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 If-.
 
 DR. KURTZ'S 
 
 Text-Book of Ohuech Histoey.
 
 BY THE SAME AUTHOR. 
 
 KURTZ'S MANUAL OF SACRED HISTORY; 
 
 OE, A GUIDE TO THE UNDERSTANDING OF THE DIVINE PLAN OF 
 SALVATION, ACCORDING TO ITS HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 TRANSLATED FROM THE SIXTH GERMAN EDITION, 
 
 BY 
 
 CHARLES F. SCHAEFFER, D.D. 
 
 Fourteenth Edition, lUnio. Price, $1.50, 
 
 — «>«=:o<^ 
 
 Extracts frona Notices of the Press- 
 
 Bibliotheca Sacra, 
 
 "This is the best book of tlie kind we have ever examined, and one of 
 the best translations from German into Eno;lish we liave ever seen. The 
 author makes no parade of learning in his book, but his exegetical state- 
 ments are evidently founded on the most careful, thorough and extensive 
 study, and can generally be relied upon as among the best results, the most 
 surely ascertained conclusions, of modern philological investigation. We 
 cordially recommend it to every minister, to every Sunday-school teacher, 
 to every parent, and to every intelligent layman, as a safe and exceedingly 
 instructive guide through the entire Bible History, the Old Testament and 
 the New. It is a book which actually accomplishes more than its title 
 promises." 
 
 Biblical Repertory and Princeton Review. 
 
 "This book is, according to the Lutheran standard, thoroughly orthodox 
 in matters of doctrine, and is more thoroughly religious in spirit than any 
 similar Oerman work with which we are acquainted. 
 
 " The English translation is, in our ojtinion, highly creditable to its 
 author; not only accurate, so far as we have yet had time to judge it, but 
 less disfigured by »indue adherence to German idiom, by awkward stifiiiess, 
 and by weak verbosity, than any version we have recently examined." 
 
 Christian Clironicle (Baptist», 
 "An admirable volume. Its literary and theological merits are of a 
 high order, and entitle it to a wide circulation among the lovers of a religioug 
 literature. The translator has faithfully executed his task." 
 
 Lutheran Standard. 
 "This volume deserves to be in every family; all may read and study it 
 with profit. It is well adai)ted for schools and seminaries of learning and 
 theology. . . . We know of no work in any language, in all the bounds of 
 sacred literature, calculated to exeit a more wholesome and beneficial in- 
 fluence in the cause of Christ, than this work." 
 
 ii
 
 NOTICES OF THE PRESS. 
 
 Protestant Churchman, 
 The present volume treats the subject of sacred history on a tovei 
 plan. It embraces the period covered by the Scriptures, and undertakes 
 to develop the essential principles of human redemption in their historical 
 manifestations. Without following in the steps of Prideaux and Shuck- 
 ford, and tracing the relations between the Scriptural narratives and the 
 course of external history, it furnishes a suggestive comment on the inci- 
 dents recorded in the Bible, considered as illustrations of the Divine pur- 
 pose in the salvation of man. The style is clear, compact, and forcible, 
 presenting a mass of weighty thoughts, in simple and appropriate language." 
 
 German Reformed Messenger. 
 " It contains a vast amount of important information, conveniently and 
 systematically arranged, throwing much light upon the teachings of the 
 Sacred Volume. Its author is a very distinguished Lutheran divine, whose 
 productions in the German language have met with great favor from the 
 Christian public. The translator has done an important service to the in- 
 terests of Christianity by putting this work into an English dress. He has 
 also executed his task well." 
 
 Harper's Magazine. 
 "Profound in thought, vigorous in style, and thoroughly Christian in 
 spirit, the student of theology will find it a suggestive and valuable guide. 
 The translation has evidently been made with conscientious accuracy, and 
 has succeeded to a remarkable degree in i-eproducing the spirit of the orig- 
 inal. We regard it as an important and seasonable aid to the understanding 
 of the Holy Scriptures." 
 
 Puritan Recorder, 
 
 "The work is remarkable for condensation and point; more being often 
 crowded into a simple paragraph than would suffice many other writers 
 'for a dozen papers. The arrangement is exceedingly logical, and the 
 style, notwithstanding it is a translation, is clear and agreeable, and very 
 free from the German idiom. What we knew of this book previous to its 
 appearance in an English dress, has led us to anticipate it with more than 
 common interest ; and we can truly say, that it has more than answered 
 our highest expectations." 
 
 Philip Schaff, D.D. 
 
 " I know of no work in the Englisli or German language which gives, in 
 so short a compass, so full and clear an account of the gradual develop- 
 ment of the divine plan of salvation, from the fall of man to the resur- 
 rection of Christ and the founding of the apostolic church, and which is, 
 at the same time, so sound in sentiment, so evangelical in tone, and, with- 
 out being superficial, so well adapted for popular use, as the ' Manual of 
 Sacred History,' by Dr. J. H. Kurtz. The translation of the Eev. Dr. 
 Charles F. Schaeffer seems to me, as far as I have examined it, to do full 
 justice to the German original, as well as to the English idiom."
 
 TEXT-BOOK 
 
 OF 
 
 Chuech Histoet. 
 
 BY 
 
 DR. JOHX HEXRY^URTZ, 
 
 PROFESSOR OF THEOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF DOR<AT: AUTHOR OF "a MANUAL 
 OF SACRED HISTORY," "THE BIBLE AND ASTRONOMY," ETC., ETC. 
 
 ^010 yolumes in mi, 
 
 Revised, with Corrections and Additions from the Seventh 
 German Edition. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 TO THE refor:\iatiok 
 
 PHILADELPHIA : 
 
 smith, EXGLISH & CO., 
 
 Xo. 710 Arch Street. 
 18 80.
 
 Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1875, by 
 
 SMITH, ENGLISH & CO., 
 
 in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 
 
 CAXTON PRKSS OF 8HEKMAN & CO.
 
 REVISER'S PREFACE. 
 
 rr^^HE present revision is in no sense either a new translation or a 
 JL recast of an old one. The chief labor has been directed to cor- 
 recting in part the oversights or errors not unfrequently common to 
 translations. Generally these corrections have been simply verbal, 
 including, however, when it seemed necessary, the remodelling of 
 whole sentences, and in a few cases even more than this. But, in the 
 main, only such alterations were attempted as could be made without 
 destroying the plates from which the American translation was 
 printed. Many of the corrections, though involving very slight 
 changes, are of considerable importance, the translation in some cases 
 having quite reversed the statements of the author. Examples of this 
 first part of the revision may be found by carefully comparing the 
 translation and the revision on the following pages : Vol. I., on pages 
 45, 54, 67, 88, 92, 97, 98, 104, 135, 143, 212, 228, 236, 299, 344, 371, 
 379, 387, 392, 400, 432, 447, 491, 513, and Vol. II., on pages 57, 101, 
 105, 123. 133, 139, 207, 209, 212, 225, 229, 247, 252, 261, 265, 282, 298, 
 307, 318, 319, 324, 336, 342, and 359. 
 
 In addition to the above, several hundred minor corrections were 
 made, in large part merely of typographical errors, errors of dates, 
 names and references, and in part, though in small part, corrections 
 aiming to modify Germanized forms of expression. It will, however, 
 be readily observed that to completely expurgate the foreign idioms 
 would involve a greater number of changes than the limits of the 
 present task permit. 
 
 The other principal aim of the revision was to introduce new mate- 
 rial from the seventh German edition. Where it could be easily accom- 
 plished, this was done by modifying the text, as will be seen by refer- 
 ring, as above, in Vol. I., to pages 64, 65, 215, 232, 279, 340-2, and in 
 Vol. II., to pages 150, 304, 343 and 376. The paragraph on page 341, 
 relating to Tlie Forged Decretals of Isklore, hau been almost entirely 
 retranslated from the last German edition. But this new matter has 
 
 vii
 
 viii reviser's preface. 
 
 been annexed, for the most part, in registered Addenda at the close 
 of the vohime. Refei'ences to the Addenda are made in the small 
 figures printed just above the lines in which they occur, through the 
 body of the worlc. The Addenda embrace generally abstracts of what 
 was thought to be most important and interesting in the new material. 
 Tliose parts not included relate largely to the strictly local history of 
 the Author's own land. Owing, however, to the limits to which 
 the volume had to be confined, some of the results of the Author's 
 later researches were jjassed by with regret. Here and there the 
 references to the later German literature have been inserted, but the 
 mass of these, as they are of interest chiefly to those who will use the 
 original text, were left untouched. 
 
 What Dr. Kurtz has said, on page 350, Vol. II., relating to the 
 Lutheran Church of the United iStates, is so entirely incorrect, that 
 the whole paragraph has been cut out and a very brief statement 
 of the present condition of this church supplied from reliable Amer- 
 ican authorities. Save one or two foot-notes, easily distinguished, 
 nothing has been attempted beyond the limits here indicated. 
 
 August 20ih, 1876.
 
 EDITOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 The author of the following work was born Dec. 13, 1809, ar 
 Montjoie, in the district of Aix-la-Chapelle, Rhenish Prussia. 
 In early life he contemplated becoming a merchant ; but as the 
 desire to study theology soon became predominant, he entered 
 (1839), after a five years' course at the Gymnasia of Dortmund 
 and Soest, the University of Halle. UUmann and Tholuck were 
 then lecturing there, and the latter especially exerted a decidedly 
 favourable influeuce upon our author's theological training. He 
 subsequently completed his studies at Bonn, and then went as a 
 private teacher to Courland. He would soon, however, have 
 returned to his native country, but for an appointment in 1835 
 as chief teacher of Religion in the Gymnasium at Mitau. Whilst 
 occupying this post, he produced several works which laid the 
 basis for his present reputation : " The Mosaic Sacrifice," Mitau 
 1842; " The Bible and Astronomy," Mitau 1842-3d ed. Berlin 
 1853 (transl. by T. D. Simonton, and publ. by Lindsay & Blakis- 
 ton, Philadelphia, 1857) ; " Suggestions in vindication and proof 
 . of the Unity of the Pentateuch," Königsb. 1844; "The Unity 
 of Genesis," Berlin 1846; "Symbolical Signification of the 
 Tabernacle," Leipsic 1851 ; " Text-book of Church History," 
 Mitau 1849, 3d ed. Mitau 1853, 4th ed. Mitau and Leipsic 1860: 
 "Manual of Sacred History," Königsb. 1843, 6th ed. 1853 
 
 (ix)
 
 X editor's preface, 
 
 (transl. by Chas. W. Schaeffer, D. D., publ. by Lindsay & B!a- 
 kiston, Philad. 1856); "Biblical History illustrated," Berlin 
 1847, 3d. ed. 1853; and "Manual of Church History," Mitau 
 1852, 2d ed. 1853. 
 
 His literary labours soon gained for him flattering atten- 
 tion ; the honorary degree of Doctor of Theology was con 
 ferred upon him, and in 1850 he was called to the cnair of Church 
 History in the evangelical University of Dorpat, Livonia (founded 
 in 1632 and revived in 1802), which he continues to occupy. He 
 has also been appointed to the honorable post of Counsellor of 
 State to the Emperor. 
 
 The present edition of the " Text-book of Church History" 
 is, to a large extent, a reprint of the Edinburg translation. But 
 as that translation, avowedly, tampered with the original work, 
 care has been taken, in tliis edition, to make the rendering con- 
 form strictly to the author's sense. This proved to be a more 
 serious task than was anticipated, in some cases requiring an 
 entire reconstruction of the plan of the work, and in others the 
 translation of whole pages of matter omitted in the Edinburg 
 issue. The number of pages thus added amount to about fifty, 
 including pp. 371-82, 387-99, and the whole of the section 
 treating upon Hus. The verbal alterations necessary are too 
 many to be enumerated, although in making these no mere pri- 
 vate taste was indulged. Wherever the translation fairly con- 
 veyed the author's yense, it was allowed to stand ; and it is due 
 to the Edinburg edition to say, that tliis was very largely the 
 case. It is probable that no book, original or translated, was 
 ever issued, in which the author, or editor, did not see room for 
 improvement. But the verbal changes made in tlie present in- 
 stance, were required in justice to the theological stand-point of 
 Dr. Kurtz. Mr. Erdesheim (the translator of the Edinburg edi- 
 tion), by omitting a qualifying word, or substituting one of a 
 different import, has kept Dr. Kurtz from saying, in many in-
 
 £DIT0R'SPREFACE. XI 
 
 stances, what he desired to say, or has made him utter something 
 which he would be unwilling to endorse. This is especially true 
 of statements relating to Predestinarianism, the Sacraments, and 
 the Church. As an illustration of the injustice thus done to the 
 author, the reader is referred to § 119, 6, (2), where, in reference 
 to John Ruchrath of Wesel, Dr. K. says : " In opposition to 
 transubstantiation he advocated the doctrine of impanation." 
 The Edinburg translation has it : " His views were certainly not 
 Romish." Indeed it became very evident, upon comparing the 
 Edinburg issue with the original, that the alterations were de- 
 signedly made, for the purpose of adapting a Lutheran work to 
 a Puritan market. 
 
 This is not only doing great injustice to the author, but to the 
 Church at large. One of the best apologies for denomination- 
 alism is, that it is overruled for the more manifold development 
 of the excellencies of Christianity. And this benefit, so far as 
 it may hold in fact, must exhibit itself no less in the literary 
 than other labours of Christians of difiFerent confessions. Why 
 then should not a Puritan or Presbyterian be allowed to speak 
 or write as a Presbyterian, an Episcopalian as an Episcopalian, 
 a Reformed as a Reformed, and a Lutheran as a Lutheran ? 
 The truth is not all on one side. And no one mind, imbued 
 with true moral earnestness, is capable at once of appreciating 
 and presenting fairly, the various sides of truth. Instead, there- 
 fore, of distorting a work like the present, by forcing it into the 
 pattern of a foreign mould, it should be permitted to set forth 
 "facts in its own way. Doubtless Dr. Kurtz is fallible, and will 
 find many to dissent from some of his statements. But he is a 
 responsible man, and ready, it is to be presumed, to make cor- 
 rections whenever convicted of errors. We say this the more 
 unreservedly for not being of the same Church with the respected 
 author. 
 
 The merits of this work which the reader will please notice is
 
 XU EDITOR'SPREFACE. 
 
 the author's Text-hook, not his Manual (the latter being a mucli 
 larger work) of Church History, are so obvious, that they need 
 not be pointed out in detail. It combines lucid conciseness with 
 full comprehensiveness to a rare degree. And although it can- 
 not, of course, supply the place of larger works on the subject, 
 already issued, or in course of publication, it will tend to satisfy 
 a great want in this department of literature. 
 
 It is proper to add, that whilst the Edinburg translation was 
 made from the third edition of the original work, the edition 
 now offered to the public contains all the improvements of the 
 fourth edition of the original, which was published within the 
 last three months. 
 
 J. H. A. BOMBERGER. 
 
 Philadelphia, July 16, 1860,
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN 
 CHURCH. 
 
 5 1. Idea of Church History Page 25 
 
 I 2. Division of Church History , 26 
 
 1. Different Tendencies apparent in Church History. 2. The 
 Several Branches of Church History, 3. Principal Phases 
 in the Historical Development of the Church. 
 
 I 3. Sources and Auxiliai-ies of Church History 32 
 
 g 4. History of Church History 33 
 
 THE PREPARATORY HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN 
 CHURCH ; 
 
 OR, THE WORLD BEFORE THE COMING OF CHRIST IN 
 ITS RELATION TO THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 
 
 §5. Survey of the History of the World 42 
 
 g 6. Primeval Preparation of Salvation 42 
 
 ^ 7. Different Purposes which Judaism and Heathenism were intended 
 
 to serve 43 
 
 § 8. Heathenism 45 
 
 1. Religious Life among the Heathen. 2. Moral Condition of 
 the Heathen. 3. Intellectual Culture of the Heathen. 
 4. Greek Philosophy. 5. Social Condition. 
 
 g 9. Judaism 51 
 
 1. Judaism under Special Divine Discipline. 2. Judaism after 
 the Retirement of the Spirit of Prophecy. 
 
 510. The Samaritans 53 
 
 2 (^i")
 
 XIT CONTENTS. 
 
 § 11. Points of contact between Judaism and Heathenism 54 
 
 1. Influence of Heathenism on Judaism; 2. of Judaism on 
 Heathenism, 
 g 12. The Fulness of Time 56 
 
 HISTORY OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 
 
 FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH BY CHRIST; ITS CONSTITUTION 
 
 IN THE APOSTOLIC AGE. 
 
 (First Century.) 
 
 g 13. Characteristics of this Primitive History 57 
 
 I. THE LIFE OF JESUS, 
 g 14. Jesus Christ the Saviour of the World 69 
 
 II. THE APOSTOLIC AGE. 
 
 § 15. Feast of Pent*ecost — Activity of the Apostles before the calling 
 
 of Paul 61 
 
 ^16. Labours of the Apostle Paul 62 
 
 g 17. Labours of the other Apostles 64 
 
 1. Peter's Bishopric at Rome. 2. Two or Three James's? 3. 
 John's Exile. 
 
 g 18. Constitution, Life, Discipline, and Worship of the Church 66 
 
 1. The Charismata. 2. Bishops and Presbyters. 3. Other 
 Church Offices. 4. Life and Discipline. 5. Worship. 
 
 g 19. Apostolic Opposition to Sectarians and Heretics 71 
 
 1. *The Convention of the Apostles. 2. The Basis of Apostolic 
 Teaching. 
 
 FIRST SECTION. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHURCH IN 
 ITS ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL FORM. 
 
 g 20. Characier and Boundaries of this Phase of Development 79 
 
 FIRST PERIOD OF ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY UNDER THE 
 ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL FORM OF CULTURE (100-823). 
 
 [. RELATIONS BETWEEN THE CHURCH, THE SYNAOOGUE, AND HEATHENISM. 
 
 §21. Hostilities and Persecutions by the Jews S2 
 
 j 22. Attempts at Restoration and Reaction on the part of the Syna- 
 gogue and the Samaritans 8J 
 
 1. Dositheus. 2. Simon Magus. 3, Menander.
 
 CONTENTS XV 
 
 I 23. Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empiriö 84 
 
 1. To the Time of Trajan. 2. To the Time of Marcus Aurelius. 
 3. To the Time of Septimius Severus. 4. To the Time of 
 Decius. 5. To the Time of Diocletian. 6. Diocletian. 
 7. Constantine. 
 
 g 24. Intellectual Reaction on the part of Heathenism 92 
 
 1. Apollonius of Tyana. 2. Neo-Platonism. 3. Lucian. 4. 
 Celsu-s, Porphyry, Hierocles. 
 § 25. Spread of Christianity 94 
 
 II. DANGERS ACCRUING FROM A LEAVEN OF JUDAISM AND HEATHENISM 
 
 REMAINING IN THE CHURCH. 
 
 §26. Survey 9S 
 
 Gnosticism. 
 
 I 27. Ebionism and Ebionite Gnosis 97 
 
 1. The Nazarenes. 2. The Ebionites. 3. The Elkesaites. 4. 
 The Pseudo-Clementine System. 
 
 g 28.. Christo-Gentile Gnosticism 101 
 
 1. Cerinth. 2. The Gnosticism of Basilides. 3. The Gnos- 
 ticism of Valentine. 4. The Gno.sticism of the Ophites. 
 5. The Gnosticism of Carpocrates. 6. The Antitactes. 
 7. Saturninus. 8. Tatian. 9. Bardesanes. 10. Marcion. 
 11. Hermogenes. 
 
 I 29. Manichseism 108 
 
 1. Person and History of the Founder. 2. The System and 
 Sect. 
 
 III. DEVELOPMENT IN THE GOVERNMENT, WORSHIP, LIFE, AND DISCIPLINE 
 
 OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 § 30. Internal Organization of the Church Ill 
 
 1 Ordines Mnjoi'es et Minores. 2. Synods. 3. Unity 
 and Catholicity of the Church. 4. The Primacy of Rome. 
 
 §31. Celebration of Public Worship 116 
 
 Disputes about the Observance of Easter. 
 
 § 32. The Administration of Baptism 118 
 
 1. Catechumens. 2. Discussion about the Baptism of Heretics. 
 3. The Dogma concerning Baptism. 
 
 § 33. The Administration of the Lord's Supper 12- 
 
 1. The Liturgy of the Supper. 2. The " Disciplina Arcani." 
 3. The Dogma of the Lord's Supper. 4. The Sacrificial 
 Theory. 
 
 { 34. Reading, Sermon, Prayer, and Singing 123 
 
 1. The Doctrine of Inspiration. 2. The New Testament Canon. 
 3. Translations of the Bible. 4. Ilymnology.
 
 XVI CONTENTS. 
 
 § 35 Places of Public Worship and Influence of Art 128 
 
 g 36. Life, Manners, and Discipline 121 
 
 1. The Christian Life. 2. Ecclesiastical Discipline. 3. As- 
 ceticism. 4. Begianing of the Worship of Martyrs. 
 
 §37. The Montanistic Reformation 131 
 
 1, Phrygian Montanism. 2. Montanism in the West. 3. Doc- 
 trine and Practice. 
 
 § 38. Ecclesiastical Schisms 13ü 
 
 1. The Schism of Hippolytus at Rome. 2. Of Felicissimus at 
 Carthage. 3. Of Novatian at Rome. 4. Of Meletius in 
 Egypt. 
 
 IV. DOCTRINAL AND APOLOGETIC LABORS OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 g 89. Theological Schools and their Representatives 135 
 
 1. The Apostolic Fathers. 2. The Apologetical Writers of the 
 Second Century. 3. The School of Asia Minor. 4. The 
 School of Alexandria. 5. The School of North Africa. 
 6. The School of Antioch. 7. Apocryphal and Pseudo- 
 Epigraphic Works. 
 
 § 40. Development of Doctrine and Dogmatic Controversies 141 
 
 1. The Trinitarian Question. 2. TheDyuamisticMonarchians. 
 3. Praxeas and Tertullian. 4. Noetus, Callistus, and Hip- 
 polytus. 5. Beryllus and Origen. 6. SabelHus and the 
 Two Dyonisii. 7. Paul of Samosata. 8. The Millennarian 
 Controversy. 
 
 § 41. Theological Literature 147 
 
 1. Apologetics. 2. Polemics. 3. Dogmatics. 4. Criticism and 
 Exegesis. 4. Historical Theology. 6. Practical Theology.. 
 
 SECOND PERIOD OF ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY UNDER THE 
 ANCIENT CLASSICAL FORM (323-692). 
 
 I. STATE AND CHUECH. 
 
 §42. Fall of Heathenism in the Roman Empire 151 
 
 1. Constantino the Great and his Sons. 2. Julian the Apos- 
 tate. 3. Final Destruction of Heathenism, 4. Resistance 
 and Apologies of the Heathen. 
 
 I 43 The Christian State and the State Church *15S 
 
 1. The Emperors. 2. General Synods. 3. Ecclesiastical .^aw.
 
 CONTENTS, XVU 
 
 II. MONASTICISM, IHE CLERGY, AND HIERARCHY. 
 
 { 44. Monasticism • ^^ 
 
 1. St. Antonius. 2. Nunneries. 3. Monasticism in the East. 
 4. The Acoimetes and Stylites. 5. S«iCtarian and Hereti- 
 cal Monasticism, 
 
 § 45. The Clergy 162 
 
 1. Training of the Clergy. 2. Canonical Age. 3. Ordination. 
 4. Injunction of Celibacy. 5. Ecclesiastical Functionaries. 
 
 2 46. The Patriarchal Office and the Primacy 165 
 
 1. The Rivalry between Rome and Byzantium. 2. Pretensions 
 of Rome to the Primacy. 
 
 III. THEOLOGICAL SCIENCE AND ITS LITERATURE. 
 
 2 47. Theological Schools and Tendencies 170 
 
 1. The School of Antioch. 2. Of Edessa. 3. Of Alexandria. 
 4. New Alexandrian School. 5. Theology of the West 
 during the Fourth and Fifth Centuries. 6. The Theology 
 of the Sixth and Seventh Centuries. 
 
 { 48. Theological Literature 181 
 
 1. Exegetical Theology. 2. Historical Theology. 3. Apolo- 
 getics. 4. Polemics. 5. Dogmatics. 6. Ethics and As- 
 ceticism. 7. Practical Theology. 8. Christian Poetry. 
 
 IV. DOCTRINAL CONTROVERSIES AND HERESIES. 
 
 g 49. General Development of Doctrine 186 
 
 g 50. The Trinitarian Controversy (818-381) 187 
 
 1. First Victory of Homoousian Principles (318-325). 2. As- 
 cendancy of Homoiousianism (326-356). 3. Homoiism 
 (357-361). 4. Final Ascendancy of the Nicene Creed 
 (361-381). 5. The Pneumatomachoi. 6. Literature of 
 the Coutroversy. 7. Later Development of Nicene Views. 
 
 551. Origenistic Controversies (394-438) 194 
 
 1. The Monks of the Scetian and Nitrian Desert. 2. Contro- 
 versy in Palestine and Italy (394-399). 3. Controversy 
 in Alexandria and Constantinople (399-438). 
 
 I 52. Discussions about the Person of Christ (428-680) 197 
 
 1. The Apollinaristic Controversy (362-381). 2. Antagonism 
 between the Different Theological Schools (381-428). 3. 
 The Nestorian Controversy (428-444). 4. The Monophy- 
 site Controversy — (A.) Eutycblanism (444-451). 5. (B.) 
 Imperial Attempts to bring about a Union (451-519). 6. 
 (C.) The Decrees of Justinian I. (527-553). 7. (D.) The 
 Monophysite Churches. 8. The Monothelete Controversy 
 (633-680). 
 2*
 
 XVlll CONTENTS. 
 
 I 53. Controversies connected with the Doctrine of Redemption (412- 
 
 529) 207 
 
 1. Preliminary History. 2. Doctrinal Views of Augustine. 
 3. Pelagius and his System. 4. The Pelagian Controversy 
 (412-431). 5. The Semi-Pelagian Controversy (427-529). 
 
 § 54. Revival of former Sects 214 
 
 1. Manichaeism. 2. Priscillianism. 
 
 V. WORSHIP, LIFE, DISCIPLINE, AND MANNERS. 
 
 I 55. Worship in general 216 
 
 § 56. Times of Public Worship and Festivals 217 
 
 1. The Weekly Cycle. 2. Horae and Quatember. 3. The Cal- 
 culation of Easter. 4. The Easter Cycle of Festivals. 5. 
 The Christmas Cycle of Festivals. 6. Festival of the Trans- 
 figuration, 7. The Ecclesiastical Year. 
 
 I 57. The Worship of Saints, of Relics, and of Images 221 
 
 1. Saints' Days. 2. The Worship of Mary. 3. The Worship 
 of Angels. 4. The Worship of Images. 5. The Worship 
 of Relics. 6. Pilgrimages. 
 
 § 58. Administration of the Sacraments 226 
 
 1. Administration of Baptism. 2. Doctrine of the Lord's Sup- 
 per. 3. Sacrifice of the Mass. 4. The Dispensation of 
 the Supper. 
 
 g 59. Administration of Public Worship 230 
 
 1. Use of the Scriptures. 2. Hymnology. 3. Psalmody and 
 Hymnody. 4. The Liturgy. 5. Symbolical Rites. 
 
 g 60. Places of Worship and Works of Art 236 
 
 1. Basilicas, &c. 2. Side Buildings. 3. Ecclesiastical Furni- 
 ture. 4. The Fine Arts. 
 
 §61. Life, Discipline, and Manners 239 
 
 1. Ecclesiastical Discipline. 2. Christian Marriage. 3. Sick- 
 ness, Death, and Burial. 
 
 g 62. Heretical Reformers 242 
 
 g 63. Schisms 243 
 
 1. Schisms in consequence of the Arian Controversy. 2. The 
 Donatist Schism. 3. The Concilium Quinisextum. 
 
 VI. TUE CHURCH BEYOND THE BOUNDARIES OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 J 64. Christian Missions in the East 247 
 
 1. The Abyssinian Church. 2. The Persian Church. 3. The 
 Armenian Church. 4. The Iberians, Lazians, and Abas- 
 gians ; the East Indies and Arabia.
 
 CONTENTS. XIX 
 
 5 65. The Mohammedan Counter-Missions 250 
 
 1. Fundamental Idea of Islamism. 2. Service performed by 
 Mohammedanism. 
 
 THIRD PERIOD OF ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY IN ITS ANCIENT 
 AND CLASSICAL FORM. 
 
 (692-1453.) 
 
 I. MOVEMENTS IN THE EASTERN CHURCH, IN CONJUNCTION WITH SIMILAB 
 DEVELOPMENTS IN THE WESTERN CHURCH. 
 
 § 66. Iconoclastic Controversy in the East (726-842) 253 
 
 1. Leo the Isaurian. 2. Constantinus Copronymus. 8. Irene. 
 
 4. Theodora. 
 
 I 67. Schism between the Greek and the Roman Church, and Attempts 
 
 at Union (857-1453) 256 
 
 1. Commencement of the Schism (867). 2. Leo the Philoso- 
 pher and Basiliua II. 3. Completion of the Schism in 
 1054. 4. Attempts at Re-union. 5. Andronicus III. and 
 Johannes V. Palaeologus. 6. Johannes VII. Palaeologus. 
 
 n. INDEPENDENT DEVELOPMENT IN THE EASTERN CHURCH. 
 
 1 68. Theological Science and its Literature 261 
 
 1, Revival of Classical Studies. 2. Aristotle and Plato. 3 
 Scholasticism and Mysticism. 4. Theological Sciences 
 
 5. Distinguished Theologians. 
 
 §69. Dogmatic Controversies (the Hesychastic Controversy) 266 
 
 g 70. Government, Worship, and Manners 268 
 
 1. The Arsenian Schism. 2. Public Worship. 3. Monasticism. 
 4. Reformatory Efforts. 
 
 § 71. Gnostic and Manichaean Heretics 270 
 
 1. The Paulicians. 2. The Children of the Sun. 3. The Eu- 
 chites and Bogomiles. 
 
 § 72. The Orthodox Slavonic-Greek Churches 274 
 
 1. Greece. 2. The Chazars. 3. The Bulgarians. 4. The 
 Russians. 
 
 2 73. The Heretical Churches of the East 277 
 
 1. The Nestorians. 2. The Monophysites. 3. The Maronites.
 
 XX CONTENTS. 
 
 SECOND SECTION. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH IN ITS MEDIEVAL AND 
 GERMANIC FORM OF DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 § 74. Character and Extent of this Phase of Development , 284 
 
 1. Its Character. 2. Its Periods. 
 
 FIRST PERIOD OF ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY IN ITS MEDIEVAL 
 AND GERMANIC FORM OF DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 (Cent. 4-9.) 
 
 I. ESTABLISHMENT, SPREAD, AND LIMITATIONS OF THE GERMAN 
 CHURCH. 
 
 § 75. Christianity and the Germans 287 
 
 1. Predisposition. 2. Profession of Christianity. 3. Mode 
 of Conversion. 
 
 § 76. Victory of Catholicism over Arianism 290 
 
 1. The Goths in the Countries along the Danube. 2. The Visi- 
 goths. 3. The Vandals. 4. The Suevi. 5. The Burgun- 
 dians. 6. The Rugians and St. Severinus. 7. The Ostro- 
 goths. 8. The Langobards. 9. The Franks. 
 
 I 77. Victory of the Romish over the British Confession 295 
 
 1. British Confession. 2. Ireland. 3. The Picts and Scots. 
 4. Romish Mission among the Anglo-Saxons. 5. British 
 Mission among the Anglo-Saxons. 6. Victory of the Ro- 
 mish over the British Confession. 
 
 g 78. Conversion of Germany , 302 
 
 1. South-Western Germany. 2. South-Eastern Germany. 3. 
 North - Western Germany. 4. St. Boniface. 5. The 
 Saxons. 
 
 g 79. The Slavonians -within the Boundaries of Germany 311 
 
 1. The Moravian Church. 2. Introduction of Christianity into 
 Bohemia. 
 
 ^ 80. The Scandinavian Nations 313 
 
 Z 81. Christianity and Islamism 316
 
 CONTENTS. XXI 
 
 n. INDEPENDENT DEVELOPMENT OF THE GERMANIC CHURCH. 
 
 J 82. Tie Papacy and the Carolingians 318 
 
 1. Origin of the States of the Church. 2. The Carolingian 
 Dynasty. 3. The Papacy till the Time of Nicholas I. 4. 
 Nicholas I. and Hadrian II. 5. John VIII. and his Suc- 
 cessors. 
 
 g 83 The Papacy and the Metropolitan Office 326 
 
 §84. State of the Clergy 329 
 
 1. The Higher Clergy. 2. The Inferior Clergy. 3. Injunction . 
 of Celibacy. 4. The Canonical Life. 
 
 §85. Monasticistn 333 
 
 1. Benedict of Nursia. 2. Benedict of Aniane. 3. Nunneries. 
 4. Large Monasteries. 5. Stylites, Recluses, and An- 
 chorites. 
 
 g 86. Ecclesiastical Property 337 
 
 Benefices and Secularization. 
 
 §87. Ecclesiastical Legislation 339 
 
 1. Collections of Ecclesiastical Law. 2. The Forged Decretals 
 of Isidore. 
 
 § 88. State of Intelligence, Ecclesiastical Usages, and Discipline 342 
 
 1. Religious Education of the People. 2. Popular Christian 
 Poetry. 3. Social State. 4. Administration of Justice. 
 5. Ecclesiastical Discipline and Penances. 
 
 §89. Public Worship and the Fine Arts 348 
 
 1. Liturgy and Preaching. 2. Church Music. 3. The Sacri- 
 fice of the Mass. 4. The Worship of Saints, Relics, Im- 
 ages, and Angeb ; Pilgrimages. 5. Ecclesiastical Seasons 
 and Places. 6. The Fine Arts. 
 
 g 90. State of Science and of Theological Literature 353 
 
 1. Monastic and Cathedral Schools. 2. Celebrated Theologians 
 before the Time of the Carolingians. 3. During the Reign 
 of Charlemagne. 4. Under the Reign of Louis the Pious. 
 5. During the Reign of Charles the Bald. 6. Theological 
 Sciences: Exegesis. 7. Systematic Theology. 8. Prac- 
 tical Theology. 9. Church Histoi-y. 
 
 § 91. Development of Doctrine and Dogmatic Controversies 361 
 
 1. The Adoptionist Controversy. 2. Controversy about the 
 Procession of the Holy Spirit. 3. Controversies of Pas- 
 chasius Radbertus. 4. Controversy about Predestination. 
 
 I 92. Reformatory Movements = 361 
 
 1. Opposition of the Carolingians to Image Worship. 2. Ago- 
 bard of Lyons and Claudius of Turin.
 
 XXII CONTENTS. 
 
 SECOND PERIOD OF ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY IN ITS MEDIiEVAl 
 AND GERMANIC FORM OF DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 (Cent. 10-13.) 
 
 I. SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 g 93. Missionary Operations during that Period 870 
 
 1. The Scandinavian Mission. 2. The Slavonian Magyar Mis- 
 sions. 3. Missions among the Fins and Letonians. 4. 
 Missions among the Mongols. 5. Missions in Mohamme- 
 dan Countries. 
 
 594. The Crusades .*. 382 
 
 ^ 95. Islamism and the Jews in Europe 386 
 
 1. Islamism in Sicily. 2. Islamism in Spain. 3. The Jews in 
 Europe. 
 
 11. HIERARCHY, THE CLERGY, AND MONASTICISM. 
 
 1 96. The Papacy and the Holy Roman German Empire 889 
 
 1. The Papacy to the Death of Sylvester II. (904-1003). 2. 
 To the Synod of Sutri. 3. To Gregory VIL (1046-1073). 
 4. Gregory VII. 5. To the Settlement of the Dispute 
 about Investiture. 6. To Innocent IH. (1123-1198). 7. 
 Innocent III. (1198-1216). 8. To Boniface VIIL (1216- 
 1294). 
 
 g 97. The Clergy 407 
 
 1. Political Influence. 2. The Pataria. 
 
 § 98. The Religious Orders 410 
 
 1. Of Clugny, Camaldoli, and the Vallambrosians. 2. The 
 Cistercians. 3. New Orders. 4. The Mendicant Orders. 
 5. The Beguins and Beghards. 6. The Knightly Orders. 
 
 2 99. Ecclesiastical Jurisprudence 419 
 
 III. THEOLOGICAL SCIENCE AND CONTROVERSIES. 
 
 I 100. General View of Scholasticism 420 
 
 1. Nurseries of Scholasticism. 2. Metaphysical Basis. 3. Ob- 
 ject and Method of Scholastic Theology. 
 
 § 101. The Seculum Obscurum (Tenth Century) 424 
 
 I 102. Division among the Dialecticians (Eleventh Century) 428 
 
 1. Authors. 2. Eucharistie Controversy. 2. Controversies of 
 Anselm.
 
 CONTENTS XXIU 
 
 g 103. Separation and Re-union of Dialectics and Mysticism 430 
 
 1. The Separation. 2. Reconciliation. 3. Renewed Con- 
 troversies. 
 
 I 104. Highest Stage of Scholasticism (Thirteenth Century) 435 
 
 1. Celebrated Scholastics. 2. Raimundus Lullus. 3. Biblical 
 and Practical Opposition. 4. A German Mystic. 5. His- 
 torians. 
 
 IV. THE CHURCH AND THE PEOPLE. 
 
 g 105. Public Worship and the Fine Arts 439 
 
 1. The Sacraments. 2. New Festivals. 3. Worship of Images, 
 Relics, and Saints. 4. Hymnology. 5. Ecclesiastical 
 Music. 6. Ecclesiastical Architecture. 7. The Plastic 
 Art and Painting. 
 
 § 106. Popular Life and National Literature 445 
 
 1. Popular Life. 2. Popular Culture. 3. National Literature. 
 §107. Ecclesiastical Discipline and Indulgences 450 
 
 T. OPPOSITION TO THE PREVAILING SYSTEM OF ECCLESIASTICISM. 
 
 g 108. Active Opposition to Prevailing Ecclesiasticism 451 
 
 1. The Cathari. 2. Sect of the Holy Spirit. 3. Revolutionary 
 Reformers. 4. Prophetic and Apocalyptic Opposition. 
 5. The Waldenses. 
 
 § 109. Reaction in the Church. 461 
 
 1. Crusade against the Albigenses. 2. The Inquisition. 
 
 THIRD PERIOD OF ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY IN ITS MEDI-älVAL 
 AND GERMANIC FORM OF DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 (Cent. 14 and 15.) 
 
 I. THE HIERARCHY, THE CLERGY, AND MONASTICISM. 
 
 {110. The Papacy 463 
 
 1. Boniface VIII. (1294-1303). 2. The Papacy in its Baby- 
 lonish Exile (1309-1377). 3. The Papal Schism and the 
 Reforming Councils (1378-1443). 4. The Last Popes be- 
 fore the Reformation (1443-1517). 
 
 § 111. The Clergy 471 
 
 I 112. The Monastic Orders 472 
 
 1. The Benedictines and Olivetans. 2. The Dominicans. 3. 
 New Orders. 4. Hermits. 5. The Brethren of the Com- 
 mon Life.
 
 XXIV CONTENTS. 
 
 II. THE CHUKCH AND THE PEOPLE. 
 
 I 113. Public Worship and the Fine Arts 478 
 
 1. New Festivals in Honour of the Virgin. 2. Preaching. 3. 
 Catechization. 4. Hymnology. 6. Church Music. 6. 
 Architecture, the Plastic Art, and Painting. 
 
 g 114. Popular Life and National Literature 482 
 
 1. Religious Associations. 2. The Friends of God. 3. The 
 Brothers and Sisters of the Free Spirit. 4. National 
 Literature. 
 § 115. Ecclesiastical Discipline 487 
 
 1. The Inquisition. 2. Procedure against Witches. 
 
 III. THEOLOGICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 §116. Scholasticism and its Opponents ; ■ 490 
 
 § 117. German Mysticism 492 
 
 IV. KEFORMATORY MOVEMENTS. 
 
 I 118. The Reformation in Head and Members 495 
 
 1. French Reformers. 2. German Reformers. 3. An Italian 
 Reformer. 
 § 119. Attempts at Evangelical Reformation 499 
 
 1. WyclifFe and the WycliflStes. 2. Bohemian Reformers before 
 Hus. 3. Hus and Jerome of Prague. 4. The Husites. 
 5. The Bohemian and Moravian Brethren. 6. Netherland 
 Reformers. 7. An Italian Reformer. 
 
 5 120. The so-called Revival of Learning ".. 51C 
 
 1. The Italian Humanists. 2. The German Humanists. 3. 
 Erasmus. 4. Humanism in England, Scotland, France, 
 and Spain. 6. The Study of the Scriptures.
 
 INTEODÜCTION 
 
 HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 
 
 §1. IDEA OF CHURCH HISTORY. 
 
 The Christian Church is that Divine institution for the sal- 
 vation of man, which Jesus Christ has founded on earth. Itij 
 aim is to have the salvation wrought out by Christ communicated 
 to, and freely appropriated by, every nation and every individual. 
 Outwardly, the Cliurch manifests itself in the religious fellowship 
 of those who, having become partakers of this salvation, co- 
 operate in their own places, and according to the measure of 
 their gifts and calling, towards the extension and development 
 of the kingdom of God. Christ the God-man, who is exalted 
 to the right hand of power, is the sole Head qf the Church ; the 
 Holy Spirit, who is sent by Christ in order to guide the Church 
 to its goal and perfection, is its Divine Teacher; — the Word 
 and the Sacraments are the ordinary means through which the 
 Holy Spirit works in and by it. As the Church has originated 
 in time, and has passed through a certain development, it has 
 also a History. But its course is not one of continual progress. 
 For, side by side with the holy government of its Divine Head, 
 and the sanctifying influences of the Paraclete, we also descry 
 in its administration a merely human agency. From the sinful- 
 uess of our nature, this agency may prove unholy and perverse, 
 and thus resist, instead of co-operating ; obstruct, instead of 
 advancing ; disturb the progress by introducing impure elements, 
 instead of preserving it in, or restoring it to, its purity. But 
 even amidst all this error and perverseness attaz-hing to human 
 agency, the guidance and care of Christ and of His Spirit have 
 3 (25)
 
 .26 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 manifested themselves in this, that Divine truth has not beei 
 suffered to perish in human error, Divine power through humat 
 weakness and rebelliousness, or the Divine salvation by man's 
 iniquity. Nay, amid all hindrances, the Divine has developed 
 and progressed ; and even these temporary obstructions have 
 been made subservient for preparing, procuring, and manifesting 
 in the Church the complete triumph of Divine power and truth 
 From these remarks, it will be gathered that it is the task of 
 Church History not only to exl ibit proper developments in the 
 Church, but also all obstructions and aberrations, — at least so 
 long as they have remained in some relation to the Church. 
 
 §2. DIVISION OF CHURCH HISTORY. 
 
 The many and extensive ramifications of Chui'ch History ren- 
 der it necessary to arrange its subject-matter, both as to length, — 
 i. e., into definite periods, during each of which some tendency, 
 hitherto influential in the general development, reached its ter- 
 mination, and in turn gave place to new influences which com 
 menced to affect the development, or to give it a new direction ; 
 — and as to breadth, — i. e., with reference to the various ele- 
 ments of tendency and development, which made their appear- 
 ance at any one stage. In the latter respect two points claim our 
 attention : 1. The arrangement according to national chnrch.es, 
 so far as these have followed an independent and distinctive 
 direction ; or according to particular churches, which may partly 
 have owed their origin to some division in the Church universal, 
 occasioned by marked differences, in doctrine, worship, or con- 
 stitution. — 2. The arrangement according to the grand object 
 towards which every movement recorded in ecclesiastical history 
 tends. This common manifestation of ecclesiastical life, which 
 appears in all national and particular churches, has, howevei*, 
 assumed in different churches a peculiar and distinctive shape. 
 The idea of history, and especially that of a universal history 
 of the Church, implies tl^t it must mainly be arranged according 
 to periods. But the question as to which of the other two 
 classifications is to be prominently brought forward, depends 
 partly on the course of history itself, and partly on the plan on 
 which it has been constructed. In general, the arrangement 
 according to national churches must remain subordinate, at least 
 80 long as their union and co-operation 1 as not been interrupted,
 
 TENDENCIES IN CHURCH HISTORY. 27 
 
 either by following entirely different tendencies, or through a 
 sundering of them into particular churches, 
 
 1. Different Tendencies apparent in Church History. — The Christian 
 Church is intended to embrace all nations and tongues. Hence, it 
 must always be its aim to enlarge its domain by the conversion of non- 
 Christian nations and individuals. The History of the Extension 
 AND Limitation of Christianity, which exhibits either the progress 
 or the various obstructions put in its way, must therefore form an 
 essential part of Church History. Again, though the Church is under 
 the invisible guidance and the unseen care of the Holy Spirit, as a visi- 
 ble and terrestrial institution, it requires, for its continuance and pros- 
 perity, a secure outward position, and a stable and consistent internal 
 arrangement, constitution, and order. Hence, Church History has also 
 to chronicle the history of Ecclesiastical Constitution, both in i*efer- 
 ence to the outward position of the Church towards the State, and to 
 its internal organization, government, discipline, and legislation. The 
 history of those ecclesiastical divisions (schisms) which had their origin 
 only in different views about church government, and especially about 
 the administration of discipline, belongs to this branch of the subject. 
 — Of still greater importance for the prosperous progressof the church, 
 was it to develop and establish the doctrine of salvation. The Holy Scrip- 
 tures are, indeed, the sole source and rule of faith, and a sufficient 
 directory in all that concerns the knowledge of salvation. But the 
 words of Scripture are spirit and life, living seed-corn of knowledge, 
 which, under the superintendence of the Spirit, who sowed it, must 
 unfold into a glorious harvest ; that so the fulness of truth which they 
 contain may be increasingly understood, and become adapted to all 
 stages and forms of culture — to faith, science, and life. It is, there- 
 fore, also the task of Church History to follow the Development of 
 Ecclesiastical Doctrine and Science, in all the ways and by-ways 
 (heresies) over which it has passed. — The Church also requires public 
 worship, as the necessary expression of the feelings and aspirations 
 of the faithful towards their Lord and God, and as a means for edifica- 
 tion, instruction, and strength to the congregation. In the Word and 
 the sacraments, the Church indeed received from its Lord the immov- 
 able ground-work of all worship ; still, it had to seek out and to adopt 
 the most suitable and effective form, under which these Divine powers 
 and gifts might be perfected and applied. Hence the History of 
 Worship must also form an essential element in Church History. — 
 Lastly, the Church had to introduce the leaven of that new life, of 
 which it is the depositary, into practical life, and into the manners and 
 customs of the people. This, then, implies another element in Cluirch 
 History, — that of Christian life among the people. — It is impossible 
 to determine the historical succession of these varied manifestations 
 !)f the life of the Church, »^cording to abstract and logical principles,
 
 28 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 or to arrange them in the same manner at all periods. It will there 
 fore be necessary, in each case, to adopt a division which at everj 
 period will first present those elements which appeared most promi 
 nently, and exercised a decisive influence upon all the others. 
 
 2, The several Branches of Chitrch History. — The above branches of 
 Church History are severally of such importance, that they have fre- 
 quently teen treated as independent sciences. This method renders it 
 possible to enter into fuller details, and, what is even more important, 
 to treat each science according to its own peculiar principles, and in 
 the most satisfactory manner. — The history of the spread of, or of the 
 obstructions to Cluüstianity, is then viewed as the History of Missions. 
 That of ecclesiastical government [ecclesiastica politia), of worship and 
 of Christian manners, is called Ecclesiastical Archceology — a name 
 inaptly chosen, since it confines the range of inquiries to ancient times, 
 and groups together heterogeneous elements. Let us hope that writers 
 on this subject will in future separate these difi"erent elements, and 
 follow the development of each to the present time, treating of them 
 as of the history of Ecclesiastical Constitution, of Christian Worship, 
 and of Christian Culture. The history of the development of doctrines 
 may be arranged into — a) the History of Dogmas, in which the genetic 
 development of the doctrines of the Church is traced ; b) Symbolics, 
 in which the established doctrinal views of the Church universal, and 
 of individual churches, as laid down in their confessions (or symbols), 
 are presented in a systematic manner (in " Comparative Symbolics," 
 these confessions are critically examined, and placed side by side with 
 each other) ; c) Patristics, which treats of the subjective development 
 of doctrine, as it appears in the teachings of the most eminent eccle- 
 siastical authorities (the Fathers — limiting that expression chiefly to 
 the first six or eight centuries of the Church) ; lastly, d) the History of 
 Theology generally, or of individual branches of theological science, 
 which details the scientific treatment of theology, or of its individual 
 branches, in their historical course of progress. The History of Theo- 
 logical Literature exhibits and criticises the literary activity of the 
 Church generally; Patrology, that of the Fathers. Lastly, the science 
 of Ecclesiastical Statistics presents a general view of the results of 
 universal Church History during a definite period, and describes the 
 state of the Church in all its relations, as it appeared at every period 
 of its history, furnishing, " as it were, a cross-section of history." 
 
 Literature. 1. History of Missions : ^/?/w7?«?-f?/, allgemeine Mis- 
 sionsgeschichte (Universal History of Missions). 3 vols. Basle 1S28. — 
 W. Brouin. Hisf. of the Propagation of Christ, among the Hcalhon 
 since the Reform. 3d Ed. 1S54. — For Protest. Missions, comp, also J. 
 Wiggers, Gesch. d. Evang. Mission, 1847; for Rom. Catli. Miss, the 
 work of Henrion, translat. into German by Wittmann. Schaifh. 1847. 
 3 vols. 
 
 2. History of the Papacy: Tiower, Hist, of the Popes. London
 
 LITERATURE. 29 
 
 17-19 ; transl. into German, and contin. by Ramhach. 10 vols. Magd. 
 and Leipz. 1751. — Chr. W. Fr. Walch, 'Entw. einer vollst. Gesch. d. 
 Papstth. (Sketch of a complete history of the Papacy). Gott. 1756; 
 SpiUler, Gesch. d. Papstth. ; C. J. Weber, Papstth. u. Päpste. Stuttg. 
 1836 : Artaud de Monior, Hist, des Papes. Augsb. 1848. 
 
 3. History of Monastic Orders : H. Helyot, Gesch. aller Klöster u. 
 Ritterorden. Aus d. Franz. (History of all Monastic and Knight Or- 
 ders). Leipz, 1753. 8 vols. — [Musson), pragm. Gesch. d. vornehmsten 
 Mönchsorder, im Ausz. von Crome (pragm. Hist, of the Principal 
 Monastic Orders, condensed by Crome). Leipz. 1774. 10 vols. — /. Fehr, 
 Gesch. d. Mönchsorden. Nach d. Franz, des Baron Henrion (Par. 1835), 
 (Hist, of the Monastic Orders, after the French of Baron Henrion], 
 Tubing. 1845. 2 vols. 
 
 4. History of Councils : E. Eicherii, hist, concill. gener. LI. IV. 
 Paris 1680. 3 Voll. 4. — C. J. Hefele, Conciliengesch. nach d. Quellen 
 (Hist, of Councils, from the original sources). 7 Vols. Freib. 1855. 
 — Chr. W. F. Walch, Entw. einer vollst. Gesch. d. Kirchenversammll 
 (Sketch of a Complete History of Ecclesiastical Councils). Leipz 
 1759. 
 
 5. Ecclesiastical Law. /. W. Bickell, Gesch. d. K.-R. (Hist, of 
 Eccles. Law, continued by Röstell), fortgesetzt v. J. W. Röstell. 2 vols, 
 (incomplete). Giessen 1843. 49. — Ferd. Walter (Rom. Cath.), Lehr- 
 buch d. K.-R. aller christl. Confessionen (Manual of the Eccles. Law 
 of all Christ. Churches). 14th ed. Bonn. 1871.— G. Philipps, K.-R. 
 (Eccl. Law). 5 vols. Regensb. 1845. — Eichhorn, Grunds, d. K.-R. 
 (Principles of Eccl. Law). Göttg. 1831. 2 vols. — A. L. Richter, Lehrb. 
 d. K.-R. (Manual of Eccl. Law). 7th ed. Leipz. 1871. 
 
 6. Archaeology : by Protestant writers : Jos. Bingham, Antiquitie^^ 
 of the Church, 10 vols. ; Augusti, Denkwürdigk. aus. d. ehr. Arch. 
 (Memorabilia in Christ. Archa3ol.). 12 vols. Leipz. 1816; Dessen Handf 
 d. christl. Arch. (Augusti's Manual of Christ. Arch.). 3 vols. Leip. 
 1836; Rheinwald, die kirchl. Arch. (Eccles. Arch.). Berlin 1830; Boh' 
 mer, die chr. kirchl. Alterthumswissch. (Chr. Eccles. Archaeol.). 2 vols. 
 Bresl. 1836. 39 ; Guericke, Lehrb. d. chr. kirchl. Arch. (Manual of Chr. 
 eccl. Arch.). Leipz. 1859; Siegel, Handbuch d. chr. kirchl. Alterthli- 
 mer in alpliab. Ordnung (Manual of Christ, and Eccles. Antiq. in the' 
 alphab. order)'. 4 vols. Leipz. 1836 ; C. Schöne, Geschichtsforschung 
 liber d. kirchl. Gebräuche (Histor. Invest, on Eccles. usages). 3 vo. 
 Berlin, 1819; Planck, Gesch. d. chr. kirchl. Gesellschaftsverf. (Hist, oi 
 the Social Constit. of the Chr. Church). 5 vols. Ilann. 1803 ; — by Ro- 
 man Catholic writers: Mamachii origiues et antiq. chr. 5 voll. 4. Rom. 
 1749 ; Pellicia, de chr. eccl. politia. 3 voll. Neap. 1777, newly edited by 
 Ritter, Col. 1829 ; Binterim, Denkwürdigk. d. chr. kath. K. (Memora- 
 bilia of the Roman Cath. Ch.). 17 vols. Mayence 1825. 
 
 7. History of Dogmas: Pe^arn/s (Jesuit), de theologicis dogmatt. c. 
 not. Theoph. Alethani (J. Clerici). 6 Voll. fol. Amst. \~iQO.—Manualt: 
 
 3*
 
 30 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 by Engelhardt (2 vols. Erlang. 1839) ; Baumgarten- Crusius (Compen- 
 dium 2 vols. Leipz. 1840. 46) ; W. Münscher (3d ed. by Colin and Neu' 
 decker. Cassel 1832) ; K. F. Meier (2d ed. by G. Baur, Giessen 1854) ; 
 Fd. Chr. Baur (3ded. Leipz. 1867); K. R. Hagenbach'6. A. Leipz. 1867. 
 (the 2d ed. translated by Buch. Edinb. T. and T. Clark) ; /. C. L. Gie- 
 seler (Prelections. Bonn 1855) ; Neander (edited by Jacobi. 2 vols. 1857, 
 transl. by J. E. Ryland). — Ckr. W. F. Walck, vollst. Historie d. Ketze- 
 reien, bis zum Bilderstreite incl. (Complete Hist, of Heresies, to the 
 Controversy about Images). 11 vols. Leipz. 1762. 
 
 8. Symbolics: Marheineke, chr. Symbolik. Vol. I. Heidelb. 1810; 
 Kollner, Symb. aller christ. Confess. (Symbolical Books of all Chr. 
 Churches). 2 vols. Leipz. 1846; Winer, comparative Darstellung d. 
 Lehrbegriffe d. verschied, chr. Kirchenpart. (Comparat. View of the 
 Dogmas of the various parties in the Chr. Ch.). 2d ed. Leipz. 1837; 
 Guericke, allg. chr. Symbolik (Universal Chr. Symb.). 3d ed. Leipz. 
 1861 ; Marheineke' s Vorless. liber die Symbolik (Prelections on Symb.). 
 Berlin 1848; K. Matthes, compar. Symbolik. Leipz. 1854; A. H. Baier, 
 Symb. Vol. I. Greifsvr. 1854. — By Roman Catholic writers; /. A. 
 Mäkler, Symbolik. 7th ed. Mayence 1864 ; Hilgers, symb. Theol. Bonn 
 1841 ; — against Mokier: Baur, der Gegens. d. Kath. u. Protestantis- 
 mus (the opposition between Roman, and Protest.). 2d ed. Tub. 1836; 
 Nitzsch, protest. Beantw. (Reply of Protest.). Ilamb. 1835. Comp, also: 
 Thicrsck, Vorless. liber Protestantism, u. Kath. (Prelections on Protest. 
 and Roman.). 2 vols. 2d ed. 1848. 
 
 9. Patrology and History of Literature : Ellies du Pin, nouv. 
 biblioth. des auteurs eccl. 47 voll. Paris 1686 ; R. CeilUer, hist, des au- 
 teurs »acres et eccl. des six prem. sifecles. Par. 1693. 16 Voll. 4; J. A. 
 Mokier, Patrologie, edited by Rheitmayer. Vol. I. Regensb. 1839; J. 
 Fesslci, Institt. patrol. Oenip. 1850. 2 T. — By Protestant writers: W. 
 Cave, Scriptt. eccles. hist, literaria. 2 Voll. fol. London 1688 ; C. Oudin, 
 Commentarii de scriptoribus ecclesiast. Lips. 1722. 3 Voll. fol. ; /. A. 
 Fahricii Biblioth. Grogca. Hamb. 1705 ss. 14 Voll. 4., nova ed. cur. Ear- 
 less. Hamb. 1790. 12 Voll. 4. ; Ejusd. Bibl. mediae et infimf« latinitatia 
 aucta a J. D. Mansi Pat. 1754. 6 Voll. 4. ; Sckönemann, Biblioth. patr. 
 latin, hist, liter. Lips. 1792. 2 vols. ; Oelricks, Comment, de script 
 eccles. lat. Lips. 1790; J. C. F. Bäkr, Gesch. d. rom. Liter. (Hist, of 
 Roman Liter.), Suppl. I.-IIL Karlsr. 1836-40. — Ce^c/i'^^. tkeol. Wi.i- 
 sen.sch. (Hist, of Theol. Science): von Flügge (3 vols. Halle 1796, to 
 the time of the Reform.) ; — Stäudlin (from the 15th cent.). 2 vols. Gott. 
 1810;— 7. G. Walck, Biblioth. theol. sei. Jenae 1757. 4 Voll. 
 
 10. Lives of the Saints: L. Snrius, Yitse Ss. Col. 1570. 6 Voll. fol. 
 Acta Sanctorum, Ant. 1643 etc. 56 Voll. fol. (begun by the Jesuit Bol- 
 landus, hence known by the name of Bollayidists). — Mabillon, Acta Ss. 
 ordinis s. Bencdicti. Par. 1666. 9 Voll. fol. — Butler, Lives of f.he Saints, 
 New ed Dublin 1838.
 
 DIVISION IN CHURCH HISTORY. 31 
 
 3. Principal Phases in the Historical Development of the Church.- —Ik 
 the history of civilization we meet with three successive forms of culture i 
 the Oriental, the Grseco-Roman, and the Germanic. The kingdom of 
 God was to penetrate, and unfold itself, in each of these, in a manner 
 peculiar to each, and thus attain its most complete development. The 
 earliest Church (the Israelitish theocracy) represents its development 
 in the Oriental form ; the ancient Christian Church its development in 
 the Grajco-Roman form ; the modern Church its development in the 
 Germanic form. The Middle Ages exhibit the struggle between the 
 superannuated classic form of culture, and the modern ; whilst the 
 later development of the Church received its main impulse from the 
 Germanic-Christian culture, which was matured by the genial influ- 
 ences of the lleformation. This division of the History of the kingdom 
 of God on the earth, according to the different forms of civilization, 
 seems to us so essential, that we derive fi-om it the principle of our 
 division of Church History, as follows : 
 
 I. Antecedent History of Christianity: Preparation for it in the He- 
 brew oriental form of culture ; simultaneous adaptation of the univer- 
 sal form, for its manifestation in the Grgeco-Roman form. 
 
 II. Primitive History of Christianity : The perfect exhibition of the 
 plan of salvation by Christ and his Apostles. Conflict*between the 
 Jewish and Greek forms of culture ; victory of the latter. First cen- 
 tury (Apostolic period). 
 
 III. History of the Development of Christianity, on the basis of its 
 original character. 
 
 A. In the Ancient Classic Form: 
 
 First Period, from a. 100-323, or to the final yictory of Christianity 
 over Graeco-Roman heathenism. 
 
 Second Period, from 323-692, or to the completion of the doctrinal 
 development of the ancient Church (680) and the alienation between 
 the Oriental and Occidental Churches (692). 
 
 Third Period, from 692-1453, or to the taking of Constantinople. 
 Decline of the influence of the ancient classic form of culture on the 
 history of the Church. 
 
 B. Li the Germanic Form. 1. In the Middle Ages: 
 
 First Period, including the 4th-9th centuries, or from the founding 
 of the Church among the Germans to the end of the Carlovingian period. 
 
 Second Period, from the 10th-13th centuries, to Boniface VIII., or 
 the age of the papacy, monasticism, and scholasticism. 
 
 Third Period, embracing the I4th and I5th centuries, to the Reform- 
 ation ; decline of the factors prominent in the Middle Ages ; frequent 
 reformatory movements. 
 
 2. In the Modern Germanic Form: 
 
 First Period, embracing the 16th century, the period of the Reforma 
 tion. 
 
 Second Period, the 17th century, the period of crtbodoxy.
 
 32 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Third Period, the 18th century, the age of deism, naturalism, ration. 
 alism. 
 
 Fourth Period, the 19th century, the age of the revival of a Christian 
 and Church life (unionism, confessionalism) in conflict with commu- 
 nism, pantheism, and materialism. 
 
 g 3. SOURCES AND AUXILIARIES OF CHURCH HISTORY. 
 
 1. The sources of Church History are partly primary (origi- 
 nal), such as monuments and original documents, — partly 
 SECONDARF (derived), among which we reckon traditions, and 
 reported researches of original sources which have since been 
 lost. Monuments, such as ecclesiastical buildings, pictures, and 
 inscriptions, are commonly only of very subordinate use in 
 Church History. But archives, preserved and handed down, 
 are of the very greatest importance. To this class belong also 
 the acts and decrees of ecclesiastical councils ; the regesta and 
 official decrees of the Popes {deci^etals, briefs) and of Bishops 
 {pastoral letters) ; the laws and regesta issuing from imperial 
 chancellories, so far as these refer to ecclesiastical affairs ; the 
 rules of monastic orders, liturgies, confessions of faith, letters 
 of personages influential in church or state ; rej)orts of eye-wit- 
 nesses ; sermons and doctrinal treatises of acknowledged theolo- 
 gians, etc. If the documents in existence are found insufficient, 
 we must have recourse to earlier or later traditions, and to the 
 historical investigations of those who had access to original 
 documents which are now no longer extant. 
 
 a. Collections of Councils: J. Harduin, concill. collectio regia 
 maxima. Par. 1715. 12 vols, folio.— J. D. Mansi, concill. nova et am- 
 pliss. coll. 31 vols. fol. Flor, et Venet. 1759 ss. 
 
 b. Acts of the Popes: Pa. J«//e, Regesta pontiflp. Rom. (to the year 
 1198). Borol. 1851. 4. — The decretals of the Popes are collected and 
 treated of in the Corpus jur. Canon., ed. Böhmer (Hal. 1747. 2 vols. 4.) 
 and Riclder (Lps. 1833 ss. A).—L. Cherubim, buUarium Rom. Ed. IV. 
 Rom. 1072. 5 vols. fol. — C. Cocqvelines, bullarum, privilog. ac diplo- 
 matum ampliss. collectio Rom. 1739. 28 vols. fol. — Barberi, bullar. 
 Magn. (1758-1830), cont. by R. Segretus (to 1846). Rom. 1835-47. 14 
 vols. fol. 
 
 c. RfLES OF Monastic Orders : L%ic. Ilolstaiii codex rcgularum 
 monastic, et canonic. 4 vols. 4to. Rom. 1G61, auct.is a Mar. Brockie. 6 
 rols. fol. Aug. Vind. 1759. 
 
 d. Liturgies: J. A. Assemanni Cod. liturgicus eccl. univ. 13 vols. 4 
 ßom. 1749. — //. A. Daniel, cod. lit. eccl. univ. 4 vols. Lps. 1817-53. 8
 
 HISTOBY OF CHURCH HISTORY. 33 
 
 e. Confessions of Faith: C. W. Fr. Walch, biblioth. symbolic» 
 Tetus. Lemg. 1770 ; A. Halm, Biblioth. der Symb. u. Glaubensregeb? 
 der apost. kath. K. (Library of the Confessions and Rules of Faith of 
 the Apostolic Catholic Church). Bresl. 1842. 
 
 /. Acta Martyrorum : Th. Ruinart, Acta primorum Martyrum. 
 New edition by B. Gallura. Aug. Vind. 1802. 3 vols. — Surius and the 
 Bollandists (§ 3, 10) ; St. E. Assemanni, Acta Sanctorum Mart. Orient, 
 et Occid. Rom. 1748. 2 vols. fol. 
 
 2. Auxiliary Sciences of Church nistory. — Those sciences are auxilia- 
 ries of Church History which are indispensable in order properly to 
 understand, critically to judge of, and to sift, the sources of ecclesias- 
 tical history. Among them we reckon, 1) Diplomatics, which teaches 
 us to judge of the genuineness, the completeness, and the trustworthi- 
 ness of documents ; 2) Philology, which enables us to make use of 
 sources in difierent languages; 3) Geography, and 4) Phrenology, 
 which respectively inform us about the scene, and the succession in 
 time, of the different facts narrated. In a wider sense, we may also 
 reckon among auxiliary sciences, general history, as well as that of 
 jurisprudence, of civilization, of art, of literature, of philosophy, and 
 of religion, all which are indispensable on account of their manifold 
 bearing on the development of the Church. 
 
 a. Diplomatics: /. Mabillon, de re diplomatica. Ed. II. Par. 1709. 
 fol. 
 
 6. Philology: C. dxi Frhsne [Dominus du Gange), glossarium ad 
 scriptores medias et infinia3 latinitatis. 6 vols. Par. 1733 ; edid. Hens- 
 chel. Par. 1840 ss. 7 vols. 4. — Du Frhsne, gloss, ad scriptores med. et 
 infim. grsecitatis. 2 vols. fol. Lugd. 1688 ; J. C. Suiceri thesaurus eccle- 
 siast., e patribus grjecis. Ed. 2. 2 vols. fol. Amst. 1728. 
 
 c. Geography: Car. a S. Paido, Geogr. s., cur. /. Clerici, Amst. 
 1703. fol. ; — Nie. Sa7isonis, Atlas ant. sacer, emend. /. Clericus. Amst. 
 1705. fol. ;—/. E. Th. Wiltsch, Handb. d. kirchl. Geogr. u. Statistik 
 (Manual of Ecclesiastical Geography and Statistics). 2 vols. Berlin 
 1846 ; the same author's, Atlas sacer s. ecclesiast. Goth. 1843 ; C. F. 
 Stäudlin, kirchl. Geogr. u. Statist. (Ecclesiastical Geography and Sta- 
 tistics), 2 vols. T'lib. 1804. — Mich, le Quien, Oriens christianus in qua- 
 tuor patriarchatus digestus. Par. 1740. 3 vols. fol. 
 
 4. Chronology: Pt^^er, Kirchenrechnung (Ecclesiastical Chronology). 
 Berlin 1841. 4. 
 
 § 4. HISTORY OF CHURCH HISTORY. 
 
 Comp. C. F. Stäudlin, Gesch. u. Lit. d. K, G. History and Litera- 
 ture of Church History). Hamburgh 1827. F. Chr. Baur, die Epochen 
 der kirchl. Geschichtschreibg. (the Periods of the Literature of Church ^ 
 History). Tül? 1852.
 
 84 INTRO DU CT I OK. 
 
 The Gospels and the book of Acts furnish us with an account 
 of the commencement of ecclesiastical history. Next in order of 
 time comes the work of Hegesippus, a native of Asia Minor, who, 
 about the middle of the second century, collected the various tra- 
 ditions of apostolical time. Only fragments of this work have 
 been preserved. Eusehius, Bishop of Caesarea, claims to be the 
 Father of Church history in the proper sense of the term. Lead- 
 ing men in the Greek Church continued his work in the 5th cent. 
 At first the Eastern had, in this branch of study, the advantage 
 of the Western Church, which only furnished translations, or at 
 most re-cast the material furnished by the Greeks, instead of car- 
 rying on independent investigations. During the middle ages 
 the Eastern as well as the Western Church furnished to Church 
 History in its true sense, almost nothing. But considering the 
 close connection between church and state in the Byzantine 
 empire, we must not omit to notice the so-called Scriplores 
 historice Byzantince, and the Latin national histories, biogra- 
 phies, annals, and chronicles, as important for the student of 
 Church History. The Reformation first called forth really 
 critical investigation, and opened the way for a scientific treat- 
 ment of Church History. In carrying on their great work, 
 the Reformers felt the need of reverting to those times when 
 the Church appeared in its purer form. To investigate and to 
 determine such questions, it was necessary to study ecclesiastical 
 history ; while the very attacks of their enemies obliged the 
 Roman Catholic Church to follow thera into these investigations. 
 Both the Lutheran and Catholic Churches, however, contented 
 themselves, until the middle of the Hth century, with their two 
 great works of the period of the Reformation. Then, how- 
 ever, the spirit of rivalry was aroused in the pursuit of such 
 studies, and during the lYth century the Catholic Church un- 
 doubtedly bore the palm. The more liberal spirit of the Gal- 
 ilean Church fostered this zeal, especially among the Maurines 
 and Oratorians of France. The Reformed Church, especially 
 in France and the Netherlands, did not keep far in the rear of 
 these efforts. In the 18th century the contributions of the 
 Lutheran Church again take the lead, the Beformed following 
 closely after, whilst the zeal and learning of the Roman Catholic 
 Church had decidedly declined. But as rationalism invaded 
 the sphere of theology, so pragmatism invaded that of Churct 
 History, and made the ideal of it consist in regarding all event'
 
 HISTORY OF CHURCH HISTORY. '6t 
 
 as the resuK of chance and passions, of arbitrariness and calcu 
 lation. No': until the 19th century was this conceited and duli 
 spirit of pragmatism overcome. 
 
 1. To the Reformation. The History of Eusebius extends to tha 
 year 324. It was continued in the fifth century by Philo.storgnis, an 
 Arian, and by Socrates, Sozomenns, and Theodoret, Catholic writers. 
 Early in the sixth century Iheodorus, a lector of Constantinople, wrote 
 an abstract of Theodoret's work, carried down to his own times ; this 
 abstract is, unhappily, all that remains. These works were followed 
 in the sixth century by Evagrins. In the Latin Church, Ihifimis, a 
 presbyter of Aquileia, translated the Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius, 
 and brought it down to his own days (to 395). About the same time, 
 Sulpicius Severus, a presbyter from Gaul, wrote his "Historia Sacra," 
 in two books, extending from the creation of the world to the year 400. 
 In the sixth century, Cassiodoriis, a Roman official under Theodoric, 
 condensed a translation of the Catholic continuators of Euseljius, which 
 was designed to supplement the work of Rufinus. This compilation, 
 well known as the Historia ecclesiastica tripartita, along with Rufinus, 
 continued the common text-book in use up to the time of the Reforma- 
 tion. Of a Syrian Church History by the Monophysite bishop, John 
 of Ephesus, in the' sixth century, the second part, containing the history 
 of his own times, has but recently become known. (Cf. J. P. N. Land, 
 John of Eph., the first Syr. Ch. Historian. Leyden 1857.) Concern- 
 ing other contributions of the ancient Church see I 41, 5, and I 48, 2; 
 for the mediaeval histories of the Latins | 90, 9, of the Greeks I 68, 4. 
 Gregorius, Bishop of Tours, furnished a most valuable contribution to 
 the ecclesiastical history of the Franks up to the year 591, and the 
 Venerable. Bede, to that of England up to the year 731. The Liber Pon- 
 iificalis, by the Roman librarian Anastasius [oh. 891) furnishes bio- 
 graphies of the Popes. The work of Bishop Adam of Bremen (extend- 
 ing to the year 1076) is of groat value for the history of the northern 
 churches. Among writers of universal Church history we name Haijmo 
 of Halberstadt (c. 850), who however only extracted from Rufinus and 
 Casiodorus; the Abbott Odericus Vitalis, in Normandy (c. 1150) ; the 
 Dominican Bartholomew of Lucca (c. 1300), and Archb. Antoninus of 
 Florence, in the 15th century. Near the close of the 15th century the 
 spirit of historical criticism was awakened, through the influence of 
 humanism (§ 120). Besides the numerous Scrij^f ores hist. Bijzant., Nice- 
 phorus Callistij'm the Greek Church, wrote a Church history proper (in 
 the 14t'i rriiiury). The Melchite Patr. Eutychius of Alexandria wrote, 
 in the 12th century, a Ch. hist, in Arabic, full of fables, and of value 
 only for the condition of the Church under Mohammedan rule. 
 
 2. The Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. As early as the middle 
 of the sixteenth century, the Madgeburg Centuria (1559-74), a splendid 
 work on ecclesiastical history, were compiled by an association of Lu
 
 36 INTRODUCTION 
 
 (heran divines, headed by 3faftJnas Flacivs Elyricus, a clergyman at 
 Magdeburg. It consisted of 13 folio vols., of which each described a 
 century. The work may be described as the result of unwearied labor, 
 and as bringing forward a great many documents till then unknown. 
 The Cenhiria evoked (in 1588) the Ecclesiastical Annals of Ccesar Ba- 
 ronius (12 vols, folio, extending to 1198) ; a production specially im- 
 portant from the circumstance that it brings to light many documents, 
 ■which have since then remained unknown. The author was rewarded 
 with a cardinal's hat, and had almost been elevated to the Chair of 
 St. Peter. Of writers on general Church History of the 17th cent, in 
 Catholic France were Natalis Alexander, a learned, but scholastic and 
 stiff Dominican; Seb. le Nain de Tillemont, a conscientious Jansenist 
 author ; Claude Fleury, the mild, able, but somewhat diffuse confessor 
 of Louis XV.; and the eloquent Bishop Bossuet. To the older Reformed 
 Church we are indebted for many excellent works on ecclesiastical his- 
 tory. Theodore Beza comes first with his History of the French Re- 
 formed Church. Its authors, however, attained the highest reputation 
 in the 17th century, and became particularly distinguished by their 
 learned specia/ investigations (II. | 40, 4) ; though general Ch. hist, also 
 received creditable attention. J.H. Hottinger combined a history of the 
 Jews, of Heathenism, and of Mohammedanism, with that of Christianity. 
 Of still greater importance were the productions (»f Fr. Spanheim, in 
 Leyden. In his Histoire de VEglise, J. Basnage has replied to Bossuet, 
 ■while the Ännales of Sam. Bosnage were directed against Baronius. 
 
 3. The Eighteenth Century. — After the great work of the "Magde- 
 burg Centuria," the study of ecclesiastical history was for a time 
 neglected by the Lutheran Church. A century elapsed before G. Calixi 
 [oh. 1656) revived the study of this science. Strange to say, it was 
 again controversy which induced theologians to return to the subject. 
 In 1699, Goftfr. Arnold, a learned Pietist and Mystic, composed his 
 " Impartial History of the Church and of Heretics," — a work which 
 throughout breathes a party spirit, and which describes genuine Chris- 
 tianity only among heretics and fanatics. Still, it gave a fresh impulse 
 to historical investigation. Since that period, men like Weismann of 
 Tubingen, the two Walchs {George Walch, the father, at Jena, and 
 Francis Walch, the son, in Gottingen), J. Lor. v. Mosheim, Chancellor 
 in Göttingen [ob. 1755), and Sigism. J. Bavmgarten of Halle, have 
 furnisliod able and valuable works on Church History. Among these 
 Mosheim deserves the first place, both on account of his acuteness, of 
 his practical sense, of his style, and of his pure Latinity. J. Sal. Semler 
 of Halle [ob. 1791), the pupil of Baumgarten, attempted to throw doubt 
 upon almost every conclusion in historical theology at which the 
 Church had arrived. He was answered by J. Matthew Schrockh, whose 
 work, in 45 vols., bears evidence of almost incredible labour and per- 
 Beverance, although it is necessarily diffuse. Chevalier Spiltler, ?, 
 Wurtcmberg Minister of State, next furnished a clever caricature of
 
 HISTORY OF CHURCH HISTORY. 37 
 
 Church History. He was followed in the same spirit by Hencke ot 
 Helmstadt, who, in vigorous language, attempted to sketch the historj 
 of the Christian Church in the light of a continuous su(;cession of 
 religious aberrations. G. J. Planck of Gottingen, a representative of 
 the unhealthy supranaturalisra of his time, wrote a number of eccle- 
 eiastical and other monographs, which display considerable research, 
 but are tainted with the spirit of his school. — Theologians of the Be.' 
 formed Church also compiled valuable treatises on ecclesiastical his- 
 tory. Among them we mention those of /. Clerkus, an Arminian ; of 
 Alph. Turretin, of Geneva; of Herrn. Veiiema, of Franeker ; and of 
 Jablonsky, at Frankfort-on-the-Oder. The reforms introduced by the 
 Emperor Joseph II. were not without effect on the study of ecclesias- 
 tical history among the members of the German branch of the Roman 
 Catholic Church. Accordingly, Casp. Koyko of Prague, and Mafthew 
 Dannenmayer of Vienna, wrote in a liberal spirit, — the former in lan- 
 guage almost cynical, the latter in a more scientific and calm tone. 
 
 4. The Nineteenth Century. — A new era in the treatment of Church 
 History opened with Chr. Schmidt of Giessen, in the commencement 
 of the nineteenth century. Instead of the superficial or difi'use enu- 
 meration of facts, formerly current, he insisted on a thorough study of 
 the sources and an objective estimate of events. But, unfortunately, 
 in his case, the independent and objective treatment merely consisted 
 in want of sympathy on the part of the historian with the subject of 
 his investigations. His writings were, in consequence, cold, unattrac- 
 tive, and almost mechanical. *[But the fundamental principle to which 
 he called attention was safe, and, if rightly applied, calculated to 
 accomplish the object in view.] He was followed by Gieseler of Gottin- 
 gen [ob. 1854), who elevated and improved this principle; and, in his 
 History of the Church, has left a perfect storehouse of the most varied 
 and comprehensive research. The text itself is terse ; but the notes 
 by which it is accompanied contain an exquisite selection from the 
 sources from which he had drawn. The Manual of Engelhardt of 
 Erlangen is an insipid but valuable arrangement of the subject, 
 as derived from the sources; that of Ä'. Hase of Jena is distinguished 
 by its vivid sketches, its fresh and tasteful style, and its frequent though 
 often enigmatical allusions to the sources whence his material had been 
 drawn. In the prelections of Schleiermacher, we find, indeed, no more 
 than the information ordinarily conveyed, but the leading outlines in 
 the development of the Church are well traced. The work of Niedner 
 claims special merit from the industry of the author, who furnishes 
 much more than the common staple of text-books. The book aflords 
 evidence of most laborious study of the sources, and of discriminating 
 tact; but its style is heavy, and somewhat scholastic. The Manual of 
 Fricke (unhappily left incomplete), learned but stiff, is a production of 
 khe same school. In Gfrorer's work on Ecclesiastical History, Clirid 
 4 * Wanting in the German.
 
 88 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 tianity is treated as the natural product of the time in which it origi 
 nated. Clerical selfishness, political calculations and intrigues, appeal 
 the sole principles of ecclesiastical movements which this author can 
 appreciate or discover. Still, the work is of importance ; and those 
 volumes especially which detail the history of the Middle Ages give 
 evidence of original study, and contain much fresh information. Occa- 
 sionally the writer is carried away by his ingenuity, which suggests 
 combinations where, in reality, none had existed. In 1853, Gfrörer 
 joined the Roman Catholic Church. 
 
 Almost at the same time with Gieseler, A. Neander commenced hia 
 great work on Church History, which formed a new phase in that 
 branch of study. Sharing in the religious awakening which took 
 place in Germany at the time of the French Wars, and deeply imbued 
 with Schleiermacher's theology of feeling, he assigned to personal 
 piety an important place in his treatment of Church History. In his 
 view, ecclesiastical history furnished a grand commentary on the para- 
 ble of the leaven which was destined to leaven the whole lump. The 
 developments of the inner life are his favourite theme : he delights in 
 tracing the Christian element even in persons and parties which had 
 formerly been overlooked or disowned ; while, on the other hand, the 
 Church and churchliness appear to him generally as a mere ossifica- 
 tion of Christian life, and a crystallisation of Christian dogma. Simi- 
 larly, he overlooks the influence exei'ted by political causes, nor does 
 he pay attention to the sesthetic and artistic bearings of history. If 
 his treatment of the subject is too minute and monotonous, the reader 
 is compensated by fervour and the continuous evidence of familiarity 
 with the sources. Among the pupils whom this great man has left, 
 Jucobi of Halle, and Hagenhach of Basle, have generally adopted hia 
 course, but avoided his errors. The Manual of Jacobi (which is not 
 yet completed) breathes the same spirit as that of his teacher. Ita 
 tone is elevated ; nor is the author content merely to imitate Neander. 
 The prelections of Hagenhach, originally delivered to an educated audi- 
 ence, are somewhat difi'use, but clear and attractive. They breathe 
 throughout a warm Christian spirit, nor is the judgment of the lec- 
 turer warped by narrow sectarian prejudices. W. Zimmermann, real- 
 izing the necessity, in writing Church History, of going back to the 
 idea of life, wrote a "History of the Life of the Church" for educated 
 persons, which, notwithstanding its new title, pursued the old track. 
 What in the work of Neander had been wanting, from the subjective- 
 ness of his "pectoral" piety, Guericke of Halle has attempted to supply, 
 at least so far as the Lutheran Church, to which he is attached, is con- 
 cerned. But in more respects than one the work is somewhat one- 
 sided. Along with this production we rank the excellent Manual of 
 Bruno Lindner of Leipsic. The author belongs to the same ecclesias- 
 tical party as Guericke ; he traces more particularly the developmeni 
 of dogmas ; and also takes notice of tke operation of political influences,
 
 HISTORY OP CHURCH HISTORY. Ö9 
 
 as from time to time they wei 3 brought to bear on the history of the 
 Church. Dr. Kurtz' Manual bekngs to the class just named, but aims 
 at furnishing fuller details, and more copious extracts from the sources, 
 than the works of Guericke or Lindner. Students of Ecclesiastical 
 History are also under manifold obligations to the conductors of the 
 "Zeitschrift für historische Theologie" (Journal of Historical Theo- 
 logy), edited since 1832 by lUgen, and latterly by Niedner. 
 
 The Roman Catholic Church has latterly displayed fresh activity in 
 prosecuting the study of Church History. A succession of able writers 
 have followed the noble convert (to Popery), Leopold, Count of Stol- 
 berg. The work of Katercamp breathes a conciliatory spirit, and is at 
 the same time distinguished by elegance of composition. A new era 
 in the historical investigations of the Roman Catholic Church com- 
 menced with Ad. Mohler, whose labours were prematurely arrested by 
 death (in 1838). The school which he inaugurated is decidedly ultra- 
 montane, but combines with this tendency the exhaustive diligence 
 which characterises Protestant investigations. Incited by the example 
 of Mohler, DölUiiger of Munich, Älzog of Hildesheim, and Ritter of 
 Breslau, have written valuable manuals. 
 
 a. J. E. Chr. Schmidt, fiandb. d. chr. K. G. (Manual of Eccl. Hist.) 
 fortgesetzt v. F. W. Rettberg. 7 vols. Giess. 1800-34.— J. C. L. Gieseler, 
 Lehrb. d. K. G. (Manual of Ch. Hist.) Vols. I.-V. in 8 Parts (the first 
 2 volumes, forming 5 volumes in " Clark's series," have been trans- 
 lated into English). Bonn 1824-40. Vol. IV. Kirchen Geschichte d. 
 18ten Jahrhunderts (Eccl. Hist, of the 18th cent.), Vol. V. Kirchen 
 G. d. neuesten Zeit (Eccl. Hist, from 1814), and Vol. VI. Dogmen-Gesch, 
 (History of Dogmas), have, after the author's death, been edited by Dr. 
 Redepenning (Bonn 1855-57.— /. G.V.Engelhardt, Handb. d. K. G. 5 
 vols. Erlangen 1832.— Ä'^. Hase, K. G. 9th Ed. Leipz. 1867.— F. Schlei- 
 ermacher, Vorles. li. d. K. G. (Lectures on Ch. H.) herausg. von Bonell. 
 Berlin 1840.— Chr. W. Niedner, Gesch. d. chr. K. Berlin 1866.— G. A. 
 Fricke, Lehrb. d. K. G. Vol. L (to the 8th cent.) Leipz. 1850.— ^. F. 
 Gfrörer, Gesch. d. chr. K. Stuttg. 1840 etc. 7 vols, (to the year 1000.) 
 
 6. A. Neander, allg. Gesch. d. chr. K. (General Hist, of the Chr. Ch.). 
 
 6 Sections in 11 vols. Hamb. 1854-58 (to the year 1416) ; 3d Ed. in 2 
 large vols. 8vo. Hamb. 1857. (translated and published by Clark, 
 Edinb.)— P/i. Schaff, History of the Chr. Ch. a. d. 1-311, Scribner, N. 
 York, 1859.— /. L. Jacohi, Lehrb. d. K. G. Vol. I. to the year 590. Ber. 
 lin 1850. — K. R. Hagenbach, Vorles. ii. d. K. G. New collected edition in 
 
 7 volumes. Leipz. 1868.— i;. H. F. Guericke, B.a.u Ah. d. K. G. 9 Ed. 
 Leipz. 1866 3 vols. — Br. Lindner, Lehrb. d. chr. K. G. 3 vols. Leipz. 
 1848 etc.— /. H. Kurtz, Handb. d. allgem. K. G. I. 1. 2. 3. II. 1. (to 
 the time of the Carolingians). Mitau 1858 etc. — G. v. Polenz, Gesch. 
 d. franz. Calvin (Hist, of Fr. Calvin), Vol. I. (to 1560). Gotha 1857. 
 
 c. Leop. V. Stolberg, Gesch. d. Rel. Jesu Chr. (Hist, of the Rel. of 
 Jesus Christ). Vols. 1-15 (to the year 430), fortges. von (continued by)
 
 40 INTEODUCTION. 
 
 F. V. Eerz, Vols. 16-32 (to the year 1300). Mayence 1824-51, and by 
 Brischar. Vol. 33 etc. 1851 etc. — Tli. Katercamp, Gesch. d. Rel. bis zur 
 Stiftung d. allg. K. (Hist, of Rel. to the found, of a univers. Ch.) May- 
 ence 1819,— Kirchengesch. 5 vols, (to the year 1153), Münster 1823-34. 
 — /. Ign. Ritter, Ilandb. d. K. G. 6th Ed. Bonn 1862 2 vols.— /, 
 Alzog, Universalgesch. d. chr. K. (universal Hist, of the Chr. Ch.) 6th 
 Ed. Mayence 1872.
 
 THE PEEPAHATOEY HISTORY 
 
 CHRISTIAN CHURCH 
 
 RELIGIOUS, MORAL, AND INTELLECTUAL STATE OE THE WORLD 
 BEFORE THE COMING OF CHRIST; 
 
 Comp. 1. /. /. Ign. Dollinger, Heidenth. u. Judenth., Vorhalle zur 
 Gesch. d. Christenth. Regensb. 1857. — /. G. A. Lutferbeck, die nea- 
 test. Lehrbegriffe, Bd. I. d. vorchristl. Entwickelung. Mainz 1853. 
 
 2. /. Jac. Hess, Gesch. d. Israel, vor d. Zeiten Jesu (History of the 
 Jews before the time of Christ.) 12 volumes. Zurich 1776-88. — /. H. 
 Kurtz, Geschichte d. alten Bundes (Hist, of the Old Covenant — transl. 
 into Engl, by Eldersheim, Edinb., T. and T. Clark). Vols. I. II. 2d 
 ed. Berlin 1853-58 ; — the same author's Lehrb. d. heil. Gesch. 
 (Manual of Sacred Hist.) 12th ed. Königsb. 1871. — [H. Ewald. Gesch. 
 d. Volkes Israel bis Christus [Ilist. of the Jewish Nation to the Time 
 of Christ]. Gott. 1864 etc. 7 vols.) — Edersheim's History of the Jew- 
 ish Nation. 2d ed. Edinb. 1857. 
 
 3. Herder, Ideen zur Philos. d. Gesch. d. Menschh. (Thoughts on the 
 Philos. of the Hist, of Man).— if. Bitter, Gesch. d. Philosophie. 2d ed. 
 Hamb. 1836 etc. — Meiners, allgem. Gesch. d. Religg. (Universal Hist, 
 of Religions). 1806. — Creuzer, Symbolik u. Mythologie. 3 ed. 1837 
 etc. — Otfr. Müller, Prolegomena zu einer Wissenschaft. Mythol. (Pro- 
 leg, to a scientific Myth.). — Stuhr, allg. Gesch. d. Religionsformen d. 
 heidn. Völker (Universal Hist, of the Forms of Relig. among Heathen 
 Nations). Berlin. 1836. — A. Wuttke, Gesch. d. Heidenthums (Hist, of 
 Heathen.). Vols. I. II. Breslau 1852 etc.; — /. Sepp, das Heidenth. 
 u. dess. Bedeutung für d. Christenth. (Heathen, and its import, for 
 Christian.). 3 vols. Regensb. 1853. — Tholuck, das AYesen u. die sittl. 
 Einflüsse des Heidenth. (the Character and Moral Infl. of Heathen.) ; 
 in Neander's Mem trials. Vol. I. — Gmneisen, d. Sittliche in d. bilden 
 
 4* 141)
 
 42 PREPARATORY HISTORY. 
 
 den Kunst bei d. Griechen (the Moral Element in the Fine Arts among 
 the Greeks). Leipz. 1833. 
 
 ?5. SUKVEY OF THE HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 
 
 The incarnation of God in Christ for the salvation of the human 
 race, which had become subject to sin, death, and eternal misery, 
 forms the central point in the history and development of raau- 
 kind. With this event commences, and on it rests, " the fulness 
 of time " (Gal. iv. 4). All former history served only as prepa- 
 ration for this great fact. But this process of preparation dates 
 from earliest times, and appeared under the twofold form of 
 Heathenism and of Judaiam. In the former, the development was 
 left to the unaided powers and capacities of man ; in the latter, 
 it was influenced and directed by a continuous course of Divine 
 co-operation. These two series, which differ not only in the 
 means employed, but also in the aim and goal of their respective 
 developments, continued side by side with each other, until in 
 the fulness of time they merged in Christianity, which they were 
 mutually to serve by their appropriate fruits and results, and 
 respectively peculiar developments ; but with which, also, they 
 would enter into a deadly conflict, by their ungodly and wicked 
 fruits and results. And as, on the one hand, Christianity was 
 thus fitted to become the Religion of the world, so by its conflict 
 with evil it would be strengthened for victory, and confirmed in 
 its divine powers. 
 
 I 6. PRIMEVAL PREPARATION OF SALVATION. 
 
 When man came from the creative hand of God, he was upright 
 and holy. He bore the Divine image, and was destined for, and 
 capable of, a free development by which to attain perfect blessed- 
 ness, glory, and communion with God. But instead of attaining 
 that destiny by an act of free choice, he fell by an abuse of his 
 freedom, and became subject to sin, death, and corruption. 
 However, man was still capable of salvation ; and immediately after 
 his fall the eternal purpose of grace was announced, and henceforth 
 became the great element in his history. This deliverancewas to 
 appear in the midst of the human race itself (by the seed of the 
 woman, Gen. iii. 15), and thus to form the culminating point of 
 a development carried on under the operation of God. But soon 
 this development again took a direction so perverse and godless,
 
 PURPOSES OF JUDAISM AND HEATHENISM. 43 
 
 that unless it had been broken off by a general judgment (that 
 of the flood), it would have terminated, not in salvation, but in 
 absolute destruction. Only 07ie man (Noah) was preserved amidst 
 the general ruin, and now formed the commencement of a new 
 development by which the great goal was again to be sought. 
 Sin a second time marred this work, — not, indeed, so far as to 
 render a second general judgment necessary in order to preserve 
 the Divine purpose of salvation, yet so as to make it impossible 
 that this development should become the medium for exliibiting 
 the counsel of sovereign love. Salvation might indeed still be 
 prepared in and by it, if not positively, at least negatively. But, 
 in order positively to prepare the way of salvation, for the third 
 time a new commencement required to be made. 
 
 §7. DIFFERENT PURPOSES WHICH JUDAISM AND HEA- 
 THENISM AVERE INTENDED TO SERVE. 
 
 In Abraham and in his seed God chose and created, called and 
 trained a people, in and by which salvation — in its positive 
 aspect — was to be prepared, until, when fully matured, its benefits 
 might be shared by all the nations of the earth. This new de- 
 velopment commenced on the principle of strictest exclusion, 
 although from the first it offered the prospect of finally embracing 
 all nations. Everything connected with the history of this people 
 bears reference to the coming salvation. Each revelation and 
 dispensation, all discipline and punishment, every promise and 
 threatening; their constitution, laws, and worship ; every political, 
 civil, and religious institution (so far as they were legitimate and 
 proper), — all tended towards this goal. Meantime the Lord 
 allowed the other nations to walk in their own ways (Acts xiv. 
 16). But, while leaving them to themselves. He did not wholly 
 forsake them, but had a great purpose of His own in view, to 
 which their development also was to be subservient. Their his- 
 tory also was preparatory for salvation, and that not only nega- 
 tive.ly, in so far as they learned to long for, and to become sus- 
 ceptible of, the salvation which was destined to be " of the Jews" 
 (John iv. 22), but positively also, in so far as they were rendered 
 capable of offering a nuptial gift which should prove of 
 greatest importance for the spread of that salvation. In this 
 respect pre-Christian heathenism is not without its Divine sanc- 
 tion.
 
 44 PREPARATORY HISTORY. 
 
 In its fundamental principles, heathenism denies .he existence of a 
 living and personal God, despises the salvatior. -which lie has prepared, 
 and embodies the idea that man is both able and obliged to delivei 
 himself by his own strength and wisdom. Hence the endeavour, witJi 
 the means at man's commavd, to attain a salvation devised by man. From 
 the sinfulness and impotence of human nature, such endeavours could 
 only lead to entire and felt ruin. Despite increasing worldly culture 
 and political power, heathenism increasingly sank from its height of 
 moral and religious strength and dignity, into a state of spiritual decay 
 and moral laxity and helplessness. It became more and more evident 
 that neither nature nor art, neither worldly culture nor wisdom, neither 
 oracles nor mysteries, neither philosophy nor theosophy, neither poli- 
 tical institutions nor industry, neither sensual indulgence nor luxury, 
 could satisfy the cravings of the soul, created for the enjoyment of God, 
 or restore to man that inward peace which he had lost. Experience 
 such as this was calculated to humble the pride of heathenism, and to 
 awaken in nobler spirits a sense of need — a longing and a susceptibility 
 for the salvation to be manifested in Christ. Thus Judaism was to prepare 
 salvation for mankind, andheathenism mankind for salvation. But the latter 
 has also yielcjed not merely negative, but positive results. In its strug- 
 gles after light, heathenism called every natural power and capacity 
 of man into requisition, in order to attain the highest possible develop- 
 ment of worldly culture and power. In this respect great results were 
 attained, which in turn became the property of Christianity, and, in 
 its hands, the form and the means by which its world-wide mission 
 was to be realised and executed. In one sentence, Judaism has sup- 
 plied to the Church the substance, the Divine reality ; heathenism, the 
 human form, and the outward means for developing and carrying out the 
 great work. 
 
 It must not be imagined, however, that these results of the develop- 
 ment of Judaism and of heathenism w^ere either entirely or generally 
 understood and applied, since human liberty might resist, and shut 
 itself up against these methods which the Lord, in His grace, took for 
 training mankind. A comparatively small portion only of the Jewish 
 and heathen world, elevated above the generality, and feeling their need 
 of salvation, from the first accepted the offer of the Gospel. All the 
 rest shut their minds and hearts to its claims, opposed it with more or 
 less pertinacity, and commenced a determined contest against the 
 Church, as soon as it appeared formally constituted. Judaism opposed 
 Christianity, because it attached exclusive value to the husk in which 
 the fruit had ripened to maturity, while it rejected the fruit itself — 
 and, because Jewish pride and exclusiveness could not brook the idea 
 that the Gospel should place the Gentile on the same level with the 
 Jew. Heathenism opposed the Church because it regarded Divine Wis- 
 dom as folly. Divine Power as deceit, and built itself up in the pride 
 of its human wisdom, in the fanaticism of its unbelief or misbelief,
 
 HEATHENISM. 45 
 
 and in the selfishness of its power and wealth. This decisive contest, 
 in which the Church was to display, and on which it brought to bear, 
 the strength and the resources with which the Lord had endowed it, 
 became the more bloody and desperate, as the Church spread and 
 increased despite all persecutions and oppressions, and as both Juda- 
 ism and heathenism could not but see the certain approach of their 
 final doom. 
 
 §8. HEATHENISM. 
 
 Full of native vigor, and surrounded by a nature so lavish in 
 her gifts, mankind soon denied the existence of a living, a per- 
 sonal, and a supra-mundane God. Nature, with her inexhausti- 
 ble fulness of life and of enjoyments, seemed so near, and so 
 much more worthy of devotion and worship than this Personal 
 God, in His supra-mundane elevation. Thus originated heathen- 
 ism — in its general character, a state of absorption in the great 
 life of Nature, a deification, or, in one word, the "vnorship and 
 SERVICE OF Nature (Rom. i. 21, if.), which also conditioned the 
 character of its morality. The intellectual culture of heathenism , 
 especially through its philosophy, opened the way for the intel- 
 lectual labors of the Church. The political state of heathenism, 
 with its struggles after universal dominion, as well as its 
 industrial activity, likewise proved accessory to the progress 
 of Christianity. 
 
 1. Tlie Religious Character of Heathenism. — Those hidden powers 
 in the life of Nature, and of the soul, were not viewed abstractly, but 
 regarded as revelations of the eternal spirit of Nature. Such ideas 
 were further developed by speculation and mysticism, by natural 
 magic and by divination, and applied to all the relations of human 
 life. Under the influence of certain prominent individuals, or of 
 geographical and ethnographical peculiarities, the various systems 
 of the worship of nature arose in this manner. The common charac- 
 teristics of all these systems, which, indeed, is connected with the 
 very essence of heathenism, consists in a line of demarcation between 
 the esoteric religion of the priests and the exoteric worshrp of the 
 multitude. _ The former may be characterized as a speculative and 
 ideal Pantheism ; the latter, as a Polytheism full of myths and 
 ceremonies. 
 
 Let it not be supposed that heathenism was entirely devoid of every 
 element of truth. Not to mention these remains of original revela- 
 tion in heathenism which, with various aberrations from pristine purity, 
 lay at th^ foundation of, or were incorporated in, its systems, thos»
 
 46 PREPARATORY HISTORY. 
 
 religions of nature have, in their unnaturally early development, anti 
 cipated some of those religious truths which, in the arrangement of 
 Divine revelation, only unfolded gradually, and at a comparatively late 
 period. At the same time, however, they have perverted and distorted 
 these truths into falsehoods and caricatures. Among them we reckon, 
 for example, the pantheistic theories concerning the Trinity and the 
 Incarnation, the dualistic perversion of the real existence of evil, 
 traced back to an uncreated principle, etc. To the same class also 
 belongs, more especially, the practice of offering human sacrifices, 
 which prevailed under every form of the worship of nature — a dread- 
 ful, in some sense a prophetic, cry for help on the part of man, con- 
 sciously forsaken by God, and which could only on Golgotha be resolved 
 into hymns of praise and of thanksgiving. 
 
 The almost incredible deeds of self-devotion and renunciation, such 
 as hecatombs, sacrifices of children, emasculation, prostitution, etc., 
 attest the power and energy with which, in its high-day, the worship 
 of nature had kept hold on the hearts of its adherents, and show the 
 enthusiasm which ic had called forth. Another evidence in the same 
 direction is the almost irresistible charm which, during the whole 
 course of the earlier history of Israel, heathenism seems to have had 
 for the chosen race. Even this circumstance proves that heathenism 
 was not merely a lie and a piece of imposition. The worship of nature 
 could not have wielded such power if this lie had not concealed some 
 elements of truth ; the charm which it exercised lay in its anticipations 
 of a future salvation, however Satan might have distorted them ; while 
 the mysterious manifestations of natural magic, and of the power of 
 divination, appeared to confirm its Divine claim. But the fate reserved 
 for every unnatural and premature development also befell the worship 
 of nature. The remains of truth were swallowed up in the gigantic 
 lie; the powers of life and the capacity of development, which had 
 been forced on beyond their real strength, were soon used and con- 
 sumed ; the blossoms fell off without giving place to fruit. Mysteries 
 and oracles, magic and divination, became either empty forms, or the 
 means of gross imposition and low trickery. Ultimately, a haruspex 
 could not meet his fellow without laughing. Among some, unbelief 
 ridiculed everything ; among others, misbelief assumed the most disso- 
 lute or extravagant shapes ; while an unthinking religious eclecticism 
 vainly endeavoured to infuse fresh life into decrepid and dying heathen- 
 ism. M©st miserable impotence and emptiness — such was the final 
 issue of a worship of nature, once so vigorous and lively. . 
 
