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CONTEIBUTIONS 
 
 HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT 
 OF THE HUMAN RACE. 
 
 LECTURES AND DISSERTATIONS 
 
 LAZARUS GEIGEE, 
 
 AUTHOR OF "ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF HUMAN SPEECH AND REASON. 
 
 ^ran0lateti from ti)e Seconti (Serman (EBnition 
 
 BY 
 
 DAVID ASHEE, Ph.D. 
 
 CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE BERLIN SOCIETY FOR THE STUDY OF 
 MODERN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURE. 
 
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 TKUBNEE & CO., LUDGATE HILL. 
 
 1880. 
 
 [All rights reserved.] 
 

 TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 It is a source of lively satisfaction to me to have 
 been chosen as the medium of introducing to the 
 English public the late lamented author of the follow- 
 ing Lectures and Essays, one of the most original 
 thinkers Germany has produced in recent times, and 
 the "greatest of her philologers," as he has been 
 styled by a competent judge. His work itself, how- 
 ever, will best speak for him, and needs no commen- 
 dation on my part. Let me only add that, though 
 these Lectures and Essays, now submitted to the Eng- 
 lish reader, are but " chips " from the author's *' work- 
 shop," as it were, yet I believe they afford a good 
 glimpse of his eminent powers and brilliant genius as 
 an investigator. But a word, I feel, is needed on 
 behalf of myself as translator, l^o one can be more 
 fully alive than myself to the difficulties of translation, 
 and hence it is not with a "liprht heart" that I ever 
 
 576219 
 
vi TRANS LA TOR'S PREFA CE. 
 
 undertake the task. If I have ventured to do so on 
 this occasion, it was owing to my belief in the adage : 
 Amor vincit omnia. Love of the language into which 
 I had to translate, happened to combine, in this 
 instance, with love of the subject and adlniration of 
 the author. From his exceedingly clear, aye, pellucid 
 style, my difficulties have certainly been considerably 
 lessened ; still, a conscientious translation is always an 
 arduous task, and I can only hope, conscious of having 
 honestly striven to do justice to the original, I may 
 have succeeded in likewise satisfying the English reader. 
 
 THE TKANSLATOR. 
 
 Leipsic, June 1880. 
 
PREFACE, 
 
 In editing the following Lectures and Dissertations 
 of my late brother, I have to crave the indulgence of 
 the public for having ventured, as a non-scientific 
 man, to undertake such a task. But I deem it my 
 duty not to withhold from the world any of the 
 author's investigations, and now put forth, as a first 
 instalment, the present pages, which the departed was 
 about himself to revise for the purpose of publication 
 when death overtook him. The first five Disserta- 
 tions are a literal reprint of the Lectures as they 
 were delivered, and partly already published; only 
 in the second I have added from the MS. a passage 
 in brackets which had been omitted in delivery so 
 as not to exceed the measure of time allotted to each 
 speaker. The last Essay, written in 1869-70, was 
 intended for a scientific periodical, and was to open 
 a series of similar dissertations. The unremitting 
 
viii PREFACE. 
 
 endeavour which ever distinguished the author to 
 improve and perfect his labours prevented him from 
 sending the Essay to its destination, as he was not 
 spared to give it a final touch. 
 
 ALFRED GEIGER. 
 
 Frankfort-on-the-Maine, Junt 1871. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 I. LANGUAGE AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN THE HISTORY 
 
 OP THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE HUMAN RACE . I 
 
 II. THE EARLIEST HISTORY OP THE HUMAN RACE IN 
 THE LIGHT OP LANGUAGE, WITH SPECIAL RE- 
 FERENCE TO THE ORIGIN OF TOOLS . . 32 
 
 III. ON COLOUR-SENSE IN PRIMITIVE TIMES AND ITS 
 
 DEVELOPMENT 48 
 
 IV. ON THE ORIGIN OP WRITING .... 64 
 V. THE DISCOVERY OF FIRE 90 
 
 VL ON THE PRIMITIVE HOME OF THE IN DO-EUROPEANS II 7 
 
I. 
 
 Language and its Importance in the History 
 of the Developinent of the Huma7i Race, 
 
 [A Lecture delivered at the Commercial Club of Frankfort-on-the- 
 Maine, December 7, 1869.] 
 
 In the restless activity which science displays in our 
 times, there appears, with ever-increasing distinctness, 
 a phenomenon which, more than any other, confers on 
 it a noble humanity and significance : it is the inter- 
 penetration of the practical and ideal. The period is 
 not yet far behind us when practical and scientific 
 labour stood apart from each other as strangers. On 
 the one side was seen the great mass of the toiling 
 people, who did not understand how to respect their 
 own activity, and were almost ashamed of it ; on the 
 other, erudition, confined to a class, and often barren 
 of any result. Occasionally there arose a lonely un- 
 comprehended thinker, who carefully concealed himself 
 from his contemporaries, because to be understood 
 was almost sure to entail excommunication and death. 
 Ho\v different is it now, when mechanical labour finds 
 a hif^rher reward in the elevatincj consciousness of 
 having co-operated in the mighty and arduous work 
 of rendering mankind happy than in the wages it earns, 
 
2 LANGUAGE AND ITS IMPORTANCE. 
 
 'a]a^Vhe]n,sc?;enc'e' takes refuge in warm, feeling hearts, 
 to share their cravings and hopes, and perhaps, too, to 
 raise them to those heights from which she has de- 
 scended ! 
 
 The chemistry of our days gives us information ahout 
 the air we breathe, the provisions we are to select ; it 
 teaches us how to cultivate the soil and how to pro- 
 duce thousands of objects of art and industry ; but at 
 the same time it lays open to us the mysterious nature 
 of things. In decomposing before our eyes an appar- 
 ently uniform body into various invisible elements, it 
 rends the veil of outward appearance and of illusion, 
 teaches us to doubt the evidence of our senses, and 
 at the same time to comprehend the perpetual trans- 
 formation and growth in nature. Mechanics, by means 
 of which man's machines are built and the giant forces 
 of heat and electricity rendered subservient to his use, 
 at the same time put the great question to him, what 
 light, sound, heat, and electricity are ; and suggest to him 
 a primitive power which disguises itself, as it were, in 
 all these phenomena, appearing now as sound, now as 
 heat, and may be finally transformed even into mecha- 
 nical force, a pressure, or an impulse. Equally so 
 the study of language, besides its practical objects 
 known to us all, has in our days acquired an incom- 
 parable philosophical importance, seeing that it affords 
 a key to one aspect of the world and existence which 
 physical science could never have reached, and gives 
 us an explanation of what we are and of what once 
 we were, of our reason and our history. 
 
LANGUAGE AND ITS IMPORTANCE. 3 
 
 The first commonplace object which may induce 
 us to study languages is, in the first instance, a purely 
 practical one. We may wish to find our way in the 
 streets of some foreign city or learn to converse with 
 foreigners who have come to visit us. But, however 
 commonplace such a proficiency may be, it already 
 touches, without our always being aware of the fact, 
 upon a marvellous domain. We face a being which 
 thinks as we do, but which seems by nature to be 
 relegated to another sphere as regards its mode of 
 expression. The strangeness of this phenomenon is 
 felt by every one who, for the first time, hears a 
 foreign child speak its native language or sees him- 
 self surrounded abroad by people all speaking a foreign 
 tongue. Language seems to us so natural and human, and 
 it seems such a matter of course that what we say should 
 be at once understood — and now, all of a sudden, behold ! 
 there is a barrier between man and man, analogous to, 
 though infinitely thinner than, that between man and 
 the brute, who likewise do not understand each other 
 by nature, and can learn to do so only very imperfectly 
 by art. The first discovery of a people speaking a 
 foreign language must have been attended with tre- 
 mendous surprise ; at least as great as the first sight 
 of men of a different colour of the skin. In speaking 
 a foreign tongue, therefore, we surmount in reality a 
 barrier raised by Nature herself, and as the ocean, 
 which, in the words of the Eoman poet, was created 
 to separate the nations, has by navigation been con^ 
 verted into an immense channel of communication, 
 
4 LANGUAGE AND ITS IMPORTANCE. 
 
 the study of living languages tends to create an asso- 
 ciation of men out of groups of peoples scattered 
 about by nature. In reading distinguished authors in 
 a foreign language, we feel a kind of emancipation from 
 the narrow boundary of nationality; new spheres of 
 thought, new conceptions are opened up to us with 
 every newly unlocked literature; the peculiar forms 
 in which each people clothes its divinations, its love, 
 its scientific thought, its political hopes, and its inspi- 
 rations, enrich our minds ; all these become ours, we 
 become all these. And how much greater will be our 
 profit if we do not content ourselves with merely 
 crossing the boundary line which a mountain or a 
 stream or an accidental circumstance in the migration 
 and spreading of our ancestors has drawn for our 
 nation, but find in language a means of penetrating 
 the darkness of ages, of transposing ourselves into the 
 past in order to communicate with the minds of 
 primeval times ! It is no small matter to say to one's 
 self, " These words which I am reading, the sounds which 
 I am reviving with my lips, are the same as those with 
 which Demosthenes once called upon his native city, 
 ensnared by treason, to try to regain her freedom, — 
 the same in which Plato couched his own and his 
 master's lofty teachings." By the Nile on the Theban 
 plain there is seen a gigantic statue of King Ameno- 
 phis, enthroned on high — the so-called pillar of Memnon 
 — sixty feet high. In the days of the Eoman Empire 
 there was heard in this statue daily at sunrise a 
 musical sound ; all the world went on a pilgrimage to 
 
LANGUAGE AND ITS IMPORTANCE, 5 
 
 the miraculous statue ; men and women for centuries 
 left their names and hymns of praise expressive of 
 their admiration inscribed on the gigantic monument, 
 and told how they had beheld its stupendous size and 
 heard its divine song. Homer resembles this Memnon 
 statue. If all who have for millennia repaired to this 
 marvellous monument of the earliest ages of Greece 
 in order to listen to the sounds of the dawning of 
 European poetry, could have left us their names in- 
 scribed at his feet, what a catalogue it would be ! 
 
 But however incalculably great is the influence which 
 the treasures of ancient literature have exercised and 
 are still exercising — thereby, at the same time, bearing 
 an elevating testimony to the immortality of the crea- 
 tions of the human mind, even beyond the life of the 
 language in which they are written — yet they present 
 another aspect which is calculated to stir our hearts, 
 if not more strongly, at all events more deeply. The 
 authors of past ages tell us a great deal that is sug- 
 gestive and instructive, in the same way as they im- 
 parted it to their compatriots, for whom they designed 
 it ; but in doing so they, in addition, betray something 
 else which they could not intend at all. Involuntarily 
 they afford us, by a casual description, or an uninten- 
 tional word, that was superfluous for them but is invalu- 
 able to us, a picture of the life of their time ; and what 
 results from the careful collection of all these minute 
 traits is the lesson that human thought and volition, 
 from the earliest times of which a record has come 
 down to us, have been subject to a mighty trans- 
 
6 LANGUAGE AND ITS IMPORTANCE. 
 
 formation. Accordingly the writings of ancient times 
 are no longer mere literary productions for us to enjoy, 
 and to enjoy so much the better the nearer they come 
 to our own time and the more congenial they are to our 
 minds, but they are monuments which we study, and 
 which, on the contrary, we grasp at the more eagerly the 
 older and more alien they are to us. The conscious- 
 ness of the importance of literature in this sense is of 
 very recent date ; nay, I may say it is not even now 
 sufficiently developed. It is true the study of antiquity 
 has been in vogue ever since the revival of learning at 
 the beginning of the modern era, but its object was not 
 to gain from the reports of the authors an idea of the 
 condition of mankind in their days, but inversely to 
 gain that knowledge of the state of antiquity which 
 was requisite for the purpose of understanding the 
 authors. Even down to the last century Homer was 
 judged by the standard of poets in general. He was 
 ranked, let us say, by the side of Tasso or Milton, in 
 the same way as we may mention Shakespeare and 
 Schiller together. At length F. A. Wolf came forward 
 with the question whether Homer had had any know- 
 ledge of the art of writing, and more especially had 
 practised it himself ; and having negatived it, he argued 
 that such extensive poems could not possibly be pro- 
 duced by a single person from memory. He then 
 endeavoured to show that we have in them the work of 
 many individual singers, who composed short detached 
 pieces and recited them to the cithern, as the singers 
 mentioned in Homer himself were wont to do. No 
 
LANGUAGE AND ITS IMPORTANCE. 7 
 
 doubt he had not yet found the right solution, and the 
 question as to the origin of the Homeric poems con- 
 tinues even now to be discussed over and over again ; 
 but it is indubitable that the matter of these poems 
 cannot possibly have sprung from one head. The 
 Trojan war is not a true history dressed up by the poet, 
 still less is it his own invention ; but in reality it is, 
 with all its details, a primitive popular belief, much 
 older than any line of any existing epic. Achilles and 
 Odysseus are not imaginary poetical characters, but 
 were demigods of the Greeks in primeval times; and 
 mythology, with all its oddities, far from being invented 
 by the poets for the purpose of ornamenting their 
 poetry, was, on the contrary, the sacred conviction of 
 that primeval age. The stories of Hera struck by Zeus 
 in his anger and suspended in the clouds, of Hephsestos, 
 who wishes to come to the rescue of his mother, and 
 whom Zeus seizes by the leg and flings down to the 
 earth, where he alights in Lemnos and is picked up 
 half dead, formed in the age of Voltaire the subject 
 of sneering criticism ; they were, in his eyes, insipid 
 fancies, which a polite poet at the court of Louis XIY. 
 would certainly not have indulged in. But there is no 
 doubt tl>at, whoever was the Homer of these and similar 
 poems, he fervently believed in the truth of precisely 
 such legends. They were sacred to him and his audi- 
 ence ; they were already then ancient and not under- 
 stood; they conceal some deep mysterious meaning; 
 how and when may they have originated ? Here the 
 problem of the formation of myths, of the origin of 
 
8 LANGUAGE AND ITS IMPORTANCE, 
 
 faiths, the solution of which has only just begun, is 
 exhibited to our view. 
 
 While an unexpected background became thus visible 
 behind a book which thousands had read and fancied 
 they understood, the present century has resuscitated 
 an even remoter antiquity, and gained for the investi- 
 gation of primitive times a new subject, the very extent 
 of which alone cannot but raise astonishment, and of 
 which our ancestors dreamt as little as of the great 
 technical inventions of our age. 
 
 We now know monuments and writings compared 
 with which all that formerly was regarded as most 
 ancient. Homer and the Bible included, appears 
 almost modern. The French expedition to Egypt 
 under Napoleon I. had an importance for European 
 science similar to that which Alexander's to the East 
 had : it gave rise to the investigation and representa- 
 tion of ancient Egyptian monuments, and at the same 
 time to the discovery of that ever-memorable stone 
 of Kosetta, which in an Egyptian and Greek inscrip- 
 tion contained the proper nouns that led to the de- 
 cipherment of the hieroglyphics. Two discoveries, 
 indeed, concurred in bringing about this great result. 
 The one, already previously made, was that the 
 language of the ancient Egyptians was substantially 
 identical with the Coptic, still preserved in the eccle- 
 siastical literature of the Egyptian Christians; the 
 other is ChampoUion's, that the hieroglyphics were a 
 phonetic, partly even an alphabetical, writing. Those 
 singular pictures, which had so long been thought 
 
LANGUAGE AND ITS IMPORTANCE, 9 
 
 confused symbolical mysteries of priests, turned out 
 to be writing once accessible and intelligible to the 
 whole people. It was not always profound wisdom 
 which was hidden beneath these hieroglyphics: over 
 a picture representing oxen might be read the simple 
 words, " These are oxen." Champollion read and trans- 
 lated innumerable inscriptions ; he composed a gram- 
 mar and a dictionary of the hieroglyphics, and 
 already in the first of his works, masterly both for 
 their style and matter, he communicated the decipher- 
 ment of a quantity of names of Eoman, Greek, and 
 national rulers of Egypt, from which an entire 
 history of the kingdom up to an incredibly early 
 period began to dawn. There appeared, composed 
 of hieroglyphics, the names of Alexandres, PhUippos, 
 Berenice, Cleopatra, Tiberius, Claudius, Nero, Ves- 
 pasianus, Titus, Domitianus, Nerva, Trajanus, Had- 
 rianus, Antoninus, Diocletianus, as well as Xerxes and 
 Darius, Psammetichus, Shishank, and Eameses; and 
 gradually there were gathered and identified from pyra- 
 mids and rock-tombs, from the walls of temples and 
 palaces, the whole long list of names which Manetho, 
 a priest of the time of Ptolemseus Philadelphos, has 
 preserved to us — a list of thirty dynasties, to the six- 
 teenth of which, at the earliest, belonged the first 
 Pharaoh, the contemporary of Abraham, mentioned in 
 the Bible. The 331 names of kings which the Egyptian 
 priests enumerated to Herodotus from a papyrus, the 
 346 colossal wood-carvings of Theban high-priests 
 which they showed him, as they had succeeded each 
 
lo LANGUAGE AND ITS IMPORTANCE. 
 
 other from father to son, all men and sons of men, 
 without a sinojle orod or demisjod, are no lonf^er fables 
 for us. All the Pharaohs have risen from their graves, 
 and in addition to them the numberless gay pictures 
 of a full and abundant life of the people, all ranks and 
 all occupations being preserved with wonderful fidelity, 
 and domestic scenes of touching truth and simplicity, 
 three and four millennia old ! No inconsiderable relics 
 of literature, too, have been found, — documents from 
 daily life, historical records, and poetry, and of the 
 sacred books, especially the so-called Book of the Dead, 
 upon which criticism has already laid its hands, trying 
 to separate a more ancient nucleus from subsequent 
 commentaries. 
 
 Far less important, but interesting as the solution 
 of a problem which seemed almost impossible to be 
 solved, is the decipherment of the Persian cunei- 
 form writing. On a precipitate side of a rock about 
 1500 feet high, near Bisitun, in ancient Media, there 
 was found, at an inaccessible height, the coloured 
 relievo-portrait of a king, who, attended by his guards, 
 sits in judgment upon his vanquished foes. One of 
 them is lying prostrate, and the king sets his foot 
 on his body; nine others are standing chained before 
 him. This relievo is surrounded by not less than a 
 thousand lines of cuneiform characters. Similar char- 
 acters were found on the rocks of Nakhsh in Eustein, 
 on the ruins of the palaces of Persepolis, and in other 
 places. But neither the writing nor the language 
 of the inscriptions was known ; aye, not even an 
 
LANGUAGE AND ITS IMPORTANCE. ii 
 
 approximate guess at their contents could be made. 
 How could hopes be entertained of their ever being 
 read ? And yet we have succeeded so completely that at 
 this day we are able to read the Persian inscriptions 
 with nearly the same certainty as Latin. The first 
 successful attempts in this direction were made here 
 at Frankfort. Professor Grotefend, since 1803 vice- 
 principal of the grammar-school of this city, with 
 the sagacity of genius, recognised in some briefer 
 inscriptions, copies of which were at his command, 
 the passages where names of kings were to be ex- 
 pected, and with a rare gift of combination he dis- 
 covered, by a comparison of the names of the Persian 
 rulers known to us according to their sounds and 
 the relationships of the kings bearing these names, those 
 of Xerxes and Darius. The latter called himself in 
 an inscription son of Hystaspes; this, too, Grotefend 
 recognised on finding that, in agreement with history, 
 the title of king was absent in the case of Hystaspes. 
 He had at once recognised in the Persian cuneiform 
 inscriptions an al^abej^ic writing: from the names 
 deciphered he traced out part of the alphabet and 
 attempted lo read entire inscriptions. Upwards of 
 thirty years, however, elapsed ere Professor Lassen 
 succeeded in discovering an alphabet complete in all 
 essentials, and, the science of language having mean- 
 while made rapid strides, and languages which had 
 great affinity with ancient Persian having become 
 better known, in actually deciphering and translating 
 the inscriptions. At present we read on the Bisitun 
 
12 LANGUAGE AND ITS IMPORTANCE, 
 
 monument a whole history of the reign of Darius in 
 his own words. The man on whom the king, armed 
 with a bow, puts his foot, is the false Smerdis, or, in 
 Persian, Barthiya, known to us from Herodotus. The 
 inscription beneath his portrait runs thus: "This is 
 Gumata, the magician ; he has cheated ; he said : I am 
 Barthiya, son of Kurush. I am king." 
 
 On the sites where Nineveh and Babylon once stood 
 there have been quite recently, as is well known, like- 
 wise brought to light, amongst ruins of palaces and 
 imposing sculptures, numerous inscriptions, especially 
 tiles and cylinders, bearing cuneiform writing — the 
 only gloomy remnants of Assyrian and Babylonian 
 magnificence and universal empire. 
 
 Here, too, the problem was not only to decipher 
 unknown contents conveyed in an unknown writing, but 
 first to discover a language, nay, several languages, the 
 very existence of which had partly been unknown. 
 Fortunately the Assyrian language is met with on 
 Persian monuments too; on several of them one and 
 the same inscription is repeated in the Persian and 
 Assyrian languages ; and the Persian text having once 
 been deciphered, it also afforded a clue to the decipher- 
 ment of the Assyrian. 
 
 In order to appreciate the ejBPect which the coming 
 to light of all these new and yet most ancient marvels 
 could not fail to produce on the conception of our time, 
 we need but realise the impression made by a ruin 
 only a few centuries old, or the excavation of an 
 ancient coin or utensil, or even a mere rough stone 
 
LANGUAGE AND ITS IMPORTANCE. 13 
 
 that in olden times passed through the hands of 
 man, and still shows traces of having done so. The 
 curiosity raised by what we have never before seen, the 
 desire and craving of lifting the veil from the realms 
 of the past, and of catching a glimpse, at least, of what 
 has for ever perished, are blended with a feeling of awe 
 and devoutness. How peculiarly are we moved at the 
 sight of the slightest object brought to daylight from 
 the buried streets of Herculaneum and Pompeii ; how 
 many reminiscences it evokes ! In the case of an 
 unknown, strange antiquity, however, that suddenly 
 begins to revive and stir before our eyes, every one 
 feels something analogous to what we feel at the sight 
 of the curious extinct animals of the antediluvian 
 world — the Ichthyosauri and the Mastodons. We cast 
 a divinatory glance at unmeasured periods of creation, 
 and begin darkly to guess at that great mystery — the 
 mystery of our development. 
 
 And yet it was not the treasures discovered beneath 
 the soil which were destined to contribute most to the 
 elucidation of tihat mystery. 
 
 The finding, nay, one may say, the discovery of two 
 literatures, which were indeed defunct, but were so in no 
 other sense than the Latin or Hebrew — that is to say, 
 which still continue to be studied and reverenced by 
 living peoples — this discovery, with its consequences, 
 it was which formed an era in European conception as 
 to the past of humanity. Both literatures were dis- 
 covered in East India. Zend literature, the sacred 
 writings of the ancient Persians, ascribed to Zoroaster, 
 
14 LANGUAGE AND ITS IMPORTANCE, 
 
 had been carried away with them to India by the Par- 
 sees, who remained faithful to the ancient religion, on 
 their flying from their native land to save themselves 
 from the Mahomedans. Sanskrit literature is the holy 
 national literature of the Brahmanic Hindoos them- 
 selves. The merit of having discovered and promul- 
 gated these treasures, of which, until about the middle 
 of last century, no European scholar had any inkling, 
 is due, in the first instance, to the English and the 
 Erench, who were at that time engaged in a mutual 
 struggle for the possession of India. The knowledge 
 of the Zend writings we owe before all to Erench, that 
 of Sanskrit to English science. It is German scholars, 
 however, who in a pre-eminent degree have thoroughly 
 investigated both, and who have more especially made 
 use of them in perfecting linguistic science. As 
 Columbus, urged on by an irresistible impulse which 
 made him overcome all doubts and surmount all diffi- 
 culties, went in quest of the western hemisphere, so 
 Anquetil du Perron, from 1754, searched for the cele- 
 brated writings of Zoroaster among the priests of the 
 Parsees in India, and employed his life in translating 
 and commenting upon them. Nothing more strikingly 
 exhibits the contrast of our times to those than the 
 disappointment which the writings, brought home at 
 so much sacrifice, then caused in Europe. Of the 
 wisdom which so great a name led to expect they con- 
 tained but little. On the other hand, the god Ahura- 
 mazda occasionally revealed in them things which, 
 from their childlike naivete, could only call forth smiles ; 
 
LANGUAGE AND ITS IMPORTANCE. 15 
 
 so especially the well-known passages referring to the 
 dog, the sacred animal of the Persians, in which the 
 mode of his keep, his punishment when he bites, his 
 character, his treatment in illness or when not quite in 
 his senses, and how one has to proceed if he refuses to 
 take the medicine, are discussed with solemn gravity. 
 
 Yet the question as to the character of the people's 
 imagination, by what motives it must have been 
 swayed when the Persians nursed the dog with such 
 solicitous care, or when the Egyptians built vaults at 
 Memphis to the holy embalmed corpses of Apis, sixty- 
 four generations thereof lying buried there, is of such 
 importance to us, that we willingly forego the wise 
 teachings of those times, seeing that there is no lack 
 of such in our own days, would we but listen to them. 
 We are here reminded of an incident communicated by 
 Professor Max MuUer touching that portion of San- 
 skrit literature which is the most important to us — 
 the Yedas. A talented young German, Dr. Eosen, who 
 died at an early age, being occupied in the rich library 
 of the East In^lia Company in London with copying 
 the Veda hymns, which he commenced editing in 1838, 
 the enlightened Brahmin, Eamahan Eai, being then in 
 London, could not wonder enough at this undertaking : 
 the Upanishad, he said, were of greater importance and 
 much more deserving of publication. These, the young- 
 est portion of the Vedas, contain a mystic philosophy 
 in which may be found a kind of monotheism or pan- 
 theism, which seemed to the Hindoo rationalist, as to 
 many others, the non plus ultra of all religious wisdom. 
 
i6 LANGUAGE AND ITS IMPORTANCE, 
 
 But in reality the primeval Veda hymns, quite pagan, 
 naive, and often grotesque though they are, of which 
 the Hindoo with his modern culture may have been 
 secretly ashamed, but in which the youth of mankind 
 breathes with delightful freshness, are to us the true 
 jewel of Sanskrit literature. They do not, indeed, con- 
 tain a religious system available for us, but they teach 
 us how the religion of man was developed. 
 
 The knowledge we gained of the Sanskrit language 
 in itself, however, quite apart from its literary trea- 
 sures, was perhaps productive of still greater effects. 
 That language, notwithstanding the wide space that 
 separates us from it, exhibited a close affinity to our 
 European languages. There were found in it the words 
 jpitar father, mdtar mother, hhrdtar brother, svasar sister, 
 sunu son, duhitar daughter ; names of animals, such as 
 go cow, hansa goose (German Gans) ; and numerals, such 
 as dvau 2, trajah 3, shat 6, ashtau 8, and nava 9. This 
 is quite a different relation from that existing between 
 our language and French when we borrow from it 
 such a word as, for instance, Onkel. Sanskrit has not 
 only its vocabulary in common with German, but even 
 the inflection : e.g., asti ist, santi sind. In words bor- 
 rowed from the French, on the contrary — as, for in- 
 stance, in marschiren (to march) — we retain the German 
 inflection, and say, for instance, ich marschire (I march), 
 du marschirst (thou mar chest). In eliminatino- from 
 a language all foreign words, its vocabulary indeed 
 diminishes, but nevertheless a complete languao-e still 
 remains. Cognate languages, on the contrary, have so 
 
LANGUAGE AND ITS IMPORTANCE. 17 
 
 much in common that, were we to eliminate all of 
 it, only something quite incomplete would be left. 
 French, for instance, is closely related to Italian, and 
 we here see quite plainly why both languages would 
 cease to exist if they were to abstain from all the 
 words and forms they have in common. The reason 
 is, French was not by any means a finished lan- 
 guage which borrowed Italian words, like German 
 when it admitted the word Onkel, but the resemblance 
 arises from the fact of French and Italian being both 
 derived from the Latin, thus once forming a single lan- 
 guage, viz., this very Latin. Such, too, must be exactly 
 the case with German and Sanskrit; both must once 
 have formed one language ; only this one language, of 
 which German and Sanskrit may be almost called the 
 daughters, as French and Italian are of Latin, is no 
 longer extant. We know there has been a people that 
 spoke Latin, viz., the Eomans. Equally there must 
 have been a people that spoke the original language 
 from which Germa^ and Sanskrit have descended, a 
 people that existed at a time when there were as yet 
 neither Germans nor Hindoos. Not only German, 
 however, but Latin, Greek, Eussian, and all the Sla- 
 vonic languages too, as likewise the Keltic, and in 
 Asia the Armenian and Persian, with some collateral 
 branches, are related to Sanskrit. The ancestors of all 
 those peoples who spoke these languages must, there- 
 fore, have constituted one people, together with the 
 ancestors of the Germans and Hindoos, and the science 
 of language must therefore assume a primitive people 
 
iS LANGUAGE AND ITS IMPORTANCE. 
 
 much older than anything we know of in European 
 history. Where it had its seat is not yet determined, 
 still less the time at which we have still to think of its 
 being united. On the other hand, language ajffords re- 
 markable indications by means of which we may ascer- 
 tain something as to that people's stage of culture. 
 
 The common prehistoric language referred to can 
 \ obviously have had words only for such objects as the 
 ^people that spoke it were acquainted with. Thus if, for 
 instance, shi'p in Sanskrit, as in Greek, is naus, in Latin 
 navis, a word akin to our Naue and Nacheii, the Indo- 
 European prehistoric people must have known the ship. 
 Equally we find a common word for oar, but none for 
 sail. Vehicles must likewise have been known to 
 that people ; of arms it knew the sword, but scarcely 
 the bow. In all probability the custom of painting and 
 tattooing it had in common with the aborigines of 
 America and Australia. Our word Zeichen (sign) is not 
 only connected with zeichnen (to design, draw), but also 
 with the Greek arly/Jba and to stigmatise, i.e., to tattoo. 
 The first sign, and the first design, were those which 
 were tattooed in the skin. 
 
 Here we have an example of the employment of 
 words as keys to the history of human civilisation. A 
 word which we use now, but which originated at an 
 earlier time, very often enables us to guess at the for- 
 mer condition of the thing which it denotes. Suppose, 
 e.g., we did not know what writing material preceded 
 our steel pen, the word pen would perhaps suggest to 
 us that it was taken from a bird. Such inferences, 
 
LANGUAGE AXD ITS IMPORTANCE. 
 
