, there are very few that were more distinguished than the illustrious Pius IX. His pontificate was the longest — from A. D. 1846-1878 — as well as one of the most remarkable in the history of the Papacy. Bom in 1792 at Sinigaglia, of the illustrious family of Mastai-Ferretti, he was ordained a priest in 1819. His merits were early recognized by Leo XII., who, in 1823, appointed him secretary to the Apostolic Delegate to Chili, and, in 1827, created him arch- bishop of Spoleto. Gregory XVI. transferred him to the more impor- tant See of Imola, and, in 1840, raised him to the cardinalate. On the death of that Pontiff, Cardinal Mastai-Ferretti, the youngest member of the Sacred College, was elected to succeed him, taking the name of Pius IX. 109. The new Pontiff inaugurated his reign with a general am- nesty to all political offenders, and entered at once on a course of re- forms, which made the Papacy again the center of Italy. He gave greater freedom to the press, improved the affairs of government and the administration of justice, advanced laymen to the principal civil offices, granted to his States a constitutional government, and finally took preparatory measures for a confederation of the Italian States. But these concessions did not satisfy the Mazzinists, or Italian revolu- tionists, whose avowed aim was the overthrow of all governments in the Peninsula, in order to unite the Italian States into one great Republic. Because the Pope refused to make war on Austria, he was declared a traitor to Italy, and the Mazzinists resolved on his own de- thronement. 110. The revolution which broke out in France and northern Italy in 1848, produced a powerful effect also in the Papal States. Rome soon was all ablaze and completely in the hands of the revolutionists. The revolution opened with the assassination of the Pope^s prime 666 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. minister, the energetic count Rosse. Pius IX. had to flee in disguise to Gaeta. A frightful state of things followed in the Papal States, especially in Rome, where anarchy and terror reigned supreme under Mazzini and Garibaldi. 111. The Constituent Assembly, elected during this reign of terror, dethroned the Pope and proclaimed the Roman Republic. In response to a call issued by the Pope from Gaeta, the Austrians and French marched into the Roman States and drove out the revolutionists. Amid the rejoicings of his people, Pius IX. returned to Rome in the Spring of 1850, when Cardinal Antonelli, as secretary of State, under- took to heal the wounds struck by the revolution. 113. For several years peace and tranquility reigned in the Pon- tifical States under the paternal rule of Pius IX. But the policy of Cavour, the Piedmontese premier, who bent all his energy on uniting all Italy into one nation under the King of Sardinia, raised new diffi- culties. The Franco-Italian war against Austria, in which the power of the latter was beaten down at Solferino (1859), was followed by the annexation of four-fifths of the Papal States to Sardinia. 113. The Pope was now left in the possession of only one province, the '^ Patrimony of St. Peter; '' of this also he was deprived in 1870, when the Piedmontese king, Victor Emmanuel, taking advantage of the reverses, suffered by France in the war with Germany, invaded Rome and made it the capital of " United Italy." Since then the Pope has virtually been a captive in the Vatican. Refusing to accept any portion assigned to him by the " Law of Guarantees," he is enabled to carry on the administration of his high office, by the voluntary con- tributions {Peter's Pence), taken up for him throughout Catholic Christendom. 114. Pius IX. displayed most wonderful energy in the government of the Universal Church. Up to the year 1877, he had founded 135 new bishoprics and archbishoprics, besides raising 24 bishoprics to the dignity of archiepiscopal sees. He re-established the Catholic hierarchy in England and Holland, restored the Latin patriarchate of Jerusalem, put an end to the schism in Goa, and created a vast number of epis- copal sees in the United States. SS. Hilary of Poitiers, Alphonse de Liguori, and Francis de Sales were declared by him Doctors of the Church, while the interests of the Church were defended by the con- clusion of new concordats with nearly all the governments of Europe. 115. During his long pontificate Pius IX. created more cardinals than any preceding Pope, honoring with that dignity countries which had never or rarely been represented in the Sacred College. England h9.d three cardinals: Wiseman, Manning and Howard; Ireland, one. PIUS IX. 667 cardinal Oullen ; while the United States were honored by the pro- motion of archbishop McCloskey, of New York, to the cardin- alate. 116. During his stay at Gaeta, Pius IX. addressed his Encyclical TJhi primum to the bishops of the Catholic world, calling for their opinion on the expediency of defining the doctrine of the Immac- tilate Co7iception of Mary, the Blessed Mother of God. On the re- ceipt of their replies, which were all but unanimous in expressing the wish for a definition, the Pope, on Dec. 8, 1854, in the presence of over two hundred bishops, issued a solemn decree declaring the doc- trine of the Immaculate Conception to be a truth revealed by God and tin article of Catholic belief, and proposing it as such to the Universal Church. The Dogmatic Bull reads: " We declare, pronounce, and de- fine that the doctrine which holds that the most Blessed Virgin Mary was, in the first instant of her conception, by a singular grace and privi- lege of Almighty God, in virtue of the merits of Christ Jesus, the Saviour of the human race, preserved free from all stain of original sin, is revealed by God, and on that account is to be firmly and con- stantly believed by all the faithful. ^^ The whole Church received the definition with acclamation and delight. 117. The reign of Pius IX. is noted for many other doctrinal pronouncements, which, though not definitions of faith, yet claim the earnest attention and assent of every Catholic. Over how large a field of thought his other determinations have ranged, is testified by the famous Encyclical Quanta Cura, issued Dec. 8, 1864. The Syllabus of Errors annexed to the Encyclical, contains under ten heads a col- lection or catalogue of eighty current errors, or erroneous propositions, condemned by him at various times — theories, which under the spe- cious names of Liberalism, of Progress, and of modern Civilization, have been more or less extensively adopted of late in the various countries of Europe. Whilst on the one hand the jDublication of the Syllabus was hailed with joy and admiration by the Catholic world, on the other hand, its appearance excited the anger and hatred of the enemies of the Church. 118. Few Popes have so often seen the Catholic episcopacy gathering around their throne, and have bestowed the honors of can- onization on so large a number of saints as Pius IX. In 1862, on occasion of the canonization of the twenty-six Japanese Martyrs, he brought together at Rome over three hundred bishops from all parts of Catholic Christendom. Again, on the Eighteenth Centenary of the Martyrdom of the Princes of the Apostles (June 29. 1867), Rome witnessed a still greater and more imposing assembly of bishops, who G68 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. luid come to pay homage to the successor of Peter and assist at the canonization of a large number of Martyrs. 119. Pius IX. was the first among the Roman Pontiffs who lived to see the years of St. Peter in the See of Rome. On June 16, 1871, he reached the twenty-sixth year of his accession to the Papal throne. He closed his remarkable Pontificate on February 7, 1878, having reigned thirty-one years and eight months. He saw the royal usurper, Victor Emmanuel, die in the Quirinal, but not before he had asked pardon of his Victim in the Vatican. SECTION XLIV. — COUNCIL OP THE VATICAN. Reasons for Convoking a General Council — Convocation of the Vatican Council — Chief Objects — Opening of the Council — Number of Prelates Present — The Two Constitutions — Attempted Intimidation by Governments — Defini- tion of Papal Infallibility — Suspension of the Council. 120. The most important ecclesiastical event that distinguished the Pontificate of Pius IX. was the assembling of the General Council of the Vatican. For three hundred years no such Council had been held. In these three centuries the Church passed through revolutions- which dissolved kingdoms and empires, and also changed her position to the world. The countries in which Protestantism had gained the ascendency before the Council of Trent, are, it is true, still un- der the power of heresy; but in nearly all of them Protestantism is now on the decline and the Catholic party has risen from an oppressed and helpless band to a respected and active body, which is daily in- creasing. 121. On the other hand, society, in our days, has become in many ways estranged from the Church and from religion in general. The spirit of infidelity is as powerful to-day, as it was a hundred years ago, and is far more widely spread. In most countries public opinion has become formally hostile to the Catholic religion, and the minds of the Catholics themselves have been much tainted by the atmosphere in which they live. These and other considerations induced Pius IX. to call a General Council. • 122. Pius IX. intimated to the Sacred College his intention of calling a General Council as early as 1865. He asked the cardinals, and shortly afterwards also certain European and Oriental bishops, eminent for learning, for an account of their opinion on the opportuneness of such a convocation and of the questions which, in their opinion, ought to be treated by the Council. On the receipt of their answers, which were nearly unanimous in advising the convocation, Pius IX. announced his design of convoking the Council in a public Consistory of some 500 # COUNCIL OF THE VATICAN. 66» bishops who had come to Rome to celebrate the 18th centenary of SS. Peter and Paul. At last, by the Bull Mteriii Patris, published on June ^9, 1868, he summoned the Council to meet at Rome on Dec. 8, of the ensuing year. 123. The chief objects of the council as stated in the Bull of in- diction were: to examine and decree what pertained to the integrity of faith, and the splendor of divine worship; to enforce the observance of ecclesiastical laws; to effect a general reformation of manners; to provide remedies for the ills of both Church and Society; and to bring back to the Church those wandering outside her pale. With this view, Pius IX. also invited ^' all bishops of the churches of Oriental rite not in communion with the Apostolic See,^^ and " all Protestants and non-Catholics " to attend the Council, exhorting the latter in particu- lar '' to consider whether they were walking in the way marked out by Christ and leading to eternal salvation.''^ 124. The Council, being the Twentietli General Council, was opened by its First Public Session on the appointed day in the Vatican Basilica. There were present 719 Fathers, which number afterwards, increased to 769. For the first time in the history of General Councils, the European Governments were not represented, an invitation not having been extended to any of them. Pope Pius IX. presided in person at the Four Public Sessions> while five Cardinal -presidents were appointed by him to preside at the General Congregations of the Council; its secretary was the able Joseph Fessler, bishop of St. Polten, in Austria. At the Second Public Session, on Jan. 6, 1870, the Pope made his profession of faith, after which all the Fathers followed, declaring at the Chair of St. Peter their adhesion to the one common faith pronounced by the Pastor and Teacher of all. 125. The work actually completed during this first meeting of the Vatican Council consists of two Dogmatic Constitutions. The first,. '^ On Catholic Faith, ^' purposes to affirm and define the existence of a supernatural order as opposed to rationalism and naturalism. Its four chapters affirming the existence of two orders of truths, are on God, the Creator of all things; on Revelation; on Faith; and on Faith and Reason. To these were added eighteen canons proscribing the errors at variance with divine revelation and faith. This '* Consti- tution on Faith " was accepted by the unanimous vote of 667 Fathers present, and was confirmed by the Pope in the Third Public Session, April 24, 1870. 126. The other Constitution — the "First on the Church of Christ " — in three chapters treats of the institution, the perpetuity, and nature of the Primacy of the Roman Pontiff; the fourth and last 670 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. chapter defines the infallible teaching of the Pope in lujitters of faith and morals. Up to the opening of the Council no design was inti- mated by any one in authority of proposing the question of Infallibility for decision, and no place had yet been given to it in the original sche- mata. But that Papal Infallibility would be authoritatively declared was deemed certain. For though a minority of bishops deemed its discussion inopjjortune, the great majority favored a formal and explicit definition of the doctrine. ' 127. The probability that Papal Infallibility would be declared an article of faith by the Council, caused a storm of vituperation in anti- Boman and anti-Catholic circles. A factious body of nominal Catholics in Germany, headed by Dr. Dollinger of Munich, excited the governments on the point, calling their attention to the danger and the consequences likely to arise from the promulgation of the doctrinal decrees on the Primacy of the Roman Pontiff, the schemata of which had appeared in the " Augsburg Gazette. '^ The Protestant and infidel press soundedthe alarm and joined in the warfare against the Council, misrepresenting and vilifying its proceedings, and a series of pub- lications appeared, the avowed object of which was to excite Catholics against the dogma of the Infallibility and to hinder, if possible, the' Council of the Vatican from defining it. 128. But the expectations of the opponents of Papal Infallibility were doomed to disappointment. After adopting several amendments which had been voted upon in a preceding General Congregation, the 'Council of the Vatican defined '^that it is a dogma divinely revealed: that the Roman Pontiff, when he speaks ex cathedra, that is, when in discharge of the office of Pastor and Doctor of all Christians, by virtue of his supreme Apostolic authority, he defines a doctrine regarding faith or morals to be held by the Universal Church, by the divine assistance promised to him in Blessed Peter, is possessed of that Infal- Mhility with luhich the Divine Kedee7ner willed that his Church should be endowed for defining doctrine regarding faith or morals: and that, therefore, such definitions of the Roman Pontiff are irreformable of themselves, and not from the consent of the Church. ^^ 129. On July 18, the Fourth Public Session was held and the Constitution Pastor ^ternus, containing the definition of Papal 1 " Setting aside this one question of opportuneness, there was not In the Council of the Vatican a difference of any gravity, and certainly no difference whatsoever on any doctrine of faith. I have never been able to hear of five Bishops who denied the doctrine of Papal Infallibility. Almost all previous Councils were distracted by divisions, If not by heresy. Here no heresy existed. The It was Dr. Ullathorne, who first informed the world in a letter published among the Annals of the Propagation of the Faith, how the poor Irish exiles were treated in Australia. " It was forbidden them to speak Irish under pain of fifty strokes of the whip ; and the magistrates, who for tJie most part belonged to the Protestant clergy, sentenced also to the whip and to close confinement those who refused to go to hear their sermons, and to assist at a service which their consciences disavowed." THE CHURCH IN AUSTRALIA. 