PJ 
 
 5302 
 L57g 
 
 A_ 
 
 
 A- 
 
 ^^ J*3 
 
 
 
 = 
 
 " —1 
 
 = 
 
 - ID 
 
 = 
 
 33 
 
 7 — 
 
 ^^ O 
 
 
 
 1 = 
 
 :> 
 
 3^ 
 
 ^^= ro 
 
 
 JO 
 
 5 ^ 
 
 
 3 — 
 
 ; 5 
 
 4 ^ 
 
 _Mi^ 1 — 
 
 
 —\ 
 
 1 r^ ~~ 
 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 IfVIAS 
 
 GRAA/IMAR OF THE ARAMAIC 
 IDIOM CONTAINED IN THE 
 BABYLONIAN TALMUD
 
 THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 LOS ANGELES
 
 j^-/y. <^^- 
 
 A GRAMMAR 
 
 OF THE 
 
 ARAMAIC IDIOM 
 
 CONTAINED IN THE 
 
 BABYLONIAN TALMUD 
 
 WITH CONSTANT REFERENCE. TO 
 GAONIC LITERATURE 
 
 BY 
 C. LEVIAS 
 
 PART L 
 
 CINCINNATI 
 ?rbe JSlocb Iput>li0bing anO printing Compans 
 
 1896
 
 [Reprinted f 
 
 ANGUAGES AND 
 
 The Library 
 University of California, Los Angeles 
 
 The gift of Mrs. Cummings, 1 963
 
 A GRAMMAR 
 
 OF THE 
 
 ARAMAIC IDIOM 
 
 CONTAINED IN THE 
 
 BABYLONIAN TALMUD 
 
 WITH CONSTANT REFERENCE TO 
 GAONIC LITERATURE 
 
 BY 
 C. LEVIAS 
 
 CINCINNATI 
 ^be JSlocb ipublisbing anO Iprintmo Company 
 
 1896
 
 TO 
 
 THE REV. DR. ISAAC M. WISE 
 
 THE VENERABLE PRESIDENT OF THE 
 
 HEBREW UNION COLLEGE 
 
 CINCINNATI, 0. 
 
 RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED BY THE 
 
 AUTHOR.
 
 1^1 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 The literature on the grammar of the idiom of the Babylo- 
 nian Talmud is very scanty. There are only four works which 
 require mention.' S. D. Luzzatto published in 1865 a short sketch 
 of the Talmudic idiom intended as a handbook for his students.* 
 This excellent little work, though not quite satisfactory when 
 judged by our present standards, will always retain a certain 
 value to the student of our subject, as the chief linguistic phe- 
 nomena were noticed and, on the whole, correctly explained by 
 the author. In 1879 Dr. G. Euelph published his inaugural dis- 
 sertation, Zur Lautlehre der aramaeisch talmudischen Dialekte. 
 I. Die Kehllcmte, in which the author discusses the comparative 
 treatments of the gutturals in both Talmudim. This work is a 
 valuable contribution to Talmudic phonetics, and it is to be 
 regretted that the author has not continued the subject. In 
 1888 Dr. A. Rosenberg published a dissertation. Das aramaeische 
 Verhum im hahylonischen Talmud, which is a good, though not 
 exhaustive, exposition of the verbal forms in the Talmud. Lastly, 
 in 1895 Dr. Liebermann published his inaugural thesis: Das 
 Pronomen und das Adverhium des hahyloniscli- talmudischen 
 Dialektes, a work incomplete and a mere compilation. Besides 
 the above works, Noeldeke's excellent Mandaic grammar, although 
 not bearing directly upon our subject, contains many valuable 
 references to the Babylonian Talmud, and has been of great help 
 to the present author. 
 
 I also made use of the Talmud MSS. in possession of Columbia 
 College, containing the treatises nb"2 , "tip TJT2 , D"r;~7 , D'HCS 
 and Alfasi's compendium of fl'^^J, , These MSS. have some words 
 
 ' Cf. also J. Levy, " Notes de grammaire Jnd6o-Babylonienne," REJ., I., 2r2-221 ; and 
 M. Lowin, Ai-amdische SpruchwOrter und Volksspriiche , pp. 24-28. 
 
 '^Elementi grammnt. del Caldeo-Biblico e del dial. Talm. Babilonese, Padua, 1865. 
 Genu, translation by M. S. Krueger, Breslau, 1873; Engl, translation by J. S. Goldammer, 
 New York, 18(37 ; Hebrew translation of the second part by Ch. Z. Lorner, St. Petersburg, 1880. 
 
 V 
 
 31€8^'^S6
 
 Vi PREFACE 
 
 vocalized. Whenever that vocalization is referred to, this is 
 expressly stated. 
 
 The author has adopted the use of the vowel-signs in order to 
 secure a greater degree of clearness and exactness in exposition 
 than would otherwise have been possible. This, however, does 
 not imply any claim to having succeeded in restoring the original 
 vocalization. 
 
 Some valuable suggestions embodied in this work I owe to 
 my esteemed teacher, Dr. Paul Haupt, Professor of Semitic lan- 
 guages in the Johns Hopkins University.
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The Babylonian Talmud is written partly in Hebrew and 
 partly in Aramaic. The latter is a dialect of upper Babylonia, 
 still spoken in the eleventh century,' and is closely akin to the 
 Mandaic.^ We find no special name for this dialect, it being 
 generally spoken of as D^'-'^lSl or "'"^"iN; "p'jjb , an appellation used 
 also for other Aramaic dialects.^ 
 
 The Babylonian Talmud, or, more precisely, the Babylonian 
 Gemara, was committed to writing about 500 A. D., but did not 
 receive its final shape before the close of the eighth century. It 
 is a compilation of literary productions extending, in the main, 
 over a period of nearly three centuries (200-500). Earlier 
 elements are found in the formulae of legal documents, in extracts 
 from Meghillath Taantth and from encyclicals of the patriarch R. 
 Gamliel II. All these belong to the Palestinean Aramaic, and 
 
 1 Cf. C. Levias, AJP., XVI., p. 35, note 4; in reprint, p. 8, note 4. 
 
 2Noeldeke, MG., xxvi, sq, 
 
 3 For other names of Judaeo-Aramaic, r/. Dalman, GJPA.,lsq. and p. 340. Jephoth 
 
 ben Ali in his commentary on Daniel calls Aramaic &A*wsLftJI &Ju , which is probably a 
 
 mistake for XAawJvA'M XXJ tlio language of the Pharisees. His compiler in the THjyn 'D 
 
 renders it by D'1231 TITCb • Vide D. S. Margoliouth's note on p. 7 of his edition of said 
 commentary (Anecdota Oxonierisia, Semitic Series, I.). R. Qomah GaOn in his answer 
 with reference to EUdad, quoted by Epstein in his edition of Ehlad ha-Dani, p. 7, says : 
 
 c:"iirb bxniu^ px ^:m rr'-ans -jTobn nmx •j-'om^ bnn ■'isrso iTabra 5?bx 
 
 Dirnn "JllCb ; ef. Epstein's note, ibid, p. 20. Maimonides in his Dalalat al-ha''irin (I., ch. 
 74) quotes the Talmudic proverb "J''"13J XDliT "^^13? as used ^mL}*.-***^' (\^, which is 
 
 rendered by Falaquera (mTan nilTQ P- 64) by D1^"inn "^bjl b^IS. DunaS, in his 
 m^ltCri ed. Schroeter, calls also the Aramaic of the Targumim "i^TDD "JTOb . whUe 
 Parchon calls also Bibl. Aramaic DlS'in • The author of DiTOn "120 calls Bibl. Aramaic 
 now 01:1-1:1 (rad. xb'Q, nb'D, "inO). now I'Q-lX •^^tab (rad. n^Q), now i;fi<l-11D ^MOb 
 (rad. "^in 1 nSD) or '^S'^imO '5 (rad. 173i)- An anonymous writer in Arabic calls our 
 dialect fT'tlDS Nabateayi {cf. Geiger's Jiid. Zeitschr., VI., 69). E. Levita in his preface to 
 liis 'j'533TlP'53 classes the Aramaic of the Bible, of the Targum Onkelos, of pseudo- 
 Jonathan and of the Talmud Babli as b'2'2 lltOb as opposed to the "'TobtJ'TI^ ITOb of the 
 Targum Jerushalmi and the Talmud Jerushalmi. 
 
 1
 
 Z INTBODUCTION 
 
 are cited in this work under the designation legal style. To an 
 older stage of language belong also magical formulae, exorcisms 
 and some proverbs. To a later period belong minor additions of 
 the Saboraim and Geonim/ 
 
 As might have been expected from the compilatory nature of 
 the Talmud, its language is not uniform, but shows traces of 
 various stages of development. Originally, the dialectical and 
 chronological variations must have been quite marked. But in 
 course of time these differences were smoothed down by later 
 scholars, familiar forms and expressions being substituted for 
 rare ones, and dialectical characteristics have thus largely been 
 obliterated. 
 
 Traces of a more original character have been preserved in a 
 few treatises containing laws of no practical application after the 
 destruction of the Temple. Such treatises were not frequently 
 studied in the schools and therefore were not subjected to the pro- 
 cess of obliteration as much as other parts of the Talmud. Here 
 belong, among others, Tamid, Me'ila, Temura, Nedarim and Nazir, 
 especially the two last mentioned treatises. They are marked by 
 older forms of the possessive suffixes "pl3~, 'j1j"'~5 "pH"", 'prT^-, for 
 ^'D~, ^S"]7, ^n~, ^n*]" ; by the demonstratives "pHIl , iXltl , 'pbH and 
 the personal pronouns ripi< and "^2i< ; by the forms D3''|1'32 , i^lnrnp^^ , 
 ■'b'^'n , for the usual '^'^'''2 , ^T\r\i< , ''T'^ ; by the more frequent use 
 of ri"^ and such expressions as ''>*^^n for ^pTl the question remains 
 undecided, ^'ZT)^ or "inn ^^^-^^^ ^irriSi for 1Tiy6 ^5^ "(Xp who spoke 
 of it ? ! n^U^"' well, 'b'A'' or ^bi^l proper. I am also under the 
 impression that the nota dativi U^bSl^j , so common in other 
 treatises, is wanting in Ned. and Nazlr. 
 
 In some places dialectical expressions are specially mentioned 
 as such in the Talmud. A collection of such expressions has been 
 made by Adolph Bruell in his Fremdsprachliche Redensarten und 
 ausdriicklich als fremdsprachlich hezeichnete Worier in den Tal- 
 muden und Midraschim. Leipzig, 1869. 
 
 1 For editions of the Talmud cf. Rabbinovicz, TTQbnn PCBin bj "I'QS'a in Vol. 
 VIII. of his Variae Lectiones. Literary and mothodolofrical introchictionshave been written 
 by H. L. Strack, Einleitung in den Talmud. 2d ed., 1894, and M. Mielziner, Introduction to 
 the Talmud, Cincinnati, 1894. Tlio last mentioned work is indispensable to a proper under- 
 standing of Talmudical discussions.
 
 INTRODUCTION 6 
 
 The lexicography of the Talmud has been treated of late by 
 J. Levy in his Neuhebrdisches und chalddisches Worterhiich, 
 Leipzig, 1876-1889; by A. Kohut in his Aruch Completum, Vols. 
 I -VIII., Vienna, 1878-1892, Supplement to Aruch Completum, 
 New York, 1892; and by M. Jastrow in his Dictionary of the Tar- 
 gumim, the Talmud Bahli and Yerushalmi, and the Midrashic 
 Literature, London and New York, 1886, sq. (still unfinished). 
 
 The text of the Talmud is in a very unsatisfactory condition 
 and a critical edition of it is much to be desired. An invaluable 
 contribution to textual criticism is R. Rabbinovicz's great, though 
 unfinished work, Variae Lectiones in Mischnam et in Talmud 
 Bahulonicum, Vols. I.-XV., Munich, 1867-1886. 
 
 A critical edition of the Talmud is not to be expected in the 
 near future. The preliminary work required for such an under- 
 taking — the completion of the work begun by the late Rab- 
 binovicz, and critical editions of the early commentators and 
 epitomizers — will require some time. For the present, the edi- 
 tion of single treatises in a handy form and esthetic garb, with 
 such critical exactness as is at present attainable, is very much to 
 be desired. Specimens of such editions have been given by Mr. 
 M. Friedman^ and Professor H. L. Strack.^ 
 
 It is also to be hoped that the various languages and dialects 
 contained in post-biblical Jewish literature be also separately 
 treated lexicographically. 
 
 The language, as it has come down to us, was in the main the 
 spoken language of the time. This is evident from the numerous 
 proverbs and other haggadic elements recorded in the Talmud. 
 But the scholastic terminology is essentially an artificial product 
 of the scholars. The vocabulary contains a number of words 
 borrowed from the Persian, but very few words of Greek and 
 Latin. The few words of classical origin occurring in Aramaic 
 phraseology are probably borrowed from Palestinean literature, 
 and did not belong to the language of the people.^ Its orthog- 
 
 1 " Babylonischer Talmud, Tractat Makkoth," in Verhandlungen des VII., intern. Ori- 
 entuli.sten Congresses, Wieu, 1886 (printed 1888). 
 
 ^ The treatises of the MiSna : YOma, 'AbOdd, Zara, 'AbOih, and Sa66af/i (Schriften des 
 Inst. Jud. in Berlin). 
 
 s Upon examination of Buxtorfs Lexicon, C. E. fonder gives a list of thirty-seven 
 Greek loan-words to be found exclusively in the Babylonian Talmud (c/. Proc. of PEF., 
 1890, .S24), but his data are not trustworthy.
 
 4 INTRODUCTION 
 
 raphy is in tlie main phonetic, but there is ground for the belief 
 that the gutturals were less distinguished in actual speech than 
 might be inferred from the orthography. 
 
 Further literature in the dialect of the Babylonian Talmud is 
 to be found in portions of the liturgy, in the later Midrasim* and 
 in the works of the Geonim. The latter extend over a period of 
 about 400 years (c. 750-1138). To this class belong the ninbs^lZJ 
 of 'Ahai of Sabha, ed. princ. Venice, 1546; nibi" ril-bn of Simon 
 Qiyyara, ed. pr. Venice, 1548. Another version of this work 
 was published by I. Hildesheimer, Berlin, 1888-1892;' ln"^^5< 
 ■piJ^j U^T^l'JJ "I latest edition by A. Neubauer in MedicevalJewish 
 Chronicles [Anecdota Oxoniensia, Semitic Series, I., 4, Oxford, 
 1887) and the Aramaic D^Di^^SH riin^irn , for the literature of 
 which cf. Z. Frankel, Entwurf einer Geschichte der Litteratur 
 der nacMalmudischen Responsen, Breslau, 1865, and J. Mueller, 
 
 D^jii^Bn ninviinb rina/j , Berlin, i89i. 
 
 The language of the Gaonic literature shows the influence of 
 the Targum; and this is especially the case in the forms of the 
 possessive and enclitic personal sufiixes, and in the retention of 
 the final nfm in the plural of nouns, verbs, and participles. 
 
 1 Of. Dalman, op. cit., p. 20. 
 
 2 This work contains older elements.
 
 I. SCRIPT AND ORTHOGRAPHY 
 
 SCRIPT. 
 
 Letters.^ — § 1. The alphabet used in the Talmud, the number 
 of letters, and their phonetic values are the same as in Hebrew. 
 
 Voivels. — § 2. No vowel-signs are used in the Talmud, Tra- 
 ditional pronunciation employs the whole variety of vowel-sounds 
 found in the Masoretic text of the Bible. blrO is rare, the prefer- 
 ence being given to """liS or p*i^n , 
 
 Numerals. — § 3. The letters of the alphabet are also used for 
 numerals. Jj^-tS are used for units; ''-IS , for tens; p-lH , for 100- 
 400. Compound numbers are expressed by composition, the 
 larger numeral being placed on the right: 2."^ 12, ^!D 31, j5p 123. 
 Numbers higher than 499 are expressed: 500 by pT\; 600, "Ifl ; 
 700, 'i-n ; 800, nn ; 900, pmn , etc' when the letters are used 
 within the text with numerical value they always have the sign of 
 abbreviation (§6): JT'lD, 28; 'j, 3; H'bp, 135.'* When used for 
 pagination, the sign of abbreviation is omitted. 
 
 Bead ing of Numerals. — §4. When the number consists of 
 one or of two letters, the names of the letters are read. Thus, '3 
 is not read i^T\bV\ or nbn , which it represents, but b'J^B ; so 
 1"123, n"1 are read VT^ yo , U^Jl "^IJ"'") . Numbers containing more 
 than two signs are read either as above, or are vocalized; e. g., 
 b"pri, 900; :<^"in, G13; n'5J-1, 248. 
 
 1 For the names of the letters cf. Hamburger, Eeal-Encycl.f. Bihel u. Talmud, Supplern., 
 article "Grammatik." Notice also the usual pronunciation of the following names of let- 
 ters Alleph, Gimmel, Called, 96th, Toth, Yfld, Kftpli, Lammed, Sammekh, Qaddlq (Berliner, 
 Beitrtige zur hebr. Gram., 22), Qtiph'. TG., ed. Harkavy, §26 -jT for "JIT, §49 has lib for 
 
 T5pb (cf. Samaritan Labad, Petermann, Gram, sam., p. 2, written tlSSb , Munk, TM. 10) ; 
 
 Col. MS. (Meg. end) voc. bia'^^ I HG. has XI for 1X1 • The forms of the names of the letters 
 
 T « T T 
 
 in post-Gaonic literature I shall give in my Dictionary of Philological Terminology in 
 Hebrew and Aramaic, now in preparation. 
 
 2 In later Hebrew thousands are expressed by units with dots over them. Thus X , 
 1(X)0; "2, 2000; ji, 5000. Numbers from 500-900 are expressed in Masoretic writings by the 
 final letters "^-V . In writing, the final letters are always written on the loft: V^ = 90;!. 
 
 3 In MSS. we find sometimes other signs used. Tims 3i"1iri niay be written j'i'iri or 
 
 5
 
 6 I. SCRIPT AND ORTHOGRAPHY [§5 
 
 Diacritical Signs. — §5. Wjr\ and i^nip' like the vowel signs 
 do not occur in the text. The end of a section is indicated by a 
 double point (1).'^ The same sign marks the end of a quotation 
 from the Misna at the head of a section. The employment of this 
 sign is not always consistent. Minor subdivisions are not marked. 
 
 § 6. A word not written out in full is followed by a slanting 
 stroke above the line.' Thus, 'T , '/J3 , for ^:an or n"] , i^^Zj . If 
 two or more consecutive words are abbreviated a double stroke is 
 written in the middle. Thus, rt^, ^"'/2 , b"7ip, for "nn iDP , 
 aCX ^^'2 , "lb TCIL'Q iXp . The signs are employed to mark letters 
 used as numerals (§ 3 ) or the names of the letters of the alphabet. 
 Thus n'bl, b"'2^j, n""3, q"bi< 'Alei^h, Beth, Oimel, Daleth, to 
 distinguish them from ~b^ thousand, tT'lL house, etc. 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 Vowels. — § 7. The vowels o, 6, 6, u and ii are invariably indi- 
 cated by 1 : biDpyt I shall kill; mrz death; ^^r^^ another (f.) ; 
 T02^_ they said;' HOZ^^ man. The mater lectionis 1 is sometimes 
 omitted in verbs with consonantal 1 as second stem-consonant: 
 ""^iiT^^b to make even. 
 
 § 8. The vowels e, g, e, i, I and I are usually indicated by the 
 mater lectionis V* Tn3?n thou wilt do; «ri^n house; pD"!J^ I shall 
 go up; •p■p^5 they say J tri2 died; ^"^ if; b^^lS! or b^ go thou. 
 But the "^ is sometimes omitted. This is generally the case with 
 words common to both Aramaic and Hebrew; c. g., tDblT^J pays; 
 ir^S- explains; \'^T\'2 answers.^ 
 
 ..T . ^ 1 •• T : 
 
 § 1). The vowel a or a, when final, is marked by 5< ; less fre- 
 quently by n . The latter is usually the case in the feminine 
 ending of the verb. Inter-consonantal a or d is seldom indicated 
 by « , never by H . This is the case in MSS. and later literature 
 more frequently than in the printed text: U^lHSb"^ queen; J^STT 
 Sabbath, week; i<-j;^3 evil, had; ^Z^'Z'^ is about to die; nr^l 
 
 1 For tlio otymolofO' of the term cf. C. Levias, AJP., xvi, 28-37, and AM. Jouen. OF Sem. 
 Lang, and Lit., XIIL, pp. 79-80. 
 
 2 In MSS. one point is sometimes used instead. 
 
 3 In MSS. wo find frequently instead of tlio stroke a dot on the last letter. 
 
 4 X to mark "112 is found only in StrT* he wiU be, KHP nhe wiU be, which belong to 
 MiSnic Hebrew. 
 
 •■> Cf. also Levy, Neuh. Wb., s. v. rT^T-
 
 §13] ORTHOGRAPHY 7 
 
 she cooked; ^"l'^ she is able; TT'Zi^ she says; 'l^T", ?s Jit; 
 nnj^^'II-J^ rows]- 'i^^b r ^^^ /"^^- ^^^^ adjective ending d'a is 
 always spelled Jli^ . 
 
 § 10. ninS is generally not indicated. Exceptions are 'i^'^ = "J 
 who, in order to distinguish it from "2 from; and verbs with a 
 guttural as third stem-consonant, and consonantal 1 as second 
 stem-consonant, in order to mark the a-vowel: ^SlVaJ'^b let him 
 jump; ^)XTTi2 goes about. 
 
 §11. The diphthongs ot and di, when final, are generally 
 indicated by "'i< , seldom by ''"' ; when inter-consonantal, by "^^ , 
 rarely by ^5< : ^J^'is: ^U^"" rejoice imj soul; 5<n"^"inn last (f.); 
 55"J^5<p stands. 
 
 § 12. Final au occurs only in 1i<j }iot, a contraction of 
 l!<'in + l!<b; inter-consonantal au is indicated by Ti: J^'l'll'n tread- 
 ing; iHprn exactness; XriTi thorn (§80). 
 
 § 13. Vocal sevd is frequently denoted by "^ , e. g., """Z"' do, 
 12j"'i< man, ^n^lZJ tarrying, TCB running about. This is espe- 
 cially the case in the imperfect, at times also in the infinitive and 
 participle of "^'l^' and other verbs, and was probably pronounced 
 as a full vowel. ^ According to Dalman,^ the Sabbioneta edition 
 of Onkelos and the Masora of that Targum frequently vocalize 
 the prefixes of the imperfect and infinitive of "* "12? verbs with i 
 followed by ddghes of the first stem-consonant, or, in case of 
 resolution, by e, by analogy with ^"^ verbs. To this he remarks 
 in a note: " The tendency of the forms q®tal, q^tul to pass into 
 qittal, qittul, is also elsewhere to be observed (c/. Barth, Nom- 
 incdbildung, 196). . . . Mere lengthening of sevd to a full vowel 
 may besides be attributable to careless speaking (c/. Safir, 'Eben 
 Sapplr, I. 55a)." To this I would add, that in the recently dis- 
 covered oldest system of vocalization we find i, e, or d for vocal 
 sevd, the latter having no special sign at all.^ It seems, there- 
 fore, that the development of sevd in Hebrew and Judeo- 
 Aramaic is of a later date than in Syriac. 
 
 1 Cf. C. Levias, AJP. XVI. 30 (reprint p. 3). Cf. also Sal. Geiger, Zion, II. 6: HehaliXc, 
 II. 153; A. Geiger, Nachgel. Schriften, V.. Hebr. part, p. 1 sq. 
 