 2. Moral Cnndition of the Ileafhen. — The morals of a people always 
 keep pace with their religion. It was so with the heathen nations also, 
 whose moral life was earnest, vigorous, and genuine, or weak, defective, 
 and perverse in measure, as religious earnestness increased or de- 
 creased. The moral defects of heathenism sprang from its religious 
 deficiencies. It was a religion adapted for time, not for eternity ; and
 
 HEATHENISM. 47 
 
 the gods shared all those failings which are connected with our piesenl 
 state of existence. Thus religion lost all that power by which it ele- 
 vates man above the defilements connected with our present state 
 Myths, which in part were exceedingly immoral in their tendency, 
 sanctified or excused — by the example of the gods — even gross immo- 
 rality. Voluptuousness, which symbolized the generating power in the 
 divine life of nature, was not unfrequently made the centre and the 
 climax of worshi'j. Heathenism wholly ignored the great truths con- 
 nected with the general idea of humanity ; it was only conversant with 
 those connected with nationality, and the excellencies it cultivated 
 were merely civic virtues. Eastern despotism, as well as Western 
 conceit and pride of nationality, slighted the common rights and the 
 dignity of mmi. A foreigner or a slave had neither position nor 
 claims. As the value of an individual entirely depended on his politi- 
 cal position, the place belonging to woman was wholly ignored or mis- 
 understood. Generally speaking, she was regarded only as the hand- 
 maid of man ; while, in the East, polygamy degraded her to the lowest 
 level. Still, notwithstanding these fundamental and great defects, in 
 the high-day of its vigor, heathenism often displayed considerable 
 moral earnestness and energy, at least in those departments of moral 
 life (such as in the state and in civic relations) which the breath of 
 Pantheism or of Polytheism had not laid desolate. But when the 
 ancestral faith had become empty and powerless, when it ceased to 
 animate and to pervade these departments of life, they also lost the 
 moral dignity formerly attaching to them. The general decadence 
 reached its climax during the degenerate times of the Roman Empe- 
 rors. When the Church entered on its career of spiritual conquest, it 
 found heathenism in a state of indescribable moral degradation. 
 
 3. The hdeUedual CnUiire of tlie Heathen. — The intellectual culture 
 of heathendom exercised a twofold and an opposite influence upon the 
 Church. Partly heathen science and art prepared the way for, and 
 formed a link of connection with, Christianity ; partly, it obstructed 
 its progress, and facilitated a relapse into heathenism. To the mental 
 activity of the Greeks and Romans, mankind and the Church are 
 indebted for general culture and for that preimration of the way to 
 which we have already adverted. In this respect we would specially 
 point to the philosophy, the poetry, and the historical productions of 
 these nations. The philosophical investigations carried on in the East 
 were chiefly of a theosophic character, and for the purpose of develop- 
 ing the esoteric worship of nature into the various speculative religious 
 systems. Orieatal poetry served the same purpose with reference to 
 the exoteric religion of the people. Historical works — in the proper 
 sense of that term — were not produced in the East. -The mental cul- 
 ture of the Greeks and Romans, as expressed in their philosophical, 
 poetic, and historical writings, prepared, in respect both of form and 
 of SUBSTANCE, the way for the Christian Church. It furnished forms,
 
 48 PREPARATORY HISTORY. 
 
 V('hich, from their depth, distinctness, and correctness, their readj 
 adaptation and general suitableness, proved most fit for presenting and 
 developing the new truths which were to issue from the Holy Land. 
 It also produced certain ideas and views, derived from a profound con- 
 templation and study both of nature and of mind, of history and of 
 life, which, in many respects, even opened the way and prepared a soil 
 for the great realities of salvation. — On the other hand the East, not 
 less than the classical West, contributed elements of culture which 
 were to prove a hindrance to, and a corruption in, the Church. The 
 hostile and antichristian, the distinctively heathenish substance of 
 their philosophy and theosophy, as well as their study of mysteries, 
 were by and by introduced into Christianity, along with the forms of 
 culture under which these hostile elements had formerly appeared. 
 Had such attempts against the purity of the Church proved suceessful, 
 it would have become essentially Pagan. The mysterious depths of 
 Christianity attracted, indeed, heathenism ; but then, to those highly 
 cultivated Gentiles who boasted in the conceit of their sublime wis- 
 dom, the Gospel appeared too simple, too void of philosophy and specu- 
 lation, to meet the demands of the age. They deemed it necessary 
 to enrich it with the accumulated stores of eastern and western wis- 
 dom, that so it might indeed lay claim to be an absolute and perfect 
 religion. 
 
 Only classical, i. e., Greek and Roman culture, directly prepared the 
 way for the Church. The influences of Eastern forms of culture on the 
 history of the kingdom of God were entirely confined to Judaism. The 
 symbols of the East became the form in which the Divine substance, 
 communicated by Old Testament prophets, appeared and developed. 
 On the other hand, the dialectics of classical antiquity furnished an 
 appropriate medium by which to present the truths of Christianity 
 when the symbolic covering of Judaism had been laid aside, and the 
 truths of salvation were to appear in their pure and spiritual character. 
 
 4. Greek Philosophy. — Our remarks about the form and the substance 
 of heathen culture, and their preparatory or disturbing influences on 
 Christianity when it entered on its world-mission, apply more particu- 
 larly to Greek Philosophy. However, even where these speculations 
 prepared the way for the truth, we must distinguish between their 
 merely negative tendency, which served to destroy heathenism, and the 
 positive, in so far as both in substance and in form they led the way 
 towards Christianity. From the first this negative tendency appeared 
 in Grecian philosophy. It undermined the popular creed, prepared the 
 downfall of idolatry, and led to the self-despair of heathenism, which 
 pointed to Christianity for deliverance. With Socrates [oh. 399 b.c.) 
 commenced the positive preparation for the truth, accomplished by 
 Greek philosophy. If, in deep humility, he confessed his ignorance, if 
 he based all wisdom on "Know Thyself," if he traced his deepest
 
 HEATHENISM. 49 
 
 thoughts and motives to Divine suggestions (his Aat^wiov), if he wil- 
 lingly surrendered the enjoyments of this world, and expressed a con- 
 fident hope in that which was spiritual and eternal, — we may be allowed 
 to regard all such expressions as, in a certain sense, the faint echoes, 
 or, rather, as the prophetic anticipations, of Christian doctrine and life. 
 The speculations of Plato even more closely and fully approximated 
 Christian views. That philosopher {ob. 348) collected the scattered 
 germs of his great predecessor's teaching. In his profound, specula- 
 tive, and poetic mind, they sprung up and unfolded to a new mode of 
 contemplating the world, which came nearer that of Christianity than 
 any other sj'stem outside revelation. The philosophy of Plato spake of 
 man as claiming kindred to the Deity, and led him beyond what is seen 
 and sensuous to the eternal prototypes of the beautiful, the true, and 
 the good, from which man had fallen ; thus awakening in him a deep 
 longing for the blessings he had lost. If the system of Aristotle {ob. 
 322) was farther distant from Christianity than that of Plato, he ren- 
 dered even greater service by presenting his views in a form of which 
 Christian science afterwards made so large use in its inquiries and dog- 
 matic statements. These two thinkers represent the climax of philo- 
 sophic speculation among the Greeks, and the farthest limits within 
 which inquiries like theirs could prepare the way for the Gospel. As, 
 consciously or unconsciously, philosophy had formerly contributed to 
 the decay of popular religion, it now entered on a process of self-de- 
 struction, and with increasing clearness disclosed the utter helplessness 
 of heathenism. This phase appears most distinctly in the three forms 
 of philosophy which, at the time when the Church appeared on the 
 stage of the world, claimed the most numerous adherents : we mean, 
 Epicureanism, Stoicism, and Skepticism. In the philosophy of Epicu- 
 rus {ob. 271), pleasure was considered the highest good. The world 
 was left at the mercy of chance, the soul was represented as mortal, 
 ind the gods as enjoying their pleasures, entirely careless of this world. 
 In opposition to Epicurean Deism, Stoicism (of which Zeno, ob. 260, 
 was the founder) propounded a hylozoistic Pantheism, in which the 
 afTairs of the world were made to depend on the unavoidable neces- 
 sities of fate. Meantime the world was hastening towards a great catas- 
 trophe, from the flames of which a new world was to issue, which, in 
 turn, was destined to describe a similar cycle. To despise pleasure 
 and pain, and, in case of necessity, to put an end to an existence which 
 had missed its aim — such was the climax of wisdom. The sage, who 
 had reached this elevation, from which he could command himself and 
 the world, had become his own god, and found all satisfaction in him- 
 self. Lastly, Scepticism (of which Arcesilans, ob. 240, and Carneades, 
 ob. 128, were the founders) appeared to controvert the principles of 
 Stoicism. Since it was manifestly impossible to arrive at truth, thia 
 system placed the sum and substance of theoretical wisdom in refrain- 
 5
 
 50 PREPARATORY HISTORY. 
 
 ing {irtoxt}) from every conclusion ; and that of practical wisdom in 
 abstaining from all passion, and from every strong emotion. 
 
 5. Political Condition of Heathen Countries. — The leading tendency 
 in heathenism — to procure salvation by the unaided power of man — 
 implied an endeavour to combine every force and capacity into a colossal 
 unity (Gen. xi. 4, 6). When heathenism had renounced allegiance to 
 the personal and living God, and rejected His method of salvation 
 and of union, it was impelled, by a kind of inward necessity, to con- 
 centrate the mental and physical powers of mankind, and through them 
 all powers of nature, and the products of the various zones and coun- 
 tries, and to subject them to one person, that so this person might be 
 acknowledged as the personal and visible representative of the Deity. 
 This felt necessity gave rise to, even as its perverseness led to the rvin of, 
 one empire after the other, until, in the Roman Empire, the goal was 
 reached, while, at the same time, this tendency was finally arrested 
 and destroyed by the spiritual power of the kingdom of God (Dan. ii. 
 14; vii. 13, 24). 
 
 This aim after a universal empire has, as all the tendencies of hea- 
 thenism, its twofold aspect ; and we must distinguish between the ways 
 of man and those of God, between the ungodly purposes of man and 
 the happy results to which, in the Divine government, they were made 
 subservient. Although we only refer to the Roman Empire, it should 
 be borne in mind that all the great monarchies were only a repetition 
 and a more vigorous continuation of one and the same tendency and 
 endeavour. Hence our remarks about Rome equally apply to other 
 empires. The universal domination of one power prepared the way 
 for the Church, in so far as, by the union of nations into one empire, 
 the various stages and elements of civilization, which otherwise might 
 have remained isolated, were combined into a more universal civiliza- 
 tion, which rendered it comparatively easy to circulate the fresh blood 
 poured by the Church into the veins of nations. This union, which 
 was first brought about by the conquests of Alexander the Great, was 
 completed when Rome became the mistress of the world. Gradually 
 the Greek language, which, when the Gospel was first preached, was 
 understood and spoken throughout the Roman Empire, obtained uni- 
 versal domination, — as it were a temporary suspension this of the 
 judgment by which languages were confounded, and which attended 
 the rise of heathenism (Gen. xi.), — that thus the return to God, and 
 the reception of His Gospel, might be facilitated. 
 
 Impelled by a principle similar to that which, in the state, led to 
 attempts after concentration of power. Industry and Commerce sought 
 to grasp all wealth. But while, for very different purposes than those 
 of the Gospel, commerce opened ways through deserts and over seas, 
 and joined the most distant countries and zones, without knowing or 
 willing it, in the arrangement of God it served an important purpos« 
 for the diffusion of the glad tidings.
 
 JUDAISM 51 
 
 1 9. JUDAISM, 
 
 Israel was juade tj dwell in a country wbich, like its people, 
 occupied a central and yet isolated position in the Old World. 
 There, in quiet seclusion, undisturbed by the trafSc of the nations, 
 should it, as the bearer and medium of the revelation of God's 
 grace to mankind, abide in security against all the agitations of 
 heathen conquest and oppression. Too often, however, did Israel 
 forget its proper position and calling, too often mix in with 
 affairs of the world which did not concern it ; too often backslid 
 from God, and stoop to the religion, worship, and manners of 
 adjacent heathen tribes. Hence its frequent chastisements under 
 the hard yoke of Gentile invaders. But the holy seed which 
 continued faithful, even in times of the most general defection ; 
 and, above all, the patience and faithfulness of God, did not suffer 
 its high vocation to be forfeited, but led the nation to a glorious 
 end, notwithstanding the final rejection of salvation by the irre- 
 ligious masses of the people. 
 
 1. Judaism under Special Divine Tuition and Discipline. — Abraham 
 was chosen and called alone (Isa. 11. 2). As Creator, God called the 
 seed of promise from the dead body of Sarah ; as Saviour, He delivered 
 the chosen race from the oppressive bondage of Egypt. The patri- 
 archal family was constituted in the Holy Land ; while in order that 
 the family might, unimpeded, develop into a great nation, it had to go 
 down into Egypt. From this strange land Moses brought up the people, 
 and gave them a theocratic constitution, laics, and worship, to serve as 
 the means by which they were to fulfil their mission, and to be types 
 of, and a schoolmaster unto, future perfectness (Gal. iii. 24 ; Heb. x. 1). 
 The Exodus from Egypt constituted the birth of the nation ; by the 
 giving of the law on Mount Sinai, Israel was set apart to be a holy 
 nation. When, under the leadership of Joshua, the Israelites took 
 possession of the home of their ancestors — a country adapted for the 
 purposes Mdiich the people were to serve — the last condition of their 
 independent eiistence was fulfilled. Under the fostering care of a 
 de't^out priesthood, the purely popular institutions of the theocracy 
 should now have borne rich fruit ; but, during the administration of 
 the judges, it soon appeared that these appliances were insufficient, 
 and two other agencies were called into operation. The j^i'ophetical 
 office was a special but continuous institution, intended to serve as the 
 mouth-piece of God, and to act as the conscience of the commonwealth ; 
 while the royal office was designed to affiard external security, and to 
 bestow internal peace upon the theocracy. Then followed the con-
 
 OZ PREPARATORY HISTORY. 
 
 quests of David, which gave the Jewish commonwealth a becoming 
 political importaifcce, while the temple of Solomon fully developed its 
 typical worship. But, despite prophecy and royalty, the people became 
 increasingly estranged from their peculiar destiny, and hence un- 
 able to maintain their high position. The division of the kingdom, 
 continued internal feuds, improper alliances, growing apostasy, and 
 conformity to idolatry, brought after them Divine judgments, in conse- 
 quence of which the nation became subject to the heathen. These 
 chastisements remained not altogether unimproved. Cyrus allowed the 
 return of the captives, and tl>eir reorganization into a state ; and pro- 
 phets were again commissioned to direct the formation and the develop- 
 ment of the community. — Amid these occurrences, prophecy served 
 not only for present instruction, reproof, and admonition, but kept 
 before the public mind the promise of a coming salvation, thus supply- 
 ing comfort and hope even in the most troublous times. The happy 
 periods, when David had conquered and Solomon exercised his glorious 
 sway of peace, served as basis for depicting the future transcendent 
 glory of Messiah's kingdom ; while the aberrations, the sufferings, and 
 the humiliation of the people, during the period of their decadence, 
 led those who cherished such hopes to look for a Messiah who should 
 suffer for the sins of the people, and take upon Himself all their 
 misery. And when prophecy had done the work allotted, it ceased^ 
 to resume and complete its message when the fulness of time had 
 come. 
 
 2. Judaism after the Cessation of Special Divine Tuition. — The period 
 had now arrived when the immediate guidance of Divine revelation 
 •was to be withdrawn. Furnished with the results and experiences of 
 former teaching, followed by the law as schoolmaster, and by prophetic 
 prediction as by a lamp, the chosen race was now to give evidence of 
 its calling. The annihilation with which the fanaticism of AntiocJms 
 Epiplianes threatened the Jewish commonwealth was happily averted, 
 and under the Maccabees the nation once more obtained political inde- 
 pendence. But, amid the increasing corruption of the Maccabean 
 rulers, the intrigues of Rome again deprived the country of this boon. 
 The religious persecutions of the Syrians, and, after them, the oppres- 
 sion of the Romans, transformed the national feeling of attachment to 
 their ancestral religion into extreme exclusivcness, fanatical hatred 
 and proud contempt of everything foreign, and changed the former 
 longing for the Messiah to merely political, extravagant, and carnal 
 expectations. True piety decayed into petty legalism and ceremonial- 
 ism, into works and self-righteousness. The priests and scribes were 
 zealous in fostering this tendency, by increasing external ordinances 
 and perverting the sense of Scripture ; thus rendering the mass of the 
 people only more insusceptible to the spirituality of that salvatioi:, 
 »rhich was now so near at hand. »
 
 THESAMARITANS. 53 
 
 The institution of synagogues proved of great importance for the 
 development of Judaism during the period succeeding the return from 
 Babylon. They owed their origin to the consciousness that, after the 
 cessation of prophecy, it was a most necessary duty, not only to con- 
 tinue the symbolical services of the temple, but also to seek edification 
 by a careful study of the truths which Gud had revealed in the law and 
 by the prophets. But in these synagogues the tendency to enlarge the 
 Mosaic law, and to hedge it about by rabbinical enactments, the aim 
 after an external legalism and work-righteousness, national pride and 
 carnal anticipations of Messianic times were nursed, and from them 
 they spread among the body of the people. On the other hand, the 
 synagogues, especially those out of Palestine (among the Diaspora), 
 proved, from their missionary influence, of great use to the Church. 
 These meetings, in which the Holy Scriptures of the Old Testament 
 were, every Sabbath, read in the Greek version of the LXX*. and 
 explained, offered to the heathen, who felt their need of salvation, pre- 
 cious opportunities of becoming acquainted with the revelation and 
 the promises of God under the Old Covenant ; while to the first mes- 
 sengers of the Gospel they afi'orded an opportunity of announcing the 
 Gospel to numerous assemblages, composed of Jews and Gentiles. The 
 strict, traditional, legal, and carnal direction of Judaism after the exile 
 developed specially in the sect of the Pharisees. To them the 
 Sadducees were opposed, who, estranged from the peculiar genius 
 of the people and hostile to traditionalism, sympathized with the 
 Romans and the Herodians — in theory Rationalists, in practice 
 Epicureans. A third sect, that of the Essenes, consisted of a close 
 association of men, who retired from the world in order to carry out 
 the original idea of Moses concerning the priesthood (Ex. xix. 5, 6), 
 and whose direction was that of mysticism and ascetism. As each of 
 these three parties (the orthodox, the rationalistic, and the mystical) 
 represented more or less unhealthy aberrations from genuine Judaism, 
 they could not prepare the way for the Church, but either occupied a 
 position of antagonism, or else sought to introduce dangerous corrup- 
 tions (I 27). But with all these perverse and growing tendencies, a 
 holy seed of genuine spirituality remained in obscurity and retirement 
 (John i. 47 ; Lul;e i. 6 ; ii. 25, 38) — a soil this, prepared by the Lord 
 for receiving the salvation offered by Christ. 
 
 1 10. THE SAMARITANS. 
 
 Comp. Th. Chr. J. Jurjnhol, Coram, in hist, genti Samarit. Lugd 
 Bat. 1846, 4to. — Jos. Grimm, die Samaritern, ihre Stellung ind. Welt 
 gesch. Munch. 1854. 
 
 The Samaritans originated upon the fall of the kingdom of Is- 
 rael, from a mixture of Israelitish and heathen elements. After the 
 5*
 
 54 PREPARATORY HISTORY. 
 
 return from the Babylonian exile, they wished to amalgamate 
 with the Jews ; but their overtures were rejected on account of 
 the heathen defilements which the Samaiitans had contracted. 
 The reformatory labours carried on among them by Ilanasse, a 
 Jewish refugee, who sought to purify their religion, and to base 
 it on the Pentateuch (of which the text, however, was in some 
 particulars purposely altered), and who gave them a temple and 
 worship on Mount Gerizim, only served to increase the hatred of 
 the Jews. The Samaritans kept by the Judaism which Manasse 
 had brought among them, and remained equally strangers to the 
 developments and the perversions of Rabbinism. Their Mes- 
 sianic hopes were consequently more pure and their exclusive- 
 ness, less violent. These circumstances enabled them more 
 impartially to examine the claims of Christianity ; while the 
 hatred and contempt with which Pharisaical Judaism treated 
 them, disposed them more favourably towards the Gospel, 
 which was likewise disowned and persecuted by the synagogue 
 (John iv. 41 ; Acts viii. 5 etc.). On the other hand, Chris- 
 tianity also suffered from the attempts at change and reaction 
 made by that party, in the spirit of the heathen principle of 
 syncretism, which was inherent to Samaritanism from its com- 
 mencement (§ 22). 
 
 § 11. POINTS OF CONTACT BETWEEN JUDAISM 
 AND HEATHENISM. 
 
 The conquests of Alexander the Great brought the various 
 elements of civilization in the ancient world into contact and 
 connection. The Jews (of the Diaspora) who lived beyond the 
 limits of Palestine, especially those who resided in Egypt, which 
 A^as really the focus of this movement, were necessarily affected 
 by the influences brought to bear upon them. The Jews of 
 Eastern Asia maintained more intimate fellowship with the ex- 
 clusive Rabbinism of Palestine ; and the heathen (Chaldaic-Per- 
 sian) elements which there invaded their religious views and 
 customs, became, mainly through the Talmud, the common pro- 
 perty of Judaism as it existed after Christ. — But the heathen, 
 also, contemptible as the Jews seemed to them, having be 
 come convinced of the profound truths of the Israelitish sys- 
 tem, and of the emptiness and impotence of their own religion^ 
 yielded, in exceptional, but by no means rare, cases, to the bettfii 
 inflluences of Judaism.
 
 JUDAISM AND HEATHENISM. 5£ 
 
 1. Influence of Heaihenism upon Judaism.— This, operated most power- 
 fully in Eijypt. Thus the sect of the Essenes, which had found its way 
 thither, underwent various modifications, and, under the name of 
 Therapeuten, occupied an influential position. The Jewish Hellenism 
 of Alexandria embodied the main principles of this party ; enlarged, 
 however, by elements of Grecian culture, and reared on a broader basi3, 
 chiefly of Platonic philosophy. Of this school Aristobulns (tljj-yyjffttf 
 trji MwD(j£io{ ypa^rji, about the year 175), the author of "the Book of 
 Wisdom," aud the Alexandrian Jew Philo {ob. 39, a.D.), were the 
 principal representatives. His Platonism is peculiarly modified by Old 
 Testament elements, and by Essene and therapeutic views. Hence his 
 speculations have served as the ground-work of heathen Neo-Platonism, 
 of the Jewish Cabbala, of Gnosticism, and even of the philosophy of 
 some of the Fathers. He taught that originally all nations had ob- 
 tained some knowledge of Divine truth, but that Moses alone had been 
 the founder of true philosophy; that the legislation and teaching of 
 Mosaism was the source whence Grecian philosophy and Grecian mys- 
 teries had drawn their inspiration. The deep things of Scripture 
 could only be understood by means of allegorical interpretation. God 
 was 1-Ö ov, and matter -to nrj ov ; the xofx^oj j/ojjroj was an intermediate 
 world (corresponding to Plato's world of ideas), and consisted of innu- 
 merable spirits and potencies (angels and souls of men), which, viewed 
 in their unity, and as proceeding from the Word of God — the Ä,oyo5 
 ivhta^itös which from all eternity had been in God — had in creation 
 come forth from God — the ^oyoj rtpoijiopixos (thought and word). The 
 visible world was an imitation of the xöofioi vor^-toi, — imperfect, however, 
 on account of the physical incapability of the Jlyle, etc. 
 
 2. Influence of Judaisjn npon Heathenism. — Generally speaking, 
 heathen nations extended toleration to Judaism. Alexander the Great, 
 the Ptolemies, and in part the Seleucida3 also, accorded them the free 
 exercise of their religion, and even certain privileges. Rome recog- 
 nized Judaism as a " religio licita." Still the Jews were, for the most 
 part, despised and hated by the heathen (Tac. calls them, " despectis- 
 sima pars servie?itium, — teterrima gens") ; and even able writers, such 
 a^ Manetho, Justin, Tacitus, etc., recited the most absurd fables and 
 odious calumnies against them. Flavius Josephns, the Jewish historian, 
 endeavoured to dispel the prejudices of the Greeks and Romans against 
 his people, by presenting their history and institutions in the most 
 favorable light. On the other hand, the Greek translation of the Old 
 Testament (the Septuagint), and the great number of synagogues 
 which, during the time of Roman domination, had sprung up all over 
 the world, offered the heathen, who cared for it, an opportunity of be- 
 coming personally acquainted with the peculiar character and spirit 
 of Judaism. Considering the decay of heathenism at the time, it could 
 scarcely happen otherwise than that the high antiquity of Judaism, 
 the sublime simplicity of its creed, the solemn import of its rites, and
 
 56 PREPARATORY HISTORY 
 
 its Messianic anticipations, should — despite the common contempt for 
 the synagogue — have attracted many of the better and expectant 
 heathen, whoöe cravings their degraded religion no longer could satisfy. 
 Although comparatively few joined the Jewish nation by undergoing 
 circumcision and becoming proselytes of righteousness, the number of 
 those who, without observing the whole ceremonial law, became j!?rose- 
 lytes of the gate, abstained from idolatry and served Jehovah, was pro- 
 portionally great. These adherents consisted of high and low, chiefly 
 of females ; and among them Christianity made its earliest converts. 
 
 I 12. THE FULNESS OF TIME. 
 
 When the fulness of time had come, the dawn of a new era 
 appeared on the mountains of Judaea. According to the Divine 
 purpose, Judaism and heathenism had completed that cycle of 
 positive and negative preparation for the coming salvation of 
 which they were capable. The latter had now become perfectly 
 conscious of its entire impotence and incompetency for satisfying 
 the religious cravings of the soul ; and where not sunk into 
 dreary unbelief or wild misbelief, it earnestly longed and sought 
 for something better. Thus, negatively, the way was prepared 
 for the Church. Heathenism had produced great and imperish- 
 able results in the domains of science, art, and of human culture 
 generally. However impotent it proved to restore to man the 
 peace he had lost, and for which he sought, it could furnish 
 important aid to the true salvation which the Lord had 
 revealed. In this respect, heathenism served also as posi- 
 tive preparation for the Church. Among Jews and Gen- 
 tiles there was a general presentiment that a great era in 
 history was at hand. A deep-felt sense of want had become 
 almost a prophecy of the approaching provision. All who were 
 Israelites indeed, waited for the promised consolation — some 
 even in the hope or expectation that they might live to see its 
 advent. Among tlie heathen also the long-cherished hope of a 
 return of the Golden Age was again prominently brought for- 
 ward, and derived fresh support and a new object from what had 
 been gathered from the Holy Scriptures, or learned in the syna- 
 gogues of the Jews. ' Heathen Politij had also contributed its 
 quotum of preparation for the Church. One empire and one 
 language combined the whole world — universal peace prevailed, 
 and most extensive commerce and intercourse facilitated th« 
 rapid spread of the new truths brought to light by the Gospel
 
 HISTORY 
 
 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH 
 
 FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH BY CHRIST; ITS CONSTITUTION 
 IN THE APOSTOLIC AGE. 
 
 TO ABOUT THE YEAR 100 A.D. 
 
 § 13. CHARACTERISTICS OF THIS PRIMITIVE HISTORY, 
 AND ITS RELATION TO THE OTHER PERIODS OF ECCLE- 
 SIASTICAL »HISTORY. 
 
 The distinctive peculiarities of the Apostolic Age (the first 
 century) are our warrant for presenting it as an independent and 
 separate branch of General Church History. The difference 
 between the history of the primitive and that of the ancient 
 Church, is based on the difference between Aj)ostolicity and 
 Catholicity. The former is the root, the latter the stem, of the 
 Church. The position and the qualifications of the apostles 
 were, in consequence of their immediate Divine enlightenment 
 and assistance, so unique, that the results of their activity became 
 the basis of all future development. What they taught, and 
 what they instituted, required not any Divine law or warrant 
 other than itself. Itself was the Divine law and warrant for 
 every succeeding development or institution. Every later appear- 
 ance in the Church must be judged by the model of apostolic 
 teaching or practice, not, indeed, as if it had been quite complete 
 and perfected, exhausting every future development ; but as 
 being the sole authentic germs and commencement of the Church. 
 Hence, in all later developments of the Church, every organic 
 
 (57)
 
 58 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH (l — 100 A.D.). 
 
 development and continuation of the Apostolic Church — not 
 merely what, in the same form, had existed in the primitive 
 Church — must be regarded as of genuine Christian origin. But 
 this remark does not apply to the Church in its catholicity. Its 
 organs neither required nor enjoyed immediate Divine enlighten- 
 ment and assistance. It was their mission to superintend the 
 natural development of the germs which the Lord had already 
 planted, and to remove all spurious plants (sects and heretics), 
 Both the parent stem and the wild branches laid, indeed, equal 
 claim to genuineness, on account of real or supposed connection 
 with the root. But even where prejudice, arbitrariness, or error^ 
 disabled or prevented from distinguishing between the genuine 
 and the spurious, the Spirit of Christ has made a separation in 
 the development of a history which God has never wholly left 
 to its own course. The parent stem remained, while, sooner 
 or later, the wild branches or the spurious plants withered and 
 perished. 
 
 I. The Life of Jesus. 
 
 Comp. J. F. Khuker, menschl. Versuch üb. den Sohn Gottes und d. 
 Menschen (Essay on the Son of God and of Man). I^em. 1776. The 
 same avihor's bibl. Sympathien, od. erläuternde Bemerk, üb. d. Berichte 
 d. Ev. von Jesu Lehren u. Thaten (Bibl. Sympathies, or Explanatory 
 Remarks on the Account of the Evang. about the Teachings and Deeds 
 of Christ). Schlesw. 1820. — J. J. Hess, Lebensgesch. Jesu (Biography 
 of Christ). 8th ed. Zürich 1822. 3 vols.— F. V. Reinhard, Vers, über 
 den Plan, den d. Stifter d. christl. Rel. zum Besten d. Menschen ent- 
 warf (Essay on the Plan which the Founder of Christianity devised 
 for the Welfare of Man). 5th ed. by Heubner. Wittenb. 1830. 
 
 K. Hase, Leben Jesu (Life of Jesus). Leipz, 1829. 5th ed. 1865. — 
 D. Fr. Strauss, d. Leben Jesu krit. bearb. Tub. 1835. 2 vols. 4th ed. 
 1840. — C. H. Weisse, die ev. Gesch. krit. u. philos. bearb. (Evangel. 
 Hist, treated critically and philosophically). Leipz. 1838. 2 vols. — 
 Ä. F. Gfrörer, Gesch. d. Urchristenthmus (Hist, of Origin. Christianity). 
 Stuttg. 1838. 3 vols, in 5 parts. — C. F. v. Ammon, die Gesch. d. Lebens 
 Jesu. Leipz. 1842-47. 3 vols. — Br. Bauer, Kritik, d. evang. Gesch. 
 d. Synopt. (Crit. of the Evang. Hist, of the Synopt.). Leipz. 1841. 
 3 vols. 
 
 A. Neander, das Leben Jesu (trans, in Bohn's Series, London 1852). — 
 0. Krahbe, Vorlesungen ü. d. Leben Jesu. Hamb. 1849. — /. P. Lange, 
 das Leben Jesu. 3 vols. Heidelberg 1847. — A. Thohiclc, d. Glaub 
 svürdigkeit d. ev. Gesch. (the Credibility of Gospel Hist.). 2d ed
 
 JESUS CHRIST THE SAVIOUR OF THE WORLD. 59 
 
 Hamb. 1838. — /. H. A. Ebrard, -vrissensch. Kritik d. ev. Gesch. (Seien, 
 tific Grit, of Ev. Hist.). 2d ed. Erlang. 1850. — Z". Wieseler, ^hvonol 
 Synopse d. 4 Ev. (Chronol. Synopsis of the Four Gospels). Hamb. 1843. 
 
 I 14. JESUS CHRIST THE SAVIOUR OF THE WORLD. 
 
 "When the fulness of time was come, God sent forth His Son, 
 made of a woman, made under the law, to redeem them that were 
 under the law, that we might receive the adoption of sons" (Gal. 
 iv. 4, 5). According to promise, the Son of David was born at 
 Bethlehem. After John the Baptist, the greatest and last of the 
 Old Testament prophets, had, by the preaching and the baptism 
 of repentance, prepared His way, Jesus commenced, when about 
 thirty years old, that glorious work in which He fulfilled the law 
 and the prophets. Accompanied by twelve chosen disciples. He 
 passed through Palestine, everywhere proclaiming the kingdom of 
 God, helping, healing, and confirming by signs and miracles both 
 His Divine mission, and the doctrine about His person, office, and 
 kingdom. The Pharisees gainsayed and persecuted Him ; the 
 Sadducees discarded Him ; while the people alternated between 
 hailing and rejecting Him. After continuing in this work for 
 three years. He made solemn entrance into the city of His royal 
 ancestors amidst the acclamations of the people. But many days 
 had not elapsed, when the same multitude, disappointed in their 
 hopes of a political and temporal Messiah, cried out, " Crucify 
 Him, crucify Him ! " Thus, according to the good pleasure of 
 the Father, He died on the cross, a sacrifice for the sins of the 
 world. By His suffering, the God-man procured a righteous- 
 ness of infinite and eternal value, in virtue of which, whosoever 
 in faith appropriates it, has all his sins forgiven, and is justified 
 before God. But death could not hold the Prince of life. He 
 burst the gates of Hades and the bonds of the grave, and on the 
 third day rose with glorified body. Thus has He brought life 
 %nd immortality to light, that we also might in Him share the 
 same. For forty days He still continued on earth, subject to the 
 limitations of humanity. He promised to His disciples the gift 
 of the Holy Ghost, and set them apart to preach the Gospel to 
 all nations. Then He again took unto Himself His Divine form, 
 which He had put off in His incarnation, ascended into heaven, 
 where, as God-man, He now sitteth at the right hand of power — 
 the Almighty and ever-present Head of the Church, the Lord of 
 all, whether in heaven or on earth, and who at the completion
 
 60 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH (l— 100 A.D.). 
 
 of all things, shall return to this earth, visibly, and in His own 
 and His Father's glory. 
 
 1. Despite many learned and ingenious inquiries into the subject, it 
 has as yet been impossible exactly to fix either the year of Christ's birth, 
 or that of His death. In the Christian era, which was proposed by 
 Diony sills Exiguus in the 6th cent., adopted by Beda Venerabilis, and 
 introduced into common use by Pepin and Charlemagne, the year 754 
 after the building of Rome is assumed as the starting-point. But this 
 is manifestly erroneous, as Herod the Great died (750 or) 751 p. U. c. 
 Sandementius (de vulg. asrae emendatione, Romae 1793) on historical 
 grounds, and Fr. Munter (der Stern der Weisen — the Star of the Wise 
 Men — Copenh. 1827) on astronomical grounds, fix on the year 7 before 
 our era as that of Christ's birth; Wieseler {vt svpra) on the year 4, 
 Seyffarth (Chronol. s. Leipz. 1846) on the year 2, Weigl (theol. chronol. 
 Abhandl. über d. wahre Geburts- u. Sterbejahr J. Chr., Sulzb. 1849) 
 on the year 5, before the present era. Many of the Fathers, appealing 
 to Isa. Ixi. 1, 2, and Luke iv. 19, supposed that Christ had only taught 
 during one year, and hence that (Luke iii. 23) He was crucified in the 
 30th year of His life. But although the synoptic Gospels speak of only 
 one (the last) passover during the ministry of Christ, John (ii. 13 ; vi. 
 4; xxii. 23) refers to three such feasts, and besides (v. 1) to a iof>t^ run- 
 'lovSaJcov. 
 
 2. Among genuine non-biblical testimonies about Christ, probably 
 the most ancient is a Syriac letter of Mara, addressed to his son Sera- 
 pion [see Ciireto7i, Spicil. Syriacum. Lond. 1855), written about the year 
 73. Mara, a man thoroughly versed in Greek philosophy, but not satis- 
 fied with the consolations it offered, writes from his place of exile a 
 letter of comfort and instruction to his son, in which he ranks Christ 
 along with Socrates and Pythagoras ; he honours Him as a wise king ; 
 he charges the Jews with His murder, declares that thereby they had 
 brought upon themselves the destruction of their commonwealth, but 
 that Christ continued to live in the new law which He had given. 
 From the same period dates the testimony of JosepJins, the Jewish his- 
 torian. In that portion of the passage of Josephus which is undoubt- 
 tedly genuine, Christ is extolled as having wrought miracles, and been 
 a wise teacher of truth ; His death on the cross under the administra- 
 tion of Pilate, and the foundation of the Church, are also mentioned, 
 F. H. Schoedel, (Vindicioe Flavianoe, Lps. 1840) has contended for tho 
 p-.enuineness of the tvhoJe passage in Josephus. The following, how- 
 over, are spurious records : 1) the Syriac correspondence between Christ 
 and Äh(jarns, King of Edessa, in which the latter entreats the Lord to 
 come and heal him, while Christ replies by promising, after His ascen- 
 sion, to send one of His disciples (the genuineness of these documents has, 
 however, of late been again maintained by Rinck in Illgen's Journal 
 for 1843, and by Weite in the Tub. Quarterly for 1842) ; 2) two lottery
 
 PENTECOST ACTIVITY OF APOSTLES. 61 
 
 addressed by Pilate to Tiberius; 3) the letter oi Leniulus (a friend of 
 Pilate) to the Roman Senate, giving a description of the appearance of 
 Christ. Since the fourth century, legends also circulated about a statue 
 of Christ, which the woman who had been cured of the issue of blood 
 had erected in Paneas, and about certain miraculous portraits of Jesua 
 (such as that in the napkin of Vei-onica, perhaps originally = vera icon, 
 üxöiv). For other legends and fables, see the apocrypha gospels. 
 
 II. The Apostolic Age. 
 
 Comp. A. Neander, History of the Planting of the Christian Church 
 (translated by J. E. Ryland, Bohn's Series). 2 vols. 1851. — /. B. 
 Trautmann, die ap. K. (the Ap. Ch.). Leipz. 1848. — 3L Baumgarten, 
 transl. by Morrison and Meyer, in Clark's For. Theol. Library. 3 vols. — 
 J. P. Lange, Gesch. d. K. d. ap. Zeit. (Hist, of the Ch. in Ap. Times) 
 2 vols. Braunschw. 1852. — Ph. Schaff, Hist, of the Apostolic Church. 
 Scribner, New York, 1853. — H. W. J. Thiersch, d. K, im ap. Zeit. 
 Frkf. 1852. — G. W. Lechler, d. ap. u. nachap. Zeitalter (theApost. and 
 Post-Apost. Age). Stuttg. 1857. 4to. — C. Beuss, Hist, de la theologie 
 au siecle ap. Strassb. 1852. — H. Ewald, Gesch. d. apost. Zeitalt. bis z 
 Zerstör. Jerus. Göttg. 1869. — K. Wieseler, Chronol. d. apost. Zeitalt. 
 Gottg. 1848. 
 
 I 15. THE FEAST OF PENTECOST— ACTIVITY OF THE APOS- 
 TLES BEFORE THE CALLING OF PAUL (30-48 a. d.). 
 
 After the number of apostles had by lot been again made up 
 to twelve, the Holy Ghost was poured out upon the assembled 
 disciples who had waited for His coming. This event, which 
 was accompanied by miraculous signs, took place on the feast 
 of Pentecost (anno 30), ten days after the ascension of the Lord. 
 It became the birth-day of the Church, whose first members were 
 now gathered in large numbers, in consequence of a sermon by 
 Peter. Through the exertions of the apostles (chiefly of Peter 
 and of John), which, however, at first were confined to Jerusa- 
 lem, the Church grew daily. But when a violent persecution, 
 which commenced with the stoning of Stephen-, scattered the 
 faithful, the Gospel was carried all over Palestine to Phcßnicia 
 and Syria, although the apostles remained in the Jewish capital. 
 The preaching of Philip, \ deacon, was specially owned in 
 Samaria (about the year 39 or 40). Soon afterwards Peter 
 visiled the churches in Judtea ; and in consequence of a Divine 
 command, received by baptism the first Gentiles (the family of 
 Cornelius) into the Church. At the same time, and indepen- 
 6
 
 62 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH (1—100 A. D.). 
 
 dently of this event, the earnest inquiries of many Gentiles in 
 Antioch led to the formation of a church composed of Jews and 
 Gentiles. Barnabas, a Levite, and a man strong in the faith 
 was despatched from Jerusalem to Antioch, and undertook the 
 care of this community, conjoining in this work with his own the 
 labours of Faul, a converted Pharisee, whom some years before 
 (about 40 A.D.) a revelation of Christ, on the way to Damascus, 
 had transformed from a fanatical persecutor into a most devoted 
 Christian and preacher. In consequence of these events, the 
 missionary efforts of the apostles were henceforth divided into 
 purely Jewish, with Jerusalem as the centre of operations, and 
 into mixed, which had chiefly the Gentiles for their object, and 
 issued from Antioch. A conference of the apostles, held at 
 Jerusalem (Gal. ii. 1-9), formally sanctioned this arrangement. 
 
 ?1G. LABOURS OF THE APOSTLE PAUL (44-64 a.D.). 
 
 Comp. J. T. Hemsen, der Ap. Paul. Göttg. 1830. — C. ScTirader, der 
 Ap. P. Leipz. 1830. — Foley, HorjB Paulinae, in his collected works, and 
 since often printed separately. — Conyheare and Howson, The Life and 
 Epistles of St. Paul. 2 vols. 2d Ed. 1850.— (i^. Chr. Eaur, Paul. d. Ap. 
 J. Chr. Ein Beitrag zu einer krit. Gesch. d. Urchristth. — Paul the ap. 
 of J. Chr. A Contrib. to a crit. Hist, of orig. Chr. Tübg. 1845.) 
 
 Having been specially separated by the Holy Ghost for the 
 work, and set apart by the Church by the laying on of hands, 
 Paul and Barnabas left Antioch in the year 45, to make their 
 first missionary tour to Asia Minor. The Lord, by signs and 
 wonders, gave testimony to their preaching ; and, notwithstand- 
 ing the contradiction and persecution of hostile Jews, they 
 founded at Antioch (in Pisidia), at Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe, 
 mixed churches, consisting chiefly of Gentile Christians ; preach- 
 ing also in many other places. Not long afterwards, Paul 
 undertook a second missionary journey (50-54). On this occa- 
 sion Barnabas had separated from Paul, because he would take 
 with him John Mark, his nephew, who on the first missionary 
 tour had left the work. In company with his nephew, Barnabas 
 now went to Cyprus, his own country ; but no record of the suc- 
 cess of this mission has been left. Accompanied by Silas,, by 
 Luke, and afterwards also by Timotlyj, Faul meantime passed 
 again through Asia Minor, and was about to return to Antioch, 
 when a call from the Lord, in a night-vision, induced him to
 
 LABOURS OF THE APOSTLE PAUL. 63 
 
 land on the shores of Europe. Here he founded Christian com- 
 munities at Philippi, at Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, and Co- 
 rinth ; and then returned to Syria through Asia Minor; touch- 
 ing at Ephesus by the way. During his stay at Jerusalem the 
 conference with Peter, James, and John, to which Gal. ii. refers 
 took place (fourteen years after Paul's conversion), and sood 
 afterwards, in Antioch, the conflict with Peter, alluded to in the 
 same passage. In the year 54, he undertook, in company with 
 Luke, Titus, and Timothy, his third missionary expedition 
 (54-58). This time, Ephesus, where a numerous congregation 
 was gathered, became the centre of his operations. An extraor- 
 dinary success attended his labours, and the very existence of 
 heathenism in Asia Minor seemed threatened. Driven from 
 Ephesus in consequence of a tumult, Paul travelled through 
 Macedonia, penetrated as far as Illyricum, then visited the 
 churches in Greece, and returned to Jerusalem to fulfil a vow. 
 In the Jewish capital his life was only preserved through the 
 interference of the Roman tribune, who took him prisoner, and 
 sent him to Caesarea. An appeal to the Emperor, to which as 
 Roman citizen he was entitled, led to his departure to Rome (in 
 the year 60), where for some years he continued a prisoner in his 
 own house, being still allowed to preach. The further course 
 of his life and activity is involved in some uncertainty. Proba- 
 bly his imprisonment became more severe, either in consequence 
 of increasing enmity on the part of the Emperor or of his favour- 
 ites towards Christianity, or on account of the importunities of 
 hostile Jews. In the year 64 he was beheaded, under the reign 
 of Nero. 
 
 1. The very common opinion, first mooted by Eusebius, that about 
 theyear 64 Paul had been set at liberty, and undertaken a fourth mis- 
 sionary tour, in which he had penetrated as far as Spain, that thence 
 he had a second time been sent prisoner to Rome, and been beheaded in 
 that city about the year 67, owes its origin to manifest chronological 
 mistakes. It has of late been again advocated (by Neander, Guericke, 
 Credner, Gieseler, Huther, Wiesinger, etc.), from the erroneous suppo- 
 sition that some events noticed in the letters of Paul could not have 
 occurred during the period preceding the (supposed first) imprison- 
 ment of Paul at Rome. What is regarded as a testimony of Clement 
 to the journey of the apostle into Spain (sfti rb tifi/xa trji Svaeu,^ c%^p) ig 
 by no means conclusive, even irrespective of the dubious particle ijti. 
 The Muratori Canon refers indeed to a journey into Spain, but only aa
 
 64 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH (l— 100 A. D.). 
 
 an unsupported legend (Rom. xv. 24), on which the book of Acts is 
 Bilent. Comp, especially Wieseler, ut siipra, p. 521 etc. 
 
 §17. LABOURS OF THE OTHER APOSTLES (AFTER THE 
 YEAR 48). 
 
 We only possess authentic data about the labours of the most 
 prominent among the apostles. At an early period (about the 
 year 44), James the Elder, the brother of John, suffered martyr- 
 dom at Jerusalem. During that persecution Peter was obliged 
 for a time to leave Jerusalem. By inclination and calling he 
 acted as apostle to the circumcision (Gal. ii. 7-9). In the 
 course of his labours, which were shared by Mark, he penetrated, 
 according to 1 Pet. v. 13, as far as Babylon. That he had also 
 labored in Asia Minor and in Greece is doubtful. That he was 
 crucified under the reign of Nero at Rome, A. D. 64, the same 
 year when Paul was beheaded, may well be questioned, and 
 the legend that for 25 years before his death he was Bishop 
 of Rome is a certain fable. Indeed it is by no means clear 
 that Peter was ever in Rome — Philip spent the last years 
 of his life at Hierapolis in Phrygia. John betook himself to 
 Ephesus. Ancient legends declare that Thomas preached in 
 Parthia, Bartholomew in India, and that John Mark founded 
 the church at Alexandria. — After the time of the apostolic con- 
 ference, James the Just, the brother of the Lord, seems to have 
 presided over the church at Jerusalem, having been specially 
 commissioned to labour amongst the Jews. In Gal. ii. 9 Paul 
 speaks of him, of Peter and of John, as being regarded "pillars" 
 of the Church. He does not appear ever to have left Jerusa- 
 lem. Soon after the imprisonment of Paul he was killed by 
 fanatical Jews (64). After the martyrdom of Paul, John, who 
 among the twelve disciples approximated most closely the mental 
 direction of Paul, occupied the former field of labour of that 
 apostle in Asia Minor. He took up his abode at Ephesus, a 
 city which, at that period, was the focus and centre of ecclesias- 
 tical movements. Even during the time of Paul, the antagon- 
 isms peculiar to the apostolic age — that of Literalism, Pliarisee- 
 ism, and Legal Righteousness, on the one hand, and on the 
 otlier, that of Antinoraianism, Idealism, and Gnosticism — had 
 appeared, and rapidly developed almost into antichristian ten 
 dencies. Circumstances like these rendered the presence of an
 
 LABOURS OF THE OTHER APOSTLES. 65 
 
 apostle, who was a pillar of the Church, all the more requisite 
 in a city which otherwise also was so important. Of all the 
 apostles none was so eminently adapted and qualified for such a 
 post as John, who combined the most ready charity and mild- 
 ness with the most strict and unbending earnestness, and whose 
 spiritual tendency embodied in their purest and highest aspects 
 the truths lying at the foundation of these antagonisms. Ban- 
 ished by Domitian to Patmos, an island in the ^gean Sea, he 
 returned again to Ephesus, where he laboured for other thirty 
 years (to his death under Trajan), his ministrations being greatly 
 blessed to the church of Asia Minor. 
 
 1. The legend about Peter's hishoprick at Rome (according to Euse- 
 bius, from the year 42-67), is derived from the heretical, pseudo-epi- 
 graphic Clementines and Recognitions, — an authority entirely untrust- 
 worthy [v. § 27, 4). The silence both of the letter to the Romans (58) 
 and of Acts xxviii. prove that Peter could not have labored in Rome be- 
 fore A. D. 60, when Paul arrived there as a prisoner.^ Comp. Wieseler 
 ut supra, p. 522 etc. 
 
 2. The question, whether the New Testament refers to two or to 
 THREK James' — i.e., whether the apostle James the Less, the son of 
 Alpheus and cousin of Jesus, was the same as James the Just, the bro- 
 ther of the Lord and president of the church of Jerusalem, or not — is 
 one of the most difficult problems in New Test. History. The strongest 
 argument in favour of their identity is derived from Gal. i. 19, where 
 James the brother of the Lord is called an apostle (comp., however, 
 Acts xiv. 14; Heb. iii. 1). But, on the whole, the balance of evidence 
 is against this supposition. In John vii. the brethren of Jesus are 
 represented as still unbelieving at a time when James the son of 
 Alpheus was already one of the apostles ; according to Matt, xxviii. 
 19, none of the twelve could be permanent Bishop of Jerusalem ; Hege- 
 sippus represents James the Just as ^leia rCjv arcoato'Kiov the president 
 of the church at Jerusalem, and he speaks of naxxoi 'luxioßoi (which, at 
 any rate, implies more than two). The older Fathers regarded the 
 "brothers and sisters*' of the Lord as the children of Joseph by a 
 former marriage (a view which leaves untouched the delicate question 
 as to the interpretation of Matt. i. 25). Jerome and Chrysostom are 
 the first of the Fathers to identify James the son of Alpheus with 
 James the Just. — Regarding the death of James the Just ancient testi- 
 monies do not fully agree. According to Hegesippus the Jews asked 
 him, at the feast of the Passover, to bear witness against Christ, from 
 the pinnacle of the temple. But James earnestly testified in favour of 
 Christ, and for this was cast down, stoned, and whilst praying for his 
 enemies, was killed by a blow from the club of a tanner. Clem. AleX' 
 ander corroborates this account. Josephus simply reports that after 
 
 6*
 
 66 
 
 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH (l_100A. D.), 
 
 the removal of Festus, and before the arrival of Albinuä'(anno 64), the 
 cruel high-priest Ananus procured a hasty condemnation of James, and 
 of others to vrhom he bore enmity, and had caused the apostle — noi- 
 j.8i>.(pbv 'Ij^öov t'oi; Xsyofisvov Kpiatoii — to be stoned. 
 
 3. Irenaeus, Eusebius, and Jerome speak of the banishment of John 
 as having taken place under the reign of Dom itian ; only obscure or 
 later evidence (the superscription in the Syr. Book of Revel, and 
 Theophylact) is in favour of placing it in the time of Kero. Tertullian 
 records a legend, according to vrhich he had, at the time of Nero, been 
 put into a cask of boiling oil ; and Augustin relates that he had drained 
 a poisoned cup without deriving harm from it. These are manifestly 
 apocryphal stories ; but the narrative of Clement Alex, about the 
 tender care with which the aged apostle had watched over a youth who 
 had fearfully gone astray, appears to be authentic. The same remark 
 applies to the account of Jerome, according to whom, when too old to 
 walk, John had caused himself to be carried to the meetings of the 
 Christians, and ever repeated to them only this admonition, " Little 
 children, love one another;" and to the statement of Iren£eus, that 
 when, on one occasion, he happened to meet with Cerinthus, the 
 heretic, in a bath, the apostle immediately left the place so as to avoid 
 even outward communion with him. 
 
 i 18. CONSTITUTION, LIFE, DISCIPLINE, AND WORSHIP OF 
 THE CHURCH, 
 
 Cf. K. Lechler, die N. T. Lehre von h. Amte Stuttg. 1857. 
 
 The institution of a special human priesthood, characteristic 
 of Old Testament times, had now merged in the One only and 
 Eternal Mediatorship of the God-man ; at the same time, the 
 Gospel distinctly laid down the principle, that all Christians 
 formed part of the Universal Prieptliood (Heb. iv. 16 ; 1 Pet, 
 ii. 9 ; Rev. i. 6). Connected together into an organism under 
 Christ, as its only Head, the Church was to edify itself and to 
 grow by the co-operation of all its members, according to their 
 respective calling, gifts, and position (Eph. i. 22 etc. ; 1 Cor, 
 xii. 12 etc.). The natural talents and the inward calling in 
 apostolic times were in special cases quickened and enlarged 
 by the extraordinary gifts of the Holy Spirit (the Cha- 
 rismata). With the natural exception of females (1 Cor, 
 xiv. 34; 1 Tim. ii. 12), every Christian was allowed to teach 
 and to exhort in the Church. But from the commencement 
 reo-ularly appointed officials were set apart, in order that this 
 nrocess of contributing to the edification of the Church, on the
 
 CHURCH CONSTITUTION, LIFE, ETC. 6/ 
 
 part of all its members, might not degenerate into arbitrariness, 
 presumption, and anarchy, and that, amidst the changes of time, 
 the government and edification of the Church might continue 
 uninterrupted. On them the preservation of order, the pre- 
 vention of abuses, the direction of public worship, the preaching 
 of the word, the dispensation of the sacraments, the cure of 
 souls, the exercise of discipline, and the outward representation 
 of the Church, devolved as their peculiar and fixed calling. The 
 need of such an order of men must have been all the more felt, 
 when the extraordinary qualifications of charismata gradually 
 ceased. It became now more than ever necessary, by means of 
 a regular outward call, to assign proper limits, and to give a 
 settled character to the inward call. So long as the apostles 
 laboured in the churches which they had founded, the duty of 
 teaching and of governing devolved upon them. 
 
 1. Tlie Charismata. — According to 1 Cor. xii. 8 etc., 28 etc., the 
 special and extraordinary gifts of the Holy Spirit in the Apostolic 
 Church were of twofold character, as they manifested themselves either 
 in word or in deed. The first were in part temporary, such as the gifts 
 of speaking in tongues and of prophecy ; and again, supplementary to 
 these, the gift of interpreting tongues and trying the spirits. And in 
 part they were lasting, such as the gift of teaching — i. e., either the 
 speculative gift of wisdom and of knowledge (Gnosis), or the practical 
 and didactic gift of faith (Pistis). Of the second class of charismata 
 strictly practical were the gift of directing and administering the affairs 
 of a church, and the gifts of performing miracles and of healing 
 the sick. 
 
 2. Bisliops and Preshyters. — To aid them in their work, or to supply 
 their places in their absence (Acts 14 : 23), the apostles ordained rulers 
 in every church, who bore the common name of Elders (rtpsaßvtfpot) 
 from their dignity, and of Bisliops {fTiLOxonoc) from the nature of their 
 office. 
 
 That originally the rtpeaßv-ttpoo were the same as the irtCaxortoi, we 
 gather with absolute certainty from the statements of the New Testa- 
 ment and of Clement of Rome, a disciple of the apostles (see his First 
 Epistle to the Corinthians, chaps, xlii. xliv. Ivii.). 1) The presbyters 
 are expressly called irtiaxoHov — comp. Acts xx. 17 with ver. 28, and 
 Tit. i. 5 with ver. 7. — 2) The office of presbyter is described as next 
 to and highest after that of apostle (Acts xv. 6, 22). Similarly, the 
 elders are represented as those to whom alone the rule, the teaching, 
 and the care of the Church is entrusted (1 Tim. v. 17 ; 1 Pet. v. 1 etc.) , 
 on account of whi.h the apostles designate themselves also as evfiTtpt"
 
 68 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH (l — 100 A.D.) 
 
 ßvifipob (1 Pet. V. 1, 2, and 3 John 1). — 3) The various offices of tht 
 Church are summed up under the expression irtiaxonoi xaL Siaxoioc 
 (Phil. i. 1; Clem. Rom. 1. c. ch. xlii. comp. 1 Tim. iii. 1, 8).— 4) In 
 the above quoted passages of the N. T. and of Clement we read of 
 many bishops in one and the same church. In the face of such indu- 
 bitable evidence, it is difficult to account for the pertinacity with which 
 Romish and Anglican theologians insist that these two offices had from 
 the first been different in name and functions ; while the allegation of 
 some, that although, originally, the two designations had been identical, 
 the offices themselves were distinct, seems little better than arbitrary 
 and absurd. Even Jerome, Augustin, Urban II. (a. 1091), and Petrus 
 Loml)ardus admit that originally the two had been identical. It was 
 reserved for the Council of Trent to convert this truth into a heresy. 
 
 3. Other Church Offices. — (Comp. R. Rothe, die Anfänge d. christl. 
 Kirche und ihrer Verfass. (Commenc. of the Chr. Ch. and of its Consti- 
 tut.). Wittemb. 1837. Vol. I. — J. W. Bkkell, Gesch. d. Kirchenrechtes 
 (Hist, of Eccl. Law). Frankf. 1849. I. 2, p. 62 etc.)— Conjoined with, but 
 subordinate to, the office of presbyter or bishop, of which the apostles 
 themselves for so considerable time discharged the duties at Jerusalem, 
 was the office of Deacon. It was first instituted by the apostles, with con- 
 sent of the people, for the purpose of caring for the poor and the sick at 
 Jerusalem (Acts vi.). Thence it spread to most other Christian communi- 
 ties ; the number of deacons being always seven, until the original func- 
 tions of the office were enlarged, and the deacons called to assist in the 
 cure of souls and in preaching the word. Functions corresponding to those 
 of the deacons — but only so far as the original design of the diaconate 
 was concerned (according to 1 Cor. xiv. 34, and 1 Tim. ii. 12) — devolved 
 on the Deaconesses (Rom. xvi. 1), who took charge of Christian females. 
 From 1 Tim. v. 9 we gather that, commonly, only widows above the 
 age of sixty were admitted to this office. The presbyters and deacons 
 were set apart by the laying on of the hands of the apostles, or of 
 their delegates (Acts vi. 6; 1 Tim. iv. 14 etc.). Individual churches 
 were also in the habit of employing special evangelists, whose duty it 
 was to travel about in order to preach to the heathen (Eph. iv. 11 ; 
 Acts xxi. 8). When, one after another, the apostles, who even when 
 ab;»ent, were regarded as concentrating in themselves the supreme 
 guidance of the churches, were called to their rest, gradually and 
 almost necessarily one of the elders obtained prominence over the rest, 
 though at first only as the primus inter pares, and with it the distinctive 
 title of Bishop, in contradistinction to the other presbyters. The rela- 
 tion of James to the church at Jerusalem (Acts xv. 13; xxi. 18), and 
 the full powers which Paul claimed for his assistants (Timothy, Titus, 
 and others) in individual churches, may have served as a commence 
 ment and a type of the later Episcopate (Cf. § 30).
 
 CHURCH CONSTITUTION, LIFE, ETC. 6& 
 
 4. Christian Life, and Ecclesiastical Discipline. — (Comp. G. Arnold, 
 erste Liebe, d. i. wahre Abbildung d. ersten Christen. (First Love, 
 t. e.. Faithful Portraiture of the first Christians) Frkft. 1696.— In 
 accordance with the command of the Lord (John xiii. 34, 35), brotherly 
 love, in opposition to the selfishness of the natural heart, became the 
 principle of the new Christian life. In the church at Jerusalem, the 
 power of first love, stimulated by the expectation of a speedy return 
 of the Lord, manifested itself in a voluntary community of goods — an 
 experiment this, which, without denying its internal value, was soon 
 found to be impracticable, and hence neither repeated nor even pro- 
 longed. But the more wealthy Gentile Christian churches continued 
 to show their brotherly afi"ection by making collections for the poor 
 saints at Jerusalem, whom providential dispensations (such as famine) 
 rendered still more dependent. — According to the direction of the 
 apostle in Gal. iii. 28, the threefold evil under which the old world 
 laboured — contempt of foreign nationalities, degradation of woman, and 
 slavery — was removed by a gradual and internal renovation of the 
 world, carried on without any violent infringement of existing rights. 
 At the same time, a deep consciousness of the fellowship subsisting 
 between the members of the Church in their subordination to the One 
 Head in heaven, pervaded and sanctified all the relationships of life. — 
 However, even in apostolic times pristine Christian purity and sim- 
 plicity occasionally gave place to other feelings. In the Mother Church, 
 hypocrisy (Acts v.) and dissension (Acts vi.) appeared at a very early 
 period. But the former was visited by a dreadful judgment ; the latter 
 removed by charity and mutual forbearance. Among the more wealthy 
 Gentile Christian churches (such as in Corinth and Thessalonica) the 
 spirit of the world manifested its presence by luxuriousness, selfish- 
 ness, pride, etc. ; but it was broken or removed, partly in consequence 
 of the admonitions and the discipline of the apostles, and partly in 
 consequence of the early persecutions which sifted and purified the 
 churches. Any member who had caused public scandal by a gross 
 violation of pure doctrine or of Christian duty, and who persisted in 
 his sin despite the admonitions of pastors and elders, was expelled 
 from the Church. But if sufficient proof of genuine repentance had 
 been given, the ofi'ending brother was gladly welcomed back. The 
 account about the incestuous person at Corinth affords an example 
 of the apostolic arrangements in this respect (1 Cor. v. 1 etc. ; 2 Cor. 
 ii. 5 etc. ; comp, also 1 Tim. i. 19, 20 ; Gal. i, 8, 9 ; 1 John ii. 19 
 etc.). Cf. I 36. 
 
 5. Christian Worship. — (Comp. Tli. Harnach, der ehr. Gemeinde- 
 gottesd. im apost. u. altkath. Zeitalter (Chr. Congregat. Worship in the 
 Apost. and Anc. Cath. Ch.). Erl. 1854.— 7V(.. Kliefuth, Liturg. Abhandl. 
 IV. A. u. d. T. : Die urspr. Gottesdienstordn. »tc., I. p. 175, &c., 2 
 Aufl. Schwerin. 1?58). — Even in Jerusalem, where Christians con
 
 70 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH (l— 100 A.D.). 
 
 tinued their attendance on the temple, the religious wants of the Chiircli 
 rendered distinctively Christian and common worship necessary. Bui 
 as Jewish worship was twofold in its character, consisting of instruc 
 tion and edification by the word in the synagogues, and of the typical 
 and sacramental service of symbols in the temple, so, in the Church 
 also, Christian worship was, from the first, either homiletico-didactic, 
 or else eucharistico-sacramenial. (Cf. | 33.) The former, like the 
 service of the synagogue, was not only intended for the edification of 
 the congregation, but for missionary purposes, on which ground non- 
 Christians also were allowed and invited to attend. At first the church 
 at Jerusalem held these [morning) services in the halls of the temple, 
 where the people were wont to assemble for prayer (Acts iii. 11) ; 
 afterwards, in private houses. They consisted of reading certain 
 passages and sections from the Old Testament — at a later period, also 
 apostolic letters and portions from the Gospels — of addresses for the 
 purposes of instruction and exhortation, of prayer and of singing of 
 psalms. The sacramental portion of public worship took place within 
 the circle of the Church alone. The main part and object of these 
 (evening) services was to celebrate the Lord's Supper, which, after the 
 model of the institution, was accompanied by prayer and the singing 
 of hymns, and taken along with a common meal, called the ayart»;, to 
 denote that its purpose was the expression of brotherly love. The ele- 
 ments were set apart for sacramental purposes by prayer, in which 
 thanks and praise were ofi'ered up [ivxapia-tla, 1 Cor. xi. 24; or tvXoyia., 
 1 Cor. X. 16). This prayer was probably followed by the "holy kiss" 
 {^^Xyifia ouytoy, Rom. xvi. 16 ; 1 Cor. xvi. 20). In public worship, besides 
 the psalms, distinctly Christian hymns and doxologie^ were probably 
 in use even in apostolic times (Eph. v. 19 ; Col. iii. 16), of which Eph. 
 ii. 14, 1 Tim. iii. 16, 2 Tim. ii. 11-13, possibly contain specimens and 
 fragments. See also 1 Tim. iii. 1, 16 ; James i. 17 ; Rev. i. 4 etc. ; iv. 
 11 ; V. 9 etc. ; xi. 15 etc. ; xv. 3 etc. ; xxi. 1 etc. ; xxii. 10 etc. At first, 
 both the homiletic and eucharistic services took place daily (Acts ii. 4, 
 6). But even in apostolic times, besides the Sabbath — among Gentile 
 Christians instead of it — the Lord's Day was observed as a day of 
 epecial solemnity, being that of Christ's resurrection (John xx. 26 ; 
 Acts XX. 7; 1 Cor. xvi. 2; Rev. i. 10). But we canjiot discover that 
 any other feast days had been observed at that period. Equally im- 
 possible is it strictly to demonstrate that infant baptism had been 
 practised by the apostles, although this is probable (Acts ii. 39; xvi 
 33 ; 1 Cor. vii. 14). Baptism was administered by complete immersion, 
 in the name of Christ, or else of the Triune God (Matt, xxviii. 19). 
 The charisma of healing the sick was applied along with prayer and 
 anointing with oil (James v. 14, 15). The practice of confessing sins 
 one to another, and praying for each other, was recommended without 
 having, however, any necessary connection with public worship (James 
 V. 16). The Holy Ghost (as a charisma), and ordination (Acts vi. 6; 
 xiii. 3 ; 1 Tim. iv. 14), were imparted by prayer and laying on of bards,
 
 APOSTOLIC OPPOSITION TO SECTARIANS, ETC. 71 
 
 2 19. APOSTOLIC OPPOSITION TO SECTARIANS AND 
 HERETICS. 
 
 Comp. TliierscTi, Versuch zur Herstell, d. Hist. Standp. für. d. Kri 
 tik d. Nel. Schriften. Erlg. 1845.— IF. Mangold, d. Irrlehre d. Pastoral 
 briefe. Marb. 1856. 
 
 From the first, when, by the preaching of the apostles, Chris- 
 tianity entered on its mission of conquering the world, the intel- 
 lectual powers of the old world occupied one of three relations 
 with reference to the Gospel. Either their representatives en- 
 tirely gave themselves up to the truth, or they prepared as 
 enemies to resist it, or they admitted certain of the elements of 
 Christianity, retaining, however, along with these, their old and 
 unchristian views. This combination and commingling of hete- 
 rogeneous elements gave rise to many heresies. — The first 
 enemy which appeared, even in the midst of the Christian camp 
 itself, was the well-known pharisaical Judaism, with its tradi- 
 tionary ossification of doctrine, its righteousness of dead works, 
 its narrow-minded pride of nationality, and its carnal and per- 
 rerted views about the Messiah. It was the shibboleth of that 
 party, that the Gentiles should be constrained to observe the 
 ceremonial law (of the Sabbath, of meats, of circumcision), as 
 being the necessary condition of salvation. This tendency had 
 first appeared in the Church at Jerusalem, where, however, the 
 resolutions agreed to at the conference of the apostles con- 
 demned the peculiarities of the party. Still it continued to 
 follow Paul in his missionary labours, attacking him with the 
 weapons of malice, enmity and calumny. To his contest with 
 these sectaries we owe the most precious of his Epistles (espe. 
 cially those addressed to the Romans, the Gal at i ans, and the 
 Corinthians). Traces of Sadducean and sceptical opposition 
 may perhaps be discovered in the objections to the doctrine of 
 the resurrection to which Paul replies in 1 Cor. xv. On the 
 other hand, Grecian Phllosophij also, at an early period, mingled 
 itself with Christianity. Apollos, a Jew fi'om Alexandria, who 
 had received a philosophical training, viewed Christianity mainly 
 in its speculative aspect, and in this manner eloquently and suc- 
 cessfully expounded its doctrines at Corinth. Paul did not 
 oppose this method of presenting the Gospel. He rather left it 
 to the judgment of history (1 Cor. iii. 11-14) ; but he warned
 
 72 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH (l— 100 A.D.). 
 
 against laying excessive value on human wisdom (1 Cor. ii. 1-10). 
 Still, among some of the lovers of philosophy at Corinth, the 
 simple and positive preaching of Paul in consequence declined 
 in authority, although this result had not been intended by 
 Apollos. This circumstance was perhaps the first occasion of 
 the split in the church at Corinth, where four parties appeared 
 under different names (1 Cor. i.). The Judaising Christians 
 appealed to the authority of the Apostle Peter {ol tov K-^yt»), 
 while the Gentile Christians called themselves either the fol- 
 lowers of Apollos or of Paul, or refusing to own the authority 
 of any apostle, assumed the boastful designation of ol tov Xfnatov. 
 This split was effectually opposed by Paul in his two Epistles to 
 the Corinthians. — Much more dangerous than the heretical ten- 
 dencies to which we have above adverted was a kind of Jewish- 
 Gentile Gnosis, which began to intrude into Christianity during 
 the latter years of Paul's labours, being probably imported by the 
 Essenes and Therapeutae, who had formed a connecting medium 
 between the synagogue and the heathen. Asia Minor was the 
 principal focus of this ■^'evSäwno^ ycdiSK. To it Paul first directed 
 attention in his farewell address at Miletus (Acts xx. 29, 30). 
 Afterwards he expressly opposed it in the Epistles to the Ephe- 
 sians and to the Colossians, and especially in his pastoral letters, 
 even as Peter combated it in his First Epistle. Still it assumed 
 many and varied forms. It appeared in the shape of Oriental 
 Theosophy, Magic and Theurgy, in voluntary ascetism with 
 reference to meats and marriage, in fancied mysteries about the 
 nature and subordination of heavenly powers and spirits, and in 
 the transformation of certain doctrines of Christianity (such as 
 that of the resurrection, 2 Tim. ii. 18) into a mere idealism. 
 These seeds of evil had already borne abundant fruit, when John 
 came to take up his residence in Asia Minor. Accordingly, in 
 his First Epistle the apostle opposed the growing heresy, and 
 more especially that form of Gnosis in which, under the garb of 
 docetic views, the incarnation of God in Christ was denied. 
 The Second Epistle of Peter and the Epistle of Jude are more 
 particularly directed against tlie antinomian excesses of Gnosti- 
 cism — its unbounded immorality, and its infamous licentiousness 
 under guise of magical and theurgic services. — According to the 
 statement of the Fathers, the Nicolaitans of the Book of Reve- 
 lation (Rev. ii. 6, 15) were a distinct sect, which originated with 
 Nicolaus the deacon (Acts vi. 5), who taught that it was lawful
 
 APOSTOLIC OPPOSITION TO SECTARIANS, ETC. T3 
 
 to yield to the lusts of the flesh, since this could not affect the 
 spirit. Traces of an antinomian and Gnostic sect of Nicolaitans 
 are found so late as the second century. 
 
 1. The Apostolic Conference. — The Lord had commanded His dis 
 ciples to preach the Gospel to all nations (Matt, xxviii. 19). They 
 could not, therefore, doubt that the whole Gentile world was destined 
 to become the inheritance of the Church. But, apparently following 
 the Old Testament statements about the eternal obligation of the law 
 of Moses, and as yet unable fully to understand the utterance of the 
 Lord (Matt. v. 17 etc.), they deemed it necessary by circumcision to 
 make the Gentiles Jews before admitting them into the kingdom of 
 Christ. The views of Stephen, who was a Hellenist, seem, however, to 
 have been more liberal (Acts vi. 14). Philip, also a Grecian, preached 
 among the Samaritans, and the apostles owned and completed his 
 labours through Peter and John (Acts viii. 14 etc). Still, a direct 
 revelation was necessary before Peter could feel convinced that a 
 Gentile who felt his need of salvation could as such enter the kingdom 
 of God (Acts X.). Even this revelation, however, exercised no deci- 
 sive influence on the common mode of carrying on missionary op- 
 erations. Grecian Jews in Antioch were again the first to take the 
 bold step of addressing themselves directly to the work among the 
 Gentiles (Acts xi. 19). To watch the movement in that city, the 
 apostles commissioned Barnabas, who at once entered into it with 
 all his soul, and conjoined with himself Paul, who was to prove a 
 still more eminent labourer. After the success of their first missionary 
 tour had proved their calling as apostles of the Gentiles, and the Divine 
 sanction to their work, Jewish-Christian zealots raised discussions at 
 Antioch, which issued in a journey of Paul and Barnabas to Jerusalem, 
 for the purpose of having the disputed questions settled (about the year 
 50). At a meeting of the apostles in that city, Peter and James the Just 
 carried the resolution, that converted Gentiles should, from a icgard to 
 relations then existing (Acts xv. 20), submit to certain legal restric- 
 tions, analogous to those to which proselytes of the gate had hitherto 
 been subject. A private conference between the two apostles of 
 Antioch, and Peter, James, and John, led to their mutual recognition 
 of one another as respectively the apostles of the Gentiles and of the 
 Jews (Gal. ii. 1-10). Still, during his stay at Antioch, Peter was 
 guilty of a practical inconsistency in weakly yielding to the fanaticism 
 of some Jewish Christians, for which he was sharply reproved by Paul 
 (Gal. ii. 11-14.) But the conclusions at which the meeting of apostles 
 had arrived did not put a stop to this controversy, and the understand- 
 ing that mutual toleration should be extended was sadly traversed, at 
 least by one of the parties. During the whole course of his labours, 
 Paul had continually to contend with sectarian Jewish converts, who 
 tried their utmost to undermine his apostolic authority, and to introduce 
 1
 
 74 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH (1— lÜO A. D.). 
 
 elements of discord into the churches which he planted. — James ih- 
 Just remained till his death the representative of the sound JudfBO- 
 Christian direction, whose adherents, from habit and personal liking, 
 continued to observe the ceremonial law, but in nowise made salvation 
 dependent on such conformity. — The destruction of the temple, and 
 with it the cessation of Jewish Avorship, prepared the way for a gradual 
 termination of the Jewish Christian, which henceforth merged in the 
 Gentile Christian Church. To this result contributed also the laboura 
 of the Apostle John in Asia Minor, — a man whose every action seemed 
 influenced by the love of Christ, and breathed the spfrit of conciliation. 
 The remainder of the party, who, despite the change to which we have 
 adverted, continued their former principles and practices, assumed more 
 and more the character of a sect, and in part became decidedly heretical. 
 (cf§27.) 
 
 2. The Basis of Apostolic Teaching. — (Comp. Lntterbeck, Lechler, Beuss 
 ut supra, and the Sketches of the Teaching of Paul by Usteri (5th ed. 
 Zurich 1834) and by Dähne (Halle 1835), — of that of John, by From- 
 mann (Leipz. 1839), Kostlin (Berl. 1843), and Hilgenfeld (Halle 1849 
 — and ofthat of Peter, by B. Weiss (Berl. 1855). See also //. Messner. 
 die Lehre d. Apostel, (the Teaching of the Ap.) Leipz. 1856.) — It was 
 soon felt necessary to write down the apostolic and authentic accounts 
 of the life of the Saviour, in order to give them a stable form. If in 
 this manner the Gospels were compiled, the continuous intercourse 
 between the missionary apostles and the churches which they had 
 founded, or else the exercise of their general authority, led to ttie com- 
 position of the Apostolic Epistles. At an early period the mutual 
 exchange of apostolic communications (Col. iv. 16) formed the commence- 
 ment of a collection and diffusion of the New Testament writings ; and, 
 accordingly, Peter could assume (2 Pet. iii. 15, IG) that the contenta 
 of the epistles of Paul were commonly known. There was not at the 
 time any creed to serve as a generally authentic test of orthodoxy, 
 although a commencement had already been made in the profession of 
 faith exacted from converts at their baptism (on the basis of Matt. 
 xxviii. 19). In the age succeeding that of the apostles, this profession 
 was enlarged into what is known as the Apostolic Creed. Already 
 Paul had intimated that justification by faith alone (Gal. i. 8, 9) was 
 one of the indispensable tests of a genuine Christian profession, while 
 John had asserted the same with reference to the incarnation of God in 
 Christ (1 John iv. 3). In the three principal apostles appeared the 
 threefold fundamental tendency of Christian doctrine in apostolic 
 times. Paid represented the pneumatico-theological direction ; John, 
 the religious and idealistic ; and Peter (as also, in the main, James the 
 Just), the practical and ethical. The views of John brought out pro- 
 minently and most emphatically the Divine aspect of the appearance 
 of Christ (John i. 14) ; those of Peter, its human aspect, as the ideal 
 of ^loly walk and conversation (1 Pet. ii. 21) ; and those of Paid, being
 
 APOSTOLIC OPPOSITION TO SECTARIANS, ETC. /C 
 
 more comprehensive than the others, the fulness in the God-Man (Col 
 ii. 9 ; 2 Cor. v. 19). Faith was the central and moving point in the 
 teaching of Paul, love in that of John, and hope in that of Peter. But 
 while we admit this diversity, springing from the natural bias of dif- 
 ferent minds, and sanctified by the Spirit of God, it were quite erro- 
 neous to regard it either as implying an exclusive and one-sided pecu- 
 liarity, or diversity. On the contrary, each of these directions admits 
 of and presupposes the others as complementary to it. More especially 
 do the teaching of John and of Peter fit into that of Paul, which was 
 the most fully developed and comprehensive of all.
 
 FIRST SECTION. 
 
 HISTOM or THE DEVELOPMENT 
 
 OF THE 
 
 CHURCH IN ITS ANCIENT CLASSICAL CULTURE 
 
 77
 
 SOUKCES. 
 
 Sources: I.-Chcrch Fathers: Maxima BibUotlieca Patriim et ant 
 Scriptt. ecclest. Lugd. 1677. 27 voll. fol. — A. Gallandi, Biblioth. vett, 
 Patr. et ant. Scriptt. ecclest. Venet. 1765. 14 voll. fol. — /. P. Migne, 
 Patrologias cursus completus, s. Biblioth. universalis ss. Pp. et Scr. 
 ecclest. Series II. : Eccl. Lat. Par. 1844, etc. 217 vols. (Of the Greek 
 series 104 vols, have appeared.) — J. E. Grabe, Spicilegium ss. P. et 
 Hserett. Sec. I. II. Oxon. 1698. 2 voll. — M. J. Roufh, Reliquiae ss. 
 1814. 4 voll. 
 
 2. Byzantine Writers (from 500 — 1500): Hist. Byzantinge Scr. 
 Par. 1645. 42 voll. fol. (Ven. 1729. 22 voll. M.) — Mebu7ir, corpus 
 Scr. hist. Byz. Bonn. 1828, 48 vols. 
 
 3. 071 Eastern Antiquity : Jos. Sm. Assemanus, Bibl. Orientalis 
 Clementino-Vaticana. Rom. 1719. 3 voll. fol. 
 
 4. Treatises on these Subjects : Tillemont, memoires pour servir ä 
 I'hist. ecclest. des six prem. sifecles. Par. 1693. 16 voll. 4to. — /. F. 
 Damberger, synchr. Gesch. d. K. u. d. W. im Mittelalt. (Synchron. Hist, 
 of the Ch. and the World in the Middle Ages). Regensb. 1850. 
 
 §20. CHARACTER AND LIMITS OF THIS PHASE OF 
 DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 The universalistic spirit of Christianity had, even at the com- 
 mencement of the Apostolic Age, broken through the naiTOW 
 boundaries of Judaism ; while towards the close of that period, 
 what at first had been a natural antagonism between Jewish and 
 Gentile Christianity had been wholly removed. The Divine truths 
 of salvatibn had been stripped of the Jewish envelope in which the 
 kernel had attained its full maturity. These truths were now 
 committed to the Roman and Grecian world for their reception, 
 that by means of those elements of culture which had there 
 sprung up, they might be fully unfolded and applied. Hence 
 the leading characteristics of this period in Church History are 
 both negative : in so far as the spirit of Christianity was to over- 
 come the ungodly heathenism of the old world — and positive : in so 
 
 (79)
 
 80 CHARACTER, ETC., or THIS 1>HASE. 
 
 far as Christianity was now to develop under the form of Gvceco- 
 Roman culture. This development issued in a transition from 
 apostolicity to that genuine and pure catholicity, which was to 
 serve as the common basis for all later Christian churches. Such, 
 then, was the task performed by the old Church of the GrsBco- 
 Byzantine world ; not, however, without exhibiting in the result 
 a mixture of false ingredients, derived from the substitution of 
 unevangelical for genuine evangelical catholicity. Thenceforth 
 the Germanic-Sclavonic races became the centre of gravitation 
 for the movements of the Church. The Roman Church preserved 
 and increased her authority by making common cause with those 
 races whose training she had undertaken, while the Byzantine 
 Church, left to internal decay, and exposed to Mohammedan 
 oppression, rapidly declined. 
 
 The history of this phase in the development of the Church may be 
 arranged under three periods. The first of these reaches to the time 
 of Constantine the Great, under whom Christianity and the Church 
 obtained final victory over heathenism (323) ; ihe second extends to the 
 close of the grand development of doctrine which the Church was to 
 attain under the ancient classical form of culture, i. e., to the close of 
 the Monotheletic controversy by the 6th oecumenical Council of Con- 
 stantinople (680). But as the concilium quinisextum (692) was in reality 
 only a completion of the former two oecumenical Councils — so far as 
 the constitution and worship of the Church were concerned — and as 
 there the great split between the East and the West may be said to 
 have commenced, we prefer closing our second pei'iod with the year 692. 
 The difference obtaining between these two periods appears most dis- 
 tinctly in the outward position of the Church. Before the time of 
 Constantine, the Church lived and grew in strength, despite the oppres- 
 sion of a heathen government. If its outward existence was continually 
 threatened by an almost unbroken sviccession of bloody persecutions, 
 the Divine power which sustained and gave it the prospect of ultimate 
 victory, only appeared the more gloriously under these difficulties. 
 Under the reign of Constantine the state became Christian, and the 
 Church enjoyed all those advantages and that fostering care which 
 earthly protection can afi"ord. But with worldly glory came a worldly 
 spirit ; the state also speedily transformed its protection of, into auto- 
 cratic domination over, the Church. In respect of the internal, and 
 especially of the dogmatic development of the Church, also, these two 
 periods materially differ. So long as the Church was engaged in the 
 process of appropriating Xh^ forms of ancient heathenism, while setting 
 aside its atheism and falsehoods, the latter too frequently made them- 
 selves felt by the introduction of dangerous admixtures of error with 
 Christian truth. Judaism also, whose narrow bonds had so lately been
 
 CHARACTER, ETC., OF THIS PHASE. 81 
 
 cast off", threatened similar dangers. Hence, during the first period, 
 the Church was chiefly engaged in eliminating antichristian elements, 
 whether Jewish or heathen. But during the second period, when the 
 power of heathenism was broken, the Church was free to devote its 
 entire energies to the development of distinctively Christian dogmas, 
 and to the establishment of catholic doctrine in its fullest and most com- 
 prehensive aspects, in opposition to the limitations and mistakes of 
 heretics. — This great work exhausted the capabilities of the ancient 
 Greek and Roman world. The measure of development which it was 
 capable of giving to the Church was full : henceforth the future of the 
 Church lay with the Saxon and Sclavonic races. While the Byzantine 
 empire, and with it the glory of the ancient Eastern Church, was 
 exposed to Mohammedanism, a new empire, gifted with the full vigour 
 of youth, sprang up in the West, and became the medium of a new 
 phase of development in the history of the Church. While thvis in the 
 West the Church reached another height of development, in the East 
 it sunk under outward pressure and internal decay. The split between the 
 East and the West, which had commenced in a former period, became 
 complete, and effectually prevented an accession of fresh political or 
 ecclesiastical influences which might, perhaps, have been derived from 
 the West. The fall of the Eastern empire removed the last prop of its 
 splendour and activity. With this event closed the outward history of 
 the Church under the ancient classical form of culture (1453). What of 
 the Eastern Church still remained, was, under the pressure of Turkish 
 (i)mination, incapable of real history.
 
 PIRST PERIOD 
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORl^ 
 
 UNDER THE ANCIENT CLASSICAL PORM OF CULTURE. 
 
 TO THE YEAR 323. 
 
 Comp. L. Moshemius, Commentarii de reb. Christianorum ante Con- 
 stant. M. Helmst. 1753. 4. — Ä. Schwegler, d. nachapost. Zeitalt. (the 
 Post-Apost. Age). 2 vols. Tub. 1846. — i'. Chr. Baur, d. Christth. u. d. 
 chr. K. d. 3 erst. Jahrh. (Christ, and the Chr. Ch. of the first 3 Cent,) 
 Tub. 1832. — ^. RHschl, die Entsteh, d. altkath. K. (the Rise of the 
 Anc. Cath. Ch.) Bonn 1870. Cave, Primit. Christ, and Lives of the 
 Fathers ; Btaio7i's Lect. upon the Eccl. Hist, of the First Three Cent. ; 
 Kar/e, Eccl. Hist, of the Second and Third Cent. ; Jeremie, Hist, of 
 the Chr. Ch. ; Maurice, Lect. on Eccl. Hist. ; Ph. Schaff, Hist, of the 
 Chr. Ch. 
 
 I. RELATIONS OF JUDAISM AND HEATHENISM TO THE CHURCH. 
 ? 21. HOSTILITY AND PERSECUTIONS BY THE JEWS. 
 
 Eveu in apostolic times the Synagogue was violently opposed 
 to Christianity. To the Pharisees and to the mass of the people, 
 who cherished expectations of a political Messiah, a Saviour 
 who had been crucified by the Gentiles could only prove a rock 
 of offence (1 Cor. i. 23). The position of equality assigned to 
 the Samaritans, and ultimately even to the heathen, most deeply 
 wounded their national pride, while at the same time the Gospel 
 tried and rejected their work-righteousness and hypocrisy. On 
 the other hand, the emphasis which Christianity laid on the 
 doctrine of the resun-ection excited the bitterest opposition of 
 the Sadducees (Acts iv. 2; xxiii. 6). The same spirit prevailed 
 generally among the Jews "of the dispersion." The men of 
 Berea are expressly mentioned as forming an exception to this 
 state of feeling (Acts xvii. 11). — At last, the fearful judgment 
 of God burst over the covenant-people and the Holy City 
 
 (82)
 
 RESTORATION AND REACTION. 83 
 
 (70 A.D.). fn obedience to the prophetic warning of the Lord 
 (Matt, xxiv 16), the Christians withdrew, and found a secure 
 retreat in th«? little town of Pella, on the other side Jordan. But 
 when Bar Cochba (the Son of a Star, called so in allusion to 
 Num. xxiv. 17), the false Messiah, incited the Jews of Palestine 
 to a general rebellion against the Romans (132), the Christians, 
 who refused to take part in this rising, or to acknowledge the 
 claims of the impostor, underwent a bloody persecution. In 
 135 Bar Cochba fell; and Hadrian founded, on the ruins of 
 Jerusalem, J^lia Capitolina, a Roman colony, to which the Jews 
 were forbidden all access on pain of death. From that time they 
 were deprived of the power and opportunities of directly perse- 
 cuting Christians. However, they shared in, and even excited 
 tlie heathen to, persecutions of the Church. — In their schools — 
 of which that of Tiberias was the principal — abominable calum- 
 nies about Christ and Christians circulated, and thence spread 
 among the heathen (Celsus, see § 24, 4), 
 
 g22. ATTEMPTS AT RESTORATION AND REACTION ON 
 THE PART OF THE SYNAGOGUE AND OF THE SAMA- 
 RITANS. 
 
 In proportion as the fall of their commonwealth had rendered 
 the Jews impotent, their opposition to the Gospel increased. 
 They now sought safety against the advances of Christianity in 
 fettering all inquiry by traditionary interpretations and human 
 ordinances. This mental direction was fostered by the schools 
 of Tiberias and Babylon. The Talmud, of which the first por- 
 tion was compiled at that period, represents the antichristian 
 tendency of Judaism, after it had fallen from its highest stage 
 of development and become ossified as Traditionalism. — Some 
 of the followers of John (Acts xviii. 24, etc.) also opposed 
 Christianity, and, under the name of Hemer ohaptists, formed a 
 separate sect. The so-called Sabaeans or Mandeans in Persia 
 to-day, or disciples of John (compate § 27, 3) are probably the 
 successors of that sect, which in course of time had admitted 
 Gnostic elements. — While the first labours of the apostles were 
 crowned with such eminent success, the Samaritans endeavoured 
 to outstrip Christianity by introducing new forms of religion. 
 Dositheus, Simon Magus, and Menander. whom the Fathers 
 designate as Heresiarchs, disguised their Samaritan Judaism
 
 ^4 SECTION I. — FIRST PERIOD (100— 323 A. D.). 
 
 nnder heathen and theosophic Gnosticism and goetic imposturea 
 while each of them claimed to be the Messiah. 
 
 1. DosiTHEUS pretended to be the Messiah promised in Deut. xviii. 
 18. He insisted on most rigorous Sabbath-observance, and is said to 
 have at last miserably perished in a cave, in consequence of boastful 
 achievements in fasting. 
 
 2. Simon Magus came from Gitton, in Samaria. He gave himself 
 out to be the Svvajxn tov ^sov ij Ka^ov/xh'*; /xtyd'KTj, — was baptized by 
 Philip, and solemnly warned and reproved by Peter, from whom he 
 wished to purchase the power of giving the Holy Ghost. Afterwards 
 he purchased, in a brothel at Tyre, Helena, a slave, to whom he assigned 
 the part of the 'Evvoia who had created the world. In order to deliver 
 her (who was held captive by the lower angels), and with her the world, 
 held in bondage by these angels, he, the Supreme God, had come into 
 the world in the form of a man, but without being really a man. He 
 had, in appearance, suffered in Judea, and manifested himself to the 
 Jews as the Son, to the Samaritans as the Father, and to the Gentiles 
 as the Holy Ghost. According to his teaching, salvation only depended 
 on acknowledging him and his Helena as supreme gods : only his 
 mercy, not good works, could save a man. The law had originated 
 with the fallen angels, and was introduced for the sole purpose of 
 reducing men to bondage. The followers of Simon developed the 
 Gnostic system of their master, and gave themselves up to the utmost 
 licentiousness. Irenseus speaks of Simon as the "magister ac progeni- 
 tor omnium ha^reticorum," — and, in point of fact, his views embody 
 the fundamental ideas of every later form of Gnosticism. Justin Mar- 
 tyr even imagined that he had seen at Rome a statue, bearing the 
 inscription : " Simoni sancto deo" — a mistake this, explained by the 
 excavation of a statue dedicated to the Sabinian god Semo Sancus. 
 Of his discussion with Peter at Rome, we read only in the Clemen- 
 tines ; of his projected ascension to heaven, in which he perished in 
 the sea, in the Apostolic Constitutions. 
 
 3. Menander was at first a disciple of Simon, but afterwards pre- 
 ferred himself also to play the part of a Messiah. However, he 
 remained sufficiently modest not to claim the honours of supreme deity, 
 and only pretended that he was the Saviour whom God had sent. He 
 tauglit that whosoever received his baptism should neither grow old 
 Dor die. 
 
 1 23. PERSECUTION OF CHRISTIANS IN THE ROMAN 
 EMPIRE, 
 
 Comp. Ad. Schmidt, Geshichte d. Denk- vind Glaubensfreih. in den 
 ersten Jahrh. der Kaiserherrschaft (Hist, of Intell and Relig. Liberty 
 during the First Cent, of the Emp.). Berl. 1847. — Fr. Munter, die Chria-
 
 PERSECUTION OP CHRISTIANS. 85 
 
 tin im heidnischen Hause vor den Zeiten Konst. (The Chr. Female in 
 the Heath. Family before the time of Const.) Copenh. 1828.— H. G. 
 TzscHiRNER, der Fall des Heidenthums (The Fall of Heathenism), edit, 
 by Niedner. Vol. I. Leipz. 1829. — if. Kritzler, die Ileldenzeiten des 
 Christenth. I. Der Kampf mit d. Heidenth. (The Heroic Ages of 
 Christ. I. The Struggle with Heathen.) Leipz. 1856. 
 
 A law of twelve tables had already interdicted throughout 
 the Roman empire, tlie exercise of foreign rites of worship 
 (religiones peregrinae, collegia illicita). As religion was en- 
 tirely an institution of the state, and most intimately per- 
 vaded all public and civic relations, to endanger the religion of 
 the state was to endanger the state itself. But from political 
 considerations, vanquished nations were allowed to retain their 
 ancient peculiar rites. This concession extended not to the 
 Church, as distinct from the Synagogue. Christianity had 
 openly avowed its mission to set aside all other religions, and its 
 rapid march of progress sufficiently showed that this was not an 
 empty boast. The intimate connection subsisting between Chris- 
 tians, their closed meetings, which during times of persecution 
 were held in secret, awakened and strengthened the suspicion 
 that they were dangerous to the state. Their aversion to public 
 and military service, mixed up as it was with heathen ceremo- 
 nies ; their refusal to ofifer incense to the statues of the empe- 
 rors ; the constancy of their faith, which equally resisted violence 
 and persuasions ; their retirement from the world, etc., were 
 regarded by the state as indifference or hostility to the common 
 weal, as hopeless stubbornness, as disobedience, rebellion, and 
 high treason. The heathen, moreover, saw in the Christians dar- 
 ing enemies and despisers of their gods ; and a religion which 
 wanted temples, altars, and sacrifices, seemed to them no better 
 than sheer atheism. The most shameful calumnies — such as 
 that, in their assemblies, they practised abominable vices (concu- 
 bitus Oedipodei;, slaughtered infants and ate human flesh (epulis 
 Thyesteae) — were industriously spread and readily believed. 
 Besides, the most absurd stories, such as that they worshipped 
 the head of an ass (Deus Onochoetes), circulated about them. 
 Every public calamity was imputed to the Christians, as being a 
 manifestation of the displeasure of the gods whom they despised : 
 " Non pluit Deus, due ad Christianos ! " The heathen priests, 
 conjurers, and traffickers in idols, were also ever ready, for the 
 Bake of their own sor:lid interests, to excite the passions of the
 
 86 SECTION I. — FIRST PERIOD (100— 323 A. D.). 
 
 populace. Even Tacitus speaks of the Christians as "od. i» 
 generis humani," and "per flagitia invisos;" and Pliny he 
 Younger, who knew so much that reflected credit on them, de- 
 cries their religion as a " pertinacia et inflexibilis obstinatio," 
 and as a " superstitio prava etimmodica." Under such circum- 
 stances, we can scarcely wonder that for three centuries popular 
 fury spent itself in a series of almost continual persecutions. 
 
 1. There may have been some historical foundation for the legend 
 (however absurd at first sight it may appear), that Tiberius (14—37 
 A.D.), moved by the report of Pilate, had made a proposal to the 
 senate to elevate Christ among the Roman deities, and when baffled in 
 this, had threatened with punishment those who accused the Chris- 
 tians. At least, there is nothing in the character of Tiberius to render 
 such a circumstance incredible. — At first the Christians were simply 
 regarded as Jews; and therefore a number of them (Acts xviii. 2) 
 were expelled from Rome when, in consequence of a tumult, the Empe- 
 ror Claudius (41-54) banished the Jews from the capital. Much more 
 serious were the persecutions of Christians (a. d. G4) which took place 
 under Nero (54-68), on the occasion of a great fire which lasted for 
 nine days, and which was commonly imputed to incendiarism on the 
 part of the Emperor himself. Nero threw the whole blame on the 
 hated Christians, and visited them with exquisite tortures. They vs'ere 
 sewn into skins of wild beasts, and thrown to the dogs to be torn in 
 pieces ; they were covered with wax and pitch, nailed to sharp poles, 
 and set on fire to illuminate the imperial gardens at night. The per- 
 secution was not confined to Rome, and lasted to the end of Nero's 
 reign. Peter and Paul obtained at that time the martyr's croAvn. 
 Among the Christians the legend spread that Nero had retired to the 
 banks of the Euphrates, whence he would return as Antichrist. 
 
 In consequence of the suspiciousness and avarice of Domitian 
 (81-96), individual Christians had their property confiscated or were 
 exiled. That monarch put a political interpretation on the kingdom 
 of Christ, and accordingly summoned before him two relatives of Jesus 
 from Palestine ; but the marks of hard labour on their hands soon con- 
 vinced him that there was no cause for his apprehensions. The humane 
 Emperor Nerva (96-98) recalled the exiles, and refused to listen to 
 accusations against Christians as such. Still Christianity remained a 
 " religio illicita." 
 
 2. Under the reign of Trajan (98-117) commenced a new stage in 
 the persecution of Christians. He renewed the former interdict against 
 secret associations (the "Ileteria)"), which was soon applied to those 
 of Christians. In accordance with this law, Pliny the Younger, when 
 Governor of Bithynia, punished with death those who were accused asi 
 Christians and persisted in their profession. But, partly staggf red by
 
 PERSECUTION OF CHRISTIANS. 87 
 
 the great number of persons accused, who belonged to every rank an(? 
 age, and to both sexes — partly convinced by strict judicial investiga- 
 tion that the tendency of Christianity was morally pure and politically 
 harmless, and that, as it appeared to him, Christians could only be 
 charged with unyielding superstitiousness, the Governor applied for 
 fresh instructions to the Emperor. Trajan approved both of his con- 
 duct and his proposals ; and accordingly commanded that Christians 
 should not be sought out, that no notice should be taken of anonymous 
 accusations, but that if parties were formally accused and found 
 guilty, they should be put to death if they obstinately refused to sacri- 
 fice to the gods. This persecution extended as far as Syria and Pales- 
 tine. There Symeon, Bishop of Jerusalem, the successor of James and 
 a relative of the Lord, after cruel scourging, died a martyr's death on 
 the cross, at the advanced age of 120 years (107). Ignatius also, the 
 excellent Bishop of Antioch, after an audience with the Emperor, was 
 by his command sent in chains to Rome, and there torn by wild beasts 
 (115). — Under the reign of Hadrian (117-198), the people were wont, 
 on occasions of heathen festivals, loudly to call for the execution of 
 Christians. On the representation of Serenius Granianus, Hadrian 
 addressed a rescript to Minncius Fundanus (the successor in office of 
 Serenius), forbidding such irregular proceedings. But the legal pro- 
 secution for the profession of the Gospel continued as before. The 
 legend — dating from the fourth century — that Hadrian had intended 
 to build a temple to Christ, is destitute of all historical foundation. 
 His dislike to Christianity and Christians appears even from the cir- 
 cumstance that he erected a temple to Venus on the spot where Christ 
 had been crucified, and a statue of Jupiter over the rock where He had 
 been buried, for the purpose of desecrating these localities. — Under 
 the reign of Antoninus Pius (138-161), the populace, excited in con- 
 sequence of a number of public calamities, renewed its tumults against 
 the Christians, from which, however, that mild Emperor sought to 
 protect them. But the rescript ^' ad commune Asice," which bears the 
 name of Antoninus, is in all probability spurious and of Christian 
 authorship. 
 
 3. Under the reign of Marcus Aurelius (161-180) the persecutions 
 took a fresh turn. That Emperor, who otherwise was one of the noblest 
 among the heathen, in the pride of his Stoic philosophy, looked with 
 contempt on the enthusiasm of Christians. On this ground he gave 
 full scope to the outbursts of popular fury, and introduced a system of 
 espionage and of tortures in order to oblige Christians to recant. The 
 result proved a great triumph to Christian heroism. We possess de- 
 tailed accounts about the persecution at Smyrna (167), and those at 
 Liigdvnum and Vienna in Gaul (177). At Smyrna, the aged bishop 
 Polycarp died on the stake, because he would not consent to curse that 
 Lord whom fur eighty-six years he had served. "With his latest breath 
 he offered thanks for having been deemed worthy of the martyr's crown.
 