 19 
 
 indeed, lead far, very far back. If we do not limit 
 them to a single family of languages, but endeavour to 
 gather, as far as possible, all that is preserved of such 
 indications in the languages of the whole earth, results 
 will be arrived at of the utmost importance to our 
 knowledge of the earliest ages of mankind. In our 
 retrospect we finally come down to a condition which, 
 though superior to that of animals, is yet inferior to that 
 of any savage people whatever of whom history contains 
 a record. All human beings possess tools, and have 
 within the memory of man always possessed them ; aye, 
 such possession belongs to the distinguishing character- 
 istics of man as compared to animals. But now there 
 is to be traced in a great number of the words denoting 
 activity with tools a more ancient idea, implying an 
 analogous activity, but such as is carried on with 
 natural organs. What follows thence ? I believe 
 nothing but that, as in modern times we have in writing 
 passed from the bird's feather to the metallic pen, as in 
 primeval times tattooing changed into drawing and writ- 
 ing, so at a much earlier period all cutting to pieces 
 was preceded by tearing. Man was at one time with- 
 out tools^and in his outward mode of life differed but 
 little from the animal. And as it is with the outward 
 man, so the inner man, too, shows a strong contrast. 
 If we regard his moral condition, we must not, in look- 
 ing at prehistoric times, ask merely whether man has 
 since improved, whether the passions have softened 
 down and crimes diminished. We find, on the con- 
 trary, and that partly down to historical times, the 
 
 A% «/« >t»*v^ i^* 
 
20 LANGUAGE AND ITS IMPORTANCE. 
 
 notions of good and evil differing very essentially from 
 ours, e.g., cannibalism, not merely practised out of glut- 
 tony or barbarism, but regarded as a downright good and 
 religious action. The notions of justice at the period 
 when the Indian Code of Menu originated rested so 
 entirely on a fantastic foundation, that, according to 
 that code, an individual of the lower caste, for striking 
 a member of the higher one with a stick, was to lose 
 his hand, and for kicking him, his foot. And in con- 
 formity with this, the breaking of a dyke is menaced 
 with the punishment of drowning. This purely out- 
 ward mode of retaliation, according to which justice is 
 not sought for in the due proportion between the pun- 
 ishment and the gravity of the offence committed, but 
 in a material similarity between the two, is met with 
 at the lowest stage of legislation among all nations. 
 The oldest Eoman and German laws contain many such 
 provisions. Thus we find in German antiquity the 
 chopping off of the hand as a punishment of perjury, 
 for no other reason than because the hand is raised in 
 taking the oath. To the same category belongs the law 
 of retaliation (lex talionis), which, was already known 
 by this name to the Eoman law, and formed one of the 
 most ancient elements in the laws of the twelve tables. 
 But almost everywhere we find, as nations enter on the 
 stage of history, the progress already made that, under 
 the form of compensation and ransom, a new practice 
 has been substituted for the primeval formulae, and a 
 changed, more developed conception of law has taken 
 ■ their place. The Biblical " eye for eye, tooth for tooth," 
 
LANGUAGE AND ITS IMPORTANCE. 21 
 
 was already in ancient times interpreted to mean a cor- 
 responding fine, and the interpretation probably acted 
 on throughout the historical period. If capital punish- 
 ment appears to us at present most justified in the case 
 of murder, we must not forget that this penalty is, after 
 all, based only on the same principle of retaliating like 
 for like, and therefore on a fantastic foundation. 
 
 If we examine the words, those oldest prehistoric 
 testimonies, all moral notions contain something morally 
 indifferent. G-erecht (just), e.g., is only equivalent to 
 recM, richtig (right) ; it is connected with ragen, recken 
 (to stretch), and originally meant stretched out straight. 
 Now Gerechtigkeis (justice), however, is not by any 
 means likened merely to what is straight, such as we 
 speak of straightforwardness of mind ; but, in reality, 
 it only means the right, straight way. Treu and ivahr 
 (true) are actually eq'aivalent to trustworthy ; still 
 earlier they only signified firm, fortified. Bose (bad) 
 we still use of what is damaged, and say bad (rotten) 
 apples, bad (sore) fingers. 
 
 But why have not the morally good and bad their , 
 own names in the language ? Why do we borrow them / 
 from something else that had its appellation before ? ^ 
 Evidently because language dates from a period when 
 a moral judgment, a knowledge of good and evil, had , 
 not yet dawned in man's mind. / 
 
 And as regards the intellectual condition of man, it 
 must likewise have once been incredibly low. Thus it 
 is not to be doubted that numeration is a relatively 
 young art. There are still nations that cannot count 
 
22 LANGUAGE AND ITS IMPORTANCE. 
 
 three. But, what says more than anythiDg, language 
 diminishes the farther we look back, in such a way that 
 we cannot forbear concluding it must once have had 
 no existence at all. Here I am touching upon the diffi- 
 cult question as to the connection between language 
 and thought ; and indeed I can to-day do no more than 
 touch upon it. We can only imagine man to have at 
 any time been without language under the supposition 
 that the other advantage which distinguishes him now, 
 reason, had not as yet manifested itself either. In 
 the case of certain ideas, the dependence on the words 
 is more particularly obvious. Thus the numbers, for 
 instance, cannot possibly be separated from the nume- 
 rals. Mere sight scarcely shows the difference between 
 nine and ten. A child that cannot count will not 
 perceive that of ten cherries one or two have secretly 
 been taken away. For larger numbers counting is 
 absolutely requisite ; without it no one will be able to 
 distinguish a hundred objects or persons from ninety- 
 nine. The dim feeling of the more or less which 
 here supplies the place of consciousness would, if we 
 wholly lacked names for the qualities, resemble the 
 not less vague feeling that the one differed from the 
 other, but we should not be able to account for it. 
 Where language does not suffice, we are to this day 
 in the same position. We cannot, for instance, clearly 
 explain to ourselves wherein the difference between 
 the national features of Frenchmen and Germans con- 
 sists. Let us imagine a time when as yet there was 
 no definite designation for hlach, and the contrast 
 
LANGUAGE AND ITS IMPORTANCE. 23 
 
 between the negro and the white man will be found 
 to have then been doubtless perceived equally vaguely. 
 If now, again, there was a time when man had no such 
 words as " lamb," " dog," or " cat," the perception of the 
 differences between these species of animals must have 
 been much less distinct than ours. Though a dog 
 differs considerably enough from a cat, and though we 
 all alike think of something definite in using the word 
 " dog," yet it will be extremely difficult to an individual 
 not scientifically trained to state at once the charac- 
 teristics by which a dog may be at a glance distin- 
 guished from a cat. He will, if he tries, soon perceive 
 that he never thought of the minute differences, but 
 had always contented himself with the vague impres- 
 sion which all the characteristics taken together pro- 
 duce. And it is just here where the origin of the word 
 played a great part. We must consider what a great 
 difference in the understanding of a piece of music the 
 knowledge of the notes makes; how the non-profes- 
 sional man in a changed melody notices indeed the 
 change, but only obscurely and without knowing in 
 what it consists. But notes are to music what lan- 
 guage is to the objects of human thought. 
 
 Now, if the mind of man, according to all this, 
 exhibits at that dark, immeasurably distant period, 
 when language had not yet originated, an immense 
 inferiority to its present condition, we shall in the 
 next instance be eager to learn wherein his actual 
 divergence from the animal consisted. And this eager- 
 ness will be the greater, as in this very divergence 
 
 y 
 
24 LANGUAGE AND ITS IMPORTANCE. 
 
 the reason will have to be found why he in the sequel 
 developed language and reason and the animal did not. 
 This question, I think, can only be answered out of 
 lanoruage and its earliest contents themselves. I be- 
 lieve I have found out that language originally and 
 essentially expressed only visible activities. And this 
 circumstance remarkably coincides with the fact that 
 animals, especially mammalia, have only a very 
 limited sense for the visible world in itself. On 
 the whole, it is true, they see the same that we 
 do, but they take interest in but few things. The 
 dog, e.g., recognises his food solely by scent, so that 
 when his olfactory nerve is cut through he is quite 
 at a loss how to choose his nourishment, and com- 
 mits the most incredible mistakes. When the traveller 
 Kohl traversed the steppes of South Eussia, the well- 
 known phenomenon of the Fata Morgana appeared on 
 the horizon, and raised within him, as if by enchant- 
 ment, the illusory hope of finding in the arid, waterless 
 plains a large refreshing surface of water. His Tartar 
 coachman explained the phenomenon, adding the horses 
 could not be deceived, " for," said he, " they smell the 
 water." The same may be said of the camels of the 
 Arabian desert : they, too, are not exposed to the dis- 
 appointments which occasionally await the languishing 
 caravan through the flattering sense of sight. Certainly 
 there are individual objects which interest the eyes 
 of the mammalia, especially of the carnivorous species. 
 At least I have decidedly noticed a cat being deeply 
 interested in pigeons flying past at a rather considerable 
 
LANGUAGE AND ITS IMPORTANCE. 25 
 
 distance, though she could see them only through a 
 closed window. Of course, it was only a very selfish 
 interest that actuated her. 
 
 It is only in the ape that the sense of sight and the 
 interest in the visible world assumes more importance. 
 We see mankind at a low stage of civilisation stiU 
 availing themselves of the faculty of scent, and examin- 
 ing objects by its means, while we are wholly deficient 
 in such a faculty. At length sight attains higher x 
 and higher dominion, and the interest concentrated / 
 upon it seems therefore to be the real privilege of 
 man. Jf now it could be proved that the importance 
 of sight increased and extended in the course of history 
 such as it is reflected in language, such a fact would be 
 tantamount to a development of our race from a mere 
 animal to a human nature.^ And it does seem capable 
 of proof. Eeason in the species at large undergoes the 
 same process as that which in individual instances we 
 witness in ourselves on a smaller scale. When the 
 Eomans for the first time came into contact with the 
 Germans, they were so overwhelmingly struck by their 
 high statures, blue defiant eyes, and light hair, that 
 Tacitus says they all look alike. We should at first 
 receive the same impression among a negro population. 
 A nearer acquaintance enables us to perceive the dif- 
 ferences which previously escaped, us. Something 
 analogous happened to the earliest generations of man, 
 only that it was the whole of creation which they had 
 first slowly to learn partly to distinguish according to 
 its individual objects and partly to notice at least with 
 
26 LANGUAGE AND ITS IMPORTANCE. 
 
 interest. And what may it have been which they 
 soonest noticed in such a way? It was that which 
 was nearest their hearts — the motions and actions of 
 their fellow-men. For what ever again captivates and 
 gratifies man most is man. Even the glory of Nature 
 herself would fill us with shuddering if we knew our- 
 selves alone, quite alone. Only exceptionally and 
 temporarily things that do not live and act as we 
 do can affect us. I will not attempt to describe the 
 moment when for the first time the impression of a 
 human motion found sympathetic expression in an 
 uttered sound. But permit me to mention an incident 
 which I have myself witnessed, not without surprise, 
 and which is analogous to the moment that lies at 
 such an immeasurable distance beyond all our recol- 
 lection. A boy who had been almost totally bereft 
 of hearing by an illness at an age when he was already 
 able to lisp a child's first words, passed with his mother 
 through our town on her way to our vicinity, where 
 she hoped to get her unhappy child cured. The hand- 
 some, lively boy was then six years old, and had long 
 since forgotten the little he had ever spoken. He 
 had lost all power of speech, but he could hear loud, 
 rumbling noises. A carriage happened to drive past, 
 unseen by him. Quite like a younger child that can 
 hear, the boy put his finger to his ear, prepared to 
 listen, and then waved his hand as if he were cracking 
 a whip. It was, therefore, not the rolling of the wheels 
 which he heard, nor the trotting of the horses which 
 had most vividly impressed him. He chose, out of 
 
LANGUAGE AND ITS IMPORTANCE. 27 
 
 all that belonged to the carriage, only the one human 
 action which he had witnessed on beholding the 
 phenomenon of the rolling carriage, and imitated 
 that action. And he did so in order to communi- 
 cate his impression; but the whole interest of this 
 communication consisted for the child only in the 
 desire of awakening the like sensation within us 
 that he felt; it was, in fact, only an expression of 
 his own inward sensation. And such an expression, 
 without any other purpose but the impulse to ex- 
 press ourselves, to give utterance to our joyful interest 
 in what we see, we must assume to have alone origi- 
 nated the first sound, the germ of all speech. 
 
 The evolution of language, which has long since 
 clothed with its sounds the whole rich intellectual 
 world from one primitive sound, has perhaps at first 
 sight something surprising in it ; but there is no other 
 solution of the riddle involved in it. The various 
 attempts to find a reason why we name one object by 
 one sound, another by another, have failed. We can, 
 indeed, find a reason why we designate the head of 
 man by the word Koipf. This word is nearly related to 
 Knfe (coop or vat). Ko^pf, properly speaking, means 
 skull, and in all probability in the sense of a drinking 
 vessel, reminding us of those days when the skull of 
 the enemy was converted into a drinking-cup. We 
 likewise know " foot " to be derived from a root imply- 
 ing " to tread." But as we proceed the possibility of 
 assigning reasons ceases. The root of " foot," just men- 
 tioned, was primarily 'pad ; but why the sound pad 
 
28 LANGUAGE AND ITS IMPORTANCE. 
 
 happened to be chosen for the meaning of " to tread " 
 cannot be accounted for. It was thought, down to 
 the most recent date, that the oldest roots had been 
 imitations of animal sounds ; others have seen in them 
 a kind of interjection, such as ah ! eh ! In the one 
 case the root 'pad would be an imitation of the sounds 
 produced by steps ; in the other, perhaps an expression 
 of the surprise that was felt on hearing such steps. 
 Max Miiller has sneered at both these hypotheses, 
 bestowing on them the appellation of bow-wow and 
 pah-pah theories — bow-wow being intended for an 
 onomatopcetic designation of the dog. He himself is 
 of opinion that man is a sounding being ; that his soul, 
 in the earliest times, by means of a now lost faculty, 
 like a metal, as it were, had responded to the ring of 
 various objects in nature, and thus produced words. 
 This view has not escaped a sneer on its part either. 
 It has in England been called the ding-dong theory. 
 What alone perfectly corresponds with experience is, 
 that from one word several others spring differing in 
 sound and meaning. A word for shell {Schale) may, on 
 the one hand, come to mean husk, and on the other be 
 used for tortoise-shell, drinking-cup, nay, for head. 
 
 But that in this way all words have proceeded from 
 one original form has not only its significant analogy 
 in the history of the evolution of the organisms in the 
 animal and vegetable kingdoms, but also in the origin 
 of the nations, such as language itself teaches it. How 
 different are Germans and Hindoos ! How much does 
 the German language differ from the Sanskrit ! Only 
 
LANGUAGE AND ITS IMPORTANCE. 29 
 
 science recognises their identity, and shows that what 
 is now different must once have been identical. And 'o^^ c< 
 if we compare the difference between French and 
 Italian with the much greater one between German 
 and Sanskrit, and consider that only the longer separa- 
 tion and greater distance of the nations from each 
 other has called forth these differences, we shall at 
 least not deem it impossible that all the languages of 
 the earth have sprung from one single germ, and have 
 only grown to be so very different by a still longer 
 period of separation. That variety should proceed 
 from unity seems to be the great fundamental law of 
 all evolution, both physical and mental. In language 
 this law leads us back to a quite insignificant germ, a 
 first sound which expressed -the excessively little, the 
 only thing that man then noticed and saw with in- 
 terest ; and from that germ the whole wealth of lan- 
 guage — aye, I do not hesitate to pronounce it as my 
 conviction — all languages were gradually developed in ,^ 
 the course of many, very many millennia. 
 
 Thus we have come down to a primitive condition of 
 man's mind, of which both the prospect and retrospect is 
 equally great, far-reaching, marvellous, aye, even deeply 
 affecting. The moment when the faculty of speech 
 took its rise cannot well have coincided with that of 
 his coming into being. As a being that neither speaks 
 nor thinks, at least certainly not in the sense in which 
 we are conscious of thinking as our own inborn human 
 possession, man belongs to another sphere, and becomes 
 subject to the history of the evolution of the animal 
 
'30 LANGUAGE AND ITS IMPORTANCE. 
 
 kingdom. Thanks to the aid of language, the for- 
 tunes of humanity, from its emerging from the animal 
 condition up to its complete maturity, lie spread out 
 more clearly before us. These I have to-day endea- 
 voured cursorily to pass in review before you. It could 
 not be my intention to convince by proofs, seeing that 
 in such a narrow compass they would probably have 
 been mere semblances of proofs. Enough for me if I 
 have succeeded in awakening within you a sense of the 
 mighty past of the human race. Of such unfathomable 
 depth nature is here too ! Our deeds, our thoughts, all 
 have an incalculably old pedigree, and to be man is a 
 high nobility, though one that is newly acquired by 
 taking a higher flight from generation to generation. 
 
 No doubt occasionally, when on the farthest horizon 
 the infancy of our race is seen to rise, when of the 
 noble features which confer on man's stature its proud 
 dignity, one after another threatens to fade from his 
 picture, a melancholy, an uneasiness may seize us on 
 looking down from the height on which we stand to so 
 low a depth, in fact, on our primeval, now so metamor- 
 phosed, selves. But between the infancy of man and his 
 manhood lie the well-preserved ideals of his youth, the 
 virgin blossoms of his thoughts, his works of art, reli- 
 gion, and morality, the offspring of his beautiful and 
 glowing inspiration. The veneration for the lofty crea- 
 tions of antiquity, the admiration of all the great things 
 that preceded us, and that we now, combined as they 
 are to such wealth, are permitted to behold, enjoy, and 
 1 understand — these are our own undiminished posses- 
 
LANGUAGE AND ITS IMPORTANCE. 31 
 
 sions, inviolable like an imperishable sanctuary. And 
 who would venture to assert that we have already- 
 reached the goal? Who knows whether the mighty 
 movement which now, seizing all the nations of the 
 earth, its waves rolling farther and farther, and 
 rising higher and higher, and uncontrollably trans- 
 forming our feeling, thinking, and acting, is not that 
 very everlastingly young impulse of growth and deve- 
 lopment ? And should there still be on this dark path 
 on which we are led, without man's own individual 
 will being able materially to promote or check his pro- 
 gress, any guiding star, any ray of enlightenment, it 
 will probably be nought else but that very light of 
 consciousness which is dawning upon us in our days — 
 the consciousness of our past. , 
 
( 32 ) 
 
 11. 
 
 The Earliest History of the Human Race in 
 the Light of Language, with Special Re- 
 ference to the Origin of Tools. 
 
 [Read before the International Congress for Archaeology and History 
 at Bonn, September 15, 1868.] 
 
 The questions which have been placed at the head of 
 your transactions comprise subjects of mighty import 
 to the history of man, and, at the same time, of an 
 almost unlimited range. If I now venture to express 
 my views on a part of them, I am aware that the 
 shortness of the time allotted to me will permit me to 
 place only a very slight sketch before you, and I have 
 asked permission to speak less for the purpose of dis- 
 cussing results than with a view to directing your 
 attention to an important source and method for 
 such inquiries, hitherto taken notice of but sparingly. 
 Archaeology proper, i.e., the searching out and investi- 
 gating of palpable relics of antiquity, has to contend 
 with difficulties which, it would seem, menace to set 
 it limits before it can reach its final goal. I will say 
 nothing about the more accidental difficulty of deter- 
 mining with certainty, in each instance, the age of an 
 
HISTORY IN THE LIGHT OF LANGUAGE. 33 
 
 object found, and of duly appropriating it. But the 
 higher the antiquity and the more primitive the con- 
 dition of man, the more imperfect and the less durable 
 must be his works, at least beyond a certain boundary : 
 thus fewer relics will obviously have been preserved of 
 a wood age than of a stone or metal age. At the same 
 time, too, man's works are always the less recognisable 
 the less artistic they are. We might, therefore, just 
 happen to discover, from times which are the most 
 important to the origin of things, implements in which 
 we could not with certainty recognise the human hand 
 that fashioned them. Besides, it is with these rude 
 productions of art as with everything that has come 
 into being ; we see them lie before us, indeed, but they 
 tell us nothing about their origin or the mental process 
 that preceded it. If there ever was a time when man 
 was as yet without any tools and altogether without 
 any industrial art, his earliest dwellings can at most 
 manifest this to us by silence. Precisely as regards 
 that remote period, I believe I may appeal to language 
 as a living testimony, and I would beg of you to permit 
 me just to touch upon this linguistic archaeology, the 
 results of which I hope soon to publish in the second 
 volume of my work on the Origin of Language and 
 Eeason. 
 
 Man had language before he had tools, and before he 
 practised industrial arts. This is a proposition which, 
 obvious and probable in itself, also admits of complete 
 proof from language. On considering a word denoting an 
 activity carried on with a tool, we shall invariably find 
 
34 EARLIEST HISTORY 
 
 it not to have been its original meaning, "but that it 
 previously implied a similar activity requiring only 
 the natural organs of man. Let us, e.g., compare the 
 ancient word mahlen (to grind), Muhle (mill), Latin, 
 molOy Greek, fivkr]. The process, well known from 
 antiquity, of grinding the grains of the bread-fruit 
 between stones, is no doubt simple enough to be pre- 
 supposed as practised already in the primitive period 
 in one form or another. Nevertheless, the word that 
 we now use for an activity with implements has pro- 
 ceeded from a still more simple conception. The root 
 mal or mar, so widely diffused in the Indo-European 
 family of languages, implies " to grind with the 
 fingers" as well as "to crush with the teeth." I 
 would remind you of mordeo, " to bite," and the Sanskrit 
 root mrid, which implies to pulverise and to rub, e.g., 
 one's forehead with one's hand ; of the Greek fioXwca, 
 to spread over and soil with flour, mud, or the like, 
 which may be compared to the Sanskrit mala, " soiling," 
 Gothic mulda, " soft earth." On the one hand, fieXaf;, 
 " black," on the other, fiaXa/co^, mollis, " mellow," belong 
 to this class ; aye, so do even a number of designations 
 of morass-like fluids and the word Meer (sea). In 
 German, two different words from cognate roots per- 
 fectly coincide in sound: the mahlen (grinding) of 
 the corn and the malen (painting) of pictures. The 
 fundamental meaning of both is to rub or spread with 
 the fingers ; and an equally close resemblance may be 
 found in the designation of these two notions in the 
 Latin ]pinso and pingo. 
 
IN THE LIGHT OF LANGUAGE. 35 
 
 This phenomenon of the activity with implements 
 deriving its name from one more simple, ancient, and 
 brute-like, is quite universal ; and I do not know how 
 otherwise to account for it but that the name is older 
 than the activity with tools which it denotes at the 
 present time ; that, in fact, the word was already extant 
 before men used any other organs but the native and 
 natural ones. Whence does sculpture derive its name ? 
 Sculpo is a collateral form of scalpo, and at first im- 
 plied only scratching with nails. The art of weaving 
 or matting is of primeval date ; it plays a part in the 
 earliest religious myths. History records no stage of 
 culture which was wholly without it. As the Greeks 
 often describe Athena to be employed in weaving, so 
 do the Veda hymns make the sun-god, the goddess 
 Aramati, and, in a mystic sense, the priests, occupy 
 themselves with that work. Of the sun-god, e.g., they 
 say, with reference to the alternation of day and night, 
 " Such is the divinity of Surya, such his greatness, that 
 amid his work he draws in again the stretched-out 
 web." The root here used for to stretch out at the 
 same time supplies the word for the warp of the 
 texture, while the weft in Sanskrit is denoted by the 
 root ve, the simpler form of our word weben (to weave), 
 similar to the English weft and woof. If, now, we 
 compare with this root the various others closely 
 related to it, and beginning with the same consonant 
 {w), e.g., the Latin vieo, many of them afford a hint 
 enabling us to say on which objects the art of weaving, 
 or rather matting, may first have been employed. The 
 
36 EARLIEST HISTORY 
 
 Latin vimen, for instance, which, properly speaking, 
 implies a means for matting, is used of branches of 
 trees and shrubs in their natural state and growth, and 
 especially so far as they are worked up into all kinds 
 of wickerwork, or serve as ropes for binding, of their 
 artificial state. The Weide (willow) derived its name 
 in the earliest times from the special fitness of its 
 branches for such purposes, and so did many species 
 of grass and reeds. That plant the fibres of which 
 have pre-eminently continued among us to be made 
 use of in the art of weaving, viz.. Flacks (flax), has its 
 name from flecliten (plaiting), as Flechse (tendon), i.e., 
 " band, sinew," clearly shows. 
 
 Simple mattings of fibres of plants and of flexible 
 twigs are the first objects of art in this department ; but 
 language leads us still a step farther back. There are 
 words in which the idea of the entanglement of the 
 boughs of the bush or of trees with dense foliage is 
 found so intimately allied with the plaiting of plants 
 that it becomes probable this natural plaiting may 
 have served the artistic activity of man as a model. 
 The sight of closely entwined branches and of reeds 
 growing in luxuriant entanglement, keeping pace with 
 the transformation in the culture of man, gradually 
 led to the first roughly plaited mat as a product 
 of his art. Aye, the natural plaiting of the tree was, 
 perhaps, the first object on which his art was practised. 
 There are still extant transitions which render it ex- 
 tremely probable that a kind of nest-building in the 
 branches of trees with dense foliage was natural to 
 
IN THE LIGHT OF LANGUAGE. 37 
 
 man in the earliest times, and sufficed him for the 
 preparation of his dwelling. From Africa, in so many- 
 respects a land of wonders as regards the history of 
 man, the traveller Barth gives an account of the Ding- 
 Ding people, of whom he says they partly dwell in 
 trees. In much the same low condition are the ex- 
 tremely barbarous inhabitants of the island of Anna- 
 tom, who use the branches of certain groups of trees 
 fit for the purpose as a kind of very primitive hut. 
 Of the Puris, Prince Maximilian, in his description of 
 his Brazilian tour, tells us something similar, only that 
 they, in addition, have the hammock, which is peculiar 
 to the South Americans, and seems to be a remnant 
 of their former habit of sleeping between the branches 
 of trees. The word Hdngematte (iiammock) has come 
 to us, along with the thing itself, from those parts. It 
 belongs to the language of Hayti, where Columbus 
 found it in the form of amaca, and whence, in various 
 languages of Europe, it was transformed into hamac, 
 hammock, and (among the Dutch) into hangmack, until 
 finally, by misconception, it became hangmat, Hange- 
 or Hdnge-matte (in German). 
 
 Another point, viz., the figure of man, seems to me 
 to be a decided indication that the tree must have been 
 his original habitation. His erect gait finds its most 
 natural explanation in his former climbing mode of life, 
 and from his habit of clasping the tree in his ascent 
 we can best explain the transformation of the hand 
 from a motory organ into a grasping one, so tliat we 
 shall be found to owe to the lowest stage of our culture 
 
38 EA RLIEST HIS TOR V 
 
 that seems credible our distmirmsliinfT advantagjes — the 
 free and commandinsj elevation of our head and the 
 possession of that organ which Aristotle has called the 
 tool of tools. 
 
 However mighty the transformation of human acti- 
 vity which the secrets hidden in words betray to us, 
 yet we have no reason for seeing aught else in it but 
 the sum of quite gradual processes, such as, in other 
 instances, we still daily see going on. Since a compara- 
 tively few years we have denoted by the word ndhen 
 (to sew), no longer merely a manual work, but also 
 one of the machine ; by scJiiessen (to shoot) we under- 
 stand something very different from that which was 
 understood by it previously to the invention of gun- 
 powder. How very differently is a ship now constructed 
 from what it was at the time when it differed in 
 nothing from a trough, a hollow wooden vessel, such as 
 the name indicates 1 How little resemblance is there 
 between our locomotives and the first thing which was 
 called waggon, and which, I have reason to believe, 
 was nothing but a simple stump of a tree rolling down- 
 wards ! The transformation of man's mode of life pro- 
 ceeds very gradually, and we have the right to assume, 
 I think, that it has never done otherwise. We must 
 guard against ascribing to reflection too large a share 
 in the origin of tools. The first simplest tools were 
 doubtless of incidental origin, like so many other great 
 inventions of modern times. They were probably 
 rather stumbled upon than invented. I have formed 
 this view more particularly from having observed 
 
IN THE LIGHT OF LANGUAGE. 39 
 
 that tools are never named from the process by which 
 they were made, never genetically, but always from 
 the work they are intended for. A pair of shears, a 
 saw, a hoe, are things that shear, saw, or hoe. This 
 linguistic law must appear the more surprising as the 
 implements which are not tools are wont to be desig- 
 nated genetically, or passively, as it were, according to 
 the material of which they are made or the work that 
 produced them. Schlauch (hose), e.g., is everywhere 
 thought of as the skin stripped off an animal. Be- 
 side the German word Schlauch stands the English 
 slough; the Greek aaKo^; signifies both hose and skin 
 of an animal. Here, then, language quite plainly 
 teaches us how and of what material the implement 
 called hose was made. With tools such is not the 
 case, and they may, therefore, as far as language is 
 concerned, not have at first been made at all ; the first 
 knife may have been a sharp stone accidentally found, 
 and, I might say, employed as if in play. 
 
 It might next be imagined that if tools have been 
 named from the work for which they are intended, an 
 idea of such work must have preceded the name ; e.g., if 
 a cutting tool is designated as something cutting, the 
 idea of cutting seems thereby to be presupposed. But 
 we know that all these words originally denoted ac- 
 tivities which were carried on without any other than 
 the natural tools. The word " shears" plainly shows 
 this. It denotes at present a double knife, a two-armed 
 cutting tool. I need hardly mention that this meaning 
 was not the oris^inal one. Indeed the Hindoos and the 
 
40 EARLIEST HISTORY 
 
 Greeks have a cognate word signifying shearing (or 
 shaving) knife, and the Swedish slzdra means sickle. 
 It may be fairly assumed that shears and shearing 
 knives were primarily used by the Indo-European 
 nomads of primitive times in shearing sheep. At the 
 same time, however, the custom, not of shearing sheep, 
 but of plucking them with the hand, may be traced 
 down to comparatively late times. Varro maintains 
 it to have been the general process previous to the 
 invention of the shears, but he also speaks of such 
 as were still practising it in his days ; and even Pliny 
 says, " Sheep are not shorn everywhere ; in some places 
 the custom of plucking continues " (viii. 2, 73). The 
 close connection between the word scheren (to shear) 
 and scharren (to scrape), and, among others too, the Old 
 High German name of the mole, scero, the scraping 
 animal, render it besides more than probable that 
 again the original meaning of the word was only to 
 shave, to scratch, to scrape, and show the shears there- 
 fore to have been conceived as a tool for scraping and 
 scratching the skin for the purpose of plucking it. In 
 this way we may suppose the names of the tools and 
 the work done with them sprung by a slow process 
 from a quite gradual evolution of human movements, 
 such as they were already from the first possible to 
 the body of man left to itself. 
 