735 bishops and thirty-three missionaries from all parts of the Australian Continent. The most important decrees, adopted by this council, bore upon the life and manners of the clergy, the founding of Catholic schools in all the missions, and on the preservation and administration of Church property. 339. Thus far, but little had been done for the evangelization of the aboriginal inhabitants. The few missionaries that could be spared from Europe were insufficient to answer the exigencies of the Catholic immigrants that yearly arrived in great numbers to settle in the Southern Continent Before the Church authorities could think of undertaking the conversion of the native tribes, Protestants had practically occupied that field. Episcopalian and Wesleyan missioners rivalled each other in the endeavor to christianize the Australian natives. But in spite of every temporal advantage, all their efforts met with signal failure. Not even a solitary pagan is known to have been converted byProtestant missioners. 340. Far different are the results that the Catholic missioners achieved among the aborigines of Australia. Father Therry, the pioneer priest of Australia, already preached to the natives and made some converts. It was in 1845 that the evangelization of the Austra- lian natives was regularly begun. In that year two Spanish Benedic- tines, Fathers Serra and Salvado, commenced, in Western Australia, one of those settlements so often undertaken by the earlier followers of St. Benedict for the civilization of barbarous nations. The first years of the mission were filled with severe trials and sufferings ; but the untiring zeal and energy of the two missioners overcame every obstacle. 341. At New Nor da, as this Benedictine colony is called, a large native settlement has grown around the monastery, where aborigines of Australia, whoni Protestant missionaries have declared incapable of being civilized, are to be seen busy in cultivating the soil and in every kind of handicraft and workmanship, or living as monks, for some of them have been received into the Benedictine order. The set- tlement is still a flourishing one and includes, besides, three branch missions in other parts of the colony. The founders of New Norcia, which in 1867 was made an Abhey NuUius, were both elevated to the episcopal dignity ; Father Serra becoming the coadjutor bishop of Perth, while Salvado was made bishop of Port Victoria, in 1849, but continued to reside at Neiv Norcia, of which he became first Lord Abbot. 342. There are Catholic natives also in the archdiocese of Sidney as well as in some other dioceses. In the North of Australia, at Port Victoria, German Jesuits, and in the South, priests of the Congrega- 738 BISTORT OF THE CHURCH. tion of the Sacred Heart of Mary, have laid the foundations of new missions for the evangelization of the natives. In New South Wales the entire tribe of the Burragorang has been won to the Church. ^ 343. As the mighty tide of emigration from the British Islands, especially from Ireland, set in, the Catholic population increased rapidly in Australia. Hence bishoprics were soon found necessary in all the larger towns. In 1866, the Province of Sydney counted one archbishopric and nine suffragan sees. There were, besides, four bish- oprics in Tasmania and New Zealand, which until lately were im- mediately subject to the Holy See. The few hundred oppressed Catholics, who on the arrival of the first vicar apostolic, thirty years ago, formed the entire Church, had increased to several hundred thousand souls. 344. In view of the rapid growth of the Church in the southern hemisphere. Archbishop Folding was called upon to convene and pre- side over the Second Provincial Council, which met at Melbourne, in 1869. The decrees passed by the Fathers inculcate the supreme ne- cessity of Catholic education and urge the establishment of parochial schools, as well as normal schools for the training of Catholic teachers. In 1874, Melbourne was raised to Metropolitan rank, receiving five suffragan sees, while Sydney retained six suffragan bishoprics. 345. Archbishop Folding died in 1877; he was succeeded by the Most Kev. Bede Vaughan. On his death, in 1884, Bishop Moran of Ossory, one of Ireland^s most learned prelates, was promoted to the colonial Archbishopric of Sydney. The first great act of Archbishop Moran, who meanwhile had been created cardinal, was to convene the First Australian Plenary Council, which met at Sydney, in 1885. All the bishops of Australia and New Zealand, to the number of twenty, with two archbishops, were present or represented. Among the acts of the Council was a petition to the Holy See for the erection of new sees and vicariates, in behalf partly of the Maoris, or natives, of New Zealand. 346. According to the Missiones Catholicce Ritus Latini, the Church in Australia and New Zealand numbers about 600 priests, some 1100 churches and chapels, over 700 parochial schools, which are attended by 95,000 pupils. The Catholic population is about 650,000,. and this flock is ruled by a hierarchy of five archbishops — Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide, Brisbane, and Wellington in New Zealand — seventeen bishops, and four vicars apostolic. » " Tbe offer made by the Government of New South Wales, of three hundred thousand acres of land to any mlssioners who would undertake to civilize the natives within that colony, has been accepted by His Holiness the Pope.," Catholic Minsions, December 1887. CONTRO VERSIES AND HERESIES. 737 CHAPTER III. SCHISMS AND SECTS. SECTION LX. CONTROVERSIES AND HERESIES. Bull of Alexander VII. against Jansenism — The " Formulary " — Jansenlst Sub- terfuges — The "Clementine Peace"— Quesnel — The Bull Unigenitus — The Appellants — Port Royal — Jansenist Church of Holland— Molinos — His Quietism — Articles of Issy— F6nelon's "Maxims of the Saints" — John Ronge— Abbg Chatel— The Old Catholics— In Germany — In Switzerland. 347. The Bull of Alexander VII., declaring that the Five Propo- sitions condemned by his predecessors were really the tenets of Jansenius, and were contained in his book, was generally received with submission in France. To meet the miserable subterfuges of the Jansenists, the Pope imposed on all ecclesiastics the subscription of a Formulary declaring unreserved assent to the Papal decision. Four I)ishops — those of Angers, Beauvais, Pamiers, and Arlet — however, refused to sign the Formulary, except with the evasive distinction between question of right and question of fact, 348. On the former question the Jansenist party admitted the Churches infallibility and the duty of entire submission; but on the ^' question of fact," that is on the question whether a book contains certain specified errors, they maintained, the Church could not pro- nounce with infallibility, and that it is enough if the faithful received her decision with respectful silence {silentium ohsequiosum). After much delay and strife, the refractory prelates consented, during the pontificate of Clement IX., to subscribe the papal Formulary, and apparently became reconciled to the Holy See. 349. This memorable event is commonly called the Peace of Clement; but that peace, which was attended by so much fraud and intrigue on the part of the sectaries, was of short duration. Despite of all the condemnations, Jansenism continued to infect the French clergy. The controversy was revived, in 1702, by the well-known dis- pute on the so-called Case of Conscience and by the Oratorian, Pasquier Quesnel, whose celebrated work, entitled " Moral Reflections on the New Testament," contained all the most obnoxious doctrines of Jansenism. 350. Pope Clement XI. was not slow in adopting repressive measures against the daring sectaries. In his Bull Vineam Domini 738 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. he condemned the theory of " respectful silence/^ and insisted that Catholics were bound to give full and undoubting consent to the decisions of the Church. In the celebrated Bull Unige7iitus, of 1713, he condemned one hundred an(l one propositions from QuesneFs book as false, impious, and even as heretical. Some of the French clerg}', headed by Cardinal Noailles, archbishop of Paris, appealed against tlie last named Bull to a future Council, from which circumstance they were called Appellants. This step was followed, in 1718, by the publi- cation of the Bull Pastoralis on the part of the Holy See, excom- municating those who refused to obey the bull Unigenitus. 351. Louis XIV., always a determined foe of Jansenism, lent. all his support to the measures of the Popes against this dangerous heresy. The Cistercian Convent of nuns of Port Royal de Paris was the great center of the Jansenist movement. Its abbess Angelique, the sister of Antoine Arnauld and the pupil of Saint-Cyran, dissuaded the nuns from frequent Communion, on the ground that a less frequent reception would increase their desire for the sacrament. The nuns of Port Royal refusing to subscribe the Papal Formula, were interdicted and forbidden to receive novices. Remaining obstinate, the deluded religious by royal order were all expelled, and their convent was utterly destroyed, in 1710. 352. After the death of Quesnel, in 1719, the Jansenist contro- versy gradually relaxed in France. Cardinal Noailles recanted in 1728, shortly before his death, and his example was followed by the greater number of the Appellant bishops and by the Sorbonne. A few bishops, however, and a number of priests, chiefly regulars, obstinately refused to accept the Bull Unigenitus, preferring exile to submission. What they had failed to accomplish by force and intrigue, the Jansen- ists now endeavored to obtain by pretended miracles. At the tomb of a certain Francis of Paris, who died in 1727, and was reckoned very holy by the Jansenists on account of his extravagant austerities, numerous miracles were reported to have taken place. In crowds the people visited the grave of the Jansenist Saint, and many fell into pretended ecstasies and horrible convulsions, which gained for the fanatical sectaries the name of Convulsionaries. New disturbances arose when Archbishop Beaumont of Paris and other bishops in 1 749 instructed their clergy to refuse the sacraments to obstinate Appel- lants. The French parliament interfered and inflicted severe punish- ment on priests who, faithful to their duty, obeyed the instructions of their ecclesiastical superiors. 353. Many French Jansenists fled to Holland, where, with the assistance of the Vicar Apostolic Peter Kodde, and Dominic Varlet, r CONTROVERSIES AND HERESIES. 139 titular bishop of Babylon, ' they formed an independent Church, with Utrecht as a centre. The Ja7isenist Church of Holland continues to the present day. It numbers less than 5000 souls and is ruled by one archbishop and two bishops. In point of doctrine and discipline the Dutch Jansenists remain just where they were at the time of their separation from the CathoKc Church. They protested, however, against the definition of the Immaculate Conception and Papal Infallibility. 354. Michael de Molinos, a Spanish priest, advocated a system of piety, which obtained the name of Quietism.. In his work entitled '^ Spiritual Guide, ^' Molinos maintained that Christian perfection con- sists in a state of perfect rest and quiet, in which the soul, remaining wholly passive under the influence of God^s Spirit, neither forms any acts nor is moved by a fear of hell or a desire for heaven. In 1685, Pope Innocent XI. condemned sixty-eight propositions of Molinos ; the author himself was confined in a convent at Rome, where, after recanting his errors, he died, reconciled to the Church, in 1696. 355. The doctrines of Molinos were taught, in a modified form, by Madame Guyon, a woman of extraordinary piety and purity of life. Her Quietist ideas she gave to the world in a number of mystical treatises, of which the following are the principal ones : " A Short and Easy Method of Prayer ; '* '^ Spiritual Torrents;" and "Mystical Sense of the Canticles." Her writings, giving great offense, were ex. amined and condemned by a commission of bishops which met at Issy, in 1695, and of which the celebrated Fenelon and Bossuet were members. The commission drew up thirty-four articles concerning the sound maxims of a spiritual life — Articles of Issy — which Madame Guyon humbly subscribed. She died a very edifying death, in 1717. 356. In the condemnation of the writings of Madame Guyon Fenelon had acquiesced ; but as she made a formal submission to the Church, he vindicated her character. Moreover, in a work entitled " Maxi^ns of the Saints" Fenelon defended the Quietist idea of ^'holy indifference as to eternal bliss or woe," springing from a pure and dis- interested love of God. Fenelon was answered by many doctors of the Sorbonne and refuted by Bossuet, and his book was condemned by Pope Innocent XII. in 1699. Fenelon made a most edifying submis- sion by publicly denouncing his own book. He had been Vicar General to Bishop Saint Vallier of Quebec, and for several years had labored zealously as a missionary among the Illinois and other tribes in the Mississippi Valley. But on his return to Europe, where, in 1718, he was raised to the episcopacy as bishop of Babylon, he avowed his Jansenistical doctrines, withdrew into Holland, and took an active part in establishing the Jansen- ist Church of Utrecht. He consecrated four successive pretended archbishops and died in 1742, after having been excommunicated by three successive popes. Shea, the Cath. Church in Colo- nial Days, p. 556. 