Ml ifornia onal Lity V JOHff PRICE.SATJ MOTHER'S MANUAL AND INFANT 1NSTRUCTER; DESIGNED FOR INFANT OR PRIMARY SCHOOLS, AND FAMILIES. ILLUSTRATED WITH ABOUT 300 CUTS, ALL OF WHICH ARE CORRECTLY EXPLAINED IN THE ALPHABET OP NATURE, AND ADAPTED TO A REGULAR COURSE OF INFANT INSTRUCTION. BY M. M. CARLL. SECOND EDITION, IMPROVED AND ENLARGED. PHILADELPHIA: THOMAS T. ASH No. 148, CHESTNUT STREET. NEW- YORK COLLINS & HANNAY. BOSTON-CARTER, HENDEE, &. Co. 1833. ADVERTISEMENT. The first edition of the Mother's Manual having been entirely sold in a few months, the author has pre- pared a second, much enlarged and improved; in which the ideas suggested in the first have been car- ried out and simplified. The cuts have been fully illus- trated and explained ; so that parent, teacher, or child, may easily follow the course laid down, to any extent. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year eighteen hundred and thirty-three, by M. M. Carll, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. STEREOTYPED BY J. HOWE. PREFACE. In the following pages, an attempt has been made to arrange a series of exercises, founded upon the primary principles, constituent of the mind. Among these principles, the sensitive faculty has been regarded as fundamental, and as the instrument by which the other faculties are successively formed. The principle of curiosity, imitation, the influence of first impressions, and the power of habit, have also been regarded as important mediums in intellectual development, and in the ultimate formation of human character. In this work we have regarded it as an established truth, that the development of the mental faculties, like those of the physical powers, is the result of exercise; that successive order is to be observed in the gradual unfolding of these faculties, and that each requires appropriate exercises adapted to its nature. The moral and the intellectual powers, sensation, memory, attention, thought, understanding, discrimination, judgment, and reason, each re- quires a process of its own. In order, however, to render this, or any other system, effectual, there is one principle that must never be lost sight of by parents or instructors, a principle, which from its comprehensive nature, and the important consequences flowing from it, ought to form the first lesson, and first habit, ought to constitute the vital spirit of every future relation in life, pervade the whole character, and form the very atmosphere of the nursery and school-room : I mean Obedience. Obedience stands in the same relation to the moral virtues, that the sensitive faculty does to the intellectual powers ; with children it is the substitute for knowledge and experience. The child who is obedient avails himself of the judgment of his seniors, and will understand and practise the duties of his various relations, the filial, the fraternal, the social and religious ; since from habitual obedience to parents and instructors, the transition to obedience to civil, moral and divine laws, is easy and natural. With all thy teaching there- fore, teach thy child Obedience. 4 PREFACE. Of all ideas or conceptions of which the human mind is suscepti- ble, that of the Supreme is the most exalted and sublime. The name of God is holy, as well as the names expressive of his attri- butes ; it ought not, therefore, to be rendered common, or repeated in a thoughtless manner, lest it should be introduced into the minds of children among light and trifling things, which soon cease to excite thought or emotion. The occasions for presenting this great idea, should be selected with the utmost care, at a time when their attention has been particularly awakened by some special subject, the exhibition of some manifest instance of power or fitness in the works of God, or when their affections have been softened by some instance of mutual love and kindness. Seize this moment, the impression will remain, and instruction will be sealed. Note. This System of the Infant's Instructor was prepared at the invitation of the Controllers of the Public Schools of Phila- delphia ; and, being approved, received a premium of one hundred dollars, and is now used by them. THEORY. EXPLANATION OF THE PLAN. I am encouraged to offer the following Theory to the Board of Control, (see note, page 4,) as one embracing principles on which a detailed system may be founded. It is respectfully offered to their consideration, and acceptance if approved, as the result of considerable reflection and experience. I will first briefly state the leading principles., which must, I conceive, form the basis of any plan that can entitle it to the rank of a System of Education. Inasmuch as such a system must involve a series of exer- cises intended to operate upon mind, some knowledge at least, of the mental structure, or of that portion of our nature upon which it is called to operate, ought to be possessed. We must, therefore, call to our aid, those lights, which Intellectual Philosophy has shed upon this intricate subject, as well as the observations we have been enabled to make upon the opera- tions of our own minds. The result of this inquiry will be the establishment of the following principles : 1. That man is a Religious, Moral, Intellectual and Physical being ; and that exercise and culture, adapted to each of these attributes of his nature, are necessary for its growth and development. 2. That the Intellect is not homogeneous, but consists of a variety of faculties, and powers, original and acquired, some of less and some of greater dignity, but each essential to the well-being and perfection of the whole. 3. That the arrangement of these faculties ought to be understood by those engaged in mental discipline, in order to know where to begin, and how to progress in calling them into proper exercise. 4. That the order of development will necessarily "be simul- taneous, as well as progressive, or in other words, the A 2 6 THE mother's manual. exercise of one faculty, will influence others, as the vibration of one chord, will cause others to vibrate also; still a series of exercises bearing upon any one faculty in particular, is not only practicable but may be done with facility. 5. The adaptation of exercise, to the development of a par- ticular principle of the mind, is a discovery, and next to the methods of induction and analysis should be re- garded as a decided improvement in scholastic discipline. 6. That these faculties of the understanding, are Sensation, Perception, Conception, Imagination, Fancy, Memory, Abstraction, Discrimination, Reflection, Judgment, Reason. 7. That these faculties may be arranged under three general heads, namely, the Perceptive, Expressive, and Reflec- tive; the first relating to physical objects, which ad- dress the senses ; the second to Communication, whether by countenance, gesture, oral expression, or artificial signs, and the last to abstraction or Metaphysics, the Mathematical Sciences, Theology, &c. 8. That a series of lessons, affording the requisite exercise to the perceptive, expressive and reflective powers of the mind, to the religious and moral affections of the heart, and the physical energies of the body, is the grand desideratum, and forms the object and aim of those who feel and see the vast and incalculable import- ance of Education. 9. Since these are the God-like faculties with which man is endowed, and the seeds or first rudiments all exist in the infant mind, it follows that children should be treated by their teachers accordingly, and governed like rational beings ; that such motives to exertion, as are in accord- ance with this his mental character and immortal des- tiny should be presented ; voluntary, active, ennobling motives, tending to call forth the better sentiments and powers of his nature, should be substituted for corporal punishment, fear and restraint; and that punishment should not be resorted to, but when affection and reason fail of their desired effect ; in short, punishment should EXPLANATION OF THE PLAN. 7 form the exception and not the rule in scholastic govern- ment. 10. That it is essential to full and complete success, in form- ing the mind, that we should know the starting point, know where and how to begin, that we may commence neither at the end, nor yet in the middle, but at the beginning. 11. That commencing with books, letters, or artificial signs, is -a great mistake, contrary to nature, and renders that discipline, which, if nature and reason were consulted, would be a most pleasing and delightful recreation, one of the most irksome and disgusting both to teacher and pupil. 12. That artificial signs or letters, are a fourth or fifth remove from the punctum saliens, the starting point ; inasmuch as they are the representatives of sounds, forming syl- lables, these forming tvords, these in their turn repre- senting ideas, and these ideas representing things. The order pointed out by nature is, that we should begin with things, from these proceed to their mental images or ideas, thence to their names embodied in oral sounds, thence to written words, and thence to the arti- ficial signs or letters, with which words are composed. 13. That the alphabet of Nature, written in golden letters in the heavens, and on the earth in her three great king- doms, the animal, vegetable, and mineral, wrought in mystic characters, in every flower, inscribed on every tree ; that this is the alphabet, which the God of nature presents to each appropriate sense, which is destined to convey a lasting image to the mind. 14. That every object and quality in nature, has its appro- priate correspondent in the mind, as well as its appro- priate sense, to serve as a medium of communication, and to produce the intended effect on the organic forms of the brain. 15. That in like manner love, benevolence, order, harmony, beauty, sublimity, have their proper correspondents in the intellectual and moral constitution of man. 8 THE MOTHER'S MANUAL. 16. That thought can in no wise exist without affection; since a being destitute of the affections of the will, or of desires of some kind, either moral, intellectual, or sensual, could neither think nor act. It being this affec- tion that forms the inward spring of effort or action, and which sets the thoughts in motion. 17. Each affection, whether good or bad, acts upon its appropriate class of ideas or thoughts, and suggests the means necessary for the accomplishment of the will or desire. 18. Each sense conveys its own class of ideas, and is fur- nished with its proper excitement in the objects of nature, their qualities and properties. The eye finds its proper stimulus in light, color, form, magnitude, dis- tance ; the ear, in every variety and mode of sound ; the sense of smell in odors ; the taste in favors ; and the touch, which is an universal sense, in temperature, hardness, softness, roughness, smoothness, &c. 19. Commencing with the alphabet of nature, the faculty with which we must begin our operations is manifestly sensation ; it is here the foundation must be laid, broad and deep, on which that superstructure is to be reared, whose stability, elevation and symmetrical proportions will depend upon the care and pains bestowed upon cherishing Infantile Affections, and upon the accuracy of First Impressions. 20. That there are two modes of receiving first impressions, viz., from books or from words, which are the signs of ideas, which ideas are the images of things ; and from observing the things themselves. In the former mode words are learned instead of things ; in the latter, the things themselves ; and the comparative permanency and accuracy of the impressions received in these re- spective modes, is similar to the correctness and vivid- ness of our ideas of a geographical description derived from reading, and from actual survey and observation. 21. There can be no hesitation in forming a decision with respect to these two modes of receiving first impres- sions ; in the one case, the child who begins with arti- EXPLANATION OF THE PLAN. 9 ficial signs, will have his mind comparatively void of ideas, and consequently destitute of the materials of thought, whilst a child instructed after the other method, will have his mind stored with images and forms of things : the one will be stupid and inactive, the other intelligent and lively ; the one unobservant and incuri- ous, the other habitually curious, and attentive to the things around him ; the one will be passive in the hands of his instructor, and dull of apprehension, because there are no correspondent images in his mind to respond to the words which he sees or hears pro- nounced; the other possessing the echo in his mind, has a spring of voluntary activity within, which excites his affections, and puts the whole machinery of his mind in motion. / 22. That it is of vast importance to take advantage of the curiosity, activity and sprightliness of children, and whilst every object presents itself to their notice, in all the freshness and interest of novelty, to seize this happy moment for turning their attention to the forms, exter- nal qualities and uses of' the various objects around them ; since the habit of observation, if once thoroughly formed, will inevitably insure their future progress in knowledge, and the business of education will be half completed. Nature's ample volume is now spread be- fore them, and every page affords the materials of re- flection. 23. This habit of taking notice of things, will render expen- sive cabinets, at least in this stage of our pupil's ad- vancement, unnecessary ; for the judicious teacher will find in his immediate neighborhood, these materials for first impressions, a grain of sand, a stone, a leaf, a flower, a bird, nay, the feather of a bird will form an interesting subject to the curious mind, accustomed to observe and reflect. 24. The next class of faculties to be brought into exercise are the expressive, or such as relate to communication in all its forms, whether by the countenance, by oral sounds, or artificial characters. Besides the physical. 10 THE MOTHER'S MANUAL. powers, which are now to be brought into exercise, there are the mental ones of Memory, Understanding, Discrimination, and Judgment, and all these would find their appropriate discipline, in a graceful action and elocution, the study of languages, rhetoric, logic and composition. 25. The highest class of faculties are those which we have called reflective, and which may be regarded as a com- bination of all the rest, controlled and directed by a chastened imagination, correct judgment, sound reason, and a pure religion; equally removed from bold pre- sumption on the one hand, and a blind superstition on the other. 26. It has been said, that " Whate'er is best administered, is best ;" this remark is partially, if not wholly true, and applies in a peculiar manner to the art of imparting instruction. In this, so much depends upon the tact of the teacher, his power of exciting curiosity, and of keeping attention awake, his facility of communicating knowledge, and of accommodating himself to the appre- hension of young persons, by ready and familiar illus- tration, that where these qualities are wanting, no theory or system, however excellent in itself, can supply the deficiency. 27. As it will be necessary to avail ourselves of the love of novelty and the curiosity so common to the state of childhood, in order to induce a habit of observation, which will naturally lead to attention to the forms and qualities of things ; and as this habit is to be kept alive, and carried through all his future progress in science, it will be found extremely important to adopt the proper means of fixing this habit, before others usurp its place. 28. Hence it would appear that a System of Instruction, adapted to Infant or Primary Schools, with a view of forming this habit, and of storing the mind with the images of things, is that which is at present chiefly called for. 29. That children of a tender age, may be rendered compara- tively intelligent, previous to their commencing the EXPLANATION OF THE PLAN. 11 study of artificial signs, has been demonstrated in our Infant Schools, and is no longer a matter of theory or speculation, but of absolute certainty. 30. There are many excellent treatises extant, upon the vari- ous branches of science, usually taught in our schools and colleges; but. what is chiefly wanted, is 1. a Sys- tem adapted to the Infant Mind, prior, as well as subse- quent to the study of artificial signs; 2. exercises adapted to the development of the mental faculties in their order ; and 3. a better method of teaching ; a method which will substitute things for mere words, observation and attention, for indefinite verbal descrip- tion ; Understanding for Rote and Memory, rational Analysis and Induction, for mechanical routine* 31. It is evident, that before we can have a correct theory or system of Education, the constituent principles of the mind must be clearly ascertained, their arrangement from the lowest to the highest, their order and the best means of their development : this will naturally lead to a system embracing a series of lessons or exercises adapted to the culture of each particular faculty, in its relation to the whole Mind, until the Heart, the Head and Hands, shall each receive its due share of culture, and man be elevated to that dignity to which his won- derful powers of mind and body entitle him. Such a Manual of Infantile Instruction as is here contem- plated, might, with great advantage, form a part of Female education, with reference to their future maternal relation ; and thus every female so disposed would have it in her power to unite in her own person the character, offices, and duties of Parent and Preceptor, and, like a guardian angel, minister to the mind, as well as the body of her offspring. 12 THE MOTHER'S MANUAL. OUTLINE OF A SYSTEM. Inasmuch as the successful progress of the pupil will mainly depend upon the proper exercise of the sensitive facul- ty, and the accuracy of first impressions, it will be necessary, at present, to confine ourselves to this. The outline of a system, embracing the foregoing princi- ples, as applicable to the development, and proper exercise of sensation and perception, as preparatory to the higher facul- ties of reflection, understanding and reason, will now be attempted. To enter into detail, and trace out all the principles in their particular relations, will be the object of the Manual hereafter to be submitted ; the design, at present, being merely to de- monstrate the practicability of so framing a series of lessons or exercises, as that they shall have a direct bearing upon some particular mental faculty, and of course an indirect influence upon the others. We will now take a child of two years. It is evident that there must be a subject to operate upon, and means or instru- ments to operate with. What are they ? First in the subject or mind of the child we have affections, desires, inclinations, passions ; we have further the principle of imitation, curiosity, activity ; we have the powers of perception, attention, obser- vation, discrimination, utterance ; together with the senses, through which the images or impressions of things are trans- mitted to the mind. The instruments with which we are to operate, are first, affection and kindly feeling, which are manifested in look, manner and tone of voice, which the child always recognizes ; and second, the objects in the world of nature, together with their qualities, which address the senses, exciting observation and reflection, and by their endless combinations, affording the means of mental discipline. It would appear that one of the first things requiring atten- tion, is the first impressions, that they be distinct and accu- rate ; the second, that the habit of observation be formed as OUTLINES OF A SYSTEM. 13 early as possible ; and this, the curiosity so natural to chil- dren renders easy, if nature is not counteracted by artificial and injudicious methods. After those impressions or sensations caused by maternal care and endearment, arise most probably, those which are produced by the artificial objects with which he is surrounded, such as the articles in his chamber, or in the room in which he is accustomed to play. He'soon becomes acquainted with their forms, and external qualities, and learns to distinguish them, long before he can pronounce their names. The reason is manifest ; he has been accustomed to see, and handle them, and the class of ideas, which these two senses convey to his mind, have become familiar. FIRST, OF FORMS. Simple forms will first be presented to his notice, which are furnished with endless variety, in the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdom. Forms of beasts, birds, fishes, reptiles and insects, will be sure to engage his attention and excite curiosity, if introduced to his notice in a proper manner. These may be presented, (when the living animal cannot be seen,) on cards, taking due care that they be accurately drawn and neatly colored, with the name printed underneath. Cards containing trees, fruit trees, forest trees, flowers, roots, leaves, &c, with form and coloring after the same man- ner; or the flowers themselves when they can be obtained. Shells and minerals may be obtained, especially the latter, without much difficulty, and arranged according to their four grand divisions, of earthy, saline, inflammable, and metallic. After these objects shall have become familiar to the little pupil, let him next proceed to notice the DIFFERENT PARTS. In the animal kingdom, those parts, more especially, on which the classification is afterwards to turn; such as the structure and situation of the teeth and claws, color, and other more striking external characters: this exercise will neces- B 14 THE MOTHER'S MANUAL. sarily require closer observation of the forms of things, and lead to the next act of the mind, which is COMPARISON. In making comparisons, we first notice differences and next analogies or similitudes. This will give rise to a new and most useful series of lessons, and by comparing the subjects of different kingdoms, classes, orders, genera and species, bring into exercise the all-important faculties of attention and discrimination ; which by degrees will ripen into judgment. EXTERNAL QUALITIES. These will come next to be considered, and will introduce a new class of ideas, and will require a new class of words to express them. This will embrace another series of interesting lessons, which may be extended to all things animate and in- animate, solids and fluids, and, in short, every object which nature presents. A consideration of qualities, will bring into exercise the faculties of attention, discrimination, and the perceptive faculty in general, since the different qualities of things, such as color, sound, odor, flavor, &c, address all the senses in turn, and bring them into use and operation. These qualities of things will naturally lead to The relation of uses is a subject full of interest, and will afford an opportunity for a very important series of lessons, and will introduce many new ideas, arising out of the pro- ductions of nature and their application in various arts and manufactures. RELATIONS will form another series of lessons not less interesting, espe- cially that of fitness and adaptation, as the covering and structure of birds, in relation to their element the air ; of the covering and conformation of fishes to their element ; of quadrupeds to theirs, &c. The infinite variety of those rela- tions arising out of cause and effect; of means to an end; OUTLINES OF A SYSTEM. 