 Permit me, gentlemen, on this occasion, at least to 
 
 point out a most important difference, which is cal- 
 
 [ culated to make the expression " evolution " as applied 
 
 to the tool a full truth. I mean the difference between 
 I 
 
IN THE LIGHT OF LANGUAGE. 41 
 
 primary and secondary tools. The tool, observed in its \ 
 evolution, marvellously resembles a natural organ ; ex- 
 actly like this it has its transformations and its differ- 
 entiations. "We should vrhoUy misconceive the tool if 
 we always wanted to find the cause of its origin in its 
 immediate purpose, just as we should misconceive the 
 webbed foot of the duck were we to think of it as un- 
 connected with the formation of the feet of birds that 
 cannot swim. Thus, e.g., Klemm has already drawn 
 attention to the fact that the^ gimlet originated in the / 
 fire-drill of primitive times, that remarkable apparatus, 
 the common use of which in various parts of the earth 
 quite remote from each other would alone suffice to 
 let us presume an external connection, an intercom- 
 munication between the various peoples of the earth to 
 an almost unbounded extent. The aborigines of North 
 and South America, from the Aleutes to the Pescherse, 
 and the Caffres in South Africa, as well as the Austra- 
 lians, have the custom of drilling a stick of hard wood 
 into a softer one, and to turn it round in the latter 
 until the shavings themselves and the dry leaves used 
 as tinder ignite. It is well known that this process, 
 which, as contrasted with the use of the flint, repre- 
 sents the^ wood age;^ is met with in quite a surprising 
 agreement In the Veda hymns, where the two arani or 
 friction-sticks play an important part in the sacrifice. 
 Nor is this a solitary instance in which archaeology and 
 linguistics teach us to trace back the condition of 
 highly civilised nations to the lowest stage of culture 
 still to be met with among one or the other savage 
 
 'P 
 
42 EARLIEST HISTORY 
 
 tribe, and lets us recognise a universal laio where we at 
 first should have been disposed to see an isolated pecu- 
 liarity. There is hidden in the history of language, 
 nay in what often even later vrriters of antiquity betray 
 to us, an immense deal which is of importance to the 
 knowledge of our earliest history, and it will be pains 
 well bestowed to penetrate into these depths and dig 
 up their treasures. 
 
 An analogy to the origin of the secondary tool by 
 transformation is presented by the development of the 
 musical string from the bowstring, such as Wilkinson 
 has pointed it out. How well the bowstring was cal- 
 culated to excite the musical sense to such an applica- 
 tion is shown in a remarkable passage in Homer: 
 " As when a man skilled on the cithern and in song 
 lightly fastens the string to a new peg, tightening 
 on both sides the well-twisted sheep-gut, so without 
 labour Odysseus stretched his great bow. Then with 
 his right hand he seized the string and examined it ; 
 it emitted a beautiful sound, resembling the voice of a 
 swallow" (Odyss. 21, 406 sqq.). How comparatively re- 
 cent stringed instruments are may be inferred from the 
 circumstance alone that, at the time of the discovery of 
 America by the Europeans, none such were met with 
 among the indigenous population. If we consider of 
 what importance the sight of the vibrating string is to 
 musical consciousness, we must admire the momentous 
 effects which were produced by a trifling and accidental 
 observation, by the chance possession of a bow provided 
 with a vibratinfij sinew. 
 
IN THE LIGHT OF LANGUAGE. 43 
 
 In order to recognise how much we are ourselves 
 still undergoing the process of a like transformation, 
 and to gain, at the same time, a standard by which to 
 judge of those [remote] processes, it suffices to point 
 out the quite modern invention of the umbrella, which 
 is an imitation of the primitive parasol, only for 
 a different purpose. The parachute of aeronauts is 
 likewise such a transformation. Do not such develop- 
 ments of the productions of man's ideas and volition 
 present a parallel to what happens in nature when, 
 under altered conditions and necessities, the arm is, in 
 the case of birds, converted into a wing ? But it may 
 here be mentioned that the parasol, in the earliest 
 times, served religious purposes, and we here arrive at 
 a new point of the highest moment in the history of 
 implements, which I can here only touch upon. Eeli- 
 gion, in its primitive form, gives so mighty an impulse 
 to the customs, conceptions, and creations of man — it 
 was, in fact, the source of so much of whose connec- 
 tion with religion we have not the faintest notion — that 
 without entering upon its investigation we are unable 
 ever to learn to understand from an historical point of 
 view our own doings, and more especially the objects 
 that surround us, that have been produced by our hand, 
 and distinguish us in our outward life from the brute. 
 
 The use of implements shaped by himself is more 
 decidedly than aught else an evident distinctive char- 
 acteristic of man's mode of life. For this reason the 
 question as to the origin of the tool is a subject of the 
 greatest moment in our early history, and I therefore 
 
44 EARLIEST HISTORY 
 
 thought I might treat the question as to the nature 
 of the implements of man in primitive times in this 
 partly rather narrower, partly wider sense. I do not 
 hesitate to assert that there must have been a time 
 when man did not possess any implements or tools, but 
 contented himself to work wholly with his natural 
 organs; that then followed a period when he was 
 already able to recognise and use accidentally found 
 objects resembling those organs, and by their aid to 
 enlarge, heighten, and arm the power of his natural 
 tools ; e.g., to employ a hollow shell of a plant as a sul> 
 stitute for the hollow hand, which was the first vessel. 
 Not until after the employment of these objects that 
 accidentally presented themselves had become fami- 
 liar did man's creative activity in the shape of imita- 
 tion take its rise. 
 
 [Perhaps, gentlemen, you will the more readily 
 permit me to cast a side glance at one special prepara- 
 tive activity, seeing that it is likewise connected with 
 another subject proposed to this meeting for discus- 
 sion, viz., our nourishment. Among the various modes 
 of preparing food, boiling is naturally one of the most 
 .recent. Cook found the aborigines of Tahiti totally 
 unacquainted with the process of boiling in pots; 
 meat they roasted either by the fire or in earth- 
 holes between hot stones. The Homeric heroes, too, 
 ate their meat roasted on the spit or stewed in the 
 pan ; boiling it in water seems to have been unknown 
 to the poet. Thus, too, the German word kocfien^ " to 
 boil," is a foreign word derived from the Latin coquo. 
 
IN THE LIGHT OF LANGUAGE. 45 
 
 The idea is clearly developed from direct preparations 
 by the fire, such as roasting and baking, even in 
 words from which these meanings were subsequently 
 wholly excluded. One more step and we find these 
 very words, which, from denoting the effect of the 
 boiling water, have returned to express that of the 
 fire, used of the sun. Thus the Greek TreVo-a), " to 
 cook," still implies in Homer to ripen, and this mean- | 
 ing the Sanskrit ^ak likewise bears. The Eussian 
 'pdch still signifies the burning, stinging of the sun. 
 A very remarkable adjective from the same root, in 
 its notional relations common to the early period of 
 the Greek and Sanskrit languages, leads us still farther. 
 It is the Greek ireircov, Sanskrit jpKhi'a. IHttcov, signi- 
 fies " ripe ; " in Homer and Hesiod, however, it does 
 not occur in this sense, but in another which cannot 
 have sprung from the former. They invariably use 
 it as an address ; in two passages it signifies a reproach 
 for indolence or cowardice ; in many others, however, 
 it is equivalent to "0 dear one." In observing the 
 use of the word paJcva in the Yeda hymns we shall 
 not be able to find in it a reference to cooking or 
 ripening either ; it there obviously means only " sweet " 
 or " eatable." The fact is, it is used not only of grain, 
 of a tree, of branches, when it may mean to ripen, 
 but also of milk in the frequently recurring thought 
 "In the living cows, the black, the red, thou hast 
 put the milk, ready and white." " Sweet " may be the 
 meaning of the Greek word too in the insinuating 
 address, and when, e.g.^ the dazzled Cyclop in the 
 
46 EARLIEST HISTORY 
 
 " Odyssey " says to his favourite ram, Kpil irkirovy we 
 shall have to render it by " sweet or tender ram.'* As 
 a reproach, however, it would, according to the de- 
 velopment of the word, mean effeminate or lazy. 
 Herewith, then, all that refers to the preparation of 
 food has disappeared from the word kochen (to cook), 
 for to this the adjective in question bears close 
 affinity. From something soft and eatable, let us 
 say, from some fruit met with in this condition, the 
 idea merges into that of softening by the sun, by fire, 
 or boiling water. By the way, let me observe here 
 that language shows no period when man did not eat 
 meat; on the contrary, it seems to have been his 
 earliest food. At the same time there is nothing to 
 show that it was from the first prepared in any way ; 
 it was, doubtless, for a long time consumed in a raw 
 state only.] 
 
 The vestiges of his earliest conceptions still pre- 
 served in language proclaim it loudly and distinctly 
 that man has developed from a state in which he 
 had solely to rely on the aid of his organs, differed 
 little in his habits from the brute creation, and with 
 respect to the enjoyment of existence, nay, to his pre- 
 servation, depended almost entirely on whatever lucky 
 chance presented to him. He became more powerful 
 the more his ability to avail himself of the things 
 around him increased. And how came it to be in- 
 creased ? Simply because his faculty of 'perceiving the 
 things increased, a faculty which is none other than 
 reason itself. It is the theoretical nature of man 
 
IN THE LIGHT OF LANGUAGE. 47 
 
 that has made him so great. The present age has 
 opened for the tool a new grand development; it 
 creates in the machine, which is constantly being 
 perfected and becomes more and more powerful, an 
 implement emancipated from the hand of man, and 
 inspiring its own maker with a peculiar admiration. 
 It is not accidental that in this same age mankind 
 should endeavour with so much consciousness to 
 reflect on its past, and a meeting such as yours should 
 make the beginnings of human culture the subject 
 of its scientific investigations and debates. The state 
 of culture of our species and its historical conscious- 
 ness are quantities that increase simultaneously. We 
 at once, with wistful and searching glances, take a 
 retrospective view of the dark past from which we 
 have started, and with bold hope look forward towards 
 the no less dark goal whither we are being led. Shall 
 we ever wholly penetrate the night of the primeval 
 ages? Shall we ever reach the goal of perfection 
 that so temptingly lures us onward from afar? We 
 do not know. But our inner impulse irresistibly urges 
 us on to pursue our inquiries in either direction and 
 bids us march on ! 
 
( 48 ) 
 
 III. 
 
 On Co lotir- Sense m Primitive Times and 
 its Develop7nent, 
 
 [Read before the Meeting of German Naturalists at Frankfort-on-tlie- 
 Maine, September 24, 1867.] 
 
 The subject to which, for a brief space, I would request 
 your attention, will, I hope, not be found unworthy 
 of it. Has human sensation, has perception by the 
 senses, a history ? Were the organs of man's senses 
 thousands of years ago in the same condition as 
 now, or can we perhaps prove that at some remote 
 period these organs must have been incapable of 
 some of their present functions ? These questions, 
 it is true, fall within the province of physiology, or, 
 if I am permitted to coin the term, oi jpalceo-]physiology ; 
 but the means of answering them necessarily differ 
 to some extent from those which in general are at the 
 command of natural science. By means of geological 
 "finds" we may gain a conception of the skeleton, 
 and perhaps the whole external appearance, of an 
 extinct species of animals; we can from remnants of 
 skulls draw general conclusions as to an imperfectly 
 developed human race of early times; but it would 
 
ON COLOUR-SENSE, 49 
 
 be difficult to form an idea from the sight of the 
 head, the remnants of which have been preserved 
 in the Neander valley as a problem for our days, 
 as to how it may have thought. Fortunately, the 
 history of the mind, too, has its primeval relics, its 
 deposits and petrifactions of another kind, affording 
 more instructive explanations than one should be 
 inclined to believe; and, if carefully pursued, they 
 lead to perhaps unexpected, but, I think, on that 
 account not less trustworthy results. 
 
 The history of colour-sense is of paramount im- 
 portance to the total development of sensation. In 
 the earliest mental productions that are preserved 
 to us of the various peoples of tha earth there lies 
 stored up an uncommonly rich material for the study 
 of the impression which colour made in primitive 
 times ; and I beg, in the first instance, to direct your 
 attention to a negative result that arises from a search 
 into that rich material. At an early stage, notwith- 
 standing a thousand obvious and often urgently press- 
 ing occasions that presented themselves, the colour hlue, 
 is not mentioned at all. If we consider the nature 
 of the books to which this observation applies, . the 
 idea of chance must here be excluded. Let me first 
 mention the wonderful, youthfully fresh hymns of the 
 Eigveda, the discovery of which amidst the mass of 
 Indian literature seems destined to become as im- 
 portant to the present century in awakening a sense of 
 genuine antiquity as the revival of Greek antiquity at 
 the threshold of modern times was to that period in 
 
 D 
 
 '-" h; 
 
 9'/ 
 
50 ON COLOUR-SENSE. 
 
 arousing the sense of beauty and artistic taste. These 
 hymns, consisting of more than 10,000 lines, are 
 nearly all filled with descriptions of the sky. Scarcely 
 any other subject is more frequently mentioned; the 
 variety of hues which the sun and dawn daily display 
 in it, day and night, clouds and lightnings, the atmos- 
 phere and the ether, all these are with inexhaustible 
 abundance exhibited to us again and again in all 
 their magnificence ; only the fact that the sky is blue 
 could never have been gathered from these poems by 
 any one who did not already know it himself. I re- 
 frain from adducing proofs, which, in order to be ex- 
 haustive, might easily swell on to the entire contents 
 of the books, and will only state, with respect to the 
 astronomical standpoint of those poems, that, according 
 to all appearance, they know of a lunar year with a 
 thirteenth intercalary month; in genuine passages, 
 however, hardly the name of any constellation is men- 
 tioned, and most certainly not the difference between 
 planets and fixed stars, which, indeed, belongs to 
 the relatively late discoveries of the ancient science 
 of astronomy. 
 
 The Yeda hymns represent the earliest stage of the 
 human mind that has been preserved in any literature, 
 if one may use this term of hymns transmitted orally. 
 But as regards the blue colour, the same observation 
 may be made of the Zendavesta, the books of the Par- 
 sees, to whom, as is well known, light and fire, both the 
 terrestrial and heavenly, are most sacred, and of whom 
 one may expect an attention to the thousand-fold hues 
 
ON COLOUR-SENSE. 51 
 
 of the sky similar to that in the Vedas. The Bible, in 
 which, as is equally well known, the sky or heaven plays 
 no less a part, seeing that it occurs in the very first 
 verse, and in upwards of 430 other passages besides, 
 quite apart from synonymous expressions, such as ether, 
 &c., yet finds no opportunity either of mentioning the 
 blue colour. Nay, even in the Homeric Poems the blue 
 sky is not mentioned, although in the regions where 
 they originated^ it exercises such a special charm on 
 every visitor. 
 
 You will grant that such a series of agreements 
 cannot well be deemed mere chance, but that we must 
 seek an explanation of them in some law. 
 
 The words by which we designate the colours are 
 divided in two easily recognised classes. The most 
 definite, but at the same time most recent terms, are as 
 a rule derived from objects which have a definite hue 
 and admit of easy comparison, e.g., strohgelh (straw- 
 yellow), veilchenUau (violet-blue), rosa (pink). Such 
 terms are artificial. At the time when words originated 
 naturally, people contented themselves with the con- 
 trast, for instance, between the yellow and the red ; all 
 particulars appeared as insignificant niceties. In all 
 spheres in which we are able to separate in language 
 more recent notions from older ones we observe some- 
 thing analogous. The notions start from extremities, 
 and gradually pass on to designations of similar things 
 of a less extreme character. I can here state this law 
 only thus broadly. As to the colours, the indifference 
 with respect to the intermediate ones rises, as we ap- 
 
52 ON COLOUR-SENSE, 
 
 proacli primeval ages, to an ever-increasing degree, until 
 at length only the outermost extremes, black and red, 
 are left. Aye, the historical progress may be shown to 
 have taken place in conformity with the scheme of the 
 colour-spectrum, so that, e.g.^ the sensibility to yellow 
 was awakened before that to green. On the other hand, 
 language, as may be easily conceived, does not acknow- 
 ledge the proposition that black is no colour ; it desig- 
 nates it at a very early period as the most decided 
 contrast to red ; nay, more, it joins the weakest tone of 
 the colour-scale for which it has still a name, viz., blue, 
 to this dark end. 
 
 Of the words that in any language are used for hluCy 
 a smaller number originally signified green ; the greater 
 number in the earliest time signified hlach. This ap- 
 plies to our term llau (blue), which is to be met with in 
 the Old North in the compound bld-madhr, " black man. 
 Moor," and is related to the English " black." It equally 
 applies, to mention a remote example, to the Chinese 
 hiuan, which at present signifies sky-Uue, but in early 
 times meant Uack. In ancient books it occurs in the 
 combination hiuan te, te meaning virtue or merit, and 
 both words together naturally not blue, but obscure or 
 unknown merit. A word for blue at present diffused 
 over a great part of Asia is nil, probably identical with 
 the name of the Nile, which seems to be derived from 
 the Persians.^ Nila, too, in ancient writings, signifies 
 
 1 The Nile, according to Greek records, is said to have originally 
 been called "the Black." The name Neilos does not occur as yet in 
 Homer (the Nile with him is called Aigyptos), and in Hesiod is per- 
 haps not to be understood as applying to the Egyptian, but to some 
 mythological river. 
 
ON COLOUR-SENSE. 53 
 
 only black, and is nothing but the Hindoo form of the 
 Latin niger. 
 
 What may have been the physiological condition of 
 a generation that could have called the colour of the 
 sky only black ? Does the contrast with us consist 
 in the appellation or in the perception ? In this re- 
 spect it is interesting to notice the singular gravity with 
 which different colours bearing one name are considered 
 alike. Thus a Hindoo philosopher, in investigating the 
 cause of the blue colour of the sky, quotes a certainly 
 somewhat strange opinion, according to which the cause 
 is subjective, and the black colour of the eye is com- 
 municated to the heavens, just as to the jaundiced eye 
 everything looks yellow. 
 
 No one, I should think, who reflects on the way 
 in which Homer speaks of blue and violet objects will 
 fail to be somewhat surprised. According to the ana- 
 logies already cited, it may be less surprising that the 
 word Kvavo<iy our Cyan, is with him the deepest black. 
 The mourning garment of Thetis he calls Kvdveov, and 
 at the same time "black as no other garment." The 
 same colour-term is applied to the storm-cloud and 
 the black cloud of death, and several times, by adding 
 fxkXa^, it is distinctly explained as black. On the con- 
 trary, Odysseus' hair is likened to the hyacinth, and the 
 ancient Greek commentators, to whom the conception 
 was not yet so foreign as to us, quite correctly refer the 
 simile to the black colour. Pindar speaks in the same 
 sense of violet locks, and Homer of iron as of violet hue. 
 When Mr. Gladstone, while at the head of the adminis- 
 
 7 / 
 
54 ON COLOUR-SENSE. 
 
 tration of the Ionic Islands, devoted his leisure to 
 Homeric studies, he did not fail to perceive how sur- 
 prising such and similar passages were, and he was 
 thereby tempted to give credit to the ancient legend 
 according to which Homer is said to have shared the 
 lot which he himself ascribes to a bard of the prehistoric 
 world : " The Muse bestowed on him good and evil ; 
 she bereft him of his sight and gave him sweet songs." 
 If, however, this pathological explanation should apply 
 to Homer (his individual existence presupposed), many 
 other poets of antiquity, the whole human race itself, 
 must have been in the same condition during a whole 
 series of millennia. Only the Egyptians form a par- 
 tial exception here ; but who indeed would quote the 
 builders of the giant-temple of Karnak as a proof with 
 respect to primeval times ? On the other hand, it is 
 noteworthy down to what a late period both the Greeks 
 and the Komans still confounded blue and violet, espe- 
 cially with grey and brown. Even long after scientific 
 observation had separated these colours they seem to 
 have been mixed up together in popular conception. 
 And thus it happened that Theocritus, and, in imita- 
 tion of him, Virgil, by way of excuse for the bronzed 
 hue of a beautiful face, could still say, "Are not the 
 violets, too, and the hyacinths black ? " With a similar 
 intention Virgil says : " The white privets fall ; it is the 
 black hyacinths which are sought after and loved." 
 Nay, even Cassiodorus, at the beginning of the sixth 
 century after Christ, gives an account of the four colours 
 employed in the Circensian games, which, as is well 
 
ON COLOUR-SENSE. 55 
 
 known, sometimes acquired a fatal significance : green 
 had been dedicated to spring, red to summer, white, 
 on account of the hoar-frost, to autumn, blue to the 
 cloudy winter — venetus nubilce Tiiemi, Classical anti- 
 quity, in fact, possessed no word for pure blue. The 
 Latin cceruleus is of a slipperiness which has at times 
 driven philologists to despair ; it runs through a de- 
 velopment from black passing through grey towards 
 blue. The Eomanic languages found indeed no fit word 
 for blue in the original Eoman tongue, and were obliged 
 partly to borrow it from the Germans. Thus, among 
 others, the Trench hleu and the older Italian liavo are, 
 as is well known, borrowed from our hlau, which, in 
 its turn, as I have stated before, in L*he earliest time 
 signified black.^ 
 
 In a certain respect, it is true, a parallel to this sin- 
 gular fact of a pathological kind seems to present itself. 
 Goethe mentions two young men, not above twenty years 
 of age, whose sight in general was keen enough, but in 
 whom he observed a condition which he calls Akyano- 
 hlepsy, and he accounts for it by their having no eye for 
 blue. He is of opinion that the sky appeared to them 
 rose colour, and everything green in tones from yellow 
 to russet, somewhat like what it appears to us in autumn. 
 
 ^ The Koran does not as yet know the blue colour either, however 
 much it speaks of the heavens. On the other hand, the Arabic philo- 
 sopher Al-Kindi in the ninth century wrote a treatise " On the Nature 
 of the Sphere and the constant Azure-like Hue which is observed in the 
 Direction towards Heaven." Nor is the blue sky mentioned in th^e 
 Edda hymns. In the Alvis-hymn, igroen (all-green) is enumerated 
 among the names of the earth, but among the appellations of the sky 
 enumerated by the side of them none refers to its colour. ^ 
 
56 ON COLOUR-SENSE. 
 
 " If," he says, " one leaves conversation with them to 
 chance, and interrogates them only on objects lying 
 before them, one becomes quite confused and is afraid 
 of going mad. With a little method, however, one may 
 come considerably nearer an understanding of the law 
 of this abnormity." In these words Goethe at once 
 pretty accurately describes what we feel in attempt- 
 ing to determine the real value of the ancient terms 
 for colours. Without venturing actually to draw a 
 comparison between the two conditions,^ I must never- 
 theless be allowed to state that the agreement with 
 regard to green appears to me even more striking than 
 that respecting blue. 
 
 I The colour green is met with in antiquity one stage 
 farther back than the blue, then to disappear likewise. 
 Naturally people saw green objects while there was 
 vegetation on earth; and if the heavens from holy 
 causes engaged their attention, the earth, on which 
 they and their cattle fed, could not interest them less. 
 Yet the ten books of Kigveda hymns, though they 
 frequently mention the earth, no more bestow on it 
 the epithet green than on the heavens that of blue. 
 They speak of trees, herbs, and fodder-grass, of ripe 
 branches, lovely fruit, food-yielding mountains, of sow- 
 ing and ploughing, but never of green fields. Still 
 more surprising is the same phenomenon in the Zenda- 
 vesta. In that book the interest in the earth and its 
 fertility is still more prominent ; the condition of the 
 people resulting from it is founded on agriculture ; the 
 
 ^ Cf. Dr. Brandis's letter on the subject in Goethe's works, vol. xl. 
 p. 49. 
 
-^.05^; -A -'- 
 
 ON COLOUR-SENSE. 57 
 
 tillers of the soil occupy the third rank, by the side of 
 warriors and priests. In an apostrophe to the personi- 
 fied holy sacrificial plant Haoma we read, " I praise the 
 earth, the wide, broad, fertile, patient, that bore thee ; 
 I praise the soil where thou didst grow in fragrance." 
 The trees are designated as fruitful, beautiful, shot up, 
 mighty, and, finally, in one passage, too, as golden-hued, 
 with reference to the gold of the fruits. As regards the 
 Greeks, %Xo>/)09, which Hesiod uses of a green bough, 
 in the Homeric poems almost everywhere quite un- 
 mistakably signifies yellow: it alternates with w%/oo9, 
 whence our Ocher (ochre) is derived. Only in a later DW^z^C)'a 
 hymn to Apollo the same epithet bears the sense of the 
 green of the mountain and the visible impression of the 
 vegetable kingdom, which till then we find taken notice 
 of only from the aspect of its utility, -i.e., in so far as 
 it is appreciable by the taste. Yet the Greek word 
 has never wholly acquired the meaning of our green, 
 but always only that of a beginning of that colour, 
 including yellow; and so late as in the Aristotelian 
 "Book of Colours" it is contrasted with the proper 
 green, which is paraphrased by " grass- coloured " or 
 " leek- coloured." 
 
 Another remarkable instance of the difference in the 
 conception of a natural phenomenon at different periods 
 is the rainhow. Aristotle, in his " Meteorology," calls it 
 tri- coloured, viz., red, yellow, and green. Two cen- 
 turies before, Xenophanes had said, " What they call 
 Iris is likewise a cloud, purple, reddish, and yellow in 
 appearance ; " where he leaves out the green, or, at all 
 
58 ON COLOUR-SENSE. 
 
 events, does not clearly define it. In the Edda, too, 
 the rainbow is explained to be a tri-coloured bridge. 
 
 Democritus and the Pythagoreans assumed four fun- 
 damental colours, hlack, white, red, and yellow, a con- 
 ception which for a long time obtained in antiquity.^ 
 Nay, ancient writers (Cicero, Pliny, and Quintilian) 
 state it as a positive fact that the Greek painters, 
 down to the time of Alexander, employed only those 
 four colours. This has been deemed incredible, since, 
 with such appliances, neither the green of the earth 
 nor the blue of the sky could be represented. But 
 whatever may be thought of the statement of those 
 writers, judging from the above-mentioned analogies, 
 this objection does not warrant us to pronounce it 
 false. There is nothing at all contradictory in the 
 assumption that those times did not yet feel the want 
 of representing the colours of the heavens and the earth. 
 
 In one passage of the Zendavesta we have found the 
 blossoms designated as fragrant ; in the Veda hymns I 
 have not met with a similar epithet. The sense of 
 fragrance too — and this remark will perhaps not be 
 found quite unserviceable as an analogy for the ques- 
 tions concerning the sense of sight — has not been at all 
 times innate in man. The custom of offering incense 
 with the sacrifice is not yet met with in the Rigveda, 
 though it is found in the more recent Yadshurveda. 
 Among the biblical books, the sense of the fragrance 
 
 1 The Chinese have since olden times assumed five colours, viz., 
 green in addition to the above. The same we meet with among Arabic 
 philosophers. 
 
I 
 
 ON COL UR-SENSE. 5 9 
 
 of flowers first makes its appearance in the " Song of 
 Songs." According to the description in Genesis, there 
 were in Paradise all kinds of trees " that were pleasant 
 to the sight and good for food." The apocryphal book 
 of Henoch (of the last century before Christ, or still 
 somewhat later), extant in Ethiopian, likewise describes 
 Paradise, but does not omit to extol the delightful fra- 
 grance of the Tree of Knowledge as well as of other trees 
 of Paradise. That the sense of fragrance is not innate " 
 may be proved from language too ; and though it may 
 not be always advisable to draw an exact parallel be- 
 tween the development of the child and that of the 
 human race, yet in this case it is instru,ctive to observe 
 how indifferent children for a long time continue to — 
 fragrance, and even to bad odours. The objection that 
 among the keen senses of savage tribes the sense of 
 smell plays a prominent part is only an apparent one. 
 Scent by means of the sense of smell materially differs ^ 
 from the sensibility to pleasant or unpleasant sensa- 
 tions that lie in the perception of odour itself ; nay, the 
 two perhaps bear an inverse ratio to each other. As 
 regards the brute creation the fact is self-evident. The 
 dog is distinguished for his scent ; but how much soever 
 this animal is extolled for his good and human-like 
 qualities, his greatest admirer would hardly be tempted 
 to gladden his dog with a nosegay. 
 
 The sense of euphony or the pleasure of hearing has 
 a similar history. That sense is not innate in man 
 either. Man does not sing " as the bird sings that lives 
 in the branches." There is no natural song any more than 
 
6o ON COLOUR-SENSE. 
 
 there is any natural plastic art. Art has its laborious 
 reflected development, and with it the sense of art is 
 developed. Here the results of linguistic science meet 
 most decidedly those of physics and physiology. 
 
 In returning to the subject of colour- sense, I should 
 like to try and unroll before you, in however concise 
 a completeness, the picture which I have gathered 
 from a thousand details of the literatures and lin- 
 guistic history of the human race. But I will only 
 detain you some minutes longer in order to add a few 
 words on the range of colours known to the earliest ages. 
 In the genuine ancient Veda hymns there is not only 
 no green, but even their yellow is not the pure colour 
 of our spectrum. In the course of centuries the words 
 signifying yellow lapse into the signification of green ; 
 in earlier times they themselves spring from roots by 
 which gold is wont to be named, ^.e., from yellow-red 
 and red-brown. When in the pictorial representations 
 in ancient Egyptian tomb-chambers we see the black- 
 red-golden sun-fans carried about, we are reminded of 
 the vast historical background on which is exhibited a 
 primitive type of many a modern object. There really 
 seems to have existed a Uack-red-golden age in the his- 
 tory of the sense of sight. The genuine Eigveda hymns 
 represent this stage in contrast to the white-yellow- 
 red-black of the nascent Greek natural philosophy. In 
 these hymns white is scarcely as yet distinguished 
 from red. 
 