 2 Grammatik des jud.-pal. Aramdisch, § 70, 3. 
 
 3 Cf. Friedlander, FSB A., XVIII., March, 1896, p. 90.
 
 II. PHONOLOGY 
 
 A. CONSONANTS.' 
 
 General Eemdrks. — § 14. As in the cognate Aramaic dialects 
 1 represents both original j> and j ; e. g., j : SJ^'^TZ*^ honey, ^53^^ 
 judge: 3 : "1 fhis, U^tp'H beard. — n represents both _, and ^ ; 
 
 e. a.. _, : D^3n it^/sr, iJ^/^bn dream, ^"^'IT, ass; ^•. Xr^iriJ^ another, 
 
 err; to sign; ^nri" /o break in. — 13 represents is and jb ; <?. </., Jo : 
 !J5'2"i: /rts/e, reason, ^</Jt: /o 6e unclean; h : &<^i^I2 ?ia?7, ^:^t2 load, 
 
 T -: - T : T 
 
 !J<~"I2 mountain.^ — 2? represents c , c , and ^ ; e. r/., c •• iJ^pTS' ?'mff, 
 S'^b? «'or?(/, 5<niry /e?/; p : U^nnr raven, «n'3? cZo?<(/, bb:? /o enter, 
 go in; ^^ : TiT'3. egg, >'13? or yiSJ^ /o happen, befall, &^""i7J disease. 
 — "i" has been retained in Xn'i3''1i< (also i^nC"'^!^^) a certain meal, 
 Jj^"T2 meat,Jiesh, ^'W to compel, ^W ten, '"""(W twenty (but ^D, 
 "'■'C, in compound numbers), "lifl /o ?)e satiated, HC'dX Satan, 
 t<r"S:"l' /<rt/rc(^ (but ^]C /o /irt/^), &<3'J: Z?>, i<'i3i2 mustache, -pifl 
 /o 6/a'>?, sicalloic, gulp down, and perhaps "'bD'^ir a certain bird; 
 but the latter is doubtful. In other cases it appears as C. — • 
 n represents ^^ and ^•, e. g., ^i Hms to open, T\T2 to die, Tl'i 
 to drink; ^ : "lin ox, S^H /o return, bpH /o tveigh. In the few 
 cases in which these rules are violated, we have loan-words from 
 other dialects. 
 
 Pronunciation. — § 15. The original pronunciation of the vari- 
 ous sounds ditl not, in all probability, differ from the cognate 
 dialects and from Hebrew. But in a later period the pronuncia- 
 
 1 Cf. Hauj-t, ZUMG.. 34, Vugq.; BA., I., 2i9sq.; Dalman, GJPA., 41 8g. 
 
 2 Tliis word is connected witli Arab, v^ . Its p is infixed as that in l^T^y or 
 
 3 This is the Arab. .. g P hack, Assyr. Qlru )agh. Cf. Arab. J-*^f ^^ tke top 
 
 o//Ae moKH/a/n and the use of Arab. rt-*»^ . Hob. 2733 /i)77, the hittor connected with ^3 
 
 back. For a similar change from Arab. H'T to Aram. T'y cf. Arab. '--jZS and Talni. STp , 
 Fraenkcl, Frcmdi/-., 42. / ^"^ 
 
 8
 
 §17] CONSONANTS 9 
 
 tion of some of the sounds seems to have varied. This is evident 
 from the variations in spelling and from the transcription we find 
 in Arabic for Aramaic loan-words.' 
 
 Gutturals. — § 10. The Arabs transcribed Jl by 5 , H by j^ or 
 
 _, , and y by c • The pronunciation of M was probably, as with 
 
 all Eastern Arameans, that of the voiceless guttural spirant -^ . 
 
 The words transcribed are either taken from some western dialect 
 or borrowed at a later period. 
 
 § 17. As appears from the Talmud (Meg. 24 6, M. Q. 16 h, 
 Ker. 8 a), the Babylonians did not properly distinguish the gut- 
 turals in their pronunciation. The retention of the various 
 gutturals in script is, therefore, merely historic spelling." Hence, 
 in words whose etymology is not transparent, we frequently find 
 phonetic spelling. Thus, in InT to he cautious^ "'TlJl one another, 
 
 together, pT'^H to imprison, "1*11 to return, )XPb^TTi2 sieve, bH- 
 to sift, Kl'^T] shrubbery, and in other words we have T] for ety- 
 mological n .* In t^b'iT^i^ pounded grain, i^niT'^i^ name of a canal, 
 &<u:^B*i5 a kind of fish, we have 55 f or H . In 3?bri or tlbri to crack, 
 
 T • 
 
 we have H as well as >" for it. In Ml^ to dry up, we have n for 
 Jj5 . For n we have ^5 or • in !J^"!}^ , t^lT this, "iSSS to turn; while 
 
 T T TT I 
 
 for 3? we have very frequently J< : XniS; (Col. MS., Meg. 12 b, ^52? 
 alongside of i<2i<) thicket, ^ii>5 twigs, ^DS'^^i^ bulrushes, a. fr. 
 Cf. Noeldeke, loc. cit.; also Nestle, Marginalien u. Materialien, 
 p. 69.' 
 
 The fact that post-vocalic ? is pronounced as a vowel shows 
 even more clearly that the retention of the gutturals is in many 
 cases merely graphic. Thus ^5■i2''t- is pronounced tdimo. This 
 points to an earlier '^'Z'^'Ci just as in Assyrian.^ 
 
 1 Cf. Fraenkel, op. cit., Introduction. 
 
 2 Cf. Noeldeke, MG., 58. ^ ^ 
 
 3 This word lias nothing to do with "IHT to shine, but is the Arab. )V^^ • For similar 
 metathesis, cf. Barth, ES., 3, 4 COin and 'ij'C). ^^^ 
 
 * Cf. also Harkavy's note, p. 336, of his edition of the TG. 
 
 3 A similar promiscuous use of the gutturals is found in Phenician (Schrooder, PhOniz. 
 Spr., 79sg.), Samaritan (Uhlemann, Inst, lingu. Samar., I., 13sg.), Neo-Syriac (Noeldeke, 
 NSG., oQsq.), and Palest. Aramaic (Dalman, op. cit., 44). 
 
 6 In the same way Hebrew words like nbS'P , TaS^'O ■ ^"'1172 . Tar's , bD^S , an.] 
 the like are pronounced m6ilo, mfiimor, mkirlv, m^imod, mfiichol. Bu't nD":^'^ 
 mar6cho. The pronunciation of the above and similar words is retained also in the plural 
 ia spite of the change of accent. Thu§, maim6rim, maich61im, maim6d0s.
 
 10 II. PHONOLOGY [§1^ 
 
 Palatals. — § 18. Initial "' seems to have been sometimes pro- 
 nounced i< to judge from a few cases where i< is actually written 
 and from the fact that after the precative b the prefix ^ of the 
 imperfect, even if it is followed by an «-vowel, is frequently 
 dropped. Thus, SSjTtTuJ^ dried ears of corn, 5<b2^X willoiv -ha sleet, 
 nb^^n"5<'n that will he horn, Ned. 30 h, "d^^T^i that they gather, 
 
 ' t: - : • : ) - . : 
 
 B. Q. 113 b; i< for "^ is also written in a few forms of the verb 
 ^tr to sit, y^-'^b let him cause to swear, Cfbnb let him pass. 
 On the other hand, we find at times the "^ marked as consonantal 
 by doubling it. 
 
 § 19. ji and j like n , "1 , S and n had a double pronunciation 
 as mutae and as spirants. 3 is transcribed by the Arabs generally 
 as -^ , sometimes as ,^- ; 3 is generally d , sometimes by -- or 
 (^ ; 3 is ^^ , 5 is -^ . So we find also in the Talmud ''bp''3 and 
 
 'b^y partridges, t^'^'2 and t'p'^ to knock, ^Ti'^^'^'^ and iJ^niTj^'^j: 
 shej^herd's hell, 5<riSp";p = >5ri23"]3 head, from 'p'D to bend, nod, 
 properly noddle; cf. Hebr. "pip I lip ; jl'Ji and pT^ to jump, 
 written promiscuously. 3 is today not distinguished from 3 . 
 
 Linguals. — § 20. 1 is rendered in Arabic hj ^ , 1 by j ; n 
 by ci5 » ri by ^ . In traditional pronunciation "I is pronounced 
 like ^ and T\ like C . t2 is not distinguished in modern pronun- 
 ciation from n . The 1 was evidently a lingual, as it could I e 
 doubled.' 
 
 Sibilants. — § 21. T is v ; D and TS are ^ ; 'jS is (^o, and "125,^^, 
 rarely j* . In the Talmud "JJ is usually carefully distinguished, 
 while the other sibilants are at times used indiscriminately. 
 Thus, i^"n2 and 5<XS street-icell (V. L., B. B. 8 a); t^bip^pni^ , 
 5<bi:-iPC« flippina/nBi^^^'l^i^, ^^n^n-^^ rows, F. MS., B. B. 12 a; 
 5<"T^5<, ^"C^5< a certain quarter of meat; U5jCi< , i<^i^^ crcep'-r, 
 vine; ST^ij', i^CXC ear of corn; n"!! , T^C binds, M. MS., AZ., 
 2S h; y;C"C< , '^^^'li? jw/; Cp>" for yp:? to sting; 5^nC^'^i< and 
 i<m"JJ""5<\ certain meal; "^"^C:' and "f"]'*C2? twenty; 'XZl and Zzil 
 to tread. 
 
 L<d)ials. — § 22. S is rendered in xVrabic transcription l)y ^ ; 
 £ In- ^ , sometimes by ^ . 1 and 12 are rendered by ^ and ^ ; 
 
 1 Cf. Fraenkol, op. cU., 8<?, and '^2'^^K. •&«- '^''>
 
 §26] CONSONANTS 11 
 
 5 by o 1 sometimes by ,_, . With the exception of two or three 
 words where 11 is written for etymological 2 , the Talmud retains 
 "2 . But 2. and 11 are written indiscriminately in foreign words. 
 Z and S are sometimes written indiscriminately. "STSIS and 
 TkTZIS a species of tamed doves, "^^123 and ""ISS excremmts, 
 
 5<rzb::, ^^~i::: eel 
 
 T : T : T : : 
 
 Daghcs and Rdph6. — § 23. The rules for the pronunciation 
 of r2^"32 as tenues, or mediae, and as spirantized are about the 
 same as in Hebrew and Syriac; but the following may be noticed: 
 
 o) Unlike the Syriac, r^i2"rc has no daghes after a diph- 
 thong; e. g., i^n^S, 12^"&5. 
 
 h) The in in the feminine ending i<Fl" is often not spirantized 
 when a vowelless consonant precedes, even if that consonant be 
 preceded by a long vowel; e. g., U^pbi^cJ . 
 
 c) ri3j"rc are not spirantized to avoid difficulty of pronun- 
 ciation; e. g., xsFiTi, 5<nip"n-i , i"i--2x, 5<"^nw , i<-^ric-::, for 
 
 ^ TT t'.; •:- tt; tt:« 
 
 TT t'-: •:- tt: tt:> 
 
 d) 3 is pronounced hard in the proper names J}<iE Papa and 
 ^£E Papi. 
 
 • T 
 
 Changes of Consonants. — Gnlturals. — § 24. i^ changes to ^ 
 in the active participle Qal of """l:? verbs and of verbs following 
 their analogy. Also in the Pa"el and Ithpa"al of verbs ^ V . 
 Thus. D^T stands, in"^:: listens, TT^'C dies, T^i: hinds, ^^"2 com- 
 
 ' ..'t .. t •• t - t I •• t 
 
 peZs, -iT^^n feels pain, b^y^ enters, h^^'^ asks, T^'iJ he left, 
 omitted, H'^^nilJU^ remained. The forms ri''55!2 , D^J^p , etc., are 
 only graphical variants. The 5< must have also been pronounced 
 ^ in 5<-5<5< interstice, and 75<i< Aleplis. Notice also X^?,'''^ 
 
 TT-: , l.T-^ ,T. 
 
 remainder. Verbs ^"j have passed entirely into verbs ■• 5 . 
 
 § 25. n changes to 1 or ■• in iJ^bl! , \^h^Z he, she, lit. this one 
 (§ 177), JJ^Ip to he blunt, Tlin to he astonished. In the last two 
 cases we may have metathesis rather than phonetic change. MIH 
 may also stand for n"«n . S^^iJ^^T rich landlord, j "^riT .' 
 
 § 26. M appears frequently as Ti : !}<!iin foliage of a palm, 
 Arab. ^jOyss^ ; t^TTl thorn, Syr. U-S* ; ^^IH a proper name = U^j" 
 
 1 Cf. Syriac Q-»03i = 03iO(Ji and Palcstinean M'^'^X - r^HS . Dalman, 6?. 
 
 •II 1
 
 12 II. PHONOLOGY [§2'^ 
 
 inn io return, Hebr. "^Tn ; cf. §§ 16, 17. Sometimes it inter- 
 changes with a sibilant: !j<nc^p"b-, 5<nc^p-bc.' 
 
 § 27. y regularly changes to ^5 when there is another 3> ( = (jo) 
 in the same word: y^i;^ = ^^^ io happen; 5^£^i = iC?i5^ = Arab. 
 ^uy£> hyena. Cf. also §17. In "nj io laugh, we have T* for ?. 
 Whenever 3? corresponds to Arab. ^ it must have been originally 
 = c . This would explain more easily its interchange with j and 
 p .* Verbs y"b have in a few instances passed into verbs "'"b . 
 
 Palatals.— % 28. j interchanges with p (§ 18), with D : ^^'2^^, 
 5^1312:3 door-step; cf. §51. In XT^T couple, the j becomes 7, as 
 
 T T : *^ T 
 
 in modern Arabic and Syriac. It changes perhaps to 1 in "^j'J^ , 
 ■mr to send. But the latter is more probably = .J^ . In ''!|15< 
 for "^Sn (§ 174) we have the change of ji to &5 . 
 
 §29. Sand p frequently interchange: ^r">r"^3 , ^J^*f"!p vetch; 
 
 5^n""Si"3 , i^n^^ii'^p dealers in veqetahles; i<n^^iri^3 , U^n^^lZJinn 
 
 tt;:tt:': "^ tt:: tt:'. 
 
 halls, cakes. The interchange with n frequently found in the 
 texts is probably due to graphical errors. 
 
 § 30. Intervocalic "^ changes to !!< in the adjective ending 
 ni<-. Thus. ns<"nn the last, M^^^p the first, HJ^Z^b the Libyan, 
 
 TT 'tt;t tt'- tt 
 
 for *i5^^nn, *^<^^p, *!}^^I^b.' In verbs: nt^"5n"i< she was 
 healed, ^Keth., 62 V; ^^^"n'lDS loere changed. Col. MS., MQ., 25 h. 
 But generally intervocalic "^ is elided. 
 
 Dentals. — § 31. T usually corresponds to Arab. c> fi^tl 3 ; but 
 occasionally T appears, even when it corresponds to j> . Thus, ""T , 
 SIT then,noiv (§182), n^T to slaughter'; w\35<;'l, iC^l] loss; i^bri , 
 i^bri dripping; J^JS-'H , iX^Tl ticigs; iXPTl'^l, ^^n^T sorb-jdanta- 
 
 1 Cf. Syriac | ^,V.^X.. - ji^V.^^. , Brockclmann, Leu-, t^yr., add. ad p. 112. Hebrew 
 rbi^n may stand for r.bSTSlT. Imt with regard to its Assyrian equivalent, n may Vie 
 original. Cf, prothetic H in ^yr. )'~ - " ^ - . 
 
 2 For this change cf. Bibl. Aramaic i^P'^i^ c'lrfh; in some dialects, cf. D. H. MttlltT, 
 op. Cit., p. 41; Noldckc, MG., §66; Miink, rSl'.'v. 44, n. 127. Ethiopic Saqflqaua, to cry, 
 lament, is a Saph'el of *qOqaya = ^-^ .-^ . One is tempted to compare also Judeo- 
 Gorman "koikon" to howl, altli<>ii«li it is diflicult to see the historical connection. Cf. 
 also "^212 . ^'^''-t ed. priiic. = V^lID f««' hubbies. Similar is the interchange of T and 
 p : Hebr. "pO, Syr. ]»j.A. almond. C/. §30. 
 
 3 Cf. Jaeger, BA., I., iS9, 4ri9. 
 
 * Cf. XOldoke, MO., 4:5; D. H. Mftller, Imchr. von Sendachirli, iOsq., 6j.
 
 §36] CONSONANTS 13 
 
 J 
 
 Hon; i^r'n^t:, «r7^t: wardrobe; ^^i'3,1 bee.B.ehr. H^iz'n'; i^b^'^X 
 
 tt::- tt::- t. t:t.- 
 
 for i<yT^^5 young gazelle. In J^" S"! (§185) it corresponds to 
 Arab. «^ «^ . 
 
 In the following examples we have not an interchange of b 
 and 1 , but a rare syntactical use of 1 , which can be paralleled 
 in Assyrian: b^TI^^i"^ li^b does it not mean to say, Col. MS., Zeb. 
 50 a; i^I^C^"] ^^^P^V J^^T'I^ ^']in'1 and oxen for ploughing and 
 dates for trade, Sabb. 19 h.' In the first example there may also 
 be dissimilation due to the preceding l^b .^ 
 
 § 32. t2 usually corresponds to Arab, is and ^ , but occa- 
 sionally it interchanges with iS ; thus, '^'112 and "''G'i . In Vb^ it 
 corresponds to 'Omanee Arabic «JLo to limp.*" 
 
 § 33. ri sometimes interchanges with 1 : H^^P'^rQ the Bag- 
 dadian; ^"^Tl^p , ""in^p ; ^'^V) ^ ^^nrb /i(r»?>." 'c/. also § 21. 
 
 Liquids. — § 34. b interchanges, with D in the precative parti- 
 cle of the imperfect: "'iriD let him 6e, for "'IJlb ; "pT-S sufficient 
 
 for irrigation, H. MS., B. B. 8 a, for b^lT^ .' «:a^b , Latin 
 
 nummus, coin. Cf. also § 36. — i^pb? leech appears also as ^^p"*" . 
 
 § 35. D changes to 1 in J^I^IT"'"! fowler. Compare also ^!2p to 
 hide with Hebr. "Jti . A similar change would be in IS son, 
 rilll daughter, if they are identical with 'HI , nS ; but this is 
 doubtful. Final "i changes to Q in DTl"i2J"P he makes icater, O. 
 MS., Sabb. 131 rt. 
 
 § 36. 1 appears frequently as T . This may be simply a 
 graphical error. But in view of the fact that the change of 1 to 
 
 1 Cf. also Arab. \ 5-^S alongside of \y^^ • 
 
 2 Cf. the variant in the ptDriB to Onkelos, Lev. 15:3;} SlS^bb"] for ^'^S'llbV and 
 
 in later literature: 1171^3 = 117113 HG. 29; KI'^^ll = '"lb Und. 108; Xpi2i"1 = "^b 
 thid. 373. 
 
 3 The stock example for the interchange of b and T has always been ITS — btS • 
 But from the fact that the word occurs only in two forms, X'HTS and ITTSC . for both gou- 
 
 T 1 - - -I » 
 
 ders, and only in the sense of the present, and used only in the set phrase T\'^'l2'S'\^'^ SHTS? . 
 and only in a metaphorical sense, it is evident that such use of the word is only a piece of 
 school-wisdom, based on a wrong interpretation of a biblical passage. A root ~TX is a 
 mere fiction of our lexicographers. Later Hebrew literature abounds in i)arallels of a 
 similar kind. SuiEce it to point to Hj^E 'o disclose, "i2i2p end. and 2^ 113^13 Q^i^f- A 
 full collection of such words would be of considerable interest. 
 
 * Cf. i?t313 egg in Jer. Sebu., III. 34 d; but this may also be equal to iiriyS with 
 
 change of fl to 13 • 
 
 5 For the same phenomenon cf. TG., ed. Harkavy, §55. Cf. also Syriac ''^.iJ and 
 Hebrew-Aram, "inj to give.
 
 14 II. PHONOLOGY [§37 
 
 T is attested in living speech,' such a change may in some cases 
 be phonetic. The physiological kinship between "I and 1 seems 
 to be the same as between 3^ ( = p ) and ^j6 . 
 
 "I changes to b in Tibn hvo, "^C'^bri twelve (§136). 
 
 §37. T. On interchange with 1 cf. §31. T stands for Arab. 
 ^j6 in Till to sj)lit'; JJ^H^T clucking hen (connected with ^^ to 
 
 make noise, croak) ; ^T&< to heat is perhaps Arab. Ld^s^ ; T^3 , 
 Arab. vL=». to j^ass through, cross, is evidently connected with 
 
 § 38. C stands for u^ in "i3.C to ivait, hope for. On the 
 other hand "'aic to cup corresponds to Arab. Ill to examine a 
 
 wound. The latter is connected with y^ to break open (said of 
 an ulcer). ^ For its interchange with other sibilants cf. § 21. 
 
 §39. JI interchanges with other sibilants (§21), with ti 
 (§32). It stands for Arab, u^ in "l^ to he in need, "liSZi to he 
 few, y/JJ? to press together^' 'C^^'l to cry, shout = ^IJ), V^-^^ 
 to cast hubbies. 
 
 1 Maclean, Gram, of Vernacular Syr., % 121. For Ethiopic cf. Pratorius in BA., I., p. 45. 
 
 2 From an original >«»0-? all the forms with T i 21 . p and T as second stem-consonant, 
 which appear in the various Semitic languages, can be derived. 
 
 3 Cf. also Hebrew ntS C?) locust with * ^"y- glutton; Miinic rT^^^BT receptacle with 
 
 >«y^ ; n"*"!^!!! ba(' ^oil with ^^yt^ \ »J\ hooks, Psalms, with SjLyof, pi. Ny«-0. 
 
 Through the intermediate form yj3 we get the form T^^'H hook, mentioned in the Talmud 
 as used among Persian Jews. Cf. Fraenkel, op. cit., 248; Barth, E. S., 26, .■)2. The develop- 
 mcnt of meaning from >-yO to put in oi-dor, y^'^ collect, to SjLyfil hook is similar to 
 
 that in ljUo hook from s^jJiS to setv together. Cf. later Hebrew ^i^JS hook, composition, 
 and "i;ki? to compose, ivrite a book (vide Harkavy, Lehen u. Werke d. Saadjah Gaon, 
 
 - T 
 
 p. JT'^'psg.). There seems, therefore, to bo no ground for doubting the Arabic origin of 
 V_}V.Aj as Fraenkel does {op. cit., 249). 
 
 • y 
 
 * n^iO (Targ.) to hear, carry, is closely connected with the idea of endurance, hope. 
 The same connection wo find in bSD (Targ.) to carry, suffer, endure. Arab. U^\ . Assyr. 
 zabalu (Barth, £S., 50). Interesting variants to l^'^O wo find in the Targ. to Psalm 96,8: 
 
 y y y 
 
 'T\y^tD^ ^nniP ; cf. Levy, TWh. s. v. "120- The form ^110 corresponds to Arab. v*-^> 
 ■1D1P and imtJ. to an Arabic by-fonn wO . Similarly we tiud Hebrew H^tD grain 
 
 > 
 
 y u y 
 
 /"■ 
 
 = Arab. 5 wAJ , a by-form of 5v«*>-0 pile, store of grain. 
 s Barth, ES., 1. 5.
 
 §4J:] CONSONANTS 15 
 
 §40. UJ interchanges with T\ in bp'JJ , ^pP , /o loeigh, be 
 worth. With D in ^"JJTJ , ^C"J fo icash. 
 
 Labials. — §41. 2. On interchange of "2 with 1 and 3 c/. 
 § 22. In -'i^-J for "'i^n Beth S'^'dn we have 7J for 2 . i<'2^py 
 = Hebr. ^^p"*" , Arab. i^y'syS. . 
 
 § 42. '2 . Assyrian 12 appears sometimes as 2 , sometimes as 
 1 : "^li" ?;j)0», !J^''"i"5< ?tJes/,' i^nnlVvT cyjyress.' 12 changes to 2 in 
 ■n-nrinf. Aph^elof nin to return, B. Q. 81 ?j, and in ^Si^Fl'i: melt- 
 ing, Sabb. 1106; in the plural endings of pronouns, nouns and 
 verbs. It stands for D in 1}<«l2^I1 terebinth. 
 
 T ; 
 
 §43. 1. Initial 1 has been retained only in the following 
 words: 11 Wait, ^1 woe! alas! "'b^^l jwoper (alongside of v^^"*), 
 5<'^11 rose and its derivatives, J^l^l meeting, 5<pT11 tart, and in 
 a few proper names. In all other cases it has changed to "^ . 
 
 DOUBLING. 
 
 § 44. Doubling takes place in traditional pronunciation in 
 about the same way as in Syriac: 
 
 a) As characteristic of certain grammatical formations; e. g., 
 in the Intensive stems. 
 
 b) To show a double consonant; e. g., "2^ , SSS . 
 
 c) As compensation for an assimilated consonant; e. g., J^P'JJ 
 year, 371^ thon. 
 
 d) As compensation for a shortened long vowel; e. g., "D>? 
 for ^1:5? iqjon, ^121 (§182).' 
 
 e) To lengthen artificially a short word; e. g., 5<^1S mouth, 
 55n>5 father. 
 
 f) To preserve a short vowel; e. g., iXy^} tongue, Arab. jjLlJ, 
 ^^nin^n bridge, Assyr. tituru. 
 
 g) Doubling is retained at the end of a word in Pi^ thou, in 
 the pronominal ending of the participle, ri'^"-2i< thou sayest, and in 
 ^■i Rabbi, usually pronounced ^"1 .* 
 
 iThe Assyrian equivalent is amurrfl (c/. Jensen, 2.4., X., 339 83.) auJ ^xl'^ stands 
 
 for if^ms . 
 
