P' E I E Y 
 
 R'JITY OP 
 FORNIA 
 
 '^ 
 
 ^^^^^^^^^ 
 
 fXimS UNIVERSIIY OF CALIFORNIA 0^ 'A 
 
 f.'TK'i^ 
 
 
 it.. 
 
 ilYI 
 
 t<l 
 
 s: 
 
 JOHN HENRY NASH LIBRARY 
 
 <$> SAN FRANCISCO <^ 
 
 PRESENTED TO THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 ROBERT GORDON SPROUL. PRESIDENT. 
 
 Mr.andMrs.MILTON S.RAY 
 CECILY, VIRGINIA AND ROSALYN RAY 
 
 AND THE 
 
 RAY OIL BURNER COMPANY 
 
 SAN FRANCISCO. 
 NEV/YORK 
 
•^/r'"^ 
 
A DICTIONARY 
 
 OF 
 
 TERMS USED IN PRINTINa. 
 
 BY 
 
 H. MORGAN, 
 
 OOVZRNMIKT PRINTING ISTABLISHMENT. 
 
 "■ ■ ^■ n ^"*^**^— ^ ' ,1 
 
 Mix&xu: 
 
 PRINTED AT THE MILITARY MALE ORPHAN ASYLUM PBISS, 
 
 By WILLIAM THOMAS. 
 
 1863. 
 
UBRAf?r 
 SCHOOL 
 
 Gin 
 

 
 It has been the endeavour of the compiler of this little volume, 
 to give a great deal of useful information in a small compass. 
 Whether he has succeeded, or not, he must leave others to judge. 
 
 He does not intend to put himself forward as a rival to " Savage," 
 or any other English writer on the subject ; but he hopes to be 
 
 of some assistance to the Printers of Madras. 
 
 «• 
 
 Under the heads. Apprentice^ Lay up, Disti^hute, Composing, 
 Spacing, Make up, Imposing, Correcting, Clicker, Companionship, 
 Overseer, Reader, Abbreviation, Division, Orthography, Phrases, Punc- 
 tuation, &c., he has endeavoured to give instructions which may 
 help to make good workmen, or enable persons in charge of presses, 
 who are not Printers, to understand better what are the duties of 
 the workmen in their employ. 
 
 Fine Presswork, Making ready. Rollers, and many minor heads, 
 are intended for the instruction of Pressmen as well as of those 
 who have them in charge. While under Printing, Type-founding, 
 Machines, Paper, Stereotyping, will be found brief notices of the 
 Discovery and progress of Letter Press Printing. 
 
 Short notices of Engraving on Copper, Steel, and Wood, Electro- 
 graphy, Glgphography, and Lithography have also been inserted, as 
 being peculiarly connected with the Art of Printing, 
 
 138 
 
A DICTIONARY OF TERMS USED IN PRINTING. 
 
 Abbreviations. — Contracted words; or, in old books, marks used 
 to denote them. Tlie following list will be found to contain nearly- 
 all the abbreviations in ordinary use. 
 
 A. 
 
 Of the first class. 
 
 Aid. 
 
 Alderman. 
 
 A. 
 
 Anna, Annas. 
 
 Alex. 
 
 Alexander. 
 
 A.A.G. 
 
 Assistant Adjutant Ge- 
 
 Alf. 
 
 Alfred. 
 
 
 neral. 
 
 Alt. 
 
 Altitude. 
 
 A.B. 
 
 "ArtumBaccalaureus," 
 
 A.M. 
 
 " Artium Magister," 
 
 
 Bachelor of Arts. 
 
 
 Master of Arts. 
 
 Abp. 
 
 Archbishop. 
 
 A.M. 
 
 " Anno Mundi," in the 
 
 Abs.sta. 
 
 Abstract statement 
 
 
 year of the world. 
 
 Abt. 
 
 About. 
 
 A.M.ora.m." Ante Meridiem," 
 
 A.C. 
 
 '* Ante Christum," be- 
 
 
 morning before mid- 
 
 
 fore Christ. 
 
 
 day. 
 
 ae. 
 
 acre, acres. 
 
 A.N.C. 
 
 ^' Ante nativitatem 
 
 a/c 
 
 Account. 
 
 
 Christi," before the 
 
 Acad. 
 
 Academy. 
 
 
 birth of Christ. 
 
 Ace. or Act. Account. 
 
 And- 
 
 Andrew. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 "Anno Domini,*^ in 
 
 Angl. 
 
 " Anglice," in English. 
 
 
 the year of our Lord. 
 
 Ann. 
 
 " Annum," year ; or 
 
 A.D. 
 
 Ante Diem. 
 
 
 "Annual." 
 
 Ad. Arbit 
 
 . "Ad arbitrium," at 
 
 Anon. 
 
 Anonymous. 
 
 
 pleasure. 
 
 Ans. or 
 
 Ansr. Answer. 
 
 Ad.orAdv 
 
 . Adverb. 
 
 Antiq. 
 
 Antiquities. 
 
 Adj. 
 
 Adjective. 
 
 Ap. Apr. or Apl. ApriL 
 
 Adjt. 
 
 Adjutant. 
 
 Ap. wt. 
 
 Apothecaries Weight. 
 
 Ad. lib. 
 
 "Ad libitum, "at liber- 
 
 Aq. 
 
 "Aqua," water. 
 
 
 ty, at option. 
 
 A.Q.M.G. 
 
 Assistant Quarter 
 
 Admrs. 
 
 Administrators. 
 
 1 
 
 Master General. 
 
 Ad. val. 
 
 "Ad valorem," Accord- 
 
 A. R 
 
 " Anno Regni," in the 
 
 
 ing to value. 
 
 
 year of the reign. 
 
 Aflfy. 
 
 Aflfectionately. 
 
 Archb. 
 
 Archbishop. 
 
 A.G. 
 
 Adjutant General. 
 
 Archd. 
 
 Archdeacon. 
 
 A.H. 
 
 "Anno Hegirae," the 
 
 Archt 
 
 Architect. 
 
 
 year of the Hegira, 
 
 ■ Arith. 
 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 Albt. 
 
 Albert. 
 
 Art. 
 
 Article. 
 
DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 Asst. 
 
 Assistant. 
 
 Astroii. 
 
 Astronomy, or Astro- 
 
 
 nomical. 
 
 Att. Gen. 
 
 Attorney General. 
 
 Atty. 
 
 Attorney. 
 
 A.U.C. 
 
 " Ab. urb. condita," 
 
 
 from the building of 
 
 
 the city. 
 
 Aug. or 
 
 Augt. August. 
 
 Av. wt. 
 
 Avoirdupois weight. 
 
 B.A. {see 
 
 A.B.) Baclielor of Arts 
 
 Bart. 
 
 Baronet. 
 
 Barth. or 
 
 Barthol. Bartholomew. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Before Christ. 
 
 B.C.L. 
 
 Bachelor of Civil Law. 
 
 B.D. 
 
 Bachelor of Divinity. 
 
 Bd. 
 
 Bound. 
 
 Bds. 
 
 Boards. 
 
 Ben. or 
 
 Benj. Benjamin. 
 
 B.I. 
 
 British Institution. 
 
 Bd'sMin 
 
 Board's Minute. 
 
 Bd.'sOr. 
 
 Board's Order. 
 
 Bib. Irn. 
 
 " Bibliotheque Impe- 
 
 
 rial," Imperial Lib- 
 
 
 rary. 
 
 Biog. 
 
 Biography. 
 
 Bk. 
 
 Book. 
 
 B.L. 
 
 Bachelor of Laws. 
 
 B.M. 
 
 Bachelor of Medicine. 
 
 Bnk. 
 
 Bank. 
 
 Bot. 
 
 Bought. 
 
 Bp. 
 
 Bishop. 
 
 Bque. 
 
 Barque. 
 
 Br. 
 
 Bridge. 
 
 Br. 
 
 British. 
 
 Brit. 
 
 British, Britain, Bri- 
 
 
 tannia. 
 
 Brf. 
 
 Brief. 
 
 Bt. 
 
 Baronet. 
 
 B.V. 
 
 Blessed Virgin. 
 
 B.V.M. 
 
 Blessed Virgin Mary, 
 
 Cal. 
 
 ('alendar. 
 
 C.A. 
 
 Chief Accountant. 
 
 Cal. Horn. 
 
 " Calendarium Iloma- 
 
 
 num," the Roman 
 
 
 Calendar. 
 
 Car. Sec. 
 
 Carmen Seculare. 
 
 Cat. 
 
 Catechism, Catechise. 
 
 Cat. orCatt. Catalogue. 
 
 C.B. 
 
 Companion of theBath 
 
 C.C. 
 
 Crown Clerk. 
 
 Cel. Phen 
 
 Celestial Phenomena. 
 
 Ch. orChas. Charles. 
 
 Ch. CI. 
 
 Chief Clerk. 
 
 Ch. Magis 
 
 . Chief Magistrate. 
 
 Ch. Off. 
 
 Chief Office. 
 
 Chron. 
 
 Chronology, Chronicle 
 
 Cit. 
 
 Citizen. 
 
 C.J. 
 
 Chief Justice. 
 
 Clk. 
 
 Clerk. 
 
 CM. 
 
 ''ChirurgicalMagister" 
 
 C.M.G. 
 
 Companion of the Or- 
 
 
 der of St. Michael 
 
 
 and St. George. 
 
 CO. 
 
 Crown Office. 
 
 Col. 
 
 Colonel, Colonial. 
 
 Coll. 
 
 Collector. 
 
 Comp. 
 
 Compare. 
 
 Compy. 
 
 Company. 
 
 Compts. 
 
 Compliments. 
 
 Conj. 
 
 Conjunction. 
 
 Cons. 
 
 Consultation. 
 
 Contd. 
 
 Continued, contained. 
 
 C P. Spa. 
 
 Common Pleas Sub- 
 
 
 poena. 
 
 Cr. 
 
 Credit, Creditor. 
 
 Cri. Dept. 
 
 Criminal Department. 
 
 C.S. 
 
 "Cust03Sigilli,"Keep- 
 
 
 er of the seal. 
 
 CS. 
 
 Ci\T.l Service. 
 
 Curt. 
 
 The current month. 
 
 Cus. Rot. 
 
 "Gustos Rotulorum," 
 
 
 Keeper of the Records. 
 
 Cwt. 
 
 A hundred weight. 
 
 Cor. Mem. CorrespondingMember 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 
 
 3 
 
 1). or d. 
 
 " Denarius," a penny, 
 
 D.V. 
 
 "Deo Volente," God 
 
 
 " Denarii," or" De- 
 
 
 willing. 
 
 
 naria," pence. 
 
 Dwt. 
 
 Pennyweight. 
 
 D.A.A.G. 
 
 Deputy Assistant Ad- 
 
 
 
 
 jutant General. 
 
 Ecc. or 
 
 Eccles. Ecclesiastical. 
 
 TXA-C.G. 
 
 Deputy Assistant Com- 
 
 Ed. 
 
 Editor. 
 
 
 missary General. 
 
 Ed. 
 
 Edward, Edwin, Ed- 
 
 D.A.O. 
 
 Deputy xldjutant Ge- 
 
 
 mund. 
 
 
 neral. 
 
 Edit. 
 
 Edition. 
 
 Dan. 
 
 Daniel. 
 
 Edits. 
 
 Editors, Editions. 
 
 Dble. 
 
 Double. 
 
 E. E. 
 
 Errors excepted. 
 
 Dbt. 
 
 Debit. 
 
 E. G. 
 
 " Exemplia Gratia," as 
 
 D.C.G. 
 
 Deputy Commissary 
 
 Edw. or 
 
 for example. 
 Edwd. Edward. 
 
 D.C.L. 
 
 Doctor of Civil (or 
 
 E.LC. 
 
 East India Company. 
 
 
 Canon) Law. 
 
 E.LC.S. 
 
 East India Company's 
 
 D.D. 
 
 " Divinitatis Doctor," 
 
 
 Service. 
 
 
 Doctor of Divinity. 
 
 Eliz. 
 
 Elizabeth. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Decrease. 
 
 E.M. 
 
 " Equitum Magister," 
 
 Dec. or 
 
 Deer. December. 
 
 
 Master of the Horse. 
 
 Deft. 
 
 Defendant. 
 
 Emp. 
 
 Emperor, Empire. 
 
 Dep. or 
 
 Dept. Department. 
 
 E.N.E. 
 
 East North East. 
 
 Depy. 
 
 -W--V 
 
 X X 
 
 Deputy. 
 
 Eng. 
 Entd. 
 
 English, England. 
 Entered. 
 
 Dy. 
 D.F. 
 
 Diary. 
 
 Dean of Faculty. 
 
 Ent. Sta. 
 
 Hall. Entered at Sta- 
 
 D.G. 
 
 V 
 
 " Dei Gratia," by the 
 Grace of God. 
 
 
 tioner's Hall. 
 
 
 Env. Ex. 
 
 Envoy Extraordinary. 
 
 
 
 Eph.Term 
 
 . Epiphany Term. 
 
 Diet. 
 
 Dictionary. 
 
 Eq. 
 
 Equal, equivalent. 
 
 Diff. or 
 
 Diffce. Difference. 
 
 E.S.E. 
 
 East South East. 
 
 Dipl. 
 
 Diplomacy, Diploma- 
 
 Esq. or 
 
 Esqre. Esquire. 
 
 
 tic, Diplomatist. 
 
 Etal. 
 
 "Et alibi," and in other 
 
 Dist. 
 
 District. 
 
 Et al. freq 
 
 . " Et alibi frequenter," 
 
 Div. 
 
 Division, divide. 
 
 
 and in nianv other 
 
 Divnd. 
 
 Dividend. 
 
 
 passages. 
 
 D.L.O. 
 
 Dead Letter Office. 
 
 Et int. al. 
 
 " Et inter alia," and 
 
 Do. 
 
 " Ditto," the same. 
 
 
 amongst others. 
 
 Doz. 
 
 Dozen. 
 
 Etc. 
 
 Et cetera. 
 
 D.Q.M.G. 
 
 Deputy Quarter Mas- 
 
 Eur. 
 
 Europe. 
 
 
 ter General. 
 
 Ev. or ICvg 
 
 . Evening. 
 
 Dr. 
 
 Debtor. 
 
 Ex. 
 
 Example. 
 
 Dr. 
 
 Doctor. 
 
 Exch. 
 
 Exchange. 
 
 Dr. 
 
 Drachm. 
 
 Exch.Bds 
 
 . Exchequer Bonds. 
 
DKTIONAKY OF TERMS 
 
 Exd. L^xa milled. 
 
 f]xors. Executory. 
 
 Ext. Extra, Extract. 
 
 Extr. Extract. 
 
 Extia. Extraordinary. 
 
 E. A. Fine Arty, 
 Fac. Factor, Factory. 
 Fall. Fahrenheit. 
 
 F.A.S. Fellow of the Antiqua- 
 rian Society. 
 
 Fcp. Foolscap. 
 
 Feb. or Feby. February. 
 
 Fern. Feminine. 
 
 F.G.S. Fellow of the Geogra- 
 phical Society. 
 
 Fid. Def. " Fidei Defensor," De- 
 fender of the Faith. 
 
 Fig. FigTU-e. 
 
 F. M. Field Marshal. 
 Fo. or Fol. Folio. 
 
 F.R.A.S. Fellow of the Royal 
 Astronomical So- 
 ciety. 
 
 Fellow of J the Royal 
 College of Surgeons. 
 
 Fellow of the^ Royal 
 Society. 
 
 Fellow of the Society 
 of Antiquaries. 
 
 Foot, or Feet. 
 
 F.R.C.S. 
 F.R.S. 
 F.S.A. 
 Ft. 
 
 Gall. Gallon. 
 
 Gaz. Gazette. 
 
 G. CB. GrandCross of theBath 
 
 Gen. Gender, Genitive. 
 
 Gen. or Genl. General. 
 
 Gent. Gentleman. 
 
 Geo. George. 
 
 Oeog. Geography, geographical. 
 
 Geol. Geology, geological. 
 
 Geom. Geometry, geonietricnl 
 
 G.M.K.F. Grand Master of the 
 Knights of St.Patrick. 
 
 G.O. General Order. 
 
 G.O.C.C. General Order by the 
 Commander-in-Chief. 
 
 G.O.G. General Order by the 
 Governor. 
 
 Gov. Governor, Govt. 
 
 G.P.O. General Post Office, 
 
 Gr. Grains. 
 
 Gram. Grammar. 
 
 Hab. Corp. " Habeas Corpus," (a 
 
 writ. ) 
 H.B.M. Her Britannic Majesty 
 H. H. His (or Her) Highness 
 
 Hist. History, Historical. 
 
 H.M. His (or Her) Majesty. 
 
 H.M .S. His (or Her) Maj esty' s 
 
 Ship. 
 Hon. Honorable. 
 
 Hon. or Hony. Honorary. 
 Hon. Sec. Honorary Secretary. 
 
 i 
 
 Hor. Horace. 
 
 H.P. Hor.se Power. 
 
 H.R.H. His (or Her) Royal 
 Highness. 
 
 lb. Ibid. 
 
 (( 
 
 " Idem" the same. 
 Inspector General. 
 
 Ibidem," the same 
 as before named, in 
 the same place. 
 I.E. or i. e. that is. 
 Id. 
 I I.G. 
 
 I I.H.S. " Jesu Hominum Sal- 
 
 I vator," Jesus the Sa- 
 
 j viour of Men. 
 
 j Imp. Imperial. 
 
 j In. Inch, Inches. 
 
 i Incog. "Incognito," in dis- 
 
 Infra dii>-. 
 
 guise. 
 
 " Infra dignitatem," 
 beneath one's dignitv. 
 
USED IN I'lllNTlNG. 
 
 Int. al. " inter alia,"' amongst 
 
 other. 
 In.sp. Inspector. 
 
 Inst. "Instant," the present 
 
 (i. e. current) month. 
 Int. Interest. 
 
 Inv, Invoice. 
 
 I. O. U. I owe you. 
 Ion. John. 
 
 Jac. Jacob. 
 
 J.A.G. Judge Advocate Genl. 
 
 Jas. James. 
 
 J.D. "Juris Doctor," Doc- 
 
 tor of Law. 
 
 Jno. John. 
 
 Jos. Joseph. 
 
 Jr. or Jnr. Junior. 
 
 J.W.D. " Juris utriusque Doc- 
 tor," Doctor of both 
 Laws. 
 
 Junr. Junior. 
 
 K.B. Knight of the Bath. 
 
 K . C. M . G . Knight Commander of 
 
 St. Michael and St. 
 
 George. 
 K.G. Knight of the Garter. 
 
 K.G.C.B. Knight Grand Cross of 
 
 the Bath. 
 Knt. Knight. 
 
 K.P. Knight of St. Patrick. 
 
 K.T. Knight of the Thistle. 
 
 Kt. Knight. 
 
 L. i*, or /. " Libra," or " Librae," 
 pound (20s. ) or pounds. 
 L. Line. 
 
 Lat. Latitude. 
 
 Lb. or lbs. Pound (16oz.)or pounds 
 Ld. Lord. 
 
 Ldp. Lordship. 
 
 Lib. " Liber," Book. 
 
 Librn. Librarian. 
 Lieut. Lieutenant. 
 
 Lin. meas. Lineal measure. 
 
 Lit. 
 LL.B. 
 
 LL.D. 
 
 Lon. 
 Lond. 
 
 or 
 
 Mag. 
 
 Maj. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 Mas. or 
 
 Matt. 
 
 M.B. 
 
 Mch. 
 
 M.D. 
 
 Mde. 
 
 Mile. 
 
 Mem. 
 
 Memo. 
 
 Mema. 
 
 Messrs. 
 
 Mil. Mily. 
 
 Min. 
 
 Mond. 
 
 M.P. 
 
 M.RA.S. 
 
 Literary, literal. 
 * 'Baccalaureus Leguni , ' ' 
 
 Bachelor of Laws. 
 " Legum Doctor," 
 
 Doctor of Laws. 
 Long. Longitude. 
 London. 
 
 M.) Master of Arts. 
 
 Magazine. 
 
 Major. 
 
 March. 
 
 Masc. Masculine. 
 
 Matthew. 
 
 Bachelor of Medicine. 
 
 March. 
 
 "Medicinse Doctor," 
 
 Doctor of Medicine. 
 Madame. 
 Mademoiselle. 
 Memento. 
 Memorandum. 
 Memoranda. 
 " Messieurs," Masters, 
 
 (plural of Mr.) 
 Military. 
 Minute. 
 Monday. 
 
 Member of Parliament 
 Member of the Royal 
 
 Academy of Science 
 
 Mr. 
 
 Mister. 
 
 Mrs. 
 
 Mistress. 
 
 M.S. 
 
 Manuscript. 
 
 M.SS. 
 
 Plural of M.? 
 
 Mnt. 
 
 Mount. 
 
 Mtn. 
 
 Mountain. 
 
 N. North. 
 
 N"at. Nathaniel. 
 
 Nat. Natural. 
 
 Nat. Hist. Natural Historv. 
 
 Nav. Navigation, navigable. 
 
6 
 
 DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 N.r>. "Notabeiie," mark well. 
 N.E. North East. 
 
 Neh. Nehemiah. 
 
 Nem.coii."Nemiiiecontradiceiite" 
 
 no one contradicting. 
 Neni. diss. "Nemine disscntiente,' 
 
 no one dissenting. 
 N . N. E. North North East. 
 N.N.W. North'North West. 
 No. " Nmnero," number. 
 
 Nom. Nominative. 
 
 Non.com. " Non compos (mentis,") 
 
 not of a sound mind. 
 Non. Seq. " Non sequitur," it 
 
 does not follow. 
 Nos. Plural of No. 
 
 Nov. November. 
 
 N.W. North West. 
 
 Obj. 
 Obs. 
 Obt. or 
 Oct. 
 Oct. 
 
 Op. 
 
 O.S. 
 Oz. 
 
 Objective. 
 
 Observe, observation. 
 
 Obdt. Obedient. 
 
 October. 
 
 Octavo, (also written 
 
 8vo.) 
 " Opus," work ; or 
 
 " Opera," works. 
 Old Style. 
 Ounce, Ounces. 
 
 P. Pies, pice, 
 
 p. page. 
 
 Part. Participle. 
 
 Pari. Parliament. 
 
 Pd. Paid. 
 
 Ph. D. Doctor of Philosophy. 
 Phil. Trans. Philosophical Trans- 
 actions. 
 
 'TostMeridiem," after 
 mid-day. 
 
 Pages. 
 
 Pronoun. 
 
 Preposition. 
 
 P.M 
 
 pp. 
 Pr. 
 
 Pro loc. et 
 
 Pro tem. 
 
 Prof. 
 
 Prox. 
 
 Prep. 
 
 P.S. 
 
 P.T.O. 
 Pt. 
 
 Q. 
 Q.C. 
 
 Q.D. 
 Q.E.D. 
 
 Q.M. 
 Q.M.G. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 <( 
 
 tem. " Pro loco et tem- 
 pore," for the place 
 and time. 
 
 For the time. 
 
 Professor. 
 Proximo," the com- 
 ing month. 
 
 'Tost Scriptum," Post- 
 script. 
 
 Please turn over. 
 
 Pint. 
 
 Question, Query. 
 
 Queen's Council. 
 
 " Quasi dicat," as if 
 he should say. 
 
 " Quod \ erat demon- 
 strandum," '^ which 
 was to be demon- 
 strated. 
 
 Quarter Master. 
 
 Quarter Master Gene- 
 ral. 
 
 Quires. 
 
 R. 
 
 Rupee, Rupees. 
 
 R.A. 
 
 Royal Academy. 
 
 Rd. 
 
 Road. 
 
 Rec. or 
 
 Rect.Received,receipts 
 
 Ref. 
 
 Reference. 
 
 Regd. 
 
 Registered. 
 
 Pro. Proc. Proceedings 
 
 Regt. Regiment. 
 
 Rel. Relative. 
 
 Rept. Report. 
 
 Reqd. Required. 
 
 Rev. or Revd. Reverend. 
 
 Rev. Revenue. 
 
 Rev. Bd. Revenue Board. 
 
 R.H. Royal Highness. 
 
 R.M. Royal Marine. 
 
 R. M. A. Royal Military Asyl iim 
 
 Rm. Ream. 
 
 R.N. Royal Navy. 
 
 i '^n. Roan. 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 
 
 Roin. 
 
 Roman. 
 
 Rt. 
 
 Riglit. 
 
 Rt. Hon. 
 
 Right Honorable. 
 
 Rt. Rev. 
 
 Riglit Reverend. 
 
 s. 
 
 South. 
 
 S. or s. 
 
 " Solidus," a shilling ; 
 
 
 " solidi," shillings. 
 
 Sam. 
 
 Samuel. 
 
 Sans. 
 
 Sanscrit. 
 
 Sat. 
 
 Saturday, 
 
 Sax. 
 
 Saxon. 
 
 S.E. 
 
 South East. 
 
 Sec. 
 
 §, Section. 
 
 Sec. or 
 
 Secy. Secretary. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 September. 
 
 Seq. 
 
 " Sequor," following. 
 
 Serj. or 
 
 Serjt. Serjeant. 
 
 Serv. or 
 
 Servt. Servant. 
 
 S.l.p. 
 
 Without lawful issue. 
 
 Soc. or 
 
 Socy. Society. 
 
 Sol. or 
 
 Soli. Solicitor. 
 
 1 
 
 Sov. 
 
 Sovereign. 
 
 Sovs. 
 
 Sovereigns. 
 
 S.RC.K. 
 
 Society for Promoting 
 
 
 Christian Knowledge. 
 
 Sq. or 
 
 Sqr. Square. 
 
 St. 
 
 Saint. 
 
 Str. 
 
 Street. 
 
 S.S.E. 
 
 South South East. 
 
 S.S.W. 
 
 South South West. 
 
 Sun. 
 
 Sunday. 
 
 S.W. 
 
 South West. 
 
 Tarn. 
 
 Tamul. 
 
 Tel. 
 
 Telegu. 
 
 Th. or 
 
 Thurs. Thursday. 
 
 Th 
 
 affixed to numerals 
 
 
 marks them ordinal. 
 
 Tho' 
 
 Though. 
 
 Thos. 
 
 Thomas. 
 
 'Tis. 
 
 It is. 
 
 Topog. 
 
 Topography. 
 
 Trans. 
 
 Translator, Translated. 
 
 Trans. Transaction. 
 
 Treasr. Treasurer. 
 
 Tu. or Tues.Tuesday. 
 
 Typ. IVpography, Typogra- 
 
 pher. 
 
 Ult. "Ultimo," the last 
 
 month. 
 
 Univ. University. 
 
 U.S. United States. 
 
 V. " Versus," against. 
 
 V. Verb. 
 
 v.a. Verb active. 
 
 Var. Various. 
 
 Ven. or Ven'ble Venerable. 
 
 Vict. Victoria. 
 
 Verb, et lit/' Verbatim et litera- 
 tim," word for word 
 and letter for letter. 
 
 Viz. " Videlicet," that is to 
 
 say ; or, namely. 
 
 v.n. Verb neuter. 
 
 Vol. Volume. 
 
 v.p. Verb passive. 
 
 V.R. "Victoria Regina," 
 
 Victoria the Queen. 
 
 W. West. 
 
 Wed. or Wednes. Wednesday. 
 
 Wk. Week. 
 
 W.L. West Longitude. 
 
 W.N.W. West North West. 
 
 Wm. William. 
 
 W.S. W. West South West. 
 
 X. or Xt. Christ. 
 
 Xm. or Xmas. Christmas. 
 
 Xn. or Xtian. Christian. 
 
 Xty. Christianity. 
 
 Yrd., Yd. Yard. 
 
 Yds. Yards. 
 
 Yr., Yrs. Year, Years. 
 
 Yt. That. 
 
 
 "Et" and. 
 
 "Et cetera," k other. 
 
8 DU'TIOyARY OF TERMS 
 
 A('cent.'<. — Certaiii marks over vowels, to direct the modulation of 
 the voice. In the English Language they are chiefly used in Spelling 
 hooks or Dictionaries, to mark the syllables, and where to lay parti- 
 cular stress in the pronunciation. — Murratj. 
 
 Albion Press. — An iron press, invented by Mr. R. C. Cope. Jt is of 
 great power, and smooth and easy in working. 
 
 Alphabet. — Letters, or characters to denote the articulate sounds of 
 a language. 
 
 Anastatic Printing, or Zincography. — A method of printing from 
 zinc, in the same manner as from stone, in lithography. 
 
 A printed page, an engraving, or a bank note may be exactly copied 
 by this invention. Moisten the printed paper with dilute phosphoric 
 acid, lay it face downw' ards on a clean sheet of Zinc, and put it in a 
 press for a short time. The acid of the unprinted part etches the zinc 
 beneath, while the printed part sets off on the zinc, and thus produces 
 a reverse copy of the printing. Wash the plate with an acid solution 
 of gum, and it will be ready for use. The plate may now be treated 
 as the stone in Lithographic Printing ; first damped, and then rolled. 
 The affinity of the ink to the letters already " set off" on the plate, 
 and the repulsion of the other parts of the plate, cause the lines of the 
 device to take the ink, but the other parts remain clean, the printing 
 then follows. See Lithography. 
 
 Anti-penultimate. — The last syllable but two of a word. 
 
 Antique. — The name of a fancy type, with a thick, black face. 
 Much used for striking lines, or headings in job work. 
 
 Apostrophe. — An apostrophe, marked thus,' is used to abbreviate or 
 shorten a word ; as ^tis, for it is ; e'en, for even. Its chief use is to 
 show the genitive case of nouns, as a man's bodkin ; a woman's cloth. 
 
 Apprentice. — A youth bound, articled, or indentured to a master, 
 to learn any given trade or business. An Act, " No. XIX of 1850," 
 concerning the " Binding of Apprentices," was passed by the Governor 
 General of India in Council. 
 
 Every boy " bound" to learn the business of an English compositor, 
 should be able to read and write the English language ; for if he 
 cannot he will never be a swift workman, as he will be obliged to 
 compare the types letter by letter with his copy, to his great loss 
 of time, and yet will, most likely, pass numerous errors. 
 
 The most necessary endowments for a lad desirous of becoming a 
 printer are, a considerable portion of bodily strength and activity ; an 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 9 
 
 eye for symmetry of form ; a willingness to be taught ; and a tone for 
 reading and study. The most necessary acquirements are orderly and 
 attentive habits, a grammatical knowledge of the language on which 
 he is to be employed, and an acquaintance with arithmetic and book- 
 keeping. But there are few branches of learning, or even of science a 
 knowledge of which will not be found occasionally useful to a printer. 
 Having adopted the trade, a lad cannot be too attentive to the proper 
 performance of his duties ; and he should strenuously endeavour to 
 obtain a clear comprehension of the principles of the process in which 
 he is engaged, and of the united results of the details by which he is 
 surrounded. 
 
 Many, I may say most master-printers, when a lad is first put to the 
 business, give him j^i'e to sort. This may make him well acquainted 
 with the founts in an Office, but I have always found more pie made 
 in the process. In my opinion, it is better to put a beginner to his 
 case at once, to give him a frame, and set him to " learn his cases," 
 that is, to find in what box each distinct letter is kept, capitals, small 
 capitals, accents, and figures, lower case, double letters (ligatures), 
 points, spaces, and quadrats. While learning his cases he should be 
 stationed by the side of a good compositor, willing to act as a teacher, 
 who should point out the uses of the various letters and spaces, and 
 how to distinguish such types as b, d ; p, q ; n, u ; &c. This can be 
 best done orally. 
 
 As soon as the learner knows where to find any letter required, he 
 should have some copy given him, as plain and simple as possible (if 
 reprint all the better), and should be allowed to comjyose, his teacher 
 watching him, and if he goes to work awkwardly, as most beginners 
 will, showing how to hold the stick conveniently, and how best to pick 
 up the types. He should be instructed, too, to attend carefully to his 
 spacing ; to have, as nearly as possible, the same space between the 
 words throughout the line ; to space all the lines alike, driving out 
 small words if necessary for the purpose, not spacing very closely for 
 two or three lines, and then leaving gaps for two or three lines more. 
 He should be taught, too, not to have a multiplicity of divisions, not to 
 turn over such syllables as ed or an ; and in wide measures he should 
 be shown that all divisions are unnecessary. When he knows the 
 places of all the types, can tell the characters at a glance, can separate 
 the &'s from the (i's, or jo's and g's if mixed in pie, he may be allowed 
 to distribute, but not till then. This, I am aware, is contrary to the 
 general practice, but a moment's thought will show the system I 
 advise to be the best. If a lad begins to distribute before he has a 
 knowledge of his case, or of the metal characters, as a natural con.se- 
 
 B 
 
10 DICTKONARY OF TERMS 
 
 quence he puts sorts in tlie wrong boxes, and mixes many of the 
 letters ; that is, to use a teclinical expression, he " puts his case in 
 pie." By teaching him to compose first, much of this is obviated; 
 and, although he may compose very slowly, space badly, and perhaps 
 make two or three " outs" or " doubles," his matter will not be so full 
 of literal errors as if he had, before composing, distributed his letter. 
 
 Wlien, by composing and distributing plain solid matter, the learner 
 has obtained a perfect knowledge of one fount, he may be set to sort 
 and distribute pie, and so become acquainted with the characteristics 
 and difference in size and appearance of every variety of type in the 
 office. 
 
 After attaining a tolerable proficiency in solid work, the learner 
 should be allowed, still under the tuition of a thorough printer, to 
 compose statements (or more properly, table work). At first he should 
 be shown how to regulate the measures of his headings, and how to 
 join his rules neatly and in a workman-like manner ; but as soon as 
 possible, he must be left to trust to his own judgment in these things, 
 his tutor carefully pointing out when he is wrong, and invariably 
 giving reasons for any alterations required, so that the learner may 
 not for an instant suppose he has to do his work over again merely 
 to gratify a whim of his teacher, and may know how to avoid similar 
 errors in future. 
 
 As the Apprentice improves in his workmanship, he should be 
 allowed to set small "jobs," " titles," &c., his tutor explaining to him 
 how to pick the principal lines, when to use light or heavy types, 
 condensed or bold characters, and what may be kept in smaller type, 
 as comparatively unimportant. 
 
 The teacher, while his pupil is learning to compose, should observe 
 and check the false (or useless) movements which many compositors 
 indulge in. Some tick the letter two or three times against the stick 
 before placing it ; some bow and bend as if they w^ere salaaming to 
 the case or copy ; some jerk the type about every time they pick up a 
 letter ; while others grope and scramble as though it were of the first 
 importance to get at the bottom of the case without using the letter 
 at the top. 
 
 These movements cause much time to be lost, and also damage the 
 types, and the Apprentice should therefore be careful to avoid therti. 
 (For further instructions, see " Compositor, &c.") 
 
 I cannot do better than to insert, in this place, an address to young 
 people learning the printing business, extracted from a little book on 
 the " Results of Printing" which was published in England in 1855. 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 11 
 
 And now, before I conclude, a word or two to those who liave just 
 entered into the profession — an honorable and useful one, and, as I 
 have endeavoured to show not without its reward. You have been 
 admitted within the porch of this literary building. If you have no 
 ambition but to pass your time as hodmen or paddy labourers, are 
 satisfied with being able to follow your copy, without caring to 
 understand whether it is sense or otherwise, like the Chinese tailor, 
 who being employed to make a pair of breeches, and having an old 
 pair given to him as a pattern of size— not only produced a pair of 
 the precise dimensions, but even repeated the botching and patching 
 of the pattern, why in that case there will be no difficulty in satisfy- 
 ing your pitiful ambition. If, on the contrary, — and which I would 
 gladly hope is the case with all — you desire to become worthy 
 members of the literary world, — this can only be accomplished by 
 resolution, perseverance, and industry — ^by usefully employing every 
 hour you can spare from necessary employment — and every one has 
 abundance of time, however early or late he may be engaged, if the 
 will exists for the acquisition of knowledge. 
 
 " Franklin's example is well worth attention. His success in life 
 was secured by his great industry, frugality, and shrewdness. He 
 spent no time in taverns, games, or frolics, reading was the only 
 amusement he allowed himself. If you properly employ those loose 
 moments which occur to every one, and use them in improving your 
 minds, you raise yourselves one step above your fellows, and acquire 
 information which may contribute essentially to your future pros- 
 perity and advantage." 
 
 Benjamin Franklin, referred to in one of the paragraphs just quoted, 
 was once a journeyman printer. He was apprenticed and learned the 
 trade in America, but laboured as a journeyman for some time in 
 London ; afterwards he returned to America and commenced business 
 on his own account ; he became proprietor of a newspaper, and when 
 the United Provinces revolted had the appointment of Deputy Post 
 Master General bestowed on him. Whilst the war was progressing 
 he was appointed agent at the court of London for the province of 
 Massachusetts. There are many other examples, besides that of 
 Franklin, of Printers who have risen to distinction by great industry 
 coupled with that tone of knowledge which should peculiarly belong 
 to their art. John M'Creary, was Apprenticed as a pressman, and 
 although when young very poor, by dint of industry and an invincible 
 determination, became a master printer, and amassed a sum sufficient 
 to enable him to retire from business, and enjoy peace and plenty in 
 his old age. Before he w^as out of his time he wrote a poem called 
 
12 DICTIONARY OV TP:RM«5 
 
 " I'lie PresM," dt'scriptive of the discovery, advantages, and influence 
 of printing. 
 
 A Compositor stands in the best situation for obtaining a perfect 
 acquaintance with the details and general management of the Print- 
 ing business, and from this class, therefore, have proceeded most of 
 those who have reached higher employments, as readers, overseers, 
 !Masters, or authors. William Strachan, who became the wealthy 
 kings' printer, entered London a poor journeyman. John Nichols, was 
 apprenticed to Mr. Bowyer, to whom he rendered himself so useful 
 that even while an apprentice he became his assistant, and afterwards 
 partner. David Henry, for some time printer and part proprietor of 
 the Gentleman's Magazine, was a journeyman till he was nearly thirty 
 years of age. John Patterson, a journeyman printer in Albany, has 
 gathered an immense amount^of learning. He is well versed in 
 mathematics, and can read and write Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and 
 Arabic, wdth ease and fluency. Besides this he can converse in every 
 language spoken in Europe. All this he has done with no aid but 
 industry and no higher salary than that bestowed upon a journeyman 
 printer; 
 
 Let all who learn our art look at these examples. All cannot 
 become great men, but all 77iay try ; and what one man can do, cannot 
 be altogether impossible to another under the same circumstances. 
 
 Ascending letteis. — Letters which are above the line, including all 
 capitals, and lower case b, d, f, h, k, 1. 
 
 Asterisk — A small star, which is generally used to direct the 
 
 reader's attention to some note in the margin or at the foot of the 
 
 page. Two or three asterisks, thus, N * * *, denote the omission of 
 
 some letters in a word ; a line, thus, 
 
 ******** 
 
 that a sentence or sentences is omitted, or'tliat there is a defect in 
 the MS. 
 
 Axithor's 'proof. — A clean proof pulled and sent to the author or 
 editor of a work, for him to certify correctness, or make such altera- 
 tions and emendations as he may think proper. 
 
USED IN PRINTINO. 13 
 
 B. 
 
 Bctck boxes. — Tliose boxes in an italic upper case, whicli in tlie 
 Roman are occupied by small capitals. 
 
 Bach of the form. — The under side, or bottom of the types. 
 
 Bach. — Furniture placed between the pages in a form, the margins 
 of which, when bound, form the back of the book. It is sometimes 
 called the gutter. 
 
 Bank. — A light table, about three feet high, placed near the foot of 
 the press, upon which the pressman lays his heap. It should have 
 a drawer in front, in which to keep points, revises, thin paper, &c., 
 which otherwise must be on the platten or loose on the table. 
 