15 and of the harmonies of things in general ; especially that beautiful harmony subsisting between THE SENSES, and their appropriate objects, as found in the forms and qual- ities of things. This will afford a variety of interesting les- sons : nay, each sense, and each external quality will afford exercises well calculated to elicit thought and form the habit of observation. _ The relation, for example, between the organ of vision and light, the known properties of which, such as refraction, re- flexion, &c, may, by a few familiar illustrations and experi- ments, be brought down to his apprehension. Color, figure, magnitude, will furnish subjects of deep interest, and lay the foundation of the beautiful science of optics, and of geome- trical figures. The sense of hearing too, in its relation to sound, will be no less attractive, and will naturally lead to the subject of music, and the science of acoustics generally. The same may be said of the remaining senses. In short, the subject of relations is inexhaustible, and will apply to every created thing, both in general and in particular. Thus after due exercise upon individual forms, qualities and uses, we from simple ideas proceed to those a little more complex, by introducing to the notice of our little pupil, easy and simple combinations, with a view of introducing TRAINS OF THOUGHT, which will arise from, and be naturally connected with some prominent object : as for example, what are the means of de~ fence possessed by different animals 1 Here means of defence is the prominent idea, and will naturally suggest a train of thought such as this ; some animals have horns, as the ox, cow, deer, sheep, &c. ; some have teeth and claws, as the cat, lion, tiger. Again, what are the different parts of vege- tables used by man ? Of some we use the root, as the potato^ turnip, beet ; some the sap, as the sugar-cane ; of some the bark, as cinnamon ; of some the seed, fruit, leaves, &c. 16 THE MOTHER'S MANUAL. After passing through a course of similar lessons, he might then pass on to ASSOCIATION OP IDEAS, in which not merely simple trains of thought, but collateral and relative ideas, which naturally suggest themselves, might be introduced, all arising of course out of his previous stock of materials collected from the objects of sense. The various particular objects which have been exhibited to his notice heretofore promiscuously and without arrange- ment, may now be made use of to accomplish one of the most important purposes, viz : that of introducing ORDER into the mind. This noble use will be effected by arrange- ment or classification. Here the aid of science will be called in, to assist the teacher in reducing the chaotic mass to beauty and order. The kingdoms of nature will obey this law, and all things in her three grand departments will arrange them- selves each under its proper class, order, genera and species / and the mind, accustomed to survey this beautiful harmony, will in due time become herself harmonious. The perceptive faculty, having been duly exercised, curi- osity awakened, the habit of observation formed, and a con- siderable stock of images stored up, our little pupil will be prepared to commence the study of artificial signs, or the simple elements of written language. Now the benefit of his previous discipline will be very apparent ; instead of being entirely devoid of ideas, his mind will have been stored With mental images, accurately impressed and well arranged ; and the inestimable habit of attention and observation secured. Instead of learning sounds which are strange to his ear, and which convey no image to his mind, every word that is the sign of a sensible object, or of a sensible quality, will be understood. His mind, instead of being merely passive, will become active with voluntary energy. Having overcome the chief obstacles, he will now have a single object in view ; and this his acquired habits will soon enable him to achieve. OUTLINES OF A SYSTEM. 17 Thus he will pass on, by a just method of observation, synthesis and analysis, to the more exalted branches of science, and to the development of the higher powers of his mind ; rising through all the gradations of perception, expres- sion and reflection, with their proper faculties and powers, he will become not only a thinking, but a moral and religious being, prepared to enter upon another state of nobler activities and uses in the world of Causes. BEAR. Third Order. GOAT.-Sixth Order. GENERAL PREPARATORY REMARKS, AND DIRECTIONS FOR THE TEACHER. All natural objects are divided into three grand departments, called kingdoms; viz. the animal, vegetable and mineral. These kingdoms are again subdivided into classes, orders, genera, and species. ANIMAL KINGDOM. The following classification is founded upon the recent observations and discoveries of the great French Philosopher Cuifier. He divides the animal kingdom into two great divi- sions^ 1. Vertebral; such as man, quadrupeds, birds, fishes, &c, having a back-bone, skeleton, and red blood : and 2. Invertebral; such as worms, insects, shell-fish, &c, having no skeleton, and white blood. The first of these divisions are also called warm-blooded ; the last, cold-blooded. The warm-blooded animals are divided into two classes. A part of them produce their young alive, nourish them with their own milk, from organs called their mammae or breasts ; and hence called mammalia or mam- miferous animals. This class includes man, quadrupeds, whales, porpoises, &c. Another produces their young by means of eggs ; this class includes birds. The cold-blooded vertebral animals also form two classes. The first contains those which breathe air only, and cannot exist without it, as tortoises, frogs, serpents, &c These are called reptiles. The second contains those which breathe by gills or branchise, through the medium of water. This class includes all true fishes. The invertebral animals are divided into five classes, a3 follows: 1. Insects. 2. Crustacea; as the lobster, crab, and ALPHABET OF NATURE. 1 craw-fish. 3. Mollusca ; as the oyster, the snail, clam, cut- tle-fish. 4. Vermes, or worms ; as the earth-worm or leech. 5. Zoophytes ; as the star-fish, the sea-urchin, the sea-ane- mone, the sun-fish, the polypus, the sponges, and the animal- cules. The animal kingdom is arranged into two grand divisions, and nine distinct classes, as follows : ]. VERTEBRAL ANIMALS. 1. Mammalia, ) nr ,, , , o i>- j } Warm-blooded. 2. Birds, ^ 8. Reptiles, j Cold . blooded . 4. rishes, ^ 2. INVERTEBRAL ANIMALS 5. Insects. 6. Crustacea. 7. Mollusca. 8. Vermes, or worms. 9. Zoophytes. The smaller divisions are, classes, orders, genera, and species. The Classes are distinguished by some remarkable pecu- liarities of structure, which are common to all the animals included under each of them. Thus in the class mammalia, the order quadrumana includes those animals which have hands upon all four of their extremities ,- such as monkeys and apes : the order ruminantia, those which ruminate or chew the cud: the order carnivora, those adapted to feed principally on animal food. Orders are subdivided into Genera. These comprise animals which have a general external resemblance, a kind of family likeness. Thus the genus felis includes all those of the cat kind ; and these animals, although differing one from another very much in size and color, have yet a close resem- blance in their general form, figure, character, and habits of life. The genus canis includes those of the dog kind; the wolf, the fox, the jackal, and the domestic dog. Thus, too, 20 THE mother's manual. the horse, the ass, and the zebra, are of the same genus equus, on account of their obvious general similarity. Again : Genera are made up of Species. Each distinct sort of animal constitutes a species ; and they are distinguished from each other, by their size, color, form, and various other circumstances of external appearance. There are as many species, as there are sorts of animals. Thus the cat is one species, the tiger another ; and the lion, leopard, jaguar, and catamount, are also separate species ; but taken together, they constitute the genus felis. Thus, too, the genus canis contains the dog, the wolf, the jackal, and the fox, which are all so many distinct species. The genus sciurus contains the grey, red, striped, and several other kinds of squirrels. In treating of any particular animal, naturalists designate it by a name derived from its genus and species. For example the different species of the genus felis are dis- tinguished as follows : the lion, felis leo ; the tiger, felis tigris ; the leopard, felis leopardus ; the jaguar, felis onca ; the lynx, felis lynx ; the serval, felis serval. In the genus canis, the dog is called canis domesticus ; the wolf, canis lupus ; the fox, canis vulpis ; &c. This is the scientific or systematic name. Each sort of animal constitutes a species ; a number of species forms a genus, or family ; those genera which resem- ble each other form an order ; and those, having more re- mote points of resemblance, are divided into classes. CLASSIFICATION. MAMMALIA. It is principally from regard to the structure of the teeth and claws, and the consequent nature of theirs/bod, that natu- ralists have proceeded in the arrangement of the Mammalia. The orders thus formed, are nine in number, as follows : 1. The Bimana, or two-handed animals. Man is the only example of this order. He has hands upon his superior ex- tremities alone. He has nails of a thin and delicate texture, which give to his thumb and fingers a wonderful delicacy of touch. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 21 2. The Quadrutnana or four-handed animals, comprising apes, monkeys, and baboons. They have hands upon all four of their extremities, but less perfect than those of man. 3. The Carnivora or carnivorous animals. These have no hands, but their feet are furnished with claws. This is a very extensive order, and embraces a great variety of animals. These three orders have all the three kinds of teeth ; which differ, however, in shape and strength, according to the habits and food of the different species. 4. The Rodentia or gnawers ; so called from the structure of their fore-teeth, which are particularly adapted for gnawing. They have no canine teeth, and their claws are similar to those of the carnivora. This order contains rabbits, squir- rels, rats, &c. 5. The Edentata, or toothless animals ; so called because they are deficient always in the incisive teeth, and sometimes have no teeth at all. Their toes are terminated by large and crooked nails, which obstruct both their sensations and motions. The sloth and armadillo are in this order. 6. The Ruminantia or ruminating animals, are those which chew the cud. They are cloven-footed, and have, moreover, no incisive teeth in the upper jaw. Among these are the ox, camel, lama, stag, and antelope. 7. Paehydermata or thick-skinned animals. This order includes a considerable variety of other animals with hoofs, but which do not ruminate ; as the horse, the wild-boar, the hog, the tapir, and the elephant. 8. The Cetacea y or animals of the whale kind, distinguished by having no posterior extremities, and their anterior so con- structed as to answer the purpose of fins. In this order are whales, porpoises, and dolphins. 9. The Marsupialia, which are distinguished from all others by the possession in the female of a bag or pouch (marsupium) on the outside of the abdomen, for the purpose of holding their young after birth. Such are the kangaroo and opossum. 22 the mother's manual. MAMMALIA Specimen of each order. MONKEY.-Second Order. ELEPHANT.-Seventh Order. LION.-Third Order. BEAVER. Fourth order. SHEEP.-Sixth Order. HORSE. Seventh Order. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 23 WHALE. Eighth Order. DOG. Third Order. ARMADILLO. Fifth Order KANGAROO. Ninth Order. ALPHABET OF NATURE. FIRST SERIES. ANIMAL KINGDOM. QUADRUPEDS, OR XUIAIMnXLAXXA. DIRECTION. Present a card, containing a considerable number of quadrupeds promiscuously arranged, to the notice of the child. The first thing requisite is, that he become familiar with their forms, insomuch that he can readily distinguish them by name. At the time any animal is pointed out, let the name be dis- tinctly and correctly pronounced by the teacher, and repeated by the child. The card should contain all the more prominent quadrupeds belonging to the different orders. They should be kept at this exercise a sufficient length of time to render them familiar with the various forms of the animals ; this may be tested by the animals being presented singly on different cards. Section II. After having studied each animal as a whole, let them proceed to the various parts, especially those parts upon which the classification turns. The head, body, limbs, feet, mouth, teeth, tail, claws, hoofs, &c, must all be noticed, not only for the sake of knowing the parts, but also for the sake of the general terms, which express them. In the next place, direct their attention to the color and the covering, whether hair, wool, fur, feathers, scales, &c ALPHABET OF NATURE. 25 The kind of food upon which they live, as grain, grass, fesh, &c. ; that is, whether they are herbiferous, granivo- rous, carnivorous, or omnivorous ; whether gregarious or soli- tary, amphibious or confined to the land or water. As the terms which express these different parts are gene- ral, and apply to all animals, let the child become familiarized with them at once. ELEPHANT. Seventh Order. What animal is this? Ans. An Elephant. Do you see his form and large body ? Ans. Yes. What are its different parts ? Ans. Body, sides, back, head, tusks, trunk or proboscis, eyes, ears, neck, legs, feet, toes, tail. What is the trunk for ? Ans. To pick up his food, which he carries to his mouth. Can he drink with his trunk ? Ans. Yes : he sucks up the water, and then turns it into his mouth. What comes from the Elephant's tusk ? Ans. Ivory. What is his covering? Ans. Hair. What is his food ? Ans. Vegetables. C 26 the mother's manual. Is he gregarious 1 Ans. Yes ; they herd together. What can you say of his teeth 1 Ans. No fore-teeth in either jaw. What of color 1 Ans. Some elephants ae brown, some white. LION. Third Order. CAT. Third Order. What animal is this ? Ans. A Lion. Do you see his form 1 Ans. Yes. What are his different parts 1 Ans. Head, mane, body, sides, back, legs, claws, teeth. What is that at the end of his tail 1 Ans. A tuft. What sort of teeth and claws has the Lion ? Ans. Sharp. What is his food? Ans. Flesh. What are flesh-eating animals called ? Ans. Carnivorous. What is his covering ? Ans. Hair. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 27 BEAVER. Fourth order- GUINEA PIG. Fourth order. What animal is this ? Ans. The beaver. Do you see his form? Ans. Yes. Whijt are the parts? Ans. Head, body, flat tail, short legs, toes, teeth, small ears. Why is the tail flat ? Ans. He uses it for a trowel. What is that? Ans. A flat tool used by bricklayers. He uses it to build his dam. What kind of teeth has he? Ans. Two cutting-teeth in each jaw. Does the Beaver belong to the land or the water ? Ans. Both, and he is called amphibious. What is his covering? Ans. Fur. SHEEP. Sixth Order. COW.-Sixth Order What animal is this ? Ans. A Sheep. What are the different parts ? ill 28 the mother's manual. Ans. Head, mouth, ears, body, tail, legs, feet, eyes. What can you say of his teeth ? Ans. He has no teeth in the upper jaw. What kind of feet has he ? Ans. Hoofs, divided in the middle, or cloven-hoofed. What is his covering? Ans. Wool. Is the sheep innocent 1 Ans. Yes. What is a young sheep called ? Ans. A lamb. What is the flesh called ? Ans. Mutton. What is his food 1 Ans. Grass, turnips, &c. HORSE. Seventh Order. ZEBRA. Seventh Order. What animal is this ? Ans. A Horse. Do you see his form 1 Ans. Yes. What are the different parts ? Ans. Head, body, limbs, tail, hoofs, ears, mouth, teeth, eyes. What sort of teeth has he ? Ans. Blunt fore-teeth in both jaws. What kind of hoofs 1 Ans. Solid hoofs, not divided. What is his food ? Ans. Grass and grain. What kind of tail ? Ans. Long and bushy. What is his covering? Ans. Hair. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 29 WHALE. Eighth Order. What animal is this? Ans. A Whale. Where does it live 1 Ans. In the sea. What are its parts 1 Ans. Head, body, large mouth, eyes, fins, tail, breathing holes. What is the covering of the whale 1 Ans. Skin. What do we get from the whale 1 Ans. Oil, whalebone, and spermaceti. From what part is the whalebone taken ? Ans. It grows from the upper jaw. SLOTH Fitth Order. C2 KANGAROO Ninth Order 30 the mother's manual. SECOND SERIES. AVES, OR BIRDS. PREPARATORY OBSERVATIONS. The second great class of the animal kingdom is that of birds. This class is divided into six orders, viz., accipitres, pica or scansores, anseres, gralla, gallina, passeres. The first order, accipitres, includes birds of prey, distin- guished by strong hooked beaks and claws, such as the Eagle, Vulture, Hawk, Owl, &c. The second order, called pica or scansores, contains all birds of the Crow and Jay kind, Parrot, Woodpecker, Kingfisher. The anseres form the third order; these are web-footed, and include the Swan, Goose and Duck tribes ; Gulls, Pen- guins, &c. The fourth order is that of gralla or leaders, having lengthened legs and long bills, adapted for wading and search- ing the bottoms of pools and shallows. The Heron tribe, Curlew, Plover, Snipe, &c, belong to this order. The fifth order is allied to the Poultry or Domestic Fowl, and includes the Pheasant, Partridge, Turkey, Peacock, &c. The sixth and last order is called passeres, including small birds in general ; as the Pidgeon, Thrush, Lark, Finches, &c. DIRECTION. These cards, like those of quadrupeds, should contain a sufficient number of specimens of each order, accurately drawn and colored from nature. Then let the same plan be pursued in presenting the bird cards, dwelling first upon the forms of each as a whole, and next proceeding to the different parts. The size and form of the bird, the shape and length of its bill, the form of its feet, whether constructed for swimming, walking, or climbing, the length of its legs, wings, &c, must be attended to, and the attention of the child habitually direct- ed to every particular ; as the primary object now is, to form a habit of attention and discrimination, and awaken ctriosity. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 31 Some birds are rapacious, and, like the carnivorous animals, live upon flesh ; many of the smaller tribes feed upon insects, worms, and seeds. Most birds are gregarious and migratory ; some are aqusiic, others live exclusively on land. Many of these distinctions are plainly seen in the conformation of the bill and feet. The teacher will not forget that there is another interesting point of view, in which this beautiful race is to be considered, arising from the different modes of constructing their nests. There are the Miners, such as the Bank- Swallow, the Bee- eater, the Petrel, the Puffin, the Penguin; the Ground- builders the Mason Birds the Carpenter Birds Basket- makers Weavers Taylors, &c. EAGLE. First Order. OWL. -First Order. What bird is this ? Ans. The Eagle. Do you see its form 1 Ans. Yes. What are the different parts ? Ans. Body, icings, bill or beak, thigks, legs, claws or talons, tail, eyes, tongue, neck. What are the upper and lower bill called ? Ans. Upper and lower mandible. What is the shape of the upper mandible ? Ans. Hooked. What are its claws and beak for Ans. For tearing the flesh of its prey. What is its covering 1 Ans. Feathers. r 32 THE MOTHER S MANUAL. PARROT. Second Order. WOODPECKER. Second Order. What bird is this ? Ans. The Parrot. What are its different parts 1 Ans. Body, breast, icings, head, eyes, beak, legs, feet. What is its color ? Ans. Green. What shape is the upper mandible 1 Ans. Hooked. What sort of feet has it ? Ans. For perching, two toes before, and two behind. What can the parrot be taught to do ? Ans. To imitate the human voice. SWAN. Third Order. DUCK. Third Order. What bird is this? Ans. A Swan. What are its different parts 1 ALPHABET OP NATURE. 33 Ans. Body, long neck, head, bill, legs, feet, wings, eyes. Does it belong to the land or the water 1 Ans. It is a water-fowl. What kind of feet has it 1 Ans. Webbed feet; that is, its toes are joined by a thin skin for swimming. What is its color 1 Ans. White. See! Jiow gracefully it sits upon the water, and swims with its feet ! CRANE. Fourth Order. PEACOCK. Fifth Order. PARTRIDGE. Fifth Order. What bird is this 1 Ans. The Peacock. Do you see its beautiful form and plumage ? 3 Ans. Yes. 34 THE MOTHERS MANUAL. What does plumage mean ? Ans. The covering of birds, or feathers. What are its different parts 1 Ans. Body, tail, head, legs, feet, top-knot, or crest, back, breast Does it live in the water 1 Ans. No ; it is not a water-fowl. What kind of feet has it? Ans. Its feet are formed for walking on the ground. What spots are those on its tail ? Ans. They look like stars. What is its food ? Ans. Grain, insects, &c, for which its bill is fitted. THRUSH. Sixth Order. LARK. Sixth Order. THIRD SERIES. FISHES. GENERAL PREPARATORY INFORMATION. The third great class of the animal kingdom is that em- bracing the Pices or Fishes, the study of which is called Ichthyology. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 35 Of Fishes there are five orders, which are distinguished from each other by the number and situation of their fins." The fins of Fishes furnish a hint for dividing them into orders, as do the teeth and claws of quadrupeds, and the beaks and talons of birds. The fins are thus named ; pec- toral, behind the gills ; ventral, beneath the body ; dorsal, or back fin : caudal, or tail fin ; anal fin, that under the body, near the tail. The five orders are named as follows : apodes, jugulares, thoracivi, abdominales and cartilaginous. The apodes, which constitute the first order, are so called, because destitute of fins, as the Eel. The second order has the ventral fin forward under the throat, and hence called jugulares. The third order consists of such fishes as have the ventral fin beneath the breast fin, and are hence called thoracici. The fourth order have the ventral fin behind the pectoral, and beneath the abdomen, and are hence called abdominales. The fifth order, from the circumstance of having cartilage instead of bones, are called cartilaginous fishes. DIRECTION. Let the children have their attention directed to these ob- jects, until they can readily distinguish them from each other, and name them. In noting the different parts, let the number, situation and names of the fins be pointed out, and the reason ofiheir re- ceiving their names. The card should contain a sufficient number of each order, to answer the desired end of fixing the distinctions in their minds, and accurately drawn, that the first impressions may be correct. Their shape, adapted for gliding through the water, their covering, intended to prevent the water from penetrating their bodies, their instruments of motion, and different modes of breathing, are interesting circumstances which must be dwelt upon and explained on proper occasions. X 36 THE MOTHER'S MANUAL, 3 Names of fins 1 pectoral, 2 ventral, 3 dorsal, 4 caudal, 5 anal, MACKEREL. What fish is this ? Ans. Mackerel. What is its form ? Ans. Tapering and compressed. What are the parts? Ans. Body, head, mouth, gills, fins, tail, abdomen, scales. What are the fins behind the gills called 1 Ans. Pectoral. What are those under the body ? Ans. Ventral. What are those on the back ? Ans. Dorsal. What is the tail fin ? Ans. Caudal. What those under the body ? Ans, Anal. What are the fins for ? Ans. To swim with. EEL. What is this ? Ans. An Eel. Do you see its shape? Ans. Yes. What is it? Ans. Long and slender. What are its different parts ? Ans. Head, mouth, teeth, eyes, body, fringe under tlie tail, skin. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 37 Has the eel no fins ? Ans. No ; only two little paddles behind its head. Is it covered with scales ? Ans. No ; its body is covered with a slimy skin. Why are fish covered with scales and skin 1 Ans. To keep the water from penetrating their bodies. SALMON. What fish is this 1 Ans. Salmon. What is its form ? Ans. Tapering and compressed. What are its parts ? Ans. Body, head, fins, tail, &c. Can you name the fins 1 Ans. Yes ; pectoral, dorsal, ventral, caudal, anal. What is its covering ? Ans. Scales. What are its instruments of motion ? Ans. Fins and tail. What is the. salmon good for ? Ans. It makes an excellent dish. STURGEON. What fish is this ? Ans. Sturgeon. What are its parts ? Ans. Body, head, fins, tail. What is its form ? Ans. Long and tapering. How are its fins situated ? Ans. Near the tail D 38 the mother's manual. What does its back look like ? Ans. Like a row of little knobs. Did you ever see a sturgeon's nose ? Ans. Yes; I have seen it bounce like a ball. FLYING FISH. FOURTH SERIES. REPTILES. PREPARATORY INFORMATION. This class is divided into four orders, viz 01 Chelonia or Tortoises 2. Sauria or Lizards 3. Ophidia or Serpents, and 4. Batrachia, embracing the Toad, Frog, Salaman- der, &c. Reptiles are cold-blooded, and the circulation less perfect than the preceding. They pass the winter in a dormant state, and propagate by means of eggs, except a few of the serpents. They possess less intelligence, fewer faculties, and less in- stinct, than quadrupeds or birds. DIRECTION. Let the card containing reptiles be exhibited, and the children exercised upon it in the same manner as on the pre- vious ones, until they can distinguish them readily. Let them be regarded first as a whole, and then the parts, and let the names designating these parts be made familiar. ALPHABET OP NATURE. 39 TERRAPIN. -First Order. What is this 1 Ans. A Terrapin. Do you see its form 1 Ans. Yes. What are its different parts ? Ans. Body covered witJi shell, head, mouth, eyes, legs, feet, claws, tail Do you see the figures on its shell 1 Ans. Yes. What are they like ? Ans. Like carved work. Where does it live ? Ans. Both on the land and in the water : it can walk and swim : it lays eggs in the sand. Is it good for food ? Ans. Yes. SEA TURTLE. First Order. What is this 1 Ans. A Sea Turtle. What is its form 1 Ans. Its shape is different from the terrapin, and it has fins instead of feet. r 40 THE MOTHER'S MANUAL. What are its parts ? Ans. Large head, body, fins or paddles, shell, a mouth something like a parrot's, eyes, &c. Is the shell useful 1 Ans. Yes, for combs ; and its flesh is very good. How is it eaten 1 Ans. Soup is made of it. SEA TURTLE. First Order. ALLIGATOR Second Order. RATTLESNAKE. Third Order. FROG. Fourth Order. LIZARD. Second Order. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 41 FIFTH SERIES. INSECTS. GENERAL PREPARATORY INFORMATION. This interesting class of animated beings is called Insecta, and the study of them is called Entomology. They are divided into seven orders, which distinctions turn upon the texture of their wings. These orders are named as follows : coleoptera, hemiptera, lepidoptera, neuroptera, hymenoptera, diptera, and aptera. The order coleoptera contains all insects of the Beetle tribe, or such as have strong horny sheaths or covers to their wings. The order hemiptera, or half-winged, includes Locusts, Grasshoppers, Lantern-flies, &c. They are so named, be- cause the upper part of the wing sheath, in this tribe, is of a leathery texture, and the lower part membraneous. The third order, or lepidoptera, is so named from the fine down or powder on their wings, having the appearance of minute scales. Butterflies, Moths, &c. belong to this order. Neuroptera or nerve-winged constitute the fourth order ; their wings have a reticulated appearance. The insects be- longing to this order have four wings, as the Dragon-fly. The fifth order is called hymenoptera ; the insects of this order have four wings, and are furnished with a sting, or a proboscis resembling one. Bees, Wasps, &c. are of this order. Those insects possessing two wings, are called diptera from that circumstance, and include Flies, Gnats, &c. which be- long to the sixth order. The seventh and last order is named aptera, because desti- tute of wings. Spiders, Scorpions, Fleas, Mites, Lobsters, Crabs, &c. belong to this order. D 2 42 THE MOTHER S MANUAL. DIRECTION. Let the insect cards be furnished with a sufficient number of specimens of each order. The children must be made familiar with their forms and names, so as to distinguish them readily, by the same means as heretofore. In attending to the minuter parts, the number and texture of the wings, and situation of the sting, whether in the head or tail, must be particularly noticed. BEETLE. First Order. FLY. Sixth Order. LOBSTER. Seventh Order DRAGON FLY.-Fourth Order. BEE. Fifth Order. BUTTERFLY.-Third Order. SCORPION.-Seven.th Order. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 43 BEETLE. First Order. FLY. Sixth Order. What is this ? Ans. A Beetle. Do you observe its form ? Ans. Yes. What are its parts 1 Ans. Body, head, wings, legs, joints, palpi (or feelers,) claws. How many legs has it 1 Ans. Six. How many joints to each leg 1 Ans. Three. What does it feed upon 1 Ans. The leaves of plants. Has the Beetle covers to his wings ? Ans. Yes ; and belongs to the order Coleoptera. BEE. Fifth Order. DRAGON FLY.-Fourth Order. What insect is this ? Ans. A Bee. Do you see its form 1 Ans. Yes. What are its different parts 1 Ans. Body, rings, head, palpi, wings, legs, sting, eyes. 14 THE MOTHER'S MANUAL. What is the form of its body 1 Ans. Oval. Is the sting in the head or tail ? Ans. In the tail. What number of legs has the bee 1 Ans. Six. Where do they live 1 Ans. In hives. What do they store up 1 Ans. Wax and honey. Where do they put the honey ? Ans. In little cells of wax. CRAB. Seventh Order. SCORPION. Seventh Order. What is this 1 Ans. A Crab. Look at its form. What are its parts 1 Ans. Body, pincers or claws, legs, paddles, mouth, eyes. What is its form 1 Ans. Swelled in the middle, and at each end tapering to a sharp point. What are its pincers for 1 Ans. For defence, and to seize its food. What is its number of legs 1 Ans. Six. What are its paddles for ? Ans. For swimming. What is its food 1 Ans. Various. BUTTERFLY. Third Order. LOBSTER.-Seventh Order. What is this ? Ans. A Butterfly. ALPHABET OP NATURE. 45 What are its parts ? Ans. Body, icings, legs, head, palpi, eyes, &c. What number of wings and legs ? Ans. Four wings and six legs. What is their color ? Ans. Very various. What does it feed upon? Ans. Plants. What has it on its wings? Ans. Scales or feathers, which look like fine powder. What is its order ? Ans. Lepidoptera. SIXTH SERIES. VERMES, OR WORMS. PREPARATORY INFORMATION. The class vermes is divided into five orders, as follows : intestina, mollusca, testacea, zoophyta, and infusoria. Of the intestina, some live within other animals, some in the waters. The second order, called mollusca, from a word signifying soft, are of two kinds, viz. those which are naked and fur- nished with tentacula or arms, as the limax or slug. The other sort is called testacea, because covered with a hard calcareous shell, as the Oyster, Clam, Muscle. This branch of natural history is called Conchology. There are more than a thousand species of shells, which, on account of their beauty and rarity, are highly prized. Shells are separated into three divisions, viz. the multivalve, embracing those shells which consist of many plates; the bivalves, in which the two shells are joined together by a hinge, as the Oyster ; and the univalve, comprehending those that have a regular spire. These shells form the habitation of the animal, which is soft, and hence called mollusca. 46 the mother's manual. The fourth order, zoopliyta, holds a place between animals and vegetables. The infusoria constitute the fifth order, and are extremely minute animalcula, destitute of feelers, and generally invisible to the naked eye. DIRECTION. A small collection of shells, arranged according to the three general divisions above named, would be preferable to drawings. The attention of the infants is to be directed to the objects of this class of beings, as before. It will probably be found that at this stage of advancement, a habit of attention and observation will begin to appear. This habit is the primary object at this period, and much more important than the information itself. Here exhibit a BIVALVE SHELL to the children. What is this ? Arts. A shell. How many valves has it ? Ans. Two. What are its parts ? Ans. Its valves, hinge, edges, inner surface, outer sur- face, its grooves on the outside, &c. base, aperture. Which is the hinge, grooves (or striae), base, apex, &c? Of how many parts does a shell-fish consist ? Ans. Two ; the soft mulluscous animal and its shell. What are the hard shells called ? Ans. Testaceous, such as the oyster, clam, &c. What are the shells of crabs and lobsters called? Ans. Crustaceous, consisting of a thin crust. Are all shells bivalves ? Ans. No: some have but one shell, and are called univalve ; some are called muliivalves. Are all univalves alike? Ans. No; some are simple, spiral, or turbinated, discoid, flattened or turreted, &c. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 47 SEVENTH SERIES. COMPARISON. When the child shall have become familiar with the fore- going divisions of the animal kingdom, the next exercise which presents itself in order is that of comparison. In comparisons we first note differences, and next analogies or resemblances. We will first compare those animals that possess obvious points of difference, proceeding to those which are less obvious, for the purpose of bringing into exercise the faculty of discrimination. For this purpose, let such animals be selected as belong First, to different classes. Second, those of different orders. Third, those of different genera. Fourth, those of different species. For example, compare quadrupeds with birds. The dif- ferences will turn upon the number of feet, the form, covering, mouth, means of defence, food, &c. EXAMPLE FIRST. COW. PARTRIDGE. A particular exemplification of comparison between animals of different classes. In what do quadrupeds and birds differ? Ans. They differ in the number of their feet; one having four, the other tivo. What does quadruped mean ? Ans. A four-footed animal. 48 THE MOTHERS MANUAL. What is an animal with two feet called ? Ans. A biped. Do you see any difference in the form of their feet ? Ans. Yes ; the feet of beasts are formed for walking on the ground, those of birds for perching on branches of trees or swimming. What other difference do you perceive ? Ans. They differ in the covering of their bodies ; quadrupeds have hair or wool, birds have feathers. What is this covering for ? Ans. To keep them warm. Why are birds covered with feathers ? Ans. Because they are both warm and light, suited to the air. Does the form of birds differ from that of quadrupeds? Ans. Yes ; the form of birds is tapering before and behind, the better to pass through the air. Do you notice any other difference ? Ans. Yes ; their mouth is different: beasts have a large mouth and teeth, birds have a bill or beak. Can you give any reason for this difference ? Ans. Beasts live on grass, grain and flesh, but birds live on seeds, insects, &c. : thus their food is different. Are their instruments of motion alike ? Ans. No ; beasts have legs for motion, birds have wings. Are the sounds which they make different ? Ans. Yes ; they differ very much, but the note or sound of birds is generally very agreeable. Do beasts and birds resemble each other in any thing? Ans. Yes ; they both have the power of motion, have the same number of senses, and both have a tender affection for their young. ALPHABET OP NATURE. EXAMPLE SECOND. COMPARISON OF BIRDS WITH FISHES. 49 DUCK. MACKEREL. Compare birds with fishes, as to form, size, covering, instruments of motion, food, &c. What is the form or shape of fishes ? Ans. More various than that of birds ; some being flat, some round, some long and slender, but all suited for making their way through the water. How do they compare with birds as to size? Ans. Some fishes are very small, and others very large. Is their covering different ? Ans. Yes ; some fishes are covered with scales, and some with skin, which prevents the water from pene- trating their bodies. How do their instruments of motion differ? Ans. They differ from those of birds by being more numerous, and in being placed on different parts of their bodies : they are called fins. Do they move as swiftly as birds ? Ans. Some fishes swim very swiftly, but do not move so fast as birds. A E * \ 50 THE MOTHER S MANUAL. How does their food diner? Ans. Some fishes feed on the smaller fishes, and others live on sea plants, insects, and such nourishment as the waters afford. Are there any points of resemblance? Ans. Yes ; birds and fishes both have the power of motion both are furnished with instruments for that purpose both are furnished with the same number of senses, and are equally fitted for their respective ele- ments. EXAMPLE THIRD. COMPARE BIRDS WITH INSECTS WOODPECKER. DRAGON-FLY. How do insects differ from the feathered race ? Ans. They differ in the texture of their wings, in size, in the number of legs, &c. Have any insects more than two wings ? Ans. Some have two, some four ; and some of these ALPHABET OF NATURE. 51 differ from the wings of birds, by having a horny- sheath to protect them. Have all insects the same means of defence ? Ans. Some insects are furnished with a sting, in which they differ from birds. Where is the sting placed ? Ans. Some insects carry their sting in the head, as the common fly; others in the tail, as the bee and hornet. Do they differ from birds in size ? Ans. Yes; the size as well as shape of insects is much more various than that of birds. In what do they resemble each other ? Ans. In ingenuity in their power of motion in powers of sensation in their food, some feeding on others, some feeding on plants, and. both being ovipar- ous, that is, hatched from an egg. HAWK. BUTTERFLY. DIRECTION. These examples may serve as specimens of the mode of conducting these comparisons. The nature and extent of the questions will of course depend upon the age and capacity of the child : of this the teacher must judge, never losing sight of the principle of adapting the questions to the circum- stances of the case. 52 THE MOTHER'S MANUAL. DIFFERENT ORDERS. LESSON FOURTH. COMPARE QUADRUPEDS OF DIFFERENT ORDERS. Note differences and resemblances as in the preceding ex- amples. They differ, 1. In form 2. In their feet 3. In the struc- ture of their teeth 4. Shape of the head 5. Formation of the ears and tail. They resemble each other, 1. In their covering 2. Num- ber of legs 3. Number of organs of sense 4. In their food. horse. cow. Compare the Horse, (order pachydermata) with the Cow, (order ruminantia). In what do the horse and cow differ? Ans. In their form ; the body of the cow is more bulky, and not so handsome as that of the horse. In what else do they differ ? Ans. In the shape of the head, ears, situation of the eyes. The cow has horns, too, and the horse none- ALPHABET OP NATURE. 53 Are their feet and tail different ? Ans. Yes ; the horse has solid hoofs, and the cow cloven ; a bushy tail, and the cow a long tail and bushy towards the end. Are their teeth alike ? Ans. No \. the cow has no cutting-teeth in the upper jaw, but the horse, has blunt fore-teeth in both jaws. In what do they resemble each other 1 Ans. In their covering, legs, senses and food. LESSON FIFTH. GREYHOUND. GUINEA-PIG. Compare the Dog, (order carnivora) with the Guinea-Pig, (order rodentia). In what do the dog and guinea-pig differ ? Ans. In the form of their bodies, in their feet, in their teeth, shape of the head, ears, &c. How do their teeth differ ? Ans. The dog has pointed conical teeth; but the guinea-pig has two cutting-teeth in each jaw, like the squirrel. Are their legs and feet alike ? Ans. No; the dog's legs are longer, and he fias blunt claws. E2 54 the mother's manual. Do they live upon the same kind of food ? Ans. No ; the dog is carnivorous, but the guinea-pig lives on vegetables. Do they resemble each other in any thing '( Ans. Yes; in their covering, number of legs, and organs of sense. LESSON FIFTH. Mark differences and analogies as before. The differences will turn upon the size, form, structure of the head, mouth, teeth, food, feet, &c. Analogies. Both quadrupeds are covered with hair, and live in the same climate. TIGER. Compare the Elephant, (order pachydermata) with the royal Tiger of Bengal, (order carnivore). ALPHABET OF NATURE. 55 In what do these animals differ ? Ans. In size, form, structure of the head, mouth, teeth. Which has the most bulky body ? Ans. The elephant: the tiger's is long, and more slender. How do their heads differ ? Ans. The tiger's head is like that of the cat ; but the elephant's is lengthened into a snout or proboscis. Do their teeth and claws differ ? lAns. Yes; the elephant has no fore-teeth in either jaw, but the tiger has many sharp teeth like the cat. Is their food alike ? Ans. No; the one eats flesh, the other vegetables. They are both covered with hair, and live in warm climates. LESSON SIXTH. RHINOCEROS. DEER. Compare the Rhinocerot, (order pachydermata) with the Deer, (order ruminantia.) With reference to the last particulars. In what do these animals differ? Ans. In size, form, shape of the head, teeth, feet, &c 56 the mother's manual. Which has the most graceful form ? Ans. The deer. In what do their feet differ ? Ans. The hoofs of the deer are cloven. Which is formed for running 1 Ans. The deer. Which is the strongest ? Ans. The rhinoceros. Do their horns differ 1 Ans. Yes ; the deer has branching horns on his head, but the bther a single horn on the nose. Are their teeth different? Ans. Yes; the deer has no fore-teeth in the upper jaw, the other none in either. LESSON SEVENTH. hiiuuii'iiuiiiuii '"'im//r/i/m/uttMWi^ u "'~' CAT. RABBIT. Compare the Cat, (order carnivora) with the Rabbit, (order rodentia.) Compare them. Ans. They are different in the shape of their body, ears, tail, eyes, shape of the head, teeth and feet. How do the ears and tail differ ? Ans. The rabbit has long ears and a short tail, the cat short ears and long tail. Are their eyes different ? ALPHABET OF NATURE. 57 Anf. Yes ; the rabbit's eyes stand out on the side of the head, the cat's are placed in front. How do their teeth differ 1 Ans. The cat has sharp teeth, the rabbit two cutting teeth in each jaw. In what do they resemble each other ? Ans. In their senses, covering, legs, &c. LESSON EIGHTH. SHEEP. WOLF. Compare the Sheep, (order ruminantia) with the Wolf (order camivora.) In what do they resemble each other ? Ans. In the number of legs, in the organs of sense. In what do they differ ? Ans. In form, in their teeth, claws, feet, covering, &c. How do their teeth and claws differ ? Ans. The Wolf has teeth and claws like a dog, the sheep has no cutting-teeth in the upper jaw, and cloven hoofs. How does their covering differ ? Ans. The one is covered with wool, the other with coarse hair. Is their food the same ? Ans. No ; the wolf eats flesh, the sheep eats grass, and chews the cud. P 58 THE MOTHER'S MANUAL. LESSON NINTH. HOG. GOAT. Compare the Hog, (order pachydermata), with the Goal, (order ruminantia.) DIFFERENT GENERA. COMPARE QUADRUPEDS OF DIFFERENT t GENERA. LESSON TENTH. im Compare the Bear with the Jaguar, different genera of the order ferte^ Differences and resemblances. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 59 iat do these animals agree 1 [n their covering, in their teeth, claws, organs of sense, food, &c. What sort of teeth and claws have they 1 Ans. Both sharp, for tearing their prey. What is their food ? Ans. Flesh. In what do they differ ? Ans. In the form of their bodies, shape of the head and legs, length of the tail, and form of the feet. Which is the most swift and active 1 Ans. The Jaguar. LESSON ELEVENTH. '"H// m ar/U/tta/Wa' i ^~''^ HARE. SaUIRREL. Compare the Hare with the Squirrel, different genera of the order rodentia. Differences and resemblances. Do these animals differ in any thing ? Ans. Yes ; in their form, tail, feet, ears. Which is formed for climbing 1 Ans. The squirrel for climbing, and .the hare for running. Describe the tail of each. The squirrel's is long and bushy, turning up over the body like an umbrella ; the hare's is short, like that of the rabbit. 