 2 TG., ed. Harkavy. §49, has ^ib for n^5 Lamed. Xl^ to see may also be connectoJ 
 
 ^ V ¥ t r T I 
 
 with the Syriac >C5 , 
 
 3 The transcription of proper names in the old versions and in Josephus shows us a 
 number of similar cases ; e.g., Saddflk, AbessalOm, Abennfir, Annftn, for pHS . ClbC'^SS!;. 
 -i;-i3j{ , r;y or ^2n. But, in cases like AbossalOm and AbonnSr, the versions may have 
 taken themto be composed of ]1X (= "jZl) +3ibtj or '\Z . 
 
 i Cf. NOldeke, SG., § 23, H. ^ "^
 
 16 II. PHONOLOGY [§45 
 
 Resolution of Doubling. — § 45. To judge from the cognate 
 dialects, resolution of doubling must have frequently taken place. 
 In a case of resolution, the preceding short vowel was either 
 dropped, or lengthened, or retained intact by the insertion of a 
 liquid. In the case of vowel-lengthening we can only know that 
 a resolution has taken place when the vowel changes its quality, 
 as from pn^H to ^^^ , or from TX\^ to yp)^ , not otherwise. 
 
 Insertion of Consonants. — Insertion of a Liquid. — §46. 
 
 a) 5J: 5<Ti3/JS; nut. 
 
 6) : : ^rr^ "feast; i^'llSS pot; ^rTj^ to roll; ^'^^'j^t^ ^'«ce- 
 roy, Pers. ustadar, and other words. 
 
 c) n: In the so-called Par' el forms: bn^ to shake, b^"}^ to 
 mix, D^'^3 to cut, pT^Tl to imprison, nS"!!! to let hang doivn, 
 t:nn^ to stretch oneself flat, ir3"iS or llip^Jp to strike, tingle, 
 i<n^3^3 or SniZJp^p shepherd's hell, i^rTJiii"]^ clod, )X\PrP^ school- 
 hoy, "pp"!^p crop, craiv.^ 
 
 Note. — In words of foreign origin IT seems to be similarly 
 inserted: ^pTlS he searched, Mandaic the same; 5<S3"ir^i< saddler, 
 
 Assyr. askapu = Arab oo ! ; cf Assyr. iskaru = ikkaru= 
 i<^2)i5 peasant, all before a A'-sound. 
 
 ^ insertion of t^ . — §47. A H is sometimes inserted in short 
 words in order to make them triconsonantal. Thus '^"2^ fathers, 
 parents, plural of ^^n^^ ; i<n'pi< hond-maid; ^n?^i< the status of 
 hond-maid; ^nVs flashes (i/^bj), J^HSD mint; 'Hblf end; i^l^rrim 
 flanks; i^VrtlZi^ mothers. 
 
 Insertion of a Semivowel. — §48. In the plural of the noun 1 
 or "^ is in a few cases inserted before the ending of i<n- to 
 
 avoid an hiatus.^ 
 
 assimilation. 
 
 § 49. A consonant may be assimilated to a preceding or fol- 
 lowing consonant either entirely or partially. In the latter case 
 the partially assimilated consonant may influence the adjoining 
 consonant so that the resulting assimilation is reciprocal. 
 
 Complete Assimilation. — %^(). 1. The S is progressively 
 assimilated in the reflexive stems of verbs H'S — frequently in 
 
 1 Cf. Fleischer in Levy's Diet., IV., 484 6. 
 
 2 Cf. Sachau, Skizze des FeUlcM-Dialekts von Mosul, p. 15.
 
 §50] CONSONANTS. 17 
 
 the Ithpe'el, more rarely in the Ithpa"al.' Thus, '^■-^l^5 2vas said, 
 *lCrii< ivas forbidden, HDrii^ he sighed, 5<"i'jnX ivas said, ^SPi'i^ 
 ivas healed, ^Tb^^'H that have been born (Ned. 30&), ''';2i3n"'b 
 to cheer oneself up with wine (Meg. 7 6, Col. MS. r^1C2^J^b), 
 ^bipbpb (M. MS. Er. -lOrt, eds. ^bipbp"5^b), nnbi^ on the spot, at 
 once, for "llnU^ bs< . In the last word the b is not doubled. "5<"^ 
 whence for '^^'2 , from "N; "p ; ^^rnn a proper name for 5<rn"l == 
 
 2. n is regressively assimilated in '^T'A they, "'jJl these, 
 "in'^^jl their being dispersed (eds. A. Z., 10 6), ^tl^briipp you 
 are tired (A. Z., 726); ^'iZ'Vi)^ to cut to p)ieces. 
 
 3. n is assimilated in JJ^MCp bath (orig. i<n^tD'^ , §90); 
 5^3-2 shovel, ^nrsibizi^b O. MS.,Sabb. 98 6, i/",rib'^ ; iJ^Pn below; 
 i^n^3 a certain dish ( = J5Mn^3). 
 
 4. V is assimilated in !j^""'2n'^!J^ was done. Col. MS., Zeb. 60a, 
 j.'ii seven, which stands for jloJ* = sabbu = sab'u. Similarly 
 oJn nine, V. L. Taan. 13 6, for tissu = tis'u.^ !}53!Sl hyena, for 
 
 ^ys5< (§27). ^rj^ ( = ^-^3r\^) Col. MS., Zeb. 6rt6, 14 6, -^rn 
 
 ibid. 20 6; "'l^'''^ t6K/. 18 6. By progressive assimilation ^^"^^"^ 
 ferry, 'sX^'^ilZ ferry-man. 
 
 5. b is assimilated in many forms of the verb pbo to go up, 
 ascend : pD^b , pD'Pl , for pbc^b , pbc^n ; in -i< uimn (§ 170) , snp-T 
 sharp-shooter y pwT or pbl . 
 
 6. D is assimilated in Pli^ than, '^7\)^ ye, J^nm woman, 5<E5< 
 face, ^T'S goat, ii^n^la^^ flute, ^'PCd year, b^iop on account of, 
 "ipC"^ V. L. Pes. 3 6, in verbs j"3 , and in verbs 5"b before !5<j", "j"; 
 
 also in ~'2 from. 
 
 7. 1 is assimilated in ^^ij^j heap, M. MS., Er. 116, b5^p first, 
 ^12p before, i^ri'i six, ]'':r^-^\ixty; -^^ until (§182). 
 
 ""8. n is assimilated in "^t:^p5 ye hold, eds. Pes. 110 6; t^'P^'^^ 
 J put him under the ban, M. Q. 17 a; n^Di^ hast pleased, gull 
 137 6; 5^r5< there is (i^3 n^iJ^) i^rb (s/c) //«m^ /s no^ 
 ( = ^3 ri"'5< !J^b); in the reflexive stems not ''"V or '''SO before 
 dentals or sibilants, and, by analogy, before all consonants: "SrS 
 
 IC/. Haupt, SFO., 10, 1; AEV., 10. 
 2 Cf. Haupt, SJ'ft., 10 1.
 
 18 II. PHONOLOGY [§^1 
 
 ivas sold, ■^nrjJ^ took heed, i^Z^'^^i^ icas persuaded, "n^iUn'S theij 
 made profit, a. o. 
 
 9. '2 is assimilated in Ji^yP merchant, Assyrian tamgaru; 
 l!<b-"n"J5 artisan, Assyrian dimgallu, witli prothetic H and 
 inserted "i ; J^wbti' = ][v^.- Assyr. salamtu. 
 
 Partial Assimilation. — § 51. a) 5< is partially assimilated to 
 t:. :i and t, and becomes '$ in ^"'^t: Arab. (Tc^^)- "3'''>^ tanners, 
 
 TT- A^/.. T- 
 
 5<^":i" pof/ i<b-^3' a measure^' 
 
 h) r* is assimilated to w in ^^"'Ti'S joist, Assyr. gusuru. 
 D to T and H in ;}<n^:<^jT cjlass. Heb. n"^:7 ; X:b---» for ^5:b"ri3 
 a certain bird, p to 1 in !J5riJI''13 tioist, v "f^p -'^ 
 
 c) JTi is partially assimilated to T in the reflexive stems of 
 verbs "'£ : ^rTH"^ he tootc heed, p"p'nT^5< he attended, and with- 
 out transposition Itii'lK it seemed sjnall, 'En Ya'aq. Sanh. 95 a. 
 To b and n :* in H^d^M hod, 55^1:^7 small (§56), ^^i:"Z name 
 of a place. To :i : in Jj^p'^^i: excuse, "^riliu ichite spot, and in 
 verbs !2"S : T|^1tilk"'l^ icas necessary, '^yx^^'^i^ he grieved. To T : 
 in nnt3 to 2^ress- "To 1: in b;nb^Tr;b,' Aifksi B. B. 8 a.' To p: 
 
 in bi:p to kill, i^TX^p small, «l^"ajTp truth. 
 
 (?) C is assimilated to a liquid in 5J5b"i" cradle, "^'p proud,^ 
 Reeiprocid Assimilation. — §52. a) Here belong i<ii7- or J^jTp 
 (§92), Hebrew TjC- and r»T*» ,' C first assimilated to "« , then 1' 
 to 7. Similarly Ny73 for i^SHH: hnndlc. But they may also be 
 two parallel forms. In !J5"17 outfit, Assyr. ^ub&tu, zubatu. 
 dress, '1 is assimilated to 2 , then STl to 7 , 2 becomes 1 . P.Z^ to 
 prepare still occurs as variant to "^7 . 
 
 1 Cf. Fraenkel, 69. 
 
 -'C/. Palestinean Z'CJ Ap''- '>f ~"iI2 ; Ti'Crt:" snmethintj to tai^te, H'lZZT f!'nik. 
 *li"'C2" KImU-v, 'j'Xr 'lir/'stioii. T'^'u^y (caraAvffi?, '."['^j,^ white. In later litoratulo rS37 
 
 -•I- 1.. 'I- Ti- -:• 
 
 concerns. .A.rab. ,.»«.AiLw.i Axr<iU)n. .VssimUation of 3 to y occurs in HZli" retention. 
 
 • 1 
 
 <C/. Hartli, ES..?jC,sq. 
 
 ■• Cf. Targ. and Syr. bsllTX . In later Hebrew I have met witli ^;.-7t!:7: . 
 
 I ^ ^ t"' 
 '^7T'''^t3 or 'jD''''I3 is in form and etymology identical with Arab. jjv.aw.a-^, from 
 
 iCuUf to lir out of mind. For the d(<velo|>mont of nieaniriir rf. "*."'n^ jn-nwl anil Arab. 
 
 wi^aJ\m/' to lie insane, 
 : Cf. Barth, £S., 33, .".l.
 
 §55] CONSONANTS. 19 
 
 h) A sonant and a surd sometimes change to a surd and a 
 sonant. n"*i"\ snlplmr (Hebrew) appears as ri""i23 . The pro- 
 nunciation v.'as probably in both cases alike.' 
 
 DISSIMILATION.''' 
 
 § 53. In words containing two identical or similar sounds one 
 of them is usually dissimilated when the word is in frequent use. 
 
 1. b dissimilates to 1 in i<nb^ii"I2 pepper, Col. MS., Meg. 7 h; 
 to J in X-Pij hread; ^ibn^S /o (§177); to 1 in ^5Tb3"3 slice, 
 &<nb";2'^;}< ividoiv (through an intermediate *>5rib"-bj5 ) ; but the 
 stem liiay be b"^^ ; ^iSTi'^bl"'-" mixture of white and black. 
 
 2. D dissimilates to n in "^"[^n , V^'^n tivo (but i<T:r\ seco7id) . 
 
 3. ^ dissimilates to b in xbla^in loild ox; sb""y rocl<et. 
 
 T T : T • : - 
 
 4. ~ dissimilates to T\ in Hi^ri'^r^S the Baadadean. To b in 
 
 T T - ; - 
 
 TTJ'y^l ^l^ p2'^^5<b that I should he connected luith his descend- 
 ants. M. MS., Pes. 49 «. 
 
 5. t: dissimilates to V\ in ^^Jn'tsi!:! sjxirJx, alongside of X^^tJili. 
 
 VANISHING OF CONSONANTS. 
 
 § 54. a) Initial consonants. U^ is dropped in "In , t^lTj one, 
 &5^n another, and in the imperative of !J<ni< to come and bli^ 
 
 to CJO.^ 
 
 D is dropped in some forms of the imperative Qal of verbs 
 J '2 , following the analogy of the imperfect. 
 
 §55. 6) Within the word. ^5 is elided in contractions: Trh 
 there is not, from ri"i^ i<b ; "fb" those, from 7 bx J^n. It quiesces 
 in a preceding vowel: J<n-"]'in form, from J5n""^iJlin ; S-r") imld 
 bidl i^Z'n head, especially in i< 'I verbs. It is also elided 
 in the adjective ending n^" (§82). 
 
 n is syncopated in *n'" , '^j"'Pl (§^^4). 
 
 n quiesces in a preceding vowel in i<"Vi favoring, U^lHVJJ 
 sprout, ":J< ive, ^TlH one another, ^j^"u:";^S a certain bird = Assyr. 
 aharsanu, or ahursanu, Syr. }lIio, Arab. ^jl^Vy ringdove. 
 It is syncopated in ^nifl beneath, below. 
 
 1 Cf. Hani't. BA., I., 3; W. B. H. {Hebraica, I., 231). 
 
 2 Cf. Haupt, AEV., XII., 17-20; W. B. H. (Hebraica, I., 224 sq.). 
 
 3 Cf. Hebr. "in , 'ZT\' ; Arab, jj^ , vX ; Syriac p- , ]-^ . waJ .
 
 20 n. PHONOLOGY [§^^ 
 
 § 56. 5? quiesces in a preceding vowel in some verbs whose 
 second stem-consonant is V : "p'H to stick in, fl^'l to exude, "1*0 
 to visit, *Tin to be awake (secondary root of *i^>'), "^S' to double, 
 Arab. lJa^ . It quiesces also in a few verbs ^'"2 : 12"'?^ to do, 
 Col. MS., Zeb. 60 a, Dp'^/J to pronounce incorrectly, Ned. 16 a, 
 and in nt:^T small, from 11:^7 = '^nS^T (§ 56), i. e., ^JT with infixed 
 n . It is syncopated in ^^p5< ring, JJ^ria^T bread, and quiesces 
 in the compound numerals ^C^ln eleven, ID'^IIH , twelve, etc. 
 (§136). In "|j!il MJe «;a/nf, Col. MS. Tiob. passim, for "5^!II • 
 
 § 57. J is lost in J<1^T pair, scissors, and ""^iSs at, upon (§ 174). 
 The g in this case first became g'^, then the separate elements g or 
 M were lost.' Perhaps belong here "JJSli: and "iT^ir ? 
 
 §58. b quiesces in "^/pip KaXaixdptov, M. MS., Sabb. 80 «. 
 
 "1 quiesces in the preceding vowel in ^Zp^]) worms, V''p'^p , iu 
 the compound i^^rn for i!Cy_ n"2l (or origin. iT^l^ from ;jCTT "i^), 
 
 and in ^^^12^ fsatj. 
 
 )2 is dropped in a few participles of Pa" el: "^^21123 trim the 
 vine, B. M. 73 o; ir^^n^^ Yeb. 416; ^pbo M. MSVb. Q. 48 a; 
 
 ' It • : - ' • : - 
 
 ■ij"'^'np Pes. 53 b, and others. 
 
 It • :'- 
 
 3 is syncopated in Pl^nilij/J makes water [sibi). 
 
 § 59. 1 is dropped in 1^*^^ ear. (If Fleischer's opinion given 
 in Levy's Neiih. Wb., III., 312 6, that "I interchanges with 
 1 is true, then i^:^5^ may come from ^JI^J^^U^J-^wS ).-' In my_ 
 sorb-busli, for i^ln'n'^T .^ 
 
 § 60. c) Final consonants, b^ , 1 and '' quiesce in the pre- 
 ceding vowel in stems (K"b , T'b and ^"b . The two former then 
 pass into "^'b . The "^ appears in a few forms, especially before 
 suffixes, n and y are generally retained, but are treated in a 
 few verbs and nouns like 2J^ . Thus, IS;"* = HD^ to rumble, "$ in 
 U^^23 mild, 5<''"l"K argument, "72 to break, ""212 to sink, "'"IS to 
 ivound, ^C3 /o spoil, ^S'i to slant, ^p"d to sink, ^irZX^'J:^ to have 
 identified. 
 
 1 This phenomenon is frequent in Indo-European languages. Cf. also Fraenkel, op. cit. 
 XXII., 107. 
 
 2 For a change of T to S. c/- Praetorius, BA., I., 44, and Maclean, § 106. 
 
 3 Perhaps also in the Palostinoan proper name S?nb"' fur S{r~5^ rldld, ai in Syriac. 
 But it may also bo a shortening of XP^"";!? or coutractiou uf iCp"!?'^ • <'/■ also §§ 116. 113.
 
 §67] CONSONANTS. 21 
 
 § 61. "I quiesces in some forms of the imperfect and impera- 
 tive Qal: !5<:r5<, i^-rn , i<:rb, ^'l^Z; K-r.S, 1 T-i< to say: In 
 H^TIJ he sent, M. MS., Ber. 42a, «:p he locked, H. MS., B. M., 
 
 86 a; in ^tD^T small, ''12H Ashcr; perhaps also in "ri'^S is siq^ier- 
 fliious, but'this may be "p^^i^ (M. MS., Sabb. 61rt).'" 
 
 § 62. b is dropped in some forms of b'i^ to go: J57&5 he went, 
 M. MS., B. M. 101 h, 103 h, CoL MS., Pes. Ill b; ;kS! he goes. Col. 
 MS., Pes. 110 5; ^r3 let Mm go, K. MS., Mem. 2 a; ^T go. Col. 
 MS., Pes. 104 b: In Hi,])'^ he tool; Qidd., 81 b, M. MS., A. Z. 3 a; 
 ^'p;^ takes, MSS. Sukk. 52 b. In ^bp for b"bp light. 
 
 § 63. 3 is dropped in the dual and plural of verb and noun, 
 •'"in, ":n, ^mr\, two, ^r^^-Z two hundred, ^^'liH, they say, ^n 
 between, ^3 for "S , ^"H , ":! for '^^^', 5<jp for "i^rj (§90). The 
 feminine plural ending 'v loses its 3 only in one case: m22ri"'b 
 they may be caught, M. MS., Sabb. 13 b. 
 
 §61. T is dropped in 5^2^^''^ for "nr'n (§159).' 
 
 T\ is dropped in ^21 house, !J<!IlaJ Sabbath, week;* in the abso- 
 lute state of feminine nouns: "'"in^J^ or ■'"ImIU^ another, ^TCi^ 
 
 • : -t: T ' : . 
 
 matrimony; is not retained even before suffixes in P1^"Im5<j to do 
 it late, Sabb. 119 a, nrc)5<b to heal him, T'ijT^jb'fo^ry them, 
 Rasi Sanh. 101 b; and is usually apocopated in the sing. fern, of 
 verbs in the participles and the perfect. 
 
 §65. D. is apocopated in ^n again, J^'1'3 bleiv, MSS., B. M. 
 85 6, 86 a, Rasi Taan. 21a; 'CJ warnes, 'Col. MS., M. Q. 3 6, 
 T3 Col. MS., Zeb. 5 a. 
 
 § 66. 12 is dropped in many forms of D^p to stand: ^p'^i^, ^p''P , 
 ^p^b, ^p^;; ^p stand thou. Col. MS., M. Q. 25 6, M. MS., Sanh. 
 95 a; ^^5p , iXD , stands; tXj^y I stand, Col. MS., Zeb. 19 a, HC^zi'l 
 I explain, ibid. Pes. 90 a; HTi'^pli^ I explained it, ibid. M. Q. 25 a. 
 Here the suffixed forms are derived from the apocopated forms. 
 
 Transposition of Consonants. — §67. !J<1in:a, Jj^lnTIH desola- 
 tion; Jj^nTJ, ^'HTJ loater-course ; JJ^CSt: , J^iiC chest; i^Z^TZ , 
 ^b^S^p; «^j^n, i^^l^S, shuttle; and others. 
 
 T *• T ; T t 
 
 1 Cf. S'aX saijs, 'Anan, quoted by Harkavy in MWJ., 189.3, p. 22.5. 
 
 2 The verb 5{TK fo heat is perhaps an Aph'cl of 57i?- For the development of meaning 
 cf. Hebrew nb^n , p^T^ , and Syriac n^TS • Cf. also § 37. 
 
 3C/. XlSJinS TG., ed. Harkavy, § 181. 
 * Cf. C. Levias, AJP., XVI., 34.
 
 22 n. PHONOLOGY [§68 
 
 B. VOWELS. 
 
 Imale. — Pathah. — § 68. Original d in closed and intermediate 
 syllables frequently changes to i (or e). Thus, i<nC^E Passover, 
 
 t^^'j:^ meat H^lxSfi: Satan, ^b:*^"l foot, iXnm floiir, ^^^2^1 time, 
 
 t;« t;* t;» t;'» t.* 
 
 ^ri3''ii garden;^ in the prei'ormatives of the imperfect Qal; in the 
 
 T : • w 
 
 first syllable of the perfect Pa' el when the second stem-consonant 
 is 1 or a guttural: e. g. Ziy brought near, 'OT'C lessened, B. Q. 
 51 h; "^T'^ vexed Qidd. 70 b, Ned. 62 a; IliTD separated himself, 
 Sot. 4 6; On^w roared, Pull., 59 6; in the second stem-syllable 
 of the imperfect in Pa^el n^JTl'n^b let him lower it, Sabb. 67 a; 
 rijp^llb let him cool her off, B. B. 7-i b; in the enclitic pronoun 
 n^DuT'/ias/ bought, B. M. 51a, Trhpp^ hast killed, ibid. 59 6; 
 n^iSTp sellest, ibid. 72 a, n^"iriD breakest down, B. B. 4 a; in 
 the perfect n^iJ^^n^ placest, B. Q. 114 a; in the first syllable of 
 the Aph'el n:i:r7J'ni^ri taught, A. Z. 3 6, ^b?^"?"l ^^^"^ ^'^' s^*o"^» 
 B. B. 5 a; ^Diri'i'^xb /o wa/cc water, B. B. 19 6; ^SiCS^^^b to make 
 unfit, Pes. 15 6 (fragm. ed. by Lowe). 
 
 Long Qdmeg. — §69. Original long 'prP, ^^ ^^^^^^ changes to 
 e (or l). Usually so when a has arisen in consequence of the 
 quiescing of an i^ : bm, ^:j^n, b^TT}, bST^ , Tr:j , Cj": , from 
 original b^'^^n*, n:^l<n*, b^Ii^ri^S bSbJi:^*, 1-iv<?:*, C5«-:* (prima- 
 rily '&in,"'^^i2); koJ^^ /<ewZ' for &^'|«'1*; "bp'^'P mf. of bp'i 
 to weigh, he worth, Ar.'"l8 6; ^"]";3'''f /o s/«%,' Hor. 12 «; ^"^."ITO 
 inf. from mn /o r^^it?'n, Ar. 23 a; ^ri^n, ^ri"J!j W6?«, B. M. 73 a; 
 ^nnrn ly/u'/e, ^n:j3^5< 6/acA% ^nn^ Sfreai, ^nS^^T sma/Z, and other 
 words like them!' ^t:^7 smail^ ^T'^T'? 2/^^"^ vessels, garments, 
 M. MS., Pes. Ill 6; '"^r;^"! are 'frisky, Sabb. 32 a; ^rr^pa-'TZJ 
 their deceased j^arents or relatives, B. M. 70 a; TT^r^^ man. So 
 
 also in the infinitives ^bi'jp , ^bii2p , "bit2p^ , "^"itapn^ , 'bi^pn^^ 
 
 (§ 223).; and jjcrhaps in the plural ending of the verb '{"- for 
 "|7.-* A kind of imal6 is diphthongization (§80). 
 
 1 Somo of those forms may be roRiilar >)y-forms. 
 
 2 Barth takes the onditiK ip to be identical with the pronominal element wo find in the 
 Ethiopic pronoun ie'etl {ZDMG. 46, 688, n. 1). In Mandaic this appears as tS (Xoeldoke^ 
 MG. 1.54) ; in Palmyroan it has the form niTl (Hal6vy, Mahhereth, p. n"C) ; in Arabic 
 
 _J , io , g'< , Li . But how would this theory explain the masculine form "^rilF1 1 It 
 is noteworthy that this ending "ip appears only in adjoctivos. ^^ 
 
 3 So in Modem Arabic the nominal ending i— is pronounced i, such forms as ^^s 
 are pronounced rami, cf. also tlio transcription of Aramaic P. I, by Arabic d (Fraonkol, 
 op. cit., XVII.). For a similar change in Amharic, cf. Praotorius, Amhar. Sprache. p. 23.
 