740 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 357. Jo/m Eonge, an apostate priest, became the founder of a sect in Germany, which, notwithstanding the thorough Protestant and radical principles it professed, called itself the German Catholic, also the Chrutian Catholic and Apostolic Church. Ronge, who was hailed by the Liberal and Protestant factions of Germany as another Luther, rejected all but two sacraments. The remnant of this sect, which was largely composed of Protestants, subsequently joined the national Protestant Church of Prussia, and has since ceased to exist as a dis- tinct denomination. Ronge died impenitent, in 1887. Attempts have been made also to establish an independent National Catholic Church in various other countries ; in France by the A hhe Francis Chdtel ; in Belgium by Ahhe Helsen ; and in Poland by the apostate priest Ozers- kiy the companion of Ronge. But the endeavors of these apostates proved likewise abortive. 358. The definition of Papal Infallibility by the Vatican Council served, to a small number of nominal Catholics in Germany, France and Switzerland, as a pretext for secession from the Catholic Church. The opposition against the Council was headed in Germany by Dr. Dollinger, at one time a most zealous defender of the Catholic Church, and his example was followed by nearly all the Catholic instructors of the University of Munich, and by professors at Bonn, Breslau, Frei- burg, Prague, and other universities and gymnasia of Germany. After the precedent of the Jansenists of Holland, the new sectaries called themselves Old Catholics ; but more appropriately are they called Protesting Catholics, or New Protestants. They protest against what they term Papal innovations on the ancient Catholic faith. 359. The leaders of the protesting movement in Germany were, besides Dr. Dollinger. Professors Friedrich of Munich ; Reusch, Lan- gen, and Knoodt of Bonn ; Reinkens of Breslau ; Scliulte of Prague, and Michaelis of Braunsberg. Being excommunicated by their respec- tive bishops, they proceeded, against the express wish of Dollinger, to organize a schism and form Old-Catholic congregations. Dr. Reinkens was consecrated bishop by Heydekamp, the Jansenist bishop of De- venter, in 1873. 360. In Switzerland only three priests refused submission to the Vatican decrees ; but there the Protesting Catholics, consisting in great part of persons of disreputable character, rejected the name of Old Catholics and preferred to call themselves ^' Christian Catholics " {ChristkathoUken). Their bishop became Edward Herzog, who was consecrated by Dr. Reinkens in 1876. The '' Christian Catholics" in Switzerland, more radical than the Old Catholics of Germany, have a married clergy and celebrate Mass in the vernacular; confession is NEW PROTESTANT SECTS. ^ 741. optional with them. This sect, although supported by the Protestant and Liberal Cantons, is fast dwindling away. Attempts have* been made to form Old Catholic congregations in Austria, by the notorious Aloys Anton ; and in France, by the eloquent ex-Carmelite Hyacinth Loyson; but they proved a complete failure. SECTION LXI. — NEW PROTESTANT SECTS. The Pietists —Their Doctrines— The Herrnhuters— Their Tenets — Religious State of England in the Eighteenth Century— Rise of New Sects — The " Friends " — Their Distinguishing Doctrine— The Quakers — Their Peculi- arities — John Wesley— The Methodists — Their Peculiar Doctrines — The Methodists during the War of the Revolution — Division of the Sect into Wesleyans and Whitefieldites — Swedenborg — His New Jerusalem Church — The Shakers— The Unitarians — The Universalists — The Congregationalists — The Mormons — The Spiritualists. * 361. The great distinctive principle of the self-styled Reformers was the rejection of Church authority, and their assertion of the right of private judgment in matters of religion. This principle is res- ponsible for the endless '^diversities," or, as they have been called, '* variations," of Protestantism, and for the almost countless number of sects that have sprung up among Protestants since the Reformation. As men are diiferently constituted, they naturally take different views even of religion ; and if the principle of private judgment holds true, then each one has the right to adopt a religious system for himself. 362. Philip James Spener, a Lutheran preacher, born in Alsace, in 1635, became the founder of a sect known as Pietists. Lamenting the absence of all warmth and piety in the Lutheran Church, which he censured as heartless and spiritless, and as '^ an outward corrupt body," he instituted '^ associations of pious souls," for the special edification of, and for the cultivation of evangelical morality among his fellow-religionists. These were the famous collegia ^Jietatis, from which the name '' Pietists" has been derived. 363. In several writings, especially in a work entitled '^ Pious Desires," Spener frankly admitted the moral laxity and disorders prevailing in the Lutheran Church and proposed the remedies which, in his opinion, were to heal them. Indifferent to all dogmas, he insisted mainly on what he called a living faith, holding that religion is wholly an affair of the heart, and that ^' the true believer must be conscious of the moment wherein his justification (the illapse of grace) has taken place." Spener, a well-meaning and meritorious man, effected much good among his fellow-religionists. Despite of much opposition on the part of his fellow preachers, he gained great 742 ^ HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. popularity and shook the foundations of Lutheran orthodoxy in Germany. He died 1705. 364. Of a similar tendency is the fanatical sect of United Brethren (Unitas Fratrum), sometimes called Moravians, founded by Count Zinzendorf, a German nobleman, who established a colony of Moravian Brethren on his estate in Saxony, named Herrnhut, whence they are commonly known as Herrnhuters. Though a Lutheran sect, the Herrnhuters differ from the orthodox Lutherans both in doctrine and ecclesiastical discipline. Leaving all the distinctive tenets of the various Protestant sects out of question, they adopted as articles of faith only what they called the " fundamental Scripture truths,^^ in which all agree, and, at the same time, introduced a new system of Church government, consisting of bishops, presbyters, and deacons. 365. The sect of Herrnhuters includes three different tropes or modifications — the Lutheran, Calvinistic, and Moravian — and admits Christians of all denominations without compelling them to renounce their peculiar tenets. In 1741, Zinzendorf, who had himself ordained a bishop of his sect, by a pretended Moravian bishop, came to America, and founded a colony of Herrnhuters at Bethlehem, in Pennsylvania. The sect, however, is not very numerous in this country, and even less, so in Europe. These sectaries have always been distinguished by a spirit of pride, which has been the fruitful source of fresh divisions. 366. The religious fanaticism of the great Rebellion in England, pushed even to frenzy, was followed by a period of general spiritual lax- ity, which passed, at last, into the most frivolous unbelief. The An^ glican Church had sunk to deep degradation. The established worship appeared void and meaningless in the eyes of the people ; it consisted of nothing more than a dry, cheerless repetition of forms and hymns, although composed in the vernacular tongue. *' To this we must add the numberless disputes which then convulsed the Anglican Establish- ment. Opinions crowded upon opinions, each seeking its foundation in Holy Writ ; and yet not one being able to prove by that standard its own truth, or the untenableness of the opposite system ; and no living human authority, invested with a divine sanction, was anywhere recognized." ^ This spiritual misery of the English people, making a deep impression on religious-minded men, gave rise to many new sects* 367. The Society of Friends, commonly called Quakers, owe their origin to George Fox, a shoemaker, who was born in Leicestershire, in 1624, and died in 1690. The term Quaker seems to have been bestowed upon the new sect in allusion to Fox's phrase in addressing the people : ** Tremble at the word of the Lord.'' The principal distinguishing doc- » J. A. MfflHLER, Symbolism, Sec. Ixlv. NEW PROTESTANT SECTS. 743 trine of the Quakers is that of "the inward light of Christ/Mn the lan- guage of the sect also called '' the internal word/^ " Christ withi7i," and *' Kingdom of God within.'^ This divine light of Christ, who always speaks when man is silent, is the source of all religious knowledge, as well as of all pious life, and is all-sufificient to redeem and save man. 368. This doctrine led the Quakers to reject all sacraments, including baptism and the Lord's supper, as well as every established service. They have no appointed ministers, observe no festivals, and use no rites or ceremonies. In their meetings, they remain in profound silence until some one believes himself moved by the Holy Spirit to speak. Women may exhort and speak as well as men, for the "spirit of Christ" is bestowed irrespectively of rank, learning, or sex. The Quakers refuse taking oaths, abstain from all military service, condemn dancing, all kinds of games, and despise all music, vocal as well as instrumental. 369. The Quakers were subjected to much persecution in England, which caused William Penn, one of their distinguished members, to found the colony of Pennsylvania. One of the leading articles of the constitution adopted in this colony granted freedom of con- science to all who acknowledged the ''one eternal God." The sect, which is split into four parties— the Orthodox, HicJcsites, Gurneyites, and Wilhurites — amounts to upward of 200,000 in the world. 370. John Wesley, an Anglican clergyman, is the recognized founder and legislator of Methodism, While a student at Oxford he formed, with his brother Charles and a few other scholars, among whom the eloquent Whitefield soon became eminent, a little society for their mutual edification as well as for their literary improvement. In their meetings the members of the association read, besides the classical authors, also spiritual works, including, among other Catholic books, the "Imitation of Christ." From the strict observance of a pious method, or rule of life, the association obtained the name of Methodists, which afterwards remained attached to them. 371. Such was the beginning of a religious movement which, taking its rise in 1734, extended itself into all parts of England and Wales, made some progress in Scotland, and crossed the Ocean into the New World. Eetaining the liturgy and constitution of the Angli- can Church, Wesley and his associates, at first, propagated only their religious practices, their hours of prayer and Bible-reading, and their fasts and frequent communions. The energy and enthusiasm with which they preached attracted everywhere great crowds. Encouraged by their success, they began preaching in public places and open fields. In 1774 Methodism claimed already 30,000 members. 744 HISTORT OF THE CHURCH. 372. From the Herrnhuters, with whom he had become acquaint- ed, Wesley adopted the doctrine that ** the remission of sin and the presence of divine grace in the soul is accompanied with a heavenly inward peace, manifesting itsdlf externally in exalted bodily excite- ment, such as convulsive fits." Attacks of this kind were called *' outward signs of grace," and were held to be miraculous. The preaching of Whitefield was especially successful in bringing about sudden conversions, which were usually accompanied with such convul- sive attacks. 373. Wesley at first disavowed all intention of separating from the Anglican Church and maintained the necessity of loyalty to that Establishment and of her orders for lawful preaching and ministry. Subsequently, however, he satisfied himself that bishops and presbyters were one and the same order in the Church of Christ and consequent- ly had the same right to ordain. He accordingly assumed episcopal character and ordained elders and even consecrated bishops. A pre- tended Greek bishop, called Erasmus, then residing in England, was also solicited to impart holy orders. The separation of the Methodists from the Anglican Church was thus formally established. 374. During the war of the Eevolution the Methodist societies in America were left almost wholly without ministers ; the latter, siding with England against the Colonies, had gone over into British domin- ion. ^ After the war was over, Wesley proceeded to organize an independent Methodist Church in America. He ordained Dr. Coke and Mr. Francis superintendents, or bishops, in 1783, and sent them to ordain elders in the New World. He also prepared a liturgy, differing little from that of the Church of England. The Methodist Episcopal Church in America was thus created with bishops, presbyters, and deacons, a liturgy, and a creed. 375. The Articles of Religion which Wesley prepared for his Methodist societies are substantially an abridgment of the Thirty-nine Articles of the Anglican Church. In abridging the Articles, some were changed, others were wholly omitted. Wesley and Whitefield could not agree on the questions of predestination and grace. The latter was a partisan of the most rigid predestinarianism, which Wes- ley, who was more inclined to Arminianism, classed among the most abominable opinions that had ever sprung up in a human head. The poctrinal differences between the two was the cause of their separation. 376. Whitefield organized what is known as the Calvinistic Methodist Church, while the partisans of Wesley were called after him * Wesley addressed a pamphlet to the Americans condemning their conduct and taking sides with the English Cabinet; " No governments under heaven," said he,'' "are so despotic as the republi- can ; no subjects are governed in so arbitrary a manner as those of a commonwealth." J^EW PROTESTANT SECTS. 745 Wesley ans, or Wesley an Methodists. ' The first Methodist society in America was established in the City of New York, in 1766. During the Civil war the Methodist Episcopal Church divided into the Methodist Episcopal Church North and the Methodist Episcopal Church South. Civil suits were the outcome of the division. The Supreme Court of the United States at last settled the rights of the two organizations to the common property. Methodism in this country claims two million members. 377. Emayiuel Swedenborgj the son of a Swedish bishop, and a man distinguished for great arid varied learning, by his numerous mystical writings had prepared, the way for the founding of a new sect, which called itself the " New Jerusalem Church,^* also the " New Tes- tament Church.^' Swedenborg pretended to hold intercourse with the world of Spirits — receiving instructions as to the nature of heaven and hell and the beings and things therein — and that he had been commis- sioned by God to introduce a new and imperishable era in the Church. The second coming of the Lord promised in the Gospel was to take place in him. He rejected the Catholic dogmas of original sin, of the vicarious satisfaction of Christ, and of the resurrection of the flesh. Swedenborg made, however, no attempt to establish a sect. It was not until after his death, in 1772, that the first congregation of '' The New Church signified by the New Jerusalem in the Apocalypse^' was organized. The sect has never been numerous ; it counts at pres- ent, in all, between ten and twelve thousand members in this country and Europe. 