60 the mother's manual. In what do they agree ? Arts. In their teeth, both having two cutting^teem m each jaw, in their coat, and in both being very timid. LESSON TWELFTH. LION. LEOPARD. Compare the Lion with the Leopard, different genera of the order carnivora. In what do these differ ? Ans. In the form of the body, shape of the head, tail, color. What has the lion on his head and neck ? Ans. A mane. How do the head and tail differ ? Ans. The lion's has a tuft at the end ; the leopard's is like that of the cat. How does the color differ? Ans. The leopard is spotted. In what are they alike ? Ans. In their teeth and claws, in their food, both being carnivorous. ALPHABET OF MATURE. LESSON THIRTEENTH. 61 CAMEL. SHEEP. Compare the Camel with the Sheep, different genera of the order ruminaniia. Differences and resemblances. LESSON FOURTEENTH. ZEBRA. HOG. Compere the Zebra with the Hog, different genera of the order pachydermata. STAG. BEAVER. Compare the Stag with the Btmver. F THE MOTHER'S MANUAL. DIFFERENT SPECIES. COMPARE QUADRUPEDS OF DIFFERENT SPECIES. LESSON FIFTEENTH. ZEBRA. ASS. Compare the Zebra with the Ass, different species of the same genus, (Equus.) Let us compare these animals. How do they differ ? Ans. In the form of the body, shape of the neck, legs, stripes, head, ears, &c. Which is the more graceful ? Ans. The Zebra. In what do they resemble each other? Ans. In their teeth, hoofs, covering, food. Describe their teeth. Ans. They both have blunt fore-teeth in each jaw. Are their hoofs cloven ? Ans. No; they are solid, like those of the horse. They both feed upon vegetables. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 63 BIRDS. COMPARISONS CONTINUED. COMPARE BIRDS OF DIFFERENT ORDERS. LESSON SIXTEENTH. EAGLE. SWAN. The Eagle, (order accipitres), with the Swan, (order anseres.) Mark differ- ences and resemblance as before, as to size, form, color, beak, feet, &c. In what do these birds differ ? Ans. In form, color, wings, bill, feet, neck, &c. Which has the largest wings ? Ans. The eagle. How do their feet differ ? Ans. The eagle has strong claws or talons, the swan has webbed feet for swimming. Are their beaks alike ? Ans. No ; the eagle's beak is hooked, but the swan's is flat. Do they live in the same element? Ans. No ; the swan is a water-fowl, the eagle is not. In what are they alike ? Ans. Both are covered with feathers, both have wings, organs of sense, &c. 64 THE MOTHER'S MANUAL. LESSON SEVENTEENTH. PARROT. PIGEON. Compare the Parrot, (order >icae), with the Pigeon, (order passeres.) In what do these differ ? Ans. In shape, color, bill, feet, tail, &c. What is their color ? Ans. The parrot is green, the pigeon lead color ; but tame pigeons are of various colors. How do their bills differ ? Ans. The parrot's is hooked, the pigeon's not. Are their feet alike? Ans. No ; the parrot's are formed for perching, climb- ing, &c. ; the pigeon's, for walking and perching. Which can be taught to speak ? Ans. The parrot. In what do they agree 1 Ans. In covering, wings, and organs of sense. ALPHABET OF NATURE. LESSON EIGHTEENTH. 65 WOODPECKER. THRUSH. Compare the Woodpecker, (order 9can9ores), with the Thrush, (order pasaeres.) BIRDS OF DIFFERENT GENERA. LESSON NINETEENTH. OSTRICH. COCK. Compare the Ostrich, (grallae), with the Cock, (galliiwe.) In what do these differ? Ans. In form, color, tail, head, neck, legs, feet, bill. Which is the larger 1 Ans. The ostrich. What has the cock on his head ? Ans. A comb, and wattles underneath. Is the cock bold or timid ? Ans. Verv bold. F2 5 66 the mother's manual. What do we get from the ostrich ? Ans. Beautiful feathers. What sort of wings has the ostrich 1 Ans. Very short ; they assist him in running. What are on the legs of the cock ? Ans. Spurs. LESSON TWENTIETH. OWL. VULTURE. Compare the Owl with the Vulture, different genera of the order accipitres. In what do these birds differ 1 Ans. In size, form, color, head, beak, &c. Describe the vulture's neck. Ans. It is partly naked of feathers, and has a kind of ruff around its neck. Has the owl ears ? Ans. It has two feathers resembling ears on each side of its head ? What are the head and face of the owl like ? Ans. Like those of a cat. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 67 What is their food ? Ans. The vulture feeds on carrion, the owl on mice, birds, and young rabbits. PEACOCK. PARTRIDGE. Compare the Peacock with the Partridge different genera of the order gallinae. LESSON TWENTY-FIRST. PENGUIN. * DUCK. Compare the Duck with the Penguin, different genera of the order anseres. In what do these birds resemble each other? Ans. They are both web-footed, and both are water- fowl. 68 the mother's manual. In what do they differ ? Ans. In form, length of wings, and legs, shape of the bill, &c. What do Penguins resemble at a distance ? Ans. They look like little children with white aprons. What are young ducks called ? Ans. Ducklings. LESSON TWENTY-SECOND. CRANE. SNIPE. Compare the Crane with the Snipe, different genera of the order grallse. Compare these birds. In what do they differ ? Ans. In form, size, color, legs, bill, and tail. Which has the longest legs and bill ? Ans. The crane has the longest legs, but the snipe the longest bill. How do their necks differ 1 Ans. The neck of the snipe is short; that of the crane long, with a profusion of feathers about the tail. What places do they inhabit 1 Ans. Watery situations. ALPHABET OP NATURE. LESSON TWENTY-THIRD. 69 aUAIL. BIRD OF PARADISE. Compare the Bird of Paradise, (order passeres), with the Partridge, (order gallinae.) In what do these birds differ ? Ans. In size, form, color, bill, wings, tail, &c. The partridge has a very plain dress, but the bird of para- dise has a very rich plumage. It has two long threads or hairs growing out of its wings, and its tail is com- posed of many long feathers of brilliant colors. It is a native of the east. DIRECTION. The exercise of comparison may be extended to the other classes of the animal kingdom, viz : Fishes, Insects, &c. With regard to Fishes, the comparisons will have reference to the difference of form and size, fins, their number, situation, food, &c. As to Insects, the differences and analogies will turn upon the wings, their number, texture, situation of the sting, and other striking circumstances. 70 the mother's manual. EIGHTH SERIES. VEGETABLE KINGDOM. PREPARATORY OBSERVATIONS. A scientific classification of plants would as yet be pre- mature; the object, at present, being to present the external visible Forms of things, with the view of naming and distin- guishing them from each other, and of noting the different parts. For this purpose, let the most useful forest-trees, fruit-trees, flowers, with their minute parts, roots, leaves, &c, be intro- duced to their notice, and exercises founded on them, similar to those on the animal kingdom. FOREST TREES. CARD NO. 1. This card will embrace the most common and useful forest trees, the form and leaves drawn and colored with sufficient truth and accuracy to distinguish them with facility. The Oak, Fir, Maple, Locust, Chestnut, Beach, Elm, Mul- berry, Walnut, Hickory, Sycamore, Sugar-tree, Poplar, &c. PREPARATORY EXERCISES ON THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM- What are the different parts of trees, shrubs, &c. ? Ans. The root, trunk, branches, leaves, flowers, and fruit. What are the roots for ? Ans. To fix the tree firmly in the ground, and to imbibe nourishment therefrom. What is the trunk for ? Ans. To support the spreading branches ; and these in their turn support the leaves and fruit. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 71 What is the outside of the trunk called ? Ans. The bark, which covers and protects it as skin covers an animal. The bark of some trees is rough some smooth, and some thin and transparent. What are the forms of trees 1 Ans. Some are spreading, others taper or conical others tall and slender. FRUIT TREES. CARD NO. 2. This card will contain the Apple-tree, Pear-tree, Peach tree, Plum-tree, Quince-tree, Cherry-tree, Orange-tree, Coffee tree, Tea-tree, &c. FLOWERS. CARD NO. 3. The most beautiful flowers, accurately colored from natur -, will form a class of objects peculiarly attractive. Rose, Li Pink, Tulip, Violet, djc. card no. 4. The different parts of the flower, especially those parts on which the classification turns. As the Calyx, CoroL 72 the mother's manual. Nectary, Stamens, Pistils, Anther, Pollen, Germ, Style, Stigma. Let these different parts be pointed out both on the card and from the flowers themselves. Do you see these flowers ? Ans. Yes. How do they differ 1 Ans. They differ in color, in form, in the number of petals. What are petals ? Ans. They are the leaves of the flower. What are all the colored leaves of a flower called 1 Ans. The corolla, which means a crown. What is that of a green appearance under the corolla called ? Ans. The calyx or cup, because it holds the flower like a little cup. What are those things inside of the flower called ? Ans. The middle one is called the pistil, and those around it the stamens; the little threads that support them are called filaments. What is that part called out of which the filaments grow? Ans. The nectary, or the part which contains the honey. The fine dust on the stamens is called pollen. ROOTS. CARD NO. 5. On this card will be exhibited the Roots of plants, which receive different names, expressive of their forms; as the Branching-roots, Spindle-shaped roots, Fibrous-roots, Bul- bous-roots, Granulated'Yoots, Creeping-roots, and Tuberous- roots. $%* i ALPHABET OF NATURE. 73 What are the names given to different sorts of roots ? Ans. Some are called branching roots, like those of forest and fruit trees; some are spindle-shape, as the beet and radish ; some fibrous, as the grasses ; some bulbous, as the hyacinth, lily, tulip, &c. ; some tuberous, as the potato, &c. What are the roots of plants furnished with 1 Ans. With little mouths at their ends, to suck up juices'and moisture from the ground. What causes these little mouths to open ? Ans. Heat ; thus they begin to vegetate and bud as soon as the sun in the spring warms them. How does cold affect them ? Ans. It causes these little mouths to close, and the leaves fall to the ground. LEAVES. CARD NO. 6. The Leaves of trees and plants existing in such variety, will afford a good exercise on the names expressive of their Forms; such as the orbicular, ovate, oval, oblong, heart- shaped, palmate, &c Is the form of leaves verj^various ? Ans. There is a great variety of forms, with differ- ent names to express them. 74 the mother's manual. Will not those names apply to other things as well as to leaves ? Ans. Yes; and therefore it will be very useful to learn them. They are as follows: orbicular, ovate, oval, oblong, cordate (heart-shaped), kidney-form, lanceolate, linear, arrow-form, halbert-form, guitar- form, lobed, palmate, wedge-form, &c. Do you see the veins running through the leaf? Ans. Yes; a large one through the middle, and smaller ones branching off from it every way. What are these veins for ? Ans. To convey the sap or juice to every part. Is the upper side different from the under ? Ans. Yes ; the upper is smooth, and green, the lower side is rough and not so green. FRUIT. Is the fruit as various as the leaves and flowers 1 Ans. Yes ; fruits differ very much, as to size, form, covering, and substance ; some are large, others small ; the form of some is oval, others round, and some conical ; some fruits are covered with a hard shell, as nuts, acorns, &c. ; some with a thin skin, as the apple, pear, peach, plum; some are pulpy, as the cherry; ALPHABET OF NATURE. 75 some fleshy, as the apple and pear ; some have a hard stone covered with flesh, as the peach, plum, &c. What are the different parts of an apple ? Ans. First, a thin skin on the outside ; under that the flesh, which is juicy ; in the middle are the seeds, of a brown color, inclosed in little membranous cells. NINTH SERIES. MINERAL KINGDOM. GENERAL PREPARATORY INFORMATION. A small collection of Minerals will be necessary to afford the children an opportunity of becoming acquainted with their general external characters, and more obvious uses. There are four great classes of Minerals, under which all the specimens are to be arranged. 1. EARTHY MINERALS. In their three great divisions of Argillaceous, Silicious, and Calcareous, as clay in all its varieties, Gypsum, Chalk, Flint, Millstone, Sand, Alabaster, Crystals, Precious Stones, Cornelians, Jasper, Topazes, Sapphires, Rubies, Emeralds, and Diamonds. 2. saline minerals. Saline Minerals are such as are of a pungent taste, heavier than the preceding, and partly transparent ; such as Common Salt, Alum, Nitre or Saltpetre, and Borax. 3. INFLAMMABLE MINERALS. Inflammable Minerals are distinguished from the foregoing, by being light, brittle, opaque, and never feeling cold ; such as Coals, Sulphur, Black-lead, and Amber. 76 the mother's manual. 4. metallic minerals. Metallic Minerals are distinguished from all the other classes, by being heavier, opaque, cold, ductile, or capable of being drawn out into wire, and malleable, capable of being spread out under the hammer. Metals of this class consist of Gold, Silver, Platina, Copper, Iron, Lead, Tin, &c. DIRECTION. In exercising the children on Minerals, the circumstances most important to be considered, at present, are their external differences, such as weight, color, texture, opacity, brightness, transparency, &c. &c. A reference to their important and various uses may, from time to time, be referred to by the teacher, with the view of awakening attention. For example, the uses of sand, silex, &c, in the beautiful and useful article of glass. Argile or clay, in the various useful forms of pottery, plates, cups, &c. Lime, as mortar for building houses, plastering, &c, may be noticed as oppor- tunity may serve. EARTHY MINERALS. 1. ARGILLACEOUS What does Argillaceous mean? Ans. It means clayey. Are there different sorts of clay ? Ans. Yes ; such as common clay, pipe-clay, fullers' earth, porcelain clay, &c. What is made of common clay? Ans. Bricks for building, earthen-ware, tiles, &c. How are bricks made hard ? Ans. By burning them in a kiln. What is earthen- ware ? Ans. That common ware made by the potter ; such ALPHABET OF NATURE. 77 as pans, cups, plates, &c. ; the finer sort is called queen's-ware. What is porcelain ? Ans. It is that fine transparent ware, called China, and Liverpool ware, and is made of the finest sort of clay. What are tiles ? Ans. Tiles are made of clay, burnt like bricks, and used for covering houses. 2. SILICIOUS EARTH. What are Silicious earths ? Ans. Those consisting of hard stones, such as sand, flint, millstones, crystals, precious stones, &c. What useful material is made of Silex ? Ans. Glass is one of the most useful, millstones, &c. Can you tell me any thing about the precious stones 1 Ans. They are transparent, and of the most beautiful colors ; some green, some red, yellow, blue, mottled, &c. What do you know of the diamond ? Ans. It is clear and transparent, very hard, and furms one of the most costly ornaments. It is worn as necklaces, bracelets, rings, &c. Where is the diamond found? Ans. In the mines of Golconda in Hindoostan, and Brazil. 3. CALCAREOUS EARTH. What does this mean ? Ans. Any earth that can easily be reduced to a calx or -powder by burning. What earths belong to this class ? Ans. Gypsum, chalk, lime-stone, &c. G2 78 the mother's manual. Are these useful ? Ans. Yes ; very useful, especially lime-stone. What is its use 1 Ans. It is used as a cement in building. Will you tell me what you know about it 1 Ans. First, it is a hard rock ; but when burnt in a kiln, it becomes soft like chalk, and is called quick-lime; it is then mixed with water, and becomes slacked-lime ; sand, and sometimes hair, is added, and it is then called mortar. It is used by the brick-layer and plasterer in building. SALINE MINERALS. What are they ? Ans. Common Salt, Alum, Nitre, &c. How is common salt procured ? Ans. From salt springs, from sea water, and from mines of rock salt. In what part of the world are these mines 1 Ans. The most remarkable are in Poland. How will you distinguish alum ? Ans. By its sour taste. Do you know any thing of nitre? Ans. It looks like alum, and is an ingredient in gun- powder. 3. INFLAMMABLE 'MINERALS. What are they ? Ans. They are coals, sulphur, amber, &c. Can you tell how many kinds of coals there are ? Ans. Yes ; three kinds, Bituminous, Anthracite, and Charcoal. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 79 Where is bituminous coal found ? Ans. In England, the United States, &c. Where the Anthracite ? Ans. In Pennsylvania. What is charcoal 1 Ans. It is wood burnt to a coal. What is the appearance of coals ? Ans. Bituminous coals are of a dull black, Anthra- cite are of a shining black. What is the color of Sulphur ? Ans. Of a yellow color; it is a very inflammable substance. What can you say of Amber ? Ans. It is semi-transparent, tasteless, and emits a fragrant smell. Where is it found 1 Ans. On the sea-shore, in many places ; on the shores of the Baltic, at Cape Sable, and in Maryland. METALS. How do the metals differ from other minerals 1 Ans. They are heavier, opaque, ductile, &c What is opaque ? Ans. Not transparent. What are the principal metals ? Ans. Platina, Gold, Silver, Copper, Iron, Lead, &c. Which is the most useful 1 Ans. Iron ; because it can be turned into steel, of which tools are made. What is the color of each ? Ans. Platina and Silver are greyish white, gold is yellow, &c. Where are these metals found ? Ans. In most parts of the world. Gold and Silver 80 THE MOTHER S MANUAL. are found particularly in South America, Mexico, the United States, &c. Which of these metals are coined into money 1 1 Ans. Gold, Silver, and Copper. Can you name these coins'? Ans. Yes ; Eagles, half-Eagles, guineas, sovereigns, &c. Silver is coined into dollars, half-dollars, quarters, eighths, &c. Copper is coined into cents and half-cents. TENTH SERIES. Having travelled through the three great kingdoms of nature, noted some of the more prominent features, and com- pared the various objects, the attention of the Infants might now be properly invited to some of the common OBJECTS OF ART. LESSON FIRST. What is a house? what is it for? what are the materials of which it is built ? (or in adapted language) what is it made of? Ans. Stone, bricks, mortar, wood, iron, glass, paint, marble, &c. Where does stone come from ? bricks ? mortar ? wood? &c. ALPHABET OP NATURE. 81 What trades are necessary to be employed ? Ans. Brick-layer, carpenter, glazier painter, stone- cutter, &c. What are the different parts of a house 1 Ans. Walls, roof, windows, floors, rooms, &c. LESSON SECOND. A SHIP. 1. Note the different parts as the hull, the stern, prow, keel, &c. 2. The spars as masts, yards, bowsprit, boom, top-masts, mizen-mast, main-mast, fore-mast. v 3. Sails as main-sail, main-top-sail, main-top-gallant-sail. 4. Ropes as shrouds, halyards, cable, stays, &c. LESSON THIRD.-ARTICLES OP CLOTHING. To what kingdoms of nature are we indebted for our clothing 1 Ans. Vegetable and animal. What from the vegetable ? Ans. Flax, hemp, cotton. 6 82 the mother's manual. What from the animal 1 Ans. Wool, silk, fur, leather What is flax 1 Ans. The fibre of a plant. What is hemp ? Ans. A coarser fibre of a plant. What is cotton ? Ans. It is the product of a plant. Questions continued at pleasure. What is made out of flax ? Ans. Linen. What of hemp? Ans. Ropes, sail-cloth, &c. What of cotton ? Ans. Muslin, calico, chintz, &c. What of wool ? Ans. Broad-cloth, stockings, blankets, &c. What of silk? Ans. Silk dresses, silk handkerchiefs, &c. What of fur? Ans. Hats, muffs, tippets, &c. What of skins? Ans. Leather for shoes, trunks, saddles, bridles, &c, &c. LESSON FOURTH. SOFA. What is this ? Ans. A Sofa. What are its different parts ? Ans. Its frame, consisting of back, ends, seat, feet, castors, &c. Of what materials is it made ? ALPHABET OF NATURE. 83 Ans. Pine, mahogany, hair, wool or moss for stuffing, hair-cloth, brass-headed nails, brass castors, &c. By whom is it made ? Ans. By the cabinet-maker. What are its uses ? Ans. As a parlor ornament, and also a convenient, pleasant seat. From what kingdoms of nature are the materials ? Ans. From all the kingdoms. W^hich from the animal? Which from the vegetable? Which from the mineral? LESSON FIFTH. FURNITURE. What is the furniture of a house ? Ans. 1. Of the parlor Tables, chairs, piano, carpet, rug, grate, pictures, looking-glasses, &c. From what kingdom of nature do they come ? Ans. The tables are made of wood, that is the vege- table kingdom. And the others? [notice each.] 2. Of the chambers ? Bedstead, beds, drawers, wash-stand, glass, &c. Where do these come from ? Ans. The bedstead is wood beds are made of the feathers of birds bed-clothes of cotton, wool, &c. 84 THE MOTHERS MANUAL. 3. The kitchen 1 Ans. Pots, kettles, pans, plates, &c. Where do these come from ? Ans. The mineral kingdom. LESSON SIXTH. COACH. What does this picture represent 1 Ans. A coach. What are its different parts ? Ans. The body, wheels, hub, spokes, felloe, tire, springs, axle, pole, curtains, lining, seats, &c. What are the materials 1 Ans. Wood, iron, cloth, leather, paint, varnish, &c What kingdoms of nature 1 Ans. Vegetable, animal, and mineral. Who makes it? Ans. The coach-maker. What is its use? Ans. To ride and travel about in. LESSON SEVENTH. BOOK. What is this 1 Ans. A book. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 85 What are its parts ? Arts. Paper, leaves, cover, ink, thread, paste, letters, words. What is the paper made of? Ans. Rags the cover? leather, &c. What kingdoms of nature ? Ans. Vegetable, animal, and mineral. What parts from the vegetable ? Ans: The rags for the paper, thread to sew the leaves. What from the animal? Ans. The leather for the cover. What from the mineral ? Ans. The types for the letters. LESSON EIGHTH. What is this ? Ans. A plow. What are its parts ? Ans. The handles, beam, share, coulter. Which are the handles, beam, &c. ? What are they made of? Ans. Wood and iron. What parts are wood ? what iron ? What is the use of the plow ? Ans. To turn up the ground, and prepare it for seed. Who makes it ? Who uses it ? H 86 the mother's manual, lesson ninth. a loom. What is this? Ans. This is a loom. What is a loom for ? Ans. To weave cloth. What kinds of cloth ? Ans. Cotton cloth, woollen cloth, silk, &c. What are its parts ? Ans. The post, beam, treadles, shuttle, reed, &c. What are these parts made of? Ans. Of wood, reed, iron, &c. Which is the warp ? woof or filling ? LESSON TENTH. A STEAM-ENGINE. What is this ? Ans. A steam-engine. What are its parts ? Ans. The furnace, boiler, piston, wheels, &c. Of what is it made ? Ans. Iron, copper, and wood. What is its use ? This series of exercises may be extended to other familiar objects at pleasure. ELEVENTH SERIES. ON THE SENSES. LESSON FIRST. What are the senses? Ans. Those instruments or organs with which we see, hear, smell, taste, and feel. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 87 How many organs of sense have you? Ans. Five. Count them. Eyes one, ears two, nose three, palate four, skin five. In what parts of the body are they placed ? Ans. The sense of feeling or touch extends all over the body ; the others are placed in the head. What are the sensations called ? Ans. Seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, feeling. LESSON SECOND. EYES. What are the eyes for? Ans. To see things or objects. What qualities in things or in nature are for the eye? Ans. Light, color, form, motion, size, distance. LESSON THIRD. OF COLORS. Here let the seven original colors be shown, painted on paper, or through a prism. What color is this ? Ans. Violet. And this ? Ans. Indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, red. How many have you named ? Ans. Seven. What are these called ? Ans. The seven original colors. 88 the mother's manual. Repeat them again in their order. Violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, red. In what kingdom of nature do we see the greatest variety of these beautiful colors 1 Ans. In the vegetable kingdom. What flowers are red 1 Ans. The rose, &c. What are blue 1 Ans. The blue-bell, &c. What parts of vegetables are green ? Ans. The leaves of trees and plants. The same questions may be extended to birds and minerals. Red-bird, blue-bird, &c. Coal is black, gold is yellow, silver is white, &c. The initials of the word VIBGYOR, will serve to excite their recollection. LESSON FOURTH. OF LIGHT. Where does light come form ? Ans. From the sun. What sense or organ does light belong to ? Ans. The eye. What is light for ? Ans. Light enables us to see things, their color, form, and size. Could we not see colors without light ? Ans. No ; nothing can be seen in the dark. What words express degrees of light ? Ans. Vivid, bright, clear, faint, dusky, obscure. Observation. To speak of the qualities of light, such as reflection, refraction, &c, would be premature. LESSON FIFTH. OF THE EAR AND SOUNDS. What are the ears for ? Ans. To hear with. What is it that we hear 1 Ans. Sounds. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 89 What carries (conveys) sounds to the ear ? Ans. The air. Would there be no sound without air 1 Ans. No. What are sweet (harmonious) sounds called 1 Ans. Music. How many kinds of music are there ? Ans. Two; vocal, made by the voice, and instrumental, made with an instrument of music. What musical instruments are there ? Ans. The drum, organ, flute, fife, clarionet, horn, trumpet, &c: these are called wind instruments. Violin, harp, guitar, piano, &c: these are called stringed instru- ments. What is vocal music 1 Ans. Singing. What do you call the sounds made by different ani- mals? Ans. The horse neighs, the bull bellows, the cow lows, the sheep bleats, the hog grunts, the dog barks, the cat mews, rats and mice squeak, the ass brays, the lion roars, the birds sing, twitter, chirp ; the frogs croak, the in- sects buzz. The wind whistles, the breeze whispers, the thunder roars, the rain patters, the hail rattles, the bells toll, ring, &c. Why does the ear stand up on each side of the head 1 Ans. To catch the sounds, Are there any persons who cannot hear ? Ans. Yes, and they are called deaf people. What are those people that cannot speak called 1 Ans. Dumb, or mutes. H2 90 THE MOTHER'S MANUAL. LESSON SIXTH. OF FORMS. What are the forms of things ? Ans. Form means shape or figure. CARD OF GEOMETRICAL FIGURES. 1 Point. 2. Horizontal line. ANGLES. 4. Acute. 5. Right. 6. Obtuse. 7. Four right. \ 8. Curved. TRIANGLES. 10. Scalene. 11. Curved. 12. Isosceles. 13. Square. ALPHABET OF NATURE. PARALLELOGRAMS. 91 14. Rhombu 1G. Rhomboid. 92 THE MOTHER'S MANUAL. j NAME THE FIGURES ON THE GEOMETRICAL CARDS. 1. A POINT. 2. Horizontal line. 13 14 15 3. A vertical or perpendicular line. ANGLES. 1G 4. An acute angle. 5. A right angle. 6. An obtuse angle. 7. A right angle. 17 18 8. A curved line. TRIANGLES. 19 9. 10. An equilateral angle. A scalene. 20 21 11. Curved. 22 12. An isosceles. What is this? An PARALLELOGRAMS. A square. ~] A rhombus. I Opposite An oblong. | sides equal. A rhomboid. J SOLIDS. A cone. A pyramid. A hemisphere. A sphere. Cylinders. Prisms. Ans. A horizontal line. What does horizontal mean ? Ans. Parallel with the horizon. What is the horizon? Ans. The line that bounds the view. When you stand on a hill and look around you as far as you can see, the earth and sky appear to meet : that is the horizon. It is the same as level. What is this ? Ans. It is a perpendicular line. What does perpendicular mean ? Ans. It means a line falling directly on another line at right angles. It also means hanging in a right line from any point towards the centre of the earth. It is the opposite of horizontal. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 93 When I hold this stick level, what would you call it? Ans. Horizontal. Now I hold it upright, what is that ? Ans. Perpendicular. If I hold one stick level and the other upright, what then? Ans. Then the upright stick falls directly on the level one. Do- the two sticks form a square ? Ans. They form two sides of a square, or a right angle. \ ACUTE ANGLE. OBTUSE ANGLE. RIGHT ANGLE. What is this ? Ans. This is an acute angle. What does acute mean ? Ans. Sharp-pointed: here, it means any angle less than a right angle. What is an obtuse angle ? Ans. Obtuse means blunt ; an angle more than a right angle. What is a right angle ? Ans. When the perpendicular cuts the horizontal line, as in the figure. \ 4 RIGHT ANGLES. CURVED LINES. What is a curve? Ans. A curved line is any part of a circle. 94 the mother's manual. What is this ? Arts. A circle. What is the middle point called ? Ans. The centre. What is the entire curve or circle called ? Ans. The circumference. What is a line drawn exactly through the middle called 1 Ans. The diameter. What is half this line called 1 Ans. The semi-diameter. What is half of the circle called ? Ans. A semicircle. What is a radius ? Ans. A line drawn from the centre to the outer cir- cle or periphery. What is a quarter of a circle called ? Ans. A quadrant. How many degrees does a circle contain ? Ans. Three hundred and sixty ; half a circle contains one hundred and eighty; and a quarter of a circle, or a quadrant, contains ninety degrees. A CONE. A PYRAMID. What is this 1 Ans. A cone. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 95 What is a cone ? Ans. A solid body or figure, having a circle for its base, and its top terminated in a point like a sugar-loaf. What is a pyramid ? Ans. A pyramid is a solid figure consisting of several triangles, whose bases are all in the same plane, and have a common vertex or top. A SPHERE. A HEMISPHERE. What is a sphere ? Ans. A globe or round ball. What is a hemisphere ? Ans. Half a sphere or globe. CYLINDERS What is a cylinder ? Ans. A long circular body of uniform diameter some are solid, some hollow. 96 THE MOTHER'S MANUAL. PRISMS. What is a prism ? Arts. A solid whose bases or ends are any similar, equal, and parallel plane figures, and whose sides are parallelograms. LESSON SIXTH. OF MOTION. Does motion belong to sight ? Ans. Yes : we can see things move. Do all things move of themselves ? Ans. Some things move of themselves, others do not, but are moved. What are the words which express motion. Ans. Man walks, runs, jumps, hops, dances ; the horse walks, trots, paces, racks, canters, gallops, runs; lambs and goats skip and caper; birds fly fishes swim boats and ships sail. Has a ship any motion of itself? Ans. No. What gives it motion ? Ans. The wind, steam, or tide, (current). Has a coach any motion of itself? Ans. No, but the horses make it move. Trees wave in the wind waves roll, &c ALPHABET OP NATURE. 97 LESSON SEVENTH.-OP SIZE OR DIMENSION, DISTANCES, &c. DIRECTION. It is important to acquire a correct idea of length, breadth, distance, &c. For this purpose, take a foot-rule and explain the marks for quarters of inches, a half inch, three quarters, an inch, three inches, six inches, twelve inches, or a foot. Then proceed to a foot and a half, three feet or a yard, &c. Next allow them to measure any articles at hand, chairs, benches, floor, &c, until they can do it with facility. Next proceed to measures of capacity, beginning with drops of water. Teach them to count the number of drops a tea-spoon will hold, the number of tea-spoons-full in a wine-glass, or a half gill ; next a gill, half pint, pint, quart, gallon, with a view of giving them an idea of those different measures in common use. Extend the exercise to the dry measures count the grains of corn, for instance, in a half gill, double it for a gill ; half- pint, quart, quarter of a peck, half peck, peck, half bushel, bushel. This exercise will give them an idea of numbers. LESSON EIGHTH. OF THE SENSE OF SMELL. What is the organ of smell 1 Ans. The nose What belongs to this sense ? Ans. Odors. What carries or conveys odors to the nose ? Ans. The air. From which of the kingdoms of nature do odors come? Ans. The vegetable and animal kingdoms. What vegetables smell sweetly? Ans. Flowers, such as the rose, pink, hyacinth, daisy, lilac, honey-suckle, apple-blossom, peach-blossom, &c. Do not fruits smell sweetly ? Ans. Yes ; apples, peaches, pine-apples, melons, or- anges, lemons, limes, &c. 98 the mother's manual. What are the animal odors ? Ans. Musk, hartshorn, &c. Why is the nose placed over the mouth 1 Ans. That we may smell our food before we eat it, that we may not eat or drink any thing that is not good and wholesome. LESSOff NINTH. OF TASTE. What is the organ or instrument of taste 1 Ans. The tongue and palate. What is it we taste 1 Ans. Flavors of all kinds. What are the different flavors ? Ans. Sweet, sour, (acid), tart, bitter, brackish, saltish (saline), juicy, luscious, dry, astringent, pungent, nau- seous, &c. What things are sweet 1 Ans. Sugar, honey, molasses, and some fruits. What does sugar come from ? Ans. It is the juice of the sugar-cane. Honey 1 Molasses 1 What things are sour ? Ans. Some sorts of apples are sour ; lemons and limes; some are a little sour or acid, some are quite sweet; vinegar is sour. What is vinegar 1 Ans. Wine or cider turned sour. What is cider ? What is wine ? Ans. Cider is the juice of apples, and wine the juice of the grape. What things have a bitter taste 1 Ans. Camomile, quinine, &c. What has a saline or salt taste 1 Ans. Table salt. ALPHABET OP NATURE. 99 What is salt good for ? Ans. It gives a pleasant relish to our food ; sometimes water is brackish, or has a saltish taste. What things have a pungent or biting taste ? Ans. Spices; such as pepper, cinnamon, allspice, cloves, nutmegs, &c. What things are nauseous ? Ans. Physic is nauseous, because it is sickening to the taste. What things do you like best ? Here let the children think, and name such things as occur to them. A series of questions and conversations will naturally arise out of the articles named. LESSON TENTH. ON FEELING. We have talked about seeing, hearing, smelling, and tasting ; what is the other sense ? Ans. Feeling. Does every part of the body feel ? Ans. Yes but especially the ends of the fingers. What belongs to this sense ? Ans. We feel that some things are hot, other cold ; some things are hard, soft, rough, smooth. Can you think of any thing that is hot, cold, hard, soft, rough, smooth? Ans. Yes Fire is hot, ice is cold, minerals are hard, cotton and wool are soft, a file is rough, polished sur- faces are smooth. What is ice ? what are minerals ? cotton ? wool ? a file ? polished surfaces ? When is the weather warm? Ans. In summer. 100 THE MOTHER'S MANUAL. When cold 1 Ans. In winter. What are the four seasons called 1 ? Ans. Spring, summer, autumn, winter What comes in the spring ? Ans. The pretty flowers ; harvest and fruits in sum- mer and autumn. What keeps us warm in winter ? Ans. Fire, made of coals and wood. What do we call those things that burn ? Ans. Combustibles. LESSON ELEVENTH. GRAIN, SEEDS, SPICES, &C. Directions. Let the teacher form a collection of seeds, and different sorts of grain ; procure the latter in the head, ripe ; such as wheat, rye, barley, oats, buckwheat, Indian-corn, rice. After they have examined them in the head, and compared them, let them notice the grains and compare them also. After this they will be prepared to receive further instruction rela- tive to their qualities, uses, and the processes they undergo. ON CORN. Are all these different kinds of grain called corn ? Ans. Yes : wheat is corn ; so is rye, barley, &c. How does it grow? ALPHABET OF NATURE. 101 Ans. The farmer sows the seed on the ground, then covers it over with earth ; it soon takes root, and springs up above the surface of the ground. After it springs up, how does it look? Ans. Like grass, at first ; but it continues to grow higher and higher, until it forms an ear at the top And what is the ear ? Ans. The ear contains the seed or grains. How does it look when it is ripe ? Ans. It turns yellow. What then? Ans. Then it is harvest time, and the reapers go into the field with their sickles, and cut it down. What then ? Ans. They bind it into bundles or sheaves, and put it into the barn. What is done with it next ? Ans. It is then threshed, that is, the ear is beat with a Jlail, until it falls out What next ? Ans. It is then winnowed, that is, separated from the chaff, and the clean grain is put into bags or sacks. And is this all ? Ans. No ; it is next sent to the mill, to be ground into Jlour. And what is this flour for? Ans. To make good bread. How is bread made ? Ans. The flour is mixed with water, yeast, salt, kneaded into dough, and put in the oven and baked ; and this is bread. 12 102 the mother's manual. Is there nothing else made of flour 1 Ans. Yes, cakes of all kinds. What are the uses of rye ? Ans. Rye is made into bread. What are the uses of barley? oats? buckwheat? and Indian-corn? rice? Ans. Barley is brewed into beer, oats are given to horses, buckwheat makes cakes, and Indian-corn makes excellent bread also. As there are several new terms in this lesson, pains must be taken to have them understood. LESSON TWELFTH.-SEEDS WHICH ARE NOT USED FOR BREAD. Are there any other kinds of seed not made into flour and bread? Ans. Yes There is flax seed, (linseed) hemp seed, cotton seed, clover seed, mustard seed, sun-flower seed, millet, lettuce seed, turnip seed apple seed, pear seed, quince seed, melon seed, orange seed, lemon seed. These last are called pulpy fruits. Observation. Here let the teacher make such remarks on each of these, and put such questions as are naturally asso- ciated with the kinds of seed named. For example flax seed is the seed of that useful plant called flax the capsule at the top, which contains the seed, is called the boll it produces oil, much used by painters, &c. And so of the rest. LESSON THIRTEENTH. PULPY FRUITS Observation. This includes that class of fruits that have a pulpy pericarp or fruit, containing seeds lying among the pulp. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 103 Name them. The pomegranate, fig, vine, mulberry, currant, gooseberry, raspberry, strawberry, barberry, elder, bramble, cloudberry, bilberry, pulpy fruits borne by herbaceous plants, melon, cucumber, gourds, love-apple or tomato, egg plant. Observation. As most of these fruits are familiar, little more will be requisite than to turn the attention of the children to their more obvious uses. There is little or no use made of the seed of this class of plants. LESSON FOURTEENTH. Drupes or Stone Fruits, having the seed inclosed in a hard nut, covered with flesh. What fruits contain seeds of this kind ? Ans. The peach, nectarine, almond, apricot, plum, cherry, olive. What are the different parts of the peach? Ans. The skin, the flesh, which is juicy and of deli- cious flavor, the stone, and the seed or kernel. What is the peach used for? Ans. When ripe it is eaten, sometimes cut into pieces and dried in the sun ; the juice is sometimes made into a liquor, and the kernel makes a pleasant bitter. Do any of these seeds contain oil ? Ans. Yes ; the almond, but especially the olive. LESSON FIFTEENTH. Nuts or dry Fruits, which are neither fleshy nor pulpy. What are these? Ans. Walnut, shellbark, hickory-nut, chestnut, hazel- nut, filbert, acorn. 104 the mother's manual. Observation. Here let the children describe the parts both external and internal of each of these. Compare them observe the different sort of shell belonging to each, and advert to the tree each produces. LESSON SIXTEENTH. SPICES. Observation. Let the teacher form a collection of the spices in common use, such as allspice or pimento, pepper, nut- meg, mace, cinnamon, cloves, ginger. Where do these come from ? Ans. From warm climates (the Indies). What is their flavor? Ans. Pungent or sharp, agreeable. Have they any odor? Ans. Yes; aromatic smell. What are they used for ? Ans. To season our food, and some of them give a pleasant flavor to drink. What are the color and appearance of each ? Compare them. SIMPLE IDEAS CONTINUED. TWELFTH SERIES. ON COMMON THINGS. Observation. When the habit of attention and obser- vation have been acquired, every minute and ordinary object will serve for a hint or starting point for imparting instruction. Large and expensive cabinets will not be necessary, particu- larly in this stage of the child's advancement, when every peb- ble and every leaf is capable of introducing a train of useful ideas. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 105 Much of course will depend upon the tact of the teacher, in exciting the interest of the children, and presenting these common objects in such a manner as to secure their attention. In this stage of progression it will not be necessary to enter into minute detail, it being taken for granted, that the teacher is in possession of the requisite knowledge, insomuch that a few general hints will be amply sufficient. DIRECTION. Let the same plan as heretofore be pursued, in relation to the different parts, qualities, uses, kingdom, &c. to which the object "belongs ; and other incidental circumstances, that natu- rally arise out of the subject. The objects may be divided into two classes, viz. solids and liquids ; as there are many general qualities that belong to each, we shall, at present, only notice such. The external qualities are such as belong to form, color, smell, taste, touch, solidity, fluidity. EXAMPLES. LESSON FIRST A PEBBLE. Its form, kingdom, qualities, uses. What is this ? Ans. A pebble. What is its form ? Ans. Circular, flat, irregular, &c. as the case may be. To what kingdom does it belong 1 Ans. The mineral. To which class of minerals 1 Ans. The earthy. Does it consist of clay or silex 1 Ans. It is a silicious mineral. What are its external qualities ? Ans. It is hard, tasteless, puiverable, white when re- duced to powder, fusible, opaque. What are its uses ? Ans. When mixed with soda, it may be melted, and forms glass. 106 the mother's manual. What are the uses of glass ? Ans. For windows, mirrors, tumblers, wine-glasses, (fee- ls it natural or artificial ? Ans. Natural. LESSON SECOND A PIECE OF COAL. Form, kingdom, qualities, uses, kinds. What is this 1 Ans. A piece of coal. What is its form and color ? Ans. Irregular &c. glossy black. To what kingdom does it belong ? Ans. The mineral. What class of minerals ? Ans. The inflammable. Why inflammable ? Ans. Because it will burn. What are its qualities ? Ans. Brittle, fracture glossy, black, pulverable, opaque, heavy. What are the different kinds ? Ans. Anthracite, which is glossy; the bituminous, and charcoal. What are its uses ? Ans. To burn in grates, stoves, steamboats, and fac- tories. Is it a natural or artificial production ? Ans. Natural. What is the difference ? Ans Things natural are found in nature, things arti- ficial are made by art, or the hands of man. What are those things made by hand called? Ans. Manufactures. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 107 LESSOiY THIRD A PIECE OF BRICK. What is this ? Ans. A piece of brick. Is it natural or artificial ? Ans. Bricks are artificial stones. Of what are they made ? Ans. Of clay, burned in the kiln. What is a kiln ? Ans. A great number of bricks piled together in order to be* burned hard. Will not the fire melt the bricks ? Ans. No; fire melts some things, burns others to ashes, but it hardens clay and turns it to stone. What is the form of a brick ? Ans. It is oblong ; that is, longer than it is broad. What are its dimensions ? Ans. It is nine inches long, four and a half broad, and two and a half thick. Can you measure it? Ans. Yes, I can measure it with a rule. From what class of minerals are bricks made ? Ans. From the earthy class, called argillaceous. What are its qualities ? Ans. It is of a reddish color, pulverable (reducible to powder) insoluble. What are the uses ? Ans. Bricks are used for building houses. LESSON FOURTH A PIECE OF SLATE. What is this? Ans. A piece of slate. To what kingdom does it belong ? Ans. It belongs to the class of earthy minerals. 108 the mother's manual. From whence are they dug? Ans. From places out of the ground, called quarries. What are its external qualities ? Ans. It is brittle, of a dark color, reducible to powder. What are its uses ? Ans. To roof houses, and for schools. How are they used in schools ? Ans. For writing and ciphering. LESSON FIFTH A PIECE OF CHALK. What is this 1 Ans. A piece of chalk. What is its form ? Ans. Irregular, angular, square, &c. To what kingdom does it belong Ans. It is an earthy mineral. What are its qualities ? Ans. It is white, easily pulverized, absorbent, light, opaque, dry, soluble. What are its uses ? Ans. It is used in the arts. LESSON' SIXTH A LUMP OF SUGAR. What is this ? Ans. A lump of loaf-sugar. What are its appearance and qualities ? Ans. White, sparkling, opaque, soluble, brittle, hard, sweet to the taste. To what kingdom does it belong ? Ans. Vegetable. From what vegetable? Ans. From the sugar-cane and sugar-tree. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 109 What is brown sugar ? Ans. It is the sugar first obtained from boiling the juice of the sugar-cane, and so called from its brown color ; when refined, it is called loaf-sugar. What is its use ? Ans. To sweeten coffee, tea, tarts, pies, cakes, pre- serves, and sweetmeats of all sorts. Compare a lump of sugar with a piece of chalk. They are both white, opaque, friable, (easily crum- bled) ; in these qualities they agree one is sparkling, the other not ; one is sweet, the other tasteless ; one a mine- ral, the other a vegetable production. LESSON SEVENTH SALT. What is this ? Ans. Salt. How many kinds are there ? Ans. Two, viz. rock salt, found in mines, and salt procured from salt water. Is it a natural or artificial production? Ans. Natural. In what kingdom will you class it ? Ans. Mineral : it belongs to the saline class. What are its qualities ? Ans. It is white, sparkling, granulous or composed of grains, hard, opaque, soluble, fusible, sapid, that is, has taste. What are its uses ? Ans. To give flavor or relish to food, to preserve meat, &.c. K 110 THE MOTHER'S MANUAL. Compare salt and sugar. In what do they differ, and in what do they agree. Ans. They belong to different kingdoms they differ in taste they agree in color, and in their preservative qualities. LESSON EIGHTH A PIECE OF LEATHER. What is this ? Ans. Leather. What is leather made of? Ans. Of the skins of animals. What animals? Ans. The ox, cow, horse, sheep, dog, goat, &c. Who makes it into leather ? Ans. The tanner. What are the qualities of leather? Ans. Flexible, tough, smooth, durable, opaque, odorous. What do you mean by flexible, tough, &c. ? Ans. It is flexible because it bends easily. Tough, &c. What are the uses of leather ? Ans. For shoes, gloves, saddles, reins of bridles, cov- ering books, trunks, &c. Can you name the different trades for making these things ? Ans. Yes ; the shoemaker makes shoes, &c. the glover, saddler, &c. LESSON NINTH A SPONGE. To what kingdom does the sponge belong ? Ans. To the animal ; it is made by an insect. Where is it found ? Ans. In the sea. ALPHABET OP NATURE. Ill What are its qualities ? Ans. It is porous, that is, full of little holes ; it is ab- sorbent, sucks up liquids; it is soft, tough, opaque, elastic or springy, flexible or easily bent, light brown color. What are its uses ? Ans. For washing, cleansing, &c. LESSON* TENTH INDIAN RUBBER. To what kingdom does this belong ? Ans. To the vegetable kingdom ; it comes from a tree. What are its qualities ? Ans. It is opaque, elastic, inflammable, tough, smooth. Explain each word. What are its uses ? Ans. To make over-shoes, balls, and to rub out pencil- marks. LESSON ELEVENTH GLASS. To what kingdom does glass belong ? Ans. The mineral. What is it made of? Ans. It is made of sand. What are its qualities ? Ans. It is hard, smooth, transparent, brittle. Why is it transparent ? Ans. I can see through it. Do you know any other things that are transparent? Ans. Yes ; water and air. Why is it brittle ? Ans. Because it easily breaks. What are its uses ? Ans. For windows, tumblers, lamps, goblets, wine- glasses, &c. 112 THE MOTHER'S MANUAL. LESSON TWELFTH COTTON. To what kingdom does cotton belong? Arts. Vegetable. What are its qualities ? Ans. It is fibrous (consisting of fine threads), white, soft, light, &c. How does it grow ? Ans. On a plant, which bears a pod ; when ripe, this pod bursts open. What are its uses ? Ans. For cloths of various kinds, such as muslins, calico, chintz, &c. LESSON THIRTEENTH A PIECE OF WAX What is wax made of? Ans. It is an animal production. What animal makes wax? Ans. The Bee. What are the qualities of wax ? Ans. It is solid, opaque, tough, fusible, stioky, yellow- ish, hard, odorous, smooth. What are its uses ? Ans. To make candles and tapers, to rub furniture, to put on thread, sewing-silk, &c. The foregoing plan may be pursued to any extent the teacher may judge proper ; as the objects are always at hand, he can be at no loss for materials. It should be remembered that the grand object at present with the child, is to acquire a Iiabit of observation and reflexion, upon those objects which they are so apt to pass by without notice. They must be taught how to look at things, by presenting objects under their most interesting and useful aspects. The following is a list of similar objects, each of which will furnish an interesting lesson. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 113 Wool an Acorn Bark of different trees Leaves Fruits, Apple, Peach, Pear, Potato Quill Pen Knife Paper Bread Sealing Wax Whalebone Rice Ivory Horn Lead, Iron, &c Water Oil Wine Milk, &c. Of these liquids, the origin, qualities, uses, die. are to be con- sidered. THIRTEENTH SERIES. COMPLEX IDEAS. LESSON FIRST-CLOTHING OF ANIMALS. What is the clothing of animals? Ans. Some animals are clothed with hair, as the Horse, Cow, Dog, Goat, Deer. Are all quadrupeds clothed with hair 1 A us. No ; some are clothed with wool, as the Sheep; some with fur, as the Hare, Rabbit, Ermine, Musk- rat, &c. Why are they clothed? Ans. To protect them from cold and wet. Which is the warmest of these sorts of clothing ? Ans. Fur; animals that live in very cold countries are covered with fur to keep them warm. But is not wool warm too ? Ans. Yes ; but the wool is taken from the Sheep in warm weather, and made into woollen cloths for us. Hair is not so warm a covering, and hence animals in very warm climates are thinly covered with hair. K2 8 114 THE MOTHER'S MANUAL, LESSON SECOND What is the clothing of birds ? Ans. Feathers : long feathers in the wings and tail, and short feathers on the body. Have birds no other covering ? Ans. Yes; some birds have next their skin a very soft down. What is this for? Ans. To keep them warm and dry. What birds are furnished with down ? Ans. Those that inhabit cold countries, and those that are called water-fowl. Which are the water-fowl ? Ans. The Goose, the Duck, the Swan, &c. Of what use is the down to these ? Ans. It keeps the water from penetrating to their skin. Why are birds covered with feathers ? Ans. Because they are light and suited to the air. Of what use are feathers and down 1 Ans. For beds. What are quills ? Ans. They are those long feathers which grow in the tail and wings of birds. Of what use are quills? Ans. For pens to write with. LESSON THIRD. What is the clothing of fishes ? Ans. Scales and' skin. What fishes are covered with scales ? Ans. Salmon, Bass, Perch, Shad, Herring, &c. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 115 What fishes are covered with skin ? Ans. Eels, Catfish, &c. Why are they covered with scales ? Ans. To keep the water from penetrating or soaking into their bodies. What are tt^se scales made of? Ans. Of a substance very hard, tough, and semi-trans- parent. In what places are fishes found ? Ans. In the sea, rivers, lakes, and ponds ; called salt water and fresh water fish. FOURTEENTH SERIES. (combination of simple ideas, continued.) lesson fourth means of defence. 1. Of Quadrupeds. Have most animals some means of defence? Ans. Yes; some are furnished with very sharp teeth and claws, with which they not only defend themselves, but attack and kill the smaller animals. Name some of these. Ans. The lion, tiger, hyena, wolf, bear, fox, leopard. What name is given to such animals ? Ans. They are called feroe or carnivorous. What does carnivorous mean ? Ans. It means flesh-eating animals. How does the horse defend himself? Ans. Chiefly with his heels ; he can also strike with his fore-feet, and bite. 116 THE MOTHER'S MANUAL. How does the cow? Ans. The cow and many other animals are furnished with horns. What animals have horns ? Ans. The cow, ox, bull, goat, ram, deer, bison, ibex. What has the elephant? Ans. Large tusks, and a great proboscis, which is very strong. And the rhinoceros? Ans. He has a strong sharp horn on the end of his snout, which is very dangerous. The boar has tusks. How do the smaller animals defend themselves ? Ans. Chiefly with their teeth ; such as the squirrel, weasel, rat, mouse, &c. Some animals are very timid, and by their fleetness are enabled to escape. LESSON FIFTH BIRDS. Have birds any means of defence ? Ans. Birds defend themselves with their beaks or bills, their claws and wings. The condor and the eagle have very strong beaks and talons, because, like carnivorous animals, they live on ALPHABET OP NATURE. 117 flesh. The cock is furnished with sharp spurs, in addi- tion to his other means of defence. And the hen, what has she ? Ans. When she has her brood to protect, she grows very bold, and puts on such a show of courage as to frighten the larger animals away. The wings of some birds are very strong, and are made use of to strike. How do the goose and turkey defend themselves 1 Ans. With their beaks, but chiefly by noise and a show of courage. How is it with the smaller tribe ? Ans. The instrument with which they collect their food, serves at the same time to defend them. LESSON SIXTH FISHES. Have fishes any instruments of defence ? Ans. Fishes, like beasts and birds, are furnished both with means of protection and escape. What are they 1 Ans. Some have very sharp teeth, such as the shark ; some an instrument like a sword ; others have an in- strument like a saw, as the sword-fish and saw-fish. 118 THE MOTHER'S MANUAL. What more ? Ans. Some strike very hard with their tail ; but the smaller fish depend chiefly upon their swiftness to elude their enemies. The flying-fish has wings, with which he darts out of the water, and flies a considerable distance. Can you think of any other? Ans. Yes; the lobster and crab are furnished with strong claws or pincers ; terrapins retire within their shell on the approach of danger, and the oyster and clam dwell safely within their stony walls. How do insects defend themselves ? Ans. With their stings and claws. Where are the stings placed ? Ans. Two-winged insects carry their sting in the head, as the fly, musquitoe, gnat, &c. ; and the four- wing- ed in the tail, as the bee, hornet, wasp, &c. LESSON SEVENTH INSTRUMENTS OF MOTION. What are the instruments of motion? Ans. Quadrupeds have legs and feet for motion. Which are the swiftest of these? Ans. The horse, zebra, deer, fox, dog, hare, ibex, rabbit. What have birds ? Ans. Wings, with which they fly very swiftly ; and legs for running, wading, swimming, and climbing ; as cranes, ducks, and parrots. What have fishes ? Ans. Their instruments of motion are their fins and tail. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 119 And insects ? Ans. Insects are furnished with wings and feet. Have any more than two wings 1 Ans. Yes ; some have four. What number of feet have they ? Ans. From four up to a hundred: these last are called centipedes. LESSON EIGHTH. DIFFERENT PARTS OF VEGETABLES THAT ARE USEFUL. 1st. The Root. What vegetables are useful in this respect ? Ans. The potato, turnip, beet, parsnip, radish, yam, ginger. What is the form of each ? Ans. Bulbous, tuberous, spindle-shaped, &c. Which is bulbous? tuberous? Ans. The potato, turnip, onion, &c. Which are spindle-shaped ? Ans. The beet, parsnip, radish. What is their color ? Ans. The potato and turnip are white ; the beet red, parsnip white, radish red, &c. What is their use 1 Ans. For food ; they are very nutritious and whole- some. Where are they cultivated ? Ans. In most parts of the world, especially in Europe and North and South America. 120 the mother's manual. lesson ninth. 2d. The Sap. What vegetables are useful in this respect ? Ans. Sugar-cane, sugar-tree, beet-root, pine-tree, and the various gums. Where does the sugar-cane grow? Ans. In warm countries. [Here let a piece of the cane be shown.] The juice is pressed out of the cane, then put into large kettles and boiled; afterwards it is cooled, and the grains of sugar are found at the bottom. Where does the sugar-tree grow ? Ans. In the United States. (Western.) How do they get the sap ? Ans. They bore a hole in the trunk, then put a little hollow stick into it, and the juice runs out into wooden troughs placed to receive it. And is this juice boiled ? Ans. Yes ; just like that of the cane. What have you to say of the beet-root ? Ans. The juice of the beet will make sugar in the same way. The juice that is left is called molasses. What does the fir or pine produce ? Ans. The sap of the pine is called turpentine, and is made into tar and pitch, both of which are very useful. What are their qualities? Ans. They are very inflammable, and are used for ships, boats, and many other things. Besides these, many trees produce gums, which are useful, as gum elastic, gum arabic, &c. What does gum elastic come from? Ans. From a tree which grows in South America. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 121 LESSON TENTH. 3d. The Trunk or Wood. What trees are useful as timber ? Ans. The wood of almost every tree is useful, especially the timber trees. What trees are useful ? Ans. The oak, maple, chestnut, pine, cedar, poplar, ash, gum, mahogany. Where do these trees grow? Ans. In most parts of the world. For what are they useful 1 Ans. Some to build ships, as the oak, locust, walnut, &c. Some for houses, as the pine, cedar, &c. Some for furniture, as mahogany, maple, rose-wood, satin- wood, &c. Some for carriages and various utensils, plows, harrows, tubs, buckets, &c. Some for dyeing, as log-wood, &c. Some for charcoal, &c. The char- coal of the willow is used, and is the best, for making gunpowder. LESSON ELEVENTH 4th. The Bark. Is the bark of vegetables of use. Ans. Yes ; such as the bark of the oak, cinnamon, sassafras, Peruvian bark, cork-tree, &c. What is oak bark used for ? Ans. For tanning leather, because of its astringent quality. [The process of tanning may be explained in this place or not, at the option of the teacher.] 122 the mother's manual. Where does cinnamon come from ? Ans. From Asia. It is the bark of a tree that grows in Ceylon, and some othdr places. [Let it be exhibited to the sight and taste.] What is its use? Ans. It is used by the confectioner and cook as an aromatic spice. What is its taste ? Ans. It is pungent to the taste. What are sassafras and Peruvian bark used for 1 Ans. They are medicinal the latter is found in South America. Where does the cork-tree grow ? Ans. In Spain, Portugal, &c. What are its quality and uses ? Ans. It is very light and spongy, and is used for floats, stoppers, and for bottles, &c. LESSON TWELFTH. 5th. Leaves. What vegetables are useful in this particular ? Ans. The leaves of the tea-plant, rose, peppermint, sage, &c. Is tea the leaf of a plant ? Ans. Yes ; of the tea-plant, which grows in China. Are there several different kinds of tea ? Ans. Yes ; such as hyson, green-tea, black-tea, gun- powder, imperial, &c. The leaves are gathered at different stages of the growth, some when quite small, some when a little larger, and some when full grown, and hence these various names. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 123 What are some of the qualities of tea ? Ans. It is aromatic, of pleasant flavor, and gently stimulating or enlivening. How is it prepared for drinking ? Ans. By pouring hot water on the leaves : then it is called an infusion. What is made of rose leaves ? Ans. Rose-water is distilled from them ; peppermint, sage and balm, and the leaves of many other plants, are used for tea. LESSON THIRTEENTH. The FruiL What is properly called the fruit ? Ans. That part which incloses the seed, (the pericarp.) How do these grow ? Ans. Some on trees, as oranges, lemons, apples, peaches, pears, apricots, plums, &c. Some grow on shrubs, as gooseberries, whortleberries, blackberries, currants, &c. Some grow on vines, as melons, straw- berries, cranberries, dewberries, grapes, &c. Which of these are used for their juice as well as pulp? Ans. The juice of the apple, and is called cider ; that of the pear, and is called perry ; that of the grape, currant and gooseberry, and these are called wine. LESSON FOURTEENTH. Of Seeds. What vegetables are valued on account of their seed? Ans. Those which produce farina or flour, and those which yield oil. .24 the mother's manual. Which are the farinaceous grains ? Ans. Wheat, rye, Indian-corn, buckwheat, oats, rice, &c. What is made of farina or flour ? Ans. Bread and cakes. Which yields oil ? Ans. The olive, cotton-seed, castor-oil bean, sun- flower-seed, flax-seed, &c. What are the uses of these ? Ans. Olive oil is used for the table, cotton-seed for burning, oil-bean for medicine, &c. What is this kind of oil called ? Ans. Vegetable oil; but there is another kind called animal oil, procured from whales and quadrupeds. FIFTEENTH SERIES. TRAINS OF IDEAS. Observation. In this series it is intended to exhibit those associations of ideas, appertaining to the same class, and not those which are collateral. I. Of a house; its stniclure. Tell me in what manner a house is built. Ans. First the cellar is dug, the stone walls placed ALPHABET OP NATURE. 125 for the foundation, then the brick walls, the joists for floors, the door posts, the window frames, the sashes, the floors, the fire-places, the chimneys, the roof, the spouts, the gutters, the door, the windows, the partitions, the plastered walls, the ceiling, the shutters, the steps. 2. The Materials. What are the materials for a house ? Stone for the foundation; brick for walls; timber for joists ; boards, shingles for roof, marble for steps and mantels, glass for windows, iron for locks, brass for 'knobs, tin for spouts, lime for mortar,' paint and putty for windows, grate for coals. 3. The Trades employed. What trades must be employed ? Ans. The cellar digger, the carter, the stone dealer, the lime dealer, the stone mason, the hod carrier, the brick-maker, the bricklayer, the wood cutter, the saw- yer, the raftman, the lumber merchant, the carpenter, the quarrier, the marble cutter, the marble mason, the locksmith, the ironmonger, the grate maker, the glass blower, the glazier, the painter, the plasterer, the slater, the tinman. 4. The Furniture. What is the furniture? Ans. The carpet, the mirrors, the book-case, the tables, the chairs, the sofa, the piano, the grate, the fire-irons, the pictures, blinds, curtains, bedstead, bed, bureau, toilet, wash-stand, crib, cradle, stove, tea-kettle, iron-pot, skillet, coffee-pot, tea-pot, cups, saucers, plates, bowls, dishes, lamps, candlesticks, oil can. L2 126 the mother's manual. 5. Trades. What are the trades employed in furnishing a house? Ans. The upholsterer for carpets, curtains, beds ; the carpet-weaver, the joiner, the chair-maker, the piano- maker, the looking-glass maker, the grate -maker, the lamp-maker, the iron-founder, the tinman, the potter, the cooper, the printer, the bookbinder, the print-seller, the picture-frame maker, the gilder, the blind-maker, the bell-hanger, the brass-founder, the engraver, the artist. 6. Materials. What are these things made of? Ans. The carpet of wool, the tables of mahogany, the chairs of mahogany, maple, &c. ; piano of pine, mahogany for the case, ivory for the keys, wire for chords, brass for handles and knobs ; hair-cloth, curled hair, pine and mahogany, for sofa ; chintz and silk for curtains, linen for sheets, woollen for blankets, feathers for beds, pillows, and bolsters ; iron for kettles and pots, clay for earthenware, glass for lamps, gold leaf for picture-frames; pine, mahogany, and maple for bed- steads, sheet-iron for stoves. 7. A Ship. Teacher. Come, let us build a ship Well, we first lay the keel, then the timbers, the beams, the planks, the decks, the hatches, the stern-timbers, the cutwater, the hold, the cabin, pumps ; next, the spars, the bowsprit, the masts, the beams, the yards, the round-top ; ALPHABET OF NATURE. 127 next, the sails, the mainsail, main- top-sail, main-top-gal- lant-sail, the foresail, fore-top-sail, fore-top-gallant-sail, the mizen-topsail, the mizen-top-gallant-sail, the jib, the flying-jib, staysail, studding-sail; next, the ropes, the shrouds, the halyards, the stays, the cables. 8. The Materials. Now tell me the materials made use of in building (constructing) a ship. 1. Oak timber for the keel, timbers, planks, decks ; pine timber for spars, such as masts, booms, yards, bowsprit; mahogany and maple, for the ornamental parts of the cabin, state-rooms, berths, &c. 2. Iron and copper for bolts, spikes, nails, and fasten- ings of various kinds; also for anchors, chain-cables, &c. 3. Hemp, for sails, ropes, and all kinds of cordage, cables, &c. 9. Trades employed in Ship-building. Are there many trades connected with ship-building? Ans. Yes ; and I will try to name them. First, there is the wood-chopper to cut down the trees, the sawyer to saw the planks, the ship-carpenter to hew the tim- bers and planks, fit and fashion them together, the blacksmith to make the anchors, bolts, chain-cables, spikes, hooks, nails, &c. ; the ship-joiner to construct and finish the cabin, state-rooms, berths, &c. ; the cop- persmith, to fasten the copper on her bottom, the rope- maker to furnish the cordage ; the sail-maker to cut, sew and fit the sails ; the carver to carve the figure- head ; the painter, the rigger. 128 the mother's manual. 10. A Book Materials. What are the materials used to make a book ? Ans. The rags for paper, metal for types to print the letters, leather and morocco for binding, pasteboard and wood for covers, glue and paste to fasten them together, thread to stitch the leaves, gold-leaf to orna- ment the cover. 11. Trades employed. What are they? Ans. The rag-merchant, the paper-maker, the sta- tioner, the type-founder, the press-maker, the ink-maker, the pelt-maker, the chase-maker, the compositor, the pressman, the gatherer, the folder, the stitcher, the leather-seller, the binder, the coppersmith, the engraver, the wood-cutter, the copper-plate printer, and the book- seller. 12. For clothing. Materials. What are the materials of clothing, and from whence ? Ans. From the animal kingdom, as wool from the sheep, hair from the camel and goat, fur from the beaver, ermine, hare, rabbit, &c. ; leather from skins of the ox, cow, calf, horse, deer, dog, sheep ; silk from the silk-worm, that feeds on the leaves of the mulberry. What from the vegetable 1 Ans. Linen from flax, and muslin from cotton, sail- cloth from hemp. 13. Parts of Clothing. Can you tell what is made out of wool 1 Ans. Yes ; broadcloths, flannels, stockings, cassi- meres, carpets, &c. ALPHABET OP NATURE. 129 What out of hair? Ans.' Coarse cloths of various kinds of fur, muffs, tippets, capes, collars of leather, boots, shoes, saddles, bridles, harness, trunks, linings for carriages, &c. of silk, dresses, stockings, gloves, waistcoats, handker- chiefs, &c. What is made of cotton ? Ans. Muslin, chintz, fustian, sheetings, &c. of flax, linen for shirts, lace, &c of hemp, coarse cloths, sail cloth, &c. 14. Trades employed in Clothing. What are these trades ? Ans. For woollens, there are the wool-man, the combes, the spinner, the weaver, the fuller, the dyer, the presser, the packer, and the woollen-draper. And what for linens ? Ans. The flax-dresser, the spinner, the weaver, the bleacher, the presser, the packer, and the linen-draper. What for cottons? Ans. There are the planter, the merchant, the cotton spinner, the weaver, the bleacher, the dyer, the presser, the packer, the warehouseman, and the draper. Connected with silk, there are the importer, the silk- throwster or spinner, the weaver, the dyer, the presser, and mercer. 