 §73] VOWELS 23 
 
 Obscuration of A. — §70. The obscuration of rt to 0. so 
 characteristic of Hebrew, is rare in the Tahniul. i^'^'im sfudjj, 
 silD^''rii''ai"iB your weekly lessons, Ber. 8 b; 5<nilj^ myriods, K. MS., 
 Sanh. 2G a {his) ; '^i'Z my lord, P. MS., Ber. 586.' The nominal 
 ending an is at times obscured to 6 or ft under the intluence of 
 the n. H^Z'^'ZZiK dried ears of corn; N:i"i"Js bed-room, i^ZTZZ 
 trial. 
 
 Vocalic Epenthesis. — §T1. The final vowel i of the first 
 com. and the 2. fem. sing, and the final ft of the 3. masc. plur. of 
 the perfect influence their preceding vowel and are themselves 
 apocopated. Thus, qat(a)l(a)ti becomes qat(a)lait, and 
 contracted q(a)t(a)let, or q(a)t(a)llt, n"bt:p or I^"'pwP • 
 Similarly, the perfect q(a)t(a)lu ^bpp becomes q(a)ta"l con- 
 tracted to q(a)t6l bi'Lip (§§232, 243).' The pronominal suffixes 
 akhi thine (f.), akha thine (m.) and ahi his, become a'kh, 
 a^kh, a^h and contracted, T|~, T^T , ^^ . The last form ahi 
 for ahu or ihu, is due to analogical influence. An equivalent 
 form ihu became by transposition uhi (c/. "ri^-S; his father) 
 and in analogy of the latter such a form of ahi was formed. 
 
 Influence of Consonants on Vowels. — §72. The quiescence 
 of one of the consonants i^ , ^, ^ , Tl , r. , y, or 1 , lengthens the 
 preceding vowel. Thus w^'ri^ / say (for -;^S*) ; J^'f^"; her 
 head (for r^ZiT^*) ":Z he iJent (for ^:c* = sagii); -ZT'l to do 
 (for "ajJ/J); 5^:it for'nrii it rumbled; "^D^p for ^IJp^'p worms. 
 The same is the case when any other final consonant disappears: 
 
 as ^^p"J:, ^-u::, >5i5<-'n, for bp-j;, zti, ''::$'' (§159); "i< for 
 
 §73. The neighborhood of an " sometimes produces imal6: 
 
 ^yn"« four, "^"ic^nn eleven (= ^f'li^-r;), "c^:^-:^^ (y^'z-x). 
 
 ■^C^ri'i ( "S )XP\'Z). On the other hand, "I and the gutturals H. 
 n, 2? change a preceding short vowel e, i, or n, to a: "ZI so}i 
 
 (^n), vri^n two, ("rnn*), ^"rb he says, (^'rb*), :?t hwws. 
 
 I^y: is late, '')'2^ says, ^27 slaughters, with a for i. But !J^""^^n 
 I'say (for ^'f'2^) and «:rzir I was satisfied. Col. MS., Meg. 7 6. 
 
 ' (/• TTC - UG-^ 10". •*!"• Still the "1 in some cases may simply donoto f'TCp > "«*■ D^IPI- 
 Cf. b-iT^: , TG. ed. Casscl. 41 ; is'i'O'u: . ''"'d- ■*!. «"<J f^- Hoffmann, 2D.VG. 32, 737. 
 
 2 Jastrow, s. v. 122 , reads Nidd. 56 a T^SS I swept, which, in his opinion, stands for 
 ''HSS • But this is a mistake. As is evident from the next page, we have here ~^33 , •5- 
 person for 1., a frequent occurrence in the Talmud.
 
 24 II. PHONOLOGY [§'^'^ 
 
 § 74. The neighborhood of a labial or of a liquid obscures at 
 times a (or i) to li (or o). This phenomenon is more frequent 
 in the cognate dialects.' !Ji"'2^ii man (already in Bibl. Aram.), 
 X"l'2"i" honey, ^^"£^3 rme/'5<^^I< leaven, H^Tn'Zin date-palm, 
 
 t: t; t t,— 
 
 5<r^2Ti a weaving, Sabb. 58 a, 5<b^r: shade, i^bb^J^ wine-pressing, 
 sb'S*^:? rain-shoiver, ^"ri'^^Q grain of seed, ^Yp^it^ the young 
 of a 'gazelle;' ri'Jip^'J inf.' Qal of ^IDp to he difficult, Yeb. 40 a; 
 nn^3 Pers. katah, a certain dish.^ 
 
 Note. — In D^B mouth, we have an original nominative ^5 
 -1-mimation. In the first syllable of 5^b^T"^^K we have an attempt 
 to render the Arabic i . 
 
 Fluctuating Vocalization. — § 75. Some words fluctuate in 
 their vocalization, and it is impossible to tell which is the original 
 form. Thus U^brJ^ iveb appears also as ^5bn5< , i<nb^r>5 , iJ<nb]^5^ 
 or U^nbl^i^, and'i^'nb^ni^ ; 5^b:i^:: a kind 'of doves, k^nri'fy, 
 appear also as Xbli^:!, !J<^""''^ , and similarly many other words. 
 
 Shortening of Long Vowels in Closed Syllables. — § 76. 
 In the traditional pronunciation long vowels in closed syllables are 
 shortened. This is most marked in the case of V^Jp as it differs 
 from nriS also qualitatively in Ashkenasic pronunciation. Thus, 
 X^nn , "p'ri^ are pronounced 55"^nn , '"^'2^ • 
 
 Compensatory Lengthening. — §77. Compensatory lengthen- 
 ing takes place in ^^brrj (§§77, 90), ^2"\S a proper name, for ^nX 
 
 (=Arab. oT), .ST-n liar, (^Jli^in; c/.§77), ^"3"":? its branches, 
 M. MS., Pes. 111?>, for VT-^S = XT^p of eds.; Xry\, for ^iH^^rirri 
 (§ 119) ; ri^j^b^-^Tn thai the]} may "lift him up, 2 M. MS., M. Q. 28 b, 
 for H'^^bTn ;'"' U^IQljiS star (through an intermediate kakkabu); 
 Sn^rii:!" trumpet; ^'y^'ii'^'^ chain; ^bp"3 partridges; ^'l^^'l or 
 i^b::-:: a kind of doves; ^^Pibp^p dung-hill; )^7\h'Z^t chain; )^'2'^^'^ 
 sesame; )X2yr\ or J^^T*^ jly; )^zh^ palm-branch; i^rn^ioj brides- 
 man; ^-zriib'i {=icrbzb'i gaph'el of «n^bib). 
 
 Heightening and Depression of Vowels. — § 78. Short u is 
 heightened to o in a final syllable: bbplJ^ , bbpri . Long o is 
 
 1 It ninst bo romombored i\\nt some of tlio forms with u may be by-forms. 
 
 2 Cf. Noeldoko, MG., IT iiq., ZDMG., XXII., 4:<.j ; Dalman, op. cit., 6"). 
 
 3 Cf. Fraenkol, Fnvidw., XVII.; G. HofTmann, LCB., 1881. Col. 416, 1882, Col. 320. 
 i Cf. Nooldokn, .VG., ^Vy. 
 
 ^G. Hoffmann, '/A)MG.'Sly"A, cites Bar Hobraous to Ezr. 16:24, gaibi'6 for gabbS
 
 §80] VOWELS 25 
 
 sometimes pronounced u as in Western Syriac. This is regularly 
 the case in infinitive forms "^^tSp , ''b^lOp , etc.; in the pronouns 
 
 and pronominal suffixes "pPkJ^ , '"&< , ^n"X , ^Tr, ^j~; in the per- 
 fect with transposed final vowel b^t2p (§71); in the names of 
 the letters ^V , ",^p ; frequently in the plural endings of the verbs 
 
 ^"b: r.'n, r.tM<, etc. 
 
 T : - 
 
 Final e, e, if not plural ending, is frequently pronounced I: 
 ^nrj^ they, ^ri"M, ^rnn, nao, etc., and in a few other cases; c. g., 
 
 ^T\T\''Zir\ his tcife, lit. the one of his house. 
 
 Diphthongs. — § 79. In diphthongs whose second element is "' 
 the latter has retained its vocalic force in traditional pronuncia- 
 tion; while in diphthongs whose second element is 1 the latter 
 is pronounced as u or S . Thus, ^H"'';^ house, U^H^^^riS last, are 
 pronounced bait ho, bathraitho, but iJ^'lIS roast, i^'Z^y^ tread- 
 ing, iXp^T] exactitude, tavyo, dafso, dafko. 
 
 Diphthongization. — § 80. The vowels ?, e, a, change some- 
 times to ai. The vowels 6 and il to aii. That an original diph- 
 thong thus reappears is only incidental. 
 
 a) I and e: ^D^";;rr^5 C^"n'^5 I became sick, M. MS., Sabb. 
 145 6; C^^S^';^^ was satisfied, B. Q. 113 6; 'ir'^S^ she committed 
 adultery, Sanh. 106 «; b^"l clear, Sabb. 23 « 'Aruch; p^y_ 
 pounded, Bega 14 6; "p^b connected, ^ull. 11 a; T"]^ hound up, 
 b^^3 measured, ibid. 105 6; ^n^^2 are bound up, B. M. 24 6. 108 6; 
 J^d'^^'H grit; "pTO (=b-TO,'fTO §34) H. MS., B.B. 8 a..— 
 i^b^l^yj^ she brought up, Sabb. 116 6; ^HCliriJ^ they were soiled, 
 ibid. 124 6; iKTy^ I sow, Keth. 103 h; J^^'SH I cover, MSS. B. 
 M. 49 6; t^r^^i^ i shall cut down, M. MS., ibid 107 6; "TTTr^'^Lh 
 I cursed him., B. B. 21 6; r.^^sn thou buildest, B. B. 4 a; n^^Iib'i 
 thou cursest, Sabb. 151 h; n^";t:/^^^ thou hast brought, Ber. 9 6; 
 ^^ib:? upon, Yalq. MS., Y6ma'83 6; n^;;lb3? or rP^;iby ujwn him., 
 Col. MS., Meg. la and elsewhere; the possessive suffixes ^iD'^y 
 and ^n^^.' 
 
 6) d: ^5^::^';'^ a kind of dove; "3"5^"3 ( = "j:£3) we are hungry, 
 B. M. 83 a; n"'jn^TJ'^^5 as long as they are wet (sibi) ( = n^:n"2^S), 
 Pes. 1116. 
 
 1 Cf. IITI , TG., ed. Harkavy, p. 5 ; ",;iT , ibid., Zi, n. 10.
 
 20 ir. PHONOLOGY [§81 
 
 c) it, 6: ^^Ti^Zi< pinnades; X-1"l" passage, habit; ^bh^)'^ 
 skein; i<"1Ti thorn;]!i.r\"TTr^ (' = Sn"-T^:i) food; iXp^Tl exactness. 
 
 Tirutsposition of Diphthongal Elements. — § 81. The elements 
 of a diphthongized vowel are sometimes transposed, the a-vowel 
 being placed after the i or vz-vowel. In snch a case the last are 
 usually consonantized and the first lengthened : "'"li^^l , "^l"'"'^ , 
 ^•^^"•H orchards; \^'l'''l'^ , i<-l^^-l^ imllet; Xl^riT, ^5^■^r;"T^ ^^nnrii^'T 
 
 .. T. T • : tt:-^ tt-:- tt-:. tt-;t: 
 
 rich landlord; XD^T^^i: , J<r^7^^:2 , armory; Kn^:^n^2 , plural 
 
 r • I tt:: t» • '- 
 
 Xr":iin"3 , /i??c linen shirt; i^^H^X^'l . J^'i^lnT^ , poker; -.-^^t: , "jS^T^^t: , 
 
 tt:-;- tt;' tt:« 't;-It:«- 
 
 proud fool; ^"i^rj , ^^•^r^5r^ , proper name; ^i2rC3 (n^siba^ 
 nisi aba), i^^^'^J, 5<|>5<;3, viki;; J^'^IV^J (n as or a), ^DKpp, "3"^5i?p, 
 "S^PP; i5)>^'™ (sarlqa), nilH':; (sahor).' Akin to this is 
 the consonantization of the 2t-vowel in ^5"b'^TI5 , ■"DJJ^bu^lTd (Syr 
 
 t T T : • t t ; - t/ 
 
 I X]- A ) leivd woman (=r>'2in). 
 
 Contraction of Vowels. — §82. cVd is contracted sometimes 
 to Ci. This is especially the case with the adjective ending. !*^'Sp 
 firsf. STQ last, SZ^'IH the Adiabencan, X2^b the Libyan, J?n^-j: 
 
 t;t tt;- t t- 
 
 silk. ^0"^^"] the Xehardean (Keth. 54 a, a. e.), i5'^^5< the 
 
 T T : - : ^ ' T : - 
 
 heathen (Col. MS., M. Q. 12 6), l^-^sp if it mean the Cypriote, 
 X:""b above, ^nnb below, beneath;- :;n (^'^Z-'^) Col. MS., Zeb., 
 
 T'-; T-; 'TT^TTT' 
 
 passim. 
 
 Note. — Luzzatto's objection to the explanation of J^^D'^^i^ JJ^:!!!!^ 
 as Rabh of Arekhd^ falls to the ground, since XIj""'^^ might well 
 stand for nXlj'^"'!?^ . Jastrow in his dictionary vocalizes !J^!j"'"'U< 
 and explains it by one irho arranges arguments, a lecturer. In 
 such a case, however, we should rather expect the word to be 
 Sl^i^ . not Xj'^li^ . For although such forms may be found in 
 the Targumim — cf. e. g. Levy's Diet, on the Targ., s. v. "n3 — 
 they may, in every case, be explained as scribal errors, or as 
 learned affectations. And even if the word could be gram- 
 matically defended, its extremely rare occurrence (I know of no 
 case in the Talmud) speaks against its being in general use, and 
 it could not have stood the wear and tear of an ignorant populace 
 
 iC/. MiAnic (StGD). D'^''B. C'^SB. CX"'B. """i XH^CP. Cf. also Assyrian zi- 
 'arftnn, hi'alAiiti, for ztrftnii, hllAnii. 
 
 - Witli tlip two last words, somo such wonl us X^3b Bide is to ho understood. 
 3 0p.cit.,^&lc.
 
 §85] VOWELS 27 
 
 through centuries. It will, moreover, l)e observed that the Talmud 
 
 explains that .^^oiJ by TI^"^X , which is generally taken to mean 
 
 tnll, but which Dr. Jastrow explains as wcll-arraiKjed, well- 
 halanced, thinker. Whatever that may mean, and whatever we 
 may think of the Talmudists' etymologizing, one thing is certain, 
 that they read I^l;"^"ii< as a passive participle. Nobody would 
 ever think of denying them the knowledge of a correct pronun- 
 ciation of their living mother tongue; hence, any explanation 
 offered must be based on the form !J<S^"i5< . For other explana- 
 tions of the name cf. Muehlfelder, JRabh, p. 1, note; Goldammer's 
 note to his English translation of Luzzatto's grammar, §b4; 
 Kohut, Aruch Completum, s. v. T^T^SJ^ ; Weiss, Zur Geschichte 
 der jud. Trad., III., 147, note 3; Hehdiug, ix, 18 sq. 
 
 §83. Diphthongs are usually contracted in verbal forms: au 
 contracts to 6; ai, to e, % (or a). 2^niX he i^aced, imx thoj 
 taught, "in sees, "'bn hangs, "''H^^FI throwest, '^rrV2. yon ashed, 
 ■^^ clean, ",:>n loe want. Col. MSS. passim, i^ZT'.l'Z I pray, M. 
 
 Ttt 'ttt tt.; 
 
 MS., Ber. 28 a, and others. In nouns: !J<b"7''^l^ young gazelle, 
 Syriac li^^a^ ; ^Mn^Z"! his wife. In qatl and qatal forms it 
 is sometimes contracted, but quite as frequently uncontracted. 
 The later state is probably due to subsequent diphthongization 
 
 (§80). Thus i^n^T olive, i<nTJ death, b^nin thorn; but i<2""2 
 
 veil )Xrr'2. (and 5<n^n) honse, SK'i^^'l inn, 5<r^T arms, Ij^bll'n 
 
 bucket. In the plural ending ai{d) : ""j;"i< men, ^jZl5< sto7ies, "I'iZ 
 words. 
 
 Retention of Disappearing and Insertion of New Vowels. 
 — §84. Pretonic Qameg.— In some cases original d in an open 
 syllable before the tone is lengthened to a, as in Hebrew. Thus 
 S^'^iulS , Assyr. gasuru. Joist (the variant U^ITiTS corresponds 
 to Assyr. gustiru); J^T'Im'.J Mdhozd; "'TH or "TXH proper, jit, 
 for ■■-; ^Du itatefal (Col. MS., Meg., vocalizes hz), for ^:C ; 
 r^''^^ necessary, ior Tj^"j^ ; S^:t-12 money j ^'Zr^TiZ Magian.' 
 
 §85. Other short vowels in open syllables are sometimes 
 retained and probably lengthened. This is especially the case 
 
 1 C/.Targumic -jlTp, TfirTa. 'i1)a')9 (?), SJnnVJi? , "'n'^3- Most of these nouns are 
 evidently loan-words in which au effort is made to retain the original a sound. Cf. also 
 
 [■ • £) 
 
 Syriac jjai^ia , ] '^ "^ ^ ; - , ]^sJ_m , all loan-words. (A verb jj... in the sense of the 
 Hebrew niH to encamp does not exist in any of the Aramaic languages.)
 
 28 II. PHONOLOGY [§86 
 
 with verbs which retain at times the full vocalization of the 3d. 
 masc. sing, in the lengthened forms. ^pi"l^b let them run away, 
 B. B. 8 a; ^ci^jj let them study, P. MS., Ber. 13 b; Tt^2^b let 
 them do, B. B. i56 a; ny^SS she cooked, Ned. 66 h; 'p^pinS^'b let 
 him redeem us, Sanh. 105 b, and others.' iXlZi-V deed; XTG^oJ 
 
 ' ' _ T T T T . 
 
 document; iXHTO^'^ megrim; iJ^CniS cluster of dates. (But cf. 
 §92.) 
 
 § 86. New vowels are sometimes found which differ from the 
 original in whose places they stand. Thus, the preformatives of 
 the imperfect Pa"el take e or i: b''t2p"'N , ^^"i^^Ip ; the preforma- 
 tives of the imperfect Qal in ^"13? and >'">' stems: e. g., U^p''T\, 
 n"n , ai^n^n ; a nominal form like t^n*]^jiri ; entirely new is the 
 vowel in &<"irD!J^ (orig. abzar), &<l^rjJ^ berry. 
 
 § 87. A number of words, especially verb-forms, take a pro- 
 thetic vowel to facilitate their pronunciation. TloJJf^ he drayik, 
 Sabb. 141 a; Tl'^)lt> he swallowed, Sukk. 49 b; p^riTlJ^ he kept 
 silent. Pes. lla';'^'l'2'^ he was able, Ned. ^^3b;''kr'T^ he 
 objected, B. M. 110 a'; 'ji'ii:-^ he hid himself, A. Z. 70 a; t^^'n-^ii^ 
 
 she drank, Yeb. 65 b; Mp"r'i'!J^ she kept quiet, Qidd. 13 a; ^pTl'jiU^ 
 they kept quiet, Naz. 32 a, Sota 35 a/ inaJl!< drink ye, Sabb. 41 a; 
 ^nx^Zi^ ivait ye, Ber. 53 b; ^t^i< ivas spoiled (§89), M. MS., Taan. 
 7 a; "7'J^ she committed adultery, K. MS., Sanh. 106 a, eds. "T^'^J^ 
 (§§80,89); J5-2nX blood. 
 
 § 88. In some cases a vowel is prothetically added to words 
 whose first consonant has a full vowel. In such a case the vowel 
 of the original first syllable is frequently dropped, ^"ilti^ they 
 will divell, M. MS., Tann. 25 a: ^n3^"'X tltey appointed him, 
 Sanh. 26 a; «3"}pJ< poll-tax; and others. " Cf §91. 
 
 Loss OF Vowels. — § 89. Original short vowels have been 
 dropped in all probability to about the same extent as in the 
 cognate dialects. Final long vowels have been dropped in the 
 personal pronouns and possessive suffixes. ^<D^lJ^^ became "p:^<* 
 
 and then ":&< (v. § 94), n:5< , ns , ^n:i< , ^m , iDecame n:!j^ , ri5< . 
 
 The loss of final ft in ^n:S , ^Fl&< (v. §94) is exceptional. In 
 
 ' In Hebrew similar forms are found only in pause. Cf. also §230, note. 
 
 2rn"^,T2^X H- M. 84 /< rlops not bolon»f hero; it is Itliim'Ol. Cf. it~'Ta'''0 Keth. 57 6. 
 Tlie protlictic vowel in the perfect may have been influenced by tlie imperfect "t and only 
 dififcrcntiatpd orthoRraphically. Cf. also Hominel, BA., TI., 3.")7.
 
 §93] VOWELS 29 
 
 the enclitic pronouns '""' is sometimes found for i<!^"; in the per- 
 fect, the pronominal endings of the 1st and 2d person sing, have 
 lost their final vowel. The final u in the 3d masc. plur. of the 
 perfect has been frequently dropped with coincident coloring of 
 the preceding vowel (v. §71). In the other parts of the verb 
 the loss of final il is very rare. The i of the 1st sing is gener- 
 ally dropped in the objective suffix, rarely so in the possessive 
 (v. § 109). The final vowels of the 2d and 3d sing, and the 1st 
 plur. are generally dropped in both possessive and objective 
 suffixes.' Also in nc"^5 became bad, "C^ committed adulter>j, r\':.'i^ 
 when, ri"!^ tJio^e is, the final vowel is dropped. 
 
 S;incope of Vowels in Consequence of Resolution. — § 90. 
 Resolution of doubling with syncope of vowel is found in i<n*iJn 
 
 now (Xri-f-n), X"^ iche7ice (■« ]-)2)f H^Y'P^ of itself {i!^'2 "2); 
 b^t:-2« on account of (brc'2 b?); "ixbi^ uj^on (^p).' 
 
 Syncope of Vowel in Consequence of Prothetic LengtJiening 
 of Word. — § 91. The addition of a prothetic vowel frequently 
 produces syncope (§88): J<S^t2X lecjf; J<:<bTX a kind of alkali; 
 t5n£^5 (5<riS) bread; i<£-l^ Xi^n^^'^) matting; i^Hp'^J^ (^^P"") 
 u-rought metal. Cf. "C"5( and" ■"^^ (§89). The same thing 
 happens when a word is lengthened by the addition of a preposi- 
 tion; e. g., "U^'^ZX outside, '^']j,i^ inside. 
 
 Syncope of Vowel in Consequence of Segholcdization. — § 92. 
 i^^lZ'Z, ii.'^'i^-Z, icritten document; ""^rr^^ ^"irx men; i^Pr^'J. , 
 
 T T : T ; • ••;•.. T " T -: T ; 
 
 >5ri-b-:f megrim; ^"^n , ^"^Fl eight; ""Pbri , "fnb^n thirty; 
 iia^V , i<12'^y' deed, fact; XCn3 , ^<CZ^3 cluster of dates; and 
 
 TT T. *^ tt:t: " 
 
 many others. 
 
 Accent. — § 93. The traditional pronunciation accents always 
 the penult of a word. Prefixed prepositions and conjunctions do 
 not receive the accent. 
 
 1 Vv'hether the I of the 1st sing, of the possessive suffixes and the <l in tlie plur. of verbs 
 were pronounced or merely retained orthographically in Talmudic times wo are unable to 
 decide. 
 
 2 Cf. Tunisian Arab, m n I n . 
 
 3Cy. Hebrew © for — tD; "C for —"Q OTl'^'Q Ps. 69:9); H'^IEy'Q from his people 
 Tars. Onk., Lev. 21 :14 and 23:29. Cf. also )^2:^\ p^p^il . T'^n'' - for ^nT"! , p^I H .
 