378. Another sect which boasted of the spiritual joys of the heavenly Jei*usalem are the *' Believers in Christ's Second Appearing,'' or Millennial Church, commonly known as Shakers, so called from their practice of shaking and dancing, in which their worship princi- pally consists. They came originally from England and settled in the State of New York, in 1774. Their leader was Anna Lee, who, they ridiculously claimed, was the ''elect lady" mentioned in Revelation, (ch. xii. 1.) the "Bride of the Lamb," and the ''Mother of all the Elect and Saints." In her it is claimed that the second coming of Christ was realized. They live in communities and do not marry, their society being recruited mostly by young men and girls. There are some eighteen Shaker settlements in this country, with a membership of about seven thousand. 379. Other sects of this period, mostly secessions from Presbyte- 1 The principal secessions from these parent bodies are the Primitive Methodists ; the Methodist Free Church; the Bible Christians; the Methodist New Convention; the Reform Union; the Methodist Protestant Church ; the Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States ; the Methodist Zion Church ; the Reformed Methodist Church, and others. 746 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. rianism, ' are : 1. The Unitarians, so called from their belief in the personal Unity of God. They deny the divinity of Christ, whom they regard as a dependent though highly exalted creature of God, and of the Holy Ghost, who is a divine attribute or influence. 2. The Universalists, who believe in the final salvation of all intelligent beings, whether human or angelic. 3. The Congregationalists. They deny all superior jurisdiction and maintain that any congregation, or society of Christians united for Christian worship, is a church having full power to rule itself and to set up its own articles of belief. 4. The Mormons, or Latter Day Saints. They practise polygamy and believe in the continual inspiration of the head of their sect. 5. In this country there has arisen a very numerous sect of Spiritualists, as they are called, who profess to hold intercourse with the spirits of the unseen world, and who are striving, in union with the powers of dark- ness, to substitute a devil- begotten superstition for the revealed truths of Christianity. ' CHAPTER IV. CATHOLIC SCIENCE AND LITERATURE. SECTION LXn. THE THEOLOGICAL SCIENCES — DISTINGUISHED SCHOLARS AND WRITERS. The Church and the Sciences — Relation of Reason to Revelation — Distinguished Dogmatic Theologians — Revival of Scholasticism — New Scholastic School — Relation of Philosophy to Theology — Distinguished Writers on Moral Theology — Noted Church Historians — The Biblical Studies — New English Versions of the Bible — Catholic Literature in England and Ireland — la America — Distinguished Authors. 380. During the present epoch the arts and sciences were culti- 1 other secessions from the orif?inal Presbyterian Church of Scotland are the Covenanters, or Reformed Presbyterians ; the United Presbyterian Church ; the Free Church of Scotland, and the Presbyteriaa Alliance. In America the sect Is divided into the Presbyterian Church North, and Presbyterian Church South ; the Cumberland Presbyterian Church ; the Associate Presbyterian Church, and the Associate Reformed Church — The principal divisions among the Baptists are General, or A rminian Baptists; Particular, or Calvlnlstic Baptists; Campbellite Baptists, or Disci- ples ; Free Will Baptists ; Seventh Day Baptists ; Dunkards, and Six Principle Baptists. See I. D Rupp, History of the Religious Denominations in the United States : and W. Burder, History of aU the Religions of the World. 2 " Modem Spiritualism is substantially but a revival of ancient pagan practices, known already many years before Christ, and condemned as abominable by Moses. Clairvoyants take the place of ancient soothsayers ; the alleged spirits of tie departed now take the place of the ancient Pythonic Spirits, and Spiritualists now believe to learn facts or truths, secret to men, from the dead, as pagans did thousands of years ago." Rev. J. Gmeiner, Spirits of Darkness, p. 226. r THE THEOL OGICA L SCIENCES. 74? Tated and improved with remarkable success throughout the Christian world. No branch of literature seemed to be neglected. Theology, ■dogmatic and moral; philosophy, history, and all the sciences that belong to the respective provinces of reason, genius, experience, and observation were carried to a high degree of perfection. Many famous works on almost all the sciences, profane as well as sacred, are due to the Catholic authors of this epoch. In philosophy, astronomy, physiology, geology, mechanics, and mathematics Catholic scholars hold a pre-eminent place. Copernicus, a priest and canon, Galileo, a devout son of the Church, and in our day Secchi, a Jesuit, are recog- nized as the great leaders in astronomy and other sciences. 381. The Church ever encouraged and fostered science. It is to the learning and patronage of Pope Gregory XIII. that we owe the reformation of the calendar and the computations which determine with great accuracy the length of the solar year. Since God is the author of both reason and revelation, there can be no real conflict be- tween the deductions of science and the doctrines of Christian faith. The reason of the apparent conflict between science and faith is clearly pointed out in the following Decree of the Council of the Vatican: "There never can be any real discrepancy between faith and reason, since the same God who reveals mysteries and infuses faith has be- stowed the light of reason on the human mind; and God cannot deny Himelf, nor can truth ever contradict truth. The false ap- pearance of such a contradict io?i is mainly due, either (a the dogmas of faith 7iot having ieen clearly understood and expounded according to the mind of the Church, or to the inventions of opinion having teen taken for the verdicts of reason " 382. Confining ourselves strictly to the theological sciences, we name a few of the writers that have been conspicuous in that depart- ment of knowledge. Prominent among the dogmatic theologians in France are Bishop Habert, Tournely, Witasse, Natalis Alexander, Billuart, Collet, Gonet, Contenson, Maranus, Fenelon, and Antoine; in Italy, the Cardinals Pallavicini, Sfondrati, Gerdil, and Quirini; in Spain, Eoccaberti, Cardinal Aguirre, and the Jesuits Anton Perez, Gonzalez, Eibera, and Gener. In Germany the theologians confined their labors principally to Scholastic theology and Canon Law. Of the writers on dogmatic theology flourishing in the present century the best known are Liebermann, Perrone, Klee, Dieringer, Archbishop Kenrick, Jungmann, Cardinal Franzelin, Heinrich, Scheeben, Hurter, Cardinal Mazella, and Murray of Maynooth. 383. From the middle of the eighteenth century the study of Scholastic theology and philosophy began to be much neglected, and 748 BISTORT OF TEE CHURCH. the attempt was made, especially in Germany, to create a philosophy founded on a basis distinct from that of the philosophy of the ancient schoolmen. The supporters of the new school profess no little con- tempt for the scholastic method and teaching, as unsuited to . the progress of modern science and as tending to hamper the freedom of speculative inquiries. 384. A revival of the Scholastic, or rather Thomist, philosophy has begun in our days. The New Scholastic school, as it is called, accepts the discoveries of science and the modern improvements in scientific method of teaching, but rightly maintains that modern philosophy must be raised on the old Scholastic foundations, so long approved of by the Church. It denies to philosophy unrestrained freedom in its own sphere and absolute independence of theology, as claimed by the modern rationalistic school, and contends that, as reason is in- ferior to, and must be enlightened by revelation, so philosophy is dependent on theology, and, if need arise, must correct its conclusions by the higher and more certain truths of faith. " Philosophy, '^ as the ancient schoolmen expressed it, ''is the handmaid of Theology — Philosophia Tfieologice anciUa. In the Encyclical '' JEterni Patris '* the present Pope Leo XIII. approves and urges the teaching of the philosophy of St. Thomas. 385. In the study of Moral Theology an important change was introduced by separating from it what belonged to Canon Law, which is treated now as a distinct branch of Theology. Of the many theologi- ans who have written on Moral Theology during the last two centuries, are named with special distinction the Salmanticenses, Gobat, La-Croix^ Gonzalez, Sporer, Eoncaglia, Antoine, Amort, Voit, and Billuart. Valuable works on Moral Theology have been published in our days by Bouvier, Carriere, Gury, Scavini, Ballerini, Kenrick, Konings, Lehmkuhl, Sabetti, and others. 386. But the most distinguished moral theologian of this period, and the one who has had the greatest influence, is St. Alphonsus Maria de Liguori. His numerous writings, ascetical, dogmatical, and moral, have given him rank among the teachers of the Church. He was declared a Doctor of the Church by Pius IX., in 1871. The most distinguished among the Canonists of this age are Laymann, Cardinals Vincent Petra, and Lambertini, afterwards Pope Benedict XIV.; Ferraris, Keiffenstuel, and Schmalzgruber. 387. Much labor has been devoted to Church History, which was richer in products than any other field of ecclesiastical literature. The advantages that flowed from the researches and improvements made in ecclesiastical history were innumerable and of eminent service r- THE THEOLOGICAL SCIENCES, 749 to the cause of truth and religion. The most distinguished writers in this golden age of ecclesiastical history are Tillemont, Mabillon, Fleury, Natalis Alexander, Montfaucon, Bossuet, Muratori, Orsi, and Card- inals Mai and Pitra. Most valuable works on ecclesiastical history were written in the present century by Palma, Rohrbacher, Darras, Mohler, Alzog, Dollinger, Bishop Hefele, Cardinal Hergenrother, Jungmann, Briick, Kraus, and others. The works of Montalambert (author of the well-known '' Monks of the West "), Ozanam, and Rio are studies of ancient and mediaeval history worthy of all praise. 388. In Biblical studies we do not find in this age that extraordi- nary industry and activity that was shown in the other fields of theolo- gical literature. Calmet, a Benedictine (d. 1757), left many learned works, among which his extensive " Dictionary of the Bible," and his " Commentaries on the Old and New Testament " are the best known. Revised English versions of the Bible, with copious notes, were pub- lished by Bishop Challoner (d. 1781); the learned Father G. L. Haydock (d. 1847); and Archbishop Kenrick of Baltimore. 389. In England and Ireland, since the Emancipation, a rich Catholic literature has grown up. Among the theologians and writers who have attained to high distinction are to be named the accomplished Charles Butler, nephew of Alban Butler, the venerable author of the "^ Lives of the Saints;" Dr. Baines, Vicar- Apostolic of the Western District; Cardinals Wiseman, Newman, and Manning; Father Faber (d. 1863), superior of the London Oratory, the author of many spiritual works of great worth; Dr. Lingard (d. 1851), the histo- rian; Marshall, author of the well-known '* Christian Missions; " North- cote, Ward, Wilberforce, Thomas Moore (d. 1852), Richard Madden, Archbishop Mac Hale, and Dr. Moran, now Cardinal and Archbishop of Sydney. The works published by these authors are mostly of a religious, historical, and controversial character, written in defence of Catholicism. A number of excellent periodicals, such as the " The Month,'' " Tlie Lamp,'' " The Dublin Review," " The Irish Ecclesiasti- cal Record," and others have been founded, which compare most favorably with the best on the Continent. 390. In the United States there was no original Catholic work published in the English language until after the Revolution. Since then much has been done and achieved by the Catholics in the field of literature and learning. Catholic literature in this country began in controversy, and to controversy it was long confined. Bishop England, Archbishops Hughes, Kenrick, and Spalding, the latter 's nephew. Bishop Spalding, Drs. Pise and Corcoran, Fathers Fredet, Hewit, Thebaud, and Weninger have by their writings gained great 750 EISTOBY OF THE CHURCH and well-deserved reputation. Distinguished writers among the Catholic laity are Dr. Brownson, J. Gilmary Shea, Campbell, Dr. McSherry, Murray, Walter, E. H. Clark, Webb, and many others. In The Catholic World, a monthly magazine, and especially in the American Catholic Quarterly Revieiu, a most scholarly and instructive periodical, the great religious and intellectual questions of the day are most ably discussed/ CHAPTER V. RELIGIOUS LIFE. SECTION LXIII. — FA.M0US SAINTS OF THIS EPOCH. — NEW EELIGIOUS ORDERS. The Church the Mother of Saints — Different Saints of this Period — New Relig- ious Orders — Of Men — Of Women — Confraternities — Revival of Religion — Sacerdotal Jubilee of the Holy Father, Leo XIII. 391. The glorious host of Saints with which God has adorned the Church also in these latter days, bears witness to the truth and sanc- tity of the Catholic religion. The great and heroic deeds which these Saints performed, the exalted virtues which they practised, and the countless miracles wrought through their intercession, are incontest- able proofs that the Catholic faith, which they professed, is the only saving faith, and that the Church to which they belonged is the true Bride of Christ and the mother of his elect. 392. The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were edified by the holy lives of St. Peter Claver, St. Francis Solanus, St. Francis of Hieronymo, St. Joseph of the Cross, St. John Baptist de Rossi, St. Leonard of Portu Mauritio, St. Benedict Labre, St. Veronica Giuli- :ani, and St. Alphonsus Liguori, (d. 1787). In no age has the Church witnessed the beatification and canonization of so many servants of God as in the present century, especially under the pontificates of Gregory XVI., Pius IX., and the present Pope, Leo XIII. ' 393. The religious orders, by their zeal and self-sacrificing char- ity, have gained, in our days, both in numbers and influence. Many » The reader will find an Interesting sketch of the " Catholic Literature of the United States " In J. O'Kane Murray's Popular History of the Catholic Church, etc.. Book V. 2 His Holiness, Leo XIIL, twice performed the solemn ceremony of canonization. In 1887, he declared beatified Cardinal Fisher, Bishop of Rochester ; Thomas More, Lord Chancellor of England; Margaret Pole, mother of Cardinal Pole, and many others— in all fifty-four English Martyrs who suffered for the faith under Henry VIIL and Elizabeth, from the year 1535 to 1583. r SAIXTS AND RELIGIOUS ORDERS. 