 The circumstance that the colour-terms originate 
 according to a definite succession, and originate so 
 
ON COLOUR-SENSE, 6i 
 
 everywhere, must have a common cause. This cause 
 cannot consist in the primarily defective distinction 
 merely, for in the earliest times the colour of the 
 sky is by no means called black or gold-yellow, which 
 would be the proximately fittest word for its desig- 
 nation, but no mention at all is made of it. It 
 would seem, indeed, that we must assume a gra- 
 dually and regularly rising sensibility to impressions 
 of colour, analogous to that which renders glaring 
 contrasts of colour so unbearable to a cultivated taste, 
 while the uneducated taste loves them. Perhaps, too,-^ 
 the intensity of the original impressions decreases in 
 proportion as their extent and multir.Ticity increases. 
 To men in the earliest antiquity at least the sense of 
 the colours familiar to them was exceedingly keen and ' 
 lively. The three phenomena upon which in reality the 
 three colour-notions of that time were based — the night, 
 the dawn, and the sun — produced an impression on the 
 people of those times such as we are now scarcely able 
 to conceive or to feel. The dualism of Hack and red 
 stands out in very marked features as a first and most 
 primitive period of all colour-sense behind the one 
 hitherto described. But even this dualistic epoch is 
 not without a recognisable beginning either. We can 
 by the aid of etymology arrive at a still earlier stage, 
 when the notions of black and red coalesce in the vague 
 conception of something coloured. ^ 
 
 The final decision as regards the nature of this whole 
 development will only be come to by the co-operation 
 of two scientific disciplines. It will not be possible, 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 n 
 
\^ 
 
 62 ON COLOUR-SENSE. 
 
 without availing ourselves of the important progress 
 and discoveries which have been made in the most 
 recent times precisely in the way of explaining the 
 perception of colour; but neither will it be possible 
 without a regard to the intimate connection of the 
 i entire development of language and ideas, and to its 
 bearing on sensation and conception. Here a whole 
 world of antique relics for our investigation lies hidden, 
 not in fragments, but in unbroken, well-connected links. 
 The whole chain of development of each of our ideas 
 up to its most primitive form is lying buried before 
 us in words, and is awaiting its excavation by linguistic 
 science. 
 
 I have ventured to appear before you with a view to 
 indicate the results to which this science is capable of 
 leading us. Would I had succeeded in making you, 
 gentlemen, share my own conviction that the time has 
 ' arrived when linguistic and physical science, conscious 
 of their common aims, must join hands. As the organ- 
 ism, notwithstanding the twofold manifestation of its 
 existence, constitutes an indivisible unity, so only undi- 
 vided science can lead to a knowledge of it — the science 
 of nature, vast, entire, and indivisible. 
 
 F.S. — It is not without some hesitation that I sub- 
 mit the above lecture to the public at large. It could 
 only be a coinpressed and scanty extract from extensive 
 researches made already ten years ago, and ever since, 
 from time to time, gone into again and completed ; so 
 that I am all the more fully aware how much there is 
 still left for competent and reflecting readers to supply 
 
ON COLOUR-SENSE. 63 
 
 and to object to in its present form. To avoid the 
 semblance of a completeness which time and place of 
 delivery forbade me, I have even foreborne to add the 
 more particular references to the passages quoted. I 
 hope, however, soon to be able to publish all the facts 
 bearing upon the questions here mooted, and must entreat 
 my readers meanwhile to suspend their judgment on 
 any doubtful point. As regards the general inferences, 
 too, a fuller examination of many facts stated will 
 naturally tend to modify them. Since, however, on the 
 other hand, they likewise partly depend on the decision 
 as to the relation between ideas and words, notions and 
 sensations, I beg in this respect to refer to my inquiries 
 into Language and Eeason, of which the first volume is 
 in the press. What encourages me to do so is the 
 indulgent and appreciative, and to me highly gratifying, 
 manner in which the above lecture has been listened to 
 by an assembly which numbers the most unprejudiced 
 thinkers and investigators of Germany among its mem- 
 bers. The universality of German physical sdence — 
 a noble acquisition of perhaps only the last decennia — 
 vouches for its having a great future, which promises to 
 embrace all the interests of the human race. 
 
( 64 ) 
 
 IV. 
 
 On the Origin of Writing. 
 
 [Read before the General Meeting of the German Oriental Society at 
 Wiirzburg, October 3, 1868.] 
 
 If I undertake to submit for renewed investigation 
 to a meeting of highly honoured colleagues the ques- 
 tion as to the origin of writing, it is not my inten- 
 tion once more here to discuss before you the origin 
 of alphabetic writing, or of any other fully developed 
 system. I rather propose to treat here the prehistoric 
 beginnings of writing, so far as they may be inferred 
 from the course which their development has taken 
 since their appearance in history, and from other ana- 
 logies. Only in this sense I beg you will permit me 
 to take a brief survey of what has been revealed to 
 us by historical discoveries about the origin of the 
 systems of writing at present in use. The alphabets 
 proper, it is well known, radiate, notwithstanding 
 all their variety, from but a few centres. We not 
 only know that our European characters are all pri- 
 marily of Greek and secondarily of Semitic origin, but 
 through Professor Mommsen's researches we also know 
 exactly in what way the Italic alphabets have deve- 
 
ON THE ORIGIN OF WRITING. 65 
 
 loped. The Gothic alphabet of Ulfilas is not less of 
 Greek origin than the Cyrillian of the Slavs ; nay, even 
 the Kunes are undoubtedly a form of development from 
 the same source, having probably come at an early 
 date to the Gauls by way of Massilia, and from them 
 to the Teutons.^ Professor Albrecht Weber has made 
 a Semitic origin of the Indian Devanagari, too, appear 
 very probable, whereby a great number of Asiatic sys- 
 tems of writing are referred to the same source, since not 
 only the indigenous systems of Hindostan and Farther 
 India, such as Bengali, Uriya, Telinga, Tamil, as well 
 as the Burmese and Javanese systems, but also the 
 Tibetan, are offsprings or sister-system^; of the Devana- 
 gari. The writings of the Mongols, Tunguses, and 
 Manchus, as Klaproth has already observed, are formed 
 out of the Syrian by changing the horizontal into the 
 upright position of the Chinese columns. If we add 
 to these the still preserved characters of the funda- 
 mental Semitic alphabet itself in its Hebrew, Ethio- 
 pian, Samaritan, Zend or Middle Persian, Syrian, and 
 Arabic branches, and if we further consider that the 
 latter branch has been adopted by the Turks, Per- 
 sians, Malays, and the Hindustani, we cannot but be 
 astonished at the capability in such a discovery of 
 being diffused from one point. Permit me only, for the 
 sake of completeness, to mention the two youngest and 
 
 ^ Lauth, on the contrary, assumes the German Runes to have come 
 from the Teutons to the Gauls, and at the same time gives a different 
 and satisfactory explanation of the passage in Tacitus, which has been 
 construed to imply the un acquaintance of the Germans with alphabetic 
 writing, by referring it to a merely epistolary intercourse. 
 
 E 
 
66 ON THE ORIGIN OF WRITING. 
 
 not least noteworthy scions of our alphabet, which are 
 not borrowed from it, but merely invented in imitation of 
 it from vague report, viz., the writing of the Cherokees, 
 invented by Sequoyah about 1823, and that of the 
 Negroes of the Vei country, dating ten years later, by 
 Doalu Bukere. The two inventions present interesting 
 points of agreement. Both the Indian and the African 
 inventor, by observing the epistolary intercourse of the 
 Europeans, were set to reflect on the possibility of 
 writing their mother tongue ; both had an imperfect 
 knowledge of the English alphabet. Neither of them set 
 up an alphabetic, but both a syllabic writing. Sequoyah, 
 indeed, had at first set up, as the Vei writing had, about 
 200 characters, but subsequently reduced them to 85. 
 Leaving these psychologically interesting phenomena 
 of the most recent times out of the question, of all 
 the modes of writing in use on the whole earth, only 
 the Chinese and the syllabic writing of the Japanese, 
 formed out of it, may be with certainty excluded from 
 the universal descent from the one Semitic alphabet. 
 But the ever-memorable discoveries of the present 
 century have made us acquainted, in the Egyptian 
 hieroglyphs, with a most remarkable antique parallel 
 to the Chinese; in various species of arrow-headed 
 writing with very complete alphabets ; in the Assyrian 
 with an intermediate stage between word- and syllabic- 
 writing, promising the most important clues; and by 
 the side of these we have the hieroglyphs of the abori- 
 gines of America, being an as yet unsolved though not 
 insolvable problem. Have we thus arrived at a last 
 
ON THE ORIGIN OF WRITING. 67 
 
 and radical variety ? Do the three systems of picture- 
 writing of the Egyptians, Chinese, and Americans, the 
 mixed system of the Assyrians, and, finally, the alpha- 
 betic writings of the Persians and Semites, offer ns at 
 least six independent solutions of the gigantic problem 
 as to the exhibition of our ideas to the eye ? Although 
 the time for the final decision of this question has not 
 yet arrived, I cannot forbear stating it as my conviction 
 that such a sixfold origin of the most marvellous art 
 which it was at all possible for man to create appears 
 to me incredible. Nay, from what has in other respects 
 forced itself upon my mind as probable with regard 
 to a primeval intercourse between the entire human 
 race, the diffusion of that art from one common centre 
 seems by no means impossible. The original home of 
 the alphabet destined to such wide dissemination was 
 doubtless Babylon, which, since Professor Bockh, we 
 have known to be the starting-point of the system of 
 weights and measures universally adopted in antiquity, 
 and come down thence to us, and the importance of 
 which to astronomy and mathematics is perhaps not 
 even yet sufficiently appreciated. The names of the 
 letters of the Hebrew alphabet are of Chaldean origin ; 
 at least the occurrence of the camel as the name of 
 the third letter precludes our thinking of Palestine 
 proper. The Phoenicians may indeed have been the 
 disseminators, but cannot have been the inventors, of 
 the alphabet. Although the connecting links are not 
 yet discovered, according to all analogy hardly any one, 
 considering the close vicinity, will be inclined to be- 
 
68 ON THE ORIGIN OF WRITING. 
 
 lieve that the ancient Persian alphabetic writing should 
 have had a second independent origin. But I ask, did 
 this Persian mode of writing originate independently 
 of the varieties of the cuneiform writing connected with 
 it, especially independently of the Assyrian ? Should 
 not Egypt have been able to influence Assyrian writing 
 in the earliest time, in the same way as at a later period 
 Assyrian influence on the hieroglyphs becomes percep- 
 tible ? The similarity of the principle of Semitic writing 
 to that of the hieroglyphics, expressing as these do only 
 the initial consonant of the word represented in the 
 ) picture, was noticed already by Champollion at an early 
 date.i 
 
 On the other hand, the most ancient pictures, which, 
 <^«A,\/wvv\^ according to Prof. Oppert, belong to a Scythian or Tura- 
 nian people, and from which the arrow-headed forms 
 are derived, have in them something that, as regards at 
 least their general impression, reminds one of the an- 
 cient Tchuen writing of the Chinese. Considered on the 
 whole, there is no reason why we should think a trans- 
 mission, at a very early period, of the rudiments of a 
 system of writing from one people and part of the earth 
 to another impossible. Nay, the traces discovered by 
 
 1 Already, in his "Lettre a M. Dacier," Champollion expresses 
 himself clearly on this subject. He says, " J'oserai dire plus : il serait 
 possible de retrouver, dans cette ancienne ecriture phonetique egyp- 
 tienne, quelque imparfaite qu'elle soit en elle-meme, sinon I'origine, 
 du moins le modele sur lequel peuvent avoir ete caiques les alphabets 
 des peuples de I'Asie occidentale," &c. After dwelling upon the resem- 
 blance of the two systems, he arrives at the conclusion, and says : 
 *' C'est dire enfin que I'Europe, qui regut de la vieille Egypte les ele- 
 ments des sciences et des arts, lui devrait encore 1' inappreciable bien- 
 fait de I'ecriture alphabetique. " 
 
ON THE ORIGIN OF WRITING. 69 
 
 Alexander von Humboldt of an intercourse that once ,, 
 existed between Mexico and Eastern Asia do not even 
 wholly exclude a migration of picture-writing as far 
 as those parts. But as all this must still remain 
 simply an hypothesis, we may meanwhile be quite 
 satisfied with the inner unity which, so far as any 
 mode of writing had a natural development, is every- 
 where conspicuous. It may perhaps 'be regarded as 
 an acknowledged fact, which only does not always 
 admit of proof owing to the lack of authorities to refer 
 to, that every phonetic symbol springs from a pictorial 
 representation. As every element of language, even 
 derivative syllables at present all b^'t meaningless, 
 originally had its signification, so every letter was origi- 
 nally a picture. This statement, however, must not 
 be understood to imply that writing once originated in 
 a species of painting, or that the first representation 
 of man's ideas were paintings. Even if we leave all 
 secondary employments of Chinese and Egyptian hiero- 
 glyphics out of consideration, and assume a period 
 when writing consisted only of the sensuous copies 
 of things, such as a man, the sun, a bird, it does not 
 on that account become — what misconception has to 
 this day made of the Mexican — the total representation 
 of an event intended for the eye instead of for the 
 mind. That writing is a s^^bol for language, has been 
 already said by Aristotle, and the definition is verified / 
 by the hieroglyphics up to their very first origin. 
 Even where the word and the thing coincide, the pic- 
 ture is only the symbol of the word : it is intended 
 
70 ON THE ORIGIN OF WRITING. 
 
 to awaken language, to remind ns of a sound, not of a 
 thing ; to speak through the eye to the ear, not imme- 
 diately to reason. Writing, in fact, is not an object for 
 mute contemplation; it wants reading — loud reading. 
 Kot like figures in a painting, but as words are co- 
 ordinated to sentences, so must these pictures be com- 
 bined to the totality of an action. They also represent 
 the symbolised word to the whole extent of its idea, 
 and not only from its symbolised side. Or can it be 
 supposed that the Chinese picture for the sun ever 
 signified the word shi only in the sense of sun and 
 not likewise in that of day ? That is quite impossible. 
 Precisely in the earliest time man with his whole 
 reason was so completely under the dominion of the 
 word, that necessarily a picture would signify what 
 its name was, and be understood as it sounded when 
 read. 
 
 It is well known in what way the hieroglyphics 
 could dwindle down to phonetic symbols, aye, even 
 to mere letters. But in their earliest form they in- 
 variably denoted words, never anythiug more. The 
 fundamental law of the development of writing is the 
 gradually growing independence of the sound, while 
 at first sound and conception are represented as not 
 divorced from each other. Of course not every word 
 comes at once to be represented; those have prece- 
 dence the conception of which, from its corresponding 
 to something shaped, invites representation. Already 
 at an early period the word-pictures contained more 
 than could be conveyed in a drawing which had to 
 
ON THE ORIGIN OF WRITING. 71 
 
 start from a far more limited object than the concep- 
 tion of the word in all its bearings. The process of 
 painting in words conquers a wider territory for the 
 meanings of a sign : it gives the same sound a wider 
 scope, seeking for conceptions which seem to coincide 
 with what it originally denotes. 
 
 The first mode, however, of multiplying signs by the 
 representation of such words as, after the invention of 
 word-pictures — which are to writing what roots are to 
 language — had been brought to an end, had not fitted 
 in with any of those extant, was that of forming col- 
 lective pictures by juxtaposition. The Chinese simple 
 pictures g shi, " sun," and^ yue, " mor.n," signify when 
 placed together, the word ming, " lustre " ( 0y^ ). It can 
 hardly be supposed that we have here the abstract idea 
 of lustre as a quality of both heavenly bodies pre- 
 sented to us; but the first meaning represented was 
 undoubtedly morning, being the time when the sun is 
 seen in the heavens simultaneously with the moon, — 
 the meeting of day and night. Thus the morning-star is 
 called 'ki-ming ( B^ y^^ Shi-King, ii. 5, 9), properly 
 speaking, "opening the morning," ming-shi, "to-mor- 
 row ; " and the employment of the word for the future 
 likewise proceeds from this meaning. Another repre- 
 sentation of the idea of morning is the picture of the 
 word tdn, " morning, day,'' EJ , representing the sun 
 above the horizon. If below this sign that of the moon 
 too is placed, so that the latter is represented as below, 
 
 the sun as above, the horizon, there arises ^^^ the 
 
72 ON THE ORIGIN OF WRITING. 
 
 picture of the word ydng, " sunrise, bright sky, bright- 
 ness." But the sun above the moon, ^^ , signifies the 
 
 word I, " change," which e.g., is met with in the name 
 of the book I-King. The sign evidently represents the 
 moon as alternating with the sun, that is to say, the 
 alternation of day and night. The first phonetic signs 
 seem to have proceeded from an enlarged use of the 
 pictures for homonymous words, similar in idea but 
 
 yet distinguishable.^ The sign ^ for tsing, signifying 
 
 the blue and green colours, combined with the sign -j— }- 
 for thsao, " plant," form the nearly homonymous word 
 tsing, " flourishing, luxuriant " (Shi, ii. 3, 2), and with the 
 
 ^ for m%, " rice, food," the ^ ^ for 'tsing, " ripe, full 
 
 grown, finished, able." The pictures for " growth" or for 
 " rice " certainly never denoted the words tsing, 'tsing ; 
 but it is probable that the sign representing colour was 
 also once used for them, and only subsequently received 
 the explanatory supplement defining the idea. The 
 
 same holds good of / ^ 'tsing, " pure," of fluids (Shi, ii. 
 
 5, 10, 6, 6; iii. i, 5 ; iv. 3, 2), which is combined with 
 
 the notional sign 'Y for water. We must not imagine 
 
 that a character ever proceeded from an idea without 
 
 ^ Professor Steinthal, too ("The Development of "Writing," p. 94), 
 finds the bridge between notional and phonetic writing ' ' where the 
 identity of the sound of two words coincides with a cognate significa- 
 tion." The description of the phonetic element of Egyptian and 
 Chinese writing and its development is perhaps the most beautiful, 
 and, according to my conviction, most successful, portion of that bril- 
 liant treatise. 
 
ON THE ORIGIN OF WRITING. 73 
 
 regard to the sound, since the remoter the period, the 
 more the former was extant in the latter only for the 
 conception, and the mind was chained to the word. 
 Not the designation of the sound, but its independent 
 designation, detached from the idea, forms the essen- 
 tial feature of the higher stage of writing. All that 
 we know of the nature of Mexican writing shows 
 us that it is subject to the same laws. The same 
 difference that we observe between the Egyptian pic- 
 tures and the hieroglyphics accompanying them is 
 equally to be remarked among the Mexican. Even as 
 regards the Chinese characters, it took a long time before 
 Europe came to know to what extent "they are phonetic 
 WTiting. The French missionaries, who read these 
 characters with ease, who understood the language in 
 which they are written, who lived in the country where 
 they were constantly employed and where the principle 
 of their composition was perfectly understood, enter- 
 tained, nevertheless, the most erroneous ideas of their 
 figurative signification. It was reserved for M. Abel 
 E(^musat to disseminate more correct notions on this 
 subject. What trouble it cost to gain the convic- 
 tion that the Egyptian hieroglyphics have a phonetic 
 value, how isolated and obscure are the utterances on 
 this matter of the elder writers down to ChampoUion, 
 who, in his turn, was aided by the light thrown on 
 Chinese writing and justly often refers to it, is notorious. 
 We need certainly, therefore, not wonder at Spanish 
 writers who represent Mexican picture-writing as 
 consisting of actual paintings. But it is with this 
 
74 ON THE ORIGIN OF WRITING. 
 
 exactly as with the two other modes of writing similar 
 to it. On a closer inspection we find in all of them 
 the contrast to ours indeed great enough, but not so 
 absolute as at first sight it appeared. We find the 
 true and irreconcilable contrast between writing and 
 painting by no means annulled in them ; the picture 
 represents the thing while writing represents the word, 
 and in this sense the hieroglyphics of the Mexicans, 
 as well as those of the Egyptians and Chinese, are, 
 no doubt, writing and not pictures. What, therefore, 
 we may designate as the real invention of writing 
 would have been the collection of a limited cycle of 
 pictures of visible objects, each of which reminds 
 us equally of the word, i.e.^ the name of the object. 
 Here writing certainly coincides with drawing, but not 
 in such a way as to necessitate our believing there 
 had previously existed an independent, non-symboli- 
 cal employment of painting. Language points to a re- 
 versed way : the German malen, as derived from Gothic 
 meljan, primarily signifies "to write;" of jpdcfKo the 
 same holds good. The Slavonic pisatj, to whose affinity 
 with the nipistam of the Persian inscriptions Professor 
 Spiegel has drawn attention, signified already among 
 the two Indo-European peoples " to write," while the 
 Greek itolklKo^, and the well-known corresponding 
 Sanskrit words refer to colour. But, I would ask, 
 what was the object of these ancient drawings, and 
 what gave rise to them? It is plain that this ques- 
 tion is inseparable from that as to the earliest employ- 
 ment of writing, its subject-matter, and even the material 
 
ON THE ORIGIN OF WRITING. 75 
 
 on which people wrote. And here, again, language 
 affords us a momentous hint. It is well known that 
 a great number of the words signifying " to write " can 
 be proved to be derived from the signification "to 
 scratch," Fpdcjico and scriho, the English to write, the 
 !N"orthern rista runir, to scratch Eunes, our reissen, 
 Miss, are obvious examples. The same may be said 
 of the Sanskrit root likh. The earliest writing was 
 scratched. But on what ? We see it in the remotest 
 antiquity engraved on rocks and applied to sacred monu- 
 mental purposes. But there are also numerous testi- 
 monies to the process of scratching in wood, and this 
 seems the more likely as regards the jirimitive time at 
 which the very first beginnings of writing took their 
 origin. I would remind you of the Chinese wood-tablets 
 which are mentioned in the Shi-King (ii. 8), where a 
 warrior laments, saying, " Why should I not think of my 
 return home ? But I fear the writing on this tablet," 
 i.e., the command written on a wooden tablet. Still 
 simpler and as numerously testified is the process of 
 writing on the bark of trees, especially on that of the 
 birch. Pliny (xvi. 1 3) gives an account of the proceed- 
 ings of spies who carve letters, which are at first invi- 
 sible, in the fresh bark of trees. In our German Zache 
 we have a special word for a sign carved in a tree; 
 it is probably related to the Sanskrit root liJch. In 
 " Yikramorvasi " we meet with a passage spoken of in 
 Professor Max Muller's "History of Ancient Sanskrit 
 Literature," where Urvasi writes a love-letter on a 
 
76 ON THE ORIGIN OF WRITING. 
 
 birch leaf, i.e., a leaf of birch bark. Even in " Simpli- 
 cissimus" we still read of a book written on birch 
 bark. But if we inquire more searchingly into the 
 motives that may have determined the people in 
 primitive times to supersede with such consistency 
 as, at least, etymology renders it probable, so simple 
 a process as the spreading of colour by carving, and 
 altogether if we seriously ask ourselves what might 
 have been their immediate motive for writing or 
 drawing, we shall perhaps be induced to go a step 
 farther guided by language. A closer observation of 
 nearly all the words used for the idea of writing 
 seems to go a considerable way towards proving 
 that the writing material which floated, as it were, 
 before language in bestowing these appellations was 
 no other than the human body; in other words, that 
 writing has developed from tattooing. The special 
 direction which the development of the meaning has 
 in each case taken is a subject never to be neglected 
 in tracing the historical root of a word-notion. Thus, 
 e.g., it would be insufficient to have set up in rypdcpco, 
 " to write," a general primary meaning of " to grave," 
 and we should be even absolutely wrong if we 
 attempted to find the connecting link between the 
 two ideas in stone or wood writing. Eor the Greek 
 word has its definite history; before it acquired its 
 special meaning to write, it already had a special 
 signification, which was not that of chiselling and 
 hewing of stone and wood, but quite distinctly the 
 
ON THE ORIGIN OF WRITING. 77 
 
 scratching into the skin. Its idea is in the first 
 instance connected, not indeed with sculpo, ry\v(f)Q}, 
 but with scal^po and fyXdcpco. Homer seven times uses 
 the word with its derivations of slight wounds caused 
 by missiles, of hurts in the skin, grazing or flaying, also 
 of scratching with thorns ; once, too, iiriypdcpco occurs 
 in the " Iliad " of the sign which is scratched on the lot; 
 once ypacjxo in the much-discussed passage (vi. 167 sq.) 
 where Proitos "dreads indeed to kill Bellerophon, 
 but sends him to Lycia, giving him sad signs, after 
 having scratched many fatal ones on a folded tablet, 
 which he commands him to show his father-in-law, so 
 that he may perish." The reference to the skin, 
 moreover, is still extant in the later word jpaTrrT]^, 
 " wrinkled." To the word ypicj^ao-daL, which Professor 
 Benfey very correctly places by the side of scriho, " to 
 write," Hesychius ascribes the additional meanings in 
 the Laconic dialect of " to scrape " and " pluck " {^vetv, 
 (TKvXkeLv). The Hebrew sefer, "writing," may in the 
 same way be explained by the Chaldean sappar, " to 
 shear," mispera, "shears," for which, according to all 
 analogy, we may assume the scraping of the skin to have 
 been the fundamental idea. The word Jcatah, common 
 to the Semitic family, occurs at such an early date as 
 Semitic writing is mentioned at all (Lev. xix. 28), in 
 the prohibition "not to print any marks upon" the 
 skin, and the hetdbet there used seems to be a deriva- 
 tive expressly intended to convey the sense of tattooing, 
 which is thereby at the same time indicated as, accord- 
 
78 ON THE ORIGIN OF WRITING, 
 
 ing to all appearance, a religious practice among the 
 Semitic peoples.^ 
 
 The word " tattoo " is borrowed from the Marquesas 
 dialect of the Oceanic family of languages, its form 
 there being tatu. In the language of the Sandwich 
 
 ^ In connection with the above lecture, Professor Fleischer has 
 added from the Arabic a considerable number of examples of the transi- 
 tion of the idea from scratching to writing, but expressed his dissent 
 with regard to the derivation of hataba from the same fundamental 
 idea, and, comparing it with ^-afiSa^ww, "army," kattaba, ** collecting 
 such a one, levying " — though it is to be presumed without associating 
 with it the idea of conscription — assumed for it the signification of 
 joining, stringing together. I will not attempt to oppose such a 
 meaning of the root in question, and am ready to acknowledge that 
 the parallel quoted by Professor Fleischer is well worthy of attention. 
 Yet, apart from the consideration that the words quoted might be 
 kept wholly distinct from the root signifying "to write," a root 
 having two quite diiferent significations being notoriously nothing 
 uncommon in Semitic languages, two further explanations appear 
 to me admissible. First, the meaning "host" might equally with 
 the German word Schar be derived from "separating" as well as from 
 "joining," and go back to the primary sense of "scratching" assumed 
 for hataba, which would be connected with qasab, "to split, to 
 shear," chasab, "to carve," e.g., writing on rocks, and the like. But, 
 secondly, there are some positive instances in which the idea of 
 counting proceeds from that of writing, i.e., in the sense of "making 
 strokes." Thus the Kafir word bala signifies to "write," "count," 
 and "reckon," and finally, too, to " relate ; " and yet the words here 
 formed of the root with the meanings of "sign," " stain," " colour," 
 show writing to be the fundamental idea. Dohne in his Zulu Kafir 
 Dictionary (Cape Town, 1857) expresses himself on this subject on 
 the whole very correctly thus : ' ' The original idea of writing and 
 numbering with the Kafir Avas that of representing things by a simple 
 figure, and coincides with those of other nations. If a description of 
 a thing was to be given, a certain shape, form, stroke, or line was 
 made in the sand, or in the ground. These were the signs for both 
 writing and numbering, every new number being represented by 
 another stroke or mark. Or, if this practice was not convenient for 
 counting, one finger of the hand was raised instead of a stroke in the 
 ground. The sense of writing is, therefore, primary, and that of 
 counting secondary." Compare with this, too, the above-mentioned 
 
ON THE ORIGIN OF WRITING. 79 
 
 Islands k is substituted for the missing t; the word 
 hakau, "to write," belonging to it, does not there- 
 fore materially differ from tatu. In the language of 
 the Marquesas itself, too, tatau means "to read, cipher, 
 draw." Another word, common to both dialects, with 
 
 significations "to reckon," **to draw," in the word tatau of the 
 Marquesas Islands. The analogy of ideas here quoted from quite 
 distant spheres of language, on the nature of which in general I beg 
 to refer the reader to the first volume of my work, " Ursprung und 
 Entwickelung der menschlichen Sprache und Vernunft " ("On the 
 Origin and Evolution of Human Speech and Eeason," Stuttgart, 
 J. G. Cotta, 1868) — the above lecture is only an abridged extract 
 from a chapter of the as yet unpublished second volume — seems to 
 me important, too, for the history of the Hebrew root safar, of 
 which Fiirst justly lays down three principal* meanings in the 
 folloAving order :— i. To incise, write ; 2. to count, appropriately 
 to make incisions, marks ; and 3. to relate. While, namely, 
 safar means only "to count," and sipper (in the Piel), "to 
 count" and "relate" (subsequently also "to speak," e.g., "Adam 
 spoke Aramean," Synh. 38b.), and the substantive derivation 
 mispar and some others less in use convey the same meaning, sefer 
 mostly signifies "book, " often, too, "document, letter, "in some passages 
 the material on which was "WTitten, besides absolutely " wiiting," to, 
 ypd/xfiara, e.g., " to teach the wiiting and language of the Chaldeans" 
 (Dan. i. 4); the prophet Isaiah expresses "to know to read" (xxix, 
 1 1, 12) by yada sefer. The sense of "register," which the word, Gen. v. i, 
 may be taken to bear, is intermediate between to count and WTite ; and 
 the same applies to the remarkable word sofer. This word evidently 
 denoted the dignitary whom we find represented on Egyptian and 
 Assyrian monuments with the writing tablet or scroll in the act of 
 recording, and might therefore be translated by "writer" as well as by 
 " teller, recorder." In the post-biblical language the word appears in 
 quite a different meaning, viz., as scholar. Only with reference to 
 Ezra we meet with this signification also in several biblical passages. 
 Should it here be only a change made in the spirit of the time in the 
 case of Ezra's title, which perhaps he had brought with him from 
 Babylon in quite a different sense ? For the rest, the honourable title 
 in the passages in question seems only intended to express that Ezra 
 was able to read well (see especially 'Neh. viii. and Ezra vii 6) ; at 
 most perhaps that he was well read {litteratus), i.e., in the law ; and I 
 Vfould here render it rather by " reader " than " scribe" {i.e., writer). 
 