 III. MORPHOLOGY. 
 
 PRONOUNS. A. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 a. Independent Personal Pronouns. — § 94. a) ^j^ I; PX , 
 rarely n:^^ , thou; ^rri< ,' i^Ti he; ^ri^ii, , ^<^n she; "D5< , rarely 
 i<:n:^< , 'ttY-; :^ni<, rarely iiriDX, !^,nj<," n;j}^', n&<, ye; ^tlTi^, 
 rarely "^3"X , they, masc. ; TIJ''K they, fern. 
 
 b) References: X:^5 I, Ned. 5 a, 44 &; B. B. 59 6; a. fr.— 
 "2i< we, Ned. 56 a, Ber] 56 b; a. fr. &<:n3S we, B. B. 164 a, Sanli. 
 11 ab (taken from Biblical Aramaic). — riX tJiou, Ned. 5a, 21 a; 
 a. fr. ri:K tliou, Ned. 91 b, Taan. 29 a; Sabb. 30 a; B. M. 26 b, 
 396, 109 6; a. e.— "n^^ ye, Ned. 50 6, 55 a; a. fr. ^ns ye, Sanli. 
 109 a. "-23 ^PJ^l that you are thieves; ^Pi!?^'! !J5!^^ / and ye. Col 
 MS., Pes." 110 a; ^n^lzyjD- J<^n ^ns it is ye who did, etc., M. 
 MS., B. M. 73 a. ^nVs' ^ye^ B. M. 'eds. 37 a. ^::^^S^J ^n:« ye 
 yourselves. riDJ5 2/^, Pes. 110a (V. L., a. 1., n. 20). n;^^ 
 'T J<3i51 ye and I are seven; ^S''"£^H rijX ye yourselves, B. M. 
 87 a^ ' ns ye, Pes. 110 a (V. h.,' loc. cii.). Tl J^ZSI r.5< ye and 
 I are five. — ^r)"S< he, Ned. 55 a; a. fr. S^H he, it is, B. B. Ilia; 
 Ned. 51 «> 55 a; a. fr. ^rT'i^ she, Meg. 14 a; Nidd. 72 6; a. e. 
 X"'n she, it is, Ned. 23 a, 50 a, 91a; a. e. — ^Pirj^ fhey, masc, 
 Ned. 20 6; a. fr. '^S^i^ they, masc. and fem., in older language, 
 Keth. 23 a; Ned. 42 6,52 6; Naz. 47 6,57 6, 64 6; Taan. 18 6; 
 B. B. 165 6; Ber. 50 a; B. M. 104 6; a. e. ■^J■^^ they, fem., Ber. 
 44 a; Keth. 2 6; a. e. 
 
 §95. The demonstrative pronoun "T^Ti^ is at times used as a 
 personal ]>ronoun for the third person plural of both genders. 
 Cf. Keth. Ill a, Meg. 16 a, ^uU. 53 a, Bekh. 5 a. 
 
 §96. Tn our editions there occurs once the pronoun S5112 tie, 
 she. TS S^lj-I riS thou and site are relatives, B. M. 67 a; in 
 older texts it must have occurred more frequently; cf. i^hTlTl HCi^ 
 I (uul he, Aruch Compl. Nid. 25 6; sbli:! ^.H'S he arid Ih'e,' ibid. 
 Gitt. 6)8 6. Kohnt, Ar. Conij)!., s. v., has also the variant ^^b"^"^] . 
 
 1 Cul. MS., MiK. 16. J, vocalizes ITT'X. 
 
 30
 
 §101] PRONOUNS 31 
 
 The word is identical with T\b'n2 or tlbfT'D originally fo her, the 
 n having changed to 1 or "^ . The dative fern, came to be used 
 for the nominative of both genders. Cf. i^bri"'] = H'^bn"'] M. MS., 
 Sabb. 156 6, and li, Ian, J, ice, in the Chaldeo-Pahlavi for 
 ' a n A, , ' a n a n . 
 
 §97. The forms ^H^X , ^H^J^ , ^nrj^ , "HrX , are shortened 
 from 5<Jin"5< , 5<%n"X , linr5< ,' rrrj^^ ,' the first' element ^i< , Ti^ 
 being demonstrative elements "^i^ , j + "'J<.' The forms !J5^n , 5<^n 
 are used mostly as copula.^ 
 
 h. Enclitic Personal Pronouns. — § 98. The pronouns of the 
 first and second persons are generally joined enclitically to the 
 participles, and rarely to adjectives, so as to form, with the latter, 
 one word. They are then shortened and assume the following 
 forms : 
 
 MASCULINE. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. a. &<](-) a. [:(-), -:{-), rD(-), :3(-)], i^:{-) 
 13. [:(-), «3(-), 5<:(--)], J5;(-) ^. h3(-), ".:(--), .><:(-)], ::(-) 
 
 1 •• T T T ; - T •• It T ■- : - t •• 't •• 
 
 2. a. n(-) a. -^^nCy), ^H-) 
 /3. [n(^7)], n(-) /?. "^nH, ^H^) 
 
 § 99. Of the feminine, only the second person sing, is found 
 in a few examples: "b fl^i^Ci^ thou art forhidden for me, Sanh. 
 20 a; ^b nnOSrj ivili thou marry me? Keth. 816; n^HT^ wilt 
 thou lead? ibid. 63 a; iTii^^Il!* thou collectest payment, ibid. 43 6. 
 
 § 100. The forms under a are used with verbs whose final 
 radical is a consonant; those under y3 with "'b verbs. The forms 
 in brackets occur only sporadically. 
 
 §101. The plural forms under a are sometimes joined to the 
 singular theme of the participles and are in such a case preceded 
 by Sn'JJ . For examples see §§ 271, 272. 
 
 1 On the various etymologies suggested for those pronouns, cf. Fuerst, Lehrg. d. aram. 
 Id., p. 231s?. ; Hupfeld, ZKM.. II., 124sg. ; Boottcher, Hebr. Gram.. §869, 2; Nooldoke, Mand. 
 Gram., pp. 68, n. .3, 92, n. 1; Duval, Gram. Syriaque, p. 168, n. 2; Wright, Comp. Gram., pp. 
 98, 106; Dillmann, Gram, d.aethiop. Sprarhe,y>. 261; Morx, Graw. .S'j/r.. p. 167 ; Lovy, .Vei(/t. 
 WT)., s. V. ^nS ; Jastrow, Dictimi., s. v. S- For the Neo-Syriac forms ahu, ahi, anhi, 
 cf. Guidi, ZDMG., xxxvii, 293 sg. Cf. also Maclean, Gram, of Vernacular Syriac, p. 17. 
 
 2 In later literature: -rX we, HG. 319; "^nrS? Ihou (masc), ibid.APa; ^nS? ye, ibid. 
 404; "jTlS (masc), i6id.208; ]riS MV.35; !jn"iS: ^e, HG. 394; 1Xn] = Siir.[":] s/ie, i6id. 30.',.
 
 32 ni. MORPHOLOGY [§1^2 
 
 § 102. In consequence of the promiscuous use of the pre- 
 formatives Z and b with the third person masculine, the first 
 person plural adopted by analogy a similar usage. As a result 
 of this, both forms, the third person masculine singular and the 
 first person plural, became indistinguishable. To remedy this, 
 the enclitic personal pronoun was sometimes attached to the 
 latter. ]T^Tb Jet us consider, Sabb. 30 6; "rbtD^Zl^b let us 
 abolish, CoL MS., Zeb. 38 a; ]'i<Ti^J let us infer,\hid. 106 6. 
 
 §103. Rosenberg' sees in forms like 5<rrpi5< (Sabb. 83 a, 
 B. M. 86 «, a. e.), !}<:pnT^5 (Sanh. 20 a), Ind ^'fl'rf\'^ (Sabb. 
 121 h), forms of the perfect with an enclitic instead of a constitu- 
 tive pronoun. This is erroneous; such forms are regular plurals 
 used for the singular; cf. below, § 106. 
 
 § 104. The same author explains {loc. cit.) forms like SJ^'^SCri, 
 U^"i?JTl , as composed of the respective verb and the singular pro- 
 noun of the second person " ril^ " with apocope of final " STl ." 
 The second element is rather the objective suffix of the third per- 
 son feminine, which latter refers to a word like i^tX^'Z understood. 
 
 Thus, .s-^ncn, b^-'-^^n , = fn^ncn , n^j^ri; cf. ^5'-::': = pi^":^; loe 
 
 need it; i<r'2tM< = nn"-nj< I wonder at it. 
 
 ^ 105. It will be observed that not only do the suffixes for the 
 singular and the plural nouns show a promiscuous use, but the 
 singular and plural suffixes themselves are sometimes not differ- 
 entiated. The genders, moreover, sometimes interchange, though 
 much more rarely.' This circumstance seems to be due to the 
 fact that some of the singular suffixes, having become worn out, 
 have lost their suggestiveness and have been supplanted by the 
 more sonorous and emphatic plural forms, and this caused the 
 confusion of all forms. 
 
 4^ 106. Another perplexity is encountered by the student in 
 the use of the first person plural for the same person in the 
 singular, which is an expression of modesty or of generalizing 
 indefiniteness. That [itiir;il is sometimes found together v.-ith the 
 singular in one and the same clause; e. (/., H'b """lyjj "aZ! 'v-"1 
 and I (ice) remember also iKirimi lohl liiiii. B.M. 8 b; ni^C"!! "S^" 
 
 ' iHiK artnn('iii<cliv l'< r.';U//i iiii hdhi/loniiK'hcii Titlnnid, i>. I'l, 
 
 2 For a tiiiiiiiar jiromiscuous n.se of tlio iiroiiouim in otlier laugunge.s <•/. Bi'ttcher, op. cit. 
 §878.
 
 §108] PRONOUNS 33 
 
 "(ib^ for I {we) am not a Persian, eds. ibid. 28 b; T^'b '{T'lpi'l id 
 
 i^rS I (ice) sJwuld not explain it, Pes. 90 «; i<:iJ; p^in^b I spit 
 out M. MS., Sabb. 145 b; i<:^ y^p"'] I shall cut down, B.M. 107 6.' 
 This use of the plural promiscuously with the singular has misled 
 even such men as the late Jacob Levy'' and Th. Noeldeke^ into 
 erroneous theories. Thus Levy assumes a paragogic )iun in 
 the first person singular; and Noeldeke explains such forms as 
 ^5^b Dp , which occur on almost every page of the voluminous Tal- 
 mud, as scribal errors. Whether these forms follow the analogy 
 of ^"b verbs or are plurals used as singulars, or are due to both 
 causes, they are certainly legitimate formations. 
 c. Possessive Suffixes. — § 107. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 
 With Si7igular Nouns. 
 
 
 With Plural Nomis. 
 
 1. C. 
 
 • 
 
 
 '7 '"T ■■'*T 
 
 2. m. rr ,^- 
 
 
 TT-"7 
 
 2. f. [-^v ,-^^7] r\- ,T|^7 
 
 
 tr:! T7 ■^: 
 
 3. m. J'"^V7'^V-''^-'^7lf^ri 
 
 i [^n"7 ,^n- ,^n7 1 
 
 • T 
 
 -,-i,"i-,--i-,ai-]n'- 
 
 T • • - " 
 
 T : T - T T 
 
 
 T T - 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 
 T T T T T ' I - I . 
 
 
 mm — m — •■> — 
 
 2. m. C-^- ,p- ,ti3- ,p-] ,^5- 
 
 
 [■(D^7 ,"ir7l ^.r-;7 
 
 2. f. ' 
 
 
 ■—"I — 
 
 3. m. -^ ' ' : ^■ 
 
 ^ 17 '10~ '107 
 
 1 > iini- 
 
 "'irT:7'iri^7'i'^^'7^"-:7 
 
 : • T 
 
 3. f. "n- 
 
 
 [^ni- ,^n-] "n^- 
 
 §108. The form "Hi" arose from ^tl''~ by metathesis; ''»~'l7 
 becoming ^Jli~ . From this form is derived the suffix 8d masc. 
 sing. 'T\~. 'p, "H, and "7 are Hebraisms. ^T'u''~ is properly 
 objective suffix. Forms in brackets are of rare occurrence. For 
 examples, see Nouns. 
 
 1 An analogous uso of the plural is found in tho Jorusalom Talmud ; cf. M. Schlosinser's 
 Aram. Verb, irn Jer. Talm., p. 15 sq. 
 2 Neuh. u. chald. M1>. s. v. J. 
 3 A. Rosenberg, Das Aram. Verb, im Babyl. Talm,, p. 28.
 
 34 III. MORPHOLOGY [§109 
 
 § 109. Familiar nouns, especially those denoting family rela- 
 tionship, are frequently used without possessive suffixes. 
 
 1. First person: &^^i< my mother, M. Q. 206, a. e.; DS id. 
 M. Q. 12a, Gitt. 70a,'Sabb. 66 6, Ber. 39 6, YOm. 78a, a. e.; 
 «ni< my father, M. Q. 20 6, Meg. 12 6, B. M. 59 6, a. e.; m^D 
 my grandmother, B. B. 125 ab; I"*!! my son, Ber. 5 6; TD^ my 
 daughter, Pull. 95 6, Keth. 54 a, 109 b; tT\^^ my wife, B. B. 
 132 6; 5^T Wb^lDS into my whole hand, Ber. 56 6; n^^'^^Sb to my 
 
 T : T : ^ T : : 
 
 bed, ibid.; i^ri^sb '^Hj^t^'ai^l and bring them to my house, Qidd. 
 22 6; i^ailTa ■'il ly jj^ln^lil V2 from my house to the college, Ned. 
 59 6.- (in the parallel passage Ber. 55 a we have ■'5<T''Bir^&< for 
 i<n"2l). J!<!!2p1 "i^^J what is that before me? i.e., how do I come 
 to'tiiat? On 't^^p, n5p = "5p before us, see Levy, Neuh. Wb. 
 
 S. V. )!CSO , I. " 
 
 2. Third person: Ku^Sip i^^V'^ ^"^^ (^lij) ""/^^ ^'^ going to 
 die, Ber. 56 a; ^T:1T\12 ^inb^Db ^nrbt:p he killed all his masters, 
 
 ' T T : T : : : • : '- 
 
 B. B. 36; 5<"^n ^13^'2 D^XpT «n^^ 5<3^&^ ^'!2 ivo^dd a father ever 
 rise up before his son? Keth. 62 6; 5<'in3 ^^fbip"! ivliose husband 
 is a kitchen-gardener, Yeb. 118 6; i<"n:* i^rrjJTi'n ivhose hus- 
 band is as small as an ant, ibid. 
 
 § 110. The suffix of the first person sing, is sometimes omitted: 
 ^12 my lord, sir, frequently; ni3 like me, Col. MS., Pes. 105 6; 
 ITS- ""Xin liJSD ^aCtTi rejoice my soul, rejoice my soul, ibid. 68 6; 
 '^•'i2frJm we', B. B. "142 6, M. MS., ibid. gag. 226, ibid. 15 6, V. L. 
 ad 1. n. 4, Er. 53 6. In the last passage as an example of the 
 Galilean dialect. 
 
 § 111. in'^X there is and tl^b there is not, on account of their 
 verbal force take mostly objective suffixes. But these suffixes 
 differ somewhat from those given in the table below, "^^f^'l^ 
 am, Ned. 81a; 'rn^^^ Pes. 50 a; M. MS., ibid. ■jri^>5 ive are; 
 ^5:n-5< Yeb. 116 a, ^"p'n"« Pes. 87 6, !lD^:n"S /6a/. M. MS., you 
 are; n-n"« is, B. Q.'46 6; ^inpn^X they are, R. H. 20 a, a. e., 
 lir;:ri^i< ^' Tam. 5 a; -irnb^, Me'lla 7 a, read ■^;n"'« = /6/r/. 5 6; 
 !in:n^b they are not, Zeb. 14 6, 18 6, a. e.; ^n":n"b . Er. 46 6, Pes. 
 ^b; "ibid. M. MS. ^n^'Sn^b ; -ripn^b^ they are', fern., Sebu 14 6.' 
 
 ' "iniP'^b he is absent. Keth. 22a, a. e., belongs to legal style. lu ■j;i< ^rPX w are. 
 Pes. 50 a, fT'S has assumed verbal, more correctly participial, form.
 
 §117] PRONOUNS 35 
 
 d. Objective Suffixes. — §112. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. c. - ,-,ri- ,-n- ,-i^7 ,77 r- -^ ,^r- r^^- >"p- ."r ,r 'TT 
 
 2. m. ( T|2- ,T]S^- ■?]- >T|^- »T]«7 ,'r;7 ^5^7 . ^!3- . ^^37 ' ^^3^7 
 
 2.f. j '" ' " • ^ - • ,^27 
 
 ' n- ,r- ,^n- ,r- >'7 > n^7 ^ ,^12^7 ,-^37 ,-^3^7 .^ns- ,^n37 ,^nr 7 
 
 3. m. \ ri^2- '"r '^"7 'TT ''^TT f'^"~ '^"^7 '"P^7 ''^r7 '^r7 '^^7 
 
 n^n:7,n-n7j ^n":7 
 
 a f. nn^- ,i<n- ,n- ,^5- ,rr- "^ns- ,^n3- ,^nr- 
 
 § 113. The distinction between the suffixes of the perfect and 
 those of the imperfect are obliterated. 
 
 § 114. The n element in the suffixes is derived from the 
 objective particle n^ . This is clear from a form like Hn^^b^l 
 that he swallow it, Ned. 50 6, where the commentaries have yba" 
 nin"' in two words. 
 
 § 115. "^-, '- are shortened forms for •T3'7, ri"27; for n3"'7, 
 S2^- cf. the Targumic ^^J'bi, ^^2^i . But it may also be a mistake 
 of the copyists: uT stood for nr^lJir ; the sign of abbrevia- 
 tion was omitted and then written i<r . — ^513^7 is so vocalized 
 by the Col. MSS. The 'Z}^ shows the presence of the ener- 
 getic nun. 
 
 B. DEMONSTBATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 § 116. Those referring to a nearer object, or to the subject 
 under consideration, are: 
 
 Sing. masc. Cj-n , ■|^'n , ■,"'-in , and contracted ^^H , K:'^ , "I'H , "") this, that 
 fern. KH, 5<^n, (nj^n, iJ^-y, i^'^, ■-■?!); -i^n, Col. MS. ^5<n, 
 
 TTT .. T TT T-T - •- 
 
 contracted from J^Tir^ • 
 
 • T 
 
 Plur. masc. TZT\ , (T^^n , rbn , "fbi^ , '1^') these, those. 
 
 - _ ; _ ' .. T "... "T 
 
 fern. ^2n, ("2ni^, \r.T^, rbrd' 
 
 .. - .. - -: I T ' .. T 
 
 § 117. Those referring to a distant object are: 
 Sing. masc. J^^nH , (T^^J^n , T^'-^H , ^T'^}) that one there. 
 
 fem. iirm, r\ri, (Tj'n). 
 
 com. Tn^X that one there, the other. 
 
 It • 
 
 Plur. com. T^2n , Tj^H • 
 
 /
 
 36 in. MORPHOLOGY [§11^ 
 
 § 118. ^'Ti^, only in the phrase ^T^"! ^T5«5 both this and that, 
 these and those, is used for both genders and both numbers. 
 
 §119. References: •j'n (]+'n) Gitt. 85 6, a. e.; y"^ B-^r. 38 6, 
 B. Q. 99 h, Sanh. 31 a, Keth. 17 a^ Sot. 35 a, a. e.— "f 111 (•+^1+;>5n) , 
 Ker. 25 h, Keth. 103 a, Me'ila 12 6, and frequently in Ned. and 
 Nazir.— ^:'^ ( = -^),Gitt. 85 6. —•j'^ (- + ^5:^), Keth. 22a, 89 6; 
 Gitt. 85 6/ B. M. 15o, IS a.— '^Ti (■■+5<n),'CoL MS., Zeb. 89 a. 
 
 — J^n (contracted from Hari) frequent.— i^in (^T + i<n), Ned. 
 53 a,'55 o, a. e.— ^^'H Ned. 41a, Sabb. 52 6, a. e^— ^I^^H ('"" + !^n). 
 Col. MS., Pes. 75 6^^ — ^1^ (only orthographically different from 
 i<iri), Pes. 536, B. M.7)0a, Bekh. 456.— ^^H (■3 = ^3+5<n), 
 properly an adverb; MSS. Men. 3 6; ^jH b3 all this, Ber. 20 6; 
 "Sn ^^^bn without this, ^jT\ bTCT'l'^ because of tliis, frequent. — 
 •^5r;. frequent. — '^TuT'i ('in + "11),' frequent. — Tj^^T} ( = ^2n = ^"n , 
 with compensatory lengthening (v. §77), ^^^'^'2 T^^^tj Hull. 11a, 
 eds.— ^bJl ("pbs^ + ^n). Tarn. 11a, B. M. 90 a, and' frequently in 
 Ned. and^Nazir.— 7^^^ ("j+b^^- Hebr. nb5<), B. M. 15 a, 67 6, 
 110 a; Taan. 17 6; B.' B, 38 a, 63 a; Keth. "87a. Only in legal 
 style. — ^^3? ( = ^0)' Properly ^ singular, Gitt. 316, 45 6; Men. 
 34 6, a. e'.;" ^-ri (contracted from ^n?f^ = Vn:ri), frequent.— "^rn^^ 
 (nn+IS;), only Col. MS., Meg. 26.— -r.n, TF., p. 25.— "fbri, 
 ibid. 1.— ^^nn (i^^^ + ^^^) frequent.— T^^JJ^H (T] + "«n) frequent. 
 
 — 1]^'5^n ( = tj^^^n), Col MS., Zeb. 49 aj a. e.'— ^^-^ or ^r'H 
 (^3+-p), B. m'. 86a, Zeb. 43 6, Hull. 906.— i<^nll (S'- + !J<n), 
 frequent.— t]r; or t^n (!]+i^ri), frequent.— 1]%- (§69), M. MS., 
 Pes. Ill 6.— ?|T^5 (t] + " + "w^), frequent.— 'qsn (1] + "^, §119), 
 frequent.— ^r;i (T] + ;As),' Ar. 326, Bekh. 206, Me'lla 156, a. e.' 
 
 §120. Forms in parentheses are of rare occurrence, and 
 belong partly to the Palestinean dialects. 
 
 1 Tho "J final in demonstrutivo pronouns is taken by M. Schultzo {Zur Formenlehre des 
 Semit. Verbs, p. 19, note 1) to bo identical with the pronominal suffix of the 2d person ; ^"^l , 
 rtri he translates hie tibi, haec tibi, '^^X would bo hac, hi, tibi. In the latter form he sees 
 the construct state of the absolute ']"'5X. That "^ roprosonts hero the 2d person is, 
 however, not necessarily tho case, since one and the same pronominal element may represent 
 different persons. Cf. ZDMG., 1875, 172. 
 
 2 HG.. od. Hildeshoimor, p. 96, ^n^H ; <Se'elt.,od. pr.,86, "iHin. "'nZn ; irH, "'i"'')!!. 
 HG. 491; ^:iin, i''id. 381. I^H Letter of Condol. of Sam. Ha-NCtgld to R. ^annn'el, Ocar 
 TOb, II., 68 ; ^"in . i'>><l. 226. Cf. for tho demonstrative force of the b the Arabic viU j , viLo , 
 
 Hebr. njbn, ibn. nxpn.-Tfrn, ri<i.-m.-cf. Targumic spx he. sn-^K (=s-'nn) 
 
 MV. 2."). Vrj this (loKal stylo), TG, od. Harkavy, §.').jo.
 
 gl2J:] PRONOUNS 37 
 
 § 121. !5<M is often joined to the following word, in which 
 case the final J!<, which marks the length of the vowel, is not 
 written. E. q., riH , J^n'^M , Z'TCri^Tl ^' , i^Firi J^H , SH 
 
 «^').. T t;- •:t I" T t:- t t 
 
 i^ 122. 5!<n , i^^n , !J<"m sometimes unite with a preceding word, 
 in which case they undergo phonetic or orthographic change. 
 Thus. 5<^n + Xb becomes l^^b h not; ^f^ T^ becomes ^r« , 
 i<^n 7^^ becomes ^D^JJ^ is not; !}<^m H'^ is contracted to ^T'2 how 
 is it, hoio about? and others. ^J^V"^"'*^^ becomes !J<''^r;S< ; 
 
 T •: - t:- • 
 
 C. COPULATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 § 123. a) The idiom of the Babylonian Talmud, differing in 
 this respect from the cognate languages, has developed separate 
 forms for the pronouns of the third person, wdien the latter imply 
 the substantive verb and are used for the copula. These forms are: 
 
 Masc. sing. ^PT'D^ Masc. plur. ilJirD 
 
 Fem. sing. "^p-pD Fem. plur. ■'JirD 
 
 6) References: "tT^ "^^ what is it? Ned. 38 6; ^H" J^^H 
 that it is, the very thing, ibid.; ^m ^:i< it is I, Taan. 24 b; ]^Q 
 ^rrz ivho is it? Pes. 104 a; T'^Z i^T^ i^TJT ^'2 do I know ivhere 
 
 T •• T : -T 
 
 he is?—^TT^ Ber. 44 a, Hull. 43 6, a. e.— ^nrs 5<3TJ ^m ^Hra 
 
 .. '• ;.T"T-:: 
 
 they all belong to one and the same kind, ^ull. 79 a; and fre- 
 quently.— ^nr3 Col. MS., M. Q. 36, 96, a. e.; TF. 9. 
 