15. Workers in Metal. Can you name these trades ? Ans. Yes; in the metallic trades, called the hard- ware manufacture, there is the miner, the smelter, the iron-master, the founder, the scythesmith, the button- 130 the mother's manual. maker, the gunsmith, the sword-blade-maker, the cutler, the polisher, the plater, the finisher, the sorter, the packer, the factor, and the hardware-man. Can you tell me any thing about mines ? what they are, and where to be found ? Can you say any thing of the uses of the things men- tioned above ? Buttons, guns, &c. ? 16. Iron Utensils, Tools, &c. What are made of iron? Ans. The utensils of the farmer ; his plow, harrow, spade, shovel, hoe, rake, pitchfork, straw-cutter, &c. The tools of mechanics; the saw, the ax, the ham- mer, the plane, the auger, the chisel. Cutlery of all kinds, razors, knives, lancets. The ship-carpenter has his adz, broadax, hammer, auger, &c. 17. Blacksmith. Who makes these useful instruments ? Ans. The blacksmith and cutler. See, here is a blacksmith's shop let us go in. What do you see ? Ans. I see his forge to heat the iron, the bellows to blow the fire, the anvil on which to hammer the metal, the large hammer, called a sledge, his vice, his rasps and files to smooth and polish his work, his punch, with which he makes holes in the iron whilst it is red-hot. 18. Gold. What is gold ? Ans. It is a metal. Where is it found? Ans. In mines, and in some places it is found on the surface of the ground, mixed with the soil and sand. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 131 Where does it abound most? Ans. In the mines of South America, in Mexico, and the United States. What are its qualities ? Ans. It is yellow, bright, heavy, ductile, and malleable. Explain each of these qualities. What more can you say of its ductility ? Ans. It is so ductile that an ounce of it will gild a silver wire 1300 miles in length. What of its malleability? Ans. It is so malleable that it may be beaten into leaves so thin, that 300,000 are only the thickness of an inch. What is the comparative weight of metals called. Ans. Their specific gravity. They are compared with the weight of water, which is an uniform standard. What is the specific gravity of gold ? Ans. It is 19 times heavier than water. What are its uses ? Ans. For coin, gilding, and ornaments of various kinds. 19. Silver. What is silver ? Ans. It is a metal found in mines, like gold. Where has it been found in the greatest quantity ? Ans. In Potosi in Peru, and in Mexico. What are its qualities ? Ans. It is white, lustrous, heavy, ductile, malleable. Explain each of these qualities. What can you say of its ductility ? Ans. It may be drawn out in wire finer than a hair. 132 the mother's manual. What is its specific gravity? Ans. It is 11 times heavier than water. What are its uses 1 Ans. It is used for coin, and is hence, like gold, one of the precious metals. Many rich and valuable articles are also made of silver, such as dishes, coffee-pots, spoons, &c. 20. Copper. What is copper 1 Ans. It is a metal, but less valuable than gold or silver. Where is it found ? Ans. In mines in most parts of the world. What are its qualities 1 Ans. It is of a reddish color, heavy and malleable. What is its weight ? Ans. It is 9 times heavier than water. What are its uses ? Ans. It is used for coin of small value, for the bottoms of ships, spouts, boilers for steam-boats, kettles, &c. Why is it put on ships ? Ans. To preserve them from the action of the salt water, and worms. 21. Of Coins. [Exhibit the different coins.] What are coins ? Ans. Money. What pieces of money are made of copper 1 Ans. Cents and half cents. What are the silver coins 1 Ans. Five cent pieces, or half dimes, ten cent pieces, ALPHABET OF NATURE. 133 or dimes, 6^ cent pieces, 12^ cent pieces, quarter, half, and whole dollars. What are the gold coins ? Ans. Eagles, half eagles, and quarter eagles. How many cents make a dime? a quarter of a dol- lar ? a half dollar 1 three quarters ? a dollar ? How many dollars make an eagle ? half eagle ? quarter of an eagle? What fractional part of a dollar is ten cents or a dime ? Ans. One-tenth. What is a fraction ? Ans. It means a piece broken off, and is part of a whole. If you divide this apple into four equal parts, what frac- tional part of the whole will one piece be? two pieces? three pieces ? Ans. One fourth, two fourths, three fourths. If you divide it into five equal parts ? into six ? seven ? eight? &c. Now if you divide a dollar into four equal parts, what will one part be ? Ans. One quarter or one fourth. Two parts ? three parts? What fractional part of a dollar is 12^ cents? 25 cents? 50 cents ? 75 cents ? 6 cents ? 5 cents ? 1 cent ? What part of an eagle is one dollar ? two dollars ? three ? four ? five ? six ? seven ? eight ? nine ? What part of a hundred dollars is ten ? twenty ? twenty-five ? fifty seventy-five ? - 22. Of Quicksilver, or Mercury. What is mercury ? Ans. It is a metal. Where is it found ? Ans. In mines. M 134 the mother's manual. What are its qualities ? Ans. It is of a grayish color, heavy, liquid like water, but becomes solid like ice in extreme cold. What is its specific gravity? Ans. It is 14 times heavier than water. What are its uses? Ans. A preparation of it is used in medicine, and is called calomel; cinnabar, a beautiful red; and it is also used in weather-glasses. . . What is this ? Ans. It is called a thermometer, which means an instrument to measure heat. What is in this bulb? Ans. It is full of quicksilver. What makes it rise in this little tube? Ans. The heat ; all metals expand by heat and contract by cold. What do expand and contract mean ? Ans. Expand means to spread out, and con- tract means to shrink and grow less. The stove is larger when hot than when cold. When the weather is warm it rises in the tube, and the warmer it is, the higher it rises : when it is cold, it falls. What are these marks for ? Ans. This is the freezing point ; this blood-heat, this summer heat ; this fever-heat, and this the boiling point. This low point is called zero, which means cipher or nought. 23. A Grain of Wheal. What kingdom does this grain belong to ? Ans. The vegetable kingdom. ALPHABET OP NATURE. 135 How does it grow ? Ans. After the farmer has plowed his ground, har- rowed and prepared it, he sows the seed ; after awhile, a little green blade springs up and grows until it becomes tall, and then on the top of the stalk an ear is formed, and this coi \* ins the new seed. Does one seed produce many seed ? Ans. Yes ; sometimes an hundred fold. When ripe, what does the farmer do with it ? Ans. He reaps or cuts it with a sickle, binds it up into sheaves, and takes it into the barn. What does he do with it then ? Ans. He throws down some sheaves on the barn floor, and threshes it with flails; he then urinnows it, that is, he separates it from the chaff, and puts the wheat into sacks or bins. What next? Ans. He next takes it to the mill, and has it ground into flour, the flour is mixed with water and yest, and then baked into bread. Is all bread made of wheat ? Ans. Some is made of wheat, some of rye, Indian corn, oats, barley, &c. 24. An Apple-seed. What is this 1 Ans. An apple-seed. What are its color, form, and size ? Ans. It is brown, oval, and a little larger than a grain of wheat. How does it differ from a grain of wheat? let us compare them. Ans. It diners, first in color, next in form, and it has 136 the mother's manual. no crease, but is smooth on both sides. Now let us cut it open, how does it look beneath the skin 1 Arts. It looks white, like the grain of wheat What is this white substance ? Ans. It is the rudiment of an apple-tree. Will this little seed grow into an apple-tree 1 Ans. Yes ; if you plant it in the ground, it will soon appear above the surface, first very small, it then in- creases in size and becomes a trunk, which puts forth branches, leaves, buds, flowers, fruit, and lastly, seed again like the first. What holds it fast in the ground? Ans. The roots. Is this what the roots are for ? Ans. Yes, and a great deal more ; they imbibe (suck up) moisture and nourishment from the ground, and this is turned into sap, which diffuses itself through every part of the tree, and forms the wood, the leaves, the flowers, fruit and seeds. What is the juice of the apple called ? Ans. Cider. 25. An Acorn. What is an acorn 1 Ans. It is the seed of the oak. Describe it. The lower part is oval like an egg ; the upper part, which is flat, rests in a little cup ; it is of a chestnut color, upper part smooth, but the cup is rough outside. Cut it open how does it look inside ? Ans. Like the substance of a chestnut. What is its taste ? Ans. Its flavor is somewhat bitter ; acorns are excellent for swine and other animals. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 137 Does the acorn contain the rudiments of the oak ? Ans. Yes; like other seed, when planted it grows into a tree, and brings forth fruit after its kind. I have heard that the acorn contains the tree in miniature ; let us cut it through in the middle, and see. Here is an oak leaf can you describe it ? Ans. Its edges are deeply notched, and, like other leaves, it is smooth and glossy on the upper side, and rough on the lower. Ribs and veins run through it, almost like a tree in miniature. What are the qualities of oak timber 1 Ans. It is hard, heavy, and durable. What are its uses ? Ans. For structures of various kinds, houses, ships, &c. What kind is the most durable ? Ans. Live oak, so called because it remains green all the year. 26. The Cow. To what class of animals does the cow belong ? Ans. Quadrupeds, or mammalia. Why so called ? Ans. Because she has four feet, and suckles her young M 2 138 the mother's manual. To what order does she belong 1 Ans. Ruminantia, destitute of cutting-teeth in the upper jaw, hoofs cloven, and chews the cud. What is the nature of this order 1 Ans. Harmless, feed on grass, and hence called herbiferous. What are the uses of the cow 1 Ans. Every part of this animal is useful, the flesh, called beef, the fat, called tallow, the bones, horns, hoofs, skin, hair, tongue, and blood. [Teacher remark on each of these.] Nothing more 1 Ans. Yes ; her milk. What are some of its qualities ? Ans. White, fluid, liquid, wholesome, opaque, nutritious. What are made of milk 1 Ans. Butter and cheese, curds and whey. How is butter made 1 Ans. The cream, which is the oily part of the milk, is churned into butter. Where does the cream come from 1 Ans. It rises to the surface, and is skimmed off. Why does it rise to the surface ? Ans. Because it is lighter than the milk itself. How is cheese made 1 Ans. A substance called runnet is put into the milk to make it curdle, and this curdled substance is collected and pressed into different forms, and this is called cheese. What is the young called ? Ans. A calf. ALPHABET OP NATURE. 139 27. 77/e Horse. Of what class is the horse ? Arts. The class mammalia. Of what order ? Ans. Of the order pachydermata, having blunt fore- teeth in each jaw, and solid hoofs. What does the horse feed upon ? Ans. Grass, herbage, grain, &c. and is herbiferous. What are some of the qualities of the horse 1 Ans. Strong, generous, docile, fleet, and useful. What are his uses ? Ans. His skin and hair are useful, his flesh is not eaten. What are his other uses ? Ans. He is very useful for draught, in wagons, carts, coaches, &c, and also for the saddle. Is not this excellent creature sometimes very ill treated. Ans. Yes ; often cruelly beaten by unfeeling drivers, and forced to draw loads beyond his strength. Are there several kinds of horses ? Ans. Yes ; the race horse, saddle horse, draft horse, pony, &c. 140 the mother's manual. What is the young horse called? Ans. It is called a foal or colt. 28. The Sheep. Does the sheep chew the cud? Ans. It does ; and feeds on herb- age. What kind of hoofs has it ? Ans. Cloven hoofs. And teeth ? Ans. No cutting-teeth in the upper jaw. Now tell me its class and order. Ans. Class mammalia, because it suckles its young ; and order ruminantia, like the cow. What is the nature of the sheep? Ans. It is harmless, inoffensive, and timid. What are its uses ? Ans. Like the cow, every part of the sheep is useful ; its flesh, (called mutton), its fat, skin, &c. What is its principal use ? Ans. For its wool, which is manufactured into cloths, carpets, stockings, &c. The young sheep is called lamb. 29. Tlie Dog. Now let us look at the dog's teeth and claws ; what do you see ? Ans. He has teeth in both jaws, and they are sharp ; and his toes have nails. Can you tell the class and order of the dog ? Ans. Class mammalia ; and order carnivora, or flesh- eating. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 141 Are there many animals of this order ? Ans. Yes ; the lion, tiger, hyena, fox, wolf, cat, &c, are of this order. Are there many kinds of the dog ? Ans. Yes ; the bull-dog, spaniel, pointer, water-dog, setter, hound, lap-dog, &c. What are the qualities of the dog 1 Ans. Sagacious, watchful, faithful, affectionate, and courageous. * What are his uses ? Ans. He is useful to the sportsman, guards the house, and is serviceable to the shepherd. The young is called puppy. 30. The Cat Look at the teeth and claws; what do you see ? Ans. I see teeth both above and be- low, very sharp, and sharp claws. ^-i*^l*iS.^ Why are they sharp? Ans. That she may catch the mice and tear their flesh and devour it. Do they eat grass ? Ans. No ; their teeth cannot chew it, because they are sharp-pointed. Can you now tell the class and order of the cat 1 Ans. Yes; class mammalia, order carnivora. Explain these words. What are the qualities of the cat ? Ans. Agile, watchful, sly, treacherous, playful, cruel. Explain these words ; agile, &c. 142 the mother's manual. What seems to be the natural prey of the cat ? Ans. Rats and mice. What parts of the cat are useful ? Ans. The fur is used by the hatter and furrier. Are all cats tame or domestic ? Ans. No ; there is a wild species, very ferocious, as large as a dog, of a yellow color with black spots, called a panther. What is tlie young of the cat called ? Ans. A kitten. EXERCISES ON CLASSIFICATION. LESSON FIRST THE MONKEY. To what kingdom does the mon- key belong. Ans. Animal. Explain the word animal. To what class? Ans. Mammalia. What does mammalia mean ? Ans. Those animals that suckle their young. To what order 1 Ans. Quadrumana. What does this word mean 1 Ans. It means a four-handed animal. To what genus 1 Ans. Simia. Are there many species of this genus or family ? Ans. Very many. How is this order distinguished ? Ans. By having four cutting-teeth in each jaw, and four extremities i*esembling hands. ALPHABET OF NATURE. LESSON SECOND. 143 THE ELEPHANT. To what kingdom, class, order and genus does the elephant belong ? Ans. Animal kingdom, class mammalia, order pachy- dermata. How are animals of this order distinguished? Ans. By having no fore-teeth in either jaw, and a thick skin. LESSON THIRD. .THE LION. To what kingdom, class, order, genus, does the lion belong 1 144 the mother's manual. Ans. Animal kingdom, class mammalia, order car- nivora, genus felis. How are animals of this order distinguished? Ans. By their having sharp teeth and claws for tear- ing their prey. LESSON FOURTH THE RABBIT. To what kingdom, class, order, genus, &c, does the rabbit belong? Ans. Animal kingdom, class mam- malia, order rodentia or gnawers, ffB^ genus rabbit. How are animals of this order distinguished ? Ans. By having liuo cutting fore-teeth in each jaw. LESSON FIFTH THE COW. To what kingdom, class, order, and genus does the cow belong ? Ans. Animal kingdom, class mammalia, order rumi- nantia, genus ox. How is this order distinguished? Ans. By being destitute of cutting-teeth in the upper jaw, having cloven hoofs, and chewing the cud. LESSON SIXTH THE HORSE. To what kingdom, class, order, and genus does the horse belong? Ans. To the animal kingdom, class mammalia, order pachydermata, genus equus or horse. How is this order distinguished? Ans. By obtuse or blunt fore-teeth and solid hoofs. ALPHABET OP NATURE. 145 LESSON SEVENTH. THE WHALE. To what kingdom, class, order, and genus does the whale belong 1 Ans. To the animal kingdom, class mammalia, order ceti, genus bellena or whale. Observations. These examples it is presumed will be sufficient to show the manner in which exercises on Classifi- cation may be conducted. They can be extended to the other departments of nature, as far as may be deemed proper by the teacher. GEOGRAPHICAL SERIES. Observation. As the different countries and their relative size and position, may be rendered visible and tangible by means of Maps, their study by the Infants comes within the scope of our design. A regular plan must be pursued, the most simple principles first presented and acquired, then grad- ually and cautiously passing on to those a little more complex, as their tender minds become able to receive them. N 10 146 the mother's manual. MANNER OF STUDYING MAPS. PREPARATORY EXERCISES. LESSON FIRST. NORTH. H S| a. < H 'ft W H What are the four cardinal points? Ans. East, west, ndrth, south. All rise and turn your faces to- wards the north now towards the south now east now west. south. When you turn your faces towards the north, on which hand is the east ? Ans. On the right hand ; south behind, and west on the left. Which is the north part of the map ? Ans. The top. Which the south 1 east 1 west ? LESSON SECOND. What are the three great geographical divisions ? Ans. Natural, political, and astronomical. Explain each of these terms. 1. Natural divisions are those made by nature, as land and water. 2. Political are those made by men, as kingdoms and states. 3. Astronomical are the lines and circles on the map and globe. Direction. Let each of these divisions be pointed out and explained with great care. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 147 LESSON THIRD. Terms applied to different portions of Land. 1. What is a continent ? Ans. A large tract of land containing many kingdoms, states, &c. [Illustrate this by pointing out all jthe continents in the world.] Europe is a continent, Asia, Africa, New-Holland, America. The four former in the eastern hemisphere, the last in the western. What is a hemisphere 1 Ans. It means half a sphere or globe. 148 THE MOTHER S MANUAL. LESSON FOURTH. 2. What is an island 1 Ans. An island is land surrounded by water. [Illustrate this, by pointing out the largest single islands and groups in the world.] 3. What is a peninsula? Ans. Land almost surrounded by water ; it is derived from pene almost, and insula an island. III. Point out all the principal peninsulas. 4. What is an isthmus 1 Ans. A narrow neck of land. Ill Point out all the isthmuses. 5. A coast 6. A cape 7. A mountain 8. Volcanoes Point them out in the same manner. \ ALPHABET OF NATURE. 149 LESSON FIFTH. r~ N- ^ ^^ w ^s l/ v^> & B ,/f\ 1 J /f * r ffl X f/\ R OCti L1CHT HOUSE V \ 111 1 i^V Terms applied to different portions of Water. As 1. Ocean [Point out the oceans.] 2. Sea 3. Gulf Lake 5. River 6. Estuary. [Let the pointing out of each of these on the map, form an exercise in the same manner ; also the relative position of each.] LESSON SIXTH RIVERS. 1. Trace some of the largest rivers in North America: name their direction, the countries through which they run, and where they empty. 2. The largest rivers in South America, direction, &c. 3. The principal rivers in Europe, course, &c. 4. The most noted rivers of Asia. 5. The chief rivers of Africa. N 2 150 THE MOTHER'S MANUAL. LESSON SEVENTH. What are the different ranges or chains of mountains in Europe ? Ans. The Uralian, Dofrine, Alps, Carpathian, Apen- nines, Pyrenees, and the volcanic mountains of Etna, Vesuvius, and Hecla. In Asia? Ans. Taurus, Altay and Yablonoy, Caucasus, Himala, and Gauts/ In Africa 1 Ans. Atlas, and mountains of the Moon. In America ? Ans. Alleghany, Rocky, Cordilleras, and Andes. Tell their direction, relative situation, &c. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 151 2. POLITICAL DIVISIONS. LESSON EIGHTH RELATIVE SITUATION. In what direction does Europe lie from America ? Ans. It lies east % Why? Ans. Because it is on the right-hand side of America. How does Africa lie from Europe ? Ans. South, because it is below Europe. How does Asia lie from Europe? New Holland from Asia? South America from Africa? North America from Europe ? What lies between Europe and America ? Where is Austral or South Asia? Ans. New Holland and the adjacent islands. Where is Polynesia or Oceana ? Ans. Polynesia (which means many islands) are those islands which lie in the Pacific Ocean. Where are the West Indies? Where the Asiatic Islands. LESSON NINTH BOUNDARIES. Bound North America. North America is bounded north by the Frozen Ocean, east by the Atlantic, south by the Gulf of Mex- ico and South America, and west by the Pacific Ocean and Bhering's Straits. How is Europe bounded? Asia? Africa? South America ? 152 the mother's manual. lesson tenth general divisions. What are the general divisions of North America. Ans. Three ; Northern, Middle, and Southern. What does the northern division include ? Ans. New Britain, Labrador, Upper 6r Lower Canada, and the Russian possessions on the north-west coast. What does the middle division contain 1 Ans. The United States, extending from the Atlantic on the east, to the Pacific on the west. What does the southern division embrace ? Ans. New Mexico, Old Mexico, Central America, and the two large peninsulas Yucatan and California. __ LESSON ELEVENTH. GENERAL DIVISIONS OF THE UNITED STATES. What are the general divisions of the U. States 1 Ans. Four; the northern, middle, southern, and west- ern. Name the states in each division. Ans. In the norUiern are the six following Maine, New-Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode- Island, and Connecticut ; called New-England states. In the middle division are New-York, Pennsylvania, New- Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland. In the southern division are Virginia, N. Carolina, S. Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana. In the western division are Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 153 LESSON TWELFTH. BOUNDARIES OF EACH STATE, BEGINNING WITH MAINE. The objects most worthy of notice, and which will require strict attention, are 1. The mountains. 2. The rivers, to trace them, and tell the direction in which they run, and where they discharge their waters ; and 3. The principal cities and towns, and their situation. 4. Gulfs. 5. Islands. LESSON THIRTEENTH EUROPE. What are the general divisions of Europe? Ans. Europe is divided into three general divisions ; northern, middle, and southern. What does each division contain ? Ans. The northern contains Norway, Lapland, Swe- den, Northern Russia, Denmark, and Prussia. The middle embraces England, Scotland, and Ireland, France, Holland, Belgium, Germany, Austria, Switzer- land, Poland, and Southern Russia. The southern contains Portugal, Spain, Italy, Turkey, and Greece. LESSON FOURTEENTH. Bound each of the European empires and kingdoms. Point out the mountains. The Uralian, Dofrine, Carpathian, Alps, Apennines, Pyrenees, Etna, Vesuvius, and Hecla. Trace the chief rivers, tell their courses and where they empty, the gulfs and bays, lakes, islands, capes, cities, and towns. 