8o ON THE ORIGIN OF WRITING. 
 
 a slight variation, is tiki — in the Sandwich Islands, 
 hihi — " to tattoo, paint, write." It also means " carved 
 image," in which sense it springs from " token " (sign), 
 like signum. A New Zealand tomb, too, an illustra- 
 tion of which is given in Hochstetter's " Neuseeland " 
 
 The meaning "scholar*" doubtless proceeds from sefer in the sense of 
 writing, art of reading ; a " scholar " was originally he that could read 
 and write, for this earliest import of grammar and the grammarian 
 {ypa/x/j-aTiK-^, ypafifiartKds) was for some time the sum total of all 
 erudition. When matters changed, sofer not only received the idea of 
 learned man (scribe, ypafifiareiLis), but even that of elementary teacher, 
 as conveyed by the Greek word ypa/x/xaTLari^s ; nay, as the once rare 
 learning had passed on to the children, we meet even with a Talmudic 
 passage (of the third century) where the Abecedarians are called Soferini 
 (Kidd. iv. 13). Another Talmudical passage (Kidd, 30) derives this (at 
 that time obsolete) appellation of the ' ' former " scholars from the sig- 
 nification "to count," i.e., as of those who had counted the letters of 
 the law. In the latest Hebrew, sofer means scribe {scriba, notarius), 
 copyist (of the law, religious documents, &c.). Now, as regards Jcatab, 
 this root does not occur in Genesis, as, indeed, it is significant that before 
 the exodus from Egypt writing is not spoken of in the Bible, and even 
 sefer only in the passage quoted above (Gen. v. i), in the sense of 
 register. Subsequently Jcatab, as is well known, is the ordinary verbal 
 root for to write, with which the substantive sefer is very frequently 
 connected. But there are also some few passages in which the verb 
 signifies nothing but to count, especially Isa. x. 19, "And the rest 
 of the trees of his forest shall be few, that a child may count (write) 
 them," where mispar too, in the first half of the verse, properly speak- 
 ing, means as much as "what can be counted." Again, "The Lord 
 shall count (yispor), when he writeth up the people, that this man was 
 born there " (Ps. Ixxxvii. 6). Such a use of Jcatab no doubt proceeds 
 from counting by strokes, not from a more complicated notation. If 
 in the first quoted passage the writing of the number in Hebrew letters 
 was perhaps to be conveyed, we have to consider that in them 400 is 
 easier to write than 11, and not much more difficult than i. Accord- 
 ingly the Arabic Jcattbatun too might go back to such a primitive 
 counting in writing and simply mean "number," the rather as the 
 sofer of the ancient Hebrew writings, too, had principally to note 
 down the army (see particularly Isa, lii. 25, 2 Kings xxv. 19, 2 Chron. 
 xxvi. II). Indeed counting by strokes is to be traced back to as early 
 a date as writing in general, and even the employment of the letters 
 of the alphabet as figures was introduced along with it in Europe. 
 
ON THE ORIGIN OF WRITING. 8r 
 
 (p. 20i), was pointed out to him by the natives by the 
 designation of tiki. As regards the original significa- 
 tion of tiki, we gather it from tikao, " to sting, irritate," 
 tikaue, "gnat," tikao and tiko-tiko, "sensual pleasure." 
 According to Wilhelm von Humboldt's statement in 
 " Ueber die Verschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprach- 
 baus" (On the Variety of Structures of Human 
 Languages," p. 406), Jacquet observes "that among 
 those tribes the ideas of writing and tattooing are 
 closely connected." 
 
 In Zimmermann's " Dictionary of the Gang Language," 
 which is spoken by a tribe on the Gold Coast of West 
 Africa, the root nma is explained by ''to scratch" — 
 e.g., the face—" to make strokes or signs, to write." In 
 the Burmese language koh (according to Schleier- 
 macher) means "to scratch," as children do, and "to 
 write." The same transition is found in the Kafir 
 word loba. 
 
 In order to find a similar connection of the two 
 ideas among the ancient civilised nations probable, 
 we should remember the testimony we have to the 
 early and widely diffused practice of marking the 
 body with signs scratched in. Tattooing itself occurs 
 among the savage tribes in Europe and Asia, as well 
 as in the more recently discovered parts of the earth. 
 Of the Kabyls it is reported that, by way of dis- 
 tinguishing their tribes, they wear pictures of aninaals 
 on the forehead, nose, temples, or on one of the cheeks ; 
 such tattooing is done by puncturing the skin with fine 
 needles dipped in a caustic fluid. A similar process is 
 
82 ON THE ORIGIN OF WRITING. 
 
 met with everywhere in Central Africa, as well as in 
 the Caroline Archipelago. " Tattooing," says Hero- 
 dotus (v. 6), speaking of the Thracians, " is considered 
 aristocratic ; non-tattooed people are looked down upon 
 as ignoble." Xenophon gives a somewhat more minute 
 description of the same practice among the Mosynoekoi 
 (An. V. 4, 32). He says, "They showed us pampered 
 children of aristocratic parents, who had been fed with 
 boiled chestnuts; they were very delicate and white, 
 and nearly as stout as they were tall; their backs 
 and fronts were tattooed, the former in gaudy colours, 
 the latter all over with marks." Also on the Egyptian 
 monuments of Biban-el-Moluk tattooed men are found 
 depicted. Among the Greeks and Eomans, as we learn 
 from Petronius (Sat. c. 103 sqq}), it was a common 
 practice to brand criminals and slaves, for which latter 
 it seems to have been originally introduced; and equally 
 so among the Persians, of whom Herodotus (vii. 233). 
 reports they ha,d, at Xerxes' orders, branded with the 
 royal mark the Theban deserters at Thermopylae. This 
 practice, which had no other intention but that of dis- 
 tinguishing by some mark, proceeded from tattooing. 
 At all events, we are wrong in giving the Greek word 
 a different sense, especially that of an actual burning 
 in of the mark. It is, in fact, the GTiCiio used for 
 tattooing in the passages quoted. The correspond- 
 ing, punishment of the Chinese has adhered to this 
 original form. It consists in pricking with a needle 
 marks in the flesh of the culprit and then making 
 them durable by a black dye. This process, which 
 
ON THE ORIGIN OF WRITING. 83 
 
 closely resembles tattooing, is called thsi, S ij, and 
 
 Jchinff, p^^f y J||, ^f,. The Manchu word 
 
 for it is sahsimhi (according to von der Gabelentzj, 
 "to brand, to tattoo, and a work with the needle." 
 Perhaps the idea of acupuncture, which in times im- 
 memorial the Chinese employed as a remedy, is like- 
 wise to be traced to the tattooing process, so far as 
 it might be regarded as holy and salutary. Horses 
 were notoriously provided among the Greeks with 
 marks branded in their haunches for the purpose of 
 distinguishing their breed. For this object characters 
 were employed, and their being thus employed was 
 probably as old a practice among the Greeks as alpha- 
 betic writing itself; at least the letter Jccppa, that 
 so early ceased to be used in writing, was among 
 those characters. The Caucasians have to this day 
 a complete and abundant alphabet of signs which 
 likewise serve no other purpose but that of distinguish- 
 ing their horses. 
 
 The Biblical expression, " I will not forget thee 
 (Zion) ; I have graven thee upon the palms of my 
 hands ; thy walls are continually before me " (Isa. xlix. 
 15, 16), may, perhaps, remind us of the practice of 
 tattooing. Equally so the well-known incident 
 reported by Herodotus (v. 35), that Histiseus, w^ith 
 a view by stealth to summon Aristagoras to revolt, 
 shaved a slave, wrote the missive on his head, and, 
 his hair having grown again, despatched him on his 
 errand, points to a sphere of ideas which is not un- 
 
84 ON THE ORIGIN OF WRITING, 
 
 accustomed to regard the human body as writing 
 material. It only remains to be mentioned as note- 
 worthy that Herodotus in the passage cited uses the 
 word earc^e, which proceeds from the idea of tattooing 
 or puncturing. With respect to form, writing presents 
 no contrast to tattooing. Some tribes mark their skin 
 with figures of animals of the most various kinds. Such 
 marks are in form regular pictures like the earliest 
 writing. Mostly, however, the marks scratched in the 
 flesh are linear. Hochstetter says of the sepulchral 
 monuments of the Maoris, the aborigines of New 
 Zealand (" Neuseeland," p. 299), " They are figures four 
 feet high, carved out of wood, round which are hung 
 garments or cloths, and on which the faithful imitation 
 of the tattooed lines on the face of the deceased is the 
 most remarkable feature. By them the Maori knows 
 to whom the monument is erected. Certain lines de- 
 note the name, others the family to which the deceased 
 belonged, and others again the person himself. Close 
 imitation of tattooing in the face, therefore, is to the 
 Maori tantamount to the likeness of a portrait, and 
 he requires no further inscription to know what chief 
 lies buried underneath." The style of drawing here is 
 linear, and it is noteworthy that the words used for 
 " writing " likewise generally have the primary sense 
 of making strokes. From the Greek <ypd(^ay, e.g., the 
 idea of " line," " stroke," rypd/ji/jL7j, is developed in as 
 direct a manner as " writing " and " picture." 
 
 A curious relic of genuine tattooing has been pre- 
 served amidst our very civilisation. Among Euro- 
 
ON THE ORIGIN OF WRITING. 85 
 
 pean sailors, and partly, too, among soldiers, regular 
 gaudy tattooing is still practised. The operation 
 is performed by experts with an instrument quite 
 similar to that described by Cook, viz., composed of 
 stuck-up needles. In this way sailors or soldiers have 
 their arms and chests marked with symbols of their 
 profession ; sometimes, too, regular writing is used. 
 This is doubtless an imitation of savage tribes. 
 
 In some words used to convey the idea of writing, 
 there is a certain vacillation between the primary sense 
 of scratching in and dyeing. This may, perhaps, be 
 accounted for by the fact that tattooing implied both 
 together, and, by aid of the blood floving from the 
 wound, did so from the very first. From man's own 
 body the characters were probably next transferred to 
 objects to which they were applied as marks. It is even 
 reported that some Indian tribes, for the purpose of 
 preserving their pedigrees, carved, in the order of their 
 succession, the so-called totem, i.e., symbolic pictures 
 of their tribes, for which they employed figures of 
 animals, such as the bear, buffalo, and the like, in 
 trees, oars, canoes, and weapons. This is already a 
 kind of waiting for the mere purpose of recording, with- 
 out reference to the material on which the writing 
 is carried on. The walls of Egyptian temples and 
 palaces, owing to the mass of characters with which 
 they were covered, have been likened to books; the 
 inscriptions on the mighty rocks at Persepolis and 
 Bisitun contain entire histories ; why should not, in a 
 ruder stage, a like use be made of trees and animals ? 
 
86 ON THE ORIGIN OF WRITING. 
 
 The loosening of the bark, with writing upon it, from 
 a tree, the stripping of the skin, furnished with marks, 
 from an animal, would be, at the same time, the 
 first step towards rendering the writing independent, 
 — the production of the first book, as it were. Among 
 the New Zealanders, who have adopted an alphabet of 
 fourteen letters from the English, the custom at pre- 
 sent prevails of writing their names or greetings to 
 their friends with shells on the leaves of flax bushes. 
 " The Dinka negroes," as Mitterrutzner reports, " often 
 scratch or carve with a thorn or pointed iron on soft 
 pumpkin shells the rough outlines of human beings, 
 crocodiles, tortoises, and other animals. This mode of 
 graving they call gor. When they happened to see a 
 missionary write, they would ^2ij jen a gor, he engraves, 
 scratches in, draws." The most ancient relics of 
 Chinese writing that are still preserved are inscrip- 
 tions on consecrated vessels, and in so far as the 
 inscription was presumably intended as a mark of the 
 utmost durability, a satisfactory explanation is afforded 
 why at first it was not written on, but graven in, the 
 vessels. An analogous conception seems to have been 
 at all times associated with the idea of " sign : " signum, 
 e.g., as Professor George Curtius has justly inferred from 
 sigillum, was primarily an engraved sign. Ebel has ex- 
 plained it from stignum, and has unnecessarily, I think, 
 subsequently withdrawn this ingenious explanation ; 
 for signum would in that case be related not only to 
 the Gothic taihns, the English token, our Zeichen, but 
 also to stechen (to sting) and o-tl^(o, the genuine Greek 
 
ON THE ORIGIN OF WRITING. 87 
 
 designation for tattooing, mentioned above. That zeich- 
 nen (to design) was derived from Zcichen (sign), and 
 dessiner from signum, sliows us anew the symbolic pur- 
 pose at first associated with designing. An object, an 
 animal, a man was designed, that is, provided with a 
 sign which made it recognisable, marked it as a pos- 
 session or consecrated it. There is a consecration by 
 the impression of a sign still more primitive than that 
 just described, and the purpose of which is at the same 
 time transparent enough: I mean the so-called red 
 hand of the Indians. Schoolcraft has found it depicted 
 as a holy emblem on bark, on hides of animals, on 
 wooden tablets, but also on the bodies cf dancers. In 
 the latter case the picture was produced by the print 
 of a hand smeared with clay on the chest, the 
 shoulder, and other parts of the body. What this 
 hand, so universal among the Indian tribes, may mean, 
 will scarcely remain doubtful to any one who has seen 
 the radiant hands of the sun-god on Egyptian repre- 
 sentations, or read in the Veda hymns of the golden- 
 handed Savitri. The red, or sometimes white, hand, 
 with which an object, and even the body of a man, is 
 painted and consecrated in the most simple manner, is 
 hardly aught else but the sun. 
 
 Long as the way may seem from such a sign, im- 
 pressed almost like an incidental animal trace, up to 
 our alphabet of twenty-four letters, in which the faint 
 remnant of a hand denotes simply the sound i or/, yet 
 I believe the origin of writing may be explained in 
 this manner without leaving too wide gaps. To 
 
83 ON THE ORIGIN OF WRITING. 
 
 scratch in signs with a view to making them per- 
 manent, to multiply them, to employ them more espe- 
 cially on monuments, to make use of them as phonetic 
 signs, to arrange them into a kind of system, as was 
 done by one or several gifted tribes, these are steps 
 which betoken indeed an admirable but no longer an 
 absolutely marvellous progress. Equally the transition 
 from an Egyptian system of hieroglyphics to real 
 alphabetic writing is certainly by no means incon- 
 ceivable. The latest form of Egyptian writing, the so- 
 called Demotic, though only its last abbreviation in 
 current hand, produces outwardly the impression of an 
 alphabetic writing, and was considered as such before 
 people ventured to seek for a phonetic principle in the 
 hieroglyphics. It is to that impression, and to the 
 decipherment under its dominion by De Sacy and 
 Akerblad in the first instance, that we owe that of the 
 hieroglyphics too, and the resuscitation of the lan- 
 guage and primeval history of Egypt in general. As to 
 the nature and the application of the hieroglyphic sym- 
 bols, we must consider that the employment of the 
 hieroglyphs which comes nearest that of alphabetic 
 writing, viz., that where the initial sound has a value, 
 happens to be indisputably the practice in foreign 
 names, and that the Egyptians, if they had wished to 
 make use of their writing for a Semitic language, would 
 certainly have done so according to that principle. The 
 great step to a real alphabetic writing consists in the 
 latter having only one sign for a sound, whereas hiero- 
 glyphic writing, even when it proceeds strictly on the 
 
ON THE ORIGIN OF WRITING. 89 
 
 alphabetic principle, has always the option left between 
 various pictures. Without the reduction of phonetic 
 hieroglyphics to the smallest number possible, the 
 alphabet would have had many hundreds of letters 
 instead of twenty-two, and this reduction would there- 
 fore be what we may allow to pass for the invention of 
 alphabetic writing. Those acquainted with Egyptian 
 writing are aware that supports for such a simplifica- 
 tion exist in hieroglyphic orthography itself, which, by 
 the way, far from having been a conscious choice, may 
 perhaps have been the outcome of a development ex- 
 tending over many centuries. 
 
 If, instead of starting from an entk'ely instinctive 
 origin of writing, wholly unconscious of its final pur- 
 poses, we were to set human ingenuity the task of 
 creating this wonderful art, we should encounter the 
 same impossibility as when we would make language 
 originate in human reason and reflection. If language 
 were an invention, the wisdom of man previous to such 
 invention would have been infinitely superior to what 
 it is at present. As in language, so in writing too, 
 with all the intellect displayed in it, though it was 
 developed in what was already nearly the historical 
 period, we cannot recognise a production of the in- 
 tellect itself, but only one of those instinctive crea- 
 tions of the human mind which, though results of an 
 irrational evolution, conceal within them the highest 
 and most admirable symptoms of reason, exactly as do 
 the marvels of nature that surround us. 
 
( 90 ) 
 
 V. 
 
 The Discovery of Fire, 
 
 [A Lecture delivered at the Museum Club at Frankfort-on-tlie-Maine, 
 March 25, 1870.] 
 
 Among the blessings which man from the earliest times 
 called his own, some are so indispensable to him, aye, so 
 inseparable from his nature, that it is easier for him 
 to believe he has possessed them from all time than to 
 form any conception of how he may have acquired them. 
 The most universal of these purely human blessings, lan- 
 guage, still lies within the sphere of the forces of nature. 
 If its possession by man ever had a beginning, it could 
 only have come to him by nature, but could not have 
 been discovered or invented by him. But it is different 
 with those blessings that he owes to culture. Impos- 
 sible as, for instance, it is to ascribe alphabetic writing 
 to a conscious invention, seeing that such an invention 
 would presuppose a superhuman wisdom by which the 
 inventor perceived that all our speech is only a thou- 
 sand-fold combination of twenty-four sounds ; yet writ- 
 ing cannot have developed without the aid of reflection. 
 Man is perhaps by nature a speaking being, certainly 
 not a writins one. In a still higher de.gree this holds 
 
THE DISCO VER V OF FIRE. 9 1 
 
 good of material productions, of implements and tools 
 with which the^ human race has supplied and improved 
 its existence. [ Each of these implements must, in how- 
 ever rude a condition, have once become serviceable to 
 man for the first time ; the idea of its utility must once 
 have dawned upon some generation or another ; and 
 however great the difference may be between a steam- 
 engine of our day and the earliest stone hammer, the 
 being who for the first time armed his hand with such 
 a tool, and in this way for the first time perhaps beat 
 the kernel of a fruit out of its hard shell, must, it would 
 appear, have felt within him a breath of that inspira- 
 tion which a discoverer in our own tijy»3 feels when a 
 new idea flashes upon him. And in this sense, I sup- 
 pose, we may venture to call the preparation of arti- 
 ficial fire an invention, a discovery,/ though the same 
 rule applies to fire as to all the characteristically distinc- 
 tive acquisitions of man as compared to the brute, viz., 
 their being in fact too great, of too momentous conse- 
 quences to the fortunes of the race, not to make it 
 appear doubtful whether we may trace them back to a 
 human origin, to a discovery of the human mind. 
 
 Fire belongs to those distinctive possessions of man, 
 such as tools and implements, language and religion, 
 without which we cannot conceive of humanity. 
 All the reports about tribes who were said not to 
 have any knowledge of it have proved fables, nay, 
 inconceivable. But surely it is no less inconceivable 
 for an animal to make fire itself, or even to avail itself 
 of it. Its effect on the higher brute creation is terror 
 
92 THE DISCOVERY OF FIRE. 
 
 the wolf, the lion, the elephant, are kept aloof from the 
 encampments of man by fire. And if we admire in 
 genius not only a superior intellectual endowment but 
 the boldness of attempting to think of what has never 
 been thought of by any one before, and to undertake 
 w^hat has never been done before, it was surely an act of 
 genius when man approached the dreaded glow, when he 
 bore the flame before him over the earth on the top of 
 the ignited log of wood — an act of daring without a proto- 
 type in the animal world, and in its consequences for the 
 development of human culture truly immeasurable. If 
 antiquity beheld in that hero of the well-known legend, 
 in Prometheus, who brought down fire from heaven, the 
 author of all culture, we who live in the age of indus- 
 try, we to whom fire is the substitute for millions of 
 hands and horse power, will probably be inclined to 
 rate such a boon still more highly. But in the domain 
 of material progress we are too much accustomed to that 
 great feat of man to think we need for the beginnings 
 of the history of our civilisation the aid of gods or 
 demigods ; we rather seek for a motive which might in 
 some measure resemble the powerful and intelligent 
 industry of our times, and (singularly enough in the 
 case of a thing having such an infinite variety of uses 
 as fire) we shall be forced to acknowledge that such a 
 motive, a practical reason for meditating the invention, 
 or even for endeavouring to get possession of fire 
 for practical application, can scarcely have existed in 
 primeval times. 
 
 It is easy to think of an accidental impulse, perhaps 
 
THE DISCOVERY OF FIRE. 93 
 
 of an object set fire to by a flash of lightning or a 
 forest-fire, which may for the first time have thrown 
 the flame of itself, as it were, into the hands of man, 
 who would then soon have learned to avail him- 
 self of it. But though little weight may be attached 
 to the observation, it is notwithstanding to be taken 
 into consideration that such accidents are least likely 
 to have happened in those very places where there was 
 most occasion for really making use of the fire thus 
 presented to man. Tor it is precisely a warm climate 
 or a hot temperature which particularly favours such 
 accidents, and it hardly admits of doubt that the origi- 
 nal home of the human race is to be luoked for in hot 
 regions, if not even in the torrid zone itself, in the 
 vicinity of the equator. But what did he care there 
 for the flame generated by lightning ? No necessity 
 rendered it worth his while to preserve it. It could 
 not be the preparation of his food which made fire a 
 desirable object to him ; he must have for a long time 
 subsisted without such preparation, and without the 
 experience or any suspicion that fire might aid him 
 in it. Naturalists are not agreed as to whether the 
 earliest food of man was animal or merely vegetable. 
 Historically and linguistically considered, I, for my 
 own part, certainly deem it indubitable that, since man 
 has been man, he has been carnivorous. It is perhaps 
 not nature to which we may appeal when we kill 
 animals for the purpose of our own preservation; it 
 is perhaps only habit which makes this food appear 
 indispensable to us at present. In ancient times, and 
 
94 THE DISCOVERY OF FIRE. 
 
 still more in India, serious objections were notoriously 
 raised to it ; and even among us, the more syinpathis- 
 ingly we try to understand the animal soul, the more 
 regretfully we feel this habit to be repugnant to our 
 more tender volition; but we cannot deny that it is 
 at any rate a very old habit, as is evident from the cir- 
 cumstance that notions such as flesh, hody, and perhaps 
 animal too, almost everywhere proceed from that of 
 food ; that language, therefore, decidedly presupposes 
 animal food, and that since any such words have existed 
 at all such food must have been common. 
 
 Not only are our own word Fleisch and the English 
 meat derived from roots signifying "to eat," but also 
 the French word chair is so derived, though according to 
 the present usage of the language it happens not to imply 
 meat as food. The noble Greek word sarx, which forms 
 the first component in " sarcophagus," originally meant 
 nothing but a morsel picked off. When we speak of 
 a sarcastic smile, we have no idea how this epithet can 
 be connected with the sarx just mentioned, nor could 
 the Greeks themselves tell. Sarcasm, properly speak- 
 ing, is not the subtle irony which we designate by it ; 
 it is a grin, a distortion of the mouth, or a showing one's 
 teeth, and this forms the transition to the idea of pull- 
 ing at a piece of meat with the teeth, whence that 
 designation meat, which has become quite honourable 
 in Greek by usage, has developed. At Logon in Central 
 Africa, thd means "food," thic "meat," and tha "ox." 
 Among other African tribes there exists only one word 
 for meat and animal, and fish is called " water-flesh." 
 
THE DISCOVERY OF FIRE. 95 
 
 And what words allow us to guess agrees with all 
 that we know of the mode of life of savage tribes in 
 times past and present. Man in the most barbarous 
 state subsists everywhere by hunting, and only occa- 
 sionally by catching fish; from the chase only he 
 passes on to a nomadic life and the breeding of cattle. 
 But it would be premature, from the indisputable pre- 
 ponderance of meat as food in prehistoric time^, to 
 infer a preparation by fire. To this day some Indian 
 tribes — e.g., in Florida — consume the booty they bring 
 home from the chase raw, and of the Huns it is noto- 
 riously reported that they knew how to soften their 
 meat without fire. There is no trace to be found in 
 language of such a preparation having preceded the 
 enjoyment of meat as food. What in this respect can 
 be more deceptive than our word Braten (roast) ? Who 
 should doubt that it really implied something roasted ? 
 And yet it does not. We have here one of those 
 curious, puzzling words before us which convey to 
 us quite a different sense from what they did to 
 their first inventors. Braten in the older language 
 signified nothing but "meat" and "flesh." It is not 
 derived from the verb Iraten (to roast) as now in 
 use, but from a homonymous root signifying " to eat," 
 and which is also found in Wildjpret (game). Brot \^^ 
 (bread) is derived from the same root, and observation 
 will show that appellations of bread often consist in 
 such words as in earlier times signified meat. If 
 we cast a glance at the various employments of fire 
 in the preparation of food in their historical succes- 
 
96 THE DISCOVERY OF FIRE, 
 
 ^ sion, we shall find boiling to be the latest mode. In 
 the South Sea islands a preliminary step towards 
 it has been met with in the stewing of viands in 
 pits heated by red-hot stones. The earliest and most 
 direct preparation was the process of roasting, and 
 even Homer knew as yet of no other for the repasts 
 of his heroes. Nor was grain-fruit by any means 
 always baked, but for a long time consumed only in 
 . roasted grains, as, e.g., they have been found in pile- 
 dwellings. Language leads one step farther. The 
 Cook root from which our word hochen (to boil) is derived 
 
 shows in cognate languages not only the idea of roast- 
 iniT but that of sun-burnincr, as well as that of the 
 ripening and mellowing of fruits and their becoming 
 eatable ; and equally so the Mexican icuxitia, " to boil," 
 I is derived from icuci, " to ripen." Such traces indicate 
 a time lying still within the development of language 
 when fire was not yet used as a medium between the 
 produ^ions of the forest and the field and man's neces- 
 sity for,food. 
 
 What event may first have opened man's eyes and 
 pointed out to him a means by which he learned in so 
 many respects to render himself independent of the un- 
 friendliness of surrounding Nature ? It is certain that 
 not only the frost, but even more, perhaps, want of food, 
 ^ would have prevented him from populating the earth 
 beyond his original home if he had not understood 
 how to recognise in the most formidable of elements 
 a beneficent power, and to make it do, in an enlarged 
 sphere, the work of the sun, which had till then warmed 
 
THE DISCOVERY OF FIRE. 97 
 
 and partly, too, nourished him. Though history seems 
 to leave us in the dark on the cause of so momentous 
 a change in man's mode of life, yet we have at our 
 command very extensive and significant observations 
 on the way in which artificial fire was produced, and 
 there is every reason to suppose that we still have 
 even the original, the really earliest, mode of making 
 fire before us in the process adopted by many rude 
 tribes. Among the Botocudos in Brazil as among some 
 Korth American tribes, among the Greenland ers and in 
 New Zealand, in Kamtshatka as among the Hottentots, 
 the practice of producing fire by twirling or drilling 
 two pieces of wood has been uniformly met with. 
 The simplest, but also the most troublesome and time- 
 wasting, process is that of placing a stick of wood per- 
 pendicularly on another lying horizontally, and rapidly 
 turning it like a twirling-rod between the palms of 
 the hands until the loosened shavings catch fire and 
 ignite slips of bast kept in readiness. 
 
 If the employment of this apparatus for fire-making 
 in parts so distant from each other is already calcu- 
 lated to excite some surprise, what shall we say when 
 we find it used in earlier times, even in Arabia, China, 
 India, Greece, Italy, nay, even in Germany ? It is a 
 merit due to comparative mythology to have proved 
 the existence of the friction apparatus for producing 
 fire in the Indo-European primeval times, i.e., at that 
 indefinably remote period when a third of mankind, 
 among it the ancestors of nearly the whole present 
 population of Europe, constituted as yet only one 
 
98 THE DISCOVERY OF FIRE. 
 
 horde; and it appears at once that among the Indo- 
 Europeans fire was already then made, on the whole, in the 
 same way as it has been in the present century in America 
 and the South Sea Islands. The process by which the 
 sacred fire in Hindostan is even now lighted consists 
 in twirling, which, according to the description of eye- 
 witnesses, perfectly resembles the churning of butter 
 still practised there by milling the milk with a stirring- 
 rod. According to Stevenson's description, one piece 
 of wood is drilled into another by pulling a string 
 tied to it with a jerk with the one hand while the 
 other is slackened, and so alternately until the wood 
 takes fire. The fire is received on cotton or flax by 
 the bystanding Brahman. We shall be obliged to own 
 that this mode of producing fire well suits the char- 
 acter of a period when man was not only destitute of 
 any metal but even as yet of stone implements— that 
 is to say, of a wood age, such as must have preceded 
 the stone age. A more primitive process can hardly be 
 presumed. But, neverthelesss, it is not simple, not 
 obvious enough, to appear independently with such 
 uniformity at several points of the earth. Though we 
 do not know the way in which the fire-drill may have 
 spread from India and Australia to South America, it 
 can scarcely have been invented at various times in the 
 same way. There are many puzzling though undeni- 
 ,able vestiges extant of a primeval connection between 
 Eastern Asia and Mexico. As regards the Australian 
 Archipelago, the influence of India on it is clearly to 
 be proved by linguistic elements and legends. I^ay, 
 
THE DISCOVERY OF FIRE, 99 
 
 there is a chain of traditions and borrowings that ex- 
 tends over those islands as far as Madagascar and 
 Central Africa ; and we meet again among the Kaffres 
 and negro tribes with fables and tales which can have 
 reached them by no other way, and which may be a 
 hint to us not to decide too hastily to what distances 
 the influence man exercises on man may extend. Once 
 discovered in one place, fire could not but be diffused 
 by immigrants from more gifted tribes among those 
 inferior to them, and(§(3on' carried over the whole earth. 
 The contagious power of ideas is, in fact, greater in 
 primitive times, and the isolation of peoples less, than 
 is frequently believed. Together with the great diver- 
 gences of contemporaneous stages of culture, there has 
 been at all times going on among the entire human 
 race a reciprocal action, which would not allow too 
 violent contrasts to exist together for too long a space 
 without their being adjusted. As in modern times 
 firearms have incessantly spread, so a much more im- 
 portant transformation of the outward life of prehistoric 
 times could not possibly escape being gradually carried 
 from one dwelling-place to another, and sooner or later 
 the wonderful spectacle of a nocturnal camp-fire would 
 call forth a universal imitation even in the remotest 
 corners of the inhabited world, though it should 
 have had to penetrate from the one hemisphere to 
 the other by way of the Polar region, where Green- 
 landers and Eskimos form the connecting link. 
 But in realising the condition of the human race, 
 which, no doubt, lies far behind us, and has, therefore. 
 