 Baixmowshi's Tichet Machme.- -This is a beautiful little machine, 
 about twelve inches long, nine wide, and eight high, and very complex 
 in its mechanism. 
 
 The types are arranged on the circumference of small wheels, placed 
 vertically ; and on turning an handle, which presses down the frame 
 which contains the wheels, by a sort of piston, or plug, the types come 
 in contact with paper or paste board placed beneath ; but before doing 
 so, the movement causes a small inking roller to work quickly over 
 the face of the tj'pes, and thus enables them to print in black or any 
 other colored ink. By means of a series of cogs and ratchets some of 
 the type wheels make part of a revolution after each impression, so as 
 to present a new figure for the next movement. A number of blank 
 cards are placed in the upper part of the machine, and every time the 
 handle is turned one of them is displaced, printed on, and pushed out 
 of the machine. 3,000 cards can be printed in an hour. 
 
 Bashei'ville Machine. — A single cylinder grij^per machine, very 
 useful and easily worked. 
 
 Batter. — To injure the face of the letter in any way. 
 
 Beard of the letter. — The edge of the square shoulder of the shank, 
 usually bevelled off by type-founders. 
 
 Bearer. — A piece of reglet, or other material, used to bear the 
 impression off a blank or light page. Corks cut to fit on the frisket 
 between the folios, by the sides of rules, short pages, or light matter, 
 form excellent bearers, and are very useful to prevent slurring, or a 
 too heavy impression. 
 
 Bed ofthffranif. — The platform at the bottom. 
 
14 
 
 DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 Bill. — With letter-founders, a specific proportionate number of let- 
 ters, or types. Tlie following estimate is for tlie lower case of a fount 
 of Pica, weighing 800 lbs. 
 
 a 
 
 8,500 
 
 
 
 8,000 
 
 fl 
 
 200 
 
 u 
 
 100 
 
 : 
 
 600 
 
 b 
 
 1,600 
 
 P 
 
 1,700 
 
 fii 
 
 150 
 
 A 
 
 a 
 
 200 
 
 • 
 
 2,000 
 
 c 
 
 3,000 
 
 q 
 
 500 
 
 ffl 
 
 100 
 
 e 
 
 200 
 
 - 
 
 1,000 
 
 d 
 
 4,400 
 
 r 
 
 6,200 
 
 se 
 
 100 
 
 A 
 1 
 
 100 
 
 1 
 
 200 
 
 e 
 
 12,000 
 
 s 
 
 8,000 
 
 ce 
 
 50 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 ! 
 
 150 
 
 f 
 
 2,500 
 
 t 
 
 9,000 
 
 a 
 
 100 
 
 A 
 
 u 
 
 100 
 
 J 
 
 700 
 
 g 
 
 1,700 
 
 u 
 
 3,400 
 
 e 
 
 250 
 
 a 
 
 100 
 
 Thick spaces 18,000 
 
 h 
 
 6,400 
 
 V 
 
 1,200 
 
 1 
 
 100 
 
 e 
 
 100 
 
 Middle „ 12,000 
 
 • 
 
 1 
 
 8,000 
 
 w 
 
 2,000 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 i 
 
 100 
 
 Thin „ 8,000 
 
 J 
 
 400 
 
 X 
 
 400 
 
 11 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 Hair „ 3,000 
 
 k 
 
 800 
 
 y 
 
 2,000 
 
 d 
 
 200 
 
 U 
 
 100 
 
 m quadrats, 2,500 
 
 1 
 
 4,000 
 
 z 
 
 200 
 
 ^ 
 
 100 
 
 9 
 
 100 
 
 n „ 5,000 
 
 m 
 
 3,000 
 
 fi 
 
 500 
 
 i 
 
 100 
 
 ) 
 
 4,500 
 
 
 11 
 
 8,000 
 
 ff 
 
 400 
 
 6 
 
 100 
 
 y 
 
 800 
 
 
 Capitals, figures, em and en quadrats, and 2, 3, and 4 em quadrats 
 should be cast to suit the work for which the type is intended. 
 
 Founts of any other weight may be calculated on these proportions. 
 
 Binding,— Whm the side or footsticks, or any part of the furniture 
 is too long, and overlaps another part, so as to prevent the quoins 
 wedging the matter tight, it is termed binding. 
 
 Bite. — When the frisket is not properly cut away, so that a part of 
 the edge of the page, or the folio, does not appear on the paper. 
 
 Blankets. — Woollen cloth or white baize used to place between the 
 tympans, to make a yielding pad. 
 
 Blank lines. See White lines. 
 
 Blank pages. — Pages in which no matter appears. 
 
 Board-rack. — A case made of strong boards, with ledges nailed on 
 the inside of the two sides, to slide letter-boards in : they are used for 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 15 
 
 keeping standing pages and jobs more out of the way tlian can be done 
 on galleys, and where more care can be taken of them. 
 
 Bodkin. — A sharp steel instrument, used to pick wrong letters out 
 pf a page in correcting. 
 
 Body. — The shank of the letter. The size of the type from back to 
 front — thus, English body — Pica body. 
 
 Body of a work. — The subject matter of any volume. 
 
 Bolster. — A piece of wood placed between the ribs of a press, to 
 prevent the table running out too far, and to ease the sudden strain 
 which would be otherwise caused on the girthing. 
 
 Bolts. — The furniture which forms the margin at the heads of the 
 pages in the off-cut in a form of twelves. 
 
 Botched. — ^Work badly finished, or in which improper materials are 
 used. 
 
 Bottom line. — The last line in a page. 
 
 Bourgeois. — The name of a type a size smaller than Long Primer. 
 There are 102 lines in a foot. 
 
 Box. — The divisions of a case in which the letters are kept, as the 
 a box, i box, &c. 
 
 Boxwood. — A firm, fine grained wood, much used for engraving. 
 The best is of a clear yellow colour, and is procured from the Levant. 
 It is generally called Turkey box. 
 
 Brace. — A character cast thus --^^^^s^-*-^, used to prevent a repetition 
 in writing or printing, or to connect a number of words with one 
 common term. 
 
 Branching out. — Opening or extending the matter in title pages, 
 headings, or jobs. — {See Whiting out.) 
 
 Brass Ride. — Pieces of brass, of different thicknesses, type high, 
 and used to print lines between columns of figures or matter, in tabular 
 pages ; to place round pages as an ornament, between the columns of 
 newspapers, and for many other purposes. 
 
 Brayer. — A round wooden rubber, about 2| inches in diameter, 
 of the shape of an inverted cone, solid, and flat at the bottom. It is 
 used to bray, or rub out ink on the table, to be taken up by the roller. 
 
 Break. — A short line ; the end of a paragraph. 
 
 Brevier. — The name of a type, a size larger than Minion, and smaller 
 than Bourgeois. There are 112^ lines to a foot. 
 
 Bring-up. — To bring up a form is to place overlays on those parts 
 
16 DICTIONAUT OF TKRMS 
 
 ill which the impression is deficient, and to cut away those portions in 
 which it is too heavy, so as to equalize the pressure and colour over 
 the whole form. 
 
 Broad. — The technical name for a piece of furniture, equal in width 
 to a broad quotation ; i. e., four ems pica. 
 
 Broadside.— A. form of one full page, printed on one side of a sheet 
 of paper. Broadsides vary in size from a sheet of crown to double 
 royal. Of late years broadsides have been struck on as many as thirty 
 sheets of double crown. In such cases the lines are so arranged as to 
 form one large sheet when pasted against a wall or the side of a house. 
 The size in most common use is demy. 
 
 Broken lettei^s. — Type squabbled or deranged. Pages put in pie. 
 
 Broken matter. — Same as above. 
 
 Bronze. — Metallic powders, of various colours, much used in orna- 
 mental printing. The lines which are to be bronzed are printed with 
 a peculiar varnish, and the powder is immediately applied with a little 
 loose cotton. When dry the superfluous dust may be rubbed off with 
 a hare's foot or a camel-hair pencil. For very fine work the bronze 
 should be burnished, either by running through a glazing press, or 
 rubbing with a burnishing tooth. 
 
 Bulk. — A platform fixed to the end of a frame, on which to place a 
 board to wet matter for distribution. 
 
 Bundle. — A heap of paper of two perfect reams, or 1,000 sheets. 
 
 Burr. — A roughness on types which the founder has not removed 
 
 in dressing. 
 
 c. 
 
 Cancel. — To strike out pages in which errors have passed, or which 
 the author, after printing, does not wish to appear. When a leaf is 
 cancelled it should be torn across, so that the binder may see it and 
 turn it out. In reprinting pages which have been cancelled, it is usual 
 to place an asterisk in lieu of the signature, that the binder may know 
 for what the pages are intended. 
 
 Canon. — A type, one size larger than Trafalgar, the body is equal 
 to four lines of Pica, and there are 18^ lines to the foot. 
 
 Capitals,— 'LqUqv^ of a form different from lower case. For their 
 use, see head " Punctuation." 
 
/ -/ The process of printing, yihen compared -witk thett of 
 
 ^nitrng, Is xmqxifistiDnably a-ete- process; piovL^fid a ^ a'UcJiy 
 3 coftceJ ff/ ^irfiicieiit iiimii)6r of any particAiktr "booka-re panted, 30 4: -U- 
 ^ Q as to TCJipej* th-fe pw poition of the lixst eapense -upon a s r^ 
 7o^ sini^gle copy incoiisicieTa'ble. If, for example, it were 
 
 Tec[iiired, even at the present inomaiLt tme, to print a S'^ 
 single copy; or even three fcopies^r fo\ii\, only of any ^ Jj^y 
 production, th.e cost of piiating would be greater tlian 
 ^^/lAi/n^cmy the cost of transd'iting. 
 
 ^It is wlien hundreds, and especially thousands, of the //« / 
 samewoik ai'e demanded that the great value of the / 
 ^^y?V printing- press in mainig' knowledge cheap, is par- 
 ticularly shown. [^ is prol)al)le that th.e iiist printei's ^^ ^yy.^, 
 did not tal<e of[" more than two or three hundred, if so 
 ^-^r/ niaaiy of their "v^orlis^ and, therefore, the earliest printed 
 looohs must liave l)een still dear, on account of the 
 '^yo/r^uc/ limited number of their readers. Caxtow , as it appears ^'Q/.^. 
 
 hy a passage in one of his books, Wcas a- cautiotli i printer ; '^7^^P^^ / 
 and required something like an assurance tlL^t he should '^^■^^u^/ 
 sell enough of any particular book to repay t,he cost of 
 ^ 6/ producing' it In his * Legends of Saints, " h.e says, " I ^^J. oaJuf 
 have submysed (submitted) myself to translate into 
 
 ^^{d . Englisli tlie 3aintsj^?\Legend/ ^^ J? 
 
 ^^' CaAj/w Latin \ and William , Earl of Arundel, /^ent me a 
 
 " 'Vot55p^^ g-entleman, promising that my said lord 
 
 ** sli uld ^^^^"^ mylhfe, give and grant to me a yearly fee, 
 ' -. . " o note, a buck in summer and a doe in winter ^7^^ 
 
 2'S y. 
 
 1 Is the mark for changing the wrong letter in the word process. 
 
 \ a^nd 2 '^'tTc ^firsUstJmeToS marking a short insertion, the second of morking a long ono. 
 
 '4 To have a blank space put between the two words 
 
 1 To have no fresh paragraph. 
 
 11 To substitute a comma for a full-point or period. 
 
 ;^- ll T'Zill. "t^ SToints aud marks of quotation. 
 
 I'e llX^rVlf::"^^^^^^^^-^^^-^ ^^' - -^^^ letters, Koma„ is ahvays understood, 
 
 , - To have"f ."^"n^'^St^ been aeeidentally or erroneously marked. 
 
 fc- ll S'ml'^e t^turss^rTb^lacktrStttee,. the words, whieh aiises from .hatshould form the 
 space not having been pushed down. 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 17 
 
 Card. — A peculiar thick paper, used for various purposes, but par- 
 ticularly for Names and Addresses of persons, and to describe the 
 calling of trades-people. 
 
 Caret. — A mark (a) used to denote that words are to be inserted. 
 
 Carriage. — That part of the press which runs in under the platen. 
 
 Case. — A frame, or set of boxes in which letter is kept to compose 
 with. Cases are always spoken of as pairs, viz., the Upper Case, in 
 which capitals, small capitals, figures, and accents are kept, and the 
 Lower Case, used for the small letters, points, spaces, and quadrats. 
 In England they are made of beech, but in this country teakwood is 
 most used. Cases should always be lined with paper, or they will be 
 likely to damage the face of types at the bottoms of the boxes. 
 
 Case-rack. — A strong frame, with ledges, in which to slide cases that 
 are not in use, to keep them safely. 
 
 Cassie paper. — Damaged paper, the outside quires in a ream. 
 
 Cast up. — To calculate the number of types in a page, form, or 
 sheet, and their value for work done at so much per thousand letters. 
 The following is the method of proceeding. 
 
 Measure the length of the page, including head line, with em quad- 
 rats, and the breadth with en quadrats of the font in which the matter 
 is set ; multiply them together, and the product will be the number of 
 letters in a page. This multiplied by the number of pages in a sheet, 
 will give the total number of letters contained in it, and the thousands 
 being multiplied by the price paid per 1,000, will give the total value 
 of the sheet or half sheet to the compositor, who is paid for work done. 
 Thus a page of Proceedings of Government is 67 ems long and 82 ems 
 wide : — then 
 
 67 X 82 =• 5,494 X 4 pages (| sheet) = 21,976, or say 22,000 letters 
 in a half sheet. 22,000 @ 2 annas per thousand = Rupees 2-12-0. 
 
 In casting up it is usual if the number of tj^'pes over a thousand 
 amount to less than 500 to strike them off ; and if they amount to 500 
 or more to reckon them as a thousand. Thus 21,459 is called 21,000 
 only ; but 21,559 is called 22,000. 
 
 Cast off. — To examine MS. copy, and determine how many pages it 
 will make in any given size and type. This is done by composing five 
 or six lines selected from some part which seems to be of the average 
 style of writing, and thus ascertaining how many lines of MS. will 
 make even lines of print. Suppose there are six hundred pages of MS., 
 averaging thirty lines in a page, and that it is required to know how 
 many pages of foolscap folio it will occupy in print. There are 
 
 c 
 
18 DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 altogether 18,000 lines of MS. ; nine lines of MS. make five of print, 
 therefore there will be 10,000 lines of print, wliich at 53 lines to a page 
 will make 189 pages. Sometimes it is necessary to cast off reprint 
 copy, to determine what quantity will be got in, or driven out, by 
 setting in larger or smaller type. 
 
 Catch-ivord. — The first word of the following page, placed at the 
 right-hand corner at the foot of tlie page. Catch-words are seldom 
 used in modern times, except in law papers or MSS. 
 
 Cater-cornered. — A term applied to uneven paper, or paper whose 
 sides are not right angles with each other. 
 
 Caxton Press, — A single cylinder, gripper machine, in which the 
 rollers are loose and are inked from a table affixed to the carriage oi 
 the press. The ink-table travels with the carriage, so that form and 
 table pass under the rollers alternately. It is of very simple construc- 
 tion and easily worked. 
 
 Cerijjhs. — The fine lines at the bottoms and cross strokes of letters. 
 Chase. — An iron frame in which pages are securely fastened to print 
 from. They are made of the following sizes : 
 
 Double Royal, 4to., 8vo., 12mo., 
 
 18mo. 
 Double Demy, 4to., 8vo., 12mo., 
 
 18mo. 
 Double Crown, 4to., 8vo., 12mo. 
 
 „ Foolscap, 4to., 8vo. 
 Super-Royal, 4to., 8vo., 12mo., 
 
 18mo. 
 
 Royal, 4to., 8vo., 12mo., 18mo. 
 
 Demy folio, 4to., 8vo., 12mo. 
 
 Crown folio, 4to., 8vo. 
 
 Foolscap folio, 4to. 
 
 Besides these are Heading, Job, 
 Card, Broadside (according to 
 size of paper,) and News 
 Chases. 
 
 Choked. — Type filled up with dirt, or the sediment of ink, so that it 
 does not work clear, is said to be choked. 
 
 The term is also used when too much ink has been spread on the 
 form. 
 
 Clarendon. — A lighter kind of Antique letter, much used for Job 
 work. 
 
 Clean Proof. — A proof with but few faults in it. A proof pulled 
 carefully after correction, to send to the author, or to read for press, 
 is also called a clean proof. 
 
 Clear'ing away. — Taking out leads, white lines, and smaller type 
 from the body of a v/ork after printing, so that the type may be 
 papered up and put away. 
 
 Clearing Pie. — Separating various sizes, or kinds of types from a 
 confused mass, and placing each letter in its proper box and case. 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 10 
 
 Clicker. — The compositor who, in a companioiiship, receives the 
 copy and gives it out to compose, and attends to tlie correct making 
 up and printing. A clicker, in England, occupies the same post, and 
 has the same responsibilities as the foreman of a department in India. 
 {S<^e Companionship.) 
 
 Close matter. — Pages with few breaks or whites, or without leads 
 between the lines. 
 
 Close spacing. — Putting as little space as possible between words. 
 
 Cogger's Press. — A powerful press, excellent for fine work, but little 
 used now, as it is very apt to get out of repair. 
 
 Collate. — To examine the signatures in each gathering of a book, to 
 see that they are consecutive. 
 
 Colutribian Press. — A press invented by Mr. George Clymer, of Phila- 
 delphia. The first press of this kind constructed in London was put 
 up in 1818, and afterwards sent to Russia. It is an iron press, witli- 
 out a screw. The head is a powerful lever, acted on by other levers, 
 to which the bar is attached and produces the pressure. The platen 
 is attached to the head by a strong iron bar, and the descent is made 
 steady and regular by two iron guides which project from the cheeks. 
 The power of this press is very great, and from the simplicity of its 
 construction it is best suited to the unskilled labour of this country. 
 
 Column Galley. — A long narrow galley, used for newspaper work. 
 
 Companionshi}:). — A number of men employed together upon a work 
 or works, under a head man chosen by themselves, and called a clicker. 
 It is a system peculiarly adapted to piece work. When a companion- 
 ship is formed, the members draw lots, to decide upon which works 
 they shall be employed in the first instance, and the clicker gives 
 them copy accordingly. The number of lines containing a thousand 
 letters are calculated for the various works, and that number is called 
 " an hour ;" the workmen keeping all their accounts in " hours." 
 While the compositors are setting up the first matter the clicker gets 
 his furniture ready, sets up any blanks that may be required, and, as 
 far as he can, sets the notes. As soon as sufficient matter is out, 
 he makes up and imposes. At the end of the week the clicker 
 makes out the bill for the work done by the whole companionship. 
 When he has found the total value, he divides it over the whole 
 number of " hours" done by the men, and each man has his labour 
 exactly paid for, the best men, or the most diligent, getting the 
 highest pay, from having done the greatest number of hours' work. 
 
20 DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 Composing. — Placing the types in their proper order in the compos- 
 ing stick, and spacing the words so as to make even lines. 
 
 When composing, the stick is held in the left hand, with the 
 thumb touching the setting rule. The copy should be placed on the 
 ridge of the upper case, so as to be directly before the eyes of the 
 compositor, who looks, quickly, but carefully, at his copy, striving to 
 remember, if he can do so correctly, nearly or quite a line at a time. 
 He then begins picking up the types in their proper order, carefully 
 watching his case to see which way the type he is about to lift lies in 
 it, so that he may turn it when necessary, as he moves his hand rapidly 
 to the stick, without losing lime in looking at and turning it after it is 
 lifted. The left hand with the composing stick, should always follow 
 the right, which picks up the letters. If the left hand remains 
 stationary, much time is lost in carrying each letter to the stick, 
 because the right has, consequently, to traverse a much greater space 
 than is necessary. 
 
 When words sufficient to form a line have been set, the compositor 
 proceeds to space out, glancing over the lines while spacing out to see 
 that there are no errors in them. Having spaced his line {see spacing) 
 moderately tight, he shifts his setting rule, reads a new sentence of 
 his copy, and commences a fresh line. When lines sufficient to fill the 
 stick have been set up, they are emptied on to a galley placed ready 
 on a case by his side, and he commences a fresh stickful. Regularity 
 of spacing contributes in a material degree to the appearance of a 
 book, and great care should be taken to obtain this regularity. There 
 is a great diversity of opinion regarding spacing ; some printers choos- 
 ing to have the words wide apart, while others have them close ; but 
 both of these systems are faulty. Thick spaces where possible, with 
 as little more or less as can be done with, gives far the best appearance 
 to any book, and the least trouble to the compositor. W^hen a work 
 is double leaded a wider space is necessary, and an en quadrat may be 
 the standard. 
 
 Much valuable time is lost by reading and correcting matter when 
 the stick is full, or emptied in the galley. If each line is read while 
 being spaced out, this will not be necessary, and it is much less trou- 
 ble to correct any literal error while the types are loose, or to insert a 
 word or letter which may have been left out, than it is when the lines 
 are tight in the stick. 
 
 When matter is leaded, the lead should be placed in the stick 
 immediately the line is finished, before shifting the setting rule. If 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 21 
 
 this is not done, but the leads inserted in the galley or on the imposing 
 stone, they not only take at least thrice the time to insert, but push 
 the matter off its feet, and so cause the type to wear rapidly by^having 
 all the impression on one edge. Letters' are often knocked down, 
 errors caused, and a fresh examination rendered necessary by this 
 foolish system. 
 
 The mere picking up of letters, and arranging them in the compos- 
 ing stick, is looked upon by many who call themselves compositors as 
 constituting the whole of their business. Never was a greater mistake. 
 Picking up types quickly is but a mechanical operation. A good 
 compositor should be able to set solid matter or statements, reprint or 
 manuscript equally well. He should be able to display a title or broad- 
 side, as well as compose for a newspaper ; and should be competent to 
 make up, impose, [and correct his matter without any other assistance 
 than that of the reader. He should have an eye for symmetry of form, 
 or he will not display w^ork neatly. He should be of orderly and 
 attentive habits ; have a strong desire to excel ; a love of reading and 
 study; a grammatical knowledge of the language on which he is 
 employed, and be able to punctuate his matter as he composes, such 
 a man will be a " good compositor," and need never fear want of 
 employment. 
 
 The following extract from " Savage's Dictionary of Printing," 
 although written in England, will apply to printers in any part of the 
 globe. The author has been speaking of a bad workman, and goes on 
 to say 
 
 " How different is the case with the man who is anxious to deserve 
 ** the character of a good workman. In his youth he has been desir- 
 ous to acquire expedition, and having attained it, he has felt that 
 other requisites were necessary. He has read, to obtain informa- 
 tion ; he has examined the best workmanship, as specimens for his 
 " guidance ; he endeavours to compose accurately ; he is careful and 
 ** uniform in his spacing ; he divides words correctly, and with a 
 " regard to appearance; and when occasional bits of rule work occur, 
 " they are marked by a degree of neatness in being cut to precise 
 " lengths, and in the corners fitting with precision ; in all the work 
 *' that passes through his hands there appear the marks of attention 
 " and skill. 
 
 " When a master printer undertakes a work which requires more than 
 " ordinary care, and is difficult to execute, the superiority of the man 
 " who has endeavoured to improve himself is e\ddent : he is selected 
 
22 DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 '' to perforin it ; and lie then feels the advantage of his perseverance. 
 " At work upon a difficult subject, with an ill written manuscript, 
 *' his first proofs show him equal to the task. His arrangements of 
 " the matter are judicious, his punctuation is correct; when particu- 
 " lar sorts are to be justified, they are done with accuracy ; and when 
 '' his proof returns from the reader he will frequently correct it in as 
 " little time as a slovenly compositor will require to correct a proof of 
 ^' a similar size that is a reprint. 
 
 " The good workman is prized by his employer, especially if the 
 *' latter be a workman himself, and is a man of judgment. He is 
 ^' looked up to by his fellow Avorkmen ; his situation is permanent, if 
 *' he choose ; his abilities qualify him to be a reader, and if his mind 
 ^' lead him that way, he may obtain such a situation. His knowledge 
 ^' and his merit fit him to become the overseer (Superintendent) of a 
 ^' large house, where he has many advantages, and where he continues 
 *' with credit to himself, unless, perhaps, he chooses to commence 
 ** business on his own account, when he invariably obtains the coun- 
 ^' tenance and support of those who have witnessed his skill, his 
 " knowledge, his attention, and his industry." 
 
 Composing Machines. — Several persons have spent many years of 
 their lives in endeavouring to invent machinery to do the work of the 
 compositor ; but all have failed in a greater or lesser degree. They 
 have facilitated the mere act of putting types together, beyond that 
 they have not gone (unless the new American machine may prove a 
 success but this I have not yet seen), some of these machines are 
 ingenious pieces of mechanism, and compose types rapidly, by the 
 aid of one or more persons ; yet they are not employed by printers, 
 because it is found impossible to make a machine capable of thought, 
 and thought is necessary in justifying, making up, and correcting. 
 
 In 1842 much attention was attracted by two rival machines. The 
 first of these was the invention of Messrs. Young and Delcambre. To 
 work it the compositor sat before a keyboard and pressed his fingers 
 on the keys of his silent piano instead of picking letters out of little 
 boxes. The key touched moved a lever ; the lever pushed a type out 
 of a little receptacle ; the type slid down an inclined plane into a box, 
 from which the compositor took the lines as they were composed, and 
 justified them in his composing stick. 
 
 Captain Rosenberg's machine had the same piano-forte arrangement 
 of keys, and was played upon in the same manner. But, instead 
 <$f moving a lever, the key itself detached a type from a vertical rack ; 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 25 
 
 the types, when detaclied, ranged themselves on an endless belt, and 
 leaving the belt entered a close receiver. When a complete line was 
 formed the machine gave a stroke on a bell to warn the compositor to 
 take it away. 
 
 This machine had a distributor attached, and was therefore more 
 complete than the former, but so many attendants were required that 
 it was not found to pay. 
 
 M. "Sorenson," a Native of Denmark, was the inventor of the next. 
 His was a singular machine, much like a bird-cage. Two circular 
 cases were placed one over the other, the upper being capable of 
 revolving on its axis independant of the lower. The upper case was 
 for distributing ; the lower case for composing. To distribute, the 
 compositor took up a few types, and placed them between the brass 
 bars of the cage, from whence they slid down to a plate separating 
 the two. This latter was perforated in such a manner that only one 
 kind of letter would pass through each perforation, every letter being 
 nicked, or notched, differently; as the upper case revolved, the types 
 discovered the perforation through which alone they could creep into 
 the lower cage. The cage had as many vertical brass bars as there 
 are letters, and by degrees the space within the bars became filled 
 with types of all one letter; this ended the distribution. In this 
 machine also the compositor played on a set of keys, which acted 
 upon strings ; the strings in their turn acted upon springs ; the springs 
 pushed out the requisite letters from between the bars of the cage ; 
 the types descended to a sloping plate, then through a spiral tube, 
 then into a receiver, where they arranged themselves side by side. 
 A foot pedal moved the receiver gently along as the types dropped 
 into it, and when a line was completed the compositor took it away 
 to justify, and adjusted the receiver for another. 
 
 The next, Mitchell's Type-setting Machine is now in operation in 
 America ; and is said to do the work of five men. It is of a triangular 
 shape, somewhat resembling a gTand piano, but not so large. It has a 
 key board corresponding to the letters of the alphabet and the points, 
 and the keys are touched for the required letter, precisely in the same 
 manner as the piano is played. The letters are supplied by long 
 galleys, each filled mth a single letter, which require constant replen- 
 ishing. Every touch upon a key sends a letter into a long line beneath 
 the machine, and from here it is taken by a comx")Ositor, who breaks 
 it into lines to suit the width of the page or column, and justifies it. 
 The distribution is also managed easily. 
 
24 DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 The last invention is the fruit of a long life of labour, and when com- 
 l)leted the inventor, Timothy Alden, of Massachusetts, was so worn 
 out that he lived but a short time. It is, like those before described, 
 " played" like a piano, but the types are carried to their proper place 
 by a revolving table of brass. This machine will also distribute as 
 rapidly as it composes, a desideratum which has not been reached by 
 any other. The inventor calculated it to do the work of eight men. 
 
 Composing-rule. — A piece of brass rule, cut to a certain length, to 
 lay in the composing stick and arrange the letters upon. Its use is to 
 allow the types to slide swiftly and smoothly into their places when 
 composing, and to prevent lines breaking, which would otherwise 
 often happen, from the bottom of one letter catching in the nick of 
 another. 
 
 Composing-stick.— Kxi instrument in which letters are arranged in 
 words and lines. In England sticks are commonly made of iron, 
 though sometimes of bell metal. In this country they are made of 
 brass, iron being found to oxydise too rapidly. 
 
 Compositor.— K person who composes, or sets up type for printing. 
 
 Cope's Press. — The Albion, invented by Richard Cope. 
 
 Co2:)per-2)late Press. — A press used to print from engravings on 
 copper or steel. The mechanism is exceedingly simple. It consists 
 of two steel cylinders, or rollers, supported in a strong frame. These 
 rollers are moveable on their axes, one being placed just above, the 
 other just below, the level of the table on which the plate to be printed 
 is placed. The upper cylinder is turned round by the arms of a cross 
 fixed on its axis, or by some more powerful leverage ; the lower 
 cylinder is turned by the action of the upper on its surface. These 
 rollers are so constructed as to admit of a greater or less amount of 
 pressure being put on them. 
 
 Formerly there were longitudinal slits in the framing of the Press, 
 in which pieces of cardboard were inserted as required ; but modern 
 improvement has substituted screws, by which the axle of the upper 
 cylinder can be elevated or depressed at pleasure. 
 
 Copper-2)late Printing differs materially from ordinary Letter-press 
 Printing, and is a far more tedious employment. The printer to whom 
 a copper plate is confided for printing, first places it in a sort of box, 
 the top of which consists of a plate of sheet-iron, in which is placed 
 a pan filled with lighted charcoal dust. When it has attained a 
 certain degree of heat, he removes it from the box, and covers 
 
IJbED IN PRINTING. 25 
 
 it as equally as possible, by means of a dauber, or dabber, with a light 
 layer of copper-plate ink. Inking the plate is an operation requiring 
 great care and no small degree of skill, as, if either too inucli or too 
 little ink be employed, the impression will be spoiled. The kind of 
 ink used is technically called " black," and is composed of very thick 
 boiled oil; mixed with a proper quantity of Frankfort charcoal (made 
 from vine twigs). This black being slightly liquified by the warm 
 plate, enters the most superficial lines or scratches. A piece of coarse 
 muslin is then taken, and by rubbing it on the plate the black is made 
 to enter all the lines, while the superfluous ink is removed from the 
 surface, which is polished bright by similar means. The printer lastly 
 wipes off whatever black remains on the surface of the plate with the 
 palm of his hand. This is a very delicate, though not a very clean 
 operation ; a good workman leaving all the lines well filled with ink, 
 while the parts which are intended to appear v/hite in the impression, 
 are made bright and smooth, by the manipulation of his hand, assisted 
 by a little whiting. 
 
 The engraving is now placed on a mahogany or walnut wood board,. 
 a sheet of damp paper laid on the plate, and four or five blankets (the 
 texture of which is stouter than cloth and not so loose as flannel,) over 
 the paper, and the whole, board, plate, paper, and blankets, passed 
 between the rollers of the press. The blankets may be fixed to the 
 upper cylinder, as in a printing machine. The workman, taking one 
 of the arms of the cross in his hands, places his foot against the frame 
 of the press, and by dint of sheer bodily exertion forces the whole 
 through the cylinders, and thus produces the impression required. 
 The philosophy of the process is simply that pressure on the elasticity 
 of the cloth forces the moist paper to enter the lines in the plate, and 
 take up all the black ink from it. 
 
 Copy. — Manuscript to be printed, or printed matter to be reprinted* 
 
 Correct. — To rectify such faults, omissions, or repetitions, as may be 
 made by the compositor through inadvertence or carelessness. The 
 term corrections is sometimes applied to the alterations made by 
 authors ; but these would be more properly styled emendations. 
 
 Correcting is the most disagreeable part of a compositor's business, is 
 very fatiguing, from the posture assumed, and is prejudicial to health. 
 A knowledge of this fact should make every compositor careful at his 
 case, that he may avoid spending his time at the stone or imposing 
 table. As soon as the proof is given out, the compositor should lay 
 up his form (unless it is a galley pcoof ) and unlock it all round, being 
 
Hair, 
 
 Thin. 
 
 Thick. 
 
 Em. 
 
 En. 
 
 Quads. 
 
 26 DICTIONARY Y)F TERMS 
 
 careful not to leave the quoins too loose, or the matter may be squab- 
 bled, or types fall at the][ends of the lines. He should then gather as 
 many corrections between the thumb and forefinger of his left hand 
 as he can conveniently hold, with a few spaces on a piece of paper, 
 or what is more convenient, in a small box, with partitions in it. 
 Taking his bodkin ;in his right hand the cor- 
 rector should place the point of it against the 
 end of the Une he wishes to correct, and with 
 the middle finger of his left hand against the other end of the line, 
 raise it altogether, high enough to give him a clear view of the spac- 
 ing ; he can then change the faulty letter, and make the necessary 
 alterations in the spacing, before dropping the line. By this method 
 the type will not be injured, as it so often is when the bodkin is 
 forced into the sides or heads, regularity in the spacing may be secured 
 and much time will be saved. 
 
 In tables, or in any matter in which rules prevent the matter being 
 raised as directed, the letters must be drawn out by the bodkin, and 
 great care will be necessary to avoid injuring the types. The point 
 should be stuck into the neck of the letter, between the beard and the 
 face, drawing it just high enough above the other letters to allow of 
 taking hold of it with the forefinger and thumb of the left hand. In 
 this operation as small an angle as possible should be made with the 
 blade of the bodkin, that it should not touch any of the surrounding 
 types, as a trifling graze will injure the face. 
 
 In the event of a word or words being left out, the Compositor 
 should examine the lines above and below the error, to see how it can 
 be best got in, this ascertained, the matter should be taken on a gal- 
 ley and overrun in the composing stick ; for doing such work on the 
 stone is unworkmanlike, unsafe, and dilatory, destroys the justification 
 and renders the spacing uneven. Lines must not be hair-spaced in 
 correcting to save the Compositor trouble, as it spoils the appearance 
 of any work, but should be overrun, either before or after the correc- 
 tion, to avoid it. Directly the last page in the sheet is corrected, a 
 clean proof must be pulled for the reader to revise, and if all the cor- 
 rections have been made, the form may either be sent to Press, or the 
 proof forwarded to the author. 
 
 Corrections. — The alterations marked in a proof; the letters gathered 
 to correct with, or wrong types taken from a form. The specimen 
 opposite shows the manner of marking them. 
 
 Cramped. — Work is said to be cramped when whites are used spar- 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 27 
 
 ingly, short pages avoided, and matter spaced closer than usual, to 
 get a certain quantity of matter into a certain number of pages. A 
 compositor cramps his matter when he does not insert whites in pro- 
 portion to the open character of his work, or to the size of the letter. 
 
 Cross. — The long and short crosses of a chase are bars of iron, cross- 
 ing each other at right angles and dovetailed into the rim of the chase, 
 dividing it into four parts. The short cross is the broadest, and has 
 a groove cut for the points to fall in. 
 
 Crotchets. — Or brackets, [ ], are used to enclose a word or sentence 
 intended to supply some deficiency, or to rectify a mistake. 
 
 Curvilinear Furniture. — Pieces of metal by the aid of which lines 
 of type may be bent in various shapes, so as to imitate engraved cards 
 or headings. 
 
 Cut-in Notes. — Side notes, inserted in the text, the lines of which 
 are shortened to admit them. 
 
 D. 
 
 Dagger ^ or Obelisk. — A mark, thus f, used as a reference, it is second 
 in order after the asterisk, or star. 
 
 Dash. — A mark, thus . Dashes, or metal rules, are made of 
 
 various lengths, from one em to four ems, and are used in punctuation, 
 for cross lines in statements, to fill up names which are not printed in 
 full, and for other similar purposes. 
 
 Dele. — The second person singular, imperative mood, of the latin 
 verb deleo, to blot out. It is a word much used in a printing Office, 
 and is denoted by this mark (^) in proofs, where it may be necessary to 
 expunge a letter, word, or words. 
 
 Desideratum. — A cylinder machine manufactured by Messrs. 
 Hopkinson and Cope. The sheet is carried round the cylinder by 
 grippers, or metal fingers, which close on the sheet by means of a 
 spring set free on reaching the laying-on board. When the impression 
 is complete the grippers unclose, and allow the sheet to be removed. 
 The inking apparatus is simple and easily kept clear. About 800 
 impressions per hour is the average speed. 
 
 Diamond. — The name of a type, a size smaller than Pearl. There 
 are 205 lines to a foot. 
 
28 DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 Direction. — A word placed at the bottom of a page in the right hand, 
 to show the connexion with the page following. Directions are now 
 only used in law papers. 
 
 Distrihute. — To replace the types in their respective boxes in the 
 cases, after printing tlierewith, in order to their being used again. 
 This work is done very rapidly by the compositor, who, placing his 
 rule against the head of a page, takes up what is termed a handful, 
 and keeping the face of the letter towards him, rests one end of the 
 composing rule against the ball of the thumb of the left hand, and 
 pressing the other end of the rule with the third finger, steadies the 
 matter with his forefinger, and thus has the right hand at liberty, with 
 which he takes a wo.'d or part of a word from the uppermosMine, and 
 drops the several letters into their respective boxes. It is usual to 
 wet matter before distribution, so as to render it slightly cohesive, 
 the operation being performed wdth more facility than when dry. 
 Only so much matter should be taken up at one time as can conve- 
 niently be held in the left hand ; as too much tires the wrist, and is 
 in danger of falling. The Compositor should be careful not to throw 
 letters into the case with the face downwards, as it is apt to batter 
 them ; neither should he distribute his case too full, as it creates pie. 
 He should not care so much for distributing quickly, as correctly — 
 expedition will come with practice — as much time is lost in composing 
 from a dirty case. Many lose time in looking at the word in their 
 fingers before distributing it : by proper attention this may be avoided, 
 and the workmen become an expeditious as well as clean distributor. 
 To attain this, I advise the learner never to take more letters between 
 his fingers than he can conveniently hold; if possible, always to take 
 an entire word, and to keep the left hand slightly inclined, so that the 
 face of the letter may come immediately under his eye. By practice, 
 he v>dll become so well acquainted with the appearance of the beard 
 of the type, that he will be able to know what word he has in his 
 fingers, with the very cursory view he may have while lifting it. By 
 attending to these directions — by always proceeding on system, — clean 
 distribution may be depended on ; and clean distribution produces 
 clean composition. What greater disgrace can attach to a compositor, 
 than being denominated a foul or slovenly workmen ? To avoid this 
 stigma should be his earnest endeavour; and one great means to avoid 
 it is to be careful while distributing. 
 
 Division. — In printing, is the separation of the syllables of a word, 
 the first part at the end of one line, the second part at the beginning 
 
USED IN PRINTINO. 29 
 
 of the next, to avoid driving out or getting in the whole word. There 
 are peculiarities in dividing in most offices, but the following rules, 
 from Lindly Murray, will generally apply. 
 
 "1. A single consonant between two vowels must be joined to the 
 latter syllable: as, de-light, bri-dal, re-source: except the letter x; as, 
 ex-ist, ex-amine : and except likewise words compounded ; as up-on, 
 un-even, dis-ease. 
 
 " 2. Two consonants proper to begin a word, must not be sepa- 
 rated ; as fa-ble, sti-fle. But when they come between two vowels, and 
 are such as cannot begin a word, they must be divided ; as, ut-most, 
 un-der, in-sect, er-ror, cof-fin. 
 
 "3. When three consonants meet in the middle of a word, if they 
 can begin a word, and the preceding vowel be pronounced long, they 
 are not to be separated; as, de-throne, de-stroy. But when the vowel 
 of the preceding syllable is pronounced short, one of the consonants 
 always belongs to that syllable ; as, dis-tract, dis-prove, dis-train. 
 