751 new commrinities of both men and women have been added to the older ones. Among the more noted congregations of priests which arose during this epoch we may mention : 1. The '' Trappists/' a branch of the Cistercian Order, founded in France, in 1660 ; 2. The ^'Society of the Foreign Missions," instituted in the same country and about the same time ; 3. The " Passionists," founded in Italy in 1720, by St. Paul of the Cross ; 4. The *' Congregation of the Redemptor- ists," which was formed in the same country, in 1732, by St. Alphonsus Liguori ; 5. The ''Congregation of Picpus," and the " Oblates of Mary Immaculate," established in France, the former in 1806, by Fr. Coudrin, and the latter in 1826, by Fr. de Mazenod, afterwards bishop of Marseilles ; 6. The '' Congregation of the Precious Blood," insti- tuted in Rome, in 1814, by Fr. Caspar del Bufalo ; 7. The '' Salvator- ists," or " Congregation of the Holy Cross," which originated in France, in the time of the Revolution ; 8. The "Paulists," or ''Institute of the Missionary Priests of St. Paul," established in New York, in 1858, by Father Hecker. To these are to be added the "Fathers of Mercy," "Salesians," " Resurrectionists," and others. 394. Besides, there arose numerous Brotherhoods, and new Con- gregations of women, which have the education of the young and the relief of human suffering as their object. Of the former we may mention : 1. The " Brothers of the Christian Schools," founded in France, in 1681, by Blessed De La Salle ; 2. The "Brothers of the Immaculate Mother of God ; " 3. The " Brothers of St. Xavier," and the "Brothers of Charity," founded in Belgium, in 1839, and 1841, respectively; 4. The "Brothers of Mar}^," instituted in France, in 1817. 395. Among the new Congregations of women the more noted are the following: 1. "The "Sisters of St. Joseph," founded in France, in 1650 ; 2. The " Sisters of the Good Shepherd," established in the same country and about the same year ; 3. The " Presentation Nuns," instituted in Ireland, in 1777 ; 4. The " Sisters of the Sacred Heart," formed in France, after the Revolution, by Fr. Varin and Madame Barat ; 5. The " Sisters of Notre Dame," founded in France, in 1804 ; 6. The "Sisters of Charity of Nazareth," instituted in Kentucky, in 1812, by Bishop David ; 7. The " Sisters of Mercy," established in Ireland, in 1827, by Catharine McAuley ; 8. The "Little Sisters of the Poor," originated in France, in 1840. We add yet the " Sisters of Providence," " Sisters of 'the Holy Childhood,' " Poor School Sisters," "Handmaids of Christ," and the " Sisters of Christian Charity." 396. The piety and devotion of the Catholic people in our day 752 BISTORT OF THE CHURCH, have been stimulated and much promoted by frequent missions, by an unwonted number of feasts and jubilees, granted within the last forty years, and especially by various sodalities and confraternities, which have been formed all over the Catholic World for the relief of the poor and otherwise suffering, as well as for the personal sanctification of their members. The more important confraternities are those of the ** Scapular," of the ''Most Holy Eosary,'' of the ''Most Holy and Immaculate Heart of Mary," for the conversion of sinners ; of " St. Francis Xavier," or of the "Missions," for the propagation of the faith; of " St. Vincent de Paul," for the relief of the needy, and many others. 397. If we examine more closely the course of recent events, we find that during the last forty or fifty years much has changed in favor of the Church. Though the enemies of religion have had, in many countries, everything their own way, yet it cannot escape us that the Catholic spirit has everywhere undergone a great revival. Especially deserving of mention is that filial piety and devotion which Catholics all over the world manifest towards their Supreme Head of the Church. This was unmistakably shown on the occasion of the Sacerdotal Julilee of our Holy Father^ Leo XIII., December 31, 1887, which was celebrated with much universal rejoicing in Catholic Christendom, and attracted so much attention, even among non-Catholics. Emper- ors and kings, including the Czar of Eussia, the Protestant rulers of Germany and England, the Sultan of Turkey, the Shah of Persia, and the President of the United States, vied with each other in sending costly gifts and congratulatory envoys. Thousands of pilgrims from all quarters of the globe streamed into Eome, to pay their homage to the Vicar of Christ and lay their testimonials of respect, sympathy, and love at the feet of Leo XIII., happily reigning with imperishable sway over the Universal Church of God. CONCLUSION. We have thus briefly sketched the " History of the Church," from its first establishment down to our own time. The revolution wrought by Christianity in the world was unlike anything which had occurred before in the history of the human race. It was absolutely without a precedent. While the wise and learned among the heathen were despairing of human society, and were expressing their utter hopeless- ness as to the world's course and destiny, Christianity gently insinu- ated itself into the minds of men, grew and increased both in strength and number, in spite of all opposition ; and quietly and without CONCLUSION. 753 ostentation inaugurated a reformation of morals and an amelioration of human society. It grew up first in silence, but gradually emerged into air and light, and finally rose to such a height of greatness and splendor, as drew the attention of all mankind, and struck the world with wonder and amazement. What power, but that of Almighty God, could have worked a change so extraordinary and wonderful. Although *' to the Jews a stumbling-block, and to the Gentiles foolishness," the teaching of the Apostles prevailed and forced itself on men's acceptance as the teaching of God. Butt he continuance of the Church is not less wonderful and is in itself a standing miracle. We have seen the manifold trials which the Ohurch endured from her infancy down to the present time — three hundred years of cruel persecution, during which the blood of her children flowed in torrents ; the Arian, Macedonian, Nestorian, and other heresies^ from which she suffered even more than from heathen- ism ; the incursions of the Huns, Vandals, and other barbarian hordes from the North, which flung themselves upon the Christian lands, laying everything waste with fire and sword ; the fierce and prolonged struggle with the Iconoclasts ; the Greek Schism, which resulted in the renunciation of allegiance to the Holy See by the greater part of the Eastern nations ; the prolonged struggle of the Popes with the German Emperors for ecclesiastical liberty and independence ; the great Papal Schism, so detrimental to the Church ; the great Protestant secession in the sixteenth century, when almost all Northern Europe apostatized from the Catholic faith ; and lastly the horrors of the French Revolu- tion, when in Catholic France the Catholic religion was proscribed and abolished. Still, the Church has not perished in any of the tempests that paganism, heresy, or infidelity had raised against her. *^The gates of hell shall not prevail against her." Had the Church not been divinely protected, the might and cunning of her numerous foes would long since have overthrown her. In our own day we witness the machinations and conspiracies of secret societies aiming at the overthrow of all authority, human and divine. " At this period," says Pope Leo XIIL in his admirable Encyclical Humanum ge7ius, *'the partisans of evil seem to be combining together, and to be struggling with united vehemence, led on or assisted by that strongly organized and wide-spread association called Freemasons. No longer making any secret of their purposes, they are now boldly rising up against God Himself. They are planning the destruction of the Holy Church, publicly and openly ; and this with the set purpose of utterly despoil- ing the nations of Christendom, if it were possible, of the blessings obtained for us through Jesus Christ our Saviour." 764 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH The enemies of religion are very active in our day, especially so in Italy, where they suppress convents, seize Church property, persecute the clergy, have deprived the Holy Father of all his possessions, and threaten yet worse things. The secret societies, it would seem, have united all their forces in one desperate attempt to destroy the increas- ing power of the Church and to raise the standard of godlessness in its place. But this design shall come to naught, for it is the design of the wicked. As the Psalmist says : '^ The desire of the wicked shal^ perish." Notwithstanding grievous persecution in some countries, the Catholic Church, during the present century, has made most wonderful prog- ress in both the Old and the New World. In most of the Catholic countries — Italy, France, Belgium, Austria, Bavaria, Spain, Portugal, and Ireland — where nearly the whole, if not the whole, population is Catholic, — the Church now enjoys a greater measure of freedom, and Catholic life in consequence has experienced a most encouraging revival. In what are called the Protestant countries, the progress of Catholicism is most astonishing. This is especially the case in the Netherlands and the British dominions, where the Catholic population has increased wonderfully, both in numbers and influence. In the Canadas and the United States, the condition of the Catholic Church, its growth and prosperity, are all that could be expected. Alike remarkable is the progress of Catholicism in Australia, New Zealand, India, and the other British possessions. The Catholic Church is to day as vigorous and as strong in the loyalty of her children all over the world, as she has been at any period, ever since her existence. It is to her that history bears testimony, as being that community of the faithful which Christ founded for the salvation of mankind. If a cloud sometimes passes over that Church, it soon disappears. Thou- sands of years pass by, but she neither decays nor alters. For to her belongs the promise of our Lord : *' The gates of hell shall not pre- vail against it." (Matt. xvi. 18). Ad majoeem Dei gloriam. List of Roman Pontiffs. Naioe. duration of Pontificate : Ptrst Century. St. Peter, Prince of the Apos- tles, who received the su- preme Pontificate from Christ. He resided for a time at Antioch, and after- wards established his See at Rome, where he died a mar- tyr with St. Paul, under Nero, on June 29th, 67 42—67 St. Linus 67—78 St. Cletus or Anacletus » 78—91 St. Clement 1 91—100 Second CENxmiY. St Evaristus 100—109 St. Alexander 1 109—119 St. Sixtus 1 119—127 St. Telesphorus 127—139 St. Hyginus 139—142 St Pius 1 142-157 St Anicetus 157—168 St Soter 168—177 St Eleutherus 177—192 St Victor I 192—201 Third Century. StZephyrinus 202—218 St Calixtus 1 218—222 St Urban 1 223—230 St Pontian 230—235 St Anterus 235-236 St Fabian 236—250 St Cornelius 251—252 St Lucius 1 252—253 St Stephen 1 253—257 St Sixtus II 257—258 St. Dionysius 259—269 St Felix 1 269-274 St Eutychianus 275—283 St Cajus 283—296 St Marcellinua 296—304 > See page 106. 765 Name. Duration of Pontificate ; Fourth Century. St MarceUus i 308—310 St Eusebius 310—311 St Melchiades 311—313 St Sylvester I , 314—335 St Marcus 336—337 St Julius 1 337-352 Liberius. (Felix II. Anti- pope.) 2 352—366 St Damasus 1 366—384 St. Siricius 385—398 St Anastasius 1 398 — 402 Fifth Century. St Innocent 1 402—417 St Zosimus 417—418 St Boniface 1 418—422 St Celestine 1 422—432 St Sixtus III 432—440 St Leo L (the Great) 440-461 St Hilary. 461—468 St Simplicius 468—483 St Felix III .' . . . 483-492 St Gelasius 1 492—496 St Anastasius II 496—498 Sixth Century. St Symmachus 498—514 St Hormisdas 514—523 St John 1 523—525 St Felix lY 526-530 Boniface II 530—532 John II 532—535 St Agapetus 1 535—536 St Silverius 536-540 Yigilius 540—555 Pelagius 1 555—560 ' Owing to the violent persecution then rag- ing, the Holy See remained vacant nearly four years 304—308. 2 Felix Is put in the list of Popes by some, though he is generally held to be an Intruder. See p. 235. 756 LIST OF ROMAN PONTIFFS. Name. Duration of Pontificate : John III 560—573 Benedict 1 574-578 Pelagius Tl 578-590 St. Gregory I. (the Grteat) 590—604 Seventh Century. Sabinianus 604—605 Boniface III 606 St. Boniface IV 607—614 St. Deusdedit 615-618 Boniface V 619—625 HonuriusI 625—638 Severinus 639 John IV 640-642 Theodoras 1 642—649 St. Martin 1 649—655 Eugenius 1 655 — 657 St. Vitalian 657—672 St Adeodatus 672—676 Donus 676—678 St. Agatho 678—681 St. Leo II 681—684 St. Benedict If 684—686 John V 686—687 Conon 687 St. Sergius 1 687—701 Eighth Century. John VI... 701—705 John VII.... 705-707 Sisinnius ... 708 Constantine 708—715 St. Gregory II 715—731 St. Gregory III 731 — 741 St. Zacharias. 751 -752 Stephen II 752 Stephen III 752—757 St. Paul 1 757—767 Stephen IV 768—772 Hadrian 1 772-795 Ninth Century. 'St. Leo III 795-816 Stephen V 816—817 Paschal 1 817-824 Eugenius 11 824—827 Valentine 827 Gregory IV 827—844 Sergius II 844—847 Leo IV 847—855 Benedict III 855-858 St. Nicholas I. (the Great). . .. 858—867 Hadrian II 867—872 John VIII 872—882 Name. Duration of pontificatk : Marinus 1 882—884 Hadrian III 884—885 Stephen VI 885—891 Formosus .' 891—896 Boniface VI 896 Stephen VII 896—897 Romanus 897 Theodorus II 897—898 John IX 897—900 Tenth Century. Benedict IV 900—903 LeoV 903 Christophorus 903—904 Sergius III 904—911 Anastasius III 911—913 Lando 913—914 JohnX 914-928 Leo VI 928—929 Stephen VIII 929—931 John XI 931—936 Leo VII 936- 939 Stephen IX 939—943 Marinus II 943-946 Agapetus II 946—956 John XII 1 956—964 Benedict V 964-965 John XIII 965-972 Benedict VI. , 972—974 Benedict VIL. 975—983 John XIV 983-985 John XV 985—996 Gregory V 996—999 Eleventh Century. Sylvester II 999—100" JohnXVII^ 1003 John XVIII 1003— 1 009 Sergius IV 1009—1012 Benedict VIII 1012—1024 John XIX 1024—1032 Benedict IX 1033—1044 Gregory VL (abdicated). ..1044— 1046 Clement II 1046—1048 Damasus II 1048 Leo IX 1049—1054 Victor II 1054—1057 Stephen X 1057—1058 Nicholas II 1059—1061 ' Leo VIII. and Benedict VI. were antlpopes. 2 This Pontiff took the name of John XVII. to prevent his acts being confounded with those of the antlpope John XVI., In the time of Gregory V. r LIST OF ROMAN PONTIFFS. 717 name. duration of Pontificate : Alexander II 1061—1073 St. Gregory YII 1073-1085 Victor III 1086—1088 Urban II • .1088—1099 Twelfth Century. Paschal II 1099—1118 Gelasius II 1118—1119 Calixtus II 1119—1 124 Honorius II 1124—1130 Innocent II 1130—1143 Celestine II 1143—1144 Lucius II 1144—1145 Eugenius III. 1145—1153 Anastasius IV 115.3—1154 Hadrian IV 1154—1159 Alexander III 1159—1181 Lucius III 1181— 1185 Urban III 1185-1187 Gregory VIII 1187 Clement III .1187—1191 Celestine III 1191—1198 Thirteenth Century. Innocent III 1198—1216 Honorius III 1216-1227 Gregory IX 1227—1241 Celestine IV » 1241 Innocent IV : 1243—1254 Alexander IV 1254-1261 Urban IV 1261—1264 Clement IV 2 1265—1268 Gregory X 1272—1276 Innocent V 1276 Hadrian V 1276 John XXI 1277 Nicholas III 1277-1280 Martin IV » 1281—1285 Honorius IV 1285-1287 Nicholas IV 1288-1292 St. Celestine V. (abdicated)... . 