100 THE DISCOVERY OF FIRE. 
 
 something strange to our conceptions — the condition, 
 I say, in which mankind were when, on the whole, 
 they lived as yet without fire, and had first to become 
 acquainted with it as a new invention on the part of a 
 favoured tribe — it will at least not appear incredible to 
 us that with the use of fire the mode of producing it, 
 the primitive fire apparatus of the earliest times, were 
 simultaneously diffused. 
 
 While so many uncivilised tribes of the present time, 
 by their having preserved the fire-drill in daily use, 
 afford us a living view of a primitive condition, the 
 holy use which Brahmans make of it may throw a light 
 upon the history of that important implement. In 
 the age when the earliest Yeda hymns took their origin, 
 the sacred fire was daily lighted in the early morning 
 by the priests. With the greatest solicitude they 
 attended to the prescribed measures of two equally 
 sized pieces of wood, of the spindle which, proceeding 
 from the one, was fixed on to the other, and the cord 
 which served for the turning, nay, even the choice 
 of the wood was not a matter of indifference ; it was 
 chiefly to be composed of the aQvattha or banana tree, 
 the so-called Ficns religiosa. Among the Eomans, the 
 vestal flame, when gone out, was, as Plutarch relates, 
 rekindled by means of a species of primitive reflec- 
 tor by the sunlight, but, according to other reports, 
 by drilling, for which the priests had to make use of 
 the wood of a fruit-tree. It is most remarkable that 
 we should meet with quite a corresponding practice 
 among the Peruvians : there, too, the sacred fire in- 
 
THE DISCOVERY OF FIRE. loi ' 
 
 trusted to the sun- virgins was, when by* mistake' or* 
 accidentally extinguished, relighted either by the sun 
 by means of a golden concave mirror, or by rubbing 
 together two pieces of wood. Among the Iroquois the f^-Uhon p[»*/ 
 fire in the huts is extinguished every year, and relighted 
 by the magician with the flint or by the friction of two - 
 pieces of wood. The Mexicans celebrated every fifty- 
 two years a great fire-festivity, or a regeneration of the 
 world, the doom of which they dreaded at the end of 
 each such period. All fires were then extinguished ; a 
 grand procession of men, disguised in the garb of the 
 gods, repaired, accompanied by an immense crowd, to 
 Mount Huichashta, and here, at midnight, the fire was 
 reproduced by two pieces of wood being rubbed together 
 on the chest of the prisoner of war intended for the 
 sacrifice. Amidst shouts of joy raised by the people, 
 who were looking on in eager expectation from all the 
 hills, temples, and roofs round about, the flame blazed 
 forth from the stake of the victim, and was thence 
 spread before daybreak over all the altars and hearths of 
 Anahuac. And if we return from this distant region to 
 our own immediate neighbourhood, we have even here 
 numerous, certainly more innocent, traces of a produc- 
 tion of fire in the same primitive fashion originally 
 adopted for religious purposes. In various parts of 
 Germany, as well as in England, Scotland, and Sweden, 
 the practice continued down to the very latest centuries 
 of lighting the so-called need-fire, on certain days of 
 the year, by turning a wooden windlass bored into a 
 stake, and keeping it in motion by a rope wound round it. 
 From almost everywhere reports have reached us that 
 
I02 THE DISCOVERY OF FIRE. 
 
 .alltiLe-iireg in houses had first to be extinguished and 
 renewed again by this need-fire, endowed, as it was 
 supposed to be, with a variety of miraculous virtues. 
 
 If one could doubt the omnipotent, irresistible pro- 
 gress of human thought over unmeasured space, this 
 truly astounding agreement of German customs with 
 those of the aborigines of America, this religious renewal 
 of fire common to them both, would, I opine, alone 
 suffice to rouse in us the belief in an unceasing inter- 
 \xi^ communication between all peoples, in a constant uni- 
 
 versal intercourse between all parts of the earth. 
 
 But, I would ask, what may have induced the ancient 
 peoples to apply the art of fire-making in such uni- 
 versal agreement, to an extent embracing nearly the 
 whole world, to purposes of divine worship ? There is 
 scarcely one people of antiquity in whose worship fire 
 was not of quite a paramount importance. Among the 
 Persians its sacredness is so evident as to have made 
 their religion be for a long time regarded as absolute 
 fire-worship. But fire was here, as everywhere else, 
 only a type, a representation of the heavenly fire, i.e., 
 the sun. Comparative mythology has taught us that 
 the earliest divinities of the Indo-European peoples 
 "^ ^ were gods of light, and no one doubts that the sun 
 
 occupied the highest place among them. We are less 
 certain, however, as to the conceptions of Nature which 
 lie hidden beneath the charming veil of primitive 
 metaphors and legends, or as to the meaning of the 
 infinitely entangled magic knot of struggles, adventures, 
 and miracles, and that world of odd shapes of partly 
 sublime, partly strangely repulsive appearance, that 
 
THE DISCOVERY OF FIRE. 103 
 
 world of gods, demons, giants, dwarfs, and monsters of 
 every description with whicli their mythology abounds. 
 
 It is, however, indisputable that the struggle between 
 light and darkness — the sun combating and vanquishing 
 the powers of darkness — is the central idea of all those 
 contrasts with which the inexhaustible imagination of 
 man sports, ever again creating new shapes, and on 
 which for centuries all the ingenuity of the human 
 mind was exclusively employed. Professor Adalbert 
 Kuhn is of opinion that the sacred fire was even in 
 later times lighted by drilling only from adherence to 
 ancient custom. But there is no testinjony extant that 
 primitive times knew of a profane, over and above the 
 sacred fire-making apparatus, and from all the facts trans- 
 mitted to us I have sjained a firm conviction that men, 
 far from transferring the use of the fire-drill from daily 
 life into divine worship, invented it, on the contrary, 
 precisely for the purpose of such worship, and only 
 subsequently learned to use it in practical life. Aye ! 
 I cannot forbear declaring that fire is a religious dis- 
 covery : it sprang from the worship of deities in times 
 when men, on the one hand, did not yet even feel a 
 practical want of producing it, and were, on the other, 
 not yet even capable at all of reflecting on a technical 
 invention such as fire-making by friction. 
 
 In the Yeda hymns, that purest expression of the 
 childlike faith of man, we see the divinities of heaven, 
 the sun and dawn, unceasingly extolled. Heaven and 
 earth, conceived as living beings, as was the original 
 conception of all peoples, are invoked in the early 
 morning ; often heaven as father, the earth as mother. 
 
I04 THE DISCOVERY OF FIRE. 
 
 " Which," we read in one of these primitive hymns, 
 " which of the two arose sooner, which later, how they 
 originated, sages, who knoweth it? By their own 
 strength they bear the universe, like two wheels do 
 day and night revolve." " Powerfully separating two 
 wheels," we read in another passage, "with the axle, 
 as it were, Indra fasteneth heaven and earth." When 
 >/ Ushas, dawn, arose, she was welcomed with songs by 
 
 the host of the pious worshippers who had awaited 
 her appearance with holy eagerness. " She is ap- 
 proaching, she shineth forth, heaven's daughter, visible 
 now. She, the mighty one, thrusteth out darkness by 
 light, and the glorious one produceth brightness." 
 
 In transparent metaphors the goddess of dawn is 
 celebrated, how she supersedes her black sister, night, 
 and precedes the sun-god. 
 
 " Heaven's daughter, lo ! hath appeared, dawning, 
 imV\\^ ]y young, in reddish garment; mistress of every earth- 
 born blessing, Ushas, break forth, beneficent one, 
 here now this day! She followeth in the wake of 
 her who preceded: she goeth before the everlasting 
 ones who are coming; dawning, she calleth forth all 
 that liveth, and whatever is dead Ushas awakeneth. 
 When will she be united to those who have shone 
 already and will yet be shining ? She followeth her 
 predecessors with eagerness; united to others, lus- 
 trously she leadeth the way. Gone are they, the mortals 
 who once beheld the breaking of former dawns ; now 
 she is here and is seen by us, and others will come 
 who one day shall behold her. . . . Ever before the 
 goddess dawned, and thus too the gracious one hath 
 
THE DISCO VER Y OF FIRE, 105 
 
 dawned this day ; and thus, too, she will dawn in later 
 days, not aging, she, the immortal one, cometh to the sac- 
 rifice. In colours she shine th on the borders of heaven ; 
 the goddess strippeth off her black cover, awakening, 
 Ushas with her ^ steeds, driveth on a beautifully 
 appointed chariot. She carrieth gifts along with her, 
 rich in blessings, and gaineth brightness in making her 
 appearance. Ushas gloweth, the last of those that have 
 passed, and the first of those that shine forth." 
 
 With such hymns the dawn was hailed 3000 years 
 ago on the banks of the Indus. The seers of those 
 days have long since passed away, ai^d other mortals 
 have come to behold immortal dawn. Although she 
 no longer finds her ancient sacrifices amongst us, her 
 sacred songs are still read by us after such a long 
 interval, and those magic verses, of whose enchanting 
 sounds I have only been able to present to you a faint 
 echo, well deserve that, absorbed in the study of them, 
 we watch for the dawn of day as did the primeval 
 Hindoo poets who sang them. 
 
 Now, with these descriptions of the morning sky are 
 blended those of the flames of the sacrificial fire, which 
 was lighted daily in the early morning while it was still 
 dark, and on account of its unfailing return is almost 
 regarded as an independent phenomenon of Nature, 
 and even celebrated as the god of fire, Agni, himself. 
 
 " Agni is awake," we read ; " out of the earth riseth 
 the sun-god ; Ushas, the high yellow one, hath dawned." 
 
 " Up rose the rgd^ heaven-touching smoke ; the men 
 light Agni." 
 
 Other passages run thus : ** By the might and great- 
 
io6 THE DISCOVERY OF FIRE. 
 
 ness of the kindled blaze, heaven and earth alike in 
 lustre shine. Up rise thy flames, the not old ones, Agni, 
 the new-born, lighted. A red smoke thou ascendest 
 heavenward, as a messenger thou goest, Agni, to the 
 gods. Eoused is Agni by men's lighting before Ushas, 
 approaching like a cow. Like swarms flying up from 
 the bough, his flames blaze forth towards heaven." 
 
 Amidst such hymns fire was made at the primeval 
 seat of the progenitors of the Hindoo people. Often 
 Agni is designated as the child of heaven and earth, 
 but occasionally also as the child of the two pieces of 
 wood; and, say the songs, scarcely born, the terrible 
 child consumeth both his parents. This is no contra- 
 diction. The two pieces of wood are, indeed, heaven 
 and earth. The revolution of heaven and earth pro- 
 duces the sun ; by the turning of the sticks of wood, 
 fire, his representative on earth, is produced. Hence 
 precisely those gods to whom, in some Hindoo tradi- 
 tion, a golden fire-making apparatus is attributed, 
 are the two horse-gods whom Max Muller has shown 
 to refer to dawn. According to a Homeric hymn, the 
 god who first used the fire-making apparatus was 
 Hermes, also a god of dawn, a medium between the 
 upper and lower world, and, like the Hindoo fire-god, 
 a messenger of the gods. Hence, too, the Hindoos 
 do not choose the wood which is practically the fittest, 
 but that of the Ficus religiosa, and that not only be- 
 cause this tree bears a reddish fruit, but, as is expressly 
 said, and as analogies of other holy trees amongst kin- 
 dred peoples, e.g., the mistletoe, so sacred among the 
 Gauls, testify, because it takes root upon other trees, 
 
THE DISCOVERY OF FIRE. 107 
 
 and its branches hang down in great abundance. It 
 is manifestly a type of the sun, for he is often com- 
 pared to a wonderful tree, whose roots are high up in 
 the air, and which sends down its rays like branches 
 on to the earth. 
 
 Of some remarkable Teutonic customs, preserved 
 down to modern times from the remotest antiquity, 
 the signification is almost unmistakable. In many 
 parts of the ''Mark" (Brandenburg) the need-fire is 
 lighted in the nave of a wheel by drilling. The same 
 is reported from the last century of the Isle of Mull 
 on the west coast of Scotland, and i^ found again in 
 the Frisian laws. In many other parts of Germany 
 and France they used to light instead, mostly in the 
 night of the summer solstice, disks or wheels, then 
 flung them up high so as to make them describe a 
 shining curve in the air; or, as was still the practice 
 at the Moselle a hundred years ago, a burning wheel 
 was made to roll down from the top of a mountain 
 into the river. It is surely nothing but the diurnal 
 course of the sun which was intended to be symbolised 
 by these ceremonies on some distinguished day of the 
 year, and equally certain it is that the flame lighted 
 every morning in prehistoric times by the Hindoos 
 had the same object. When, full of expectation, the 
 wise men of that period, at the dawn of the morning, 
 directing their glances towards the East where the 
 shining god was to appear to them, prefigured by 
 twirling two pieces of wood, that most primitive type 
 of the great progenitors of the two worlds revolving 
 like a wheel, the revolution of the heavens which was 
 
io8 THE DISCOVERY OF FIRE, 
 
 preparing the advent of the beneficent appearance of 
 the new-born day; when in their naive faith they 
 imagined they might assist or even further that revo- 
 lution by this incessantly repeated holy work, and 
 when in the centre of the small type of the world 
 which they were turning between their hands the 
 spark suddenly flashed up, as did up yonder in the 
 great celestial world the wonderful majestic flame of 
 the morning sun — what joy and awe must have thrilled 
 their hearts on seeing that the great god of heaven, 
 Agni himself, had descended into their sanctuaries, 
 was sitting as a guest at their sacrifice, and as a priest 
 himself bore it up in smoke to heaven ! And if 
 there ever was a time when the fire first burst forth 
 from the match — the new, strange guest, exciting, per- 
 haps, fear and dismay — it was a god who was to 
 be approached and cultivated, and for whose sake 
 men would venture what, for mere utility's sake, they 
 would perhaps never have ventured, as men indeed 
 have at all times suffered incredible things for their 
 religious convictions' sake. That the fire was trans- 
 ferred from this holy origin into daily life, as, for 
 instance, we find, at the Mexican fire-festival, the 
 sacred fire spread over all the hearths, we shall deem 
 less surprising when we consider to what extent fire was 
 sacred still among the classical nations, and that it 
 was regarded as holy not only on the altars, but on 
 the domestic hearths. From the standpoint of our 
 culture we find it hard to derive what is quite common 
 from mythic, purely fantastic sources. But this may 
 be proved by innumerable minor and greater instances 
 
THE DISCOVERY OF FIRE. 109 
 
 extending over our whole cultural life. Tobacco-smok- 
 ing sprang from the fire-worship of the Indian tribes ; 
 the umbrella from the parasol, which was originally a 
 sacred type of the sun; gold owes its high value to 
 its sunlike, and therefore sacred colour. In 181 1 the 
 captive Eussian Captain Golownin was asked in Japan 
 whether the Eussians had changed their religion, Lax- 
 mann, who in 1792 had been there as ambassador, hav- 
 ing worn a pigtail dusted with flour. So ingrained is 
 the habit with non-Europeans of seeing a connection 
 even between most insignificant customs and religion. 
 
 One more point remains to be touched upon, one 
 objection to be removed which might be raised to the 
 accidental discovery of fire by using the fire-making 
 apparatus. Was not the ignition of the pieces of 
 wood at the ceremonies we have described foreseen 
 and intended ? Are we to think that the turning 
 process was originally purposeless ? I am decidedly 
 of opinion that that religious toying consisted essen- 
 tially only in the rotatory motion without regard to 
 what misjht become of it. This seems to me to result 
 from the fact that the process of turning in order to 
 obtain fire was not the only one that served the 
 same purpose; the preparation of butter by a quite 
 analogous process was likewise holy, and butter there- 
 fore a principal element in the morning sacrifice. 
 Nay, even the mill, which in its simplest shape con- 
 sisted of two stones and a twirling-rod, and therefore 
 very much resembled that ancient fire-machine from 
 which it has perhaps developed, is frequently brought 
 in connection with sun-myths, and significant legends 
 
1 1 o THE DISCO VER V OF FIRE. 
 
 tell of mills which grind gold. But I must more particu- 
 larly mention here a curious religious implement which, 
 in the sphere where it occurs, has certainly lost the 
 connection with its origin, and is not now understood, 
 but may perhaps receive as well as spread light in 
 the environment in which we are able to place it. 
 
 In the domain of Buddhism and its transformations, 
 in Tibet among the Kalmuks and Mongols no less 
 than in Japan, it has been observed with wondering 
 that prayers are not only spoken but likewise offered 
 up with equally great merit by a machine. Bound 
 a cylinder which is set in rotatory motion by a strap 
 by means of a spring-wheel, slips of paper of great 
 length, on which prayers are inscribed, unroll, repeat- 
 ing the same text in a hundred-fold and a thousand- 
 fold copy, it being the more efficient for the salvation 
 of the being for whom the prayer is offered up the 
 more copies wind round the cylinder. And not by 
 man's hand alone, but by pendulums too, by wind-sails, 
 nay, quite like wheels through a millrace, the prayer- 
 wheels are set in motion. There are prayer-mills con- 
 taining the identical formula which was printed at 
 Petersburgh for that purpose a hundred millions of 
 times, and which, therefore, by being turned ten times, 
 effect as much salvation as if the formula had been 
 recited a thousand millions of times. It is, no doubt, 
 not wholly unjustified that attention should have been 
 directed to the progress which is to be expected even 
 here from steam power, and to the rapidity with which 
 an incredible quantity of salvation might be produced 
 by steam-mills. We receive, indeed, the impression 
 
THE DISCO VER V OF FIRE. 1 1 1 
 
 of something eminently heathen when we see people 
 find merit and a salutary effect in such strictly 
 mechanical practices, void of all sentiment of devout- 
 ness. But this mechanism evidently has its rea- 
 sons notwithstanding. Buddhism is a comparatively 
 modern and reflected religion, but its symbols are 
 transformations, and in the last instance invariably 
 proceed from rites practised in the earliest nature- 
 worship. Originally it was not the prayers but the 
 turning of the wheel itself which wrought salvation. 
 In Japan there are found in the cemeteries posts to 
 which a simple iron wheel is attact»3d that can be 
 turned with the hand. The relation of the revolu- 
 tion of the wheel to salvation is rendered intelligible 
 by the representation of the metempsychosis under 
 this image. But even that is only a transformation 
 of the primitive practices of milling and turning as 
 symbols of the diurnal revolution of the sun and the 
 firmament, exactly as is the habit of the Hindoo, by 
 way of reverence, to circumambulate objects or persons 
 with their faces turned to the right. At present men 
 will inquire, if not into the purpose of acts and 
 ceremonies, at least into their signification. But to 
 the earliest acts of mankind this method of treating 
 things is not quite applicable; their customs had no 
 signification, they were not intended to express any 
 ideas. They are not symbols but instinct. What in 
 the twilight of primitive history we perceive of the 
 mysterious doings of mankind shows us our own image 
 singularly altered, aye ! of almost ghastly strangeness. 
 If by cir cum ambulation, by circular processions or 
 
1 1 2 THE DISCO VER V OF FIRE. 
 
 races, by turning objects of various kinds, the move- 
 ment of the heavens is imitated, these are outbursts of 
 a once powerful instinct, of an imitative impulse which 
 must once have swayed mankind with irresistible 
 might at a certain stage of their existence. The 
 variety of games, dances, representations, and mum- 
 meries of the ancient peoples in honour of the gods, 
 the lamentation over the effigy of the dead Adonis, 
 the processions of the Egyptian priests in the guise 
 of animal-gods, have some resemblance to children's 
 games. But we see all this proceed with a solemn 
 gravity which has in it something ghostly, as it were. 
 A similar serious game of childlike mankind it was 
 which gradually taught them the use of fire and the 
 preparation of food, which at first was only a sacrificial 
 viand; indeed, a history of sacrifices and religious 
 ceremonies in general would perhaps comprise, among 
 many other surprising facts, a history of the art of 
 cooking too. Belief, legend", mythology are all only 
 one, perhaps not even the fullest, aspect of religion. 
 As the mimic instinct appearing everywhere in the 
 history of religion reminds us of the beginnings of 
 language, in which I can likewise see only the effects 
 of an involuntary instinctive mimicry and imitation, 
 so in the spell which fire has exercised over men 
 another analogy to the original source of language is 
 presented to us, in so far as here, too, it is proclaimed 
 aloud that it is the eye to which we owe our being 
 raised above brute nature. Not the beneficent effect 
 of fire, not its usefulness, not even its grateful warmth 
 
THE DISCOVERY OF FIRE. 113 
 
 it is which are extolled in the primitive monuments, 
 but its lustre, its red glow ; and in so far as the names 
 given by language may be interpreted with certainty, 
 it is likewise neither the warmth, nor even the 
 quality of burning, consuming, or causing pain, but 
 the red colour from which they proceed. The sense 
 of colour, then, was the earliest interest which at- 
 tracted men to the fire. In this purely human interest 
 lies the solution of the riddle why man alone pos- 
 sesses fire, but, at the same time, we may on closer 
 investigation divine also something of the immense 
 importance which the development ^i this sense of 
 colour had for mankind. 
 
 Though man undoubtedly struggled up to his present 
 height from the poverty and helplessness of the animal, 
 we still see his early childhood already clothed in the 
 sheen of the ideal, and it is by no means necessity 
 that made him inventive, nor his practical sense that 
 prompted him to ameliorate his material condition, but 
 precisely in his earliest productions inspiration and 
 fancy appear most at work, and what was destined to 
 become of the greatest benefit to him is not his capa- 
 city of discovering what is useful, but the artistic dis- 
 position in him which led him to shape and fashion 
 without any definite object, and the sense of heavenly 
 beauty, a ray of which fell on his eye. 
 
 To all appearance it was not at first the increase of 
 comfort which endeared fire to man, nor the pleasure in 
 more savoury food, still less its usefulness in industry, 
 which indeed had not yet even dawned upon him. But 
 
 H 
 
1 1 4 THE DISCO VER V OF FIRE. 
 
 ifc was the light in which he rejoiced. With it he had 
 overcome the uncomfortable dread of the night, during 
 which he was liable to all kinds of danger, and was 
 helplessly abandoned to the attacks of the beasts of 
 the forest issuing forth in quest of prey. We who 
 illumine the night by flaming torches and radiant chan- 
 deliers, or electric light as bright as the sun, we can 
 scarcely realise those horrors which man felt in the 
 reign of darkness, which was unbroken as yet by any 
 art, and populated his imagination with ghastly shapes. 
 We can barely sympathise with that anxiety which 
 still speaks so vividly in the prayers of the Veda poets, 
 or with the terrors that for a long time seized the 
 intimidated hearts of men on the occasion of solar 
 eclipses, when they feared the sun's light might disap- 
 pear for ever even in the day, and an everlasting night 
 break in upon them. And yet how comparatively 
 modern is the wax-candle, nay, the oil lamp! In 
 Homer it is still shavings and a bundle of brushwood 
 which illumined the spacious halls. 
 
 Wherever we cast our eye, a chain of development 
 is shown in the history of every object, the possession 
 of which at present seems to us quite a matter of 
 course, and at a misty distance there looms a period 
 when such development had not yet begun. It is true 
 it is only an outward possession which we see disap- 
 pear with fire, with artificial light, from the series of 
 our earthly blessings, but still we are ever again re- 
 minded thereby of our remotest past, of the singularly 
 wonderful fortune that has led our species up to be at the 
 
THE DISCO VER V OF FIRE. 1 1 5 
 
 head of the animal world, and of this earth in general. A 
 few steps backward and we should see a second blessing 
 disappear from this precious inheritance of humanity, 
 and then a third ; religion too, and finally language. A 
 retrospective glance at those remote times, such as our 
 age affords above all its predecessors, liberates our soul 
 by making it partake of a past infinity. When Goethe, 
 absorbed in osteological studies, confessed to have 
 meditated amidst world-stirring events his discovery 
 of the physical affinity of man to brutes, Borne's anger 
 was roused, his ardent spirit yearning impatiently for 
 deeds. And when the July revolutip^n broke out, and 
 the faithful Eckermann, finding Goethe greatly excited 
 on the subject of the great event that had happened 
 at Paris, was about to begin to speak of the faults of 
 the overthrown ministers, Goethe replied, " We do not 
 seem to comprehend each other. I do not speak at all 
 of those people ; my mind is occupied with quite dif- 
 ferent things. I am speaking of the dispute that has 
 openly broken out in the Academy between Cuvier 
 and Geoffroy de St. Hilaire, of such paramount import- 
 ance to science. Henceforth mind will rule in France 
 too in the investigation of nature, and prevail over 
 matter. Glimpses will be caught of great maxims of 
 creation, of God's mysterious workshop. Now," con- 
 tinued Goethe, " Geoffroy de St. Hilaire too is deci- 
 dedly on our side, and with him all his more distin- 
 guished disciples and adherents in France. This event 
 is of incredible value to me, and I justly exult over the 
 finally arrived universal triumph of a cause to which I 
 
1 16 THE DISCO VER V OF FIRE. 
 
 have devoted my life, and which is pre-eminently my 
 own." The idea the victory of which Goethe at that 
 time saw with his mind's eye, and which Geoffrey de 
 St. Hilaire declared to be his own — the idea of the 
 evolution of the world — will, I doubt not, emancipate 
 the world as much as any of the greatest historical 
 achievements did. Nor do I fear being misconstrued 
 when I own to you, my honoured fellow-towns-men and 
 women, that the thought has often floated through my 
 mind that the soil of this city of ours possesses some 
 claim to this liberating idea of evolution ; that in this 
 town, which owes so much to natural development, the 
 voice of admonition sounds doubly loud to continue 
 to meditate the idea of the development of humanity, 
 aye ! perhaps to think it out to an end. This idea will 
 one day teach us what man has to expect and to claim 
 for himself from humanity and from nature. And as 
 it opens to us a vista into the future, so with it begins 
 to open a retrospective view of the past, just as hap- 
 pened with space from the moment when the sky 
 ceased to arch over us as a stony cover, and we began 
 to cast glances into, and indulge in speculations on, 
 the unbounded universe. History is no longer a 
 limited horizon ; the same things are not in wearisome 
 uniformity repeated from century to century, but in 
 unfathomed depths one form of existence succeeds an- 
 other. Nature reveals to us her wonders in an infinite 
 series, and the soul of man is elevated, becoming a 
 heavenly genius which soars with mighty wing through 
 eternity. 
 
( 117 ) 
 
 VI. 
 
 On the Primitive Home of the I ndo- Europeans, 
 
 The discovery of the primitive stock of tlie Indo- 
 Europeans, which has been made within the past 
 sixty years, is a fact of incredible .importance, and 
 of incalculable influence on the conception of man's 
 earliest past. The almost marvellous results which 
 our century has obtained in the decipherment of the 
 hieroglyphics and cuneiform inscriptions led to a direct 
 knowledge, gained from the monuments themselves, of 
 the life of peoples which one could not till then have 
 hoped ever to see resuscitated from its millennial sleep. 
 Historical details have been authenticated, dating from 
 times which fancy had ever regarded as its indisputable 
 domain and had populated with grotesque shapes. But 
 the people of the pyramids and hieroglyphics is, not- 
 withstanding, an historical, well-known, palpable people. 
 It is certainly astounding that we should have learned 
 to find some centuries before Moses — that earliest histo- 
 rian, as the last century was fond of calling him — the 
 names of Palestinian cities — e.g., of the still existing 
 Zephath — on Egyptian monuments. We are strangely 
 moved and feel a thrill of awe running through us, as 
 
ii8 THE PRIMITIVE HOME OF 
 
 on entering a mysterious sanctuary, when we see be- 
 fore our eyes the veil lifted from the deeply-hidden 
 and dark past. But such more especially are our 
 emotions when we approach the primitive stock from 
 which the head and flower of the whole human race 
 was destined to proceed — the stock from which has 
 sprung the present civilised Europe with its mighty 
 colonies, and not less so a large portion of the population 
 of Asia, as far as the boundaries of China. We have 
 here, in this people in its primitive condition, a germ 
 before us with an abundance of developments latent 
 within it, as it were ; and though history does not con- 
 tain any record of this people, and it has not left any 
 monuments itself, so that we are able only to infer its 
 existence, yet we can by no means doubt its having 
 existed. How did a people in such a primitive condi- 
 tion live? How did it think? how speak? These 
 questions alone have a deep interest; but to them 
 must be added that all the civilisation of Europe, and, 
 more or less, the condition of mankind at the present 
 time, have been connected with the fortunes of that 
 primitive people and swayed by its intellectual capa- 
 cities, thus pointing back to the origin of that people 
 for their own. 
 