 " 4. When three or four consonants, which are not proper to begin 
 a word, meet between two vowels, the first consonant is always kept 
 with the first syllable in the division: as, ab-stain, com-plete, em-broil, 
 dan-dler, dap-ple, con-strain. 
 
 " 5. Two vowels not being a diphthong, must be divided into 
 separate syllables; as, cru-el, deni-al, soci-ety. 
 
 " A diphthong immediately preceding a vowel, is to be separated 
 from it: as, roy-al, pow-er, jew-el. 
 
 " 6. Compounded words must be traced into the simple words of 
 which they are composed ; as, ice-house, glow-worm, over-power, 
 neverthe-less. 
 
 " 7. Grammatical, and other particular terminations, are generally 
 separated : as, teach-est, teach-eth, teach-ing, teach-er, contend-est, 
 great-er, wretch-ed, good-ness, free-dom, false-hood. 
 
 " Two consonants which form but one sound, are never separated : 
 as, e-cho, fa-ther, pro-phet, an-chor, bi-shop. They are to be consi- 
 . dered as a single letter. 
 
 " 8. In derivative words, the additional syllables are separated : 
 as, sweet-er, sweet-est, sweet-ly ; learn-ed, learn-eth, learn-ing ; dis- 
 like, mis-lead, un-even ; called, roU-er, dress-ing ; gold-en, bolt-ed, 
 believ-er, pleas-ing. 
 
 " Exceptions,— When the derivative word doubles the single letter 
 
^0 DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 of the primitive, one of those letters is joined to the termination: as 
 beg, beg-gar; fat, fat-ter; bid, bid-ding. 
 
 *' When the additional syllable is preceded by c or g soft, the c or g 
 is added to that syllable: as, of -fences, cotta-ges, pro-noun-cer, in-dul- 
 ging; ra-cer, fa-cing, spi-ced; wa-ger, ra-ging, pla-ced, ran-ger, chan- 
 ging, chan-ged. 
 
 " When the preceding single vowel is long, the consonant, if single, 
 is joined to the termination: as, ba-ker, ba-king; ho-ping, bro-ken; 
 po-ker, bo-ny; wri-ter, sla-vish; nau-sea, sa-ved. 
 
 The termination y is not to be placed alone: as, san-dy, gras-sy; dir- 
 ty, dus-ty; was-ty, fros-ty; hea-dy, woo-dy; ex-cept dough-y, snow-y, 
 string-y, and a few other words. But even in these exceptions, it 
 would be proper to avoid beginning a line with the terminations y. 
 
 " Some of the preceding rules may be liable to considerable excep- 
 tions; and therefore it is said by Dr. Lowth, and others, that the best 
 and easiest directions for dividing the syllables in spelling, is to divide 
 them as they are naturally separated in a right pronunciation, with- 
 out regard to the derivation of words, or the possible combination of 
 consonants at the beginning of a syllable." 
 
 But it is not to be supposed that these divisions are to be made if 
 they can be avoided; and avoided they may be in all works except 
 those in narrow measures, or in large type. Such syllables as ed, al, 
 el, ly, er, &c., should always be got in, except in the two cases just 
 mentioned (the hyphen used to divide the syllables will often occupy 
 as much space as one of the letters) ; and such syllables as em, en, ab, 
 fa, de, er, &c., should be driven over to the next line. In broad 
 measures divisions may always be avoided, for a very slight additional 
 space between the numerous words will suffice to drive out several 
 letters; or if necessary, to get two or three letters in the thick spaces 
 may be changed for middling with very little trouble. 
 
 Double. — Amongst compositors, is a repetition of words, which have 
 to be deleted, or expunged, in the first proof. Amongst pressmen a 
 sheet pulled twice, and thus slurred, or set off. 
 
 Double dagger. — A mark used as a reference, %) it is third in order, 
 and follows the dagger, or obelisk. 
 
 Double letters. — Two letters cast on one shank ; as ff, fi, fl, and the 
 dipthongs. 
 
 Double narrow. — Furniture, equal in width to two narrow quota- 
 tions, or six ems pica. 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 31 
 
 Double Pica. — A type one size smaller than Two-line Pica, and 
 larger than Great Primer. It is equal in depth to two lines of small 
 Pica, there being 41^ lines to the foot. The more proper name for 
 this fount would be Tw^o-line Small Pica. 
 
 Double Flatten, or Flat-surface Machine. This machine, as its 
 name denotes, gives a flat impression, by a platten similar to that of 
 an ordinary press. There are two tables, or carriages, so that forms 
 can be laid on at either end of the machine. As the carriages traverse 
 backward and forward each form is alternately under the platten, 
 which descends and gives the impression to one form, while the sheet 
 is being laid on for the other. The action of these machines is 
 extremely beautiful ; and as they are fitted with friskets and tym- 
 pans, they may be made to execute the finest presswork. The rate of 
 working is about 1,200 copies per hour. 
 
 Draw. — To pull out letters with the roller, while inking the form, 
 in consequence of lines being badly justified, on the form not properly 
 locked up. 
 
 Dress a Chase. — To fit the pages with proper furniture and quoins. 
 
 Drive out. — ^To set widely, or use extra space between words; to 
 turn words over at the ends of paragraphs; to make up openly for the 
 sake of extra pages. 
 
 Dropping out. — Is generally caused by bad spacing, leads riding, 
 furniture binding, or similar carelessness. When the form is locked 
 up the compositor should raise it slightly from the stone, and shake 
 it a little, to see that nothing is loose before lifting it on the press. 
 
 Dv^k Bill. — ^A tongue cut in a piece of paper, and pasted on the 
 tympan to support the white paper when working, in Ueu of pins. 
 
 Duodecimo.— ThQ size of a book, usually written 12mo. It is formed 
 by folding a sheet of paper into twelve portions, or leaves, making 24 
 pages. 
 
 E. 
 
 Ear of the Frisket. — A projecting piece of iron on the near side, by 
 taking hold of which the pressman turns down the frisket ; as it pro- 
 jects a little beyond the tympan, he also raises the sheet off the form 
 by grasping it and the tympan; and by a quick motion as it rises quits 
 hold of the latter, and turns up the frisket by means of the ear. 
 
32 DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 Electrography. — A method of producing facsimiles of steel or cop- 
 per plates. Suppose a large engraving is about to be copied. The plate 
 is immersed (after having the back covered with a peculiar varnish) 
 in a chemical solution of copper, and a thick film is precipitated on it 
 by electro-deposit. The film may be easily loosened from the plate, 
 and its surface then presents a reverse of the original. The film is in 
 its turn immersed in the solution, and made the basis for a second 
 deposition, w^hich is alloM^ed to continue until a plate as thick as the 
 original is deposited, and this when carefully removed from its parent 
 film, is seen to be an exact counterpart of the engraved plate first 
 operated upon. 
 
 Emiyty Case. — A case from which no more matter can be composed, 
 in consequence of some of the sorts being exhausted. 
 
 Empty Press. — A press standing idle from want of work. 
 
 English. — A type one size smaller than great Primer, and larger 
 than Pica. There are sixty-four lines to a foot. 
 
 Engraving. — The art of executing designs upon copper, steel, zino 
 or any other material, from which impressions, or " prints," may be 
 taken. 
 
 It is usual to speak of the discovery of the Art of Engraving, as 
 contemporaneous with that of Printing. The Chinese certainly prac- 
 ticed it before the tenth century, printing being discovered in China 
 about that time by one Foong-taon, who multiplied copies of a book 
 by means of an engraved seal, or stamp. The early Egyptians and 
 Babylonians produced impressions on bricks from engraved pieces of 
 wood or stone. The ancient Romans possessed engraved seals at a 
 very early period of their history. 
 
 It is not necessary to speak farther of the art as known to the 
 ancients, as that has no connexion with printing, and would therefore 
 be out of place in book which is devoted wholly to the last named 
 subject; I will therefore proceed at once to the discovery as applied 
 to taking impressions on paper, silk, parchment, or some similarly 
 flexible material. 
 
 The invention seems to have been the result of accident. It is 
 generally ascribed to a Florentine Goldsmith, Tommaso Finniguerra, 
 who excelled in an art then much practised, called Niello-work, It 
 was customary in those times to engrave outlines of Scripture sub- 
 jects on vessels made for the use of the Church ; and when this 
 engraving was completed they filled the lines with a black substance 
 called Niello, composed of lead and silver in solution with borax and 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 33 
 
 sulphur. Finniguerra, it is said, was one day taking an impression 
 of some of his work, in wax ; and he found, on examining the impres- 
 sion, that he had taken all the Niello which remained in the bottoms 
 of the lines, in such a way that he had the whole pattern in black 
 before him, and it at once struck him that he might also take off hia 
 patterns on paper. This first step was followed by a second, and that 
 again by others, and thus the beautiful art was invented. 
 
 The first " prints" were obtained from wood blocks, engraved in 
 relief, and the earliest impression known is dated 1423 {see Engrav- 
 ing on Wood) ; but no impression from an engraved metal plate has 
 been found of a date anterior to 1461. Finniguerra is said to have 
 first engraved on metal plates for the purpose of printing about the 
 year 1460 ; but, as soon as established, the new art was eagerly taken 
 up in Italy by Baldini, Botticelli, Pollajuoli, and Andrea Mantegna ; 
 and in Germany by Martin Schcen, Israel van Mecheln, Leydenwurf, 
 and Wolgemut. 
 
 The first book printed in Eome, was also illustratedhy twenty-seven 
 maps, executed by two Germans, Sweynheym and Buckinck. This 
 work is dated 1478. Another early work was published at Florence 
 in 1481, Dante's Inferno, embellished with engravings by Baoccio 
 Baldini, after the designs of Botticelli. 
 
 At the commencement of the 16th century, Albert Durer appeared 
 in Germany, a man of vast talent, who carried every description of 
 art to a degree of perfection hitherto unknown in that country. He 
 had great command of the graver, and his plates were finished to a 
 higher degree than those of his Italian contemporaries. 
 
 Lucus van Leyden was the father of the Flemish schools, and a 
 friend of Albert Durer. Nearly all the eminent painters in these 
 schools have been engravers. 
 
 In France engraving has been practised with pre-eminent success, 
 in the departments of history and portraiture, since the time of 
 Louis XIV. 
 
 The English school of engraving dates only from about the middle 
 of the 18th century, previous to which those who practised the art in 
 England were chiefly foreigners. 
 
 This art attained great perfection in the 15th and 16th centuries, as 
 is proved by the works of the engravers of that period. 
 
 Since that time the old processes have been merely modified ; though 
 
34 nCTIOXARY OF TERMS 
 
 fanwe of the best and most artistic engravers tlie world lias yet pro- 
 duced are now living. 
 
 There are several kinds of engraving practised, each effected in a 
 different manner. 
 
 Line engraving is the principal as well as most ancient species. 
 Sometimes this is executed entirely with the graver and dry point, 
 finished with the scraper and burnisher ; at others it is commenced 
 by a chemical process called " etching." For etching the plate is first 
 cleaned on its polished surface, heated, and then rubbed with a com- 
 position of asphalte and Burgundy pitch, called etching ground. The 
 plate is then held up to receive the smoke of a wax taper, until it is 
 rendered black and glossy. These preparations being made, and the 
 plate cooled, the etching ground is found to be of a hard consistence, 
 and ready to receive the tracing of any subject to be etched. The 
 previous preparation of the subject is a very important part of the 
 process. It is drawn upon transparent paper with a black lead pencil, 
 and being laid face downwards on the etching ground, is pressed on it 
 so forcibly that all the lines and marks of the drawing are left on 
 removing the paper. This is called transferring. The drawing being 
 transferred, the engraver applies his etching needle to the lines, care- 
 fully removing the ground and scratching slightly into the copper. 
 When any error is made, the objectionable lines may be stopped out 
 by working a little of the ground over them with a hair pencil dipped 
 in turpentine. A wall of wax is now placed round the plate, and 
 aquafortis poured on it, to the depth of an inch. This decomposes, 
 or biteji into the copper where the ground has been removed. During 
 the process globules of air arise, and these must be carefully removed 
 with a feather. The length of time employed is regulated by the 
 depth required ; but in ordinary cases, the operation may be per- 
 formed in an hour. When the plate has been properly acted on, the 
 aquafortis is poured joff, the wall of wax removed, and the ground 
 cleared from thej plate by spirits of turpentine. The plate is now 
 etched, and when printed from in this state exhibits the appearance 
 of a pen and ink sketch. Different gradations of power are given by 
 the aquafortis, and parts are re-bitten to the depth required, after 
 Avhich the light parts are put in with a needle. Other parts are cut 
 with gravers suited to the lines which will best express the respective 
 objects. ^Vhilc finishing his work, the engraver rests the plate on a 
 small cushion, holding it with his left hand, while his right is using 
 the graver. Landscape and architecture are generally executed with 
 
VISED IN nUNTING. 35 
 
 the needle and aquafortis ; portraits and historical subjects with the 
 graver or burin. Etching with the dry point, as it is called, is per- 
 formed entirely with the graver ; the burr raised being taken off by 
 a three-sided instrument with sharp edges called a scraper. 
 
 Stipj)ling is a kind of engraving Lu which dots of various sizes and 
 depths are used instead of lines. They are first made in the etching 
 ground with the needle, or a toothed wheel called a roulette, and then 
 bitten with more or less strength, as may be required ; when it is 
 cleaned, dotted by the needle, stippled wAih. the graver, or re-bitten, 
 until the necessary gradations of shade are communicated. 
 
 Mezzotinto is produced by grounding or puncturing the plate with 
 an open-faced tool called a cradle, on which are a number of points ; 
 this instrument, being rocked regularly over the copper, covers it so 
 completely with marks, that if it were printed from, the impression 
 would be black. On this ground the subject is traced, and the vari- 
 ous gradations of light and shade scraped and burnished out until the 
 proper effect is produced. This style of engraving is chiefly used for 
 portraits, and is very soft in appearance. 
 
 Aquatint engraving is an exceedingly complicated style of produc- 
 ing pictorial effect, but can be executed at a lower cost than the kinds 
 previously mentioned ; — it has therefore been much used for embellish- 
 ing books of travels or works of a like kind. It was invented by a 
 Frenchman in 1662, but has been practised more successfully in England 
 than elsewhere. The process has latterly been superseded by litho- 
 graphy. 
 
 Engraving on Steely which is now common for all plates of which 
 large numbers are required, is executed much in the same way as 
 engraving on copper. The plate is bedded on glazier's putty, and a 
 ground of Brunswick black is laid on, through which the needle 
 scratches. The biting menstruum is poured on, and managed as detail- 
 ed already. An engraving on a steel plate may be transferred in 
 relief to a softened steel roller, by pressure, and this roller, after 
 being hardened, may again transfer the design to a fresh steel plate, 
 and the design may thus be multiplied at pleasure. 
 
 Engraving on Wood. — This art, which is intimately connected with 
 letter-press printing, was first practised at a very early date by the 
 Chinese, who have, for ages, printed books by carving letters or figures 
 in relief on a piece of wood, and then stamping the block, blackened 
 with ink. on paper, silk, or some other light fabric. 
 
36 DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 In Germany, the first attempts at printing with a press, were effect- 
 ed by wooden blocks (see Printing), which, however, were soon 
 abandoned, in consequence of the invention of printing from move- 
 able types. The subjects of the blocks in general use before the intro- 
 duction of printing proper, were chiefly of a devotionalkind, such as 
 representations of saints, or scenes from their times, and were distri- 
 buted by the clergy, as tracts are now-a-days, as aids to devotion. 
 The earliest print from a wood block for which we have any certain 
 date, is in the library of Earl Spencer, and bears the date of 1423. 
 Tlie picture is meant to represent St. Christopher carrying the infant 
 Saviour across the sea. It was discovered in one of the most ancient 
 convents in Germany, the Chartreuse of Buxheim, pasted witliin one 
 of the covers of aliatin MS. of the year 1417. About this time, too, 
 wood blocks were used to print the figures on playing cards ; and 
 very little improvement has been made on the rude figures of those 
 times, even to the present day. 
 
 Immediately before, and for some little time after the invention of 
 printing, small books, composed entirely of wood-cuts, were common 
 in continental countries. These prints were at first entirely without any 
 text, or as it is now termed letter-press ; but after the groundwork of 
 the art had been laid, its rise towards perfection was unparalleled in 
 rapidity. Historical subjects were composed, with a text, or expla- 
 nation subjoined. The pages were placed in pairs, facing each other; 
 and, as only one side of the leaf was impressed, the blanks were also 
 opposite each other, and, being pasted together, gave the whole the 
 appearance of a book printed in the modern fashion. Remarkable in- 
 cidents in the books of Moses, in the Gospels, and in the Apocalypse, 
 were thus made known to the uninstructed classes, but generally in 
 connection with superstitious legends of the middle ages. One work 
 of this class was known as the " Biblia Pauperam," or poor man's 
 book; copies of it are now extremely rare. The work consists of 
 forty leaves, of a small folio size, each leaf containing a cut in wood, 
 with extracts and sentences descriptive of the subject of the cut. To 
 those unacquainted with the estimation in which such ancient speci- 
 mens of printing are held, it may be amusing to learn that fair copies 
 have brought upwards of 2,500 Rupees, and the worst have rarely sold 
 for less than 500 Rupees. Other works of a similar description might 
 be mentioned, executed between 1430 and 1450, but they all present 
 the same characteristics. Caxton, in 1474, attempted to ornament 
 his work, " the Game and Play of Chess," with some few engravings, 
 but the figures are rude and grotesque. 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 37 
 
 Wood engraving, to illustrate the Scriptures, was brought to great 
 perfection by Albert Durer, at the end of the 15th century. Dur- 
 ing the 16th century the art flourished in Holland, Germany, and 
 Italy, and had many eminent professors ; but, as printing advanced, 
 the art of engraving on wood declined, till, at the end of the 17th 
 century, it had fallen into great neglect. In the 18th century, it again 
 revived in France and England, but did not arrive at any great bril- 
 liancy till the time of Thomas Bewick, of Newcastle-on-Tyne, a self- 
 taught enthusiast in the art. His illustrations to a history of quad- 
 rupeds issued in 1790, attracted much attention. From this time 
 wood engraving was raised to the rank of a regular profession in 
 England; and Nesbit, Harvey, Branston, Thomson, Williams, Dal- 
 ziel, Linton, and many others, have greatly advanced the art, both 
 in elegance of design and delicacy of execution. Many ladies have 
 excelled in wood engraving ; indeed, from the ease with which it is 
 practised it is peculiarly adapted to them. I only mention here the 
 Misses Williams, Mary Byfield, Eliza Thomson, and Mary and Eliza- 
 beth Clint, who have all risen to some eminence in the profession ; 
 but there are many others, not likely to be dependent on their own 
 exertions for support, who have wisely, by learning this art, acquired 
 both an accomplishment and a profession. 
 
 During the present century the increase of works containing wood 
 engra\ing3 has been enormous. Less delicate, usually, than copper or 
 steel, wood-cute possess a peculiar value from the ease with which 
 they can be printed. While impressions from plates are taken by a 
 process so tedious, that at most 250 copies per day can be produced, 
 wood-cuts may be printed with the greatest rapidity at a machine. 
 The chief value of the wood-cut however, consists in its being adapted 
 for printing with the letter press it is intended to illustrate. Within 
 the last few years, gift-books, and other illustrated works, have been 
 ornamented with wood engravings wonderful for their fulness and 
 delicacy, and hardly second, in point of softness and finish, to copper 
 plate. 
 
 In Europe, boxwood is generally employed for engraving. To 
 obtain the blocks the tree is cut across in slices, and, after being 
 planed smooth, these slices are cut to the required size. The blocks 
 must be one inch in depth, that being the height of the type with 
 which they are printed. When a block is required of more than six or 
 eight inches square, two or more pieces must be joined together, by 
 screws running across the whole width, and the surfaces planed to an 
 
38 DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 equality. Pear-tree wood is sometimes used for large, coarse cuta. 
 In this country sandalwood is the general substitute for box. 
 
 The following is a list of tools required by an engraver on wood: — 
 
 1. A round, flattish, leather pad^ filled with sand, on which to rest 
 the block while engraving. 
 
 2. Gravers. — A graver is a tool about four inches long, of steel, 
 with a small head, or handle, of wood : six or eight, of the different 
 degrees of fineness, are necessary ; the finest for the most delicate 
 lines, the broader pointed for cutting broad, bold lines. Two of them 
 should be slightly bent in the blades, to excavate hollow parts. 
 
 3. Tint tools of various sizes, suitable to the fineness or coarse- 
 ness of the tint to be cut. They are chiefly employed to cut parallel 
 lines, close together, representing the tints of the sky. 
 
 4. A Gauge tool for cutting away edges, and trimming the cut. 
 
 5. A hone to sharpen the tools upon. 
 
 6. A steel hurnisJier. 
 
 7. An inking slab, a dabber, and a small quantity of fine printing 
 ink, 
 
 8. Ind'ui pajyeriov^xooh; and two or three fine hard black lead 
 2je noils. 
 
 It is first necessary to draw the design on the wood ; and therefore 
 the ability to draw with neatness and precision, and a knowledge of 
 light and shade, are indispensable to any one desirous of rising in the 
 profession. Besides drawing, another branch has been added to this 
 art, called loivering. The surface of the block being perfectly level, it 
 is obvious that when printed at a press properly level, every line on 
 the cut receives an equal degree of pressure. Now this should not be ; 
 the finer lines should receive a light impression, the dark ones be print- 
 ed heavily. To procure this effect, the pressman {see Fine PrintingN 
 lays on patches of paper below his sheet, where he requires shade, and 
 cuts out paper where he wishes to lighten the impression, but this 
 mode fails to a considerable degree in making fine work; and the 
 surer plan consists in lowering some parts of the surface of the block. 
 After sketching the design, those parts which are to be printed lightly, 
 are scraped away with the scooper, in various degrees, according to the 
 degree of lightness required. Of course the designs have to be 
 re-sketched before engraving. 
 
 Before making a drawing on the block the surface is slightly rough- 
 
USED m PRTNTING. 39 
 
 cned and delicately whitened all over with a mixture of powdered 
 bath brick and flake white, slightly moistened, and the palm of the 
 hand is drawn over the block to remove any gritty particles. When 
 dry it is ready to receive the design. 
 
 As pe^icil drawing is easily blurred or rubbed out, the block must 
 be covered while working on it. A slip of hard smooth writing 
 paper should be folded across the picture, and be secured by a 
 thread. On beginning to cut, a piece may be off, and the whole 
 removed as the work proceeds. 
 
 The engraver should sit at a table or bench of a convenient height 
 placed in a good light ( not too glaring ). He must hold the block on 
 the pad in his left hand, and use the tool with his right. Steadiness 
 of hand is of the utmost importance ; for, as the picture is formed by 
 the parts left in relief, and the white part and lights only cut away, 
 the least slip in the wrong direction may ruin the effect intended to 
 be produced. 
 
 Envelope Machine. — This little machine, as its name denotes, is 
 intended to fold envelopes, and do away with the tedious process of 
 cutting and folding them by hand. One, the joint invention of 
 Mr. Edwin Hill and Mr. Warren De la Rue, is an exceedingly beau- 
 tiful contrivance, and performs many successive operations with 
 unerring accuracy. A boy places a diamond-shaped piece of paper 
 on a little platform ; a sort of plunger descends, and forces the centre 
 of the paper into an oblong quadrangular cavity ; the four corners 
 now stand erect ; an artificial arm takes a supply of gum from an 
 endless blanket, and applies it to the proper place on the edges of 
 the envelope; four fingers, or levers, press down and flatten the 
 sides, and the envelope is made. Two India rubber fingers now 
 lightly touch the envelope, draw it aside to make w^ay for another, 
 and place it on an inclined plane, on which it slides up into a box 
 prepared for its reception. This machine makes about sixty enve- 
 lopes in a minute. 
 
 Another, invented by M. Renaud, has a singular contrivance for 
 feeding itself with paper. The diamond-shaped pieces are placed in 
 a heap by the side of the machine ; a hollow tube thrusts itself forward 
 and rests upon the topmost paper, a tiny air pump draws the air from 
 the tube, and the paper clings by atmospheric pressure to the two 
 minute holes in the lower surface of it. The tube now withdraws 
 itself, drops the paper exactly on the spot where it is to be folded 
 
40 DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 and gummed, and goes in search of another. This machine requires 
 the aid of an attendant to remove the envelope. 
 
 Errata. — A list of errors that have escaped both the author and 
 the printer. It is'generally^printed in small type at the end of the 
 work, and should never be brought out in a prominent manner. 
 
 Even Lines. — When printing has to be executed in great haste, a 
 number of compositors are employed, and the copy is cut into small 
 pieces for each. If the copy should be in long paragraphs, the com- 
 positors have each to begin a line and make their copy end a line, 
 frequently with great irregularity of spacing. This is termed making 
 even. In Newspapers it is of constant occurrence. 
 
 Even Page.— The 2d, 4th, 6th, 8th, or any even numbered page. 
 
 F. 
 
 Face of the Letter. — The surface of the letter extremity of the type. 
 Face of the Page.— The upper side of the page, from which the 
 impression is taken. 
 
 Falling out.— A term generally applied to a page, quarter, or whole 
 form, which drops away from the chase, through the shrinking of the 
 wooden furniture and quoins. This accident can hardly occur with- 
 out gross carelessness, if metal furniture is made use of. 
 
 Fanning out. — A term used in the warehouse in counting work. 
 By taking hold of the right hand lower corner of the paper between 
 the forefinger and thumb, and by a peculiar turn of the wrist spread- 
 ing out the upper part of the paper somewhat in the resemblance of a 
 fan, the sheets can be counted with the greatest facility. 
 
 i^a^— With compositors, is light open matter, and short, or blank 
 pages. With pressmen, light forms. 
 
 Fat face Letter. — Letter with a broad, black face, and thick stem. 
 It is seldom used now. 
 
 Feet of a Press. — That part of a press upon which it stands. 
 
 Fine Presswork. — The technical name for work of a superior 
 quality. The art of printing perfect impressions from a form of 
 types, or from the surface of engravings in relief. To do fine work, 
 the press must be in good working condition. The joints of the 
 tympan must have no play, or they will affect the register and cause 
 slurring. Tlie parchments must be thin and even, and stretched 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 41 
 
 perfectly tight on the tympans, so as not to be baggy or flaccid. The 
 printers in France sometimes use silk for their tympans, for their 
 finest work, on account of its smoothness and uniform thickness. The 
 face of the platten must be a true plane, and parallel to the surface of 
 the table, or the impression will be heavier at one side, or at one end, 
 than at the other. The rollers must be smooth and even, with a good 
 face, and neither too hard nor too soft. 
 
 In India, the presswork is of a very low standard, but it may be 
 improved with care and patience. Pressmen do not understand making 
 ready a form, but endeavour to bring up inequalities by dint of extra 
 blankets and heavy pulls, to the great detriment of the type. It is 
 evident that this cannot give the sharp, clear impression required in 
 fine work, for the elastic blankets cause the paper to partly fill up the 
 blanks of the types, and makes the best and newest appear round and 
 worn at the edges. 
 
 To obtain good impressions in fine work, the blankets must be nearly 
 or quite discarded, and paper used in the tympans, and of this, not 
 too much. I have seen a milled board put at the back next to the 
 outer tympan, to make the impression hard and sharp, but I do not 
 recommend this generally. 
 
 After laying on the form and justifying it firmly in the centre of 
 the press, the pressman should pull a sheet of dry paper, without ink, 
 and examine the back to see if the impression is the same throughout. 
 This is rarely the case ; and he must therefore overlay the faint, or 
 light places, and cut away the heads, folios, edges, or any other part 
 in which the impression may be heavy, so as to equalize the colour 
 and impression over the whole sheet. 
 
 This sheet is placed i7i the tympans, that is, between the inner and 
 outer, exactly over the corresponding pages of the form, and a few 
 sheets of thin soft paper, or a very fine light blanket (only one,) is laid 
 on it. 
 
 The pressman now pulls a second sheet, and examines the effect 
 of his overlays, and if not yet correct, adds to the overlays, or vice 
 versa, till he is quite sure the pressure of the platten is equal on every 
 part. 
 
 When short pages occur in a form, the bottoms of them, and the 
 edges of the neighbouring pages will print too hard, and not prove a 
 clear impression ; in these cases bearers are necessary to protect them 
 (set Bearer.) 
 
42 DICTIONARY OF TKRMS 
 
 111 working the white paper when very tliick, it is JK'tter to use a 
 card duck-bill to prevent the paper slipping, as it is not so likely as 
 pins to bruise the paper. 
 
 After laying on a form in which wood-cuts (or wood-engravings) 
 are inserted, a gentle, careful pull must be used for the first impression, 
 for fear of crushing some of the fine lines ; after the first pull the 
 workmen will know what impression is required, and regulate it 
 accordingly. 
 
 It will generally be found in a first impression that the appearance 
 of an engraving is flat, rough, and indistinct ; too hard and black in 
 some parts, too soft and pale in others, and with no middle tint. To 
 produce the desired eftect, and give the picture the appearance the 
 artist intended, is the business of the pressman, and he accordingly 
 proceeds to bring up his wood-cut to the standard of the proof 
 rubbed off by the engraver. To do this properly requires great nicety 
 and attention, and an artistic knowledge of the properties of light 
 and shade would be most useful. Where the impression is too strong, 
 the parts must be cut away, and where too weak, overlays be added. 
 Tlie overlays are always best made with thin soft paper, and the 
 edges should be scraped down, or in many cases the impression will 
 be too sharp. A few copies of the cut should be pulled, and the over- 
 lays taken from them, as they may then be cut to the exact shape 
 required, from the impressions taken. The light parts require but 
 little pressure, and they should be cut out from as many thicknesses 
 as are necessary ; but the shadows must have a full, firm impression, 
 which is secured by the overlays causing the impression on the sheet 
 to be so heavy on those parts as to take off all the ink. 
 
 If a block is too low it must be underlaid ; and if worked with type 
 it should be raised about one-tenth of a pica above it, because the letter 
 press requires much less impression than the engraving, and if the 
 pressure on both is the same the type will look thick and worn, and 
 so spoil the appearance of the work. 
 
 The edges of engravings always require toning down, for if the 
 same pressure is left as on the body, they will come out thick and 
 muddy. 
 
 Wood-engravings must never be washed with lye, as it will cause 
 them to warp, but if necessary a soft brush and a little turpentine 
 may be used to clean them. 
 
 In all fine work, whether letter press or cuts, it is of the first neces- 
 sity to have a good roller, as a bad one will only turn out bad work. 
 
U8ED IN riilNTlNG. 43 
 
 The person who is rolling must look at the impressions every two or 
 three sheets, to see that he is keeping his colour uniform ; as nothing 
 looks worse in a book, than to see one page or sheet black and heavy, 
 and the next gray and hardly readable. 
 
 First Form. — The form the white paper is printed upon. 
 
 First Page. — The commencement of a book, or the first page of a 
 sheet or signature. 
 
 First Proof. — A proof pulled immediately after matter is composed, 
 for the purpose of comparing it with the copy. It may either be 
 pulled in galleys, or after it is made up into pages and imposed. 
 
 Floivers. — Ornaments for making borders to jobs, cards, pages, and 
 wrappers, and for embellishing chapter pages, or as tail-pieces to 
 books. 
 
 Fly.— A. man or boy who takes the sheet from the tympan as the 
 pressman turns it up. This is seldom done now, as when great 
 expedition is required, work is usually laid on a machine. 
 
 Fly the frisket. — To turn down the frisket and tympan by the 
 same motion. This should always be done, as it saves time, on 
 ordinary work ; but not when very superior heavy paper is used. 
 
 Folding, — Doubling the printed sheets so that the pages fall 
 consecutively, and exactly opposite to each other, preparatory to 
 binding. 
 
 Folding Machine. — An instrument invented by Mr. James Black, 
 and first exhibited in 1851, when it obtained a prize medal. By this 
 machine all kinds of sheets may be folded which are multiples of 
 four, as 8vo., 12mo., 24mo., 32mo., (fee. A diagram would be neces- 
 sary to make the construction clear, but the following description 
 may serve to give a general idea of it. A main shaft is driven by 
 steam, manual labour, or other motive power ; attached to this are 
 two cams or wipers, which lift up two vertical knives or folders. 
 United to the end of the horizontal shaft by bevelled wheels is a 
 vertical shaft and cam, wliich moves an horizontal knife. Each 
 knife moves on a centre ; and when a printed sheet is laid on the 
 machine to the proper registering points, the first vertical knife 
 moves rapidly down, folding the sheet in the middle, and carrying 
 it to the horizontal knife, which seizes the sheet at right angles to the 
 first, produces another fold, and carries on it to the second vertical 
 knife, which again takes it at right angles to the last, and delivers it 
 a folded octavo sheet between two rollers in front of the machine. 
 The knife, after having performed its peculiar ofl&ccs, is brought 
 
44 DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 back to its former position by baLuico weights. The knives, or 
 folders, are finely serrated on the edges, to prevent the sheets from 
 slipping, and so spoiling the register. 
 
 This is a most useful instrument, and is so simple in its working 
 that a boy of ten or twelve years of age is all that is necessarj'" to attend 
 to it. It may be made to fold any size of page by merely altering 
 the registering points, and will fold 2,000 sheets per hour. 
 
 Folio. — The running number of the pages of a work. When there 
 is no running title, or head line, the folio is placed in the centre of 
 the page, when there is a running title, at the outside corner. The 
 preface, contents, index, and all introductory matter, usually have 
 separate folios inserted in roman lower case numerals. 
 
 i^oZ^o.— The size of a page, when the paper on which it is printed 
 is folded in two only ; as post folio, foolscap folio, demy folio. 
 
 Foot of the letter.— The bottom of the type. 
 
 Foot of a 2ycige. — The bottom of a page. 
 
 Folloiv. — That is, see if it follows. This term is used by readers, 
 compositors, and pressmen. By the reader or compositor when he 
 ascertains that the first line of a page or sheet agrees with the last 
 line immediately preceding it, and how the folios numerically succeed 
 each other. 
 
 The pressman merely ascertains that the first page of the inner 
 form follows the first page of the outer, or whether, in half sheets, 
 he has turned his heap correctly. 
 
 Foot-stick. — A piece of furniture, sloped or bevelled from one end to 
 the other, placed against the foot of the pao:e. The slope allows the 
 wedge-shaped quoins to be driven hard in between the footstick and 
 chase, and so secures or locks up the form or page. 
 
 Fore-edge. — That part of a sheet of paper which, folded to the pro- 
 per size of a book, makes its outer edge. 
 
 Form. — Any number of pages imposed and locked up in a chase, 
 whether a card, broadside, or book-work. 
 
 Form dances. — When the lines are not properly justified, when 
 letters have slipped at the ends of lines so as to prevent the pages 
 being properly locked up, or when a letter, space, or quadrat of a 
 deeper body is by accident made use of, causing the types to fall 
 lower than they should do without entirely dropping out, the form is 
 said to dance. 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 45 
 
 Form lifts. — Wlien on being raised from the stone, nothing falls 
 from it. 
 
 Fortij-eiglit mo. — A sheet of paper folded into forty-eight leaves, or 
 ninety-six pages. 
 
 Fotil proof. —A dirty proof, a proof with many errors or corrections 
 marked in it. 
 
 Ford stone. — An imposing stone or table which the compositor has 
 not cleared after working at it. 
 
 Fount. — A certain weight of letter cast at one time, of the same 
 face and body, and when complete containing due proportions of 
 capitals, small capitals, lower case, figures, points, four kinds of 
 spaces, en, em, two, three and four em quadrats, and accents. 
 
 Fount Cases. — Very large cases, to hold the surplus sorts of a fount. 
 
 Fractions. — A fraction is a part of a unit, written with tw^o figures, 
 with a line between them, thus ; — ^, j, \, \, f , f , f , kc. The upper 
 figure is called the numerator, the lower the denominator. The 
 fractions cast in one piece are ^ i, J, \, i, f , f , f , f , f , |, |, |, r 
 Fractions are also cast in two pieces, called split fractions, by which 
 the denominators may be extended to any amount. The separatrix, 
 or rule between the figures, was formerly joined to the foot of the first, 
 but is now attached to the head of the denominators. 
 
 Fragments. — Any pages left after the last sheet of a work, and 
 imposed with the title, contents, or any other odd pages, to save press 
 and warehouse work. 
 
 . Frame. — A platform made of some light wood, on which cases are 
 placed in a sloping position to be composed from. The upper case 
 should be placed at a greater angle than the lower, to bring the 
 upper boxes nearer to the compositor. 
 
 French Furniture. — Pieces of metal cast to pica ems in length 
 and width, used to make margins for books, to fill up blanks and 
 short pages, and for all other purposes to which wooden furniture 
 can be applied. From the great care and nicety shown in casting 
 the various sizes, it is invaluable for making up blank forms. 
 
 French Rules. — Ornamental brass rules, swelling in the centre, of 
 different lengths, and generally used to separate chapters in a book. 
 Also called swell rules. 
 
 Friars. — Light patches caused by the roller not taking ink properly, 
 or by the ink being imperfectly distributed. 
 
46 DICTIOMAUY OF TEUMS 
 
 Frisket. — A thin iron frame, covered with paper, and attached to 
 the head of the tympan by a joint. The parts of a form that are to 
 be printed on are cut out of the paper covering, and the frisket being 
 turned down upon the sheet on the tympan, keeps it flat, prevents 
 the margins being dirtied, and raises it from the form after being 
 printed. 
 
 Frisket- 2yins. — Iron pins passing through the frisket joints, and 
 connecting it with the tympan. 
 
 Frisket stay. — A slight piece of wood fastened to the ceiling of the 
 l>i'e3S-room, or some other convenient place, to support the frisket 
 when turned up. It is sometimes called a gallows. 
 
 Fudge. — To execute work without the proper materials. 
 Full Case. — A case full of letters, wanting no sorts. 
 Full Form. — A form without blanks or short pages. 
 Full Page. — A page containing its full complement of lines, or 
 with few or no breaks in it. 
 
 Full Press. — A press at which the two workmen are continually 
 employed. 
 
 Furniture. — Pieces of wood or metal used in whiting out pages or 
 jobs, for margins to books, and for imposing and locking up forms. 
 It is generally classed as reglet, furniture, side-sticks, foot-sticks, 
 and quoins. It is made of quadrat height, about |ths of an inch. 
 Reglet is of various type depths, from pearl to great primer ; furniture 
 from three to eight pica ems in width, and of any required length. 
 Foot and side sticks are described under their respective heads. 
 
 G. 
 
 Galley. — A thin moveable frame or plane of wood, brass, or zinc, on 
 which to empty matter from the composing sticks as it is set up, and 
 to aflford a level surface for making up pages. Galleys are made of 
 various sizes and widths, from the long narrow news or slip galley, 
 to folios, to suit the different sizes of pages. 
 
 Gathering. — A term used in the warehouse department for collect- 
 ing the sheets of a v/ork in orderly succession for delivery to the 
 binders. 
 
 Gathering-table.— A table on which printed sheets are laid in the 
 order of their signature, to be gathered into books. 
 
USKD IN PKlxXTING. 47 
 
 Q'ff^ige.—A piece of reglet uii Avhicli the length of a page is marked, 
 for the compositor to make np by. Also a card, on which is marked 
 the width of the heads, backs, and gutters of the furniture used in 
 the first sheet of a v>^ork, so that tlie margins of all succeeding sheets 
 may be made the same. 
 
 Gelatine Paper.— X material invented by the late Mons. Grinet, of 
 Rouen. It is commonly manufactured in sheets measuring 22 inches 
 by 16, but may be made of any size or thickness required. It can be 
 obtained as transparent as the best glass, and more free from colour, 
 or may be of all colours or shades. It is exceedingly light, and can 
 be bent or rolled without injury. , It is often used in Europe for 
 fancy or ornamental printing. 
 