1294 Boniface VIII 1294—1303 Fourteenth Century. Benedict XI 1303-1304 1 After the death of this Pontiff followed an interregnum of nearly two years, caused by the hostile attitude of Emperor Frederick II. towards the Holy See. 2 After the death of Clement IV. there was a vacancy of nearly three years- 3 See page 388, note. Name. duration of Pontificatk: Clement V 1305-1314 John XXn 1316 - 1334 Benedict XII ...1334—1342 Clement Vl 1342—1352 Innocent VI. . , 1352—1362 Urban V 1362-1370 Gregory XI 1370—1378 Urban VI ^ 1378-1389 Boniface IX 1389—1404 Fifteenth Century. Innocent VII 1404—1406 Gregory XII 2 1406—1415 Martin V 1417—1431 Eugenius IV 1431—1447 Nicholas V 1447-1455 Calixtus III 1455—1458 Pius II 1458—1464 Paul II 1464—1471 Sixtus IV 1471—1484 Innocent VIII 1484—1492 Alexander VI 1492—1503 Sixteenth Century. Pius III 1503 Julius II 1503—1513 LeoX 1513—1521 Hadrian VI 1522—1523 Clement VII 1523—1534 Paul III 1534—1549 Julius III 1550—1555 Marcellus II 1555 Paul IV 1555—1559 Pius IV 1559—1565 St. Pius V 1566—1572 Gregory XIII 1572—1585 Sixtus V 1585—1590 Urban VII 1590 Gregory XIV 1 590 -1591 Innocent IX 1591—1592 Clement VIII 1592—1605 ^ Several discontented cardinals elected an an- tipope, Clement VIII. (1378—1394), who resided at Avignon. He was succeeded bv Benedict XIII. (1394-1417). 2 This Pontiff abdicated In 1415 in the Council of Constance. Alexander V., who was elected by the Council of Pisa, In 1409, and his successor John XIII., although generally classed as anti- popes, are found in many of the lists, even in those published at Rome. 768 LIST OF ROMAN PONTIFFS, Hams, Duration or Pontificate: Sbvbntbenth Century. lieoXI 1605 Paul V 1605—1621 Gregory XV 1621-1623 Urban VIII 1623—1644 Innocent X 1644—1655 Alexander VII 1655—1667 Clement IX 1667—1669 Clement X 1670—1676 Innocent XI 1676—1689 Alexander VIII 1689-1691 Innocent XII 1691—1700 ElQHTBENTH CbNTIJRY. Clement XI 1700—1721 Name. Duration or Pontificate : Innocent XIII 1721—1724 Benedict XIII 1724—1730 Clement XII 1730—1740 Benedict XIV 1740—1758 Clement XIII 1758—1769 Clement XIV 1769—1774 Pius VI 1775—1799 Nineteenth Century. Pius VII 1800—1823 Leo Xn 1823-1829 Pius VIII 1829—1830 Gregory XVI 1830—1846 Pius IX 1846—1878 LeoXni 1878 GENERAL INDEX. Abbot or Archimandrite, 249. Abelard, 456. Abyssinia, Evangelization of , 134; Missions in, 647. Acacius, and the " Acacians," 190. Acacius (Patr. of Constantinople), Schism of, 207, 236. Acadia, Missions in, 522. Adalbert, Archbp. of Bremen, 265. Adalbert, Archbp. of Prague, 337. Adamnan, 310. Adelphius and the " Adelphians," 218. Adolph of Nassau, Emperor, 394 Adoptionist Heresy, 216. Adrumetum, Monks of, 200. -^desius, 134. ^lurus, Timothy, priest, 207. ^neas Sylvius, 424. iErius, priest of Sebaste, 218. Aetius, deacon of Antioch, 190. Africa, Propagation of Christianity in, 35. African Synods, 93. Agatho, St., Pope, 217, 642. Agnes, St., Martyr, 55. Agnoites, 208. Agrippa Castor, Eccl. "Writer, 75. Agrippinus, Bp. of Carthage, 97. Aistulph, the Lombard, 285. Alaric,143. Albanians, Conversion of the, 133. Alban, St., 139. Albergati, Cardinal, 421. Albertus Magnus, 459. Albert L, Emperor, 394. Albert, Grand Master of the Teutonic Order, 495, 540. Albert, Archb., 527. Albigenses, 467. Alboin, Saxon chief, 263. Alcantara, (Military) Order of, 495. AJcantarines, 625. Alcuin, 306, 312. Aldhelm, St., 312. Alemannia, Christianity in, 257. Alexander, Bp. of Alexandria, 182. Alexander of Hales, 459. Alexander Severus, Emperor, 47. Alexander I., of Russia, 712. Alexander I., Pope, 106. Alexander II., Pope, 355. Alexander III., Pope, 376. Alexander IV., Pope, 385. Alexander V., (Pisan) Pope, 411. Alexander VI., Pope, 427, 508. Alexander VIL, Pope, 628, 648, 737. Alexander VIII., Pope, 649. Alexandria, Councils of, 182, 187, 202. Alexandrian School, 77, 161. Alexian Brothers, 496. Alfred the Great, 277. Algiers, the Church in, 637. Allegiance, Oath of, 584. Allen, Cardinal, 581. AlUance, the Holy, 68L Allouez, Claude, 524. Alogi, 90. Amalricians, 465. Ambrose, St., 166. Ambrosian Chant, 167. Ambrosian Liturgy, 248. America, Missions in, 507-526. America, the Church in, 714-733. Ammonius, St., 249. Ammonius Saccas, 49. Amsdorf, 543. Anabaptists, 537, 609. Anastasius L, Pope, 235. Anastasius II., Pope, 236. Anastasius I., Emperor, 207. 759 760 GENERAL INDEX. Anatolius, Eccl. "Writer, 76. Anchieta, Missionary, 515. Anchorites, 248. Ancyra, Synod of, 190. Anderson, Lawrence, 608. Andrew, St., Apostle. 25. Angela of Mericia, St., 631. Anglo-Saxons, See England. Anglican Church, 574. Anglican Orders, Invalidity of, 576. Anicetus, Pope, 96, 106. Anomoeans, 190. Anscharius, St., 264. Anselm, St., 433, 455. Anthony the Hermit, St., 249. Anthony of Padua, St., 481. Antichiliasts, 95. Antioch, School of, 161. Antioch, Councils of, 91, 185, 187. Antitrinitarians, 90. Antonines, (Military Order), 496. Antoninus, St., 462. Antoninus Pius, Emperor, 44. Aphraates, Syrian "Writer, 79. Apocryphal Gospels, 9. Apollinaris, St., 42. ApolKnaris, the Apologist, 65. ApoUinaris (Father and Son), Heresy of, 196. ApoUonius, Eccl. "Writer, 75. Apollonius, Senator, 46. ApoUonius of Tyana, 61. Apologists, Christian, 64. Apostles, History of the, 10, 24-28. Apostolical Brethren, 466. Apostolicals, 675. Apostolic Fathers, 62. Appellants, 738. Aquileja, Schism of, 212. Arabia, Christianity in, 132. Aranda, 651. Arcadius, Emperor, 130, 194. Archelaus, Bp. and Eccl. Writer, 75. Archbishops, (Metropolitans), 102. Archpriests and Archdeacons, 230. Archpriests in England, 585. Argentine Republic, Missions in, 615. Arianism, 181-193. Ariold, 366. Aristides, Apologist, 44, 65. Aristo of Pella, 64. Arius, 181. Aries, Council of, 97, 521. Artnenians, Conversion of, 132 j Reunion of, 422, 645. Arminius and the Arminians, 611. Arnobius, Apologist, 68. Arnauld, Autoine, 629, 738 Arnold of Brescia and the " Amoldists," 464. Artemon, Antitrinitarian, 90. Articles (Book of) 564. Articles, Thirty-nine (Anglican), 577. Articles of Rehgion, 568. Ascetics, 248. Ascidas, Bp. 210. Asia, Propagation of Christianity in, 34. Asterius Urbanus, Eccl. "Writer, 75. Asterius, Bp. and Eccl. "Writer, 165. Athanaric, King, 143. Athanasius, St., 153, 185-194. Athenagoras, Apologist, 45. Attila, 147. Audians, Heresy of the, 218. Augsburg, Confession of, 541. Augustine (St.) Bp. of Hippo, 168, 199. Augustine (St. ), Apostle of the Anglo-Sax- ons, 150. Augustinians, 492, 625. Australia, Church in, 733. Austria. Evangelization of, 258. The Church in, 680. Autos-da-Fe, 472. B Bacon, Roger, 462. Baius, Michael, 627. • Balaeus, Syrian Writer, 180. Balmes, 677. Baltimore, Lord, 717. Baltimore, Councils of, 725, 727. Baptism, Sacrament of. 111, 243. Baptism, Infant, 112. Baptists, 610. Bar-Cochba, Sunon, 30 Bardesanes, the Gnostic, 85. Barlow, W., 576. Barnabas, St. 20, 27. r GENERAL INDEX. 761 Barnabites, 625. Bartholomew, St., Apostle, 25. Bartholomew's Day, 603. Basil the Great, St., 155, 250. Basil, Bp. of Ancyra, 190. Basihscus, Emperor, 207. Basle, Council of, 417. Bautain, 664. Bavaria, Evangelization of, 255 ; the Church in, 680. Beaton, Cardinal, 585. Bee, Abbey and School of, 455. Bede, the Venerable, 276, 312. Beghards, 497. Beguines, 497. Belgium, Evangelization of, 259; the Church in, 678. Bellarmine, 629. Benignus, St., Bp., 138. Benedict, St., of Aniane, 332. Benedict, St, , of Nursia, and the Benedict- ines, 251, 625. Benedict Biscop, 275. Benedict I., Pope, 239. Benedict TIL, Pope, 292. Benedict V., Pope, 300. Benedict YTI., Pope, 300. Benedict VIII., Pope, 302. Benedict IX. Pope, 302. Benedict XII., Pope, 403. Benedict XIII., Pope, 650. Benedict XIV., Pope, 650. Berengarius, Heresy of, 324. Bernard, St., 345, 457, 464, 489. Bernardin of Siena, St., 482. Beryllus, Bp. of Bozra, Antitrinitarian, 92. Bessarion, 421. Beza, Theodore, 552. Bible, Canon and ancient Versions of, 78- 79, 236; Vernacular translations and Eeading of the, 487 ; King James' Bible, 487. Bishops, Appointment of, 101. Biriuus, St.. Bp., 151. Blackwell, Archpriest, 585. Blue Laws, 721. Boethius, 177. Bogomiles, 467. Bogoris, Bulgarian Prince, 267. Bohemia, Conversion of, 268. Bohemian Brethren, 480. Bollandists, 630. Boleyn, Anne,554, 563. Bonaventure, St., 387, 480. Boniface, St., Apostle of Germany, 260-262, Boniface I., Pope, 235. Boniface III., Pope, 241. Boniface IV., Pope, 241. Boniface VIII., Pope, 389, 393-398. Boniface IX., Pope, 408. Bonosus, Bp., His Errors, 219. Book of Common Prayer, 568. Book of Common Order, 594 Book of Discipline, 591, 594. Borgia, St. Francis, 631. Borromeo, St. Charles, 630. Bossuet, 739, 749. Bradwardine, 462. Brazil, Missions in, 515. Brebeuf, Missionary, 523. Brethren of the Free Spirit, 466. Bridget, St. 138. Bridgittines, 496. Brothers of the Common Life, 497. Brothers of the Sword, 494. Brothers of Charity, 751. Brothers of the Christian Schools, 751. Brothers of Mary, 751. Brownists, 578. Bruys, Peter, 463. Bucer, 567, Note. Bugenhagen, 607. Bulgarians, Conversion of the, 645, 266. Burgundians, Christianity among the, 148. Burmah, Missions in, 639. c. Caecilian, Bp., 220. Caslestius, 197. Csesarea, School of, 78. Csesarius, Bp., 178. Cainites, 83 Cajetan, Cardinal, 529, 630. Cajetan, St., 625. Cajus, Eccl. Writer, 75. Calatrava. Order of, 495. Calendar. Gregorian. 621. California. Missions in, 521 729. 762 GENERAL INDEX. Calixius I.. Pope. 108. Calixtus II., Pope, 370. Calixtus III., Pope, 425. Calixtines, 480. Calmet, 749. Calvert, See Lord Baltimore. Calvin and Calvinism, 550-552. Camaldolites 333. Campeggio, Cardinal, 538, 555. Canada, Missions in, 522 ; Church in, 714. Canon of the Mass, 237. Canon Law, 329, 485, 630, 748. Canones, Poenitentiales, 114. Canus, Melchior, 630. Canute, the Great, 431. Capuchins, 625. Caracalla, Emperor, 47. Cardinals, 328, 354, 621. Carlstadt, 530, 537, 548. Carmelites, 492, 625. Caroline Books, 316. CaroU, Archbp., 724. Carpocrates, the Gnostic, 84. Carthage, Councils of, 70, 97, 222. Carthusians, 489. Casas, Las, 509. Cashel, Synod of, 446. Cassianus, Abbot and latin "Writer, 176, 200. Cassiodorus, Eccl. "Writer, 175. Castelnau, Peter de, 468. Catacombs, 120. Catechumenate, 111. Catharists, 466. Catharine, II. of Russia, 711. Catharine of Siena, St., 406 Cathedral Schools, 306. Cecilia, St., 45. Celestine L, Pope. 235 Celestine IIL, Pope, S78. Celestine Y., Pope, 389. Celestinians, 496. Celibac}', Clerical, 99, 227. CelUtes, 496. Celsus, Pagan Philosopher, 58. Cenobites, 249. Central America, Missions in, 512. Central India, Missions in, 505. Cerinthus, 81, 95. Cerularius, Michael, 322. Cesarini, Cardinal, 421. Cesena, Michael 402. Ceylon, Mission in, 505. Chalcedon, Council of, 206. Chaldean Christians, 132, 645. Challoner, Bp., 700. Chapters, the Three, 210. Charity, Sisters of, 626. Charlemagne, 286-289. Charles Martel, 283. Charles of Anjou, 385, 388. Charles lY., Emperor, 404 Charles Y., Emperor, 533, 545. Charles I. of England, 585, 702, 705. Charles II. of England, 697, 703, 707. Charter Schools, 710. Oh&tel, Abb^ Francis, 740. Chili, Missions in, 516. Chiliasm, 95. China, Missions in, 506, 635, 639. Choiseul, 651. Chorepiscopi, 102, 272. Chosroes I. and II. of Persia, 132. Christ, History of, 1-10. Christian, Name of, 15. Christianity, Propagation of. 31, 131, 257, 336, 501, 635. Christina of Sweden, 648. Chrysologus, Peter, 171. Chrysostom, St. 158. " Church Established by Law," 574. Church Historians, 629, 630, 748. Circumcelliones, 222. Cistercians, 489. Clarendon, Constitutions of,436. Clares, Poor, 492. Claver, St. Peter, 513, 750. Claudius Apollinaris, Apologist, 45. Claudianus Mamertus, 178. Clement L, Pope, 106. Clement IL, Pope, 303. Clement Y., Pope, 399. Clement YL., Pope, 406. Clement YIL, Pope, 538, 554. Clement YIIL, Pope, 621. Clement XL, Pope, 649. Clement XIIL, Pope, 651. Clement XIY., Pope, 653. Clement Augustus, Archbp., 688. GENERAL INDEX. 763 Clement, St., Consul, 42. Clement of Alexandria, 66, 71, 18. Cleraentinse, 485. Clementine Peace, 737. Clergy and Laity, 98. Clergy, Education of, 99, 227. €lerks, Regular, 625. Clermont, Council of, 342 Clovis and Clotilda, 148. €luny, Abbey and Congregation of, 307, 488. Cochin-China, Missions in, 505, 636. Colonnas, Cardinals, 393. Columba or Columkil, St., 140. Columbanus, 251. Commodianus, Eccl. Writer, 76. Conception, Controversy on the Immacu- late, 626; Definition of, 667. Concordats of Princes, 424. Confession, Public and Auricular, 114, 244; Annual, 486. Confession, Augsburg, 541. Confirmation, Sacrament of, 113, 248. Congregatio Concilii Tridentini, 620. Conrad IL, Emperor, 302. Conrad III., Emperor, 345. Conrad of Marburg, 471. Constance, Council of, 412 Constans, Emperor, 126. Constantino, Pope, 282. Constantino the Great, 56, 124. Constantius Ghlorus, Emperor, 52, 55. Constantius, Emperor, 126, 188. Constitutum and Judicatum, 211-212. Converts, Distinguished, 689, 701. Copernicus, 622 ; Note, 747. I Copts, 208, 647. ^' Corea, Missions in, 636. Cornelius, Pope, 93, 109. Cornelius a Lapide, 630. Corpus Christi, Feast of, 486. Councils, Ecumenical: T. Ecumenical, 1st, of Nice, 181. n. Ecumenical, 1st, of Constanti- nople, 194. m Ecumenical, of Ephesus, 201. IV. Ecumenical, of Chalcedon, 204. V. Ecumenical, 2d, of Constanti- nople, 210. YI. Ecumenical, 3d, of Constanti- nople, 216. YII. Ecumenical, 2d, of Nice, 313. VIII. Ecumenical, 4th, of Constanti- nople, 322. IX. Ecumenical, 1st, Lateran, 370. X. Ecumenical, 2d, Lateran, 372. XI. Ecumenical, 3d, Lateran, 377. XII. Ecumenical, 4th, Lateran, 380. XI IL Ecumenical, 1st of Lyons, 384. XIY. Ecumenical, 2d of Lyons, 386. XV. Ecumenical, of Yienna, 400. XYI. Ecumenical, of Constance, 412. XYII. Ecumenical, of Ferrara, 420. XYIIL Ecumenical, 5th Lateran, 430. XIX. Ecumenical, of Trent, 616. XX. Ecumenical, of the Yatican, 668. Court of High Commission, 580. Covenant, Scotch, 589, 594. Cramner, 556-567, 573. Creagh, Archbp. of Armagh, 576, 597. Crescens, Pagan Philosopher, 59. Cromwell, Thomas, 557, 564; Oliver, 706. Cross, Sign of the, 119 ; Discovery of, 125. Cross, Congregation of the Holy, 751. Crusades, 341-348. Culdees, 448. Cullen, Cardinal, 711. Cummian, St., Irish Scholar, 310. Cycle, Dionysian, 1. Cyprian, St., of Carthage, 68, 69, 93, 97. Cyril, St., of Alexandria, 159, 202. Cyril, St., of Jerusalem, 154. Cyril, St., Apostle of the Slavonians, 266. Cyrillonas, Syrian Writer, 180. Cyrus, Bp. of Alexandria, 216. Dablon, Missionary, 525. D'Alembert, 656. Damasus I., Pope, 195, 235. Damasus IL, Pope, 303. Daniel, Missionary, 523. Darboy, Archbp., 674. David Dinanto, 465. Deacons, 12, 99. (64 GENERAL INDEX. Docius, Emperor, 49. Declaration, Galliean, 649. Decretals, Papal, 48.'