 88 SECTION I. — FIRST PERIOD (100— 323 A. D.). 
 
 More general and bloody than tliat of Smyrna were the persecutions a* 
 Lugdnnum and at Vienna. Bishop Pothinus, a man ninety years of 
 age, died in a loathsome prison in consequence of the sufferings to 
 which he had been subjected. Blandina, a delicate female slave, was 
 scourged in the most dreadful manner, roasted on a red-hot iron chair, 
 thrown to the wild beasts, and then executed. But under all sufferings 
 she continued her confession : " I am a Christian, and there are no evil 
 practices among us." Ponlicus, a lad fifteen years of age, showed 
 similar constancy under like tortures. The dead bodies of the martyrs 
 lay in heaps on the streets, till they were cast into the flames, and their 
 ashes thrown into the Rhone. 
 
 The legend about the legio fxdminatrix — to the effect that, in the 
 war with the Marcomanni (174), rain and lightning had been sent in 
 answer to the prayers of the Christian soldiers ofthat legion, whereby 
 Marcus Aurelius had been delivered from imminent danger, and that 
 in consequence the Emperor had issued an edict to punish all who 
 accused the Christians — rests on some historical foundation, at least 
 60 far as the first part of it is concerned. However, the heathen traced 
 this miracle to their prayers, addressed to Jupiter Pluvius. — Several 
 of the succeeding emperors were favourable to the Christians ; more 
 especially did Commodus, the son of Marcus Aurelius, show considera- 
 ble favour for them, being influenced by the representations of Marcia, 
 his concubine. 
 
 4. Septimius Severus (193-211), whom Proadus, a Christian slave, 
 had healed from dangerous illness by anointing him with oil (James 
 V. 14), was at first friendly to Christians. But political suspicions or 
 the extravagances of Montanism changed this disposition. He forbade 
 conversion to Christianity (203) ; and in J^gypt and North Africa per- 
 secution again raged. In Alexandria, Leonidas, the father of Origen, 
 was beheaded. Potamicena, a virgin equally distinguished for moral 
 purity and for beauty, suffered the most exquisite tortures, and was 
 then to be given up to the gladiators for the vilest purposes. The 
 latter indignity she knew to avert ; but she and her mother Marcella 
 were slowly immersed into boiling pitch. Basilides, the soldier who 
 had been commissioned to lead her to martyrdom, himself became a 
 Christian, and was beheaded on the day folloAving. Not less searching 
 and cruel was the persecution at Carthage. Perpetna, a lady of noble 
 descent, and only twenty-two years old, with a babe in her arms, re- 
 mained steadfast, despite the entreaties of her father, imprisonment, and 
 tortures. She was gored by a wild cow, and finally despatched by the 
 dagger of a gladiator. Felicitas, a slave, who in prison had become a 
 mother, displayed equal constancy in suffering. In his mad attempts 
 at combining all creeds, Heliogabai.us (218-222) desired to amalgamate 
 Christianity also with the others — a piece of folly which, however, 
 secured a season of quietness and toleration. The eclecticism of 
 Alexander Severus (222-235) was of a much more elevated character.
 
 PERSECUTION OF CHRISTIANS. 8^ 
 
 He placed in his lararium a bust of Christ, by the side of those of 
 Abraham, of Orpheus, and of Apollonius of Tyana, and displayed 
 kindly feelings towards the Christians. His noble mother, Julia 
 Mammcea, at the same time, protected and encouraged the investiga- 
 tions of Origen. Severus caused the saying of Christ recorded in Luke 
 vi. 31 to be engraven on the walls of his palace. Maximinus, the 
 Thracian, (235-238), the murderer of that Emperor, showed himself 
 hostile to Christians, if only to oppose the conduct of his {predecessor, 
 and accordingly gave full scope to popular fury, which had again been 
 excited by earthquakes. Under the i-eign of Gordianus the Christians 
 enjoyed peace ; and Philip the Arabian (244-249) favoured them in so 
 open and prominent a manner, that he has even been regarded as a 
 Christian. 
 
 5. But with the accession of Decius (249-251) commenced a fresh, 
 and indeed the first general persecution, surpassing in extent, com- 
 bination, continuance, and severity, all that had preceded it. In other 
 respects Decius was an able monarch, who combined the ancient 
 Roman earnestness with firmness and energy of purpose. But this 
 very circumstance induced him to resolve on wholly exterminating 
 Christianity, as a religion equally hostile to the commonwealth and to 
 the gods. Every conceivable means — confiscation, banishment, ex- 
 quisite tortures, and death — were employed to induce Christians to 
 apostatise. In too many cases these measures proved successful, the 
 more so as the long period of peace had led to a false security. On the 
 other hand, a longing after the martyr's crown led many of their own 
 accord to rush into prison or to the scafibld. Those who recanted 
 (lapsi) were either, 1. thurificati or sacrificati, who, in order to pre- 
 serve their lives, had sacrificed to the gods ; or, 2. UbeUatici, who, with- 
 out having actually sacrificed, had bribed the magistrates to give them 
 a certificate of having done so ; or, 3. acta facientes, who made false 
 depositions in reference to their Christianity. Again, those who openly 
 confessed Christ, even amidst tortures, but escaped with their lives, 
 were called confessors (confessores) ; while the name of martyrs was 
 given to those who for their profession had sufi"ered death. — The per- 
 secution continued under the reign of Gallus (251-253), being 
 stimulated by famine and pestilences, although often arrested by 
 political troubles. Valerianus (253-2G0) had originally been friendly 
 to the Christians, but the influence of Marciamis, his favourite, changed 
 him into a persecutor (from the year 257). At first the clergy were 
 banished, and meetings interdicted. When these measures failed, 
 Christianity was made a capital crime. At that time Cyprian of Car- 
 thage, and Sixtus IL, Bishop of Rome, obtained the martyr's crown 
 The latter was soon followed by Laurent ins, a deacon, who proved a 
 hero even among Christian martyrs. When the Governor demanded 
 from him the treasures of the church, he brought forward the sick, the 
 poor, and the orphans of the congregation. He was roasted alive on a 
 8*
 
 90 SECTION I. — FIRST PERIOD (100—323 A. D.) . 
 
 red-hot brander. But Gallienus (2G0-2G8), the son of Valerian, on 
 his accession, put an end to the persecution, and at last accorded to the 
 Church a legal standing and free exercise of religion. Still, Aurei.ian, 
 shortly before his assassination, (270-275) issued a fresh edict of per- 
 secution, which, however, was not carried into execution. After that 
 the Chi'istians enjoyed more than forty years of repose. 
 
 6. In 284 Diocletian and Maximianus Herculius became joint Em- 
 perors. In 292 the two Caesars, Galerhis and Constantius Chlorvs (in 
 the West), were associated with them. Diocletian was an excellent 
 monarch ; but being zealously attached to the old faith, he hated 
 Christianity as introducing an element of disturbance. Still the edict 
 of toleration issued by Gallienus, political considerations in regard to 
 the large number of Christians throughout the empire, and a certain 
 amount of natural kindness, for some time retarded decisive measures. 
 At last the continued urgency of his son-in-law and colleague, Galeriun, 
 led to the most terrible of all persecutions. As early as the year 298, 
 Galerius commanded that all soldiers in his army should take part in 
 the sacrifices, — a measure by which he obliged all Christians to leave 
 the ranks. At a meeting between the two monarchs, at Nicomedia in 
 Bithynia (303), he prevailed on the Emperor to disregard what had 
 formerly been the causes of his toleration. An imperial ordinance to 
 pull down the splendid church at Nicomedia was the signal for the 
 persecution. Soon afterwards an edict was affixed which forbade all 
 Christian meetings, and ordered that the churches should be pulled 
 down, the sacred writings destroyed, and all Christians deprived of 
 their offices and civil rights. A Christian who tore down this edict 
 was executed. A fire broke out in the imperial palace, when Galerius 
 immediately accused the Christians of incendiarism. The persecution 
 which now commenced extended over the whole empire, with the 
 exception of Gaul, Spain, and Britain, where the protection of Con- 
 stantius Chlorus shielded the Church. Whatever tortures or modes of 
 death ingenuity could devise were put in requisition. When, in 305, 
 Diocletian and Maximianus abdicated, Maximinus, the colleague of 
 Galerius, proved quite as bitter an enemy as his predecessors, and 
 raisepl anew the storm of persecution. In the year 308 Galerius even 
 caused all articles of food or drink, sold in the market, to be moistened 
 or mixed with sacrificial water or wine. At last, when a fearful disease 
 brought Galerius to a difi"erent state of mind, he ordered in 311 a 
 cessation of this persecution, and in return demanded the prayers of 
 the Church for the Emperor and the empire. D^uring those eight years 
 of unceasing and unprecedented persecution. Christians had giver, the 
 brightest proofs of moral heroism, and of enthusiastic readiness to 
 suffer as martyrs. In proportion, the number of lapsi was much 
 Bmaller than it had been during the Decian persecution. But the 
 command to give up the sacred writings had originated a new kind 
 of recantation. Those who had complied with this demand were
 
 PERSECUTION OP CHRISTIANS. 91 
 
 called traditores. Some, instead of delivering the sacred, handed in 
 heretical writings, on pretence that they were the sacred books. But 
 the spiritual earnestness of that period was such, that these parties 
 were ranked with the ordinary traditores, and, like them, were excom- 
 municated.^ 
 
 7. The fanaticism of Maxiininvs, who ruled in Asia, was not checked 
 by the edict of toleration which Galerius had granted. He gladly 
 acceded to the request of certain cities to be allowed to expel the 
 Christians, and on memorial tablets of brass recorded his praise of 
 those measures. He interdicted the building of churches, and punished 
 confessors by the loss of property and by defemation — occasionally 
 also with chastisement or death ; and officially circulated the most 
 abominable calumnies about Christians. In innumerable copies, he 
 diffused the " acta Pilati," a malicious libel, of spurious heathen 
 authorship, introducing it even in schools as an exercise in reading. 
 But fear of his colleague obliged him to adopt more moderate measures. 
 In Britain, Gaul, and Spain ruled, fnmi 306, Constantine, the son and 
 successor of Constantius Chlorus, who, with the Neo-Platonic eclecti- 
 cism of his father, had also inherited his mild disposition towards 
 Christians. In Italy, Maxentms, a savage and bigoted heathen, of 
 obscure origin, had in 306 seizeu the reins of government. He also, 
 from political motives, for some time extended toleration to the Chris- 
 tians ; but antagonism to Constantine, who was friendly to them, ulti- 
 mately induced him to make common cause with the heathen party. 
 The usurper was utterly defeated in a campaign in 312, during which 
 Constantine, as he maintained, was vouchsafed a heavenly vision. In 
 the same year, this monarch, and his brother-in-law Licinius, who 
 ruled over the east of Europe (Illyricum), issued an edict which gave 
 liberty to all forms of worship. In a second edict, dated from Milan 
 in 313, Constantine expressly allowed conversion to Christianity. 
 Maximinus was under the necessity of giving his assent to these 
 measures, and died in the same year. But gradually the friendly 
 relations between Licinius and Constantine gave place, first to coolness, 
 and then to hostility. The former threw himself into the arms of the 
 heathen party; the latter adopted the cause of Christianity. Thus 
 the war between these two monarchs, which'broke out in 323, became 
 also a struggle for life or death between heathenism and Christianity. 
 Licinius was vanquished, and Constantine became master of the whole 
 empire. — The incident in the campaign against Maxentius, to which 
 we have above referred, is differently related even by cotempcrary 
 writers. According to Eusebius, whose account is derived from depo- 
 sition on oath by the Emperor, Constantine having sought the aid of a 
 higher power, had at mid-day seen in the heavens a luminous cross, 
 with the superscription : Toiir« vixa. Afterwards, in a dream, Christ 
 had commanded him to make the cross his banner. In remembrance 
 of this miraculous vision, he caused the splendid banner of the cross— 
 the Labaruni — to be made. (Ci 1^12.)
 
 92 SECTION I. — FIRST PERIOD (lOO— 323 A. D.). 
 
 ^ 24. INTELLECTUAL REACTION OF HEATHENISM. 
 
 Comp. K. Vogt, Neoplatonismus und Christenthum (Neo-Plat. und 
 Christ.). I. Berlin 1836. Tzschirner, d. Fall d. Heiden th. Lpz. 1829.— 
 G. H. von Senden, Gesch. d. Apolog. 2 Bde. Stuttg. 1846. 
 
 For a long time the more intelligent adherents of heathenism 
 had felt that if their system was to continue, it must undergo 
 thorough reform and reconstruction. This was attempted during 
 the Augustan age by introducing a Neo-Pythagoreanism, propped 
 up by Theurgy and Magic, The principal representative of this 
 direction was Ajoollonius of Tyana (ob. 96). In the second 
 century an attempt was made to revive the secret rites of the 
 ancient mysteries of the Dea Syra, and of Mythras, But all 
 this proved insufficient. It was felt necessary to produce a form 
 of Jieathenism which should meet the great religious wants äs 
 fully as Christianity had done, by its supranaturalism, its mono- 
 theism, and its universalism, and which, at the same time, sliould 
 be free from the absurdities and incongruities that hitherto liad 
 attached to the popular creeds. This task was, in the com- 
 mencement of the third century, undertaken by the Nko-Pla- 
 TONiSTS. But they had as little power as heathen polemics, to 
 stay the triumphant progress of Christianity. When heathen 
 authors (Tacitus, Pliny, Marcus Aurelius, comp. § 23) make 
 passing mention of Christians or of Christianity, they employ 
 the most opprobrious or contemptuous terms ; Lucian of 
 Samosata simply ridicules it as a piece of absurdity (de vita 
 Peregrini). The first heathen who expressly wrote against 
 Christianity was Celsus, in the second century. With consider- 
 able ingenuity, and still greater hostility, he attempted to show 
 that the religion of Christians was the climax of absurdity. The 
 controversial writings of Porphyry, the Neo-Platonist {ob. 304), 
 are more elevated and becoming in their tone. A much inferior 
 position to that of either of these writers must be assigned to 
 Hierocles, Governor of Bithynia, who, in his official capacity, 
 took part in the persecution under Galerius. — These attacks were 
 either expressly or incidentally met in the writings of the most 
 prominent Cliristian teachers. They rebutted the calumnies and 
 charges of the heathen; demanded that Christians should be 
 treated in accordance with the spirit of the laws ; they defended 
 Christianity by proving its internal truth, by shttwing how it 
 was confirmed by the walk and conversation of Christians,
 
 IXTF. LLECTUAL REACTION" OF HEATHENISM. 93 
 
 authenticated by miracles and prophecies, and by its accordance 
 with the statements and anticipations of the greatest philoso- 
 phers, the sources of whose wisdom they in part even traced, 
 directly or indirectly, to the Old Testament ; and they endea- 
 voured to demonstrate that the heathen deities had no claim 
 upon worship, and that heathenism was a moral and religious 
 perversion. (Comp. § 41, 1.) 
 
 1. Even Lucian and Apuleius speak of Apollonius of Tyana as 
 only a renowned Goet and Magician. But, at the commencement of 
 the third century, Philoslraius, senior, excogitated a biography of 
 Apellouius, in which he appears as a religious reformer and worker of 
 miracles, — in short, as a heathen imitation of Christ. (Comp. F. Chr. 
 Baur, Apoll, von Tyana und Christus. Tlib. 1832.) 
 
 2. It was the purpose of Neo-Flatonism, by combining what was 
 most elevated and best in exoteric and esoteric religion, in the philosophy 
 and theosophy of ancient and modern times, of the East and of the 
 West, to exhibit a universal religion, in which faith and knowledge, 
 philosophy and theology, theory and practice, should be perfectly 
 reconciled and combined, and in which all religious wants should be 
 met with so much fulness, that, in comparison, Christianity itself 
 should appear but one-sided, poor, and defective. The noblest spirits 
 in the heathen world, which was fast sinking into decay, t(Jok part in 
 this movement. The devout and thoughtful Phitarcli of Chasronea 
 [oh. 120) may be regarded as the precursor of this party. But, properly 
 speaking, Ammonius Saccus [ob. 243) was the founder of the Neo- 
 Platonic school, which was further developed especially by Flotinus 
 [ob. 270), by Forphyrius [ob. 304), and by Jambliclms [ob. 333). 
 
 3. According to Lucian, Feregrimis, a Cynic, who had first been 
 guilty of the lowest crimes, afterwards became one of the most promi- 
 nent men among Christians ; having been again excluded by them be- 
 cause he had pai'taken of some forbidden meat, he had ended his days 
 by throwing himself into the flames during the Olympic games. In 
 the person of this Cynic, Lucian ridicules the foolish hope of immor- 
 tality of Christians, their readiness to become martyrs, their silly ex- 
 pectation of retribution in another world, the simplicity of their bro- 
 therly love, in which only impostors could rejoice as most useful to 
 them, their credulity, their love of miracles, and their sombre antagon- 
 ism to the world and its pleasures. From the life of the Apostle J\ail, 
 and from the martyrdom of Polycarp and of Ignatius, he borrowed tlie 
 traits of the caricature which he drew. (Comp. A. Flanck in the "tlieol. 
 Studien u. Krit." fir 1851. IV.) 
 
 4. The Xoyoj aX'^'^i of Celsus is in great part preserved in the reply 
 by Or igen. That writer introduces first a Jew, who disputes the 
 accoants furnished in the Gospels ; then a heathen philosopher, whc
 
 94 SECTION I. FIRST PERIOD (100—323 A. D.). 
 
 bhowa the absurdity both of Judaism and of Christianity. Origen 
 identifies the writer as Celsus the Epicurean, about the year 150 ; but 
 from his own remarks, he appears rather to have been an eclectic phi- 
 losopher. His polemics are acute but superficial, sarcastic but disho- 
 nest. According to him, Christ was a common Goet. — Porphyry 
 wrote fifteen books xata Kpiattav^v. He was desirous of proving that 
 there were contradictions in the Bible, ransacked the dispute between 
 Paul and Peter in Gal. ii., declared that the prophecy of Daniel was a 
 " vaticinium post eventum," and challenged the allegorical interpreta- 
 tions of Christians. He was also the author of a system of heathen 
 (Neo-Platon.) theology {ix tZ>v %oyiu>v ^iXoaoffiia) . Of both works only 
 fragments have been preserved. — Hierocles (2 books of Xoyot (fi%a\r- 
 ^iii) only reproduced shameless falsehoods about Christ and Christians, 
 and placed Jesus far below Apollonius of Tyana. 
 
 ?25. SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 Amid the many persecutions through which the Church had 
 to pass during this period, the Gospel rapidly spread through- 
 out the whole Roman empire, and even beyond its limits. So 
 early as 170, Ahgar Bar Manu, a Christian prince, reigned at 
 Edessa, the capital of the kingdom of Osrhoene, in Mesopota- 
 mia. At the same period Christianity had found a lodgment in 
 Persia, Media, Bactria, and Parthia. In the third century it 
 had spread to Armenia. The Apostle Thomas is said to have 
 carried the Gospel to India. In Arabia, Paul had laboured 
 (Gal. i. IT). In the third century Origen was called to 
 that country by a yjyov^svoi riji 'Apaßtaj, who wished to be in- 
 structed in Christianity. On another occasion he went thither 
 in order to settle an ecclesiastical dispute (§ 40, 5). From 
 Alexandria (§ 17) the Gospel also spread to other countries of 
 Africa — to Cyrene, and among the Cojyfs (the aboriginal Egyp- 
 tians). The Church of Proconsular Africa, especially that of 
 Gartha'je, its capital, was in a vigorous, thriving state, and kept 
 up close communication with Rome. In the third century Mau- 
 ritania and Numidia numbered so many Christian communities 
 that Cyprian could collect at Carthage a synod of eighty-seven 
 bishops. Rome remained the central point for the Church in 
 Europe. Colonies and teachers from Asia Minor formed in 
 Gaul a number of flourishing churches (such as those of Lugdu- 
 num, Vienna, etc.). At a later period seven missionaries from 
 Italy arrived in Gaul. Among them, St. Dionr/sius founded the 
 Churcli at Paris Among the Roman colonies in the countries
 
 SURVEY. 95 
 
 of the Rhine and of the Danube, flourishing churches existed so 
 early as in the third century. 
 
 The insufficiency and the decay of heathenism were the negative, 
 the Divine power of the Gospel the positive, means by which the Gos 
 pel spread with such astonishing rapidity. This Divine power mani 
 fested itself in the zeal and self-denial of Christian teachers and mis- 
 sionaries, in the saintly walk and conversation of Christians, in the 
 depth of their brotherly love, in the unshaken steadfastness and confi- 
 dence of their faith, — above all, in the joyousness with which they met 
 martyrdom under the most exquisite tortures. The blood of martyrs 
 was the seed of the Church ; and not unfrequently did it happen that 
 the executioners of Christian martyrs immediately followed them in 
 similarly suffering for the Gospel.* [In special instances, miracles and 
 signs — the echoes of the apostolic age — may have led to analogous 
 results. This is borne out by the evidence of men such as Justin 
 Martyr, Tertullian, and Origen, who in confirmation appeal to heathen 
 eye-witnesses.] 
 
 II. DANGERS ACCRUING FROM A LEAVEN OF JUDAISM AND 
 HEATHENISM REMAINING IN THE CHURCH. 
 
 ?26. SURVEY. 
 
 Of almost greater danger to the Church than even the direct 
 hostility and persecution of Jews and pagans, were certain 
 Jewish and heathen elements imported into the Christian com- 
 munity. The unspiritual, unbending, and narrow formalism of 
 the one, and the ungodly, antichristian tendency of the other, 
 not only reappeared, but claimed equal standing with what 
 really and distinctively was Christian. The attempt to force 
 Christianity into the narrow-minded particularism of the Syna- 
 gogue produced Ebiom'sm; the desire to amalgamate Grecian 
 and Oriental theosophy with .Christianity introduced Gnosti- 
 cism. These two directions were also combined into a Gnostic 
 Ehionism, — a system for which the doctrines of the Essenes 
 served as point of transition and connecting link. — The Church 
 had to put forth all its energies in order to defend itself against 
 this dangerous admixture of other creeds, and to clear its soil 
 from \yeeds which spread so rapidly. What of antichristian 
 Judaism had int 'uded was speedily overcome and cast out 
 * Omitted in the 7th Ed.
 
 96 SECTION I. FIRST PERIOD (100—323 A. D.). 
 
 But much more difficult was the contest with Gnosticism ; and 
 although the Church ultimately succeeded in uprooting on its 
 own soil these weeds, many of their seeds were for centuries 
 secretly preserved, and sometimes of a sudden sprung up into 
 fresh crops. However, these contests also brought blessings to 
 the Church ; from them it issued with views more enlarged 
 and liberal, with the deep conviction that scientific culture was 
 necessary for its theology, and prepared by victory for new 
 struggles. 
 
 Gnosticism must ultimately be traced to a peculiar and powerful 
 tendency inherent in many minds during the first centuries. A deep 
 conviction that the old world had run its course, and was no longer 
 able to resist the dissolution which threatened it, pervaded the age. 
 It also impelled many, by a syncretism the boldest and grandest that 
 history has recorded — we mean, by the amalgamation of the various 
 elements of culture, which hitherto had been isolated and heteroge- 
 neous — to make a last attempt at renovating what had become anti- 
 quated. While under one aspect this tendency was intended to oppose 
 Christianity (by Neo-Platonism), under another the Church itself was 
 drawn into the vortex, and by an amalgamation of Oriental theosophy, 
 of Grecian theosophy, and of Christian ideas, a widely ramified system 
 of most extravagant religious philosophy came forth from the crucible 
 of this peculiar kind of speculation. This system bore the general 
 name of Gnosticism. Various sects of Gnostics viewed the Scriptures 
 in a diflFerent manner. Some, by means of allegorical interpretations, 
 sought to base their system on the Bible. Others preferred to decry 
 the apostles as having falsified the original Gnostic teaching of Christ, 
 to attempt recasting the apostolic writings in accordance with their 
 own views, or by Gnostic spurious writings to make up a Bible after 
 their own fashion. The teaching of primitive sages, handed down by 
 tradition as secret doctrine, they placed above Sacred Writ. — Gnostic 
 speculation busied itself loitli such questions as the origin of the world 
 and of evil, or the purpose, means, and goal of the developtnent of the 
 world. To solve these problems the Gnostics borrowed from heathen- 
 ism its theory about the origin of the world, and from Christianity the 
 idea of redemption. All Gnostic systems are leased on a kind o^ Dual- 
 ism of God and of matter [iilr]). But with the Platonists, some 
 regarded matter as unreal (having no real existence) and without form 
 (= iu^ w), hence as not directly hostile and opposed to the Deity; 
 while others, in accordance with the views of the Parsees, supposed it 
 to be animated and ruled by an evil principle, and hence to be directly 
 opposed and hostile to the Good Deity. The theogonic and cosmogonic 
 process was explained on the principle of an emanation (rtpoßox^), by 
 which from the hidden God a long series of Divine formations (atwfsj)
 
 EBIONISM AND EBIONITE GNOSIS. 97 
 
 had emanated, whose indwelling Divine potency diminished in mea« 
 Bure as they removed from the original Divine Source. These /Eons 
 are represented as being the media of the creation, development, and 
 redemption of the world. The original matter from which the world 
 was created consisted of a mixture of elements, derived partly from 
 the kingdom of light (the rt^j^pwfta), and partly from the Hyle 
 (vdTfpjj^a, x^vufJ^o.)- This mixture Avas diiferently represented as 
 brought about by nature, chance or contest. The world was created 
 by one of the lowest and weakest ^ons, called the ärjiiLovpyöq. 
 Creation is the preparation and the commencement of redemption. 
 But as the Demiurgos cannot and will not accomplish the latter, one 
 of the highest /Eons appears in the fulness of time as Redeemer, in 
 order to accomplish the deliverance of the captive elements of light by 
 the imparting of yi/wcjtj. As matter is in itself evil, the [pneumatic) 
 Saviour had only an apparent body, or else at baptism descended into 
 the psychical Messiah, whom the Demiurgos had sent. The death on 
 the cross was either only an optical delusion, or the heavenly Christ 
 had left the man Jesus and returned to the Pleroma, or else He had 
 given His form to another person (Simon of Cyrene), so that the latter 
 was crucified instead of Jesus (Docetism). According as the pleromaticor 
 the hylic element prevails, the souls of men are naturally either pneu- 
 matic, and in that case capable of yj/uxjij ; psychic, when they cannot 
 attain beyond rttartj ; or hylic, — the latter class comprising the great 
 mass of men who, left in hopeless subjection to the powers of Satan, 
 only f)Uow their own lusts. Redemption consists in overcoming and 
 eliminating matter, and is accomplished through knowledge [yvüatg) 
 and asceticism. It is not an ethical but a chemical process. As it 
 was believed that matter was the seat of evil, sanctification was sought 
 physically rather than ethically, and thought to consist in resisting 
 matter and abstaining from material enjoyments. Hence originally 
 the system implied an exceedingly strict code of morals, but, in point 
 of fact, frequently became the very opposite, and degenerated into 
 Antinomianism and Libertinism. This is partly explained from the 
 low views entertained by some about the law of the Demiurgos, and 
 partly by the ease of passing from one extreme to another. 
 
 111. EBIONISM AND EBIONITE GNOSIS. 
 
 Comp. Gieseler, Nazaräer und Ebioniten, in the kirchl. hist. Arch IV. 
 2 ; Credner, Essäer und Ebioniten, in Winer's Zeitschr. I. 2.— A. ScJilie- 
 mann, die Clementinen u. der Ebionitismus. Ilamb. 1841 ; A. Hihjenfeld, 
 d. clement. Recognitt. u. Ilomilien. Jen. 1848 ; G. iViUinm, d. Ilomillen 
 u. Recogn. d. Clemens Rom. Göttg. 1854; — also, Hilgenfeld, das Ur- 
 christenthum (Orig. Christian.). Jena 1855 ; and the same author's 
 Jüdische Apokalyptik. Jena 1857. — D. Chivolsohn, die Ssabier u. d.. 
 Ssabismus. St. Petersb. 185G, 2 Bde. 
 9
 
 98 SECTION I. — FIRST PERIOD (lOO — 323 A. D.). 
 
 Those Jewish Christians who, after the destruction of Jerusa- 
 lem, continued in ecclesiastical separation from the Gentile 
 brethren, either formed a separate sect or fell into open heresy. 
 Both parties, though the distinction between them was not 
 unobserved, were called by Origen and Eusebius by the common 
 name of Ebionites. Jerome, on the contrary, distinguishes them 
 by the different names, Nazarenes and Ebionites. In the sect 
 of the Elkesaites or Sampseans we perceive that Gnostic elements 
 had found their way among the Ebionites also, probably from 
 their connection with the Essenes In the system embodied 
 in the Pseudo-Clementines, this Ebionite Gnosis was extended 
 and developed. It now assumed an attitude of direct antag- 
 onism to Gentile Gnosticism and to Gentile Catholicism, laying 
 claim to represent genuine ancient Judaism, which was said to 
 be quite the same as genuine Christianity, 
 
 1. The Nazarenes — a name by which the Jews had originally desig- 
 nated all Christians (Acts xxiv. 5) — held themselves bound still to 
 observe the ceremonial law, without, however, disputing the salvation 
 of Gentile-Christians who abstained from its injunctions. They believed 
 in the Divinity of Christ's nature, acknowledged Paul as being a true 
 apostle, and rejected the ordinances of the Rabbins, hut cherished a 
 carnal kind of Chiliasm [i. e., they expected a thousand years' reign of 
 Christ on earth, after a fashion similar to that which formed the main 
 features of Jewish ideas of the Messiah). The so-called Gospel of the 
 Hebrews, an Aramaic recension of the Gospel of Matthew, served as 
 the basis of their views. 
 
 2. The Ebionites deemed observance of the ceremonial law indis- 
 pensably necessary for salvation. They regarded, indeed, Christ as the 
 Messiah, but held Him to have been only a man (the son of Joseph) 
 whom, at His baptism, God had endowed with divine powers. 
 His messianic activity they limited to His teaching, by which He had 
 enlarged and perfected the law, adding to it new and more strict com- 
 mandments. The death of Christ was an offence to them, under which 
 they consoled themselves with the promise of His return, when they 
 expected that a terrestrial kingdom should be set up. — The Apostle 
 Paul, in their opinion, was a heretic, and deserved obloquy. They also 
 had a gospel of their own. 
 
 3. The Fathers derived the designation Elkesaites from Elxai, the 
 founder of that sect, — a name which, according to their interpretation, 
 
 meant Sxvafici xtxaXvfifitvij ('D3 7'n)-
 
 EBIONISM AND EBIONITE GNOSIS. 99 
 
 Their doctrines were a mixture tif Essene, Jewish, heathen-naturalis- 
 tic, and especially astj'ologico-ninf::;ical, and Christian elements. The 
 law — especially that of the Sabbath and of circumcision — was 
 held to be binding ; but they rejected sacrifices. They practised fre- 
 quent ablutions, both for the forgiveness of sins and for the cure of dis- 
 eases. In the Lord's Supper bread and salt were used. The use of 
 flesh was forbidden ; but marriage was allowed. Christ was regarded 
 as being the Son of God by the Virgin. Next to Him they placed the 
 Hvtvua äyMv, in the form of a female figure. The Elkesaites inhabited 
 the eastern shores of the Dead Sea. According to Epiphanius, they 
 were the same as the Sampseans = 'H^toxot. — More recent investiga- 
 tions [CkwnJsohn, I.e.) render it probable that they are identical with 
 the Fabians or MandcEans of the present day. Mediaeval Arabic wri- 
 ters call these Zabians (from ^^^ = J/DiD' ßartT-ft^siv, to wash) 
 Mogtasilah, i. e., those who wash themselves. They mention jE'/c/msaicA 
 as their founder, who taught two principles (the male and female). 
 The earlier view of the original identity of the Zabians with the ancient 
 Hemerobaptists and Disciples of John, may still be retained (§ 22) ; for 
 the latter may easily have laid the basis for the formation of the sect of 
 Elkesaites, and have perpetuated their Gnostic dualistic elements through 
 Elkesai. 
 
 4. The Pseudo-Clementine System originated in the latter half of 
 the second century. It was derived from a didactic work of fiction, 
 which, however, claims to be regarded as a true story. Clemens Bo- 
 maims, a noble Roman, philosophically educated, had, from a desire 
 after information, travelled to the East, where he met with Peter, and 
 became the companion of his missionai-y journeys. The peculiar c/oc- 
 trinal views of the work are gathered from the sermons and the discus- 
 sions of Peter ; the historical romance is elaborated in the scenes of 
 recognition and conversion of the father, the mother, and the brothers 
 of Clement. Peter is brought forward as the representative of what is 
 alleged to have been genuine and original Christianity ; Simon Magus, 
 his antagonist, represents every form of supposed spurious Christianity, 
 from his own teaching and that of his adherents (§ 22, 2) to that of the 
 Apostle Paul, according to whom the law was abolished in Christ, and 
 that of Marcion, according to whom the Creator of the world was not 
 the Supreme God (§ 28, 10). The alleged motive for the composition 
 of the book is this, that Peter, the founder and first bishop of the Church 
 at Rome, had, shortly before his death, appointed Clement his successor, 
 and enjoined him to intimate this to James in Jerusalem, as the head 
 of the Church, so as to obtain his acknowledgment. — The Pseudo- 
 Clementine romance is preserved in various modifications. The two 
 oldest forms of it are — 1) the IIomili(x XX. Clementis (the first com- 
 plete ed. by M. Dressel. Göttg. 1853), in Greek ; and 2) the Recogni- 
 tiones Clementis, in a Latin translation by Rufinus, in which the histo- 
 rical and romantic element is further carried out, while the dostrinal
 
 100 SECTION I. — FIRST PERIOD (100—323 A. D.). 
 
 part is less full and somewhat expurgated. Schliemann regarded the 
 Recognitiones as a later revisal of the Homilies ; Hilgenfeld supposes 
 the relations exactly reversed ; Ulhora modifies the statement of Schlie- 
 mann, and supposes that the Homilies themselves vrere recast after 
 some original work, and that both the latter and the Homilies had been 
 used in the composition of the Recognitiones. — The System of the Cle- 
 mentine Homilies is based on Stoic Pantheism combined with Jewish 
 Theism, and proceeds on the supposition that genuine Christianity was 
 exactly identical with genuine Judaism. The author discovers some 
 elements of truth and others of error in all the principal modifications 
 of Christian, of Jewish, and of heretical religion. He controverts the 
 popular belief and the philosophy of the heathen, the sacrificial worship 
 of the Jews, the Chiliasm of the Ebionites, the ecstatic prophetism of 
 the Montanists, the hypostatic Trinitarianism of the Catholics, the 
 Demiurgos, the Docetism, and the Autinomianism of the Gnostics, 
 From the Ebionite system he adopts his idea of the identity of Judaism 
 with Christianity ; with the Essenes, he agrees in insisting on absti- 
 nence from meats, frequent fasts, ablutions, and voluntary poverty 
 (but he recommends early marriages) ; with the Catholics, as to the 
 r(.cessity of baptism for the forgiveness of sins, etc. According to thia 
 writer, God is pure existence [avdftavaii], originally a unity of body and 
 soul. He reveals Himself as the Living One by expansion and con- 
 traction {(x-taat,i and avatoXrj, of which we have a representation in the 
 heart of man). By this process the world was created, when the 
 lli/«ij(ua (öo^ta) and the ow/xa (vXjj) were separated and placed in antago- 
 nism. Thus the Monas became a Dyas, forming the first Syzygia 
 (union) of antagonisms, which was followed by others, consisting of the 
 Divine and the non-Divine (in nature: heaven and earth, day and 
 night, light and darkness, life and death, etc. ; among men : Adam and 
 Eve, and aftef that, in inverse order, Cain and Abel, Ishmael and Isaac, 
 Esau and Jacob). Satan had originated from an ungodly mixture of 
 the four elements. Adam was the primal prophet who had already 
 possessed perfect and absolute truth. In order to stem the growing 
 corruption, Adam appeared under different names and forms, but 
 always bringing one and the same truth. Thus he reappeared in 
 Abel, in Enoch, in Noah, in Abraham, in Isaac, in Jacob, in Moses, 
 and at last in Christ. But along with these revelations prophets of 
 falsehood also came. Thus John the Baptist was the counterpart of 
 Christ, Simon Magus (the disciple of John) that of Peter. In holy 
 Scripture also Divine is to be distinguished from diabolic prophecy. 
 Allegorical interpretations are to be rejected.
 
 GENTILE GNOSTICISM. 101 
 
 ?28. GENTILE GNOSTICISM. 
 
 Comp. Massuet, diss, praevise in edit. Irensei. — A, Neander, genet. 
 Entw. d. vornehmst, gnost. Syst. (Genet. Develop, of the Princ. Syst. 
 of Gnost.). Berl. 1818. — F. Chr. Bmir, d. chr. Gnosis in ihr. gesch 
 Entvs-. (Chr. Gnost. initsHistor. Develop.). Tübg. 1835.—/. Matter, krit 
 Gesch. d. Gnosticismus. Aus d. Franz. (Crit. Hist, of Gnost. from the 
 French of J. M., by) von Ch. H. Dörner. 2 vols. Heilbr. 1833.—/. A. 
 Schmidt, Etudes sur Irenee et les Gnostiques, Brux. 1856. 
 
 The many and diverse systems of Gentile-Christian Gnosticism 
 may all be arranged under two great classes, according as notions 
 derived from Grecian philosophy — more especially from Pla- 
 tonism and the study of the mysteries — or Dualistic and Parsee 
 views prevailed in them. This arrangement almost coincides 
 with that of the more prominent representatives of that class of 
 heretics into Egyptum and Syrian Gnostics. However, it is 
 impossible to keep them always quite separate, since the various 
 forms of Gnosticism closely approximate and frequently merge 
 into each other, and since, during their development, these here- 
 sies did not remain stationary. Gnosticism reached its highest 
 point during the first half of the second century, especially 
 during the age of Hadrian. In apostolic times (§ 19), those 
 Jewish, heathen, and Christian Gnostics elements — which at the 
 commencement of the second century appeared separated, 
 attracted or repelled each other, developed and assumed form — 
 had been a " rudis indigestaque moles." Even in the system of 
 Gerinthus, who, as it were, stands on the boundary-line between 
 these two ages, Gentile and Ebionite Gnosis are mixed up. But, 
 not many years afterwards, Alexandrian Gnosticism was fully 
 developed by Basilides, whose system is moulded after the doc- 
 trines of Stoicism, and by Valentine, who adopted the views of 
 the Platonists. Another class of Egyptian Gnostics based their 
 systems rather on Grecian and Egyptian mysteries than on 
 Greek philosophy, and mixed the fables of heathen mytliology 
 with the facts of Scripture history. Among such attempts we 
 class the various systems of the Ophites, which alreadytehow a 
 certain hostility to Judaism, and a tendency towards Antino- 
 mianism. These tendencies increased and attained their climax 
 in Carpocrates, who placed Christianity on exactly the same 
 \evel with heathenism. — Of Syrian Gnostics, Saturninus is tho 
 9*
 
 102 SECTION I. — FIRST PERIOD (100—323 A. D.) . 
 
 most pi'ominent ; next to him Tatian, whose system, however 
 has even more of asceticism about it. The Gnosticism of Bar- 
 desanes, although he was both a Syrian and a Dualist, approxi- 
 mated that of Valentine ; in life and doctrine he accommodated 
 himself to the views of the Catholics. The Gnosticism of iliar- 
 cion belongs also to the Syrian school. Setting aside the 
 principles of emanation, of secret doctrine, and of allegorical 
 interpretation, and laying greater stress on Pistis than on Gnosis, 
 Marcion approximated more closely to orthodox views than any 
 other heretical teacher had done ; while, by his rejection of the 
 Old Testament, and fanatical hatred to Jewish Christianity, he 
 at the same time occupied a position of greater antagonism to 
 the Church than others. The direct opposite of his system was 
 that of the Pseudoclement (§ 2t, 4). Lastly, independent of all 
 these modifications of Gnosticism, Ilajnchceism — a combination 
 of Parseeism, of Buddhism, and of Christianity (§29) — made 
 its appearance during the third century. 
 
 1. Cerintuus was a junior cotemporary of the Apostle John in Asia 
 Minor. He was the first to propound the peculiar Gnostic dogma of 
 the Demiurgos, who, as Creator of the world, is represented as sub- 
 servient to the Supreme God, without, however, knowing Him. Jesus 
 also, who was the son of Joseph and of Mary, knew Him not, until at 
 baptism the avu» Xptrrroj descended upon him. Before the crucifixion, 
 which is regarded as merely a human calamity, without any bearing 
 upon salvation, he again left the man Jesus. Cains of Rome, who 
 ascribed to Cerinthus the authorship of the book of Revelation, charges 
 him also with carnally chiliastic views. 
 
 2. The Gnosticism of Basilides. — Basilides (BodaftSjyj) was a teacher 
 at Alexandria about the year 130. It is the characteristic and funda- 
 mental idea of his system, that every development of God and of the 
 world was brought about by an influence from beneath upwards — not, 
 as in the theory of emanation, from above downwards. His system 
 commences with pure non-existence. 'Hv 6te fiv ovSev. Hence, the 
 principle from which everything originates is 6 ovk ov ■&e6c, — which 
 from out of itself (ff ovu ovtcjv) brings Chaos into being. This Chaos, 
 though itself oi)x ov, is yet the rtai'Trttpuia tov xoaixov. Thence two son- 
 ships {ii(jtr;tii), of which the one was already weaker than the other, 
 ascended to the blessed place of not-being (non-existence — ta 
 vrtfpxoö/iia) ; while a third, which still required purification, had to 
 remain behind in the rtavörtfp^ta. The latter, then, is the object of 
 redemption. Next, the great Archon ascended from Chaos to the very 
 boundary of the blessed place, of which he knew nothing, and founded 
 khere the Ogdoas; after him came a second Archon, who founded tha
 
 GENTILE GNOSTICISM. 103 
 
 Hehdomas (the planet-sky). lie reigned over the terrestrial world 
 until Moses revealed the name of the great Archon, Only Jestts, the 
 first-born of the third sonship, that had remained behind, obtained and 
 spread the knowledge of the highest God and His kingdom. The 
 suiferings of Christ were necessary for Ilis own salvation, i. e., that 
 He might be purified from the elements of the Psyche and of the Hyle. 
 Then lie ascended to the highest God, whither, gradually, all other 
 pneumatic natures are to follow Ilim. Ultimately, God pours out 
 great iyiiorance over all stages of existence, that their blessedness may 
 n:* be disturbed by their knowledge of still higher bliss. Such, accord- 
 ing to Clemens Alesandrinus and Hippolytus, are the fundamental 
 ideas of the system of Basilides. Ireiiceus and Epiphanius attach that 
 name, however, to a totally diiferent system — doubtless describing the 
 later sect of the so-called Pseudo-Basilidians. In their system, the 
 great Archon alone is represented as the highest God, the " pater 
 innatus." But between the great Archon and the Archon of the Heb- 
 domas not less than 365 spiritual spheres {= 'Aßpa|äj, 'Aßpaaal) inter- 
 vene. Since the ovx utv ^söj and the rtavortfp^ta had been discarded, it 
 became necessary to adopt certain dualistic, emanatistic, and docetic 
 views, such as that beneath the Pleroma lay an eternal Hyle, which 
 attracted some particles of light and fixed them down in matter, etc. 
 The Pseudo-Basilidians fell into Antinomianism and Libertinism. 
 Basilides himself left twenty-four books i^riyritwo., and his son Isidore 
 a work entitled »f^txä. — (Comp. G. Uhlhorn, das basilid. System. Göttg. 
 1855. Also, A. Hllgeiifeld, Die Jlid. Apokalyptik. App. pp. 289, etc. 
 Jena 1857). 
 
 3. Tlie Gnosticism of Valentine. — Valentinus, a teacher in Alex- 
 andria and at Rome about the middle of the second century, was of all 
 Gnostics the most deep, ingenious, and imaginative, and his system is 
 equally remarkable for its speculation and its poetry. Its fundamental 
 idea is, that, according to a law inherent in the Divine Being, the 
 iEons emanated in pairs, and with the difi"erence of sexes. Every such 
 holy marriage of /Eons he designates a Si/zygia. Cimnected with this 
 is another peculiar view, according to which the three catastrophes of 
 terrestrial history (creation, the fall, and redemption) had already 
 occurred in archetype in the history of the development of the Pleroma. 
 On this basis he reared a grand and most poetic Epos, consisting of a 
 partly Christian and partly mythological theogony and cosmogony. 
 From the Bv^j {or AvtoTtdtojp) and his 'Evvoio, (or 2ty>j) emanated fifteen 
 p.airs of /Eons, which, with the Father of all, formed the Pleroma. 
 2j$ca, the last and lowest of these iEons, impelled by a burning desire, 
 forsakes her husband in order to throw herself into the Bythos, for the 
 purpose of embracing the Great Father himself. She is indeed pre- 
 vented from carrying this into execution — but a rupture has taken 
 place in the Pleroma. Disorder and passion (her ini^vfitjaii) is 
 eliminated and driven forth from the Pleroma. This, then, is ao
 
 104 SECTION I. — FIRST PERIOD (100—325 a. D.). 
 
 abortion, an txrpw^a, which still possesses, however, an ^Eonic nature 
 {xdtoi 2o(j)ia). To redeem and to bring her back into the Pleroma — 
 Buch is the object of the development of the world. For the purpose 
 of providing a Saviour and future husband for her, all the ^ons com- 
 bine in emanating a new ^onic Being, glorious above all measure — 
 the Sfcvr^p, or heavenly Jesus. Meantime, the xarw So^ta, which is akc 
 called 'A;^tt;uu)^, gives birth to the various grades of life in the Cosmos. 
 All hylic natures are under the government of Satan, all psychical 
 under that of the Demiurgos, while she herself directs those that are 
 pneumatic. To his chosen people, the Jews, the Demiurgos sends a 
 Messiah, the xarw x?''0'(^ii on whom at baptism the dVo) 2iot'j;p descends. 
 The Demiurgos is astonished, but submits to the will of the higher 
 deities. The Pneumatics are led to perfectness by yvwdij.the Psychical 
 by Tiiotti;. Ultimately, Achamoth returns with the Pneumatics to the 
 Pleroma, where she is united to the Soter, and the Pneumatics to the 
 angels of the Soter. The Demiurgos and his pious ones occupy the 
 rortoj r^s jxeaottjtoi ; but from the depths of Hyle bursts forth a fire which 
 consumes them and itself. — Among the numerous disciples of Valentine 
 we mention Heracleon, the first commentator of the Gospel according 
 to John. 
 
 4. In its original form, the Gnosticism of the Ophites consisted of 
 a phantastic combination of Grecian mythology and biblical history, 
 both being mystically interpreted, just as the heathen mysteries had 
 been by philosophers. Under all the modifications of this system, a 
 
 prominent part was assigned to the Serpent (o<j)ij, tJ^nj); either as 
 
 T T 
 
 being the evil principle, or else as the Agathodsemon. This is explained 
 from the circumstance that, both in Egyptian worship, in the Grecian 
 mysteries, and in biblical history, the serpent was prominently brought 
 forward. Hippolytus describes, under the name of Naassenes, one of 
 the earliest forms of Ophite Gnosticism, of which the system is com- 
 paratively simple. In it the serpent was the Agathodsemon. More 
 fully develoj^ed than this was the system of the Gnostic Justinus, who 
 adopted the whole Grecian mythology. He regarded the Nachash as 
 an evil demon. The Peratics, a party of which Euphrates and Chelbes 
 were the founders, taught that it was necessary to leave Egypt (which 
 was a representation of the body), to pass {jiBpav) through the lied Sea 
 (the things that pass away) into the wilderness, where, indeed, the 
 gods of destruction (represented by the fiery serpents which destroyed 
 the Jews) awaited us, but where also Christ the Saviour (represented 
 by the serpent which Moses had lifted up) brought salvation and 
 deliverance. The Sethi ans maintained that originally there had been 
 two races of men — one psychical, at the head of which stood Abel, the 
 other hylic, at the head of which was Cain. But with Seih commenced 
 a third race, that of the Pneumatics or Gnostics. The Ilylics had 
 oerished in tha Flood, but returned in the descendants of Ham. A
 
 GENTILE GNOSTICISM. 105 
 
 last Seth appeared a second time in Christ. In direct opposition to 
 this sect, the Cainites dechxred that all those persons who in the Old 
 Testament had been described as ungodly, were genuine Pneumatics 
 and martyrs of truth. The first who distinguished himself in the 
 contest with the God of the Jews, was Cain; the last, who brought 
 this contest to a victorious termination, by bringing, in his deeper 
 wisdom, the psychical Messiah to the cross, and thus destroying the 
 kingdom of the God of the Jews, was Judas Iscariot. Their Autino- 
 mianism led to the most shameless excesses. — The Ophites, whom 
 Irena^us and Epiphanius describe, seem to have indulged in abstruse 
 transformations of the biblical history in Gen. i. — iii., and to have 
 derived their views originally from the system of Valentine. Accord- 
 ing to them, the Sophia-Achamoth precipitated herself into Chaos, 
 where she gave birth to Jaldabaoth, the Creator of the world, who in 
 turn renounced allegiance to his mother. But the star-spirits which 
 he had created, and Orphiomorjjlios, or Satan, overcame him in 
 turn. From a feeling of jealousy, Jaldabaoth had interdicted man 
 from the tree of knowledge ; but the serpent Achamoth persuaded him 
 to disobey, and thus procured him liberty and knowledge. Jaldabaoth 
 selected the Jews as his favourite people, sent prophets to them, and 
 at last a Messiah, who was to obtain for them dominion over the 
 Gentiles. On him the Ano-Christ descended, but the wicked Jalda- 
 baoth now caused his own Messiah to be crucified. Before that, how- 
 ever, the heavenly Christ had already forsaken that Messiah, and, 
 invisible to Jaldabaoth, sat down at the right hand of the latter ; thus 
 withdrawing from him any elements of light which he still retained, 
 etc. — The book Pisiis Sophia (ed. Schwartze et Petermann, coptice et 
 lat. Berol. 1851) is one of the latest and best productions of Ophite 
 Gnosticism, strongly tinged, however, with the views of Valentine. 
 
 5. The Gnosticism of Carpocrates. — The opposition to Judaism, 
 which had so distinctly appeared among the Cainites and the Ophites, 
 developed, in the system of Carpocrates and his adherents, into open 
 and pantheistic heathenism. They regarded Christ in exactly the 
 same light as they did Pythagoras, Plato, and Aristotle. Genuine 
 Christianity they held to be equivalent with philosophical heathenism; 
 all popular creeds, especially that of the Jews, had originated with 
 demons (the ayyixot xoaiJ.o7iot.ol). True religion consisted in return to 
 the lost unity with the " one and all,'' attained theoretically by Gnosis, 
 and practically by transgressing the law of the Demiurgos. In this 
 respect Christ had distinguished Himself before all others. In their 
 temples they paid divine homage to pictures of Christ and of heathen 
 philosophers, which they placed by the side of each other. The Car- 
 pocratians built in Cephalonia a temple to Epiphanes, the son of Car- 
 pocrates, a youth of great talent, but wholly steeped in vice, who died 
 in the 17th year of his age. — At the close of their agapes they had 
 " concubitus promiscuos."
 
 106 SECTION I. — FIRST PER I D (100—323 A. D.). 
 
 6. The Antiiactes. — Almost all the Alexandrian Gnostics ulti 
 mately landed in Antinomianism and gross immorality, on the prin- 
 ciple that he who was perfect must be able to bid defiance to the law, 
 (dfrfraöofö^at), and that in order to break the power of Hyle, it was 
 necessary to weaken and to mortify the flesh (napa'^ip^cr^ai -irj capxl) by 
 carnal indulgences. Among them we reckon, besides the Nicolaitans 
 (^ 19, 1) and the Simonians (| 22, 2), the Pseudo-Basilidians, the 
 Carpocratians, the Cainites, and also the Prodicians, who, as the sons 
 of the king, deemed themselves above the law, which had been given 
 to servants. 
 
 7. The first in the series of Syrian Gnostics was Saturninus, whc 
 lived at the time of Hadrian. According to him, the spiritual world 
 of the kingdom of light had gradually emanated from the ^j ö; ayi-iotj-roj. 
 The lowest stage was occupied by the seven planet-spirits (ayyf^ot 
 xoffjUoxpaVopfj), presided over by the God of the Jews. But from all 
 eternity Satan, the ruler of Hyle, had been most violently opposed to 
 the kingdom of light. The seven planet-spirits intended to found an 
 empire independent of the Pleroma, and for that purpose made an in- 
 cursion into the kingdom of Hyle, and partly gained possession of it. 
 This they fashioned into the sensuous world, and created man, its 
 guardian, after a luminous image sent by the good God, of which they 
 had perceived the reflection. But they were unable to give man an 
 upright posture. On this the supreme God took pity on the wretched 
 creation of their hands. He imparted to man a spark of light (crrttr^p), 
 by which he was filled with pneumatic life and enabled to stand up- 
 right. But by means of a hylic race, which Satan created, he opposed 
 the pneumatic race, and continually persecuted it by his demons. The 
 God of the Jews therefore resolved to redeem the persecuted by a Mes- 
 siah, and He raised up prophets to announce His coming. But Satan 
 also sent prophets. At last the good God sent the ^on Noi5j to this 
 earth, arrayed not in a real, but in what seemed a body, that as (jcoT')jp 
 he might teach the Pneumatics, not only to protect themselves by 
 means of Gnosis and asceticism (abstinence from marriage and meats) 
 from the attacks of Satan, but thereby also to withdraw themselves 
 from the dominion of the God of the Jews and of His star-spirits, and 
 to purify themselves from all communion with matter, in order to rise 
 to the kingdom of light. 
 
 8. Tatian [oh. about 174) came from Assyria, and was a rhetori- 
 cian at Rome, where, through the influence of Justin Martyr, he be- 
 came a convert to Christianity. But at a later period he adopted 
 Gnostic views, which he zealously spread both in his writings and his 
 teaching. He interdicted marriage as a service of Satan, and also the 
 use of intoxicating liquors. On account of their rigid abstinence his 
 adherents were called 'Eyxpa-ftrat, and also 'T5portopa^t'ciT'at 
 Aquarii, because in the Lord's Supper they used water instead of wine
 
 GENTILE GNOSTICISM. 10" 
 
 9. Bardesanes, from Edessa (about the year 170), -«-as a very 
 learned man, and an able religious poet. In his sermons he did not 
 oppose the teaching of the Church, but by his hymns diöused his 
 Gnostic views. The same remark applies to Harmonius, his son, -^-ho 
 also was a poet. A Syriac copy of Bardesanes' work ytfpi Et^apftsi'^ys 
 has been recently discovered. It refutes the delusions of Chaldee 
 astrology, but is itself pervaded by the views of Zoroaster. His view 
 of the world was likewise greatly modified by Greek philosophy. He 
 holds to three distinct principles of all being: the ^vcrtj, or laws of 
 nature, the Vi^a^^ivti, or blind fate, and the God of Christianity, who 
 executed the plan of Redemption. 
 
 10. Marcion, a native of Sinope and the son of a bishop, was a man 
 of energetic but pugnacious disposition. Being excommunicated by 
 his father on account of his pride, he betook himself to Rome, where 
 Cerdo, a Syrian Gnostic, imbued him with his own peculiar views 
 (about 150). The absolute and irreconcilable antagonism between jus- 
 tice and mercy, between law and gospel, between Judaism and Chris- 
 tianity, formed the fundamental idea of his system. Hence, besides 
 the two principles of Syrian Gnosticism — the good and the evil God — • 
 he introduced a third, the just God, who was the Creator of the world 
 and the Lawgiver. To the latter Judaism was subject, as heathenism 
 to the evil God. At last the good God, who hitherto had been wholly 
 unknown, in free grace resolved on delivering man from the dominion 
 of both these deities. For this purpose he sent his Logos (who, how- 
 ever, differed from him only inodaliier not personaliier) into the world 
 in what appeared to be a body. By way of accommodation, this Logos 
 gave Himself out to be the Messiah promised by the God of the Jews , 
 He announced forgiveness of sins by free grace, and to all who be- 
 lieved imparted the powers of a Divine life. The Demiurgos, indig- 
 nant at this, put Him to the cross (to apparent death), when He went 
 to preach in Hades to those of the heathen who are susceptible of the 
 Gospel, next cast the Demiurgos into Hades, and called the Apostle 
 Paul to be the teacher of believers. — In a work — the Antitheses — he 
 endeavoured to show that the antagonism between the Old and the 
 New Testament was irreconcilable. Of all the apostles he only recog- 
 nized the authority of Paul ; the rest, he thought, had relapsed into 
 Judaism. But he also rejected the pastoral letters (of Paul) and that 
 to the Hel)rews, and acknowledged only ten of the epistles of Paul and 
 a mutilated edition of the Gospel according to Luke. He disapproved 
 of all pomp and ceremonies in public worship, to which he also ad- 
 mitted catechumens and heathen. Strict asceticism, the use of only 
 80 much nourishment as was absolutely necessary, and abstinence from 
 marriage, were incumbent on the " Electi." The moral earnestness 
 and the practical tendency of his teaching gathered around him many 
 adherents, and this sect continued much longer than other Gnostics.
 
 108 SECTION I. — FIRST PERIOD (100—323 A. D.). 
 
 To his query, " whether he knew him," Polycarp, who met him i» 
 Rome, replied : 'Erttyvcooxw tbv rtput-totoxov tov Xa-tava. 
 
 11. Hermogenes, a painter in North Africa (about the end of the 
 second century), equally rejected the Catholic doctrine of creation and 
 the Gnostic theory of emanation, since both made God the author of 
 sin. He therefore assumed an eternal chaos, in the resistance of 
 which against the creative and formative agency of God all that waa 
 evil and deformed had its origin. His views were refuted by Tertullian. 
 
 §29, MANICH^ISM. 
 
 Comp. Beausohre, hist. crit. de Manicheisme. Amst. 1734. — F. Chr. 
 Banr, d. manich. Religionssyst. TUbg. 1831. — /. E. Colditz, d. Entsteh, 
 d. manich. Religionsystems, Leipz. 1838. — D. Chwolsohn, die Ssabier u. 
 d. Ssabismus. St. Petersb. 1856, 2 Bde. 
 
 Independent of Christian Gnosticism, which developed in the 
 Roman empire during the second century, and more or less under 
 the influence of Grecian forms of culture, and yet possibly con- 
 nected with Elkesaism (§ 27, 3), llamchceiam sprung up in the 
 Persian empire towards the end of the third century. In many 
 respects its principles and tendencies coincided witli those of 
 Gnosticism, especially with that form of it which the Syrian 
 Gnostics had adopted. But Manichaeism differed from Gnosti- 
 cism chiefly in employing Christian ideas and notions merely as 
 a gloss for heathen theosophy, in bearing no reference whatever 
 to Judaism, in prominently bringing forward, instead of Pla- 
 tonic views, Persian Dualism, and combining it with Buddhist 
 ideas. From the first, also, it laid claim not merely to the title 
 of an esoteric religion destined for a few choice spirits, but to 
 form a church of its own, with a regular constitution and an 
 organized worship, — an attempt which, as the result proved, was 
 not wholly unsuccessful. 
 
 1. Concerning the person and history of the founder of the sect, the 
 accounts of the Latin and Greek Fathers often vary from those of Per- 
 sian writers. The former are all derived from the reports of a discus- 
 sion which Bishop Archelaus of Cascar had with Manes or Manichieiis, 
 and which still exist in a corrupt Latin translation.^ In them the 
 origin of Manichreism is traced to Scythianus, a Saracen merchant, an 
 extensive traveller, who lived at the time of the apostles. A pupil of 
 his, Terebinthus, who also called himself Buddas, wrote by his direc- 
 tion foi r books — of which, after his death, Enbricus, a liberated slave 
 ibtainei possession. E. adopted the doctrine of the books, carried
 
 MANICH^ISM. lOS 
 
 out more fully, in Persia became the founder of a new religion, and 
 called himself Manes. He Tvas even admitted to the royal court, 
 but failing in an attempt to restore a sick prince, the jealousy of the 
 Magi caused his downfall. But he escaped from prison, and found a 
 place of concealment in an old castle Arabion, in Mesopotamia. 
 Meanwhile he had become acquainted with the sacred writings of the 
 Christians, and derived from them many additions to his system. 
 Then he showed great energy in spreading his views, sending letters 
 and messengers, especially among Christians. This led to the above- 
 named debate with Archelmis, in which he was completely refuted. 
 Soon afterwards he was seized by command of the King of Persia, 
 flayed alive (277), and his stuffed skin was set up as a warning to 
 others. — Later Persian accounts are much more credible [Herhelot 
 orient., Biblioth. s. v. Maui, and Silv. de Sacy Memoires, etc., Par. 1794). 
 According to these, Mani, the founder of this religion, had sprung 
 from one of the families of the Persian Magi. Although professing 
 Christianity, and invested with the oiEce of presbyter, he continued to 
 cherish his early Parsee views. Amid the religious movements which, 
 after the overthrow of the Parthian Arsacida3 and the accession of the 
 SassinidiB (227), had the revival of the ancient national faith for their 
 aim, he conceived the idea of founding a new and universal religion, 
 by combining Christianity with Parseeism. Accordingly, in 270, 
 under the reign of Shapur I. (Sapores), he came forward as reformer 
 and founder of a new party, claiming to be the Paraclete promised by 
 Christ (John xvi. 13 etc.). Excommunicated by the Christians and 
 persecuted by the Magi, he had to flee, and travelled through India as 
 far as China, all the time gathering fresh materials for his religious 
 system. After that he lived for a period in a cave in Turkistan, where 
 he composed a work, full of gorgeous imagery, intended to express in 
 symbols his doctrine (the " Ertenki Mani," the Gospel of his adhe- 
 rents). He then returned to Persia. The new king, Ilormuz, pro- 
 tected him ; but Behravi (Varanes), his successor, obliged him to dis- 
 cuss his system with the Magi, declared them victorious, and caused 
 Mani to be flayed alive (277). Soon after the founder's death the 
 sect spread throughout the Roman empire. On account of its origin 
 among the hostile Persians, Diocletian persecuted the party ; while, 
 on the other hand, the opposition of the Catholic state-church of the 
 Roman Empire secured for it, at a later period, protection in Persia. 
 By secret tradition the sect seems to have continued to the middle 
 ages, when it frequently reappeared. 
 
 2. The ancient Persian Dualism formed the fundamental idea in the 
 SYSTEM of Mani. The good God and his twelve /Eons (Ormuzd and 
 his Amshaspands and Izeds) were from all eternity opposed by Satan 
 and his demons (Ahriman and the Dews). Attracted by the beauty 
 3f the kingdom of light, Satan made an inroad upon it. God ap- 
 pointed an iEon ["the mother jf life") to be the guardian of thf 
 
 10
 
 110 SECTION I. — FIRST PERIOD (100—323 A D.). 
 
 boundaries of the kingdom of light. This ^on gave birth to the ideal 
 man, who, together with the five pure elements (fire, light, etc.), 
 entered into the contest, but succumbed and became a prisoner. God 
 now sends another ^on, "the living Spirit," to assist him ; but he 
 arrives too late, as the powers of darkness have already swallowed 
 up a portion of his luminous essence (the soul of the world, or the 
 ■'Jesus patibilis" ). The ideal man, so far as preserved, i.e., Christ 
 (or the "Jesus impatibilis" ), is now transported to the Sun. From 
 the mixture above mentioned God had caused the visible world to be 
 formed by the " living Spirit," in order that the captive particles of 
 light might gradually regain strength and freedom. Besides "the 
 soul of light," every man has also an evil soul. The former is to 
 gain victory and dominion over the latter by appropriating the 
 elements of light scattered in nature, and principally in plants. This 
 process of purification is superintended by the ideal man Christ, who 
 resides in the Sun, and by the living Spirit, who resides in ether. On 
 the other hand, the Demons attempt, by means of the false religions 
 of Judaism and heathenism, to bind souls more closely to the king- 
 dom of darkness. At last Christ Himself descends from the Sun in 
 what appears to be a body, in order, by His teaching, to give liberty 
 to the " souls of light." But the apostles misunderstood and falsified 
 His doctrine ; Mani, the promised Paraclete (not the Holy Ghost) is to 
 restore it to pm-ity. As such, he was the head of the Church. Under 
 him were twelve apostles (magistri) and seventy-two bishops, besides 
 presbyters, deacons, and evangelists. The community consisted of 
 catechumens (auditores) and the elect (or perfect). The latter were 
 to practise the strictest ascetism, to abstain from flesh, from eggs, 
 milk, wine, etc., and had to remain unmarried (Signaculum oris, 
 manuum et sinus). Baptism and the Lord's Supper — the former with 
 oil, the latter without wine — formed part of the secret worship of the 
 perfect. Oil and bread were regarded as those pure products of the 
 soul of the world, which, in vegetable life, struggled after freedom 
 (or the "Jesus patibilis"). Their principal festival was the anni« 
 versary of the martyrdom of Mani, when they bowed in wcwship 
 before a splendid pulpit, the symbol of their divine teacher. — (Cf g 54 
 I. 2; ?71; § 1Ö3,, 1.)
 
 INTERNAL ORGANIZATION OF THE CHURCH. Ill 
 
 III. DEVELOPMENT IN THE GOVERNMENT, WORSHIP, LIPE, AND 
 DISCIPLINE OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 §30. INTERNAL ORGANIZATION OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 Comp. ZiegJer, Vers. e. pragm. Gesch. d. kirchl. YerfassungsformeQ 
 in den 6 ersten Jahrhh. (Pragm. Hist, of the Forms of Eccles. Con- 
 Btit. during the First G Cent.). Leipz. 1798.— /. W. BicMl, Gesch. d. 
 Kirchenrechts (Hist, of Ch. Law). I. II. Frkf. lU^.— R. Rothe, d. 
 Anfänge d. chr. K. u. ihrer Verf. (Early Hist, of the Chr. Ch. and of 
 its Const.). I. Wittb. 1837.— TF.Pa/wer, Treat, on the Ch. of Christ. 
 Oxf. 1838.—/. Kaye, Some Ace. of the '^xi. Disc, of the Ch. of Christ. 
 London 1855. 
 
 During the second century the Episcopate (§ 18, 2) became 
 more and more a settled institution in the Church, till gradually 
 the bishop was regarded as the superior of the presbyter. 
 Among those who prepared the way for this result, Ignatius of 
 Antioch (oh. 115) is the best known. In every bishop he sees 
 Christ, while in his opinion the college of presbyters represents 
 the apostles. But the later idea of an apostolic succession of 
 bishops, which we find in the writings of Cyprian, appears not 
 to have occurred to Ignatius. — The hierarchical tendency, 
 inherent in the system of Episcopacy, was fostered and nourished 
 by the idea of a S2')ecial priesthood as of Divine institution. Old 
 Testament views were transferred to the New Testament Presi- 
 dents of cliurches. The distinction between the " ordo " or 
 xxiypoj, and the " plQbs " or xaö? (xaixoi), once introduced, soon 
 led to priestly claims of pre-eminence. As the congregations 
 became larger, the functions, rights, and duties of the existing 
 spiritual offices were more accurately determined, and new offices 
 instituted for those on whom the more humble work devolved. 
 Thus the clergy were arranged into '' ordines majoi-es" and 
 " mino7'es." The rural congregations which had been founded 
 by the labours of Christians in neighbouring cities were provided 
 with presbyters from these cities (the Parochi). If they increased 
 in numbers and influence, they chose a bishop of their own (arwp«- 
 rti.rt;^ürtoi). Where, in large cities, one church was not sufficient, 
 affiliated churches were founded. Thus the bishop had gradu- 
 ally a diocese assigned to him. As the bishops of towns took 
 precedence of those in rural districts, so naturally the metro-
 
 112 SECTION I. — FIRST PERIOD (100—323 A. D.). 
 
 politans, or bishops of capital cities, over those of provincial 
 towns. But the title 3Ietropolitan occurs for the fii'st time in 
 the decrees of the Council of Nice (325). In the common con- 
 sultations which took place in the various capitals (the Pro- 
 vincial Synods) — which at first only took place when occasion 
 required, but afterwards became a regular institution — the 
 metropolitan presided. Again, among the metropolitans, those 
 who presided over churches, which apostles had founded (sedes 
 apostolic(e), especially those of Rome, Antioch, Jerusalem, Alex- 
 andria, Ephesus, and Corinth, claimed pre-eminence. The idea 
 of the unity and catholicity of the Church was maintained and 
 carried out with increasing firmness, and became associated with 
 that of the centering of thftt unity in the Apostle Peter, from a 
 misapplication of Matth. 16 : 18, 19. Rome, as the metropolis 
 of the world, where Peter and Paul had suffered martyrdom, 
 claimed to be the cathedra Pet?'i, and transferred the idea of a 
 sole ecclesiastical representation to its bishops, as the successors 
 of Peter. — The love of the brethren towards one another led to 
 a closer connection of the churches, which was preserved by 
 mutual communications. Christians on a journey, furnished with 
 a certificate and letter of commendation from their respective 
 bishops (epistolae formatse, ypa^u^tara titvTCu>^£va'), were sure of 
 fraternal hospitality. — At first the congregations retained a 
 voice in the choice of the clergy, the decision being frequently 
 left to confessors. — (Cf § 45 etc.) 
 
 1. The " Ordines Majores" were composed of the bishops, presby- 
 ters, and deacons. As chief ruler, the Bishop had supreme direction 
 of all affairs connected with his church or diocese. His exclusive 
 privilege it was to ordain presbyters and deacons, to confirm those who 
 had been baptized, to absolve the penitent, commonly also to consecrate 
 the connnunion elements, and, at a later period, to vote in synods. The 
 Presbyters were now only regarded as the advisers and assistants of 
 the bishop. They took part in the direction of congregational affairs, 
 in the dispensation of the sacraments, in preaching, and in the cure 
 of souls, but only by special commission, or with the express sanction 
 of the bishop. At a later period, when the requirement of churches 
 demanded it, and the authority of bishops was sufliciently recognized 
 not to require such safeguards, presbyters were entrusted with the 
 entire and independent cure of souls, with preaching, and (at least in 
 part) with the dispensation of the sacraments. — The reverse of all 
 this took place with regard to the official position of the Deacons 
 (Levitaj). Their authority grew as the duties originally assigned to
 
 INTERNAL ORGANIZATION OF THE CHURCH. 113 
 
 them were enlarged. From having at first only to take charge cf the 
 poor, they gradually came to take part in public worship and in the 
 direction of the congregation. When commissioned by the bishop, 
 they baptized, they prepared the communion elements, they distributed 
 the cup, carried, after the close of public worship, to the sick or to 
 prisoners the Lord's Supper, announced the commencement of the 
 several parts of public worship, conducted the prayers of the church, 
 read the Gospel, and preserved order during worship. Frequently 
 they were also commissioned to preach. They commonly stood in 
 more intimate personal relation with the bishop than did the presby- 
 ters ; they were his intimate associates, accompanied him on his jour- 
 neys, and frequently acted as his delegates and representatives at 
 councils. — Among the " Ordines minores" the office of Lectores, 
 avarpiöiGtai, was the oldest. According to Cyprian, confessors were 
 chosen in preference for this purpose. At a later period, the office of 
 lector Avas commonly the first step in clerical promotion. The lectores 
 read the larger sections from the Bible, and were the custodians of the 
 sacred " codices." An office introduced at a period subsequent to this 
 was that of Sttbdiaconi, vjtoSidxovoi., who, as assistants of the deacons, 
 filled the first rank in the Ordines minores, and hence (unlike the 
 others) were also ordained by imposition of hands. For the purpose 
 of conducting the service of praise, the office of Cantores [■^aX-ta.i] was 
 instituted towards the close of the third century. The Acoli/thi accom- 
 panied the bishop to wait on him. The Exorcisis took spiritual charge 
 of those who were possessed (ivi^yo-üixivoi,, öat^ovi^djutvoc), over whom 
 they made the prescribed prayers and uttered formulae of exorcism. 
 As the latter also took place in baptism, their official duties brought 
 them likewise into connection with the catechumens. The lowest rank 
 was occupied by the Ostiarii or Janitores (^pcopot, HvXupoi). — The 
 larger churches employed special Catechists for the instruction of 
 catechumens (doctores audientium) ; and, where requisite, as in those 
 churches of North Africa in which the Punic language was used, 
 HermeneuTvE, whose duty it was to translate the portions of Scripture 
 that were read. — It was the duty of the Deaconesses (commonly 
 widows or females advanced in life) to take charge of poor and sick 
 females, to give advice to the inexperienced of their sex, and to take 
 the oversight of female catechumens. They were not regarded as 
 belonging to the clergy. — The clergy were ordained by the impositioa 
 of hands. Those who had only lately or during dangerous sickness 
 been baptized [Neopliyti, Clinici), those who had been excommunicated 
 or had mutilated themselves, were not admitted to orders. 
 
 2. So early as the assembly of the apostles at Jerusalem (Acts xv.) 
 
 was to be found the type of synodal advice and legislation. But 
 
 a similar institution had prevailed among the heathen. Under 
 
 Roman domination, the ancient politico-religious alliances in. 
 
 10 *
 
 114 SECTION I. — FIRST PERIOD (100—323 A.D.). 
 
 Greece and Asia Minor had indeed lost their political im;portance ; but 
 their meetings [xoivai avvobot,, concilia) continued, as before, in the 
 capitals of provinces, and under the presidency of the Koman governors. 
 Even the similarity of the name seems to indicate that these meetings 
 were not without influence on the later institution of ecclesiastical 
 synods. From the peculiar circumstances of the times, the» could not 
 take place before the latter half of the second century. The Christians, 
 who frequently could only hold their worship secretly and at night, 
 were of course prevented from planning any such stated meetings for 
 deliberation at a period earlier than the time of Commodus. But when 
 a season of rest was granted them, during which their ecclesiastical 
 arrangements could be made more freely and openly, these meetings 
 of synods were instituted. The montanistic movements in Asia Minor 
 (? 37), and soon afterwards the disputes about the celebration of Easter 
 (^ 32), gave the first occasions for these deliberations. At the com- 
 mencement of the third century, the Provincial Synods had already 
 become a regular and continuous institution. At the time of Cyprian, 
 not only bishops, but presbyters and deacons also took part in the 
 synods, and the people were at least alloAved to be present. Moreover 
 no resolution was to be arrived at without the knowledge, and, in a 
 certain sense, the consent, of the congregation. Since the Council of 
 Nice (325), bishops alone were allowed to vote, and the presence of the 
 laity was more and more discouraged. The r-esohitions of a Si/nod were 
 communicated to congregations at a distance in Synodal Letters 
 [EpistoJce Synodicce), and, so early as the third century, they Avere 
 (according to Acts xv. 28) ascribed to the immediate direction of the 
 Holy Spirit. — (Cf.H3, 2.) 
 
 3. The Unity and Catlwlicity of the ChircJi. — (Comp. A. Mahler, die 
 Einheit d. K. (The Unity of the Church). 2d ed. TUbg. 1843. — J. E. 
 Hidher, Cjprian's Lehre von d. Einheit d. K. (The Doctr. of Cypr. as 
 to the Unity of the Church). Hamb. 1839.— ./?/?. Köstlin, die kath. 
 Auffass. V. d. K. in ihrer ersten Ausbild. (The Cath. VicAv of the Ch. 
 in its Early Arrangm.). In the " deutsche Zeitschr. für ehr. Wissen." 
 for 1855. No. 33 etc.— J. L.Jacobi, die kirchl. Lehre v. d. Tradit. (The 
 Doctr. of the Church Concerning Trad.). I. Berl. 1847.— J. E. Friedlieb 
 (Rom. Cath.), Schrift, Tradit. u. kirchl. Schriftausleg. nach den 
 Zeugniss. d. erst. 5 Jahrh. (Script., Trad, and Eccles. Interpret, of 
 Script, according to the Testim. of the First Five Cent.). Breslau 1854.) 
 — The mission of Christianity — to become the religion of the world, 
 to take possession of all nationalities and all languages, to pervade 
 them by one spirit, and to unite them under one Head in heaven, 
 implied that the Church was to be 07ie and universal (catholic). An 
 outward bond of connection was to express the inward unity of the 
 Spirit. But the desire to form and consolidate a united and catholic 
 Church might readily lead into error and dangers Not heresy only, 
 and immorality or apostasy, but every difference it outward form, con-
 
 INTERNAL ORGANIZATION OF THE CHURCH. llfc 
 
 otitution, and worsrhip, was regarded as a separation from the one 
 catholic Church (the body of Christ), and from communion with Christ, 
 and hence as implying the forfeiture of the hope of salvation. — This 
 view became more prevalent in the second century, in proportion as 
 the unity of the Church was endangered by heresies, by sects, and 
 divisions. It was finally established, and, as it were, obtained its 
 "magna charta" in the Church by the treatise of Cyprian, "de 
 Unitate Ecclesias." In the position of ruler over a congregation, 
 assigned to the ])ishop as Christ's representative, Ljnathis of Antioch 
 finds a guarantee for the preservation of the unity and catholicity of 
 THE Church. According to Cyprian, the unity of the Church took its 
 rise from the Apostolate, and is based on the Episcopate. The promise 
 of Christ (Matt. xvi. 18) was given to Peter as the representative, not 
 as the chief, of the apostles (John xx. 21). Through ordination, the 
 apostolic office, with the promise attaching to it, had passed from the 
 apostles to bishops. By their monarchical office the latter represented, 
 in individual communities, and by their co-operation throughout 
 Christendom, the unity of the Church (Episcopatus unus est, cujus a 
 singulis in solidum pars tenetur). As formerly the apostles, so now 
 the bishops, are on a footing of perfect equality ; each of them is a suc- 
 cessor of Peter, and an heir of the promise given indeed to Peter first, 
 but given to him for all the others. He who renounces the bishop 
 separates from the Church, and : Habere non potest Deum patrem, qui 
 ecclesiam non habet matrem. Extra ecclesiam nulla spes salutis. The 
 largest view taken of the promise in Matt, xvi 18 is that by Origen : 
 ITtrptt yap rtotf o Xpwroi) (ua^r>;j. \i%ixt(U f<o IlfrptJ xai riavtl Hitpf. 
 Besides the writings of the apostles, tradition, as preserved in the so- 
 called Apostolical Churches, served as the rule and test of catholicity 
 in government, worship, and doctrine. Indeed, since the apostolic 
 writings were as yet neither generally diffused nor acknowledged, this 
 tradition was, previously to and for the purpose of the settlement of the 
 New Testament canon, even placed above the writings of the apostles. 
 The common consciousness of the churches, based upon Scripture and 
 tradition, presented the fundamental truths of Christianity as a 
 " Regula Jtdei," which was to form the standard for the development, 
 the acceptance or the rejection, of any doctrine. Thus the profession 
 made at baptism, or the Symbolum, was gradually enlarged into the 
 Rymholum apostolician in its present form. 
 
 4. The Primacy of Rome. — (Comp. Tli. Eatercamp, U. d. Primat d. 
 Ap. Petrus und s. Nachfolger (The Primacy of Peter and of his Suc- 
 cess.). Miinst. 1820. — Rothensee, d. Primat d. Papstes in alien chr. 
 Jahrh. (The Primacy of the Pope during all Chr. Ages). 3 vols. May. 
 1836. — F, P. Kenrik, The Primacy of the Apost. See vindic. 4th. ed. 
 N.York 1855. — Against the Primacy: D. Biondel, traits hist, de la 
 Primaut6. Genfevc 1641. fol. — CI. Salmasius, de primatu Papse. Lugd.
 
 116 SECTION I. FIRST PERIOD (100—323 A.D.). 
 
 1645. — EHe7ido7-f (si Rom. Cath. lawyer), der Primat d. röm. P. Darmsfc. 
 1841.— J. E. Riddle, The Hist, of the Papacy. Lend. 1856, 2 vols.— T/t. 
 Greemvood, Cathedra Petri. Lend. 1856.) — The claim of the See op 
 Rome to the Primacy over the wJiole Church is based on the vievr that 
 the promise in Matt. xvi. 18 applied solely and exclusively to Peter, aa 
 chief of the apostles and head of the Church, and on the assumption 
 that the Bishop of Rome is the successor of this prince of apostles, and 
 hence the lawful and sole heir of all his prerogatives. Although the 
 fable about Peter's episcopate at Rome was originally derived from the 
 heretical, pseudo-Clementine writings (| 27, 4) — a very suspicious 
 authority — it was the more readily credited, as, considering the very 
 different interpretation put at that time on Matt. xvi. 18, the inferences 
 afterAvards to be made from it could scarcely be foreseen. During the 
 whole of this period neither did the Roman bishop nor any other person 
 think of setting up any such claim. The only admission made, was 
 that Rome was the chief among the apostolic communities, that there 
 apostolic tradition had been preserved in greatest purity, and that 
 hence the bishops of Rome were entitled to be specially heard on 
 questions which, for decision, were to be submitted to all the bishops. 
 In the meantime, the bishops of Rome rested content with, and sought 
 to make the most of, such admissions. Nor does even the much- 
 vaunted statement of Irenceus (3, 3) go further than this: Ad banc 
 enim (sc. ecclesiam Rom.) a gloriosissimis duobus App. Petro et Paulo 
 fundatam propter potiorem principalitatem necesse est omnem convenire 
 ecclesiam, h. e. eos qui sunt undique tideles, in qua semper ab his, qui 
 sunt undique, conservata est ea quae est ab Apostolis traditio. Still, 
 the opposition of Asia Minor to the Roman observance of Easter 
 (g 31, 1), and that of Cyprian about the baptizing of heretics (§ 32, 2), 
 proves that even the tradition of Rome was not regarded as absolutely 
 and unconditionally binding. — (Cf. 1 46.) 
 
 §31. CELEBRATION OF PUBLIC WORSHIP. 
 
 See H. Alt, der ehr. Cultus. Bd. II. Das Kirchenjahr mit s. Festen u. 
 die Fastendisciplin. Berl. 1858. 
 
 So early as the commencement of the second century the 
 Lord's day was generally observed. Being a day of joy, the 
 attitude in prayer was that of standing (and not, as on other 
 days, kneeling) ; and fasting was likewise interdicted. Among 
 the other days of the week, Wednesday and Friday were, in 
 remembrance of the sufferings of Christ, observed in public wor- 
 ship as days of vigil (dies stationum, in accordance with the 
 idea of a militia Christiana). Being regarded as days of humi- 
 liation and repentance, they formed a kind of complement and,
 
 CELEBRATION OF PUBLIC WORSHIP. 117 
 
 at the same time, of contrast to the Lord's day. Thus in the 
 cycle of the week, the idea of Christian feast days found a 
 certain expression, afterward much more fully developed 
 in the cycle of the year. Soon afterwards distinctively 
 Christian festivals were introduced among the Gentile Chris- 
 tians after the analog-y of the feasts observed by the Jews and 
 the Jewish Christians, although in the case of the latter these 
 feasts had been modified to bear a Christian aspect. Tlie Pas- 
 chal or Easter festival was regarded in a more comprehensive 
 manner, and divided into a Ttdaxa atavpaaifiov and avaataai/j-ov . 
 But so deep and overpowering were the effects of this remem- 
 brance of Christ's sufferings, that it was felt insufficient to ob- 
 serve only one day (that of His death). By and by it was 
 therefore preceded by a season devoted to mourning, repentance, 
 and fasting. After remaining for some time unsettled, it was 
 gradually fixed as of forty days' duration, and became the Quad- 
 ragesima (tsaaapaxontyj) of the Christian calendar. The solemni- 
 ties of Quadragesima closed with those of the Great Week, while 
 the Easter vigil (navwxi^i) formed a transition to the festival of 
 the Resurrection. Easter was followed by the Feast of Pente- 
 cost, in remembrance of the origin of the Church. The fifty 
 days intervening between these two festivals (quinquagesima) 
 were regarded as a season of joy, when the communion was 
 daily celebrated, fasting was interdicted, and the -attitude in 
 prayer was standing, not kneeling. Special solemnities distin- 
 guished the fortieth day, being that of the Asceiision. In the 
 East the Festival of Epiphany was introduced. It took place 
 on the 6th of January, in celebration of the baptism of Christ 
 when He had manifested Himself as the Messiah. But at that 
 period we do not yet find any trace of an observance of Christ- 
 vias day. — (Cf § 56.) 
 
 1. Disputes about the Observance of Easter. — (Comp. K. L. Weitzel, 
 d. Gesch. d, Passahfeier d. 3 erst. Jahrh. [Hist, of Easter-observ. 
 during the First 3 Cent.] Pforzh. 1848.— (r. E. Sleitz in the Studd. u. 
 Kritt. 1856, IV.). — During the second century Easter was celebrated 
 on three different principles. The Judceo-Christiaii Ebionites (| 27, 2) 
 observed the Paschal Supper on the 14th of Nisan (= jy to', i. e., = 14), 
 and considered that in this respect an exact adherence to Old Testa- 
 ment customs was of chief importance, especially since Christ, who had 
 died on the 15th, had on the 14th kept the Paschal Supper with His 
 disciples. The Jewish Christians who were connected Avith the Catholic 
 Church, and whose practice was adopted in Asia Minor generally,
 
 118 SECTION I. — FIRST PERIOD (100— 323 A. D.). 
 
 celebrated Easter at exactly the same time as the Jews ; but they pul 
 a Christian interpretation upon the feast, omitted the Paschal Supper 
 and declared that the remembrance of the death of Christ was th« 
 point of chief importance. In their opinion, Christ had died on the 
 14th Nisan ; so that, in the strict sense, He had not celebrated the rea, 
 Paschal Supper in the last year of His life. Hence they observed on 
 the 1-ith Nisan their rtcia;^» cTT'aupuxji^o»', and on the 16th the ndoxa 
 aiuaTUaiixov. The fast before Easter closed at the moment when Christ 
 was supposed to have expired (at 3 o'clock in the afternoon), and was 
 followed by an agape and the Lord's Supper, instead of the Jewish 
 Paschal Supper. — Different from these two Judaising observances was 
 that in use among the Gentile Christians of the West, which, both in 
 substance and in form, had no connection with the Jewish Paschal 
 feast. In order not to destroy the harmony with the observance of the 
 day of the resurrection on the Lord's day, it was resolved to retain not 
 only the annual return of the tS', but also to celebrate it on the same 
 days of the week. Hence, when the tS' did not happen on Friday, the 
 Tidaxo- atavpujat,/j.ov was always celebrated on the first Friday after the 
 t6', and the Ttdaxa a.vo.stäat,fj.ov on the Lord's day following. Besides, 
 the "Western churches observed the anniversary of Christ's death as a 
 day of mourning, and the fast before Easter only terminated with an 
 agape and the Lord's Supper on the day of the resurrection. For a 
 considerable period these different customs of observing Easter con- 
 tinued without calling forth any controversy. The subject was first 
 discussed during the stay of Poly carp, Bishop of Smyrna, at Rome 
 (160). Aiiicetus, Bishop of Home, supported his mode of celebrating 
 Easter by the tradition of the Roman Church, while Polycarp ajjpealed 
 to the circumstance that he had sat down at a Paschal feast with the 
 Apostle John himself. Although an agreement was not arrived at, 
 yet to give evidence of their entire ecclesiastical fellowship, Anicetus 
 allowed Polycarp to administer the Lord's Supper in his church. But 
 in the year 196 the discussion broke out afresh between PolycrateSy 
 Bishop of Ephesus, and Victor, Bishop of Rome. The latter went so 
 far as to wish for a cessation of ecclesiastical communion with the 
 churches of Asia Minor. But this step was generally disapproved. 
 Especially did Ireaceus, in name of the Galilean bishops, pronounce in 
 this respect against Victor. The general Council of Nice (325) decided 
 in favour of the Roman observance, which, after that period, became 
 that in common practice (^ 56, 3). 
 
 ^32. THE ADMINISTRATION OF BAPTISM. 
 
 Comp. J. W. F. Höfling, das Sacr. d. Taufe (The Sacr. of Bapt.). 5 
 vols. Erlg. 1846. 
 
 From the commencement baptism was regarded as necessarjf 
 in order to have part in the salvation of Christ, and as the con
 
 THE ADMINISTRATION OF BAPTISM. IIS 
 
 dition for being received into the fellowship of the Church. 
 The Fathers uniformly connected baptism and regeneration. 
 Hence, in theory, the Baptism of Infants was generally recog- 
 nized, although it was not universally introduced. Ter-tullian 
 alone decidedly opposed it. All grown-up persons who wished 
 for baptism were called Catechumens (audientes), and as such 
 had to undergo a preparatory training under a Christian teacher. 
 Some, however, voluntarily and purposely deferred their baptism 
 to the hour of death, in order that by baptism, all the sins of 
 their lives might be certainly removed. After having received 
 instruction by the catechist, the catechumens were to prepare 
 for baptism by prayer and fasting ; they had solemnly to renounce 
 the devil and all his works {ahrenuntiare diabolo et pompa? et 
 angelis ejus), and to make a confession of their faith before 
 undergoing the sacred rite. In the third century, exorcism., or 
 setting free from the power of the devil, was added, with a spe- 
 cial formula hitherto in use only in the case of those possessed 
 by evil spirits. Baptism was performed by thrice immersing, 
 during which the formula of baptism was pronounced ; sprink- 
 ling was only common in case of the sick (baptismus clinico- 
 rum) ; the water of baptism was set apart for the sacred rite. 
 Immersion was followed by anointing (;^pi.'cr^a), as the symbol of 
 spiritual priesthood, and by laying on of hands, according to 
 Acts viii. 26 etc. Soon afterwards immersion came to be 
 regarded as the negative part of baptism (the putting away of 
 sin), and anointing and imposition of hands as its positive coun- 
 terpart (^the communication of the Spirit). In the East, presby- 
 ters and deacons were allowed to administer both baptism and 
 the chrisma. In the West, it was thought that Acts viii. indi- 
 cated that bishops alone had the right of the laying on of hands 
 Hence, when the bishop liimself had not administered baptism, 
 the imposition of hands and the chrisma were afterwards im- 
 parted by him, by way of conßrmation (confirmatio, consigna- 
 tio). The usual seasons of baptism were Easter, especially the 
 Sabbath of the Great Week (baptism into the death of Christ. 
 Rom. vi. 3), and Pentecost ; in the East, also the Feast of the 
 Epipliany. No importance was attached to the place where 
 baptism was administered. Soon sponsors (avuboxoi,) were intro- 
 duced at the baptism of children, their duty being to make 8 
 confession of faith in room ard in name of the infant. Cf. §58, 1
 
 120 
 
 SECTION I. — FIRST PERIOD (100— 323 A. D.) , 
 
 1. The gradation among catechumens, according to which each class 
 had special privileges, commenced about the middle of the second 
 century. Its first traces are found in the writings of Tertullian. He 
 distinguishes between novitioli and edocti or aquam adituri. Only the 
 latter were allowed to take part in the homiletic portion of public wor- 
 ship. Origen also speaks of two classes of catechumens, and the Apos- 
 tolical Constitutions of three : 1. Audientes, dxpow^uji/ot, who were allowed 
 and bound to attend the sermon ; 2. Genvflectentes, yovvxxivovtii, who 
 were also allowed to kneel at, and take part in the first portions of the 
 prayers of the Church ; and, 3. Competentes, futi^ofuvoi, who, having 
 finished their period of instruction, looked forward to baptism. The 
 time of probation was fixed at between two and three years. 
 
 2. Controversy about the Baptism of Heretics. — From the close of 
 the third century, it was a subject of controversy whether a baptism 
 administered by heretics was valid or not. The churches of Asia 
 Minor and of Africa answered this question in the negative ; while 
 Rome received, without rebaptizing them, such heretics as had been 
 baptized in the name of Christ, or of the Holy Trinity. In the middle 
 of the third century, this subject excited violent discussion. Stephen, 
 Bishop of Borne, refused to tolerate any other practice than that of 
 Rome, and renounced ecclesiastical fellowship with the churches of 
 Asia Minor (253). The opposite view was zealously defended by 
 Cyprian of Carthage, whose ideal of one church, in which alone there 
 was salvation, seemed endangered by the practice of Rome. It was 
 also advocated by Fir-milian of Ccesarea, in Cappadocia. Three synods 
 held at Carthage — the last and most influential in the year 256 — pro- 
 nounced decidedly in favour of this view. By friendly suggestions, 
 Dionysius of Alexandria endeavoured to lead Stephen to more concilia- 
 tory views. The Valerian persecution, which soon afterwards broke 
 out, proved a greater inducement to harmony and peace than any 
 friendly counsels. Thus the dispute remained unsettled. But gradu- 
 ally the Romish practice came more generally into use, and was at last 
 confirmed by the first General Council of Nice. 
 
 3. The Dogma concerning Baptism. — Barnabas says : avaßaCvoiA.fv 
 xaprto^opovj/T'f J iv -trj xapStoi, — Hermas : ascendunt vitge assignati ; Justin 
 regards the water of baptism as a liSwp r»;? fw^s, fl oJ avaf/ivvr^rmiv ; 
 according to IrencBus it eflFects a iVwaij «po^ a^^paicw ; Tertullian says : 
 supervenit spiritus de coelis, — caro spiritualiter mundatur ; Cyprian 
 «peaks of an unda genitalis, a nativitas secunda in novum hominem; 
 Firmilian says: nativitas, quae est in baptismo, filios Dei generat; 
 Oriqen calls baptism ;^apt(i^ctru>' ^duiv (t-i^x^^ ^°^ jiiqyriv. — Of the baptism 
 of blood in martyrdom, Tertullian says: lavacrum non acceptum reprje- 
 sentat et perditum reddit. Hermas and Clemens Alex, suppose thai 
 oious heathens and Jews had preaching and baptism in Hades.
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF THE LORD'S SUPPER. 121 
 
 i 33. THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE LORD'S SUPPER. 
 
 Comp. F. Brenner (Rom. Cath.), Verricht. u. Ausspend. d. Euchar 
 von Christus bis auf unsere Zeit. (Administr. of the Euchar. from the 
 Time of Chr. to our Days). Bamb. 1824.— r/;. Harnack v. KUefoth, 11. 
 cc. in I 18, 5. — R. Rotlie, de disciplina arcani. Heidelb. 1831. — J. W. 
 F. Höfling, d. Lehre d. alt. K. vom Opfer (The Teach, of the Old Ch. 
 abt. the Sacr.). Erlg. 1851. — Ph. Marheineke, ss. Pp. de prsesentia Chr. 
 in Gocna Dom. sententia triplex. Heidelb. 1811. 4. In answer to this, 
 /. Döllinger (Rom. Cath.) die Lehre v. d. Euch, in d. 3 ersten Jahrh, 
 (The Doctr. of the Euch, in the Three First Cent.) May. 1826.— ÄiucÄr, 
 Lehrbegr. vom h. Abdm. in d. erst. Jahrh. (Doctr. of the L. Supper in 
 the First Cent.), in the "hist, theol. Zeitschr." for 1853. lll.—Ebrard, 
 d. Dogma v. h. Abdm. 2 vols. Frkf. 1845. — Kahnis, d. Lehre v. Abdm. 
 Lpz. 1851. — L. J. Eiickert, d. Abendm. Lpz. 1856. 
 
 At first the Lord's Supper was always connected with an 
 agape (§ 18, 5). But when Trajan published a stringent edict 
 against Hetoeria (§ 23, 2), the Christians intermitted the agapes, 
 of which the prohibition was implied in the above edict, and 
 connected the observance of the Lord's Supper with the ordinary 
 horailetic public worship on the Lord's day. This continued the 
 practice even after the celebration of the agape was again 
 resumed. In connection with the arrangement about the cate- 
 chumens, public worship was divided into a missa catechumen- 
 orum and a missa fidelium. From the latter, all who had not 
 been baptized, who were under discipline, or were possessed by 
 an unclean spirit, were excluded. This gave rise to the view, 
 that a mystery attached to the celebration of the Lord's Supper 
 (disciplina arcani). The circumstance that originally the agape 
 and the Lord's Supper were celebrated together, led to the 
 custom of making voluntary offerings (oblationes) fo;' the pur- 
 pose of procuring the provisions requisite for the agape. — The 
 bread used in the sacrament was the same as that in common 
 use, hence leavened (xoivbi apro?) ; the u-ine also was, as in com- 
 mon use, mixed with water (^cpa^a), which Cyprian regarded as 
 symbolical of the union of Christ with the Church. In the 
 African and Eastern Churches, John vi. 53 was interpreted as 
 applying to the communion of children, who (of course, after 
 baptism) were admitted to this ordinance. As early as the 
 third century simple forms expanded into an elaborate aacra- 
 nental liturgy, which has remained the basis of all later pro- 
 11
 
 Vl'l SKCTION I. — FIRST PERIOD (100— 323 A. D.;. 
 
 auctions of this kind. At the close of public worship thf 
 deacons carried the consecrated elements to the sick and to the 
 prisoners of the congregation. In some places, part of the con- 
 secrated bread was carried home and partaken in the family at 
 morning prayers, in order thus to set apart for God a new day. 
 Goiifef^sion, in the proper sense of the terra, did not precede the 
 communion. The discipline exercised by the Church, and the 
 liturgical arrangements in use at the time, were such, that special 
 confession seemed not requisite. — (§ 58, i.) 
 
 1. At the i\mQ 0? Justin Martyr, the Sacramental Liturgy was still 
 very simple. The common prayer which closed the pviblic worship 
 was followed by 2i fraternal kiss ; after that the elements were brought 
 to the bishop, who set them apart in a prayer of thanksgiving and 
 praise {svxapia-tio.). The people responded by an Amen, and the 
 presbyters or deacons carried to all present the consecrated elements. 
 From the above prayer the whole service obtained the name of the 
 Eucharist, evidently because it was held that, by the consecration 
 prayer, the common became sacramental bread — the body and blood 
 of the Lord. The liturgy in the eighth book of the Apostolic Constitu- 
 tions, which may be regarded as the type of public worship at the close 
 of the third century, is much more complete. There the 7nissa cate- 
 chumenorum included prayer, praise, reading of the Bible, and the 
 sermon (§ 34). At the close of the sermon, catechumens, penitents, 
 and those who were possessed, were successively dismissed. The missa 
 
 ' ßdelinm then commenced with a general intercessory prayer. After 
 this followed various collects and responses, then the fraternal kiss, a 
 warning against unworthy communicating, the preparation of the 
 elements, the sign of the cross, the consecration prayer, the words of 
 the institution, the elevation of the consecrated elements — all being 
 accompanied by suitable prayers, hymns, doxologies, and responses. 
 The bishop or presbyter gave the bread with the words, Scö^ua XptofoC ; 
 the deacon the cup, with the words, Al^a Xpityfou, Ttotr^piov ^wijj. At 
 the close, the congregation, on their knees, received the benediction of 
 the bishop, and the deacon dismissed them with the words, 'ArtoXvsa^s 
 iv (lpr,vn.— (Cf. § 59, 4.) 
 
 2. The Diciplina Arcani. — Neither in Justin Martyr nor in Irenjeus 
 do we find any trace of the view that the sacramental portions of 
 public worship (among which the rites of the Lord's Supper with their 
 prayers and hymns, the Lord's Prayer, the administration of baptism, 
 the symbolum, the chrisma, and the ordination of priests, were in- 
 cluded) were regarded as mysteries [fivatxri "KatpeCa, -ff^fi'^), to be 
 carefully kept from all unbaptized persons, and only made known to 
 members of the Church {avfifivataii). Justin, in his apology, addressed 
 epecially to the heathen, even described in detail the rites observed in
 
 READING, SERMON, PRAYER AND PRAISE. 12U 
 
 the Lord's Supper. The view to which we referred originated at the 
 time of Tertullian (170-180), and was specially due to the institutiot 
 of the catechumenate, and the division of public worship to which 
 it led, from the second part of which all unbaptized persons were 
 excluded. 
 
 3. The Dogma of the Lord's Shipper. — This doctrine was not clearly 
 developed, although it was generally realized that the Lord's Supper 
 was a most holy mystery, and indispensable food of eternal life, that 
 the body and blood of the Lord were mystically connected with the 
 bread and wine, and that thus those who in faith partook of this meat 
 enjoyed essential communion with Christ. On this supposition alone 
 can we account for the reproach of the heathen, who spoke of the 
 sacrament as feasts of Thyestes. (| 23). Ignatius calls the Lord's 
 Supper a ^d^ixaxov d^avacri-'aj,* and admits fv;^ttp6tfT'i.'ai' adpxa slvav tov 
 flfur^poj ; Justin says : aapxa xai, ol^a h8i.8dx^rjjj.fv clvac. According to 
 Irencvus, it is not " communis panis, sed eucharistia ex duabus rebus 
 constans, terrena et coelesti ;" and in consequence of partaking it, our 
 bodies are "jam non corruptibilia, spem resurrectionis habentia." 
 TertuUian and Cyprian also adopt similar views, while at the same 
 time they represent, in some passages, the Lord's Supper rather as a 
 symbol. The spiritualistic Alexandrians, Clement and Origen, consider 
 that it is the object of the Lord's Supper that the soul should be fed by 
 the Divine Word. — (Cf. ^ 58, 2.) 
 