 Gets in. — A term used when more is got into a line, page, or form, 
 tlian is in the printed copy a compositor sets from ; or when M.S. 
 copy does not make so much as it was calculated to. 
 
 Girths. — Thongs of leather, or bands of stout webbing, attached to 
 the rounce, and used to run the carriage of a press in or out. 
 
 Giving out paper. — Delivering paper for any job or sheet of a work 
 to the pressmen or paper dampers. 
 
 Glazing Machine. — A machine used for putting a polished] surface 
 on printed papers, or for burnishing gold and colour work. It consists 
 of two massive iron cylinders, turned by a cog and fly-wheel, with 
 power top-gear to increase the pressure. The sheets to be glazed are 
 placed between polished copper plates, and so passed through the 
 cylinders. 
 
 Glyphography.—Yvom two Greek words, glypho, I engrave, and 
 graphein, to draw ; a method of producing engravings, or pictures, 
 invented and patented by Mr. Palmer. 
 
 The description of this art will be best given in the words of the 
 patentee. " The term signifies that art by which an engraving is 
 produced by the simple mode of drawing; or in other words, drawing 
 and engraving, which have hitherto been two distinct operations, are 
 here combined in one. By its aid the artist becomes the engraver of 
 his own work, as much as by the practise of etching ; but with this 
 difference, that here his effect is as immediately conspicuous as 
 though he were using a black lead pencil on paper." *' A piece of ordi- 
 nary copper plate, such as is used for engraving, is stained black on 
 one side, over which is spread a thin layer of a white, opaque compo- 
 sition, resembling white wax in its nature and appearance : this done, 
 the plate is ready for use. In order to diaw properly on these plates, 
 
48 DICTIONARY OF TKP.MS 
 
 various sorts of points are used, wliicli remove, wherever they are 
 passed, a portion of the white composition, wliereby the bhickened 
 surface of the plate is exposed, forming a striking contrast with the 
 white ground, so that the artist sees his effect at Once. The drawing 
 being completed is inspected very carefully and minutely, to see that 
 no part of the work has been damaged, or filled in with dirt or dust. 
 The plate is then brought into contact with a substance having a che- 
 mical attraction or affinity to the composition thereon, whereby the 
 remaining portions are heightened ad libit h7?i. Thus, the heights of 
 the drawing become thickened all over the plate equally, and one 
 great difficulty is overcome. But as the depth of theselights, or non- 
 printing parts of the block, must be in some degree proportioned to 
 their width, the larger breadths of light must be thickened on the 
 plates to a much greater extent. It is indis])ensably necessary that 
 the printing surfaces of a block prepared for the press shall project in 
 such relief as shall prevent the inking roller touching the interstices 
 while passing over them. In wood engraving this is accomplished by 
 cutting out the parts jwhich form the lights of the print to a suffi- 
 cient depth, but in glyphography the depth is formed by heightening 
 the remaining portions of the white composition on the plate. If the 
 composition was spread on the plate as thickly as required for this 
 purpose, it would be impossible for the artist to put either close, fine, 
 or free work thereon ; consequently, the thinnest possible coat is put 
 on previous to the drawing being made, and the required thickness is 
 obtained ultimately as described. The plate thus prepared is again 
 carefully inspected through a powerful lens, and closely scrutinized to 
 see that it is ready for the next stage of the process, which is to place 
 it in a trough, and submit it to the action of a galvanic battery, by 
 means of which copper is deposited in the indentations caused by the 
 drawing, and filling them up it gradually spreads itself over the sur- 
 face of the composition, till a plate of copper is obtained, which, on 
 being separated, will be found to be a perfect cast of the drawing 
 which formed the matrix. This plate is soldered to a piece of white 
 metal to strengthen it, and it is then mounted on wood to bring it to 
 the height of type, and it is now ready for printing. If any parts of 
 the block still require to be lowered, it can be done with the greatest 
 facility when mounted." 
 
 The blocks are printed from precisely as wood-cuts. Some very 
 beautiful specimens have been printed in the Art Journal; but, gene- 
 rally, glyphography has not been able to compete with ordinary 
 wood-cuts. It has some advantages, one of which is the great durabi- 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 49 
 
 lity of tlie blocks, upwards of 70,000 impressions having been taken 
 from one without deterioration ; another, and not the least, is its 
 cheapness. 
 
 Good Colour. — When a sheet is printed neither too white nor too 
 black. 
 
 Good Copy. — Printed copy, or M.S. written in a clear, legible hand. 
 
 Good Work. — Light, easy copy, well paid ; or work turned out 
 cleanly and correctly by the printers. 
 
 Gothic, — The name of a fancy fount used for Job Work. 
 
 Great Primer. — A type, a size smaller than Paragon, and larger 
 than English. There are 51 j lines to the foot. 
 
 Groove. — An indention on the upper surface of the short cross of a 
 chase, to receive the spurs of the points, and allow them to make 
 holes in the paper without being themselves injured. 
 
 Guillotine Pcqjer-cutting Machine. — This machine, the invention of 
 Mr. Wilson, is of iron, with a mahogany table on which to place the 
 paper to be cut. A moveable gauge is attached to a slide which runs 
 in a graduated scale, by which the size to be cut can be regulated to 
 the sixteenth of an inch. When the paper is in its place it is held 
 immovably by a platten and screw ; a cog wheel which moves in a 
 rachet attached to a large knife, is turned, and the knife descends, 
 cutting through the paper with great rapidity. The wheel is now 
 reversed in its motion, and the knife ascends preparatory to afresh cut, 
 
 In a book-binding establishment one of these machines will do the 
 work of six men. 
 
 Gull. — ^To tear the point-holes in a sheet of paper while printing. 
 This is generally caused by the end of the spur being turned, and may 
 be remedied by fihng it to a tapering point. At times a gull is caused 
 by the points not falling fairly in the centre of the groove. 
 
 Gutters. — The furniture separating two adjoining pages in a chase ; 
 as between folios 1 and 8 in a half sheet of 8vo. 
 
 H. 
 
 Half Press. — When one man only is working at a press. 
 
 Hang up, — In warehouse work, is to place printed sheets upon the 
 drying poles. To do this the warehouseman should take the peel in 
 his left hand, and lay it flat upon the heap to be hung up ; he should 
 
 G 
 
50 DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 then turn over on it from six to a dozen sheets, according to the 
 thickness of the paper, taking care to have the fold in the centre of 
 the short cross, as, if it falls across any of the newly printed pages 
 they will most likely smear and set off. Having folded these sheets 
 down he must lift the peel two or three inches to the left, take another 
 fold, then shift it, and so on till he has as many folds as he can con- 
 veniently lift. Then raising the sheets above the poles on which the 
 ^vork is to be hung, and sloping the handle of the peel, the folds 
 will open at the under side, and they may be lowered and hung on 
 the poles. The peel must now be withdrawn from the centre, and be 
 inserted between the first and second folds, or lifts, which are to be 
 shifted on, letting the second overhang the first, and so on till all 
 are spread out ; when the process is repeated till the whole heap is 
 hung up. 
 
 Hard impy^ession. — When there is too much pull on the press, and 
 lines which should be soft and delicate, come up heavy and strong. 
 
 Head-hand.— K thin bar of iron, connecting the two sides of 
 tympans at the top; it is made thin, to allow it to run under the 
 platten without impediment. 
 
 Head-line. — The top line of a page containing the running title and 
 folio. When there is no running title the folio is styled the head line. 
 Chapter lines are also head lines. 
 
 Head of a page: — The top, or upper end. 
 
 Head-2Mge.'—The first page of a work, or any page on which a 
 division or chapter commences. 
 
 Head-2nece. — An ornament placed over the commencement or other 
 division of a work. It may be an engraving or composition of type 
 ornaments. Head-pieces are now going out of fashion. 
 
 Heads. — The pieces of furniture placed at the tops of pages to 
 make the margin. 
 
 Heap. — As many reams or quires of paper as are given out by the 
 warehouseman to be wetted for any particular work. Also the quan- 
 tity of paper a pressman has on his bank for striking off a form. 
 
 Home. — A term used by pressmen to denote that the bar of the 
 press is pulled down till it touches the near cheek. 
 
 Horse. — An inclined platform on which the heap to be wrought 
 off is placed by the pressman. 
 
 Hydraidic j^ress. — This machine, which is of very general use, is 
 highly necessary to printers to smooth or take out the marks of the 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 51 
 
 impression from sheets which have been printed on. The following 
 description of its action is from Nicholson's Journal of Natural 
 Pliilosophy. " When the lever, or pump handle is raised, it brings up 
 the piston, which would leave a vacuum beneath if the pressure of 
 the atmosphere did not force the water in through a side valve. The 
 lever is then to be pressed down, which causes the side valve to shut, 
 and forces the water through a valve at the bottom, whence it passes 
 through a pipe into the cavity of the great cylinder, and raises the 
 piston, or ram. A repetition of the process forces more water in, 
 and the pressure may in this manner be carried to a great extent. The 
 hydraulic press was invented by Mr. Joseph Braraah, of Piccadilly." 
 
 When it is used by printers the dry sheets are placed between milled 
 or glazed boards, first a sheet and then a board. These boards are put 
 in the press, and between every hundred or hundred and fifty a thick 
 wooden board is inserted, to make the whole pile solid. As soon as 
 the whole space between the table of the press and the head is filled, 
 the press is pumped up, as described above. When sufficiently tight 
 it is left standing for a few hours, and on letting it down and taking 
 the sheets from between the boards, they are found to be perfectly 
 smooth and glossy. 
 
 Hyphen. — A mark (-) used when a word is divided, and the first 
 part written or printed at the end of one line, while the latter part is 
 at the commencement of the next. It is also employed in connecting 
 compound words, as, mother-in-law, pre-ordained. 
 
 Imperfections. — In the warehouse, are dirty, spoiled, or incomplete 
 copies of a work. In the composing room, or with typefounders, when 
 one or two sorts run out, leaving the rest useless, they are called 
 imperfections. 
 
 Imperial Press. — A press invented by Messrs. Sherwin and Cope, 
 which is thus described by Dr. Lardner. " In this beautiful and com- 
 pact machine the works upon which the power depends are almost 
 concealed within the head of the press. The leverage connected with 
 the bar is similar in principle to that of the Stanhope press ; and its 
 distinguishing pecuUarity consists in the manner in which the lever, 
 called the chill, is made to act upon the piston. This lever, or chill, 
 terminates in a sort of polished toe, or point. The last mentioned 
 projection of the lever is made to act on a cup, or knuckle, acting 
 upon .the head of a stout iron ball, which simply drops down the per- 
 foration of the piston, so as to rest upon the uppermost of two steel 
 wedges, one of which, connected with a screw in front, is used to 
 regulate the pressure of the platten on the types." 
 
52 DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 Imposing. — Arranging the pages of a sheet or form in their proper 
 order on the stone, and locking (or wedging) them up in a chase, with 
 a view to their being printed. 
 
 Attention to the following remarks is essential to any one wishing to 
 become a good workman. 
 
 We will suppose the compositor has made up sufficient matter to 
 impose a sheet. The pages being laid upon the stone in their proper 
 order, and as near the required distance from each other as can be 
 determined by the eye, the compositor should take his chase in both 
 hands and lay the offside in 8vo., the end in folio or 16mo., on the stone, 
 at the outer side of his page, and lower the near side gradually till 
 it lies flat on the stone, taking care that the edges or heads of the 
 pages are not touched in its descent, or the soft metal types will be 
 injured. Before proceeding any further he should look over all the 
 pages to see if they are laid down correctly, and also observe whether 
 the groove side of the short cross is uppermost. He should now place 
 the furniture round the pages. French furniture, which is of metal, 
 cast to pica ems, and can be made up to any size required, is the best to 
 use ; but if not in the office, wooden furniture must be cut to the proper 
 length. Before cutting up furniture the margin should be measured by 
 a sheet of the paper on which the work is to be printed. Having 
 dressed the chase, that is, put the proper furniture between the pages, 
 and side and footsticks all round, the compositor should proceed to 
 untie his pages, beginning with the page in the angle next the two 
 crosses. Pushing the furniture close ujd, and holding it firmly with 
 his left hand, he must take hold of the end of the page-cord with his 
 right, and gently draw it up, gradually unwinding it from around the 
 pages. Now, in 8vo., untie the outer page, but in 12 or 16mo., the 
 page under the first, next to the long cross; and when the whole 
 quarter is untied put one or two quoins in to secure it while untying 
 the rest. When all the cords are off he should examine the margin 
 carefully, to see that it is quite correct, inserting one or two scale- 
 boards or leads in the backs, short cross, or heads, to enable the press- 
 man to make register, if there is any inequality in the crosses, by 
 either changing their situation or taking them away. Before quoin- 
 ing up, the compositor should place his thumbs against the footstick, 
 and raising it a little, he will see if his pages are of equal length. If 
 the bottom lines lift up with it, he may be certain they are right ; 
 if the corner of either of the pages drops, it is equally certain that 
 one of them must be wrong, either long or short. In this case he 
 must take his page-gauge, rectify the error, and then quoin up. 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 53 
 
 After pushing the quoins up tightly with his fingers all round the 
 form, he should plane the pages down, tapping the back of the planer 
 gently with the handle of the mallet ; if any letters stand up they will 
 be driven down by this, unless dirt, or a splinter of furniture happens 
 to be underneath. 
 
 It is now necessary to look round the pages to see that no letters or 
 folios have slipped, which often is the case in leaded matter, and if all 
 is right the form may be locked up. This should be done gently all 
 round at first, to avoid bending the crosses ; but afterwards, the form 
 may be locked up as tightly as necessary, and again be planed down, 
 with sharp, clear blows, as if the planer shifts it may batter the types. 
 If any thing is under any one of the pages, care must be taken not to 
 plane that down, but after locking up, the form must be lifted, the 
 substance under the types be picked out, the form laid down again, 
 and the quarter unlocked, the page or quarter be planed down, and 
 then be again locked up. 
 
 The form should now be drawn to the edge of the stone, and lifted 
 slightly, to ascertain that all the letters are secure ; if any of them 
 dance the cause must be discovered, and if it is owing to bad spacing 
 or a wrong founted letter in, the compositor in whose matter it occurs 
 should be called to remedy it, but if the letters will not lift owing to 
 slips at the ends of the lines, the imposer himself must correct it. 
 
 In imposing from forms which have been worked off, it is necessary 
 if the work is in sheets, to use the furniture as it has been used before ; 
 that is, to impose the outer form with the furniture which has been 
 previously used for the outer form, and the inner with that used for 
 the inner form. This is because the pressman has made register in the 
 outer form, and it will most likely save him much time in laying on 
 again. 
 
 The chases for a sheet must always be in pairs, as otherwise it will 
 be nearly impossible to register correctly, at least, there will be much 
 trouble in doing so. 
 
 Neither the sidestick nor the footstick should project beyond the 
 other, as it will prevent the quoins from passing, and in unlocking 
 wiU give a great deal of trouble. It often happens that the project- 
 ing stick is spoiled in such a case; and the pages are likely to be 
 either squabbled or broken. If there is room in the chase, when either 
 side or footstick is too long, it will be best to put furniture at the 
 sides or feet of the outside pages, as that will obviate cutting, and 
 help to fill up the space. 
 
54 
 
 DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 The following are the Schemes of Imposition most useful in this 
 country : 
 
 Schemes of Imposition. 
 
 Sheets of Folio. 
 
 Outer form. Inner form. 
 
 14 3 2 
 
 A 
 
 Ttvo sheets in Folio, Quired. 
 
 Outer Form of Inner Form of 
 outer sheet. outer sheet. 
 
 1 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 2 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Outer form of Inner form of 
 inner sheet. inner sheet. 
 
 3 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 4 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 JIalf sheet of 
 
 1 ! 
 
 Qua 
 
 rto. 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 « 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 Sheet of Quarto. 
 
 Outer form. Inner form. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V5 
 
 f 
 
 
 Q 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 2 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 55 
 
 Half sheet, Octavo. Two Quarters, Octavo, 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 V 
 
 
 Q 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 2 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 /S'/iee^ o/ Octavo. 
 Outer form. Inner form. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 51 
 
 
 Q 
 
 1 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 4 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 II 
 
 14 
 
 
 01 
 15 
 
 
 L 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 _A2_ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 Sheet of Octavo ivith two Signatures. 
 Twelve 2Mges of a work, and four of other matter. 
 Outer form. Inner form. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 z 
 
 z 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 Q 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 L 
 
 
 f 
 
 T 
 
 1 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Half sheet of Tw 
 
 dves. 
 
 The same witi 
 
 hout cutting. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 
 L 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 Q 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 f 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 01 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 f 
 
 » 
 
 6 
 
 
 OT 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
56 
 
 DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 13 
 
 Sheet of Twelves. 
 Outer form. Inner form. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 51 
 
 
 SI 
 
 
 91 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 01 
 
 
 QI 
 
 
 t'l 
 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 ^I 
 
 
 05 
 
 ' 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 61 
 
 
 81 
 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 22 
 
 
 23 
 
 
 2 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Half sheet of Sixteens. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5V 
 
 z 
 
 
 QI 
 
 
 fl 
 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 1 
 
 A 
 
 
 6 
 16 
 
 
 51 
 13 
 
 
 4 
 
 ^A^e^ o/ SixteenSj tvith one signature. 
 Outer form. Inner form 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5V 
 
 
 65 
 
 
 85 
 
 
 Q 
 
 
 9 
 
 — ■ 
 
 
 LZ 
 
 
 08 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 22 
 
 
 19 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 91 
 
 
 ZI 
 
 
 1-5 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 01 
 
 
 85 
 
 
 81 
 
 
 QI 
 
 1 
 
 
 32 
 
 ' 
 
 25 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 26 
 
 
 31 
 
 
 2 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 
 Half sheet of Eighteens, ivithout transpositiorL 
 
 57 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 SV 
 
 9 
 
 
 L 
 
 
 81 
 
 
 ZI 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 S 
 
 f' 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 91 
 
 
 QI 
 
 
 01 
 
 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 2 
 
 Jl 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 'Sheet 
 
 of Eighti 
 
 1 1 
 
 lens, 
 Out* 
 
 ivi 
 2r 
 
 th three 
 form. 
 
 1 
 
 sign 
 
 ut 
 
 ures. 
 
 9 
 
 
 L 
 
 
 81 
 
 
 61 
 
 
 08 
 
 
 IS 
 
 f 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 91 
 
 
 IS 
 
 
 8S 
 
 
 S8 
 
 1 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 36 
 
 1. 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 Inner form. 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 
 Sa 
 
 
 
 
 '<;▼ 
 
 €S 
 
 
 6S 
 
 
 OS 
 
 
 LI 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 
 s 
 
 ^8 
 
 
 Z5 
 
 
 ss' 
 
 
 91 
 
 
 01 
 
 
 s 
 
 35 
 
 
 2« 
 
 
 23 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 2 
 
 T3 
 
 <2 ^ 
 O 
 
 K 
 H 
 O 
 
 Imposing Stone.— The table on which the compositor irmposes and 
 correct his forms. All " correcting tables" were originally formed of 
 stone slabs, fitted on a wooden frame ; but lately iron surfaces have 
 .been pretty generally introduced, but still retaining the old designa- 
 
 H 
 
^S DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 tion. Imposing stones are made of various sizes, to suit their situation, 
 and are mounted on frames containing drawers for holding quoins, 
 furniture, and mallet, shootingstick and planer. 
 
 Impression sheet. — A sheet of stout even paper, that exactly fits the 
 inside of the outer tympan. 
 
 Imprint. — The name and place of residence of the printer of any 
 newspaper, book, or job. In the former it is placed at the foot of the 
 last column ; in books on the back of the title or at the foot of the last 
 page. Also the name of publisher and place of publication at the 
 foot of the title page. 
 
 Indestructible jyrinting. — By this process, whicli is the invention of 
 Messrs. Adams and Gee, printers, of Cloth Fair, London, metal plates, 
 of the thickness of ordinary sheet tin, may be printed on with ordinary 
 type, the plates being first coated with a whitish composition. The 
 sheets thus printed upon are afterwards subjected to a japanning 
 process, and an even lustrous surface is produced, which can only be 
 acted upon by a sharp instrument. 
 
 Index, or hand ^^, used to direct the reader's attention to some 
 particular passage. 
 
 India papter. — A peculiar paper, made in China, which is used to 
 obtain fine, or " proof" impressions of engravings. There is a smooth 
 and rough sideto this paper, which is made on the smooth surface 
 of a stone, by applying the pulp with a brush, the rough side having 
 the appearance of paint applied by an unskilful hand. 
 
 Ink. — The composition used to obtain printed copies from a form 
 of types or engravings, either black or coloured. 
 
 Ink table. — A table for distributing ink equally over the rollers, 
 made either of wood or iron. Tables as described below are in use in 
 the Government Press, and were made in this country. A wooden 
 frame is covered with sheet iron, to form the distributing surface. The 
 ink trough is placed at the fore edge, and is composed of an iron 
 roller, or ductor, turned triie, and a plate of steel. The edge of the 
 steel presses against the roller by means of weights and levers, and 
 prevents the ink, which is placed between the plate and roller, from 
 escaping, except when the roller is turned by the pressman. When the 
 roller is turned round it becomes covered with a thin film of ink, the 
 inking roller is dabbed against this, rolled backwards and forwards over 
 the distributing table several times to spread it evenly all over, and is 
 then passed two or three times over the form. A cover is fixed by hinges 
 over the ink duct, to prevent dust and dirt from settling in the ink. 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 59 
 
 Inner form. — In working slieets, is the form that has the second 
 page in it. 
 
 Inner tympan, — A frame covered with parchment, which fits into 
 the outer tympan. Two fiat points slip under the head board of the 
 outer tympan, and secure that end in its place, and the sides are kept 
 down by hooks on each side of the outer tympan, which turn round 
 studs fixed in the inner frame. 
 
 Inside Quires. — Perfect quires of paper, of twenty-four good sheets 
 each, thus designated to distinguish them from outside, or corded 
 quires. 
 
 Its oum paper. — A term used by pressmen when two or three 
 proofs are to be pulled on the paper used for printing the same work. 
 
 Job. — Any thing printed (with the exception of neAVspapers) which 
 does not exceed a sheet in quantity Cards, Blank Forms, Circulars, 
 Bills, Posting Bills, Cheques, or Receipts, <fec., are also Jobs. 
 
 Job House. — A printing office in which the general run of business 
 is the printing of Jobs, 
 
 Joined. — When several compositors are engaged upon the same 
 work, and one has composed all his copy, so that nothing intervenes 
 betw^een his matter and that of the compositor who follows him, he 
 says he has joined, or set up close. 
 
 Justifying. — Spacing out the lines so that they fit the stick with a 
 proper degree of tightness ; or placing matter of different measures in 
 pages, so that when locked up it may be fast, and the lines above and 
 below even. 
 
 Justifying the Stick. — Is making up the measure, or width to com- 
 pose in, and securing the slide of a composing stick to the required 
 size. 
 
 K. 
 
 Kerned Letters. — Letters that have a part of their face hanging over 
 one or both sides of the shank. 
 
 Key. — A flat, square hook, with a loop handle to put the fingers 
 through. It is used to lift forms out of the lye trough, after the ink 
 is brushed off. 
 
60 DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 Knock np. — In warehouse work, is to place the edges of the sheets 
 of each signature of a work uniformly even with each other, so that 
 d«st or dirt may not soil any part of the margins if kept long stand- 
 ing. 
 
 -Li. 
 
 Lay down. — To place the pages of a sheet or half sheet on the stone^ 
 preparatory to imposing them. 
 
 In the warehouse this term denotes placing the sheets of a work in 
 proper order on the table, prior to gatliering. 
 
 Lay Letter.— To put new type into cases, in the proper boxes. 
 Lay on. — To place a form on the press, and prepare it for striking off, 
 
 Tjay up. — To wash the matter in a form, and prepare it for distribu- 
 tion. The best way of doing this is to unlock the form on a board, and 
 while water is allowed to run over it work the pages backwards and 
 forwards with the fingers. When the water runs off clear the form is 
 f^ufficiently washed. Matter may be washed in brass or zinc galleys in 
 the same way, but galleys made of wood will spoil by being wetted. 
 Laying up is very necessary for the preservation of type, as if not 
 carefully cleaned the ink will accumulate round the edges of the 
 letters, or till up the sunk parts. In the first case, the types appear to 
 stand apart, as if they were spaced, and they can only be made to close 
 properly by scraping, which is likely to batter them ; in the second 
 they appear as a black blot only, and are certain to be marked as bad 
 by the reader. 
 
 Leaders. — Dotted quadrats, to resemble full points, two or three on 
 an em. Tliey are cast to one, two, or three ems, and are used to lead 
 from the ends of lines to the figures of reference in indexes, contents, 
 tables, or accounts. 
 
 Leads. — Long yneces of metal, of various thicknesses, from three to 
 twelve to a pica, used for placing between lines, or whiting out heads, 
 titles, or other open work. They are cast quadrat height, are called 
 leads by printers, and space lines by type founders. 
 
 Lean faced.— X type of very tliin proportion as compared to its 
 height. 
 
 Lettfr hoard. -A board on which to lay up forms for distribution. 
 Lftter brush. -A brush used in composing rooms to dust the faces 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 61 
 
 of forms which have been kept standing for any length of time, pre- 
 vious to pulling a proof. 
 
 Letter founder. — A person who manufactures type from metal; some- 
 times styled type founder. 
 
 Letter foundry.— K place where letter is cast ; sometimes called a 
 type foundry. 
 
 Letter hang$. — When the compositor has been careless in emptying 
 his composing stick, or has not locked up his pages properly, the 
 ends of the lines will bend, which is called hanging. 
 
 Lift. — When a work is nearly completed, and perfect copies are 
 required before the whole number can be worked off, it is usual to 
 print from 100 to 250 sheets of each form. If there are many forms 
 to strike off, it is usually impossible to lay on each at a different press, 
 and therefore, after perfecting a certain number of sheets, the form is 
 " lifted," and another laid on. When all have had perfect copies 
 struck, the previous forms are laid on again, and the proper number 
 completed. Much time in publication is sometimes saved by this. 
 
 Ligatures. — Two letters cast together on the same shank, in cases 
 where one is kerned, and would be battered by locking up against 
 the shank of the next letter. There are but few used now, ff, fi 
 fl, ffi, ffl, and the dipthongs. 
 
 Literals^ or literal errors, are mistakes of the compositors in inserting 
 wrong letters, or inverting right ones. The term is not applied to 
 outs or doiibles. 
 
 Lithography.— From " lithos," a stone, and '' graphein," to draw, is 
 the art of printing from a peculiar kind of stone, in a manner 
 resembling the more ordinary kinds of engraving. It was invented at 
 Munich, in Bavaria, between the years 1795 and 1798, by Aloys 
 Sennefelder, who, being too poor to pay for printing his works in the 
 usual manner, by letter press, endeavoured to discover a method 
 of writing his productions on various metals in a manner which would 
 admit of copies being multiplied, as in engraving, to any extent. " He 
 found," says the Encyclopaedia Americana, " in the course of his 
 " experiments, that a composition of soap, wax, and lamp black, 
 " formed a good material for writing on his plates; that when dry 
 " it became firm and solid, and that it resisted aquafortis. Wanting 
 *' facility for writing backwards on his plates, he got some pieces 
 " of Kilheim stone, as a cheap material for practising on. One day 
 " being desired by his mother to take an account of some linen about 
 
 to be washed, he wrote the particulars on the surface of a polished 
 
 (( 
 
62 DICTIONARY OF TKRMS 
 
 *' stone with his composition, intending to copy it at his leisure. Af- 
 " terwards, when about to efface the writing, it occurred to him that 
 " he might obtain impressions from it ; and having eaten away the 
 " stone with acid for about the hundredth part of an inch, he found 
 " that he could charge the lines with printing ink, and take suc- 
 " cessive copies. 
 
 " This new mode of printing seemed to him very important, and he 
 " persevered through all difficulties in applying his discovery to prac- 
 " tical purposes. While experimenting he found that it was not neces- 
 " sary to have the letters raised above the surface of the stone, but 
 " that the chemical principles by which grease and water were kept 
 " from uniting were alone enough for his purpose. At this time 
 " lithography may be said to have been fully discovered. Some pieces 
 " of music were first printed for publication in 1796. The difficulty he 
 " had in writing backwards led to the process of transfers, and the 
 " use of dry soap led to the mode of chalk drawings. 
 
 " After considerable improvements, in 1799, Mr. Sennef elder ob- 
 " tained a patent privilege for Bavaria, and entered into partnership 
 " with Mr. Andr6 of Offenbach, who proposed to take out patents in 
 " London, Paris, and Vienna. In August 1800, Sennef elder went 
 " to Vienna, where extensive preparations were made for applying his 
 " process to print cottons ; this however, turned out a failure, and he 
 " returned to IMunich in 1806, where Mr. Mitterer, professor of draw- 
 " ing at the public school, practised lithography to multiply copies for 
 " the pupils, and is said to have invented, or much improved the 
 " chalk composition in its present form. From this period the practise 
 " of the art was improved and extended ; from Munich it spread 
 " to Germany, and from thence to France and England." 
 
 The stone employed in Lithography is a species of limestone, 
 resembling a smooth yellow hone in appearance. The best is procured 
 from the quarries of Solenhofen, in Bavaria, but it is also found in 
 France and England. Lithographic stones are also procurable in 
 India in enormous quantities ; at Kurnool, at Datchapillay on the 
 banks of the Kistnah, and near Appiapilly, about 14 miles beyond 
 Cuddapah. They vary very much in quality and thickness, accord- 
 ing to the depth from which they are quarried. Those from Kurnool 
 are the hardest, and are well suited for transfers ; those from Datcha- 
 pillay can be procured of almost any degree of hardness or softness, 
 as the beds in some places are nearly twenty feet thick, and are some 
 miles in extent. Any stone which eflfervesces with an acid, which 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 63 
 
 imbibes water witli facility, and is easily penetrated by greasy sub- 
 stances, is fit for lithographic purposes ; the nature and quality of the 
 work requiring a stone of corresponding quality and fitness. The best 
 for general purposes is that w^hich breaks with a conchoidal fracture, 
 is of a homogenous texture, a uniform yellowish white colour, and 
 emits, when breathed upon, an aluminous or clayey odour. The 
 prepared stones vary in thickness from one to four or five inches, the 
 largest being necessarily the thickest, to endure the severe pressure 
 to which they are subjected. Of whatever dimensions, they must be 
 perfectly flat, and of uniform polish. To obtain this, they are rubbed 
 with sifted sand or water till they obtain the necessary gTain, or sur- 
 face, if for chalk drawings ; and if for ink drawings, they are polished 
 wdth pumice stone till they are perfectly free from grain or scratches. 
 Stones which have been printed from are polished afresh, to remove 
 the old drawing, and in addition to the usual rubbing with sand and 
 pumice stone, are w^ashed with a mixture of aquafortis and water. 
 
 The drawings are either executed at once on the stone, or are taken 
 from transfer paper. In the former case, the drawing is reversed, in 
 the latter it is done in the natural order and is reversed when trans- 
 ferred to the stone. In either case the drawings are made by the 
 pencil of chalk, or by ink and a fine pen or camel hair pencil. " To 
 " render the lithographic process intelligible, let it be supposed that 
 " the artist now completes a drawing with the chemical chalk upon a 
 '' grained stone. If, while in this state, a sponge filled mth water 
 " were passed over the face of the stone, the drawing w^ould wash out, 
 '' the chalk with w^hich it is made being soluble in water by reason of 
 " the soap which it contains. Therefore, before it is capable of yielding 
 '* impressions, the drawing is washed with a weak solution of nitrous 
 " acid, which neutralizes the alkali contained in the soap, and renders 
 '* it insoluble in water. After this, a solution of gum is floated over 
 " the face of the stone, and when this is removed, if a sponge and 
 ''' water is applied to its surface, as before supposed, the drawing is 
 '' found to be no longer removable, because the chalk with which it is 
 " executed is now no longer soluble in water. In this state the work is- 
 '' ready for the printer, w^ho obtains impressions by the following 
 " process :— Having with the ends of his fingers sprinkled a few- drops 
 " of water on the stone, and spread them with a sponge so as to wet, 
 " or rather damp the whole surface, the printer finds that the water 
 '* has been imbibed by the stone only on those parts not occupied by 
 " the drawing, which being greasy, repels the water and remains dry_ 
 ^^ A roller properly covered with printing ink is now passed over the 
 
C4 DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 *' wliole stone, wliicli will not even be soiled where it is wet, from 
 ** the antipathy of oil and water ; but the parts occupied by the water 
 " being, as we have seen, dry and greasy, have an affinity for the 
 " printing ink, which therefore passes from the roller and attaches 
 *' itself to the drawing. In this state it is said to be charged, or rolled 
 " in. Damped ixiper is then put over it, and the whole being passed 
 *' through a press, the printing ink is transferred from the stone to 
 ^^ the paper, and this constitutes the impression. By repeating in this 
 ^' manner the operations of damping the stone and rolling in the 
 *' drawing, an almost unlimited number of impressions may be ob- 
 *' tained. The modes of lithograpliy are various, but the illustration 
 ^' just given will explain the principle of them all. It consists in the 
 ^' mutual antipathy of oil and water, and the affinity which the stone 
 *^ has for both—that is, in its power of imbibing either with equal 
 ■*' avidity." — Penny Cydoj^cedia. 
 
 Great d«lioacy and dexterity are requisite in the practise of this 
 tirt, as while drawing on the stone the slightest touch of the hand will 
 fasten on the surface, and appear in the impression, j\Iuch care is also 
 necessary in the working, for, from various causes great irregularities 
 will at times occur in the colour. One of the chief of tliese disturbing 
 •causes is variation in temperature ; and it is always prudent to make 
 one or two trials before proceeding to regular work, as the stone and 
 ink which in the morning worked well, may in the evening produce 
 only intolerable blotches. Lithography can never equal good engrav- 
 ing, but, for all ordinary pin-poses it affords a ready substitute. Since 
 its discovery it has gradually worked into favour, partly on account of 
 its cheapness, and partly owing to the facility of operation and the 
 aiumerous modes in which it may be applied. Cards and circulars, 
 maps and plans, and excellent imitations of chalk drawings, are 
 -executed by lithography in a very superior style ; so also n re those 
 fancy placards for shop windows, book covers, music-wrappers and 
 Illustrations, and the like, printed in vai'ious coloured inks, and 
 Jieightened hy gold and brotnzes. 
 
 JAthogrcqjhic Ink — is employed in making the drawings on stone, 
 :and varies in composition according to the nature of the work, and 
 whether the drawing is made direct on the stone or is transferred to it 
 from paper. One kind, of good quality, consists of dmed tallow soap^ 
 mastic, sub-carbonate of X)etash, table varnish and lamp-black. The 
 materials are incorporated in a close vessel over a fire, and when 
 prepared are cast into moulds. This substance, when cold, forms a 
 ^chalk which may be pointed like a pencil, or it may be dissolved 
 in water to form an ink. The following recipe for making ink is 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 65 
 
 recommended by Hulmandel :— two ounces of tallow candle, two 
 ounces of virgin wax, two ounces of shell lac, two ounces of common 
 soap, and lamp black to bring it to the colour required. To be 
 prepared and incorporated as the preceding. 
 
 As it is more difficult to work with chalks than with inks, greater 
 care is required in the preparation of the former, hence the proportions 
 of the mixture may be varied, so as to produce a mass sufficiently firm 
 without being dry, and also without having a tendency to clog the 
 stone. Tlie ink used by the printer is generally composed of burnt 
 oil or varnish, and lamp black, with a small proportion of indigo to 
 bring up the colour. 
 
 Lithographic Press. — This press is of very simple construction. An 
 iron frame supports a moveable table, as in the common press. The 
 stone lies in a box on this table, and when properly inked, with a sheet 
 of paper laid on it, is covered by a piece of leather and drawn under a 
 hard edge or scraper, the impression being aided by a lever power. 
 The edge of the scraper must be smooth and true, and the leather 
 of one uniform thickness, so that the pressure may be equally dis- 
 tributed. 
 
 Locking up. — Tightening the quoins round a form with a mallet and 
 shooting stick, so that it may be lifted and moved from the imposing 
 stone without the furniture or types dropping out. 
 
 Long cross. — The thin iron bar which divides a chase the longest 
 
 way. 
 
 Lo7ig Primer. — A type, one size larger than Bourgeois, and smaller 
 than Small Pica ; there are 89 lines to a foot. 
 
 Loiv case. — A case from which nearly all the type has been composed. 
 
 Lower case. — The case in which all the small letters, points, spaces, 
 and quadrats are kept ; it is always placed on the lowest part of the 
 frame next the workman, hence its name. 
 
 Lug. — A roller is said to lug when its surface is soft, and it sticks 
 to the ink table, being removed with difficulty. 
 
 Lye. — A solution of alkali in water, used to wash the ink from forms 
 after working. A very good lye is made by boiling together four 
 measures of wood ashes and one measure of unslaked chunam in about 
 15 measures of water. A preparation known as Watson's detergent ii 
 very useful for cleaning forms. 
 
 Lye brush. — Tlie brush used to wash a form with lye. 
 
 Lye trough. — A shallow square wooden trough, lined with lead, and 
 its upper edge bound with iron, used to lay forms in to wash them. 
 
 I 
 
6Q DICTION A UY OF TERMS 
 
 M. 
 
 Jlachin(s—ln a printing office^ are the various presses and ap- 
 pliances for printing, and which may be worked by manual labour or 
 driven by steam or any other motive power. 
 
 ■ The earliest form of the printing press was nothing more than a 
 common screw press with a contrivance for running the form under 
 the screw after being inked. This mode of working must have been 
 very laborious and very slow. As the screw must have come down 
 upon the types with a dead pull, great care must have been required 
 to prevent the pressure being so hard as to injure the face of the 
 letters. Its defects were remedied by an ingenious Dutch mechanic, 
 William Jansen Blaew, a mathematical instrument maker at Amster- 
 dam. In the early part of his life this man was a joiner, but having 
 served out his time, and being of an inquisitive disposition, he 
 rambled to Denmark, where he entered into the service of Tycho 
 Brahe, the astronomer. About 1620 he set up a printing house, 
 where he soon found the inconveniences attending the structure of 
 the old press. He was induced to contrive remedies for every 
 inconvenience, and succeeded so well, that he made nine new presses 
 for his own office. The improvements in Blaew's presses do not 
 require to be particularly described ; it may be sufficient to mention, 
 that the head of the press in which the screw worked, as well as 
 the bed of the table upon which the form of types rested, were yield- 
 ing ; and that the screw consisted of three or four worms, according to 
 the size of the cylinder. In this way the pressure was rapidly com- 
 municated from the screw to the types; and the spring above and 
 below gave a sharpness to the impression while it prevented it being 
 too hard. Blaew's presses gradually drove out the more ancient press ; 
 but even as late as the year 1770, Luckombe, in his history of printing 
 says, " There are two presses in use, the old and the new fashioned." 
 
 These presses remained in use till near the end of the 18th century, 
 in spite of numerous defects, one, and not the least of which was, that 
 the platten, or impression surface, was generally only half the size of 
 the sheet, and so, after one portion of a form was pressed, the carriage 
 had to be wound still further in, and the remaining portion pressed. 
 The consequence of this was, th-at besides much loss of time, the 
 impression on a sheet was not always uniform. 
 