>. Denmark, Conversion of, 264, 338 ; The Reformation in, 606 ; Church in, 680. Desiderius, the Lombard, 286. Diderot, 656. Didjmus, the Blind, Eccl. writer, 163. Diocletian, Emperor, 51—55. Diodorus of Tarsus, Eccl. Writer, 163, 203, Dionysius the Areopagite, 21, 77. Dionysius of Alexandria, 70, 92. Dionysius, Pope, 92, 110. Dionysius Exiguus, 177. Dioscorus of Alexandria, 205. Discipline of the Secret, 118. Ditheism, 92. Docetse, 81. Doctors of the Church, 152, Note. Dolcino, Era, 466. Dominic, St., 468, 491. Dominicans, 491. Doraitian, Emperor, 42. Donation, Pretended, of Constantine, 234. Donatists, 220. Dositheus, 82. Douay Seminary, 581. Douay Bible, 630, Note. Duns Scolus, 461. Dunstan, 278. Dangal, Irish Scholar, 311. Dupanloup, Bp., 673. Durandus, 462. Easter, Controversy on the Celebration of, 96, 116, 184. Easter Communion, 486. Ebionites, 80. Ecclesiastical Titles Bill, 702. Eccleston, Archbp., 725. Eck, 530, 547. Edessa, School of, 178. Edmund, St., of Canterbury, 441. Ekthesis of Heraclius, 215. Edward, the Confessor, 431. Eligius, Bp., 259. Elipandus, Archbp., 317. Elizabeth of England, 674. Elkesaites, Gnostic Sect, 86. Emancipation, Catholic, in England, 700 ; in Ireland, 710. Empire, Holy Roman, 287. Empire, Latin, 345. Ems, Congress of, 656. Emser, Jerome, 530, 535. Emmeran, St., 258. Emmeric, St., 270. England, Bp., 749, 725. England, Evangelization of, 138, 149 ; Ref- ormation in, 553 — 586; The Church in, 275, 431—438, 696—702. EugUsh Catholics, Sufferings of, 578, 582. English Seminaries, 581. Enkyklion of Emperor Basihscus, 207. Encratites, Gnostic Sect, 86. Eon, (Eudo de Stella), 463. Ephesus, Council of, 198, 202. Ephesus, Robber Synod of, 205. Ephraem, St., 179. Epiphanius, St., 157, 209. Erasmus, 539, 540, Note. Eremitical Life, 248. Erigena, John Septus, 311. Essenes, 6, Note. Estius, 630. Ethelbert, King of Kent, 150. Ethelwold, Bp., 278. Eucharist, Practice of Primitive Church regarding the Holy, 115—118, 245; Controversy on the Holy, 324. Eucherius, St., 148, 177. Euchites, or Eupheraites, 218. Eugenius I., Pope, 242. Eugenius II., Pope, 290. Eugenius III., Pope, 344, 373. Eugenius IV., Pope, 417—424. Eunomians, 190. Eusebius, St., Pope, 111. Eusebius of Caesarea, 162, 184. Eusebius of Nicomedia, 182. Eusebius of Yercelh, 189. Eustathius of Antioch, 185, 223. Eustathius of Sebaste and the Eustathians, 218. Eutyches, 204. Evagrius, Eccl. Writer, 165. Bvodius, Bp. of Antioch, 16. r GENERAL INDEX, 765 P^xarclis, 229. Excommunication, 113. Exorcism, 119, Extravagantes, 486. Faber, F. W., Oratorian, 149. Fabian, Pope, 108. Faith and Science, 747. Farel, W., 600. Fasts, 119. Fathers, the Apostolic, 63. Fathers of the Church, 152. Faustus, Bp., 200. Fawke's, (Guy,) Day, 721. Febronianism, 655, 672- Felicissimus of Carthage, 93, Felix of Aptunga, 220. Felix of Urgel, 217. Felix of Valois, St., 495. Felix I., Pope, 110. Felix III , Pope, 236. Felix IV., Pope, 238. Felix II. and Felix Y., Antipopes, 236, 419. Fenelon, 649, 739. Ferdinand I., Emperor, 545. Ferrara, Council of, 420. Filioque, 322, 387. Finian, St., 138. Firmilian, Bp., 97. Fisher, Bp. of Rochester, 555, 563. Flagellants, 466. Flavian, Bp. of Antioch, 223. Flavian Family, 42. Flavins, Josephus, 9. Fleury, 749. Florence, Council of, 420. Florida, Missions in, 519. Flotte, Peter, 396. Fontevrault, Order of, 490. Formosus, Pope, 295-296. Fortunatus, 93. France, Evangelization of, 148; The Church in, 279, 389, 672; Protestantism in, 600. Francis Borgia, St., 630. Francis Regis, St., 630. Francis de Sales, St., 630. Francis Xavier, St., 501, 631. Francis of Assisi, St., 492. Frances de Chantal, St., 626, 631. Frances of Rome, St., 497. Franciscans, 492. Francis II., of Austria, 682. Fratricelli, 402. Frederick L, Emperor, 345, 374-78. Frederick II., Emperor, 381-385. Frederick II., of Prussia, 687. Frederick William III., of Prussia, 6B1, Freemasonry, 664, 753. Fridoliu, St., 297. Frumentius, St., 134. Fulgentius, (St.) Bp. of Ruspe, 200. Fulda, Abbey of, 262. Galileo, Case of, 622. Gallic Churches, the seven, 109. Garibaldi, 666. Garnet, Father, 584. Galerius, Emperor, 52, 55. Gallienus, Emperor, 50. Gallican Liberties, 649. Garcio Diego, Bp., 730. Gardiner, English Bp., 572. Gaul, Propagation of Christianity in, 36, 148. Geisa, Duke of Hungary, 270. Geissel, Archbp. of Cologne, 688, 690. Gelasius I., Pope, 236. Gelasius II., Pope, 370. Gennadius of Marseilles, 200. Genseric, 146. Gentilis, Valentine, 610. George, Duke of Saxony, 530. Gerbert, 309. G^rmanus, St., 139. Germany, Evangelization of, 257 ; The Church in, 686-689. Gerson, John, 462. Ghibellines and Guelfs, 376, Note 2. Gibbons, Cardinal, 728. Gilbert, St., and the Gilbertines, 496. Gilbert, Irish Bp., 443. j Gilbert de la Paree, 458. Giscard, Robert, 355, 365. Glastonbury, Monastery of, 278. Gnosticism, 83-87. 766 GENERAL INDEX. Goa Schism, 638. Goch, John Van, 480. Godfrey of Bouillon, 343. Golden Bull, 404. Gomarists, 611. Gordon Riot, 700. Goerres, 688. Goths, 143. Gottschalk, 318. Grace, Controversy on, 62t. Grace, Pilgrimage of, 561. Grammont, Order of, 489. Gratian, Canonist, 485. Greek Fathers and Writers, 152-165. Greek Schism, 318-324. Greek Church, Reunion of, 387, 420 ; Pres- ent state of, 641. Greenland, Discovery and Evangelization of, 265. Gregorian Chant, 170. Gregory Thaumaturgus, St., 70. Gregory the Illuminator, St., 132. Gregory Nazianzen, St., 155. Gregory of Nyssa, St., 156. Gregory of Tours, St., 173. Gregory I., Pope, 150, 170. Gregory II., Pope, 283. Gregory III., Pope, 283. Gregory IV., Pope, 291. Gregory V., Pope, 301. Gregory VI., Pope, 303. Gregory VII., Pope, 356—365. •Gregory IX., Pope, 382. 'Gregory X., Pope, 386. •Gregory XI., Pope, 406. 'Gregory XII., Pope, 410-414. •Gregory XIII., Pope, 621. 'Gregory XIV., Pope, 621, 'Gregory XV., Pope, 622. Gregory XVI., Pope, 664. Grey Nuns, 626. Groteste, English Bp., 441. Oualbert, John, St., 333. 'Guibert, Antipope, 364. Gunpowder Plot, 583. Gustavus Adolphus, 615. Gustavus Vasa, 608. Guyana, Missions in, 512. Guy on, Madame, 739. H Hadrian I., Pope, 286. Hadrian II., Pope, 293. Hadrian IV., Pope, 374 ; AUeged Bull of, 376, 446. Hadrian VI., Pope, 537. Hadrian, Emperor, 44. Hales, Alexander, 459. Hamilton, Scotch Archbp., 592. Hamilton, Protestant Proto-Martyr, 588. Hanno, Archbp., 356. Harald Harfager, 264. Harald, King of Norway, 338, Harding, Abbott, 457. Hay, Scotch Bp., 704. Hefele, 749. Hegesippus, 75. Helena, St., 52, 125. Helsen, Abbe, 740. Helvidius, Heresiarch, 219. Henoticon, 207. Henricians, 464. Henry, Bp. of Upsala, 337. Henry, St., 338. Henry II., Emperor, 302. Henry III., Emperor, 303, 353. Henry IV., Emperor, 359, 368. Henry V., Emperor, 368. Henry I., of England, 433. Henry II., of England, 435. Henry VIIL, of England, 553-566. Heraclius, Emperor, 215. Heresy, its Advantages, 122; Pum'shment of, 469. Herlembald, 356. Herman, Archbp. of Cologne, 543. Hermas, 63. Hermenegild, 144. Hergenroether, 749. Herluin, Abbott, 464. Hermes, 64. Hermias, Apologist, 66. Hermogenes, Bp. 184. Herrnhuters, 742. Herod the Great and the Herodian fam- ily, 2. Hierarchy, 101. Hierocles, 62. Hilarion, St., 250. QENEBAL INDEX. 767 Hilarj, St. of Aries, 177. Hilary, St., of Poitiers, 171, 189. Hincmar, of Rheims, 293. Hincmar of Laon, 293. Hippolitus, Eccl. Writer, 75, 78, 92. Holy Scriptures, See Bible. Holland, Church in, 679. Homagiura, 434, Honorius I., Pope, 217. Honorius 11. , Pope, 371. Honorius III., Pope, 381. Honorius, Emperor, 130. Honoratus, St.. 177. Horebites, Party of Hussites, 479. Hosius, Bp., 183, 192. Hospitallers, 494, 496. Hugh Capet 389. Hugh, St. Victor, 455. Huguenots, 600. Humanists, 531, 613. Humiliati, 496. Hunneric, 146. Huns, 147. Huss and the Hussites, 177. Hutten, Ulrich, 531. Hypatia, 150. Ibas of Edessa, 203. Iberians, Conversion of the, 133. Iceland, Evangelization of, 265; Protestant- ism in, 607. Iconoclasm, 313. Iconium, Synod of, 97. Idacius, Bp., 219. Idolatry, forbidden, 130. Ignatius, St., Martyr, 43, 63. Ignatius of Constantinople, St., 320-323. Ignatius of Loyola, St., 623. Illuminati, Order of the. 683. Images, Controversy on, in the East, 313-315; in the Prankish Empire, 316. Immunities of the Clergy, 327, 394. India, Missions in, 501, 504, 636. Indians, of America, See Missions in America. Indulgences, 486. InfaUibility, Papal, 670. Innocent I., Pope, 235. Innocent IL, Pope, 371-373. Innocent III., Pope, 379-381. Innocent lY., Pope, 384. Innocent YI., Pope, 404. Innocent YIII., Pope, 427. Innocent X., Pope, 622. Innocent XL, Pope, 648. Innocent XII., Pope, 649. Innocent XIIL, Pope, 650. lona. Island of, 140. Inquisition, Ecclesiastical, 470 ; Spanish, 471. Instantius, Bp., 219. Interdict, 327, 374. Interim of Ratisbon, 544. Investitures, Contest of, 366-370. Irenasus, St., 47, 69, 96. Irene, Empress, 317. Ireland, Conversion of, 135; The Church in, 270, 444, 705; Attempts to Prot- estantize, 594. Irish Martyrs, 597. Irish Colleges and Seminaries, 599. Isaac, Abbot, Syrian Writer, 180. Isidore, St., Archbp. of Seville, 173, 329. Isidore, Archbp. of Kiew, 421. Isidore, (Pseudo), False Decretals of, 329. Islam, See Mohammedanism. Isay, Articles of, 739. Itala, (Ancient Yulgate), 79. Ithacius of Ossonoba, 219. Ivo or Yves of Chartres, St., 481. J. Jacobins, 657. Jacobites, 208, 422. Jambhchus, Pagan Philosopher, 61. James the Elder, Apostle, 15. James the Less, Apostle, 24. James I., of England, 582. James IL, of England, 698. Jansenius of Ypres and the Jansenists, 628, 737. Japan, Christianity in, 503, 667. Jerome, St., 167. Jerome of Prague, 479. Jeronymites, Order of, 497. 768 GENERAL INDEX. Jerusalem, Council of, 16 ; Destruction of, 29 ; Church of, 31, 81. Jesuats, Order of, 496. Jesuits, Foundation of, 623; Suppressioji of, 651; Restoration of, 664. Jesus Christ, Birth and Early Life of, 1 ; Public Life of, 3 ; Passion and Death of, 6. Joane, Fable of Popess, 292, Note. Jocques, Missionary, 523. John, St., the Baptist, 3. John, St., the Apostle, 24. John of Damascus, St., 160. John, Bp. of Antioch, 203. John Capistran, St., 482. John of the Cross, St., 630. John of God, St, 630. ' ' " ' John L, Pope, 238. John III., Pope, 240. John VI., Pope, 282. John VIIL, Pope, 293. John IX., Pope, 297. John X., Pope, 29t. John XL, Pope, 298. John XII., Pope, 299. John XIII., Pope, 300. John XIV., Pope, 301. John XV., Pope, 301. John XIX., Pope, 302. John XXII. , Pope, 402. John XXIIL, Antipope, 411. John (Lackland), of England, 439. John, Knights of St., 494. John de Hatha, St., 495. John of Monte Cor vino, 339. John of Ragusa, 421. John of Salisbury, 446, Note. John, Archbp. of Ravenna, 293 John Turrecremata, 421. Josephus Flavins, 9. Joseph IL, Emperor, 654. Jovian, Emperor, 129, 193. Jovinian, (Monk), Heresy of, 218. Juarez, Mexican President, 730. Jubilee, 486. Judaism, Overthrow of, 28. Jude, St., Apostle, 26. Judaizing Christians, 80. Julian, the Apostate, 127. Julian of Eclanum, 198. Julius I., Pope, 234. Julius IL, Pope, 428. Julius III., Pope, 618. Julius Africanus, Eccl. "Writer, 75. Justin Martyr, Apologist, 65, 69, 78. Justin I., Emperor, 207. Justin IL, Emperor, 212. Justinian I., Emperor, 131, 145, 207, 210, Justinian IL, Emperor, 282. Justus, Archbp., of Canterbury, 151. K. Kant, German Philosopher, 683. Kenrick, Archbp., 726. Kentigren, St., 140. Kilian, St., 259, 272. Kitchin, English Bp., 575. Knighis, Religious Orders of, 494. Knox, John, 567, 587. L. Lacordaire, 673. Lactantius, 68. Lalemant, Missionary, 523. Lamennais, 664. Lanfranc, 432. Langton, Cardinal, 439. Lapsi, 49, 93. Las Casas, 509, 512. Lateran Synods, 370, 372, 377, 380, 430. Latrocinium, See Ephesus. Laud, Anglican Archbp. of Canterbury, 586. Laura, Old and New, 250. Lawrence, St., Martyr, 50. Lawrence, Archbp., of Canterbury, 16L Lawrence O'Toole, St., 444. Lay Abbots, 587. Lazarists, 626. League, Holy, 542. League of Smallkald, 542. Legio Fulminatrix, 46. Legio Thebaica, 53. Leipzig Disputation, 530. Leo L, Pope, 172, 205, 236. Leo IL, Pope, 242. Leo IIL, Pope, 287. Leo IV., Pope, 292. Leo IX., Pope, 303 GENERAL INDEX. 769 Leo X., Pope, 527, 532. Leo XIL, Pope, 664. Leo XTIL, Pope, 694, 728, 752. Leo, the Isaurian, Emperor, 313. Leo, the Armenian, Emperor, 315. Leovigild, 144. Lepanto, Victory of, 620. Libellatici, 49, 93. Liberius, Pope, 191, 234. Liberties, Galhcan, 649. Libertines, 610. Licinius, Emperor, 56, 125. Liguori, St., 478, 451. Lindisfame, Abbey of, 273. Literature, Catholic, 62, 152, 304, 450, 629, 746. Liturgies, "Various, followed in the Mass, 247. Llorente, 472. Lollards, 473. Lombards, 145, 285. Lombard, Peter, 458. Lords, Congregation of, 590. Loretto Nuns, 626. Lothaire of Lorraine, 293. Lothaire II., Emperor, 371. Lucian, Pagan Philosopher, 59. Luciferian Schism, 223. Ludmilla, St., 268. Luke, St., Evangehst, 27. Louis Bertrand, St., 513. Louis I., Emperor, 290. Louis the Bavarian, Emperor, 402-404. Louis IX., St, of France, 347, 392. Louis Xn. of France, 430. Louis XIV. of France, 648-650. Louis XVI. of France, 657-658. Louis XVIIL of France, 661. Lucius III., Pope, 378. Lugo, Cardinal, 630, Luitprand, the Lombard, 283. Luitprand, Bp., 297. Luneville, Peace of, 681. Luther, Martin, 528-531 ; His Condemna- tion, 532 ; His Translation of the Bible and his Religious System, 533- 536; His Death, 544. Lutherans and Lutheran Sect, 536-541. Lyons, Councils of, 384, 386. M. Mabillon, 749. Macarius, the Elder and Younger, 165, 250. Macarius of Jerusalem, 183. Macedonius and the Macedonians, 194. Magna Charta, 440. Mai, Cardinal, 664. Maid of Orleans, 485. Maine, Missions in, 521. Majorinus. 220. Malabar Customs, 504. Malachy, St., 443. Malchion, Priest, 91. Maldonatus, 630. Manes and Manicheism, 87-88. Manning, Cardinal, 702, 749. Mara, Letter of, 179. Marcellinus, Pope, Pretended weakness o^ 110. Marcellus II., Pope, 618. Marcellus of Ancyra, 183. Marcian, Emperor, 205. Marcion, the Gnostic, 84. Marcus Aurelius, Emperor, 45. Maris, Bp., Epistle to, 203. Mark, the Evangelist, 27. Mark, of Ephesus, 421. Maronites, 423, 646. Marquette. Missionary, 525. Martin L, Pope, 242. Martin IV., Pope 388. Martin V., Pope, 415. Martin of Tours, St., 219. Martyrs, Number of early, 57. • Maruthas, Bp., 131, 180. Mary, Bl. Virgin, 28 ; Devotion to, 120. Mary, Queen of England, 570. Mary, Queen of Scots, 574, 581, 591. Mary, Brothers of, 751. Maryland, Missions in, 521. Mass, Sacrifice of the, 116, 247." Massacre of the Irish, 598, 706. Massilians, 200. Matemus, St., Bp. of Cologne, 36. Mathilda, Countess, 364. Matrimony, Sacrament of, 118. Matthew, St., Apostle, 26. Matthews, Archbp. of Dublin, 599. Matthias, St., Apostle, 26. 