 On its being first remarked that in the languages 
 of Hindostan and Persia words and forms of words 
 occur bearing a striking resemblance to Latin, Greek, 
 and German words, many endeavoured to account for 
 this singular phenomenon by a mutual intercourse, 
 which they supposed to have carried foreign words 
 
THE INDO-EUROPEANS. 119 
 
 from one people to another. The Germans have bor- 
 rowed their marsch (march) from the Trench; halt 
 (stop), which we must presume to be a more German 
 notion, was given to the French in exchange for it; 
 and pascholl is even Eussian. Now it is no doubt 
 somewhat farther from Benares or Pondicherry to 
 Frankfort or Augsburg, and no 181 3 probably ever 
 brought Germans and Hindoos together in a battle 
 of nations. Nevertheless — but I will let Adelung 
 speak here, because it is not uninteresting to see how 
 a man of considerable linguistic knowledge and much 
 judgment could, in 1806, still think on such questions. 
 " That even German elements should be found in 
 Persian has excited wonder, in some even astonish- 
 ment. The fact is undeniable; and this German so 
 found in Persian does not consist only in a considerable 
 number of rg-dical sounds and words, but also in deriva- 
 tive syllables and even grammatical forms. . . . This 
 phenomenon may be accounted for in two ways : either 
 by a subsequent intermixture after the two languages 
 were already formed, or by a common descent from 
 a more ancient mother tongue. The situation and 
 history of Persia seem to favour the former view. 
 Being situated on the way which nearly all the 
 savage hordes from Upper Central Asia had to take 
 to the West, it could not well continue wholly free 
 from an admixture with other conquering and con- 
 quered peoples. It is more especially known that 
 the Goths dw^elt for several centuries by the Black, 
 and Caspian Seas— i.e., at the gates of Persia; that, 
 
I20 THE PRIMITIVE HOME OF 
 
 with their savage bravery, they weighed down on 
 their neighbours, at the same time constantly trying 
 to push forward into more favoured countries. History 
 even mentions an entire Gothic tribe which had in- 
 vaded Persia and became amalgamated with the ancient 
 inhabitants into one people. Such may have been the 
 case with several tribes, especially when the Goths had 
 to give way to the Huns, though the meagre history of 
 those times does not record anything of it (Mithridates, 
 i. 277)." But now it is well known that the greatest dif- 
 ficulty encountered by such hypotheses was the great 
 number, and especially the sphere of ideas, of the words 
 which those Asiatic languages had in common with the 
 European ones. Who could believe that Persians and 
 Germans would just happen to have borrowed from 
 each other such words as padar = Vater (father), madar 
 = Mutter (mother), hiradar =: Bruder (brother), ast — 
 ist (is) ? Hence even Adelung already inclined to the 
 second view — the descent from a common mother- 
 tongue. " The Parsee, Zend, and Pehlevi," he says, " are 
 very ancient languages, and near the seat of the first 
 formation of language, and may therefore descend, like 
 Sanskrit, if not from the first language itself, at least 
 from one of her oldest daughters. The Teutons, like 
 all ancient Western peoples, are descended from Asia, 
 and although we are now no longer able to determine 
 the region they inhabited previous to their emigration, 
 there are no reasons why we should not be allowed ta 
 place them in Central Asia, bordering directly upon 
 Persia and Tibet, whose unsettled hordes have both 
 
THE INDO-EUROPEANS, 121 
 
 populated Europe and shaken it on more than one 
 occasion." People then believed in a primitive lan- 
 guage — the language of the first human beings — and 
 looked for remnants of it in all languages. Thus the 
 great agreement between two such "old" languages 
 as German and Sanskrit was thought to be based on 
 the preservation of a particularly great number of 
 remnants of the "first language," or on the descent 
 from "one of her oldest daughters." Immediately 
 behind this separation of languages lay the building 
 of the tower of Babel and Paradise. The conceptions 
 of the origin of man and of that of the formation of 
 the individual Indo-Teutonic peoples coalesced in the 
 imagination. 
 
 It was Friedrich Schlegel who, in his brilliant work, 
 "Ueber die Sprache und Weisheit der Indier" ("On 
 the Language and Wisdom of the Hindoos," 1808), 
 put an end to this want of clearness. He determined 
 pretty accurately the limits comprising the Indo- 
 European languages, and pronounced the Latin, Greek, 
 Teutonic, and Persian, on the one hand, and the Arme- 
 nian, Slavonic, and Keltic languages, on the other, to 
 be, the former more nearly, the latter more remotely, 
 related to Sanskrit. Other families of languages, e.g., 
 that to which Hebrew belongs, he decidedly excluded 
 from this affinity. The relation of Sanskrit to the 
 other cognate dialects he conceived as that of a mother- 
 tongue to its offsprings. Nay, taking his stand on the 
 great agreement he also found in the sphere of the 
 ideas and legends of India and the rest of antiquity, 
 
122 THE PRIMITIVE HOME OF 
 
 lie declared the populations of Europe to be actual 
 " Indian colonies," of which he makes the priests the 
 special leaders, and held those colonies to have been 
 more important and efficacious than, though not essen- 
 tially different from, the later Greek settlements. 
 Since then we have learned to recognise that such an 
 analogy to an ordinary emigration, such as occurs in 
 historic times, is not applicable to that primeval age. 
 The European languages, Latin and German, for in- 
 stance, do not bear to Sanskrit the relation of daugh- 
 ters, such as Spanish, Italian, and French do to Latin. 
 Sanskrit, on the contrary, is only a co-ordinate sister- 
 language, e.g., of German and Greek. Sanskrit and 
 Greek bear the same relation to each other as French 
 and Italian. The primary language, which should bear 
 the same relation to the principal Indo-European lan- 
 guages as does Latin to her daughters, if such ever 
 existed, is, at any rate, no longer extant. The dialect 
 which the ancestors of the Teutons, Greeks, and 
 Hindoos once spoke in common was no more Hindoo 
 than German or Greek : it was the primitive Indo- 
 European language. Hence, too, it was not the Hindoo 
 people which all those ancestors together constituted, 
 but the primitive Indo-European people. Besides, the 
 earliest Indian literature still affords traces of the 
 Hindoos having only by gradually advancing towards 
 the east and the south reached the Ganges ; they must 
 have separated from their near relations, the Persians, 
 at a comparatively late date only, in order to take 
 possession of India proper. All the less did the primi- 
 
THE INDO-EUROPEANS. ^23 
 
 tive Indo-European people inhabit India. But where 
 then did they dwell ? Which was the first home of the 
 Indo-Europeans, who were destined to play so promi- 
 nent and unique a part in history, and are at present 
 spread over the whole earth, actually ruling it ? That 
 with the earliest guesses at the kinship of European 
 and Asiatic peoples the presumption was associated 
 that the cradle of the Europeans had been Asia, may be 
 gathered from what I have stated. Previously to my 
 continuing to trace the history of the opinions on this 
 question, permit me briefly to express my own present 
 conviction, that the primitive hom,'^ of the Indo- 
 Europeans is to be looked for in Germany, perhaps 
 more especially in its central and western parts. 
 
 The first to oppose the hypothesis, which is univer- 
 sally accepted though it has never been supported by 
 evidence, of the descent of the Indo-Europeans from 
 Asia was E. G. Latham. His opinion, as far as I am 
 aware, is for the first time expressed in his work, " The 
 Native Eaces of the Eussian Empire" (London, 1854). 
 In a subsequent work, "Elements of Comparative 
 Philology" (London, 1862, p. 611), he establishes it in 
 the following words : — 
 
 "Has the Sanskrit reached India from Europe, or 
 have the Lithuanic, the Slavonic, the Latin, the Greek, 
 and the German reached Europe from India ? If his- 
 torical evidence be wanting, the d 'priori presumptions 
 must be considered. 
 
 " I submit that history is silent, and that the pre- 
 sumptions are in favour of the smaller class having 
 
124 THE PRIMITIVE HOME OF 
 
 been deduced from the area of tlie larger rather than 
 vice, versd. If so, the situs of the Sanskrit is on the 
 eastern, or south-eastern, frontier of the Lithuanic ; 
 and its origin is European. . . . 
 
 " I do not deny the fact, as it is usually stated, as a 
 fact. It may be one, in spite of any amount of pre- 
 sumptions against it. If sufficient evidence be brought 
 forward in favour of it, I am prepared to take it as it 
 is given. . . . 
 
 " I may be wrong, however, in asserting the absolute 
 non-existence of evidence ; in other words, in holding 
 that the presumptions are, really, all we have to go on. 
 Upon this I am open to correction. I can, however, 
 truly say that, if there be evidence on the matter, I 
 have failed, after a careful search, to find it. What I 
 have found in its stead is a tacit assumption that, as the 
 East is the probable quarter in which either the human 
 species, or the greater part of our civilisation, origin- 
 ated, everything came from it. But surely, in this, 
 there is a confusion between the primary diffusion of 
 mankind over the world at large and those secondary 
 movements by which, according to even the ordinary 
 hypothesis, the Lithuanic, &c., came from Asia into 
 Europe. ... In zoology and botany the species is 
 always deduced from the area of the genus, rather than 
 the genus from the area of the species ; and this is the 
 rule which I go upon here. ... 
 
 " The fact of a language being not only projected, so 
 to say, into another region, but entirely lost in its own, 
 is anything but unique. There is no English in Ger- 
 
THE INDO-EUROPEANS. 125 
 
 many. A better example, however, is found in the 
 Magyar of Hungary, of which no trace is to be found 
 within some 700 miles of its present area. Yet the 
 Magyar is not twelve hundred years old in Europe." 
 
 We shall see that not only is the evidence in favour 
 of the still accepted Asiatic hypothesis wanting, but 
 that the opposite assumption will, by a whole series of 
 arguments, be rendered highly probable; and, having 
 ascertained a sharply defined original European home 
 of the Indo-Europeans, we shall be enabled to establish 
 the latter hypothesis on a safe basis. , 
 
 These arguments are of various descriptions. I shall 
 begin with a physiological phenomenon, which, though 
 certainly not decisive, yet, when considered \k connec- 
 tion with other aspects of the question, is most note- 
 worthy. The remarkable fair type, the combination 
 of light hair and blue eyes, are essentially confined to 
 Indo-European peoples. In the North, neighbouring 
 Fin tribes in some measure partake of this pecu- 
 liarity; with this exception, it is not met with any- 
 where. In the South it disappears, in some parts more, 
 in others less,' even among the Indo-Europeans. How 
 are we to account for this circumstance ? If the hair 
 and eyes of the Hindoos have become black, and even 
 the colour of their skin yellowish, this fact can hardly 
 be accounted for in any other way than by an inter- 
 mixture with the aborigines of India. Something 
 similar is at least possible wherever we meet with 
 dark Indo-Europeans. But since, so far as we are 
 aware, no non-Indo-European people ever existed froui 
 
126 THE PRIMITIVE HOME OF 
 
 which the Northern Indo-Europeans could have con- 
 tracted the light colour, we are, from the ethnological 
 point of view, certainly more justified in regarding 
 the fair type, wherever we meet with it, as the un- 
 alloyed Indo-European type. This view favours the 
 assumption that the Indo-Europeans have remained 
 most unmixed where the blonde type shows itself 
 purest; and it is well known how much the latter 
 struck the Eomans on their meeting with the Germans. 
 We shall, therefore, scarcely assume too much when 
 we claim the highest probability of indigenousness for 
 that people which has preserved the original type in 
 its greatest purity, and has least come into contact 
 with tribes foreign to its stock. 
 
 On an Egyptian monument, dating so far back as 
 the fourteenth century before Christ, there is to be 
 seen in a grouping of various races of men consisting of 
 Egyptians, Negroes, and Semites, also a representa- 
 tion, of masterly fidelity, of a man having a thoroughly 
 white skin, blue eyes, and blonde hair. Champollion 
 already recognised a European in this surprising 
 picture. That the Egyptians should, at so early a 
 period, have known of such men is most remarkable. 
 What people they may have belonged to we shall 
 perhaps discuss in the sequel; to meet premature 
 objections, however, let me observe that these men, 
 wherever may have been their home, and however far 
 they may have migrated from it, can nevertheless not 
 prove anything as regards the so much earlier period 
 that preceded the Indo-European migration. Eor 
 
THE INDO-EUROPEANS. 127 
 
 another monument of the eighteenth century B.C., where 
 an ape is designated by an Indian, or at least Aryan 
 name, haf (Sanskrit, ha^i), proves that the Indo- 
 Europeans must at all events have migrated to Asia 
 previously to that time. The Chinese, too, must very 
 early have known blonde-haired men, for " the black- 
 haired people" is an appellation of honour which the 
 ancient hymns of the Shi-King already bestow on them. 
 For one of the hymns in this collection, and evidently 
 not one of the oldest, we have an astronomical date, 
 viz., the year 'jy'j before the Christian era. 
 
 Important data to aid us in deciding on the original 
 home of the Indo-Europeans lie in the inferences which 
 may be drawn from the sphere of words and ideas of the 
 Indo-European tribes. Since Professor Adalbert Kuhn 
 commenced, from an examination of the vocabulary 
 common to the cognate tribes, to draw conclusions as 
 to the stage of culture of the primitive people, our 
 conceptions of the mode of life of the peoples of that 
 period have daily assumed a more definite shape. Little 
 justified as Schlegel was in attributing the culture of an 
 individual historically known people to a primitive age 
 as well, yet it would be a great mistake to imagine the 
 condition of the prehistoric Indo-Europeans to have 
 been a species of embryonic existence or of semi-human 
 savageness. The primitive people was doubtless ex- 
 tremely barbarous, but it possessed a political organisa- 
 tion, bred cattle, carried on agriculture and even trade, 
 and had productions of skill and industry exhibiting a 
 comparatively high stage of culture, and a not incon- 
 
128 THE PRIMITIVE HOME' OF 
 
 siderable intercourse with other peoples. In other 
 words, it was a real nation, more highly civilised than 
 many existing out of Europe at this day. When we 
 find the word naus, "ship," quite uniform, both in 
 Greek and Sanskrit, and as an equivalent in Latin 
 warns, in German Naue, Naclien (boat), there can be no 
 doubt that this community of name must have its cause 
 in the community of the object, and the possession of 
 the ship must have preceded the separation of the lan- 
 guages here mentioned. But in the same way Wageti 
 (waggon). Bad or Welle (wheel), Achse (axle), and Joch 
 (yoke, harness), are likewise met with as far as India. 
 The ancient Indo-Europeans, therefore, did not only go 
 by boat, as the so-called savages likewise do, but they 
 availed themselves besides of cars and waggons drawn 
 by animals, a proceeding which indicates by no means 
 a condition without reflection. Very abundant, ably 
 treated materials, enabling us to judge of the life of the 
 Indo-Europeans, are afforded us by Adolphe Pictet in 
 his work " Les Origines Indo-Europeennes " (Paris, 
 i. partie 1859, ii. partie 1863), where nature and human 
 life, such as they are exhibited in the vocabularies of 
 the Indo-European languages, are described with great 
 completeness. Certainly too much may be inferred 
 from the possession of a word. Thus, e.g., from the 
 uniformity with which the name of the Hund (hound, 
 dog) occurs in all the Indo-European dialects, the 
 possession of this domestic animal has been inferred ; 
 whereas it is more than probable that in the prehistoric 
 times the dog was still wild, and known to the Indo-. 
 
THE INDO-EUROPEANS. 129 
 
 Europeans only in the untamed condition. A still 
 graver and yet rather general error will easily become 
 comprehensible on considering the mode in which the 
 separation of the peoples must have come to pass. 
 The once -undivided nucleus of so many nations can 
 certainly not be assumed to have at some time or other 
 burst asunder in all directions at once, so as in this way 
 to form the present nations that have sprung from it. 
 The separation must have taken place at various times 
 and successively. The actual affinity existing between 
 the various languages places this proposition beyond all 
 doubt. Sanskrit and ancient Persian or Zend, e.g., are 
 so much more closely related than, say, Sanskrit and 
 Latin, that, as no one doubts, the Persians must neces- 
 sarily have a special affinity to the Hindoos, which may 
 be accounted for by the circumstance that the separation 
 of these two nations is not yet so very old, not so old 
 by a long way as that of the Eomans and Hindoos. 
 Between the Lithuanic and the Slavonic there exists a 
 similar special affinity. It may be easily perceived 
 how premature it would be to consider a word found 
 only in Persian and Sanskrit as a primitive possession 
 of the Indo-Europeans, and of such an error no linguist 
 will be likely to render himself guilty. But as long as 
 of some other peoples the succession in which they 
 have separated from the original stock is not yet accu- 
 rately ascertained, the danger of similar fallacies is 
 very great. Thus, for instance, Benfey (in his Preface 
 to Pick's "Worterbuch der Indogermanischen Grund- 
 sprache " (" Dictionary of the Original Indo-Germanic 
 
 I 
 
I30 THE PRIMITIVE HOME OF 
 
 Language"), in describing the high stage of culture 
 which the ancient Indo-Europeans must have reached, 
 says, " They had weapons, especially arrows ; they 
 painted and composed poetry, especially hymns." The 
 word on which the inference respecting arrows is based 
 can be none other than the Greek ios, " arrow," which 
 is nearly related to the Sanskrit isdius. But if arrows 
 were certainly known to the Greeks and Hindoos at 
 the time when they were still united, does it follow 
 hence that they must have been known to the actual 
 primitive people which, among others, comprised the 
 ancestors of the Teutons as well ? It is, indeed, for 
 many reasons very probable that the Greeks, though not 
 so nearly related to the Indians and Persians as these 
 are to each other, are yet pre-eminently so, and must 
 have been longer united with them than the Teutonic 
 and Gallic, probably even than the Italic tribes. 
 Now in none of the languages which, accordingly, are 
 more distantly related to Sanskrit than is the Greek 
 language, is there a word for " arrow " comparable to the 
 word ischus to be met with ; on the contrary, each branch 
 of the Indo-European family uses a special word for 
 '' arrow" as well as for "bow." The Eomans, e.g., say for 
 bow and arrow, arcus and sagitta; the Eussians, luh and 
 stryela ; while for sword, e.g., there is found among the 
 Hindoos asis, and among the Romans ensis, i.e., a 
 common appellation. We must, therefore, conversely 
 conclude that the primitive Indo-European people did 
 not know the bow. Our word Bogen (bow) signified 
 in the earliest times the bow of the arm, the elbow 
 
THE INDO-EUROPEANS. 131 
 
 (Sanskrit, hdhus ; Greek, pechys). As to the painting 
 of the Indo-Europeans, we shall soon return to it. 
 These observations likewise apply to the hymns. How- 
 ever great the probability that the people in ques- 
 tion may not have been wholly destitute of hymns, we 
 have no linguistic evidence of it : for a similar reason, 
 liymnos, of which Benfey thinks, proves nothing. 
 
 As is evident, therefore, it is necessary somewhat to 
 modify our conception of the primitive Indo-European 
 people. We must, in fact, not think of one such, but 
 of several succeeding each other in strata. One of the 
 latest strata is represented by the time when Indians 
 and Persians still formed one people, and which may 
 be called the Aryan period. An older stratum shows 
 us the time when the Aryan people was united with 
 the Greeks. Let us call this the Aryo-Hellenic period. 
 A good deal of what has been thought to belong to the 
 Indo-Europeans collectively is merely Aryo-Hellenic. 
 The Aryo-Hellenes were a highly cultivated people in 
 a quite different sense from the Indo-Europeans. They 
 had real, doubtless sacerdotal, poetry in well-developed 
 regular metres. As regards that period, we shall yet 
 one day succeed in placing it in a clear, weU-nigh his- 
 torical light. 
 
 With the question as to the people, that as to its 
 original seat likewise assumes a different aspect. 
 After abandoning the Indian hypothesis, the Aryan 
 region, the home of the still undivided Hindoos and 
 Persians, the north-west of India was assumed to be 
 the cradle of all the Indo-Europeans, Prom here the 
 
132 THE PRIMITIVE HOME OF 
 
 kindred peoples, one after another, must have migrated. 
 Hindoos and Iranians, with their numerous rami- 
 fications, remained behind last, and finally separated, 
 the former migrating eastwards, the latter westwards. 
 Latham presupposes an Indo-European population in 
 Europe, to which the Indians likewise once belonged. 
 He endeavours to determine the seats which the Indians 
 occupied on European soil, and assumes, by way of 
 hypothesis, Podolia or Volhynia to have been such, 
 guided in this assumption by a certainly one-sided 
 conception of a specially close relationship between 
 Sanskrit and Lithuanic. Benfey very appropriately 
 adduces for a primeval European home the absence of 
 a community of names for the specially Asiatic animals, 
 such as the tiger and the camel, for instance. Pictet, in 
 his excellent work above quoted, had already employed 
 the same method, and attempted, from an abundant 
 stock of like and unlike designations of natural objects, 
 to conclude to the country to which the objects named 
 by an identical or similar word refer. Thus, for in- 
 stance, from the manifest identity of Slavonic, Latin, 
 and German words for Meer (ocean, sea) among each 
 other and with the Sanskrit mira (ocean), he, equally 
 with Benfey, infers that the Indo-Europeans of primi- 
 tive times must have known some sea. He takes it to 
 be the Caspian, and places the original home of the 
 Indo-Europeans in Bactria and the valley of the Oxus. 
 If we consider that the Aryo- Hellenes may have 
 become isolated by their own migration, as well as by 
 the emigration of- their brethren, and bear in mind that 
 
THE INDO-EUROPEANS. 133 
 
 for this very reason the abode of the Aryo-Hellenes, 
 previous to the formation of a separate Greek people, 
 need not have been the primitive seat of the Indo- 
 Europeans, we shall have to deal with the materials 
 from which linguistic inferences are to be drawn 
 touching the original home of the Indo-Europeans, in 
 the same way as with the inferences concerning their 
 stage of culture and mode of life. Peoples and lan- 
 guages do not originate by fits and starts, nor are the 
 migrations which have created the chief branches of 
 the Indo-European world of peoples to be understood 
 as sudden, fitful, or violent breakings up. In a great 
 many instances the spreading doubtless goes on gra- 
 dually, and equally so does the estrangement, and with 
 it the marked linguistic divergence. Hence the first 
 starting-point of the whole movement is perhaps more 
 easily to be discovered than are the intermediate 
 stages. Now for this first starting-point or the original 
 home of the Indo-Europeans we have a tolerably good 
 guide in the tree vegetation, such as it is exhibited in 
 languages which have been separated so long as Ger- 
 man and Sanskrit or German and Greek. Here three 
 trees especially are prominent, which must have re- 
 ceived their names at one and the same time, and 
 must therefore have been found together in the region 
 where they were named, viz., the hirck, the heech, and 
 the oak. 
 
 The hirch, as is well known, is that tree whose name 
 recurs with the most decided uniformity in India and 
 the greater part of Europe. It is called in Sanskrit 
 
134 THE PRIMITIVE HOME OF 
 
 hh'^rdschas, in Lithuanic hennas, in Eussian hereza. 
 The Lithuanic z sounds like a French j ; in the Eus- 
 sian word, which, through Berezina, -i.e., birchwood, has 
 acquired so terrible a celebrity, z is pronounced like in 
 Trench as a soft s. We can account for the slightest 
 phonetic divergence by which this name is distin- 
 guished from our Birkc (birch). The ancient Indo- 
 European form must have been hhergds. The short e 
 is an unaccented, vaguely pronounced vowel, which in 
 German developed into i, in Sanskrit into u. In a 
 still earlier time the word doubtless sounded hhargas. 
 The permutation of the original g into a German k 
 ensued legitimately according to Grimm's law; the 
 transitions into dsch in Sanskrit and into soft s in 
 Eussian are not more striking than is, for instance, 
 the pronunciation of Ct/7^us (Italian Ciro, " Tchiro" 
 French Cyrus) for Kurush. That the Ih had to be 
 transmuted in German, Lithuanic, and Eussian into h 
 is also quite according to rule. 
 
 What did the name of the birch signify for the an- 
 cient Indo-Europeans ? The conception which may 
 have guided so early a time in naming trees is in itself 
 decidedly interesting, and in this instance the nomen- 
 clature has an additional and quite peculiar interest. 
 Grimm declines to explain the word birch. He says " the 
 root is entirely hidden in the dark." Pictet assumes 
 an affinity to Borke (bark), and this explanation is 
 no doubt very satisfactory as a matter of fact, for 
 birch-bark was already at an early age used in many 
 ways, among others, in India, as Pictet himself men- 
 
THE INDO-EUROPEANS. 135 
 
 tions, for writing purposes. Nevertlieless I hold myself 
 bound to derive the name of the Birke, (birch) from 
 its colour. The Birhhuhn (grouse or moorhen) is 
 usually conceived to be a fowl living in birch forests 
 and feeding on birch buds. But apart from the fact 
 that this is not the bird's only mode of life, and that 
 it is even found in the treeless steppes of Southern 
 Kussia (whereat Kohl, misled by the name of the bird, 
 was not a little astonished), how are we in that case to 
 understand Birkfuchs (common fox) ? But tree, bird, 
 and fox have plainly something in common. The 
 Birkfuchs is a fox with a white spot {Blume ; cf. my 
 work just published, " Ursprung der Sprache " [" On 
 the Origin of Language "], page 243) , as contradistin- 
 guished from a Brandfuchs {Canis alojpex), which has a 
 black spot. The grouse has whitish spots, and so has 
 birch-bark. HaselhuJm (hazel-grouse), too, is gene- 
 rally derived from the hazel-nut tree. But the Eng- 
 lish haze means " grey," and doubtless not only hazel 
 means a grey plant, but even Hase (hare) means nothing 
 more and nothing less than the " grey one." Hence 
 perhaps, too, the Haselmaus (dormouse) is called so 
 from likewise being of ash-grey colour. The latter 
 analogy also favours the assumption that the syllable 
 Birk (birch) was not only intended to designate birch- 
 like hues, but that its primary meaning already was 
 white or spotted with light marks ; and there is a root 
 admitting of ready comparison in the Sanskrit hharg, 
 German hreh or lerh, signifying light and light colour 
 (bright), and whence, too, Bertha, for instance, ^.e., 
 
136 THE PRIMITIVE HOME OF 
 
 Berchta, the Iriglit one, is derived. Accordingly, Birke 
 would imply " the white one," and the scientific appel- 
 lation which the tree to this day bears, Betula alha, 
 would lie already in its primitive name. The letula is 
 called by Pliny a Gallic tree. In fact, the Keltic name 
 of the birch is heith: and thousjh diverg^inor, it mioht 
 have been derived from the same primary form as 
 Birke, in which case betula would likewise already 
 signify alha. In support of this supposed primary 
 sense of " white," I can adduce the following additional 
 argument. The Eomans, not wanting the name of the 
 birch for their native vegetation, made use of it in 
 another way. In fraxinus, the name of the ash (French 
 frene), the affinity to birch has long since been recog- 
 nised. Now the ash happens to have the whitish hue 
 in common with the birch. Nay, more, the word " ash " 
 (German Esche) itself likewise means "white." The 
 corresponding Kussian word is yaseny, "ash," from yascrij 
 " clear." With this Eussian word not only ash (old High 
 German asc), but probably too the Latin ormis, wild 
 ash, manna ash, in which the r may have originated in 
 s, is connected. 
 
 No one can fail to recognise the Buche (beech) in the 
 'Latm fagus. In German, u has its origin in long a, as 
 in Mutter (mother), Bruder (brother), &c. B corre- 
 sponds quite according to rule to the Latin /, and 
 German ch to the Latin g. Equally unmistakable is 
 the affinity of the Greek phegos. But — and this is a 
 much-discussed singularity — the Greek word does not 
 signify " beech," but a species of oak. The common 
 
THE INDO-EUROPEANS, 137 
 
 property which rendered it possible to employ a name 
 of the beech for that of an oak has been supposed by 
 some to be the eatableness of the fruit of each — the 
 acorns of the one, and those of the other, called beech 
 acorns — and accordingly they explained " beech " by 
 the Greek ephagon^ " I ate." For my own part, I am of 
 opinion that we have here an instance analogous to 
 the transfer of the name of the birch to the ash. It 
 was the darker bark, as there the light one, which 
 yielded the point of comparison. I appeal here, as I 
 did above, to the Buchmaus or Bilchmaus (fat dormouse, 
 Mus glis), or garden squirrel, to the Buchfinken (chaf- 
 finch), i.e.y redfinch, and to Buchwaizeii (buckwheat), 
 though these names admit of other explanations besides 
 tliis, and would remind the reader of the Greek phaios, 
 "grey." For the rest, the primary form of Buche 
 (beech), which must have been hhdga, strikingly re- 
 sembles that of Birhe (birch), hliarga, and this can 
 scarcely be accidental when we consider that in Keltic 
 too the beech is called heath, and the birch heith. In 
 order to comprehend the considerable divergence of 
 our modern High German forms, it has to be remem- 
 bered that rg, as a rule, is converted in that dialect 
 into rh, e.g., the Greek ergon (originally vergon), Ger- 
 man Werk (work) ; while in general g becomes cJi, e.g., 
 ego, ich (I).^ Now, is it not remarkable that not only 
 
 ^ The English form, "beech," strictly speaking, corresponds to our 
 Biiche. A word accurately corresponding to Buche would preserve the k 
 in the same way as does " book," Buck. As here, so in birch too the 
 vowel is the cause of the permutation of the h into ch, while, e.g. , the 
 BorJce is bark. 
 
138 THE PRIMITIVE HOME OF 
 
 Esclie (ash), but even Eiclie (oak) should be formed 
 quite in the same way ? And as the ch in Escke, being 
 a permutation of ^, seems to be a mere derivative 
 which is wanting in the Kussian form of the word, 
 may we not conclude that in Buche, Birhe, and Eiche, 
 too, hha, hilar, and ai only form the roots ? For this 
 reason I also surmise that the origin of those names 
 of the trees belongs to one and the same period, such 
 being generally the case with words formed according to 
 quite the same rule. The root ai, too, which, after the 
 deduction of the formative syllable, would be left of 
 Eiche, seems to imply a colour, viz., hlack. In Greek 
 we meet with the name aigilops for a species of oak ; 
 another name of a tree is hrataigos ; finally, aigeiros 
 is the black poplar. In Lithuanic the oak is called 
 azolas, auzolas, or uzolas. I have elsewhere endea- 
 voured to render it probable that the syllable Ei in 
 Eisen (iron), too, signifies black, and is connected with 
 a Sanskrit adjective meaning " coloured." 
 
 What may have made the Greeks transfer the name 
 of the beech to the oak ? This question has led Pro- 
 fessor Max Mtiller to very ingenious though extremely 
 hazardous conjectures. He first draws attention to a 
 similar transfer of the name of our Fohre (fir), com- 
 paring it with the Latin quercus (oak). Let us hear 
 the illustrious linguist himself on the subject. 
 