USED IN PRINTING. C7 
 
 At length, about the close of the 18th century, the Earl of Stanhope, 
 who had applied himself to the improvement of printing, invented a 
 press which soon came into general use, to the exclusion of the old 
 wooden presses, which are now almost unknown. His lordship's 
 improvements did not go the length of altering the general form of the 
 press. He left the same plan to be pursued of winding the carriage 
 below the platten by a handle and rounce, and of pulling the impression 
 by the application of the right hand to the seat of power ; but he 
 constructed the press of iron instead of wood, of a size to print the 
 whole surface of a sheet, and applied such a combined action of levers 
 to the screw, as to make the pull a great deal less laborious to the 
 pressman. 
 
 The improvements of Lord Stanhope were speedily followed by the 
 attempts of other individuals in great Britain and America to remedy 
 the ancient defects in printing mechanism. So numerous, indeed, have 
 been their attempts that it is not possible in the compass of this little 
 work to do more than mention them, without going into details. 
 
 The first of these imaginaiy improvements was made by a German of 
 the name of D'Eighn, and to his press he gave the name of the Sector. 
 This was much like the Stanhope in formation, but did not meet with 
 any great favour. 
 
 The field was next entered by a firm of the name of Cogger and 
 Scott ; their press was denominated the Cogger, but is seldom heard of 
 in printing offices now. 
 
 Next came the Ruthven press, invented by an Edinburgh printer of 
 that name. This is the only instance in which an improved press was 
 made of quite a new construction ; in all other presses the table on 
 which the type is placed is moveable, but in this the types stand upon 
 a fixed frame, while the pressing part, or platten, is brought over the 
 form by being pulled forward on wheels. This was an exceedingly 
 meritorious invention, and many presses were manufactured and sold ; 
 but experience has evinced that the contrivance is only valuable when 
 applied to small presses. 
 
 Among those which have gained the largest share of approbation 
 may be mentioned the Columbian press, which is of American origin. 
 It was first introduced in England in 1818, by Mr. George Clymer of 
 Philadelphia, and was immediately patented. The pressing power, 
 in this instance, is procured by a long bar or handle acting upon a 
 combination of exceedingly powerful levers. For ease and facility of 
 pull this press is preferred by most workmen, and certainly the power- 
 ful command which can be exercised, is favourable to delicacy and 
 exactness of printing. 
 
68 DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 With one or two exceptions, the modern improvers of the printing- 
 press have confined their efforts to the process of connnunicating 
 pressure to the platten, so as to procure greater rapidity of working. 
 Sometimes the power is procured by the action of two or more inclined 
 planes working against each other ; in other instances by f ulcrums and 
 levers; in others by the straightening of a joint. The latter is an 
 exceedingly simple and beautiful form of power, resembling the bend- 
 ing and straightening of the knee-joint. This may be considered the 
 most efficient mode of compressing the platten yet discovered, and 
 it would be difficult to rival it in the properties of rapidity and sim- 
 plicity of execution. Nevertheless such is the number and rapidity 
 of improved presses in the present day, that it would not be easy to 
 decide upon which has the best claims to the notice of printers. 
 
 Amongst the last named form of press we find the Kussell, which 
 is simple and easy to work, but as the platten is somewhat loose, it 
 shifts now and then. The Smith press, the Washington press, and 
 Otis-Tuft's press are varieties of the knee power, are very light, and 
 easily worked. 
 
 Another excellent press, and one of the best invented, is Mr. Cope's 
 Albion, which is at least equal to the Columbian in power, and more 
 steady in the working. 
 
 Tlie Imperial and the Hercules, are somewhat similar to the Albion, 
 but do not seem to be thought so good. 
 
 All these are " macliines," but I have not yet mentioned the " power 
 presses" which are generally spoken of as machines in a printing office. 
 For a long time in spite of the ingenuity of Lord Stanhope and his 
 successors, the process could only be proceeded with at a considerable 
 amount of fatigue, and at a rate of speed seldom exceeding 250 impres- 
 sions per hour, or 125 sheets printed on both sides. It is evident that 
 such a state of things was quite incompatible with the advancement 
 of knowledge, and the necessity of producing a large number of 
 impressions in a short space of time, particularly as regarded news- 
 papers. It became apparent that a comj^lete revolution was necessary 
 in the art of printing ; that flat surfaces should be discarded, and cy- 
 linders brought into use. It is now necessary to describe hoAV this 
 great modern invention, applied to printing machines, came to be 
 adopted. 
 
 Mr. William Nicholson, editor of the Philosophical Journal, was the 
 first person to publish a project for a seK-acting printing press. He 
 obtained a patent in 1790-91, for imposing types on a cylindrical 
 surface; but though the principle undoubtedly was ingenious, he failed 
 in his attempts. 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 69 
 
 In 1804 Mr. Koenig, a clock-maker from Saxony, failing to obtain 
 support from the continental printers, went to London, and in 1811 
 obtained a patent for working the common hand-press -svith power ; 
 but after much expence he renounced this project. He then turned his 
 thoughts to using a cyUnder for communicating pressure, this was a 
 success, and on the 28th November 1814, the " Times" was first printed 
 by steam impelled machinery. In this machine the two principle 
 features of Nicholson's invention were embraced ; the cylinder and the 
 inking rollers. 
 
 After the utility of cylindrical printing had been thus proved, it was 
 thought highly desirable to apply the principle to book-w^ork, in which 
 accurate register was indispensable. This was attained, to a certain 
 extent, by using two cylinders, the sheet of paper being conveyed 
 from the bottom of the first cylinder to the second, round which the 
 sheet was carried till the second side was printed. 
 
 So firm was the belief of the patentees (Mr. Koenig, Mr. Bensly, and 
 Mr. K Taylor) that perfection had been reached, that in March 1817, 
 they issued a prospectus, offering three kinds of machines at high 
 prices, and requiring a considerable annual premium. 
 
 About this time Donkin and Bacon set up a beautiful machine for 
 Cambridge University ; an excellent specimen of contrivance, but too 
 complicated for common workmen. 
 
 In 1818 Mr. Napier took out a patent for improvements in printing 
 machinery ; and another patent was taken out by Messrs. Applegath 
 and Cowper. Mr. Napier's invention consisted principally in using 
 grippers, or metal fingers, instead of tapes, for seizing hold of and 
 leading the sheet of paper round the cylinder. His machine, however, 
 did not meet with the general estimation of that of Applegath and 
 Cowper, whose patent referred principally to the application of two 
 drums placed between the cylinders to insure accuracy of register. 
 Machines of this construction were made for all the principal printing 
 establishments in London, Paris, Edinburgh, and many other cities ; 
 and it is nearly upon their model that many machines are now 
 constructed by other manufacturers. 
 
 While these improvements were being made, the advantage of secur- 
 ing types or plates upon the cylinder occupied much attention. 
 Nicholson sought to effect this by giving the shank of the type a shape 
 like the keystone of an arch ; Donkin and Bacon by attaching types to 
 the sides of a revolving prism ; and Cowper, more successfully, and for 
 which he obtained a patent, by curving the stereotype plate, and thus 
 fixing it on the cylinder in a perfectly secure manner. Many power 
 
70 DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 presses are made on this plan, and tlie following description of one 
 erected by Mr. Applegath in tlie great Exhibition building in 1851, and 
 which was used to print the Illustrated London News, will give 
 an idea of the general principle upon which many of them are 
 constructed. 
 
 The chief novelties of the Applegath vertical printing machine are, 
 first, the type being placed around a large cylinder, placed vertically, 
 thus leaving impressions on several sheets of paper at each revolution, 
 and second, that by such arrangement a far greater number of 
 copies can be produced within a given time than by any reciprocating 
 machine as yet invented. 
 
 As this machine is calculated to throw off four impressions for each 
 revolution of the cylinder, it is necessary to introduce as many sheets 
 of blank paper at the same time. This is done by the "layer on," who 
 draws a sheet towards the upper rollers, when a small iron spindle 
 furnished with brass pulleys, revolving at considerable velocity, 
 descends upon it, causing it to pass between the sets of vertical tapes, 
 which carry it down to a point at which its course is altered by narrow 
 upright pieces of wood, called "stoppers," which advance and compress 
 the sheet of paper between them, the vertical tapes at the same time 
 receding from the paper. In the next place, the stoppers recede, and 
 the paper is momentarily suspended between small pulleys, mounted 
 on delicate springs, called " finger rollers." The sheet is now impelled 
 towards the impressing cylinder by means of vertical rollers in rapid 
 motion on either side of the sheet, which is secured by the ordinary 
 marginal tapes, and, passing round the impressing cylinder, receives 
 an impression from the type fixed on the great vertical cylinder. The 
 sheet, thus printed, passes towards the " taking off" table, being 
 supported in its progress by the upper pair of tapes, which are stopped 
 at the proper time, leaving the sheet suspended between small spring 
 pulleys above it, until the " taker-off" removes it to the table. 
 
 The type cylinder, which is really the great feature of the invention, 
 consists of three strong circular rings of cast iron, securely keyed to 
 an upright spindle. The segmental chases which contain the type 
 and wood-cuts, are attached to the circular rings by screws. 
 
 During the revolution of the type cylinder, it comes in contact with 
 four printing cylinders, each of which is exactly one fourth of its 
 diameter. The printing cylinders work into the type cylinder by 
 means of toothed wheels placed beneath them. 
 
 The surface of the impressing cylinders is made partly of fine 
 woollen cloth, and partly of paper, or firm card board, reduced in 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 71 
 
 those parts requiring the over laying, by cutting or scraping, according 
 to the thickness required. The ink is carefully spread over a circular 
 invert opposite to the type, and connected to the vertical spindle of 
 the type cylinder by hinged arms resting on an upright bar, which is 
 terminated by a pulley. This pulley acts upon a circular undulat- 
 ing railway fixed below the type cylinder, and from which the 
 distributing surface receives a slight up and down motion as it 
 revolves. The distributing surface is fed with ink by means of 
 vibratory rollers, which continue in action between it and the upright 
 ink boxes placed under the copper reservoirs. 
 
 The contact of the inking rollers with the type is regulated by long 
 coiled springs connected with the bearings, so that they merely touch 
 the surface of the letters, which is one of the great advantages of the 
 vertical portion of the machine. To shew^ the advantage of the arrange- 
 ment, it is only necessary to mention, that in the case of the Times 
 machine, 40,000 impressions have been taken without any difference 
 being discovered between the first and the last. Another advantage of 
 the vertical machine is that the dust or small particles adhering to 
 the paper are taken from it when suddenly stopped, and fall to the 
 floor, instead of being deposited upon the form or distributing table, 
 as in the case of horizontal machines. 
 
 In the London " Times" printing office is another vertical machine 
 whicb was erected by Messrs. Little and Applegath, from designs of 
 the former gentleman. The drum, or cylinder of this machine is 64 
 inches in diameter, and to it the columns of type are fixed. The 
 " forms" are made segments of its surface, just as a tower of brick may 
 be faced with stone. The type is fixed to the surface of the drum 
 chiefly by means of the column rules, long strips of brass dividing the 
 columns of the page. Li tliis instance they are so screwed to the sides 
 of the iron frame as to become powerful tension ties ; and being made 
 with a wedge-like section, that is thicker towards the outer surface 
 of the type, they keep it in its place, like the key stone of an arch. 
 This drum is surrounded by eight cylinders, also placed with their 
 axes vertically, upon which the paper is carried by tapes in the usual 
 manner. 
 
 Thus in every revolution of the drum, the form is successively 
 pressed against each of the eight cylinders, and each of the eight being 
 supplied with paper, eight sheets will be printed in one revolution. 
 This machine "vvill print about 12,000 copies per hour. There is no 
 doubt that the vertical position of the inking rollers is conducive 
 to the goodness of the work, for the type and engravings are only 
 
72 dictionahy of terms 
 
 touched on their extreme surface. 50,000 impressions have been 
 taken without it being found necessary to stop to brush over the 
 form or table. 
 
 One of the fastest machines in use is the " Lightning Press," invent- 
 ed and manufactured by Colonel Hoe, of New York. A horizontal 
 cylinder of about four and a-half feet in diameter, is mounted on a 
 shaft, with appropriate bearings; about one-fourth of the circum- 
 ference of this cylinder constitutes the bed of the press, which is 
 adapted to receive the form of types, the remainder is used as a 
 cylindrical distributing table. The diameter of the cylinder is less 
 than that of the form of types, in order that the distributing portion 
 of it may pass the impression cylinders without touching. The ink is 
 contained in a fountain placed beneath the large cylinder, from which 
 it is taken by a duct or roller, and transferred by a vibrating 
 distributing roller, to the cylindrical distributing table ; the fountain 
 roller receives a slow and continuous rotary motion, to carry up the 
 ink from the fountain. 
 
 The large cylinder being put in motion, the form of types thereon la 
 in succession carried to eight corresponding horizontal impression 
 cylinders, arranged at proper distances around it, which give the im- 
 pression to eight sheets, introduced one at each impression cylinder. 
 For each impression cylinder there are two inking rollers, which 
 vibrate on the distributing surface while taking a supply of ink, and 
 at the proper time pass over the form, when they again fall to the 
 distributing surface. Each page is locked up upon a detached segment 
 of the large cylinder, called by the compositors a turtle, and this 
 constitutes the bed and chase. The column rules run parallel with the 
 shafts of the cylinder, and are consequently straight j while the head, 
 advertising and dash rules, are in the form of segments of a circle. A 
 cross section of the column rules would present the form of a wedge, 
 with the small end pointing to the centre of the cylinder, so as to 
 bend the types near the top. These wedge-shaped column rules are 
 held down to the bed, or turtle, by tongues, projecting at intervals 
 along their length and sliding in rebated grooves cut crosswise in the 
 face of the bed ; the space in the grooves between the column rules 
 is filled with sliding blocks of metal accurately fitted, the outer 
 surface level with the surface of the bed, the ends next the column 
 rules being cut away underneath to receive a projection on the sides 
 of the tongues, and screws at the end and side of each page to lock 
 them together. The types are as secure on this cylinder as they can 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 73 
 
 be on the old flat bed. This machine is capable of printing 20,000 
 impressions per hour. Eight persons are required to feed in the sheets, 
 which are thrown out and laid in heaps by self-acting flyers. 
 
 Similar machines with six impression cylinders only, capable of 
 printing 15,000 impressions per hour, and others with four impression 
 cylinders, capable of printing 10,000 impressions per hour, are manu- 
 factured by this firm. 
 
 The names of many other machines will be found in their proper 
 alphabetical order. 
 
 Macule. — To slur or double the impression in printing. It is gene- 
 rally caused by the joints of the tympan or head being loose. 
 
 Make. — In casting off copy it is usual to say it will make so much ; 
 as, it will make seven pages ; a sheet, &c. 
 
 Making ready. — Placing a form on the press, and preparing it for 
 striking off. This term includes laying on the form, fixing it in its 
 place, placing the tympan sheet on the tympan, fixing the points to 
 make register when both sides have to be printed, making register, pre- 
 paring frisket, and giving an equal pressure and producing an even 
 colour on all the pages. It also denotes the overlaying and bringing 
 up of engravings in wood, where such are introduced, so as to give 
 them the proper effect of light and shade. 
 
 In ordinary work, where despatch in printing is of primary import- 
 ance and appearance a secondary consideration, thick blankets are 
 used in the tympans ; and when old type is used they are also 
 necessary to bring up the rounded face of the letter. But it is 
 impossible to produce " fine" work with too much blanket. 
 
 Before a form is laid on, the pressman must carefully wipe down 
 the table of the press, for if any hard particle, though ever so small, 
 remain, it will raise that part of the form, cause the impression to be 
 hard, and probably injure the tympans. The back of the form should 
 also be dusted before laying it on the press. The form must be laid 
 on the table so as to fall in the centre of the platten, and be quoined 
 up to fix it in that position. A sheet of paper must now be folded 
 according to the position of the crosses of the chase, which form a 
 guide for placing it in the centre of the form. If a form of 8vo. or 4to. 
 the sheet should be folded exactly in the centre each way ; but if of 
 12mo. so as to fall properly in the off-cut. The sheet being laid upon 
 the form, the tympans, slightly damped, are turned down upon the 
 sheet, which when pulled will adhere to them. Should it happen to 
 have been laid uneven, alter it till quite correct, as it is to serve as a 
 
 K 
 
74 DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 guide in laying all the sheets of the white paper form. The points 
 must now be selected, and so placed on the tympan that the spurs 
 make the point holes within the grasp of the right hand thumb and 
 fore finger, because when the reiteration is working it will be more 
 easy to print the sheet when laying it on the tympan. The points 
 should not be placed too near the edge of the paper, because in work- 
 ing the reiteration there will be a great loss of time if the pressman 
 has to reach to the further side of the tympan to point his sheet. 
 This is of importance in a long number, as being able to lay the 
 sheets quickly on the points adds much to the rapidity with which the 
 pressman will strike off his form. Also the less distance between the 
 points the better, because, if wide apart, the pressman must draw his 
 body back to put the sheet on the near point. 
 
 After the compositor has corrected his " press revise," the pressman 
 must examine the form to see that it is properly locked up and 
 planed down, and that no letters or spaces be in the white lines, 
 on the furniture, or between the lines on the leads. If any thing is 
 left it will be moved by the roller, and will most likely batter the 
 form. 
 
 When a press has a run upon the same work, with the same sized 
 chases, the forms may be lifted when struck off without moving the 
 furniture from the far side and head of the press table ; the next form 
 can be laid to this furniture, and register be made with little trouble. 
 
 The f risket, covered with stout paper, is pulled lightly on the form, 
 then taken off the tympan, and the pages cut round with a pair of 
 scissors or a sharp knife, about a nonpareil from the edge of the mar- 
 gin of each page, and replaced on the tympan. It is advisable in 
 forms with a number of pages, to put a few cords across the frisket, 
 to strengthen the bars of paper. At times it is necessary to work 
 with cords only, when the margin is very narrow. 
 
 If any white, or short pages occur in a form, the frisket is left whole 
 to cover the blank space ; but if it is an old frisket, and that page is 
 already cut out, the pressman may paste a piece of paper over to 
 prevent it blacking. A bearer should also be put on to prevent the 
 impression being too hard on the edges of the neighbouring pages. 
 Cork bearers, or hard paper rolled up and pasted, and called spring 
 bearers, are very serviceable. 
 
 Before striking, the pressman must examine the frisket to see if it 
 bites, that is, if it takes the impression of any of the edges of the 
 pages. If it does, the parts must be cut away. 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 75 
 
 The paper bank should be placed at an angle of 75 degrees, more or 
 less, with the near side of the carriage. The reason is, if the near side 
 of the bank stands at right angles with the near side of the carriage, 
 the pressman has to move from his place to lay, or cast sheets, and by 
 placing it at the before mentioned angle, the bailer has a better oppor- 
 tunity of looking over the printed sheets, which he must do frequently, 
 to see if he keeps the colour of his work correct. 
 
 The heap must be placed on the horse, at the near end of the bank, 
 as near the tympan as possible without touching it, so that the sheet 
 has merely to be drawn over the edge of the tympan to be laid on. If 
 the wet sheets stick to each other from being pressed, they must be 
 shaken sideways and longways till loose enough. The pressman 
 should rub the nail of his right hand thumb gently across the 
 upper sheet to get the edge beyond the heap, so that he may lay hold 
 of it easily ; two or three sheets will gradually follow in a fan shape. 
 
 The following directions for making ready are by a practical man, a 
 pressman; and though rather old, will apply to printing at any 
 time. 
 
 « 
 
 Lay the form on the table centrically under the platten ; quoin it 
 all round ; fold the tympan sheet according to the form laid on the 
 press ; lay it even on the form, and stretch it as much as it will bear ; 
 pull it, for the purpose of attaching it to the tympan ; paste it all 
 round to the tympan, at the same time keep stretching it ; screw 
 on the points; make them fall in the channel of the short cross; make 
 good register with white paper, whether the form be whole or half 
 sheet work. 
 
 " This is one of the good old customs, and the best that I know of; 
 because the pressman is sure to have the points centrical ; he perceives 
 whether all the furniture be put in right or wrong, even to a single 
 scaleboard in leaded matter, which should be line upon line, he 
 ascertains whether the form be locked up evenly or not, and whether 
 the leads be all put in right ; also, whether the pages that begin 
 chapters, or other divisions of the Avork, have the proper whites ; he 
 can likewise discover if any of the pages be made up too long, or too 
 short ; any of these errors, that may have occurred, must be amended 
 in the white paper form, otherwise the reiteration will have the same 
 faults, in order to make register. On fine work, I make ready the 
 white paper form of a sheet in the same manner as I do a half sheet, 
 on purpose to discover those errors, by which process I gain more time 
 in making ready the reiteration or second form than I lost in the 
 white paper form. 
 
76 DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 " For fine work, use the finest cloth that can be procured, and not 
 thick flannel blanket : if the form be light, one thin cloth blanket 
 will be sufficient ; and if it be very light, that is to say open leaded 
 matter, sheets of paper are preferable to either flannel or cloth in the 
 tympans. Be sure to have one sheet of stout paper, which will cover 
 all the parchment in the inside of the outer tympan. Pull a dry even 
 sheet of paper ; look carefully on the back of the impression ; if it 
 be not equally even, the light parts must be overlaid with tissue 
 paper, or India paper ; if some parts be very heavy, cut or tear out 
 the heavy parts. The overlays should be pasted only slightly on the 
 impression sheet, in case any of them should have to be taken off ; 
 paste the four corners of this sheet upon the thick sheet ; let the 
 overlays be uppermost, that you may see them ; then pull another 
 impression sheet, with the first in the tympans, and if the impres- 
 sion still be not even, overlay the first impression sheet again ; and 
 continue pulling impression sheets, and overlaying the first impres- 
 sion sheet, until you have an even and regular impression on all 
 parts. 
 
 "As you go on with the form, if any of the overlays require to be 
 taken off, do so; if bits are required to be taken out, or rubbed 
 off the tympan sheet, it must be done. In some works the outer 
 tympan cannot be too dry, but the pressman must be the judge of this, 
 according to the work he has to do. 
 
 " Having a good black ink well brayed on the surface of the ink 
 block, he takes a small quantity and distributes it well ; he takes time 
 to roll the form well and carefully, and then pulls a sheet of the right 
 paper, dwells on the pull a short time in order to make the paper take 
 the ink clean off the types, and look a clear black upon the paper. The 
 impression must not be too deep, as nothing must appear but the 
 shape of the face of good types. If the impression be too deep, or 
 too much ink on the form, more than the real shape will appear, 
 and the work will not be fine ; but if the work be fine, he goes on 
 gently and regularly until the white paper be off. He then lays on 
 the reiteration form ; and having the overlays ready that he made 
 before, he has very little trouble in making it ready : he makes such 
 good register, that line falls upon line. After the reiteration is off, if 
 he does not go on with the same work, or work of a similar size and 
 imposition, he carefully puts by the tympan blankets, cloths, or 
 tympan paper and overlays, till they are again wanted for the same 
 work. All other works must have their own overlays made purposely 
 for them. 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 77 
 
 *' After the first overlays are made for their respective works, there 
 is not so mucli trouble in making ready the future sheets of the same 
 work as they are put to press ; indeed, if the pressman carefully pre- 
 serves his overlays, tympan paper, or cloths, he seldom has occasion 
 to do more than alter a few of the overlays, as the paper sometimes 
 varies in thickness, which may want a few overlays on the tympan 
 sheet. India paper is the best for this, as it is of a soft and pliable 
 nature, and as it lies on the tympan sheet the pressman can easily 
 perceive if one part of it has a deeper impression than another. 
 
 " It is to be observed, that fine work cannot be made upon bad 
 paper, or with old worn types." 
 
 Making register. — So locking up a form on the press that the pages 
 and lines will fall exactly on the back of each other when perfected. 
 
 Make up. — To form matter which has been set at random (in 
 continuous slips) into pages. This is done at the commencement of a 
 work by measuring the length of a solid page with the proper number 
 of lines, and marking it by a notch cut in a piece of reglet, so that 
 afterwards the lines need not be counted, but may be measured by 
 the " guage," and so whited as to make them fall of the proper length. 
 When many heads occur in a book it is advisable to mark the whites 
 on the guage also, as by this means they may all be made up to fall 
 alike. 
 
 Mallet — A wooden hammer with which the quoins are driven in 
 locking up or unlocking a form, or for any other purpose. 
 
 Margin. — The blank, or white paper round a page or form. 
 
 Marginal Notes. — Notes at the outer edge of the page, running 
 from top to bottom, or placed opposite the matter to which they refer. 
 They are usually termed side notes by printers. 
 
 Matter. — The type composed for any work. 
 
 Measure. — The width of a page or column. 
 
 Medhicrsfs Press. — A press of great simplicity of construction, the 
 invention of Mr. Medhurst, of London ; they are seldom to be found 
 in use. 
 
 Metal. — The technical name of a mixture of metals, properly so 
 called, with which types and stereotype plates are cast. Lead and 
 regulus of antimony, melted together in different proportions, form 
 the metal in general use ; but of late years tin has been added to 
 increase the hardness, and type cast with this is known as patent hard 
 metal type. For ordinary metal the proportion of eighty pounds of 
 lead to twenty pounds of regulus is used for large types, and seventy- 
 
78 DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 five pounds of lead to twenty-five of regulus for small type, which 
 should be the hardest; but most type founders vary a little. In 
 stereotype metal the proportion of regulus is not so large ; say fifteen 
 of regulus to eighty-five of lead ; and leads are even generally softer. 
 
 3fetal Bules. — Straight lines caste type high, of widths varying from 
 one ein to four ems. They are generally used for transverse lines in 
 table work, for blanks where names are omitted, or where the same 
 name or article is repeated in lines immediately under each other. 
 They should have as fine a face as brass rule, and be cast in the centre 
 of the type. 
 
 Millboard cutter. — An iron table with moveable guage, and large 
 knife affixed to one end, used for cutting boards to the sizes required 
 by binders. 
 
 Minion.— X type one size larger than Nonpariel, and one smaller 
 than Brevier. There are 128 lines to a foot. 
 
 Mitreing Guard. — A small instrument used to bevel the ends of 
 brass rules, borders to pages, <fec., so as to make them fit each other 
 exactly. 
 
 Monk. — A blotch occurring in a sheet through the ink not being 
 properly distributed, and so leaving too much in one place on the 
 form. 
 
 Morgan! s Patent Cutting Machine. — An improvement on Wilson's 
 Guillotine Machine. The general appearance is similar to it, but the 
 action of the machine is continuous, that is, the knife, when the 
 paper or book is cut through ascends again without reversing the 
 motion of the handle. The cut is diagonal instead of direct, therefore 
 so much pressure is not required. The knife will return in one-fourth 
 of the time taken for its descent. 
 
 J/wsw ^2(^e.— Type used for printing music. 
 
 N. 
 
 Naked Form. — Is when the furniture is taken from all sides, and 
 the matter is left standing alone. 
 
 Near 5ic?e.— That side of the press on which the pressman stands to 
 pull and roll. 
 
 Ntw^ Iiouse.— An office in which newspapers only are printed. 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 79 
 
 Nich — A gi'oove cut crossways on the sliank of types, to make a 
 distinction between different founts, and to enable the compositor to 
 see quickly which is the underside of the type he is about to pick up. 
 
 Nonparid.—K type, one size larger than Pearl, and one size smaller 
 than Minion. There are 143 lines to a foot. 
 
 Numeral. — Relating to numbers. The numeral letters are the seven 
 Roman capitals, I, V, X, L, C, D, M; the numeral figures, 1, 2, 
 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0. 
 
 o. 
 
 05eZ*sX'.— Marked thus f, is used as a reference to notes at foot or 
 in the margin of the page. It is called a dagger by printers. 
 
 Octavo. — A sheet of paper folded into eight leaves or sixteen pages. 
 Usually written 8vo. 
 
 Odd page — A page having an uneven number as its folio. 
 
 Off-side. — The side of the press opposite to that on which the pressr 
 man stands to pull. 
 
 Off-cut. — That part of a printed sheet (in ISmo or 12mo), which is^ 
 cut off, and when folded is inserted in the middle of the other part. 
 
 Old English. — Black letter, or modern Gothic. 
 
 Open matter. — Matter full of breaks or whites, poetry. 
 
 Orthography. — Derived from two Greek words, * orthos' and ^ gra- 
 phein,' which mean to write correctly, is that part of Grammar which 
 treats of the forms and sounds of letters, and the correct method of 
 spelling words. 
 
 The orthography of the English language is attended with much, 
 uncertainty and perplexity, but a considerable part of the inconveni- 
 ence may be remedied by attending to the general laws of formation ; 
 and for this end the reader is presented with the following maxims. 
 
 Rule I. — Monosyllables ending with f, 1, or s, preceded by a single 
 vowel, double the final consonant ; as staff, mill, pass, &c. The only 
 exceptions are, of, if, as, is, has, was, yes, his, this, us, and thus. 
 
 Rule II. — Monosyllables ending with any consonant but f, 1, or s, 
 and preceded by a single vowel, never double the final consonant ; 
 excepting only, add, ebb, but, ^gg, odd, err, inn, hum, purr, and buzz. 
 
 Rule III. — Words ending with y, preceded by a consonant, form 
 the plural of nouns, the persons of verbs, verbal nouns, past participles 
 
80 DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 comparatives, and superlatives, by clianging y into i, as, spy, spies ; I 
 carry, thou carriest ; he carrieth or carries ; carrier, carried ; happy 
 happier, happiest. 
 
 The present participle in ing, retains the y, that i may not be 
 doubled; as, carry, carrying; bury, burying, &c. 
 
 But y, preceded by a vowel, in such instances as the above, is not 
 changed ; as, boy, boys ; I cloy, he cloys, cloyed, &c ; except in lay, pay, 
 and say ; from which are formed, laid, paid, and said ; and their com- 
 pounds, unlaid, unpaid, unsaid, &c. 
 
 Kule IV. — Words ending with y, preceded by a consonant, upon 
 assuming an additional syllable beginning with a consonant, commonly 
 change y into i ; as, happy, happily, happiness. But when y is preceded 
 by a vowel, it is very rarely changed in the additional syllable ; as, coy, 
 coyly ; boy, boyish, boyhood ; annoy, annoyed, annoyance ; joy, joy- 
 less, joyful, &c. 
 
 Rule V. — Monosyllables and words accented on the last syllable, 
 ending with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double 
 that consonant, when they take another syllable beginning with a 
 vowel : as wit, witty ; thin, thinnish ; to abet, an abettor ; to begin, 
 a beginner. 
 
 But if a diphthong precedes, or the accent is on the preceding 
 syllable, the consonant remains single : as, to toil, toiling ; to offer, an 
 offering ; maid, maiden, &c. 
 
 Rule VI.— Words ending with any double letter but 1, and taking 
 ness, less, ly or ful, after them, preserve the letter double : as, 
 harmlessness, carelessness, carelessly, stiffly, successful, distressful, 
 &c. But those words which end with double 1, and ness, less, ly or 
 ful, after them, generally omit one 1, as fulness, skilless, fully, skilful, 
 &c. 
 
 Rule VII.— Ness, less, ly and ful, added to words ending with 
 silent e, do not cut it off : as, paleness, guileless, closely, peaceful; 
 except in a few words : as, duly, truly, awful. 
 
 Rule VIII. — Ment, added to words ending with silent e, generally 
 preserves the e from elision : as, abatement, chastisement, incitement, 
 &c. The words judgment, abridgment, acknowledgment, are devia- 
 tions from the rule. 
 
 Like other terminations it changes y into i, when preceded by a 
 consonant : as accompany, accompaniment ; merry, merriment. 
 
 Rule IX.— Able and ible, when incorporated into words ending 
 with silent e, almost always cut it off : as blame, blamable ; cure, 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 81 
 
 curable ; sense, sensible, &c. ; but if c or g soft comes before e, in the 
 original word, the e is then preserved in words compounded with 
 able ; as change, changeable ; peace, peaceable, &c. 
 
 Eule X. — When ing or ish is added to words ending with silent e, 
 the e is almost universally omitted : as place, placing ; lodge, lodg- 
 ing ; slave, slavish ; prude, prudish. 
 
 Rule XI. — Words taken into composition, often drop those letters 
 which were superfluous in their simples ; as handful, withal ; also 
 chilblain, foretel. 
 
 The orthography of a great number of English words, is far from 
 being uniform, even amongst writers of distinction. Thus, honor and 
 honour, inquire and enquire, negotiate and negociate, control and 
 controul, expense and expence, allege and alledge, surprise and 
 surprize, abridgment and abridgement, and many other orthographi- 
 cal variations are to be met with in the best modern publications. 
 Some authority for deciding differences of this nature appears to be 
 necessary ; and where can we find one of equal pretensions with Dr. 
 Johnson's Dictionary ? though a few of his decisions do not appear to 
 be warranted by the principles of etymology and analogy, the stable 
 foundations of his improvement. — "As the weight of truth and rea- 
 son," says Nares in his ' Elements of Orthography,' " is irresistible, 
 Dr. Johnson's Dictionary has nearly fixed the external form of our lan- 
 guage. Indeed, so convenient is it to have one acknowledged standard 
 to recur to ; so much preferable, in matters of this nature, is a trifling 
 degree of irregularity, to a continual change, and fruitless pursuit of 
 unattainable perfection ; that it is earnestly to be hoped, that no other 
 will henceforth, on light grounds, be tempted to innovate." 
 
 The plural number.of nouns is generally formed by adding s to the 
 singular : as, dove, doves ; face, faces ; thought, thoughts. But when 
 the substantive singular ends in x, ch soft, sh, ss, or s, we add es in 
 the plural : as box, boxes ; church, churches ; lash, lashes ; kiss, 
 kisses ; rebus, rebusses. If the singular ends in ch hard, the plural is 
 formed by adding s ; as monarch, monarchs ; distich, distichs. 
 
 Nouns which end in o, have sometimes es added to the plural ; as 
 cargo, echo, hero, negro, manifesto, potato, volcano, wo: and some- 
 times only s ; as folio, grotto, junto, nuncio, portico, punctilio, tyro. 
 
 Nounds ending in f, or fe, are rendered plural by the change of 
 those terminations into ves : as, loaf, loaves : half, halves ; wife, wives ; 
 except grief, relief, reproof, and several others, which form the plural 
 by the addition of s. Those which end in ff, have the regular plural : 
 as, ruff, ruflfs ; except stafl", staves. 
 
 L 
 
82 DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 Nouns wliicli have y in the singular, with no otlier vowel in the 
 same syllable, change it into ies in the plural : as beauty, beauties ; 
 fly, flies. But the y is not changed when there is another vowel in 
 the syllable : as key, keys ; delay, delays ; attorney, attorneys. 
 
 Some nouns become plural by changing the a of the singular into 
 e : as man, men ; woman, women ; alderman, aldermen. The words, 
 ox, and child, form oxen and children : brother, makes either brothers, 
 or brethren. Sometimes the diphthong oo is changed into ee in the 
 plural: as foot, feet; goose, geese; tooth, teeth. Louse and mouse 
 make lice and mice. Penny makes pence, or pennies, when the coin 
 is meant ; die, dyes (for play) ; die, dies (for coining). 
 
 Otit. — An omission of a word, a line, sentence, paragraph, or leaf of 
 copy. 
 
 Outer Form. — The form that has the signature page of the sheet. 
 
 Out of cox)y. — When all the copy the compositor has in his posses- 
 sion is composed, he is said to be out of copy. 
 
 Out of Letter, — When all the type is set from a case. 
 
 Out of Register. — When all the pages do not back correctly on each 
 other. 
 
 Overlays. — Pieces of paper pasted on the tympans, or on a sheet 
 between the tympans, to make the impression on all parts of the 
 form even. 
 
 Overrun. — To take matter from one page to another, or from one 
 line to another. The first is called overrunning pages, the second 
 overrunning matter. Matter should never be overrun on the stone, as 
 it is hardly possible to space correctly unless the matter is in the 
 composing stick. 
 
 Overseer. — The manager, or superintendent of a printing office ; the 
 person to whom the whole internal management is confided. In every 
 case it is necessary that he should be a good practical printer, and a 
 man of prudence, foresight, and regular habits. In a business like 
 that of printing, in which the labour of one department is immediately 
 dependent on the regularity observed in another; in which the delay 
 of compositors renders the machine or press idle, and a misarrange- 
 ment in working off the forms keeps the compositor unemployed for 
 want of type ; in which, by wrong management tlie reader may at one 
 time have nothing to do, and at another time be unable to get through 
 his work as it is wanted, the situation of overseer is of much import- 
 ance. It requires much skiU, thought, and knowledge, to be able so 
 to order the various departments, that each may facilitate the progress 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 83 
 
 of the others ; and the constant endeavour of a good overseer will be 
 to produce the greatest possible amount of work with the fewest 
 possible number of hands. He should be constantly attentive and 
 indef atigably industrious ; and should see that every one under him is 
 attentive, and performs properly his appointed duties. 
 
 p. 
 
 Page cord. — Small twine used to temporarily secure pages. 
 
 Paging Machine. — A beautiful little instrument used for paging 
 ledgers or account books, numbering cheques, &c. A train of wheels, 
 with raised numbers on their edges, are so affixed to an axle as to 
 revolve in a certain number of movements of the handle, or lever of 
 the machine. When the lever is pressed down one of the numbers 
 first comes into contact with the inking roller, and then with the 
 paper ; and on being raised again the wheels are moved round a small 
 space, and a new number presented for the next impression. These 
 wheels are so arranged that one, the unit wheel, completes its revolu- 
 tion in ten impressions ; the next, or tens wheel, in 100 impressions 
 or movements; the 3d, or hundreds wheel, in 1,000 impressions, and 
 so on. By means of a lever and two small screws, the rack and cog 
 wheels can be so arranged as to print successive, alternate, or double 
 
 numbers, that is, from 1 to 100,000 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, &c. or 1-1, 
 
 2-2, 3-3, 4-4, and so on. The machine, though small, is too compli- 
 cated to describe without the aid of a diagram. 
 
 Pale colour. — A term used to denote a deficiency of ink on the 
 printed sheets. 
 
 Pamphlet. — Amongst printers, a work not exceeding 80 pages of 
 8vo. in extent. 
 
 Paper. — A thin, flexible substance, used for printing or writing 
 purposes, either prepared from rags, or a few other fibrous substances. 
 
 Next to the invention of printing, there is not, perhaps, a more 
 valuable or important discovery than that of the fabrication of paper 
 from rags. Indeed, but for this discovery, printing would have been 
 almost useless, as books on parchment or vellum would only have 
 been within the reach of the rich. 
 
 The substitutes for paper amongst the nations of antiquity were the 
 prepared skins of animals, and the inner bark of trees; while, for 
 public records, and for edicts, tables of stone or brass were commonly 
 
84 DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 employed. There was also a species of paper manufactured by the 
 Egyptians from the papyrus, or paper reed, a plant growing freely on 
 the banks of the Nile. The inner bark of the stem was the portion 
 used in making paper, and was prepared for writing on by a long 
 and troublesome process. There is also still existing amongst the 
 Chinese a manufacture of paper, peculiar to themselves, from the 
 bark of a tree, which is probably of very early date. 
 
 It was some time during the twelfth century that an invention 
 became known in Europe which soon superseded the ordinary writing 
 materials then in use, and also formed an important step towards our 
 present manufacture ; this v/as the making of paper from cotton, at 
 first the raw cotton itself, afterwards of worn out cotton cloth. This 
 paper was of Eastern invention, and was first introduced into Europe 
 by the Arabs, who established a manufactory in Spain. Cotton paper 
 became generally known about the end of the twelfth and beginning 
 of the thirteenth centuries, but in the fourteenth century it was almost 
 entirely superseded by paper made from linen rags. It is not known 
 when linen was first used as a material for making paper, nor to what 
 country the honour of the invention is due. It was most probably 
 discovered by accident. There are English M.S.S, on linen paper of 
 as early a date as 1340, but it is generally believed that the manufac- 
 ture was not introduced into England till the year 1588, when a paper 
 mill was erected at Dartford, in Kent ; but since that time the manu- 
 facture has steadily progressed. 
 