 § 124. Luzzatto^ and Noldeke' consider the copulative pro- 
 nouns to be of the corresponding forms of the personal pronouns ; 
 the former being formed out of the latter by the prefix D , and 
 the initial X lost in the process of composition. Said prefix 
 Noldeke {loc. cit.) considers to be a mutilated "i< = "n, HSn . 
 Such a use of that particle would find an excellent parallel in the 
 Hebrew ^TjTi , ?I2ri , etc., where that particle also exhibits a 
 
 iCol. MS. Alfasl on BScft 166 vocalizes in'^f, '.e- IHI* (§80). Se'elt., ch. 18, lias 
 
 2 Elem. gram, del dial. talm. Babilon., § 52. 
 ^iland Gramni., p. 92, n. 1.
 
 38 III. MORPHOLOGY [§125 
 
 verbal force; but cf. Duval's objection, Gram. Syr., p. 168, note 2. 
 Merx {Oram. Syr., p. 168) derives ^HrD from a supposed form 
 'inin + hu through aphaeresis of initial vowel, and from the 
 latter ^H^D through syncope of medial 5 . I should suggest that 
 the copulative forms have an independent genesis. They are not 
 derivatives, but parallel formations of the personal pronouns. 
 They consist of the pronominal suffixes and the syllable "'D , a 
 contraction of "^Hp , which latter in its turn is an apocopated form 
 of "iriD = "'Inb , the third person singular of the imperfect of J^lll , 
 ''Itj to be. That would explain why these forms are used only 
 with the third person, while the Hebrew nSH may be used with 
 all persons. A similar instance of the composition of i^lSl is 
 found in the term Hm granted, which is a compound of "Tin 
 and ra .' 
 
 T 
 
 W. H. Lowe^ has the following remark about these forms: 
 "He (Luzzatto) did not perceive that the prefixed D changes the 
 simple pronoun into the substitute for the copula." The above 
 words are apt to mislead the reader into the belief that Luzzatto 
 was ignorant of the copulative force of these forms. As a matter 
 of fact, he states it [loc. cit.) clearly enough, and it is but just to 
 the deceased scholar that this should be pointed out. E. Blticher' 
 also, as far back as 1838, recognized the true nature of these 
 forms. 
 
 § 125. 1. ^rn , ^r":n , frequent; i^Ttl Col. MS., Meg. 7 a; ^Z^ri 
 Col. MS., Zeb. 13 b; M. MS., Pes. 60 a, this is, these are, are con- 
 tractions of ^tl this and of the respective forms of the copulative 
 pronouns. The uncontracted form ^JT'D Tl is cited V. L. ad Men, 
 92 b, notes 2, 3.* 
 
 2. Noteworthy is the pleonastic construction of our word with 
 the copulative pronouns: M. MS., Taan. 20 6 {bis) ^iHrS ^T^tl 
 these are. 
 
 § 126. ^j^n .... ^S"^!! means: this is one and the same, e. g., 
 D^i-'^ TJ^'^Ti t!^'^*T\^ TJ^^jTi Wardimas and Menahem are one and 
 the same person, Sabb. 118 ?>. 
 
 1 Levy, Nh. u. ch. Wb., s. v. ni'^P • 
 
 2 Tho FraKin. of T. B. Posahim', p'. 38, note 1. 
 
 • T -1 J T - I - 
 
 * According to Hal6vy, ZA. IV., 59, ^2'^"'n is a contraction of XIH + 3 + *^X + XH I
 
 PRONOUNS 
 
 39 
 
 §129] 
 
 ^ 127. ^rn is sometimes used as a simple copulative pronoun: 
 "niis^ ^r^n IJ^b'n this is something unusual, Mun. MS., Sauli. IS a. 
 ^rr: ^i<'2 differs 'from "in ^i^'C ; the first meaning what is it?' the 
 latter, what would it become? 
 
 D. RELATIVE PRONOUN, 
 
 § 128. a) The older form of the relative pronoun ^"^ occurs 
 only in the Palestinean recension of Aboth I., 13, in legal style, 
 in the combinations -^"^ , -T"n (b + ^1, 1 + ^1)' of the emphatic 
 possessive pronouns, and at times in the combination S-;""" 
 (J^b + ''^) that not. I have found besides but two examples of it: 
 •nbn^n ^13n 5<b ^^ that you may not share my fate, Meg. 16 a, 
 and bt2p ^^ '^'i until he had killed, Sanh. 96 6. The usual form 
 of it is "^ . 
 
 6) References : ^b^"^ mine. B. M. 109 h, Ned. 50 a, 61 a; "r" 
 thine, B. M. 109 h, Ned. 5 a; nb^'H her, Naz. 30 a, Ned. 36 h, 70 a, 
 Sabb. 80 6, B. B. 33 6; "b^'n our, Ned. 49 a; pb^'l your, B. Q. 
 117 6; pb^, Suk. 44«/-inb^T their, Gitt. 84 6, B. Q. 117 6; 
 
 linb^ Sukk."44 «.— ^n^-n , tii^'n' , 'r^-T^ , riT"n , -t^ , ^5t^ , ^n-^"^ , 
 
 ■'HT'^ , frequent. 
 
 * ' c) The usual form of the possessive is -Tl ; the form "^^"i 
 occurs but seldom. T1 is a reduplication of the relative ^"H . 
 d) Instead of the usual TjTlb^ we find Tj^'l T]bl TF., p. 7. 
 
 E. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 §129. a) -t^'J, V^ {^^2) who? ^X'J' (i<"^ , H^) what? ^T} 
 which, which one? (77"5<! "f"!. "H , TT^ri , ^TH) ichich now 
 {quisnam?) ('^'H H^J) ivhat noio {qiiidnam?) ^Inp , (^H?^ , ^H^i , 
 ^n^S'J) what is 'it? ^'j^^n (^n": + -n or &<^n + -Tn) tvhicJi is it? ?,3p 
 ( = ij^'^n+1/J) loho is he? wliose is it? ^Vq ivho is she? whose 
 is it?' 
 
 6) References: "i^p , "2, '^'2, ^3/J , ^VQ , frequent.— rj A. 
 Z. 416; n^S "i^n^^ n'2 how do you deal with it? ^H frequent; 
 -|-7;-n,'Men. 109 a;" -fT ^H, Ned. 26 6; 7Ti< , ';\rr2 Tam. 
 
 1 Cf. Lowe, op. cit., p. ^. 
 
 2 C/. Dalman, op. cit., p. 87; c/. Maclean, Gram, of Vernacular Syr., pp. 19, 55, 181. 
 3'^X'a is a contraction a) in some cases of "IT i^'Q, 6) in other of N'^H S5p (§122). 
 
 TF. vocalizes IJ^'Q . 
 
 ^HG. 71, S'^h; ibid. 2:«, l^n; ibid. 438 IJ? ■ ■!?e'ej., pp. 6, 77, 80, SA, has SI"':} . 
 id. HG. 178, a. e." Sign's «e'c??. I.'; HG. 95. 104. 'a. e. ^JIH HG. 276. H")? , "^^^'Q "^e^ 
 for 'ji^'a HG. 22, 25, 68, 263.
 
 40 III. MOKPHOLOGY [§^30 
 
 32 a: "rr^ MSS. Zeb. 69 a; T'l MS. R. 117, B. M. 2 h, Pes. 90 hj 
 -rrz M. MS., B.M. 2 6; *XTy2{ = 'rrZ-^r'2) M. MS., B. B. 8ct; 
 ^r-;n, Naz. \2 a.— ^rrT'q '^^"^2 which' of iliem? B. B. 12 6, for 
 the usual ^r;^';r7J ^n.— ySFlT/J "J^*:: ivhy should he swear? F. 
 MS., B. M. 82 6. ' '" 
 
 F. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 
 
 a. Positive Indefinites.— % 130. "bs ' 5^;;b3 J/r. ^So and So, 
 N.N.; &^n^:bs i¥rs. or 3Iiss So and^So. — TJ 'somebody. — ^T'2,' 
 
 T • T ; • ... 
 
 Ul^'2, (Dy'l^J)^ something, iJ^nb^'J something. — ^nV|'-' somebody; 
 'Z"m, somebody: U^^H "d^D^X "ji^ri^T ^MS^^ :?^-^ :?irj ?Y is known 
 
 *^ •• ••:t; _,;_.. 
 
 that the place belongs to this or tliat man, B. M. 21 b; cf. ibid. 
 23 a. — ^-nl ^Sri this and that, so and so. — "HI . . . . "H the one 
 the other'; \/2 ^/J the one the other M. Q. 25 b. 
 
 T T 
 
 § 131. i^S'^i^ est qui, sunt qui is used in the sense of some: 
 ■'T^i^- ^^3^5^ ^some say. 
 
 i^ 132. !^'2b>' ■'b^S the whole world is sometimes used in the 
 sense of anybody, anyone, everybody. 
 
 § 133. pb^n and pb^^ are used like our Tom, Dick and Harry 
 for anyone: W^T i<r\T2-J: 5<:S i^VJ'r pb^Z ^bl ^^J'T' pb^^n i<b ^52^ 
 
 «-' t:-t t : - : t—. t:-t't. t: t:-t't. t t-; 
 
 I knoio 710 Hilldq and no Billdq, I know only a tradition, ^ull. 
 19 a; ^nb ^bp^5 pb^n^ pyri shall Hilldq and Billdq enjoy it? 
 Sanh. 98 6.'" 
 
 § 134. bS all, every; '^^T)^ b2 everijbody, everyone; IHI In b|l 
 
 each and everyone; . . . . "H "i^"^ bs whoever; . . . . "n bs whoever, 
 
 whatever; . . . "^ ^5^/J bs whatever; T'i^\ b|l whatsoever; D2?T2 53, 
 
 ^1^7^ bS (Ned. 49 «) anything. 
 
 " 6. ^Negative Indefinites.— % 135. . . . 'H "i^:^ n^b , "i^--: i^r.b 
 
 . . . "^j . . . 'n r\^b, 5<b ^'-bj? ^b^3, 7?on^, nobody, no one. — T\'b 
 
 cn-i, i^b cy'n^'bn, V^i'xbi . . . t<b, bb^ 5<bi . . . 5^b 7?o//r?»5r. 
 
 __, T --. T ... t: t t: t: t 
 
 1 In later literature ibs is used also for inanimate objects : 'T^D ''T^TS for so and so 
 
 It 1 '' ' - ' 
 
 much money So'elt, 36; ibS XHSinS »'" «mcA and such a place, ilnd. 51. 
 
 f T t T t I 
 
 2 In the opinion of Professor Haupt I'^TQ is not a mutilated form of DJ^'Q but ia the 
 Hebrew "'TI, ITJ, sufficiency + yi2 from; htoTa.U.y, of a sufficiency . 
 
 3 In Palmyrean X)337T)2 , cf. ZDMG. 42, 398, where the word is vocalized wrongly 
 XTSJ-.p ; read S^yip . Assyr. mindSma. 
 
 « This is perhaps connected with the Arabic ;^3^ ^J^-^i"^ **-^) misfortune. 
 
 i
 
 ,136] NUMERALS -il 
 
 NUMERALS. 
 
 A. Cardinals. — § 136. 
 
 
 rt) With Masculine Nouns. 
 
 U'lY/i Feminine Ncnms. 
 
 1. 
 
 Hi, 
 
 
 in 
 
 Sin 
 
 T -: 
 
 2. 
 
 'n 
 
 
 ^:ri, ^-^n, -f-^n 
 
 "Fibn, ^'rnr\, 'fr}"n 
 
 3. 
 
 T* 
 
 
 T T : 
 
 nbr, 
 
 T : 
 
 4. 
 
 'T 
 
 
 ^yn'^jsi, i^^"n^.s;t 
 
 ys^is; 
 
 5. 
 
 'n 
 
 
 T : - 
 
 '^'-D 
 
 6. 
 
 "1 
 
 
 T • 
 
 n^iij or n'^^ij 
 
 7. 
 
 'T 
 
 
 (ny^^), «yz-c;t 
 
 yi^, l"i or 2"^; 
 
 8. 
 
 'n 
 
 
 T ; T ; 
 
 ■':7jn or ^yzri 
 
 9. 
 
 't: 
 
 
 - : • T : ■ 
 
 rin 
 
 10. 
 
 '■I 
 
 
 T : - 
 
 lie? 
 
 11. 
 
 j^". 
 
 
 niry in, ic in* 
 
 ■•ip ^in, ■'x in* 
 
 12. 
 
 1"^ 
 
 nc^br 
 
 i,iir3:^-.n,ic^^n* 
 
 ^"^D ^in, ^ic "^mn 
 
 13. j"^ x^in, lir^ nbri, ic^bn n-^ir? nbn, ^I'lry nbn , ^ic "bn* 
 
 ■'X nbn, 
 
 14. 1"^ ^cn"^^, ^c"n'^i^ ^x "n-^yt, ""^.v^-^Jl^ 
 
 15. vt) ^c^"-" "^r'^^ "^'^'^' ^"^^'^v 
 
 16. v'^ T"t2 X ^n-i*, X n^ir* ni'ips? n^ip , ^x n^u:* 
 
 17. T'"' ^cn^^, X mr* niir:? ynir, rnw^ n-jj, ^ic nizj* 
 
 -;v - - t:- -: t:- - ••: 
 
 18. n"^ lies? ^"::n, x ""^r,* ""X ^r^n* 
 
 --: .. T : - •• T : •• : •• t : 
 
 19. t:"" xirn irn, ^xir^n, ^X'^rn, ^x^'^n 
 
 ni'iry 
 
 20. 'ID -px:?, 'piiE>' 60. 'c "niT, 'pnir loo. 'p nxj"; 
 
 30. 'b ri^b!in,rnbn 7o. '^- -rjz^ 200. 'i -nj^-^,-m- 
 
 40. '12 
 
 50. '5 
 
 r5?ni^^ 80. '3 -,r:n, rrjn 1,000. 5^,i"nn rb^5 
 
 1 k. ; : - 'T T : ' • T : i- -: 
 
 rizi^^n 90.':: rriin 10,000. (?)i5nn2^, &^is- 
 
 ).:- '•:• t:-:
 
 42 in. MORPHOLOGY [§^3'^ 
 
 h) References: Tlbn , with change of liquids: M. MS., 
 Sabb. 110 «. — ^jP, with original nun, as in "^jn , Col. MS., 
 M. Q. 9 a.— ^yn-]J^: B. B. 30 «, 60 «; Er. 50 ?>; Col. MS., Pes. 
 13 „; a. e.— n:^ri: Keth. 67 6; t^T^Tl: B. B. 62 6.— X^lH: 
 Taan. 18 6.— ^X "In: Col. MS., Zeb.'58*6.— n'*r?? llj : Nidd. 54 a. 
 — -C IH: R. H. 21a; a. e.— "^0 ^"nn : Keth. 62 6; a. e.— ^"ipl 
 -irS?: 2'M. MS., Yom. 69 6, 84 a; a.e.— ^"^rbn : B. B. 133 6; 
 Qitt. 68 6.— ^nir? nbn: Ned. 41a.— n"l"J3y nbn: Taan. 14 6.— 
 -O; nbn: Keti'Uh.— ^^Z nbri: Ber. 55 6.— ^ncn-Ji^: Ar. 12 6; 
 CoL MS., Meg. 17 a.— ^^C yia-^V : Ar. 12 a; Sabb.' 98 6.— ncS^i^ : 
 Pes. 4 a, 9 6; Col. MS., Meg. 2 6.— H^Tr IT'^m : Ar. 12 a.— H^'f 
 rr'-IV: B. B. 916.— ^C ^n-f : Col. MS., Meg. 2 6, 6 a.— luj 
 n-ir?: B. B. 916.— n^^r i--i: Er. 83 a.— Xn-^o:: Er. 766', 
 Mei^ 2 a.— ^Cnd: Bekh.' 50 a'.- ^n™n : Ber. 28 6.— "^Cin : 
 Sabb. 17 6.— ''X-^"n : Ar. 12 a.— rp'^^ tr\: M.MS., Taan. 13 6. 
 — ^C'l-n: Nidd!54a.— y-^C^: Col. MS., Meg. 6 a, 17 a.— ynb^P: 
 Col. MS., Pes. 68 6.— ^n-Jj": Col. MS., Pes. Ill a.— "fn'f , Col. 
 MS., Meg. 7 6, vocalizes '{Tl'J: .— 'p'Zri : Ar. 13 a; a. e.— -r^ri : 
 B. Q. 115 a; a. e.— "nj^-: : CoL MS., Pes. 64 6.— i^iS"] : Sanh. 39 a. 
 
 n^^'IJ does not occur in the plural, "b^^ , in the construct 
 state perhaps qb&J;, in the emphatic state SJ^Epi^ ; in the plural 
 TSb^ (Ned. 50 6), ]^b^ (Keth. 106 a), and usually ^sbSi . 
 
 "The plural of .S;inn is 7X^-1 (Ned. 50 6), "Sin-i (M. MS., 
 A. Z. 16 a), "pIST (5ull. 7 a), and commonly ^r^^'^^") (Sanh. 
 26 a, Gitt. 57 a,^Pes. 62 6) ; that of «ri22n is -an") '(Sanh. 16 a), 
 i<ri-n (Ber. 6 a), and i^ninn") or J^rHnuH (MS.' karlsr. and R. 
 Hananel, Sanh. 26a).' ' ' 
 
 §137. Forms marked by a dagger end frequently also in 
 mT ; those marked by an asterisk are found also written in one 
 word; parenthetic forms are in the construct state. 
 
 § 138. The ending "^7 is contracted to 77, (^7), "7, 'fT^ i" the 
 numerals for 2, 80, and 200. Final a has been changed to e under 
 the influence of adjacent 'J in 7n";i< , ^C""" , ^C'bFl and the like 
 (§73). The ending e in ^TlFl represents an original ai. For 
 the sifting of vowel in ^r^Fl for'^rin , Vnb^n for --nbri , rf. §92. 
 
 1 The 1 hero may bo an ortliogr.ophical luxury to mark tlio plural; but may also ropro- 
 scnt "7" ; cf. § 70.
 
 §143] NUMERALS 43 
 
 § 139. In "pn and '^Tnr\ the original 3 of the second radical 
 has been dissimilated under the influence of the final • (§ 53) . The 
 form ^nn is formed by analogy of "^^n . In "f ri"]n original / of the 
 first syllable became a under the influence of the following "! .' 
 
 § 140. The following examples will illustrate how compound 
 numbers greater than 19 are formed: 
 
 ini -^-iTr:? 
 
 21 
 
 Bekh. 50 
 
 ■^nnni 7"iir^ 
 
 22 
 
 Meg. 6a 
 
 n^s";^:') ^rrjii nsi'j nbn 
 
 364 
 
 Yoma 20 a 
 
 ^sbx j^n^u: 
 
 6,000 
 
 B. B. 73 
 
 ^sbx nc^nn 
 
 12,000 
 
 M. Q. 10 b 
 
 i<Bb^ Hi^'P 
 
 100,000 
 
 Bekh. 8 b 
 
 ;j^ni"isn nc^bri 
 
 130,000 
 
 Sauh. 26 a 
 
 •pinn -f n^-d 
 
 600,000 
 
 Hull. 7 a 
 
 5<niin-] n!s;p nbn 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 Pes. 62 6 
 
 i<inn "sbi< rib5< 
 
 10,000,000,000 
 
 Sanh. 39 a 
 
 § 141. The following examples show the influence of the 
 Latin: &<nn ^Tj ^n'J: 59, Nidd. 30 o; J^llj ^52 -f^'TJ: 6P, Er. 83 «; 
 ■j^n-in "2?'v"9ri 78,'Ar. 13«; ^nnn ^^^-r^n M.'MS.,Zeb.ll8 5; 
 c/" later Hebrew nniJ; ^cn n^s-^jj;' .59.' 
 
 §142. Througl/interchange of b and T, ^C^bn and "^C^'^ri are 
 used interchangeably for 12 and :/5, and it is frequently impos- 
 sible to know which number is meant. Cf. the various readings 
 to B. M. 24 6, 46 a, 85 a, 86 a; B. B. 12 «, 77 5, 150 6; Sanh. 26 a; 
 B. Q. 112 6; Ber. 4 a, 8 a; M. Q. 10 6, 24 a, 26 a; Bega 23 a; 
 Yoma 87 b; Taan. 18 b {bis), 25 a; Ilag. 4 a; H. G. 352; a. e. A 
 similar interchange is found in Neo-Syriac (Noldeke, N.-S. Gr., 
 
 pp. 53, 153). 
 
 § 143. A number denoting more than one may be considered 
 as a unit, in which case the number so considered is preceded by 
 the substantive ^n house, family, body. E. g., ^"^n 'Z , Snjn 'Z 
 a body of two, three; two, thr-ee. 
 
 1 Later forms are : ^HH Hal. Ged. 206 (bin) ; ]n"]n Hiid. 399 ; inbn three, Mach. Vitry 
 119; nOI-n Se'elt. 109; 1-|D lin ibid. 116; 10 nfl '-Sa'ur? Tesa/.M, § 172; -^nO "ibp '''ttZ.; 
 
 iD'an '6i(i-'i6; -ipmc ibM.; "ib'^rnr i?"'. G<^r/.425, 595; niry snip //a?. Pes. §39'; no'^nTr 
 ii^d! 146 ibis) : inV" ":'an i^^j. aij; "ictrn ^vac/i. Fi7)v/ i: icion .ft'/''.'/, h. g. 452 (f^/s).
 
 44 III. MORPHOLOGY [^l^'^ 
 
 References: ^"^t} "II frequent; ^'^t)^^ Col. MSS.; "pnn ^n 
 /ico, Sanh. 95 a; &<inbn ^S //iree, Sanh. 8 a; HS^nn^^ ^n four, 
 gebu. 42 «; iTJJ/pn ^:a ^uc, Yeb. 101 b; fnW ^S ten, Er. 30 a, 
 S6ta 38 6; tXrbt)^ "fllT^^ ^II twenty-three, Sanh. 8 a; Hi^'J ^^ a 
 hundred, Ber. 50 a, Yeb. 88 «.' 
 
 § 144. ""^ri ^ioo takes pronominal suffixes to express determina- 
 tion, in which case it expands its form to "TV} .' Thus, '^TT^^ we 
 both, gebu. 37 b; ^i^1"nn you both, B. Q. 60 6; "in^l-^ri they both, 
 Keth. 83 b; ^rr'TT) g'ull. 45 b; ^H^™ Col. MS., M. Q. 31 a.' 
 
 §145. Luzzatto's remark {op. cit. § 63), that the compound 
 numbers in ^10 are of rare occurrence, I cannot confirm. They 
 occur as frequently as those in "^0 , if not oftener. It must, 
 however, be noticed that the masculine and feminine forms are 
 sometimes used promiscuously. Whether such a confusion in 
 the use of the genders is original, or is only due to later copyists, 
 is, on account of the lack of ancient MSS., hard to decide. 
 
 § 146. Now and then we meet with numerals taken from other 
 languages. They are used in homiletical etymologies and as 
 illustrations of special points in Halacha. Thus, Ber. 56 b, the 
 name Cappadocia is explained tl'^W'J U^j^^'^ Sni'^3 J5E3 . " Kappa " 
 means 6mm, "dika" means ten (SeVa). Er. 18 a V'^ [Bvo) tioo, 
 
 twice. Naz. 8 b irib"^ "i^^nts D^np -i^^i nri5< -n n;f ii< ciD'j^o 
 
 ir^n "03^t2:^E yS^J^ "li^^tSt: Symmachos says: cv means one, 
 
 Styovos two, Tpiyiavo'i three, T€T pay (onov four, yrevTayoivo? fve (fold). 
 
 B. B. 164 b i<:^r}, ha, one. M. Q. 28 a 'fin Ya'akob ed. princ. 
 ^rt^ id. 'Ar. Sanh. 89 a the Persian numeral XJ^ 1000. occurs 
 in the Persian phrase 55:^3 iTn '^5<5 an ass of a thousand 
 colors. 
 
 B. Ordinals.— % 147. Sing. masc. m'p_, rmp_ , M^^'^IP (Ned. 
 
 40 «, 51 rt); fem. 5<n""^p , J^P^^'P ; pl^^"- ^^^^- ^^W ' ^^°^- 
 
 5<n"^^p , i<n-riip first. ' ' 
 
 1 In lator litoraturo: ^nn3 HG. 3W, 489; Nnbn^3 Md. 62, 05 ; KPbna ibid. 489, 490; 
 
 Tit- - ¥ I I - I 
 
 2 Cf. Barth, Nominalbfldung, p. 4. 
 
 3 In lator literature: •^7^''^y^ HG. 282; ■jirT^nbn , '^np''nbn (he!/ three, ibid. 61; 
 'in'^nrSni? they four, ibid. 398' ' For tho C^T in these 'forms, cf. NOldeko, iSyr. Gram.,%i9, 
 and Kautzsch, Oram. d. Bibl.-Aram., %(>'>, 1, n. 1.
 