 4. The Sacrificial Theory. — When once the idea of a priesthood 
 (§ 30) had gained a footing, the cognate notion of sacrifice could not 
 for any time be kept out. The Lord's Supper oifered several points 
 of connection for this view. First, the consecrating prayer, which 
 was regarded of such importance as to give its name to the whole 
 service (sCaiapnTfta), might be regarded as a spiritual sacrifice; next, 
 names derived from terms applied to sacrificial worship were given 
 to those ofi"erings which the congregation made for the Lord's 
 Supper {wpoaipnpai, oblationes.) And as the congregation offered its 
 gifts for the Lord's Supper, so the priest offered them again in the 
 Lord's Supper ; and to this act also the terms 7tpoa^epit,v, dva^ipttv, 
 were applied. Ultimately, as the j^rayer, so the Lord's Supper itself, 
 was designated as ^ot'a, sacrificium, although at first only in a figura- 
 tive sense.— (Cf. §58, 2.) 
 
 § 34. READING, SERMON, PRAYER AND SINGING. 
 
 Comp. Chr. W. F. Walch, krit. Unters, vom Gebrauch d. h. Sehr, in 
 d. 4 erst. Jahrh. (Crit. Inq. into the Use of the Script, during tha 
 First Four Cent.). Lpz. 1779. — T. G. Hegelmaier, Gesch. d. Bibelverbotf 
 (Hist, of the Prohibition of the Bible). Ulm. 11H3. — E. Leojiold, d. 
 Predigtamt im Urcliristenth. (The ofiice of Preach, in the First Ages.) 
 
 * The cup a noTfipiof tij fiuoii' tov a'ifiarus XP.
 
 124 SECTION I. — riRST PERIOD (100—323 A. D.). 
 
 Liineb. 1846. — M. Gerhert, de cantu et musica a prima eccl. setate 
 Bamb. 1774. 2 Voll. A.—L. Buchegger, de Orig. s. Poeseos. Frib. 1827 
 ■ — K.Biihl, der Kirchenges, in der griech. K. bis auf Chrysost. (Ch 
 Music in the Gr. Ch. to the Time of Chrys.), in the "hist. theoL 
 Zeitschr." for 1848. II. 
 
 Following the arrangement in the Jewish synagogue, the 
 reading of the Scriptvres (avdyvioöi<;, lectio), formed the funda- 
 mental part on every occasion of public worship. The person 
 officiating was left free to select any portions of the Bible. In 
 general, this duty was assigned to special readers, although, by 
 way of distinction, the gospels were frequently read by the 
 deacons, the congregation standing as a mark of their respect. — 
 Besides the canonical writings of the Old and New Testaments, 
 other edifying works, such as the productions of the apostolic 
 Fathers (especially the Shepherd of Hermas and the Letter of 
 Clement), the Acts of Martyrs, and certain apocryphal works, 
 were also read in some congregations. After reading, the 
 bishop, or by his order the presbyter, the deacon, and occasion- 
 ally the catechist (Origen), delivered an expository and practical 
 discourse (ufn,%i.a, xdyoj, sermo, tractatus). In the Greek Chui'ch 
 this speedily assumed the form of an artificial and rhetorical 
 composition. The Word of God having thus been read and 
 explained, the congregation responded in prayers, which either 
 the bishop or the deacon conducted, at first ex tempore, but at a 
 comparatively early period according to a fixed liturgy. At 
 short intervals the congregation responded to each prayer by 
 Kvptf i%iri6ov. In the third century, when the forms of public 
 worship became more composite, suitable prayers were introduced 
 at various stages of the service, designed respectively for cate- 
 chumens, for those who were possessed, and for those under 
 discipline. These were followed by a general prayer of the 
 church for all classes of men, for all states and requirements in 
 the congregation, and lastly by the prayers which introduced the 
 celebration of the Eucharist. Singing of Psalms and Hymns 
 had been in use since apostolic times (§ 18, 5). — After the 
 second century, this part of worship was enlarged and developed. 
 
 1. The Doctrine of Inspiration. — At first theologians (following 
 Philo) rtigarded the prophetic inspiration of the sacred writers as 
 eomething merely passive, as an Bxataaii. Athenagoras compared the 
 Boul of the prophet to a flute, Justin Martyr to a lyre, touched by the 
 Holy Spirit as by the plectrum. But the pretensions of the Montanistic
 
 READING, SERMON, PRAYER AND PRAISE. 125 
 
 prophets brought this view into discredit. Some of the writers of th« 
 Alexandrian school held that, in a certain sense, the Holy Spirit had 
 also influenced the choicest minds in the heathen world. This theory 
 led to a lower view of inspiration generally. Origen, especially, waa 
 wont to teach a certain gradation in the inspiration of the Bible, 
 according as human individuality appeared more or less prominently 
 in the sacred writings. 
 
 2. Marcion was the first to collect a New Testament Canox, about 
 the year 150 (| 28, 10). The list known by the name of Mumtori's 
 Canon dates from about twenty years later. It consists of a fragment 
 found by Muratori, containing an index of the sacred jvritings received 
 in the Roman Church. Irenaeus, TertulUan, Clemens Älexandrinus, 
 Origen, and Eusebnts, are our principal authorities for a still later 
 period. From the time of Irencens and the Muratori fragment, the 
 Four'Gospels, the Book of Acts, the thirteen Epistles of Paul, the 
 Epistle to the Hebrews (which, however, in the West was not regarded 
 as of Pauline authorship), the First Epistles of Peter and of John, 
 and the Book of Revelation, were universally recognized as canonical. 
 Hence Eusebius designates them ofio-koyovfifva. Opinions differed about 
 the Epistle of James, the Second Epistle of Peter, the Second and 
 Third. Epistles of John, and that of Jude {avttUyö^Bva). A third class 
 of writings, which laid no claim to canonicity, Eusebius designates as 
 v6^ (the Epistle of Barnabas, the Shepherd of Hermas, the "Acta 
 Pauli," etc.). — (Cf. I 59, 1.) 
 
 3. Translations of the Bible. — As Hebrew was almost entirely 
 unknown, even the learned perused the Old Testament* only in the 
 translation of the LXX. In the second century, several Latin transla- 
 tions circulated, among which the Itala was that most in repute. 
 Since the second century, a Syriac translation also existed. It was 
 called the Peshito, i. e., plana, simplex, as it gave the words of the 
 original literally and without circumscription. — (Cf. §59, 1.) 
 
 4. Hymnologg. — When Pliny (§23, 2) referred to the practice 
 " carmen Christo quasi Deo dicere secum invioem," he must have 
 alluded to special hymns, with hypophonic responses on the part of 
 the congregation. Terinllian and Origen bear frequent testimony to 
 the existence of numerous hymns adapted for public and family worship 
 The Gnostics (Bardesanes and Ilarmonius) seem for a time to have been 
 more distinguished than the Catholics in the composition of hymns, 
 and thereby to have stimulated the latter to greater zeal. Among 
 Catholic hymn writers, Äthenogenes, a martyr, and Nepos, an Egyptian 
 bishop, are mentioned. A hymn fij Swr^po, by Clemens Alex., has 
 been handed down. Socrates ascribes to Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch, 
 the introduction of antiphonies (between different choirs in the con« 
 gregation). However, the statement of Theodoret, that about the yeai 
 
 11*
 
 126 SECTION I. — FIRST P ER I D (100--323 A. D.). 
 
 250 Flavian and Diodor, two monks of Antioch, had imported this form 
 of worship from the national Syrian into the Greeco-Syrian Church, 
 appears to us more trustworthy. — (Cf. § 59, 2.) 
 
 § 35. PLACES OF PUBLIC WORSHIP AND INFLUENCE OF ART. 
 
 Comp. G. Kinkel, Gesch. d. bild. Künste (Hist, of Art). I. Bonn 
 1845. — Ch. F. Belltrmann, die alt. chr. Begräbnissstät. (The Anc. 
 Chr. Places of Sepult.). Hamb. 1839.— i^. Manier, Sinnbild, u. Kunst- 
 vorstell. d. alt. Christen. (Emblems and Artist. Ideas of the Anc. 
 Christ.). Altona 1825. — F. Piper, Mythol. u. Symbol, der chr. Kunst. 
 (Mythol. and-Symb. of Chr. Art). Weim. 1847. 
 
 The first unequivocal mention of buildings specially designed 
 for public worsliip occurs in the writings of Tertullian (at the 
 close of the second century). At the time of Diocletian, a 
 splendid church stood close by the imperial residence in the city 
 of Nicomedia, and proudly overshadowed it C§ 23, 6). At the 
 commencement of the fourth century, Rome numbered more than 
 forty churches. We are, however, entirely ignorant of the form 
 and arrangement of these churches. But the Apostolic, Con- 
 stitutions already enjoin that they should be oblong, and so 
 placed as to point to the east. Tertullian and Cyprian men- 
 tion an altar for the preparation of the Lord's Supper, and a 
 desk for reading. During the times of persecution Christian 
 worship required, of course, to be held in secret — in caves, in 
 deserts, in places of sepulture, and in catacombs. But even at 
 other times the Christians liked to celebrate worship in places 
 where believers were buried (cemeterirs) and in catacombs, in 
 order to manifest that communion in Christ continued beyond 
 death and the grave. — (Cf. § 36, 1, 4;. 
 
 The Arts. — The early Christians inherited from Judaism a dislike 
 to the arts. This feeling was not a little increased by their antagonism 
 to the artistic worship of heathenism, by a spirit of outward separation 
 from the world, which was called forth and fostered during the 
 early persecutions, and by a one-sided interpretation of the statement 
 of Christ concerning the worship of God in spirit and in truth. But, 
 considering the artistic taste of the Greeks, this aversion could not last. 
 IIow strong the reaction had become, even at the time of Tertullian, 
 may be gathered from his violent oppOvsition. The first distinctively 
 Christian works of art consisted of emblems, used, however, only in 
 domestic and private life, on the walls of dwellings, cups, rings, etc. ; 
 next the catacombfl were adorned ; and, lastly, in the fourth century, 
 the churches. The emblems most in use were the monogram of the
 
 LIFE, MANNERS, AND DISCIPLINE. 127 
 
 name Christ, consisting of an intertwining of the letters X and P. 
 Frequently the letter P terminated in an anchor, and the letter X was 
 surrounded by the letters a and w (Ptev. i. 8). A symbol much in use 
 was that of a fish, of which the name, Cx^vi, served as an anagram 
 {'l^a- Xp. 0EOÜ Ttöj Swr^p), and which at the same time reminded of 
 the water of life and of the water of baptism. Besides, we also meet 
 with the representation of a ship, of a dove, of an anchor (Heb. vi. 19), 
 oi a. fisherman (Matt. iv. 19), of a crown (Rev. ii. 10), of a vine (John 
 XV.), oi & palm-tree (Rev. vii. 9), of a cock (John xviii. 27), oi a, phoenix 
 (as symbol of the resurrection), of a hart (Ps. xlii. 1), of a lamb (John 
 i. 29), of a shepherd who carries on his shoulder the lost sheep that had 
 been found (Luke xv.), etc. — By and by these symbols led to the use 
 of types. Old Testament histories were now depicted : from that it re- 
 quired only another step to delineate New Testament events. — So late 
 as the year 305, the Synod of Illiberis (Elvira) interdicted the use of 
 pictures in churches. — During this period, only Gnostics (the Carpo- 
 cratians) and heathens (as in the Lararium of Alexander Severus, 
 § 23, 4) made use of images of Christ. From Isaiah liii. 2, 3, the 
 Catholics inferred that the outward appearance of the Saviour had been 
 the opposite of atttractive. — (Cf. ^ 57, 4; 60, 4.) 
 
 g36. LIFE, MANNERS, AND DISCIPLINE. 
 
 Comp. G. Arnold, erste Liebe, d. i. wahre Abbild, d. ersten Christen 
 (First Love, i. e.. Faithful Portrait, of the First Chr.). Frkf. 1696.— 
 C. Schmidt, essai hist, sur la societe dans le monde Rom. et sur sa trans- 
 form, par le christianisme. Strassb. 1853. — /. A. and Aug. Theiner, 
 die Einführung der erzwungenen Ehelosigkeit bei d. ehr. Geistl. (In- 
 trod. of the Oblig. to Celibacy among the Chr. Clergy). 2 vols. Alteub. 
 1828. 
 
 "Where, as in the persecutions of that period, the chaff is so 
 thoi'oughly separated from the wheat, the Divine power of the 
 Gospel and the rules laid down by strict ecclesiastical discipline 
 would of necessity produce a degree of purity, of moral earnest- 
 ness, and of self-denial, such as never before had been seen in the 
 world. But what attracted most admiration among the heathen, 
 who were so much accustomed to mere selfishness, was the 
 brotherly love practised (§ 60, 2), the care taken of the poor and 
 ^ick, the ready and large-hearted hospitality, the sanctity of the 
 marriage relation, and the joy with which martyrdom was borne. 
 Marriages with Jews, heathens, and heretics, were disapproved 
 of; commonly also second marriage after the death of a first 
 husband. Christians avoided taking part in public amusements, 
 dances, and spectacles, as being "pompa diaboli. " According to
 
 128 SECTION I. — FIRe5T PERIOD (100— 323 A. D.;. 
 
 Eph. vi. 10 etc., they regarded the Christian life as a militia 
 Christi. But since the middle of the second century, as in out- 
 ward constitution and worship, so in the ethical views concerning 
 the Christian life, the depth, liberty, and simplicity of apostolic 
 times gave place to a pseudo-catholic externalism and bondage. 
 Ecclesiastical teachers still insisted, indeed, on the necessity of a 
 state of mind corresponding to the outward works done. But 
 already this outward conformity was over-estimated, and thus 
 gradually the way was prepared for work-lroliness and the opws 
 ojyeratum (i. e., attaching merit to a work in and by itself). This 
 tendency appears very prominently so early as in the case of 
 Cyprian (^de opere et eleemosynis).* With this the Alexandrian 
 theologians also combined a theoretical distinction between a 
 higher and lower morality, of which the former was to be sought 
 by the Christian sage (o yj/wartxdj), while an ordinary Christian 
 might rest satisfied with the latter. This laid the foundation for 
 all the later aberrations oi asceticism. — (Cf. § 61.) 
 
 1. The Christian Life. — The spirit of Christianity also pervaded 
 domestic and civil life. It manifested itself in family worship, in the 
 celebration of the Lord's Supper in the family (^33), in making the sign 
 of the cross before undertaking or doing anything, and in adorning the 
 dwellings and furniture with certain symbols (| 35, note). The rites 
 of marriage vrere consecrated by the Church, but, as yet, the validity 
 of a union was not considered as depending on this. The wearing of 
 garlands and of veils by brides was disapproved, as being heathen sym- 
 bols ; but the custom of using a marriage ring was early in use, and 
 was viewed as a Christian symbol. The practice of the heathen to 
 burn the dead bodies reminded of hell-fire ; the Christians, therefore, 
 preferred the Jewish practice of burial, appealing to 1 Cor. xv. Chris- 
 tian families observed the anniversaries of the death of their de2:»arted 
 members with prayer and oblations, in token of their continued com- 
 munion with them (g 61, 3). 
 
 2. Ecclesiastical Discipline. — (For the literature see § 61, 1.) Here- 
 tics, apostates, and pertinacious transgressors, were, according to apos- 
 tolic injunction, excluded from the communion of the Church {e.xcom- 
 municatio), and only restored after having given sufficient proof of their 
 penitence. From the great number of those who, during the Decian 
 persecution, made recantation, it became necessary to fix a certain rule 
 of procedure in such cases, which remained in force till the fifth 
 century. Penitents had to pass through four stages of discipline, of 
 which each lasted, according to circumstances, one or more years. In 
 the first (the rtpduxJiavatj) , the penitents, arrayed in the garb of mourn- 
 ing, stood by the church-door, entreating the clergy and congregation
 
 lilFE, MANNERS, AND DISCIPLINE. 129 
 
 to receive them again ; in the second (the axpoaai^), penitei/ts were 
 allowed to be present, although in a separate place, during the reading 
 of the Scriptures and the sermon. In the third {v7t6rttcjai.i), they were 
 also allowed to be present, and to kneel at prayer ; while in the fourth 
 {(Svataaii), they might again join in all the parts of public worship, with 
 the exception of the communion, which, however, they might witness, 
 standing. After that, they made a public confession of their sins 
 (i^ofjio^oyrjaii) , and received absolution and the fraternal kiss (pax, 
 reconciliatio). This administration of discipline was only shortened or 
 rendered milder " in periculo mortis." But this extreme strictness in 
 dealing with penitents also led ^to the opposite extreme of excessive 
 laxity. Confessors, especially, frequently abused their privilege of 
 procuring the restoration of penitents by means of what were called 
 recommendatory letters [lihelli pacts), a practice which tended seriously 
 to injure the administration of discipline. On the other hand, some 
 went so far as to deny that the Church had the right of absolving and 
 restoring those who had been guilty of mortal sin (1 John v. 16), such 
 as theft, murder, adultery, or apostasy. But these extreme views did 
 not mislead the Church. 
 
 3. Asceticism. — The asceticism [iyxpa-tiia, continentia) of the hea- 
 then and of the Jews (the Pythagoreans, the Essenes, the Therapeutae) 
 was either the result of dualistic views, or the manifestation of a false 
 spiritualism. In opposition to this tendency, Christianity propounded 
 it as a principle: Hdvra ifiHtv iatw (i Cor. iii. 21; vi. 12). At the 
 same time it also admitted, that from the disposition, the requirements, 
 or circumstances of an individual, a sober asceticism was warrantable, 
 and might even prove relatively useful (Matt. xix. 12; 1 Cor. vii. 5, 7). 
 But the Gospel neither insisted on it, nor ascribed to it any merit. 
 Views such as these prevailed so late as the second century (they 
 occur, for example, in Ignatius). But after the middle of that century, 
 a much greater value was attached to asceticism. It was regarded aa 
 a higher stage of morality, and as assuring superior merit. — The 
 exercise of the spiritual life in prayer and meditation was its positive 
 manifestation. Negatively, asceticism appeared in frequent and 
 protracted /as^s and in celibacy, or at least abstinence from conjugal 
 intercourse (after 1 Cor. vii. ; Matt. xix. 12). Most of them, also, 
 voluntarily relinquished their worldly possessions, in application of 
 Luke xviii. 24. After the middle of the second century their num- 
 ber rapidly increased, till they formed a distinct class in the commu- 
 nity. But as yet they were not bound by irrevocable vows tc 
 continue this manner of life. — The idea that the call to asceticism 
 devolved more especially on the clergy, resulted from their desig- 
 nation as the KÄ^pog Qeov. So early as the second century, a 
 second marriage on the part of clergymen was held to be 
 unlawful (on the ground of 1 Tim. iii. 2) ; while in the
 
 130 SECTION I. — FIRST PERIOD (100— 323 A. D.). 
 
 third, it was considered their duty, after ordination, to abstain frons 
 conjugal intercourse. The attempt to make tliis obligatory was first 
 made in the year 305, at the Council of Elvira, but proved unsuccess- 
 ful. — The shameful practice, on the part of certain ascetics and clerics, 
 of taking to themselves (perhaps in misinterpretation of 1 Cor. ix. 5) 
 religious females as sorores (dfifTKfai), seems to have originated in the 
 second century. The idea was, that being joined to them in spiritual 
 love, they were unitedly to defy the temptations of the flesh. In the 
 middle of the third century this practice was widely spread. Cyprian 
 frequently inveighs against it. The abuse went so far, that these so- 
 called " sorores" slept in the same b^d with the ascetics, and indulged 
 in the most tender embraces. To prove the purity of their relation- 
 ship, they were wont to appeal to the testimony of midwives. So far 
 as we can gather, Paul of Samosata, in Antioch, was the first bishop 
 to encourage this practice by his own example. In the popular par- 
 lance of Antioch, this more than doubtful relationship went by the name 
 of yvvalxi(i awttadxtoi [suhintroductce, agapetae, extraneae). At 
 last bishops and councils passed strict injunctions against it. — During 
 the Decian persecution some Egyptian Christians had fled into the 
 wilderness, where avoiding, on principle, all intercourse with their 
 fellow-men, they led a life of strict asceticism. These were the first 
 Anchorites. One of them, Paul of Thebes, lived almost ninety years 
 in the wilderness. His existence had been forgotten by his cotem- 
 poraries, when, in 340, S. Antonius discovered his remains, from which 
 life had but lately departed. His body was found in the attitude of 
 prayer. (| 44). 
 
 4. The Beginning of Martyr- Worship. — Martyrdom was early lauded 
 ae a luvacrum sanguinis in which sin was washed away, an ample sub- 
 stitute for baptism. The anniversaries of the death of martyrs, desig- 
 nated birthdays to a higher life (yfi/i^Awi, natalitia martyrum) were 
 observed with prayers, oblations, and the Lord's Supper at their graves, 
 in token of continued communion with them in the Lord. Hence their 
 remains were gathered with great care, and solemnly interred. Thus 
 Polycarp's, at Smyrna (| 23, 3), were collected and preserved as ■fifiM- 
 tfpa >.i^cov rtoXvffXuii' xai Soxi/xüi-tepa vrtep ^^pufftor, in order that his ■yfi/e- 
 ^Xtof (V (pyya^idast, xai X'^f'i' f^5 '^* '^'^'' TCpoyj^'Krjxö-tuii' f/ivr^ixriv xai Tiliv fiiXlMv- 
 Tuv airjxrjriiv ts xai ttoifiaoMv might there be performed. — The relics were 
 not yet thought to possess miraculous virtues, nor do we find any trace 
 of praying to saints. But it was confidently believed, that at the throne 
 of God they eflcctually interceded for the Church militant on earth, as 
 they had been often asked to do before their departure. The living, 
 als«, felt it to be their duty constantly to pray for departed saints. 
 High respect was likewise paid to confessors (^ 23, 5) during their 
 life, and they were allowed to exercise great influence in the affairs of 
 the church, as in the choice of bishops, the restoration of the fallen, etc.
 
 THE MONTANISTIC REFORMATION. 131 
 
 537. THE MONTANISTIC REFORMATION (about 150 a. p.). 
 
 Comp. G. Wernsdorf, de Montanistis. Gedan. 1751. — Ä. Neaiider, 
 Antignostieus (Transl. by J. E. Ryland, Lend. Bohn.). — K. Hesselberg, 
 rertuUian's Lehre (The Doct. of Tert.). Dorp. 1848.— [vl. Schwegkr, d. 
 Montan, u. d. chr. K. d. 2 Jahrh. — Montan, and the Chr. Ch. of the 
 Second Cent. — Tiiljg. 1841. — F. Chr. Batir, das Wesen d. Montanism., 
 in the Tubg. Jahrb. for 1841. IV.] 
 
 However rigorous the moral demands which the Church of the 
 «econd and third century made upon its members, and however 
 strict the exercise of its discipline, parties were not wanting 
 who deemed the common practice and views insufficient. Among 
 these the Montaniats were the most notable. The movement 
 originated in Phrygia, about the middle of the second century. 
 Its leading characteristics were : a new order of ecstatic pro- 
 phets, with somnambulistic visions and new revelations ; a 
 grossly literal interpretation of scriptural predictions ; a fanati- 
 cal millenarianisra ; a self-confident asceticism ; and an exces- 
 sive rigour in ecclesiastical discipline. Thus, without dissenting 
 from the doctrinal statements of the Church, Montanism sought 
 to reform its practice. In opposition to the false universalism 
 of the Gnostics, the Montanists insisted that Christianity alone, 
 and not heathenism, contained the truth. In opposition to 
 Catholicism, they maintained that their own spiritual church "ras 
 really a step i" advance of apostolical Christianity. If Mon- 
 tanism had universally prevailed, Christianity would speedily 
 have degenerated into mere enthusiasm, and as such run its 
 course. This the Church recognized at an early period, and 
 hence protested against these views as a heretical aberration. 
 It could not but be seen that their much-vaunted purity of doc- 
 trine was always, more or less, at the mercy of the disordered 
 imagination of some Montanist prophet. Still, their moral ear- 
 nestness and zeal against worldliness, hierarchism, and false 
 spiritualism, rendered important service to the Church, both in 
 the way of admonition and of warning. 
 
 1. Phrygian Mo)itanism. — About the middle of the second century, 
 Montanus, a native of Ardaban, appeared at Pepuza, in Phrygia, as a 
 prophet and reformer of Christianity, to which he had only lately be- 
 come a convert. He had visions, and while in a state of unconscious- 
 uoss and ocstasv, prophesied of the near advent of Christ, and inveighed
 
 132 SECTION I.— FIRST PERIOD (100— 323 A. D.) . 
 
 against the corruption in the Church. Maximilla and Priscilla, twf 
 females, were infected witli his enthusiasm, became likewise somnam« 
 bulistic, and prophesied. Part of the congregation recognized him aa 
 a divine prophet, and believed his predictions and teaching (Montauis- 
 tse, Kora^puyfj, Pepuziani). Others regarded him and these two 
 females as possessed, and would have called in the aid of exorcism. 
 Meantime opposition only served to feed the delusion. Montanus felt 
 convinced that in him was fulfilled the promise of Christ concerning 
 the Paraclete, who was to guide the Church into all truth. His adhe- 
 rents declared that they alone had received the Holy Ghost. They 
 called themselves Tivtvfiatixoi, and designated the unbelieving Catho- 
 lics as ■^vxi'xoi. The movement spread, growing in error as it pro- 
 ceeded. The principal ecclesiastical teachers of Asia Minor (Claudius 
 Apollinarius, Miltiades, Rhodon, etc.) rose against it as one man, 
 and by word and writing contended against Montanism. Several 
 synods also solemnly pronounced against it (about 150), They suc- 
 ceeded in arresting the spread of this delusion. 
 
 2. Montanism in the Wiest. — The sentence of condemnation pro- 
 nounced in Asia Minor was approved of at Rome. But the Christiana 
 of Gaul, who had always kept up close intercourse with the Mother 
 Church in Asia Minor, and who, under the pressure of the Aureliau 
 persecution, cherished at that time more lively expectations of a coming 
 millennium, refused entirely to condemn the Montanistic movement. 
 Accordingly, they addressed conciliatory letters, both to Asia Minor 
 and to Rome. IreiKEUS, at the time only a presbyter, went to Rome, 
 and persuaded Bishop Eleuthenis to adopt mild and conciliatory mea- 
 sures. But soon afterwards, when Praxeas, a confessor from Asia 
 Minor (§ 40, 3), arrived in Rome, he and Cajus, a presbyter and a 
 fanatical enemy of millenarianism, so wrought upon Bishop Victor by a 
 description of the proceedings of the Montanists, that he withdrew the 
 epistles of peace which he had already written. From that time the 
 Roman Church remained strenuously opposed to Montanism. Still, 
 the movement met with considerable sympathy in the West, especially 
 in Proconsular Africa. This translocation, however, proved otherwise 
 useful, by removing much of the fanaticism and sectarianism which 
 had originally attached to the party. TertuUian, a presbyter of Carth- 
 age (about the year 201), and the most eminent teacher in the West, 
 :<? his time, was by far the ablest champion of Montanism. He devoted 
 all his energy and talents to gain adherents to his principles. But the 
 stigma of sectarianism and the reproach of heresy attached to them. 
 Still the sect of Tertullianists continued in Africa for a long time. * 
 
 3. Doctrine and Practice. — It is the fundamental idea of Montanism 
 
 that Divine revelation gradually and increasingly developed. This 
 
 progression had not reached its climax in Christ and His apostles, but 
 
 was destined to do so during the era of the Paraclete, which had com- 
 
 * Cf. Lit. g 39, 5, on TertuUian.
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL SCHISMS. 133 
 
 menced Tvith Monianus. The patriarchal period was the period of 
 infancy in the kingdom of God ; the period of the law and of prophecy, 
 under the Old Covenant, its ckü^hood ; in the Gospel it entered upon 
 the period of youth.; while in the Montanistic effusion of the Spirit, it 
 finally attained the full maturity of manhood. Its absolute completion 
 va&y be expected to take place in the millennium, which was regarded 
 as at hand. The following were the principal reformatory ordinances 
 of the Paraclete : Second marriage was to be considered fornication ; — 
 much greater importance was to b^ attached to fasting : on the "dies 
 stationum" it was absolutely unlawful to partake of anything, and two 
 weeks before Easter only water and bread or dry food (|»7po(j)aytot.) 
 were allowed ; — those who had been excommunicated were to con- 
 tinue in the " status poenitentias" during the remainder of their lives ; 
 — martyrdom was to be sought after ; to withdraw in any way from 
 persecution was no less than apostacy — virgins were to appear 
 only veiled, and, generally, women to renounce all luxury and orna- 
 ments ; — worldly dcience and art, and all worldly enjoyments, even 
 those which appear to be innocent, were treated as a snare laid by the 
 enemy, etc. 
 
 §38. ECCLESIASTICAL SCHISMS. 
 
 It so happened that sometimes in one and the same congreora- 
 tion there were those who advocated the administration of lax 
 and of rigorous discipline. Each of these parties, of course, 
 wished to enforce its peculiar views, to the exclusion of all 
 others. From such controversies, accompanied as they fre- 
 quently were by disputes between presbyters and bishops, and 
 by doctrinal divergences, various schisms arose which continued 
 for a period, even although outward circumstances seemed at 
 the time to render ecclesiastical union more than ever desirable. 
 We read of four such schisms during the period under review. 
 
 1. The Schism of Hippolytus at Eome {about 220-235). — (Comp. J. 
 DoUinger, Hipp. u. Callistus. Regensb. 1853. — Wordsworth, S. Hippol. 
 and his Age. Lond. 1853.— TF! E. Taylor, Hippol. and the Chr. Ch. of 
 the Third Cent. Lond. 1853.— Art. " Hippol." in Herzog's Encycl., in 
 the translat., publ. by Lindsay and Blakiston, II. 570, 1860.) — After a 
 life full of curious adventures, Callistus (Calixtus), a liberated slave, 
 was in 217 raised to the see of Rome, not without strenuous opposition 
 from the more strict party in the Church. They charged him with a 
 connivance at every kind of transgression, equally inconsistent with 
 Chri.stian earnestness and destructive of all discipline. Besides, they 
 also accused him of holding the Noetian heresy [I'V), 4). The opposi- 
 tion was headed by Hippolytus, a presbyter, whom his adherents elected 
 12
 
 134 SECTION I. —FIRST PERIOD (100—323 A. D,). 
 
 counter-bishop. The schism lasted till the time of Pontianus, the 
 second in occupation of the see of Rome after Callistus. The chiefs of 
 both parties having been banished to Sardinia, a reconciliation took place 
 between their adherents, who united to choose another bishop (235). 
 
 2. The Schism of Felicissimus at Carthage, about the year 250, 
 was in reality an opposition to the episcopal authority of Cyprian. The 
 (moderate) strictness of that bishop in dealing with the lapsed was only 
 made a pretext. Several presbyters at Carthage were dissatisfied with 
 the appointment of Cyprian as bishop (248), and sought to withdi'aw 
 from his jurisdiction. At their head was Novatus. They ordained, of 
 their own authority, Felicissimus, who afterwards became the chief of 
 the party, as deacon. When, during the Decian persecution, Cyprian 
 for a short time left Carthage, they accused him of dereliction of duty 
 and cowardice. But Cyprian soon returned, and his opponents turned 
 his strictness towards the lapsi to account for exciting people against 
 him. The bishop had protested against the readiness with which some 
 confessors had, without fully examining into the circumstances, given 
 libellos paci-s to the lapsed, and deferred the consideration of such cases 
 to a synod, to be held after the persecution had ceased. An eccle- 
 siastical visitation completed the breach. The dissatisfied presbyters 
 at once received the lapsed ; renounced the authority of Cyprian, 
 although, when the persecution broke out afresh, that bishop himself 
 introduced a milder discipline ; and elected Fortunatus as counter- 
 bishop. Only ^fter considerable trouble Cyprian, by a combination 
 of prudence and firmness, succeeded in arresting the schism. 
 
 3. In the Schism of Novatian, a Presbyter at Pome (251), the 
 cause of dispute was of an almost opposite character from that just 
 described. Cornelius, Bishop of Rome, exercised a mild discipline ; a 
 practice opposed by a stricter party, under the presbyter Novatian. 
 When Novatus of Carthage arrived at Rome, he joined the discontented 
 party, although his own views on ecclesiastical discipline had been the 
 very opposite of theirs, and incited them to separation. The strict 
 party now chose Novatian as their bishop, Both parties appealed for 
 recognition to the leading churches. Cyprian pronounced against 
 Novafian, and contested the sectarian principles of his adherents, 
 according to which tlie Church had not the right to assure forgiveness 
 to the lapsed, or to those who, by gross sin, had broken their baptismal 
 vows (though they admitted the possibility that, by the mercy of God, 
 such persons might be pardoned). The Novatians also held that the 
 Church, being a communion of pure persons, could not tolerate in its 
 bosom any who were impure, nor readmit a person who had been ex- 
 communicated, even though he had undergone ecclesiastical discipline. 
 On tliis ground the party called itself the Ka^opot. Owing to the 
 moral earnestness of their principles, even those bishops who took a 
 iifferent view from theirs were disposed to regard them more favcura-
 
 THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS. 135 
 
 biy ; and almost through the -whole Roman empire Novahan com 
 nmnities sprung up, of which remnants existed so late as the sixth 
 century. 
 
 4. T/ie Schism of Meletius in Egypt. — During the Diocletian persecu 
 tion, Meletius, Bishop of Lycopolis, in Thebais, had, without being 
 authorized, arrogated to himself the power of ordaining and of other- 
 wise interfering with the rights of his metropolitan, Petrus, Bishop of 
 Alexandria, who for a season had retired from his diocese. Warnings 
 and adnionitians were in vain. An Egyptian synod then excom- 
 municated and deposed him. This gave rise to a schism (306) which 
 spread over Egypt. The general Council of Nice (325) offered to all 
 Meletian bishops amnesty, and the succession in their respective sees 
 in case the Catholic counter-bishop should die. Many submitted, but 
 Meletius himself, with some others, continued schismatic, and joined 
 the party of the Arians. 
 
 IV. DOCTRINAL AND APOLOGETIC LABORS OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 PO. THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS AND THEIR REPRESEN- 
 TATIVES. 
 
 The earliest Christian writers had enjoyed intercourse with, 
 and instruction from, the apostles. On that account they are 
 commonly called Apostolic Fathers. In their case, as in that of 
 the apostles themselves, the immediate requirements of practical 
 life formed the burden and the motive of their writings. But 
 the literary contest with heathenism, which immediately suc- 
 ceeded, gave a more scientific character to Christian authorship. 
 This contest gave rise to a long series of apologetical works, 
 which in great part date from the second century. The 
 scientific tendency of Christian theology developed even more 
 fully in the third century during the controversy with Judaising 
 and paganising heretics. In opposition to those dangerous 
 aberrations, three peculiar types of doctrinal views developed 
 within the Catholic Church after the close of the second century. 
 They are commonly distinguished as the schools of Alexandria, 
 of Asia Minor, and of North Africa. — Since the close of the 
 first century, another branch of literature, though one of very 
 doubtful value, had also appeared. We allude to the apocry- 
 phal and pseudo-ep)igraphic writings, which arose partly with
 
 136 SECTION I. — FIRST PERIOD (100—323 A. D.), 
 
 the view of spreading certain heresies, partly for apologetitai 
 purposes, and partly to give sanction to certain ecclesiastica'j 
 ordinances. This species of literature seems to have attained its 
 highest point during the second and third centuries. — (Cf § 47.) 
 
 1. The Apostolic Fathers. — (Comp. A. Hilgenfeld, die ap. V. Halle 
 1853. J. H. B. Liibkert, d. Theologie d. ap. V. in the " Luther. Zeitschr." 
 for 1854. IV. Lechler, d. Apost. u. nachapost. Zeitalter. Stuttg. 1857). 
 Of these seven are mentioned : 
 
 (1.) Clement, Bishop of Rome (Philippians iv. 3), from whom we 
 have an Epistle to the Corinthians, containing admonitions to concord 
 and humility. 
 
 (2.) Barnabas, the well-known companion of the Apostle Paul. 
 The letter, preserved under his name, betrays, by its allegorical intei*- 
 pretations, the Alexandrian ideas of the author, and breathes contempt 
 for the Old Testament, and its ceremonial. It contains, however, some 
 ingenious views, and gives evidence of deep piety. Its authenticity is 
 more than doubtfai. 
 
 (3.) Hermas (Rom. xvi. 14). The Iloi/tjjr (Pastor) ascribed to him 
 was perhaps written by a later Hermas, the brother of the Roman 
 Bishop Pius, about the year 150.^ The work derives its name from the 
 circumstance that in it an angel, under the guise of a shepherd, 
 instructs the author. It contains visions, "mandata," and "simili- 
 tudines." It is still in dispute whether the Greek cojiy recently brought 
 from Greece, is really a transcript from the original, or only a retrans- 
 lation from the old Latin version. 
 
 (4). Ignatius, Bishop or Antioch (| 23, 2). We possess seven 
 letters of his, which on his journey to martyrdom he addressed to 
 various churches (one of them to Polycarp). Of the two Greek re- 
 censions, the more lengthy is manifestly a paraphrase. They are 
 distinguished above all other writings of this time by energetic oppo^ 
 sition to Judaistic and Docetic heresy, by a most decided confession 
 of the Divinity of Christ, and by strenuous assertions of the authority 
 of bishops as the representatives of Christ. Bunsen, Lipsins, and 
 others, maintain that a still shorter recension (in Syriac translation), 
 of only three letters, represents the genuine works of Ignatius ; while 
 Banr, Hilgenfeld, and others, deny the genuineness of all the three 
 recensions. 
 
 (5.) Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna (| 42, 3), a disciple of the Apostle 
 John, has left a letter addressed to the Philippians. 
 
 (G.) Fapias, Bishop of Ilierapolis in Phrygia, likewise a disciple 
 of John, collected the oral traditions of the discourses and deeds of 
 the Lord (xoyJwv xvptaxdji/ f'S-^yijöij), of which only a few fragments have 
 been handed down. Credulity, misunderstanding, and an unbounded 
 attachment to millennarian views, seem to have characterized this 
 work. On this account Eusebius called P. cr/xiKpog rbv voiiv.
 
 THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS. 137 
 
 (7). A letter addressed to Diogxetus by an unkno-wn author, -who 
 calls himself fia^trji tuiv artoatöxav . It is manifestly erroneous to 
 regard Justin Martyr as its writer. The letter ably refutes the ob- 
 jections of Piognetus to Christianity, unlike the other Fathers, the 
 author regards the heathen gods not as demons, but as empty phantoms. 
 The institutions of the Old Testament he considers to have been human, 
 and indeed partly inept, arrangements. The best edition of the Apos- 
 tolic Fathers is that by Cotelerhis, Paris 1678, folio ; the latest edition, 
 that by Hefele, 4th edition. Tub. 1855. 
 
 2. Among the numerous Apologetical Writers of the second cen- 
 tury (complete collections of their works, so far as extant, comp. § 41, 
 1, were published by Pnid. Maranus. Par. 1742. 2 Voll. fol. and by C. 
 T. Otto. Jen. 1842, etc.) the first place must be assigned to .Jcstin 
 Martyr, who was born at Sichern in Samaria, and died as martyr in 
 the year 166. As a heathen, he successively sought after truth in the 
 various philosophical systems, among which he was most attracted by 
 that of Plato. But it was only when an unknown venerable man, 
 whom he met by the sea-shore, directed him to the prophets and 
 apostles, that he found satisfaction. In the thirtieth year of his life 
 he became a convert to Christianity, which, while continuing to wear 
 his philosopher's cloak (pallium), he enthusiastically defended by 
 writings and discussions. But thereby he also called forth the special 
 hatred of heathen sages. Crescens, a Cynic at Rome, was his most 
 bitter enemy, and left nothing undone to secure his destruction. In 
 this he succeeded. Under the reign of Marcus Aurelius, and about 
 the year 166, Justin was scourged and beheaded at Rome. (Comp. 
 Semisch, Justin Martyr, transl. by J. E. Ryland. Edin. T. and T. 
 Clark.) 
 
 3. The Scliool of Asia Minor. — This school may be traced backte 
 the labours of John, and was distinguished by its firm adherence to 
 the Bible, its strong faith, its scientific liberality, its conciliatory tone, 
 and its trenchant polemics against heretics. The greater part of its 
 numerous and formerly so celebrated teachers are known to us almost 
 only by name. One of its oldest representatives was Melito, Bishop 
 of Sardis, wLo died about 170. Of his numerous writings, which bore 
 on all the important ecclesiastical questions of the time, only a very 
 few fragments have been preserved. Eusebius and Jerome have pre- 
 served a list of eighteen different tractates by that Father. After 
 Melito, Iren^us, a disciple of Polycarp, was the most celebrated teacher 
 of that school. He went into Gaul, where he became presbyter, and, 
 after the martyrdom of Bishop Pothinus (| 23, 3), was elevated to the 
 see of Lyons. He died a martyr under Septimius Severus in the year 
 202. The best editions of his writings are those by R. Massuet, Paris 
 1710; ani by A. Stieren, Leipsic 1847. — The learned Hippolytus, 
 presbyter, and afterwards schismatic Bishop at Rome (§ 38, 1), ob. 
 
 12*
 
 138 SECTION I. — FIRST PERIOD (100— 323 A. D.) . 
 
 235, was a disciple of Irenceus. Such was the authority in which 
 Hippolytus was held, that, soon after his death, his friends erected a 
 statue of him in Rome, bearing on the back of the chair a list of his 
 numerous writings. It was dug out on an island of the Tiber Jn the 
 year 1551. The best edition of his writings is that by /. A. Fabricins, 
 Hamb. 1716. 2 vols. 4to. supplemented by S. Hippolyti Episc. et Mart. 
 Refutat. omn. hjsres. Libr. X. quae supersunt. ed. Duncker et Schnei- 
 dewin. Gott. 1856. 
 
 4. The School of Alexandria. — The principal task to which the repre- 
 sentatives of this school set themselves, was to oppose a true churchly 
 Gnosis to the spurious Gnosticism of heretics. In this attempt, some 
 of them, however, were entangled in dangerous philosophical aberra- 
 tions. Still, most of them were distinguished by classical culture, by 
 logical acumen, by liberality and originality. The centre of this theo- 
 logical tendency was the Catechetical School of Alexandria, which, from 
 an institution for the instruction of educated catechumens, became a 
 theological seminary. The first celebrated teacher in this institution 
 was Pant^nus [ob. 202). He was surpassed by Clement of Alexan- 
 dria, his pupil and successor. Impelled by a desire for knowledge, 
 this writer, when still a heathen, had travelled about ; and having 
 acquired considerable learning, arrived at Alexandria, where he was 
 attracted by, and converted vinder, Pant^enus. During the persecution 
 under Septimius Severus (202), he withdrew, according to Matt. x. 23, 
 by flight from the vengeance of the heathen. But to his death in 220 
 he continued to work and to write for the Church. (Best edition by J. 
 Potter, Oxon. 1715. 2 vols, fol.) However great his fame, it was sur- 
 passed by that of Ortgen, his pupil and successor, whom heathens and 
 Christians equally admired for his learning, and who, from his unwea- 
 ried diligence, bore the designations of Adamantius and XaXxay-ffpoj. 
 He was distinguished as a philosopher, as a philologian, as a critic, 
 as an exegetical, dogmatic, apologetic, and polemic writer. Posterity 
 has, with equal justice, honoured him as the founder of scientific the 
 ology, and disowned him as the originator of many heretical views. 
 He was born at Alexandria, of Christian parents, about the year 185, 
 and trained by his father Leonidas, and by Pantcenus and Clement. 
 When still a mere boy, he encouraged his father to undergo martyrdom 
 under Septimius Severus (in 202), provided for his helpless mother and 
 her six orphan children, and was appointed by Bishop Demetriua 
 teacher in the catechetical school (in 203). In order to do justice to 
 his new ofiice, he applied himself with all diligence to the study of 
 philosophy, under the tuition of Ammonius Saccas, a Neo-Platonist. 
 In private life he was exceedingly abstemious, and from his youth a 
 strict ascetic. In his zeal for Christian perfection, and misunderstand- 
 ing the passage in Matt. xix. 12, he made himself a eunuch, — a step 
 which he afterwards felt to have Haoti wrong. Meantime his fama
 
 THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLiS. 139 
 
 increased daily. In obedience to a highly honourable call, he labc^red 
 for some time in the mission in Arabia. The excellent Empress Mia 
 Mammcea summoned him to Antioch (218) ; and in the year 228 he 
 undertook, for ecclesiastical purposes, a journey to Palestine, where the 
 the bishops of Ccesarea and Jerusalem ordained him presbyter, though 
 in opposition to the canons of the Church. His own bishop, Demetrius, 
 who had at any rate been jealous of the fame of Origen, resented this 
 invasion of his rights, recalled him, and in two synods held at Alexan- 
 dria (in 231 and in 232), caused him to be deposed and excommunicated 
 for heresy, self-mutilation, and contempt of ecclesiastical canons. Origen 
 now betook himself to Caesarea, where, honoured and assisted by the 
 Emperor Philip the Arabian, he opened a theological school. Here 
 his literary activity attained its climax. During the Decian persecu- 
 tion he was imprisoned, and finally died at Tyre, in 254, in consequence 
 of the fearful tortures which he had borne with calmness. — (Comp. E. R. 
 Bedepenning, Origenes. Bonn 1841. 2 vols. G. Thomasius, Origenes, 
 Nuremb. 1837. (Best editions of his works by C. de la Rue, Paris 1733. 
 4 vols, fol., and by Lommaiszch, Berlin 1831, 26 vols.) — Among the 
 successors of Origen at Alexandria, Dionysius Alexandrinus (since 
 233) was the most celebrated. In the year 248 he was elevated to the 
 see of that city, and died in 265. He was not equal to Origen in point 
 of speculation. But indeed his Charisma was rather the xv^fpvjjoij. 
 Even his cotemporaries called him the Great. During the Decian per- 
 secution he displayed equal prudence, calmness, courage, and constancy. 
 Amid the ecclesiastical disputes of his time, he had ample opportunity 
 of manifesting the generosity and mildness of his character, his faithful 
 adherence to the Church, and his zeal for the purity of its teaching. 
 Everywhere the influence of his self-denial and amiability was felt. — 
 Gregory Thaumaturgus had attended on the teaching of Origen at 
 Caesarea. Converted, as a youth, under Origen, from paganism to the 
 Gospel, he clung with the deepest affection to his venerated teacher. 
 He afterwards became bishop of his native city, Neo-C£esarea, and on 
 his death-bed enjoyed the consolation of leaving to his successor no 
 more unbelievers in the city (17) than his predecessor had left be- 
 lievers. He was designated a second Moses, and it was thought that 
 he possessed the power of working miracles. — (Cf. | 47, 3, 4.) 
 
 5. The School of North Africa was distinguished by its realism and 
 its practical tendency, thus representing the opposite extreme to the 
 idealism and the speculations of the Alexandrians. Its peculiarity was 
 that of the Western mind generally, and chiefly manifested itself in 
 the controversy with Gnosticism. Its representatives, although them- 
 selves classically educated, rejected classical science and philosophy, 
 as apt to lead astray. They laid great stress on purity of apostolical 
 tradition, and insisted on sanctification of the life and strict asceticism. 
 Its first and greatest teacher was Tertullian, the son of a heathen
 
 140 SECTION I. — FIRST PERIOD (100—323 A. D.y. 
 
 centurion at Carthagj. While a pagan, he distinguished .imself as 
 an advocate and rhetorician. He was converted late in life , and, after 
 a considerable stay at Rome, was ordained a presbyter at Carthage 
 [ob. 220). Naturally he was impetuous and energetic; in his writings, 
 as in his life, he appears a strong man, full of glowing enthusiasm for 
 the foolishness of the Gospel, and equally strict towards himself and 
 others. He originated the Latin ecclesiastical language ; his " Punic 
 style" is terse, rich in imagery and rhetorical figures ; his thoughts 
 are acute and deep. Although himself trained in heathen lore, he was 
 fanatically opposed to it, and equally so to Gnosticism. His zeal in 
 favour of strict asceticism, and against every kind of worldliness, led 
 him to become a Montanist in 201. There his peculiar mode of think- 
 ing and feeling, the energy of his will, the ardour of his affections, his 
 powerful imagination, his tendency towards the strictest asceticism, 
 and his predilection for realism, found full scope for development. If, 
 withal, he kept free from many aberrations of Montanism, this must be 
 ascribed to his clear understanding and, however much he may have 
 despised it, to his thorough scientific training. (Best edition of his 
 works by Fr. Oeliler, Leipsic 1854.) Comp, g 37. — Thascius C^cilius 
 Cyprianus was first a heathen rhetorician, afterwards Bishop of Carth- 
 age, and died a martyr under Valerian in 258. Although trained by 
 the writings of TertuUian ( " da magistrum !" ), he kept clear of his 
 extr.avagances. He was equally distinguished by warm and firm adhe- 
 rence to the idea of one, holy, visible Church, and by zeal, faithful- 
 ness, vigour, and prudence in the cure of souls and the administration 
 of his congregation. His life and writings give ample evidence of 
 these qualities. (Comp. Reitberg, Cypr. nach sein. Leben und Wir- 
 ken. — Cypr,, his Life and Works — Gott. 1831. — G. Ä. Poole, Life and 
 Times of Cyprian, Oxf. 1840.) — L. Coel. Lactantius Firmianus [ob. 
 330), by birth a heathen, afterwards teacher of elocution at Nicome- 
 dia, and then tutor to Crispus, the imperial prince, who was executed 
 in 326 by command of his father (Constantine the Great). His apolo- 
 getic writings show that he was modest, amiable, and learned. They 
 abound with evidences of his culture, affectionateness, and clearness. 
 From the purity of his Latin style and the elegance of his diction, in 
 which he far surpassed all other Fathers, he was called the Christian 
 Cicero. But his writings are destitute of depth and acumen, and on 
 theological questions he frequently commits blunders and oversights. — 
 To this school belong also Minvcius Felix, Commodianus, and Arnobius, 
 all of them apologetic writers. — (Cf. ^ 47, 5.) 
 
 6. During this period the School of Antioch (? 47, 1), of which the 
 presbyters Dorofheus and 1/iician were the founders, first appeared. 
 The latter died a martyr in 311. Through his influence, that school 
 from the first gave its main attention to the critical, grammatical, and 
 historical interpretation of the Scriptures. — There is said tc have been
 
 DEVELOPMENT OP DOCTRINE, ETC. 14j 
 
 a Christian school at Edessa, as early as the second century, where 
 Macarius expounded the Scriptures in the third century. 
 
 7. The greater part of the very numerous Apocryphal and Pseudo- 
 EPiGRAPHic AVoRKS Were composed to promote the spread of heretical, 
 chiefly of Ebionistic and Gnostic views. Many of them, however, must 
 also be traced to Catholic authors. Their chief j^urpose seems to have 
 been, through a kind of pious fraud, to exalt Christianity by " vatici- 
 nia post eventum," or to fill up any gaps in its history by myths and 
 fables already existent, or specially devised for that end. The subjects 
 chosen were either connected with the Old or with the New Testament. 
 Among the latter we reckon Apocryphal Gospels, Acts of Apostles, 
 Apostolic Letters and Revelations. In these gospels reference is not 
 made to the teaching of Christ, probably because it was thought that 
 the canonical gospels had given sufficient details on that subject. On 
 the other hand, they dwell largely on the history of the childhood of 
 the Lord, and furnish fabulous, though pretendedly documentary sup- 
 plements to the accounts of Christ's sufferings. Besides, a number of 
 spurious ancient heathen and Jewish oracles were circulated and fre- 
 quently quoted for apologetic purposes (§ 41, 1), 
 
 ^ 40. DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTRINE AND DOGMATIC 
 CONTROVERSIES. 
 
 Comp. F. Chr. Bmir, d. chr. Lehre v. d. Dreieinigkeit (The Chr. 
 Doctr. of the Trinity). I. Tllbg. 1841.— C. A. Meier, d. Lehre v. d. 
 Trinität. I. Hamb. 1844. — J. A. Dorner, d. Lehre v. d. Person Christi. 
 2d Ed. I. Stuttg. 1845.— r. A. Kahnis, d. Lehre v. h. Geiste (The Doctr. 
 concern, the H. Sp.). I. Halle 1847. — Lobeg. Lange, Gesch. u. Lehrb. 
 d. Antitrin. vor d. nicaen. Synode. Leipz. 1851. — [H. Corrodi) krit. 
 Gesch, d. Chiliasm. (Crit. Hist, of Millenar.) 4 vols. Zur. 1794. Art 
 " Chiliasmus," in Herzog's Encycl. I. p. 657 etc. Philad. 
 
 In its friendly or hostile contact with heathen culture, Chris- 
 tianity hiwl to appear in a scientific form, in order thus also to 
 prove its claim to recognition as a universal religion. It must 
 therefore soon have been felt necessary to develop the doctrines 
 of the Gospel. During the three first centuries, however, the 
 dogmas of the Catholic Church were not yet fully formed and 
 established. Before this could be accomplished, Christian truth 
 had freely to develop in iudividuals ; — besides, as yet, no gene- 
 rally recognized medium for the decision of these questions, such 
 as the later universal councils, existed ; — the persecutions left 
 uc time or quietness for such purposes; — and all the energies
 
 142 SECTION I. — FIRST PERIOD (100—323 A. D.). 
 
 against the inroads of heathen and Jewish elements, w?5ich in 
 Ebionism and Gnosticism presented so threatening a front. 
 But, on the other hand, the internal collisions and discussions 
 which took place at that period prepared the Church for unfold- 
 ing and ultimately establishing Christian doctrine. Among 
 these we reckon the contest between the Catholics and the Mon- 
 tanists (§ 37). — The discussions about Easter and about baptism 
 (§ 31, 2 ; 32, 2) had also a dogmatic bearing, while the various 
 schisms (especially that of Novatian, § 38) tended to fix the 
 dogma concerning the Church. Nor must we leave out of con- 
 sideration the Millenarian discussions. But of greatest im- 
 portance by far was the Trinitarian controversy, which took 
 place in the third century. 
 
 1. The Trinitarian Questions. — These bore on the relation between 
 the Divine iJi.ova.i^x''°' (the unity of God) and the oixovofxla (the nature 
 and the relations of the Trinity). Peculiar emphasis was laid on the 
 relation subsisting between the Son (or ^yoj) and the Father. The 
 Church firmly maintained the independent personal subsistence of the 
 Son (Hypostasianism) ; but various errors and difficulties arose when 
 it was attempted to bring this view into harmony with the monotheism 
 of Christianity. Adopting the distinction made by Philo between the 
 Xoyoj fi'5ia^ffo5 and the ?.. ?i:po(}>optxoj (^ 11, 1), it was at first thought 
 that the hypostasation was somehow connected Avith or depended on 
 the creation of the world, and had taken place for that purpose, — in 
 short, that it was not necessary and eternal, but a free act in time on 
 the part of God. The real essence of the Deity was rather ascribed to 
 the Father, and all the attributes of divinity were not assigned to the 
 Son in the same manner as to the Father. The statement of Christ 
 (John xiv. 28) : " The Father is greater than I," was also applied to 
 Christ's state of existence before His incarnation. The views enter- 
 tained about the Holy Ghost were even more vague. His personality 
 and independent existence were not subjects of settled or deep convic- 
 tion ; it was more common to subordinate Him, and also to ascribe to 
 Christ Himself the functions peculiar to the third person of the Trinity 
 (inspiration and sanctification). But this process of snhordination ap- 
 peared to some of the Fathers to endanger not only the fundamental 
 doctrine of the unity of God, but also that of the divinity of Christ. 
 Hence they preferred passing over the personal distinction between 
 the Logos, the Spirit, and the Father. One of two ways might here be 
 chosen. Following the example of the Ehionites, Christ might be 
 regarded as a mere man, who, like the prophets, had been furnished 
 with Divine wisdom and power, only in infinitely higher measure 
 (dynaniistic Monarchianism). Or else, yielding more fully to the felt 
 want of Christians, it might be conceived that the whole fulness of the
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTRINE, EfC. 14Ä 
 
 Deity dwelt in Christ ; thus identifying the Logos with the Father, 
 t. e., regarding tiie former as only a peculiar mode in which the latter 
 operated [modaiistic Monarchianism). Either of these forms of Monarch- 
 ianism was regarded as heretical, and the hypostasian view as alone 
 orthodox. Still the latter also contained an element of error (that of 
 subordination), while the former (at least in its more elevated, modai- 
 istic form) embodied a truth which as yet was left out of the orthodox 
 view (the acknowledgment of the equality of being, or of the oiioovaCa 
 of the Son with the Father). These two opposing views were recon- 
 ciled and united by the doctrine of homoiisian Hijpostasianism pro- 
 pounded in the third century, but which found general acknowledg- 
 ment only in the fourth century. 
 
 2. The Dtpiamistic Monarchians. — Among them we reckon, 1. The 
 Alogians in Asia Minor (about 170). They violently opposed the mil- 
 lenarianism and prophetism of the Montanists, and rejected not only 
 the Book of Revelation, but also the Gospel of John. Epiphanius gave 
 them their equivocal name, Alogians, not without meaning, because 
 they rejected both the doctrine and the Gospel of the Logos. 
 (dAo70f= unreasonable). 2. The same writer speaks of the Theo- 
 DOTIAN SECT as an äwöanaaiia T^g aXdyov alpeaeug. Their founder, 
 Theodotua 6 o kvt evq , from Byzance, taught ipiMv avd-pwrrov slvai 
 Tov XpiGTov. — Spiritu quidem sancto natum ex virgine, sed homi- 
 nem nudum nulla alia pras casteris nisi sola justitioe autoritate. 
 Towards the close of the second century he arrived at Rome, where he 
 gained some adherents, but was excommunicated by Bishop Victor. 
 Another Theodotns [6 TpaTve^iTrjc) conceived that the power of God in 
 Christ was less than that in Melchisedec, since the latter was media- 
 tor between God and angels. On this ground his adherents were called 
 Melchisedechites. 3. Of greater influence than either of these heretics, 
 was Artemon, who busied himself with Aristotle rather than with the 
 Bible, and maintained that his doctrine had been regarded at Rome as 
 orthodox up to the time of Bishop Zephyrinus (the successor of Victor), 
 who excommunicated him and his adherents. 
 
 3. Praxeas and TertuHian. — Patripassianism, which represents the 
 Father as Himself becoming incarnate and suffering in Christ, may be 
 regarded as the preparation for, and the first rough form of Modalism. 
 These views were first prominently brought forward by Praxeas, a 
 confessor from Asia Minor (g 37, 2). lie propounded them without let 
 ir Rome, about the year 190 ; but was even then vigorously opposed 
 by Tertullian. On his return to Africa that Father wrote, in defence 
 of Montanism and Hypostasianism, a treatise against him, in which he 
 showed the weak parts, the contradictions, and the dangerous tendency 
 of the theory of Praxeas, Although Tertullian himself is not quite 
 free from the errors of Subordinatianism, his views are more satisfac- 
 tory, since he speaks of a threefold progress in the hypostasatic n of the
 
 144 SECTION I. — FIRST PERIOD (lOO -323 A. D.). 
 
 Son (filiatio). The first stage consisted of the eternal indwelling (im 
 manence, immanent subsistence) of the Son in the Father ; the second 
 stage took place when the Son came forth by the side of the Father, for 
 the purpose of creating the world ; and the third when, by His incar- 
 nation, the Son manifested Himself in the world. 
 
 4. Noetus, CalUstus, and Hippohjtus. — The views of Noetus of Smyrna 
 were not quite free from Patripassian error. He taught that the Son 
 was the son of himself, and not of another. This doctrine was brought 
 to Rome about 215 by Epigonus, his disciple, where it met with con- 
 siderable support, being chiefly advocated by Ckomenes. In opposition 
 to these views, Hippolytus (| 39, 3) maintained the doctrine of subor- 
 dinatian Hypostasianism, which up to that time was regarded as 
 orthodox (from all eternity Christ was perfect Logos, but only as the 
 Xdyoj sv6(,d^stoi, being undistinguished from the Father ; by His incar- 
 nation He had become perfectly the Son). CaUistvs, Bishop of Rome, 
 conceived that both views contained some elements of truth and others 
 of error. Although by no means clear in his statements, or wholly 
 free from error, he was the first to propound what, in its fuller develop- 
 ment, is known as homousian Hypostasianism. Hippolytus reproached 
 the bishop with being a Noetian, and he retorted by charging the 
 presbyter with Ditheism. Sabellins, who at the time lived in Rome, 
 was at first undecided, but ultimately pronounced in favour of Modalisra, 
 and was excommunicated by Callisius. Hippolytus and his adherents 
 renounced the authority of Callistus, and formed a community of their 
 own (I 38, 1). 
 
 5. Beryllus and Origen. — Beryllns of Bostra, in Arabia, was also a 
 Patripassian. His system formed a link of connection between Patri- 
 passianism and Sabellian Modalism. He denied the tSta ^forj^j of the 
 divinity of Christ, and designated it as rtorpixj; ^totrii, but at the same 
 time regarded it as a new form of manifestation [rtponotov) on the part 
 of God. In the year 244 an Arabian synod, to which Origen also was 
 invited, was convened to discuss his views. Beryllus, convinced of his 
 error, made full recantation. All former teachers had held that the 
 hypostasation of the Logos had taken place in time, for the purposes 
 of creating the world and of the Incarnation. Origen was the first to 
 propound the truth that the Son is begotten by the Father from all 
 eternity, and hence from all eternity a hypostasis. Again, the Son ia 
 not begotten because this is necessary in order that the Son might 
 become the Creator, but because it is necessary in and by itself, as 
 light cannot be without radiance. He also propounded the dogma that 
 the generation of the Son was going on for ever. He held that, as the 
 life of God is not bound to time, the becoming objective of this life in 
 the Son must likewise lie beyond the limitations of time ; it is not an 
 act of God once done, but a continuous manifestation of His life {ad 
 ytvt-a o UatYip toy Tlöv). True, even Origen is not quite free from the
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTRINE, ETC. 145 
 
 errors of Subordinatianism, but in his case they are confined within 
 the narrowest limits. He rejects indeed the expression, that the Son 
 was ix t^i owöi'aj -tov rtatpöi, but only in opposition to the Gnostic 
 theories of emanation. Similarly, he speaks of a stipotrii rrji ovataj, 
 but only in opposition to the ofioovoio^, taken in the sense of the Patri- 
 passians. He held that the Sou was begotten ex toi ^s^^ftar'oj ^soi, but 
 only because he regarded Him as the Divine will become objective ; 
 he calls Him a xtln^a, but only in so far as He is '^iOTioiovfjuvo^, and not 
 avrd^Eoj ; but the Son is avfoaocfta, av-(oa.X^q^iia,, bivtipo^ ^«oj- He held a 
 subordination, not of essence, but of being or of origin. 
 
 6. SabeUius and the two Dionysii. — Sahellius, from Ptolemais, in 
 Egypt, had during his stay at Rome devised a peculiar, speculative, 
 and monarchian system, which met with considerable support from the 
 bishops of his country. It was favourably distinguished from other 
 systems of the kind, in that it assigned a distinct and necessary place 
 to the Holij Ghont. According to him, God is a simple unity (/uoraj), 
 who, as ^fÖ5 cruorttöf, rested in Himself, and when about to create the 
 world came forth out of Himself as ^eöj i.oxZjv or Xoyoj. During the 
 course of the development of the world, the Monas (or the Logos) pre- 
 sented Himself, for the purpose of salvation, successively under three 
 different forms of existence (ovo^uara, rtpojwrta), of which each contained 
 the entire Monas. They are not vTtöataoni, but rtpdjurta (masks), as it 
 were parts which God, when manifesting Himself in the world, suc- 
 cessively undertook. Having finished His peculiar part by the giving 
 of the law, the "Prosopon" of the Father returned again into His 
 absolute state. Next He appears in the incarnation as the Son, when, 
 at His ascension. He again returns into the Monas ; and lastly mani- 
 fests Himself as the Holy Ghost, that when the Church shall have been 
 wholly sanctified. He may again, and for all eternity, become a monas, 
 without distinction in itself. SabeUius designated this process as an 
 expansion [extasn;) and contraction [avato%ri, Ttxa-tvafio^). To make 
 his ideas more intelligible, he illustrated the above process by a simile 
 of the sun, hveoi y-iv iv um iirtoatäatv, *p?ij hi t^ov-to^ räj ivtpysia^, viz., ro 
 r^j rtfpi^fpfias azyjßo., to fut-tiatcxbv xai to ^dxriov. — At the Synod of 
 Alexandria, in 261, Dionysius the Great (| 39, 4) contended against 
 the Sabellianism of the Egyptian bishops, but in his zeal made use of 
 terms wliich implied subordinatian errors of the grossest kind (|fVov 
 xat' o^aoav avtbv slvai, tov Uatpbi wörtfp iativ o yscopyoj rtpoj f^v a/u.rts^ov 
 xai o vavTttjyo^ rtpo^ to crxa'fioj, — cbj rtoi^rjfia Cov oix ^v rtpiv yfvi'r;ta.v). When 
 Dionysius, Bishop of Rome, obtained tidings of tliis, he rejected, in a 
 Sy)wd at R(nne in 202, the expressions used by his colleague at Alex- 
 andria, and published a tractate {' Avatponrj), in which, with equal 
 acuteness, clearness, and depth, he defended against SabeUius the 
 doctrine of the hypostastic existence, and against the Alexandrians the 
 iu/wvaia. and the eternal generation of the Son. Dionvsius of Alex- 
 13
 
 146 SECTION I FIRST PERIOD (100—323 A.D.). 
 
 andria retracted, with praiseworthy modesty, the ill-chosen illustra- 
 tions he had employed, and declared himself substantially at one with 
 the views of the Bishop at Rome. 
 
 7. Paid of Samosata. — For half a century dynamistic Monarchianism 
 had not been represented by any man of note, when, about the year 260, 
 it was again propounded in a (comparatively) more profound manner 
 by Paul of Samosata, an arrogant, vain, luxurious, and withal covetous 
 and immoral prelate. While, with the former advocates of this theory, 
 he maintained that the Godhead, in the strictest sense of the term, con- 
 sisted only of one person, he at the same time admitted in the Deity a 
 relationship between the Xoyoj hhia^itoi and «po^optxoj. Again, while 
 in the opinion of his predecessors the humanity of Christ chiefly consti- 
 tuted his distinctive personality, Paul (like the Socinians of modern 
 times) held that, by His inimitable excellency, the man Jesus had gra- 
 dually risen to Divine dignity, and to deserve the name of God. The 
 Syrian bishops held three synods to discuss his errors. At the third 
 of these (269), they condemned him, and rejected the expression ofioov- 
 cto5, which he had misapplied. But, by the protection of Queen Zenohia, 
 Paul retained his see. When Zenobia was vanquished by Aiirelian, in 
 the year 272, the Synod accused him before the (heathen) emperor, 
 who, after taking the opinion of the bishops " in Italy and Rome," 
 expelled Paul. 
 
 8. TJie Mittenarian Controversy. — Since the time of Papias, the expec- 
 tation of a millenial reign of glory, at the close of the present dispen- 
 sation, had been fondly cherished by the Christians, who, under their 
 continued persecutions, looked for the speedy return of the Lord. Only 
 the spiritualists of Alexandria (Clement, Origen, etc.) opposed these views, 
 and, by allegorical interpretations, explained away the Biblical argu- 
 ments in favour of them. Caius, a Roman presbyter (about 210), 
 asserted, in his controversy with Procuhis, a Montanist, that both Mil- 
 lenarianism and the Book of Revelation, on which it was founded, were 
 a fabrication of CerinfJius, the heretic. Fifty years later, the Millena- 
 rians of Egypt were headed by Nepos, the learned Bishop of Arsinoe. 
 He wrote a treatise against Clement and Origen, entitled ^"Kxsyxo(; tuv 
 aÄ.xi^yopKTT'wj'. After the death of Nepos, his adherents, under the leader- 
 sliip of Coracion, a presbyter, seceded from the Church of Alexandria. 
 To arrest the mischief, Diony.iixis immediately hastened to Arsinoe. A 
 discussion ensued, which lasted for three days, at the close of which, 
 the loaders of the Millenarian party sincerely thanked the Bishop for 
 his instruction. Cojac/o« Jiinisolf made formal recantation. To confirm 
 his converts, Dionysius wrote a book entitled Ilfpi frtayyf^nlii'. Aversion 
 to the spiritualism of the school of Origen soon afterwards induced 
 Mefhodiiis, Bishop of Olympus, to advocate a moderate Millenarianism. 
 which Ladaniivs also enthusiastically defended. But as the aspect 
 of outward affairs changed under the reign of Constantine the Great.
 
 THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE. 147 
 
 these yiews lost their hold on men's minds. The Church now prepared 
 for a long-continued period of temporal prosperity, and the State-Church 
 of that time forgot the millennial glory of the future. 
 
 HI. THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE. 
 
 1. Attention was chiefly paid to Apologetics. — The apology of 
 Quadrutus, Bishop of Athens, has been lost. In this tractate, which 
 he handed to the Emperor Hadrian, he appealed to the fact that he 
 had been acquainted with some of the persons whom Jesus healed or 
 raised from the dead. — The same fate overtook the apologies of Ar ist i- 
 des, a converted philosopher of Athens, — of Ai-iston of Fella, who wrote 
 a Dialogue between Papiscus, a Jew of Alexandria, and Jason, a Jewish 
 Christian, — oi Melito, Bishop of Sardes, of Claudius Ajjpolinai-is from 
 Ilierapolis, and of Miltiades, a rhetorician, who handed their apologies 
 to Marcus Aurelius. (The "Oration of Melito to Antonius Caesar," 
 edited by W. Curetou in his Spicilegium Syriac. Lond. 1855, is probably 
 not the celebrated apology of that Father, but his tractate tttpl ä-Krj^siai). 
 With Justin Martyr commences the series of apologies which have been 
 preserved. That Father wrote a large and a smaller apology — both 
 addressed to Marcus Aurelius — a Dialogue " cum Tryphone Judgeo," 
 and a tractate Tttpi fiovapx^o-i- The authenticity of the ^6yoj rrapaiver ix6i 
 rtpöj "E^^jji/aj (cohortatio), and of the >^yoj (oratio) «pöj "Ex7t»;vaj, is 
 doubtful. Tatian, a pupil of Justin (§ 28, 8), wrote a ?toyoj rtpoj "E?i7i>;ra{ ; 
 Athenagoras handed to Marcus Aurelius his rtfuaßda. Ttepi xf^'-'^'^'-'^^'^v ; 
 Theophiliis of Antioch wrote rtpöj Avt6%vxov rttpi trjs riLv Xpiunavwv 
 TtCotcui', Hermias, a satire, 6ttt(jvp,uÖ5 rCj>- It" ^tXoaö^coi/. — From the pen 
 of Clemens Alex, we possess an apology consisting of three portions : 
 The ^oyoj rtpoT'pfrtrtxoj rtpöj Exxyjia^ shows the falsehood of heathenism, 
 the rtaiSaycoyoj shows the way to Christ, and the arpw^ara introduce the 
 reader to the deeper truths of Christianity. Origen wrote an excellent 
 apology "contra Celsum" (| 24, 2). From the able pen of Tertullian 
 we have the " Apologeticus adv. gentes," — the " ad nationes," — " ad 
 Scapulam" (the Proconsul of Africa), — "de testimonio animre": — 
 from Minucius Felix, an advocate at Rome, an excellent Dialogue enti- 
 tled "Octavius"; — from Cyprian the "de idolorum vanitate" and 
 " testimonia adv. Judasos." Commodian wrote, in barbarous Latin and 
 in bad hexameters, his " instructiones adv. gentium Deos," — Arnohiiis, 
 even before his baptism, the " disputationes adv. gentes," containing 
 traces of Gnostic leanings, — Ladaniius, in elegant Latin, his " institu- 
 tiones divinje' — " de mortibus persecutorum," " de opificio Dei," " de 
 iraDei." — Among the ^««(cfo epigraphic and apocryphal works, written 
 for apologetic purposes, we reckon the " Testamenta XII. patriarch- 
 arum," being the instructions and prophecies addressed by Jacob to 
 his twelve sons, — and the Christian Sibylline books, being oracles (in
 
 148 SECTION I. — FIRST P E R I D (lOO— 323 A. D.) • 
 
 hexameters) by the daughters-in-law of Noah, referring to the history 
 of the. various empires, the life of Jesus, the fate of Rome, Antichiist, 
 etc. The Christians, who frequently appealed to them as very ancient 
 testimonies in favour of the truth, were, by way of derision, designated 
 by the heathen as SibyUisis. — (Gi. § 48, 3.) 
 
 2. Polemics. — No polemical works of very ancient date (againsi the 
 Ebionites, the Gnostics, the Montanists, etc.) have been preserved. 
 This species of literature seems to have been assiduously cultivated by 
 the theologians of Asia Minor. Hippolytiis wrote his ^iV^oao^ovf^tvii tj 
 xata rtaaHv aipigsMv iXiyxoi against every kind of heresy. The following 
 authors wrote against the Gnostics: Irenceus, the i'ktyx'^i **'' avatpwr»; 
 *jj? ■^(vbuivvpiov yi/uiofcoj (adv. hsereses), — Terttdlian, "de prsescriptione 
 hgereticorum," "adv. Hermogenem," "adv. Valentinianos," -adv. 
 Marcionem," "de anima," "de came Christi," "de resurrectiono 
 carnis," " Scorpiace" (antidote); — against the Monarchians: Hi^pdy- 
 tus, "contra Noetum," "contra Artemonem," — Tertullian, '* adv. 
 Praxeara," — Novatian, "de trinitate," — Dionysius of Alex, and l)io- 
 nysius of Rome; — against the Allegorists (the disciples of Origen): 
 Nepos of Arsinoe (| 40, 8) and Methodius of Olympus, rtspi avaotdca^i 
 and rtfpi tCjv ysvvrjtuiv, — while, on the other hand, Dionysius of Alex. 
 (I 44, 8), Gregorius Thaumaturgus (stj 'fipiylvj^r navriyvpixoi xöyo^), and 
 PamphiJus of Caesarea [' AftoXoyiu,) defended Origen and his tendencies. 
 — (Cf. I 48, 3.) 
 
 3. Dogmatics. — In the tractate rtspil a^x^^ (de principiis), which has 
 only been handed down in the Latin revision of Rufinus, Origen gave 
 a 8y.stematic exposition of Christian doctrines generally. The work ia 
 full of ingenious speculations; it also contains many traces of Platonic, 
 Gnostic, and spiritualizing views, and a good many heterodox state- 
 ments (such as: the eternity of creation, the fall of human souls before 
 the creation of the world, their incarceration in the body, a denial of 
 the doctrine of the resurrection, Apocatastasis, etc.). Occasionally, 
 dogmatical statements on special points occur in some of the apologetic 
 and polemic writings of that period. On the doctrine concerning the 
 Church, the work of Cyprian, " de unitate ecclesiae," may be said to 
 form an era.— (Cf. I 48, 5.) 
 
 4. Criticism and Exegesis. —To correct the text of the LXX., Origen 
 undertook his gigantic work entitled the Hexapla, which consists of 
 collation of the different texts in six columns. Similar labours engaged 
 Luc.ian of Antioch (| 39, 6). — The exegesis commonly in use was that 
 known as allegorical, the Fathers following in this respect the Rabbins 
 and the Hellenists. The Kxttj of Melito (§ 39,.3), in which the mystical 
 iense of Biblical names and words is indicated, furnishes directions for
 
 THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE. 149 
 
 the allegorical interpretation of Scripture. It is preserved in a latei 
 Latin elaboration (Clavis Melitonis in Pitra Spicil. Solesmense T. II. 
 III.). Origen reduced the prevailing mode of interpretation to definite 
 canons. He distinguished in every passage of Scripture a threefold 
 sense — first the literal, then the higher or mystical, i. e., the tropical or 
 moral, and lastly, the pneumatic sense, — as it were the a^fia, ■^x^^ ^^^ 
 Hvivfia.. Without undervaluing the literal meaning of a passage, he 
 deemed it of much greater importance to ascertain its mystical sense. 
 Every history in the Bible was a representation of what had occurred 
 in the higher world. Most events had occurred just as they were re- 
 lated ; but some, which, if literally taken, appeared to him unworthy 
 or unreasonable, were merely typical, and had not really taken place. 
 The founders of the school of Antioch (§ 39, 6), and probably also 
 Nepos the Millenarian (^ 40, 8), opposed this allegorical treatment of 
 the Bible, and advocated an exclusively historical and grammatical 
 interpretation. The exegetical writings previous to Origeti have 
 not been preserved. Of his own works, the cstjuelüczk: or brief scholia, 
 the toyLoi or detailed commentaries on entire Biblical books, and the 
 bf».%ia.i, being explanatory lectures on the Scriptures, have been pre- 
 served, partly in the original, and partly in the Latin translations of 
 Hieronymus and of Rufinus. Hippolytus was, next to Origen, proba- 
 bly the ablest exegetical writer ; but only small fragments from his 
 exegetical works have been handed down. — (Cf. ? 48, 1.) 
 
 5. In Historical Theologxj we possess Acts of Martyrs, Apocryphal 
 Gospels, and Acts of Apostles (Ev. Jacobi Minoris, Ev. de nativitate 
 Marije, Hist, de Joachim et Anna, Hist. Josephi fabri lignarii, Ev. 
 infantiae Sal vat., Ev. Nicodemi, Acta Pilati, etc.). Eusebius has pre- 
 served some fragments of the vrto^vjj^ata t^v ixxT^r^aiaatixCjv rtpd^stov of 
 Hegesippus, a Jewish Christian from Asia Minor. Of greater import- 
 ance than this work was the Chronography (Xpoi-oypafia) of Julius 
 Africanus, which showed the connection between Biblical and profane 
 history. But this tractate has also been lost. Among writings of the 
 same class we may also reckon the work of Lactantiiis, de morte perse- 
 cutt.— (Cf. I 48, 2.) 
 
 6. Practical Theology. — In Homüetics, the first rank must be assiq:ned 
 to Origen. The most interesting writings of an ascetic character are 
 those of Clement of Alexandria, Tt'j o (jw^ö^svoj rt^vatoj ; of Origen, 
 Ilfpi (vxr^i, and Etj ^apfvptov TtpotpsrCi'i.xöi 7.öyoj ; of Methodius of Olym- 
 pus, 2v^rto(jtO(/ 'tu}v Ssxa rtap^ivoiv rCipl trji ayysXoni/xr^rov rtap^f I'taj. Among 
 the Latins, we have by Tertidlian (before he became a Montanist), "de 
 oratione," "ad martyres," "de spectaculis," "de idolatria," "de cultu 
 feminarum," " de patientia," " ad uxorem ;" (after he became a Mon- 
 tanist:) "de virginibus velandis/' "de corona militis," "de fuga in 
 
 13*
 
 150 SECTION I. — FIRST PERIOD (100—323 A.D.). 
 
 persecutlone," "de exhortatione castitatis," "de monogamia," "de 
 pudicitia," "de jejuniis," "de pallio ;" — by Cyprian, "de gratia Dei," 
 "de lapsis," "de opere et eleemosynis," "de bono patientiae," "de 
 zelo et livore," etc. — On the subject of Ecclesiastical Law (constitu- 
 tion, worship, discipline), the pseudo-Clementine Atarayai tav a.Ttoo-to'Kuiv 
 (constitutiones apostolorum) are of very great importance. These 
 originated in the Syrian Church, partly at the close of the third and 
 partly at the commencement of the fourth century. The first six books 
 also bear the name of biba.axa.%ia xa^oxixri. At the end of Book VIII. 
 eighty-five pseudo-epigraphic " Canones apostolorum" are appended. — 
 (Cf. I 48, 7.)
 
 SECOND PERIOD 
 
 OF 
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY 
 
 UNDER THE ANCIENT CLASSICAL FORK OF CULTURE. 
 
 FROM THE YEAR 323-692. 
 
 L STATE AND CHURCH. 
 
 Comp. A. Beugnot, hist, de la destruction du Paganisme en Occident. 
 Par. 1835. 2 Voll. — E. Chastel, hist, de la destr. du Pag. dans I'empire 
 de I'Oi-ient. Par. 1850. — E. von Lasaulx, der Untergang des Hellenis- 
 mus (The Fall of Hellen.). Mun. 1854.— i^. Lübker, d. Fall. d. Heidenth. 
 Schwerin 1856. 
 
 §42. FALL OF HEATHENISM IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 After the defeat of Licinius (323), Constantine openly pro- 
 fessed himself a Christian, although he still remained Pontifex 
 Maximus, and was baptized by Eusebius of Nicomedia but shortly 
 before his death (331 ). He showed himself tolerant towards 
 heathenism, whilst he encouraged conversion to Christianity by 
 bestowing special favours upon those professing it. His sons, 
 however, used violence in suppressing heathenism. Julian''» 
 reign was merely a historical anomaly, which proved that hea- 
 thenism perished because its effete powers were exhausted, rather 
 than by violence. His labours all perished with his death. Ju- 
 lian's successors resumed the work of restricting, persecuting, and 
 exterminating it. But Justinian inflicted the most fatal blow. — 
 In spite of Julian's imperial protection, and the splendid renown 
 of learned advocates (Jamblicus, oh. 333; Libanius, oh. 395; 
 Himerius, oh. 390 ; Themistius, ob. 390 ; Proclus, oh. 485) 
 Neo-Platoniam (§ 24, 2) was wholly unable to accomplish its 
 purpose. Still more signal was the failure of the HiipaiMarians, 
 
 (151)
 
 152 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323—692 A.D.). 
 
 Euphemites, and Ccelicoli, in their attempts to rejuvenate hea» 
 thenism by means of a rigid Jewisli monotheism, or an anti- 
 quated Sabaeisra. In the literary controversy between Chris- 
 tianity and heathenism, the character of the contest had been 
 reversed. 
 
 1. Constantine M. and his Sons.^ (Cf. /. C. F. Manso, Leb. Fonst. 
 Bresl. 1817. — /. Burckhardt, Konst. u. s. zeit. Bas. 1853.) — Constan- 
 tine's conversion cannot be set down to the account of mere political 
 calculation. However, outbursts of passionate violence (among them 
 the execution of Crispus, his son), and not a few actions which cannot 
 be justified, occurred after his profession of Christianity. He died in 
 337, soon after having received baptism, without having ever taken 
 part in all the rites of public worship. His dislike of heathenism, 
 which, through the influence of some powerful families, was still preva- 
 lent at Rome, formed one of the elements in his resolution to transfer 
 his residence to Byzantium (Constantinople). His three sons com- 
 menced their reign by assassinating all the relatives of the Emperor 
 (only two nephews, Gallus and Juliauus, escaped), and by dividing 
 among themselves the empire. Consiaidius (337-361) ruled first over 
 the East. After the death of Constantine II. [oh. 340), and of Con- 
 stans [oh. 350), he became sole lord of the empire. All the sons of 
 Constantine endeavoured to suppress heathenism by force. Constan- 
 tius caused all heathen temples to be shut, and interdicted sacrifices on 
 pain of death. Great numbers of pagans made profession of Chris- 
 tianity, few of them from real conviction. These measures only deep- 
 ened the dislike of the more noble-minded heathen against Christianity. 
 In. their opinion, patriotism and intellectual culture were identical with 
 attachment to the old faith. 
 
 2. Julian the Apostate (361-363). — (Comp. A. Neander, Kaiser Julian 
 und sein Zeitalter (The Emp. Jul. and his Age). Leipz. 1812. — V. S. 
 Teuffel, de Jul. Christianismi contemt. et osore. Tub. 1844. — 1). Strauss, 
 d. Romantiker auf d. Thron d. C;esaren. Mannh. 1847. — /. E. Aver, 
 Julian d. Abtr. im Kampfe mit den Kirchenvätern s. Zeit. (Cont. betw. 
 Jul, the Apost. and the Fathers of his Age). Vienna 1855.) — Julian, 
 the heir to the throne; who was at any rate incensed at the murder of 
 his relatives, long chafed under the monkish and ascetic training to 
 which he was subjected. But he could conceal under the garb of 
 feigned bigotry his heart-hatred of Christianity. When at last he 
 obtained permission to study at Nicomedia and Athens, the represent- 
 atives of heathenism in these places filled him with the conviction that 
 he was called by the gods to restore the ancient faith. Lulled into 
 security by his hypocrisy, Constantivs intrusted Julian with the com- 
 mand of an army against the Germans. His courage and talents 
 gained him the heart of the soldiers. He now threw off the mask, and
 
 FALL OF HEATHENISM 153 
 
 openly raised the standard of rebellion. Constantius died on his expe- 
 dition against him, and Julian became Emperor (361-363). He imme- 
 diately addressed himself with zeal and energy to the execution of his 
 long-cherished plans, and sought to renew and restore the glories of 
 ancient Paganism. To weaken and oppress Christianity, he employed 
 ingenious rather than violent measures, although he deprived the clergy 
 of their possessions, reminding them in derision of the duty of evan- 
 gelical poverty. He encouraged, so far as he could, schisms in the 
 Church, favoured all heretics and sects, sought by artifices to induce 
 the soldiers to take part in sacrifices, interdicted Christians from having 
 literary schools, removed them from the higher offices of state, and 
 heaped on them all manner of indignity, etc. In order to defeat the 
 prediction of Christ (Matt, xxiii. 38 ; xxiv. 2), he attempted to restore 
 the temjDle at Jerusalem. But earthquakes and flames bursting from 
 the ground, scattered the workmen. By all means in his power, and 
 in every manner, he sought to restore and to elevate Paganism. From 
 Christianity he borrowed certain charitable institutions, its ecclesiasti- 
 cal discipline, preaching, singing at public worship, etc. He also 
 bestowed a number of distinctions on the heathen priesthood ; but, on 
 the other hand, insisted on strict discipline among them. In his capa- 
 city of Pontifex Maximus, he himself sacrificed and preached, and led 
 a strictly ascetic and almost cynically simple life. But the want of 
 success attending his endeavours increasingly exasperated him. Al- 
 ready fears were entertained of new persecutions, when, after a reign 
 of only twenty months, he died in an expedition against the Persians, — 
 as Christians related it, with the words, " Tandem vicisti, Galilfee!" 
 on his lips. — On the throne of the Caesars, Julian had displayed talents 
 and virtues such as had not adorned it since the time of Marcus 
 Aurelius. 
 
 3. Final Destniction of Heathenism. — With Julian perished also his 
 futile attempts. His successors, Jovian (ob. 364), and then in the West, 
 Valentinian I. (o&. 375), Gratian (oft. 383), and Valentinian II. (oft. 392), 
 — in the East, Valens [ob. 378) and Theodosius I. [ob. 395), tolerated 
 heathenism for some time, but only to prepare for its more certain 
 destruction. Scarcely had Theodosius in some measure allayed political 
 troubles, when, in 382, he made conversion to heathenism a criminal 
 offence. The populace and the monks destroyed the temples» On this 
 account Libanius addressed to the Emperor his celebrated oration, rie^L 
 ruiy ispwi/ ; still, the latter caused the remaining temples to be shut, and 
 interdicted all attendance on them. Bloody contests raged in the 
 streets of Alexandria during the episcopate of Theophilus, in conse- 
 quence of which the Christians destroyed the splendid Serapeion (391). 
 In vain the heathen expected that this sin would cause the heavens to 
 fall or the earth to perish ; even the Nile refused to avenge the out- 
 rage through drought. — Gratian followed in the West the example 
 ■which Theodosius had set in the East. He was the first to decline
 
 154 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323—692 A. D.). 
 
 the 'lignity of Pontifex Maximus ; he deprived the heathen priests of 
 their immunities, confiscated the landed property belonging to the 
 temples, and ordered the altar of victory, which stood in the Curia of 
 the Senate at Rome, to be removed. It was in vain that Symmachus, 
 the praefectus urbi, endeavoured to get it restored. By the advice of 
 Amb7r>sius, ValenUuian (L, on four difiPerent occasions, refused to see 
 deputations which had come to him on this subject. As soon as Thee 
 dosius became sole ruler (392), edicts even more stringent appeared. 
 On his entrance into Rome (394), he addressed the Roman Senate in 
 language of reproof, and admonished them to adopt Christianity. Hia 
 sons Honorius [oh. 423) in the West, and Arcadhis in the East [oh. 
 408), continued the policy of Theodosivs. Under Theodosius II. [ob. 
 450), monks armed with imperial power travelled through the provinces 
 for the purpose of suppressing heathenism. This was not accomplished 
 without deeds of violence. The most horrible of these was the as- 
 sassination at Alexandria of Hypatia, a woman of noble birth and a 
 heathen philosopher (415). In official language, heathenism was 
 regarded as defunct. For a long time it had been branded as the 
 religion of rustics [Paganismus), and could only be practised secretly 
 and in distant localities. Its last, and indeed its only prop, was the 
 Academy at Athens, which attained its highest celebrity when Proclus 
 [oh. 485) taught in its halls. Justinian I. (527-565) closed this insti- 
 tution. Its teachers fled into Persia. With their departure heathen- 
 ism in the Roman and Grecian empire may be said to have deceased. 
 Still, in the mountains of the Peloponnesus, the Mainots maintained 
 their political independence and ancestral religion so late as the ninth 
 century ; while in Sardinia, Corsica, and Sicily, individual heathens 
 were found even at the time of Gregory the Great [oh. 604). 
 
 4. Resistance and Apologies of the Heathen. — Julian alone could still 
 polemise after the ancient fashion. Of his work xarä Xpisnaruiv, in 
 seven books, the principal portions have been preserved in the reply of 
 Cyrill of Alexandria. He pronounced Christianity a degenerate form 
 of Judaism, and declared that the adoration of Christ, and martyr- 
 worship, were later perversions of the doctrine of Christ. The other 
 representatives of heathenism were content to sue for religious liberty 
 and toleration. Again, while among Christian writers Lactantins had 
 still plead for mutual forbearance, Firmicns Maternus already plied the 
 sons of Constantine the Great with fanatical admonitions to suppress 
 idolatry by force, pressing upon them the comman'd of God to Joshua 
 to exterminate the Canaanites. But when, from the fifth century, the 
 incursi(ms of the barbarians gave indications of the speedy downfall 
 of the Roman empire, heathen writers felt encouraged to ascribe the 
 disasters of the commonwealth to a judgment of the gods, on account 
 of the suppression of the ancient religion, under which the State had 
 BO long flourished. These statements were made, among others, by the 
 heathen historians Zosimus and Eimapius. But history itself refuted
 
 CHRISTIAN STATE AND STATE CHURCH. Ib5 
 
 Ihem better than Christian apologetical writers (§ 48, 3) could have 
 done ; for these very barbarians gradually adopted Christianity, and 
 almost surpassed the Roman emperors in the number and severity of 
 their measures for the suppression of heathenism. 
 
 5. According to Gregory of Nazianzus, vi'hose father had belonged ta 
 the sect of the Hypsistarians in Cappadocia, the religious views of 
 that party consisted of a mixture of Grecian heathenism with Jewish 
 monotheism, and the Eastern worship of fire and of the stars, — special 
 opposition being made to the Christian doctrine of the Trinity. A 
 kindred sect were the Euphemites (those that sung praise) in Asia, 
 who also bore the name of Messalians (praying) or Euclietes, and the 
 Beet of the Cmlicoloe in Africa. 
 
 1 43. THE CHRISTIAN STATE AND THE STATE CHURCH. 
 
 Comp. C.Eiffel, gesch. Darst. des Verb. zw. K. u. Staat. (Histor. 
 Repr. of the Relat. betw. Ch. and State). Vol. I. May. l%2,&.— Planck, 
 Gesch. d. Kirchl. Gesellschafts. — Verf. Vol. I. 
 
 As, in his capacity of Pontifex Maxiraus, the Roman Emperor 
 had formerly had the supreme direction of all religions affairs, 
 so, when Christianity became the religion of the State, he 
 gradually came to occupy a similar position in reference to the 
 Church. Even Constantine the Great regarded himself as irtiaxoTioi 
 t^v t|tj r77« ixxxrioiai;, and all his successors exercised the "jus 
 circa sacra," nor were their claims in this respect ever called in 
 question. The Donatists (§ 63, 2) alone held that the State had 
 no control whatever over the Church. As yet, the limits within 
 which the State might claim certain rights in reference to the 
 Church were not clearly defined. But thus much was asserted, 
 at least in theory, that the Emperor had no power of liis own 
 accord to decide on internal questions concerning the Church 
 (worship, discipline, and doctrine). To decide on such questions. 
 General Synods were convened, of which the decrees obtained 
 imperial sanction, and thereby became public enactments. But, 
 in measure as the court of Byzantium degenerated and became 
 the centre of intrigues, the interference of the court in eccle- 
 siastical matters became increasingly pernicious. More than 
 once, heresy for a time prevailed through personal feeling, 
 unworthy artifices, and even by open force. But in the end, 
 generally, truth again obtained the victory. The usurper Baail- 
 icvH was the first, in the year 476, to dttermine, by imperial 
 edicts, what should be taught and what should be believed
 
 156 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). 
 
 throughout the empire (§ 52, 5). Later emperors followed his 
 example ; among them, especially Justinian I. (527 to 565) ; 
 and court theologians even attempted to justify such interferences 
 by investing the imperial office vpith a priestly character, of 
 which, according to them, Melchisedec had been ä type. — The 
 emperors exercised great influence on the election of bishops in 
 the principal cities ; at a later period, they appointed or deposed 
 them as they chose. On the other hand, the protectorate of the 
 emperors conferred on the Church a number of outward advan- 
 tages and privileges. Among them we reckon the fact, that the 
 State undertook the maintenance of the Church, partly by 
 bestowing rich presents and foundations from the public ex- 
 chequer, partly by making over to the Church the heathen 
 temples and the possessions attaching to them. Even Con- 
 stantine had authorized the Church to receive legacies of every 
 kind. Besides, churches and ecclesiastical officials were free from 
 all public burdens. The ancient practice of bishops to act as 
 arbiters (1 Cor. vi. 1-6) was formally recognized ; the clergy 
 were exempted from secular jurisdiction', and placed under the 
 authority of their superiors. The right of asylum which had 
 belonged to the heathen temples was transferred to Christian 
 churches. Connected with this was the right of episcopal inter- 
 cession in favour of those who had been condemned by the 
 tribunals, — a practice by which the latter became subject to a 
 certain spiritual control, and unjust, arbitrary, or harsh measures 
 were not unfrequently prevented. 
 
 1. According to. the jus circa sacra, the emperors had power to 
 arrange all things which bore on the relation between Church and 
 State. At the same time, it was also their duty to preserve or restore 
 peace and unity in the Church, to protect orthodoxy, to take charge of 
 the interests of the Church and of the clergy, and to uphold the eccle- 
 siastical canons. Constantine the Great already excluded all heretics 
 from the privileges which he had accorded to the Church, and deemed 
 it his duty to oppose the progress of heresy to the best of his power. 
 For that purpose, the State did not hesitate to take away or to close 
 such churches, to interdict their worship, to exile their leaders, and 
 afterwards also to confiscate their property. The usurper Maximua 
 (§ 54, 2) was the first, so early as the year 385, to execute sentence of 
 death against heretics. But during this period his example was not 
 followed by his successors. In 054, Constans II. caused a determined 
 opponent of his ecclesiastical schemes (^ 52, 8) to be scourged and 
 barbarously mutilated. — The Fathers of the fourth century disapproved 
 ol all constraint in matters of faith (comp, however I 63, 2).
 
 CHRISTIAN STATE AND STATE C H XJ R C H . 157 
 
 2. The institution of General Synods [avvohov olxovi-ifvixaC, concilia 
 universalia s. generalia) originated with Constantine the Great. They 
 were convoked by the Emperor, and presi(^<;d over either by the 
 monarch in person, or by a prelate chosen by the Council. An imperial 
 commissary opened the Synod by reading the imperial edict convening 
 it ; and also attended the meetings, for the purpose of guarding the 
 rights of the State. The travelling expenses and maintenance of 
 members of Synod were paid from the treasury. The decrees were 
 designated by the common name of opot, definitiones ; — if they de- 
 termined on matters of faith, they were called höyfxata, or if couched 
 in the form of a confession, avjji.ßo'hx ; — if they bore on the government, 
 worship, or discipline of the Church, they were called xavdvfj. Dogmas 
 and symbols required to be unanimously passed ; for canons a majority 
 of votes was sufficient. From the first, only bishops were held entitled 
 to vote in synods. But the prelates might be represented by some of 
 their inferior clergy. — Instead of cecumenic councils, which could not 
 be rapidly convened, svvohoi svStjuovaac, as they were called, were some- 
 times held at Constantinople. These were composed of all the bishops 
 present at the time in the capital. Such endemic synods were also 
 occasionally held at Alexandria. — Twice a year Provincial S;/nods 
 assembled under the presidency of their respective metropolitans. By 
 and bye Patriarchal or Diocesan Synods were instituted, to serve as a 
 court of appeal. 
 
 3. Among the sources of general Ecclesiastical Law at that period, 
 we may mention, 1. The canons of the general councils, — 2. The 
 decrees of the principal provincial synods, — 3. The Apostolic Canons 
 (§ 41, 6), — 4. The epistolce cannnic.ce of the principal bishops (especially 
 '^f those in the sedes apostolicse, | 30 ; above all, those from Rome and 
 Alexandria), in reply to inquiries about the ecclesiastical practice pre- 
 valent in their dioceses (those from Rome were called epistolce clecre- 
 tales), — 5. The imperial laws on the subject, vojxoi, (the Codex Theodo- 
 sianus about 440, the Codex Justinianfeus 534, the Novelise Justiniani). 
 So far as we know, the first collection of those was made in the Greek 
 Church, by Johannes Scholasticus, Patriarch of Constantinople. It 
 obtained the name of Nomo-canon (about 560), because the ecclesiastical 
 vöfiot. of Justinian were added to it. A later Greek nomo-canon bears 
 the name of Theodorxs Balsamon. In the West, all former collections 
 gave place to the Codex canonum, (jompiled by the Roman abbot 
 Diomjsius the Small, to which also all the decretal letters tlien extant 
 were appended (about 500). 
 
 14
 
 158 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). 
 
 II. MONASTICISM, THE CLERGY AND HIERARCHY. 
 
 §44. MONASTICISM. 
 
 Comp. A. Möhler, Gesch. d. Mönchth. in d. Zeit sein. Entsteh. (Hist 
 3f Mon. at the time of its Orig.) in his coll. Works, I. 165, etc. — G 
 J. Mangolil, de monachatus orig. et causis. Marb. 1852. — Comp, also 
 the works cited in § 2, 2. 
 