 There is not room, in the compass of this volume, to enter into a 
 complete history of paper making, or to give more than the following 
 concise account of the process. 
 
 The building in which paper is made is known as a paper mill; and 
 as abundance of pure water is requisite in the manufacture, it is 
 generally situated on the banks of a considerable stream. 
 
 The rags used are collected in large quantities in England, but a large 
 supply is also obtained from Germany, Sicily, Italy and Hungary. 
 
 When the rags are taken to the mill, the first process is to sort 
 them according to quality. This is done by women. They are then 
 sent to the rag-house, where another set of women, called cutters, 
 receive them. Each of these women stands at a table, the upper sur- 
 face of which consists of iron wire cloth, beneath which is a drawer ; 
 a knife is fixed in the centre of this table, in a vertical position ; the 
 woman stands with the back of the blade opposite to her, while on 
 her right hand is a large wooden box with many divisions. She 
 examines the rags, opens seams, removes dirt, pins, needles, buttons. 
 
USED IN PKINTING. 85 
 
 or other substances whicli might injure the machinery, or damage the 
 quahty of the paper, and tlien cuts them into pieces not exceeding 
 four inches square, by drawing them across the edge of the knife, and 
 throws them into the different divisions of the box according to their 
 quality. The wire cloth top of the table allows much of the impuri- 
 ties to pass through into the drawer, which is occasionally cleaned out. 
 
 • 
 
 After this process the rags again undergo a severe scrutiny, to 
 make sure that no extraneous matter or hard substance which might 
 spoil the beauty of the paper, remains in them. 
 
 The next process is to place the rags in the dusting frame, a 
 large cylinder covered with iron wire cloth. On the axis of the 
 interior are a number of spokes, each about a foot long, fixed trans- 
 versely, which pass through the rags when the machine revolves, and 
 shake out the particles of dust which may adhere to them. 
 
 The rags are next more or less boiled in an alkaline ley, to get rid 
 of the remaining dirt and some of the colouring matter. The ley 
 is composed of about seven pounds of carbonate of soda, mth two 
 and a half pounds of quicklime, to the hundred weight of rags. In 
 this they are boiled about eight hours, and allowed to cool gradually. 
 When removed from the boiler they are conveyed to the engine house 
 to be reduced to pulp. This is one of the most important processes. 
 
 The vats for washing and grinding the rags are of an oblong form, 
 rounded at the corners. They are made of strong wood, lined with 
 lead or copper, or are constructed AvhoUy of cast iron. Each vat 
 will hold about a hundred weight of rags. There is a partition down 
 the middle, in the direction of its length, but not quite reaching 
 either end, which is also covered T\ith metal sheeting. The cylinder, 
 which washes or grinds the rags, is fixed firmly on a shaft extending 
 across the vat, and is made to revolve by means of a pinion at its 
 extremity. It is about two feet long, and two feet in diameter ; and 
 is technically called the roll. Round the circumference are fixed bars 
 of steel, parallel to its axis. Below the roll is a block of wood, the 
 upper surface of which follows the curvature of the cylinder, and is 
 provided with a number of teeth, so adjusted as to present a series of 
 cutting edges to the teeth of the cylinder : these two sets of teeth are 
 not in contact, but may be brought near together or removed to a 
 distance by adjusting the height of the roll. 
 
 The machine is supplied with water from a cistern at hand, which 
 is furnished with a strainer of hair or wire to prevent impurities 
 from entering. When properly filled with rags and water, the roll of 
 the machine is set in motion, at its greatest distance from the plate. 
 
SG DICTIONARY OF TEEMS 
 
 The rapid progress of the teeth through the water causes a current, 
 and the rags are drawn between the teeth of the roll and of the plate 
 (or block of wood before mentioned), then thrown over a rise in the 
 machine, and afterwards descends over a gradual declivity to the 
 rough bottom of the vat. The whole mixture is by this means kept 
 continually revolving ; the roll is lowered gradually nearer to the 
 plate, and the rags are first thoroughly cleansed, then cut, torn, and 
 chopped to pieces, until they are at last reduced to a uniform pulp. 
 
 The first action of this machine being to wash the rags thoroughly, 
 it is necessary to get rid of the dirty w^ater, sand, &c., before the rags 
 are reduced to pulp. For this purpose the engine is provided with a 
 false perforated bottom, communicating with a tap, which is left open 
 during the first half hour of the washing, and as a stream of clear 
 water is constantly flowing through, all extraneous matters are thus 
 strained off. During the time the tap remains open, the machine 
 consumes about sixty gallons of water per minute, after which a much 
 less quantity is required, in consequence of the rags becoming pulpy, 
 and occupying more space. The action of the cylinder upon the rags 
 is so violent, that both water and rags would be thrown out, if left 
 uncovered ; an inverted wooden box is therefore placed with one side 
 resting on the edge of the machine, and the other on the central divi- 
 sion covering the cylinder, and this arrangement prevents the rags 
 being driven over. During the latter part of the process, the water 
 which passes through the wire cloth does not amount to one-twen- 
 tieth part of the quantity required at first. After beating for three 
 or four hours the rags have parted with all their impurities, and 
 assumed a somewhat pulpy consistency ; in this state they are called 
 stuff. When the operation is complete, a valve is opened in the bot- 
 tom of the machine, and the stuff allowed to flow down a pipe into a 
 draining chest, and left for a time for the water to flow off. After 
 standing a time, if the pulp is made from coloured rags, it is bleached 
 by the effects of the gas chlorine. 
 
 To effect this the stuff is placed in chests, and to about one-hundred 
 weight of stuff is added from six to eight pounds of chloride of lime 
 dissolved in water. The stuff is stirred frequently, that all may be 
 exposed to the light and air alike ; and after standing about twenty- 
 four hours the liquor is drained off, and the stuff removed to an 
 hydraulic press, where whatever is left of the solution is pressed out, 
 and allowed to flow into tanks. After this the stuff is again washed, 
 as it is necessary to remove every particle of the chloride of lime; 
 in this state it is called half stuff, as being midway between rags and 
 paper. It is now sent to the beating engine, which has a greater 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 87 
 
 number of teeth than the first, and is driven at a greater velocity. 
 Here it is beaten about five hours, until the stuff becomes tolerably 
 warm from the continued friction, and as it were combed into short 
 fibres, when it is ready to be made into paper. 
 
 For the finer descriptions of writing paper, and where it is desired 
 to preserve the water mark, paper still continues to be made in single 
 sheets. The process consists in receiving the pulp into moulds, then 
 getting rid of the water, and by pressing and sizing, and other opera- 
 tions, producing the smooth and beautiful surface which we recognise 
 in a sheet of writing paper. 
 
 The pulp having been properly prepared is placed in a vat of stone 
 about six feet square and four deep, where, to prevent it from settling, 
 it is kept constantly stirred by a little revolving wheel called a hog. 
 Means are employed to keep the pulp warm. 
 
 The moulds used are of two kinds, laid and wove. A laid mould 
 consists of a frame of mahogany, with wooden bars running across it 
 at the distance of about an inch and a half from each other ; across 
 these are laid a number of wires, about 15 or 20 to the inch. A 
 strong raised wire laid along each of the cross bars interlaces the 
 other wires, and this gives to laid paper its ribbed appearance. The 
 frame of the wove moulds is covered with wire cloth, wove for the 
 purpose, and containing from 48 to 64 wires in an inch, according to 
 the fineness of the paper. The water mark is produced by wires 
 bent to the shape of the device required, and sewed to the surface of 
 the mould. 
 
 In making paper by hand two men are required to each vat ; one is 
 called the vat man, the other the coucher. The stuff being properly 
 prepared the vatman takes one of the moulds by the middle of the 
 short sides, and plunges it obliquely four or five inches into the vat ; 
 taking up a quantity of the stuff upon it, he raises it to a level, shak- 
 ing it so as to distribute the stuff and form a uniform fabric ; while 
 doing so he gradually raises the mould, the water escapes through the 
 wires, and the superfluous stuff escapes over the sides of the frame. 
 
 As soon as a portion of the water has drained off, the vat-man 
 slides the mould towards the coucher, who places it for a few seconds 
 in an inclined position, in order that more of the water may drain 
 off. Meanwhile, he places a piece of felt, or blanket, upon a wooden 
 plank, and then taking the mould presses the face of it upon the felt, 
 which receives and takes off the sheet, although in a very wet state. 
 This process is continued as long as necessary to make the quantity 
 of any kind of paper required. 
 
88 DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 When all the water has drained away or been forced out of the 
 sheets, they are pressed and turned several times, and then hung 
 up to be thoroughly dried. Up to this point the paper is unfit for 
 writing on, and it therefore has to be sized. Paper-maker's size is a 
 gelatine procured by boiling cuttings of skins, parchments, &c., and 
 alum, smalts, or other pigments calculated to improve the tint, or 
 add a particular hue to the paper. The paper is dipped into this 
 size, and after being pressed and separated, is gradually dried. After 
 hot pressing and glazing, to finish the surface, it is carefully exa- 
 mined, sorted, counted into quires and reams, and then tied up in 
 wrappers, marked with the weight and quality of the paper. 
 
 But for printing paper, this difficult and comparatively slow pro- 
 cess of moulding separate sheets by hand, has been almost entirely 
 superseded by the invention of a beautiful machine, which has now 
 been in use about forty years ; and the following is the description of 
 one of its most common forms. 
 
 At one end of the room in which the machine is contained is a 
 large reservoir of stuff, prepared as for hand-made paper. The stuff 
 flows into a spout through a tap, which is opened more or less widely 
 according to the thickness of the paper to be made. In this spout 
 the stuff is diluted with a quantity of water, and it then floAvs into 
 a vat, first passing through a sieve or strainer that it may be freed 
 from any knots or hard substances that may yet remain in it. In the 
 vat the fibres are prevented from subsiding by a little hog, and flows 
 from it through a number of holes into a box, from which it passes 
 over a piece of leather to a cloth of fine wire, on which the web of 
 paper is first formed. This cloth is about 25 feet long and 5 wide, 
 and contains about 3,600 holes to the square inch ; it is formed into 
 an endless band, and moves upon a number of small copper rollers 
 attached to a frame. A rapid vibratory motion is imparted to the 
 frame, by which the water is shaken through the wire cloth, and the 
 fibres of the pulp become felted together. 
 
 The edges of the paper are formed by deckle straps, formed of 
 alternate layers of linen and indian rubber, which fit so close to 
 the band as to prevent the pulp flowing off at the sides before the 
 paper is set. 
 
 The wire cloth, with the paper upon it, then passes between two 
 rollers covered with felt and flannel, v/hich, by a slight pressure 
 imparts a certain amount of firmness to the paper. After this the 
 paper is removed from the wire by an endless felt, which conveys 
 the still very wet web of paper to two iron cjdinders, where it 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 89 
 
 receives a very severe pressure, removing nearly all the remaining 
 moisture ; and now being tolerably firm, it is taken up by a second 
 pair of cylinders, which removes from its surface the mark of the felt 
 impressed by the first pair. From these a small roller guides it to a 
 large polished cylinder, heated from within by means of steam ; from 
 this it passes to another still hotter, and again to a third, which is 
 the hottest of the three. All moisture and roughness of surface have 
 now disappeared ; the paper is wound upon a reel, and when a certain 
 quantity is collected it is severed from the machine, and a new reel 
 is placed to collect a further supply. The whole operation, from the 
 moment when the liquid pulp is flowing from the vat, to the com- 
 pletion of the white paper on the reel, scarcely occupies two minutes. 
 
 Most paper-makers have introduced some slight variations on this 
 machine, but in all the principle is the same. 
 
 When the reel of paper is completed, it is cut into the requisite 
 size of sheets by another beautiful little machine, one of which, 
 invented by Mons Fourdrinier, may be briefly notified. Several reels 
 of paper having been collected, the spindles are placed in grooves in 
 a curved frame, whence the paper is passed round a drum, and then 
 through small rollers. A thin shaving is first cut from the side edges 
 of the paper by means of circular knives ; and when it has travelled 
 the length necessary to form a sheet, its progress is delayed for an 
 instant, and a knife descends and cuts it across. The web then 
 resumes its journey until it has travelled the length of another sheet, 
 when the knife again descends, and so on till the roll is finished. 
 The sheets thus severed are arranged into heaps by children, or are 
 carried aAvay by a small felt moving in connexion with the rest of the 
 machinery. 
 
 • English paper is put up in four ways: 1, — In "mill" reams of 20 
 quires of 24 sheets each. 2. — In "perfect" reams of 21 quires and a 
 half. 3.— In "news" reams of 500 sheets, or 20 quires of 25 sheets 
 each. 4. — In post paper reams, the two " outside" quires of which 
 contain only 20 sheets each. In ordering paper to be made, it is 
 necessary to state the number of sheets required, as well as the 
 dimensions and weight, per ream. 
 
 Foreign paper is generally put up 500 sheets to a ream, post as well 
 as printing papers. 
 
 M 
 
90 
 
 DICTIONART OF TERMS 
 
 SIZES OF DRAWING AND WRITING 
 
 PAPERS. 
 
 In. 
 
 Emperor 72 
 
 Anfciqnarian 53 
 
 Double Elephant 40 
 
 Atlas 34 
 
 Colombier 34| 
 
 Imperial 30 
 
 Elephant 28 
 
 Super-Royal 27 
 
 Royal 24 
 
 Medium 22 
 
 Demy 20 
 
 Large post 20| 
 
 Post 18 
 
 Foolscap 17 
 
 Pott 15 
 
 Copy 20 
 
 In. 
 X 48 
 X 31 
 X 26| 
 X 26 
 X 23| 
 X 22 
 X 23 
 X 19 
 
 X 
 X 
 X 
 X 
 X 
 X 
 X 
 X 
 
 19 
 15i 
 
 3 
 
 ]. 
 13i 
 
 16 
 
 16^ 
 15^ 
 
 7i 
 
 8 
 
 8i 
 
 X 
 X 
 
 1 
 5 
 
 SIZES OF PRINTING PAPERS, 
 
 In. In. 
 
 Post 19| X 15^ 
 
 Demy 22^ x 17^ 
 
 Medium 24 x 19 
 
 Royal 25 x 20 
 
 Double Foolscap 27 x 17 
 
 Sheet-and-HalfPost... 23| x 19| 
 
 Super-Royal 27^ x 20^ 
 
 Double Crown 30 x 20 
 
 Imperial 30 x 22 
 
 DoublePost 31^ x 19| 
 
 Double Demy 35 x 22^ 
 
 SIZES OF BROWN PAPERS. 
 
 Casing 46 x 36 
 
 Double Imperial 44 x 29 
 
 Double Four-pound.... 31 x 21 
 
 Imperial Cap 29 x 22 
 
 HavenCap 26 x 21 
 
 Bag Cap 24 x 19 
 
 Kent C^ 21 x 18 
 
 A Table showing the Equivalent 
 Weights of Papers. 
 
 
 lbs. 
 12 
 14 
 16 
 18 
 20 
 24 
 
 m ■ 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 3i 
 
 H 
 11 
 
 13i 
 
 CO 
 
 O 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 10 
 
 13 
 
 lbs. 
 loi 
 
 12 
 
 13| 
 
 15^ 
 
 ivi 
 
 20} 
 
 ^ ''^ A 
 
 - O C3 
 
 c c S 
 
 lbs. 
 
 13:J 
 
 J6 
 
 23 
 
 27^ 
 
 o 
 
 lbs. 
 
 15 
 
 1^ 
 20 
 
 22^ 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 if - I - o 
 
 r.X 
 
 SIZES OF LETTER AND NOTE 
 PAPERS. 
 
 (4to.) Quarto or Letter size. 
 
 Small Quarto 8| x 
 
 Large Quarto 9§ x 
 
 Extra Large Quarto... 10| x 
 
 (8vo.) Octavo or Note size. 
 
 Small Octavo 7| x 
 
 Large Octavo 7^ X 
 
 Extra Large Octavo ... 8^ 
 
 Albert size note 65 
 
 Queen size note 5^ x 
 
 When it is required to order paper of a special or particular size, if 
 the weight of the ream is unknown, it is quite sufficient to state the 
 required dimensions, and to direct it to be made of an equivalent 
 weight to any specified weight in Demy. 
 
 Paper Board. — A board on which paper is placed when wetted for 
 printing. 
 
 Paragon. — The name of a type, one size larger than Great Primer, 
 and smaller than Double Pica. There are 44^ lines to a foot. * 
 
 lbs, 
 
 16| 
 
 19| 
 
 22|: 
 
 25| 
 
 28 
 
 33J 
 
 o u 
 
 lbs. 
 13 
 21 
 24 
 27 
 30 
 36 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 91 
 
 Paragraph.— A. small subdivision of a connected discourse ; a por- 
 tion of written or printed matter indicated by a break or indentation 
 at the beginning and end. "When one subject is continued to a 
 " considerable length, the larger dimensions of it should be put into 
 " paragraphs. It will have a good effect, v/hen it can be properly 
 " done, to form the breaks at sentiments of the most weight, or that 
 " call for peculiar attention. The facts, premises, and conclusions of 
 " a subject, sometimes naturally point out the separations into para- 
 *' graphs." 
 
 Paragraph. — A mark (IT) denoting the beginning of a new subject, 
 or a sentence not connected with the foregoing. Chiefly used in the 
 Old and New Testaments. Also used as a mark of reference. 
 
 Parallel. — Marked thus (l|) is used as a mark of reference to notes 
 in the margin or at the foot of the page. 
 
 Parchment. — Prepared sheep skins, sometimes used for printing 
 on, but generally, by printers, for covering tympans, both inner and 
 outer. These skins should be sound, and of a uniform thickness 
 throughout, or the impression will not be even. 
 
 Paste-bowl. — A small wooden bowl to hold paste for the use of the 
 pressmen. 
 
 Pearl. — The na. a type, one size larger than Diamond, and one 
 
 smaller than Ruby. . xhere are 178 lines to the foot. 
 
 Peel. — An instrument used to hang up worked off paper for drying. 
 It is a thin, broad, wooden blade, fixed at the end of a staff, to enable 
 the warehouseman to reach the drying lines or poles. 
 
 Penultimate. — The last syllable but one of a word. 
 
 Perfecting. — Printing the second side of a sheet of paper ; also 
 called working the reiteration. 
 
 Perfect Paper ^ or Perfect Ream. — Paper without outside quires and 
 with the necessary number of sheets to print 500 copies with waste. 
 A perfect ream has 21^ quires, or 516 sheets. 
 
 Perforating Machine. — A small machine used for cutting across 
 cheque books, receipts, or any thing to which a counterpart is attached, 
 to facilitate tearing the leaves away when written on. This machine 
 is used to divide postage stamps. 
 
 Perforating Roll. — A wheel, on the outer circumference of which a 
 series of small punches are affixed. It is used for dividing cheques, 
 &c., and is more portable than, though not so rapid in its operation as 
 the Perforating Machine. 
 
92 
 
 DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 Phrases. — Tlie following Latin and Frencli words and phrases are 
 those in most common use. 
 
 Ab initio. — From the beginning. 
 
 Ad captandum. — To attract. 
 
 Addendum, addenda, — something 
 
 to be added. 
 
 Ad eundem. — To the same. 
 
 A fortiori. — With stronger rea- 
 son. 
 
 Ad infinitum. — To infinity. 
 
 Ad interim. — In the mean time. 
 
 Ad libitum. —At pleasure. 
 
 Ad valorem. — According to value. 
 
 Affaire de cceur. — Affair of the 
 heart ; a love affair. 
 
 A fin. — To the end. 
 
 Aide-de-camp. — Assistant to a Ge- 
 neral. 
 
 A la bonne heure. — At an early 
 hour. — In the nick of time. 
 
 A la mode. — In the fashion. 
 
 Alias, — otherwise, as Jones alias 
 Eobinson. 
 
 Alibi. — Elsewhere. The plea of a 
 person who states he was " else- 
 where" at the time, than as 
 stated in the charge. 
 
 Anglice. — In English. 
 
 A posteriori. — From what follows, 
 or from the effect, applied to an 
 argument used to infer a cause, 
 or antecedent. 
 
 Bathos. — A greek word, signifying 
 depth, and applied to a ludi- 
 crous descent from the sublime 
 to the ridiculous, or anticlimax. 
 
 Bona fide.— In good faith. 
 
 Bon mot.— A witty saying. 
 
 Brutem fulmen. — A harmless 
 thunderbolt ; that which threa- 
 tens loudly, but without danger 
 
 Cacoethes loquendi.- 
 
 speaking. 
 Cacoethes scribendi.- 
 
 writmg. 
 
 -Passion for 
 
 -Passion for 
 
 circum- 
 
 Caeteris paribus. — Other 
 
 stances being equah 
 Caput mortuum. — (The dead head) 
 The worthless remains ; the re- 
 siduum, when what can be ex- 
 tracted is gone. 
 Carte blanch e. — Unconditional 
 
 terms. 
 Chef-d'oeuvre. — Master-piece. 
 Ci-devant. — Form erly. 
 Comme il faut. — As it should be. 
 Compos mentis. — Of a sound mind 
 Coup de grace. — (Blow of favour) 
 
 the finishing stroke. 
 Coup de main. — Sudden enterprise 
 Coup d'oeil. — The view presented 
 to the eyes from any one point, 
 or at one glance. 
 Credat Judseus. — A Jew may be- 
 lieve it (I will not, understood). 
 Cui bono 1 — Of what good. 
 Cum multis aliis. — With many 
 
 others. 
 Cum privilegio. — With privilege. 
 
 De die in diem. — From day to day. 
 De facto. — In point of fact. 
 Dei gratia. — By the grace of God. 
 Deo volente.— God willing. 
 Dernier resort. — A last resource. 
 Desideratum. — A thing desired. 
 Douceur. — A present, or bribe. 
 
 En masse. — In a body. 
 En passant. — By the 
 passing. 
 
 way 
 
 m 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 
 
 93 
 
 Entree. — Entry. 
 
 Ergo, — Tlieref ore. 
 
 Errata. — Errors. 
 
 Erratum. — An error. 
 
 Et caetera. — And so forth. 
 
 Exempli gratia.— As for example. 
 
 Ex cathedra. — As a bishop or 
 teacher would speak, officially. 
 
 Excerpta. — Extracts. 
 
 Ex nihilo nihil fit. — Nothing can 
 come of nothing. 
 
 Ex officio. — By virtue of one's of- 
 fice. 
 
 Ex parte. — Partially ; or on one 
 side only. 
 
 Ex post facto. — From something 
 done afterwards. 
 
 Experimentum crucis. — A decisive 
 experiment. 
 
 Extempore. — At the moment; 
 usually applied to a speech or 
 sermon made without notes, or 
 having been previously com- 
 posed. 
 
 Fac simile. — That which is exactly 
 like. 
 
 Faerae naturae. — Animals still wild, 
 unappropriated. 
 
 Faux pas. — A fault, or misconduct. 
 
 Felo de se. — He who commits fe- 
 lony by killing himself. 
 
 Festina lente. — Hasten slowly. 
 
 Fiat. — A decree. (Let it be done). 
 
 Finis.— The end. 
 
 Finis coronat opus. — The end 
 crowns the work. 
 
 Formula. — A prescribed rule. 
 
 Genus irritabile. — The irritable 
 
 tribe (poets). 
 Gratis. — For nothing. 
 
 Hora fugit. — The hour flies. 
 Humanum est errare. — Humanity 
 will err. 
 
 Imperium in Imperio. — A govern- 
 ment existing in another go- 
 vernment. 
 
 Imprimis.— In the first place. 
 
 Impromptu. — Something written 
 or spoken at the moment. In 
 readiness. 
 
 In esse. — In being. 
 
 In posse. — That that may be. 
 
 In statu quo. — As it was before. 
 
 In terrorem. — In terror; as a warn- 
 ing. 
 
 In toto. — Altogether. 
 
 In transitu. — On the passage. 
 
 Inter nos. — Between ourselves. 
 
 In vino Veritas. — There is truth in 
 wine. 
 
 Ipse dixit. — He himself said it. 
 A mere assertion. 
 
 Ipso facto. — By the fact, or deed 
 itself. 
 
 Ipso jure. — By the law. 
 
 Je ne scai quois — I know not what 
 Jeu de mots. — Play upon words. 
 Jeu d'esprit. — A witticism. 
 
 Labor omnia vincit — Labour over- 
 comes every thing. 
 
 Lex talionis. — The law of retalia- 
 tion. 
 
 Locum tenens. — A substitute ; a 
 deputy. 
 
 Magna est Veritas. — Truth is most 
 
 powerful. 
 Mai Apropos. — Unseasonably. 
 Mauvais honte.—L^n becoming 
 
 bashfulness. 
 
94 
 
 DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 Memento.— "Be mindful," a me- 
 morial. 
 
 Memento mori. — Be mindful of 
 deatli. 
 
 Memoiabilia. — Things to be re- 
 membered. 
 
 Minutiae. — The smallest particu- 
 lars. 
 
 Mirabile dictu. — Wonderful to 
 tell. 
 
 Modus operandi. — The mode of 
 proceeding. 
 
 Multum in parvo. — Much in little. 
 
 Mutatis mutandis. — After making 
 changes. 
 
 Ne plus ultra. — That beyond which 
 one cannot go. 
 
 Necessitas non habet legem. — 
 Necessity has no law. 
 
 Nemine contradicente. — No one 
 disagreeing. 
 
 Nemo me impune lacessit. — No 
 one touches (or molests) me 
 with impunity. 
 
 Nolens volens. — Willing or unwil- 
 ling. 
 
 Nom de guerre. — Assumed name. 
 
 Non compos mentis. — Out of one's 
 senses. 
 
 Non est inventus. — He is not 
 found. 
 
 Non sequitur. — " It follows not" ; 
 an inconsequential proposi- 
 tion. 
 
 Nota bene. — Mark well. 
 
 Onus probandi. — The burthen of 
 
 proving by evidence. 
 O tempora, O mores ! — Oh the 
 
 times ! Oh the manners ! 
 
 Otium cum dignitate. — Ease with 
 
 dignity. 
 Outre. — Preposterous. 
 
 Pari passu. — With an equal pace. 
 
 Pendente lite.— Wliile the action 
 
 is pending. 
 Per se. — By itself. 
 Posse comitatus. — The power of 
 
 the county. 
 Prima facie— on the first view ; 
 
 at first sight. 
 Primum m.obile. — A first mover. 
 Pro et con. — For and against. 
 Probatum est. — It is tried, or 
 
 proved. 
 Pro bono publico. — For the good 
 
 of the public. 
 Pro lorma.— For form's sake. 
 Pro rata. — In proportion. 
 Pro tanto.— For so much. 
 Pro tempore. — For the time being 
 
 Quaere. — Search, inquire, is it so ? 
 
 Quantum meruit. — As much as he 
 deserves. 
 
 Quantum sufficit. — As much as is 
 sufficient. 
 
 Quid pro quo. — A mutual consi- 
 deration. 
 
 Quid nunc ? — What now ] 
 
 Quis separabit? — Who shall sepa- 
 rate us 1 
 
 Quo animo.— The intention with 
 which. 
 
 Quod vide.— Which see. 
 
 Quondam. — Having been formerly 
 
 Reductio ad absurdam. — Reducing 
 
 the thing to absurdity. 
 Requiescat in pace. — May he (or 
 
 she) rest in peace. 
 
USED IN PKINTINQ. 
 
 95 
 
 Residuum.— That which remains 
 when the rest is drawn off. 
 
 Res publica. — The common weal. 
 
 Rus in urbe. — The ■ country in 
 town 
 
 Sangfroid. — Cold blood; coolness. 
 
 Sans. — Without. 
 
 Semper eadem. — Always the same 
 
 Seriatem. — In regular order. 
 
 Sine die. — Without naming a day. 
 
 Sine qua non. — That without 
 which the matter is of no ac- 
 count ; an indispensable obliga- 
 tion. 
 
 Status quo. — The state in which 
 it was. 
 
 Sui generis.— Singular; of its own 
 kind. 
 
 Summum bonum.— The greatest 
 good. 
 
 Tapis. — Carpet. 
 
 Terra firm a, — solid land. 
 
 Tete-a-tete. — Face to face, a pri- 
 vate conversation. 
 
 Totidem verbus.— In so many 
 words. 
 
 To ties quoties.— As often as a 
 thing shall happen. 
 
 Toto ccelo. — By the whole heavens 
 
 Tria juncta in uno. — Three joined 
 in one. 
 
 Ultimatum. — The last offer, con- 
 dition, or concession. 
 
 Ultimo.— In the last (m.onth un- 
 derstood). 
 
 Unique.- Singular. 
 
 Utile dulce— Utility with pleasure 
 
 Vade mecum— " Go with me," — 
 applied as a name for a useful 
 book ; a constant companion. 
 
 Vale. — Farewell. 
 
 Veluti in speculum. — As in a look- 
 ing glass. 
 
 Verbatim. — Word for word. 
 
 Versus. — Against. 
 
 Vide. — See. 
 
 Vide ut supra.— See as above. 
 
 Vi et armis. — By force and arms. 
 
 Via. — By way of. 
 
 Vice versa, — The reverse ; contra- 
 riwise. 
 
 Vis inertise. — The power of inert- 
 ness applied to the resistance of 
 a stationary body to motion. 
 
 Viva voce. — By or with the living 
 voice. 
 
 Vive la bagatelle.— Success to tri- 
 fles. 
 
 Vox et prasterea nihil. — A voice, 
 and nothing more. 
 
 Vox populi.— The voice of the 
 people. 
 
 Vulgo. — Commonly. 
 
 Pica. — A type, one size larger than Small Pica, and smaller than 
 English. There are 71^ lines to a foot. 
 
 Pick Brush. — A fine, hard brush, used to clean dirt or picks from a 
 form when on the press. 
 
 Picker.— K fine pointed bodkin, generally made by putting a handle 
 to a large needle, used to pick dirt from between the strokes of letters. 
 
 Picks. — When the minute blank spaces between the strokes of 
 letters are stopped up with ink or dirt, causing a black mark to 
 
96 IHCTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 appear in printing, they are called picks, because generally it is 
 necessary to loosen the dirt with a picker or needle, before it can be 
 brushed off. 
 
 Pie. — Letter mixed indiscriminately. 
 
 Pigeon holes. — Wide whites between words; more than the proper 
 or necessary space. This cannot be avoided at times in newspaper 
 work, where compositors often have to " make even," but it should 
 never be allowed to pass in book work, except in cases where the 
 page is small and the type large, or in columns of table work. 
 
 Plane doivn. — To make the face of all types in a form even, by 
 passing the face of the planer over them, and striking the back of it 
 with a mallet. The form should be planed by striking gentle blows 
 before it is locked up, but with sharp blows afterwards, at the same 
 time taking care that there is nothing under the type. If any sub- 
 stance is found to be under a page, that quarter should not be planed 
 down ; but when locked up the form should be lifted, the substance 
 removed, and the form placed on the stone to be unlocked and 
 relocked up properly. 
 
 Planer.— K. piece of wood made smooth and even on the face, 
 to plane, or level the types in a form by striking it on the back with 
 a mallet. In this country usually made of Trincomallee wood, in 
 England of beech ; is about nine inches long, four broad, and two 
 thick. 
 
 Platen. — That part of a press which comes down upon the form, 
 and produces the impression. It is made of cast iron in one piece, 
 with the under side planed smooth. 
 
 Plate Paper. — A thick, soft paper, smooth on one side only, 
 intended to print steel or copper engravings. It is sometimes used 
 for books illustrated with woodcuts, the illustrations being printed 
 on the smooth side only. This paper requires very little wetting, and 
 is best damped by being placed for a short time between the wet 
 sheets of another heap of paper. 
 
 Point. --K thin piece of iron, Avith a spur at one end, fixed to the 
 tympan by a screw, and used to make register. For this purpose one 
 is placed on each side of the tympan in such a position as to cause the 
 spurs to fall in the groove of the short cross, whatever may be the 
 size of the form. 
 
 Point Ao^es.--The holes made by the points in taking an impression 
 on a sheet of paper. When the form is perfected, these holes are 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 97 
 
 fitted on the spurs, to make the pages fall exactly on the backs of 
 those on the other side. 
 
 Pointing. — Placing the sheets on points, to make exact register. 
 All work printed on both sides is pointed at press, but only fine 
 work at machine. 
 
 Point screws. — The screws by which points are affixed to the tympan. 
 
 Polychromatic Press. — A press invented by Mr. S. Brown, of Syra- 
 cuse, New York. It is capable of working off 500 impressions per 
 hour, in four colours, and 1,000 per hour of Book Work or Job Print- 
 ing. Its superiority consists in all the colours being worked at one 
 impression. It can be so arranged as to print shaded letters ; or a 
 border can be worked all round a job in one colour, at the same time 
 that the body of the form is of different colours. Tliis is an immense 
 advantage over the usual plan of printing each colour in a separate 
 impression. 
 
 P re-ante 2yenultimate. — The last syllable but three of a word. 
 
 Press. — A machine by means of which a printed impression of 
 types or engravings is obtained. See Machine, Lithographic Press, 
 Copper-plate Press, &c. 
 
 Press-bar. — A long iron or wooden bar, used to screw down a book- 
 press. 
 
 Pressman. — A man who executes printing at a press. 
 
 Press-pin. — A small iron bar, used in the warehouse, to screw 
 down the book-press until some pressure is felt; when it is exchanged 
 for a powerful lever called a press-bar. 
 
 Press Proof. — A good impression of a sheet of a work, or of a 
 job, to read it carefully by, and to mark the errors previous to its 
 being put to press. 
 
 Press Revise, — A sheet pulled after a form is laid on the press, to 
 see that all corrections marked in the press proof have been attended 
 to, and that it is perfected correctly. 
 
 Press wrenches. — Tools of different shapes, used for taking down or 
 putting together the various parts of a press. 
 
 Printing — Is the art of taking impressions from characters or 
 figures, on paper, linen, silk, or other fabrics. 
 
 There are several kinds of printing; from moveable letters or types, 
 and from metal casts or stereotype plates obtained from them, for 
 books; from engravings on wood or metal, for pictures ; from letters 
 and drawings sketched upon prepared stone, called lithography ; from 
 
 N 
 
98 DICTIONAUY OF TERMS 
 
 prepared zinc plates, called anastatic printing, tfcc. Descriptions of 
 these and other varieties of printing, and the details of the practice, 
 are diffused through the whole of this book and may be referred to 
 under their respective names. 
 
 The art of Printing is the most important invention that was ever 
 introduced to the world, in its effects on the human mind, and, of 
 consequence, on all civilised society. It preserves and disseminates 
 all discoveries and improvements in the arts and sciences ; it comme- 
 morates all other inventions; it hands down to posterity every import- 
 ant event ; it immortalizes the actions of the great and good ; and 
 it extends and diffuses the word of God to all mankind; — and yet 
 this very art has left its own origin, at least in Europe, enveloped in 
 mystery and obscurity. 
 
 Printing, it is believed, was first invented in China, that country 
 which, the parent of many arts, never seems to advance beyond the 
 first idea. Foong-taou, who was a minister of state in the tenth cen- 
 tury, wished to multiply the number of copies of a book which pleased 
 him, and found writing so tedious that he endeavoured to find some 
 plan by which both time and trouble could be saved. His natural 
 idea was to endeavour to multiply writing in some way similar to that 
 in which he could multiply the impressions of a seal, — the only diffi- 
 culty in the way was how to make a seal or stamp like the writing to 
 be multiplied. At last, after many trials, he placed a page of writing, 
 while it was wet, upon the face of a smooth piece of wood. A copy 
 was of course transferred to the wood ; then all the wood not touched 
 by the writing was cut away, and the block of wood was converted 
 into an engraved tablet. The letters thus formed by Foong-taou were 
 wetted with some kind of ink, paper was pressed upon them, and a 
 copy was thereby transferred to the paper. To this day the Chinese 
 print as they did nine hundred years ago. While in other countries 
 such vast and wonderful improvements have been made in the noble 
 art, in China no change from the first invention has taken place. 
 
 It may be well to introduce here a short account of the Chinese 
 mode of printing. A block of wood, generally of apple or pear, is cut 
 to the size of the intended page. After being smoothed it is rubbed 
 over with boiled rice, which gives it a white polished surface. The 
 characters are written on a thin tissue paper, and while yet damp, are 
 turned with the face on to the prepared wood and gently rubbed over 
 the back ; — this leaves an impression on the wood. The M^hite parts 
 are now cut away, and the block is ready for printing from. No 
 press is used in Chinese printing. The paper is so thin and so easily 
 torn that the force of a press would cause it to tear to pieces, and a 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 09 
 
 little friction will give the required iiiipressiou. The workman liolds 
 ill his hand an handle with a brush at each end ; with one he lays ink 
 on the block, and covering it with a piece of paper, rubs it gently 
 with the other. This is quite sufKcient, with the soft paper used, to 
 obtain a clear copy ; and the pressmen, if they may be so called, are 
 generally so expert as to be able to print 2,000 copies per day. When 
 printed, two pages are placed back to back together to make one leaf, 
 and so are bound into books. 
 
 For three hundred years the Chinese practised the art unknown to 
 the western nations which boasted of greater progress in arts and 
 civilization. China itself was unknown to the rest of the world, 
 except by name ; but the veil which had so long concealed one of the 
 most wonderful nations of the world, was removed in the thirteenth 
 century by the Venetian traveller, Marco Polo. After being absent 
 from Europe for many years ; on his return, one of the wonders he had 
 to speak of, was this invention of printing. 
 
 About the time that Marco Polo was relating the wonders of his 
 travels, the most simple form of printing began to be practised in 
 Europe. In the year 1255 the two Cunios, who resided on the gulf of 
 Venice (the native place of Marco Polo), began to print with wood 
 engravings. From this time, for about 75 years, nothing was heard 
 of printing in Europe; but in 1350 playing cards were printed from 
 blocks, in precisely the same manner as the Chinese print, with a 
 brush, and these two facts favour the presumption that the art was 
 translated from China to Europe through Marco Polo's description of 
 it. After this, little books were printed from blocks in the same 
 manner as cards, and some of them are still in existence. One of 
 these, printed in the year 1423, if the date affixed may be trusted, is 
 now in the Spenserian Collection {see wood engraving), and another, 
 known as the Bihlia Pauper am, or Poor Man's Bible, printed between 
 the years 1420 and 1430, seems to have been thought a wonder in its 
 day. This contained from 40 to 50 leaves ; and, judging from the 
 mutilated state of the copies that remain, seems to have been in great 
 request. 
 
 The next and great advance in the art of printing, was the 
 introduction of moveable types. This was a natural improvement 
 upon block printing, yet it was in a manner the result of accident. 
 Evidence as to the discoverer is rather conflicting, but the general 
 belief seems to be that it was one Laurence Zanssen, or Costa, who 
 lived at Haarlem in 1424. One day in his efforts to amuse his grand- 
 children, he cut some letters out of a smooth piece of beech, and 
 
100 DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 daubing them with some kind of colour, stamped them on pieces of 
 paper as he would a seal. The first letters were reversed, thus, g;, 
 in their impression, he thei'efore cut them in reverse, and when 
 he stamped them again, found the impression was the right way, 
 Tlie thought struck him then, that what he had produced in sport 
 might be turned to use, and he consulted with his son-in-law, Joseph 
 Peter. The result of their deliberations and experiments was the 
 formation of moveable wooden types. They fo\ind that common ink 
 made blots, and therefore made it thicker. At length they determin- 
 ed to print a book, and with infinite trouble they succeeded. Their 
 first attempt contained the letters of the Alphabet, the Lord's Prayer, 
 the Apostle's Creed, and three short prayers. A copy of this book is 
 still in existence ; it is most rude in its appearance, the letters being 
 uneven in size, and out of line, without points, and words divided 
 whenever they end the line. It is supposed to have been finished 
 about the year 1439. A comparison with books printed soon after 
 shows this to have been a first attempt. 
 