 §154] NUMERALS 45 
 
 §148. Sing. masc. 7;:n . !}<";:n (Ned. 21a, 63a), snr;:n 
 
 ('Ar. Gitt. 6 a), second; ^J^n'bn . ni^n^bn ihird; HiO'^nn fourth; 
 
 V -' t.:tt.: tt.; 
 
 nj^y^TJJ seventh, Nidd. 67 b; nSl^^r:' tenth. Plur. fern, nn^^ynn 
 
 TT»: TT'-; TTT»: 
 
 fourth.^ 
 
 § 149. The expression ^"Bp i^lZ]) (Gitt. 12 6, B. B. 97 a, Pes. 
 7 a) corresponds to the later Hebrew "ViJi^"! "ilTJ^^ , meaning htj 
 and hy, by degrees, gradually, successively. Phir. masc. "t^tlp 
 ^i<5P , Pes. 7 a.' 
 
 § 150. Sabb. 31 h, 88 a, Ar. 13 a, ^t^n^bn is used in the sense 
 of triple. 
 
 §151. a. Like the ordinals are used a number of other 
 numeral adjectives: — Sing. masc. 5<r">ni!< another; lJ^r*)ll^i< , Col. 
 
 MS. Pes.; &<;'^™ TF., p. 11; fem.^ 5i^l^^r:^^ , "n^'^n,^ , ^^r^^ 
 
 (R.H. l8&),^^5n^rn^5, u^n^n^^n^^ (Yeb. 64?>) ^n^nn^^^ (Coi.MS. 
 
 Pes.),^^TOw^ (Qid^47a, B.'kVlSa, a. e.).— Plur. 'masc. ^r-^n^, 
 ^rnmi< (Col. MS. Pes.) W«, TF.,^. 12, ^T^m^, ibid. 17; fem. 
 ^P'^^'PT? (Ned. 20 b, 22a)V" 
 
 ' 5)/Sing. masc. n^<"^nn , ^J^'^nn ; fem. 5<ri^';'inn, 5<f^"^tl2l; plur. 
 masc. ^i^^nn ; fem. Xn''"^nn ihe^last, the latter.— ^^Tt^Zl ^C5 ^"nn 
 
 .. T : T T T T ; T _ •• T : T •• T •• : 
 
 the last tioo ci/j)s. Pes. 108 b; T^'^riZl iPUS^T ^K'^lTiSb to my suc- 
 cessors (descendants) icho are to come after thee, A. Z. 10 6. 
 
 C. Fractional Numbers. — § 152. Fractional numbers are 
 expressed partly by separate nominal formations, partly by various 
 constructions of the cardinals. The separate formations are: 
 
 «3bB, ^-ibB, ^iibs (B.M. 77 a) 4; j^nb^n , ^J^nb^n, \^ribn (Sabb. 
 
 87 a, ed.'Sonc.j i; iCT'^^ \; i^'^'ZTl'l; J^n^n'-j: , m^Ti'^ |. 
 
 §153. ^"^T^I^n Xnbri |, Sukk.'32&; ^Bbsxnbn f, Sabb. 346; 
 
 ^3?n^n i^nbn'i ih\iJ'^r\bT\ i^rbn |, ^nbn ^'-iri f, /6h/. 35a; 
 
 .. : . T T : 4 •• : • t t : ^ .. : . .. : ^ 
 
 l^iptD^n yf///is, Tem. 27 a; 'pPr^bs the half of them, B. B. 8 a.' 
 
 § 154. In Syriac a difference of spelling exists in the word 
 ]^oZ , the second z being spirantic when it means three years 
 
 iln later literature: Sinf<. fem. S^n"^:!:! , HG. 250; KHl'^Sn . ^VF. 101; NPTl^bn 
 
 T"I« T-l- T--: 
 
 HG. 250; xn^'^ai. . i<ri''';'5'"'nn -vr. loi; xn'^icpn hg. 379; i^ri-iTrr und.-uasc. 
 nsiTiJi'an ''t^id. eis; nxnimij ''"'''•.• nsr'an H'i'i.; ^^?r:'an /^/(^62o. xho nhuh 
 
 TT»-I TT-t , TT'I TT-:- 
 
 must have been nSy^lCn*, Xn''r''©P*- 
 
 2 C/. Luzzatto, op. cit., §64. and Dalman, o;). cit., p. 169. 
 
 3 In later literature: Xnin i, HG. 121; rW'Q^'n i- ''''d. 487.
 
 46 in. MORPHOLOGY [§1^^ 
 
 old.^ The same distinction may have obtained in our idiom; we 
 should, therefore, have to read i^t^bT\ in the expression JJ^lnyn ^b:^^ 
 with the second fl spirantic. 
 
 § 155. The forms J^ll^nd , ^^n^nn: come per metafhcsin from 
 
 5<nri"^'u: , i<nn^'J: , formations like 5<rib^n , J^nb^n . They were 
 
 t:.t: t : • t:._ 
 
 transposed to avoid their interchange with ^rT'JJ six, and ^PVJ 
 weh, nehvo7-k, forms to which, in accordance with the genius of 
 the language, they must have been ultimately reduced. It must 
 be added that i^H^n'O; , J^m^ri"!: are as little ordinals as the other 
 
 T ; T • : 
 
 forms given in this paragraph, and the assertion of the diction- 
 aries to the contrary must be corrected. 
 
 D. Oilier Denumerative Nouns. — §156. n&<Tn% plur. ^^^Tn*^ 
 single, unique; V^^TZ^_ quart (of a j^b), Er. 64 a, a. e., fem. 
 
 i!ir\TDr\ , piur. fern.' ^^ri^^::?^nn , i<n.^y^nn , Coi. ms., Pes. 109 b; 
 
 5!<y^Ili a square; !J$3'I1^" name of a small Persian weight — Gitt. 
 22 a;' i!i,W2T> , plu/. '""'^P^^ '^"^ of the five books of the Penta- 
 teuch or of the Psalms; 'later the Pentateuch; ^7p''_^^'Z^~ fifths, 
 
 pentads; '^2i7\, )XPuiT\T\ , xnrrFi , ^'^^y^'^, i^n:Vri' , ' ^n^^in , 
 
 thoman, a measure containing the eighth part of a 2p; plur. 
 J^n^^j/^iri; ^'^iW the giving of tithes; plur. i^n^'^^isy tithes, 
 decades. Here belongs also the pronoun "'I"!! one another, a 
 contraction of i^in i^l" , with the plur. masc. ending,^ and 5<n^'3 , 
 ^T02 , city, from ri^12 hundred; properly a hundred tents or houses.^ 
 
 A^ERBS AND ADVERBIAL EXPRESSIONS. 
 
 Adverbs of Place.— % 1^1. ^r2 ^n amo)ig others. — ^:^, 
 
 "i^^n, ^5<^n&< (^91), nnb:^, ^K^n^j, ^i<nn&<*2, outside, from 
 
 T r t;- ^^ ^ -:• tt« t:-" 
 
 outside.— ^^iri ^n3, nin ^3, together.--! 15<ny« on top of— 
 ^^, 13, Tj, «J3, ^i<^J, "5<1:^5 (§91) inside, amid.-^Zs^lZ 
 inclusive, opposed to "^nb/J exclusive. — XJ^. therein.— -'iXr\ ,^"21^^ 
 ^DH (Col. MS., Meg. 9 6) here, in the case before us. — iXD""*! , 
 W (Ar. 30a), ^H (Col. MS., Zeb. Ill b) where; ^Ti'Z , i^'2r}''2 , 
 whence; i<-T;b whither; S3'n&< ivherenpon. "1 ^52"" bS , 5<5^« b3 
 
 1 Noeldoko, SG., p. 89. 
 
 aimn one another (fem.), //G., ed. princ. 82 6. 
 
 ^Cf. Maclean, op. cit., p. 67. 
 
 * On the various constructions of S3n . soo Zunz, Das Adverbium '|S3 . ZDMQ. XXJV. 
 pp. .591-598, reprinted in Vol. III. of his Ges. Schriften.
 
 gl59] ADVERBS 47 
 
 "" (Col. MS., Pes. 96 rt) wherever, in all cases ichcre. — p""^n3 
 instead. — Cnn there, in that case. DFl , "i^n there. — i<Tyb , b^3?b , 
 b"''>- . ""i^b""- , above, u^iward, on top, .s?fpra. — "|53p5 beneath, 
 below, ahead, further, infra. — T"}}'! (8abb. 92 «j, nnnrp 
 (Bekh. 8 6), 5<n"inb (M.MS., Beqa'iha), J<Finb (B. B. 45'rt), 
 nsrinnb (B. Q. 23 6), "^^PFI^J beneath, underneath, doion, below 
 (§§82Vl58).' 
 
 § 158. With the forms in ^S~, "^5", some such word as i^'l^ 
 is to be understood. On J^J-^^b .'snrnb . see above, § 82. The 
 
 T •• : T : - : ^' 
 
 X in "&^125<, "'5^ir»5< is prothetic. Driri, J^wH are compounds of 
 5<n and Dn , Hebr. Q'i , and S3, Hebr. TO, respectively. In 
 'i^n and "52pb ( = "i + D"Ip + Zi) we have the demonstrative element 
 ■,~ . The reading of the latter '^pb and not with Levy "^pb is 
 warranted by tradition, supported by the vocalization of the Col. 
 MSS., and has its analogies in our idiom. In 5<3it!J< we have a 
 compound of 5<( = b3') and i<S-t ; X3"" , ^5r5< consist of ^^^ and 
 ■n, ^5< respectively. In "J^Vinp \ = r;^5n"n + "J) and iirinb 
 (i^niMn+b) we have syncope of n . 
 
 ^Adverbs of Time.—% 159. -^^5 Col. MS. "nj* , --^i5< , tvhile, when, 
 when not yet.— ^zn'l^ , ^:ni ^^"'^J^ (Col. MS., Meg. 16rt vocalizes 
 "!Dm ■'jmii^^, meanwhile, in the meantime. Jj^STU^n , !5<;'^■'^5^ 
 ( = i<;'^" + kn), now, this time, nowadays. ln"^^5< (Col. MS., Meg. 
 12 a vocalizes ln'!2''i<), lohen. — ri"J^!S5 bs whenever, as long as, as 
 often as.— ^F13!^, ^'n35< , ^nr&5 (Col. MS.) still, yet, even notr.^ 
 ^nbi^b, iFib'sr^" (Ned.*4 6,"itasi, ibid., has nnbyj "2), inb^^b -,7^ 
 (Ned. 27 6) on the spot, at once.'— lpri"JJ5< ( = ^5'n^-^-p XniT + pro- 
 thetic i^) last year. — "^Hnb , ^!^i<b, after, later on. — 'TZ *rs 
 in the 7neanwhile.—lj:$-'^'i', in^'-^'n', i<2><"'n (Col. MS., Zeb. 32 a, 
 with apocope of 1 and change of >' to 5< ) , lit. ivhen it was done, 
 ex post facto. — J^H already, since. — SriT" now, at present. — 
 "p7J^T sometimes. — b'ZTC'i^ yesterday. — ^'^"'^'i^b (Col. MS., Zeb. 
 84a), ^^■1r; ^iTrb (B. M. 17 a), &<"^™ ^-^Tr) {ibid. H. MS.), 
 i<'^-i^'2rb''(ibid.'ed. Ven.), 5<r^nj5 k'^rb \ibid. F. MS.), after- 
 
 tt: t:^ ' t.:-t: 
 
 to-morrow. — "3, "3, ivhen. — ^"3 noic; when he. — ^3'^ since, as 
 
 1 SD'^n tiei-e, HG. 477 (bis) ; i<D"'S where, ibid. 63, 69, a. e. ; i{pnnb , ibid. 315. 
 
 2 The statement of the dictionaries that "lITlbS occurs only with b is to be corrected 
 accordingly.
 
 48 III. MORPHOLOGY [§160 
 
 soon as.— -l n'J3 (Yoma 13o, Sabb.llOa), "1 r'lti bS, n?J3 b^3 
 
 T ; ,^ -^ T ; T T ; 
 
 '1 (Col. MS., Zeb. 6 a) ?r«/i7, as Zow<7 as. — In^b to-morroiv. — 
 
 br»3?b , bm^'S, soow. — "n ^IS? , ""1 "'ins during, ivhile, meanwhile, 
 before, when 7wi yet. — Dbs'b (Gitt. 85 6, legal style) forever. — 
 «"^l>77^ at first, from the start.— iC"^ ^91^^^ ^J"^ ^'^tIP. IP 
 (legal style), formerly. — i<'!2J^"i^ at first, at the heginning. — 
 Tr^'^72 at first, heretofore. — ^n , H^n again, anew, moreover, yet 
 more, further, besides.^ 
 
 Adverbs of Manner. — §160. J^^2''5< verily, indeed. — niil"l'nH 
 [= nS1 + *l+ 'J5 ( = by)] (turn to the stronger eide. I rest my 
 argument upon what is superior; on the other side is a stronger 
 claim) oji the contrary. — ^^rT^is^ j3J^ by the way, apropos. — 
 J^^"^;* nSJ^ incidentally, occasionally.— tTV\')'A, Di&<^n^1i< (ci'^e'cos) 
 quickly, rapidly, soon. — ''5<'1 in case when. — J<jicpb>Jl^ crosswise. 
 tyb'lZ^i^ bustrophedon; t^"*""^ , 5^^"nb openly, explicitly. — 1111 
 again, ^^H , pH {TF. 2^ Ua and 'frequently), ^'ZT} (Col. MSl, 
 Pes. 110 a), so, thus. — iXpT\ expressly, distinctly, only. — "'J^'Hl 
 (Ber, 5 6) certainly, surely, rightly, ivith good reason. — ["'bu^l , v^^"' , 
 p^roper^^. — [n^H"' , tT'S'D], Stir's, ivell.— '^l^ for nought, in vain, 
 for no jjH?-j90se.'— "iifib, Winb (B. Q*.'38a), i^'ZZZ ^E3«2l, 
 i<T2JSj ^uiX3. , separately, alone, for oneself. — nni5<!lb cd first 
 sight, apparently.— '^•'f^ ^EbS , M^b ^EbS , X^bli^ '^EbS , ^^b^SbS 
 (MS8. K., M., Zeh. ^i2ci)" just ^ the" reverse.'— •'i^'^2 gratis.— 
 ^Y^2'2, Col. MS., Pes. (voc), )^Y'212 (§§77, 90) ' of itself .— 
 H^rrir-i, nrn, 5<^jbirn, J^^blZJ'n (Cof. MS., Meg. 2 6), granted it 
 is right, it would be right. — I'lnc round ahout. — J^'JPC'i (§23) 
 presumably, probably, I dare say. — i<''jb2?2l plainly, simply, 
 merely, only. — Tp"iEt5 supinely. — !}<p, "Sp, "p, a particle used 
 generally with the participle to form the present (§66). — 
 TE":: well.'' 
 
 § 161. J^ri'Sn is formed of J^H this, and of the passive parti- 
 ciple of ri^lD ; nrn , of ^nn let a be, and the active participle of 
 
 1 In later literature: "^Dni "^271171, HG. 100; inin ^3 ( = n'a"'5i bS), il'id. 164; 
 TlSSi. if>id.i:>6; irnaib, iv^'v/. 6:{"; \^3 (legal style) i'hid.Sv'; XDS"'"! . '^"f"'- ed. Harkavy, 
 §181. 
 
 2 According to some IHS is a shortened form of ^^HS ; according to Luzzatto ('^S'^ID 
 
 b'lTE . P- 3058g.) it is a contraction of K'^H + T + 3 tis it is. 
 
 3 In later literature: D12 verily, indeed, So'el. 1; "j^Dn fhus, so, IIG. 86,10.?; *Tin3 . 
 HG. 29: i?~nb KeparaMy,'MV. 32; S"nn3 together, ihi,i.\ nS^ more, TG., ed. Harkavy, 
 passim; cf. fVr the latter Noeldoke, A'Sg' 1.59. it)?"jSCb ( ^ Sp^ "1X5 ) HG. im.
 
 §165] ADVERBS 49 
 
 said verb ; it occurs also in the form HD^rn . The above and 
 tX^2^'Z1i, are synonymous. The latter is used in reference to a 
 superior sort of authority {e.g. of Scripture) as compared with 
 that indicated by the use of the former. Note the expression 
 ■^Sn 13. such a one, such a fellow. 
 
 • T - 
 
 Adverbs of Quantity. — § 162. "ii3"5< (Gittin, 58 a) according 
 to Rail, ad. /oc.= T!23 a little. — 313 , !J<2^t3 a good deal, much. — 
 npjb entirely. — ^^p, SJ^^Sp, T^r^Z ,\nore.— ^^r\\ 5<ni^P'n mo7'e, 
 greatly.— ^tri bS , ^^n "'V'lS {Mi', all this) so much!—''ir>12^ b!) , 
 ■" "i<-3 bS^'Col. MS., M. Q. 6 a), as much as. — H'^S how much, 
 how many! .... ^£t3 .... 1 ^"33 the more .... the more: R. H. 
 26 h, •'bTC ^ii: florin ir^rS r"3- m?33 the more one bends his 
 mind the better it /s.— ^""1 bs the least possible quantity, what- 
 soever. — I'JL'iS" n-3 as much as possible. — SJ^niiS a little, a 
 
 - : V : T : t : 
 
 trifle. — b^bp , ^bp a little. — X3'l much, very much. 
 
 Interrogative Adverbs. — %\m. t\l2''^, np"t< (Col. MS.) 
 ichen? — Ti^ is it recdly so? — Jj^'^rii^ to ivhich does this refer? — 
 
 • •• T — — 
 
 ^•^b for what j^nriwseJ — ^rrath, (li<r; + ^"J<b) ichither? {TF., 
 p.'26). — i<rn,' 'n (Col. ksV), iohere?—'i<Trib whither?— 
 iXDT''2, ^'-'2,"]^:'2", "J/J, i^j'g whence?— ^Til ,\6 -ri (MS., Vat. 
 117",' "B. M" 67 6V, rr^n, Ztow;.^— ^t:5<, ^T'i,- ^-i3:i, (in ques- 
 tions expressing surprise or indignation) do you mean to say? 
 is it because? how!? ivhat!?-^^ (Ned. Sa), ^3 , ^'3^ , "31 , num? 
 t^b rj nonne?—r'2b, X"3b , n"3b^ , "IJ^^^^ , vihy, wherefore? — 
 '^b , "^b , ^"b , a particle of doubtful character. See Kohut. 
 Aruch. Compl. s. v. 
 
 §161. On the punctuation of ^^2 see above (§90). It is 
 the apocopated form of "!J5r3 , which latter is a compound of 
 "'3 + "ii< . It is joined to the following word, forming a compound. 
 Thus, ■b5"3 whence have we this? TrbV'2 (Zeb. 8 b, Naz. 48 6, a. e.) 
 ichence^has he this? ^br3 ^3ll"3 , ■brr2Jl"3 (Col. MSS.) whence 
 have you these things? 
 
 § 165. ■'3 and "'73 are generally preceded by a 1 . The former 
 introduces nominal sentences, the latter verbal. ""'2 , or "^'2^ , 
 usually stands immediately before the verb. If the verb be pre- 
 ceded by a negative, ""'2 is often inserted between the negative 
 
 ' &f 3^i? - HG. m. 69. 
 
 - Cf. Stube, Jiid. habyl. ZauberteJ'f*% i>. -jQ.
 
 50 in. MORPHOLOGY [§1^6 
 
 and the verb.' ^'2 ^b (Sabb. 68 6), ^2 l^^b (Pes. 102 a; M. MS., 
 Er. 20 6; Sabb. 32 a; B. M. 32 «, a. e.). 
 
 § 160. Note the following idiomatic expression: .... llJ^b '^^s'- 
 . . . . S<b couldn't we understand by it rather tin's 9 .... No I it is 
 
 T 
 
 raiher. — in"-''*?^ , 5<iTl , "j"*!! , and Tl , are used also as relative 
 adverbs. Some of the adverbs given here have at times the force 
 of interrogative conjunctions and should more properly be called 
 interrogative particles. 
 
 Affirmative Adverbs. — % 1^)1 . n^X , ^^ri^J^,' i<5"^^ (=]i<3 + n-H) 
 there is; ''^ , 'fJ^ (so Col. MSS.) yes, (= Hebrew' *ri). 'in one 
 instance n^5< takes verbal form: "JS! ^Itl'^lf^ we are, Pes. 50 «. 
 Cf. II. Targum to Esther 2, 18 rri"i< they 'are. 
 
 Negative Adve7-bs.—% 168. n^b (= n^S + U^b), ^^n^b , there is 
 not, is not; J^rb ( = i53 + ln^b) id'.; ^b , It^b (kilM + ^5b) is not, 
 not, no. ^j is generally used with verbs, li^j with nouns. 
 
 Adverbs of Doubt.— ^ 169. J^-^b^'H , ^5•:b"'^ ( i^':: + b + ^l cf. 
 Hebrew H'^blT , later ^^^'JJ ) perhaps; '\ti^ , Col. MS., vocal. 
 ■lirS&< perhaps, it may be, possibly. 
 
 T ; • 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 A. Inseparcd)le Prepositions. — § 170. tJj5 is an abbreviation 
 of b^^ = b" and is used in all the significations and constructions 
 of the latter. It is used also before gutturals: Men. 31 a, ^('2^(^( , 
 Keth. 40 b, a. e. !J<n5< . — Notice the force of the preposition after 
 mn to become, happen, befall, in the standing phrase iTiirn ^T'2 
 Ti<, lit. something tJtat happened ivith . . . . , tliis is something 
 like .... The expression is used to introduce an analogical case 
 as an illustration to a previous statement of opinion on some legal 
 point under discussion. 
 
 4< 171. '3 , "3, , "■'m , "3 , "3 , is used as in the Targumim and 
 Hebrew. A few examples of some rare usages may be mentioned. 
 n'^"'^3 "'3 KH/iJ^Z )X^'J'2 'C^^ the top of the small intestines ntnsf 
 he scraped np to a cnbit's length. IJull, iVSa; i<">p "!ri-3 Z"' 
 RabJi read as a jyriest, Meg. 22 a, /. r., was called up the lirst 
 to read the weekly lesson from the Pentateuch. ""B'ZZ 'HI'l^l 
 !J<7ir'2 "Z """t'i and yet titese are the most beantifnl <f the jx-ople 
 
 ' The vorl) in tl.is caso includes tlio participle, liiit not (lie infinitive. 
 
 2 In Xr^N . Nr"^b the ending may be = Tt^ , I)iit <■/. Nooldeke, itfff., §213.
 
 ^174] PREPOSITIONS 51 
 
 of Mahozd. R. H. 17 a. *,""rS *£!^ and he dropped torn in two. 
 S<rbn!n , 5<^">r"S , in the presence of three, of ten, Ber. 56 6, fr. 
 Cf. also below (§ 171:). The 12 is found in the Talmud also in a 
 separate form ""2." 
 
 §172. 3. 3. 3, like. — b, b, b, to, nnto; generally nota 
 accuscdivi. — 72, ',2, from. 
 
 § 173. To the Palestinean R. Johanan we owe the single 
 example of the use of b with oaths as a particle of asseveration, 
 as in Arabic, Ethiopic, and Assyrian.' 
 
 Separate Prepositions. — §171. "SSJ^ (§28) upon, on. "5< 
 ^^''"C'l'u upon a chair; ^r.''"' "3&^ upon their hands, Sanh. 17 a.' 
 
 '■■^hnt^ ( = -nn + b«), c/.'nni. 
 
 -T-^ _T _/ •' -T 
 
 2iilJ> ( = Zii + bS<) on, upon; hjj dint of, hy the wajj of, on 
 account of. 
 
 ■'^inj^ behind, hacliward. 
 
 ^tii^ on account of, for the sake of The word is connected 
 
 with Fellihi-Syriac yl , yL4 . j^:!] , ^J , and ^L^ of other Syriac 
 dialects.^ 
 
 ^T^^5 . -TS . 5^Ti5 (A. Z. 15 a; Col. MS., Zeb. 35 b), by means 
 of, through, by the way of. Cf. Hebrew T !^? . 
 
 bii:/£^, (^ii:^^«. "i2^«), i<rb^it:ti&^ . ij^nb^'i:^^ , for tJie sake 
 
 of on account of. The word is of doubtful etymology. The 
 original form was evidently b'it2l2^<, a compound of ^^I3 + "|'i + by , 
 which former may mean sliade, protection, burden, or going, 
 passing; cf. the Hebrew bb^Hl , "^^-^S . In the expression b^t:72X 
 ^rn the final b of b'^rS/ZiH. Vs often attached to "3!! and written 
 
 ^rnb ^D^a^ . (m. v. c'has -rnb -d:^^^).' 
 