 Satiated of the ways of the world, and following the inclina- 
 tion for a contemplative life, which is characteristic of 'Orientals, 
 many persons retired into solitude. Here, amidst prayer and 
 labour, amidst want and self-denial which not unfrequently de- 
 generated into self-torture, these Anachorets sought after that 
 sanctification which they deemed impossible to attain in the midst 
 of a corrupt world. The first example of this mode of life was 
 given by Paul of Thebes, whose end became only accidentally 
 known (§36, 3). But Monasticism properly originated with 
 St. Antonius, oh. 356. His shining example was soon followed, 
 and the deserts of Egypt became peopled with swarms of hermits, 
 who gained from the wilderness a scanty subsistence. On the 
 Nitrian mountains Amonius, and in the Scetian Desert Macarius 
 the elder, founded celebrated institutions of anachorets. The 
 largest of these communities was that founded by Pachomius 
 {ph. 348) in Tabennae, an island in the Nile. By the rules which 
 he gave to his followers, the institutions of anachorets were 
 transformed into regular monastic establishments (xon/öj ßioi). 
 The monks with their president, called Ahhot (abbas = father) 
 or Archimandrite, were to live in a cloister Ccoenobium, monas- 
 terium, claustrum, mandra, dairo, i. e., dwelling), and to spend 
 their time in prayer and labour (agriculture, making of baskets, 
 carpets, etc.). Several other monasteries were founded in con- 
 nection with the great cloister at Tabennae, and soon the number 
 of these monks amounted to 50,000. Hilarion founded in 
 Palestine, near Gaza, a monastery on the same principles, the 
 affiliated cloisters of which extended over all Syria. — In the 
 East, the number of cloisters and monks increased immensely. 
 The monastic life was vaunted as a ßio^ ayyfXtxo? and a fpi%oao<^ia 
 l^-Kr^, and regarded as a substitute for the martyrdom which was 
 not any longer attainable. Already its institution was traced
 
 M N A S T I C I S IM , 
 
 159 
 
 Dack to Elijah and John the Baptist, and the Therapeutce were 
 represented as having been the first Christian monks. The 
 cloisters became an asylum for those that were oppressed or 
 persecuted, institutions of charity for the poor and sick, and soon 
 afterwards also seminaries for training those who were to fill the 
 clerical or episcopal office. But here also corruption made sad 
 navoc. Not spiritual motives only, but ambition, vanity, idle- 
 ness, and especially a desire to withdraw from the obligation to 
 serve in the army, etc., or to pay taxes, helped to fill the cloisters. 
 Hence in 365, the Emperor Valens ordered that such persons 
 should be taken by force out of the monasteries. In order to 
 arrest religious delusions (such as self-tortures, work-righteous- 
 ness, enthusiasm and fanaticism, spiritual pride, etc.), and to make 
 these institutions available for the real good of the Church, by 
 converting them into seminaries for scientific studies and for 
 education, some eminent bishops, among them Basil the Great, 
 took the monasteries under their special superintendence and 
 care. Other prelates, however, frequently employed the monks 
 as a ready soldiery to carry out their ambitious or party views. 
 — At first, the Western Church was opposed to these monastic 
 tendencies. The authority of Athanasius, who on several occa- 
 sions was obliged to seek a refuge in the West, led to a more 
 favourable opinion of them. After that, the most celebrated of 
 the Fathers, headed by such men as Ambrose, Jerome, and 
 Augustine, exerted all their influence to spread monastic institu- 
 tions. Martin of Tours introduced them into ISTorthern Gaul 
 about the year 380. In Soutliern Gaul, Honoratus founded the 
 celebrated monastery of Lerinum, and Johannes Gassianus, (ob. 
 432) the still more celebrated institution at Massilia. But 
 Monasticism in the West almost perished during the migration 
 of nations ; it was reserved for Benedict of Nursia, in the year 
 529, to reorganize the monasteries, and to introduce unity and 
 order in them (§ 85). 
 
 1. St. Antonius sprung from a Coptic family at Coma, in Egypt. 
 Left in his 18th year an orphan, the passage in the Gospel about the 
 rich young man (Matt, xix.) affected him in such a manner, that he 
 gave all his goods to the poor and retired to the desert. Amidst 
 agonizing internal conflicts and temptations, his Christian experience 
 ripened. Persons of all ranks went to consult him in search of comfort 
 and peace. Even Comtantine the Great intimated in a letter hia 
 veneration for this Christian Diogenes. Through his pra^'ers bodily
 
 160 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). 
 
 diseases, through his counsel spiritual ailments, were removed. Twice 
 - — in the year 311, during the Diocletian persecution, and in the year 
 351, during the height of the Arian controversy — he suddenly 
 appeared in Alexandria. By Christians and Pagans regarded as a 
 sign from God, he succeeded in converting, within a few days, thousands 
 of heathens. Like-minded persons gathered around him in order to 
 enjoy his ministrations. In his last days he retired from *hem, and 
 died at the age of 105 years (in 356). 
 
 2. Nunneries. — As early as the second century, some pious virgins 
 renounced marriage in order to devote themselves wholly to God. As 
 their sex prevented them from leading the life of anachorets, they were 
 the more ready to fall in with the idea of a monastic life. St. Antonius 
 himself had given the fii'st example of a nunnery, when, on retiring to 
 the wilderness, he founded for his sister, at Coma in Egypt, an institu- 
 tion destined to receive such virgins. The first regular nunnery was 
 instituted by Pachomius, and presided over by his sister. After that 
 time their number rapidly increased. Their president was called 
 Ammas (mother), and the members fiovaxcl, Sanctimoniales, Nonnce 
 (in Coptic = cast3e). St. Paula of Rome, the pupil and friend of St. 
 Jerome, became the patroness of female Monasticism in the West. 
 She and her daughter Eustocliium followed Jerome to Palestine, and 
 founded in his vicinity, near Bethlehem, three nunneries. 
 
 3. St. Basil gave to the monks in the East new and improved rules, 
 which soon came into general and almost exclusive use. Since the 
 fifth century the synods gave laws to monasteries ^lUd their inmates. 
 In 451 the Council of Chalcedon subjected cloisters to the jurisdiction 
 of bishops. — At first it was held lawful for monks to return into the 
 world, although this step was regarded as blameworthy, and requiring 
 penance. But from the fifth and sixth centuries, monastic vows were 
 regarded as absolutely binding. Hence entrants required to be of a 
 certain (canonical) age, and to have passed a noviciate, or period of 
 probation and for consideration. Since the sixth century, not only a 
 "propria professio," but even a "paterna devotio" was held to be bind- 
 ing. — According to the rule of St. Basilius, every monastery had one 
 or more presbyters attached to it, who conducted worship and admin- 
 istered the sacraments. Up to the tenth century, the monks themselves 
 were regarded as laymen, but were distinguished as " Religiosi" from 
 the " Secvlares." Monasticism was, however, considered a preparation 
 for the clerical office, and the majority of bishops were taken directly 
 from monasteries. — (Cf. | 70, 3.) 
 
 4. The AcoiMETES were a particular class of monks, whose origin 
 dates from the fifth century. Studius, a Roman, founded for them at 
 Constantinople the celebrated monastery of Studion. They derived 
 their peculiar name from the circumstance that, in their cloisterp
 
 MONASTTCISM. 161 
 
 Divine worship was continuously celebrated night and day. — The 
 Stylites were a peculiar class of hermits. The best k'QOwu among 
 them was Si/meon Sfijlites, who at the commencement of the fifth cen- 
 tury lived for thirty years, in the neighbourhood of Antioch, on a pillar 
 thirty-six yards high, and theuce preached repentance to the multitudes 
 who from all parts crowded to see and hear him. Vanquished by the 
 power of his addresses, thousands of Saracens who wandered about in 
 that neighbourhood were baptized. The best-known Stylites, next to 
 him, are a certain Daniel (near Constant, ob. 489) and a younge? 
 Si}7ieon (near Antioch, ob. 596), 
 
 5. Even after Fachomius, Hilarion, and BasUius had given fixed 
 rules to the various monasteries, individual associations of hermits 
 refused to submit to any regulation. Among them we may mention 
 the Sarabaites in Egypt, and the Remoboth in Syria. Irregular asso- 
 ciations of monks wandered about through Mesopotamia, under the 
 name of Boaxot, pabulatores, from the circumstance that they lived on 
 herbs or roots. Since the fifth century we read of the Gyrovayi (as 
 they Avere called), in Italy and Africa, who, under the designation of 
 monks, led a dissolute and vagrant life. — The Euchites and Eusta- 
 THiAN'S, who appeared in the second half of the fourth century, were 
 heretical and schismatic monks. The former — who are not to be con- 
 founded with the heathen Euchetai (§ 42, 5) — bore also the names of 
 Messalians and Choreulai (from their mystical dances). They claimed 
 to have attained the highest point of spirituality, and on that ground 
 to be above the law. Pretending to be absorbed in silent prayer, and 
 honoured with heavenly visions, they went about begging, since labour 
 was unltecoming perfect saints. Tbey taught that, in virtue of his 
 descent from Adam, every man brought an evil spirit with him into 
 the world, who could only be overcome by prayer. Thus alone would 
 the root of all evil be removed. After that was done, man required no 
 •longer either the law, the Scriptures, or the sacraments. He might 
 give reins to his passions, and even do what would be sinful in one who 
 was still under the law. They employed the lascivious imagery of 
 sensual love to describe their mystical communion with God. Th© 
 Gospel history they regarded as only an allegory, and considered fire 
 to be the creative principle of the universe. Flavian, Bishop of An- 
 tioch, by artifices and accommodation, obtained knowledge of their 
 secret principles and practices (381). But, despite the persecution to 
 which they were subjected, they continued till the sixth century. — The 
 EusTATurANS derived their name from Eustathius, Bishop of Sebaste, 
 the founder of Monasticism in the Eastern pi-ovinces of the empire. 
 In their fanatical contempt of marriage, they went so far as to regard 
 communion with married persons as impure, and to institute religioua 
 services of their own. They rejected the feasts of the Church, enjoined 
 fasting on Sundays and feast-days (| 31), and entire abstinence from 
 animal food. Their women went about dressed as men. They also 
 14"=
 
 162 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). 
 
 insisted that persons of property should give up all their possessions. 
 Servants left their masters, vrives their husbands, to join the commu- 
 nion of these saints. But the vigorous measures taken by the S^nod 
 of Gancfra in Paphlagonia (between a.D. 360 and 370) arrested the 
 spread of the sect. 
 
 I 45. THE CLERGY. 
 
 Gradually the separation between the clergy and laity became 
 more and more marked, while the superior ecclesiastical function- 
 aries formed a spiritual corresponding to the secular aristocracy. 
 It was maintained that tlie priesthood occupied the same relation 
 to the laity as the soul to the body. Withal, the number of 
 aspirants to the clerical office increased to a degree to render it 
 necessary for the State to regulate their admission by certain 
 laws. The clergy were appointed by the bishops, but with the 
 formal concurrence of the people. In the East, bishops were 
 chosen by all the prelates of a province, under the presidency 
 of the metropolitan, on whom also devolved the ordination of 
 the person elected. But in the West the old practice continued, 
 and bishops, clergy, and people combined in making the choice. 
 The Council of Nice interdicted the translation of bishops, 
 characterizing it as spiritual adultery (Eph. v. 23, etc.); still 
 the practice was by no means uncommon. The monarchical 
 power of the bishop over his clergy was admitted by all parties. 
 According to the practice in Rome, one-fourth of the total 
 revenues of a congregation went to the bishop, another fourth 
 to the rest of the clergy, a third portion to the poor, and the 
 remainder was employed for ecclesiastical buildings and furni-» 
 ture. In the course of time the episcopal functions and privi- 
 leges of the chorepiscopoi were more and more limited ; they 
 were subordinated to the city bishops, and ultimately (about 360) 
 the office was wholly suppressed. After the reaction against 
 episcopal claims had ceased, the jjresbyters — especially those who 
 ministered in affiliated or rural congregations — obtained a posi- 
 tion of greater independence than before as regarded the admin- 
 istration of worship and of the sacraments. By and by the 
 extension of congregational relationships gave rise to a variety 
 of new ecclesiastical offices. 
 
 1. Training of the Clergy. — The few theological schools which existed 
 in Alexandria, in Caesarea, in Antioch, in Edessa, and in Nisibis, were 
 manifestly quite insufficient for the requirements of the Church.
 
 THE CLERGY. 163 
 
 Besides, mDst: of them went down during the political and ecclesiastical 
 turmoils of the fifth and sixth centuries. In the West there were not 
 any such institutions. So long as the heathen seminaries of learning 
 flourished at Athens, Alexandria, Nicomedia, etc., many Christian 
 youths obtained in them their preparatory literary training, and after- 
 wards supplemented what was wanting in a religious aspect by 
 retiring into solitude or into monasteries, and there devoting them- 
 selves to asceticism and theological study. Others, despising classical 
 training, contented themselves with a monastic education. Others, 
 again, commenced their clerical career, when still boys, as lectores or 
 episcopal clerks, and were trained under the superintendence and 
 direction of bishops or experienced clergymen. Augustine constituted 
 his clergy into a kind of monastic community [monaster him clericomm), 
 and transformed it into a clerical seminary. This arrangement met 
 with general approbation ; and, when the North African bishops were 
 expelled by the Vandals from their country, was imported into Sicily 
 and Sardinia. 
 
 2. Ultimately the Canonical Age of priests was fixed at 30 years, 
 that of deacons at 25. Neophites, those who had been baptized when 
 sick (clinici), penitents and energifinenoi, higami, mutilated persons, 
 eunuchs, slaves, actors, dancers, soldiers, curials, etc., were not to be 
 admitted to the clerical office. At so early a period as the fourth century 
 the African Church insisted that candidates for the ministry should 
 undergo a strict examination as to their attainments and orthodoxy; 
 Justinian I. required that the bishops should at least inquire into the 
 orthodoxy of candidates. 
 
 3. Ordination (j^ftporowa) was regarded as analogous to the chrisma 
 of baptism, and hence as a sacrament. If the latter admitted into the 
 general priesthood, the former made a person a priest in a special 
 sense ; both imparted a '' character indelebilis." Its eifect was regarded 
 as almost magical. To impart ordination was the privilege of bishops 
 only ; but presbyters were wont to assist in the ordination of their 
 colleagues. The principle, " ne quis vage ordinetur," was universally 
 acted upon — the only exception being in the case of missionaries. 
 According to the Canons, a person was not to be ordained to any 
 superior ecclesiastical oflice till he had passed through all the inferior 
 grades, commencing with the sub-diaconate. At first, ordination con- 
 sisted only in imposition of the hands ; but at a later period the person 
 set apart was, after the analogy of baptism, also anointed {with chrism, 
 i. e., oil mixed with balsam). This ceremony was preceded by the 
 Lord's Suj-per, taken fasting. Since the sixth century candidates had 
 also to submit to Tonsure. This practice was first introduced in the 
 case of penitents ; it was imitated by the monks, as being a symbol of 
 humility, and from them it passed to the regular clergy. According 
 to the Grecian mode of tonsure (tonsura Pauli 1, the hair of the whole
 
 164 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A D.). 
 
 b'^ad was clipped quite short; according to the Roman mode (tonsura 
 Petri), a narrow rim of hair was left all round the head (either in 
 r imembrance of Christ's crown of thorns, or as a symbol of the royal 
 }-riesthood, corona sacerdotalis). The anniversaries 6f episcopal ordi- 
 nations [natahs Episcoporiim) were frequently celebrated as festivals. 
 Gradually, Investiture, or the solemn putting on of the insignia of 
 office, was introduced.' It formed the only real mark of distinction in 
 ordination between the different grades of the clerical office. — The 
 practice among the clergy of wearing a peculiar dress on all ordinary 
 occasions, and official robes when administering the ordinances, had its 
 origin in the circumstance that the clergy still retained a style of dress 
 after fashion had abolished its use among the laity. The desire to 
 attach a symbolical moaning to everything, and to imitate the dresses 
 worn by the priests under the Old Testament dispensation, gave rise to 
 various other modifications and additions. 
 
 4. Injvnction of Celibacy. — Following the precedent of the Spanish 
 Provincial Synod oi Elvira (a.D. 305), the first Council of Nice (325) 
 felt inclined to enjoin clerical celibacy throughout the whole Church, 
 at least so far as the " ordines majores" were concerned. But this 
 measure was opposed by Paphniinns, a confessor and Egyptian bishop, 
 who from his youth had been an ascetic. He maintained that not only 
 abstinence, but marriage also, was chastity ; and his influence decided 
 the question. The former practice was therefore maintained, which 
 ruled that bishops, presbyters, and deacons, were not to have been twice 
 married, nor to contract a marriage after their ordination, but were 
 allowed to use their own discretion in reference to marriages contracted 
 before their ordination. These comparatively liberal views continued 
 for a considerable period to be entertained in the East ; and in opposi- 
 tion to the Eustathians (^44, 5), the Synod of Gangra defended the 
 sanctity of wedlock, and the rights of married priests. In the fourth 
 and fifth centuries frequent instances of married bishops occurred (for 
 example, the father of Gregory of Nazianzus, Gregory of Nyssa, Syne- 
 sius of Ptolemais, ajüd many others). Jvstinian I. prohibited married 
 persons to be elected bishops. The second Tntllan Council (a.D. 692) 
 confirmed this mandate, prohibited all clergymen from marrying a 
 eecond time; but allowed presbyters and deacons, before their ordina- 
 tion, to contract a first marriage, only enjoining a temporary separation 
 during the period of their service at the altar. To this a special pre- 
 test against the unnatural severity of the Roman Church was added. — 
 In the West the principles pi-omulgated in Spain were generally enter- 
 tained, and Leo the Great applied them also to snh-deucons. But there 
 also the frequent instances of contravention rendered a degree of indul- 
 gence necessary. 
 
 5. The number o^ Ecclesiastical Functionaries was largely increased 
 by the employment of clerical attendants on the sick, or parabolanoi
 
 PATRIARCHAL OFFICE AND PRIMACY. 165 
 
 (from xapaßdxxia^i trjv fwjji'), and grave-diggers {xoTHa-faC, fossarii), 
 whose number increased to a very great extent in the hxrger cities. 
 Wliere a bishop was arrogant, imperious, or prone to violent measures, 
 he had in these oflGicials a kind of standing army and body-guard. In 
 A.D. 418, Theodosius II. limited the number of parabolanoi in Alexan- 
 dria to 600, and that of the copiatai in Constantinople to 950. The 
 property of the churches was administered by olxovo^wi, ; their causes 
 were carried through the courts of law by special advocates (txSixoi, 
 evvbvxM, defensores) ; the proceedings at ecclesiastical as-semblies were 
 taken down hynotarii,taxvy?a.^oi. Besides these o^q'isXs, record-keepers 
 (;^apT'o^i)Xa3cf5), librarians, tltesaurarii [axivo^v%a,xic,), etc., wer« employed. 
 All these were unordained persons. Among the ordines majores, also, 
 new grades were introduced. In the fourth century an archdeacon was 
 placed over the deacons. He was the right-hand man, the substitute 
 and plenipotentiary of the bishop, and frequently succeeded to that 
 oflBce. The College of Priests also was presided over by an arch- 
 presbyter. The superintendence of several congregations was en- 
 trusted to a city presbyter, who was called the Periode utes, or visita- 
 tor. — The seniores plebis of the African churches were lay eldcs, and 
 not ordained in the same manner as the clei-gy. The oJEce of deacon- 
 esses gradually lost in importance, and ultimately ceased entirely. 
 
 H6. THE PATRIARCHAL OFFICE AND THE PRIMACY. 
 
 Comp. Le Qiiien, Oriens Christianus. Par. 1740. 3 V)ll. fol. — Janus, 
 de origg. Patr. chr. Vit. 1718. '— Wiltsck, kirchl. Geogr. u. Statistik. 
 (Eccl. Geogr. and Statist.). I. 56 etc. 
 
 The institution of Metropolitan Sees (§ 30) had, during the 
 period preceding that which we describe, prepared the way for 
 introducing hierarchical distinctions among bishops. This move- 
 ment was greatly furthered by the political division of the empire 
 under Gonstantine the Great. The bishops of capital cities now 
 claimed a spiritual sway analogous to that which the imperial 
 governors exercised in secular matters. But former privileges 
 and later claims prevented anything like a complete correspond- 
 ence between the secular and the hierarchical arrangements. 
 The first Gouncil of Nice (325) expressly confirmed the prepon- 
 derance of the Bishops o^ Rome, Alexandria, aud^nfioch, which 
 these prelates had long enjoyed. The second general Gouncil 
 of Gonstantinople (in 381) exempted the Bishop of Constanti- 
 nople (6ta to üvai avtTjv vtav 'vaj-iriv) from the jurisdiction of the 
 Metropolitan Heraclea, in Thracia, and assigned to him the first 
 ank after the Bishop of Rome. The bishops thus distinguished
 
 166 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). 
 
 Dore the title of Patriarchs — a designation which the Romai. 
 bishops refused, in order not to be on the same level with other 
 prelates, choosing in preference the title of Papa, ndrcas. The 
 fourth general Council of Chalcedon (a.D. 451) placed the Pa- 
 triarch of the metropolis of the East on a footing of j^f^tlff^ct 
 equality with his colleague of Rome ; put the three dioceses of 
 Thracia, Pontus, and Asia under his jurisdiction ; and invested 
 him with the power of receiving complaints against the metro- 
 politans of any diocese. The same council also raised the Bishop 
 of Jerusalem, whom the Council of Nice had in 325 already 
 declared as entitled to special honours, to the dignity of Patri- 
 arch, and invested him with supremacy over the whole of Palestine, 
 while formerly that prelate had been under the jurisdiction of the 
 Metropolitan of Caesarea. Still, some metropolitans — and among' 
 them especially those of Salamis in Cyprus, o^ Milan, of A quileia, 
 and oi Bavenna, in Italy — refused to acknowledge that their sees 
 were, in any sense, subject to their respective patriarchs. — The 
 district under the jurisdiction of the bishop was called parochia, 
 Tio^ioixM, that of the metropolitan provincia, trtapx'-a; that of the 
 patriarch dioecesis, Scotxjjöic: ; but these terms were often inter- 
 changed. — The patriarchs were entitled to have at the Imperial 
 Court resident legates, who were called Apocrisiarians. The 
 cvyxtxxot, acted as clerical councillors and assistants of the 
 patriarchs. — From the sixth century the popes began to confirm 
 the election of oriental metropolitans, by sending them the pal- 
 lium, as the archiepiscopal insignium. — From this period it was 
 considered to be necessary for the validity of a general council, 
 that all the five patriarchs should be represented in them. But 
 when in 637 Jerusalem, in 638 Antioch, and in 640 Alexandria, 
 became subject to the Saracens, the Patriarch of Constantinople 
 remained the sole representative of that dignity in the eastern 
 portion of the Roman Empire. His Roman, colleague was his 
 only rival, and he was no way able to compete with him. On 
 the contrary, the pretensions of Rome to the primacy rapidly 
 secured universal assent. 
 
 1. Tlie Rivalry between Rome andByzantivm. — (Comp, besides'the works 
 referred to in | 30, 4 : Arclnnard, les origines de I'^gl. Rom. 2 Voll 
 Par. 1851. — H. G. Hasse, über d. Vereinig, d. geistl. u. weltl. Oberge- 
 walt im röm. Kirchenstaate (On the Combinat. of Spir. and Seoul. Su- 
 premacy in the States of the Ch.). Haarl, 1852. 4to. — F. Maassen 
 (Rom. Oath.), der Primat d. Bi»ih. zu Rom u. d. ältesten Patriarchal
 
 PATRIARCHAL OFFICE AND PRIMACY. 167 
 
 kirchen (The Primacy of the Bish. of Rome and of the ildest Patr. Ch.) 
 Bonn 1853.) — Since the Council of Chalcedon (a.D. 431) the Patriarch 
 of Constantinople alone claimed equal power and honours with the 
 Bishop of Rome. Justinian I. gave indeed to the Bishop of Constanti- 
 nople the designation of (Ecumeuical Patriarch ; but this remained an 
 empty title, while the Bishop of Rome took every opportunity to declare, 
 by word and deed, that, according to Divine appointment, he exercised 
 supremacy over the whole Church, and over all prelates, including the 
 Patriarch of Constantinople. Even in so far as the principles were 
 concerned on which each of these two prelates rested his claims, those 
 of Rome were much more full and intelligible. In the East the epis- 
 copal sees ranked according to the political importance attaching to 
 the cities in which they were placed. As Constantinople was the resi- 
 dence of the ruler of the whole olxov^svti, its bishop was likewise held 
 to be oecumenical. But, in the opinion of the world, the position of 
 ancient Rome was higher than that of her modern rival. All the proud 
 reminiscences of history clustered around the capital of the West. On 
 the other hand, the visible decline and the threatening decay of the 
 empire were associated with Byzantium. But neither did the West 
 admit the principle on which the pretensions of the see of Constanti- 
 nople were founded. Not the will of the Emperor, it was argued, nor 
 the growing decrepitude of the empire, could decide the spiritual rank 
 of a bishop ; the history of the Church and the will of its Divine 
 Founder and Lord must determine the question. Measured by this 
 standard, the see of Constantinople was not only inferior to those of 
 Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem, but even to those in many cities 
 whose bishops indeed were not metropolitans, but whose churches had 
 been founded by apostles ; -while, on the other hand, Rome undoubtedly 
 occupied the first rank. There the two princes of the apostles had 
 lived, taught, witnessed, and suffered ; their graves and bones were 
 there. More than that, Peter, whom the Lord Himself had made pri- 
 mate among the apostles, had been the first occupant of the see of 
 Rome, and the Roman bishops were his successors and the heirs of 
 his privileges. The Patriarch of Constantinople depended for the sup- 
 port of his claims only on the influence of the court. But frequently 
 that very court, which had seconded and fostered his claims, deserted 
 him, in order, through the wide influence of the Bishop of Rome, to 
 strengthen its tottering power in Italy. Again, he was selected and 
 deposed by the court ; too often he fell a sacrifice to its intrigues, or 
 became the tool of its policy and the advocate of its heretical views. 
 How favourable, in comparison with this, was the position of the Bishop 
 of Rome ! In his selection the court could but rarely exercise any 
 influence, much more rarely could it bring about his deposition. While 
 the East was torn by a number of ecclesiastical disputes, in which truth 
 and error (if only for a time) alternately prevailed, the AVest, ranged 
 under the leadership of Rome, presented almost always a cfose and
 
 168 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). 
 
 united phalanx. To Rome disputants appealed for ultimate decision, 
 oppressed parties for advocacy and protection ; and since the Bishops 
 of Rome always lent their authority to truth and right, the party 
 whose case was supported by them always ultimately carried oiF the 
 victory. Even at that period, " Roma locuta est" was in itself a power. 
 Thus, in the opinion of Christendom, Rome gradually rose in authority, 
 and soon it claimed, as of right, what at first personal confidence or 
 the urgency of circumstances had accorded in special and individual 
 instances. Besides, during the lapse of ages, Rome always learned, 
 but never forgot. The consciousness of common interests, supported 
 by a deep hierarchical spirit, had sprung up and gathered around 
 the chair of Peter, — influences by which even worthless or weak 
 popes were upheld. Thus, despite all opposition and resistance, 
 Rome steadily advanced towards the mark which all along it had kept 
 in view. At last the East was only able to preserve and assert its 
 ecclesiastical independence by an act of complete and final separation. 
 
 2. History of the Pretensions of Rome to the Primacy. — The Council 
 or Nice (325) assigned to the Bishop of Rome spiritual supremacy over 
 the (ten) suburbicarian provinces, i.e., over Middle and Lower Italy, 
 and the islands of Sardinia, Corsica, and Sicily. This arrangement 
 had been made in conformity with the political position of Rome at the 
 time. But long before that, Rome enjoyed a much more extensive 
 authority (| 30, 4), from the circumstance that it was the only sedes 
 apostolica in the West. Indeed, when any difficulty occurred, it was 
 the practice in all parts of the West to apply to Rome for guidance. 
 As early as the fourth century, the official answei-s to these appeals 
 assumed a tone of command rather than of advice (epistol^ decre- 
 TALEs). But until the year 343, no attempt was made to assert any 
 claim of authority over the East. But in that year, the pressure of 
 circumstances obliged the Council of Sardica (§ 50, 2) to decree that 
 Julius, Bishop of Rome, had, as the consistent and trustworthy 
 advocate of orthodoxy, the right of hearing appeals from bishops in any 
 part of the empire; and, if he found the complaints just, of appointing 
 judges and instituting a fresh trial, the verdict in that case to be final. 
 But this decree applied only to Julius as an individual, and must be 
 regarded as only a temporary expedient adopted by a minority which 
 was hardly beset. Hence it scarcely excited attention, and was soon 
 forgotten. But Rome did not forget it; and in 402-417, Innocent I. 
 made it the basis of a claim to the effect that all causes majores should 
 be submitted tv the Apostolic See for decision. Still, even then the 
 claim to primacy was Ijased only upon human authority. Leo the 
 Great (440—401) was the first, in his instruction to his legates at the 
 Council of Ephesvs (449), to rest it on Divine authority, by appealing 
 to Matt. xvi. 18 (| 30, 3). Formerly, Western authorities, such as 
 Hilary, Ambrose, Jerome, and Augustine, and Innocent I. himself, had 
 adopted the interpretation of the passage by Cyprian, who applied it
 
 PATRIARCHAL OFFICE AND PRIMACY. 169 
 
 to all the apostles, and hence to all bishops ; while they understood 
 the word netpa as applying either to the confession of Peter, or to the 
 person of Christ. Leo I., however, applied it to Peter exclusively, and 
 to the Pope as his sole successor. Of course, the Fathers of Ephosus, 
 and afterwards also those of Chalcedon (a.d. 451, comp. §52, 4), 
 refused to receive this interpretation. The claims of Leo received 
 fuller acknowledgments in the West. On the occasion of a resistance 
 to them by Hilary, Bishop of Aries, the Pope procured from the youth- 
 ful Empei-or Valentinian III. a rescript (a.d. 445), which ordained 
 that in future none should venture to resist or to doubt the primacy of 
 the Pope, which the Lord Himself had instituted. The suburbicarian 
 bishops of Italy readily submitted. The Svnodüs palmaris of Rome 
 (a.D. 503), which Theodoric, King of the East Goths, had summoned 
 to inquire into the charges brought against Pope Symntachus, absolved 
 the latter without an investigation ; and Enuodius of Pavia openly 
 proclaimed the principle that, since the Pope was judge over all, he 
 could not be subject to the jurisdiction of any. Still, the metropolitans 
 of Northern Italy (of Aquileia, Milan, and Ravenna) steadily opposed 
 these views, and for centuries maintained the independence of their 
 Bees. However great their reverence for the " cathedra Petri," the 
 bishops of North Africa ascribed to the Pope only a " principatus 
 houoris ; " at all periods they firmly resisted the aggressions of Rome ; 
 and when Apiarius, a presbyter who had been deposed, sought pro- 
 tection in Rome (a. d. 418), they interdicted, on pain of excommunica- 
 tion, every appeal " ad transmarina judicia." They also refused to 
 acknowledge the validity of the decree of the Council of Sardica, even 
 when Pope Zosimns pretended it had come from the Council of Nice. 
 — In a. d. 590-604, Gregory the Great still admitted that the 
 Patriarchs of Alexandria and Antioch occupied the same rank with 
 himself, and that even the other bishops were subject to his jurisdiction 
 only in case of an accusation preferred, but that in other respects their 
 office was the same as his. That prelate also refused the proud title 
 of " episcopus universalis," which Johannes Jejunator, Patriarch of 
 Constantinople, had shortly before assumed (a. d. 587), and in token 
 of humility called himself "servus servorum Dei." But the protest of 
 Rome against the assumption of the see of Constantinople remained 
 unheeded, till the usurper and munlcrer Phocas interdicted the use of 
 this appellation to his patriarch, and acknowledged the see of Peter as 
 the "caput omnium ecclosiavum " (a. d. 606). — The firm and energetic 
 bearing of Rome during the Monothelete controversy (§52, 8) secured 
 for it another brilliant triumph. The sixth cecum. Council of Con- 
 itantinople condescended, in 680, to make to the Pope a huml^le report 
 of its proceedings, and to request his confirmation of them. However, 
 the sbooxd Trullan Council, a. d. 692 (§63, ?>), amply made up for 
 this by a sweeping condemnation of the decrees of Rome, thereby lay- 
 Jig üic fcmndation for the later schism between the East and the West. 
 15
 
 170 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323- -692 A. 11 ). 
 
 III. THEOLOGICAL SCIENCE AND LITERATURE. 
 ? 47. THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS AND TENDENCIES. 
 
 Tlie ancient Church attained its highest stage of literary emi« 
 nence during the fourth and fifth centuries. As the numl)er of 
 seminaries of theological learning was very small (§ 45, 1), most 
 of the great theologians of that period were self-taught. But 
 the fewer the outward means, opportunities, and stimuli for call- 
 ing forth and developing the mental activity, the greater must 
 have been the intellectual resources of that period, and the 
 stronger its general impetus towards such culture. These schools 
 still, however few, served as points whence a more scientific theo- 
 logy issued, and where it found a rallying-place. Their extinc- 
 tion marks the general decadence of scientific studies and of 
 original investigation. Probably the middle of the fifth century 
 . — the Council of Chalcedon, a.D. 451 — formed the turning- 
 point. After that period, science, and in general every ecclesi- 
 astical movement, stagnated or declined. — The theological direc- 
 tions prevalent at the time may be distinguished as those of 
 Ira.ditionalism and of free scientific inquiry. The collisions 
 between them gave rise to the various dogmatic discussions of 
 that period. The former of these parties defended the results 
 of the development of doctrine already achieved, as being esta- 
 blished and sanctioned by tradition, and even sought conclusively 
 to settle, in the same manner, the doctrinal questions which 
 arose in the progress of subjective developmefit. The latter of 
 these schools represented the cause of the freedom of Christian 
 intellect, and resisted every attempt at narrowing the province 
 of free inquiry. The first had its most numerous adlierents 
 among the Latins of Italy and North Africa; tlie second, among 
 the Grecians of the East and of Egypt. But this division was 
 not by any means complete, nor was the distinction perfectly 
 marked and established. From the lively intercourse subsisting 
 between different parts of the empire, the germs of traditionalism 
 were carried to the East (and especially to Egypt), while those 
 of scientific and philosophical inquiry were also brought to the 
 West ; and this interchange and admixture gave rise to various 
 intermediate views. — Bu^ after the middle of the fifth century the
 
 THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS AND TENDENCIES. 171 
 
 spirit of free scientific inquiry gradually disappeared in the East- 
 ern as in the Western Church, and a traditionalism, which became 
 more and more ossified, attained supreme and unlimited sway, 
 Political troubles, hierarchical aggressions, a narrow-minded 
 monasticism, and the spread of barbarism, arrested every liberal 
 or scientific movement. In place of the youthful vigour of inde- 
 pendent inquiry, we find the industry of mere compilers, or labo- 
 rious but vain attempts to appropriate the intellectual products 
 of centuries gone by. Such was now the authority of the older 
 Fathers, and so binding, in common esteem, were their dicta, 
 that the discussions in councils were almost entirely carried on 
 by citations from those Fathers whose orthodoxy was ac- 
 knowledged. 
 
 1. The ScJwol of Antioch may be regarded as representing liberal 
 and scientific investigations (^ 39, 6). At first, following in the wake 
 of the inquiries and general principles of Origen, it becanwe, in the 
 course of its development, independent of, and indeed frequently di- 
 verged from, that great teacher. More especially did it substitute a 
 method of grammatical and historical exegesis for the allegorical inter- 
 pretations of the Origenists, and calm, sober reflection in place of their 
 extravagant speculations. It endeavoured to ascertain the plain mean 
 ing of the Scriptures, and to derive from them a purely Biblical theo- 
 logy. Thoroughly opposed to all mysticism, these divines viewed 
 Christianity in its intellectual and rational aspect ; and, by a process 
 of clear and logical thinking, sought to deduce its dogmas. Hence 
 they attempted carefully to distinguish between the Divine and the 
 human in Christ and in Christianity, to view each of these elements 
 separately, and to secure its right place especially for the human ele- 
 ment. But in this they frequently strayed into rationalistic sentiments. 
 Still the school impressed its stamp on the East properly so called. Its 
 most celebrated representatives were Diodorus of Tarsus, and his 
 pupils, the three great Antiochians (as they are called) : Theodorus, 
 JoH>f Chrysostom, and Theodoret. — Diodorus was first a monk and 
 presbyter at Antioch, afterwards Bishop of Tarsus in Cilicia {ob. 394). 
 In consequence of a later condemnation of the Church (| 52, 6), his 
 numerous writings were suppressed. He gave to the school its peculiar 
 dogmatic character. — Theodorus, Bishop of Mopsuestia in Cilicia {ob. 
 429), was a friend and felljw-student of Chrysostom. The ban of the 
 fifth oecumenical Council of Constantinople attached also to his writings 
 and teaching. At a later period, the Syrian Church honoured him 
 with the designation of " Inferpres." He was considered one of the 
 deepest thinkers of the age. — John of Antioch, whose name was after- 
 wards almost forgotten in the title of Chrysostom, by which he was 
 designated. His pious mother Antlciisa, who had early become a widow.
 
 i72 SECTION I. SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). 
 
 Destowed great care on his education. He attended the rhetorical 
 cchool of Libanius, and practised at Antioch with great success as ar 
 advocate. But after his baptism he gave up this profession, becan.«* 
 the pupil of Diodorus, and a monk and presbyter in his native city. 
 Ultimately, his brilliant eloquence procured for him the patriarchal 
 see of Constantinople (a. d. 397). On his activity there, comp. § 51, 3 
 He died in exile, a. d. 407. Ak)ng -with Athanasius and the thret 
 Cappadocians (^ 75), he may be ranked as the most eminent of the 
 Greek Fathers (Ed. of his works by M. Montfaucon. Par. 1713. 13 
 Voll. fol.). — Theodoret, Bishop of Gyros in Syria, was a pupil of The- 
 odorus [ob. 457). He was the most learned and fertile writer of his 
 age — a profound thinker, and a diligent pastor, a man of straightfor- 
 ward and noble character, and one who could avoid the extreme views 
 of his cotemporaries (§ 52, 3, 4). Still, during the imperial attempts 
 at bringing about a union, he was branded as a heretic (^ 52, 6). Best 
 ed. of his works by J. Sirmond et J. Garnier. Par. 1642 ; and by J. L. 
 Schulze. Halle 1769. 
 
 2. The theology of the national, East Syrian Church, which had for 
 its seminary the theological school of Edessa (| 39, 6), was still more 
 bound by tradition, than that of the Antioch (Greek) Syrian Church. 
 There the oriental spirit reigned still more absolutely, showing itself in 
 a play of fancy with excessive pathos and exuberant imagery, a leaning 
 to theosophy, mysticism and asceticism, fertility in hymnology, addi- 
 tions to the liturgy, the service of the Church, and constitution, com- 
 bined with doctrinal stability. In exegesis it adopted, like that of 
 Antioch, the opposite of Origen's allegorical arbitrariness, but was 
 not scientific and critical, but rather purely practical and mystical ; 
 hence the errors of Origen's school were rationalizing, those of the 
 school of Edessa anthropomorphistic, as in the case of the Audians 
 (^ 62). But their local proximity, and the active intercourse between 
 the teachers and pupils of both schools, resulted in a greater agreement 
 between them. In the christological controversies, especially, the 
 school at Edessa, and its daughter at Nisibis, attached themselves 
 closely to the interests and doctrines of the school at Antioch (^ 52, 3). 
 The most renowned teachers of the East Syrian Church were : 
 
 (1.) Jambs of Nisibjs [ob. circa 350), founder of the school there, 
 champion against the Arian heresy, distinguished by zeal in performing 
 his duties as a bishop, and one of the most revered fathers of tho 
 Syrian Church. 
 
 (2.) Epiiraem Syrus, deacon, and second founder of the theological 
 school at Edessa (350), the most celebrated poet, exegete, and preacher 
 of the national Syrian Church {propheta Sj/roj-n/n), was a zealous 
 adherent of Nicene orthodoxy, and in old age made (372) a journey 
 to Cappadocia, to become acquainted with Basil. 
 
 (3.) Ibas of Edessa [ob. circa 470) teacher, then bishop at Edessa, 
 translator of the vrritings of Diodorus and Theodorus. Like them he
 
 THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS AND TENDENCIES. 173 
 
 Tras accused of Nestorianism, and acquitted at Chalcedun (451), but 
 pronounced a heretic at Constantinople (553). — (Cf. ^ 52, 4, G.) 
 
 3. After the discussion between Dionysius of Alexandria and hia 
 namesake of Rome (g 40, 5), the tlieoloijy of Alexandria had assumed 
 a twofold type. The Old School remained faithful to the views of 
 Origen, and generally assumed a position antagonistic to the theology 
 and tradition of the West, asserting the right of free and unrestricted 
 investigation. While revering the memory of Origen, the representa- 
 tives of that school discarded most of his extravagant speculations. 
 The best known theologian of that party was Eusebitts of Ccesarea [ob. 
 338) the historian. He was on terms of intimate friendship with 
 Pamphilus the confessor, whom he called father, and whose admiration 
 of Origen he shared. He also enjoyed the fullest confidence of C(m- 
 stantine the Great, who furthered his historical studies by giving him 
 access to all the archives of the empire. His learning was extensive, 
 and his diligence untiring ; but he was not profound, and lacked specu- 
 lative talent and doctrinal consistency. All the more credit is, there- 
 fore, due to his comprehensive and laborious historical investigations. 
 He and most of his friends were semi-Arians. The school became 
 extinct during the latter half of the fourth century. Since that time, 
 enthusiastic admirers of Origen have not, indeed, been wanting; but 
 their influence on the development of the Church has been small, 
 and the suspicion of heterodoxy has always attached to them (comp. 
 I 52, 6).' 
 
 4. It was otherwise with the Ne%o Alexandrian School, whose influ- 
 ence became, after the fourth century, co-extensive with that of Alex- 
 andrian culture generally. This party also (at least the earlier repre- 
 sentatives) sincerely respected the memory of Origen, and in their 
 speculative treatment of Christian doctrine followed in his footsteps. 
 But they disowned his unbiblical errors, and consistently carried out 
 what was sound in his teaching. Moi'e especially did this school, by 
 firm adherence to the doctrine of the eternal generation of the Son, 
 keep clear of all svbordinaiianisin, and thus draw more closely to the 
 divines of the Western Church (? 40, 6). A predilection for what in 
 Christianity was mysterious, and a dislike of the intellectual tendency 
 in theology, were the characteristics of the school of Alexandria as 
 contrasted with that of Autioch. It regarded the union of the Divino 
 and the human in Christ and in Christianity as a glorious mystery, 
 which it was impossible to analyze or explain. But it lost sight of the 
 human aspect of these realities, or rather merged the human in the 
 Divine. While energetically maintaining the intimate connection of 
 these two elements, it lost sight of their diversity, and fell into an 
 error the opposite from that towards which the school of Antioch 
 verged. Its leading and most orthodox representatives were Aihanasius, 
 the three great Cappadocians {ßasilins and the two Gregorys) and 
 
 15*
 
 174 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (:i23— 692 A, D.) . 
 
 Didyrmts the Blind. The leaven of error in the New Alexandrian 
 School appeared for the first time in Cyril of Alexandria, although 
 that Father was still regarded as orthodox. After that period the 
 school rapidly declined. The tendency of the teaching of Syiiesius wa8 
 philosophical rather than theological. Almost his counterpart was 
 EpipJianius, whose glowing zeal for traditionary orthodoxy inclined 
 him towards the New Alexandrian School, although he had not the 
 least sympathy with its speculative tendencies. 
 
 (1.) Probably the most prominent ecclesiastical personage in thefourth 
 century was Athanastus, whom his successors, in acknowledgment of 
 his merits, have called " Faier ortliodoxice." He was every inch a 
 Church-Father, and his history is at the same time that of the Church 
 of his day (comp. § 50). His was a life of heroism in the midst of 
 contests, of faithfulness, of power and wisdom in construction ; nor was 
 he less great when defeated than when successful ; rich and varied 
 talents, energy, determination, earnestness and gentleness, extensive 
 learning and humble faith, were beautifully blended in him. In 319 
 he became a deacon in Alexandria. Alexander, the bishop ofthat see, 
 perceiving his talents, took him to the Council of Nice (325), where he 
 first engaged in that great contest to which his life was devoted. Soon 
 afterwards, when Alexander died, Athanasius was chosen his suc- 
 cessor (328). He held the episcopal office for forty-five years: during 
 that period he was ten times banished, and passed twenty years in 
 exile, chiefly in the West [oh. 373). His writings are mainly directed 
 against Arianism. (His works edited by Monffancon. Par. 1608, 3 vols.) 
 (2.) Basil the Great, Bishop of Caesarea in Ca2:)padocia — his 
 native city — was truly a "royal" personage in history [oh. 379). His 
 mother Emmelia, and his grandmother Macrina, early planted the seeds 
 of piety in his breast. When studying at Athens he entered into close 
 friendship with his like-minded countryman, Gregory of Nazianzus. 
 This connection, based upon attachment to the Church and to science 
 — which afterwards also embraced Gregory, Bis7iop of Nyssa, the 
 brother of Basil — lasted through life. Having spent a considerable 
 period in ascetic retirement, and distributed his property among the 
 poor, Basil first became presbyter and then bishop. His life was that 
 uf a faith which overcomes the world, of self-denying love, of high aims, 
 and of royal dignity. By the power of his spirit he kept together the 
 Catholic Church of the East during the frightful persecutions inflicted 
 by Valens, the Arian. Perhaps his best monument was the foundation 
 of a great hospital at Caesarea, to which he devoted the rich revenues 
 of his see, living himself in poverty. His writings also entitle Basil 
 to a distinguished place among the Fathers. His 365 letters are a 
 faithful reflex both of his own mind and of those stormy times. — (Comp, 
 W. Close, Bas. d. Gr. nach Leben u. Lehre (Basil the Gr., his Life and 
 Teaching). Strals. 1835. — Bohringer, Kirchengeseh. in Biogr., vol. I. 
 2 (his writ; ngs, edited by/. Gamier and P. Mar anus. Par. 172L 3 
 Voll, fol.)
 
 THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS AND TENDENCIES. 175 
 
 (3). Gregory of Nazianzus was born at Arianzus about the yeai 
 828. Gregory, his father, who had been a Hypsistarian, was converted 
 through his pious wife Nonna, and became Bishop of Nazianzus. 
 Gregory the Younger becaine the assistant and, though against his 
 will, the successor of his fother. From his see he first retired into the 
 wilderness, then became bishop of the small community at Constanti- 
 nople which had remained faithful to the Nicene creed (the church of 
 Anastasia, where he delivered the celebrated orations which procured 
 for him the designation of o ^fd^oyoj), and was nominated Patriarch by 
 Theodosivs the Great in 380. Driven the year following from that post 
 through the envy of his enemies, he returned to Nazianzus, where he 
 died in 391. — (Comp. C. TJllmann, Greg, of Naz. the Theol. Darmst. 
 1825, and Böhringer ut supra I. 2 (best ed. of his writings by D. 
 Clemencet. Par- 1788. 2 Voll. fol.). 
 
 (4.) Gregory of Nyssa, the younger brother of Basil. lie excelled 
 his two friends in philosophic acumen and scientific acquirements. 
 His theological views were more closely connected with those of Origen 
 than theirs, but he was equally zealous in opposing Arianism. Both 
 among his cotemporaries and with posterity his fame has scarcely been 
 less than that of his friends. — [J. Riipp, Greg. v. Nyssa, Leben u. Mein- 
 ungen (Greg, of Nyssa, his Life and Opinions). — Leipz. 183-4 (best ed. 
 of his writings by Fronton le Due. — Par. 1615. — 2 Voll. fob). 
 
 (5.) Though DiDYMUs THE Blind had lost his sight when only four 
 years old, he acquired very extousive learning. He acted as catechist 
 in Alexandria, where he died about the year 395. He wrote many 
 works, of which, however, only few have been preserved. An enthusi- 
 astical admirer of Origen, he shared some of the extravagant views of 
 that Father ; but in consequence of the discussions of^ that period his 
 theology gradually came to be more in accordance with that of thp 
 Catholic Church. 
 
 (6.) Synesius, Bishop of Ptolemais in Egypt, was a pupil of the 
 celebrated i;fyjL)a to (comp. §42, 3), and an enthusiastic disciple of Plato 
 [oh. about 430). Happy as husband and father, wealthy, and devoted 
 to the study of philosophy, he felt considerable difficulty in accepting a 
 see. He openly confessed his heterodoxy in respect of the doctrine of 
 the resurrection, and stated his determination to continue in the married 
 relation even after his consecration. In the discharge of his ofiice he 
 was equally distinguished by zeal and by undaunted courage. He 
 composed several hymns and philosophical tractates. (His works 
 edited by Petuvius. — Par. 1G12. fob). 
 
 (7.) Epiplanius, Bishop of Salamis in Cyprus, was born in Palestine 
 of Jewish parents, and trained by S. Hilarion and his monks [ob. 403). 
 As bishop he was a pattern of faithfulness and devotedness, being 
 specially distinguished for his self-denying care of the poor. But the 
 main characteristic, both of his inner and outer life, was zeal for eccle- 
 siastical orthodox-^. He was honest, truthful, and kindly, but some-
 
 17(5 SECTION I. SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). 
 
 what narrow-minded, without much breudth of culture or knowledgft 
 of the world, incapable of taking a comprehensive view of matters, 
 stubborn and very credulous, though at the same time learned, diligent, 
 and not without talent or acuteness. His monkish teachers had filled 
 his mind with a perfect horror of heretics, and he firmly believed that 
 Origenism was the source of the Arian, and indeed of all other heresies. 
 Comp. ^51. (His works edited by D. Petavms. Par. 1622. 2 Voll. fol.). 
 (8.) Cyrillus, Patriarch of Alexandria, the nephew, pupil, and suc- 
 cessor of Theophilus. The bigoted and violent measures adopted by 
 Theophilus were not without their influence in forming the character 
 of this Father. As to his life and labours comp. ^ 52, 3. (His workn 
 edited by /. Anbertus. Par. 1638. 6 Voll. fol.). 
 
 5. The Western Church insisted on the necessity of carrying Chris- 
 tianity into every relationship of life, of fully developing its dogmas, 
 and of distinctly expressing and guarding them against all innovations. 
 Hence it became the great focus of traditionalism. But as yet the 
 connection between the East and the West was so close, that many of 
 the views broached in the East found at least partial reception in the 
 West also, and led to many discussions. AVe have, therefore, to dis- 
 tinguish four directions, which, however, frequently coalesced. The 
 gemune Latin School, following in the wake of Tertullian and Cyprian, 
 embodied the theology of the West in its most distinctive features. 
 Among the representatives of that party we reckon Ambrose, Augustine, 
 and Leo I. At first it joined the New Alexandrian School in its oppo- 
 sition to the semi-Arian followers of Origen, and the Nestorian lean- 
 ings of the theologians of Antioch. But when, by their one-sided 
 views, the Alexandrians themselves verged towards heresy, the Western 
 School declared, with equal decision, in favour of that aspect of the. 
 truth which the School of Antioch represented. Another party in the 
 West owned to a certain extent the influence of Origen, without, how- 
 ever, giving up the distinctive theological characteristics of the West. 
 Among these divines we name Hilary, Jerome, and Evßnvs. The 
 practical and merely intellectual tendency of the West, which was 
 wanting in spiritual depth, gave rise to Pelagianism, a heresy first 
 broached by Felagins, a British monk (comp. ^ 53, 3). Lastly, a fourth 
 party, the Massilian (or semi-Pelagian) theologians, sought to leaven 
 tlie theology of the West with ideas derived from the School of Antioch. 
 This school was founded by John Cassianvs (comp. § 85, 5). 
 
 (1.) Ambkose, Bishop of Milan {<>b. 397), was Governor of the pro- 
 vince of Milan, and had not been baptized when the voice of a child 
 designated him as bishop. In vain he resisted the offer. He was 
 baptized, distributed his property among the poor, and eight days 
 afterwards occupied the episcopal see. The duties of his new ofiice he 
 discharged with a zeal truly apostolic. He proved a father of the poor, 
 the protector of those who were oppressed, an unwearied pastor, and a 
 p 'werful opponent both of heresy and of heatheni sm. The eloquence
 
 THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS AND TENDENCIES. 177 
 
 which formerly he had displayed in the forum, became more brilliant 
 when employed in the service of Christ. To redeem captives he would 
 even part with the sacred vessels of his church. To affability and 
 gentleness he joined a firmness which neither the fear of men nor 
 threats and dangers could shake. Theodosivs the Great venerated him 
 as a father, and openly declared that he was the only bishop who 
 deserved that title. His claim to such an acknowledgment he proved 
 in a conflict with this emperor, in which it were difficult to say whether 
 bishop or emperor deserved greater admiration. When, in a fit of 
 passion, Theodosius had committed great cruelties among the rebellious 
 Thessalonians, the bishop publicly refused to admit him to the altar 
 till he had done public penance. Ambrose was a zealous advocate of 
 Monasticism, and in his sermons extolled the merits of virginity so 
 much that many mothers prohibited their daughters from attending 
 his church. — (Comp. Böhringer, I. 3. — Rudelbach, ehr. Biogr. I. 2 (best 
 ed. of his works by N. le Nourry and J. du Frische. Par. 1686. 2 
 vols, fol.) 
 
 (2.) AuRELius AcGüSTiNE was born at Tagaste in Numidia. Hie 
 pious mother, Monica, had early led him to Christ, but during the time 
 he studied at Carthage he lapsed into sensuality and worldliness. The 
 Hortensius of Cicero again awakened in him a longing for something 
 higher and better than pleasure. We next find him professing rhetoric 
 at Carthage, at Rome, and at Milan, when ambition, worldliness, 
 doubts, and higher aspirations led him in turn to oscillate between the 
 world and religion. During the next nine years he held Manichsean 
 views. Finding himself grievously deceived in that sect, he would 
 have wholly given himself up to the world, if he had not for a time 
 been kept back through the influence of Platonism. But philosophy 
 could not give peace to his soul. At last, the sermons of Ambrose 
 (who had comforted Monica with, the assurance that a son of so many 
 prayers and tears could not be lost) became the means of directing 
 him to the truth, which the Spirit of God applied to his heart and con- 
 science. Ambrose administered baptism to him in 387. Immediately 
 afterwards Augustine gave up his employment as rhetorician, returned 
 to Africa, became first a presbyter, and in 396 Bishop of Hippo Regius 
 in Numidia, where he died in 430. Augustine was the greatest and 
 most influential among the Fathers. He combined in a rare degree 
 acuteness with breadth of mind, clearness and depth with dialectic 
 versatility. Christian experience with simplicity of faith, and strength 
 of mind with energy of will. His writings bear upon almost all the 
 departments of theology, and may be characterized as forming an era 
 in theological literature. Tliis remark applies especially to his eluci- 
 dation of the doctrines of the Trinity (comp. § 50, 6), and of those of 
 sin and grace (comp. | 53). In his " Confecjiones" he lays before the 
 Lord the whole of his past life, indicating in a spirit ff deepest humility, 
 and of holy, prayer^'il solemnity, both its errors and His gracicu»
 
 178 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). 
 
 leadings ; in his " Retractiones " he displayed the same conscientious- 
 ness in regard to his writings. — (Comp. Böhringer, I. 3. — C. Bindemann, 
 S. Augustine, 3 vols. Berl. 1844. 69. — K. Braune, Monica and Augus- 
 tine. Grim. 1846 (his works ed. by Th. BampUn et P. Constant. Par. 
 1679. 11 Voll, fol., and frequently since). 
 
 (3.) Leo I., the Great, Bishop of Rome, 440-461. Even when a 
 deacon he was the most prominent person in Rome. Elevated to the 
 see of the capital, he found a fitting sphere for the exercise of talents 
 of a peculiarly high order. From the energy and consistency with 
 which he advocated the idea of the primacy of Rome, he may be re- 
 garded as really the founder of its spiritual supremacy (comp. | 46, 3). 
 With vigorous hand he guided the Church ; he introduced reforms or a 
 better organization, restored discipline and order, advocated orthodox 
 views, refuted heretics, and even conciliated the barbarians (Attila452, 
 Genseric 455). His sermons and letters have been preserved (best ed. 
 by the brothers BaUerinn. Venet. 1753. 3 Voll. fol.). — (Comp. Böhr- 
 inger I. 4; E. Perfhel, Leo's I. Leben u. Lehre. Vol. I. Jen. 1843.) 
 
 (4.) Hilary, Bishop of Poitiers [oh. 368), was the Athanasius of 
 the West. His zealous opposition to Arianism was punished with four 
 years of exile. After his return he undertook a journey to Italy, in 
 order, if possible, to convert Auxentius, Bishop of Milan, the leader of 
 the Arians in Italy. But this prelate avoided the encounter through 
 means of an imperial ordinance, which enjoined Auxentius to leave 
 Italy. He was specially distinguished for the philosophical acumen 
 with which he defended this doctrine. (Best ed. of his writings by P. 
 Constant. Paris, 1693. fol. ; and by Sc. Maffei. Veron. 1730. 2 Voll, fol.) 
 
 (5.) Jerome, a native of Stridon in Dalmatia [oh. 420). His life and 
 labours were devoted partly to the East and partly to the West. He 
 was the most learned among the Fathers of his time, a zealous advocate 
 of monasticism, of asceticism, and work-righteousness. His character 
 was not without its blemishes, among which we reckon' vanity, ambi- 
 tion, jealousy, passionateness, bigotry, and a peculiarly acrimonious 
 mode of polemics. He resided successively in Gaul, Italy, Syria, 
 Egypt, Constantinople, Rome, and Palestine. Damasus, Bishop of 
 Rome, honoured him with his implicit confidence, and commissioned 
 him to revise the "Itala" (comp. § 34, 3). His many and successful 
 efi'orts to recruit the number of monks and virgins from among the 
 youthful nobility of Rome raised so many enemies that he was at last 
 obliged to leave the city. He returned to the East in 385, and settled 
 at Bethlehem, where he founded a monastery, over which he presided 
 till his death, with only an interruption of two years, during which he 
 had to withdraw from the persecution of his enemies. At one time he 
 had been an enthusiastic admirer of Origen ; but fear of being stig- 
 aiatizcd as a heretic afterwards led him to take a position directly anta- 
 gonistic to that school (comp. ? 51, 2). His contributions to exegesis, 
 especially hi» translation of the Bible — the Vulgate, as it is called —
 
 THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS AND TENDENCIES. 179 
 
 proved of greatest service to the Church. (Best edition of his works 
 by D. Vallarsi. Veron. 1734. 11 Voll. 4.)— (Comp. F. Laudiert and Ä. 
 Knoll, Hist, of S. Jerome. Rottw. 184G.) 
 
 (6.) RüFiNUS of Aquileia (oft. 410) had from his youth been the inti- 
 mate friend of Jerome, in whose vicinity he settled (on the Mount of 
 Olives, by Jerusalem). But the controversy about Origen and his 
 writings changed this friendship into the bitterest hostility (comp. | 51, 
 2). Rufinus considered it the mission of his life to translate the wri- 
 tings of Origen, and of others of the Greek Fathers, in order to make 
 them accessible to readers in the West. 
 
 6. The Theologij of the Sixth and Seventh Centuries. — The brightest 
 period of theological literature had gone by. Study was indeed still 
 carried on, and the writings of the Fathers were assiduously perused 
 and adapted to the wants of the times ; but we miss every trace of 
 genius or life, of creative power or originality. About the year 550 
 John Fhiloponus, a Monophysite at Alexandria, wrote a commentary on 
 Aristotle, and applied to theology the categories of that philosophy. 
 After that Platonism, which, from its idealism, had hitherto been chiefly 
 in vogue with those Fathers who cultivated philosophical studies, gra- 
 dually gave place to the fuller and more developed forms of the Aristo- 
 telian philosophy. Already the theology of the Greeks assumed the 
 type of scholasticism. But along with this tendency a theosophic mys- 
 ticism also appeared, founded chiefly on spurious writings of Dionysius, 
 which embodied the neo-Platonic ideas that had lately been broached. 
 The writings oi Maximus, the confessor, exhibit a mixture of areopogite 
 mysticism with the dialectics of Aristotle. In the West, the ti'oubles 
 connected with the breaking up of the Roman Empire contributed to 
 and hastened on the decay of theological literature. Still, at the com- 
 mencement of the sixth century, flourished some theologians who 
 recalled better times ; among them, in Africa, Fulgentius of Ruspe ; in 
 Gaul, Cmsarius of Aries. In Italy, Boethius and Cassiodorvs gained 
 immortal fame by cultivating and preserving classical and patristic 
 lore at a time" when it seemed threatened with complete extinction, 
 Gregory the Great closed the series of Latin Fathers in the strict sense 
 of that term. 
 
 (1.) The spurious writings of Dionysius the Areopagite (Acts xvii. 
 34) first made their appearance about the year 532, and among the 
 monophysite sect of the Severians. Most probably the real author of 
 these compositions belonged to that party, and lived about that time 
 (comp. § 48, 5). They met with little opposition, and soon passed as 
 genuine. (Best ed. by B. Corderius. Antv. 1634. 2 Voll. fol. ; transl. 
 into German, and with dissertations, by Engelhardt. Sulzb. 1823. 2 
 vols.) 
 
 (2.) Maximcs Confessor was the most acute and profound thinker 
 of his time, and favo 'rably distinguished by firmness, adherence to
 
 180 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). 
 
 his convictions, and courage, at a time when such qualities were rare. 
 At first private secretary to the Emperor Heraclius, he afterwards be« 
 came monk and abbot of a monastery near Constantinople, where h» 
 contended and sufi"ered for duothelete orthodoxy (comp. § 52, 8). He 
 died in exile in 662. (Best ed. of his writings by Fr. Comheßsius. 
 Par. 1675. 2 Voll, fol.) 
 
 (3.) FuLGENTius, Bishop of Ruspe, was exiled by Tlirasimund, King 
 of the Vandals, on account of his zeal for Catholic doctrine [ob. 533). 
 He was one of the ablest defenders of the views of Augustine. (0pp. 
 ed. J. Sirmond. Par. 1612.) His life was written by Fulgentius Fer- 
 randus, his excellent pupil, who took a prominent part in the contro- 
 versy about "the Three Chapters" (comp. | 52, 6). 
 
 (4.) C^SARius, Bishop of Aries [oh. 542), was one of the most pro- 
 minent and deserving men of his time, and specially distinguished for 
 practical usefulness in the Church, and for able advocacy of Augus- 
 tinian views. 
 
 (5.) BoETHius occupied high offices under Theoderic, King of the 
 Ostrogoths. His enemies charged him with treason, in consequence of 
 which he was thrown into prison and executed in 524. While in con- 
 finement, he wrote his work, "de consolatione philosophise," — a book 
 very popular in the middle ages, but which of late has given rise to 
 doubts whether the writer had been a Christian, although legend has 
 even transformed him into a Christian martyr. The theological wri- 
 tings attributed to him are spurious. In point of form, his philosophy 
 agrees with that of Aristotle ; in point of substance, with that of 
 Plato. 
 
 (6.) AuRELius Cassiodorus retired, after fifty years' public service 
 under Odoacer and Theodoric, into the monastery of Vivarium in Lower 
 Italy, which he had founded, and where he died in 565, at the advanced 
 age of nearly one hundred years. To his conduct in office, Italy was 
 indebted for the blessings of an excellent administration ; to his learned 
 researches and retirement from the world the literary history of Europe 
 owes the preservation of what of classical and patristic lore still re- 
 mained at the time. 
 
 (7.) Gregory I., the Great, Bishop of Rome, 590-614. The Roman 
 Catholic Church numbers him (with Ambrose, Jerome, and Augustine) 
 among the four great Fathers ("doctores ecclesioe"). Although his 
 theological writings were not distinguished by great depth or origin- 
 ality, he deserves the appellation of Great on account of his successful 
 labours. With a remarkable strength of purpose he combined mildness 
 and gentleness, and with humility and unfeigned piety a full conscious- 
 ness of what became his position as the supposed successor of Peter. 
 But with all his knowledge, circumspectness, and liberality, he was 
 full of monkish prejudices, and clung tenaciously to the traditionalism 
 of the Roman Church in respect of forms and dogmas. He lived in 
 tlie most retired and simple manner, as a strict ascetic, spending all
 
 THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE. 181 
 
 his property and income in deeds of charity. His lot was cast in trou- 
 tiled times, when the throes of a new historical period were felt over 
 Europe. All the more precious, therefore, was it that Providence had 
 called such a man to act as spiritual father and guide of the Western 
 Church. He was a strenuous advocate of monasticism and of all simi- 
 lar institutions ; nor can posterity feel otherwise than grateful for it, 
 since, at that troubled period of transition, monasticism was almost 
 the sole depositary and centre of intellectual culture and of spiritual 
 aspirations. — (Comp. Th. Lav, Gregor d. Gr., nach s. Leben u. s. Lehre. 
 Leipz. 1845 ; G. PfaUer, Greg. d. Gr. u. s. Zeit. Vol. I. Frkf. 1852. 
 (0pp. ed. Sammarthanus. Par. 1705. 4 Voll, fol.) 
 
 H8. THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE. 
 
 1. Exegetical Theology. — As yet the critical study of the text of 
 Scripture had not been commenced. Jerome himself was only a trans- 
 lator. In regard to the Old Testament, the LXX. was considered a 
 satisfactory version, and its divergences from the Hebrew text were set 
 down to Jewish interpolations. With the exception of Jerome, the 
 Fathers were entirely ignorant of Hebrew. The allegorical mode of inter- 
 tation was that most in favour. The school of Antioch, hoAvever, 
 adopted, both in theoi-y and practice, the historical and grammatical 
 mode of interpretation. Diodorus of Tarsus disputed the propriety of 
 the method of Origen in a tractate (Ttj öto^iopä ^{coptaj xai dJiWi^yopJas), 
 which has not been handed down. In the same strain wrote his pupil, 
 Theodorus of Mops, (de allegoria et historia) ; while Gregory of Nyssa 
 defended the opposite view in his Prooem. in Cant. Cant. The first 
 attempt at a work on Hermeneutics was made by Tychonius, aDonatist 
 (Keguloe VII. ad investigandam intelligentiam ss. Scr.), which, how- 
 ever, is far inferior to the tractate of Augustine on the same subject, 
 entitled, " de doctrina Christiana." In Book I. Augustine gives a sum- 
 mary of the " analogia fidei," as the ultimate standard for the interpre- 
 tation of special points ; the two following books detail the canons of 
 interpretation ; while Book IV. explains how the truth thus ascertained 
 was to be communicated to the people. The " liber formularum spiri- 
 tualis intelligentiaB," by Eucherins, a Gaul [oh. 450), is a practical 
 manual for allegorical interpretation. The Eijoywy^ rjjj ^«I'aj ypa^ijjj, 
 by Adrianus, a Greek, is a kind of hermeneutical manual. — For the 
 study of the Introduction to the Scriptures, the Prooemia of Jerome 
 were of some service. Theodorus of Mops, denied the genuineness of the 
 superscriptions to the Psalms, and the canonicity of Chronicles, Esther, 
 and the General Epistles. Junilius, an African, was the first (about 
 560) to attempt a scientific Introduction to the study of the Bible, in a 
 work entitled, Libri II. de partibus div. legis ; the "■ Institutio div. lite- 
 rarum," by Cassiodorus, was mainly designed for popular use. — The 
 Toftixd, or Bibl.' Geography, of Eusebius, preserved in Latin, as recast 
 16
 
 182 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A, D.). 
 
 hj Jerome (de situ et nominibus loc. Hebr.), and the tractate of Epipha 
 niiis, rtfpi netpuv xal öfci^^ttwi' (on measures and weights), may be re- 
 garded as contributions towards the study of Biblical Antiquities.— 
 The most celebrated and fertile among the allegorical Commentators 
 of the East was Cy^il of Alexandria. The school of Antioch, on the 
 other hand, furnished a succession of able interpreters of the historical 
 meaning of the Scriptures. Among them we mention Eustathius of 
 Antioch, ob. 3G0 (whose writings have been lost), Eusebius of Emisa, 
 oh. 360 (writ, lost), IJiodorus (writ, lost), Theodorns of Mops, (consider- 
 able fragm. preserved), Chiysostom (Homilies and Comment.), and 
 IVieodoret. Theodorus referred most of the Messianic predictions to 
 cotemporaries of the prophets — to Hezekiah, Zerubabel, etc. — and pro- 
 nounced the Song of Songs " libidinose pro sua niente et lingua mere- 
 tricia." The exegesis of Theodoret was much more trustworthy ; the 
 Song of Songs he regarded as an allegory. Chrysostom combined 
 with grammatical commentation a deep practical tendency. The same 
 remark applies to the commentaries of Ephrsem, written in Syriac. 
 All the Western divines — Hilary, Amhrosz, the Aiiihrosiasler (a com- 
 mentary on the Epistles of Paul by Hilarius, an unknown writer, which 
 is found among the wox'ks of Ambrose), Jerome, and Atigustine — more 
 or less adopted the allegorical mode of interpretation ; although Jero??ie, 
 on principle, applied himself also to grammatical commentation. Pela- 
 gius was the only writer who busied himself exclusively with the 
 literal meaning (of the Epistles of Paul). After the sixth century, 
 independent exegetical investigations were almost entirely given up, 
 and theologians contented themselves with making compilations from 
 the commentaries and homilies of the Fathers [Caience). This species 
 of composition originated in the East with Frocopius of Gaza (in the sixth 
 cent.), and with ^«as/asms Sinaita (in the seventh cent.) ; in the West, 
 with Pnmasius of Adrumetum, about 560. Only Gregory the Great 
 possessed sufficient originality and confidence in himself to write an 
 original commentary (Expositio in 1. Jobum s. Moralium libri 24). 
 
 2. Historical Theology. — The study of General Church History was 
 especially cultivated during the fourth and fifth centuries (comp. I 4, 1). 
 The history of the rise and of the various forms of heresy was traced 
 by Epiphanius (riamptov or Rißtortof — i.e., medicine-chest — xatk (ups- 
 etwj' 80), by Theodoret {AlptrixrjixaxoiJiv^^ai iTtito/x^, s. haeretic, fabulae), 
 by Leontius of By^ance (about the year 600: L. de sectis) ; — among 
 Latin writers, by Augustine (de haeresibus), by Philastrius, ob. 397 (de 
 ha^rcsibus), and by the author of the " Prasdestinatus" (comp. | 53, 5). — 
 Many Ijiographies of eminent Fathers, dating from that period, have 
 also been presei-ved. Jerome was the first to compose something like a 
 theological literary history in the form of biographies (Catalogus, s. de 
 viris illustr.). This work was continued by Gennadijs of Massilia. 
 Palladius (Hist. Lausiaca, i. e., dedicated to Lausus), Theodoret (^t^
 
 THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE. 18S 
 
 ^•oj Jifopto. s. hist, religiosa), and Rußnus (Hist, eremitica s. Vitge Pp.), 
 collected the accounts circulating about the great monastic saints 
 But even the writings of Gregory the Great (Dialogorum Libri IV. de 
 vita et miraculis Pp. Italicorum), and of Gregory of Tours (Libri VII. 
 de miraculis), are couched in the tone of later legends, and exhibit 
 immense credulity and love of the miraculous. The correspondence of 
 the Fathers, vrhich in many instances has been preserved and handed 
 down, is of great importance as an authority on all subjects connected 
 with the history of their times. The Cyclus pascha/is of Vionyshis 
 Exiguus (comp. § 43, 3), which gave rise to the ^ra Dionysiaca, still 
 in use, forms an important contribution to the science of Eccle-nastical 
 Chronology. In Ecclesiastical Statistics the TortoypaiJ)ia ;^pi-57'tavix^ of 
 Cosmas Indicopleiistes, a Nestorian, who as a merchant had travelled a 
 good deal in the East (about the year 550), deserves attention. — The 
 rca.vto8arCri i(jropJa s. Chronicon, by Eusebius, in two books — of which 
 the second was recast in Latin by Jerome — was designed to illustrate 
 the connection between Biblical and profane history. The original of 
 this tractate has been lost, but a complete Armenian translation of it 
 has lately been discovered. At the suggestion of Augustine, Orosius, 
 a Spaniard, wrote a secular history for the purpose of proving that the 
 decline of the Roman Empire was not attributable to Christianity (Hist. 
 adv. Paganos, Libri VII.). 
 
 3. Apologetics. — The controversial tractate of Julian (comp. § 42, 4) 
 was answered by Cyril of Alexandria (rtpöj -to, tov iv d^t'oij 'lomxidvov), 
 by Gregory of Nazianzus (xöyot atrjXitn'tixoi s. Invectiva3 in Jul.), and 
 by Chrysostom [in his oration on S. Babylas). Ämbr9se and Prndentius 
 the poet (see below. Note 8) wrote against the design of Symmachus 
 (comp. ^ 42, 3). The insinuations of Zosimus, Eunapius, and others 
 were met by the history of Orosius, and by Augustine in his dogmatical 
 and apologetical work, "de civitate Dei," — by far the ablest apology 
 put forth by the ancient Church. For the same purpoL^e, Salvianns, a 
 Gaul, composed eight books, " de gubernatione Dei." John Philopomts 
 replied to the olijections of Proclus against the Christian doctrine of 
 creation. The controversy with the Jews was carried on by Chrysostom, 
 Augustine, and Gregentius, Bishop of Taphar in Arabia, who, in pre- 
 sence of a vast concourse, for four days carried on a discussion with 
 Herban, a Jew. Apologetic works of a more general character were 
 composed by Eusebius of Caesarea (the " Prgeparatio evangelica," in 
 fifteen books, and the " Demonstratio evangelica," in twenty books), 
 by Athanasius (two books, xata, ^^x%yivu,v — Book II. bearing also the 
 title, Tiipl -frii Ei'ai'^pwrt);^scoj tov ®iov Aoyou), by Gregory of Nyssa (rtpoj 
 "Itxhr^vai ix full/ xoivuiv ä'i'ottov), by Theodorct (de curandis Grgecor. aflfec- 
 tionibus), and by Firmicus Maternus (de errore profanarum religg. ad 
 Constantium et Constantinum. Comp. | 42, 4). 
 
 4. But by far the greatest onergy, talent, aouteness, and research
 
 184 SECTION I SECOND PERIOD (323—692 A.D.;. 
 
 was displayed in the Polemical writings of that period, which wa? 
 directed partly against old and partly against recent heresies. — (Comp, 
 below, the history of Theol. Controv.) 
 
 5. Dogmatics. — The precedent of Origen in constructing a general 
 theological system was not followed. But theologians addressed them- 
 selves to the elucidation of Christian doctrines for practical purposes, 
 äspecially for the insti'uction of catechumens. Among such works we 
 reckon those of Cyril of Jerusalem, ob. 386 (twenty-three addresses to 
 catechumens, of which the last five treat of the Christian mysteries) ; 
 of Gregory of Nyssa (Oratio catech. magna) ; of Epiphanius (to defend 
 Catholic truth against Arianism) ; of Augustine (in the last books of 
 the "civitas Dei," in Book I. de doctrina Christ., and in the " enchi- 
 ridium ad Laurentium ") ; of Fulgentius of Eiispe (de regula veraa 
 fidei) ; and of two semi-Pelagian writers, Gennadius (de fide sua), and 
 Vincentius Lirinensis, ob. 450 (Commonitorium pro cath. fidei antiqui- 
 tate et universitate, comp. I 53, 5). The tractates written on special 
 topics, more particularly for controversial purposes, greatly contributed 
 to the elucidation of certain dogmatical questions. The works of the 
 Pseudo-Dionysius (§ 47, 6), in which the main elements of Christianity 
 were represented as a theosophic and gnostic mysticism, understood 
 only by the initiated, acquired a place of very great importance. Their 
 author distinguished between a ^io^oyCa xixta^atixri, in which truth 
 was presented under the garb of a symbol, of history, or of the tra- 
 ditionary teaching of the Church, and a ^ioxoyia. aTio^atixr], which 
 dispensed with such media, and in which the initiated rises by con- 
 templation or the'ecstatic state to an immediate view of things divine. 
 The writer also discussed at considerable length the diö'erent grades 
 among heavenly beings, of which he supposed the earthly hierarchy 
 was a type. His system was based on Neo-Platonism, and derived 
 only its terminology and forms from the theology of the Church. This 
 mysticism assumed a higher and decidedly Christian cast in the hands 
 of Muximiis Confessor, who in numerous writings attempted to combine 
 these speculations with orthodox views. 
 
 6. Ethics and Asceticism. — The tractate of Ambrose, "de officiis 
 ministrorum," was specially designed for the clergy, while that of 
 Gregory the Great (expositiones in 1. Jobum s. Moralium LI. 24) dis- 
 cussed moral questions generally. Special tractates were frequently 
 devoted to particular topics, especially to those connected with asceti- 
 cism. Among them we msi^nce Chrysostom's four books, "de Sacer- 
 dotio," and John Cassian's tractate, "de institutis coenobiorum, LI. 12," 
 and the " Collationes Patrum, 25" (comp. § 53, 5). 
 
 7. Practical Theology. — The most distinguished preachers of that 
 age were Macarins the Great, an hermit, ob. 390 (distinguished for 
 fervour and a profound mysticism, in which he approximated the views
 
 THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE, 184 
 
 of Augustine), Basil the Great, Gregory of Nazianzus, Ephrcem (the 
 Ohrysostom of the Syrians), above all, John Chrysostom (the twenty- 
 one orations, "de statuis," delivered when the Antiochiuns had thrown 
 down the statue of Theodosius I., are specially noteworthy), — Ambrose, 
 Auyusline, Leo the Great, Cce.sarius of Aries, and Gregory ihe Great. 
 The fourth book of Augustine's " doctr. christ." may be considered as 
 a kind of liomiletics. On the catechetical writings, comp, g 59, 4; on 
 eccles. law, § 43, 3. 
 
 8. Christian Poetry. — When first Christianity made its appearance, 
 the poetic inspiration of antiquity had already vanished from among 
 the people. But the Gospel possessed energy sufficient to revive the 
 ancient spirit. Despite the decay of taste and language at the time, 
 it evoked a new school of poetry, which will bear comparison with 
 classical poetry in point of depth and ardour, if not in purity and 
 elegance of form. The Latins, to Avhom Christianity was chiefly matter 
 of experience, of the heart and inner life, were more distinguished in 
 this branch than the Grecians, who regarded the Gospel rather as an 
 object of knowledge and of speculation. For further information about 
 Hymns comp. | 59, 2; about the controversial poetry of Arias, | 50, 
 1, 6. The most celebrated among Greek Christian poets were Gregory 
 of Nazianzus (especially the satirical "Carmen de vita sua"), Nonmis 
 of Panopolis, Eudocia, the wife of Theodosius II. (author of a canto 
 on the History of Jesus, consisting of Homeric verses, and of poetic 
 paraphrases of portions of Scripture), and Paulus Sileiitiariiis (author 
 of a poetical description of the Church of Sophia, built by Justinian I., 
 and of the Ambon of that church — chiefly of archaeological interest). 
 Among Latin Christian poets we mention Juvencus, a Spaniard, who 
 flourished about 330 (" Hist, evangelica," in four books, the first Chris- 
 tian epos, which is distinguished for elevation of sentiment, simplicity, 
 and the absence of oratorical turgidity) ; Prndentius, likewise a Spa- 
 nia\'d [oh. 413), perhaps the ablest among ancient Christian poets (L. 
 peristephanon, or fourteen hymns in honour of the martyrs ; Apotheosis, 
 a poem in honour of Christ's Divine nature; Hamartigenia; Psycho- 
 machia, contra Symmaehum, comp. § 47) ; Panlinus, Bishop of Nola in 
 Campania, ob. 431 (thirty poems, of which fifteen are in honour of 
 Felix the Martyr) ; Sedulius (Mirabilia divina, being a poetical version 
 of Old and New Testament history, a "hymnus acrostichus" on the 
 Life of Jesus) ; Prosper Aquitanictis (de libero arbitrio c. ingratos, an 
 indignant expostulation addressed to those who despised grace, comp. 
 I 53, 5); Avitus, Bishop of Vienne, ob. 523 (de mundi principio) ; and 
 Venantius Fortunatvs, Bishop of Poitiers, who flourished ;'n the sixth 
 century (LI. IV. de vita Martini, a description of a journey on tbe 
 Moselle, etc.). 
 16*
 
 186 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD ("323— 692 A. D.) 
 
 IV. DOCTRINAL CONTROVERSIES AND HERESIES. 
 H9. GENERAL D E VE LOPME NT OF DOCTRINES. 
 
 During the preceding period, Christian truth had chiefly 
 developed subjectively, and hence assumed various directions. 
 But now the altered state of outward afifairs pointed out the 
 necessity, increasingly felt, of arranging the doctrines which had 
 already been formulated, of combining and giving them solemn 
 ecclesiastical sanction. The tendency to scientific development 
 also, which was inherent in Christianity, increasingly asserted its 
 power and influence. Accordingly the different types of doctrine 
 were no longer confined to particular countries ; through the 
 Intercourse between the various branches of the Church, opposing 
 views were marshalled in hostile array ; the court, the people, 
 and the monks took part in these controversies, and the Church 
 became the scene of violent contests which endangered its unity 
 and purity. These dangers called for a combined defence of the 
 ' truth, by which all error should be eliminated as heresy — a 
 result which, through the presence of the Spirit with the Church, 
 was ultimately always accomplished, though not without con- 
 siderable struggles. 
 
 1. The Dogmatic Controversies of that period had their bright and 
 their dark side. Occasionally, indeed, truth was made subservient to 
 personal ambition and to self-seeking ; instead of contending only with 
 spiritual weapons, state interference, court intrigues, and popular pas- 
 sions were not unfrequently called into requisition ; in the ardour for 
 pure doctrine, holiness of life was sometimes lost sight of; differences, 
 which might have been adjusted if the passions of controversialists had 
 not been at play, became grounds of separation ; subordinate points 
 acquired an undue importance, etc. But, on the other hand, it must 
 be admitted that the destiny of Christianity, to become the religion of 
 the whole world, rendered it necessary that its dogmas should receive 
 the most close, scientific, and consistent examination ; that, accordingly, 
 the Church had to engage in certain contests in order to put aside all 
 errors ; that Christianity would not have been able so firmly to meet 
 the shock of barbarism, which it had soon to encounter in its contact 
 with those nations which subverted the Roman Empire, if the unity 
 of the Catholic Church had not been so well guarded by strict defini- 
 tions of doctrine ; and, lastly, that if Christian truth had not been so 
 fuUj and strictly formulated, the admission of heathen nations into the
 
 THE TRINITARIAN CONTROVERSY. 18T 
 
 (Jhurch, and the partial importation of their pagan modes of thinking; 
 would have become the source of much greater dangers than those 
 which were actually encountered. 
 
 2. The Heresies of the preceding period were, in great measure, 
 syncretistic (| 26) ; those of the period under review, evolutionary, — 
 i. e., in the development of Christian doctrine, they sprung from an 
 exclusive advocacy and from exaggerated views of one particular aspect 
 of the truth, which, by this process, became changed into error; while, 
 on the other hand, orthodoxy sinight to view truth under all its aspects, 
 and to harmonize its different bearings. Only echoes of the syncre- 
 istic heresies of a former period were still heard (§ 54). The revolu- 
 tionary form of heresy had as yet appeared only in isolated instances 
 (§ 62). Catholic doctrine might be represented as an unViealthy 
 excrescence — either unjustly, in which case the Church would be 
 interrupted or disturbed in the exercise of its proper and necessary 
 life-functions ; or justly, but in such a manner that, in the general 
 charge, truth was not properly distinguished from error, and that, 
 in reality, the attempt was made to remove the one along with the 
 other. 
 
 §50. THE TRINITARIAN CONTROVERSY (318—381). 
 
 Comp. J. A. Stark, Versuch e. Gesch. d. Arianism. (Hist, of Arian.). 
 Berl. 1783. — Ad. Mäkler, Athanas. d. Gr. u. seine Zeit. 2d edition. 
 Mayence 1844. 2 vols. — F. Chr. Baur, d. chr. Lehre von d. Dreieinigk. 
 (The Chr. Doctr. of the Trinity). 3 vols. Tübg, 1844. — /. A. Dorner, 
 d. Lehre von d. Person Christi (The Dogma about the Person of Christ). 
 2 vols. 2d ed. Stuttg. 1845, etc. — H. Ritter, Gesch. d. chr. Philos. 
 Vol. II. 
 
 The doctrine of the Trinity formed the subject of the first — or 
 Arian — controversy. In it the discussion chiefly turned upon the 
 nature and essence of the Logos, who in Christ had become incar- 
 nate, and about his relation to the Father. Since the contro- 
 versy between Dionysius of Alexandria and his namesake of 
 Rome (§ 40, 6), the view that the Son was of the same essence 
 and equal with the Father, had gained adherents in Alexandria 
 also, and «jiven rise to a new school (§ 4*7, 4). But an appre- 
 hension — excited by the teaching of Sabellius and Paul of Samo- 
 sata (§ 40, 7) — lest this doctrine should lead to Monarchianisra, 
 influenced many to retain the views known as Subordinatianism. 
 The School of Lucian, the Antiochian (§ 39, 6 ; 47, 1), especi- 
 ally furnished able opponents to homoousian principles. Origen 
 had held these Iwo apparently antagonistic views (subordination
 
 188 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.) 
 
 and eternal generation from the substance of the Father), comp. 
 § 40, 5. But now they were no longer combined. One party 
 rejected subordination, maintained the doctrine of eternal gene- 
 ration, and completed their system by admitting the homoousia 
 of Christ ; another held subordinatian views, and carried them 
 as far as heteroousianism. A third party — chiefly followers of 
 Origen — attempted to reconcile these antagonisms, by a sort of 
 intermediate view, known under the term of Ifiouovala. During 
 the course of these controversies, which for almost a whole cen- 
 tury agitated the Christian world, the Divine Personality of the 
 Holy Ghost was established as a logical and theological deduction 
 from orthodox principles. After many contests, the homoousia 
 of the Son and that of the Holy Ghost were ultimately acknow- 
 ledged as the orthodox view of the Church. 
 
 1. First Victor^/ of Homootisian Frinciples (318 — 325). — Arius, a 
 pupil of Lucian, and from 313 a presbyter at Alexandria, an acute but 
 not a profound thinker, was, in 318, charged by two presbyters — 
 adherents of Western views — with having promulgated opinions incom- 
 patible with the Divinity of the Saviour. Arius had publicly taught 
 that the Son had, before the commencement of time, but not from all 
 eternity {^v oti oix fp/), been created out of nothing [xtLOfia tf oix bvtc^v) 
 by the Will of the Father {^(Xr^fiati ^lov), in order that the world might 
 be called into existence through Him. He also maintained that, as 
 Christ was the most perfect created image of the Father, and had car- 
 ried into execution the Divine purpose of creation, He might be called 
 ^föj and -Koyoi, though not in the proper sense of these terms. Alex- 
 ander, who at that time filled the see of Alexandria, was devotedly 
 attached to the doctrines of the eternal generation of the Son, and of 
 His equality with the Father. He convoked a spiod (321), which con- 
 demned the views of Arius, and deposed him from his oiEce. But the 
 populace, which looked upon him as an ascetic, and many of the bishops, 
 who shared his opinions, took his part. He also implored the protec- 
 tion of foreign prelates, — among them, that oi Eusebius of Nicomedia, 
 a former fellow-pupil, and of the influential Eusehius of Caesarea. The 
 former of these prelates pronounced in his favour, while the latter 
 declared his views at least harmless. Arius spread his opinions among 
 the people by means of hymns adapted to various conditions of life (tc 
 millers, sailors, travellers, etc.). The controversy led to a schism whioh 
 extended wellnigh over the whole East. In Alexandria passions rar 
 eo high, that the heathens made it the subject of ridicule on the stage 
 Coristimtine the Great received, with much displeasure, tidings of these 
 disputes. He issued an order — of course M'ithout success — that such 
 " useless discussions" should be discontinued. But Hosius, Bishop o1
 
 THE TRINITARIAN CONTROVERSY. 189 
 
 Cordova, who came to Alexandria as bearer of this imperial ordinance, 
 learned, during his stay in that city, the real state of matters, and the 
 importance of the controversy. On his return, he convinced the Em- 
 pei'or that this was not a trivial dispute. Constantine now summoned 
 a General Council at Nice (325), which was attended by himself and 
 by 318 bishops. The majority of members, headed by Eusehius of 
 Ccesarea, were followers of Origen, and occupied a kind of intermediate 
 position ; nor was the party of Arius, which was led by Eusehius of 
 Nicomedia, inconsiderable. The Homoousians were in a decided mino- 
 rity ; but the enthusiastic eloquence of the youthful Deacon Athanasiiis, 
 whom Alexander had brought with him, and the influence of the Em- 
 peror, procured them the victory. The Homoousian formulas {ix trji 
 ovötaj 'toil Tiatpbi, ytvvtj^fii ov Ttoirj^i^, o^uoovataj ^9 rta^pJ) were inserted 
 into the Creed, Arius was excommunicated, and his writings con- 
 demned. Fear of being deposed, and a desire for peace, induced many 
 to subscribe who were not convinced. Only ^rü/5 himself, and two 
 Egyptian bishops, Tlieonas and Secundus, refused to submit, and were 
 exiled into Jllyria. Eusehius (f Nicomedia and Tlieognis of Nice, who 
 subscribed the creed, but not the formula of condemnation, were also 
 banished (to Gaul). 
 
 2. Victory of Eusehianism (328-356). — The concord brought about 
 by subscription to the Nicene Creed was neither real nor lasting. The 
 remonstrances of Consiautia, the sister of the Emperor, when on her 
 death-bed, and the advice of some of the leading prelates, induced 
 Constantine to revert to his first opinions regarding this controversy. 
 Arius made a confession of his faith, couched in general terms, and 
 was recalled fi'om exile along with his fellow-sufferers (328). Soon 
 afterwards the Emperor ordered him to be restored to his office (330). 
 But Athanasius, who in the meantime had succeeded to the see of 
 Alexandria (328), declared himself unable to comply with this demand. 
 The Emperor threatened to depose the bishop ; till, in a personal inter- 
 view, the latter made so deep an impression, that Constantine yielded. 
 But the enemies of Athanasius, especially those Meletians, (§ 38, 4) in- 
 stigated by Eusebius of Nicomedia, were continually representing him 
 to the Emperor as one that fomented discord and rebellion. Ultimately, 
 a synod convoked at Tyre (335), and consisting entirely of Arians, waa 
 charged with a new investigation of these questions. Athanasius 
 appealed against the sentence of deposition pronounced against him, 
 which, however, was confirmed by another synod, that met at Con- 
 stantinople ; and the Emperor banished him to Treves (336). Despite 
 the protest of the Bishop of Constantinople, Arius was now to havo 
 been solemnly restored to church-communion in tlie capital of the 
 empire, when he suddenly died the evening before the day of his 
 restoration (at an age of upwards of 80 years). Soon afterwards Con- 
 Btantine also died ; and Constantine II. , immediately on his accession, 
 restored Athanasius, who was enthusiastically received by his flook.
 
 190 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). 
 
 But Constantius favoured the Avians, and his sentiments were shared 
 by the court and capital. In every street and market, in every shop 
 and house, these questions vrere now discussed. The mojjority of 
 bishops in the East, headed by Eusebius of Ccesarea, in their desire to 
 find an intermediate position, adopted the expression öfiovovocoi ; the 
 Arian party was led by Eusebius of Nicom., who since 338 was Bishop 
 of Constantinople [ob. 341). Common opposition to the adherents of 
 the Nicene Creed formed a bond of union between these two parties 
 (the Eiisebians). The West was entirely in favour of the Nicene Creed. 
 In 340 the Eusebians held a council at Antiocli, which sat for several 
 davs. It once more deposed Athanasius, and in his room elected Gre- 
 gorius, a rude Cappadocian. Athanasius fled to Rome, where his 
 orthodoxy and innocence were solemnly acknowledged by a council 
 under Bishop Julius (341). A new council in Anttoch (341), summoned 
 to consecrate a Church, prepared successively four symbols, each ap- 
 proximating as closely as possible to that of Nice, (to conciliate the 
 West), but carefully evading the öjwoovtfioj. To restore harmony, Con- 
 stantius, at the suggestion of Constans, his brother, convoked a general 
 Council at Sardica in Illyria (343). But as the Latins admitted Atha- 
 nasius to a seat and vote, without paying any regard to his deposition 
 by the Council of Antioch, the Eastern bishops immediately withdrew, 
 and held a separate council at Philrppopolis in Thracia. In Sardica, 
 where important privileges were assigned to Julius, Bishop of Rome 
 (comp. ^ 46, 2), the Nicene Creed was confirmed, and Athanasius 
 restored to his see. Even before that, Gregorius, who, by his violence 
 and acts of oppression, had incurred additional unpopularity, was 
 murdered by the populace of Alexandria. Athanasius was again 
 welcomed with enthusiasm by his flock. But after the death of Con- 
 stans (350), Constantius once more favoured the Arian party. The 
 latter assembled in council at Sirmium in Pannonia (351) ; but forbear- 
 ing directly to attack Athanasius himself, they confined their opposi- 
 tion, in the first place, to a friend and adherent of the Bishop of 
 Alexandria. In his zeal for Nicene views, Marcellus, Bishop op 
 Ancyra, had fallen into Sabellianism. Already, in 336, the Synod of 
 Constantinople had deposed him, and deputed Eusebius of Caesarea to 
 refute his tenets. But he continued to enjoy the protection of the West, 
 and of the Council of Sardica, till Photinus, Bishop of Sirmium, a 
 pupil of Mai'collus, promulgated what undoubtedly were Monarchian 
 views (? 40). These opinions had been declared heretical, not only by 
 the Council of Antioch, but by that of Milan also (346), the members 
 of which adhered to the Nicene Creed. Photinus was deposed by the 
 Council of Sirmium, and, along with his, the tenets of Marcellus were 
 also condemned. But even this did not satisfy the Eusebians. As 
 soon as Constantius had vanquished Magnentius, the usurper, and was 
 thus unembarrassed in his actions, he called two synods at their 
 request, one at Arelate in Gaul (353), another at Milan (355), by which
 
 THE TRINITARIAN CONTROVERSY. 101 
 
 Atlianasius was anew condemned. They prevailed on Constantius to 
 issue an ordinance, enjoining all Western bishops to subscribe the 
 condemnation of Athanasius. Those who resisted were deposed and 
 banished — among them, Liberius, Bishop of Rome, Hosins of Cordova, 
 Hilarius of Poitiers, Eusehius of Vercelli, and Luctfer of Calaris. 
 Another Cappadocian, of the name of Georgius — not less violent than 
 his countryman and predecessor — was to be installed by force as 
 Bishop of Alexandria. Having calmly, and with dignity, finished the 
 celebration of the worship in which he was engaged, Athanasius 
 managed to escape to the monks in the Egyptian desert (350). Thus 
 victory seemed throughout the Roman Empire to have decided in 
 favour of Homoiousianism. 
 
 3. Homoiism (357-361). — But soon the Eusebians began to dispute 
 among themselves. The extreme party, headed by Ae'tius, a deacon 
 at Antioch, and Eunomins, Bishop of Cyzicus, went so far as to main- 
 tain that the Son was unlike the Father (dj/o^oioj), from which the party 
 received the name of Anomoites or Exucontians, [i% ovx ovrwf ). The 
 Homoiousians, who were now designated as Semi-Arians, prepared to 
 contest this point. They were led by Rasilius, Bishop of Anci/ra, and 
 countenanced by the Emperor Constantius. Ultimately, however, the 
 intrigues of Ursacius and Valens, the two court bishops, who at heart 
 were Arians, proved successful. With consent of the Emperor, they 
 held a second council at Sirmium (357), where it was resolved wholly 
 to discard the unbiblical term ovui'a, which had been the cause of all 
 these dissensions, not to enter upon any definitions about the nature of 
 God, which was incomprehensible, and to unite in simply asserting 
 that the Son was similar to the Father (o^woios — hence their name 
 Homoiites). Two of the exiled bishops — Uosius of Cordova and 
 Liberius of Rome — purchased permission to return to their sees by 
 subscription to this formula. But the other Latin bishops, in a synod 
 at Ageiimim, again declared their adherence to the Nicene Creed ; while 
 the Semi-Arians met at Anci/ra under the presidency of Basilius, and 
 reafiirmed the Confession of Antioch. The latter, also, found access 
 to the Emperor, who had their confession ratified by a third synod at 
 Sirnmim (358), and compelled the bishops of the court to subscribe it. 
 Even Liberius of Rome, softened by an exile of two years' duration, 
 gave his signature, and was allowed to return to Rome. Thereupon, 
 the bishops of the court compromised with the Semi-Arians upon the 
 following formula: — -rhv Twv ojjlqiov ruj riatpi tlvai xaf ä riävta wj ai 
 ay (.'at ypa^at "Kfyovaiv . The Emperor was so much pleased with 
 this formula, that he resolved to have it sanctioned by a general 
 council. To prevent a combination between the Homoiousians and 
 the riomoousians of the West, Ursacius and Valens persuaded the 
 Emperor to summon two councils instead of one, of which that of 
 Seleucia was destined fur the East, and that of Rimini (359) for the 
 
 West. Both councils rejected the new formula; the one >n favour of
 
 193 SECTION I SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). 
 
 the creed of Antioch, the other in favour of that of Nice. But Ursaciua 
 managed by intrigues to bring the bishops to submission. For two 
 years the prelates were detained at Seleucia and at Rimini, as it were 
 in exile ; while their delegates, after travelling about for half a year, 
 were unable to obtain an audience of the Emperor. Thus coerced, they 
 at last subscribed the new formula. Those who refused to submit 
 (Aetius and Eunomins) were persecuted as disturbing the peace of tho 
 Church. Homoiism now became the acknowledged creed of the empire. 
 But the death of Constantius (361) speedily put an end to this 
 temporary prevalence of error. 
 
 4. Final Ascendency of the Nicene Creed (361-381). — Julian gave 
 equal rights to all parties, and recalled the exiled bishops, so that in 
 some churches there were two or even three bishops at one and the 
 same time. Äthanasins also returned to his see. He convoked a synod 
 at Alexandria (362) for the purpose of restoring ecclesiastical order, 
 and, despite the protest of the narrow-minded Lucifer of Calaris, with 
 equal moderation and prudence, received into church-fellowship those 
 bishops who had been misled into Arian views, but repented of their 
 error. The success which attended the endeavours of Athanasius, 
 determined the Emperor once more to send him into exile, on pretence 
 that he was the occasion of disturbances. Jovian, the successor of 
 Julian, favoured the Nicene party, and allowed Athanasius to return 
 to his see (364) ; while, at the same time, he also extended toleration 
 to the Arians. But Valens, to whom Valentinian I., his brother, com- 
 mitted the government of the East, was a zealous Arian (364-378). He 
 persecuted with equal cruelty both Athanasians and Semi-Arians, a 
 proceeding which led to an approximation between these two parties. 
 Athanasius was obliged to flee ; but after the lapse of four months was 
 allowed to return, and to spend the remainder of his life without fur- 
 ther molestation. He filled the episcopal see for forty-five years, of 
 which twenty were spent in exile [ob. 373). The persecutions of Valens 
 were, however, kept in check by the urgent representations of Valen- 
 tinian, his brother, and by the dignified and energetic resistance of 
 eminent prelates, especially of the three great Cappadocians. The 
 intrigues of the Empress Justina in the West, during the minority of 
 her son, Valentinian II., were frustrated through the watchfulness of 
 Ambrose of Milan. The soldiers who were to take possession of his 
 church, and to hand it over to the Arians, met with passive but success- 
 ful resistance, in finding the edifice occupied by a congregation engaged 
 in prayer and the singing of psalms. — Theodosivs I. the Great, a Spa- 
 niard (379-395), who for a short period ruled over the East and West, 
 banished Arianism from the empire. He appointed Gregory of Nazi- 
 cinzus, Patriarch of Constantinople. It was intended that this prelate 
 should preside over the Second General Council of Constantinople 
 (381). But as his authority was impugned on the ground that he had 
 changed his see (comp. ^45), he laid down his ofiice, and Gregory of
 
 THE TRINITARIAN CONTROVERSY. 193 
 
 N)/ssa presided in his stead. The Nicene Creed was enlarged by the 
 addition of a formula affirming the equality of the Holy Spirit with 
 the Father and the Son. From that time the Arians were only allowed 
 to hold their warship outside the city. Somewhat later all their churches 
 in the empire were taken from them. 
 
 5. The Pnenmatomachoi (3G2-381). — According to Arms and his 
 adherents, the Holy Ghost was the first being created by the Son. But 
 even zealous advocates of the homoousia of the Son were undecided on 
 this doctrine. In the Nicene Creed nothing beyond a xai fij Jlvivfxa 
 %yvov was inserted ; and Hilary of Poitiers hesitated to enter upon fuller 
 particulars, from fear of going beyond the teaching of Scripture. But 
 AthaiMfsius (at the Synod of Alex, in 362), Didymus the Blind, and the 
 three Cappadocians, consistently carried out their theological princi- 
 ples, and by their authority succeeded in bringing their party to admit 
 also the homoousia of the Holy Spirit. The Semi-Arians who had 
 adopted the Nicene Creed — and among them especially Macedonius, 
 formerly Bishop of Constantinople, whom the Homoiists had deposed — 
 felt extremely reluctant to adopt this view [Macedonians, Pnewnatoma- 
 cJioi). The second cecum. Council (381) sanctioned the homoousia of 
 the Holy Spirit by adding to the expression sl^ Hv. wyiov, the words ■to 
 ifvpioj'. To ^wortoto«', to ix toy Xlarpoj ixTio^ivö^ivov , to gvv Ilarpi) xai TtJi 
 ewTtpo^xwov^evov xai awbo%a.'^6jxsvov . 
 