 Coster seems to have carried on the business of a printer for many 
 years, and to have amassed a considerable fortune ; but little i» 
 known of the progress of the art till about the year 1450, when John 
 Gutenburg began to print from metal types. 
 
 But this story of the discoveiy of Printing by Laurence Coster has 
 been set down by many as apocryphal, particularly by the inhabi- 
 tants of Mentz, who claim the honor of the discovery for their 
 townsman, John Gutenburg,, or Gensfleiseh, This man, in 1424, 
 was settled in Strasbourg, where he carried on the business of a 
 lapidary and mirror polisher, and is supposed to have conceived the 
 idea of printing about the year 1440, just after it is stated to have 
 been discovered by Laurence Coster. In 1436 Gutenburg took into 
 partnership John RifF, Andrew Drizehn, and Anthony Hielman, all 
 natives of that city. Tlieir agreement was for the term of five years > 
 but OMdng to some differences between them, they separated in 1439, 
 before its expiration. In 1450, Gutenburg was associated with John 
 Fust, or Faust ; and it was about this time, as shown by all known 
 authorities, that metal types were first made. The Abbot Trithemius^ 
 in Ms " Chronicon Spanheimense," says, " about thi& time (1450) the 
 art of printing and working single types was found out anew, 
 instead of hy the 2)7^evioits wooden types, in the City of Mentz, by one 
 John Gutenburg, who having s^^ent his whole estate in this difficult 
 discovery, by the assistance and advice of others, brought his under- 
 taking at length to perfection/' 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 101 
 
 With Giitenburg and Faust was associator Peter Sclioeffer, who 
 had been the servant of the latter. He was the inventor of punches 
 of steel, by which matrices were struck, from which the metal 
 types (which were originally cut singly) were cast. This produced 
 uniformity in the length and form of letters. The first work which 
 issued from the press of these three men, is generally supposed to be 
 a Latin Bible, without date, but which most probably was finished 
 about the year 1455. After this Gutenburg and Faust's partnership 
 terminated, and in 1457 Faust and Schceffer published the Psalter. 
 Another Psalter was printed by them in 1459, and in the same year 
 Durandi Rationale, a treatise on the liturgical offices of the Church. 
 In 1460 Gutenburg printed the great Latin Dictionary called "Catho- 
 licse Johannis de Balbis," and the " Constitutions of Clement V." 
 In 1460-62 another Bible, withoiit a date, was issued by one Pfister, 
 who had set up a press at Bamberg. In 1465 Faust produced the 
 *' Offices of Cicero," and in the following year a second edition of the 
 same work ; shortly after this he went to Paris, where he is supposed 
 to have died of the plague. 
 
 In 1462 the Archbishop Adolphus sacked the City of Mentz ; the 
 printing trade of the place was ruined, and the workmen spread 
 themselves amongst various cities, and set up on their own account, 
 Bamberg, Cologne, Strasbourg, Augsburg, and other cities, had their 
 presses ; yet between 1461 and 1470 only 24 different works appeared. 
 In 1465 a printing office was established at Subiaco in the Koman 
 state. In 1470, two of Faust's workmen commenced printings in Paris, 
 and Ulric Gering and his partners set up a press in the same year. 
 Cumini, a Goldsmith, established one at Florence, and John Spire one 
 at Venice. 
 
 The first book printed in Spain, appeared at Valencia, in 1474. In 
 1475 printing was commenced at Barcelona; at Saragossa and Seville 
 in 1477 ; and at Salamanca in 1485. 
 
 In 1488, Aldus, a learned printer at Venice, invented Italic letters, 
 and the Aldine printing in after years became famous for its beauty. 
 Aldus printed the works of nearly all the Greek authors in their own 
 language, in rapid succession, and with great beauty. Learned 
 men became printers, others took a pride in correcting for the press ; 
 and the printers published the names of their eminent assistants 
 on the title pages, as the names of editors and authors are now 
 used, to invest the work with a higher guarantee of character and 
 ability. 
 
102 DICTIONARY OF TEIlMS 
 
 Printing now began to spreadall over the continent with great rapi- 
 dity. Presses were established in tlie Low Countries, at Daventer, 
 Utrecht, Louvain, Basle, and at Buda, in Hungary; in 1490 the art 
 reached Turkey, and in 1560 penetrated into what was then semi- 
 barbarous Pvussia. 
 
 In France many women have distinguished themselves in the art, 
 amongst others, Charlotte Guillard (1490-1540), the widow of Berthold 
 Rambolt, who kept several presses at work, and printed a great 
 number of large and very correct editions both in Latin and Greek. 
 Amongst her best works are the Bible, the Fathers, and the works of 
 St. Gregory, in two volumes, which are so accurate as to contain 
 only thxee faults ! 
 
 Let us now turn to the introduction of the art into England. 
 
 William Caxton, the father of the English Press, was apprenticed 
 to a London merchant in 1412, went to the low countries in 1442, and 
 resided by turns in Brabant, Flanders, Holland, and Zealand, for near 
 thirty years, during which time he made himself master of the art of 
 printing. While at Cologne he translated his "Recueil de I'Histoire 
 de Troye," and published it ; soon after this he removed his apparatus 
 to England, and settled at Westminster under the patronage of the 
 Abbot. In 1474 he produced the first specimen of English typography, 
 *' the Book of Chess." In 1477 he published " Dictes and sayinges." 
 Caxton's first types were of a kind called Secretary, but not what is 
 known as secretary now. In 1482 he added another sort, which was 
 a great improvement on the first ; and in 1490 a sort which was still 
 better. He died about 1491 ; but in the ten years in which he carried 
 on the business of a printer, he published 64 different works, though 
 in a literary point of view they indicate but a low state of knowledge 
 in England. 
 
 During Caxton's time one John Lettase also set up a Press in 
 London, in which he printed two works alone ; he was afterwards in 
 partnership with William Machlinia. They were the first printers of 
 law, and only produced about eleven works. 
 
 Caxton was succeeded in his business by Wynkyn de Worde and 
 Richard Pynsent. The first, who had accompanied Caxton from 
 Cologne, was a very accomplished man, and even excelled his master 
 in the art. He introduced the Roman letter, and the shape of his 
 types was retained for two centuries. These two printers flourished 
 between the years 1491 and 1534, and between them issued 618 works. 
 Julian Notary also had a press from 1499 to 1515, but did not issue 
 many works. 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 103 
 
 Ln 1480 a press was set up in the Benedictine monastery at St. 
 Albans. Printing was introduced at Oxford between 1480 and 1485, 
 by Tlieodore Roode and John Hunt ; the former a native of Cologne, 
 the latter an Englishman. 
 
 In 1507 Walter Chapman opened a printing office in Edinburgh. 
 
 In 1509 printing was introduced into the City of York by Hew Goes. 
 
 John Sibert introduced the art to Cambridge, and printed there in 
 Latin, Greek, and English. His books bear date 1521 to 1522. 
 
 Since that time printing presses have been established in almost 
 every town of any importance throughout Europe, America, Australia, 
 and indeed everywhere where white men have settled. 
 
 The missionaries were the first to introduce printing in this country, 
 and the people have not been slow in availing themselves of the art. 
 Letter or Lithographic Presses have been established in all parts, 
 and doubtless will ultimately do much towards educating the people. 
 
 Proof. — An impression of a galley of matter, sheet of a job, or work, 
 to be examined to see if it is correct. 
 
 Proof Paper. — A cheap, thin paper, used to pull proofs, or to strike 
 off common work. 
 
 Proof Press. — A Press kept to pull proofs at. 
 
 Pull. — To take an impression of a form at the Press. 
 
 Punctuation — Is the art of dividing a written composition into 
 sentences, and parts of sentences, by points or stops, for the purpose 
 of combining those words together that are united in construction 
 and separating those which are distinct. 
 
 The following explanation of some of the terms which occur in the 
 Rules is intended to assist the learner in determining the proper 
 application of the points. 
 
 A SENTENCE is an assemblage of words forming complete sense. 
 
 A SIMPLE SENTENCE coutaius but One member, which consists of 
 one subject, and one finite verb; as, "temperance preserves health." 
 
 A COMPOUND SENTENCE coutaius more than one member, and more 
 than one subject, or one finite verb, either expressed or understood ; 
 or, it consists of two or more simple sentences connected together • 
 as " good nature mends and beautifies all objects." " Virtue refines 
 the affections ; but vice debases them." 
 
 A CLAUSE, or MEMBER, is ouc of the simple sentences of which a 
 compound member is formed ; as, " he was told to clear the stone • 
 but he went to his frame." Here there are two clauses. 
 
104 DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 A COMPOUND MEMBER is made up of two or more clauses or simple 
 members; as, "the ox knowetli his owner, and the ass his master's 
 crib ; but Israel doth not know, my people do not consider." 
 
 Here will be found four clauses, or simple members : the first two 
 forming one compound member ; and the latter two another compound 
 member. . 
 
 A PHRASE means sometimes part of a sentence, and sometimes a 
 whole one. 
 
 The Comma [,] is used to denote the shortest pause in punctuation, 
 and the smallest division in composition. 
 
 Rule I. — Of the nominative. — A simple sentence admits of no 
 marked pause, except a full stop at the end of it ; as, 
 
 " The Secretary stood alone. Modern degeneracy had not reached him." 
 
 No comma ought to be inserted after the subject (1) or nominative, 
 unless it be accompanied by adjuncts which are put in a parenthe- 
 tical (2) form ; as, 
 
 (1) "Inattention to business in hand is a sign of a frivolous mind.'' 
 
 (2) " Inattention to business in hand, let it be what it will, is a sign of 
 a frivolous mind." 
 
 Rule II. — Words in the same construction. — Words of the 
 same part of speech, occurring in the same construction, are separated 
 from each other by commas ; as, 
 
 " The turbulence, the insincerity, the convulsions to which the extension 
 of knowledge amongst the lower orders has given rise, will in time be for- 
 gotten." 
 
 " Success depends upon acting prudently, steadily, and vigorously, in 
 what we undertake." 
 
 To this rule there are two exceptio7is. 1st. When two adjectives 
 are joined together without a conjunction, and the first of which 
 qualifies not only the noun but the other adjective, no commas are 
 used ; as, 
 
 " Locke was a famous modern philosopher." 
 
 2nd.— When only two words of the same part of speech are closely 
 connected by the conjunction and, the comma is omitted ; and the 
 same remark is applicable to or ; as, 
 
 " Truth is uniform and consistent " 
 '* Ts it right or wrong ?" 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 105 
 
 If, however, tlie parts connected are not short, a comma may be 
 inserted; as, 
 
 " The traditions and local attachments of the clans were lost by the 
 dispersion of their members, and general adoption of new names and dis- 
 tinctions." 
 
 " Is acting in this way right, or is it wrong ?" 
 
 Rule III. — Of a direct address. —Expressions in a direct address 
 are separated from the context by commas ; as, 
 
 " Therefore, good Brutus, be prepared to hear." 
 
 " Boast not, my friends of to-morrow." 
 
 Rule IV. — Members of sentences depending on each other. 
 — When a member of a sentence is followed by another immediately 
 depending on it, a comma is inserted between them ; as, 
 
 '* Those who only look at a building as a fine feature in a landscape, 
 rarely think of the art with which such a fabric is raised." 
 
 " jNIuch of the durability of a building dei3ends on the propriety of the 
 design, but much also depends upon the nature of the materials." 
 
 " It is the fiiult of some writers, that they pursue their thoughts to their 
 last ramifications." 
 
 Rule V.— Words explanatory, incidental, and conditional. 
 — Explanatory, incidental, and conditional words or phrases, whether 
 introduced at the beginning or the end, or in the middle of sentences 
 — must be separated from the context by commas ; as, 
 
 " The Government, approving the plan, put it in execution." 
 
 " We started early, and, before the close of the day, arrived at Poo- 
 doovail." 
 
 " The people, whose constitutional rights had been materially impaired, 
 were ever ready to defend themselves." 
 
 " Every sensible person knows full well that war is a calamity, and 
 views it with aversion ; but at the same time, in the present state of the world, 
 we are bound to admit that frequently it cannot be avoided." 
 
 " Formerly, his work was, in many respects, imperfect ; it was, there- 
 fore, not much approved." 
 
 " Truth, when it is reduced to practice, easily becomes subject to 
 caprice and imagination." 
 
 Many of the foregoing examples may, with propriety, be applied 
 to Rule IV. 
 
 
 
lOf) DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 The following words and phrases may be separated from the 
 context by commas : 
 
 Nay, so, hence, tlien, therefore, again, first, secondly, formerly, 
 now, lastly, once, more, above all, on the contrary, in the next place, 
 in short, in truth, (fee. 
 
 When, however, these expressions are very closely connected with 
 the sense, the comma is better omitted. 
 
 Rule VI.— Observations and short Quotations. — A short quo- 
 tation, or any remarkable expression or observation that resembles 
 a quotation, may be properly preceded by a comma ; as, 
 
 " Such seems to be the disposition of man, Avhatever makes a distinction 
 produces rivalry." 
 
 " He said to the maistry, proceed immediately with the work." 
 " Religion is so w^ell adapted to the nature of man, that, without her 
 assistance, we should hve and die like the lower creation," 
 
 " Plutarch calls lying, the vice of slaves." 
 
 " It hurts a man's pride to say, I do not know." 
 
 But if the members succeeding each other are very closely con- 
 nected, the comma is superfluous ; as, 
 
 " He told me to do so." 
 
 " He says it is not finished." 
 
 " I doubt not that mind is immortal." 
 
 " He bade me go home." 
 
 Rule VII. — Of comparatives. — Simple members of sentences, 
 connected by comparatives, are distinguished by a comma ; as, 
 
 " As the hart panteth after the waterbrooks, so doth my soul pant 
 after thee." 
 
 " AVill bind the whole together on the surest principles of construction, 
 as the separate staves of a vessel are united by the hoops." 
 
 " The liberal reward of labour, as it encourages the propagation, so it 
 increases the industry of the common people." 
 
 " Charity, like the sun, brightens all objects." 
 
 If the members in comparative sentences are short, the comma 
 may be omitted ; as, 
 
 " Mankind act more often from caprice than reason." 
 " It is better to get wisdom than gold." 
 
 When the members of comparative sentences are compound, they 
 may be set off by a semicolon. 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 107 
 
 Rule VIII. — Of the conclusion op a sentence p.efereing to 
 TWO preceding members. — When the concluding part of a sentence 
 refers to two preceding members, it is separated from the last mem- 
 ber, and the members from each other, by commas ; as, 
 
 " Good men arc often found not only in union with, but in opposition 
 to, the views and conduct of one another." 
 
 " He was composed both under the threatening, and at the approach, of 
 a cruel and lingering death." 
 
 But when the concluding part of a sentence is short, it is better to 
 omit the comma before it ; as, 
 
 " Alfred was not only the king, but the father of his people." 
 
 Rule IX. — Relative Pronouns. — Relative pronouns, expressed 
 or understood, admit a comma before them ; as, 
 
 " He preaches sublimely, who lives a sober, righteous, and pious life." 
 " The book of Job is a poem, full of the noblest and most majestic 
 figures." 
 
 This may also be applied to cases in which a relative pronoun is 
 preceded by a preposition ; as, 
 
 " No thought can be just, of which good sense is not the ground work." 
 
 When two jDhrases are closely connected by a relative, limiting the 
 general notion of the antecedent to a particular sense ; the comma 
 should be omitted ; as, 
 
 " A man who is of a detracting spirit will misconstrue the most inno- 
 cent words that can be put together." 
 
 Rule X. — Transposition of adjuncts, — When the natural order 
 of adjuncts or circumstances is inverted, they may be set off by com- 
 mas ; as, 
 
 " Virtue must be formed and supported, not by unfrequent acts, but by 
 daily and repeated exertions." 
 
 Wlien such sentences are put in the natural order the comma may 
 be omitted ; as, 
 
 " Virtue must be formed by daily and repeated exertions, not by unfre- 
 quent acts." 
 
 Rule XI. — Words in opposition.— When words are placed in 
 opposition to each other, or with some marked variety, they generally 
 require to be distinguished by a comma ; as, 
 
 " The wood is hard, yet easily worked." 
 *' This stone is very soft, but ^durable." 
 
108 DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 Rule X[I. — ^Vliere a word is understood, a comma may be properly 
 introduced ; as, 
 
 " From law arises security, from security curiosity, from curiosity 
 knowledge." 
 
 In this example tlie verb caises is understood before curiosity and 
 knowledge. 
 
 Tlie Semicolon [ ; ] is used for dividing a compound sentence into 
 parts, not so closely connected as those which are separated by a 
 comma only, nor so little dependent on each other as those which are 
 distinguished by a colon. 
 
 Rule I. — When a sentence can be divided into two or more mem- 
 bers, which members are again divided into members more simple, 
 tlie former are to be separated from the latter by a semicolon, thus ; 
 
 " Towns without number sprang up in the place of the ancient congre- 
 gation of huts ; and necessities were gradually created, which were incompati- 
 ble with the old modes of life." 
 
 " In his buildings he coveted three things, beauty, usefulness, and 
 durability ; his taste secured the first, his acquaintance with the wants of man 
 obtained the second, &c." 
 
 " It will be seen how, in two important dependencies of the crown, 
 wrong Avas followed by just retribution ; how imprudence and obstinacy broke 
 the ties which bound all the North American colonics to the parent state ; 
 how Ireland remained, indeed, a member of the empire, but a withered and 
 distorted member." 
 
 " As we perceive the shadow to have moved, but did not perceive it 
 moving ; so our advances in learning, as tliey consist of such minute steps, are 
 only perceivable by the distances." 
 
 *' There are men wliose powers operate at leisure and in retirement, and 
 whose intellectual vigour desert them in conversation ; whom merriment con- 
 fuses, and objection disconcerts ; whose bashfulncss restrains their exertion, 
 and suffers them not to speak till the time of speaking is past ; or whose 
 attention to their own character makes them unwilling to utter, at hazard, 
 what has not been considered, and cannot be recalled." 
 
 *' Such is the refuge of our youth and age, 
 The first from hope, the last from vacancy ; 
 And this worn feeling peoples many a page. 
 And, may be, that which grows beneath mine eye ; 
 Yet there are things whose strong reality 
 Outshines our fairy land ; in shape and hues 
 More beautiful than our fantastic sky. 
 And the strnngc coDStellulioiis which the muse 
 <)'er her wild univer-e is skilful to diffuse." 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 109 
 
 Semicolons may be inserted between the parts of many conipouncl 
 sentences that do not admit of being subdivided ; as, 
 
 " Stones grow ; vegetables grow and live ; animals grow, live, and feel." 
 
 Rule II. — When the members of a compound sentence are con- 
 nected by a particle denoting a modification of the former clause, or 
 giving a new turn to its meaning, a semicolon may with propriety be 
 inserted; as, 
 
 " Genius breaks from the fetters of criticism ; but its wanderings arc 
 sanctioned by its majesty and wisdom." 
 
 " Do not think yourself perfect ; for imperfection is natural to man." 
 
 The Colon [ : ] is used to divide a sentence into two or more parts, 
 less connected than those which are separated by a semicolon, but 
 not so independent as separate, distinct sentences. 
 
 Rule I. — When a sentence can be divided into two parts, either 
 of which parts is again divisable by a semicolon, the former parts 
 are to be separated from the latter by a colon ; thus, 
 
 •• If any man think it convenient to seem good, let him be so in reality ; 
 and then his goodness will appear to every one's satisfaction ; for truth is 
 convincing, and carries its own light and evidence along with it ; and will not 
 only commend us to every man's conscience, but which is much more, to God, 
 who searcheth our hearts." 
 
 " Without this diffusion of wealth among the lower orders, the important 
 effects resulting from the invention of printing would be extremely limited ; 
 for a certain degree of ease and independence is necessary to ins{)ire men with 
 the desire of knowledge, and afford them the leisure Avhich is requisite for 
 acquiring it : and it is by the rewards which such a state of society holds up 
 to industry and ambition, that the selfish passions of the multitude can be 
 interested in the intellectual improvement of their children." 
 
 The propriety of using or omitting a colon or semicolon, is some- 
 times determined by the introduction or the omission of a conjunc- 
 tion; as, 
 
 " Do not flatter yourselves with the hope of perfect happiness : there 
 is no such thing in the world." 
 
 " Do not flatter yourselves with the hope of perfect happiness; for there 
 is no such thing in the world." 
 
 Rule II. — A colon is used, when the preceding part of a compound 
 sentence is complete in sense and construction ; and that which fol- 
 lows is some remark, naturally arising from it, which adds to the 
 sense without modifying ; as, 
 
 " Study to acquire the habit of thinking : no study is more important." 
 
110 DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 Rule III. — When, in a compound sentence, two objects are com- 
 pared or contrasted with one another, without the use of connecting 
 particles, a colon may be inserted between the members ; as, 
 
 *' A friend exaggerates a nian's virtues : an enemy magnifies bis 
 crimes." 
 
 Rule IV. — A colon may be placed before an example, a quotation, 
 or a speech, which is formally introduced, and composed of members 
 divided by other points ; as, 
 
 " The air was sweet and plaintive ; and the words, literally translated, 
 were these : ' The winds roared and the rain fell ; when the poor white man, 
 faint and weary, came and sat under our tree.' " 
 
 When the quotation includes several sentences, it is usual to com- 
 mence a new paragraph. 
 
 A Period l . ], or Full Point, is used to terminate a sentence which 
 is so complete and independent as not to be connected in construc- 
 tion with the following sentence ; as, 
 
 " Fear God. Honour the King." 
 
 " The art of constructing a sound wall was a favourite study with him. 
 To convert an unseemly pile of stones, a stack of unsquared timber, and some 
 tons of rusty iron, into a magnificent palace, requires something more than 
 mere animal exertion," 
 
 *' The Secretary stood alone. Modern degeneracy had not reached him. 
 Original and unaccommodating, the features of his character had the hardi- 
 hood of antiquity." 
 
 The period, besides its use at the end of a sentence, is employed 
 after an abbreviation, to denote that letters are wanting to complete 
 the word. 
 
 A note of Interrogation [ ? ] denotes that a question is asked ; 
 as, 
 
 "What day of the month is this ?" 
 
 " Where is the peon ?" 
 
 " Who made up signature K of Report on District Roads?" 
 
 '* Has that sheet been read for press yet ?" 
 
 Where it is only said that a question has been asked, a note of 
 interrogation should not be used ; as, 
 
 " The Cyprians inquired of me why I wept." 
 " The engineer asked him who turned the arch." 
 
 *' When the inspector saw how badly the work was executed, lie asked 
 who was the contractor." 
 
USED IN PRINTING. Ill 
 
 It is a very common error to make one interrogative mark represent 
 several questions belonging to the same sentence ; and to substitute 
 semicolons or dashes for notes of interrogation. This should be 
 carefully avoided. 
 
 In the following passage each question should be marked with its 
 proper points : " What is civilization — where is it — what does it 
 consist in — where does it commence — where does it end — how is it 
 known — in short, what does it mean ?" 
 
 An Admiration, or Exclamation [ ! ], is used after words or sentences 
 expressing a sudden emotion or ardent wish, or denoting admiration 
 or sorrow ; and after an address to a person, when particularly 
 emphatic; as, 
 
 " Look, my Lord, it comes I" 
 
 *' Fathers I Senators of Rome ! the arbiters of the world ! to you I fly 
 for refuge !" 
 
 *' Father of light and life! thou good supreme ! 
 Oh teach me what is good ! teach me thyself ! 
 Save me from folly, A'anity and vice, 
 From every low pursuit !" 
 
 " God of the fair and open sky ! 
 How gloriously above us springs 
 The tinted dome of heavenly blue. 
 Suspended on the rainbow's rings !" 
 
 *' Look, Marcus ! ah, son of Lucius, look on her !" 
 
 Interjections, being expressive of some passion, are generally 
 accompanied by marks of admiration ; as, 
 
 " O virtue ! how amiable thou art !" 
 " Alas ! poor Yorick !" 
 
 The following passage will serve to illustrate the distinction 
 between the notes of exclamation and interrogation : 
 
 " Whither shall I turn ? Wretch that I am ! to what place shall I betake 
 myself? Shall I go to the Capitol? alas! it is overflowed with a brother's 
 blood ! or shall I retire to my house ?— -yet there I behold my mother plunged 
 in misery, weeping and despairing !" 
 
 It is sometimes difficult |to distinguish between an interrogative 
 and exclamatory sentence ; it is, therefore, necessary that the com- 
 positor or examiner should carefully peruse the ambiguous passage, 
 comparing it with the context, in order to ascertain whether it 
 expresses more an idea of emotion than of enquiry. 
 
112 DICTIONAUY OF TERMS 
 
 The Parenthesis, thus ( ), is used to include a member which is 
 inserted in tlie body of a sentence, to iUustrate or enforce its mean- 
 ing, but which is not necessary to the sense, and docs not affect the 
 construction ; as, 
 
 " Consider (and may the consideration sink deep into your hearts) the 
 fatal consequences of a wicked life." 
 
 " In 1788, Mr. (afterwards Sir John) Soane was appointed architect." 
 " The ceiling is trabcatcd (cross beamed), deeply coffered, and enriched 
 with greek frets." 
 
 " Open daily (Sundays excepted) from eleven till four." 
 " The pix (from the Latin pixis) is the box in wliich the coins to be 
 weighed and analysed are contained." 
 
 When the incidental clause is short, or coincides with the next of 
 the sentence, the parenthesis may be omitted, and commas inserted 
 in their place ; as, 
 
 "Every star, if we may judge by analogy, is a snn to a system of 
 planets." 
 
 The incidental clause ought to be accompanied with every point 
 wliich the sense would require if the parenthetical characters were 
 omitted. It should terminate with the same kind of stop that should 
 terminate the member which precedes it, which stop should be placed 
 after the parenthesis, thus : 
 
 *' Pride, in some disguise or other (often a secret to the proud man 
 himself), is the most ordinary spring of action among men." 
 
 The Dash [— ], though often used improperly,* may be inserted 
 when the sentence breaks off abruptly, when a significant pause is 
 required, or when there is an unexpected turn in the sentiment. 
 
 " Here lies the great — False marble ! Avhere ? 
 Nothing but sordid dust lies here." 
 
 " Every one knows what he means by civilization — till he is asked ; 
 every one knows what it means — till he compares his opinions with his neigh- 
 bour ; all nations know what it means — till they compare with neighbour 
 nations ; nobody agrees, nobody knows where it is. At least, we do not — that 
 is certain." 
 
 The dash may sometimes be used as a mark of parenthesis. 
 
 The Apostrophe [ ' ] is frequently inserted in poetry, and some- 
 times in prose, to indicate the omission of a letter or a syllable. It is 
 also used to show the possessive case of nouns, with an s following 
 
 * Cobbett, in his Grammar, says, the dash is a cover for ignorance in 
 the use 'of points, and it can answer no other purpose. 
 
USED IN PBINTTNG. 113 
 
 when in tlie singular number ; but where an s is added to the word 
 to form the plural, the apostrophe is used after it, without an addi- 
 tional s. The s is likewise omitted after the apostrophe where the 
 adding it would create too much of a hissing sound, as, for righteous- 
 ness' sake, for conscience' sake. 
 
 Tlie Hyphen [ - ] is used when a word is divided, the first part 
 printed at the end of one line, and the latter part at the beginning of 
 the next. It is also employed to connect compound words. 
 
 Marks of quotation [" "J are used when a passage is transcribed 
 from a speaker or author in his own words. Such passages should be 
 distinguished by having two inverted commas ["] at the beginning, 
 and two apostrophes [ "] at the end. 
 
 When a quotation is introduced within the body of the primary 
 one, the additional quotation ought to be commenced with one 
 inverted comma, and closed with one apostrophe. The following 
 example will vpply to both these Eules. 
 
 In St. John's Gospel we haAe the following words : " Nathaniel said 
 unto Philip, * Can there any good thing come out of Nazareth ?' Philip saith 
 unto him, * Come and see.' " 
 
 When several successive paragraphs are taken from an author, each 
 paragraph is commenced by inverted commas, but not closed by apos- 
 trophes till the quotation terminates. 
 
 Marks of quotation may be omitted where the matter extracted is 
 not given in the exact words of the author ; or where a quotation in 
 a foreign language, or a passage from Holy Writ, is short, and distin- 
 guished by italics. 
 
 Quadrats. — Pieces of metal, of the depth of the body of the type 
 for which they are cast, and lower than the type, so as to leave a 
 blank space on the paper in whatever part of the page they are 
 inserted. They are used to fill out short lines ; to form white lines ; 
 and to justify letters or figures in any part of a page. 
 
 Quarto. — A sheet of paper folded into four leaves, or eight pages. 
 Qui7'e — Of paper, 24 sheets. 
 
 Quoin draiver, — A drawer under the imposing stone, in which 
 quoins are kept. 
 
 Quoins, — Short pieces of wood, of the same height as the furniture, 
 and tapering in their width; used to wedge the pages up with in 
 a chase. They are made of various sizes, to suit the difference of 
 the thickness in the side or foot-sticks- 
 
 P 
 
114 DICTIONARY OF TMtMS 
 
 Quoin xi}:). — To fit the quoins in a form in such a manner that 
 when locked up they shall completely and properly secure the types. 
 
 Quotation. — See punctuation. 
 
 Quotations. — Pieces of hollow metal, generally cast quadrat height, 
 and to even pica ems in length and width. A common size is three 
 ems wide and from four to six ems long. 
 
 K. 
 
 Bag. — In type-founding, a burr on the edge of a letter. • 
 
 Reader. — A person whose duty it is to read proofs in a printing 
 office, for the purpose of correcting the errors that are unavoidable 
 from the process of arranging the types into words, lines and pages. 
 
 The general interest of literature depends much on the grammatical 
 accuracy and typographical correctness of the printer's labour; it 
 will be readily seen, therefore, that good, careful, steady readers, arc 
 indispensable in every printing office. 
 
 It is desirable that persons who hold the situations of readers, 
 should have been previously brought up as compositors, as, by their 
 practical acquaintance with the mechanical part of the business, they 
 will be able to detect errata which may easily be passed over by a 
 man of science and learning who does not know the technicalities 
 of the art, and cannot point out imperfections in workmanship. 
 But although it is desirable that readers should have been previously 
 brought up as compositors, it is not absolutely necessary, as long 
 practice in reading proof-sheets for the press, a quick eye, and 
 application to his duties, will enable a reader, though not a com- 
 positor, to detect those minor deviations from correctness which the 
 inexperienced and the careless are apt to overlook. But while these 
 habits are acquiring, without which no person can safely be trusted 
 to read a sheet for press, books are liable to go forth to the world in a 
 manner which reflects discredit on the printer and annoys the author, 
 who may find he has thoughts and expressions given to him the very 
 opposite of what he intended to express. No form, therefore, should 
 be put to press, until it has been read by an experienced reader. 
 
 But habit is not sufficient to form a competent reader, unless he 
 ])ossesses those literary qualifications which are obviously necessary in 
 an employment of this nature. A reader ought at least to be well 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 115 
 
 versed in all the peculiarities and idioms of the English tongue : and 
 a knowledge of the dead languages, so often used in quotation, would 
 be useful to him. In this country a knowledge of the vernaculars 
 should also be a recommendation ; so many phrases from them being 
 interspersed in almost all works written here. 
 
 Many -writers axe apt, in, the warmth of discussion or the laborious 
 exercise of the thinking powers, to pass over such deviations from 
 pure diction and grammatical accuracy as they have acquired in their 
 ordinary conversation wdth mankind. Now, although no corrector of 
 the press can be required to do more than follow his copy, that is 
 faithfully to adhere to the original, yet he should point out such 
 imperfections or mistakes by underlining the faulty sentence, and 
 marking "query" (?) in the margin, thus drawing the author's atten^ 
 tions to the p3,rt, and removing the responsibility from himself.. 
 Some few works are "put to press" direct ; in such a case. the reader,,, 
 of course, is respansible, and queries are of no use. 
 
 The following is the process which proof sheets ought to undergo 
 before they are put to press. 
 
 The compositor should when a proof has been pulled, hand the copy 
 and proof to the reader, for the purpose of comparing or reading. If 
 the latter, which is most general, the reading boy must read the copy- 
 aloud, while the reader looks at the proof. The boy should be able 
 to read any copy put into his hands with ease and distinctness ; he- 
 should not read too fast, but pay the same attention to the subject as 
 though he were reading for amusement or edification. The eye of 
 the reader should not follow, but rather precede the copy ; as, when 
 accustomed to this mode, he will be able to anticipate every w^ord 
 in the copy ; and should a word or sentence happen to have been 
 omitted, his attention will the more sensibly be arrested by it when 
 he hears it pronounced by his reading boy. 
 
 After the proof has been read, the signature, head lines, and folios 
 of each page should be carefully examined, and the signature and' 
 folio of the ensuing sheet be accurately marked on the margin of 
 the copy. A crotchet shouldr be madie betw^een the last word of the 
 sheet read and the first of the next sheet, in order that both compo- 
 sitor and reader may be certain where the sheet commences. 
 
 The form being corrected in the metal, a revise should be pulled, 
 and with the proof just corrected be conveyed to the reader, whose 
 duty it is to collate the corrected sheet with the one before read, to 
 ascertain whether the corrections have been made, and that other 
 errors have not been created in the process, as it not unfrequentl^ 
 
116 DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 happens that compositors, in the course of correcting, either transpose 
 a letter or word, or alter a letter in a word that is not marked, 
 thereby not only leaving one error uncorrected, but also making 
 another. It often happens, too, that in raising a line to change the 
 spaces, some of tlie letters get transposed. It is absolutely necessary, 
 therefore, in revising a proof, that the reader should not only look at 
 the word marked, but also glance his eye along every line in which 
 an alteration has been made. Should outs or doubles occur in a proof, 
 it ought to be again read by co]iy to prevent any improper connexion 
 in the over-running, either by the insertion or removal of words. In 
 the final revision of a proof sheet, the eye should be cast along the 
 sides and heads of the respective pages, lest a letter should have fallen 
 out, the form have been locked up crookedly, or the edges battered or 
 bitten by the frisket. 
 
 Stower, an early writer on the Art of Printing, says, " A reader 
 therefore should be a man of one business ; always upon the alert, all 
 eye, all attention. Possessing a becoming reliance on his own powers, 
 he should never be too confident of success. Ijnperfections cling to 
 him on every side, errors and mistakes assail him from every quarter. 
 His business is of a nature that mav render him obnoxious to blame, 
 but can hardly be said to bring him in any large stock of praise. If 
 errors escape him he is justly to be censured, ior 2)e7-ftction is his duty. 
 If his labours are wholly free from mistakes, whicli, alas ! is a very 
 rare case— he has done no more than he ought, and consequently can 
 merit only a comparative degree of commendation, in that he had the 
 good fortune to be more successful in his labours after j^erfection 
 than some of his brethren in the same employment." 
 
 Ream. — A quantity of paper consisting of 20 quires of 24 sheets. 
 
 Records. — Type so called, cast to resemble the abreviations used in 
 ancient M.S.S. 
 
 References. — Marks used to show to what part of the text marginal 
 or foot notes refer. The ordinary marks are as follows, and are used 
 in the order in which they are arranged *, t, %, §, II, IT. When more 
 than six notes occur in a page, two of each reference are put to a 
 note, but this has an unsightly appearance. 
 
 Some printers use italic lower case letters, placed between paren- 
 thesis, Avhile others employ figures for the same purpose. The most 
 neat in appearance, however, are superior letters or figures * ; either 
 of which are used when the notes on a work are collected at the end 
 of a volume. 
 
USED IN rPJNTING. 117 
 
 Register. — So to arrange the furniture in a form, or both forms of 
 a sheet, that the pages may fall exactly on the back of each other. 
 
 Begister sheet. — The sheet or sheets used to examine the register of 
 a form. Dry proof paper is generally used for this purpose. 
 
 Reglet. — Wooden furniture of various thickness, used to white 
 out titles, jobs, or to economise quadrats. The usual sizes made are 
 pearl, nonpareil, brevier, long primer, pica, great primer, and double 
 pica. 
 
 Register Colour Points — Are made expressly for ornamental print- 
 ing, with spurs made to screw in, so that in case of an accident an 
 old spur may be taken out with a small pair of plyers, and a new one 
 be inserted in its place, a plan which enables the pressman to go on 
 with his work without making fresh register. These points are not 
 fixed to the tympan, but are screwed on to some part of the furniture 
 of a form. If four colours are to be worked, two brasses, each with 
 four points or spurs, are fixed to the form, and the first colour is then 
 worked, pricking four holes on each side of the sheet. The points 
 for the remaining colours are single, and attached to the tympans in 
 the ordinary manner. It is necessary to observe that two colours 
 must not be perfected by one set of point holes. 
 
 Reiteration. — A term used by pressmen to .denote that they are 
 working the second side of a sheet. 
 
 Revise. — A proof pulled immediately a form is laid on the press, 
 and taken to the reader by the pressman, that he may ascertain if all 
 correetions marked in the press proof have been attended to, before 
 giving the order to strike off. Also, any proof pulled to compare 
 with former corrections. 
 
 fiibs. — The tramway of a press, on which the carriage traverses in 
 running in and out. 
 
 Rice paper—HO called. A material used by the Chinese for drawing 
 or printing on. It is i)repared from the stem of a leguminous 
 plant, which is cut into pieces eight or ten inches in length. These, 
 again, are cut into one continuous spiral film, on the same principle 
 as veneer cutting. These lamiuie being spread out and pressed flat, 
 form thin sheets, which after being dyed and otliervvise prepared, 
 constitute the rice paper of the Chinese. 
 
 Rides.— Leads or furniture are said to ride when one end projects 
 over another. This should be carefully guarded against, as, either 
 letters will be in danger of falling out, or, if locked up sufficiently 
 tight to lift, the pages will be bent. 
 
118 DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 Binse the Form.— Tliis should be done by the pressman as soon as 
 a form is struck off. After being taken to the lye trough, and well 
 brushed over, letter, furniture, and chase, with the lye, it should be 
 stood nearly upright against a wall or other support, and be well 
 rinsed by having water poured over to wash away the lye and the 
 ink it has dissolved. 
 
 Rinsing Trough. — A shallow wooden trough, lined with lead, used 
 to lay up forms in. The edge is generally bound with iron, and the 
 bottom covered with a loose board to prevent the iron chase cutting 
 the lead. 
 
 Bise. — A form is said to rise when every thing is properly justified, 
 so that when locked up nothing will fall out. 
 
 Risers. — The material upon which stereotype plates are fixed to be 
 printed. These are sometimes made of wood, with the plates screwed 
 or fastened by overhanging brass catches ; sometimes of type .metal. 
 Various other substances have been used, such as brass, gun metal, 
 gypsum, cork, &c., but all of these have failed. Those most com- 
 monly in use at present were invented by Mr. Hansard, and are of 
 type metal cast to even ems, like French furniture, to make up to any 
 size of page. The plates are fixed to these risers for working by 
 moveable clasps, or clams, of brass, which are pegged on to the sides 
 of the metal, and catch over the bevel edge of the plate. 
 
 Roller. — A cylinder coated with composition, fixed in an iron frame, 
 and revolving upon an iron rod running through it, with which to 
 ink forms, preparatory to taking impressions. 
 
 Formerly balls were used for inking, but rollers have entirely 
 susperseded them. 
 
 The composition used for making rollers was first used for balls 
 by Mr. B. Foster, and was a great improvement on the old pelts. 
 Shortly afterwards steam printing was introduced, and then it became 
 necessary to use rollers to ink the forms. Skins were tried, but the 
 edges would not join well, and in consequence all work was defaced 
 by marks ; but Konig covered his rollers with Foster's composition, 
 and from that time steam printing was successful. 
 
 There are many roller makers, and as many recipes for making 
 rollers ; every one making some slight difference in his proportion of 
 ingredients. It is hardly possible to give instructions to suit all 
 countries, because much depends upon the climate and the state of 
 the atmosphere. 
 