 ■^!J^ . '£I^s , only with the prepositions and Z : "^Sp toward, 
 opposite; "Ei<3l in the presence of, before. 
 
 1 YOma 84 a, A. Z. 28a, we are told how a woman did not wish to tell R. Jfthanan the 
 formula of a medicine, unless he sworo not to disclose it to others. He agreed to it and 
 swore: tf"bl'52 S<b biil'iC"^" iNn'^Sb I'J the God of Israel, I shaU not disclose it! He 
 
 T--: T -T:'l TT 
 
 then went and f^ave away the secret to his audience in a lecture at college. When asked 
 how he could break his oath, ho answered: "I said 'To the God of Israel I shall not 
 disclose it ; ' but not to the people of Israel." He thus explained the 5 casuisticaUy as 
 a mere nota dativi. , 
 
 21355 iu ^ppi'^n "^BX upon their bosom, Sanh. 17 o is a compound of 5i? upon and 
 12 = r»2. In later' iiteriiture : TC "^IS u'^IPl "^3 wAoi ire were at ovr ior.i's (at f-y 
 
 ■,__ T--'T--1. 
 
 house) Se'el. 77. 
 
 3 Cf. Sachau. Skizze des Fellichi-Diahkts von Mosul, p. .32, 37, SO. Maclean, op. cit. 187. 
 
 *Cf. 5-nr '^r:S, p. 3O8S3. But cf ^rn '1:12s TF. 2. '"'^Z- Hespons. d. Lihrer d. 
 Ost. u. Westens, ed. Muller, § 122.
 
 52 III, MORPHOLOGY [§^'74: 
 
 b^lll on account of. Only Yoma, 75 h. 
 
 ''jI within, in, hij, etc., is the separate form of the preposition !ll .' 
 The traditional pronunciation of it as "^H is due to a confusion 
 with '^'3. between, house. 
 
 "n, 'fn, Yr^, 5<^^r^, J^rirn, ^V):^, between, among. Keth. 
 28 a, M. MS., SaiDb. 110 a, ^lT^r\TIi ; (H. G. 339 ^TX\T':l , TT^p'n) . 
 Notice: ^"^U^pn , ^.V^^nn , Cof. MS., Meg. 12 « 6 (Voc.). 
 
 i^)^, i«bn, without. 
 
 y2 '^zb , ""J "izb , except, save, besides. 
 
 ^n^, ^a^^I, ^nnb, after, behind. 
 
 '^'3l\ , ''liLjb , ;/t'a?', rtf, to, with, in case of, toward. 
 
 lit , iJ^It , X1S , T3 , 13 , constr. st. in , 5513, generally with b , 
 n and "J : Ijb , 135 , r«/o, amidst; irQ /h, within, amongst, amidst; 
 i3'J from, out. 
 
 "" !J^"''pl'n Z/A'e, similar, analogous to. 
 
 ■'^n , only with 3 or b : "'iJlin «;*Y/?, by; "'"nb m;</6>, fo toward. 
 The singular form occurs but seldom: Jj^inb , A. Z. 28 b. 
 
 ~bri instead, in place of. 
 
 T\'' nota accusativi. This is very rare in the Babylonian 
 Talmud. H^n^ him, Ned. 49 a; nn^ Aer, it, eds. Ned. 50 6; -pj^^ 
 ?/o», Ber. 38 «; ir";!!; Nidd. Glay]inn'^ them, Ned. 25a, 4:1 a^ 
 B. M. 906, a. e.' 
 
 ni3 //Ar; ^Tl ^ni3 ///;e ?»e, Col. MS., M. Q. 2b; ni3 Z/A-e me, 
 ibid. Pes. 105 6* ('§ 110) ; yflllS //Ay? us, B. B. 05 a. 
 
 ■^3,' "3 (=- + S) like. ij^rri'H "3 now (Sabb. 119a)=Hebr 
 nS'S . — tXub'Z 13 //'A'c that of a dog, ed. Const. Sanh. 90 a. 
 
 'ji33 ( = "l3 + 3) like, similar to, for example. 
 
 1 M. Lanibort, R^J. XXII., r29 131 linds this form of tlio preposition also in Biblical 
 Hebrew. 
 
 ■2 In later literature the oldor form m has boon preserved: "^DTll ''"'« (f.) TG. od. 
 Harkavy, § 15. Cf. also Nooldeko, SG., 199, note 1, and Lagardo, Mitthril'l., 226. I. H. Weiss 
 (.Ziir Gesih. d. jUd. Trad., II., 1:38, note 1), justly observes that the fact that the Biblical 
 Aramaic never uses pl'' o.a nota accusativi except once witli a pronominal snflix (Dan. 3, 12) 
 
 T 
 
 would t,'o to prove that tlie use of this particle is a Hebraism witli Onkelos — and, we may 
 add, with ;ill otlier Aramaic lanKuafres whore its use is found — who intended to give by its 
 adojition a basis for the exercise of R. Akiba's liermeneutic rule that every nota accusativi 
 implies an inclusion of some additional case, identifying, of course, ni witli flX- The 
 
 T 
 
 entire want of this particle in the Mamlaic — an idiom outside of the sphere of Jewish infiu- 
 onces — is the best proof of Mr. Weiss' supposition. 
 
 3 Some scholars see tlio same use of "'S also in Biblical Uobrow. C/. Dubsowitz, 
 Hit-BOker 'f)r, V. 265-272, and M. I.ainbert, REJ. XXII., 129-131.
 
 §176] PREPOSITIONS 53 
 
 "SbS ( = ''E&<+b+3) toward, in the direction of, with regard to. 
 nib"^o, iinto. ' m! Q. 9?), Tnib to thee. B. M. 62 6, ^n^lb 
 
 T : ' • T ; • T ; 
 
 to me. Very rare. 
 
 D^sb (Hebrew "^sb) according to. Palestinean ri^ll7^ in con- 
 sequence of, through. 
 
 -p, ^12 (M. MS., Men. 65 o),/rom, out, of. 
 
 Wl'^'U because of, on account of 
 
 nbn"D to, unto. 
 
 ly nntil, till. "^ IT instead of. Usually contracted to ""^JJ^ . 
 
 by on, upon. 
 
 i<T by through, by means of (Ar. 16 6). 
 
 i^b:? , J^Vi? , on, njwn. 
 
 ^iby on, upon, 5ull. 8 6, Sabb. 156 6, a. e. (§§11, 181). 
 
 '02 "^Vyb above, beyond, higher than, before (Sabb. 30 a, 
 RasI, a. e.). 
 
 WS with. In the Talmud the word is used only in legal style ; 
 but it is found frequently in Se'el. and Hal. Ged. 
 
 bzpb , 5<bTpb , opposite, against, before. B. B. Ill a; Tarn. 
 32 0. (Palestinean.) 
 
 D-p, nipb, nn]:. yz, before. Sabb. 30 6; 67 «; Gitt. 85 6. 
 (Palestinean.) 
 
 U^'Ep , ^12p , ""^apb , ■'^p'J , before, in the presence of, for. Ar. 
 31 6, Tl"^~ 5^^p"^ before thee.^ The word is generally used as an 
 expression of politeness before names of persons in authority. 
 
 ■^nin , ■"Jninri , beneath, below, under; instead, in place of 
 (A. Z. 10 a). 
 
 §175. "^3 "fn means: both this and that. T^b ^^ 
 
 *l52b "^ according to the opinion of the one as well as to that of 
 the other. 
 
 § 176. "J is of rare use, and almost entirely limited to the 
 pronominal suffixes, the apocopated form being used before nouns. 
 Note the expressions ^^T'2 TrT'2 out of it, yea, of it, i. e., of the 
 very thing. — tl^n^ 1TT'2 , the same. — WT12'2 bs 1i<b he is not 
 able. The expression is probably originally an ironical question, 
 Is everything so as if coming from Jn'm, by liis authority 9 
 
 1 Se'el. ^n"i1")2''i>^ from before them. H. G. 100, ril2]?p for her; ibid. 387, JJjbs "^Tlp^ 
 for a half.
 
 54 III. MORPHOLOGY [§ 1'^^ 
 
 § 177. a) The preposition b having become particularly 
 identified with the accusative, the want was felt of a definite and 
 distinct nota dativi. By adding to the b a demonstrative of 
 determinate distance, nbtj , that want was supplied: the simple, 
 worn-out b now became TbTb or nbrT'b . The concurrence of 
 two b 's caused the first to dissimilate and become D . We thus 
 get nbnS or nbtT'j . 
 
 ~ T -: - T -: . , 
 
 6) The dictionaries derive our word from D + ^H^j ; but it must 
 be evident that such a presumption is untenable, since the verbal 
 force inherent in it is neither relevant nor apparent in the dative 
 personal pronoun. Luzzatto's etymology of b +n''p is subject to the 
 same objection: n^j would evidently be akin to Ethiopic nahu, 
 Hebrew nSJl , which has also verbal force and can govern onlj 
 the accusative. Noldeke connects it with the verb bHD to lead in 
 Assyrian and Hebrew, and vocalizes ^bjlj with plural terminatioiL 
 
 c) nbrij is used as accusative in H^bn^p "^^l^^? ^''2/ '^' ^- ^ 
 15 a, and t^bn^D fib 'irp"iD ive redeem her, Gitt. 38 a. 
 
 d) ribn^j and t^lb are used only with reference to men. 
 
 § 178. Traces of a separate form " "'b " are found in the 
 scholastic term Ti^/-:'*t:^bl and according to the reason given by 
 thee, Ned. 37 a and frequently, and in TT^ , "tl^O , to them, CoL 
 MS., Pes. 116 ft and elsewhere. 
 
 PREPO.SITIONS WITH PRONOMINAL SUFFIXES.' 
 
 § 179. A number of prepositions are generally used with suf- 
 fixes; some of them even exclusively so. Of the inseparable prep- 
 ositions only two, D, and b , take pronominal suffixes.' Of the 
 separate forms, "^ni^X , ""liM^ , ^BZl^ , ^EX , 7^ , ^nn, ^23, 13, 
 
 ^in , n^ , ni3 , nib , v- , -> , «>^' » "i^? , ny , bnp., .sb--p , onp, 
 
 ,, — . -^ -Y I ' x I '• — T* ••T • • •• T. T . • T T, 
 
 IXEp, Tin, "nirn, are ^en<??T/7/?/ used with pronominal suffixes; 
 
 &inbli::£i<, SFlblt:^^^, i^nrS, and nbrr^D are found onlij with 
 
 TT :- t: :-' tt- t-:. 
 
 suffixes; the rest of the list are never found with suffixes. 
 
 §180. n: ^n,'qn,'ri;n, r^"n,^nn (Coi.MS.,M. Q.i8a), nn, 
 -n, irn, -pn:3,"inn, -ira, ■rin,*^n3.— b: ^b, Tjb, ^rb (Ketk 
 
 52 6, Ned. 50 6, a. e., legal style), H'b . IPlb (R. H. 5 f/, Sabk 
 
 1 On tbe plural form of some prepositions c/. Lagiirde, Mittheil., I., 23185.
 
 §182] CONJUNCTIONS 
 
 00 
 
 uob), "nb (Col. MS., Pes. 90 o), ^rr) , -n^b (CoI.mss.), .s:: 
 (legal style), "b , ^ib , 'inb , ^nb.'— "fn: -rs, -srn. -"i', 
 n-:-3, nra, -rn, i<::'z (legal style), ^r^rn, ^n^^rs.— Vf = 
 ^xrr, -(rj (§110), -qr-f. r,""^, ?n-r:f,'nrp, -r-f, s:r'^ 
 (legal style), ^Dr'f , 'irr-f , 'i-2"f , "in-r-/, ^n^i,' ^r 
 
 'i» I ^ . 
 
 %"Tr'^ 
 
 § 181. i<br is little used with prepositions: ^r;";b"" Qidd. 86; 
 'riib-3? Ber.'56«; H^b:" i^r^ tz:? search it, Sir7 liied. 60 ar 
 Instead of t^b^' we find usually ^i^^ , which Col. MS., Pes. 93 6, 
 writes and vocalizes "lU^!:!?^ . Notice also the by-form ^Vb"? O. MS . 
 Sabb. 105 h, a. e.; JJ^'Vb^ ujjon him, B. B. 12 6 («^- = rq^-). 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 §182. bzt< hi(t, however, a Hebraism. 15^ or, if, ivhether. 
 ii<■i^^ either . . . or, whether . . . or. "J5 if, whether (§ 183). 
 1 ^r-^ri . . . X"f b'in ri^'Z^ ^^ I grant if you ivere to say . . . then 
 it would be right, ^i^. . .'^ either . . . or, whether . . . or. "523 ^J< 
 or, even ij. 
 
 ■'■^^ , ^T^H , i^'l^iJ; , since, as, because. 
 
 ^n"b^ ( = nin \^), used like ^iS"'!!^ or TTZ a. v.— M. MS. and ed. 
 Pesaro, A. Z. 55 a. 
 
 ^T^X, yjS;, 7' (2 M. MS., YOm. 30 6), noiv, then, pray, an 
 exhortative and precative particle used with the imperative. For 
 T instead of 1 r/. § 31. 
 
 Tj^K , a particle introducing direct speech = Hebr. "3 ; found 
 only in legal style. 
 
 ^T^, ^D ^K (H. MS., B. M. 73 6), ^S't^ (Sabb. 152 6), nr.S 
 (Yoma 57 a, Yalq. MS.) is a compound of "|^^ if and J|3 , N3 here, 
 now, q. u., and is etymologically identical with Ethiopic 'enka. 
 Generally used in the phrase Xn'^n ^3^JJ5 if now! oh that! with 
 the protasis or apodosis sometimes unexpressed. 
 
 1 "fb , TG. ed. Harkavy, §5a5. 
 
 '■■' Cf. the German expression : sich uber Etwas hermachen. 
 
 3 ^T HG. 187, IT ibid. 101, 183.-^31^, akin to ^rX , "^PX , and the Hebrew XlSijf , 
 in T'DrX ^DIJ? NS'^r? ''0"^' "<'"-'' s'ln'^ I ««^f -^ SG. 410. This may, however, be identical 
 with i^SiX , both meanings being possible with the latter form, as Ethiopic 'enka and our 
 ^3 show.
 
 56 HI. MORPHOLOGY [§1^2 
 
 SV^^ / ^^^« , ^^^i< , ^bSl (Col. MS., Zeb. 6 a) if not, hut, except, 
 onhj. Compare Latin nisi, Italian se non, b^bsSt . . . i^b only; cf. 
 the French ne . . . que. 
 
 ^y^^ if, a Hebraism. 
 
 ^■^b^< ' X"jb''i< (Col. MSS.), consequently. 
 
 T : - T : • ^ 
 
 5<b -b5< , ■'b^jbt^ ,^ if in any way not, if not, but for, if indeed. 
 r5< also; generally '"'BZ . . . w U5 also, even. "'^D . . . ~i< . . . !J^"^ 
 as . . . so.* 
 
 ^bSi< , ^b'^S^^ even if, even, a Hebraism. 
 
 ■^ Z3 b:' 5!f5 notwithstanding, although, though. 
 
 'p ""B b^ SX nevertheless, a Hebraism. 
 
 " or b (§31) so that, that, in order that; for, since. 
 
 iJ^n^ for, because. 
 
 ^'Zbl lest, perhaps. 
 
 iiTi then, of course, for sooth; but, is not it! this means to 
 say; but. Often Hril , 
 
 "l b^U^in since, because, a Hebraism. 
 
 f,3b-^n, TiSbn, -Sb^n (Col. MSS.) therefore (=1]5+b + !J<^M . 
 
 i<r;/or k^n)V " 
 
 5<ricn ■-" is that so now? ivell! 
 
 T : - • T 
 
 J^Fi'I'm since, ivhen, if, ^p JJ^ri'lH , see ^3 and ^3^i< . 
 
 -^ and, but. Often introducing a question: but, is it indeed so? 
 
 There are also traces of the 1 consecutive. Cf, e. g., "n^tDE^S" 
 a7id let her be freed, Yeb. 19 a. 
 
 3 is used in peculiar way with ^^nc is of opinion, ""'^'l-Ca , 
 ""ZC3, without having any apparent force." 
 
 ■is when, (=1 + 3). 
 
 ^3 , ""S , "p , a postpositive particle having the force of %3'i5 
 and of ^i-^5<.'" M, MS., Sabb. 4a TrT\r^ ^3 "IS^pb ^3^^^ !J<bl (in'd 
 he did not recollect whom they had allowed. Qidd. 48 « IH "^"I-, 
 
 ' Xb ■'X. HG. 406; X^X or jio< (=sb + IS) HG. 456. On tho chanfo of o to e cf. 
 Haupt, 'l£,r.,22. 
 
 2 For its etymology see Jastrow's Diction, s. v. 
 
 3 On this word soo R. Duval, liP:.!. IV., 26S-2T.'^: M. Lambert, ibid. IX., -W :;()1 : >f. 
 Jastrow, iV.K/. XL, 157-l.-,8; Hal6vy, 171111112. !•• S3 • 
 
 *In lator litoraturo wo finfl the Persian QH uscii for ?,S? in tlio i)liraso ippi ZH • '/• 
 Tfr'., cil. Harkavy, Index, s. v., and Lettir of Sam. hn-Nruful SIU 13:'1S5 II. 68, "^Dncn. 
 read : "^DH "H • The word is also found in Noo-Syriac ; cf. Sacbau, op. cit., p. 38, Maclean, 
 op. cit., 16L 
 
 • Soo on this 3 : Goigor, Lehrbuch zur Sprache der Mishna, § 23, 2; and Sachau, Ski:ze, 
 
 etc.. p. 45.
 
 §184] CONJUNCTIONS 57 
 
 read: ^3 ^i^'2^ tchereivith then, etc.? Id. M. MS., Taan. 7 6, H. 
 MS., B. M. 67 h. MS. Vat. 117, B. M. 67 b ^'D "H how ihcn? M. 
 MS., R. R. 29 o Jl3 "i^p icho then? B. B. lOa'-p J^n'in, /6/r/. 
 M. MS. ^p J^nirn, /6/('/. H. and R. MSS. ^D ^T\tT\ . B.'b. Ilia 
 ^5 U^n cn ; M. Q. 26 a, eds. id. and frequent in MSb\ Cf. Ethiopic 
 ka, ke.' 
 
 ^3 (shortened from ^"3 , or . . . 13) if, when. B. Q. 846, a. e. 
 «b I5<b ^3 if not, not. 
 
 T T • *' ' 
 
 -^ "^^-n ^3, p'n-3 {TF.Q) so that, in order that.— 'T- ^3 
 Kb- lest' * ■■ ' 
 
 T : 
 
 -^ -rS , (-n 73 M. MS., B. M. 39 a) as soon as, after, since.' 
 
 "ImXI^ since. 
 
 lit'J (13+*lP) in case, since, supposing. 
 
 "T2 from the fact that, since. 
 
 J^n^'p , ^rr^'J , inn^'J , hut, yet, however, nevertheless.* 
 
 553*2 hence, it then follows. 
 
 "1 '^52p"J before that, ere. 
 
 ^^D rt7so, /oo, ere??, frequently preceded by qS , q. v.' 
 
 § 183. ii^ and ^^5 are often interchangeable so that, for 
 instance, we may have iii . . . ij^, ^5< . . . "X, ij< . . . ^^^, ^^^ . . . ix, 
 promiscuously. Col. MS., Zeb. 2a a. e., has tTVyy^ for the usual 
 n73l^>^; i&^ if id., ibid. 46, 5a; 5<rj^ ivS-q id.', ibid. 5 6. 
 
 § 184. ^l!|5 is frequently contracted with the following word. 
 This is especially the case with some standing expressions; as 
 TT^;^-^, ^'T'i-^, ^^T:^-^, ^'TXT)^. Col. MS., Zeb. 226, a. e., 
 ^31-;" for ^3n ^j<.' " 
 
 1 In later literature: '^nD'^i^lD ''S?'a , road: Tlin'^i? ^S IKIS MV. 5; ?13 IJ^lS Letter 
 o/S«m. ;ia-JVa3irf, 3"lt3 "ISIK n., p. 65. -t - . 
 
 2 In later literature: -^ Spifi l^ H(?.,63; -q -jl^nn 13 , ibid. 24, 33; -"I ^D^HS , 
 i^id. 73; 'yO'^T\ 13 , 'Anan, quoted by Harkavy, MWJ., 1893,"p. 226. " " ' 
 
 3 -'^ "JJ^S , A/V. n. 
 
 * SJ'ini'a , or Sini'a , no. 473, 533. TLb word is a compound of the interrogative 1)3 
 and Kin , nin ; cf. Jastrow, s. v. 
 
 T -5 T -t 
 
 -■ According to Dalman, Gram., p. 191, note 2, 1"a2 is the first pers. sing. perf. of C13 to 
 
 speak. The word is perhaps connected with 'Omanee Arabic X-5^ also, or with 1^ to 
 increase. '-' (^' 
 
 6 For suggestions about the etymologies of some of the adverbs, propositions and con- 
 junctions, cf. Jastrow's Dictionary; Geigor's JUd. Zeitschr. VIII., 180-90; Luzzatto's Gram- 
 mar, and Liebermann's pamphlet mentioned in the Preface.
 
 58 III. MORPHOLOGY [§1^5 
 
 INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 §185. "i^, "H. iroc! alas! oh! 
 
 'Hi, 0.' = Arabic Lj .' ^D''T\'^ "p'n'i; "S come now, keep quiet! 
 Qidd. lOh. This particle is more frequent in Palestinean Ara- 
 maic. !}<''TI "lT»li< go on! make haste! hurry up! quick! lively!' 
 
 "\ , ^"1 , m , ivoe! oh! alas! 
 
 iX'i ^s'^ . m frl, the camel-driver's call. U^n £<n, ^H "liTi, " '^T] , 
 (V. L. Pes. 1126), ^5^n (Col. MS., ibid.) the ox-driver's cries. 
 S" S7 . riT mT , J}<TT (V. L. ibid.) a cry to frighten away a lion. 
 
 !!<"=^ri . are given in Pes. 112 6 (c/. VL.) as sailor's cries.^ Cf. 
 Syr. c^^ cii*5i . 
 
 ~"C "'13 an onomatopoetic word imitating the dripping of 
 water. 
 
 ■""5 rery well! all right! The word is connected with 
 Ethiopic lahaia to be beautiful. Cf. Jastrow, s. v. 
 
 o'"p "JJ'^p , 1IJ''3 IC"'3 , ding-dong; an onomatopoetic word. 
 
 ~^ri Tj^Fi an imitation of bubbling water. 
 
 ^186. i<" i<'n / JJ^n JJ^n , H7 !!<7 , and their variants are evidently 
 demonstrative pronouns, and their use as a means of urging on 
 animals and warding off wild beasts is probably based on some 
 superstitious notion no more apparent. Cf, however, Arabic 
 
 1 For the oxiilanation of this particle I am indebted to Professor Haupt, who remarks : 
 "The "^iJ in 1p''PtD "^X is perhaps a cohortativo particle, cf. Assyr. I, e.g.,\ gl "'XS "^N 
 come out, i rid "II "^X j/o down, etc. Cf. Dolitzsch, Assyr. Wb., p. 2S&, No. 160; Prol., 135; 
 ZK.. II., 389; ZA., I., .")1 : Assyr. Gramm., SH-'j- It is possible that the "'it in expressions 
 like i^l ■'S O Rahbi, Qbiy^TD niilTC "'X . is the same particle. It is certainly not i, eia. 
 It may be connected with the Arabic vocative particle L? • Also in Assyrian I is used as a 
 vocative particle like "^^l ''S? . p-O-. 1 boll; cf. Hilprocht, Assyrinca,\9>9\, p. .")2." From 
 Saadya's commentary on the HT^S^ (ed. Lamlwrt, p. 4.j) we see that at his time the 
 .Vrabic form J?"^ was in use, just as in modern Syriac. For its use in later Hebrew, cf. 
 DerenboiirK. Manru-l du Lccteur, i). 189 (497) and Epstein, 'EldCid ha-D&nX, p. .58, cf. also 
 l-^X en a Babylonian mapic bowl, PSIiA. XII., 311. 
 
 ■'K'^TI occurs also in Noo-Syriac, Arabic and Kurdish (Lidzbarski, DLZ., 1896, Col 
 583) ami has nothing to ilo witli X"^!! '" ''i'*". 
 
 3 Perles, MM'GJ. XXXVII., 10, finds in some of these words the names of ships. 
 
 ' n-X^ , M. v., 328.
 
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