 " At first sight," he says, " the English word Jir does 
 not look very like the Latin quercus, yet it is the same 
 word. If we trace fir back to Anglo-Saxon, we find 
 it there under the form of furh. According to Grimm's 
 
THE INDO-EUROPEANS. 139 
 
 law, / points to p,li to k ; so that in Latin we should 
 have to look for a word the consonantal skeleton of 
 which might be represented as pre. Guttural and 
 labial tenues change, and as Anglo-Saxon fif points 
 to quinque, so furh leads to Latin quercus, ' oak.' In 
 old High German, foraha is Pinus silvestris ; in modern 
 German, Fohre has the same meaning. But in a pas- 
 sage quoted from the Lombard laws of Eothar, /ere^a, 
 evidently the same word, is mentioned as a name of 
 oak (roborem aut quercum quod est fereha) ; and 
 Grimm in his 'Dictionary of the German Language' 
 gives ferch in the sense of oak, blood, life. 
 
 " It would be easy enough to account for a change 
 of meaning from fir, or oak, or beech to tree in general, 
 or vice versa. We find the Sanskrit dru, ' wood ' (cf. 
 druma, 'tree,' ddru, 'log'), the Gothic triu, 'tree,' 
 used in Greek chiefly in the sense of oak, drys. The 
 Irish darachf Welsh deriv, mean oak, and oak only. 
 But what has to be explained here is the change of 
 meaning from fir to oak and from oak to beech, i.e., 
 from one particular tree to another particular tree. 
 While considering these curious changes, I happened 
 to read Sir Charles Lyell's new work, ' The Antiquity 
 of Man,' and I was much struck by the following 
 passage, p. 8, seq. : — 
 
 " * The deposits of peat in Denmark, varying in depth 
 from ten to thirty feet, have been formed in hollows 
 or depressions in the Northern drift or boulder forma- 
 tions hereafter to be described. The lowest stratum, 
 two or three feet thick, consists of swamp peat, com- 
 
I40 THE PRIMITIVE HOME OF 
 
 posed cliiefly of moss or sphagnum, above which lies 
 another growth of peat, not made up exclusively of 
 aquatic or swamp plants. Around the borders of the 
 bogs, and at various depths in them, lie trunks of 
 trees, especially of the Scotch fir (Pinus silvestris), often 
 three feet in diameter, which must have grown on the 
 margin of the peat mosses, and have frequently fallen 
 into them. This tree is not now, nor has ever been in 
 historical times, a native of the Danish islands, and when 
 introduced there has not thriven ; yet it was evidently 
 indigenous in the human period, for Steenstrup has 
 taken out with his own hands a flint instrument from 
 below a buried trunk of one of these pines. It appears 
 clear that the same Scotch fir was afterwards sup- 
 planted by the sessile variety of the common oak, of 
 w^hich many prostrate trunks occur in the peat at 
 higher levels than the pines; and still higher the 
 pedunculated variety of the same oak (Quercus rohur, 
 L.) occurs with the alder, birch (Betula verrucosa, Wirh.), 
 and hazel. The oak has in its turn been almost super- 
 seded in Denmark by the common beech.' " — Lectures 
 on the Science of Language, second series, London, Long- 
 mans, 1864, p. 222 ff. 
 
 The conclusion which Max Miiller arrives at in 
 this way he expresses as follows : — " The fact that 
 jpihegds in Greek means oak, and oak only, while 
 fagus in Latin, hoka in Gothic, mean 'beech,' re- 
 quires surely an explanation; and until a better one 
 can be given, I venture to suggest that Teutonic and 
 Italic Aryans witnessed the transition of the oak 
 
THE INDO-EUROPEANS. 141 
 
 period into the beecli period, of the bronze age into 
 the iron age, and that while the Greeks retained 
 phegds in its original sense, the Teutonic and Italian 
 colonists transferred the name, as an appellative, to 
 the new forests that were springing up in their wild 
 homes" {ibid., p. 235). 
 
 Max Muller does not himself overlook the diffi- 
 culties involved in this calling in aid of the geo- 
 logical periods for the explanation of the changes 
 in the meaning of some words. And, indeed, his 
 conjecture, as we shall presently see, is untenable. 
 The supersedure of the oak by the beech is noto- 
 riously neither ah isolated occurrence in Denmark 
 nor a merely antediluvian one, or even altogether 
 an accomplished fact. It is a slow, but, it would 
 seem, irresistible process, observed in the latter cen- 
 turies, and still going on in Germany and France. 
 The beech, which thrives in the shade, and, at the 
 same time, is capable, as Vaupell and Heyer have 
 shown, of depriving of light, by overshadowing, trees 
 requiring it, and thus bringing them to decay, dis- 
 places by virtue of these properties, step by step, 
 not only the oak, but, to a still greater extent, the 
 birch and pine from our woods, and finally supersedes 
 them. When Caesar crossed over to Britain he did not 
 yet find the beech there. In the Dutch peat-bogs on 
 the frontiers of East Frisia stupendous wooden bridges 
 were discovered in 1 8 1 8, which were traced back to the 
 expeditions of Germanicus in the first Christian cen- 
 tury. Among the trees which had been used for these 
 -bridges, pine and birch are found in great -number, 
 
142 THE PRIMITIVE HOME OF 
 
 but never beech. Here, tben, we have historical, and 
 not even so very remote, periods when the beech 
 had not yet pushed its way into countries where at 
 present it is quite common. In Normandy, where 
 now beech forests occur more frequently than in any 
 other province of France, and where, on the other 
 hand, the pine forms, at least, no natural forests, 
 the submarine forests of the coasts exhibit pine, oak, 
 birch, elm, and hazel, but no beech. Whereas the 
 latter occurs as a fossil in the Holstein moors. 
 
 As may be seen, we have not here to deal with 
 contrasts of sharply defined geological periods, but 
 with diffusion, migration, and gradual increase. The 
 beech spreads from a point of Europe which must 
 evidently have been situated more to the south than 
 the coasts of the Baltic and the German Ocean, and 
 more to the west than the Prussian Baltic provinces, 
 which to this day are chiefly covered with pine and 
 birch. Is the change in the meaning of its Indo- 
 European name connected with this migration? In 
 other words, did the beech come to the Indo-Europeans 
 and usurp the name of the oak in the same way as 
 it usurped the soil of their forests ? 
 
 A simple consideration will clear up the matter 
 for us. " Oak " cannot at first have been the mean- 
 ing of beech, — " beech " is its genuine and primary 
 signification. Eor the Eomans agree with the Teutons 
 in the use of the word, and only the Greeks use it 
 in the form of ;plieg6s as a name for a species of oak. 
 The divergence from its original use must therefore 
 undoubtedly be looked for among the Greeks; a 
 
THE INDO-EUROPEANS. 143 
 
 common and uniform divergence on the part of the 
 Eomans and Teutons would be quite inexplicable. 
 With this the whole analogy to the palseontological 
 periods falls to the ground of itself, and the question 
 as to the connection of the change of name with the 
 migration of the beech must likewise be negatived. 
 Not that the beech came to the Indo-Europeans, nay, 
 not even the Indo-Europeans coming to the beech, 
 is the cause of the vacillation to be observed in the 
 words between beech and oak. We have here quite 
 an identical instance with the above-mentioned trans- 
 fer of the name of the birch to the ash in the Latin 
 fraximis. Both, it appears to me, admit of only one 
 interpretation. The Romans, or rather their near 
 Italic kindred and ancestors, populated Italy from 
 the North, and therewith the birch disappeared from 
 their view; the Greeks, advancing still farther to 
 the South, now no longer required the old name for 
 the beech. In the conception of the Italics the birch 
 was superseded by the ash, which, from its whitish 
 hue, reminded them of it, and for the Greeks a similar 
 oak took the place of the beech. 
 
 As to the comparison of quercus with Folire, it is 
 for this very reason less safe, because in Old High 
 German by the side of foraliaj Fohre, another word, 
 feraha, likewise occurs with the meaning of oak. The 
 intermediate form jpercuSy which must be assumed 
 between quercus and feraha, points to the Greek perJcos, 
 "blackish." The great part which colour plays in 
 the nomenclature of trees reminds us of a similar one 
 
144 THE PRIMITIVE HOME OF 
 
 in the still older nomenclature of animals, and testifies 
 to what a high degree man is an animal guided by 
 the eye, and how everywhere language and reason 
 grew up for him through his sight. Do we not even 
 to this day see names of colours used with predilec- 
 tion in the names of trees by way of more accurate 
 distinction, such as red beech, black poplar, white 
 fir, or in Black Forest and the like? The common 
 and connecting sense of Folire and "oak" would 
 accordingly be "black tree," not tree in general. 
 Here, too, let me add that the succession of mean- 
 ings assumed by Max Muller will probably have to be 
 reversed. Oak is the original notion common to Eomans 
 and Germans, Fohre only the Teutonic idea. Provided 
 the names are connected, only a partial migration 
 of a tribe from an oak area into one of fir can have 
 been the cause of the transfer. We meet with a 
 quite similar instance of such a transfer : the above- 
 mentioned drys, tree and oak, occurs in Lithuanic in 
 the form of derwa for " pinewood," " resinous wood." 
 
 That the jpine was known to the Indo-Europeans 
 before their separation appears from its name, which 
 is to be met with among the Greeks, Lithuanics, and 
 Eomans, as well as in Germany. In addition, they 
 knew the willow, ash, alder, and hazel, but hardly 
 any real fruit-tree ; at most, perhaps, a kind of primi- 
 tive apple. This, together with the demonstrable 
 history of the beech, requires us to confine its home 
 within somewhat narrow boundaries. The oak pre- 
 ponderated, as the use of the general word " tree " for 
 
THE INDO-EUROPEANS. 145 
 
 " oak " among Greeks and Kelts seems to prove. The 
 birch, too, must have had the power of vividly im- 
 pressing the imagination to have been able to preserve 
 its name almost unchanged to this day among people 
 of such different regions; but the beech could not 
 be greatly inferior to it, since its name was formed 
 about the same time and in a similar way. Consider- 
 ing that about the beginning of the Christian era the 
 beech had not yet advanced into Holland and Eng- 
 land, and had in the primitive Indo-European time 
 probably extended even far less northward, we must, 
 I presume, proceed southward into the undisputed 
 ancient area of that tree, which, as regards Germany, 
 . would take us about as far as the Thuringian Forest. 
 As regards grain-fruit, it is an established fact that 
 in primitive times harley was known to the Indo- 
 Europeans. But their knowledge of wheat isjin the 
 very highest degree improbable. The Greek zea, 
 " spelt," it is true, agrees with the Sanskrit and Zend 
 javas; but this happens to be barley, and the deriva- 
 tive javasa means herbage for fodder, the Lithuanic 
 Jawas generally corn. Among the Ossets in the 
 Caucasus jau is millet. Of the highest importance, 
 on the contrary, is the acquaintance with rye on 
 the part of the Indo-Europeans, and the remarkable 
 divergence in the meaning of this name in their pre- 
 sent various abodes. By means of Grimm's and 
 Pictet's comparisons it has been ascertained that the 
 Sanskrit word vHhi, " rice," is in reality identical with 
 Eoggen, "rye," Lithuanic ruggys, Kussian rosh, and 
 
146 THE PRIMITIVE HOME OF 
 
 that the significations fluctuate between the two kinds 
 of grain according to the climatic variation. Our 
 word RdsSy "rice," is, in the first instance, derived 
 from the French riz ; this from the Greek oryza, which 
 in its turn must have been borrowed from the Persian 
 word for the Indian vrihi. Heiss, therefore, is a word 
 of foreign origin. That, however, not only Slavonians, 
 Lithuanians, and Germans participated in the meaning 
 "rye," but that even the ancient Thracians had the 
 word hriza for it, is a most remarkable circumstance, 
 to which I shall return in the sequel, and which proves 
 that the meaning of " rice " was merely Indo-Persian, 
 and " rye " the real primary signification. An area in 
 which rye and barley, and not also wheat, thrive, is, 
 perhaps, to be found only in Northern Europe; but 
 with reference to a very early time we must, doubt- 
 less, exclude even a somewhat more southerly zone 
 from the culture of wheat. 
 
 Before I quit this line of argument, by which I am 
 endeavouring to establish my proposition on botanical 
 grounds, and pass on to another series of arguments, 
 I must mention a plant which has escaped both Pictet 
 and the author of the "Worterbuch der Indogerma- 
 nischen Grundsprache " ("Dictionary of the Original 
 Indo-Germanic Language"), and the occurrence of which 
 among the primitive Indo-Europeans may, for various 
 reasons, claim a high share of interest on our part. It 
 is the woad, a genuine European dye- weed, which, in 
 more recent times, owing to the importation of indigo, 
 has in a great measure lost its importance. The word 
 
THE INDO-EUROPEANS. 147 
 
 is of ancient Indo-European origin ; and though, for 
 intelligible reasons, it is not to be met with in Sanskrit, 
 the Greek, Latin, and German forms are sufficient evi- 
 dence of the fact. In Greek, the name of the plant 
 is isatis or isate ; in Latin, vitrum. Its real name in 
 Greek, however, must have been visafAs, and, as hap- 
 pened in all the words in which the v occurred, it must 
 have lost this sound. The German Waid is derived 
 from waisd, as the medieval Latin forms waisda, wesdia, 
 guaisdium, old French giiesde, now guede, show. Accord- 
 ingly we shall have to assume that vitrum too comes 
 from vistrum. The Gauls called the plant glastum or 
 guastum. Glas signifies in the Keltic languages blue, 
 green, grey; and the striking agreement of this glas 
 with our Glas (glass), while the Latin mtrum signifies 
 both woad and glass, has been already explained very 
 correctly by Diefenbach in such a way that both objects 
 may have received their names from their bluish colour. 
 We must here remember that glass was originally by 
 no means colourless ; the earliest was probably green. 
 The leaves of the woad plant (provided these, not per- 
 haps the sap, were regarded in giving it a name) are 
 likewise light blue-green, and the syllable vis must in 
 the first instance have signified to the Indo-Europeans 
 the green colour, which, however, was not sharply dis- 
 tinguished either from the blue or from the grey. To 
 compare with it the Latin viridis, green, does not cause 
 the least etymological difficulty : idis is a termination 
 which is generally idus, and as such occurs in many 
 adjectives descriptive of colours, e.g., jpallidus, pale. 
 
148 THE PRIMITIVE HOME OF 
 
 That s between vowels in Latin often changes into r 
 is a well-known fact; the root of viridis then is vis. 
 But now, at a somewhat later period, blue objects too 
 were designated by words from this root, especially 
 some flowers. It is more than probable that the Greek 
 name of the violet, ion, is derived from vion, and this 
 again from vison. The Eomans formed viola out of vion 
 by appending a diminutive syllable ; and from the Latin 
 word again our Veilchen (violet) is derived. The Hin- 
 doos designated another blue flower by the same name, 
 visha -pushpa, the " visa - flower " (for sh occurs here, 
 according to a well-known phonetic law in Sanscrit, 
 instead of s). Visini, too, is the blue lotos. On the 
 other hand, vishada is green vitriol, which reminds us 
 that our Vitriol too is equally derived from the above- 
 mentioned Latin vitrum. But originally visa signified 
 every turbid fluid ; hence visha in Sanskrit, virus in 
 Latin, ios in Greek, mean poison, venom, drivel. The 
 Greek word also implies rust, which the language con- 
 ceives as dirt. From the notion of " turbid fluid " the 
 word was transferred to the " dyeing fluid," which at 
 first needed not necessarily be green or blue : in Sans- 
 krit vigada even means " white." 
 
 The foregoing deductions may perhaps appear too 
 minute, but connected as they are with the question 
 as to how far the primitive age already distinguished 
 blue from green, they could not well be passed over. 
 But what may have inspired the Indo-Europeans at 
 that remote period with such a lively interest in the 
 woad plant to make use of a colour-term, otherwise 
 
THE INDO-EUROPEANS, 149 
 
 scarcely familiar to them, for its appellation ? No other 
 plant besides bearing a name in common with it from 
 the root vis, the woad must have been the real " blue 
 flower" of the primitive time, the prototype of the 
 violet and lotos flower. Now, was it perhaps the 
 "paintings" of the Indo-Europeans which made the 
 woad plant important to them, or did they already, 
 like classical antiquity, dye their woollen stuffs with 
 it ? An interesting fact which several ancient writers 
 report to us leaves no doubt on the subject. It con- 
 cerns the Britons. Caesar, Pliny, and Pomponius Mela 
 testify to us that it was their own body which the 
 ancient Britons used to paint with woad. According 
 to Pliny, " the British women, on certain festive days, 
 used to paint the whole body with Gallic glastum, imi- 
 tating the colour of the Ethiopians." Caesar says " all 
 the Britons painted themselves blue (cseruleum) with 
 woad {vitro), and they looked all the more terrible for it 
 in battle." Pomponius says "it is uncertain whether 
 the Britons painted their bodies with woad for the pur- 
 pose of ornament or for some other reason." If this 
 British custom, which was doubtless a religious rite, 
 presents a wonderful parallel to that of the Indians in 
 the New World, reliable testimonies are not lacking 
 that the Britons regularly tattooed themselves. In 
 the same way as this practice recurs on the whole 
 earth, they drew figures on their skins by needle-pricks, 
 which were then painted over with a dye (atramento) 
 (Isidorus, Hisp. Or. ix. 2., 103, and xx. See Dief en- 
 bach, Orig. eur. s. v. Britones). Herodian states they did 
 
156 THE PRIMITIVE HOME OF 
 
 not clothe themselves on purpose to let the figures on 
 the skin be seen, and wore scarcely anything but iron 
 hoops round the neck and body. According to Csesar, 
 however, they clothed themselves in skins of animals. 
 Petersen has recently directed attention to reports 
 about cannibalism in Britain so late as in the fifth 
 century of the Christian era. On comparing the bar- 
 barous condition of those earliest Indo-European inhabi- 
 tants of the British Isles with the comparatively great 
 culture of their near relatives, the Gauls, it is impos- 
 sible to account for that condition by a retrogression. 
 Supposing the Kelts populating Britain had found there 
 non-Indo-European savage aborigines, yet the influence 
 of these on a superior people would nevertheless not 
 have sufficed to depress it to their low level, any more 
 than it gave up its language. On the other hand, it is 
 well known that the first cause of all cultural progress 
 of the Gauls was the establishment of the Greek colony 
 at Marseilles about 600 before Christ. 
 
 It is truly astonishing how from every spot on which 
 a Greek foot stepped culture spread abroad. The Gauls 
 owed to Greek influence the start they had of the Teu- 
 tons throughout ancient times. The Gauls learned 
 from the Greeks the alphabet, and in their turn taught 
 it to the Teutons, whose Eunes have thus originated ; and 
 altogether the civilisation of the Teutons increased in 
 proportion as they intercommunicated with the Gauls. 
 Subsequently the Gauls eagerly received Eoman culture, 
 and the influence, not always rated at its proper value, 
 which France of old, and nearly at all times, exercised 
 
THE INDO-EUROPEANS. 151 
 
 on German literature, science, and mode of life, is due 
 to her early and unbroken connection with ancient 
 Southern culture. What, however, was the condition 
 of the Kelts before their contact with these civilising 
 influences, that of the Britons evidently represents in 
 the most unadulterated manner, though even here some 
 deductions will have to be made, as the intercourse with 
 the Kelts of the Continent continued brisk, and accord- 
 ing to Caesar, e.g.^ besides iron, brass served as money, 
 though the latter metal was not indigenous in the 
 island, but imported. As to the climate, in Britain it 
 was not of a nature from which one might expect a 
 brutalising influence ; on the contrary, it was milder 
 there than in Gaul, which was in bad repute among 
 the Eomans for its cold. Evidently the barbarous 
 inhabitants of Britain present to us the original stage 
 of Keltic culture, and we shall certainly not be inclined 
 to presuppose in these savage Kelts a highly civilised 
 Aryan people, which, on its farther migrations, was 
 degraded to the level of tattooed savages, but surely 
 deem it more probable that it is the wholly unmodified, 
 most embryonic forms of the Indo-European nature 
 which we find left here in the North. And if the 
 above-mentioned fair-skinned man represented in the 
 tomb-chambers of King Sethos is really an Indo-Euro- 
 pean, and, in that case, of course, by far the earliest 
 Indo-European individual we know of, his representa- 
 tion quite agrees with such conceptions, seeing that he 
 is likewise tattooed. To all appearance the Britons 
 emigrated at a very early date from Gaul to their 
 
152 THE PRIMITIVE HOME OF 
 
 island, and most faithfully preserved the character of 
 their native stock on the primitive level which it occu- 
 pied at the time of their emigration. This opinion is 
 favoured by the religious importance which Britain, 
 according to Caesar's statement, had for the Gauls of 
 the Continent, who sent their sons to the Druidical 
 school there, where they had to learn many thousands 
 of holy verses ; a circumstance which is scarcely con- 
 ceivable without an ancient venerable seat of the priest- 
 hood; nay, which might even permit us to conclude 
 to re-immigrated British colonies into Gaul, who con- 
 sidered the intercourse with the British Druids as a 
 connection with their original home. 
 
 The presumption that the primitive Indo-European 
 stock was of Northern origin is likewise in perfect 
 agreement with what language reveals to us as to the 
 climatic conditions. The common vocabulary shows 
 us snow and ice, winter and spring, but not summer 
 and autumn. The deep and permanent impression 
 which the cold of the winter must have made on that 
 people has not escaped Pictet. For this reason, too, 
 he chooses among the Southern countries, where he con- 
 siders himself bound to place that stock, the coldest and 
 bleakest. But this is evidently inconsistent ; and if we 
 consider the matter without prejudice, we must not, in 
 the first instance, think of a cold climate that owes its 
 nature to its mountains or some local accident, but of 
 a IN'orthern one. Pictet mentions the three seasons, 
 spring, summer, and winter, known by the Vedic 
 Hindoos, and also quotes Tacitus' statement that the 
 
THE INDO-EUROPEANS. 153 
 
 Germans had ideas and words {intelledum et vocahula) 
 for winter, spring, and summer, but that the name of 
 autumn was as unknown to them as its gifts. By 
 reason of this remarkable passage alone I presume we 
 may say : If the home of the primitive Indo-Europeans 
 was not Germany, it must, at least, as regards the 
 temperature and impression of the seasons, have fully 
 resembled the Germany as Tacitus still knew it. The 
 assumption of a temperate but still frosty climate agrees 
 also with the poverty of the Indo-European languages 
 in common names for insects. Thus the spider, for 
 instance, has no ancient name (unless we would com- 
 pare together the Eussian pauk and the Cymrian copyn, 
 Anglo-Saxon coppa, English cob; for aranea is only 
 borrowed from the Greek arachne), and the bug, too, 
 spared those patriarchs of Europe. Ants, gadflies, and 
 gnats were extant among them. The mammalia which 
 they indubitably knew are the ox, sheep, pig, horse, 
 stag, and dog; the bear, wolf, mouse, badger (Greek 
 trochos), and probably the fox too. That they were 
 not acquainted with the jackal is tolerably certain. 
 The heaver and the viverra, of which latter word it is 
 difficult to decide if it originally meant the martin, 
 ferret, weasel, or squirrel, are also interesting. The 
 Greeks, among whom it signifies squirrel, have cor- 
 rupted the name into sJciuros, which seems to imply 
 " shadow-tail." This is only a specimen of the well- 
 known word - disfigurement by popular etymology, 
 which has peculiarly affected this word. In passing on 
 from Greek to Latin and then to French it assumed 
 
 tj 
 
154 THE PRIMITIVE HOME OF 
 
 the forms sciurulus, dcureuil, and the French form has 
 given birth to our Eiclihorn, as well as to a series of 
 other disfigurements already met with in the old Teu- 
 tonic dialects. Of our word Katze (cat) it is not certain 
 either if it was not used for weasel, in the same way as 
 felis vacillates between the same double meaning. The 
 earliest form of Katze is most faithfully preserved in 
 the Ossetic gado, and this is probably identical with 
 the Greek galee, weasel or cat. Among the species of 
 birds, which to all appearance were numerous, let me 
 mention only, by way of selecting those about which 
 we are most certain, the vulture, the raven, the starling, 
 the wild goose, and the duck ; the pigeon was most 
 likely not known. There existed a general word for 
 worm, and equally so one for serpent. The otter and 
 the eel were known, but no other name of a fish seems 
 to be found, nor any common word for shell. There is 
 no denying that a consideration of this circumstance 
 must tend considerably to shake the assumption that 
 the primitive Indo-Europeans were familiar with the 
 sea. The mere existence of a word for sea cannot 
 by any means prove such familiarity, as any inland 
 people of some degree of activity, and not living 
 wholly excluded from intercourse with the outer 
 world, must come to hear something of the existence 
 of the sea. To this must be added that the Indo- 
 Europeans have not even an expression properly and 
 exclusively signifying the sea. Meer (sea) not only 
 means also lake, but, moreover, even moor, morass. 
 Nor does there exist an ancient Indo-European word for 
 
THE INDO'EUROPEANS. 155 
 
 "salt." In the words for " wave" all the branches of lan- 
 guage differ. The Bund, (sound) of the northern seas 
 reappears in Sanskrit as smc^Aw (stream), and has there 
 become the proper name of the Indus, and for us, after 
 the example of the Persians, even that of India. Even 
 for the oyster the inhabitants of the coasts of the 
 German Ocean had to borrow a Greek name. Finally^ 
 the primitive Indo-Europeans in their navigation used 
 the oar indeed, but no sails; and yet, if they had 
 lived by the sea, these could hardly have remained 
 unknown to them. Of metals they knew gold; far 
 less certain are we as to silver in the earliest time. 
 Their acquaintance with iron is scarcely to be doubted, 
 as the agreement between the German, Sanskrit, and 
 Zend here speaks quite plainly ; but I doubt whether 
 they knew brass or copper, for the agreement between 
 the Latin ces and the Gothic ais may easily arise from 
 the Goths having borrowed the Latin word; and the 
 Greek clwdkos means, indeed, in Homer copper, and not 
 till Pindar also iron. But as a cognate word in Eussian 
 means only iron, and the Greek chalkis is also the 
 name of a hlacJc bird, I stiU think iron to be the older 
 notion, which was only subsequently transferred to 
 another metal. Other metals than gold and iron, and 
 perhaps silver and brass, were not known to the primi- 
 tive Indo-Europeans; nor were they acquainted with 
 precious stones or pearls. 
 
 I must here break off, reserving a farther series of 
 arguments for a later dissertation. If what I have 
 hitherto brought forward should let the proposition 
 
156 THE INDO'EUROPEANS. 
 
 that the primitive Indo-European people had its home 
 in Germany still appear hypothetical — if, perhaps, we 
 should not succeed at all in attaining absolute certainty 
 on so difficult a question — I beg, on the other hand, 
 the reader may calmly consider what arguments are 
 really extant in favour of the conception hitherto 
 current, and that, at the worst, hypothesis would only 
 be opposed to hypothesis. At first the source of the 
 mighty stream of peoples that poured down over half 
 a world was looked for on the remote south-eastern 
 frontier, and then, urged by weighty arguments, it was 
 moved back only as far as was indispensably necessary. 
 But as no point of the earth in this respect has any 
 right of being preferred to another, a compromise is 
 in no way better than a totally opposite view. Mean- 
 while only one of the two opposite hypotheses is sup- 
 ported by arguments; for as to the migration from the 
 east, no evidence has ever been adduced in its favour. 
 He, therefore, that eschews hypotheses must at least be 
 just, and be satisfied not to know aught on the present 
 question. But if he is inclined to give the preference 
 to either hypothesis, I believe he will have to give it 
 to that which is comparatively best established, even 
 though the arguments should not yet suffice for a final 
 decision. 
 
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2 A Catalogue of Important WorJcs, 
 
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 BIGANDET,— The Lifk or Legend of Gaudama, the Buddha of the Burmese, with 
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 BLEEK.— A Brief Account of Bushman Folk Lore, and other Texts. By W. H. 
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 BOEHMER.— Spanish Reformers of Two Centuries, from 1520, their Lives and 
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 BOGARDUS.— Field, Cover, and Trap Shooting.- By Adam H. Bogardus, Cham- 
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 BOJESEN.— A Guide to the Danish Language. Designed for English Students. 
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 BRENTANO.— On the History and Development of Gilds, and the Origin of 
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 Svo, pp. xvi. and 136, cloth. 1870. 3s. 6d. 
 
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 stantinople. Crown Svo, pp. viii. and 416, cloth, with 24 Illustrations. 1868. 14s. 
 
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 BROWN.— Sanskrit Prosody and Numerical Symbols Explained. By Charles 
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 BROWNE.— How TO USE the Ophthalmoscope; being Elementary Instruction in 
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 with 35 Figures, cloth. 1876. 3s. 6d. 
 BUCHNER,— Force and Matter : Empirico-Philosophical Studies intelligibly ren- 
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 BURGESS. —Arch^ological Survey of Western India. Report of the First 
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Puhlished by Trulner & Co. 27 
 
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 LITTLE FRENCH READER (The). Extracted from " The Modern French Reader." 
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 and lxiv.-190, cloth. 1880. 2s. 6d. 
 
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 MARKHAM.— Narratives of the Mission of George Bogle to Tibet, and of the 
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 MARTINEAU.— Essays, Philosophical and Theological. By James Martineau. 
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PuUtsJied hy Truhner & Co. 29 
 
 MATHEWS.— Abraham Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Canticles after the 
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 MAYER,— On the Art of Pottery : with a History of its Rise and Progress in 
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 M'CRINDLE. — Ancient India, as Described by Megasthenes and Arrian; 
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 MECHANIC (The Young). A Book for Boys, containing Directions for the use of 
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 MEDITATIONS on Death and Eternity. Translated from the German by Fred erica 
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 MEDITATIONS ON Life and its Religious Duties. Translated from the German 
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 MEDLICOTT.— A Manual op the Geology of India, chiefly compiled from the 
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 MEGHA-DUTA (The). (Cloud-Messenger). By Kalidasa. Translated from the 
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 MENKE. — Orbis Antiqui Descbiptio : An Atlas illustrating Ancient History and 
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 Folio, half bound morocco. 1866. 5s. 
 
 MEREDYTH.— Arca, a Repertoire of Original Poems, Sacred and Secular. By 
 F. Meredytli, M.A., Canon of Limerick Cathedral. Crown Svo, pp. 124, cloth. 
 1875. 5s. 
 
 METCALFE,— The Englishman and the Scandinavian. By Frederick Met- 
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30 A Catalogue of Important WorJcs, 
 
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