 The composition is a mixture of glue and treacle, mixed, in Europe, 
 in the proportion of eight lbs. of the former to two of the latter, for 
 
USED IN PRINTINa. 119 
 
 dry, cool weatlier ; but here we use a far greater proportion of glue, 
 as otherwise the rollers would be too soft and run off the frames. 
 
 To make new rollers in this climate the best proportion is 14 lbs. 
 of glue and three pounds of treacle, which will make four ordinary- 
 sized press rollers. 
 
 In preparing to cast these, two lbs. of glue should be soaked in 
 water, as soft and pure as can be procured. When thoroughly soften- 
 ed, put it in the melting kettle, and place it on the fire, stirring it 
 with a wooden spoon. When quite melted add the rest of the glue in 
 similar proportions (first soaking it) till the whole is melted. Boil 
 gently for an hour, then add the treacle, well stirring the mixture 
 until thoroughly incorporated. Boil and skim, stirring every ten 
 minutes, for another hour, then leave the vessel to cool slightly. 
 
 While the composition is melting prepare the mould, by thoroughly 
 cleaning it and rubbing the inside with oil, to prevent sticking. Place 
 the wooden cylinder, or stock, in the mould, keeping it thoroughly 
 dry, and then pour the composition carefully in ; when cold, take out 
 the roller, and cast again. 
 
 When old rollers are re-cast, the composition must be well cleaned 
 with lye, before being melted. If the composition is very strong, 
 add treacle and boil until it draws out well in threads, then cast. If 
 the old rollers are too weak, or soft, boil until sufficiently firm. 
 
 Boilers should not be used too soon after being cast, as the type 
 will cut up the surface, and become clogged in the face. 
 
 When rollers are soft, they must not be washed, as that will make 
 them* honey-comb, or go into holes. 
 
 When too dry, which with good management should seldom hap- 
 pen, a little water should be sprinkled on the table, and the roller be 
 rapidly worked backwards and forwards, scarcely touching the table, 
 until the water is soaked up. 
 
 The best way to preserve rollers when out of use, is to smother 
 them in common ink, scraping them clean when required, with a 
 blunt knife. This preserves the surface while it cleans the roller. 
 
 Monde. — The name of an upright script type. 
 
 Bounce,— IDiQ drum or cylinder to which the girth is attached to 
 run the carriage, or table of the press, in and out. 
 
 Rounce handle. — Tlie winch used to turn the rounce, 
 
 liitby. — The name of a type, one size larger than Pearl, and smaller 
 than Nonpariel. There are 165 lines to a foot. 
 
120 DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 liuck. — A term used to denote that paper is liable to crease or 
 double when going round a cylinder. 
 
 Buhs—TroY>eY to be observed in a printing office. 
 
 1. Compositors will receive their cases free from all pie, with 
 clean quadrat and space boxes; these must be kept Avhile in use 
 and returned when done with, in the same clean state. 
 
 2. When a compositor receives letter or other material from the 
 foreman, he is to return what he does not use in a satisfactory state. 
 
 3. Matter is to be made up and imposed as soon as corrected. 
 
 4. No matter to be kept standing more than 12 days without 
 special orders. 
 
 5. Forms, immediately they are imposed, are to be pulled and the 
 proofs given to the reader. If a first proof, with the copy; if a 
 second proof, with the foul proof. 
 
 6. If any pages of loose matter are left when a form is imposed, 
 the imposer must secure them. 
 
 7. No imposer may leave a foul stone. 
 
 8. When cases are taken from the racks, the compositor must 
 return them immediately he has done with them. 
 
 9. No cases to be placed over others, or on the floor under the 
 frames. 
 
 10. Ail head lines should be cleared from galleys immediately 
 after the last form of a work is put to the press. 
 
 11. Sweepings of frames must be cleared, every day, within half 
 an hour after being picked up. Broken matter must be cleared the 
 same day. 
 
 12. No compositor shall mix two separate founts without an 
 exj^ress order from his foreman, 
 
 13. Two forms must not be stood doAvn together without a partition 
 between them. 
 
 14. The saw, bellows, waterpot, &c., are to be returned to their 
 places as soon as done with. 
 
 15. No person shall make use of a bodkin, galley, or composing 
 stick, not his own, without permission of the person in charge of the 
 same. 
 
 16. No person shall misplace cases, or take an upper without the 
 lower case, or vice versa. 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 121 
 
 17. Pie of any sort must be cleared after five minutes notice. 
 
 18. No person shall take sorts from another's case without leave. 
 
 19. No person shall keep useful sorts by him, for which he has no 
 present use. 
 
 20. Every part of the office must be swept twice a day, and types 
 found on the floor be immediately cleared by the occupant of the 
 frame from which they were swept. 
 
 21. No person shall be absent without leave. 
 
 22. Persons absenting themselves, except in case of sickness, and 
 leaving copy unfinished, are liable to dismissal. 
 
 Pressmen. — 1. Proofs must be pulled immediately upon notice 
 being given. 
 
 2. Immediately after a proof is pulled, the form and chase is to- 
 be rubbed over with the lye brush, and then be given to the compo-- 
 sitor to whom it belongs^ 
 
 3. As soon as printed, each form must be carried to the lye-tub,, 
 and thoroughly washed, and then be delivered to the compositors for 
 distribution. 
 
 4. All spoiled sheets must be returned. Any excess in the num- 
 ber of spoiled sheets will subject the pressman in fault, to fine. 
 
 5. Presses must be cleaned daily. 
 
 6. Faults in the rollers must be brought to the notice of the press 
 overseer, who will see that all are kept in good working order. 
 
 7. No pressman shall work with a soft dirty roller, or one which 
 has gone into holes. 
 
 8. Any pressman spoiling a roller by too frequent washing or 
 soaking in water, shall provide another at his own expense. 
 
 9. Types or quadrats falling out on the press, must be immediate- 
 ly given to the compositor to whom the form belongs. 
 
 10. Any pressman delayed by compositors correcting revises, for 
 a longer time than ten minutes, should report to his overseer. 
 
 Ruling Machine.— A. machine for ruling red or blue lines in account 
 books, blank statements, copy books, or any thing in which such 
 lines are required. It is very simple in construction. At each end 
 of a frame a wooden roller is affixed, one of which is turned by an 
 handle. Round these rollers revolves a broad endless band, of can- 
 vass, or any substance sufficiently smooth and elastic. At one end ia. 
 
 Q 
 
122 DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 a table, witlj moveable guages, on which to lay the sheets to be ruled, 
 and a short distance from this is a broad clasp, formed of two pieces 
 of wood united by screws, which holds the pens. These pens are 
 formed of brass foil, and are simple channels, to convey the ink from 
 its reservoir to the paper. The ink reservoirs are pieces of flannel, 
 fastened with a nail to the clasp, just over and laying on the upper 
 r id of the pens, and thoroughly saturated by means of a small brush. 
 When a sheet is to be ruled, it is laid on the table, touching a set of 
 wheels which guide it on to tlie revolving band, and by the band it 
 is carried under the pens, and ruled with as many lines. 
 
 Run in. — To run the table and form under the platten. 
 
 Rtin out. — To run the form from under the platten. Amongst com- 
 positors, to have emptied a case of any particular sort in composing, 
 or to have used up all the copy in the office. 
 
 Buns on sor^s.— When a book uses certain letters above the average, 
 
 Ruthven's Press. — See ISTachinery. 
 
 s. 
 
 Sans^Kiriel Cas^s.— Cases with moveable bars, intended to hold 
 large type. 
 
 Saw. — An implement for cutting wood. A small thin saw, with a 
 back to strengthen it, is very useful in a printing office, for cutting 
 furniture, &c. 
 
 Saiv-hloch. — A piece of wood on which to cut wooden furniture to 
 certain lengths. It should have two mitreing, or diagonal grooves, 
 and one at right angles. 
 
 Scale hoard. — Thin slips of wood, used next to the crosses, to faci- 
 litate making register at press. Many use leads for this purpose. 
 
 Scandinavian Printing Machine. — A press invented by Mr. C. A. 
 Holm, of Stockholm. The platten descends perpendicularly, as in 
 the common press. The inking apparatus is so arranged that the 
 distributing rollers have several motions, the object of which is to 
 produce a perfectly uniform distribution of the ink. Where fine work 
 is required, all the means of making ready are the same as at a com- 
 mon hand press ; while the facility for getting at forms for alterations, 
 &c., is greater than at any other machine. It is capable of throwing 
 off about GOO impressions per hour. 
 
USlSD IN PRiKTiKG. 123 
 
 Script. — A type cast to imitate writing. 
 
 Section.— A mark (§) used to denote the division of a book or 
 chapter into smaller portions. Also used as a mark of reference to 
 notes. 
 
 Semicolon.— See Punctuation. 
 
 Set at Random. — To compose matter without makihg up. 
 
 Set wa«en— -Matter composed but not worked off. So called to 
 distinguish it from distribution matter. 
 
 Set of sheets. — Sheets of waste paper placed upon the tympan sheet, 
 and frequently changed to prevent the ink on the first side setting off, 
 while working the second. 
 
 Sets oJf-'.—A sheet is said to set off when it parts Avith some of its 
 ink to the sheet on which it is laid. The impressions in printing the 
 second side of a sheet, will cause some of the ink from the first side 
 to adhere to the tympan sheet, and this is likely to dirt succeeding 
 sheets. 
 
 Set up close. — When compositors have set all their copy, so that 
 there is none intermediate between them. 
 
 Seventy-two mo. — A sheet of paper folded into seventy-two leaves, 
 or 144 pages. 
 
 Shank. — The body of the letter. 
 
 Sharp impression. — A clear, firm impression, with little indention 
 on the paper. 
 
 Shears. — A large kind of scissors, with short blades and long- 
 handles, used to cut brass, leads, scale board, &c. to required lengths. 
 
 Sheep's foot. — An iron hammer, with a claw at one end, used by 
 pressmen. 
 
 Sherwin and Cope's Press. — See Machinery. 
 
 Shooting stick. — An instrument used to assist in driving the quoins 
 up with a mallet when locking up a form. 
 
 Short c?*055.— The shortest and broadest bar which divides a chase 
 into quarters. 
 
 Short page.— A page not full of matter. 
 
 Side stick.— A wedge shaped piece of furniture placed on the side 
 of the page to lock up by. 
 
 Signature.— A letter of the alphabet placed at the bottom of the 
 first page of each sheet of a work, to denote the order of their 
 succession. A small capital of the body fount is generally used. 
 
124 DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 Sixteen mo. — A sheet of paper folded into sixteen leaves, or thirty- 
 two pages. 
 
 Sixty-four mo. — A sheet of paper folded into sixty -four leaves, or 
 128 pages. 
 
 Slice. — The false bottom of a large galley, made to slide out. Also, 
 an implement used to take ink from the tub, or to scrape it together 
 on the ink block. 
 
 Slips. — Matter pulled in long narrow pieces, for facility in cor- 
 recting. 
 
 Slur. — A smear on the paper from any part of an impression. 
 
 Slur pin. — A flat headed pin that goes through the ofF-side of the 
 outer tympan, near the head band, so as to rest on the chase or 
 furniture. Its use is to prevent the off-corner of the tympan coming 
 down on the types before the other parts, which when it happens 
 causes slurring. 
 
 Small capitals. — Capitals of a smaller size than the regular capitals 
 of a fount, but cast on the same body, to range with the lower case 
 letters. 
 
 Small Pica.— 'The name of a type one size larger than Long Primer, 
 and one size less than Pica. There are 83 lines to a foot. 
 
 Solid matter. — Matter that is composed without any leads between 
 the lines. 
 
 Sorts. — The letters that lie in every box of a case are called sorts. 
 Thus a is a sort ; 6 is a sort, &c. 
 
 Space Lines. — Thin pieces of metal cast to various thickness, and 
 of different lengths, quadrat high, to put between lines, or to white 
 out titles, &c. They are generally called leads by printers. 
 
 Sjmcing. — The adjustment of the distance between the words in a 
 line, so that there shall not be any glaring disproportion ; also extend- 
 ing a word, or line of capitals, by putting spaces between the letters. 
 
 Uniformity in spacing is a most important part of the compositor's 
 occupation, requiring both care and judgment ; and, therefore, cannot 
 be too strongly impressed on the mind of the young beginner. Very 
 wide, or very close spacing are equally unpleasant to the sight, and 
 ought never to be permitted, except in very narrow measures ; and 
 frequently, even in that case, it may be prevented. What is commonly 
 called the composing space (the thick, or three to an em) should be 
 as nearly as possible adhered to. It is not merely necessary to have 
 a line here and there uniformly spaced;, a careful compositor will 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 125 
 
 endeavour to give to every line and every page, that uniform appear- 
 ance which is one of its chiefest excellencies. Careless and foul com- 
 positors will never preserve this most desirable uniformity ; because, 
 when their proof is crowded with corrections, the utmost care in rec- 
 tifying them will not make the spacing regular. 
 
 In correcting, many compositors do not overrun the matter through 
 the stick, as they ought to do, but prefer doing it on the stone, in 
 which case they frequently hairspace, or treble space, in order either 
 to get in or drive out a word; when by overrunning a line or two 
 forward or backward, they would not only preserve uniformity, but 
 also save considerable labour. 
 
 When a line is set, and requires additional spaces for justification, 
 it is best to insert them where they will be least observed, as between 
 perpendicular letters, such as d and h, or after a curved letter, as f. 
 But the whole line should be spaced as nearly alike as possible by a 
 judicious use of middhng, thin, and hair spaces. In many cases it is 
 well to change the thick spaces for en quadrats at such places as I 
 have mentioned above, as the difference will be hardly perceptible to 
 any but a professional eye. A thick and middling, or two thick 
 spaces, in one place, and one thick only in another, should never 
 be allowed, except in newspaper work — where speed is sometimes 
 preferred to quality. 
 
 Where it may be necessary to reduce the spacing of a line, to get 
 in the last letters of a word or syllable, the reduction should be 
 rather made after a sloping letter, as w or y, than after a perpendicu- 
 lar one. 
 
 The spaces inserted after points vary. After a comma, a thick 
 space is sufficient ; the colon, semicolon, admiration, and interroga- 
 tion, should have an hair space before, and an en quadrat after. The 
 period is always followed by an em quadrat. In places where the 
 admiration or interrogation are followed by capitals, to commence a 
 sentence, an em quadrat may also be used. But these rules vrill not 
 always hold good, as it may be necessary to reduce the space in these 
 cases, as in the rest of the line, taking care to observe the same 
 proportions. 
 
 Spaces are cast to such regular gradations, 3, 4, 5 and 7 to an em, 
 that no sufficient excuse can be urged either for irregidar appearance 
 or bad justification. 
 
 Good spacing is a sign of a good workman. 
 
 Specimen 2?age. — A page composed and pulled, as a sample of the 
 type and paper intended to be used for any work. 
 
126 DICTIONARY OF TEKMS 
 
 ^ Spottiswoode Press. — A platten machine, the invention of Mr. As 
 Spottiswoode. It prints two forms at a time, which pass alternately 
 under the platten, and will strike off about COO impressions of each 
 form in an hour. 
 
 Spi^ing of a Form. — When a form has a great quantity of furniture 
 in it and is locked up very tight, it frequently springs up in the mid- 
 dle so as to endanger its bursting upwards ; it is then said the form 
 springs ; to remedy this, unlock the form, plane it down, and tighten 
 again very gradually, frequently planing down while locking up. 
 
 Spur. — The projection on the point that strikes a hole in the paper 
 while striking off the first side, and is used to make register with. 
 
 Squabble. — To twist, or displace the types in a page. 
 
 Stand still. — A term used by compositors and pressmen to denote 
 that they are waiting for letter, copy, or a form to strike off. 
 
 Stanhope Press. — A press, gaining its power by a combination of 
 the lever and screw, the invention of Earl Stanhope. IL was the 
 first iron press invented. 
 
 Stereotype. — The surface of a page of types cast in one piece of 
 type metal, about the eighth of an inch thick. 
 
 Many attempts to procure casts of pages were made, and various 
 systems of stereotyping were proposed in the 18th century, but none 
 were thoroughly successful until the year 1800, when Lord Stanhope, 
 after numerous experiments, at last introduced a plan which is even 
 yet followed, and has never been improved upon in the quality of 
 the work executed. 
 
 The first operation is that of taking a mould from each page of 
 moveable types. The pages are not arranged as they would be 
 combined in a sheet, and wedged up together in one iron frame or 
 chase, but each page is put in a separate chase. It is essential 
 that the face of the types should be perfectly clean and dry, and that 
 no particle of dirt or other substance should attach to the bottom of 
 the types, so as to prevent them being completely level upon the 
 surface. The page thus locked up is placed upon the lower part of 
 what is called a moulding frame, the upper part of which is some- 
 what larger than the page, and the margin of which thus formed 
 determines the thickness of the plate. 
 
 The types, having previously been rubbed over with an oily com- 
 position, gypsum (plaster of Paris) mixed to the consistence of cream 
 is poured evenly over the whole surface. This sets very quickly, and 
 soon becomes perfectly solid. When dry the mould is removed from 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 127 
 
 tlie type. A great deal of nicety is required from the workmen in 
 tliis operation, for if any part of the plaster adheres to the face of the 
 type, the mould is of course imperfect, and the operation must be 
 gone over again. Having been removed and found perfect, it is 
 dressed with a knife round the edges, and several notches cut in the 
 margin to allow the metal to enter the mould. It is now fit for back- 
 ing, which process also requires a great deal of accurate knowledge. 
 The oven in which the moulds are placed on their edges must be kept 
 at a very regular temperature ; for if it be too hot, the moulds warp. 
 When backed the process of casting begins. For this a strong iron 
 frame called a casting box, or casting pot, is used. At the bottom of 
 the box is a moveable plate of cast iron, called a floating plate, and 
 upon this plate, the face of which is perfectly accurate, the mould is 
 placed with the face downwards. Upon the back of the mould rests 
 the cover of the casting-box, the inside face of which is also perfectly 
 true. The cover is held down tightly upon the mould by a screw, 
 connected with two shackles, and also by two nippers connected 
 %vith the apparatus for plunging the pot into the metal-pit. Tliis 
 apparatus, which is attached to a crane, is so constructed as to swing 
 with a perfectly horizontal motion; and the casting box, with the 
 mould, being thus suspended over the metal-pit, is gradually forced 
 down into the molten metal, and there kept steady by a lever and 
 weight. The lid of the box is cut off at the corners ; and it is through 
 these spaces that the metal enters the box, and insinuates itself into 
 every hollow. When the box is plunged into the metal, a bubbling 
 noise is heard, which is caused by the expulsion of the air within the 
 box. After having remained immersed for about 10 minutes, it is 
 steadily lifted out by the crane, and swung to a cooling trough in 
 which the under side of the box is exposed to water. Being com- 
 pletely cooled, the caster removes the mould from the casting-box. 
 The plaster mould, the plate mould, and the floating plate, are all 
 solidly fixed together. The metal, by its specific gravity, has forced 
 itself under the floating plate, which it has consequently driven tight 
 up against the ledges of the mould. The mould has in the same way 
 been driven tightly up against the lid of the casting-box. The 
 notches in the ledges of the mould have at the same time admitted 
 the metal into the minutest impression from the face of the types. 
 The caster now breaks oft' the superfluous metal and the ledges of the 
 mould with a wooden mallet ; the mould is of course destroyed, and 
 if another plate is required, another mould must be taken from the 
 types. When the superfluous metal and the plaster are removed, the 
 stereotype plate comes out bright and well formed, but perhaps not 
 of the proper thickness, which can seldom be determined by the 
 
128 DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 mould; the back is therefore turned in a lathe, in which the plate 
 revolves against a cutting tool, and a perfectly true surface is obtained 
 by the superfluous parts being cut away in a series of concentric 
 circles. The very best casting cannot prevent occasional defects in 
 the face of the plate ; it is therefore minutely examined by a workman 
 called a picker. It is his business to remove the small globules of 
 metal which occasionally fill up such letters as the a and the e ; to 
 insert a new letter, which he can do by cutting out the damaged 
 letter, and soldering another in, if any one be broken ; and, what is 
 a still more delicate operation, to remove with his graver any impurities 
 which may fill up the lines of a wood cut. When the plates have 
 been carefully examined and passed as correct, they are ready for 
 delivery to the printer. 
 
 But several patents have been taken out within the last few years, 
 for a new, and as far as economy of cost and labour are concerned, an 
 improved system of stereotype, known as the French, or papier 
 mach6 process. 
 
 It is far cleaner and more rapidly executed than the old plaster 
 casts, but the plates are not so clear and sharp ; this may be improved 
 by and bye,— the art being yet very young. 
 
 To take a mould on the papier mache process, the page is locked up 
 as described before ; but, instead of pouring liquid plaster on to the 
 types, a prepared sheet, or flong, as it is technically termed, is laid 
 upon it, and beaten with a long handled, hard brush. The flong is 
 made of alternate sheets of blotting paper and a peculiar paste, and 
 is used while yet v.^et ; the beating, therefore, drives a part of it down 
 into every interstice of the letter, no matter how fine. When suffi- 
 ciently beaten the form, with the flong still on it, is placed on a heated 
 iron plate, is then covered with a blanket, and a platten screwed 
 firmly down. The type and mould is kept on this " moulding press" 
 as it is called, for about fifteen minutes, and is then unscrewed, the 
 blankets taken off, and left another ten minutes to dry. The mould 
 is now lifted away, the edges trimmed with a pair of scissors, and little 
 inequalities beaten down, and is ready for casting. The casting box 
 and metal-pit are not used in this process, but the paper mould is 
 laid on its back on the under side of a large iron " casting mould," 
 bars of steel, the thickness of the required plate are placed round 
 three sides of the margin of the mould to determine the size of the 
 plate, the top is screwed firmly down, and melted metal is poured into 
 the mould. As soon as set, the casting mould is unscrewed, and the 
 platten and mould lifted away, and separated carefully. Sometimes 
 the mould is destroyed, but now and then as many as twelve castings 
 
USED IN PRINTINO. 129 
 
 may be taken from tlie same mould. The plate liaa now to be trimmed 
 round the edges, and to be examined by the picker, and is then ready 
 for the printer. The cost by this process is only about half of that of 
 the old plaster process, and in England many newspapers, even dailies, 
 are stereotyped, the types not behig so much worn by moulding as by 
 striking off a long number at press, besides the advantage of return- 
 ing letter to the compositors immediately. 
 
 The process is by no means universally applied, but only in pecu- 
 liar cases ; while in those cases it is so valuable that it may be 
 pronounced absolutely necessary. Works printed periodically, or 
 long numbers, should always be stereotyped, as much time will be 
 saved, and type preserved by the process. 
 
 Stet. — When a word has been struck out by mistake in reading a 
 proof, it is usual to make dots under the word which has had the 
 pen run through, and write the word stet in the margin. 
 
 Stick/till. — As many lines as will fill a composing stick. 
 
 Superior's. — Small letters and figures upon the upper part of the 
 shank, to range with the top of the fount to which they belong. 
 They are generally used as references to words ; and occasionally for 
 abbreviations, as M"^- M"- N®- &c. 
 
 Sweepings. — Types found on the floor when the rooms are swept. 
 Those swept from the frames should be given to the persons working 
 in them; those from the centre of the room to a person appointed 
 for the purpose. 
 
 T. 
 
 Table ivorh. — Here called statement, is figure column work, with 
 rules between, consisting of five columns, or more. It is paid double 
 the price of common matter. 
 
 Tabular. — Similar work to the above, but of three or four columns 
 only. It is paid one and one half of common matter. 
 
 Tail Pieces. — Ornaments placed in a short page to fill up the 
 vacancy. 
 
 Take Ink. — To dab the roller against the ink ductor for a fresh 
 supply. 
 
 Take down, — To remove printed sheets from the lines with a peal 
 when dry. 
 
 R 
 
130 DicrroNAUY of terms 
 
 Take up. — To lift a quantity of matter either from a galley, or the 
 imposing stone ; or to lift a number of lines for distribution. 
 
 Take copy. — To receive copy from the foreman to compose. 
 
 Taylor and Martineaii^s Pro's. — An iron press on the knee joint 
 principle. The power is regulated by a screw through the head. 
 
 Thermography. — Printing by heat. An invention for taking im- 
 pressions, or facsimiles, showing the grain and general appearance of 
 different kinds of wood. The process consists in slightly wetting the 
 surface of the wood of which facsimiles are to be made, with any 
 diluted acid or alkali, and then taking an impression upon paper. 
 The impression is quite invisible, but by exposing it for a few 
 moments to a strong heat, the impression appears in a more or less 
 deep tone, according to the strength of the alkali. 
 
 Thick space. — A space, three of which are equal to an em, or the 
 depth of the body of the letter to which they belong. 
 
 Thin space. — A space of which five are equal to an em, or to the 
 depth of the body of the letter to which they belong. 
 
 Thii-ty-sLv mo. — A sheet of paper folded into thirty-six leaves, or 
 seventy-two pages. 
 
 Thirty-tivo mo. — A sheet of paper folded into thirty-two leaves, or 
 sixty-four pages. 
 
 Tightening the Quoins. — It is necessary now and then to examine 
 any standing forms, as the quoins and side sticks are apt to shrink, 
 and become loose, when the form will be in danger of falling out. If 
 loose, they should be tapped up and tightened with a sheep's foot, or 
 iron side stick. 
 
 Token. — A half ream of perfect paper, containing ten quires eigh- 
 teen sheets, or 258 sheets. 
 
 Trafalgar. — The name of a type, the next size larger than Two-line 
 Double Pica, and smaller than Canon. There are twenty lines to a 
 foot. 
 
 Transpose.— 1o place pages or matter in their wrong order ; also, to 
 correct the wrong arrangement, and put pages, words, or lines in their 
 proper place. 
 
 Turn for it. — When matter runs upon particular sorts, such as; 
 Capitals or Figures, it is usual if any run out before the rest of the 
 case, to turn another letter of the same thickness up-side-down in its. 
 place until the necessary sorts are procured by distribution. This is 
 called turning. 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 131 
 
 Twenty-four mo. — A sheet of paper folded into twenty-four leavea, 
 or forty-eight pages. 
 
 Twenty-mo. — A sheet of paper folded into twenty leaves, or forty 
 pages. 
 
 Two-line Double Pica. — A type, the next size larger than two-line 
 Great Primer, and smaller than Trafalgar. There are SOf lines to 
 the foot. 
 
 Ttvo-line English, — A type one size larger than two-line Pica, 
 and smaller than two-line Great Primer. There are 32 lines to the 
 foot. 
 
 Two-line Great Primer. — A type, one size larger than two-line 
 English, and smaller than two-line Double Pica. There are 25| lines 
 to the foot. 
 
 Two-line Letters. — Capitals that are equal to two bodies of any 
 specific sized type. They are made from two-line Diamond to two- 
 line Great Primer, and are so cast that the face covers the whole 
 square of the shank. They are known as titling letters. 
 
 Two-line Pica. — A type, one size larger than Double Pica, and 
 smaller than two-line English. There are 36 lines to the foot. 
 
 Tympan. — A frame covered with linen, cloth, silk, or parchment, 
 on w^hich the sheet of paper to be printed is placed. This is the outer 
 tympan ; the inner fits into it, and between, the tw^o blankets and 
 making-ready sheets are placed, all which being run in receive the 
 pressure of the platten, which produces the impression on the paper. 
 
 Tympan joints. — The joints by which the outer tympan is attached 
 to the carriage on w^hicli it works. 
 
 Tympan sheet. — A sheet of paper pasted on the tympan by the 
 corners as a mark by which to lay the sheets even in working. When 
 a form is laid on the press, a sheet of the paper used for printing it, 
 or of a similar size, is folded exactly into four. It is then laid on tlie 
 form, with a sheet of waste under it, so that the marks of the folds 
 fall exactly in the centres of the crosses. The tympan is wetted 
 slightly", to take out the indentions caused by the preceding form, and 
 is then turned down on the form, which is run in and pulled, so as to 
 cause the sheet to adhere to the wet tympan. When lifted the 
 corners are pasted down, with the exception of the bottom near 
 corner; which is torn off, as it is likely to be taken hold of in 
 removing the printed sheets when working. 
 
 Types. — The letters, marks and signs, cast in metal, or cut in wood 
 with which Printing is executed. 
 
132 DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 The types used for ordinary purposes are called Roman and Italic- 
 all others are " fancy" founts. 
 
 Roman letter has long been held in the highest estimation, and is 
 the national character wherever English is spoken, and also in France, 
 Holland, Spain, Portugal, and Italy. 
 
 Italic was invented by Aldus Manutius, in 1496, and Avas originally 
 used to distinguish! such parts of a book as might not be considered 
 strictly to belong to the body of the work ; as Prefaces, Introductions, 
 Annotations, (tc, all which sub-parts of a work were formerly printed 
 in this character. It is generally used for headings to chapters, to 
 mark emphatical sentences, or to distinguish names of^persons. 
 
 Tu'O-line letters are used for displaying heads or titles. 
 
 Scripts of various kinds are frequently used in lie\i of lithography, 
 for circulars, letters, &c. 
 
 Black Letter, Egyptian, Clarendon, and other fancy types, are only 
 used for headings, or for Job Work, such as cards or hand-bills. 
 
 The names of a great variety of types will be found in their places 
 in the course of this book. 
 
 Type-founder. — A person who foimds, or casts type. 
 
 As shoMTi under the head "Printing," when letter press printing 
 was first introduced, the types were cut from small pieces of wood, 
 and after a short time, from pieces of metal. But another step was 
 required to perfect the invention — the multiplication of separate let- 
 ters by casting metal in moulds. Ail these gradations were the result 
 of long and patient experiment, carried on by several individuals, 
 who each saw the importance of the notion they were endeavouring 
 to work out. It is this circumstance which has given rise to the 
 interminable controversies as to the inventors of printing ; and, as is 
 usual in all such disputes, it was represented that the man to whom 
 public opinion had assigned the credit of the invention had stolen 
 it from another. As far as can now be ascertained, a man named 
 Peter Schoeffer, who was employed by Faust about the year 1455, 
 was the first person who cast metal types. He shared his master's 
 love for the art, and desired equally with him to improve it, and 
 spent much of his time in endeavouring to simplify the method of 
 making types. It should be remembered that the metal types previ- 
 ously in use were cut, not cast ; they were carved on solid pieces, not 
 shaped in a mould with melted metal. But Schoeifer now formed them 
 with the punch and matrix, tools which will be presently described. 
 
USED IN rniNTIKCr. 133 
 
 Scho-'fFer having privately made punches and formed matrices for 
 the whole alphabet, cast some letters, and showed them to his master 
 in triumph. Faust was so greatly surprised and delighted by the 
 diligence and ability of his servant, that he took him into partner- 
 ship, and finally gave him his daughter Catherine in marriage. A 
 great thing had in truth been accomplished. Casting not only ren- 
 dered the manufacture of types more easy and less expensive, but 
 increased the beauty of printing ; for though the metal types cut by 
 hand greatly resembled each other, still there was some difference, 
 and this gave an irregular appearance to the printing ; but those cast 
 by the matrix were alike, exact images of each other, and were 
 therefore the more beautiful. At first, the metal used was not hard 
 enough to bear the force of the impression, but the defect was soon 
 remedied. The history of type-founding may be summed up as 
 follows : The ,Chinese used block-printing 900 or more years ago ; 
 Laurence Coster, of Haarlem, invented moveable wooden types ; 
 Guttenburg, of Mentz, invented cut metal types ; Schoeffer invented 
 cast metal types. After this, the knowledge soon spread. 
 
 The English printers, from Caxton to John Day, were all letter 
 founders, but the trades, after this, began to be separated. Joseph 
 Moxon, an early writer upon printing, says that in 1686 letter cutting 
 was a handy-work, kept so concealed amongst the artificers of it, that 
 he could not learn any one had taught it any other. In the reign of 
 Queen Anne a great deal of type was imported from Holland, as 
 the Dutch founders produced far more beautiful characters than the 
 English. About the year 1700, William Caslon, who was employed 
 in cutting letters and ornaments used by bookbinders, and in en- 
 graving on gun-barrels, was persuaded by Mr. Watts, an eminent 
 printer, to attempt cutting punches for type-founding. He was first 
 employed by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, to cut 
 the punches for a fount of Arabic, and succeeded so well, that he 
 entered into the business of a letter-founder, in which undertaking 
 he was assisted by Bowyer, a printer at that time. In a few years 
 the English types were superior to any in Europe, and the demand 
 for foreign founts had ceased. Caslon's letter became in demand 
 on the continent, and instead of im.porting type from Holland, it 
 was exported to that country in large quantities. Since that time 
 English type-founding has steadily progressed. 
 
 The early printers and type founders were very imperfectly ac- 
 quainted with the proper composition of metal to be used. Lead, a s 
 being the most flexible, was principally employed; but then it was 
 too soft for durability, and a portion of iron was consequently added- 
 
134 DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
 
 Regulus of antimony is now used instead of iron. The smallest sized 
 types require the hardest metal, and the ordinary alloy for these is 25 
 parts regulus of antimony to 75 parts lead; the proportions vary to 
 the larger sizes. 
 
 Types are cast in a matrix, which is formed by a punch. The 
 punch is of hardened steel, and exhibits upon its face a single letter, 
 formed by hammering down the hollows, and filing up the edges, 
 when the metal was in a softened state. With this tool an im- 
 pression is struck into a piece of copper, about an inch and a quarter 
 long, one eighth of an inch deep, and wide in proportion to the 
 size of the type to be cast. This is the matrix, which, after the die 
 is sunk, is filled up, to ensure the cast taken from it being of the 
 requisite depth. This process is called justifying. The mould is 
 composed of two parts, the external surface of wood, the internal 
 of steel. At the top is a shelving orifice, into which the metal 
 is poured. The space within is formed by the intimate union of the 
 two parts of the mould, each part forming two of the four sides of 
 the letter ; but although in two pieces, the space within is as true as 
 though it had been hollowed out of a single piece of steel. 
 
 At the bottom of the mould, immediately under the orifice, is the 
 matrix, which is held in its place by a metal spring. 
 
 The founder works at a little table, by the side of a small furnace. 
 Taking a little metal out of the pot with a very small ladle, he pours 
 it into the mould with his right hand, returns the ladle to the melt- 
 ing pot, and throws iip his left hand, which holds the mould, above 
 his head, with a sudden jerk, supporting it with his right hand. This 
 movement forces the metal into all the interstices of the matrix, and 
 without it the metal, especially in the smaller types, would not reach 
 the bottom of the mould, for it could not force out the air by its 
 specific gravity alone. As soon as brought down again the mould 
 is unclosed, and the letter picked out with an hook attached to the 
 top of one half of the mould. So rapid is the whole operation of 
 pouring in the metal, throwing up the mould, unclosing it and 
 removing the pressure of the spring, picking out the cast letter, closing 
 the mould again, and re-applying the spring to be ready to repeat the 
 whole act, that the average number of letters cast in an hour is 500. 
 
 When the type is turned out of the mould, a considerable piece of 
 metal remains attached to it. This is removed by a boy who is 
 known as the " breaking-off boy." The average number of letters 
 broken off in an hour is 2,000. 
 
USED IN PRINTING. 135 
 
 From the breaking-off boy the types are removed to the " rubber." 
 This workman sits with a round grit-stone table before him, upon 
 which is a heap of types. The fore and middle fingers of^his right 
 hand are armed with a piece of tarred leather, and with them he 
 passes each side of the type smartly over the stone,^turning it, of 
 course, in the movement. This is again, an example of wonderful 
 rapidity ; 2,000 types are thus rubbed in an hour. 
 
 From the rubber the heap is conveyed^to a boy whose business it 
 is to set up the types in lines, in a long shallow frame. The face of 
 each must be uppermost, and the nicks outward. This boy works at 
 about the same rate as the rubber. 
 
 The long frame, filled with a single line of type, is now taken to 
 the "dresser." By the application of other frames he is enabled to 
 dress, or polish them on each edge, and, turning them with the face 
 downwards, to channel out, with a plane, a groove in the bottom, so 
 that they will stand steadily. It will be at once understood how 
 important it is that every letter should be perfectly square and true. 
 If they were not of a uniform height, the impression could not be 
 even ; and if there were the least deviation from a regular form, it 
 would be quite impossible that when 200,000 single letters are com- 
 bined, as on one side of a large newspaper, they should hold together 
 as they do, quoined up, as securely as if they were composed of one 
 piece of metal. 
 
 Each letter being tied up into lines of a convenient length, the 
 proportionate number of each variety, small letters, points, capitals, 
 and figures are selected, and the fount is ready for delivery to the 
 printer. Hand-made type is considered the best, but type is now 
 made by machinery, at the rate of thousands instead of hundreds an 
 hour. The machinery is, however, so complicated, that it is impossi- 
 ble to describe it with any chance of being understood. These 
 machines are not altogether new in conception, although they have 
 only been used for the last few years. Mr. Nicholson took out a 
 patent for one in 1790, and Dr. Church, of Birmingham, obtained a 
 patent in 1825 for a plan of casting 75,000 letters an hour. Mr. J. L. 
 Pouchee succeeded in casting 24,000 letters an hour ; and a machine 
 was made by Mr. Applegath, and worked in the foundry at his office, 
 in the year 1824. Machine-made type is more generally used in 
 America than England, in the latter country accuracy and beauty 
 being more highly esteemed by the tasteful printer than cheapness. 
 
 Machine-made, is not so lasting as hand-made type, the latter 
 being generally hollow, and easily broken. 
 
136 DICTIONARY OF TERMS USED IN PRINTING. 
 
 u. 
 
 Ultimate. — The last syllable of a word. 
 
 Underlays. — Pieces of paper, pasted on the bottom of an engraving 
 on wood, to raise it to a proper height to print with types. Also 
 pieces of paper placed under stereotype plates, to make the impres- 
 sion even. 
 
 Unlock the Form. — To loosen the quoins all round. 
 
 w. 
 
 Wash the Form. — To rub a form over with lye, and rinse it with 
 water, after striking a proof, or when worked off. 
 
 Waste. — The surplus sheets of a work. 
 
 Wetting ^a;/?^/'. —Preparing paper to be printed on. To wet paper, 
 the wetter, or damper, places the dry paper on his left hand, with 
 the backs of the quires towards him, so that he can readily catch 
 them up. On his right is a board, which should be covered with 
 a wrapper, to prevent the bottom sheet being stained. The back of 
 the quire is now taken in the right hand, the fore-edge in the left, 
 and the paper is drawn quickly through the water, back first. About 
 half of the quire is then opened on to the board, and the other 
 half is again dipped, and opened on the first, and so on to the end of 
 the heap. When all is damped, a board is placed on the heap of wet 
 paper, with weights on the top, to squeeze out the superfluous 
 moisture. This is left to stand till the sheets are uniformly damp 
 throughout, and is then ready for the pressman. 
 
 Wheel. — The drum or cylinder to which the two girths of the press 
 are affixed, and by which the table is run in and out. 
 
 White line. — A line of quadrats, or blank space, equal in depth to a 
 line, between two other lines. 
 
 White page. — A blank page. 
 
 White paper. — When pressmen are printing the first side of a form, 
 they say they are working white paper. 
 
 Wide spacing. — Using en quadrats, or more, between the words 
 throughout a line or page. 
 
 Wood letter. — Large type for posting bills, &c. is usually cut in 
 wood, to save weight and expense. 
 
 Worked off.— ^txyxok off, printed. 
 
\^^ 14 DAY USE 
 
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 LIBRARY 
 
 >HiiK^ 
 
 This book is due on the last date stamped below, or 
 
 on the date to which renewed. 
 
 Renewed books are subjert to immediate recall. 
 
 NOV 2 5 1963 
 
 LD 21-50m-4,'63 
 (D6471sl0)476 
 
 General Library 
 
 University of California 
 
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