 6. Literature of the Controversy. — Ariiis himself explained his views 
 in a semi-poetical tractate ©ciXfJa (of which Athanasius has preserved 
 fragments). His principles were zealously defended by Asterius, a 
 sophist (whose writings have been lost). Philostorgius, the historian, 
 attempted to show from history that they were conformable to the 
 views of the apostles and of the early Church. Eusebins of Cces. wrote 
 two tractates in defence of Semi-Arianism, against Marcellus [xa,ta. 
 Mapx£>.?iOu and rctpl tiji sxx%riat.a6t(,xrji ^jo>.oytaj). The artoXoyrjtixoi by 
 Eunoinius has been lost. Foremost among the opponents of Arianism 
 stands Athanasius — Oratt. IV. c. Arianos ; hist. Arianorum ad mona- 
 chos; Epist. de decretis Niccenis; Epist. de Synodis Arimini et Seleucise 
 habitis ; 'ArtoXoyj^rixdj rtpoj tov^ 'Apftcirouj, etc. Basil the Great wrot© 
 four books against Eunomius ; the Ilfpt tov kylov Hviv^ato^ ; and the 
 Ad Amphilochium (against the Pneumatomachoi) ; — Gregory of Naz., 
 five Xoyot ^foXoyixoi (| 47, 4) ; Gregory of Nyssa, twelve %6yoi avttß^fjtixoi 
 xata Evi/o,iu'oi; ; — Didymus the Blind, three books de Trinitate; — Epi- 
 phanius the 'Ayzvpcoroj (| 78, 5) ; — Cyril of Alex., a ^aaupof rtspt tJjt 
 ur^ioi xai ünoovstoLi TptciSoj ; — Chrysostom delivered twelve orations 
 against the Anomoites ; Theodoret wrote Dialogi VII. de s. Trinit. 
 Ephrcem Syrtis, also, frequently controverted in his sermons the views 
 of the Arians. Among Latin writers the most distinguished contro- 
 versialists were: Lucifer of Calaris ("Ad Constantium Imp. LI. II. 
 pro Äthan.," in which he denounces the Emperor as an apostate, aa 
 
 17
 
 194 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323—692 A.D.). 
 
 Antichrist and Satan; the "moriendum pro filio Dei;" the "De non 
 conveniendis cum haereticis) ; Hilary of Pidavium ("De Trinitate, LI. 
 XII. ;" " de Synodis s. de fide Orientalium ;" " Contra Constantium 
 Aug, ;" " Contra Auxentium," § 47, 5) ; Pkcebadius, Bfehop of Agen- 
 num al)out 359 (" c. Arianoa") ; Ambrose (" de fide ad Gratianum Aug. 
 LI. v.") ; Augtistine (" c. sermonem Arianorum ;" " Collatio cum Max- 
 imino Arianorum Episc. ;" " c. Maximinum") ; Fvlgentius of Euspe 
 ("c. Arianos," and three books addressed to Trasimund, the Arian 
 King of the Vandals). 
 
 7. Later Development of Nicene Views. — Even the formula adopted 
 by the second Council of Constantinople was not entirely free from all 
 traces of Subordinatianism. At least the expression, flj ^«6$, as applied 
 to the Father exclusively, might give rise to misunderstanding. Augus- 
 tine completely removed any uncertainty still hanging over this doctrine 
 ("de trinitate LI. XV."). But as yet the personality of the Holy 
 Ghost, and His relation to the Son, had not been defined vrith sufficient 
 accuracy. This afterwards gave rise to the schism between the Eastern 
 and the "Western Church. In this respect also Augustine correctly 
 taught that the Holy Spirit proceeded both from the Father and the 
 Son. Among those who advocated these truths, Fulgentius of Ruspe 
 ("de s. trinit.") deserves special mention. The so-called (pseudo-) 
 Athanasian Creed, or Symholnm Qnicimqtie (from the word with which 
 it commences), dates probably from the beginning of the sixth cen- 
 tury. It originated in Spain, and simply inserted the words, " qui 
 procedit a Patre Filioque." 
 
 I 51. ORIGENISTIC CONTHOVERSIES (394-438). 
 
 The controversies about the Trinity were, in due course, fol- 
 lowed by discussions about the person of Christ (§ 52). Before 
 these took place, another question, however, engaged the atten- 
 tion of the Church. Although the Origenistic controversy was 
 a personal dispute rather than a discussion of importance to the 
 Church generally, it served to confirm the impression that Origen 
 had really been a heresiarch. 
 
 1. The Monies of tlie Scetian and of the Nitrian Desert. — The most 
 strenuous advocates of Nicene views [Athanasius, the three great Cap- 
 padocians, Didymus, Hilary, etc.) had held Origen in great repute. 
 But as the Arians continually appealed to his authority, the more 
 narrow-minded opponents of Arianism, especially those in the West, 
 And the monks of the Scetian Desert in Egypt, headed by Pachomius, 
 gradually began to suspect the orthodoxy of Origen. By and by they 
 denounced the speculations of that Father as the source of every 
 heresy, and came to entertain grossly anthropomorph'c views of God
 
 ORIGENISTIC CONTROVERSIES. 195 
 
 and of Divine things. Epiphanius, Bishop of Salamis (§ 47, 4), waa 
 trained in their school. In direct opposition to these monks, others, 
 \rho inhabited the mountains of Nitria, were enthusiastic admirers of 
 Origen, and adopted a lofty spiritualism, coupled with a devout and 
 contemplative mysticism. 
 
 2. Controversy in Palestine and Italy (394^399). — In Palestine, John, 
 Bishop of Jerusalem, and the two Latins, Jerome and Rufinus, were 
 ardent admirers of Origen (| 47, 5). But when, in the year 394, two 
 strangers from the West expressed their astonishment about this, Je- 
 rome, anxious to retain his reputation for orthodoxy, immediately pre- 
 pared to denounce the errors of Origen. Meantime, the Scetiau monks 
 had also called the attention of the aged and over-zealous Epiphanius 
 to the existence of a nursery of heresy in Palestine. He immediately 
 took ship, and employed the pulpit which John had kindly opened to 
 him for delivering a vehement denunciation of Origenistic views. Upon 
 this, John preached against anthropomorphism. Epiphanius anathe- 
 matized these views, but insisted that John should pronounce similar 
 sentence against Origenistic principles. On the refusal of the latter, 
 Epiphanius indignantly left Jerusalem, renounced, with Jerome and 
 the monks at Bethlehem, church-communion with John and Rufinus, 
 and even interfered with'the episcopal functions of John, by ordaining 
 a presbyter for the monks at Bethlehem. All this gave rise to an 
 angry controversy, which was with difficulty settled through the inter- 
 ference of Theojjhilvs of Alexandria, who for that purpose deputed 
 Isidore, one of his presbyters. Jerome and Rufinus became reconciled 
 at the steps of the altar (396). The latter soon afterwards returned to 
 the West. He translated the work of Origen mpl äp;t'^i', leaving out a 
 few of the most objectionable passages; but was so indiscreet as to 
 hint in the preface that even the orthodox Jerome was an admirer of 
 Origen. When informed of this by friends at Rome, Jerome wrote 
 in unmeasured terms against Origenistic views and against the friend 
 of his youth. — At the same time he made a literal translation of the 
 rtspt apx^v. Rufinus rejoined, and the dispute became the more bitter 
 the longer it continued. Siricius, Bishop of Rome, extended his pro- 
 tection to Rufinus ; but his successor, Anastasius, summoned him to 
 answer for his errors. Instead of appearing in person, Rufinus sent a 
 written defence ; but was formally condemned for Origenistic heresy 
 (399). He retired to Aquileia, where he continued to translate the 
 writings of Origen and of other Greek Fathers. 
 
 3. Controversy in Alexandria and Constantinople (399-438). — Theo- 
 philvs, Patriarch of Alexandria, a luxurious, imperious, and violent 
 prelate, had till the year 399 favoured the cause of the Nitrian monks, 
 ind even, during the Easter of that year, spoken in a harsh and con- 
 temptuous manner of the heresy of the Anthropomorphists. Indignant 
 at this, a number of monks armed themselves with rods, attacked the
 
 196 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323—692 A.D.). 
 
 Bishop, and obliged him to pronounce an anathema against Origen. 
 Soon afterwards he lost the support of othera, formerly his friends. 
 Isidore, an aged and venerable presbyter, and the so-called "four tall 
 brethren," of whom two acted as treasurers to his church, lefused to 
 entrust him with the moneys of orphans and other trust funds, and 
 escaped from his vengeance to their colleagues in the mountains of 
 Nitria. Accordingly, so early as the year 399, Theophilus anathema- 
 tized Origen at an endemic synod held in Alexandria; and in 401 
 published a furious manifesto against Origenistic views. The honest 
 but narrow-minded Epiplianius hastened to express his approbation, 
 and Jerome translated the document into Latin. Military force was 
 employed to break up the establishments in Nitria, and to expel the 
 monks. Followed by the accusing letters of their bishop, the latter 
 sought protection with John Chrysostom at Constantinople ; but Theo- 
 philus rejected with disdain the intercession of that prelate. For the 
 sake of peace, Chrysostom was now anxious to withdraw from the 
 contest. But the monks had meafttime found access to the Empress 
 Eudoxia, at whose intercession Arcadius, the Emperor, summoned 
 Theophilus to appear before a synod to be held at Constantinople, over 
 which Chrysostom was to preside. Theophilus was almost beside him- 
 self with rage. By a misrepresentation of the facts of the case, he 
 succeeded in enlisting the aid of Epiphanivs. Filled with zeal and 
 prejudices, the honest old man hastened to Constantinople, when, on 
 learning the real state of matters, he immediately withdrew with the 
 remark: "I leave to you the court, and dissimulation." But Theo- 
 philus knew how to get on with the court and with dissimulation. 
 During the interval Chrysostom had, by his faithfulness, incurred the 
 displeasure of the Empress. Calculating upon this, Theophilus arrived 
 at Constantinople, accompanied by a large suite ; and at the imperial 
 country-seat of Drys (Oak), near Chalcedon, organized a council 
 [Synodus ad Querciim) — in 403 — which declared Chrysostom guilty 
 of immorality, of heterodox views, and of treason. The Emperor 
 banished the obnoxious preacher, who, after appeasing the popular 
 fury excited by this measure, quietly allowed himself to be carried 
 away. But an earthquake, which took place the following night, and 
 the increasing popular excitement, induced the Empress to send 
 messengers and recall the exile. After an absence of only three days, 
 he was brought back to the capital in triumph. Theophilus fled to 
 Alexandria. Soon afterwards, however, when Chrysostom had again 
 incurred the anger of the Empress for denouncing in a sermon the 
 noisy inaugui'ation of her statue, he expressed himself, on the anni- 
 versary of St. John, in the following unguarded language : ndxtf 
 Hf, to 6 Ja J (Uaifffat, Ttd'Kt.v -tapciaattat,, rtaXi»' irti rCuvaxi itriv xj^aX^v row 
 'Icoay^ov ^jjrtt XaQnv. Theophilus was now certain of success; his 
 party knew how to fan the flame at court. During Easter 404, armed 
 men burst into the chuioh of Chrysostom, and dragged him to Cucusua
 
 THE PERSON OF CHRIST. 197 
 
 ill Armenia, into exile. He bore undauntedly the fatigues of the 
 journey, the rigour of the climate, and the yicinity of robbers. lie 
 kept up continuous pastoral intercourse with his flock, and addressed 
 to them a consolatory tractate : 'Ott -thv iavtov ix^ dStxowf'a ov8fi5 rtapa- 
 ßxä-^av 8vvatao. Nor did his zeal for the mission among the Goths flag. 
 In vain Innocent L, Bishop of Rome, and Honorius, the Emperor of 
 the West, interceded for him. In 407 he was sent to a still more dreary 
 place of exile — at Pityus, on the shores of the Black Sea. But he 
 succumbed to the fatigues of that journey, and died by the way, utter- 
 ing his favourite motto : Ao^a tw ^rw Ttdvtiov 'ivtxfv. A large portion 
 of his flock at Constantinople refused to acknowledge the authority of 
 Arsacius, his successor ; and, despite persecutions, continued as a 
 separate body (by the name of Johnites) until Theodosius II., in 438, 
 caused the bones of their loved pastor to be brought to the capital, and 
 solemnly deposited in the imperial burying vaults. Among these per- 
 sonal disputes, the Origenistic controversy had for a time been lost 
 sight of, but was soon afterwards renewed {I 52, 6). 
 
 §52. DISCUSSIONS ABOUT THE PERSON OF CHRIST. 
 
 Comp. WaJcli, Ketzerhist. (Hist, of Heres.). Vols. V.-IX. — Dorner, 
 Person Christi. Vol. I. — Raur, Dreieinigk. (on the Trinity). I. II. 
 
 If, in the discussions about the Trinity, the question of the 
 eternal existence and of the Divine nature of Christ had been 
 agitated, His historical manifestation as the incarnate Son of 
 God, the connection between the Divine nature of the Logos 
 and the human nature of the Son of Mary, and the mutual 
 relation of these two became now the leading subjects of inquiry. 
 These questions had in part been raised during the Arian con- 
 troversy. For while the Church had, against Arius, defended 
 the absolute Divinity of Christ, it also maintained, in opposition 
 to Apollinaris, His perfect humanity. The discussion now 
 assumed three new phases. In the Nestorian controversy, the 
 Church defended the unity of the person of Christ against the 
 views of the Antiochians, whose distinction between the two 
 natures of the Saviour almost amounted to separation into two 
 persons. In the Monophysite controversy, the opposite or neo- 
 Alexandrian error, which, in view of the unity of Christ's person, 
 lost sight of the distinctness of His natures, was set aside. 
 Lastly, in the Monothelete controversy, an erroneous mode of 
 viewing the union of the two natures — when their distinctness 
 was admitted in words, but denied in fact, by assuming the 
 17 *
 
 198 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.) . 
 
 existence of only one will — was disavowed. Thus the contro» 
 versies about the Trinity and the person of Christ — both of 
 which sprung up in the East — were closely connected. 
 
 1. The Apollinaristic Controversy (362-381). — Older Modalists, as 
 Beryllus and Sabellius, had already taught that, at the incarnation, 
 the Logos had assumed only a human body. Marcellus held the same 
 tenet (| 50, 2) ; Arius also, though opposed to him in other respects, 
 had maintained this view, in order to avoid the inference, that in 
 Christ two creatures were combined. Aihanashis, on the other hand, 
 held, with Origen, that the human soul of Christ had been the neces- 
 sary bond of connection between the Logos and the body, and tho 
 medium through which the Logos acted upon the body. Hence, at the 
 Synod of Alexandria, in 3G2, the perfect humanity of the Lord was 
 declared the orthodox dogma on the subject. ApoUinaris, Bishop of 
 Laodicsea, a very talented and highly educated man, who had sent a 
 deputy to this Council, although disapproving of the idea of a ao/ua 
 o.'^vxov, denied the perfect humanity of Christ. Starting from the 
 view that man was composed of three parts, he maintained that Christ 
 had only assumed a (jw/^a and a ^x^ aXoyoj, and that the Divine Logos 
 Himself occupied the place of the ■^vxri xoytx^ [b voijj). He imagined 
 that a contrary opinion would render it necessary to assume two per- 
 sonalities in Christ, and that Christ would thus be represented as 
 merely an av^purtoj Iv'^eoi ; he also believed that only on his principles 
 would it be possible to maintain the perfect sinlessness of Jesus. But 
 Athanasiiis and the two Gregories regarded these views as incom- 
 patible with the full idea of the incarnation and of the atonement. 
 The second (Ecum. Council (381) rejected the views of ApoUinaris, who 
 some time before had, along with some adherents, left the communion 
 of the Church. 
 
 2. Antagonism between the different Theological Schools (381-428). — 
 The Arian controversy had issued in the general recognition of the 
 perfect Divinity, the Apollinaristic in that of the perfect humanity, of 
 the Saviour. But the relation between these two natures, implied in 
 their union, had not yet been accurately defined. According to ApoUi- 
 naris, the Divinity was so closely united with the (partial) humanity 
 of the Saviour, that in reality there ceased to be two natures. By a 
 " communicatio idiomatum," what was predicated of one nature was 
 transferred to the other, so that the body of Christ was deified, and 
 hence adored ; but the predicates of being born, suifering, and dying, 
 were also applied to His Divinity. Although the Alexandrian School 
 rejected the peculiar tenets of ApoUinaris about the imperfect humanity 
 of Christ, predilection for what was mystical, inconceivable, and trans- 
 cendental, led it into kindred views. In opposition to Arianism, these 
 divines laid special emphasis on the Divinity of Christ, and maintained 
 sn svuaii ij)v(jix>j of the two natures. According to them, it was only
 
 THE PERSON OP CHRIST. 199 
 
 lawful to speak of two natures, before the union of these two natures, 
 and in abstracto, — after the incarnation, and in concreto, ■vre could only 
 speak of one nature, that of the God-man. Hence Mary was generally 
 designated as " the Mother of God," ^eotoxo^. Athanasius expressly 
 states : ov 8vo ^lidsij, fiiav Ttpoixvvrjtrjv xai fivav artpoixvvi^tov, aXKa fti'tw 
 ^vaw roü ^EoiJ Aoyov aiaa^xiofxivTqv xai rtfioixwov/ievrji' fieta rr^^ (japxoj avro« 
 «ta rtpo5ztJi'>;3ft. The Cappadocians spoke indeed of tivo natures [tixKo 
 xai aVko), but held that they were mingled (ovyxpadtj, xaTa,ut|i?), that 
 there was a " avvbpaixilv " of the two natures into one, a ^frartotjj^^vat 
 of the öapi rtpÖ5 xriv ^«t)r)jra. — In opposition to Apollinaris, the School 
 OF AxTiocH insisted on the perfect, immutable, and continuous humanity 
 of Christ, both during and after its conjunction with Ilis Divinity. 
 These divines only admitted a awtx^iia. or tVwstj ax^ti-xri (in virtue of 
 which the two natures had entered into that particular relationship — 
 exiot-i — by which they co-existed and co-operated). Such expressions 
 as ^(orönoi;, ^«öj iyivvri^iv, ^£05 tjta^tv, they regarded as absurd, if not 
 blasphemous. They acknowledged, indeed, that the aap| of Christ 
 should be adored, but only in respect of its being the organ through 
 which the Logos had accomplished the work of redemption, not as if 
 itself had become endowed with the properties of Divinity. These 
 views were most fully and consistently propounded by Theodorus of 
 Mops. He regarded the history of the God-man as typical of the history 
 of redemption. Christ had taken upon Himself our humanity, with 
 its sinful affections and propensities. But He had overcome the latter ; 
 and, by continuous contests and victory, elevated His human nature 
 to that absolute perfection which, by the working of His Sj^irit, we 
 also shall reach, and that in exactly the same manner. He expressly 
 guarded himself against the objection that his system implied a two- 
 fold personality in Christ. The Saviour was not a.XÄ.05 xai, aTtJLoj, but 
 aXXo xaii äxJto, since, at the incarnation. His human nature had lost its 
 personality and independence. Each of these schools presented one 
 aspect of the truth ; satisfactorily to exhibit the truth in its entireness, 
 it was necessary to combine them. But instead of uniting them, these 
 views were carried out in the most one-sided manner, till they issued 
 in positive error. Thus two heresies sprung up, against which the 
 Church had first to protest, in order afterwards to combine the truths 
 which they had embodied, though in a distorted form. This office was 
 performed by the Theology of the West. In opposition to Antiochian 
 views, it ranged itself on the side of the Alexandrians, at one time 
 even to the full extent of its one-sided representations. Thus Julius 
 of Rome expressly maintained ^iav ipvoiv toy Aoyov aiaapxuixivov. But 
 gradually this error was removed. Augustine, for example, still uses 
 the expression mixtura : but, in point of fact, he correctly indicated 
 the relation between the two natures, quite in accordance with what 
 the Cliurch at a later period declared the orthodox view. Again, when 
 the errors of the Alexandrians were under discussion, Western divines
 
 200 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). 
 
 took the opposite side, and combined what was true in the two 
 antagonistic schools [Leo the Great). — It is remarkable that this dis- 
 cussion originated in the West. But it was so speedily suppressed as 
 to leave no trace behind. Leporius, a monk in the south of Gaul, had 
 expressed himself about the union of the two natures in the same 
 manner as the theologians of Antioch. In 426 he went to Africa, was 
 opposed by Augustine, and at once recanted. 
 
 3. The Nestorian Controversy (428-444). — In 428 Nestorius, a monk 
 of Antioch, and a most eloquent man, was appointed Patriarch of Con- 
 stantinople. He was honest and pious, but rash, destitute of experi- 
 ence, and harsh towards heretics. The position of the inexperienced 
 monk was sufficiently difficult. He had to contend against the hatred 
 of an unsuccessful rival for his see, with the jealousy of the Patriarch 
 of Alexandria, who besides regarded him as a representative of the 
 School of Antioch, and with the suspicions of Coelestine, Bishop of 
 Rome, whom he had provoked by extending protection to fugitive Pela- 
 gians (^ 53, 4). Anastasius, a presbyter whom Nestorius had brought 
 with him, objected to the frequent use of the term ^sotoxoj, and preached 
 against it. Nestorius took his part both against the people and the 
 monks ; and when some of the latter offered the Patriarch personal 
 insults, he caused bodily chastisement to be administered to them, and 
 at a National Synod condemned the views of his opponents (429). 
 Cyril, Patriarch of Alexandria, now entered the lists in defence of the 
 teaching of his school. He gained for his views Ccelestine, Bishop of 
 Rome, Memnon, Bishop of Ephesus, and Jnvenalis, Bishop of Jerusa- 
 lem, and at court Pulcheria, sister of the Emperor (Theodosius II., 
 408^50) ; while the Empress Eudocia and the Syrian bishops took the 
 part of Nestorius. All attempts at reconciliation were frustrated by 
 the unyielding disposition of the two patriarchs. Coelestine of Rome 
 called upon Nestorius to recant within ten days (430) ; and at a synod 
 held in Alexandria (430), Cyril issued Wq\\q Anathematismoi, to which 
 Nestorius replied by a similar edict. These measures served to em- 
 bitter both parties. To settle the question, the Emperor convoked a 
 THIRD (ECUMENICAL CouNCiL AT EpHESUs IN 431. The Emperor himself 
 was decidedly in favour of Nestorius ; the imperial representative at 
 tlie Council was a personal friend of the Patriarch, and part of the 
 Imperial Guard attended Nestorius to Ephesus. But Cyril appeared 
 with a large suite of V^ishops, and a strong body-guard of servants and 
 sailors, prepared, if necessary, to demonstrate with their fists the 
 soundness of his arguments. At the same time, Memnon of Ephesus 
 had excited the clergy, the monks, and the people of Asia Minor on 
 the subject. As the deputies from Rome and the Syrian bishops (the 
 former probably of set purpose) did not appear at the proper time, 
 Cyril, without waiting for their arrival, opened the Council, which 
 consisted of 200 bishops. Nestorianism was condemned, Nestorius 
 excommunicated and deposed, and the Anathematismoi of Cyril recog-
 
 THE PEBSON OF CHRIST. 201 
 
 nized as a test of ecclesiastical orthodoxy. The deputies from Rome 
 acknowledged the authority of the Council ; not so the imperial repre- 
 sentative and the Syrians, who immediately, on their arrival, held a 
 counter-council, over which John of Änlioch presided, and which ex- 
 communicated Cyril and Memnon. Nestorius voluntarily retired into 
 a monastery. Meantime, the populace of Constantinople, instigated 
 by Pulcheria, rose in favour of Cyril. The Emperor deposed the three 
 leaders in the dispute — Nestorius, Cyril, and Memnon, — and gave his 
 authority to a sort of intermediate formula, drawn up by Theodoret, 
 which admitted the correctness of the term ^totoxo?, but also main- 
 tained an aavyxvioi iVwotj. But Cyril and Memnon continued in their 
 sees. While they signed the formula of Theodoret, John subscribed 
 the condemnation of Nestorius (433). The latter remained deposed 
 and a prey to his enemies. Torn from his asylum and maltreated, he 
 died (440) in misery. But the compromise of the two leaders was 
 rejected by their followers. The Syrian Church was indignant about 
 the manner in which their patriarch had betrayed the cause in the 
 person of Nestorius. John proceeded to depose all his opponents — a 
 fate which had almost befallen even the noble-minded Theodoret. But 
 in his case the Patriarch agreed to dispense with a formal condemna- 
 tion of the person of Nestorius in consideration of an ample rejection 
 of his teaching. — The Egyptians also accused their patriarch of having 
 surrendered orthodox views. But this prelate endeavoured, by in- 
 creased zeal, to make up for his former compliance. He laboured — not 
 without success — to bring the anathema of the Church upon the leaders 
 of the School of Antioch. Rabnlas, Bishop of Udessa, one of his adhe- 
 rents, dispersed the theological school at Edessa, which at the time was 
 presided over by the celebrated presbyter Ibas. After the death of 
 Rabulas (436) this school again attained its former celebrity. Mean- 
 time, Theodoret and Cyril hurled violent tractates against each other, 
 till, in 444, the death of the Patriarch of Alexandria put an end to 
 the controvci^y. Ibas translated the writings of Theodoret into Syriac, 
 and addressed — in favour of these views — a tractate to Maris, Bishop 
 of Hardashir in Syria, which the Nostorians afterwards regarded as a 
 kind of confession of faith. Thomas Barsumas, Bishop of Nisibis, 
 spread Nestorianism in the Persian Church. In 489, the School of 
 Edessa was again broken up, by command of the Emperor Zeno. 
 Teachers and students migrated into Persia, where they founded a 
 school in Nisibis, which for a long time enjoyed considerable celebrity. 
 At last, at a synod held in Selencia in 498, the Persian Church wholly 
 separated from the orthodox Church in the Roman Empire, and adopted 
 the name of Chaldean Christians. Their Patriarch bore the title of 
 Yazelich (xa^rixöi). From Persia the Nestorian Church spread to 
 India, where i's adherents were called Thomas-Christians. 
 
 4. The Monophysite Controversy. A. Enfychianiim (444-451). — 
 Cyril was succeeded by Dioscurus, a man of much inferior talent, but
 
 202 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). 
 
 of much greater violence and tyranny than even the opponent of Nes 
 torius. In Constantinople, an aged Archimandrite, called Eutychi-s, 
 openly taught that, after His incarnation, Christ had only had one 
 nature, and that, since the body of Christ was that of the Deity, it 
 could not have been of the same substance with ours. Theodoret wrote 
 against him a tractate, entitled ''KpavLotrn rjtoi, Iloxu^op^oj, in which he 
 characterized the teaching of Eutyches as a combination of various 
 heresies. Dioscurus now interfered, and prevailed on the Emperor 
 Theodosius II., whose Minister of State and wife [Etidocia) he had 
 gained, to adopt strict measures against the Syrians, and especially 
 against Theodoret, who was forbidden to travel beyond the bounds of 
 his diocese. The Antiochians, on the other hand, laid an accusation 
 against Eutyches before the Patriarch Flavian, at a synod held in Con- 
 stantinople (448). Eutyches appeared, attended by an imperial guard; 
 but, on his refusal to recant, was excommunicated and deposed. Eu- 
 tyches appealed to an oecumenical council, and at the same time to Leo 
 THE Great of Rome. Flavian also appealed to Rome. Leo took the 
 same view as Flavian ; and in a letter to that prelate, with equal acute- 
 ness and precision, defined the doctrine about the two natures in Christ. 
 But the Emperor summoned an oecumenical council to Ephesus (449), 
 over which Dioscurus was to preside, at which Flavian and his party, 
 however, were not to vote, and from which Theodoret was wholly ex- 
 cluded. The Council proceeded in the most arbitrary and violent 
 manner. The deputies from Rome were not allowed to speak ; the 
 doctrine of two natures was condemned ; Flavian and Theodoret were 
 deposed. The former met even with bodily violence, and died after 
 the lapse of only three days. Leo the Great energetically protested 
 against the decrees of this " Robber-Synod" [latrocinium Ephesiimm), 
 But meantime TJieodosius had quarrelled with Eudocia, dismissed his 
 ministers, and made his peace with Pulcheria. Accordingly, the body 
 of Flavian was carried in state to Constantinople, and buried with all 
 honours. Further measures were arrested by the death of Theodosius 
 in 450. He was succeeded by Pulcheria, and her husband Marciaji, 
 Another ecumenical council (the fourth) was now convened at Chal- 
 CEDON in 451, which deposed Dioscurus and Eutyches, and condemned 
 both Nestorianism and Eutychianism. The Synodical Epistle of Cyril 
 and the Letter of Leo were made the basis of the decrees enacted at 
 Chalcedon, which affirmed, " that Christ was true God and true man ; 
 that, according to His divinity. He was begotten from all eternity, and 
 equal to the Father ; that, according to His humanity. He was born 
 of Mai-y the A'^irgin, and mother of God ; and was like us in all things, 
 yet without sin ; and that, after His incarnation, the unity of His 
 person consisted of tioo natures, which were unmixed {aavyxvtio^) and 
 vnchinricd fatpfrtftoj), but also undivided (aStaipirwf) and not separated 
 (d;i;a>;^rT'co5)." 
 
 5. B. Lnperial Attempts to bring about a Union (451-519). — The
 
 THE PERSON OF CHRIST. 2C3 
 
 Alexandrian theologians left the Council full of indignation about the 
 defeat which they had sustained. They were now called MoHophysites. 
 Indeed, the whole Church was violently agitated by these questions. 
 In Palestine, Theodosius, a monk, secretly aided by Eudocia, the widow 
 of the Emperor, incited the populace to rebellion. In E(jypt the com- 
 motion was still greater. Timotheus Aeliirus took possession of the see 
 of Alexandria, and expelled Proterius, the orthodox patriarch. Simi- 
 larly, Petrus Fullo intruded himself into the bishopric of Aniioch. 
 These tumults were only suppressed after much blood had been shed. 
 But the usurper Pasiliscus published an edict [Encydion) in which 
 both the Creed of Chalcedon and the Epistle of Leo were condemned ; 
 Monophysitism was declared the religion of the State (470) ; and Fullo 
 and Aelurus were reinstated in their sees. Soon afterwards Acacius, 
 the Patriarch of Constant., organized a counter-revolution in the inte- 
 rest of the Dyophysite party ; Basiliscus was deposed ; and the Empe- 
 ror Zeno, who had formerly been expelled, again mounted the throne 
 (477). About that time Aelurus died ; his party chose I'etrus Mongus 
 {bloesus) his successor ; but the Court appointed John Talaja, a Dyo- 
 physite, to the see. But when the latter quarrelled with Acacius, that 
 patriarch took the part of Mongus, the rival of Talaja. The two pre- 
 lates now agreed as to a project for union, which, being approved by 
 the Emperor Zeno, obtained in 482 legal sanction by an edict, called 
 the IIenoticon. Nestorianism and Eutychianism were still con- 
 demned; the Anathematismoi of Cyril were confirmed; the " Chalce- 
 donese" was abrogated; the Nica^no-Constantinopolitanum alone en- 
 joined as the orthodox creed ; and all controverted points were to be 
 carefully avoided. Of course both parties objected to such a union. 
 The strict Monophysites in Egypt separated from Mongus, and wei'e 
 now designated ' Axi^a,>.ov. On the other hand, Felix II. of Rome, as 
 leader of the Dyophysites, renounced all church-communion with Aca- 
 cius. This Schism between the East and the West lasted for thirty- 
 five years (484—519). The Aeoimetai (? 44, 4) were the only party in 
 Constantinople who continued in communion with Rome. The Heno- 
 ticon was only abolished when Justin I. meditated the reconquest of 
 Italy, since the schism to which it had given rise was prejudicial to 
 his interests. Its adherents were now deposed, and ecclesiastical com- 
 munion with the West was restored (519). — (Comp, also the third part 
 of the Eccl. History of John, Bishop of Ephesus, by Cureton. Oxf. 
 1853.) 
 
 6, C. The Decrees of Justinian I. (527-553). — Amid these tumults, 
 Justinian I. began his long and — so far as political matters are con- 
 cerned — glorious reign (527-5G5). lie considered it his great mission 
 to establish orthodoxy, and to bring back the heretics, especially the 
 numerous Monophysites, to the bosom of the Church. But the good 
 intentions of the Empei'or, who was but partially conversant with these 
 intricate questions, were often frustrated by the intrigues of the court
 
 204 SECTION I. SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). 
 
 theologians and the machinations of the Empress Theodora, who wa» 
 at heart a Monophysite. Justinian first interposed in the Theopas- 
 CHiTE Controversy. Petrus FuJlo had added to the doxology (the 
 Trisagion or Ter-Sanctus) the expression: ^soj o uraupu^fij hi aj/xaj, 
 which had been inserted into the Liturgy of Constantinople. This ex- 
 pression the Acoimetce declared to be heretical ; Hormisdas of Rome 
 pronounced it, at any rate, liable to misunderstanding, and needless. 
 It obtained, however, the sanction of Justinian (533). Encouraged by 
 this first success, Theodora managed to procure the appointment of 
 Anthimus, a Monophysite, to the see of Constantinople. But when 
 Agapetus, Bishop of Rome, brought out the real views of the new 
 patriarch, he was again deposed from his ofBce, to which Mennas, a 
 friend of Agajjetus, succeeded (536). All Monophysite writings were 
 to be burned, and any one who ventured to make copies of them was to 
 have his hands cut off. Still, Domitian and Theodorus Ascidas, two 
 abbots from Palestine, secret Monophysites and devoted followers of 
 Origen, lived at court in great favour. In order to put an end to their 
 influence, Mennas again condemned — at a National Synod held at 
 Constantinople in 541 — the arch-heretic and his writings. But the 
 coui't theologians subscribed this sentence without hesitation, and only 
 concocted the more zealously with Theodora measures of reprisal. For 
 some time past Justinian had been concerned about the state of public 
 feeling in Egypt, which was the granary of the empire. He deemed 
 it necessary to do something to allay the excitement among its Mono- 
 physite population. Theodora persuaded him that the Monophysites 
 would easily be appeased if, along with the writings of Diodo7us, the 
 father of Nestorianism, the controversial tractates of Theodoret against 
 Cyril, and the letter of I6a5 to Maris (the so-called "tria capitula"), 
 were also condemned. Accordingly, the Emperor issued in 544 an 
 edict to that effect, and insisted that all bishops should subscribe it. 
 Only those in the East complied. But in the West resistance was 
 offered on all sides, and the so-called Controversy of the Three 
 Chapters commenced. Vigilius of Rome, a creature of Theodora, who 
 had secretly promised his co-operation, was afraid to face the storm in 
 the West, and broke his word. Justinian had him brought to Con- 
 stantinople (547), and there obliged him to make a written declaration 
 — the so-called /«dica^tn« — in which he approved the condemnation 
 of the three chapters. The Africans, led by Reparatns of Carthage, 
 now excommunicated the successor of Peter, and courageously defended 
 the Fathers whose writings had been attacked {Fulgentins of Riispe 
 wrote "Pro tribus capitt. ; Facundus of Hermiana, " Defensio III. 
 capitt. ;" and Liberafus, a deacon of Carthage, a " Breviarium causae 
 Nestorian. et Eutychianorum," which is a leading authority in the 
 history of these controversies). At length Justinian summoned a fifth 
 (ECUMENICAL CouNtiiL TO CONSTANTINOPLE (553), which Confirmed aH 
 the edicts of the Imperor. Vigilius wrote a '■'constitutum ad Imp.,"
 
 THE PERSON OF CHRIST. 205 
 
 in -whi?!! he rejected the teaching of the three capitula, but refused to 
 condemn their writers. A period of imprisonment, however, induced 
 him to yield in 554. He died on his return to his see in 555. Pelagins, 
 his successor, formally acknowledged the decrees of Constantinople ; 
 and North Africa, North Italy, and Illyria separated from the see of 
 Peter, which had so basely succumbed. Only Gregory the Great suc- 
 ceeded — not without much trouble — in gradually healing this schism. 
 
 7. D. The Monophysite Churches. — Justinian had not attained hia 
 object. The Monophysiies refused to return to the Church so long as 
 the decrees of Chalcedon remained in force. But they suffered even 
 more from endless internal divisions than from the persecutions of the 
 orthodox State Church. First of all, Jnlianus and Severus, the two 
 leaders of the party in Alexandria, disputed. The Severians (^^pro- 
 XaVpat) held that the body of Christ had been subject to decay (^^opa), 
 while the Julianists (of^pöox^rat) denied it. This discussion was 
 followed by many others. — The Monophysites numbered most adherents 
 in Egypt. From dislike to the Greek Catholics, they excluded the 
 Greek language from their ecclesiastical forms, and chose a Coptic 
 patriarch of their own. They even favoured the conquest of Egypt 
 by the Saracens (640), who, in gratitude for such services, expelled 
 the Catholic patriarch. From Egypt their views spread into Abynainia. 
 Armenia had in 536 surrendered to the Persians, when the Monophy- 
 sites in that country, hitherto oppressed under Byzantine domination, 
 obtained full liberty. In Syria and Mesopotamia the indefatigable 
 activity of Jacobus Zanzalus, a monk (commonly termed el Baradai, 
 from the circumstance of his going about in the disguise of a beggar) 
 preserved the existence of the Monophysite Church during the perse- 
 cutions of Justinian. From this their leader the Syrian Monophysites 
 were called Jacobites; while they designated the Catholics as Melchites 
 (Royalists). The patriarch of the party resided at Guba in Mesopo- 
 tamia ; his suffragan at Tagrit had the title of Maphrian — i. e., fruit- 
 bearing. The Armenian Monophysites were ruled by the Patriarch 
 of Ashtarag, who took the title of Catholicos. The Abyssinyin Church 
 was under the direction of a metropolitan, designated as Ahbitna. 
 
 8. Tlie MonotheJete Controversy (633-680). — Increasing difficulties 
 in the State made union with the Monophysites more and more desi- 
 rable. Accordingly, the Emperor i7e?-rtc/ws (611-641) was advised to 
 attempt a reconciliation of the two parties by means of an intermediate 
 formula, which bore that Christ had accomplished Ilis work of redemp- 
 tion by 0}ie manifestation of His will as the God-man {fiia ^iavh^ixf, 
 ivf^ytia.). vSeveral Catholic bishops sanctioned this formula, which had 
 already been propounded by the Pseudo-Dionysius (| 47, 6). On this 
 basis, the Patriarchs Serghis of Constaiitiiwple and Cyrus oj" Alexandria, 
 in 633, agreed to unite, when most of the Severians returned to the State 
 Church. JTonorius of Rome was also in favour of this movement. But 
 
 18
 
 206 • SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323—692 A.D.). 
 
 the monk Sophronius, who soon afterwards became Patriarch of Jeru- 
 salem (634), was decidedly opposed to a union which, in his opinion, 
 necessarily led back to Monophysite views. Soon afterwards the 
 capture of Jerusalem by the Saracens (in 637) deprived him, how- 
 ever, of the means of making opposition. In 638 the Emperor issued 
 an edict — the Ecthesis — designed to put an end to all discussion, and 
 which gave the sanction of law to the Monothelete view. Maximus, a 
 monk (^ 47, 6), now entered the lists in defence of discarded orthodoxy. 
 He betook himself to Africa, where, since the time of Justinian, the 
 Confession of Chalcedon had been most zealously upheld. Thence he, 
 along with some African divines, launched controversial tractates. In 
 Rome also a reaction in favour of the old sentiments had, after the death 
 of Honorius (638), taken place. The real aim of these attempts at 
 union — ^to retain Syria and Egypt -*- was not attained. In 638 the 
 Saracens took Syria, and in 640 Egypt. Still, for the sake of consist- 
 ency, the court persevered. But difficulties daily increased. Already 
 Africa and Italy were in open rebellion, both politically and ecclesias- 
 tically. At la^ the Emperor Constans II. (642-668) resolved to abolish 
 the Ecthesis. In room of it he published, in 648, another law — the 
 Typos — by which the status qtio previous to the Monothelete movement 
 was to be restored ; and divines were enjoined neither to propound the 
 dogma of one nor that of two wills. But at the first Lateran Synod, 
 held at Rome in 649, Martin I. condemned, in the strongest torms, both 
 the Ecthesis, the Typos, and those who had issued them. These acts 
 of the Synod were transmitted to the Emperor. The Emperor replied 
 by ordering Olympius, the Exarch of Ravenna, to make the bold pre- 
 late a prisoner. He did not obey ; but his successor sent the Pope in 
 chains to Constantinople, where he was declared guilty of treason, and 
 banished to Cherson. Martin I., who in his exile literally suffered from 
 hunger, died after six months (655). Even more dreadful was the 
 punishment awarded to Maximus, who was cruelly scourged, had his 
 tongue torn out, his hand cut off, and was in that state banished into 
 the country of the barbarous Lacians, where he died in 662, at the 
 advanced s^e of eighty. These barbarous measures seemed for a time 
 successful, and evei'y opposition ceased. But under the reign of Con- 
 stantinus Pogonnatus (668-685) the two parties prepared for another 
 contest. The Emperor resolved to put an end to it by convoking a uni- 
 versal council. Pope Agatho held a splendid council at Rome in 679^ 
 where it was resolved not to abate one iota from the decrees of the 
 Lateran Synod. Armed with these resolutions, and an autograph lettei 
 of the Pope's, the legates from Rome appeared at the Sixth (Ecume- 
 nical Council at Constantinople in 680 (called also the Concil. Trulla- 
 num I., from the peculiar shell-like shape of the hall Trullus, in the 
 imperial palace, where it met). As in Chalcedon the Epistle of Leo, 
 so now the definitions of Agatho {Svb fvfiixa ^f^jj^a-fa dSttttpfVcoj, a-tfert- 
 r'toj, afiKpiatco^, aovyxvt^'^ij ov;« vrtivavTia aXKci trCouBvov -to ar^puiHivov Koi
 
 THE DOCTRINE OF REDEMPTION. 207 
 
 wrtorowao^ffot/ tu} ^si'o) were made the basis of the decrees. Nay, the 
 Synod went so far as to transmit to the Pope an account of its trans- 
 actions, and to request him to ratify its decrees. Still the Greeks 
 managed to put some wormwood into the Pope's cup, by prevailing 
 upon the Council to anathematize Pope Honorius along with the other 
 representatives of the Monothelete heresy. — After that, Dyotheletism 
 was universally received as orthodox doctrine. Monotheletism continued 
 only in that portion of Asia which the arm of the State Church was 
 unable to reach. The scattered adherents of these views gathered 
 around the monastery of S. Maro on Mount Lebanon, and made its 
 abbot their ecclesiastical chief. They took the name o? Maronites, and 
 preserved their ecclesiastical and political independence both against 
 the Byzantines and against the Saracens. 
 
 g53. CONTROVERSIES CONNECTED WITH THE DOCTRINE 
 OF REDEMPTION (412—529). 
 
 Comp. Walch, Hist. d. Ketz. IV. V. — Fr. Wiggers, prag. Darstell, 
 des Augustinism. u. Pelagianism. (Pragm. Sketch of Aug. and Pelag.). 
 Berlin 1821, 1833. 2 VoUs. 
 
 Although the controversies about the Trinity and the Person 
 of Christ had originated and were most zealously carried on in 
 the East, they also exercised considerable influence in the West ; 
 and when, ultimately, they issued in favour of orthodoxy, this 
 result was mainly due to the influential advocacy of the see of 
 Rome. But even before the commencement of the controversy 
 about the Person of Christ, a discussion had sprung up in the 
 West, which continued for upwards of a century, but failed to 
 enlist more than a merely passing and indirect interest in the 
 East. This discussion concerned the fundamental doctrines of 
 Sin and of Grace. While Pelagians maintained the efficacy of 
 unaided human liberty, and semi-Pelagians the co-operation of 
 Divine grace with human freedom, Augustine and his party 
 insisted on the operation of Divine grace as ahne efficacious in 
 the work of salvation. Yictory ultimately remained with the 
 party of Augustine. 
 
 1. Preliminary History. — The entire corruption of human nature, 
 and the need of Divine grace in Christ in order to redemption, had from 
 the first been generally admitted in the Church. But a considerable 
 period elapsed before it was authoritatively and finally settled whether, 
 and in how far, the moral freedom of man had been weakened or lost 
 through sin, and what was the relation between human activity and 
 Divine grace. In their controversies with the Gnostics and Manichajans 
 the Fathers were led to lay the greatest possible emphasis^ on the doo-
 
 208 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (;i23— 692 A. D.) . 
 
 trine of human freedom. Some of them went so far even as to denj 
 innate sinfulness — an error which was not a little encouraged by the 
 views concerning "Creationism" then prevailing. This tendency ap- 
 peared most prominently among the older Alexandrian writers. — The 
 Neo-Alexandrian School, on the other hand, sought to trace the universal 
 prevalence of sin to the fall of Adam, but failed to carry out this view 
 so far as the principle of hereditary or innate sinfulness. Accordingly, 
 this school" afterwards kept by the statements formerly made by Alex- 
 andrian writers, who traced salvation to a Si/nerc/is77i, or the co-opera 
 tion of human freedom with Divine grace. The theologians of Antioch, 
 in their anxiety to assign a place to the operation of the human will, 
 while admitting the necessity of Divine grace, reduced the doctrine of 
 original sin to that of hereditary evil. Thus Chrysostom allowed 
 that the children which Adam begat after he had become mortal must 
 also have been subject to death ; but he failed to perceive that after his 
 sin his descendants must also have been sinful. The first man, he 
 held, had brought into the world sin and misery, which we confirmed 
 and continued by our sins. If, in the exercise of his free will, man 
 only did his part, grace would certainly not be withheld. In short, the 
 East was unanimous in decidedly rejecting anything like Predestina- 
 rianism. — It was otherwise in the West, where the " Tradvcianism" or 
 " Generationism" of Terttdlian (tradux animge tradux peccati) prepared 
 the way for the doctrine of original sin, and for the views of Augustine 
 concerning grace. Even Tertnllian, proceeding on the fact that from 
 his birth a man had an unconquerable inclination towards sin, spoke 
 very distinctly about a "vitium originis." Cyprian, Ambrose, and Hi- 
 lary, held the same views. Still, even these Fathers were not quite 
 free from Synergistic views. By the side of passages which savour of 
 extreme Predestinarianism, we find others in which great stress is laid 
 on the co-operation of man in conversion. Augustine was the first to 
 carry these principles to their fullest consequences, and taught that 
 the operation of God was alone efficacious in salvation (Divine Moner- 
 gism) ; while Pelagius perverted the Synergism propounded by former 
 authorities into a Monergism on the part of man, which had not been 
 mooted before him. 
 
 2. Doctrinal Views of Augustine. — During the first period of his 
 Christian experience, and while antagonism to the Manichsean system 
 occupied so prominent a place in his thinking, Augustine also regarded 
 faith as a free act of the human will. He deemed it requisite that, to 
 a certain extent, the human will should co-operate in conversion, and 
 hence denied that man was entirely helpless and undeserving of any 
 good. But a deeper experience (| 47, 5) obliged him to acknowledge 
 the natural inability of man to contribute in any way towards the 
 acquisition of salvation, and to trace both faith and conversion entirely 
 to the grace of God. These views became thoroughly formed, and Avere 
 completely developed, during the controversy with the Pelagians. The
 
 THE DOCTRINE OF REDEMPTION. 209 
 
 »ollowing are the leading outlines of the doctrinal system of Augustine. 
 Originally man had been a free agent, created in the image of God, 
 capable of, and destined for, immortality, holiness, and blessedness ; 
 but also free to sin and to die. In the exercise of his freedom, he had 
 to make a choice. If he had chosen to obey the Lord, the possibility 
 that he might not sin, and hence not die, would have become an impos- 
 sibility to sin or to die (the " posse non peccare et mori" a " non posse 
 peccare et mori"). But by the wiles of the enemy he fell, and it 
 became impossible for him not to sin and not to die (" non posse non 
 peccare" and "non mori"). All the distinguishing features of the 
 Divine image were now lost, and man was only capable of an external, 
 civil righteousness (justitia civilis) and of being redeemed. But in 
 Adam all mankind have sinned, since he constituted all mankind. By 
 generation the nature of Adam, as it was after the fall, with its sin 
 and guilt, with its death and condemnation — but also with its capability 
 of redemption — has passed upon all his posterity. Divine grace avails 
 itself of what remains of the image of God in man, which appears in 
 his need and capability of redemption. But gi-ace alone can save man, 
 or give him eternal blessedness. Hence grace is absolutely necessary — 
 it constitutes the commencement, the middle, and the close of the 
 Christian life. It is imparted to man not because he believes, but in 
 order that he may believe ; for faith also is the work of God's grace 
 Grace, having first awakened a man through the law to a sense of his 
 sin and desire after salvation, next leads him by the Gospel to believe 
 in the Saviour ("gratia praeveniens"). Grace then procures pardon 
 of sin by the appropriation of the merits of Christ through faith, and 
 imparts to man the powers of a divine life by bringing him into living 
 communion with Christ (in baptism). Our free-will towards that which 
 is good being thus restored ("gratia operans"), henceforth manifests 
 itself in a devoted life of holy love. But the old man with his inclina- 
 tion towards sin, is not wholly destroyed even in those who are regene- 
 rated. In the contest between the new and the old man, believers are 
 continuously aided by Divine grace ("gratia cooperans"). The last 
 act of grace, which, however, is not accomplished in this life, consists 
 in the entire removal of all sinful inclinations (" concupiscentia"), and 
 in transformation into perfect likeness to Christ by the resurrection 
 and eternal life ("non posse peccare" and "mori"). — But this 
 thoroughly evangelical view of nature and of grace Augustine developed 
 into the unevangelical doctrine of an absolute predestination. Expe- 
 rience, he argued, showed that all men were not converted and saved. 
 But as man could not in any way contribute to his conversion, this 
 must ultimately be traced back, not to the conduct of man, but to an 
 eternal and unconditional decree of God (decrctum absolutum), accord- 
 ing to which He had resolved, to the praise of His grace, to deliver 
 some of the human family, which lay entirely under sentence of con- 
 demnation (the "massa perditionis"), and, to the oraise of His justicCj 
 18*
 
 210 SECTION I. — 5EC0ND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). 
 
 to leave the rest to the condemnation which they had deserved. This 
 choice depended alone on the all-wise but secret good pleasure of the 
 Divine will, and not upon our faith, which indeed was also a gift of 
 God. It is indeed written : " God wills that all men should be saved," 
 but this only means — " all who are predestinated." As the reprobate 
 (" reprobati") are unable in any way to obtain grace, so the elect can- 
 not resist it (" gratia irresistibilis"). Hence continuous perseverance 
 in grace ("donum perseverantise") was the only sure evidence of elec- 
 tion. Augustine held that even the best among the heathen could not 
 be saved (although he thought that there were various degrees in 
 their punishment), and that children who died unhaptized could not 
 go to heaven. The apparent contradiction between this statement and 
 his other assertion, "contemtus, non defectus sacramenti damnat," was 
 removed by an appeal to the eternal decree of God, who suffered not 
 the elect to die without having received this sacrament. 
 
 3. Pelagius and his System. — Far different from the Inner history 
 of Augustine was that of Morgan or Pelagius, a British monk of 
 respectable acquirements and of moral earnestness, but without depth 
 of mind or capacity for speculation. At a distance from the struggles 
 and trials of life, having no experience of inward temptations, nor 
 strong tendency to outward and manifest sins, destitute, moreover, of 
 deeper Christian experience, his ideal of religion consisted in a kind 
 of monastic asceticism. His dislike to the views of Augustine about 
 the total corruption of human nature, and its entire inability to con- 
 tribute in any way towards conversion or sanctification, was increased 
 by the knowledge that some careless persons had made them an excuse 
 for carnal security and moral indolence. This circumstance confirmed 
 him in the idea that it was much better to preach a moral law, the 
 demands of which, as he thought, men were able to fulfil, provided 
 they were in earnest about it. During his stay at Rome, about the 
 year 410, he commenced to diffuse these views. The following are the 
 leading outlines of his system. Man had originally been created liable 
 to physical death ; eternal, not physical death, was the consequence 
 and the punishment of sin. The fall of Adam had not caused any 
 change in the moral nature of man, nor did its influence extend to the 
 posterity of Adam. Every man came into the world exactly as God 
 had created our first father, i. e., without either sin or virtue. In the 
 exercise of his yet undiminished freedom, he was left to choose the one 
 or the other. The universal prevalence of sin depended on the power 
 of seduction, of evil example, and of custom ; but perfectly sinless per- 
 sons may, and indeed actually have existed. The grace of God made 
 it mo7-e easy for man to attain his destiny. Hence grace was not abso- 
 lutely but relatively necessary, on account of the actual prevalence of 
 Bin. Grace consisted in spiritual enlightenment through revelation, in 
 the forgiveness of sins as the manifestation of Divine indulgence, and 
 in the strengthening of our moral powers by bringing the incentives
 
 THE DOCTRINE OP REDEMPTION. 211 
 
 of th ; law and the promise of eternal life to bear upon them. The 
 grace of God was designed for all men ; but man must deserve it by 
 making sincere endeavours after virtue. Christ had become incarnate 
 in order, by His perfect doctrine and example, to give us the most 
 powerful incentive to amend our ways, and thus to redeem us. As by 
 Bin we imitate Adam, so ought we by virtue to imitate Christ. Baptism 
 he held to be necessary (the baptism of infants " in remissionem 
 futurorum peccatorum "). Infants who had died without this sacrar 
 ment enjoyed an inferior degree ofblessedness. The same inconsistent 
 adherence to Church views appears in his admission of the received 
 doctrines concerning revelation, miracles, prophecy, the Trinity, and 
 the divinity of Christ. If Pelagius had carried his principles to all 
 their legitimate consequences, he would no doubt have discarded from 
 his system all that is supernatural. 
 
 4. The Pelagian Controversy (412-431). — From the year 409 Pelagius 
 resided at Rome, where he made a convert of Coelestius, a man of much 
 greater talent and learning than himself. By their zeal for morality 
 and asceticism th.e two gained high repute at Rome ; and continued to 
 diffuse their principles without let or hindrance. In 411 they went to 
 Carthage, whence Pelagius passed into Palestine. Coelestius remained 
 at Carthage, and became a candidate for the oiBce of presbyter. His 
 errors were now for the first time discussed. Paulinus, a deacon from 
 Milan, who happened to be at Carthage, laid a formal accusation 
 against him ; and when he refused to recant, a provincial synod, held 
 at Carthage in 412, excommunicated him. In the same year Augustine 
 published his first c.ntroversial tractate: " De peccatorum meritis et 
 remissione et de baptismo parvulorum. LI. III. ad Marceliinum." — In 
 Palestine, Pelagius joined the followers of Origen. Jerome, whom he 
 had at any rate offended by a disparaging opinion of his literary 
 labours, opposed his views, and declared them a logical sequence of 
 the Origenistic heresy (Ep. ad Ctesiphontem — Dialog, c. Pelag. LI. 
 III.) ; and Paulus Orosius, a young presbyter from Spain, denounced 
 him at a synod held at Jerusalem (415), under the pi-esidency of John, 
 the bishop of that see. But the Synergistic orientals could not be con- 
 vinced of the dangerous character of these views, which, besides, were 
 Bomewhat disguised by their author. Another accusation laid by two 
 Gallican bishops before the Synod of Diospolis (415), held under the 
 presidency of Eulogius, Bishop of Caesarea, ended in the same manner. 
 Upon this, Augustine ("de gestis Pelagii") showed to the divines of 
 Palestine that they had been deceived by Pelagius. Orosius also 
 published a controversial tractate ("Apologeticus c. Pel.") ; while, on 
 the other side, Theodorus oi Mops, wrote five (now lost) letters (probably 
 directed against Jerome). The Africans now took part in the contro- 
 versy. Two synods — held at Mileve and at Carthage (416) — renewed 
 the former condemnation of these doctrines, and laid their charges 
 before Innocent I. of Rome, who approved of the conduct of the African
 
 212 SECTION I. SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). 
 
 Church. Pelagius now transmitted a confession, in which his views 
 were carefully disguised, while Coelestius appeared personally at Rome, 
 But Innocent had died before his arrival (417). Zosimvs, his successor 
 — perhaps a Greek divine, at any rate an indifferent theologian — 
 having been gained by Coelestius, addressed bitter reproaches to the 
 African Church, against which the latter energetically protested. Soon 
 afterwards, however, the Emperor Honorius issued (in 418) a "sacrum 
 scriptum" against the Pelagians, while a General Synod, held at Car- 
 thage in 418, condemned their views in even stronger terms than 
 before. These circumstances induced Zosimus also to condemn them 
 ("ep/.s-<oZa<ractoi?o?-?'a"). Eighteen Italian bishops — among them Jidianus 
 of Eclanum, the ablest defender of Pelagianism — refused to sign this 
 document, and were banished. They requested and obtained an asyluro 
 from Nestorius, Bishop of Constantinople. But this connection was 
 fatal both to the bishop and his proteges. Coelestine, Bishop of Rome, 
 took the part of the opponents of Nestorius in the controversy about 
 the person of Christ (| 52, 3) ; while the Eastern Church, at the CEcu- 
 MENiCAL Council of Ephesüs in 431, condemned, along with Nestorius, 
 also Pelagius and Coelestius, without, however, enteribg upon a defini- 
 tion of the doctrine in question. To this result the efforts of Marius 
 Mercaior, a learned layman from the West, who resided at Constanti- 
 nople, had greatly contributed. He had composed two " Commoni- 
 toria" against Pelagius and Coelestius, and a controversial tractate 
 against Julianus of Eclanum. Nor had Augustine been idle during 
 the interval. In 413 he wrote " De spiritu et litera ad Marcellinum ;" 
 in 415, "De natura et gratia" against Pelagius, and " De perfectione 
 justitiae hominis" against Coelestius; in 416, "De gestis Pelagii ;" in 
 418, "De gratia Dei et de peccato originali LI. II. c. Pelag. et Coel.;" 
 in 419, " De nuptiis et concupiscentia LI. II." (in answer to the 
 objection that his system cast contempt upon the Divine institution of 
 marriage) ; in 420, " C. duas epistolas Pelagianorum ad Bonifacium I." 
 against the apologies of Julianus and his friends) ; in 421, " LI. VI. 
 c. Julianum ;" and somewhat later an " Opus imperfectum c. secun- 
 dam Juliani responsionem." 
 
 6. The Semi- Pelagian Controversy (427-529). — Gross Pelagianism 
 had been refuted, but extreme inferences from the principles of Augus- 
 tine in reference to the doctrine of Predestination excited fresh discus- 
 sions. The monks a,t _ Hadrvmefum, in North Africa, had gone on 
 evolving sequences from this doctrine, until some had fallen into per- 
 plexity and despair, some into security and unconcern, while others 
 deemed it requisite to avoid these and other consequences by ascribing 
 to human activity a certain amount of merit in the acquisition of sal- 
 vation. Under these difficulties, the abbot ofthat monastery addressed 
 himself to Augustine, who endeavoured to remove the scruples and 
 mistakes of the n^nks in two tractates (a. 427) : " De gratia et libero 
 arbitrio" and "De correptione et gratia." But about the same tim«
 
 THE DOCTRINE OP REDEMPTION. 213 
 
 an entire school of divines in Southern Gaul protested against the doc- 
 trine of Predestination, and maintained the necessity of asserting that 
 human freedom to a certain degree co-operated with Divine grace, so 
 that sometimes the one, sometimes the other, initiated conversion. This 
 school was headed by Johannes Cassianns {ob. 432), a pupil and friend 
 of Chrysostom, and the founder and president of the monastery at 
 Massilia. Ilis adherents were called Massiliaits or Semi-Pelagians. 
 Cassianus himself had, in the 13th of his " Collationes Patrum" [l 48, 
 6), controverted the views of Augustine, without, however, naming 
 that Father. The ablest of his pupils was Vmcentius Lirinensis (from 
 the monastery of Lirinium), who, in his '• Commonitorium pro catho- 
 licse fide antiquitate et universitate," laid down the principle, that 
 Catholic doctrine consisted of all " quod semper, ubique et ab omnibus 
 jreditum sit." Tried by this test, of course the teaching of Augustine 
 was not Catholic. The second book of his tractate — which has been 
 lost — controverted Augustinianisra, and was, probably on that account, 
 suppressed. Hilary and Prosper Aqiiitanicus — two laymen in Gaul 
 (^ 48, 8) — devoted adherents of Augustine, wrote to inform him of 
 these pi-oceedings. The Bishop of Hippo now composed two tractates 
 against the Massilians ("De praedestinatione Sanctorum" and "De 
 dono perseverantioe"). Death put an end to further controversy on his 
 part (430). But Hilary and Prosper took up the cause. When Ccjeles- 
 tine, Bishop of Rome, to whom they applied for redress (in 431). gave 
 a reply in terms which might mean anything or nothing. Prosper him- 
 self entered the lists by an able tractate, " De gratia dei et libero arbi- 
 trio contra CoUatorem," in which, however, he involuntarily smoothed 
 off the extreme points in the system of Augustine. This remark ap- 
 plies even in higher degree to the able work " De vocatione gentium," 
 which perhaps was composed by Leo the Great, afterwards a pope, but 
 at that time only a deacon. The other party [Arnobius the younger?) 
 pilblished a remarkable tractate, entitled " Praedestinatus," in which 
 a supposed follower of Augustine expresses his views about predesti- 
 nation, carrying them to a most absurd length, of course in a manner 
 never intended by the Bishop of Hippo. (Book I. gives a description 
 of ninety heresies, of which Predestinarianism is the last : Book II. 
 furnishes, by way of proof, this pretended tractate by a Predestinarian ; 
 and Book III. contains a refutation of it.) A Semi-Pelag. synod, which 
 met at Aries in 475, obliged Lucidus, a presljyter and a zealous advo- 
 cate of the doctrine of Predestination, to recant ; and Fanstus, Bishop 
 of Rheginm, transmitted to him, in name of that Council, a contro- 
 versial tractate, " De gratia Dei et humanae mentis libero arbitrio." 
 In the same year a synod held at Ltigdvmini (in 475) sanctioned Semi- 
 Pelagianism. Although the tractate of Faustus was moderate, and, 
 so to speak, intermediate between extreme views on both sides, it 
 caused very great commotion among a community of Scythian monks 
 at Constantinople (520). Through Possessor, Bishop of Carthage, they
 
 214 SECTION I. SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). 
 
 complained to Hormisdas, who, however, replied in general and indefi. 
 nite terms. The African divines in Sardinia, whom the Vandals had 
 banished from their sees, now took up the cause. They held a council 
 in 523 ; and, in their name, Fidgentius of Rvspe composed a very able 
 defence of Augustinian views ("De veritate praedestinationis et gratiae 
 Dei LI. III."), which made an impression even in Gaul. At the same 
 time, Avitus of Vienne and Ccesarius of Aries, two excellent Gallican 
 bishops, undertook the advocacy of moderate Augustinianism. At the 
 Synod of Armisio (Oranges), in 529, these views were generally ac- 
 knowledged as orthodox truth. Augustine's principles about original 
 sin, the entire worthlessness of all human works, and the absolute 
 necessity of grace, were admitted to the fullest extent ; faith was de- 
 clared to be the effect of grace alone, while the predestination of the 
 " reprobate" was defined as merely foreknowledge, and predestination 
 to sin entirely rejected as blasphemous. A synod held at Valencia 
 (529) in the same year confirmed the decrees of Oranges, which also 
 received the approbation of Boniface II. of Rome in 530. 
 
 I 54. REVIVAL OF FORMER SECTS. 
 
 The Montanists (Tertullianists) and Novatians continued to 
 exist till the fifth or sixth century. During the fifth century 
 Manichceism still counted numerous adherents both in Italy and 
 in North Africa. Gnostic and Manichsean tendencies reappeared 
 in Spain under the name of Priscillianism, and (towards the 
 close of this period) in Armenia under that of Paulicianism 
 
 (§ n, 1). 
 
 1. Manichceism. — The most prominent representative of this heresy 
 in the West was Faiishis of Mileve, an African, who composed a nifm- 
 ber of controversial tractates against Catholic doctrine. Augustine, 
 who had at first been misled by him, wrote against him the thirty-three 
 books " c. Faustum," the most comprehensive of his numerous works 
 against the Manichgeans. — Since the reignof Fa/ew^mtan/., the emperors 
 frequently issued strict edicts, decreeing punishment upon the members 
 of that sect. In Africa also they were persecuted by the Vandals. 
 Huneric (since 477) transported whole shiploads of them to the conti- 
 nent of Europe. At the time of Leo the Great [oh. 461) the party 
 numbered many adherents in Rome. On inquiry, it turned out that 
 they held antinomian principles, and secretly indulged their lusts. But, 
 notwithstanding the rigour employed against them, the sect had many 
 secret adherents even during the middle ages. 
 
 2. Priscillianism (380-563). — (Comp. Sal. van Fries, diss. crit. de Pris- 
 cillianistis eorumque fatis doctr. moribus. Ultraj. 1745. — /. H B. Lub'
 
 REVIVAL OF FORMER SECTS. 215 
 
 IceH, de hseresi Priscill. Han. 1840.— J. M. Mandeniach, Gesch. des 
 Priscillianism. Trier 1851.) — Marcus, an Egyptian, is said, in the fourth 
 century, to have brought the germs of Gnostico-Manichaean views to 
 Spain. PriscilUan, a wealthy and educated layman, adopted these 
 principles, and elaborated them into a dualistic system, in which the 
 " emanation theory" occupied a prominent place. Marriage and the 
 use of flesh were interdicted ; but it is said that, under the guise of a 
 strict asceticism, the sect secretly cherished antinomian views, and 
 indulged in licentious orgies. At any rate, it sanctioned both lying 
 and perjury, hypocrisy and dissimulation, for the purpose of spreading 
 and protecting its principles. — Gradually Priscillianism extended over 
 the whole of Spain, where even some of the bishops became converts 
 to it. The glimmering fire was fanned into a flame by the intemperate 
 zeal of Idacius, Bishop of Emerida. A Synod held at Saragossa in 380 
 excommunicated the sect, and commissioned Ithacius, Bishop of Sos- 
 euba, a very violent and also an immoral man, to carry its decrees into 
 execution. In connection with Idacius, he procured from the Empe- 
 ror an edict threatening all Priscillians with exile. But Prlscillian's 
 bribe brought about a repeal of this edict, and an order for the arrest 
 of Ith., which the latter escaped by flight into Gaul. Here he gained 
 over Maximus, the usurper (the murderer of Gratian), who, to obtain 
 their possessions, applied the torture to some of the sect, and caused 
 Priscillian and some of his adherents to be beheaded at Treves (385). 
 This was the first instance in which heretics were punished with 
 death. Martin, the noble-minded Bishop of Tours, to whom the Em- 
 peror had promised to employ mild measures, hastened to Treves, and 
 renounced communion with Ithacius and all those bishops who had 
 consented to the sentence of death. Ambrose also, and other bishops, 
 • expressed their disapprobation. Maximinius was thus induced to 
 institute the military inquisition against them. But the glory of 
 martyrdom heightened the enthusiasm of the sect, and their principles 
 rapidly spread among the barbarians who, in 409, invaded Spain. In 
 a "Commonitorium de errore Priscillianist," addressed to Augustine 
 (in 415), Patilus Orosius [l 53,4) earnestly implored the assistance of 
 that Father ; but other cares and controversies prevented him from 
 energetically taking part in this discussion. Greater success attended 
 the endeavors of Leo the Great, whose aid was invoked thirty years later 
 by Turribius, Bishop of Astorga. In accordance with the instruction 
 of that Pontiff, a "Concilium HLspanicum " in 447, and at a subse- 
 quent period, the Council of Braga in 563, adopted efficient measures 
 for the suppression of this heresy. After that professed Priscillianism 
 seems to have disappeared, but the principles of the sect continued in 
 Beeret tradition for many centuries.
 
 216 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). 
 
 V. WORSHIP, LIFE, DISCIPLINE, AND MANNERS. 
 
 § 55. WORSHIP IN GENERAL. 
 
 When Christian worship was secured by Constantine against 
 persecution, it developed extraordinary wealth of forms and 
 material, an indescribable fulness of ceremonial beauty and glory. 
 But as yet doctrinal controversies absorbed public attention too 
 much, to leave time or space for submitting ritual questions to 
 the ordeal of discussion and examination. Hence the special 
 manner of conducting public worship was in each case very much 
 left to be regulated by the spirit of the times, and by national 
 peculiarities. Still, the common spirit of the Church gave to 
 this ecclesiastical development a great uniform direction, and the 
 differences which at first obtained gradually disappeaved. Only, 
 such were the national differences between the East and the West, 
 that even the continual efforts made after catholic unity could 
 not efface these characteristics from public worship. 
 
 The right relation between doctrine and worship doubtless is, that 
 the latter should be regulated and determined by the former. Such 
 was the case at the commencement of this period. But afterwards the 
 relationship was reversed; and the unevangelical views so generally 
 entertained may, in no small measure, be traced to this aberration. 
 The change took place principally during the time of Cyril of Alex. 
 It is quite natural that, when the principles of that school about the 
 close interconnection between the Divine and the human prevailed, 
 they should also have been embodied in public worship. But as yet 
 these views were one-sided, and liable to be perverted into error. The 
 labours of Leo and Theodoret were indeed so far successful as to exclude 
 from Church doctrines the monophysiie element. But already it had 
 struck its roots so deeply in public worship, that its presence was not 
 even recognized, far less removed. During the following periods it 
 gradually increased (in the worship of saints, of images, of relics — 
 in pilgrimages, the sacrifice of the mass, etc.), and exerftised the most 
 pernicious influence on the development of the doctrines wdiich, as 
 yet, had not been accurately defined (for example, those about the 
 Church, the priesthood, the sacraments, especially that of the Lord's 
 Supper, etc.)
 
 TIMES OF WORSHIP AND FESTIVALS. 217 
 
 ?56. TIMES OF PUBLIC WORSHIP AND FESTIVALS. 
 
 Cdmp. G. R. Eisenschmidt, Gesch. d. Sonn- and Festtage (Hist, of 
 the Lord's Day and of Feast Days). Leipz. 1793. — /. G. Müller, Gesch. 
 d. Christ. Feste. Berl. 1843. — Fr. Strauss, d. evang. Kirchenjahr (The 
 Eccles. Year of Evang. Ch.). Berl. 1850. ~ E. Ranke, d. kirchl. Peri- 
 kopensystom. Berl. 1847. — M. A. Nickel (Rom. Oath.), d. heil. Zeiten 
 u. Feste in d. kath. K. (Sacred Seasons and Fest, in the Cath. Church). 
 Mayence 1836. 6 vols. — H. Alt, d. chr. Cultus. Abth. II., Das Kir- 
 chenjahr mit s. Festen. Berl. 1858. 
 
 The idea of a weekly and an annual cycle in commemoration 
 of the great facts of salvation, had been entertained even during 
 the previous period (§ 31). But gradually the idea of this 
 weekly cycle gave way before a richer and fuller development of 
 that of the Christian year. From the first essential differences 
 prevailed in this respect between the East and the West ; the 
 former embodied rather the Jewish-Christian, the latter the Gen- 
 tile-Christian tendency. But during the fourth century many of 
 these divergences were removed, and the three great cycles of 
 Christian festivals were celebrated in the same. manner by both 
 Chm-ches. During the fifth and sixth centuries, however, the 
 former differences again reappeared. The Eastern Church in- 
 creasingly yielded to its early inclination for Jewish-Christian 
 forms of worship ; while the Western Church, in conformity with 
 its Gentile-Christian tendency, adopted the natural year as a 
 basis for the ecclesiastical. Hence the ecclesiastical year of the 
 West obtained fuller organization, and became more closely 
 intertwined with popular life. But even in the West, the in- 
 creasing tendency towards the worship of saints prevented the 
 full carrying out of the idea of the Christian ecclesiastical year. 
 
 1. The Weekly Cycle. — So early as the year 321 Constantine the 
 Great enacted a law, that neither public business nor work of any kind 
 should be dime on the Lord's Day. Somewhat later he interdicted military 
 exercises on that day. His successors extended this inhibition to public 
 spectacles. Besides Sunday, the Jewish Sabbath also was, for a long 
 time, observed in the East by meeting for worship, by the intermission 
 of fasts, and by prayer in the standing posture ; fasting was only 
 allowed on the Sabbath of the Great Week. Wednesday and Friday, 
 the " dies stationum," were kept in the East as fast days. In the West, 
 the fast on Wednesdays was abrogated, and in its room that on the 
 Jewish Sabbath introduced. 
 . 19
 
 218 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.) . 
 
 2. Horce and Ember-Days. ^Dnr'mg the fifth century the number of 
 fixed hours for prayer (the 3d, 6th, and 9th during the day, comp. Dan. 
 vi. 10, 13; Acts ii. 15, iii. 1, x. 9) increased to eight {Jwrai canonicce: 
 Matutina at 3 o'clock in the morning, Prima at 6, Tertia at 9, Sexta 
 at 12, Nona at 3, Vespers at 6, Completoria at 9, and Mesonyction or 
 Vigils at 12). But in order to obtain the sacred number 7 (after Ps. 
 cxix. 1G4), the two horse of the night were generally combined into 
 one. The horae were, in all their strictness, observed only by monks 
 and the clergy. — In accordance with this arrangement of prayer, onco 
 every three hours, the year was divided in the West into terms of three 
 months [quatuor iempora, quarterly), each marked by a fast. These 
 periods were (according to Joel ii.) to be signalized by repentance, 
 fasting, and almsgiving. The arrangement in question was completed 
 by Leo the Great {ob. 461), The Ember-days fell at the commencement 
 of Quadragesima, during the week after Pentecost, and in the middle 
 of the seventh and of the tenth month (September and December). 
 They were observed by a strict fast on the Wednesday, the Friday, and 
 the Saturday, and by a Sabbath vigil. 
 
 3. The Calmlation of Easter. — The Council of Nice (325) decided 
 in favour of the Roman mode of Easter observance, as opposed to that 
 of Asia Minor [l 31, 1). The adherents of the latter formed a separate 
 sect [Qxtartodecimani). The Council decided that the first day of full 
 moon after the vernal equinox should be regarded as the 14th of Nisan, 
 and that the Feast of the Resurrection should be celebrated on the 
 Sunday following, yet so as to avoid its coincidence with the Jewish 
 Passover. The annual astronomical calculation of the feast was en- 
 trusted to the Bishop of Alexandria, in which city astronomical study 
 was extensively cultivated. This prelate issued an annual circular 
 (liber paschalis) — commonly at Epiphany — in which he intimated to 
 the other churches the result of his calculations, and generally also 
 took occasion to discuss some question that was mooted at the time. 
 The Roman mode of calculation difi"ered in some respects from that 
 common in Alexandria. At Rome they calculated according to a cycle 
 of 84, and not of 19 years ; the 18th, and not the 21st of March, was 
 regarded as the day of the spring equinox ; and if the full moon hap- 
 pened on a Saturday, Easter was celebrated, not the day afterwards, but 
 eight days after it. At last, in 525, Dionysius Exiguus brought about 
 a permanent agreement between Rome and Alexandria in the celebra- 
 tion of Easter. 
 
 4. The Easter Cycle of Festivals. — With the commencement oi Qua- 
 dragesima the whole appearance of public life underwent a change. 
 Public amusements were prohibited, criminal investigations arrested, 
 and the noise of traffic in streets and markets ceased as far as possible. 
 In the East, fasting was intermitted on Sundays and Saturdays ; in the 
 West, only on Sundays. On this account, Gregory the Great fixed the
 
 TIMES OF WORSHIP AND FESTIVALS. 219 
 
 Wednesday of the seventh week before Easter as the commencement " 
 of Quadragesima. This day was called " Caput jejuna," and ''Dies 
 cineruin" — Ash Wednesday — from the practice of sprinkling ashes 
 on the heads of the faithful, in remembrance of Gen. iii. 19. On the 
 Tuesday before that fast, the people were wont, by extravagant festivi- 
 ties (Carnu'«/, Carni vale.), to make up for the coming fasts. About 
 the same time the Easter cycle was enlarged in the West, so as to 
 emljrace two additional weeks, and commenced on the ninth Sunday 
 before Easter (Septuagesima). The Hallelujah of the mass then ceased, 
 marriages were no more consecrated [tempus claustun), and monks and 
 priests already commenced to fast. Quadragesima attained, as it were, 
 its climax during the last or the so-called Great Week, which commenced 
 on Palm Sunday (eoprjj tCjv ßaiw»'), and closed with the Great Sabbath, 
 the fiivourite time for administering baptism. The Thursday Yfhen the 
 Lord's Supper had been instituted, and the Friday on which the Sa- 
 viour had been crucified, were more particularly observed. Public 
 worship celebrated during the night {Easter vigil) formed a transition 
 from these fasts to the rejoicings at Easter. This solemnity was deep- 
 ened by the prevalence of an old tradition, that Christ would again 
 return during that night. The morning of Easter was ushered in with 
 the joyful salutation, "The Lord is risen;" to which response was 
 made, " Yea, truly He is risen." The festivities of Easter closed only 
 on the following Sunday (pascha clausum, avtinaaxa-)- On that day 
 those who had been baptized on the Great Sabbath wore for the last 
 time their white garments. Hence this Sunday was called " Dominica 
 in albis," also " Quasimodogeniti," from the first words in 1 Pet. ii. 2 — 
 among the Greeks, xawii xvptaxjj. The rejoicings of Easter extended 
 over the whole term of Quinquagesima, or the period between Easter 
 and Pentecost. A solemn vigil preceded both Ascension-day and Pen- 
 tecost, and the latter closed with a Pentecost-octava (celebrated by the 
 Greeks as the xv^iaxri tutv äytcdc inaptvpjjirai/rwi/, and by the Latins — at a 
 much later period — as the Feast of the Holy Trinity). — These festive 
 "Ocfavce" were kept in imitation of the "solemn assembly" at the 
 Feast of Tabernacles, Lev. xxiii. 36. 
 
 5. The Christmas Cycle of Festivals. — The first mention of Christmas 
 observance (natalis Christi, yive^Xia) occurs in the Western Church 
 about 360. Twenty or thirty years afterwards, it was also introduced 
 in the East. We account for the late introduction of this festival by 
 the circumstance that the ancient Church failed to set value on the day 
 of Christ's birth, and placed it rather in the background as compared 
 with the day of His death (^31). But Chrysostom already designates 
 it as the fitjtpoTto'Kii rtaauv tCjv sopruiv. From the first, the 25th Decem- 
 ber was commonly regarded as the day on which Christ was born. 
 The Christmas festival was fixed for that day, not on account of, but 
 iespite, the heathen Saturnalia (in remembrance of the Golden Age, 
 froTi the 17th-24th December), the Sigillai-ia (on the 24th December.
 
 220 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). 
 
 when children received presents of dolls and figures made of earthen« 
 ware or wax — sigilla), and the Brnmalia (on the 25th December, diea 
 natalis invicti solis, the Feast of the Winter Solstice). At the same 
 time it was regarded as far from an accidental occurrence that Christ, 
 the Eternal Sun, had appeared on that day. Christmas commenced 
 also with a Vigil, and terminated with an Octavo, which during the 
 sixth century became the " festum circumcisionis." In contrast with 
 the excesses of the heathen at the New Year, the ancient Church set 
 this day apart for humiliation and fasting. The Feast of Epiphany 
 was introduced in the West in the fourth century, when it obtained 
 its peculiar Gentile-Christian import as a commemoration of the admis- 
 sion of Gentiles into the Church (Luke ii. 21). (Referring to Ps. Ixxii. 
 10, Tertullian had represented the Magi as kings ; the number three 
 indicated threefold gifts. In 600 a. d. Bede gave their names : Casper, 
 Melchior, and Balthasar.) In other places this feast was also supposed 
 to commemorate the first miracle of Christ at the marriage in Cana. — 
 Since the sixth century, the period preceding Christmas was observed 
 as " the Advent." In the Latin Church this season commenced on the 
 fourth Sunday before Christmas ; in the Greek, on the 14th November, 
 and comprehended six Sundays and a fast of forty days — a practice 
 which was also introduced in some of the Western churches. 
 
 6. The last festival of our Lord — introduced late in the East — was 
 that of the Transfiguration (Aug. 6th), which the Latin Church only 
 adopted in the fifteentli century. — For Saints' days, a,nd feasts in honor 
 of the Virgin, comp. § 57. 
 
 7. The Ecclesiastical Tear. — In the East, the symbolical relation 
 between the natural and the ecclesiastical year was ignored, except so 
 far as implied in the attempt to give to the Jewish feasts a Christian 
 adaptation. To some extent, indeed. Western ideas had been imported 
 in reference to the great festivals, such as Christmas, Easter, and 
 Pentecost, but not in connection with the ordinary Sun and feast-days. 
 At first the ecclesiastical year in the East commenced with Easter, 
 afterwards with Quadragesima or with Epiphany, and ultimately in 
 September, as under the Old Dispensation. The year was divided into 
 four parts, according to the "lectio continua" of the Gospels, and the 
 Sundays obtained corresponding names. The xvpiaxr; TtpJotrj tov Maf- 
 ^cii-'oD took place immediately after Pentecost. — The Latin Ecclesias- 
 tical Year commenced in Advent, and was divided into a " Semestre 
 Domini" and a "Semestre ecclesiae." But the idea underlying this 
 arrangement was only carried out in reference to the " Semestre 
 Domini" (Christmas, Easter, and Pentecost, with the Sundays which 
 they included, indicating the commencement, the development, and the 
 completion of the history of redemption). In reference to the " Semestre 
 ecclesiae," only the commencement of a symbolical arrangement was 
 made. Thus the " Feast of Peter and Paul," on the 29th Jun(;, repre-
 
 WORSHIP OF SAINTS, RELICS, AND IMAGES. 221 
 
 rented the foundation of the Church by the apostles; the feast of 
 Lanreiitiufi (§ 23, 5) the martyr, on the 10th August, the contest await- 
 ing the "Church militant;" and the Feast of Michael the archangel, 
 on the 29th September, the complete success of the " Church triumph- 
 ant." That these feasts were intended to form the basis of three cyclea 
 of festivals, we gather from the circumstance that the Sundays after 
 Pentecost had been arranged as Dominicne post Apostolos, post Lau- 
 rentii, post Angelos. But the idea was not developed ; the frequency 
 of saints' days not onlj- made this arrangement impossible, but rendered 
 it even necessary to encroach on the " Semestre Domini." The prin- 
 ciple of attempting to Christianize the worship of the heathen was 
 authoritatively sanctioned by Gregory the Great, who in 601 instructed 
 the Anglo-Saxon missionaries to transform the heathen tempes into 
 churches, and the pagan into saints' festivals or martyr-days, "ut durae 
 mentes gradibus vel passibus non autem saltibus eleventur." Saints 
 now took the places of the old gods, and the ecclesiastical was made 
 in every respect to correspond with the natural year, only in a Chris- 
 tianized form. 
 
 I 57. THE WORSHIP OF SAINTS, OF RELICS, AND OF 
 IMAGES. 
 
 Since persecutions, and with thera martyrdom, had ceased, 
 an extraordinary asceticism could alone entitle to the honours 
 of canonization. In awarding this distinction, popular opinion 
 carried the day. Thus the number of saints increased every 
 year ; saints who had long been forgotten were discovered by 
 means of visions, while, in the absence of historical reminiscences, 
 tradition supplied names and facts in rich abundance. The more 
 men felt the lukewarmness and worklliness of their own religious 
 experience, as compared with the strength of faith displayed by 
 the first witnesses for the truth, tlie higher did the martyrs rise 
 in popular veneration. Altars and churches were erected over 
 their graves (inemorice juaprvptat), or else their bones deposited 
 in the churches (translationes). Newly erected churches were 
 consecrated by their names, and persons called after them in 
 baptism. The days of their martyrdom were observed as festi- 
 vals, introduced by vigils, and celebrated by agapes and obla- 
 tions at their graves. Ecclesiastical orators extolled them in 
 enthusiastic language, and poets sung of them in their hymns. 
 Nothing could equal the zeal with which their bones were 
 Bearched out, or the enthusiasm with which men gazed on them, 
 or pressed forward to touch them. Every province, nay, every 
 19*
 
 222 SECTION I. SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.) 
 
 town, had its tutelary saint {Patronus). In the East, the Invts 
 cation of Saints originated with the three great Capjoadocians , 
 in the West, with Ambrose. These Fathers maintained that the 
 saints participated in the omnipotence and omniscience of the 
 Deity. Augustine alone held that the angels were the medium 
 through which the saints learned the invocations of the devout. 
 In the various liturgies, the former practice of praying for the 
 saints was now converted into entreaty for their intercession. 
 The common people regarded this worship as taking the place 
 of that of heroes and of the Manes. But theological writers 
 earnestly insisted on the distinction between " ad oratio " and 
 "invocatio," xatpiia and Souxtt'a, of which the former was due to 
 God alone. The worship of Mary arose at a period subsequent 
 to that of the martyrs, and chiefly in connection with the 
 Nestorian controversy. Soon, however, it acquired much greater 
 importance than that of the saints. Faint traces of a worship 
 of angels occur even in Justin and Origen ; but this species of 
 service was neglected for that of the saints. The zeal for pil- 
 grimages was greatly quickened after the visit of the Empress- 
 mother Helena (in 326) to the holy places in Palestine, where 
 she erected splendid churches. Some of the most eminent 
 Fathers, however, disapproved of these tendencies. The worship 
 of images commenced during the time of Cyril of Alexandria. 
 It was specially cultivated in the East. Western divines — and 
 even Gregory the Great — admitted pictures only for decoration, 
 for popular instruction, and for quickening the devotional feel- 
 ings. The worship of relics, on the other hand, spread more 
 extensively in the West than in the East. 
 
 1. Saints' t)ays. — So early as the fourth century, the octave of 
 Pentecost was celebrated in the East as " the Festival of all the Martyrs" 
 [l 56, 4). In the AVest, Pope Boniface IV. instituted, in 610, a "■festnm 
 omnium Sanctorum" for the Pantheon, which the Emperor Phocas had 
 presented to the Holy See, and which was transformed into a church 
 of the most blessed Virgin and of all the martyrs. But this festival 
 (on November 1st), was not generally observed till the ninth century. 
 The large nimiber of canonized saints rendered it possible to dedicate 
 every day in the calendar to one or more saints. Generally, the 
 anniversary of their death vras selected for that purpose ; in the case 
 of John the Baptist alone an exception was made in favour of his birth- 
 day (natalis S. Joannis). From its relation to Christmas (Luke i. 26), 
 this festival was fixed for the 24th June ; and the contrast of the season 
 in which these two feasts occurred, reminded the Church even in this
 
 WORSHIP OF SAINTS, RELICS, AND IMAGES. 223 
 
 respect of John iii. 30. So early as the fifth century, the 29th August 
 was also observed as ajesiuin decollationis S. Joannis. The second day 
 of Christmas was the Feast of St. Stephen, the proto-mart^^r (the first- 
 gathered fruit of the Incarnation) ; the third day was devoted to the 
 memory of the disciple whom Jesus loved ; the fourth, to that of the 
 infants at Bethlehem {festuin innocentum), as the " flores" or " primitige 
 mart}' rum." The Feast of the Maccabees — in commemoration of the 
 woman and her seven sons who sufi"ered under Antiochus Epiphanes — • 
 was already celebrated in the fourth, and -only discontinued in the 
 thirteenth century. Among the festivals in honour of the apostles, that 
 " of Peter and Paul" — in memory of their martyrdom at Rome (29th 
 June) — was generally observed. Besides this, two other "festa 
 cathedra; Petri" were observed at Rome — one on the 18th January, in 
 commemoration of Peter's accession to the " Cathedra Romaua," the 
 other on the 22d February, in remembrance of his occupation of the 
 " Cathedra Antiochena." For some time the saints' days were so 
 arranged that those devoted to the patriarchs were fixed before 
 Christmas, those of later saints of the Old Testament dispensation 
 during Quadragesima, those of the apostles and first preachers after 
 Pentecost ; then followed the martyrs, after them the latei: confessors, 
 and, lastly, the " Virgines," as the type of the Church in a state of 
 perfection. 
 
 2. The Worship of Mary. — The Virgin, "blessed among women," 
 and who by the Holy Spirit had predicted : " From henceforth all 
 generations shall call me blessed," was from the first regarded as the 
 highest ideal of maidenhood. Hence the veneration which the ea?ly 
 Church paid to virginity, centred in that of her person. Side by side 
 with the contrast between Adam and Christ, TertuUian placed that 
 between Eve and Mary. In the fourth century, the " perpetua 
 virginitas b. Marias" was already an article of faith. Ambrose applied 
 Ezek. xliv. 2 to her, and spoke of her having given birth "utero 
 clauso;" while the second Trullan Council (692) declared axöxtvtov 
 tbv. ix trji ftap^evov ^siov foxov ehai. If Irena3us, TertuUian, Origen, 
 Basil, and Chrysostom had still acknowledged her sinful, Augustine no 
 longer numbered her among sinners : " Unde enim scimus, quid ei plus 
 gratite collatum fuerit ad vincendum omni ex parte peccatum ? " But 
 for a considerable period no further progress was made towards actual 
 worship of the Virgin. This was partly due to the circumstance, that 
 she had not shared the glory of martyrdom, and partly to the idolatrous 
 and heathenish worship paid her by the Collyridians — a female sect 
 in Arabia dating from the fuurth century — who ofi'ered to her bread- 
 cakes (in imitation of the heathen worship of Ceres). Epiphanius, 
 who opposed that sect, maintained : triv hi Mapta»/ oüSeij rtpoj^uvfiff^, 
 oiiff ayyfXot ;ttöpoD(ji. 5o|o> oytai' toiavtrjv. On the Antidiconiarianites, 
 comp. § 62. But through the victory of the doctrine that ^Mary waa 
 the mother of God, in the Nestorian controversy, Mariolatry became
 
 224 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). 
 
 again more general in the Church. In the fifth century, the 25th 
 March was celebrated as the Feast of the Anminciation, (incarnat onis, 
 lopfjj tov (vayyf-Kiafioi, tov aoTiaapiov). In the West, the Feast of Purifica- 
 tion (according to Luke ii. 22) was observed on the 2d February. It 
 was also called Feast of Candlemas, from the solemn offering of 
 candles then made. When, in 542, the empire was visited with earth- 
 quakes and pestilence, Justinian instituted the " festum occursus," 
 (£opr>7 tYji vrtaTiavrrji) , with special reference to the meeting with Simeon 
 and Anna (Luke ii. 25). Both these might still be regarded as 
 festivals of our Lord. From a desire to have a series of feasts in 
 honour of the Virgin corresponding to those in commemoration of 
 Christ, the Feast "of the Ascension of Mary" (rtajViyvpij acojuijjofcoj, f. 
 assumptionis, dormitionis M.) was introduced at the close of the sixth, 
 and during the seventh century that of the Birth of Mary. These 
 festivals were celebrated on the 15th August and the 8th September. 
 The former was founded on a legend — first broached by Gregory of 
 Tours, {ob. 595) — to the effect that, immediately on her decease, angels 
 had raised the " Mother of God," and carried her to heaven. — (Cf. 
 gl05, 2;113, 1). 
 
 3. The Worship of Angels. — So early as the second century, the idea 
 of tutelary angels for nations, towns, and individuals occurs, based on 
 Deut. xxxii. 8 (according to the version of the LXX.) ; Dan. x. 13, 20, 
 21, xii. 1 ; Matt, xviii. 10 ; Acts xii. 15. Ambrose already insisted on 
 the invocation of angels. But when the Phrygian sect of " Angelici" 
 carried this practice to idolatrous adoration of angels, the Council pf 
 Laodicea (in the fourth century) condemned their views, and Epipha- 
 nius numbered the sect among heretics. Pretended apparitions of 
 Michael the archangel led, in the fifth century, to the institution of the 
 "Feast of St. Michael" — on the 29th September — which was celebrated 
 in honour of all the angels, and designed to express the idea of the 
 Church triumphant. 
 
 4. The Worship of Images (comp. § 35). — The dislike and the jealousy 
 ot art which characterized the early Church had not wholly disappeared 
 even in the fourth century. Eusebins of Ccesarea speaks of a statue at 
 Paneas (? 14, 2), and other representations of Christ and of the apos- 
 tles, as an f^vtxjj awri^fia.. He seriously reproved Constantia, the Em- 
 peror's sister, for expressing a desire to possess a likeness of Christ, 
 and called her attention to the second commandment. Asterins, Bishop 
 of Amasa in Pontus [ob. 410), censured the custom of rich persons 
 wearing on their dresses embroidered representations of events in Gos- 
 pel history, and recommended such persons rather to bear Christ in 
 their hearts. Epiphanius, in his zeal, tore in pieces a painted curtain 
 tliat hung in a village church in Palestine, a.nd suggested that the body 
 of a poor person should be wrapped in it. But gradually the Grecian 
 love of art and the popular feeling carried the victory over legal rigor-
 
 WORSHIP OF SAINTS. RELICS, AND IMAGES. 225 
 
 ism and abstract spiritualism. In this respect also the age of Cyril 
 became the period of transition. Already in the fifth century, miracles 
 were said to be performed by certain pictures of Christ, of the apos- 
 tles, and of "the Mother of God." This gave rise to a real worship 
 of images, by lighting before them tapers, kissing them, bowing, pros- 
 tration, burning incense before them, etc. Soon every church and 
 church-book, every palace and cottage, was filled with pictures of 
 Christ and of saints, commonly drawn by monks. Countless miracles 
 occurred in connection with them. This delusion, however, spread not 
 so rapidly in the West as in the East. Thus Ätignstine complained of 
 the worship of images, and insisted that Christ should be sought in tho 
 Bible, and not in images ; and although Gregory the Great reproved 
 the iconoclastic zeal of Serenus, Bishop of Massilia, himself would 
 tolerate pictures in clbrches "ad instruendas solummodo mentes nesci- 
 entium." The Nestorians, who were entirely opposed to the use of 
 pictures, denounced Cyril as the originator of this new idolatry. — (Cf. 
 §60, 4; Ö6.) 
 
 5. The Worship of Relics (Cf. § 36, 4). — The worship of relics (Xft^at») 
 originated partly in a pious impulse common to mankind, partly in the 
 honours which the early Church was wont to pay the martyrs. The 
 religious services celebrated on the graves of martyrs, the erection of 
 memorials to them, and the depositing of their bones in churches, may 
 be regarded as the commencement of this practice. By and by no altar 
 'or church was reared that possessed not its own relic. Gradually, as 
 the small number of known martyrs no longer sufficed to supply the 
 increasing number of churches with relics, their bones were distributed. 
 Places where relics hitherto unknown lay, were miraculously pointed 
 out in dreams and visions. The catacombs now became mines of relics, 
 of which the genuineness was proved by signs and wonders. So early 
 as 386, Theodosius I. was obliged to interdict the traffic in relics. 
 Among them were reckoned not only bones, but garments, utensils, 
 and especially the instruments with which the martyrs had been tor- 
 tured. Their application restored the sick, exorcised demons, raised 
 the dead, averted the plague, detected crimes, etc. The persons thus 
 benefited were in the habit of expressing their gratitude by setting up 
 commemorative tablets, or offering silver and gold casts of the diseased 
 member which had been miraculously healed. In defence of this 
 species of veneration, some appealed to 2 Kings xiii. 21 ; Sir. xlvi. 14; 
 Acts xix. 12. — According to a legend — which was generally credited 
 in the fifth century — Helena had, in 326, discovered the true cross of 
 Christ, as well as those of the two malefactors. This story was first 
 attested by Ambrose, Rufinus, and Chrysostom ; Eusebius and the 
 Bordeaux pilgrim of the year 333 know nothing of it. The true cross 
 was recognized from the others through a miraculous cure (raising of 
 the dead) performed by means of it. The devout Empress presented 
 one half of the cross to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, and sent
 
 226 SECTION I. SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). 
 
 the other half along with the nails to her son, who inserted the wood 
 in a statue of his own, and set the nails in his diadem and in the reins 
 of his horse. Pious pilgrims were allowed to carry with them splinters 
 of that portion of the wood which was left at Jerusalem, and thus par- 
 ticles of the true cross were carried into and worshipped in all lands. 
 At a comparatively late period, it was said that, in honour of the dis- 
 covery of the cross, a or'avpudtftof ^fispa had been celebrated (on the 
 14th September) in the East so early as the fourth century. From the 
 time of Gregory the Great, a festum inventionis S. Crucis was kept 
 throughout the West on the 3d May. The Feast of the Elevation of 
 the Cross was instituted by the Emperor Heraclius (14th Sept.) to com- 
 memorate the defeat of the Persians, who were obliged to restore the 
 holy cross (629), which they had taken away. This festival was also 
 introduced in the West. 
 
 6. Pilgrimages (Cf. /. Marx, d. Wallf. in d. kath. K. Trier 1842).— 
 Pilgrimages to sacred places likewise spring from a prevalent human 
 want. Many were eager to follow the example set them by Helena in 
 326. Even the conquest of Palestine by the Saracens in the seventh 
 century could not arrest the zeal of pilgrims. Not only the sacred 
 localities in Palestine, but Mount Sinai, the tombs of Peter and Paul 
 at Rome [limina Apostolorum), the grave of St. Martin of Tours [oh. 
 400), and even the place where Job, the type of Christ, had suffered 
 (in Arabia), were favourite places of pilgrimage. — This zeal for pil- 
 grimages, especially on the part of monks and of women, was most 
 strenuously opposed by Gregory of Nyssa, who, in a letter on the sub- 
 ject, in the sti'ongest language indicated the danger accruing both to 
 genuine religion and to morality from this practice. Even Jerome 
 moralized: " Et de Hierosolymis et de Britannia aequaliter patet aula 
 ccelestis." Chrysostom and Augustine also objected to the excessive 
 merit attached to such acts of devotion. — (Cf. § 89, 4; 105, 3.) 
 
 I 58. ADMINISTRATION OF THE SACRAMENTS. 
 
 The Church had not at this period definitely settled either the 
 number or the import of the Sacraments (fivöTf/pCa). The term 
 was indiscriminately applied both to the doctrines of salvation in 
 so far as they transcended the intellect of man, and to those rites 
 of worsliip through which, in a manner incomprehensible, be- 
 lievers received and appropriated redemption. From the first, it 
 was admitted that Baptism and the Lord's Suj^per were the 
 principal sacramental means of grace. But so early as the third 
 century, anointing and laying on of hands was distinguished 
 froir baptism, regarded as a special sacrament — that of Con-
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF TUE SACRAMENTS. 227 
 
 firmation (xp^ofia) — and in the "West administered separately 
 from the initiatory Christian rite (§ 32). The idea of a special 
 order of Christian priesthood as of Divine institution (§ 30), led 
 theologians to regard Ordination as a sacrament (^§ 45, 3), 
 When the Pelagians charged Augustine that his views of origi- 
 nal sin and of concupiscence implied that the Divine ordinance 
 of marriage was in itself sinful, he rejoined by characterizing 
 the eccleniadical solemnization of marriage (§ 61, 2) as a sacra- 
 ment, appealing in proof to Eph. v. 32. Thus marriage was 
 represented as nature sanctified by grace. The Pseudo-Diony- 
 sius enumerated (in the sixth cent.) six sacraments, viz. : Bap- 
 tism, Confirmation, the Lord's Supper, the Anointing of priests, 
 that of monks, and that of the dead (t>^v xtxoijA.rjixeviov'). As to 
 extreme unction, comp. § 61, 3. 
 
 1. Tlie Administration of Baptism (Cf. | 32). — During this period it 
 was still common to delay baptism, either from indifference, from 
 superstition, or from doctrinal prejudices. These motives also operated 
 against the practice of infant-baptism, which had long been recognized, 
 not only as lawful, but as necessary. Gregory of Nyssa wrote: "IIpöj 
 twi ß(i(xhvvovt(ti ei; to fSÜHtidfia;" — the other Fathers equally opposed 
 this abuse. In accordance with the view of Terttdlian, baptized lay- 
 men, but not women, were allowed to administer baptism in case of 
 extreme necessity (in periculo mortis). The practice of having God- 
 parents became general ; and the Code of Justinian treated this rela- 
 tionship as a spiritual affinity, and an impediment to marriage. The 
 following were the ceremonies common at baptism. The catechumens, 
 who had kept their heads veiled, unveiled them on the day of baptism — • 
 the former to shut out any object that might distract, and also to sym- 
 bolize spiritual self-retirement. Exorcism was pronounced over the 
 candidates for baptism ; next, the officiating priest breathed on them 
 (.John XX. 22), touched their ears, saying: Ephphata! (Mark vii. 34), 
 and made the sign of the cross on their forehead and breast. In Africa 
 salt (Mark ix. 50) was given them ; in Italy a piece of money, as sym- 
 bol of the talent of baptismal grace (Luke xix. 12, etc.). The assump- 
 tion in baptism of a new 7iame indicated entrance into a new life. The 
 person baptized renounced the devil, turning at the same time toward 
 the west, and saying : ' Arcotdaao^ai, ooi ^arava xai Ttaafj tr/' Xatptta aov, 
 and again to the east, with the words: 'ZvvtdaaofiaC ooi, Xptcrrc. The 
 practice of sprinkling was confined to the " baptismus Cliuicorum." 
 The person baptized was three times immersed; in the Spanish Church 
 only once, to mark even in this their antagonism to Arian views. 
 