770 GENERAL INDEX. Matthiesen, 452. Maurice of Saxony, 544. Maur, Congregation of St., 625. Maurus, St., 251. Maxentius, Emperor, 56. Maximilian I., Emperor, 633. Maximilian of Mexico, 730. Maximilla, 89, Maximin the Thracian, Emperor, 48. Maximin Daja, Emperor, 56. Maximian Herculius, Emperor, 52. Maximus, Bp. and Eccl. Writer, 173. Mazzini, 665. Mechitarist Congregation, 645. Melanchton, 531, 541. Melchites, 645. Melchisedechians, 90. Meletian Schism in Egypt, 94. Meletian Schism of Antioch, 223. Melito, Apologist, 65. Mellitus, St., Archbp. of Canterbury, 151. Melville, Andrew, 593. Menander, 82. Menard, Missionary, 524. Mendicant Orders, 490-493. Mennas, Patr. of Constantinople, 211. Mennonites, 610. Mensurius, Bp. of Carthage, 220. Mercy, Order of, 496. Methodists, 743. Methodius, St., Bp. and Eccl. Writer, 76, 209. Methodius, St., Apostle of the Sclavonians, , 266. Metropolitan Churches, 1 02. Metropc litans. Rank and Jurisdiction of, 228. Mexico, Missions in, 510; Church in, 729. Mezzofanti, Cardinal, 664. Michael Cerularius, 323. Michael of Cesena, 402. Michaelade, 603. Michael XL, Balbus, Emperor, 313. Michael III., Emperor, 320. Middle Ages, Character of, 253. Milan, Edict of, 124. Milevis, Council of, 198. Millennium, Controversies on the, 95. Milner, Vicar- Apostolic in England, 700. Miltiades, Apologist, 65. Miltitz, Charles, 529. Minims, Religious Order, 493. Minutius, Felix, Apologist, 67. Missions, Society of the Foreign, 751. Mohammed and Mohammedanism, 224. Mohler, 749. Molina and Moliuists, 628. Molinos, Michael de, 739. Mouarchia Ecclesiastica Sicilise, 368. Monarchians, 91. Monastic Life and Communities, 248, 332, 489, 623, 750. Mongus, Peter, 207. Monophy sites, 204. Monothelites, 213. Montalembert, 673, 749. Montanus and Montanists, 86. Monfaucon, 749. More, Sir Thomas, 556, 563. Moral Theology, 630, 748. Moran, Cardinal, 736. Moravians, Conversion of the, 266. Mormons, 746. Mozarabic Liturgy, 248. Miinzer, 537, 539. Muratori, 79, 749. ^ Mystical Theology, 453. N. Nantes, Edict of, 604. Napoleon Bonaparte, 660. Napoleon III., 673. Natalis, Alexander, 749. Nazarenes, 81. Nectarius, Patr. of Constantinople, 196. Nemesius, Eccl. Writer, 166. Neo-Platonism, 59. Neri, St. Philip, 626. Nero, Emperor, 40. Nestorius and Nestorianism, 200. Nestorians, 203, 504. Netherlands, Christianity in the, 259; Protestantism in the, 605; The Church in the, 679. Newman, Cardinal, 701. New Granada, Missions in, 513. New Mexico, Missions in, 520. New- York, Missions in, 524. , New-Zealand, Missions in, 637. r GENERAL INDEX. 771 Nice, Councils of, 183, 315. Nicolaitanes, 82. Nicholas I., the Great, Pope, 292. Nicholas II., Pope, 354. Nicholas III., Pope, 387. Nicholas IV., Pope, 388. Nicholas V., Pope, 424. Nicholas de Clemangis, 409. Nicholas I., of Russia, 712. Nicholas of Cusa, 417. Ninian, St., Bp., 140. Nobili, Robert de, Missionary, 504. Noetus, 91. Nogaret, William, 396. Nominalism, 454. Non -Conformists, 578. Nonjurors, 657. Norbert, St., 463, 490. North America, Missions in, 519; The Church in, 714-728. Norway, Conversion of, 264, 338 ; Refor- mation in, 607 ; The Church in, 679. Nova Scotia, Missions in, 522. Novatian, Schism of, at Rome, 92, 184. Novatus, Schism of, at Carthage, 93. Nunciatures, 621. Oblates of St Frances of Rome, 497. Oblates of the Blessed Virgin Mary, 620. Ockham, William, 402, 462. O'Connell, Daniel, 410. Odoacer, 144. (Ecolampadius, 547. Olaf, St., 264. Old-Catholics, 740. Olga, St.. 269. Olier, Jacques, 626. Olivetans, 496. Ophites, Gnostic sect, 85. Optatus, St., of Milevis, 172. Orange, Council of, 200. Orange, William of, 606. Oratorians, 626. Orders, Religious, 248, 330, 488, 623, 751. Orders, Mendicant, 490. Orders, Military, 494. Organic Articles, 660. Oriental Churches, Present state of the, 641-645. brigen, 72, 78. Origenist Controversy, 209. Orphans, Hussite Sect, 479. Ostrogoths, Christianity among the, 144. Otho I., Emperor, 268, 299. Otho III., Emperor, 301. Otho, St., Bp., 336. Pachomius, St, 249. Paganism, Extinction of, in the Roman Empire, 130. Palladius, St, Bp., 135, 140. Palladius, Bp., and Eccl. Writer, 165. Pallavicini, 630. Pamphylus, St, Eccl. Writer, 76, 209. Pantaenus, 77. Papal States, 284. Paphuutius, 183. Papias, 25. Paraguay, Missions in, 617. Paris, Francis of, 738. Parker, Matthew, 576. Partition, Bull of, 428. Paschal I., Pope, 290. Paschal II., Pope, 268. Paschasius Radbertus, 324. Patarines, 356. Patriarchs, 229. Patrick, St, 135. Patripassianists, 91. Paul the Apostle, 14, 19-24. Paul the Hermit, 49, 249. Paul of Samosata, 91. Paul of Constantinople, 216. Paul II., Pope, 425. Paul III., Pope, 542, 617. Paul IV., Pope, 618. Paul v.. Pope 621. Paulianists, 91. Paulicianh, 466. Paulinus, St, 151, 173 Paulists, 751. Peasants' War, 539. Pelagius and Pelagianism, 197. Pelagius I., Pope, 239. Pella, 29. 772 GENERAL INDEX. Penance, Sacrament of, 113, 244. Penitential Discipline, 114-115. Pentecost, 10, 119. Pepin the Short, 283 ; Grant of, 285. Pepuzians, 89. (131.) Persecutions of the Christians, 37-57, 127, Persia, Propagation of Christianity in, 13 1. Peru, Missions in, 613. Peshito, Syriac Version, 78. Petavius, 630. Peter the Apostle, Labors of, 16. Peter Alcantara, St., 631. Peter Nolasco, St., 496. Peter the Hermit, 342. Peter the Venerable, 463-488. Peter's Pence, 666. Petrines, Judaic Christians, 80. Philastrius. Bp. and EcoL Writer, 176. Philip the Apostle, 25. Philip the Deacon, 13, 28. Philip Augustus of France, 392. Philip the Fair of France, 393. Philip of Hesse, 540, 543. Philippine Islands, Evangelization of, 506, 640. Philosophy, Relation of Theology to, 453, 747. Philosophy, Heathen, in opposition to Christianity, 58. Philostratus, Pagan Philosopher, 61. Photinus, Heresy of, 196. Photius, 319-322. Piarists, 626. Picts, (Lowland Scots), 139. Pietism, 741. Pilgrimage of Grace, 561. Pilgrimages to the Holy Land, 341. Pisa, Councils of, 410, 430. Pistoja, Synod of, 656. Pitra, Cardinal, 749. Pius II., Pope, 425. Pius IV., Pope, 618. Pius v., Pope, 579, 620. Pius VI., Pope, 654. Pius VII., Pope, 659-664. Pius IX., Pope, 665-671. Placet, Royal, 656. Placidus, St., 26L Platina, 425. Plenary Councils of Baltimore, 726-727. Pliny the Younger, 43. Plotinus, Pagan Philosopher, 60. Plutarch, Pagan Philosopher, 59, Poland, Conversion of, 269; The Church in, 713. Polding, Archbp., 734. Pole, Cardinal, 563, 577. Polycarp, St., 25, 45, 96. Polynesia, Missions in, 637. Pombal, 651. Popes, Lists of the, by early "Writers, 105 ; Temporal Dominion of the, 284. Poor Priests (Wycliffites), 476. Popish Plot, 697. Porphyrins, Pagan Philosopher, 61. Portiuncula, 492. Port-Royal. Monastery of, 738. Pothiiius, Bp. 46. Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, 423. Pragmatic Sanction of France, 393. Praxeas, Antitrinitarian, 91. Preachers, Great, 481. Precious Blood, Congregation of the, 761. Predestinarianism, 200, 318, 550. Premonstratensians, Order of, 490. Presbyterianism, 586, 593. Presbyters, 99. Prester-John (Priest-King), 339. Primacy of the Roman See, 103-105, 230- 233. Primates, 228. Priscilla. 89. Priscillian, Heresy of, 219. Proclus, Eccl. Writer, 165 Proclus, Pagan Philosopher, 61. Procopius, the Elder and the Younger, 479. Propaganda, 622. Prophets, Visionary, of Zwickau, 537. Prosper, St., Eccl. Writer, 176. Protestantism Rise and Progress of, in Germany, 526-545; in Switzerland, 545-552 ; in England, 553-586 ; in Scotland, 587-594; in Ireland, 594- 599; in France. 600-605; in the Netherlands, 605 ; in Denmark, 606; in Sweden and Norway, 607. Causes and Effects of the Protestant Ref- ormation, 612. GENERAL INDEX. 773 Protestant Sects, 609-612; 741-146. Prussia, Conversion of, 338; the Church in, 686 ; Oppression of Catholics in, 691-695. Puritans, 578. Q. Quadragesimal Fast, 119. Quadratus, Bp. and Apologist, 44. Quakers, 742. Quartodecimans, 96. Quelen, Archbp., 673. Quesnel, 737. Quietism, 739. Quinisextum, Concilium, 216. R. Rabanus Maurus, 308, 318. Rabulas, St. Syrian Bp. and Eccl. Writer, 180, 203. Badbertus, Paschasius, 309. Ratramnus, Monk, 318. Ravignan, 673. Raymond of Pennaforte, St, 485, 496. Raymond, Count, 468. Realism, Nominalism, Conceptualism, 454. Reccarred, 144. Recollects, 625. Redemptorists, 751. Reformation, Protestant, See Protestan- tism. Regale, Controversy on the, 649. Reiffenstuel, 748. Relief Acts, 699, 705. Religio licita, 50. Remigius, St., 149. Remonstrants and Anti-remonstrants, 611. Reuchlin, 531. Revolution, French, 656-659. Rhodon, Eccl. Writer, 75, 77. Ricci, Bp. of Pistoja, 656. Ricci, Matteo, Missionary, 506. Richard of St. Victor, 455. Richard I. of England, 345, 439. Richelieu, 605. Rienzi, Nicola, 405. Rimini, Council of, 193. Robert of Molesme, St., 489. Robert of Abrissel, 490. Robespierre, 658. Roman Empire, Holy, 287, 680. Rome, Founding of the See of, 16. Romuald, St., 333. Ronge, 740. Rosa of Lima, St., 514, 631. Roscelin, 454. Rossi, Minister, 666. Roumanian Catholics, 645. Rousseau, 656. Rudolph jof Hapsburg, 387. Rufinus, Monk, 197. Rufinus, Eccl. Writer, 174, 209. Russia, Conversion of, 269 ; The Church in, 711. Russian Church, 642. Ruthenian Catholics, 645, 711. Sabas, St., Abbot, 250. Sabellius and Sabellianism, 92, 181. Sacramentarian Controversy, 548. Sacred Heart, Ladies of the, 751. Salvianus, Eccl. Writer, 178. Samosatians, 91. San Jago, Order of, 495. Santa Anna, Mexican President, 729. Sapor IL, Persian King, 131. Sardica, Council of, 187. Saturninus, the Gnostic, 83. Savonarola, 428, 480. Saxons, Conversion of the, 262. Scandinavia, Evangelization of, 262. Schism, Definition of, 92. Schism, Greek, 318. Schism, Great Papal, 406. Schmalzgruber, 748. Scholasticism and Distinguished School- men, 453—462. Science, Catholic, 304, 450, 629, 746. Sclavonic Liturgy, 267. Sclavonic Nations, Conversion of, 265-270. Scotus (Duns), and the Scotists, 461. Scotland, Conversion of, 139 ; Reformation in, 587-594 ; The Church in, 447, 702. Secularization of Ecclesiastical Estates, 622. 681. GENERAL INDEX. Seleucia, Council of, 193. Secundus of Tigisis, 220. Semi-Arians, 190. Semi- Pelagians, 199. Separatists, 578. Septuagint (Version), 78. Sergius I., Pope, 282. Sergius IL, Pope, 291. Sergius III., Pope, 297. Sergius, Patr. of Constantinople, 213. Servetus, Michael, 610. Servites, 493. Severians, 208, Severus, Monk, 207. Shaftesbury, Earl of, 698, Note. Shakers, 745. Shepherd, Sisters of the Good, 626. Sicilian Vespers, 388. Sickingen, Francis, 531. Sidonius ApoUinaris, St., 177. Sigismund, Emperor, 412. Simeon, St., Bp. of Jerusalem, 24, 80. Simeon, Persian Bishop, 131. Simeon the Stylite, 250. Simon the Apostle, 26 Simon the Magician, i3, 81. Simon de Montfort, 468. Simon Stock, St., 493. Sirmium, Councils of, 188, 190, Sirmian Formularies, 190. Sisters of the Free Spirit, 466. Sixtus IV., Pope, 426. Sixtus v., Pope, 621. Socinus and the Socinians, 611. Socrates, Church Historian, 164. Sophronius, St., 159, 214. South America, Missions in, 510-516 ; The Church in, 729-733. Sozomenus, Eccl. "Writer, 164. Spain, The Church in, 280, 675. Spalding, Archbp., 727, 749. Spee, Frederic, 473. Spiritualists, 455, 746. Stephen the Deacon, St., 13. Stephen I., Pope, 104. Stephen III., Pope, 285. Stephen IV., Pope, 286. Stephen VII , Pope, 296. Stephen X, Pope, 364. Stephen, St., of Hungary, 270 Stephen Harding, St., 489. Stephen of Tigerno, St., 489. Stylites, 250. Suarez, 630. Subunists, 480. Sulpicians, 626. Sulpicius Severus, BccL Writer, 174. Sunday, 118. Supralapsarians, 611. Supremacy, Establishment of Royal, 667 ; Oath of, 560. Sweden, Conversion of, 264 ; Reformation in, 608 ; The Church in, 680. Swedenborg, 745. Switzerland, Conversion of, 257 ; Refor- mation in, 545-552 ; The Church in, 685,695. Sylvester I., Pope, 183, 234. Sylvester II., Pope, 301, 311. Synesius, Bp. and Eccl. "Writer, 166. Syrian Christians, 646. Syrian Fathers, 178. T. Taborites, 480. Talleyrand, 657. Tanchelin, 463. Tarasius, Patr. of Constantinople, 315. Tatian, first Apologist, 66 ; then Gnostic, 84, Templars, Knights, 400, 494. Teresa, St., 631. Teman, St., Scotch Bp., 140. Tertullian, 67, 73, 89. TertuUianists, 91. Test-Act, 697. Tetzel, 528. Teutonic Knights, 496. Thaddeus, Apostle, 26. Theatines, 625. Thebutis, Ebeonite 80. Theodore Ascidas, 210. ''■ Theodore of Mopsuestia, 164, 311. Theodore of Pharan, 213. Theodore of Canterbury, 275. Theodoret of Cyrus, 164, 311. Theodoric, King, 144. Theodosius I., Emperor, 130, 194. Theodosius II., Emperor, 194, 230, GENERAL INDEX. 776 Theophilus of Alexandria, 209. Theophilus, St., Apologist, 66. Theophilus, Gothic Bp., 143. Thirty Years' War, 615. Thomas, St., Apostle, 26. Thomas Aquinas, St, 387, 460. Thomas h Becket, St 434-438. Thomas k Kempis, 497. Thomas of Villanova, St., 631. Thomas, St, Christians of, 204. Thomists, 461, 628. Three Chapters, Controversy on the, 210. Thurlficati, 49. Thyestes, Banquets of, 39. Tiberius, Emperor, 40. Timothy, St., 27. Titus, St, 27. Titus, Emperor, 29, 41. Titus Gates, 697. Toledo, Council of, 144. Tolosa, Council of, 281. Tractarian Movement, 701. Traditores, 54. Trajan, Emperor, 43. Transubstantiation, 38L Trappists, 751. Trent, Council of, 616. Tribur, Diet of, 362. Trichotomy, Platonian, 196. Trinitarians, Grder of, 494. TruUan Synod, 216, 282. Turibius, St., 514, 631. Turstin, Archbp. of Canterbury, 434. Ulfilas, Bp., 143. Unigenitus, Bull, 738. Unitarians, 611, 746. United States, the Church in the, 717-728. Universities, 450. Urban II., Pope, 367. Urban IV., Pope, 385. Urban Y., Pope, 405. Urban YI., Pope, 406. Urban YIII.. Pope, 622. Ursula, St, and her Companions, 148. Ursulines, 626. Utraquists, 479. Theodotus the Elder and the Tounger, 90, V. Yalens, Emperor, 129. Yalentia, Council of, 200. Yalentinian I., Emperor, 129. Yalentinian II., Emperor, 130. Yalentinus, the Gnostic, 83. Yallombrofia, Order of, 333. Vandals, Christianity among the, 146. Yarlet, 738. Yasquez, 630. Vatican, Council of ^e, 668. Venezuela, Missions in, 512. Verbiest, Missionary, 507. Verdun, Treaty of, 291. Verona, Council of, 470. Vespasian, Emperor, 29, 41. Victor I., Pope, 96, 107. Victor II., Pope, 353. Victor in.. Pope, 366. Victor, Bp. and Eccl. Writer, 176. Victor Emmanuel, King, 665. Victorinus, Eccl. "Writer, 175. Vienne, Council of, 400. Vigilantius, Heresy of, 218. Vigilius, Pope, 211. Vincent of Lerins, St, 178, 200. Vincent Ferrer, St., 482. Vincent de Paul, St, 630. Visigoths, Christianity among the, 148. Visitation, Order of the, 626. Voltaire, 656. Vulgate, Ancient, or Itala, 79; of BL Jerome, 167. W. Waldo, Peter, and the Waldenses, 464. Ward, Mary, Foundress of the Loretto Nuns, 626. Weishaupt, 683, Note. Wenceslaus, Emperor, 409. Wesel, 480. Wesley, 743. Wessel, 480. West Indies, Missions in the, 507. Westphalia, Peace of, 616, 622. Whitefield, 744. Wilfrid, St, 260, 275. William, the Conqueror, 432. Wilham of Paris, 463. 776 GENERAL INDEX. Winfrid, 261, Wiseman, Cardinal, "702. Wishart, 588. "Witchcraft Frenzy, 473, 722, Note 1. Wittekind, 263. Wolsey, Cardinal, 553, 556. Worms, Concordat of, 370. Worms, Diet of, 533. Wycliffe, 473-476. X. Xavier, St Francis, 501. Xaverian Brothers, 751. Ximenes, Cardinal, 510. Zacharias, Pope, 262, 282. Zeno, St., Bp. 172. Zeno, Emperor, 207. Zinzendorf, 742. Ziska, 479. Zosimus, Pope, 198, 235. Zwickau, Prophets of, 531, Zwincrle, 545-546 tsiMmm RETURN CIRCULATION DEPARTMENT TO— #^ 202 Main Library LOAN PERIOD 1 HOME USE 2 3 4 5 6 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS Renewals and Recharges may be made 4 days prior to the due date. Books may be Renewed by calling 642-3405. DUE AS STAIVIPED BELOW JAN 04 1993 • AUTO DISC CIRC K 02 '92 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY FORM NO. DD6 BERKELEY, CA 94720