154 the mother's manual. lesson fifteenth asia. What are the general divisions of Asia ? Ans. Three ; the northern, middle, and southern. What does each division include ? Ans. The northern includes Asiatic Russia, or Sibe- ria. The middle division includes Asiatic Turkey, Georgia, Armenia, Persia, Independent Tartary, Chinese Tartary, and Tibet. The southern division in- cludes Arabia, Hindoostan, India beyond the Ganges, and China. LESSON SIXTEENTH. Bound each of these subdivisions. Point out the chains of mountains, such as the Taurus in Turkey, Caucasus between the Black and Caspian sea, Altay and Yablonoy south of Siberia, Horeb and Sinai in the north-west of Arabia, and the Gauts in the south of Hindoostan. Trace the principal rivers, tell their courses, and where they empty. Point out the seas, gulfs, islands, cities, and their relative situation. LESSON SEVENTEENTH INDIA BEYOND THE GANGES. What are the boundaries? Ans. It is bounded on the north by Tibet ; east by China, gulf of Tonquin and the Chinese sea ; south by the gulf of Siam and strait of Malacca ; and west by the bay of Bengal and Hindoostan. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 155 What are its subdivisions 1 Ans. The Birman empire in the west; Laos in the interior; Malacca, Siam, and Cambodia, in the south; Cochin-China and Tonquin in the east. Point out its gulfs, trace its rivers, and tell the situa- tion of the cities and towns. i LESSON EIGHTEENTH. AFRICA. What are the general divisions of Africa ? Ans. Five; the northern, eastern, southern, western, and central. What does the northern include ? Ans. The Barbary states, called Morocco, Fez, Al- giers, Tunis, Tripoli, and Lybia. What the eastern ? Ans. Egypt, Nubia, Sennaar, Abyssinia, Adel, Ajan, Zanguebar, and Mozambique. What the southern 1 Ans. Sabia, CafFraria, Hottentots, and Cape of Good Hope. The western division includes Upper and Lower Guinea, Liberia, &c, and Soudan or Nigritia in the interior. LESSON NINETEENTH GUINEA. What are the subdivisions of Lower Guinea ? Ans. Loango, Congo, Angola, Bemba, and Benguela ; of Upper-Guinea, the divisions are the Grain-Coast, Ivory-Coast and Gold-Coast, Dahomey, Benin and Biafra. 156 the mother's manual. Point out the capes, islands, mountains; trace the rivers, and name the chief cities and their situation. LESSON TWENTIETH SOUTH AMERICA. What are the general divisions ? Ans. Colombia, Venezuela and Guiana in the north, Brazil in the east, Patagonia in the south, Chili and Peru in the west, and Buenos- Ayres, Bolivia, and Amazonia in the interior. What are the capes ? Ans. Vela in the north, St. Roque in the east, cape Horn in the south, and Blanco in the west. What are the mountains ? Ans. The vast chain of the Andes, the highest parts of which are Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, and Pechinca. What are the chief rivers 1 Ans. The Oronoko in the north, the Amazon with its numerous branches, and the Rio de la Plata. Point out the principal cities in each divisions also the islands. LESSON TWENTY-FIRST. 3. ASTRONOMICAL DIVISIONS. What are the astronomical divisions 1 Ans. The imaginary circles on the map and globe. Remarks. These circles result from the relation which the Earth bears to the Sun in her annual and diurnal motion. The diurnal rotation gives rise to the horizon and meridians, the annual rotation to the equator, ecliptic, tropics, and polar circles. These circles appertain to the celestial globe, but so far as zones, latitude and longitude are concerned, to the ter- restrial globe also. Let the attention of the children be directed to these circles on a globe and map. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 157 It will be difficult to convey a clear idea of these circles, as described on the canopy above, and to transfer them to the earth : perhaps the best method will be to imagine ourselves in the interior of a glass or transparent globe, with the circles on the outside. Where is the zenith ? Ans. The point over-head. From the zenith to the horizon in every direction is 90 ; from one horizon to the other is 180; the whole circle of the heavens 360. LESSON TWENTY-SECOND LATITUDE. What is latitude ? Ans. Latitude is the distance from the equator, either north or south. Point out the parallels of latitude from the equator to the north pole. From the equator to the south pole. What is the number of degrees ? Ans. Ninety ; thus, ten, twenty, thirty, &c. Latitude of Places. In what latitude is the northern part of North America ? the middle ? the southern ? The northern part of the United States? the middle? the southern? The northern part of Europe? the middle ? the southern ? The northern part of Asia? the middle? the southern? The northern part of Africa? the middle? the southern? The northern part of S. America? the middle? the southern ? O 158 the mother's manual. lesson twenty-third. longitude. How is longitude reckoned ? Ans. East and west, and numbered on the equator. Where do you begin to reckon ? Ans. At the meridian of Greenwich or London. If you count towards the right hand it is east longitude, if towards the left hand it is west. EXAMPLES. What is the longitude of the west of Europe ? the middle ? the east ? What is the longitude of the west of Africa? the middle ? the east ? What is the longitude of the west of Asia ? the middle ? the east ? What is the longitude of the east of N. America ? the middle ? the west ? What is the longitude of the east of S. America ? the middle V the west ? What is the longitude of the chief cities of Europe ? Of Asia ? Of Africa ? Of America ? LESSON TWENTY-FOURTH. THE ZONES. What is the space between the tropics called ? Ans. The Torrid zone, so named because of its heat. What is the space between the tropics and polar circles called? Ans. The Temperate zone, because the climate is temperate. What is the space between the polar circles and the poles called? Ans. The Frigid zone, because of its coldness. What is the latitude of the tropics ? Ans. 23^ degrees; and of the polar circles 66^ degrees. ALPHABET OF NATURE. ASTRONOMY. 159 ^ irS Mj^^^c , What does the word Astronomy signify ? Ans. It is derived from aslrea, a star, and nomas, a law or rule. It embraces the study of the visible heavens. Of what does the visible heavens consist ? Ans. Of stars, planets, and comets. 160 the mother's manual. How do the stars differ from the planets ? Ans. They shine with a twinkling light, but the planets do not twinkle. The stars are also called fixed, because they do not change their relative position. What does planet mean 1 Ans. A wanderer, because the planets change their situation. What does comet mean? Ans. The word is derived from come, hair, because the tails of comets appear like hair. Solar System. What does the solar system mean ? Ans. It is called so from Sol, which means the sun ; because the sun is in the centre, and the planets all move round him, in circles called orbits. What does orbit mean 1 Ans. It means a circle, which is the same as orb, or orbit. Please, sir, will you tell us about the solar system 1 Ans. Yes ; now pay attention, and I will tell you first about the order, second the magnitude, third the distance, and fourth the motion, or times of revolution of the planets. Now look at the solar system. What do you see ? Ans. The sun in the centre, and circles round him. Now name the order of the planets, beginning with the one next the sun. Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Juno, Pallas, Ceres, Vesta, Jupiter, Saturn, Herschel. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 161 Do you see the circle in which each moves round the sun? Ans. Yes; and I remember you called them orbits. Now for the magnitude. You remember what was said about diameter and circumference ? Ans. Yes ; diameter is the distance through the cen- tre, and circumference the distance round any body. Well, the diameter of Mercury is three thousand miles, "Venus eight thousand, the Earth eight thousand, Mars four thousand, Jupiter eighty-nine thousand, Saturn seventy-nine thousand, and Herschel thirty-four thousand miles. And what is the size of the small planets or asteroids ? Ans. They are very small ; the largest not more than two thousand, and the smallest eighty miles in diameter. And what is the circumference of these planets ? Ans. A little more than three times the diameter: thus the earth is eight thousand miles in diameter, and a little more than three times that, or ticenty-five thou- sand miles in circumference. What is the magnitude of the sun 1 Ans. The sun is one million of times larger than the earth ; or, it would take a million of bodies like the earth to make a body as large as the sun. Distance. What is the distance of the planets from the sun ? Ans. Mercury is 36 Venus 68 Earth 95 Mars 142 Jupiter 486 Saturn 892 and Herschel 1800 millions of miles from the sun. 2 11 162 the mother's manual. Times of Revolution. In what time do the planets respectively move round the sun? Ans. Mercury revolves round the sun in three months ; Venus in seven months ; the Earth in twelve months, or one year ; Mars in twenty-two months ; Jupiter in twelve years ; Saturn in thirty years ; and Herschel in eighty-four years. Are these all the planets belonging to our system 1 Ans. No ; besides these primary or principal planets, there are others called secondaries, satellites, or moons. Are there many of these moons ? Ans. There are eighteen moons ; the Earth has one moon, Jupiter four, Saturn seven, and Herschel six. SATURN. What else has Saturn ? Ans. A double ring situated at a distance from the body of the planet. What are the other bodies belonging to our system ? Ans. Comets; they are very numerous, and some of them as large as our earth. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 163 Do they move round the sun like the planets ? ./Ins. Ne ; they do not move round him in circular orbits, but in orbits that are elliptical or oval The Moon. Is the moon as large as the sun? Ans. No ; the reason she appears so large, is, because she is so near to us. How far is the moon from us ? Ans. Only 240,000 miles. What is the size of the moon ? Ans. She is 2000 miles in diameter, and about 6300 miles in circumference. Does the moon move round the earth ? Ans. Yes : she accompanies the earth in her annual orbit round the sun ; and during that period goes her- self nearly thirteen times round the earth in an orbit of her own ; thus dividing the vear into months or moons. SERIES ON NUMBERS. The four general relations of Numbers : Addition, Multipli- cation, Subtraction, and Division. FIRST LESSON. What is this ? Ans. An apple. I have cut it into two equal pieces what is one piece called ? Ans. One half. I put the two pieces together again what is it now called? Ans. A whole apple. 164 the mother's manual. Again, I cut it into three equal parts what is one piece called? Ans. One-third. Two pieces, two-thirds. The three pieces, a whole. Now I cut it into four equal parts, five, six, seven, eight, &c. and proceed with each as before. SECOND LESSON. Now I cut the apple into two equal parts, and give little John one piece what will be left ? Ans. One half. If I cut it into three pieces, and give him one, how many will be left then ? Ans. Two pieces. If I give him two pieces ? Ans. One left. [So proceed.] THIRD LESSON. Count the fingers and thumb on one hand, on both hands How many on one ? How many on both ? Hold up one finger ; how many ones is that ? Ans. One. Hold up two ; how many ones now 1 Ans. Two. How many twos are there on both hands 1 Ans. Five twos. How many on one hand 1 Ans. Two and one over. How many threes ? How many fours ? If you hold up your thumb and shut the fingers of one hand, how many will be shut ? Ans. Four. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 165 If you hold up the thumb and finger, how many will be shut? Ans. Three. If you hold up the thumb and two fingers ? thumb and three fingers 1 how many shut on both hands? LESSON FOURTH. Exercise in counting in connexion with some object, such as balls or pebbles. Count one, two, three, four, five, &c. Count by twos, one two, two twos, three twos, &c. How many threes 1 one three, two threes, three threes, &c. So proceed to any reasonable length, and continue until they are perfect. Next proceed with the exercises in addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, taking special care to make use of the proper terms, as Two and two, or two plus two, for addition. Three less two, or three minus two, for subtraction. Three times four, for multiplication. Four how many times two, for division. FIFTH LESSON. Figures on the Black Board. What is this? 1. Ans. One. What does it stand for ? Ans. One ball, one apple, one pebble, &c. What is this? 2. Ans. Two, and so proceed up to ten. SIXTH LESSON. Observation. They must be next made to understand the two values of figures. 1. The one which the figure itself expresses. 2. The other value which depends on place. 166 the mother's manual. When the figures 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. stand alone, they express the simple value denoted by the figure. When they are connected together, they express not only this simple value, but another value derived from place. Thus one when in the first or units place is one when in the second place it is ten, &c. The nought, or cipher, has no individual value, but only the value of place ; or it confers a value on other figures by caus- ing them to change their situation. Thus the cipher by itself is nothing, but placed on the right hand of 1 it converts the 1 into 10 by moving the one into the second place ; and so of all others. How many values have figures ? Ans. Two ; the one expressed by the figure itself, the other by its place. What is the first or right-hand place ? Ans. Units ; the second tens, third hundreds. If you place 2 in the units place, what is it called ? Ans. Two. In the second place ? Ans. Twenty. In the third? Ans. Two hundred. [So proceed with the other figures.] Has the cipher any value? Ans. None of itself, but it gives a value to other figures. How? Ans. By moving them out of their places. Here is the figure three on the black board ; now I put a cipher on the right, what is it now ? Ans. 30. Why? Ans. Because the cipher moves it into the second or ten's place. Now place two ciphers before it three four Now it is 3003000, &c. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 107 Now here is a row of six figures ; divide them into triads or threes how many ? Ans. Two triads the first triad is hundreds, the second thousands, &c. Here are nine figures, 9 8 7, 6 5 4, 3 2 1 how many triads now ? Ans. Three ; the first hundreds, the second thousands, the third millions. Read the first, one, twenty-one, three hundred and twenty-one ; and so of the rest. LESSON SEVENTH. Characters on Black Board. What s this ? + Ans. Plus or more. What s this? Minus or less. What s this ? X Multiplication What s this ? -r Division. What s this? : :: Proportion. What is this ? ~ Equality. EXAMPLES. 2 + 2 = 4, two plus two equals 4. 3 2=1, three less two equals 1. 4 x 3= 12, four multiplied by three, equals 12. 6 -7- 3 = 2, six divided by three equals 2. 2:4:: 6= 12, as two is to four, so is six to twelve. Exercises on these relations may be repeated and extended at pleasure. 168 the mother's manual. ALPHABETICAL SOUNDS. FIRST EXERCISE. On the vowel sounds, a, e, i, o, u and y. SECOND EXERCISE. On the consonants, b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, 1, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, z. THIRD EXERCISE. The labials, or those formed by the lips, b, f, m, p, v, w. FOURTH EXERCISE. The dentals, or those formed by the teeth, c, g, h, j, s, x, z. FIFTH EXERCISE. The liquids, or those formed by the tongue, d, 1, n, r, t. 1 2 3 4 SOUNDS OF EACH VOWEL. A. 1 2 A has four sounds, viz. as in fate, fat, far, fall. E. 1 2 E has two sounds, viz. as in mete, met. I. I has two sounds, as in pine, pin. O. 12 3 4 O has four sounds, as in note, n6t, nor, move. U. 1 2 U has two sounds, as in tube, tub. th as in thin; th as in this. ALPHABET OP NATURE. 169 SERIES ON GRAMMAR. Observation. Children of a tender age may be made to understand a few general principles on this subject, if intro- duced to their notice in a skilful manner, and on proper occa- sions. Having advanced thus far, they will have acquired a stock of materials which may be used advantageously to illus- trate some of the more prominent features of Grammar. All the parts of speech will be found to originate in the objects of nature, their qualities, their action and modes or manner of action, their substitution for and relations to each other, and their various connexions. Thus objects give rise to nouns, qualities of objects to adjectives, actions to verbs, modes of actions to adverbs, the substitution of one word for another gives rise to pronouns, relations to prepositions, and connexions to conjunctions. The variations of these parts of speech give rise to number, gender, case, mood, and tense ; which distinctions are desig- nated either by terminations or prefixes. LESSON FIRST. Of the Nouns or Things. All objects in nature are nouns. What is man ? Ans. Man is a noun. Why is man a noun ? Ans. Because it is an object. What is an object ? Ans. Any thing we can see. What is woman? child? boy? girl? beast? bird? insect? vegetable? mineral? sun? moon? star? &c. 170 the mother's manual. lesson second. Of Qualities or Adjectives. All qualities of nouns are adjectives. What qualities belong to the noun man ? Ans. Good man, bad man, rich man, 'poor man, large man, small man, &c. What qualities belong to woman ? Ans. Beautiful woman, kind, lovely, industrious, cheer- ful, graceful, &c. . What qualities belong to a horse? cow? eagle? swan? tree ? gold ? silver ? iron ? sun ? moon ? &c. LESSON THIRD. Of Actions or Verbs. All actions are expressed by verbs. What actions can be expressed of man ? Ans. Man works, reads, writes, talks, &c. Are these verbs ? Ans. Yes ; they all denote action. What actions can be expressed of horse? sheep? dove? fish? bee? worm? lion? child? ship? wind? sun? moon? stars? &c. LESSON FOURTH. Of the Adverbs. Adverbs express the manner, time, place, degree, &c. of verbs. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 171 What adverb expresses manner 1 time ? &c. Ans. The boy reads well; adverb of manner. The girl will come soon ; ad. of time. My mother came here; ad. of place. The candle burns brightly; " manner. The bird flies swiftly; " manner. The woman sings sweetly ; " manner. LESSON FIFTH. Of the Pronoun. Pronouns stand for nouns. /, thou, he, she, and it are personal pronouns. Who, which, what, and that are relative pronouns. EXAMPLES. / teach you / saw James, he is a good boy / told Louisa she hurt me he caught a bird, it was beautiful here is a rose, it is red. What does / stand for ? Ans. Myself. What does he stand for 1 Ans. James. What does she stand for ? Ans. Louisa. What does it stand for 1 Ans. Bird, rose. LESSON SIXTH. Of the Preposition. Prepositions express relations, and refer to place or position. 172 the mother's manual. examples. It lies on the table. What does on express ? Ans. Position. It lies under the table the bird flew over the house we rode through the street she went into the house I went to the market William passed by the door she went from home. Do these words express position 1 Ans. Yes ; on, under, over, &c. and hence are called prepositions. LESSON SEVENTH. Of the Article. Articles are placed before nouns to express a general or particular meaning ; they are a, an and the. EXAMPLES. A man, a boy, a girl, a rose, an apple, an egg, an inkstand, an orange, an honest man, an humble person. These are called indefinite articles. The book, the ball, the table, the house, the houses, the chair, the chairs, the top, the tops. These are called definite articles. LESSON EIGHTH. Of the Conjunction. The conjunction connects words together ; they are such words as and, but, nor, or, either, &c. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 173 EXAMPLES. James and John Sarah and Maria she is better, but she is not quite well neither she nor her sister was here either John or his brother did it. LESSON NINTH. Of Number. There are two numbers, singular and plural. What does singular mean 1 Ans. One. And plural 1 Ans. More than one. EXAMPLE. Man means one man, men more than one man. Woman, women; boy, boys; girl, girls; apple, apples; kite, kites; bird, birds; tree, trees; chair, chairs; table, tables ; watch, watches ; house, houses ; ball, balls. LESSON TENTH. Of Gender. Gender is the distinction of sex. How many sexes are there ? ./Ins. Two, male and female, called masculine and feminine gender. What are things without life. Ans. Of the neuter gender, that is, neither one nor the other. P2 174 the mother's manual. examples. Man, woman, boy, girl, father, mother, uncle, aunt, nephew, niece, son, daughter; bull, cow, lion, lioness, tiger, tigress ; tree, rose, table, chair, book, &c. LESSON ELEVENTH. Of Case. There are three cases, the nominative, possessive, and objective. What is the nominative case ? Ans. The person that acts or does any thing is called the agent or actor, and is nominative ; as Sarah reads, John writes, James spells, the horse trots, &c. What does possessive mean? Ans. It means property or possession, as William's book, Maria's slate, the boy's hat, birds' feathers, eagles' wings, &c. What does objective mean ? Ans. That which is acted upon, as John loves play, Jane reads her lesson, Eliza loves her sister. Which are acted upon here? Ans. Play, lesson, and sister. Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. Nam. )Book Books ) Man Men Poss. [ Book's Books' > Man's Men's Obj. )Book Books. ) Man Men. ALPHABET OF NATURE. 175 LESSONT TWELFTH. , Declension of Pronouns. Singular. Plural. JVbm. I, We, Poss. My or mine, Our or ours, Obj. Me, Us, JVcm. Thou, You or ye, Poss r Thv or thine, Your or yours, Obj. Thee, You, JVom. He, > Poss. His, Obj. Him, Nom. She, They. Poss. Her or hers, )>Theirs. Obj. Her, Them. JVbm. It, Poss. Its, 0#. It, > JVom. Who. Poss. Whose. Obj. Whom. JVo?n. Whosoever. Poss. Whosesoever. Obj. Whomsoever. THE END. University of California SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY 405 Hilgard Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90024-1388 Return this material to the library from which it was borrowed. DAI Ill III II II III II III 3 1205 00603 5057 n ucsnn^SiSSi 111 ^ 000 052 558 F^\UTV Uni i