 2. Hitherto the Doctrine of the Lord's Supper (comp. § 33) had not 
 been discussed in Synods, and the views cf individual Fathers on the
 
 228 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323—692 A.D.). 
 
 subject were exceedingly vague and undetermined. All of them spoke 
 of it as of a very sacred and awful mystery, and felt convinced that 
 the elements of bread and wine became, in a supernatural manner, 
 connected with the body and blood of Christ. Some regarded this con- 
 nection as spiritual, and in the light of a dynamic influence ; others 
 viewed it in a realistic manner, and as an actual communication of 
 these substances to the elements ; but most theologians had not fully 
 decided either for one or other of these views. Almost all described 
 the miracle which took place in this sacrament as ajitfT'oßoX^, trans- 
 figuratio — an expression, however, which they also employed in con- 
 nection with the baptismal water and the anointing oil. The school 
 of Origen — especially Eusehius of Caesarea and the Pseudo-Dionysivs, 
 also Aihanasius and Gregory Nazianzen, though in a less decided 
 manner — adopted the spiritualistic view. In the West, it was advo- 
 cated by Augustine and his school, and even by Leo the Great. The 
 principles of Augustine on Predestination led almost of necessity to 
 this, since only believers, i. e., the elect, could partake of this heavenly 
 food. Not unfrequently, however, that Father also made use of 
 language which savours of the opposite view. Among the advocates 
 of the realistic interpretation, some took the dyophysite (consubstantia- 
 tion), others the monophysite (transubstantiation) view of the sacra- 
 ment. A decided tendency to transubstantiation is exhibited in the 
 writings of Cyril of Jerus., of Chrysostom, of Hilary of Pict., and of 
 Ambrose. The view of Gregory of Nyssa was somewhat peculiar. He 
 held, that as during the terrestrial life of Christ food and drink, by 
 assimilation, became the substance of His body, so the bread and wine 
 were, by an act of Divine Omnipotence, in the consecration, changed 
 into the glorified corporeity of Christ, which became assimilated with 
 our body when we partook of the Lord's Supper. The divergences on 
 this question appeared more distinctly after the Nestorian Controversy, 
 although Theodoret and Pope Gelasius {ob. 496) were the only theolo- 
 gians who fully applied their general dyophysite views in reference to 
 this sacrament. The former says : /ihtt, yap erti tri^ rtpo^fpaj ovtjtoj, and 
 the latter: Esse non desinit substantia vel natura panis et vini. . . . , 
 Hoc nobis in ipso Christo' Domino sentiendum (in regard to the Person 
 of Christ), quod in ejus imagine (as to the Lord's Supper) profitemur. 
 But, in all probability, the mass of the people had long before learned 
 to regard this fictaßoxr^ as a genuine change of substance. The popular 
 view next passed into the prayer-books. We find it in the Galilean and 
 Syrian liturgies of the fifth century, in language which cannot be mis- 
 understood. Even after the Council of Chalcedon had sanctioned 
 dyophysite vicAvs as orthodox, the tendency to resolve the human in 
 Christ into the Divine still continued ; and towards the close of this 
 period the doctrine of transubstantiation was generally entertained. 
 
 3. The Sacrifice of the Mass. (Comp. ^33,4). — Even during the 
 fourth century the body of Christ presented by consecration in the
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF THE SACRÄ.IMENTS. 229 
 
 Lord's Supper, had been designated a sacrifice, tliough only in the 
 sense of being a representation of the one sacrifice of Christ. But 
 gradually this view of a sacramental feist in remembrance of the 
 sacrifice of Christ gave place to that vrhich made the Eucharist an un- 
 bloody, but real repetition of this sacrifice. The change in question 
 was much promoted by the ancient custom of connecting with this 
 sacrament intercession for the living and the dead, and more especially 
 by that of celebrating the memory of the latter by oblations and par- 
 taking of the Lord's Supper, in order tlius to express that communion 
 in the Lord lasted beyond death and the grave (?35). Such interces- 
 sions would naturally appear much more powerful, if the sacrifice of 
 Christ, which alone could give them efiicacy, was on every such occa- 
 sion really repeated and re-enacted. Other causes also contributed to 
 this result. Among them we reckon the rhetorical figures and the 
 language of preachers, who applied to the representation terms which 
 really characterized the one sacrifice of Christ alone ; the notion about 
 a regular priesthood, which soon led to that of sacrifices ; the spread 
 of the doctrine of transubstautiation, and the tendency to regard the 
 sacrament as of magical efficacy. The idea that the Lord's Supper was 
 a sacrifice became completely established after the introduction of the 
 doctrine of Purgatory as a place of punishment — before the resurrec- 
 tion — where venial sins, which had not been atoned for during life, 
 might be expiated. This doctrine, which was not received in the East, 
 was first propounded by Augustine, although not without some mis- 
 givings, and without any reference to the sacrifice of the Eucharist. 
 But Ccesarius of Aries and Gregory the Great carried it to all its con- 
 sequences. The "oblationes pro defunctis," which had long been in 
 use, now assumed the character o{ " masses for their sotils ; " the object 
 being no longer that the living should partake of the body and blood 
 of Christ, and thereby indicate their communion with the departed, but 
 that the atoning sacrifice should be repeated for the spiritual benefit of 
 the deceased — i.e., in order that the sufi'erings of purgatory might 
 thereby be alleviated and abridged. Similarly, men had also recourse 
 to the atoning efficacy of the eucharistic sacrifice for the removal of 
 earthly ills, sufi'erings, and accidents, in so far as these were regarded 
 as punishments of sin. For these purposes, it was deemed sufficient if 
 the sacrificing priest alone partook of the Eucharist (missce solitarice, 
 'private masses). At last the flock ceased to partake of the commu- 
 nion at ordinary seasons of worship, and only joined in it at certain 
 festivals. 
 
 4. The Dispensation of the Supper. — After the general introduction 
 of infant-baptism, the strict distinction between the " missa catechu- 
 menorum" and the "missa fidelium" (| .33, 1) ceased. In the Eastern 
 and North African branches of the Church, Infant- Communion remained 
 in use; in the West it was interdicted, in accordance with 1 Cor. xi. 
 28, 29. The '' communio sub una" (seil, specie) was regarded aa 
 20
 
 230 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.) . 
 
 Manichsean heresy. In Northern Africa it was in exceptional casei 
 allowed in the case of children, because a little girl had, from dislike 
 to wine, on one occasion spit it out. So early as the sixth century, the 
 communion was taken only once a year in the East ; but in the West 
 the Jouncils insisted, even in the fifth century, that it should be taken 
 every Lord's day, and that those who failed to partake of it at least 
 on the three great festivals should be excommunicated. The elements 
 were still furnished by the members of the Church, — the bread being 
 that in common use, hence generally leavened. This practice continued 
 in the East; it was otherwise in the West, where unleavened bread 
 was used in the Eucharist. The colour of the icine was regarded aa 
 matter of indifference; at a later period white wine was preferred, 
 because the red left some colouring matter in the cup. It was, how- 
 ever, deemed necessary to mix the wine with water, either in allusion 
 to John xix. 34, or to the two natures in Christ. Only the Armenian 
 Monophysites used undiluted wine. The bread was broken. It was a 
 common practice in the East to carry to the sick bread dipped in wine, 
 instead of bringing the elements separately. At a later period, in 
 churches also both elements were given together in a spoon. The con- 
 secrated elements were .called Eulogia, in allusion to 1 Cor. x. 16. 
 What of the elements remained unused [rtipiGaivovaai) was distributed 
 among the clergy. At a later period, only so much as was requisite for 
 the communion was consecrated, and what of the oblations had been 
 left, without being consecrated, was blessed and divided among non 
 communicants (dyrtSwpa). The old practice of sending consecrated 
 elements to distant churches or bishops, in token of church communion, 
 was in the fourth century interdicted by the Council of Laodicea. 
 
 § 59. ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC WORSHIP. 
 
 In public worship it was prohibited to read from any non- 
 canonical book (§ 34). Until the fifth century, the common 
 practice was to read continuously through the Bible (lectio con- 
 tinna). In the Latin Church it was customary always to read 
 two portions of Scripture — one from the Gospels, the other from 
 the Apostles or Prophets. The Apostolical Constit. prescribed 
 three portions (Proph. Apost., Evang.) ; similarly the Gallican 
 and the Spanish Church; the Syrian four (Praxapostolus, etc.). 
 As the idea of an ecclesiastical year was developed, the lectio 
 continua gave place to a lectio propria — i. e., to a selection of 
 Lessons adapted to each festival. These selections were in the 
 West called Lectionaria. Among them, that termed "Comes,'' 
 QT " Liber comilis" (of which tradition assigned the arrange 
 ment to Jerome), was, after some modification and enlargemenii
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC WORSHIP. 231 
 
 generally adopted throughout the V/est. In the East, where 
 the lectio eontinua remained much longer in use, the lectionaria 
 were only introduced during the eighth century. Commonly 
 the Lector read from the desk ; but the Gospel was, by way G 
 distinction, frequently read by the deacon. From similar motives, 
 candles were often lit at that part of the service. — Tlie text of 
 the SERMON was generally taken from the section of the Bible 
 that had been read. Preaching was considered the special work 
 of the bishop, who might, however, devolve it upon a presbyter 
 or a deacon. Monks were only allowed to preach in the streets, 
 in market-places, or from the tops of roofs, columns, or trees. 
 The bishop delivered the sermon from his episcopal ^pöwj ; 
 frequently, however, he stood at the end of the chancel, in order 
 to make himt,elf better heard. Augustine and Chrysostom, for 
 this purpose, generally preached from the reading-desk. In the 
 East, where the sermon often lasted for hours, and the preacher 
 strained after theatrical effect, great prominence was given to 
 the horailetic part of worship. The practice of expressing 
 approbation — especially in Greece — by waving of handkerchiefs 
 and clapping of hands (zporoj, acclamatio) must have proved 
 very disturbing. In the West, the sermon consisted commonly 
 of a brief and unadorned address. Extempore sermons were 
 more acceptable than memorized ones. The practice of reading 
 sermons was of very rare occurrence ; even the reciting of a 
 discourse committed to memory was not popular. After the 
 example of Constantine, his successors in the empire not unfre- 
 quently delivered sermons, although not in the churches. — In 
 sinking they mainly used psalms, hymns, and doxologies. The 
 Gnostics ( § 28, 9), Arians (§ 50, 1), ApoUinarians, and Donatists, 
 often succeeded in spreading their opinions by means of hymns. 
 To meet these insidious attacks, the Church felt it desirable to 
 introduce orthodox instead of tliese heretical productions. The 
 Council of Laodicea (860) indeed interdicted the use of ^a-KiJ.oi 
 iStcorizoi, in churches, probably to prevent the spread of heterodox 
 compositions. But this prohibition was not obeyed in the West; 
 dnd when the rivalry of the Arians at Constantinople obliged 
 Chrysostom to allow processions at night, he introduced hymns 
 in these services. The practice of going in processions com- 
 menced at an earlier period than that of Chrysostom, and was 
 first introduced at funerals and marriages. Since the fourth 
 century processions were also held at the installation of bishop?
 
 232 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). 
 
 or of relics, at feasts of thanksgiving, and especially during 
 seasons of public danger or calamity (rogationes, supplicationes, 
 litanias). Through the influence of Mame litis, Bishop of Vienna 
 (450), and Gregory the Great, processions became a regular 
 ceremony which recurred at stated times, when the Gospels, 
 costly crucifixes and banners, torches and burning candles, relics, 
 pictures of the Virgin and of saints, were carried about, and 
 psalms or hymns sung. The religious services on these occasions 
 were called Litanies. They consisted of prayers, and of the 
 invocation of saints and angels, to which the people made 
 response, " Ora pro nobis 1 " 
 
 1. Use of the Scriptures. — The doubts previously entertained about 
 the authenticity of certain portions of the New Testament (| 34, 2) 
 gradually ceased. The Council of Laodicea omitted from the canon 
 only the Book of Revelation, manifestly from its dislike to and dread 
 of Millenarianism (| 40, 8). The Council of Hippo (393) settled the 
 canon, which has since been received, including the Old Testament 
 Apocrypha in it. — The inconvenient practice of " Scriptio continua," 
 hitherto common in the copies of the Bible, was abolished by Eutlialius, 
 a deacon of Alexandria, who introduced a new plan, according to 
 which every line [o-eixoi) contained only so much as could — without, 
 of course, interfering with the sense — be read without a pause. An 
 attempt, previously made, to arrange the various books into chapters 
 had, however, failed to produce uniformity. — At the request of Dama- 
 sus. Bishop of Rome, Jerome emendated the corrupted text of the 
 ^' Ifala" (§ 34, 3), and then prepared a Latin translation from the 
 Hebrew of the Old Testament, which, along with the emendated version 
 of the New Testament, was generally adopted by the Western Church, 
 and bears the name of the Vulgata. At the suggestion of Philoxenus, 
 Bish. of Maburg, Polycarp furnishes the monophysite Syrians a new 
 but slavishly literal translation of the N. T. (508). Bish. Paula, of 
 Tela, added the 0. T. from the Ixx. (617). The Fathers, more espe- 
 cially Chrysostom, insisted that the laity should diligently peruse the 
 Scriptures. Still the belief spread, that study of the Bible was mainly 
 the business of the clergy and of monks. The second Trull. Council 
 (692) denounced severe punishments against all who presumed to in- 
 terpret the Scriptures otherwise than the Fathers had done. 
 
 2. Hymnology. — To supplant the hymns of Harmonius and Barde- 
 sanes, the Syrian Gnostics, which had in so many cases served to pro- 
 mote error, Ephraim Syrus [ob. 378) composed a number of orthodox 
 hymns, which soon became very popular. He, Isaac the Great (in the 
 fifth cent.), and Jacob of Sarug (in the sixth cent.), were the three 
 rnost celebrated ecclesiastical poets of the Syrian Church. Their com-
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC WORSHIP 233 
 
 positions were allowed to be used in public worship. Gregory of Nazi' 
 anziis, and Si/iiesius of Ptolemais, wrote orthodox hymns in the Greek 
 language ; but the intei-dict of the Council of Laodicea prevented their 
 introduction into public worship. But the most effective hymns were 
 those composed by members of the Latin Church. With Hilary of 
 Pictaviuui [ob. 3G8) commenced a series of religious poets (embracing 
 Ambrose, Augustine Coelius Seduliiis from Ireland, Ennodius, Bishop of 
 Pavia, Prudentius, a Spaniard, Fortiinattis of Pictavium, Gregory the 
 Great), who have left a number of hymns, remarkable alike for their 
 beauty, their depth and devoutuess, their power and simplicity. — (Comp. 
 H. A. Daniel thes. hymnolog. 4 vols. Halle 1841, etc. — F. J. Mone, lat. 
 Hymnen. Freib. 1853.) 
 
 3. Psalmody and Hymnody. — The former practice of congregational 
 psalm-singing (in symphony) gradually ceased, when regular clerical 
 "Cantores" (| 30, 1) began to be employed. Indeed, the Council of 
 Laodicea prohibited it entirely, although their ordinance failed to secure 
 general obedience. The practice of antiphonal or alternate singing 
 was much in vogue. Notwithstanding the increasing attempts of the 
 clergy to exclude the people from participating in the services of the 
 Church, the laity continued for a long time the practice of hypophonous 
 chants, which consisted of responses to the intonation, the reading, and 
 the prayers of the clergy, and of the so-called Acroteleutia, or responses 
 to the psalms sung by the clergy. The practice of chanting the 
 prayers, lessons, and consecrations, dates from the sixth century. The 
 earliest church-music was simple and inartificial. But the rivalry of 
 heretics obliged the Church to pay greater attention to the require- 
 ments of art. Chrysostoni already inveighed against the secular and 
 theatrical melodies introduced in churches. The practice of instru- 
 m,enial accompaniment was longer and more tenaciously resisted, and 
 even singing in parts was not allowed at that period. The Western 
 Church bestowed great attention on the cultivation of psalmody. Syl- 
 vester, Bishop of Rome, instituted in 330 a school for the training of 
 professional church-musicians. Ambrose of Milan introduced a new 
 kind of psalmody {Cantus Ambrosianus), which, for melody, modula- 
 tion, aptness, and simplicity, far surpassed any that had formerly been 
 known. Augustine speaks in enthusiastic terms of the impression 
 which it had made upon him, but at the same time expresses a fear 
 lest the sweetness of the music should captivate the senses, and weaken 
 the influence of the word on the mind. His apprehension proved well- 
 grounded ; and in the sixth century the " Cantus Ambrosianus" had 
 almost entirely lost its ecclesiastical character. Under these circum- 
 stances, Gregory the Great introduced a new style of churcli music (the 
 Cantus Romanns, firmus, choralis), for which, in order to have it in- 
 serted in a hymn-book (antiphonarium), he devised a special kind of 
 notation called neumce (either from rtviv^a to indicate the tone, or from 
 20*
 
 234 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). 
 
 vfifiOi to designate the notation of tones), — a curious compound of points, 
 strokes, and little hooks. The Gregorian music was symphonious, slow, 
 and measured, without rhythm or time. While in this respect it re- 
 sembled the church music anciently in use, the greater art which it 
 displayed, and the richer modulations it contained, indicate also cousi- 
 derable progress. Although destitute of the liveliness and freshness 
 characteristic of the Ambrosian, it introduced in its place a style more 
 solemn and dignified, and better adapted for worship. It was a more 
 serious objection that the Gregorian music could only be performeu by 
 a well-trained clerical choir (hence cantus choralis), for whose insifuc- 
 tion Gregory accordingly founded a great Singing School at home. 
 Thus the people were deprived of the part they had formerly taknn in 
 the public services of the Church. — (Comp. J. N. Forkel, allg. Gesc-u. d. 
 Musik. 2 vols. Leipz. 1790. — R. Q. Kieseiiieiier, Gesch. d. abendl. Musik. 
 Leipz. 1834. — Fr. Brendel, Gesch. d. Musik in Ital., Deutschl. und 
 Frankr. Leipz. 1855. 2 vols. — /. ^. i?ä?(.?er, Gesch. d. chr. Kirciien 
 gesangs (Hist, of Chr. Ch. Mus.). Quedl. 1834. — Dr. Burney, Hisi. of 
 Music. — D. Antony, Arch. Lehrb. d. Greg. K. Ges. Münster 1829.) 
 
 4. Tlie Liturgy. — All the numerous liturgies which appeared since 
 the fourth century were framed after the common type of the liturgy 
 in the Apostolical Constitutions [I 33, 1). The following are the prin- 
 cipal orthodox liturgies ofthat period: — 1. That oi Jerusalem, ascribed 
 to the Apostle James; 2. That of Alexandria, assigned to the Apostlo 
 Mark (| 17) ; 3. That oi Byzantium, framed by S.Basil, and condensed 
 and recast by Chrysostom, which by and by was generally adopted in 
 the orthodox churches of the East. The following are the oldest and 
 principal liturgies used in the West: — 1. The Gallican Masses, dating 
 from the fifth cent. (edit, by Mone, Frkf. 1850) ; 2. The Milan Liturgy, 
 ascribed to Barnabas, but probably introduced by Ambrose ; 3. That 
 of Home, or of S. Peter, elaborated successively by Popes ieo the Great 
 (ob. 4G1), Gelasius L {ob. 496), and Gregory the Gr. [ob. 604), which 
 was gradually introduced throughout the West. It consisted of the 
 Sacramentarium (or mass-prayers), the Antiphonariiim (or hymn-book), 
 the Lectionarium, and the "Ordo Bomanus" (or Directions for the 
 Celebration of the Mass). These were, at a later period, combined 
 together in the Missale Romanum. — In the Greek Liturgy, vespers, 
 matins, and the principal worship of the day, were intended to form 
 three parts of a great religious drama, representing the entire course 
 of the history of redemption, from the creation to the ascension of the 
 Lord. The principal events of this history were also symbolized by 
 the lighting and extinguishing of tapers, by locking and opening the 
 doors of the sanctuary, by burning incense and by other oblations, by 
 the successive putting on of the various priestly robes, by processions 
 and gestures of the clergy, by 'certain rites in connection with the 
 eacramental elements, etc. The text of the liturgy (the intonations,
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC WORSHIP. 235 
 
 responses, prayers, reading, singing), which accompanied these cere 
 monies, was considered of secondary importance, and only formed a 
 running commentary to the great drama enacted. — The liturgy of the 
 Latin Church, on the other hand, was more dogmatic than dramatic in 
 its character. It was intended rather to exhibit how the sinner shared 
 in the benefits of salvation, than objectively to present the story of 
 grace. Conscious of his guilt and need, the sinner approached the 
 altar of the Lord, where he sought and found consolation and instruc- 
 tion, pardon and grace. Hence, in the Latin Liturgy, the word consti- 
 tuted the main part of the service ; the symbolical part being entirely 
 subordinate, and only designed to afford an outward representation of 
 the truths conveyed. The liturgy consisted of certain fixed portions 
 which recurred whenever mass was celebrated, and of others which 
 were adapted to the calendar and to the peculiar character of each fes- 
 tival. The most important, indeed the central part in the liturgy, was 
 the Canon of the Mass, which consisted of the formulas employed in 
 the consecration of the Eucharist, and of the sacrificial prayers con- 
 nected with it. — Among liturgical works, considerable interest attaches 
 to the so-called Diptycha (from ötj and TttvaatJ, bis plicare), or writing 
 tablets covered with wax. They were a kind of official registers con- 
 taining the names of those persons who were to be objects of special 
 liturgical intercession. They were divided into S^Htvxa- irtiaxortw, 
 which contained the names of the foreign bishops with Avhom church- 
 fellowship was maintained ; Sirttvxai' ^wi/rtoi/, or registers of the mem- 
 bers of a particular church, and of those who made offerings ; and 
 lastly, SiTttvxO' ►fscptor. 
 
 5. Sijmholical Rites. — During the whole of this period it was still 
 the custom to give the brotherly kiss. When entering the church, it 
 was the practice to kiss the door or the threshold ; before reading the 
 liturgy, the priest kissed the altar, similarly the lector the gospel. 
 Relics and images were also kissed. When making confession of sin, 
 it was customary to strike one's breast. Every ecclesiastical rite was 
 accompanied by the sigii of the cross, which was also frequently made 
 at home on any solemn occasion. The practice o{ washing one's hands, 
 when entering church, dates from a very early period ; but spritiklijig 
 with holy tcater was not introduced till the ninth century. The custom 
 of lighting candles in churches is of very ancient date ; that of binning 
 incense originated late in the fourth century. Before that period, it was 
 . supposed to attract evil spirits who fed upon the incense, although 
 afterwards it was represented as the most potent means of exorcising 
 them. The practice of consecrating chnrches, and of holding an annual 
 festival in commemoration of it, is mentioned in the writings of Euse- 
 bins [tyxawiuiv loptai). At the time of Ambrose, the possession of 
 some relic was a necessary condition for this ceremony.
 
 236 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). 
 
 I 60. PLACES OF WORSHIP AND WORKS OF ART. 
 
 Comp. C. Schnaase, Gesch. d. bildendea Künste (Hist, of Art). Düs- 
 seld 1844. 3 vols.— -F;-. Kiigler, Handb. d. Kunst-Gesch.5th, ed. Stuttg. 
 lS12.—Benerniaiin, Munter, and Kinkel (§ 35).— L. Stieglitz, Gesch. d. 
 Baukunst (Hist, of Archit.). 2d ed. Nlirnb. 1837.— J^r. Kugler, Gesch. 
 d. Baukunst. Stuttg. 1855. — J. Kreuser, d. chr. Kirchenbau, Bonn 1851. 
 2 vols. — A. H. Springer, die Baukunst d. chr. M. A. (Arch, of the Mid- 
 dle Ages). Bonn 1854. — C.Schiller, Ueberblick d. Entwickelungsgangea 
 d. Kirchenarchit. (Survey of the Progress of Develop, in Eccl. Arch.). 
 Braunsch. 1856.— JFV. Kugler, Handb. d. Gesch. d. Malerei (Mem. of 
 the Hist, of Paint.). 2d ed. Berl. 1847.— iV; Sorg, Gesch. d. chr. Malerei, 
 Regensb. 1853. — F. Laib u. /. Schioarz, Studien ü. d. Gesch. d. christl. 
 Altars. Stuttg. 1858. 4to. 
 
 The form in which heathen temples — destined only to hold 
 the statues of the gods — were constructed, was in every respect 
 unsuited to the purposes of Christian churches. Bütthe foreyisic 
 basilica, or public market, and judgment hall of the Romans 
 afforded an excellent model for church architecture. Not only 
 might their form (with some modifications) be adopted, but even 
 their name, provided it were understood as applying to Christ, 
 the eternal King. In later church edifices the Byzantine cupola 
 was often substituted for the flat roofs of basilicas. 
 
 1. The basilica presented the general appearance of an elongated 
 quadrangle, running from east to west longitudinally divided by colon- 
 nades into three spaces or naves, but so that the middle nave was at 
 least twice as broad as either of the side naves. The central nave ter- 
 minated in a semicircular niche {xöyxri, a^^i, concha, absida), which 
 bulged out from the eastern or narrow back wall. This niche was 
 separated from the central nave by a kind of railing {xiyxxi8fi, can- 
 celli) and a curtain {xatartstaa/xa, velum), and was also called ßy;i^a 
 (from ßatVw), because it was a few steps elevated above the central nave 
 Since the fifth century the pillars of the nave were not continued to the 
 eastern wall. Thus a vertical nave was formed, which was also raised 
 and connected with the ß^ju«- This vertical nave, the central nave, 
 and the niche at the eastern end, gave to the ground-plan of the church 
 the significant appearance of a cross. At the entrance, to the west, 
 there was a vestibule which ran along the entire breadth of the naves. 
 The church consisted, therefore, of three divisions. The Bema was 
 allotted to the clergy. Close by the wall, and in the deepest recess of 
 the niche, stood the elevated seat of the bishop (^pöfoj, cathedra). On 
 either side of it were the lower seats {avv^povov) of the presbyters, while 
 Uie altar itself occupied the centre of the niche or stood immediately
 
 CHURCHES AND WORKS OF ART. 237 
 
 in front of it. The bema was also called aytor, a8vtov, Itparnoy, sacra- 
 rJum, sanctuarium, from its being occupied by the clergy and by the 
 altar ; — the name of Choir appears only in the middle ages. The bouea 
 of martyrs were commonly kept in a subterranean crypt underneath 
 the apsis or bema (the so-called memoria, confessio). — The baptized 
 laity assembled in the threefold — in rare cases, fivefold — nave, of 
 which the name was partly derived from its oblong shape, but chiefly 
 from the symbolical connection between a ship and the church. The 
 worshi-ppers were arranged according to sex, age, and rank. In the 
 East a separate and elevated space along the naves (vrtspwa) was allo- 
 cated to females. In the central nave and near the chancel stood the 
 reading-desk or Ambon. — The Vestibule (rtporaoj, vestibulum) — called 
 also the vd^r^^ or ferula, from its elongated form — was allotted to cate- 
 chumens or penitents. In the space before the vestibule {al^piov, av?t^, 
 atrium, area, which was not roofed till a later period of history) a 
 basin was placed for washing the hands. The vestibule and side-naves 
 rose only to the height of the columns ; they were shut in by ceiled 
 woodwork, and covered with a simple, sloping roof. But the central 
 and the cross n^ves were carried up by walls which rested upon the 
 columns, and rose far above the side-roofs. They were covered with a 
 bilateral obtuse-angled roof, sloping down towards the side-naves. The 
 columns were joined together by arches, to render them sufficiently 
 strong to support the wall resting on them. The walls of the central 
 and of the vertical nave, which rose above the side-roofs, were pierced 
 by windows. — The ground-plan of the basilica still remained the same 
 as before ; but above the central nave of the chui-ch, upon immense 
 pillars connected together by arches, the principal cupola rose like a 
 firmament, often to a stupendous height, — a number of smaller or semi- 
 cupolas being generally connected with it. The great Church of St. 
 Sophia at Constantinople presented the most magnificent specimen of 
 this style of architecture. It was so magnificent that, when it was 
 completed (537), Justinian I. exclaimed: Nsvixrixd at SaJLOjUtov. 
 
 2. Several Side-Buildings (slf'Spat) stood within the wall that enclosed 
 the principal ecclesiastical edifice, and were connected with it. • Of 
 these the baptistries (ßartT'w-rjjpta, ^uiriötripia, xoxv^ir^^ia, piscine, John 
 V. 2; ix. 7) were the most important. After the model of the Roman 
 baths, they were built in the shape of a rotunda ; the baptismal basin 
 stood in the middle, and was surrounded by a colonnade. Frequently 
 a large antechamber was provided, in which the catechumens were 
 wont to receive religious instruction. When infant-baptism became 
 general, separate baptistries were no longer necessary, and instead oi 
 them stone fonts were placed in the cl arches (towards the north, at 
 the principal entrance). In large churches, the treasures, vessels, 
 robes, books, archives, etc., were kept in separate buildings. The 
 Tltu>X'^'f?o^(<-^i 6p^aforpo(5)fta,y>2poxO|Ufta, ßpfi})orpO(/ifta (foundling liospitals), 
 vQ(soxof.ifi(x, ^ivoboxila, were buildings used for charitable purposes. Thd
 
 238 SECTION I, — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). 
 
 hurying-place {xoi-ixrjtripiov, cimeterium, dormitorium, area) was also 
 commonly within the wall enclosing the church. When bells came into 
 use, towers were reared beside [not on) the churches, frequently even 
 apart from them. 
 
 3. Ecclesiastical Fimiiture. — The principal object in the church was 
 the altar, which, since the fifth century, was generally constructed of 
 stone, plated with silver or gold. Behind the altar, which was open 
 on all sides, stood the officiating priest facing the congregation. In 
 the West, the introduction of "niissas solitari^e" rendered it necessary 
 to have more than one altar in a church ; in the Greek Church this 
 was prohibited. Portahle altars (for missionaries, during war, etc.) 
 came in use, when it began to be deemed necessary to have the altar 
 consecrated. For this purpose the Latins used a consecrated stone slab, 
 the Greeks a consecrated altar-cloth {avtifir^vatov). This altar-cloth (palla) 
 was regarded as essential, and the " denudatio altaris" as a sinful 
 desecration. On liturgical grounds the "palla" was removed on the 
 Friday and Saturday of the High Week. Different from this cloth was 
 the corporale used for covering the oblations. Upon the altar stood 
 the ciborinm, a canopy resting on four pillars, to which, by golden 
 chainlets, a dove-shaped vessel was attached, which contained the con- 
 secrated elements used in administering the communion to the sick. 
 At a later period the "ciborium" was replaced by the tower-shaped 
 tahernacnhnn . The thurihuhim was used for burning incense, the cru- 
 cifixes (cruces, stationarii) and banners (vexilla) in processions. Seats 
 for the people were ranged in the nave, but not in the narthex or vesti- 
 bule. The reading-desk (pulpitum, afxßu^v from diaßaiVw) stood in the 
 central nave near the chancel. Tradition designates Paulinns, Bishop 
 of Nola in Campania [ob. 431), or else Pope Sabinianus {ob. 605), as 
 the inventor of bells (Nolae, campanse, campanulse — so called because 
 made of Campanian brass, which was considered the best). Bells 
 were introduced in the West in the seventh, and in the East in the 
 ninth century. Before that the hours of worship were announced first 
 by cur sores ( dvaSpojuot ), then by the sound of trumpets, or by loud 
 knocking on boards, etc. 
 
 4. The Fine Arts. — According to the rules of the Greek Church, 
 only the face, the hands, and the feet were allowed to be represented 
 naked ; but this restriction applied not to the West. An attempt was 
 made to compensate by bright colouring, precious materials, and gor- 
 geous costumes for the manifest want of artistic taste. From the 
 tixovfi d;^f tportoi'jyroi. artists copied the stereotyped features in their repre- 
 sentations of Christ, of the Virgin, and of the Saints. The nimbns or 
 halo (in the form of rays, of a diadem, or of a circle) was first intro- 
 duced in the pictures of the Saviour. Fresco painting v/as principally 
 used for adorning the catacombs (fourth to sixth cent.). Mosaic painting 
 (Musivum, XtJ>ocjrpärta) for decorating the flat walls of the basilicse,
 
 LIFE, DISCIPLINE, AND MANNERS. 239 
 
 the cupolas and niches. Liturgical books were illustrated hjminiaturt 
 paintings. These different styles of painting were stiff and unnatural, 
 although elevated, majestic, and unimpassioned in their character. — 
 The ancient Church regarded statuary as too heathenish and sensuous 
 for religious purposes ; and the Greek Church ultimately prohibited 
 its use in churches, excluding even crucifixes. But in the West this 
 objection was not entertained, although even there Christian statues 
 were of rare occurrence. Less scruple seems to have been felt in regard 
 to bas-reliefs and Tiaut-reJiefs {a.va.YKv^a.1), especially in sarcophagi and 
 in ecclesiastical vessels. 
 
 I 61. LIFE, DISCIPLINE, AND MANNERS. 
 
 Comp. C. Schmidt (? 36). 
 
 When Christianity became the religion of the State, a large 
 number of unconverted and worldly persons made a profession of 
 Christianity for the sake of the temporal advantages which it 
 entailed. This influx of the world into the Church necessarily 
 exercised a most detrimental influence ; and the earnestness, 
 power, devotedness, and purity, by which the ancient heathen 
 world had been conquered, greatly declined in consequence. The 
 world and the Church became more assimilated and conformed 
 to one another ; discipline became lax and powerless ; and the 
 general decline of public morals made rapid progress. The hot 
 discussions, the dissensions, and divisions among the bishops and 
 the clergy, led to corresponding effects among the people. Party 
 spirit and bitterness characterized the adherents of different 
 views ; the demoralization of the court exercised its pernicious 
 influence on the capital and the provinces ; while the inroads of 
 the barbarians increased the general decay. Even in the case 
 of those who sought other than merely earthly things, work- 
 righteousness and bigotry too often took the place of genuine 
 piety ; while the great mass consoled themselves with the idea 
 that everybody could not be a monk. But, despite all this, the 
 Gospel still acted as a leaven on the commnnity. Already had its 
 spirit penetrated not only public life, the administration of justice 
 and legislation, but also family life and popular customs. The 
 claims of humanity and the rights of men were acknowledged ; 
 slavery became more and more restricted ; gladiatorial games or 
 immoral spectacles ceased ; the contracting influences of national 
 selfishness gave way to higher motives and views. Polygamy 
 was interdicted ; the sanctity of marriage was preserved ; woman
 
 240 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323—692 A.D.). 
 
 came to occupy her proper place ; and the vices of ancient hea- 
 thenism were at least no longer regarded as the healthy and 
 natural conditions of public life. Even those who, with the out- 
 ward profession of Christianity, remained heathen in mind and 
 heart, were obliged to conform to the practices and demands of 
 the Church, and to submit to its discipline and customs. If the 
 more gloom^^ aspects of this age are sufficiently appalling, brighter 
 sides were not wanting, nor elevated souls, who with genuine 
 piety combined deep moral earnestness and self-denial. 
 
 1. Ecclesiastical Discipline. — (Comp. /. Moriims (Rom. Cath.), Comm. 
 hist, de disc, in Admin. Sacr. Poenit. Paris 1651. — H. Klee (Rom. 
 Cath.), d. Beichte. Hist. krit. Unters. (Confession, a Hist, and Crit. 
 Inq.). Frkf. 1828.— J. Stäudlin, Beleucht. d. Buches von Klee (Crit. of 
 the Works of Klee). Leipz. 1830. — G. E. Steitz, d. röm. Busssacram. 
 (The Rom. Sacr. of Pen.). Frkf. 1854.) — Ecclesiastical discipline, or 
 excommunication with its four stages through which penitents had to 
 pass (§ 36, 2), was only exercised towards those who were guilty of 
 open sins which had occasioned general scandal. To remedy this 
 defect, it was, even in the third century, the custom to appoint a 
 sY>&g\&\ pries ( Jor pe7iance {rtpioßvtipoi; eni tiii fittavolai, presb. poeniten- 
 tiarius), whose duty it was to direct the exercises of penitents guilty 
 of secret sins, which they voluntarily confessed to him under the seal 
 of secrecy. But when (391) a female penitent of this class was seduced 
 by a deacon of the Church of Constantinople, the Patriarch Nectarius 
 abolished the office. The practice continued, however, in the West, 
 till Leo the Great introduced such changes in the mode of dealing with 
 penitents, that in the Western Church also the office of penance-priest 
 ceased to be of importance. He prohibited bishops from demanding 
 public confession for secret sins, and, in place of it, introduced private 
 confession, which every priest was entitled to hear. Even Jerome still 
 denounced as a piece of pharisaical arrogance the assumption, that 
 the power of the keys (Matt. xvi. 19) implied any judicial authority; 
 and although Leo the Great already regarded it as of Divjne arrange- 
 ment, " ut indulgentia Dei nisi SKppUcationibiis sacerdotum nequeat 
 obtineri," and guaranteed their efficacy, he does not venture to claim 
 any judicial power for the Church. Besides, the private confession 
 which he introduced was merely designed for those mortal sins which, 
 having been publicly committed, would, according to former canons, 
 have required public penance. — But the practice of private confession, 
 as a roguliir and necessary preparation for the communion, was wholly 
 unknown at that period. — The so-called " libelli pcenitentiales " indi- 
 .jated the manner of dealing with penitents, and the taxes payable in 
 each case. The oldest of these compositions, so far as the Greek 
 Church is concerned, was compiled by Johannes Jejunator, Patriarch of
 
 LIFE, DISCIPLINE, AND MANNERS. <i41 
 
 Constantinople {ob. 595), and bore the title, 'AxoXov^ta xai td^i-i inl fupv 
 
 i%O^LO%OyOVjJiiVUV . 
 
 2. Christian Marriage. — The excessive value attached to virginity 
 led to low views of marriage. These were in some measure counter- 
 balanced by the notion that, by priestly consecration, marriage became 
 a sacrament (^ 58) — an idea which was fully developed and obtained 
 ecclesiastical sanction during the middle ages. The State regarded 
 marriage between a free person and a slave as merely concubinage ; 
 but the Church acknowledged the validity of such unions. Not only 
 consanguinity and affinity (through marriage), but adoption into a 
 family, and even the spiritual relationship with god-parents through 
 baptism or confirmation (? 58, 1), were considered valid impediments 
 to marriaf/e. Augustine sanctioned the marriage of cousins; Gregory 
 the Great interdicted it on physiological grounds, and only allowed 
 marriage in the third or fourth degree of consanguinity. Gradually 
 this prohibition was extended even to the seventh degree, till, in 1216, 
 Innocent III. again limited it to relationship in the fourth degree. 
 Mixed marriages (with heathens, Jews, heretics) were held sufficient 
 ground for penance; the second Trullan Council (692) entirely pro- 
 hibited them. Second marriages were not prohibited, though they 
 were visited with penance for one or two years ; but many canonists 
 regarded a third or a fourth marriage as entirely invalid. Adultery 
 was universally admitted as forming a sufficient ground for divorce; 
 many divines ranked unnatural lusts, murder, and apostasy in the 
 same category. In 416 the Council of Mileve (in Africa) interdicted 
 persons who had been divorced — even the innocent party — from again 
 marrying ; and Pope Innocent I. gave to this prohibition the character 
 of a general law. Former scruples about heathenish customs at mar- 
 riages [I 36, 1) — such as the use of a marriage-ring, the veiling of 
 brides, the wearing of garlands, carrying of torches, having bridesmen 
 or Ttapävvfi^oi — were no longer entertained. 
 
 3. Sickness, Death, and Burial. — The practice of anointing the 
 sick (Mark vi. 13 ; James v. 14), as a means of miraculous bodily cure, 
 prevailed so late as the fifth century. In a decretal dating from the 
 year 416, Innocent I. first represented this custom as a sacrament 
 intenfled for the spiritual benefit of the sick. But centuries intervened 
 before it was generally introduced as the sacrament of extreme unction 
 (unctio infirmorum, unctio extrema, shxiz-aiov). It occurred later by 
 anointing the eyes, ears, nose, mouth, hands, feet and right side. On 
 the other hand, the Areopagite numbers the anointing of the dead 
 among the sacraments (| 58). The practice of closing the eyes of 
 the dead, was intended to convey the idea of sleep in the hope of 
 a blessed awakening. The fraternal kiss betokened that Christian 
 communion lasted beyond the grave ; but the practice of decoratirg 
 the corpse with a garland, in token of victory, was not in general uio 
 
 21
 
 242 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). 
 
 Synods had repeatedly to prohibit the custom of pouring the conae. 
 crated elements in+o the mouth of dead persons, or of laying them in 
 the coffin ; violent outbursts of grief, the rending of garments, putting 
 on of sackcloth and ashes, the employment of mourning women, the 
 carrying of cypress branches, etc., were considered as heathen customs, 
 implying that those left behind had not learned to cherish the hope 
 of immortality. Similarly, burial feasts celebrated at night were dis- 
 approyed, although it was customary, by dayliglit, to carry torches, 
 lamps, and palm or olive branches in the funeral procession. Julian 
 and the Vandals interdicted this practice. During the fourth and fifth 
 centuries the catacombs were the favourite place of burial; where these 
 were wanting, special cemeteries were set apart, generally in the 
 vicinity of churches {I 60, 2). Emperors and bishops alone enjoyed 
 the privilege of being buried in churches. In the fourth century 
 agapes and the Eucharist were still celebrated at the grave. After- 
 wards mcmrning feasts were substituted for these solemnities, which 
 were gradually discontinued on account of the abuses to which they 
 led. The rites of burial closed with the Lord's Prayer and the priestly 
 benediction. 
 
 § 62. HERETICAL REFORMERS. 
 
 Comp. (Valch, Ketzerhist. "Vol. III. ; Dr. Gilly, Vigilantius and his 
 Times. London 1844. 
 
 In the fourth century a spirit of opposition to prevailing 
 ecclesiastical views and tendencies sprang up. This opposition 
 was neither general, sustained, lasting in its consequences, nor 
 even healthy. While contending against the worldly spirit that 
 had intruded into the Church, some fell into the opposite extreme 
 of fanatical severity ; while others, in their protest against real or 
 supposed superstition and work-righteousness, occasionally ended 
 in cold rationalism. The former remark applies more especially 
 to X\\Q Donatists {^ 63), and to the sect of the Audians, founded 
 iu 340 by Udo or Audius, a layman from Syria, who, on the 
 ground that the Church and its ministers should return to apos- 
 tolic poverty and liuniility, abstained from all fellowship with the 
 members of tlie <1 ('generate Church. Audius entertained also 
 grossly anthroponiorphistic views, and shared the opinions of the 
 Qnartodecimani. Another sect of the same class, the Apos- 
 TOLici, in Asia Minor, declared marriage and property to be 
 sinful. In the opposite class of more rationalistic opponents to 
 ecclesiastical notions, we reckon the Antidicomarianites in 
 Arabia, Helvidius of Rome (380), and Bonosus, Bishop of 
 Sardica (390), who all opposed the " perpetua virginitas" o*
 
 SCHISMS. 243 
 
 Mary (§ 57, 2). Aerius, a presbyter of Sebaste in Armenia, 
 was the first, in 360, to protest against the false estimate placed 
 on fTood works. He disapproved of prayers and oblations for 
 the dead, controverted the obligation and the meritoriousness of 
 fasts, and denied that bishops were of superior rank to presbyters. 
 Fur these opinions he incurred the displeasure of Eustathius, his 
 bij-hop (§ 44, 5). Persecuted from place to place, his adherents 
 sought refuge in caves and woods. Substantially similar were 
 the views of Jovinian, a monk of Rome, who in 389 opposed, 
 in a systematic manner and on dogmatic grounds, the eccle- 
 siastical system of his time, especially monasticism, asceticism, 
 celibacy, and fasts. Sarmaiio and BarhatianuH, two monks of 
 Milan (about 396) — perhaps pupils of Jovinian — shared his 
 views. The opposition of Yigilantius (400) to the worship of 
 relics, the invocation of saints, miracle-raongering, vigils, the 
 celibacy of priests, and the prevailing externalisra in religion 
 generally, was so violent as to pass all bounds of prudence and 
 moderation. The Church resisted with equal violence and 
 passion. Epiphanius wrote against the Audians, the Apos- 
 tolici, the Antidicoraarianites, and the Aerians ; Ambrose refuted 
 Bonosus and the followers of Jovinian ; Jerome poured a torrent 
 of the bitterest invective upon Helvidius, Jovinian, Vigilantius ; 
 Augustine alone showed a more becoming spirit in opposing the 
 tendencies of Jovinian, which in their ultimate conclusions 
 pointed in the same direction as his own views about the doctrine 
 of grace 
 
 ?63. SCHISMS. 
 
 The Novatian and the Meletian (Egyptian) schisms (§ 38, 3, 4) 
 continued even at this period. In connection with the Arian 
 controversy three other schisms occurred in the orthodox Church., 
 among which the Meletian schism in Antioch was the most im- 
 portant. But by far the most extensive and dangerous was the 
 Donatist schism in Northern Africa. On the Johnite schism in 
 Constantinople, comp. § 51, 3. During this period the frequent 
 diver^nces in doctrine (§ 50, 7), government (§ 46), worship 
 (§ 55), and discipline between the Eastern and the Western 
 Church, proved fuel for the subsequent conflagration (§ 67). 
 Thus the imperial device for bringing about a union between 
 those who took different sides in the Monophysite controversy 
 \p.d to a schism between the East and the West, which lasted for
 
 244 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (;!23— 692 A. D J . 
 
 thirty-five years (§ 52, 5 ) ; while want of firmness on the part o! 
 Pope Vigilius divided the West for fifty years into two parties 
 (§ 52, 6). The schism between the East and the West, occa- 
 sioned by the Monothelete union (§ 52, 8), was not of long con- 
 tinuance. But soon afterwards the great schism between the 
 Eastern and Western Churches commenced. The fifth and the 
 sixth (Ecumenical Councils had not entered on questions con- 
 nected with church government, worship, or discipline. This 
 omission was supplied by the Second Trullan Council, held at 
 Constantinople in 692, which on that account was called the Con- 
 cilium quinisextum. Some of the canons of this Synod laid the 
 foundation of the later incurable and pernicious disruption in the 
 Catholic Chui;ph. 
 
 1. Schisms in Conseqvence oftheArian Controversy. I. The Meletian 
 Schism at Antioch (361-413). — In 360 the Arians of Antioch chose 
 Meletius of Sebaste, formerly an Eusebian, but afterwards an adherent 
 of the Nicene Confession, their bishop. But his inaugural discourse 
 convinced them of their mistake about his views, and they deposed him 
 after the lapse of only a few days. Meletius was next chosen bishop 
 of the horaoousian congregation at Antioch. The appointment of one 
 who had been an Arian was, however, resisted by a part of the people, 
 headed by Paulinus, a presbyter. Athanasiiis and the Synod of 
 Alexandria, a. d. 362 (| 50, 4), used every influence to heal this schism. 
 But Lucifer of Calaris, whom the Synod for this purpose deputed to 
 Antioch, took the part of the opposition, and ordained Paulinus counter- 
 bishop. The schism was only healed when, in 413, Alexander, the 
 Meletian bishop, an excellent man, resigned of his own accord, in order 
 to restore harmony. — II. On his return to Alexandria, ij/ciye?' pro- 
 tested against any recognition of those Arians and semi- Arians who 
 had renounced their errors. He founded a sect called the Luciferites, 
 which entertained the views about ecclesiastical purity formerly ad- 
 vocated by Novatian. The party continued till the fifth century. 
 (Comp. Hieronym. dial. adv. Luciferit. — III.). The schism of Dama- 
 sus AND ÜRSiNus at Rome was occasioned by the unfaithfulness of 
 Liberius, Bishop of Rome (| 50, 2, 3), in consequence of whose conduct 
 a small number of steady adherents of the Nicene Creed at Rome 
 separated from the Church. At the death of Liberius (366), they chose 
 Vrsinus as his successor; while the other party elected Damasus. The 
 latter laid siege to the church of Ursinus, and 137 dead bodies covered 
 its precincts before it could be taken. Valentinian T. banished Ursinus ; 
 and Gratinn even published an edict which constituted Damasus both 
 »party and a judge, in adjudicating upon all the bishops implicated 
 in this schism.
 
 SCHISMS. 245 
 
 2. TJie Donatist Schism (311-415).— (Comp. F. Ribbeck, Donatus u. 
 Aug. Elberf. 1858). — Montanist views were still widely entertained in 
 North Africa. Accordingly, when the Diocletian persecution broke 
 out, many came forw.ard, needlessly and of their own accord, to seek 
 the honour of martyrdom. Mensiirius, Bishop of Carthage, and Ccecili- 
 anus, his archdeacon, were opposed to this species of fanaticism. When 
 asked to deliver up the sacred writings, they had in their stead handed 
 to the magistrates some heretical tractates. This sufficed for their 
 opponents to denounce them as tradiiores. When Mensurius died in 
 311, his party chose Coecilian his successor, and, to foil the intrigues 
 of their opponents, had him hurriedly consecrated by Felix, Bishop of 
 Aptunga. Nothing daunted, the other party, which was headed by 
 Lucilla, a wealthy and bigoted widow, denounced Felix as a traditor, 
 and on that ground declared the consecration invalid, and elected 
 Majorinus, a lector, counter-bishop. Soon afterwards (in 313) this 
 office devolved on Donatus, whom his adherents have called the Great, 
 — a man of undoubted energy. From Carthage the schism gradually 
 spread over North Africa. The peasants, who were burdened with 
 excessive taxation and heavy socage, took the part of the Donatists 
 From the first, Constantine the Great declared against the Donatists. 
 To their complaints the Emperor replied by committing the investiga- 
 tion of this controversy both to a clerical commission at Rome (313), 
 under the presidency of Mehhiades, Bishop of that see, and to the 
 Synod of Aries (314). The decision of these two bodies was equally 
 unfavourable to the Donatists, who appealed from them to the Emperor 
 personally. The case was heard at Milan, after which Constantine 
 confirmed the finding of the Synod (316). These decisions were 
 followed by severe measures (such as depriving them of churches), 
 which, however, only served to increase their fanaticism. Milder means 
 proved equally ineflfectual. Under the reign of Cunstans affairs took a 
 more serious turn. Fanatical ascetics, belonging to the dregs of the 
 population, took the name of " milites Christi," "Agonistici," and went 
 begging about the country {circiimcelliones), exciting the peasants to 
 revolt, preaching liberty and fraternity, and committing pillage, 
 murder, and incendiarism. The religious movement had now assumed 
 the appearance of a political rising. While an imperial army sup- 
 pressed this rebellion, pecuniary relief from the imperial treasury Avas 
 offered to those Donatists who were suffering from extreme want. But 
 Donatus rejected the money with scorn, and the rebellion broke out 
 anew. Very severe measures were then adopted against the rebels, 
 and every Donatist church was closed or taken away. Under the reign 
 oi Julian, these churches were restored to their former owners, and the 
 bishops who had been banished were recalled. The Donatists were 
 now allowed to retaliate, as opportunity offered, upon tlie Catholics. 
 But the successors of Julian again enacted severe laws against the 
 sectaries, who had meantime split into several parties. Optutus 
 21*
 
 246 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.J. 
 
 Bishop of Mileve, wrote against them, towards the close of the fourth 
 century, a tractate: De schismate Donatistarum. After a. 400, Augus- 
 tine was indefatigable in his endeavours to heal this schism, and the 
 Donatists were invited to return into the Church on very gentle terms. 
 The circumstance that many of the more moderate closed with these 
 overtures, only increased the fanaticism of the others. They refused 
 the repeated offer of Augustine to meet them in public discussion. At 
 first Augustine had maintained that any constraint in matters of belief 
 was improper. But their unyielding stubbornness, and the dangerous 
 tendency of their fanaticism, at last induced him so far to modify his 
 opinion about the unlawfulness of constraint in matters of belief, as to 
 declare that even force might be employed to restore these wanderers 
 to the Church and to salvation ("cogite intrare." Luke xiv. 23). A 
 synod, held at Carthage in 405, applied to the Emperor Honorius to 
 take measures against those who continued their obstinate resistance. 
 Accordingly, fines were imposed, churches taken away, and clergymen 
 exiled. As Augustine still insisted on a public discussion, the Donatists 
 were obliged by the Emperor to accede. The Collatio cum Donatistis, 
 held at Carthage in 411, lasted for three days, and was attended by 
 279 Donatist and 286 Catholic bishops. It was chiefly conducted by 
 Petilian and Primian, who were opposed by Augvstitie and by Aurelian 
 of Carthage. The imperial commissioners assigned the palm to the 
 Catholic party. The Donatists appealed in vain. In 414 the Emperor 
 deprived them of their civil rights, and in 415 forbade their religious 
 meetings under pain of death. The Vandals, who conquered Africa 
 in 429, equally persecuted Catholics and Donatists. Their common 
 sufferings tended to bring the two parties again together. — The Dona- 
 tists laid it down as a fundamental principle, that a sacramental action 
 (such as baptism or ordination) was invalid if performod by a person 
 who either was, or deserved to be, excommunicated. Like the Nova- 
 tians, they insisted on absolute purity in the Church, although they 
 allowed that penitents might be readmitted to the communion of the 
 Church. Their own churches they regarded as pure, while they de- 
 nounced the Catholics as schismatics, who had no fellowship with 
 Christ, and whose sacraments were therefore invalid and \i'all. On 
 this ground, they rebaptized their proselytes. The part which the 
 State took against them, and the prevailing confusion between the 
 visible and the invisible Church, led them to broach the view that 
 State and Church — the kingdom of God and that of the world — had 
 nothing in common, and that the State should not in any way take 
 notice of religious questions. (Cf. Walch, V. IV. — Hefele, V. I.). 
 
 3. As the Concilium Quinisextum in 692 was intended to be oecu- 
 menical, the Pope sent legates to it, who signed its decrees. But the 
 Greeks had not forgotten the success achieved at the last oecumenical 
 council by the see of Rome (§ 52, 8). On this ground six decrees, 
 diametrically opposed to the practice of Rome, were introduced, along
 
 CHRISTIAN MISSIONS IN THE EAST. 247 
 
 with a number of others aj^ainst which no objection could be rused 
 Thus, 1) In enumerating the authentic sources of church law, almost 
 all the Latin councils and the decretals of the popes were omitted. 
 The validity of all the eighty-five canones apost. was also acknow- 
 ledged, while the see of Home only admitted that of the first fifty ; — 
 2) The Romish practice of insisting on the celibacy of presbyters and 
 deacons was denounced as unwarrantable and inhuman. Comp. ? 45, 
 4; — 3) Fasting on Saturdays during Quadragesima was prohibited. 
 Comp, g 56. 4. — 4) The 28th canon of the Council of Chalcedon, which 
 settled that the Patriarch of Constantinople held the same rank with 
 his colleague of Rome, was re-enacted (f 46) ; — 5) The Levitical pro- 
 hibition of eating blood and things strangled was declared to apply to 
 Christians also (contrary to the vievrs of the Church of Rome) ; — 6) 
 All representations of Christ under the figure of a lamb (which were 
 quite common in the West) were strictly prohibited. — When Pope 
 Sergius forbade the promulgation of these decrees in the churches of 
 the West, the Emperor Justinian II. commanded to seize this prelate, 
 and send him prisoner to Constantinople. But the army rebelled 
 in favour of the Pope, and soon afterwards Justinian himself waa 
 dethroned (695). 
 
 VI. THE CHURCH BEYOND THE BOUNUARIES OF THE 
 ROMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 § 64. CHRISTIAN MISSIONS IN THE EAST. 
 
 During this period missionary work was almost exclusively 
 carried on by the Western Church. Its practical spirit and aims 
 specially fitted it for such laloours, while the contiguity of the 
 barbarous nations which invaded the empire (§76 etc.) afforded 
 ample scope and opportunity for them. On the other hand, 
 instances of regular and organized missionary activity were of 
 rare occurrence in the East. But other and indirect means also 
 offered of spreading the Gospel beyond the limits of the Roman 
 Empire, especially by means o^ fugitive Christians, of pi'isonera 
 of war, of political embassies, and particularly of commercial 
 intercourse with the far East and South. The anchorites, 
 monks, and Stylites who had settled on the borders of the 
 empire, or in the deserts beyond them, frequently produced a 
 deep impression on the barbarians around, who flocked to see 
 them, and listened to the sermons or witnessed the deeds of these 
 fantastic saints.
 
 248 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). 
 
 1. The Etliiopic Abyssinian Church. — In 316 one Meropius of Tyie, 
 and all his ship's crew, were murdered while engaged in exploring the 
 countries south of Egypt. His two nephews, Frumentius and Aedesiiis, 
 alone escaped the slaughter. Having gained the favour of the Abys- 
 sinian king, they were entrusted with the education of Aizanas, the 
 heir to the crown. Frumentius was afterwards consecrated by Atha- 
 nasius. Bishop of those countries. Aizanas was baptized, and the 
 church rapidly extended from Abyssinia to Ethiopia and Nubia. The 
 Bible was translated (it is said by Frumentius) into the vernacular (the 
 Geez). This community, like its mother-church in Egypt, adopted 
 Monophysite views (| 52, 7). Many Jewish and former customs of the 
 country were retained, such as the observance of the Sabbath along 
 with that of the Lord's day, the prohibition of certain kinds of meat, 
 and circumcision — even in the case of females. 
 
 2. The Persian Church. — In Persia the Gospel had struck root in 
 the third century. During the fourth century and after it, the Church 
 was exposed to protracted and terrible persecutions, which continued 
 partly through the intrigues of the fanatical Magi, and partly in con- 
 sequence of the wars between Persia and the Roman Empire, which, 
 as being waged against a Christian power, entailed on the native 
 Christians suspicions of secret sympathy with the enemy. The first 
 great persecution took place under the reign of Shapiir [Sapores) II. 
 in 343. It lasted for thirty-five years, during which it is said no less 
 than 10,000 priests, monks, and nuns were executed, while the number 
 of martyrs among the laity exceeded all computation. This persecu- 
 tion ceased only a short time before the death of Shapur, when that 
 monarch proclaimed general toleration. During a period of forty years 
 rest, the Persian Church began to flourish anew, when the fanatical 
 zeal of Abdas, Bishop of Susa, who ordered a heathen temple to be 
 pulled down (in 418) occasioned a fresh persecution, which attained 
 its highest pitch under the reign of Behram V. (Varanes), (since 420). 
 For thirty years the most cruel modes of death were devised against 
 Christians. At last the generous conduct of Acacius, Bishop of Amida 
 in Mesopotamia, who disposed of the property of his church, and with 
 the money redeemed a number of Persian prisoners of war, whom he 
 sent back to their own country, induced the king to put a stop to this 
 persecuticm. When the Nestorians were expelled from the Roman 
 Empire they found protection and toleration in Persia ; but in 465, 
 under the reign of King Firnz (Pherozes), they instigated another 
 persecution against the Catholics. In 498 the whole Persian Chui-ch 
 declared in favour of Nestorianism (^52, 3). From that period it 
 enjoyed rest, and fcfr centuries flourished, giving proof of its vigour 
 both by learned labours (the School of Nisibis) and by successful 
 missionary exertions among the tribes of Asia. Meantime the wars 
 with the Byzantines continued ; and in 616 Cosrii II. ( Chosroes) 
 penetrated as far as Chalcedon, committing fresh cruelties against the
 
 CHRISTIAN 1\I ISSIONS IN THE EAST. 249 
 
 (Cath.) Christians who inhabited the conquered provinces. At last 
 the Emperor Heraclms took courage and met his foe. In 628 the 
 Persians were totally routed (^ 57, 5), and in 651 the Khalifs took 
 possession of Persia. 
 
 3. The Armenian CImrch. — As early as the time of Tertullian, 
 flourishing communities of Christians existed in Armenia. But Tiri- 
 daies III. (since 286) violently persecuted these Christians. Under his 
 reign the Apostle of Armenia, Gregorius Illuminator, the son of a 
 Parthian prince, carried on his labours with much success. When 
 only two years of age, his nurse had rescued him from the destruction 
 inflicted upon all his kindred. Subsequently he had been carried to 
 Cappadocia, where he was educated a Christian. Gregory even gained 
 the king himself, and made the whole country professedly Christian. 
 At his death, the Church which he had founded enjoyed a state of 
 great prosperity. He was successively followed in the patriarchal 
 oiEce by his grandson Husig, his great-grandson Nerses, and by Isaac 
 the Great, a still later descendant, whose administration fell in troublous 
 times, when the Byzantine, the Persian, and other princes contended 
 for the possession of the country. St. Mesrop, the colleague and 
 (from 440) the successor of Isaac, constructed an Armeniffn alphabet, 
 an ranslated the Bible into the vernacular. Under the patriarchate 
 of his successor Joseph, the famous religious war with Persia broke 
 out, for the purpose of obliging the Armenians to return to the 
 religion of Zoroaster. The bloody battle fought by the river Dechmud, 
 in 451, terminated in favour of the Persians. The Armenians, how- 
 ever, maintained their profession of Christianity, despite the persecu- 
 tions to which they were exposed. In 651 this country also became 
 subject to the rule of the Khalifs. — The Armenian Church remained 
 free from Nestorian errors ; but it adopted Monophysite tenets, which 
 were imported from that portion of Armenia which was under Byzan- 
 tine sway. At a synod held at Feyin in 527, the Confession of 
 Chalcedon was rejected.' — Gregory had awakened in Armenia a desire 
 for literary and scientific pursuits, and when Mesrop furnished an 
 alphabet, the golden age of Armenian literature commenced (in the 
 fifth century). Almost all the classics and the Greek and Syriiin 
 Fathers were translated into Armenian, and numerous original authors 
 inaugurated a native literature. Thus Agathangelos wrote the history 
 of the conversion of Armenia ; Moses of Chorene, a history of his 
 öouhtry ; Esnig, an able controversial tractate ("the Destruction of 
 the Heretics") directed against the heathen, the Persians, the Mar- 
 cionites, the Manicheans, etc. 
 
 4. The Iberians (who inhabited what is now called Georgia and 
 Grusia) received the Gospel through the instrumentality of Nujiia, an 
 Armenian female slave, by whose prayers some marvellous cures had 
 been performed. From Iberia the truth spread among the Lazians (a
 
 250 SECTION I. SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A. D.). 
 
 tribe inhabiting the modern Colchis), and to their neighbours the Aba& 
 GiANS. Even in the East Indies, Theophihis of Dili (an island at the 
 entrance of the Arabian Gulf) found isolated Christian churches so 
 early as the middle of the fourth century. Sent by his fellow-citizens 
 as a hostage to Constantinople, he was there educated an Arian priest. 
 When afterwards he returned to his own country, he successfully la- 
 boured as a missionary in the East Indies. From Persia, Nestorianism 
 spread in the Indian Church (§ 52, 3). In the sixth century, Cosmas 
 Indicopleustes still found three Christian congregations in the East 
 Indies. The labours of Theophihis extended also to Arabia, where, 
 through his preaching, the King of the Homerites, in Yemen, became a 
 convert. But when, in the sixth century, DJui-Nowas (Dunaan), a 
 •Jew, mounted the throne of Yemen, a fearful persecution of Christians 
 immediately commenced. At last Eleesban, King of Abyssinia, inter- 
 posed to put a stop to these cruelties ; the Jewish ruler was killed, and 
 Christians reigned over Yemen, until in 616 Cosru II. made it a pro- 
 vince of Persia. Anchorites, monks, and Stylites laboured successfully 
 among the nomadic tribes of Arabia. 
 
 § 65. THE MOHAMMEDAN COUNTER-MISSIONS. 
 
 Comp. G. Weil, Mohammed d. Prophet, Leben u. Lehre (Life and 
 Teach, of Moh. the Proph.). Stuttg. 1843.—/. Döllinger, Moham. Reli- 
 gion nach ihr. innern Entw. u. ihr. Einfl. auf d. Leben d. Völker (The 
 Relig. of Moh. in its Intern. Develop, and External Infi, on the Na- 
 tions). Regensb. 1838. — A. Mohler, d. Verb. d. Islam zum CUristth. 
 (Rel. between Isl. and Christ.) Regensb. 1839. — W. Irving, Mahomed. 
 — Prideaux, Life of Mahomet. — Sale, Koran. — Forster, Mahometanism 
 Unveiled. — /. v. Hammer-Pargstall, Mah. d. Prophet. 
 
 In 611, Ahul Kasem Mohammed of Mecca laid claim to the 
 office of a prophet, and instituted a new religion, composed of 
 Jewish, of Christian, and of Arab heathen elements, in which 
 sensual happiness and strict Monotheism were sought to be com- 
 bined. His labours, however, only acquired importance after he 
 had been obliged to flee from Mecca to Yatjreb (Medina) — the 
 Eeirah, 15th July 622. In 630 he took Mecca, consecrated the 
 old heathen Caaba as the great temple for the new religion 
 (Islam, hence 3Ioalem), and composed the Koran, consisting of 
 114 Suras, which Abu-Bekr, his father-in-law, collected. Before 
 he died, all Arabia had adopted his creed, and was subject to 
 his sway. As he persuaded his adherents that the spread of 
 their new religion by force of arms was the most sacred duty, 
 and inspired them with wild enthusiasm, his successors were able
 
 MOHAMMEDAN COUNTER- MISSIONS. 251 
 
 to take one province after another from the empire, and at the 
 same time to introduce Mohammedanism in place of Christianity. 
 Within a short period (G33-G51) Syria, Palestine, Eprypt, and 
 Persia were conquered ; North Africa in YOY ; and, lastly, Spain 
 in Yll. But the farther protrress of the Infideh was in the mean 
 time arrested. Twice tliey laid siege' to Constantinople (669- 
 676 and TlY-718) without success; while the victory which 
 Charles Martell gained over them at Tours (in 732) effectually 
 arrested their march westwards. Their influence had, however, 
 operated most detrimentally upon the Church in Asia, and the 
 three patriarchal sees of Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem 
 were completely subject to their will. Although Christians were 
 allowed to reside in the conquered provinces on payment of a 
 capitation-tax, fear and the desire after the worldly advantages 
 held out by a change of faith, gained for Islamism a large num- 
 ber of proselytes. 
 
 1. Rigid Monotheism constitutes the fundamental idea of Islamism. 
 Abraham, Moses, and Jesus were considered divinely-commissioned 
 prophets ; Mohammed, the last and greatest of prophets, whom both 
 Moses and Christ had predicted, was commissioned to restore to pristine 
 purity thdr doctrine, which both the Jews and the Christians had cor- 
 rupted. At the end of time, Christ would return, destroy Antichrist, 
 and establish Islamism as the universal religion. The doctrines of the 
 Trinity and of the Incarnation were included among the alleged per- 
 versions of the teaching of Jesus. Special stress was laid on the doc- 
 trine of Divine providence, which was prominently brought forward, 
 and distorted into the most extreme fatalism. The Moslem required 
 not an atonement ; belief in one God, and in Mohammed as His pro- 
 phet, was sufficient to insure the Divine favour, while good works would 
 procure an inexhaustible fulness of everlasting happiness, consisting in 
 the highest sensual enjoyments. In its constitution Mohammedanism 
 contemplated a kind of theocracy, in which the Prophet, and the Kha- 
 lifs, his successors, were to act as the vicegerents of the Deity upon 
 earth. Hence State and Church were regarded as absolutely identical. 
 The rites of religion consisted of prayers, fasting, and ablutions. Along 
 with the Koran, the Sunna, or traditionary sayings of the Prophet, are 
 regarded as of Divine authority. The sect of the Shiifes diÖors from 
 that of the Simnites, in that the former recognize not the authority of 
 the first three Khalifs and of the traditional sayings of the Prophet 
 handed down by them. The Ssiiß's are a mystical sect wliich orio-jn- 
 ated at a later period. The WechahHes (a sect dating from the twelfth 
 century) form, so to speak, the Puritans of Islamism.
 
 252 SECTION I. — SECOND PERIOD (323— 692 A, D.). 
 
 2. Service performed by Moliammedanism in the Providence of God. — • 
 Obviously Islamism was the instrument of judgment upon the degene- 
 rate polity and Church of the East. But it also served some positive 
 purpose, which appears from its relation to heathenism. It was the 
 special mission of Mohammedanism to put an end to idolatry (Polythe« 
 ism). Neither the Prophet nor his successors tolerated heathenism. 
 Accordingly, a great number of wild tribes in Asia and Africa were 
 converted from the most degrading and demoralizing idolatry to the 
 worship of one God, and raised to a certain stage of civilization and 
 morality, which they would have been unable to attain if left to them- 
 selves. As they were thereby brought nearer to Christianity, Moham- 
 medanism proved, in its own way, " a schoolmaster to Christ." Per- 
 haps its rigid Monotheism may also have been intended to form a kind 
 of breakwater against both African Fetish-worship and Asiatic Pan- 
 theism. But Islamism contains the germs of its own destruction. Its 
 confusion of religion and politics, of State and Church, tends to fetter 
 both, and thus to render them incapable of development, renovation, 
 or transformation. Herein lay the strength, herein lies also the weak- 
 ness of Islamism.
 
 THIED PERIOD 
 
 OF 
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY 
 
 IN ITS ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL FORM. 
 
 FROM THE YEAR 692-1453. 
 
 I. MOVEMENTS IN THE EASTERN CHURCH IN CONJUNCTION WITH 
 SIMILAR DEVELOPMENTS IN THE WESTERN CHURCH. 
 
 g 66. ICONOCLASTIC CONTROVERSY IN THE EAST (726-842) 
 
 Comp. /. Maimbourg (a Jesuit), histoire de I'h^resie des Iconoclastes. 
 Par. 1679. 2 Voll. 12. — Fr. Schlosser, Gesch. der bilderstlirmenden 
 Kaiser (Hist, of the Iconocl. Emper.). Frkf. 1812. — /. Marx (Rom, 
 Calh.), der Bilderstreit der byzant. Kaiser (The Iconocl. Contr. of the 
 Byz. Emp.). Trier 1839. 
 
 At the commencement of the eighth century, ima^e-worship 
 (§ 57, 4) had attained its acme in the East. But even its most 
 zealous advocates were obliged to admit that certain abuses were 
 connected with it. Thus, for example, images were selected to 
 be god-parents ; part of the colouring with which they had been 
 painted was scratched off and mixed with the sacramental wine ; 
 the consecrated bread was first laid upon images, that so the 
 faithful might receive from the hands of these saints the body 
 of the Lord, etc. Under these circumstances, a vigorous empe- 
 ror, whom both personal feelings and political considerations 
 disposed against this kind of worship, resolved to employ all the 
 resources which a strong will placed at his disposal to put a stop 
 to this widely-spread idolatry. The contest between the two 
 opposing parties (the (ixovox'Käato.i and the ftzoioxaVpat) lasted for 
 more than a century, and was chiefly carried on by the emperors 
 and the army on the one side, and by the monks and the people 
 22 (253)
 
 254 SECTION I — THIRD PERIOD (692—1453 A.D.) 
 
 on the other. On two occasions the worship of images was 
 almost entirely and forever abolished ; but both times was it 
 restored by an empress. — The Church of Eoine had in this re- 
 spect not gone so far as that of the East, at least in practice ; 
 but in theory it entertained the same opinions, and in the contest 
 between the two parties Rome lent the whole weight of its 
 authority to those who upheld image-worship. On the views of 
 the Fraukish Church on this question, comp. § 92. 
 
 1. Leo III., the Isaurian (717-741), one of the most vigorous of Byzan- 
 tine emperors, having in 718 repelled the attack of the Saracens upon 
 Constantinople, deemed it necessary to adopt further measures to arrest 
 the spread of Mohammedanism. The worship of images, which Jews 
 and Moslems equally abhorred, and to which himself was opposed, ap- 
 peared to him one of the principal obstacles to the conversion of the 
 infidels. Accordingly he issued in 726 an edict, which, in the first 
 place, only ordained that the images should be placed higher up on the 
 walls of churches, in order to prevent the people from kissing them. 
 But all peaceable measures against this favourite mode of worship were 
 frustrated by the determined resistance which the aged Germanus, Pa- 
 triarch of Constantinople, the populace and the monks offered. In 
 Palestine, where, under the protection of the Saracens, he could defy 
 the vengeance of the Emperor, Johannes Damasceniis, the ablest theolo- 
 gian of that age, published three tractates, in which he defended in 
 enthusiastic terms the worship of images. Amidst the popular excite- 
 ment caused by this controversy, one Cosmas got himself proclaimed 
 Emperor, and advanced with a fleet against Constantinople. But Leo 
 defeated and executed his rival; and in a second edict (of date 730) 
 ordered the entire removal of images from every church. The military 
 who were charged with the execution of this ordinance were guilty of 
 many fanatical excesses, and the popular tumults excited by these 
 measures were not quelled without much bloodshed. At Rome, how- 
 ever, the Emperor was powerless. In his letters, Fope Gregory II. spoke 
 of him as if he had been a silly school-boy ; while, in a synod held 
 at Rome in 732, Gregory III. pronounced an anathema against all oppo- 
 nents of image-worship. The fleet which the Emperor had collected, 
 with a view of chastising the bold prelate, was destroyed by a storm. 
 Leo avenged himself by depriving the Pope of the revenues which he 
 derived from Lower Italy, and by taking Illyria from the see of Rome 
 and assigning it to that of Constantinople. 
 
 2. Constantinus V. (741-775), the son and successor of Leo, whom 
 the monks in their hatred nicknamed Copronymus and Cahallinvs, a 
 ruler and general as distinguished as his father, was, if possible, even 
 more firmly resolved to put down the worship of images. He defeated 
 Artubundus, his brother-in-law, who, with the assistance of the party
 
 ICONOCLASTIC CONTROVERSY, 255 
 
 of image-worshippers, had raised the standard of revolt, severely chas- 
 tised and deprived him of his eyes. As the popular tumults still con- 
 tinued, an oecumenical Synod was summoned to give ecclesiastical sanc- 
 tion to the principles of the Emperor. Accordingly, about 350 bishops 
 assembled at Constantinople (754). But this Synod was not attended 
 by a single patriarch, since the see of Constantinople happened to be 
 vacant at the time, and Rome, which had anathematized all opponents 
 of images, refused to send legates ; while Alexandria, Antioch, and Je- 
 rusalem were under the domination of the Saracens. The Council 
 excommunicated those who made any image of Christ, declaring that 
 the Eucharist was the only true image of Christ, and pronounced the 
 most sweeping condemnation against every kind of reverence paid to 
 images. These decrees were mercilessly enforced, and deeds of the most 
 cruel violence enacted. Thousands of monks were scourged, incarce- 
 rated, transported, driven round the circus for the amusement of the 
 populace with nuns in their arms, or obliged to marry ; many had their 
 eyes put out, their ears or noses cut off, and monasteries were converted 
 into barracks or stables. Images of saints were not even tolerated in private 
 houses. Stephen IL of Rome protested against the decrees of the Cuuncil, 
 and Stephen III. issued a dreadful anathema against all opponents of 
 images (in a Lateran synod, a.d. 769). But in the Byzantine Empire 
 both monasticism and image-worship were almost extirpated. 
 
 3. Leo IV. Chazarus (775-780), the son of Constantine, shared the 
 views of his father, but wanted his energy. His consort Irene was, 
 however, a zealous image-worshipper. When Leo discovered this, he 
 would have taken energetic measures, but a sudden death arrested his 
 interference. Irene now made full use of the opportunity afforded by 
 the minority of Constantine VI., her son, to restore image-worship. 
 She convoked another Council at Constantinople (786), which was 
 attended by deputies from Pope Hadrian I. (the other patriarchs, who 
 were under Saracen dominion, ventured not to take part in its delibera- 
 tions). But the Imperial Guard broke into their place of meeting, and 
 dispersed the Council. The following year (787), Irene convoked at 
 Nice another, the Seventh CEcl-menical Council. Its eighth and last 
 meeting was held in the Imperial Palace at Constantinople, — the Im- 
 perial Guard having, in the meantime, been removed from the capital. 
 The Council annulled the decrees of 754, sanctioned reverence to im- 
 ages, inasmuch as prostration or inclination bef )re pictures was to be 
 regarded as a token of love and respect due to the original, and not to 
 be confounded with that adoration {?MToeia) which was due to God 
 alone. 
 
 4 The emperors who now succeeded shared these views. But as 
 victory attended not their arms, the army, which still held opposite 
 sentiments, proclaimed their general Leo V., the Armenian (813-820), 
 Emperor, This ruler, though a decided enemy of image-worship, would
 
 256 SECTION I. — THIRD PERIOD (692— 1453 A. D.). 
 
 still have adopted moderate and cautious measures, but was baffle i hj 
 the soldiers, who gave full reins to their fanaticism. The party which 
 advocated image-worship was led by Theodorus Studita, Abbot of the 
 Monastery of Studion, a man of unfeigned piety and invincible firmness, 
 the ablest and most ingenious defender of these sentiments, who even 
 in exile was indefatigable in promoting the cause he had at heart [ob, 
 826). Leo was killed by conspirators. Michael 11. Bulbus (820-829), 
 his successor, at least allowed the worship of images in private. But 
 Theophilus, his son (829-842), made it the aim of his life wholly to 
 extirpate all such practices. Once more a woman, Theodora, the 
 Dowager Empress, who, after the death of Theophilus, and during the 
 minority of his son, administered the government, convoked a synod at 
 Consianlinoyle (842), which again introduced the worship of images 
 into churches. Since that period, opposition to this practice gradually 
 ceased in the Eastern Church, and the day on which the Synod of 842 
 had enacted the decree in its favour (the 19th Feb.) has since been 
 celebrated as the "Feast of Oi'thodoxy ." 
 
 §67. SCHISM BETWEEN THE GREEK AND THE ROMAN 
 CHURCH, AND ATTEMPTS AT UNION (857-1435). 
 
 Comp. Leo Allatius, de eccl. occid. et orient, perpetua consensione. 
 Colon. 1699. 4to. (The author, who was a Greek convert to the Romish 
 Church, died 1669.) — L. Maimbourg (a Jesuit), Hist, du schisme dea 
 Grecs. Par. 1677. 4to. — /. G. Pitzipios, I'egl. Orientale, expose hist, 
 de sa separation et de sa reunion avec celle de Rome. 4 Voll. Par. 1855 
 
 At the second Trullan Council in 692 the first steps had been 
 taken towards the Great Schism, which divided the Christian 
 world into two parties (§ 63, 3) ; in 867 Fhotius gave it a dog- 
 matic basis by condemning certain doctrines promulgated at Rome, 
 while in 1053 3Iichael Ceridarius coimp]eted the separation betweei 
 the two churches. The difficulties and dangers which increas- 
 ingly beset the Byzantine rulers induced them to make frequent 
 attempts to bring about a union. But the negotiations which 
 ensued either were unsuccessful, or the proposed union, though 
 agreed upon in words, was not carried into execution. These 
 fruitless endeavours only ceased when the Byzantine Empire fell 
 not to rise again (a.D. 1453). The obstacles in the way of heal- 
 ing this schism consisted not in any importance attaching to 
 diversity of ceremonial observances, which might, as at previous 
 periods, have continued without interrupting ecclesiastical fellow 
 ship, nor even in differences of doctrine (with regard to the 
 expression "filioque," §50, 6), which might easily have been
 
 SCHISM OF GREEK AND ROMAN CHURCHES. 257 
 
 removed. The real difficulty 'lay in the claim to primacy in 
 the Church, set up by the see of Rome, and which the Greeks 
 could only resist by separating from all fellowship with the 
 Papacy. 
 
 1. Commencement of the Schism (867.) — {H. Lämmer, P. Nikol. I. u 
 d. byzant. Staatskirche sr. Zeit. Berl. 1857.) — During the minority of 
 Michael III., surnamed the Drunkard, the son of Theodora (§ 96, 4), 
 the government was administered by Bardas, the uncle of that prince 
 (and brother of the Empress). Ignatius, who at the time was Patriarch 
 of Constantinople, and himself a descendant of the imperial family, had 
 sharply censured the dissoluteness of the court, and in 857 even refused 
 to admit to the communion the all-powerful Bardas, who lived in inces- 
 tuous union with his daughter-in-law. Fur this offence the prelate was 
 deposed and exiled. Photius, the most learned man of his age, and 
 hitherto Prefect of the Imperial Guard, was named his successor, to the 
 intense disgust of the friends of Ignatius, who rejected with scorn all 
 advances and proposals of peace. Photius now convened (in 859) a 
 synod, which confirmed the deposition of Ignatius, and even excommu- 
 nicated him. But no consideration could induce this prelate to forego 
 his claims. Anxious to procure in his own favour the influential ver- 
 dict, Photius gave to Pope Nicholas I. a false representation of the cir- 
 cumstances of the case, at the same time intimating his accession, and 
 requesting fraternal acknowledgment and intercession. The pontiff 
 replied that he must first investigate the case ; and for this purpose 
 deputed two legates, Rhodoald of Porto, and Zacharias of Anagni. 
 Gained by bribes, the representatives of Rome gave, at a council at Con- 
 stantinople (861), their consent to the deposition of Ignatius. But 
 when more impartial witnesses informed Nicholas of the real state of 
 matters, he excommunicated his own legates, and declared Ignatius 
 rightful Patriarch of Constantinople. The opposition thus excited 
 against Rome in Constantinople became intense, when shortly after- 
 wards Biihjaria renounced allegiance to the Byzantine Church, and 
 owned that of the Pope (| 72, 3). Photius sent an encyclical letter (in 
 867) inviting the patriarchs of the East to a council, and accusing the 
 Church of Rome of various heresies: such as its ordinance of fasting" 
 on Saturdays ; its permission of the use of milk, of butter, and of cheese 
 during tlie week of Quadragesima ; its injunction of clerical celibacy; 
 its refusal to acknowledge the validity of the chrisma if administered 
 by presbyters; audits introduction of the expression "filioque" (| 50,6), 
 which implied the existence of two supreme principles, and hence a 
 dualism. These heresies, it was asserted, the Pope now intended to 
 introduce into Bulgaria. The Council convened in 867. Three monks, 
 who were prompted by Photius, figured as the representatives of the 
 patriarchs whose sees were in Saracen countries. The Pope was excom- 
 municated and deposed, and this sentence intimated to the Western. 
 22*
 
 258 SECTION I. — THIRD PERIOD (692— 1453 A. D ). 
 
 churclies. Such measures were far from indifferent to the Pope, who 
 vindicated himself before the Frankish clergy, and called upon them 
 to rebut the charges of the Greeks. They readily complied. Among 
 the tractates written on that side of the question, that of Ratramnus, 
 a monk at Corbey, was by far the ablest. But the aspect of affairs 
 soon changed. The same year in which the synod had met (867) the 
 Emperor Michael was assassinated, and Basil the Macedonian, his mur- 
 derer and successor, joined the party of Ignatius, and requested Pope 
 Hadrian IL to institute a new inquiry. A synod held at Constantinople 
 in 869 (called by the Latins the eighth (Ecumenical Council) condemned 
 Photius and restored Ignatius. The council itself pronounced no deci- 
 sion about Bulgaria, but submitted the claims of the rival sees to the 
 pretended representatives of the Saracen Patriarchs as impartial arbiters. 
 They of course decided in favour of the Byzantine Patriarch, and all 
 remonstrances on the part of the Popes proved fruitless. In his adver- 
 sity Photius comported himself in a manner which commanded general 
 respect. For several years he was imprisoned in a monastery, deprived 
 of all intercourse with others, and even of his books. Still he made 
 his peace with Ignatius. Basil entrusted him with the education of 
 his children, and after the death of Ignatius in 877 again elevated him 
 to the see of Constantinople. But the anathema of an oecumenical 
 council, which still rested upon him, could only be removed by another 
 oecumenical council, to which Pope John VIIL acceded on obtaining 
 promise of having Bulgaria restored to his see. But at the Council of 
 Constantinople in 879 (called by the Greeks the eighth (Ecumenical) the 
 legates of the Pope were completely deceived. The question about 
 Bulgaria was not even mooted, the council of 869 was anathematized, 
 and a ban pronounced against those who should venture to make any 
 addition to the creed. The Pope revenged himself by anathematizing 
 the Patriarch, his council, and all his adherents. Although Leo the 
 Philosopher, the successor of Basil, in 886 deposed Photius, it was only 
 in order to give the see to an imperial prince. Photius was confined 
 to a monastery, where died in 891. 
 
 2. The Emperor, Leo the Philosopher, had been thrice married, with- 
 out having any issue. His fourth wife he only wedded after he had 
 convinced himself that the same objection attached not to her. The 
 Patriarch, Nicholas Mrjsticus, who refused to consecrate this marriage 
 (§ 61, 2), was deposed. A synod held at Constantinople in 906, con- 
 ducted under the direction of the legates of Pope Sergius III., approved 
 both of the Emperor's marriage and of the deposition of the Patriarch. 
 But, on his death-bed, Leo repented this arbitrary measure; Alexander, 
 his brother and successor, restored the Patriarch Nicholas ; and Pope 
 John X. consented to be represented at a synod held in Constantinople 
 in 920, when the resolutions of the Council of 906 were condemned, 
 and a fourth marriage declared to be unlawful. But, in return for thih 
 eompliance, the synod did not make any concessions to the Pope.
 
 SCHISM OF GREEK AND ROMAN CHURCHES. 259 
 
 Emperor Basil II. entered upon fresh negotiations. For n immense 
 Bum of money, Pope John XIX. agreed, in 1024, to acknowledge the 
 Bishop of Constantinople as oecumenical Patriarch of the East, and to 
 yield every claim of the Cathedra Petri upon supremacy over the East- 
 ern Church. But the transaction became known before it was com- 
 pleted ; the West resounded with' denunciations of this second Judas 
 of Rome, and the Pope was obliged to break off the treaty. 
 
 3. Completion of the Schism in 1054. — However frequent the anathe- 
 mas which Rome and Byzantium had fulminated against each other, 
 they had only been directed against patriarchs, popes, bishops, or their 
 adherents as individuals, not against the churches which they repre- 
 sented. But matters now assumed a different appearance. At that 
 time, the Emperor Constantine Monomadms, bent on certain warlike 
 undertakings, anxiously sought the friendship of the Pope. His en- 
 deavours were frustrated by the interference of Michael Cerularius, 
 Patriarch of Constantinople, and Leo of Achrida, the metropolitan of 
 Bulgaria, who, in 1053, addressed a letter to Johi, Bishop of IVani in 
 Apulia, in which they charged the Latins with the most grievous here- 
 sies, and conjured the Western bishops to renounce their errors. To 
 the accusations formerly brought by Photius, others were now added, 
 such as that the Western Church allowed the use of blood, and of 
 things strangled; that it prohibited singing the Hallelujah in Lent; 
 above all, that it used unleavened bread in the Eucharist (? 58, 4) — a 
 heresy to which the name of Azymite was given. This letter fell into 
 the hands of Cardinal Humbert, who translated and laid it before 
 Pope Leo IX. A bitter epistolary altercation ensued. The Emperor 
 made every effort to restore peace. At his request, the Pope sent three 
 legates (among them the disputatious Humbert) to Constantinople. 
 These envoys only fanned instead of extinguishing the flame. The 
 Emperor obliged, indeed, the Abbot of Studium, Nicholas Fectoratus, 
 to burn, in presence of the legates, a controversial tractate which he 
 had written ; but neither threats nor force could induce the patriarch 
 to yield, supported as he was both by the people and the clergy. At 
 last, the legates placed on the altar of the Church of Sophia a formal 
 writ of excommunication, to which Michael and the other Eastern 
 Patriarchs in 1054 replied in a similar strain. 
 
 4. Attempts at Revnion. — The Crusades, instead of removing, only 
 increased the estrangement between the two chui-ches. Repeated 
 negotiations proved unavailing. At a synod held at Bari (in the Nea- 
 politan territory) in 1098, Anselm of Canterbury, who at the time lived 
 an exile in Italy, convinced the Greeks who were present, that the 
 Latin view about the procession of the Holy Ghost was correct. For 
 the same purpose, Peter Chrysolanus, Archbishop of Milan, delivered, 
 in 1113, a long oration before the Emperor at Constantinople ; while, 
 in 1135, Anselm of Havelberg held a disputation on this subject with
 
 260 SECTION I. — THIRD PERIOD (692—1453 A.D.). 
 
 Niceias of Nicomedia. The aversion and dislike of the Greeks wa* 
 greatly deepened by the founding of a Latin Empire at Constanti:<ople 
 (1024-1061). Michael Pal^eologus, who drove the Latins from Con- 
 stantinople, sought, from political motives, to put an end to the schism. 
 But in these efforts he was opposed by Joseph, the Patriarch of Con- 
 stantinople, and by his librarian, the learned John Beccüs. While 
 languishing in prison, Beccus became, however, convinced that the 
 differences between the two churches were unimportant, and that a 
 reconciliation would be possible. This change of views procured his 
 elevation to the patriarchate. Meantime, the negotiations had so far 
 advanced, that a General Council (called by the Latins the fourteenth) 
 was summoned to meet at Lyons in 1274. The imperial legates ac- 
 knowledged the primacy of the Pope, and subscribed to a Romish Con- 
 fession of Faith. In return, the Eastern Church was allowed to con- 
 tinue its use of the Nicene Creed without any addition thereto, and the 
 peculiar ecclesiastical forms which it had hitherto observed. Beccus 
 wrote several tractates in defence of this union. But the accession of 
 another Emperor led to his removal ; Joseph was restored, and the 
 union of Lyons entirely forgotten. • 
 
 5. The continual advances of the Turks naturally impressed the 
 Eastern Emperors with the necessity of securing the sympathy and 
 assistance of the West, through reconciliation and union with the 
 papacy. But these efforts were frustrated by the powerful opposition 
 of the monks, supported as it was by the popular clamour. The Patri- 
 archs of Alexandria, Jerusalem, and Antioch, were also hostile to such 
 measures, not only from ancient jealousy of the pretensions of the see 
 of Rome, but because the political schemes of their Saracen masters 
 obliged them to oppose the wishes of the Greek Emperors. At last the 
 Emperor Andronicus III. Pal^ologüs gained over the Abbot Bar- 
 LAAM, who had hitherto been the leader of the Anti-Romish party. At 
 the head of an Imperial Embassy, Barlaam went to Avignon, where at 
 that time Pope Benedict XII. resided (1339). But the negotiations led 
 to no result, as the Pope insisted on absolute submission, both in respect 
 of doctrine and government, and would not even consent to order a new 
 inquiry, though it were only for the sake of appearances. Barlaam 
 joined the Latin Church (comp. § 69, 1), and died as Bishop of Gieraece 
 in 1348. — But as the difficulties of the Byzantine Emperors continually 
 increased, John V. Pal^eologus made fresh advances. He joined the 
 Latin Church in 1369, but neither did he prevail on his subjects to 
 follow his example, nor the Pope on the Western rulers to send assHst- 
 ance against the Turks. 
 
 6. Apparently greater success attended the attempt to bring abcut a 
 anion made by the Emperor .John YII. PALiEOLOGUS. He had gained 
 for his views Meirophanes, Patriarch of Constantinople, and Bessarion, 
 Archishop of Nice, a man of great adroitness and learning, but a tbo
 
 THEOLOGICAL SCIENCE. 261 
 
 rough infidel. Accompanied by this prelate and by mf.ny other bishops, 
 the Emperor appeared in person at the papal Council of Ferrara in 
 1438. Pope Engen IV., afraid lest the Greeks might join the reform- 
 atory Council at Basle, seemed willing to make concessions. When the 
 pestilence broke out at Ferrara, the Council was transferred to Flo- 
 rence, where in 1439 the union of the two churches was really accom- 
 plished. The supremacy of the Pope was acknowledged ; existing 
 differences in the rites of the two churches were to be mutually tole- 
 rated ; dogmatic divergences were accounted for on the ground of mis- 
 understanding ; and both churches solemnly declared to be orthodox. 
 But another doctrinal difficulty, besides that about the procession of 
 the Holy Ghost, had meantime sprung up. While the Greeks admitted 
 that there was a ptirgatory in which venial sins were expiated, and 
 from which souls might be delivered by masses, intercessions, alms, 
 and good works (| 58, 3), they objected to the idea of material flames 
 in purgatory. Besides, while the Latins held that those who died 
 unbaptized, or under mortal sin, were immediately consigned to eternal 
 perdition, and that the pious (after the expiation of venial sins) imme- 
 diately entered paradise, the Greeks maintained that both eternal pun- 
 ishment and eternal bliss only commenced after the final judgment. 
 On this point the Greeks now yielded, and the reunion was concluded 
 amid embraces and hymns of joy. In reality, matters, however, con- 
 tinued as they had been. A powerful party, headed by Eugenicus, 
 Archbishop of Ephesus, had been merely outvoted at Florence; it now 
 commenced an agitation throughout the East against a union which 
 existed only on paper. Metrophanes was nicknamed Mi^rpo^ovoj ; and 
 in 1443 the other three patriarchs of the East held a Synod at Jerusa- 
 lem, in which they anathematized all who adhered to this union. Bes- 
 sarion joined the Church of Rome, became Cardinal and Bishop of 
 Tuscoli, and was twice on the point of being made Pope. He died in 
 1472. — But the period had arrived when the Christian Empire of the 
 East should fall. On the 29th May 1453, Constantinople was taken by 
 the Turks. The last Emperor, Constantine XL, fell while vainly de- 
 fending his throne against tremendous odds.^ 
 
 II. INDEPENDENT DEVELOPMENT IN THE EASTERN CHURCH. 
 
 1 68. THEOLOGICAL SCIENCE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 Comp. Heeren, Gesch. d. class. Liter, im M. A. 2 vols. Gott. 1822.— 
 W. Gass, Beiträge zur kirchl. Literatur u. Dogmengesch. d. griech. M. 
 A. (Contrib. to the Eccles. Liter, and to the Hist, of Dogm. in the Gr. 
 Ch. during the Middle Ages). 2 vols. Bresl. 1844, 1849. Comp, also
 
 262 SECTION I. — THIRD P£RIOD (692— 1453 A. D.) . 
 
 History of the Byzantine and Greek Empires, by G. Finlay, LL D., 
 Edinb. and London. — Smith's Biographical Diet., and Wharton's Ap 
 pend. to Cave. 
 
 Iconoclasm (726-842) was combined with hostility to science 
 and art generally. Hence, during that part of the middle ages, 
 the Greek Church numbered fewer learned men and writers than 
 at any other period. But, about the middle of the ninth 
 century, the Byzantine Church seemed suddenly to rouse itself 
 to new activity, and attained a stage which at one time it had 
 appeai'ed incapable of again reaching. It is even more remarka- 
 ble that it not only maintained this high position uninterruptedly 
 during six centuries, but that the ardour for theological study 
 seemed to increase in proportion as political prospects became 
 moie dark and threatening. A special characteristic of the 
 literary activity of that period is the revival of classical studies, 
 which had been wellnigh wholly neglected since the fifth century. 
 All at once those Greeks, who were at the eve of intellectual as 
 well as of political decay, seem to have remembered the rich 
 heirloom which their heathen ancestors had left them. These 
 treasures were now brought forth from musty libraries where 
 they had lain concealed, and studied with a diligence, enthu- 
 siasm, and consciousness of their value, which commands admira- 
 tion. The Greeks had, however, long before, lost the capacity 
 of producing original works ; their energy was therefore expended 
 on reproducing, annotating, or explaining. But even thus the 
 revival of classical lore exercised comparatively little influence 
 on a theology, which had become ossified amid traditionalism 
 and Aristotelian formulas. Where these bonds were broken, 
 classical studies only reintroduced the ancient heathen views of 
 men and matters. 
 
 1. It appears that the patronage which the Khalifs, since the close 
 of the eighth century, bestowed on the study of the ancient literature 
 of Greece, fired the zeal of the Eastern literati, and led to the revival 
 OF CLASSICAL STUDIES. Of course, if a trace of national feeling were 
 left in the Byzantine rulers, they could not lag behind their Moslem 
 rivals. This circumstance, however, does not entirely account for the 
 altered state of matters. No doubt Providence itself designed it, that 
 these, the noblest fruits of ancient heathenism, which had already 
 served such good purpose in training and preparing the Christian 
 Fathers for their task, should now become the basis of modern literature 
 and science. — To Bardas, the guardian and colleague of Michael III.
 
 THEOLOGICAL SCIENCE. 26H 
 
 (I 67, 1), hovrever infamous his conduct had been in other respects, 
 belongs the merit of founding schools, and employing teachers for the 
 prosecution of classical studies. Basil the Macedonian, although him- 
 self destitute of learning, respected and promoted scientific culture. 
 Photius -was chosen tutor to the children of that Emperor, and imbued 
 them -with a zeal for study, which in turn was transmitted to their de- 
 scendants. Leo the Philosopher, the son, and Constantiniis Porphy- 
 rogenneta, the grandson of Basil, were both distinguished for their 
 attainments. When the dynasty of the Macedonians was succeeded by 
 that of the Comnenes (since 1057), scientific pursuits were prosecuted 
 with even greater ardour. Even the princesses of that race (such as 
 Eudocia and Anna Comnena) distinguished tliemselves in literature. 
 Psellus proved to this family what Photius had been to that of the 
 Macedonians. Thessalonica became a second Athens, and rivalled 
 Constantinople in the pursuit of classical study. During the sixty 
 years when Bj'zantium was the seat of a Latin Empire, the barbarism 
 and ignorance of the Crusaders threatened to destroy the civilization 
 fostered by the Comnenes ; but when, in 1261, the Palceologi again as- 
 cended the throne of the East, the learned studies were resumed with 
 renewed ardour. In 1453, Constantinople was taken by the Turks, 
 when a large numVjer of Greek literati sought refuge in Italy, trans- 
 ferring to the West the treasures they had guarded with such care. 
 
 2. Aristotle and Plato. — With the revival of classical studies, the 
 treatises of Plato, which were regarded as more classical, or at least aa 
 more purely Grecian than those of Aristotle, came again into high 
 repute. But as Aristotle was still considered the great authority in 
 the church (§47, 6) — a position assigned to him chiefly through the 
 efibrts of John Damascenus — Platonism continued an object of some 
 distrust to theologians, a feeling increased by the circumstance that so 
 many admirers of classical literature had lapsed into practical heathen- 
 ism. The controversy which now ensued attained its highest pitch 
 during the fifteenth .century, when Gemistus Pletho used every effort 
 , to dethrone Aristotle from the place which till then he had occupied in 
 the esteem of the learned. He insisted that all should acknowledge 
 the supremacy of " the divine Plato," and confidently predicted that 
 speedily the time would come when both Christianity and Mahom- 
 medanism would give place to the universal sway of a " religion of 
 pure humanity." These views were shared by his numei'ous pupils, 
 among whom Bessarion (? 67, 6) was the most distinguished. On the 
 other hand, George of Trehizond and his pupils were equally enthu- 
 siastic in their admiration of Aristotle. Numerous representatives of 
 these two schools settled in Italy, where they continued their con- 
 troversies with increased bitterness (§ 120, 1). 
 
 3. Scholasticism and Mijsticis7n. — The application of the Aristotelian 
 method to the study of dogmatics, which John Philoponus first in- 
 troduced, and John Damascemis brought into general vogue, gave rise
 
 264 SECTION I. — THIRD PERIOD (692— 1453 A. D.) . 
 
 to a peculiar mode of treating this science, which, though wanting in 
 the depth, variety, and acuteness that characterized the scholasticism 
 of the middle ages, resembled it in many respects. But at the same 
 time another and very different tendency made its appearance. Mysti- 
 cism, of which the traces are already found in the writings of the 
 pseudo-Areopagite (|48, 5), was peculiarly adapted to the discipline 
 and retirement of the monasteries. Among its numerous representa- 
 tives, Nicholas Cabasilas was the most distinguished. Those mystics 
 opposed neither the teaching nor the rites of the Church. On the con- 
 trary, they delighted in dwelling on all that had a symbolical bearing, 
 and connecting it with the idea of a sacrament. No ground, therefore, 
 existed for collision between the Dialecticians and the Mystics. 
 
 4. Theological Scietices. — John Damascenus had, at the commence- 
 ment of this period, grouped into a system according to the dialectic 
 forms of Aristotle, the conclusions of former doctrinal disquisitions. 
 His " Ecdosis " is the first and only complete work on Dogmatics that 
 emanated from the ancient Greek Church. Despite the failure of 
 attempts at union with the Latin Church, which indeed only issued in 
 wider estrangement on controverted points, the frequent contact with 
 the Latin was not without its beneficial influence on the Greek Church. 
 The Eastern divines profited by the scholasticism of their brethren in 
 the West so far as to apply this more full and scientific method to the 
 treatment of doctrines on which the two churches were agreed. Con- 
 troversy was still kept uji with the Nestorians, the Monophysites, and 
 the Monothelites, while the pen of polemics found fresh employment 
 against the Gnostic and Manichean sects, which at this period again 
 made their appearance, as also against the schismatics of the West, 
 and those who advocated a reunion with them. The altered circum- 
 stances of the times also led to a revival of the study of Apologetics. 
 Not only was Islamism making rapid strides, but the protection 
 accorded by the Saracens to the synagogue rendered it necessary to 
 defend Christianity against the attacks of the Jews. But the prevailing 
 scholastic and traditional theology proved incapable of coping with tbe • 
 storms which the judicial providence of God had allowed to rise. 
 Lastly, the revival of classical study, and the reappearance in its train 
 of heathen ideas, obliged theologians to be again on their guard 
 against ancient superstitions [Nicholas of Methone). Independent exe- 
 GETiCAL researches were now no longer prosecuted ; but the "Catenee" 
 of (Ecnnienius, of Tlieophylact, and Euthymius Zygademis, are valualile. 
 The study of Ecclesiastical History was entirely neglected. Nice- 
 phorus Callisti was the only writer who devoted his attention to this 
 study (in the fourteenth century). But his Eccl. Hist., written without 
 taste or ability, adds nothing to our knowledge of the subject Of 
 much greater value, even in regard of Eccl. Hist., are the numerous 
 *' Scriptores historiae Byzantinoe." To this list we add the name of 
 Simeon Metraphrastes, celebrated in his day as a writer of legends.
 
 THEOLOGICAL SCIENCE. 265 
 
 5. John Damascenus was by far the ablest theologian of the eighth 
 century. For a considerable time he was employed in the service of 
 the Saracens, and died in 700 as Abbot of the Monastery of S. Sabaa 
 at Jerusalem. His admirers gave him the title of Chrysorrhoas ; the 
 Iconoclasts, who at the Council of Constantinople in 754 pronounced a 
 threefold anathema upon him, the Saracen by-name of Mansur. His 
 pri#cipal work, the Ilj^y^ yvwasuj, procured him an imperishable fame, 
 and has been regarded as an authority in the Greek Church. Section I. 
 (xf^a^ia ^aoflo^ixa) forms a dialectic, and Section TI. (rtspJ aipsafcov) a 
 historical introduction to Part III. ("ExSoaij äxptß^j tru 6p^o6o|ou rtCatiuii), 
 in which the various dogmas as propounded by the Councils and the 
 Fathers — especially the three great Cajipadocians — are systematically 
 arranged and presented. The ifpi rtapaxxi^Jui, by the same author, 
 consist of a collection of " loci classici," taken from the writings of the 
 Fathers on doctrinal and ethical subjects, and arranged in alphabetical 
 order. He also wrote controversial tractates against various heretics, 
 and composed a number of hymns (best ed. by le Quien. Par. 1712. 2 
 vols. fob). — Among the numerous works of Photius (§67, 1), the 
 " Bibliotheea" (Mvpioßt'ßxtov) is the most valuable. It contains notices 
 of, and extracts from, 279 Christian and heathen works, of which the 
 greater part have not otherwise been preserved (best ed. by Im. Becker. 
 Berol. 1824. 2 vols. 4). Besides his controversial tractates against the 
 Latins and the Paulicians, the Amphilochia (or replies to above 300 
 theological questions submitted to him by Bishop Amphilochius) also 
 deserve notice, and his Komocanon (§ 43, 3), which has ever since 
 formed the basis of the canon law of the Gi"eek Church. The series 
 of distinguished writers who flourished under the Comnene dynasty 
 commenced with Michael Constantius Psellus, teacher of philoso- 
 phy at Constantinople [oh. 1106), a man whose acquirements were 
 equally varied and deep. Some of his numerous tractates were devoted 
 to theological subjects, though he acquired not fame in that depart- 
 ment. His cotemporary, Theophylact, Archbishop of Achrida, in Bul- 
 garia, has left us very able commentaries, or rather " Catena)." 
 EuTHYMius Zygadenus, a monk of Constantinople, at the commence- 
 ment of the twelfth century, composed, by request of the Emperor 
 Alexnis Comnenus, a work intended to refute all heresies ("Dogmatic 
 Panoply of the Orthodox Faith," in twenty-four books). Although 
 highly praised at the time, it is a mere compilation, whose sole merit 
 lies in its refutation of the heretics of that particular period. The 
 exegetical compilations by the same author are more valuable. Eüsta- 
 THius, Archbishop of Thessalonica [ob. 1194), was the most prominent 
 divine of the twelfth century. He has long been famed as the com- 
 mentator of Homer and Pindar ; but the recent edition of his theological 
 Optts-cula (ed. Tafel. Frcf. 1839, 4), proves that he deserves even higher 
 acknowledgment as a Christian, a divine, a prelate, and a reformer of 
 the ecclesiastical and monkish abuses of his time (§ 70. 4). At the .same 
 23
 
 266 SECTION I. — THIRD PERIOD (692- .453 A. D.j. 
 
 period flourished Nicholas, Bishop of Methone in Messenia, who 
 replied to the attacks of Proclus the Neo-Phitonist, in a tractate which 
 forms one of the ablest theological works of that age. His views on 
 the doctrine of redemption deserve special mention as resembling those 
 of Anselm of Canterbury. Nicetas Acominatus or Choniates, a states- 
 man [oh. 1204), was another distinguished writer of that period. His 
 " Treasury of Orthodoxy," in twenty-seven books, contains a viniica- 
 tion of orthodox doctrine, and a refutation of heretics, much more able 
 and original than the work of Euthymius on the same subject. (Comp. 
 illlmann, "Nie. of Methone, Euthym. Zygabenus and Nicetas Cho- 
 niates," in the "Studien u. Krit." for 1833, P. III.) — During the 
 reign of the Palceologi (1250-1450), theologians were chiefly engaged 
 in advocating or opposing the attempts made at reunion with the 
 Latin Church. Nicholas Cabasilas, Archbishop of Thessalonica, in 
 the fourteenth century, one of the most eminent mystics in the Church, 
 deserves special mention. His principal work, Xlspt f^j iv XpiofiJ!) ^"jjs, 
 has only lately been rescued from oblivion by W. Gass ut supra, vol. II. 
 His mysticism, which is remarkable for its depth and fervour, breathes 
 a spirit of antagonism to the prevailing tendency towards work- 
 righteousness. Still, his " Expositio Missae" proves that he shared the 
 predilection of Greek Mystics for the Liturgy. At a somewhat later 
 period (about 1400) flourished Simeon, Archbishop of Thessalonica, a 
 prelate equally famed for classical and patristic lore, and for the 
 manner in which he administered the affairs of the Church. His great 
 work, " De fide, ritibus et mysteriis ecclesiasticis," is of great import- 
 ance for the study of Greek Medisevalism. Lastly, we may mention 
 Gregorins Scholarius, who as monk bore the name of Gennadius, the 
 first Patriarch of Constantinople after the capture of that city by the 
 Turks. At the Council of Florence he objected to the proposed union ; 
 in the philosophical controversy then raging, he advocated the tradi- 
 tional claims of Aristotle against Plato. At the request of Sultan 
 Mohammed IL, he composed and handed to that monarch a " Professio 
 Fidei." (Comp. Gass ut supra, vol. I.)* 
 
 § 69. DOGMATIC CONTROVERSIES DURING THE TWELFTH 
 AND FOURTEENTH CENTURIES. 
 
 With the taste for intellectual pursuits, that for theological 
 speculations and discussions also revived. During the reign of 
 Manuel Comnenus, 1143-1180, the question was raised, whether 
 Christ had offered Himself a sacrifice for the sins of the world 
 to the Father and to the Holy Ghost only, or also to the Logos, 
 i, e., to Himself. At a synod held at Constantinople in 1156, 
 the latter view was declared to be the orthodox. Ten years 
 later, a controversy arose as to whether the saying of Christ,
 
 DOGMATIC CONTROVERSIES. 26'' 
 
 '• My Father is greater than I," referred to His Divine nature, 
 to His human, or to the union of these two natures. The ques- 
 tion was discussed by persons of all classes, and that with an 
 earnestness and ardour which recalls the kindred controversies iu 
 the fourth century (§ 50, 2). At last the view of the Emperor, 
 that the expression referred to the God-man, carried at the 
 Si/nod of Constantinople in 1166. Those who refused to sub- 
 mit, had their property confiscated or were exiled. A third 
 controversy sprung up when the Emperor Manuel objected to the 
 formula of solemn abjuration, "of (he God of Mohammed,''^ 
 which was exacted from Moslem converts. In vain the bishops 
 proved that the God of Mohammed was not the true God ; the 
 formula had to be altered. — Two centuries later, the Hesychastic 
 controversy broke out, which bore on the existence and reality 
 of an uncreated Divine Light. 
 
 The Hesychastic Controversy (1341-1351). — The monks who inhabited 
 the cloisters on Mount Athos in Thessalia were deeply imbued with 
 the Areopagite mysticism. Following the directions given three cen- 
 turies before by Simeon, Abbot of the Mamas monastery at Constanti- 
 nople, these monks used artificial means to bring themselves into a 
 state of ecstatic vision, which the Areopagite had recommended as the 
 highest stage of genuine mysticism. For this purpose, each cowered 
 alone in a corner of his cell, his chin pressed against his chest, his 
 eyes immovably fixed on the pit of his stomach, and restraining his 
 breath as much as possible. By and by they fell into a state of melan- 
 choly, and their sight became dim ; but by persisting, these sensations 
 gave place to ineffable delight, till at last each saw himself wrapped in 
 a bright halo of glory. They called themselves "Quietists" {rjavxa^ov- 
 tsi), and maintained that the halo which shone around them was the 
 same uncreated Divine Light that on Mount Tabor had surrounded the 
 person of the Saviour. Barlaam (^ 67, 5), who had just returned from 
 his unsuccessful attempt at bringing about a union with the Latin 
 Church, designated these monks as "navel-souls" [ofj.^a'KÖ-i^vxoi) , and 
 charged them and their defender Gregory Palamas, afterwards Arch- 
 bishop of Thessalonica, with Ditheism. But at a Council held at Con- 
 stantinople (in 1341), the members of which were hostile to the efforts 
 made by Barlaam for a union with the West, the doctrine of an uncre- 
 ated Divine Light was approved, and a distinction made betwpoü 'his 
 Divine sj/ipyfia and the Divine ovai'a. To escape being anathemai./.od, 
 Barlaam made recantation; soon afterwards he fled to Italy and joined 
 the Latin Church. But Gregory Acindynos, a pupil of Barlaam, and 
 Nicephoriis Gregoras, the historian, continued the controversy with the 
 Hfisychasts. Three other synods (up to a. d. 1351) pronounced in 
 favour of these monks.
 
 268 SECTION I. — THIRD PERIOD (692—1453 A.D.). 
 
 ^ 70. GOVERNMENT, WORSHIP, AND LIFE. 
 
 The Byzantine emperors had always insisted on imposing their 
 own views or desires as the law according to which even the in- 
 ternal affairs of the Church were to be settled. Being anointed 
 with the holy Myron, they bore the character of priests and the 
 title of aytoj. Besides, since the time of Leo the Philosopher 
 (§ 68, 1), most of the emperors had been more or less versed in 
 theology. Still, the office of Patriarch, when held by a maij of 
 character, was, despite frequent and arbitrary depositions of 
 those who occupied the See of Constantinople, a power which 
 even the despots of the East were obliged to respect. The nume- 
 rous monks — and through them the people — formed a mighty 
 bulwark around the Episcopal Chair. In consequence of the 
 iconoclastic controversies, Theodorus Studita (§ 66, 4) had or 
 ganized the strict churchmen into a party, which strenuously 
 resisted, on principle, every interference of the State in ecclesi- 
 astical affairs, and, among others, the filling up of ecclesiastical 
 offices by the secular power. But these efforts were only at- 
 tended with partial success. The monastic institutions had been 
 almost entirely annihilated under the reign of the Isaurian 
 dynasty. When again restored, they developed, indeed, and 
 spread in proportion to their former decline, but rapidly degene- 
 rated in every sense of the word. The Eastern monks, who had 
 not the great mission, devolving on their brethren in the West, 
 of Christianizing and civilizing bai'barous nations, wanted the 
 opportunities of revival, of strength, and of purification, which 
 this great work afforded to the monks of the Latin Church. 
 Still, if in those degenerate times we were to look for instances 
 of stedfast conviction, of firmness, of boldness, and of moral 
 earnestness, we should in all likelihood find them, if anywhere, 
 among these recluses. The modifications which, during that 
 period, took place in public worship were unimportant, although 
 both in theory and practice slight alterations, or rather amplifi- 
 cations, were introduced. 
 
 1. The Arsenian Schism (1262-1312). — After the death of the Em- 
 peror Theodore Lascaris in 1259, Michael Palceologus usurped the 
 guardianship of John, the imperial Prin"ce, a child only six years old, 
 had himself crowned co-Emperor, and, to render the Prince incapable 
 *f reigning, caused his eyes to be put out. For these crimes, the
 
 GOVERNMENT, WORSHIP, AND MANNERS 260 
 
 Patriarch Arsenius excjmmunicated the Regent ; but was in turn de- . 
 posed and banished (1262). The numerous adherents of Arsenius 
 refused to acknowledge Joseph (g 67, 4) as his successor in the See of 
 Constantinople. They separated from the State Church, and gradually 
 their admiration of the exiled patriarch changed into violent hatred of 
 the prelate who occupied his place. When Joseph died (in 1283), it 
 was agreed to submit the question in dispute to the test of a solemn 
 ordeal. Each of the two parties threw a document, which embodied a 
 defence of their views, into the fire. Of course, both documents were 
 consumed by the flames. At the sight of this, the Arsenians, who had 
 expected a miracle, seemed taken aback, and proposed to fall in with 
 the opposite party. But on the day following, they revoked their con- 
 cessions ; and the schism continued until in 1312, when the Patriarch 
 Niphon solemnly buried the l)oues of Arsenius in the Church of St. 
 Sophia, and suspended for forty days all those clerics who formerly 
 had declared themselves opposed to him. 
 
 2. Public Worship. — In the Greek Church the sermon still formed 
 the principal part in the public services ; but the homiletic productions 
 of that period are not of a character to deserve special notice. In the 
 service of song, a revulsion of feeling took place ; and gradually unin- 
 spired hymns, especially those in honour of the Virgin and of the 
 Baints, were introduced into the Church services. The best specimens 
 of this kind of composition date from the eighth century. John Damas- 
 cenus, Cosmas of Jerusalem, and Theophanes of Nice, were regarded as 
 the three great aytot ix^Xi^oi. The number of the sacraments and their 
 import had not yet been accurately defined. An enumeration of seven 
 sacraments — the same as that adopted by the Latin Church during the 
 middle ages — occurs first in the anti-protestant " Confessio Orthodoxa" 
 of Petrus Mogilas, dating from a. d. 1643. In contradistinction to the 
 Western Church, the Greeks insisted on the necessity of submersion in 
 baptism, of the chrisma in baptism, of the use of leavened bread in 
 the Eucharist, and of giving both elements to the laity. John Damas- 
 cenus still defended the doctrine of consubstantiation in the Eucharist, 
 but later divines adopted that of transubstantiation. Extreme unction 
 was administered in the Greek Church ; but, unlike the practice in the 
 Church of Rome, not merely to those who were in articulo m.ortis, but 
 even to persons who were not dangerously ill, while, in case of a re- 
 lapse, the rite was repeated. 
 
 3. Monasticism. — The most renowned monasteries were those on 
 Mount Athos in Thessalia, which was literally covered with cloisters 
 and cells of hermits, and which to this day is venerated by the Greek 
 Church as a holy mountain and place of pilgrimage. The monastery 
 of Studion was also (| 44, 4) still in high repute. — But the Eastern 
 monks were not free from extravagances. There were innumerable 
 Sti/lites who spent their lives on the top of trees [SevSpi-tai) in close 
 
 23*
 
 270 SECTION I. THIRD PERIOD (692— 1453 A. D.j. 
 
 cages built upon high scaffoldings, or in subterranean caves. Some 
 took a vow of perpetual silence, while many wore constantly a coat of 
 iron {aiSripovfitvoi,), etc. A curious species of religious exercises waa 
 that in which the Ecetes [ixffat.) of the twelfth century indulged. 
 These monks engaged, along with nuns who held similar views, in 
 solemn dances, and singing of hymns to the praise of God, in imitation 
 of Ex. XV. 20, 21. They were sound in doctrine, nor do they appear 
 to have been charged with immorality ; still, Nicetas Acominatua 
 combatted them as heretics. 
 
 4. Reforinaiory Efforts. — At the commencement of the twelfth cent., 
 Consianfimis Chrysomalus, a pious monk of Constantinople, and ten 
 years afterwards another monk called Niplion, combated the prevail- 
 ing tendency towards externalism and work-righteousness. Both be- 
 came the leaders of wide-spread associations of clerics and laymen, who, 
 under their spiritual direction, cultivated, as mystics, the inner reli- 
 gious life, but set lightly by outward ecclesiastical forms. The two 
 monks were excommunicated. The Patriarch Cosmos, who would not 
 admit that Niphon was a heretic, and indeed asked him to share his 
 palace and table, was likewise deposed (in 1150). The reformatory 
 efforts made by Eustatliius, the distinguished Archbishop of Thessalo- 
 nica (I 68, 5), were entirely free from direct opposition to the prevail- 
 ing ecclesiastical system, and hence offered no ground of attack to his 
 enemies. He inveighed unsparingly against the moral and religious 
 decay prevalent among the people, and especially against the hypo- 
 crisy, the vulgarity, coarseness, spiritual pride, and ascetic extrava- 
 gances of the monks, and that although himself was enthusiastically 
 devoted to Monasticism. Two centuries after him, Nicholas Cabasilas 
 [I 68, 5), a man of like spirit, insisted even more energetically that 
 the state of the heart and mind was the test, and love the root, of all 
 virtue. 
 
 §71. GNOSTIC AND MANICHiEAN HERETICS. 
 
 Comp. Gieseler, Unters, ä. d. Gesch. d. Paulicianer (Inquiry into the 
 Hist, of the Paulic), in the " Stud. u. Krit." for 1827, P. l. — Engel- 
 hardt, d. Bogomilen, in that author's " Kirchengesch. Abhandl." Er 
 lang. 1832. 
 
 So latß as the seventh century traces of the Gnostic and Mani- 
 chaean heresies seem to have lingered in Armenia and Syria, 
 where such views were fostered by contiguity to the Parsees. 
 These embers were in 657 fanned afresh by Gonstantinus of Ma- 
 nanalis ne3ir Samosata, whose doctrinal views were almost iden- 
 tical with those of Marcion (§ 28, 10). The Catholics, whom 
 this sect called " Romans," gave them the name of Paulicians»
 
 GNOSTIC AND MANICn^AN HERETICS. 271 
 
 because they only acknowledged the apostolic authority of Paul. 
 But they designated themselves "Christians," and gave their 
 leaders and congregations the titles of the companions of Paul, 
 and of the places wiiere he had laboured. Their system was a 
 mixture of Mysticism, whicli aimed after the cultivation of the 
 "inner life," with Dualism, Demiurgism, and Docetism. They 
 insisted on strict, though not on excessive asceticism, opposed 
 fasts, and allowed marriage. Their form of worship was very 
 simple, and their church government modelled after that of 
 apostolic times. Tliey specially protested against the many 
 ceremonies of the Catholic Church, and against the religious' 
 honour paid to images, relics, and saints. They also enjoined 
 diligent study of the Scriptures, but rejected what they called the 
 Judteo-Christian Gospels and Epistles of the N. T. — Even before 
 the Paulicians, another sect, called the "Children of the Sun," 
 had appeared in Armenia, which sought to combine the worship 
 of Ormuzd with certain Christian elements. Reorganized during 
 the ninth and tenth cents., this sect acquired fresh influence. 
 Like the Paulicians, they protested against the abuses in the 
 Catholic Church. — The same remark applies also to the Eu- 
 CHITES, a sect in Thracia (during the eleventh cent.), which, like 
 their older namesakes (§ 44, 5), derived their name from engaging 
 continuously in prayer, a practice which they extolled as the 
 indication of highest perfection. Their Dualistic and Gnostic 
 views were adopted and further developed by the Boqomiles 
 (lovers of God, friends of God), a sect in Bulgaria (in the twelfth 
 cent.X The latter maintained that two principles — Satanael, 
 the elder, and Christ, the younger Son of God — had emanated 
 from the Supreme God. Originally, Satanael had also been a 
 good ^on ; but having revolted, he had created the terrestrial 
 world and man. In mercy the Supreme God had breathed into 
 man the breath of his own Divine life, and sent Christ, the 
 younger JEon, for the purpose of completely redeeming him. 
 The sect prohibited marriage, rejected the use of images and the 
 sign of the cross, but attached great importance to fasting. The 
 only portions of the Old Test, which they received, were the 
 writings of the Prophets and the Book of Psalms. The Gospel 
 of John they regarded as the highest revelation. In room of 
 the water-baptism they substituted that of the Spirit, and also 
 rejected the celebration of Eucharist ; and in place of those rites, 
 Uiid great stress on prayer, especially on the Lord's Prayer. —
 
 272 SECTION I. — THIRD PERIOD (692— U53 A.D.) 
 
 All these sects were charged by their Catholic opponents with 
 holding Antinoraian principles, and with indulging in orgiea 
 and unnatural vices. 
 
 1. The Paulicions (657-1115). — The Catholic controversial writers of 
 the ninth cent, traced the sect of the Paulicians, and even their name 
 {= XlavJ^-olwavi/oi), to a Manichsean family of the fourth cent., — CallinicU 
 a vridow, and her two sons, Paul and John. But later investigations 
 have failed to discover any traces of Manichsean tenets in their system ; 
 and the only historical fact established is, that the sect vras founded by 
 Constantinvs of Mananalis, who took the name of Sylvanus (the com- 
 panion of Paul). Their first community, which he called " Macedonia," 
 was established at Cibossa in Armenia. From that place Constantinua 
 undertook missionary journeys in all directions. The Emperor Constan- 
 tiniis Pogomiatii.i (668-685) commenced a bloody persecution of the 
 Paulicians. But the enthusiasm with which Sylvanus met death by 
 stoning made so deep an impression on Symeon, the imperial represen- 
 tative, that he also joined the sect, and taking the name of Tifvs, be- 
 came its leader. In 690 he mounted the stake with the same enthusi- 
 asm as Sylvanus. Gegnesius, his successor (surnamed Timoihetts), was 
 summoned to Constantinople under the reign of Leo the Isavrian. 
 Subjected to an examination by the Patriarch, he succeeded in obtain- 
 ing from him a certificate of orthodoxy, and was also furnished by the 
 Emperor (who sympathized in his hostility to images) with a letter of 
 protection. The sect, however, became divided. Baanes, one of their 
 leaders, was, on account of his Antinomian practices, styled "the filthy" 
 (o ^vrtapo?). But about 801 a new reformer arose in the person of Ser- 
 givs Tychicus, who late in life was converted by the instrumentality of 
 a pious Paulician female, who directed his attention to the Bible. Leo 
 the Armenian (813-820) organized an expedition for their so-called con- 
 version. Those who recanted, were again received into the Church, 
 those who resisted were executed. A number of Paulicians now com- 
 bined against their persecutors, killed them, and sought refuge in Sa- 
 racen territory, where they founded a military colony at Argavn (Co- 
 losse). Thence they made continual incursions into the Byzantine 
 territory, for the double purpose of pillage and of avenging their wrongs. 
 The sect was most numerous in Asia Minor. Under the reign of the 
 Empress Theodora (? 66, 4), another fearful persecution broke out. 
 Thousands of Paulicians were executed ; among others, an officer high 
 in command. Ilis son Carbeas, who had also been an officer, now col- 
 lected about 5000 Paulicians, by whose aid he hoped to avenge the 
 death of his parent, retired with them to Argaun, and acted as the 
 military chief of the party. Their number daily increased by the 
 accession of other fugitives, and the Khalifs assigned to them some for- 
 tified towns on the frontier. At the head of a well-organized army, 
 Carbeas carried fire and sword into the Byzantitie territory, and
 
 GNOSTIC AND MANICH^AN HERETICS. 273 
 
 repeatedly put imperial armies to flight. At last, after two campaigns, 
 Basil the Macedonian annihilated the Paulician army in a narrow 
 defile (871). The political power of the sect was indeed broken, but 
 it continued to spread both in Syria and Asia Minor. A century later 
 (in 970), the Emperor John Tzimisces transported a large number of 
 them to Thracia to guard its boundaries, where Philippopolis became 
 their Zion. Their tenets rapidly spread through that country. Alexius 
 Comneniis again addressed himself to the task of converting them to 
 Catholic views. He went in person to Philippopolis, disputed for days 
 with their leaders, and by promises, threats, rewards, or punishments, 
 as each case required, carried his purpose (1115). After that, the sect 
 seems to have become extinct. Those who continued to entertain their 
 views probably joined the Euchites or the Bogomiles. — The principal 
 authority for the history of the Paulicians is the " Hist. Manichaeorum" 
 of Petrus Ciculus, who, as imperial ambassador, had lived for some time 
 among the Paulicians of Armenia. 
 
 2. The so-called ''Children of the Sun," or Arevurdi's, an Armenian 
 sect, originated in the ninth cent, with Sembai, a Paulician. They also 
 bore the name of Thonfrakians, from the village of Thontrake, where 
 their church was formed. In 1002 no less a personage than the Metro- 
 politan, Jacob of Harhh, joined them. He gave a more distinctively 
 Christian cast to their tenets, journeyed- through the country preaching 
 repentance and inveighing against work-righteousness, and made nu- 
 merous converts both among the clergy and laity. The Catholics of 
 the Armenian Church had him branded and imprisoned. He escaped, 
 but was ultimately killed by his opponents. 
 
 3. At the commencement of the eleventh cent, the Euchites [Messa- 
 lians, Enthusiasts) attracted the attention of the Government, their 
 opinions having widely spread in Thracia. Their tenets about two 
 Sons of God, Satanael and Christ, are in some respects akin to that 
 form of Parsee Dualism which represents the two antagonistic princi- 
 ples, Ormuzd and Ahriman, as proceeding from Zeruane Akerene, the 
 one Supreme and Eternal Source. The seeds of this heresy may have 
 been brought to Thracia when the Emperor Tzimisces transported the 
 Paulicians to that province. The Byzantine Government sent a deputy 
 to arrest the progress of this heresy (perhaps Michael Psellvs (| 68, 5), 
 whose öiäxoyoj rtf pt £Df pyf laj bai^ovuiv — Ed. Nuremberg 1838 — is our 
 only authority about this sect). But a century afterwards, the same 
 tenets were again broached in Bulgaria by the Bogomiles (^fd^aot.), 
 only more fully developed, and assuming the form of more direct oppo- 
 sition to the Catholic Church. The Emperor Alexius Comnenus had 
 Basil, the chief of the party, brought to Constantinople, and, under 
 pretext of intending to join the sect, induced him to communicate its 
 tenets. But while Basil unreservedly opened his mind to the monarch, 
 tts he thought in strict confidence, a conclave of inquisitors sat cop-
 
 274 SECTION I. — THIRD PERIOD (692— 1453 A. D,). 
 
 cealed behind a curtain, and noted down his every etatement. Thia 
 first scene of the comedy was followed by another. All the adherents 
 of Basil, on whom the Government could lay hands, were condemned 
 to death. Two stakes were lighted, to one of which a cross was affixed. 
 The Emperor now entreated them at least to die as Christians, and in 
 sign of it to choose the stake at which the cross had been erected. 
 Those who complied were pardoned, the others condemned to imprison- 
 ment for life. Basil alone was burnt (1119). Still the sect was not 
 annihilated. Many of the Bogomiles sought refuge in monasteries, 
 where they propagated their views in secret. — Indeed, long after that, 
 adherents of Manichaean views were found in Bulgaria, whence they 
 spread their views in the West. Our principal source of information 
 about the Bogomiles is the Panoplia of Euthymius {§ 68, 5). 
 
 I 72. THE ORTHODOX SCLAVONIC-GREEK CHURCHES. 
 
 Comp. /. Ph. Fallmerayer, Gesch. d. Halbinsel Morea im M. A. (Hist, 
 of the Penins. of Morea during the M. A.). Stuttg. 1830. Vol. I.— P.J. 
 Schafarik, slav. Alterthllmer (Slav. Antiq.). Vol. II. Leipz. 1844; that 
 author's kurze Uebers. d. altest. kirchenslav. Liter. (Brief Survey of 
 the Old Slay. Eccl. Liter.). Leipz. 1848. — Nestor's Annalen, transl. 
 by Schlozer. Gott. 1802. 5 vols. — Karamsin's russ. Gesch., transl. by 
 HavenscliUd. Riga 1820. 11 vols. — Ph. Strahl, Gesch. d. russ. K. Halle 
 1830. Vol. I. (incompl.). — S; /. Schmitt (Rom. Cath.), krit. Gesch. d. 
 neugriech. u. russ. K. Mayence 1840. — Hefele, d. russ. K., in the Tu- 
 bing. Quarterly, 1853. P. III. — Jfo?(ra«;?;e, in Hist, of the Ch. of Russia, 
 transl. by Blackmore. Oxford 1842. — /. Dohroivsky, Cyrill u. Methodius. 
 Prague IS23. —Philaret, Cyrill u. Methodius. Mitau 1847.—/.^. Gi^izel, 
 Gesch. d. Slavenap. Cyrill u. Method, u. d. slav. Liturgie. Leitm. 1857. 
 
 Among the various races set in motion when the Western 
 Empire was broken up, the Germaris and Slavonians were des- 
 tined to become the principal actors in the history of the world. 
 The Germanic tribes joined the Roman Catholic Church ; and 
 at first it seemed as if the Slavonic race generally would equally 
 connect itself with the orthodox Byzantine Church. Ultimately, 
 however, only the Eastern Slavonic countries continued in their 
 adherence to this communion. Most of them were, about the 
 Bame period as the Byzantine Church, brought under the yoke 
 of Turkish dominion. This remark applies especially to the 
 Church of Bulgaria, which at one time enjoyed so bright pros- 
 pects. In proportion to these losses, was the accession made to 
 the Greek Church by the conversion of the Rusaian nation. The 
 political importance attacliing to that empire, which, after having 
 for two centuries (1223-1481) groaned under the yoke of the
 
 ORTHODOX SLAVONIC-GREEK CHURCHES. 27-'} 
 
 Mongols, rapidly grew both in extent and power, proved of great 
 advantage to the Greek Church. It is due to the Russians that 
 at this moment the orthodox Greek almost equals in numbers and 
 influence the Romish Church. 
 
 1. Not long after the time of Justinian, Slavonic tribes made irrup- 
 tions into iVacedonia, Tliessalia, Hellas, and the Peloponnesus. The 
 ancient Hellenic population of those countries was almost entirely 
 exterminated; and Greek nationality and the profession of Christianity 
 continued to exist only in the fortified towns, especially in those along 
 the sea-coast and on the islands. The Empress Irene was the first suc- 
 cessfully to attempt nuiking those new inhabitants of Greece subject 
 both to Christianity and to the Byzantine Empire. Basil the Mace- 
 donian (867-886) completed this effort, and that so effectually, that 
 even the ancient heathen Mainols (^ 42, 3) in the Peloponnesus sub- 
 mitted. Mount Athos, with its hermits and monasteries (^ 70, 3), 
 became the Zion of the new Church. 
 
 2. About 850 the Chazars in the Crimea sent to Constantinople for 
 Christian missionaries. The Court readily complied ; and dispatched 
 on this errand Constantinus, surnamed the philosopher, but better 
 known by the name of Cyrillus, which he bore as a monk. He was a 
 native of Thessalonica, and perhaps himself of Slavonic descent : at 
 any rate, he knew the Slavonic language. In the course of a few yfars 
 he succeeded in converting the great majority of the people. In l'.'lö 
 the empire of the Chazars was swept away by the Russians. 
 
 3. The Bulgarians of Thracia and Moesia had obtained their first 
 knowledge of Christianity through some Greek captives ; but the first 
 germs of a Christian Church were suppressed in a bloody persecution 
 Not long afterwards, however, a sister of Bogoris, King of Bulgaria, 
 was baptized at Constantinople during her captivity in that city. After 
 her liberation, she sought, with the assistance of the Byzantine monk 
 Methodius, a brother of Cyrill, to convert her brother to the Christian 
 faith. The providential occurrence of a famine, and a representation 
 of the Last Judgment painted 1)y Methodius, made a deep impression 
 on the mind of Bogoris. He was baptized, and obliged his subjects to 
 follow his example (861), Soon after this, both Methodius and Ci/rill 
 were called to another field of labour (to Moravia, § 79), and in 866 
 the Czar of Bulgaria joined from political motives the Western Church. 
 At his request. Pope Nicholas I. sent bishops and priests to Bulgaria, 
 to organize the Church of that country in conformity with Romish 
 usages. However, Byzantine diplomacy recalled the Bulgarians to 
 their first allegiance ; and at the Council of Constantinople (869) their 
 representatives were readily convinced that, both according to the law 
 -^f God and of man, the Church (£ Bulgaria was subject to th^ eeclesi-
 
 270 SECTION I. — THIRD PERIOD (692— 1453 A. D.) . 
 
 astical jurisdiction of the Patriarch of Constantinople (| 67, 1). Since 
 that time the Bulgarians remained attached to the Greek Church 
 Meantime Cyrill and Methodius, the two apostles of the Slavonians, 
 had invented a Slavonian alphabet, and translated both the Bible and 
 the Liturgy into the vernacular ; thus laying the foundation for an 
 ecclesiastical literature in that tongue, which rapidly sprung up, espe- 
 cially in Bulgaria, under the fostering care of the noble Czar Symeon 
 (888-927). The tenth century formed the golden age of the Bulgarian 
 Church ; though at that period the Bogomile heresy (§ 71, 3) made sad 
 havoc. In 1018 Basil IL conquered Bulgaria. 
 
 4. The conversion of the Russians to Christianity is mentioned even 
 by Photius. Under the reign of the Grand Duke Igor, Kiev seems to 
 have had a cathedral. Olya, the widow of Igor, undei-took a journey 
 to Constantinople, where she was baptized in 955, and took the name 
 of Helena. But Svcetoslav, her son, refused to follow her example. 
 According to the statement of German chroniclers, the aged princess 
 ultimately requested the Emperor Otfo I. to send Gernwin missionaries 
 to Russia. Adalbert of Treves, afterwards Archbishop of Magdeburg, 
 followed this call ; but retui-ned without having achieved any result, 
 his companions having been murdered by the way. It was reserved 
 for Vladimir the Apostolic, the grandson of Olga, to eradicate the hea- 
 thenism still rampant among his people. According to a somewhat 
 romantic legend, that monarch had dispatched ten Boiars in order to 
 examine the rites of the various churches. The envoys seem to have 
 been captivated with the splendid rites which they witnessed in the 
 Church of St. Sophia at Constantinople. In 988 Vladimir was baptized 
 in the ancient Christian commercial city of Cherson, which the Russians 
 had lately taken. He took in baptism the name of Basil, and was at 
 'the same time married to the imperial Princess Aivia. In every place 
 the idols were now broken in pieces and burnt ; the great image of 
 Peroon was tied to the tail of a horse, dragged through the streets, 
 broken with clubs, and thrown into the Dnieper. Soon afterwards the 
 inhabitants of Kiev were ordered to assemble on the bank of the 
 Dnieper in order to be baptized. AHadimir was on his knees by the 
 river-side praying and thanking God, while the clergy, standing on 
 floats, administered the sacred rite to the people. Anna proved very 
 useful in encouraging and directing the organization of the Russian 
 Church. Vladimir died in 1015. His son Jaroslav proved in Russia 
 another Justinian. He erected many churches, monasteries, and schools 
 throughout the country,, introduced improvements in the mode of cele- 
 brating public worship, es]>ecially in church music ; awakened a taste 
 for art, and zealously promoted scientific pursuits. Russian national 
 literature was first cultivated in the monastery of Kiev, where a native 
 ?lergy was also trained. There, at the close of the eleventh century, 
 Kestor composed his "Annals" in the Russian language. The spiritual
 
 THE HERETICAli CHURCHES OF THE EA6T. 2/7 
 
 Buperintendence of the Church was committed to the Metropolitan of 
 Kiev, who in turn was under the jurisdiction of the Patriarch of Con- 
 stantinople. In 1328 both the metropolitan see and the seat of govern- 
 ment were transferred to Moscow. But when Kiev became subject to 
 Lithuanian princes, and the latter joined the Latin Church (Jagello 
 1380), Kiev was elevated to the rank of a metropolitan see for the pro- 
 vinces of Southern Russia, independent of the See of Moscow (1415). 
 By dint of Polish and Jesuit intrigues, a union was brought about 
 between that Church and the Papal See at the Synod of ßrzenc in 
 1594. — Isidore, the Metropolitan of Moscow, also attended the Synod 
 held at Florence in 1439, where a union with Rome was agreed upon 
 (comp. ^ 67, 6), and acceded to the resolutions of that assembly. He 
 returned as Cardinal and Papal Legate. But at a council held in Mos- 
 cow the union was disavowed ; Isidore was imprisoned, but escaped 
 and died at Rome in 1403. After that, the Metropolitan of Moscow 
 continued subject to the jurisdiction of the See of Constantinople till 
 1589, when, during a visit to Moscow, the Patriarch Jeremiah II. was 
 induced to declare the Russian Church independent, and to set apart 
 Job, at that time Metropolitan of Moscow, to be its first Patriarch. 
 
 § 73. THE HERETICAL CHURCHES OF THE EAST. 
 
 The Nestorian and Monophysite churches of the East main- 
 tained their independence chiefly through the protection and 
 favour accorded them by the Moslem rulers. At the period of 
 which we write, the Persian and Syrian Nestorians, but especially 
 the Armenian Monophysites, displayed considerable literary acti- 
 vity and zeal in the prosecution of theological and other studies. 
 They initiated the Saracens in classical, philosophical, and medi- 
 cal lore, and made many contributions to theological literature. 
 For a long time the Nestorians continued also their missionary 
 efforts. The decay of these churches, however, commenced 
 when the rule of the Khalifs, who had encouraged intellectual 
 pursuits, gave place to Mongol and Turkish barbarism. The 
 period of learning and brilliancy was followed by that dnlness 
 and deadness which has ever since prevailed. To complete the 
 reunion with the East, inaugurated at the Synod of Florence, 
 Rome soon afterwards proclaimed that all the heterodox churches 
 of the East had likewise returned to their allegiance to the Chair 
 of St. Peter. But this union proved in the end either a delusion 
 or a deception. Pretended delegates from these churches so- 
 lemnly applied for readmission into the bosom of the Church — 
 % request which was accorded with due pomp and formality. 
 24
 
 278 SECTION I. — THIRD PERIOD (692— 1453 A.D.;. 
 
 1. The Persian Nestorians (^ 64, 2) always continued on excelleni 
 ter;ns with their Khalif rulers — a circumstance chiefly due to their 
 opposition to the notion of a "mother of God," and to their rejection 
 of the worship of saints, images and relics, and of priestly celibacy. 
 Accordingly, the Khalifs regarded theirs as a kind of rational Chris- 
 tianity which approximated the Moslem ideal. The Nestorian schools 
 of Edessa, Nisibis, Seleucia, etc., were in a very flourishing state. But 
 the extensive literature which issued from these seats of learning has 
 not been handed down, and only fragments of it have been preserved 
 in the work of Assemamis (Bibl. Orientalis). Of later Nestorian 
 authors the best known is Ebed-Jesu, the Metropolitan of Nisibis {ob. 
 1318). His writings treat of every department in theology. The 
 missionary labours of the Nestorians continued unabated till the thir- 
 teenth century. China and India were the fields to which their ener- 
 gies were principally directed. In the eleventh century they induced 
 the Chief of the Kerait, a Tartar tribe, and most of his subjects to 
 embrace Christianity. As vassal of the great Chinese Empire, that 
 prince bore the title of Ovang-Khan. Tidings of this conversion, 
 adorned with the most romantic details, reached the West, where won- 
 derful stories about the power and glory of the supposed " Priest-Kiiix) 
 John" were circulated. The mistake may have arisen from confound- 
 ing the title Khan with the Chaldee Kahanah (a priest), and the name 
 Ovang with Johannes. — When Chinghis-Khan, the Mongol, put an end 
 to the rule of the Khalifs (1202), the Nestorian Church also declined. 
 For a time, indeed, the Nestorians were allowed to carry on missionary 
 labours among the Mongols, and not without success. But Tamerlane, 
 that scourge of Asia (13(39-1405), confined them within the inaccessi- 
 ble mountains and glens of the province of Kurdistan. 
 
 2. The most influential and important among the Monophysite churches 
 was that of Armenia (^ 64, 3). This country enjoyed, at least for a 
 period, political independence, under the rule of native monarchs. 
 Since the twelfth century, the Armenian Patriarch resided in the 
 monastery of Edgemiadzin, at the foot of Mount Ararat. That church 
 attained its highest stage of literary eminence — both in the way of 
 furnishing translations of the classics and the Fathers, and of producing 
 original works — during the eighth, and again during the twelfth 
 centuries. The former of these periods was adorned by writers such 
 as the Patriarch John Ozniensis and the Metropolitan Stephen of Sunic, 
 In the twelfth century flourished men of even greater distinction, such 
 as the Patriarch Nerses Clajensis (whose epos, "Jesus the Son," was 
 celebrated as the finest specimen of Armenian poetry), and his nephew 
 the Metropolitan Nerses of Lampron. The two latter would have 
 readily acceded to a union with the Byzantine Church ; but the prO' 
 posal could not be carried out on account of the political troubles of 
 the time. Advances towards a union with the Latin Church were 
 frequently made since */he thirteenth century, but failed, from tho
 
 THE HERETICAL CHURCHES OF THE EAST. 279 
 
 aversion towards the Romish ritual entertained by the Armenians. — 
 At one time the Jacobite-Syrian Church (^ 52, 7) also was zealously 
 engaged in prosecuting theological studies. The most distinguished 
 ornament of that Church was Gregory Abulfaradsch, the son of a 
 Jewish convert — hence commonly called Barhebrceus — who first occu- 
 pied the See of Guba, and afterwards became Maphrian of Mosul [oh. 
 1286). His generous philanthropy, his high mental endowments, his 
 extraordinary learning, and his medical skill, made him equally 
 respected by Christians, Mohammedans, and Jews. The most im- 
 portant and the best known of his writings is the " CJironicon Syria- 
 cxim." — The Jacobite Church of Egypt stood probably lowest among 
 Christian communities. The treason of the Copts, by which the 
 Saracens were put in possession of that flourishing country, met with a 
 terrible retribution. Even the Fatimide Khalifs (since 1254) oppressed 
 them, and their position was considerably aggravated under Mameluke 
 domination. The Copts wholly disappeared from the towns, and even 
 in villages the sect dragged on a miserable existence. Ecclesiastically, 
 they sunk into a state of entire deadness. — Though Abyssinia Proper 
 continued to be ruled by native princes, the Church in that country 
 gradually declined .to a very low level (^ 64, 1). 
 
 3. During the Crusades, the Maronites (§ 52, 8) joined, in 1182, the 
 Church of Rome. They abjured their monothelete errors, acknowledged 
 the supremacy of the Pope, but were allowed to retain their ancient 
 rites. This union was confirmed in 1445 (in consequence of the move- 
 ment in connection with the Council of Florence). At a later period, 
 they also adopted the decrees of the Council of Trent. The united Ar- 
 menians recognized the primacy of the Pope and the Catholic dogma, 
 but reserved their own constitution and liturgy.
 
 SECOND SECTION. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH 
 
 MEDIEVAL AND GERMANIC FORM OF 
 DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 24* (281)
 
 SOURCES. 
 
 Sources (comp. | 4) : Maxima Biblioth. Patrum. Lugd. 1677. 27 
 Voll. fol. — J. P. Migne, Patrologiae cursus completus. Par. 1844. Series 
 II. Eccl. Lat. 220 \o\\.— W.Wattenbac]i,d.e\iisc\\Q GeschichtschreiMr 
 in M. A. Berl. 1873. 
 
 Lahb6, Nova Biblioth. manuscr. Par. 1657. 2 Voll, fol.— -ff. Canisii 
 Lectiones ant., ed. J. Basnage. Ant. 1725. 5 Voll. fol. — L.d'Achery 
 Spicilegium. Par. 1655. 13 Voll. fol. — St. Baluzii Miscellanea. Par. 
 1678. 7 Voll. fol. — E. Marlene et Durandi, Vett. Scriptt. ampliss. col- 
 lectio. Frcf. 1720. 12 Voll. 
 
 J. Pistorii Scr. rer. German., ed. B. G. Struve. Ratisb. 1726. 3 Voll, 
 fol. — M. FreJieri, Scr. rer. German., ed. B. G. Struve. Argent. 1717. 3 
 Voll. f. — Melch. Goldast, Rer. Alemann, scriptt. ed. H. 0. Senckenberg. 
 Frcf. 1730. 3 Voll. f. — H. J. G. Eccard, Corpus Historic, medii sevi. 
 Lps. 1723. 2 Voll. f. — /. B. Mencken, Scr. rer. German. Lips. 1728. 3 
 Voll. M.~G. H. Pcrtz, Monumenta Germaniae hist, Ilann. 1826 sq. 22 
 Voll. fol. — J. Fr. Böhmer, Regesta chronol. Diplom. Frcf. 1831 sq. — 
 M. G. Haimingsfeld, QoW. Const. Impevialium. Frcf. 1713 i. — A.du 
 
 Chesne, Hist. Franc. Scr. Par. 1633. 5 VoU. io\. — M.Bonquet,'RQr. 
 Gallic. Script. Par. 1736. 17 Voll. fol. — L. A. Muratwi, Rer. Italic. 
 
 Script. Mediol. 1723. 28 Voll. fol. — Florez, Espagna sagrada. Madr 
 
 1743. 46 Voll. 4. — M. Parker, Rer. Brit. Scr. vetust. Lugd. 1587 fol.— 
 
 Th. Gale, Hist. Brit. Saxon. Anglodan. Scr. Oxon. 1691. 2 Voll. fol. — 
 
 H.Wharton, Anglia sacra. Lond. 1691. 2 Voll. f. 
 
 J. Hartzheim, Concilia Germaniae. Colon. 1759. 11 Voll. f. — A.J. 
 
 Biiderim, pragm. Gesch. d. deutsch. National-, Prov.- u. Diöc- Con- 
 
 cilien. May. 1835. 6 Vols.—/. Sirmond, Concilia ant. Gallise, Par. 1629. 
 
 5 Voll. f. — D. Wdkins, cone. Britaniae et Hibernise. Lond. 1737. 4 Voll. 
 
 — J. Saenz de Augirre, Coll. max. Concill. Hisp. Rom. 1693. 4 Voll. fol. 
 Auxiliaries: Fr. Rehrn, Gesch. d. M. A. (Hist, of the Middle Ag.). 
 
 Marb. 1821. 3 Vols, in 7 Parts. — if. Leo, Gesch. d. M. A. Halle 1830. 
 
 — Heeren v. Ukert, europ. Staatengesch. Hamb. 1828. — H. Luden, Gesch. 
 
 d. deutsch. Volkes (Hist, of the Germ. Nat.). Gotha 1825. 12 Vols.— 
 
 J. Chr. V. Pßster, Gesch. d. Deutsch. Hamb. 1829. 5 Vols.— TF. Giese- 
 
 brecht, Gesch. d. deutsch. Kaiserzeit. Vols. I. andllLBraunschw. 1855, 
 
 etc. — Hallam, Middle Ages. 11 ed. London 1855. 
 
 F. C. V. Savigny, Gesch. d. röm. Rechts im M. A. (Hist, of Rom. 
 
 Law in the M. A.). 2d ed. Heidelb. 1834. 6 Vols. — iT. F.Eichhorn, 
 
 (283)
 
 284 CHARACTER, ETC., OF THIS PHASE 
 
 deutsche Staats- u. Rechtsgesch. 5th ed. Göttg. 1844. 4 Vols.— J'. Walter, 
 deutsche Rechtsgesch. Bonn 1857. — J. Grimm, deutsche Rechtsalter- 
 thümer (Jurid. Antiq. of Germ.). 3d ed. Gott. 1854. 2 Vols. — Z. Sim- 
 rock, Handb. d, deutsch. Mythol. mit Einschluss d. nord. (Handb. of 
 Germ. Mythol., including that of the North). Bonn 1855. — /. Grimm, 
 deutsche Mythol. 3. A. Göttg. 1854. 2 Bde. 
 
 §74. CHARACTER AND EXTENT OF THIS PHASE OF 
 DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 A new stage in the development both of the Church and the 
 world commenced with the appearance of the Germanic nations 
 on the scene of history. In its influence on the character and 
 direction of general history, and on the agencies brought to bear 
 upon its course, the migration of nations is a unique event. 
 Without ignoring the special influence exerted by the various 
 Slavonic races, which made their appearance at a somewhat later 
 period, it cannot be denied that they were soon drawn in the 
 same or in an analogous direction with that of the Germanic 
 tribes. This event must therefore be regarded as forming the 
 boundary line between the ancient and the modern world. But 
 the separation between the past and the coming development 
 was not at once complete ; tendencies at work in the old world 
 continued for centuries to make themselves felt along with, and 
 by the side of, those which characterized the commencement of a 
 new era. Hence, though in part beyond the sphere of the 
 history which now commenced, they cannot be left unnoticed, 
 since — for good or for evil — they exercised an important 
 influence. 
 
 As the general history of the Church and world, so that of 
 the Germanic nations, may be divided into ancient and modern, 
 bounded and separated by the great Reformation of the six- 
 teenth century. The former of these periods may not inaptly 
 be likened to the figure of Janus — one face being directed 
 towards the ancient, the other towards the modern world. We 
 account for this from the circumstance, that the mental develop- 
 ment of Germanic and Slavonic nations was not the slow and 
 painful result of personal and unaided labour. They inherited 
 what had been acquired by the ancient world, and were thus 
 enabled more rapidly and surely to attain their own peculiar 
 and independent position and culture. As the ancient Roman 
 Churf h (and, so far as one important branch of the Slavonic
 
 CHARACTER, ETC., OF THIS PHASE, 285 
 
 tribes was concerned, the ancient Byzantine also) was the raediura 
 through which this inheritance was conveyed, it became the 
 teacher and schoolmaster of the world. But this tutelage could 
 not be permanent. Having attained and being conscious of hia 
 maturity, the pupil broke these leading-strings. At the Reforma- 
 tion the Germanic spirit attained its majority and became eman- 
 cipated. — Thus, taking a general and broad view of it, this first 
 stage in German ecclesiastical and secular history occupies a 
 sort of intermediate position, and is therefore rightly designated 
 as that of the Middle Ages. 
 
 1. The ecclcisiastical history of the Middle Ages forms, as even ita 
 name indicates, a period of transition from the old to the new. Chris- 
 tianity had fully passed through the stages of culture peculiar to the 
 ancient Greek and Roman world, and made them its own. It was now 
 destined to pervade the forms of life and culture characteristic of those 
 modern nations whom the migration of nations had brought to the 
 foreground of history. But in order to attain the stage of culture for 
 which they were fitted and designed, these peoples had first to be 
 brought under the influence of the ancient culture. Thus a period 
 intervened which, while forming a link of connection between the 
 ancient and modern world, brought the stages of culture characteristic 
 of each into conflict. Throughout the Middle Ages this conflict led to 
 continual action and reaction, or rather to incessant _/oj'?nrt/ioH, deforma- 
 tion, and reformation, which, however, in every instance appeared not 
 separately and distinctly, but mixed together and confused. Some of 
 the most important events and movements (such as the Papacy, 
 Monasticism, Scholasticism, Mysticism, etc.) took their rise in the 
 Middle Ages. But as in each and all these movements the three 
 phases to which we have alluded continued to struggle for the mastery, 
 neither of them attained full maturity, and each in turn degenerated. 
 It was only in the sixteenth century that the reformatory element 
 attained sufficient maturity arid force to appear pure and unmixed with 
 other tendencies. Its victory marks the close of the Middle Ages and 
 the commencement of modern history. 
 
 2. The ecclesiastical history of Germany previous to the Reforma 
 tion embraces twelve centuries, and details very varied movements. 
 The first period closes with the extinction of the German Carlovingian 
 dynasty (911). Up to that time the general movement in ecclesiastical 
 matters progressed uninterruptedly, rising before the time of Charle- 
 magne, attaining its climax during his reign, and then declining. This 
 may be designated the distinctively G^nuKfUC period of history. All 
 the princes of the Carlovingian dynasty, even to its weakest repre- 
 sentatives, were inspired by the great idea of uniting the various 
 Germanic and kindred (Romanic or Slavonic) tribes into one Germanic
 
 286 CHARACTER ETC., OF THIS PHASE. 
 
 Empire. This idea only died with the last of the Carlovingians. Alrel 
 that the tendency towards separation into independent and distinct 
 German, Romanic, and Slavonic States, which had already appeared 
 in the ninth century, gradually gained ground. The Carlovingian 
 period, to which we have referred, had a civilization of its own, which 
 decayed with it. Even the Papacy, to whose intrigues that dynasty 
 succumbed, felt the consequences of its treachery, and sank into impo- 
 tence and ruin. To whatever point we direct our attention, we descry 
 at the commencement of the tenth century a fearful decay, both in 
 Church and State, in science, in culture, and in art. The glorious 
 achievements of Charlemagne gave place to a secubim ohsciirum. Still, 
 even in the confusion and the troubles of that century we can discern 
 the conditions and the germs of a new and better age. — The time of 
 Pope Boniface VJIL, or the commencement of the fourteenth century, 
 marks another and not less important period. Before that time Germany 
 led and gave the tone both in secular and ecclesiastical matters. But 
 the unsuccessful contest between Boniface and Philip the Fair of France 
 gave an immense preponderance to France, which henceforth led the 
 way in all ecclesiastical movements. During this period the internal 
 development of the Church progressed very rapidly. The Papacy, 
 Monasticism, and Scholasticism — the most important elements in the 
 history of the mediaeval Church — attained their highest point before, 
 and declined after, the time of Boniface. Again, the desire for reforms, 
 which manifested itself throughout the Middle Ages, was quite different 
 in these two periods. Before the time of Boniface, the representatives 
 of the Church (Popes, Monastic Orders, and Schoolmen) seemed gene- 
 rally desirous for a certain measure of reform, though perhaps not of a 
 comprehensive or entirely spiritual character. On the other hand, the 
 instances in which a genuine and evangelical desire after reform was 
 associated with opposition to the prevailing ecclesiasticism, were few 
 and isolated, while frequently it appeared in combination with errors 
 and heresies almost unparalleled in history. Towards the close of this 
 period, however, this state of matters was completely reversed. Not 
 only had the Papacy, the Monastic Orders, and the Schoolmen degene- 
 rated themselves — they had become the main abettors of ecclesiastical 
 degeneracy. Opposition to the Church, as then constituted, no longer 
 appeared in the wake of heretical tendencies. The reformatory move- 
 ment, though not entirely free from admixture of errors, became 
 evangelical in its spirit, and rapidly grew in strength and influence. 
 This phase of development, then, embraces three periods: that between 
 the fourth and the ninth centuries, that between the tenth and tho 
 thirteenth centuries, and that which comprised the fourteenth and 
 5fteenth centuries.
 
 FIRST PERIOD 
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY 
 
 IN ITS MEDIiEVAL AND GERMANIC FORM OF DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 FROM THE FOURTH TO THE NINTH CENT. 
 
 Comp. F. W. Rettherg, K.-G. Deutschlands (bis zum Tode Karls d. 
 Gr.). Leipz. 1853. 2 Vols.— W. Krafft, die K.-G. der german. Völker. 
 Berlin 1854. Vol. I. — H. liiickert, Culturgesch. d. deutsch. Volkes in 
 d. Zeit d. Ueberganges aus d. Ileidenth. in das Christenth. (Hist of 
 Germ. Civiliz. during the time of Trans, from Heathen, to Christian.). 
 Leipz. 1853. 2 Vols.— W. C. Perry, The Franks. London 1857. — Also 
 generally: Hardwich, Hist, of the Chr. Ch., Middle Age. Cambridge 
 I'ibZ. — Robertson, Hist, of the Chr. Ch. (590-1122). London 1856. 
 
 I. ESTABLISHMENT, SPREAD, AND LIMITATIONS OF THE 
 GERMAN CHURCH. 
 
 ? 75. CHRISTIANITY AND THE GERMANS. 
 
 Before the Germans appeared on the stage of history, Europe 
 was chiefly peopled by Celtic races. In Britain, Si)ain, and 
 Gaul, these tribes were conquered by the Romans, and became 
 amalgamated with them ; while in the north, the east, and the 
 centre of Europe they were expelled, exterminated, or absorbed 
 by the Germans. When Christianity extended over the face of 
 Europe, the Celtic race existed as a distinct nationality only in 
 Ireland and Scotland, as even among the neighbouring Britons 
 it bad already become mixed with Roman elements. Hence 
 but a very narrow territory was left on which Christianity might 
 assume the peculiar Celtic form of development. Our knowledge 
 
 (287)
 
 288 SECTION II. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 4—9 A.D.). 
 
 of this phase of ecclesiastical life is derived from the few noticea 
 left us of Irish monasteries, and of the resistance oflFered to the 
 introduction of the Romish Confession (§T7). 
 
 But even before the time of Christ, the Germanic races had 
 followed the Celts, and migrated from the East into Europe. 
 They were in turn succeeded by the Huns, by the Slavonic and 
 Magyar, and other tribes. So early as the latter half of the 
 third century, the Germans were brought into contact with 
 Christianity. Only one ce'ntury elapsed when a number of 
 powerful peoples of Germanic descent professed the Gospel. 
 Since that period each century, till late in the Middle Ages, 
 witnessed fresh national additions to the Church from among 
 that race. These great results have sometimes, though erro- 
 neously, been traced to a peculiar natural and national predis- 
 position for Christianity. But while we gladly admit its exist- 
 ence — at least in some measure, we deny that the Germans 
 were in consequence of it attracted to Christianity, as at that 
 time it was preached. In our opinion, it manifested itself chiefly 
 after Christianity had by other instrumentality gained an entrance, 
 and only appeared fully at the time of the Reformation. For 
 this predisposition had reference to the profoundest bearings of 
 Christianity, which were neglected and ignored in the ecclesiasti- 
 cal externalism of earlier days. It was the task of the Germanic 
 Church to develop and to bring prominently forward these 
 aspects of the Gospel. 
 
 1. Much of what has been vaunted about the s'^eQ,\&\ predisposition 
 of the Germans towards Christianity, is either exaggeration or mis- 
 appre^iension. Admitting that in German Mythology many deep 
 thoughts, concealed under the garb of poetic legends, bear evidence of 
 the high religious aspirations, the intellectual endowments, and the 
 remarkable spiritual anticipations of the Germanic race, and as such 
 may have formed a preparation for Christian truth, it will scarcely be 
 maintained that these characteristics apply to it in greater measure 
 than to the myths, speculations, or mysteries of ancient Greece. To 
 our mind, the predisposition should rather be traced to the peculiar 
 character of German national life. There we notice the devotedness 
 and attachment of vassals towards their lord, which formed so marked 
 a peculiarity of the German mind, and which, when applied to Christ 
 as tlie Heavenly King, constitutes the very essence of Christianity — 
 even personal surrender to the Saviour, a close and affectionate relation- 
 ship towards Ilim, and dependence on Ilim for justification by faith 
 alone, which even Augustine, that Paul among the Fathers, was
 
 CHRISTIANITY AND THE GERMANS. 289 
 
 unable to comprehend in all its breadth and fulness. In coniiection 
 with this sentiment, we also note the native readiness to combat and 
 to persevere in their struggles for their rightful lord, which, when 
 directed towards the Gospel, constitutes the main characteristic of 
 practical Christianity — the pressing forward through contests t» 
 victory. Again, the German love of freedom ofiFered, when sanctified 
 by Christianity, a fitting form and expression for the glorious liberty 
 of the children of God ; while even Tacitus speaks of the spirituality of 
 those religious rites which predisposed them to the worship of God " in 
 spirit and in truth (nee cohibere parietibus Deos, neque in ullam 
 humani oris speciem adsimulare, ex magnitudiue coelestium arbi- 
 trantur)." 
 
 2. The circumstance, that so many Germanic tribes adopted Chris- 
 tianity Avithout offering almost any resistance, is most readily explained 
 by the untenable character of the Pagan superstitions prevailing at the 
 time. In general, heathenism can onl}' thrive on its own native soil. 
 Transplanted to Europe, the superstitions of those tribes did not strike 
 root during the turmoil and the movements of the period which followed 
 their importation. But if centuries were allowed to elapse before the 
 Gospel was introduced — as in the case of the Frisians, the Saxons, the 
 Danes, etc. — the opposition to its doctrines was much stronger. An- 
 other element which either materially aided or else impeded the spread 
 of Christianity, was the presence or the want of Christian institutions 
 dating from the times of Roman domination. In districts where hea- 
 thenism had reigned wholly undisturbed, the superstitions imported by 
 the Germans soon found a firm lodgment. But where Christianity had 
 once gained admittance, the elevated culture, and superior intellectual 
 power associated with it, rendered the full and free development of 
 heathenism impossible, even though the Gospel was for a time sup- 
 pressed in the district. Besides, in many instances the alliances of 
 heathen rulers with Christian princesses led to the conversion of the 
 former, and with them of all their subjects. No doubt the same causes 
 must also frequently have operated in the more narrow circle of the 
 family or the clan. Such influences were peculiarly characteristic of 
 the Saxon tribes, who alone assigned so high a place to woman : Inesse 
 quin etiam (says Tacitus) sanctum aliquid et providum putant, nee aut 
 consilia earum adspernantur, aut responsa negligunt. 
 
 3. Judging from the ordinary practice of the Church (and not t| 
 speak of the wholesale conversions accomplished by Christian princes 
 through fire and sword), both baptism and conversion must have been 
 generally regarded as an opus operatum ; and whole heathen tribes 
 were bajitized Without having previously obtained a proper knowledge 
 of salvation, or undergone a change of heart or mind. This can, of 
 course, be neither approved nor commended. At the same time, it 
 must be admitted that only in this manner considerable and rapid 
 
 25
 
 290 SECTION II. FIRRT PERIOD (c E N T. 4— 9 A. 1).). 
 
 results could have been obtained ; nay, that in the infant state of the 
 German races, something may be said in favour of this practice. A 
 survey of the past would direct the Church, in its contest with German 
 Paganism, to use other weapons than those which had been employed 
 in the conflict with the heathenism of Greece and of Rome. In the 
 latter case, Christianity was brought to bear on society in its highest 
 state of cultivation, — on a world which, so to speak, had grown old, 
 and come to despair of its powers and capabilities, and where the expe- 
 rience and history of the preceding ten centuries served as a " school- 
 master to Christ." It was far otherwise with the Germanic races. 
 If, therefore, Roman society might be compared to a proselyte who in 
 riper years, and after having passed through many experiences, is ad- 
 mitted into the Church, the conversion of the Germans may be likeneri 
 to a baptism administered during infancy. 
 
 § 76. VICTORY OF CATHOLICISM OVER ARIANISM. 
 
 Comp. W. Krafft, K. G. d. germ. Volke. • Vol. I. — Ch. Waiiz, ü. d. 
 Leben u. d. Lehre d. Ulfila (The Life and Teaching of Ulf.). Hann. 
 1840. 4to. — /. ^sc7t6ac7«, Gesch. d. Westgothen. Frcf. 1827.— i^. TT. 
 Lemhke, Gesch. v. Spanien (Hist, of Spain). Vol. I. Hamb. 1831. — 
 F. Papencordt, Gesch. d. vand. Herrsch, in Afr. (Hist, of Vandal Domin. 
 in Afr.). Berl. 1837. — J. C. F. Manso, Gesch. d. ostgoth. Reiches in 
 Ital. Bresl. 1824.—/. E. v. Eoch-Stenifeld, d. Reich d. Langob. in Ital, 
 Mun. 1830.— i7. Leo, Gesch. d. Italien. Staaten. Vol. I. Hamb. 1829.— 
 /. W. Loebell, Gregor v. Tours u. seine Zeit. Leipz. 1839. — A. Thierry, 
 Recit des temps M6rovingiens. Par. 1842. 2 Vols. 
 
 When Christianity made its first great conquests in Germany, 
 Avianism was at the height of its power in the Roman Empire. 
 Internal dissensions and external dangers obliged a portion of 
 the Goths, during the latter half of the fourth century, to seek alli- 
 ances with the Eastern Empire, and to purchase its protection 
 ])j making a profession of Arianism. Within a short tim^, the 
 missionary labours of a number of native priests, directed by Bishop 
 ülßlas, led to the spread of Arianism among numerous other 
 Germanic races, though we are unable to trace its exact pro- 
 gress. About the end of the fifth century, more than half the 
 German race — the Ostrogoths and Visigoths, the Vandals, Suevi, 
 Burgnndians, Lombards, Herulians, Rugians, Gepidse, and others 
 . — professed that creed. But as the friendly relations subsisting 
 between these tribes and the Roman Empire had prepared the 
 way for the spread of Arianism, so th'e hostilities which ensued 
 after Rome had again adopted the Catholic faith, were partly
 
 VICTORY OF CATHOLICISM OVER ARIANISM. 201 
 
 the cause of their tenacious and even fanatical adherence to that 
 heresy. Arianism had, indeed, become wellnigh the national 
 creed of Germany ; and it iilmost seemed destined to obtain pos- 
 session of all Germany, and with it of future history. But these 
 prospects were speedily annihilated by the conversion of one of 
 the most powerful Germanic tribes to Catholicism. From the 
 first the policy of the Franks had been directed against their 
 strong kindred around them, rather than against the Roman 
 domination, which was rapidly nearing its end., The same policy 
 also dictated their adoption of Catholicism. Relying on the 
 protection of Him whom Catholic Christendom worshipped, and 
 on the sympathies of the Western Catholics, the Frankish rulers 
 undertook the double mission of suppressing heresy and of con- 
 quering heretical countries. It was, therefore, their policy to 
 renounce the former, in order to find occasion for the attainment 
 of the latter object. 
 
 1. The Goths in the Countries along the Danube. — Christianity ha/l 
 been introduced among the Goths about the middle of the third century 
 by Roman captives. Theophilus, a Gothic bishop, is mentioned as one 
 of the members of the Council of Nice in 325. The zeal and success 
 of Bishop Ulfilas, a descendant of a captive Christian family from 
 Cappadocia, who since 348 preached to the Visigoths (or Therviugians), 
 and was even then an adherent to the Arian confession, excited 
 the enmity of the heathen, which broke out in a bloody persecution 
 (355). Accompanied by a large number of his Gothic converts, Ulfilas 
 fled across the Danube, where the Emperor Conxtantins, who regarded 
 the Bishop as a second Moses, gave them a residence in Mt. Haemus, 
 ulfilas continued his successful labours for thirty-three years. To give 
 his people access to the sacred oracles, he translated the Bible into the 
 Gothic language, for which he had constructed an alphabet [ob. 388). 
 Full details of his life and teaching are given by Auxentius, Bishop of 
 Dorostorus (Silistria), a pupil of Ulfilas, in a short biography of the 
 Apostle of the Goths, which Waitz has lately discovered (see above). — 
 But all the Gothic converts had not left their country with Ulfilas, 
 Those who remained behind proved a leaven to the heathen around. 
 Accordingly, about 370, Athanarich, King of the Therviugians, raised 
 another persecution. Soon afterwards, a rebellion broke out among 
 the Therviugians. Frithigern, the leader of the discontented, was indeed 
 worsted, but obtained assistance from the Emperor Valens, and, in 
 gratitude for this aid, along with his adherents, adopted Arianism. 
 This was the first instance in which the Goths embraced Christianity 
 in considerable numbers. Soon afterwards (in 375), the victories of 
 the Huns swept away the empire of the Ostrogoths. A portion of that
 
 292 SECTION II. FIRST PERIOD (C E N T. 4— 9 A. D.) 
 
 people was obliged to join their conquerors, while another pari 
 in their flight invaded the country of the Thervingians (or Visi- 
 goths). The latter retreated; and, under the leadership of FritJiigern 
 and Alaviv, crossed the Danube, where Valens assigned them a terri- 
 tory on condition of their conversion to Arianism (in 376). But this 
 good understanding was of short duration, and in 378 Valens fell in a 
 war against them. Theodosius, who restored the Catholic faith in the 
 Empire, concluded peace with them. The Thervingians continued in 
 their adherence to the Arian creed, which — by means not yet ascer- 
 tained — spread to the Ostrogoths, and to other cognate tribes. St. Chry- 
 sostom despatched Catholic evangelists among them ; but the mission 
 was discontinued after his death. 
 
 2. The Visigoths in Gaul ayid Spain. — The death of Theodosius (in 
 395), and the partition of his empire, was the signal for the Visigoths 
 to enlarge their borders. Alaric laid waste Greece, penetrated into Italy 
 in quest of booty, and plundered Rome. Ataulf, his successor, settled 
 in Southern Gaul ; and Wallia founded the empire of which Toulouse 
 was the capital, and which attained its highest prosperity under the 
 reign oi Euric [oh. 483). Euric enlarged his territory in Gaul, and in 
 475 conquered the greater part of Spain. It was his desire to strengthen 
 his government by introducing political and religious uniformity in his 
 dominions. But his zeal for the spread of Arianism met with unex- 
 pected and stubborn resistance, which violent persecutions failed to 
 remove. The Romanic part of the population and the Catholic bishops 
 longed for a Catholic ruler. Nor were their hopes to be disappointed. 
 Clovis, King of the Franks, who had recently been converted (496), 
 became the avenger and deliverer of the Catholics in Southern Gaul. 
 The battle of Vougl6, near Poictiers (in 507), put an end to the rule 
 of the Visigoths on this side of the Pyrenees. But they maintained 
 themselves in Spain, where their hostility to the Catholics led to fresh 
 troubles. A fearful persecution raged, in 585, under the reign of Leo- 
 vigild. Becared, his son and successor, at last perceived the folly and 
 danger of this policy. At the third Synod of Toledo in 589, he adopted 
 the Catholic faith ; and, aided by Leander, the excellent metropolitan 
 of Seville, he speedily rendered it the dominant creed all over Spain, 
 But under the succeeding monarchs the power of the Visigoths gradu- 
 ally declined, through treason, murders, and the rebellions excited by 
 hostile factions. In 711, Roderic, their last king, succumbed in the 
 battle of Xeres de la Frontera to the Saracens, who from Africa invaded 
 Spain. — [Principal Sources : Proropivs (about 540) de hello Goth. : Jor- 
 nandes (about 550) de rebus Geticis; Idatii Chronicon ; Isidori Hispal 
 hist. Goth.) 
 
 3. The Vandals in Spaiji and Africa. — At the commencement of the 
 6fth century the Vandals, who at that period already professed Arian- 
 ism, passed, in company with the Alani and Suevi, from Pannonia into
 
 VICTORY OF CATHOLICISM OVER ARIANISM. 29.^ 
 
 Gaul (in 406), and thence into Spain (in 409), laying waste that 
 flourishing country. In 428 Boniface, the Roman Governor of Africa, 
 unjustly outlawed as a traitor, in self-defence called in the aid of the 
 Vandals. Genseric, their king, marched to his succour at the head of 
 50,000 men (in 429). In vain Boniface, who in the interval had made 
 his peace with the Court, now used every effort to induce the barbarians 
 to withdraw. Genseric conquered Northern Africa, where he founded 
 a strong empire ; in 455 he appeared in Rome, when, for fourteen days, 
 the city was plundered by his wild hordes. To put an end to all 
 sympathy between Africa and the Roman Empire, he resolved on 
 forcing the Arian creed upon his suljects, — a plan which, during fifty 
 years of his reign, he prosecuted with most consistent and unparalleled 
 crueltj- [ob. 477). But. the Catholics of Africa endured these persecu- 
 tions with a stedfastness worthy of the martyrs of the second and third 
 cent. Hnneric, his son and successor, gave the Catholics only a short 
 period of reprieve. In 483 the persecution recommenced [ob. 484). 
 Under the reign of Gunthaimind [ob. 496) the Catholics enjoyed peace ; 
 but Thrasamvnd [ob. 523) again resorted to the former bloody measures. 
 Hilderic [ob. 530), a mild ruler, and the son of a Catholic mother, openly 
 favoured the persecuted. This excited the dissatisfaction of the Arians, 
 who rose in rebellion under the leadership of Gelimer, a great-grandson 
 of Genseric. IliMeric was taken prisoner and executed. But before 
 the new ruler had time to carry into execution his bloody purposes, 
 Belisarius. the general of Justinian, appeared in Africa, and in the 
 battle of Tricameron (533) destroyed both the Vandal army and em- 
 pire. — [Sources: Victoris, Ep. Vitensis (about 487) hist, persecut. Van- 
 dal. — Procopius de hello A'andal. — Isidori Hispal. hist. Vandal, et 
 Suevorum.) 
 
 4. The Suevi were still Pagans when in 409 they entered Spain in 
 company with the Vandals. Under the reign of Rechiar they now 
 adopted the Catholic faith. But in 465 Remismund and his whole 
 people adopted Arianism to please the Visigoths. Charraric, whose 
 son was miraculously healed by the relics of St. Martin of Tours, 
 again returned to the Catholic Church (in 550). With the aid of 
 St. Martin, Bishop of Duma, he succeeded in inducing his people to 
 follow his example — a work which was completed at a national Synod 
 held at Brat/a (in 563), under the reign of Theodemir I. In 585 the 
 Visigoths under Leovigild put an end to the rule of the Suevi. 
 
 5. The Burgundians, whom in 406 the Vandals, Suevi, and Alani 
 had in their march drawn away from their former settlements on the ' 
 banks of the Maine and the Neckar (where they had professed the 
 Catholic faith), founded an independent state in the district of the 
 Jura. Brought into contact with the Visigoths, most of them adopted 
 the Arian creed. Of the four princes who parted among thorn the 
 kingdom of Gundric, their father, only one, Chilperic IL, the father
 
 294 SECTION II. FIRST PERIOD (C E N T . 4— 9 A. D.). 
 
 of Clotilda, continued a Catholic. Gundobald, hxä brother, having 
 murdered his kindred, possessed himself of their dominions. But the 
 zeal and labours of Aviins, Bishop of Vienne, prevented the spread of 
 Arianism, and both Sigismond, the son of Gundobald, and his subjects 
 returned into the Catholic Church at the Diet of Epaon in 517. But 
 in the eyes of Clotilda, the wife of Clovis, King of the Franks, even 
 this conversion could not atone for the guilt of Sigismond's father. 
 Her sons avenged their maternal grandfather, and put an end to the 
 Burgundian monarchy in 534. — [Principal Source: Gregorii Turon. hist. 
 Francorum.) 
 
 6. In conjunction with the Heruli, the Schyri, and the Turcelingi, 
 the Rugians had founded an independent state (in what now consti- 
 tutes Lower Austria), and called it Rugiland. Their religion consisted 
 of a mixture of heathen practices with Arianism, which had spread 
 among them from their Gothic neighbours. The Catholic Romans 
 whom they found in the country were much oppressed by them. But 
 since 454 St. Severinus [ob. 482) laboured in that district, a messenger 
 truly sent from on highio cheer and uphold these persecuted people. 
 Even the barbarians were constrained to pay him reverence ; and his 
 influence over both heathen and Arians was almost unlimited. He is 
 said to have announced the future greatness of Odoacer. That prince 
 put an end to the Western Empire, and for seventeen years ruled over 
 Italy with equal firmness and wisdom. Odoacer abolished (in 487) 
 Rugian rule, and with it Arian persecution, in Rugiland. But soon 
 afterwards Theoderic, the Ostrogoth, invaded Italy, took Ravenna after 
 a siege of three years, made Odoacer prisoner, and treacherously killed 
 him at a banquet (493), 
 
 7. The Ostrogoths had become converts to Arianism long before they 
 conquered Italy, but they were free from the fanaticism which charac- 
 terized that religious party in almost every part of Germany. Theo- 
 deric afforded protection to the Catholic Church ; he valued and fostered 
 Roman culture — acts of which the credit is certainly due in part to 
 Cassiodorus, the excellent counsellor of the Ostrogoth monarch (§ 47, 
 6). This large-spirited toleration was the more readily accorded, since, 
 from the protracted schism (lasting for 35 years, ^ 52, 5), no dangerous 
 political combination between the Catholics of the East and the "West 
 was to be apprehended. Accordingly, when this schism ceased in 
 519, Theoderic began to take a more lively interest in the progress of 
 the Arian Church, and to view the Catholics with some measure of 
 suspicion. lie died in 526. The Emperor Justinian availed himself 
 of the confusion consequent on the death of Theodoric to regain Italy. 
 At the close of a war which lasted for twenty years, Narses, the 
 Byzantine general, had swept away the last traces of Ostrogoth domi- 
 nation. On its ruins the Byzantine rule was again raised, under the 
 name of an Exarchate, and with Ravenna as its capital. During that
 
 VICTORY OF CATHOLICISM OVER ARIANISM. 295 
 
 perioQ the rule of Arianism in Italy was of course at an end. — {Priti' 
 eipal Sozirces : Procopiits, de bello Goth. — Juruandes, de reb. Geticis. — 
 Cassiudori Varia et Chronic.) 
 
 8. The Lombards in Italy. — In 568 the Lombards left their homes 
 by the banks of the Danube, under the leadership of Alboin invaded 
 Italy, and conquered that portion called, after them, Lombardy, with 
 Ticmum (Pavia) its capital. The successors of Alboin extended their 
 conquests till only the southern extremity of Italy, the districts along 
 the sea-shore, and a number of fortified towns in the interior, remained 
 under Byzantine rule. Incited by love of plunder and suspiciousness, 
 the Lombards, who professed Arianism, for twenty years waged equal 
 warfare against Roman civilization and Roman Catholicism. But after 
 the first storm of persecution had passed, religious indifierentism again 
 prevailed, and the spiritual impotence of the Arian clergy proved 
 unequal in the contest with Catholicism. Pope Gregory the Great 
 (590-604) — a prelate equally wise and energetic — gave himself with 
 untiring zeal to missionary labours. He found a powerful auxiliary 
 in Queen Theodelinda, a Bavarian princess, and a devoted Catholic. 
 So enthusiastic were the Lombards in their admiration of their l)eau- 
 tiful and amiable queen, that when Authari, her husband, was killed 
 the first j'oar after her marriage, they allowed her to select among the 
 Lombard dukes one to Avhom she would give her hand, and whom 
 they would acknowledge their king. Iler choice fell on Agilvlf, who 
 indeed continued an Arian, but did not oppose the spread of Catho- 
 licism among the people. Under the reign of Grimoald [oh. 671) the 
 work of converting the Lombards to the Catholic Church was com- 
 pleted, and soon afterwards they adopted the language and manners 
 of Rome. (Comp. § 82, 1.) — [Principal Bonrce: Pauli Diac, de gestis 
 Langb. Lb. VI.) 
 
 9. The Franks in Gatd. — Roman domination continued for a time 
 in Gaul, even after Odoacer had in 476 put an end to the Western 
 Empire. But the victory of Soissons, which in 486 Childeric, the 
 Merovingian, gained over Syagrius, the Roman Governor, terminated 
 that rule. In 493 Clovis (481-511) espoused Clotilda, a Burgundian 
 princess (see above, note 5). The young queen, who was devotedly 
 attached to the Catholic faith, used every effort to convert her heathen 
 husband. For a long time the national pride of the Frankish ruler 
 resisted her endeavours, though he c<msented to have their first-born 
 Bon baptized. The death of this infant appeared to Clovis an indication 
 of the displeasure of his gods. Still he could not resist the entreaties 
 of his wife, and their second son was likewise admitted into the Church. 
 This infant also was taken dangerously ill ; but the earnest prayers of 
 his mother were followed by his unexpected recovery, and Clovia 
 learned that the God of the Christians was a])le to disarm the vengeance 
 of Wuotan. The circumstance recun-ed to the mind of the king when,
 
 296 SECTION II. FIRST PERIOD (C E N T . 4— 9 A. D.). 
 
 in the battle of Tolbiac (in 496) against the Alemanni, he was threatened 
 with defeat, with the loss of his empire and of his life. The prayers 
 offered to his gods had remained unanswered : he now addressed him- 
 self to the God of the Christians, vowing to adopt that faith if he were 
 delivered from his imminent danger. Immediately the aspect of the 
 battle changed. The army and the empire of the Alemanni were de- 
 stroyed. True to his promise, Clovis was baptized in Rheims, at 
 Christmas 496, by Remigius, the Archbishop, who addressed him in 
 the words: " Bend thy neck, proud Sicamber ; adore what thou didst 
 burn ; burn what thou didst adore." (Legend afterwards adorned the 
 event with miraculous details. It seems, that when the attendant who 
 carried the phial with the oil destined for anointing Clovis was unable 
 to make his way through the crowd, in answer to the prayer of Remi- 
 gius a white dove brought from heaven another phial, ever since used 
 in the coronation of the French kings). According to the measure of 
 his knowledge, Clovis was sincere and earnest in his profession of 
 Christianity. Most of the nobles and of the people soon followed his 
 example. Not that he had undergone any change of heart: he had 
 made a compact with the God of the Christians, and he was prepared 
 faithfully to observe its terms. It affords sad proof of the low state of 
 religion at the time, that the grossest faithlessness, treason, and 
 assassination stained the life of Clovis after his baptism. And yet the 
 Catholic clergy of the West extolled him as another Constantine, and 
 as divinely appointed to root up heathenism and Arianism. Regarding 
 this as the mission entrusted to him, they neither asked nor expected 
 more at his hands. However, the conversion of Clovis pi-oved an event 
 of the gi-eatest importance, since it sealed the doom of the barbarous 
 and fanatical Arianism of the German tribes. Along with its creed, 
 the Catholic Church introduced the civilization and literature of the 
 ancient world. Thus trained, the Germans founded an empire destined 
 for many centuries to continue the centre around which the history of 
 the world was to revolve. — {Principal Sovixe : Gregorii Turon. hist. 
 Francorum eccles. (Comp, also for the hist, of the Franks, Dr. Perry, 
 The Franks. London, Longman, 1857). 
 
 ^77. VICTORY OF THE ROMISH OVER THE BRITISH 
 CONFESSION. 
 
 Comp. Jac. Usserii, Britann. ecclesiae antiquitt. Lond. 1687 fol. — 
 Fr. Manier, die altbrit. Kirche (in the thcol. Stud. u. Krit. for 1833) 
 
 — C. Fr. Simidlin, K. G. v. Grossbrit. Göttg. 1819. 2 Vols.— n. 3roore, 
 History of Ireland. — /. Lanigan, Eccl. Ilist. of Ireland. 2d ed. 4 Vols. 
 
 — /. M. Lappenberg, Gesch. von England. Vol. I. Hamb 1834. — /. 
 Lingard (R. Cath.), Antiquities of the Anglo-Saxon Ch. — K. ^chrodx 
 (R.Cath.), d. 1 Jahrh. d. engl. Kirche (the First Cent, of the Engl 
 Ch.). — C. G. Schoell, de Ecc. Britt. Scottrumque hist, fontibus. Ber
 
 VICTORY OF THE ROMISH CONFESSION. 297 
 
 1851. — Wilkiiis, Concilia Brit, et Ilibernica. London 1737. 4 Vols fol. 
 — Spelmanni Cone. Deer. Const, in re Eccl. orbis Brit, (to the yeai 
 1531 —more complete than Wilkins). 2 Vols. fol. 1G39-64. — Äedfc 
 Venerabilis Hist. Eccl. gentis Anglor. — Wharton's Anglia Sacra ; and 
 the authorities quoted in Robertson, Hist, of the M. Ages, pp. 15 et seq. 
 
 An old legend has it, that a British king, Lucius by name, had 
 so early as the middle of the second century recjuested Eleu- 
 therus, Bishop of Rome, to send him Christian missionaries, 
 and that both he and his people had been converted by their 
 preaching. "Without attaching importance to this tradition, it is 
 certain that since the close of the second century Christianity 
 had struck root in that part of Britain which was under Roman 
 domination. Up to the time of the Anglo-Saxon invasion (^in 
 449) the British Church entertained close and continual commu- 
 nication with the sister-churches on the Continent, especially 
 with those of Gaul and Rome. But after that, Christianity 
 ceased to be professed except along the west coast, and the rela- 
 tions between the British and foreign churches were interrupted. 
 When, after an interval of 150 years, a Romish mission arrived 
 (in 597) to renew the former intercourse, it appeared that the 
 British ecclesiastical system differed from that of Rome (which 
 during that period had developed) on many points connected 
 with worship, government, and discipline. Rome insisted on 
 conformity — a demand which the Britons strenuously resisted. 
 The chief objection Of the British Church lay against the claims 
 of the Romish hierarchy. These divergences have sometimes 
 been traced to tlie supposed circumstance that the British Cliurch 
 had originally been founded by missionaries from Asia Minor — a 
 statement which rests on no historical grounds. Nor is it neces- 
 sary to refute the assertions of some, who vaunt that apostolica. 
 Christianity had been preserved in its purity among the ancient 
 Britons, and speak of their evangelical opposition to the erro- 
 neous teaching and ordinances of the Church of Rome. In 
 point of fact, the religion of Britain and of Rome was essen- 
 tially the same : in both, the same tendency to superstition ap- 
 pears ; in both churches we have the worship of saints and of 
 relics, the sacrifice of the mass, asceticism, and work-rigliteous- 
 ness. Very true the clergy of Britain had not the same hie- 
 rarchical pretensions as that of Rome ; and too, in consequence 
 of the struggle which now ensued, more broad and liljeral views 
 were broached than had at first been entertained. At first, in-
 
 298 SECTION II. FIRST PERIOD (C E N T . 4— 9 A. D.). 
 
 deed, victory seemed to incline towards the National Church-, 
 but ultimately the contest ended iu the complete suppression of 
 the British Confession. In Germany, where the conflict was 
 renewed, it terminated in the same manner, notwithstanding the 
 exertions made by the British missionaries (§ 78). A very deep 
 interest attaches to this contest. If the British Confession had 
 prevailed, as at one time seemed probable, not England only, but 
 also Germany, would from the first have stood in direct antago- 
 nism to the Papacy, — a circumstance which would have given an 
 entirely different turn both to the Ecclesiastical and the Political 
 History of the Middle Ages. 
 
 1. Chief Peculiai-ities of the British Confession. — The Easter cycle 
 of nineteen years, which Dionysius Exiguus had introduced (^ 56, 3), 
 was not adopted in Britain. Further, instead of the Romish "tonsura 
 Petri" (I 45, 3), the native clergy had a peculiar form of tonsure, the 
 whole forepart of the head being shaved. They also refused to submit 
 to the injunction of clerical celibaci/, and to acknowledge the primacy 
 of Rome; they rejected auricular confession, the doctrine of purgatory, 
 the tenet which made marriage a sacrament, the stringent ordinances 
 of Rome in regard to degrees of fictitious o,ffinity, etc. But all these 
 differences arose not from any doctrinal divergence ; at least, if such 
 existed, it was never mentioned. Indications, however, are not want- 
 ing that Pelagianism found more favour among the Britons (perhaps 
 from the nationality of its author, f 53, 3) than in the Western Church 
 generally. The ancient British clergy bore the name of Culdees (Kele- 
 De, colidei = servi Dei).— (Comp. Smith, Life of S. Col. Edinb. 1798. 
 — J. Jamieson, Hist. Account of the Ancient Culdees of lona. Edinb. 
 1811.—/. G.J.Braun, de Culdeis. Bonn. 1840, 4.— Russell, Hist, of the 
 Ch. in Scotland.) 
 
 2. So early as the commencement of the fifth century, Christianity 
 had been introduced among the Celtic inhabitants of Ireland (Erin, 
 Hibernia). The missionary labours oi Palladius, a deacon from Rome 
 (in 431), were indeed unsuccessful ; but in 432 St. Patrick, the Apos- 
 tle of Ireland, accompanied by twenty-four fellowdabourers, ai'rived on 
 its shores. Tradition fixes on Kilpatrick, Scotland, as his native place ; 
 he mentions Bonave (in Gaul) as the residence of his father. His 
 proper name is said to have been Succat. In his sixteenth year, pirates 
 had carried him to Ireland, and sold him to an Irish chief, whose flocks 
 he tended for six years. After his liberation, the constraining power 
 of the love of Christ made him choose active Christian service ; his 
 thoughts and feelings took the form of night-visions ; and he resolved 
 to proclaim the glorious liberty of the children of God to those who 
 had so long held him in abject slavery. Well acquainted with the lan- 
 guage and customs of the ",ountry, h«* assembled the people by beat of
 
 VICTORY OF THE ROMISH CONFESSION. 299 
 
 drum in the open air, and related to them the sufferings of Christ foi 
 the salvation of men. Althouj^h the VndJs opposed all their influence 
 to his efforts, his amiable and conimauding character disarmed hos- 
 tility. Not one martyr fell ; and after a few years, all Ireland was 
 converted to Christ, and the country covered with churches and monas- 
 teries. Patrick himself resided in the district of Macha. Around his 
 dwelling the town of Armagh (afterwards the metropolitan see of Ire- 
 land) sprung up. He died in 4G5, leaving the Church of Ireland in 
 the most flourishing state. The numerous monasteries, whose inmates 
 comliined deep piety with ardent study of the Scriptures, and of whom 
 so many went forth to teach and to preach in all countries, gained for 
 Ireland the title of Insula Sanctornm. The Irish monasteries only 
 declined after the incursions of the Danes in the ninth century. Under 
 the title of " Confessiones," St. Patrick himself has left us an autobio- 
 graphy, which is still extant. 
 
 3. Ninian or Nyaias, a Briton, who had been educated at Rome, 
 commenced, about the year 430, his labours among the Celtic Ficts and 
 Scots of Caledonia. But after his death, those whom he had converted 
 again relapsed into heathenism. The work thus begun was more 
 effectually resumed by Crimthan, an Irishman, whose name was 
 changed by his friends to Columba, to designate his dove-like character. 
 Accompanied by twelve of his pupils, he embarked in 5G3 for the 
 island of Hy, the present lona {i.e., Insula Sanctorum) or Icolunibkill, 
 where he founded a monastery and a church, and whence he converted 
 all Caledonia. Although to his death he continued a simple presbyter, 
 and abbot of the monastery of lona, he exercised, in virtue of his 
 apostolic authority, superintendence over the whole Caledonian Church, 
 and ordained its bishops — a privilege which his successors in the 
 abbacy of lona retained. He died in 597. The numerous monasteries 
 which he founded, emulated those of Ireland in the learning, piety, 
 and missionary zeal of their inmates. This remark applies especially 
 to the monastery of lona. 
 
 4. Romish Mission among the Anglo-Saxons. — Vortigern, King of 
 Britain, called in the aid of the Germans who inhabited the opposite 
 coast, for the purpose of warding off the predatory invasions of the 
 Picts and Scots. Hengist and llorsa, two exile chiefs from Jutland, 
 obeyed the summons, at the head of a large number of Anglos and 
 Saxons (in 449). These arrivals were followed by others, till, at the 
 end of a century, only the west coast of their country was left to the 
 Britons. The Angles and Saxons formed seven monarchies, one of 
 these rulers, the BrefwaUhi. — or leader of tlieir armies, — oxfrcising su- 
 preme sway. The Anglo-Saxons were heathens; and tin' ho-^tility be- 
 tween them and the ancient Britons rendered missionary activity on the 
 part of the latter impossible. But lumio siip]ilio(l what they had omitted 
 to do. The sight of some Anglo-Saxon youths, exposed for sale in the
 
 300 SECTION II. — FIRST PERIOD (C E N T. 4— 9 A.D.). 
 
 slave-market at Rome, inspired a pious monk — afterwards Pope Gn 
 gory I. — -with the desire of seeing a people of such commanding ap' 
 pearance adorned with the beauty of the Gospel. His elevation to the 
 Papal See prevented his commencing the work himself, as at first he 
 tiad purposed. But he purchased some of these Anglo-Saxon youths, 
 and had them educated for missionary work among their countrymen. 
 Soon afterwards, when the Bretwalda, Ethelbert of Kent, espoused 
 Bertha, a Frankish princess, Gregory sent Augustine, a Roman abbot, 
 to England, accompanied by forty monks (596). Ethelbert provided 
 them with a residence and support at Dorovernum (Canterbury), his 
 own capital. At Pentecost of the year succeeding that of their arrival, 
 the king was baptized, and 10,000 of his subjects followed his example. 
 Augustine wrote to Gregory for further instructions, for relics, books, 
 etc. The Pope complied with his request, and at the same time sent 
 him the Pallium, assigning to him the dignity of Archbishop of the 
 Saxon and British Church. Augustine now called upon the Britons to 
 submit to his authority, and to join him in labouring for the conversion 
 Ä the Saxons. But the Britons rejected these overtures. A personal 
 interview with their leaders, held under the oak of Augustine, led to 
 no better result. A second conference terminated in the same manner, 
 chiefly owing to the prelatical arrogance of Augustine, who would not 
 rise when the Britons made their appearance. The latter were at that 
 time disposed to yield ; but, at the suggestion of a hermit, they had 
 fixed on this mark of respect as an omen. Its absence now decided 
 them. On the death of Augustine, in 605, the Pope appointed Lauren- 
 tins, the assistant of the British prelate, his successor. But Eadbald, 
 the heathen son and successor of Ethelbert, persecuted the missionaries 
 80 much, that they even resolved to quit the field (616). Laurentius 
 alone delayed his departure, to make a last attempt to convert Eadbald 
 himself. He was successful : the king was baptized, and the fugitive 
 priests returned to their former duties. — Augustine had introduced 
 Christianity in Essex ; but a change of government was followed by a 
 restoration of heathenism. Soon afterwards, Christianity was esta- 
 blished in NortJiumbria, the most powerful state in the Heptarchy. 
 King Edwin (or Eadwine), the founder of Edinburgh, espoused Ethel- 
 berga, the daughter of Bertha, Queen of Kent. According to agree- 
 ment, the young princess was accompanied to her new residence by 
 Pauli aus, a monk (625). By their combined influence the king, and 
 through him the nobility and priesthood, were induced to adopt Chris- 
 tianity. At a popular assembly, Paulinus demonstrated the truth of 
 Christianitv ; while Coiß, their high-priest, defied the national gods 
 by hurling a spear into the nearest temple. The people regarded his 
 daring as madness, and momentarily expected to see a manifestation 
 of Wodan's vengeance. But when the heavens remained mute, the 
 people, in obedience to the order of Coifi, set fire to their principal 
 temple (627) Paulinus became Bishop of Eboraceum (York), and the
 
 VICTORY OF THE ROMISH CONFESSION. 301 
 
 Pope sent him the Pallium. Bat in 6.33 Edwin fell in battle against 
 Pendn. the heathen King of Mercia ; Paulinus had to flee, and the 
 Church of Northumbria was almost annihilated. 
 
 5. British Mission among the Anglo-Saxons. — OsicaM, the son of a 
 former king of Northumbria whom Edwin had expelled, restored to 
 that country its independence. This youth had, when a fugitive, found 
 an asylum in lona, where he was educated a Christian. In order again 
 to raise the Church of his country, the monks of lona sent one of their 
 own number, the excellent and amiable Aidan, to the court of North- 
 umbria. Oswald himself acted as his interpreter, till he had acquired 
 the Saxon tongue. The success of his labours was truly unparalleled. 
 Oswald ■ founded an episcopal see in the island of Lindisfarne ; and, 
 aided by other missionaries from lona, Bishop Aidan converted, in a 
 few years, the whole north of England to Christianity. Oswald fell in 
 battle against Penda (642). lie was succeeded in his own government, 
 and as Bretwalda, by Oswy, his brother. Irish missionaries now joined 
 the labourers from lona, emulating their services; and in 660 all parts 
 of the Heptarchy had adopted Christianity, and — with the exception 
 of Kent, which remained faithful to Rome — adhered to the ancient 
 British Confession. 
 
 6. Victory of the Tlomish over the British Confession. — Osici/ per- 
 ceived the danger accruing to the State from religious division and 
 ecclesiastical estrangements among the people. He succeeded in con- 
 vincing the other kings of the necessity of an ecclesiastical union. The 
 only question now was, which of the confessions should give way. At 
 last the decision fell in favour of Romish supremacy — a result t« 
 which, no doubt, Oswy himself mainly contributed. Eanfleda, his 
 wife, a daughter of Edwin, was a zealous partisan of Rome. She was 
 seconded in her efforts by Wilfrid, a man of great energy, prudence, 
 and perseverence. By birth a Northumbrian, and educated in the 
 monastery of Lindisfarne, he had visited Rome; on his return he em- 
 ployed the whole force of hit eloquence, and every artifice which 
 intrigue could suggest, to subject all England to the Papacy. These 
 two influenced the Bretwalda, and the latter again the other kings. 
 Added to this were other and more general reasons for the decision of 
 the monarch — such as a preference for what was foreign, the splendour 
 and the power of the -Romish Church, and, above all, the old national 
 dislike of the Saxons towards everything British. When the secret 
 negotiations had issued in the result desired, Ovkv/ convened a General 
 Synod in the nunnery of Streaneshalch or Whitby (Synodus Pharensis) 
 in 664. There all the civil and ecclesiastical leaders of the He[)tarchy 
 assembled. The Romish party was represented by Wilfrid; the 
 British, by Oüman, Bishop of Lindisfarne. The paschal question was 
 the first topic )f discussion. Wilfrid appealed to the authority of Peter, 
 
 26
 
 iO'l SECTION II. — FIRST PERIOD (CE N T . 4— 9 A. D.). 
 
 to whom the Lord had said : " Thou art Peter," etc. Upon this, Oswj 
 turned to Colman with the inquiry, whether the Lord had really 
 addressed these words to Peter. Colman, of course, admitted it ; when 
 Oswy declared that he would own the authority of him who had the 
 power of opening and shutting the gates of heaven. This finished the 
 discussion. In his capacity of Bretwalda, Oswy carried out the decrees 
 of the Synod with energy and resolution. Within a few weeks the 
 razor completed the conversion of the whole Heptarchy to the Romish 
 Confession. — Matters having proceeded thus far, the British Confes- 
 sion had soon to be abandoned, even in the districts whence it had 
 originally spread. Political reasons obliged the Irish and Scotch kings 
 to adopt the confession of their dangerous neighbours, in order both to 
 deprive them of a specious pretext for making invasions, and to procure 
 the assistance of the Pope and the sympathies of continental Christen- 
 dom. Ireland submitted in 701, and Scotland followed nine years 
 afterwards. The monks of lona alone held out till 716, when this their 
 last stronghold also fell. — (The Pmicipal Sources for the British and 
 Anglo-Saxon Eccles. Hist, of that period are : Gildas, liber querulus de 
 excidio Brittannias. Nennius, hist. Britonum, and especially Beda 
 venerab. hist, eccles. Angl.) 
 
 I 78. CONVERSION OF GERMANY. 
 
 Comp. F. W. Rettherg, K.-G. Deutschland's. Vols. I. and II.— C. J. 
 Eefele, Gesch. d. Einführ. d. Christ, im südwestl. Deutschi. (Hist, of 
 the Introd. of Christian, in South-West. Germ.). Tub. 1837. —Z'. 
 Hiemer, d. Einfuhr, d. Christenth. in d. Deutsch. Landen. Schaffh. 
 1S58. — Ph. Heber, die vorkaroling. Glaubenshelden, an Rhein u. deren. 
 Zeit. Frkf. 1858. — G. T. Rudhari, Ultest. Gesch. Baierns (Old Hist, of 
 Bavar.). Ilamb. 1841. — A. F. Ozanam, Begrlin-d. d. Christ, in Deutsch. 
 (Introd. of Christ, into Germ.). From the French, Manic. 1845. — ^, 
 Seiters, Bonifacius, d. Ap. der Deutschen. Mayence 1845. — E. F. 
 Gelpke, K.-G. d. Schweiz. Bd. I. Bern. l85Q. — Bo7iifaeiiETphto\se (op. 
 3d. J. A. Giles, Oxford 1846), Vita in Periz (T. II.) and in the Acta 
 SS. — Serrarius, Moguntiac. rerum 1. v. — Sagiiiarius, Antiq. Gentil. 
 et Christ. Thuring. 
 
 During the domination of the Romans, the countries along the 
 Rhine and Danube had been fully evangelized ; but of this 
 scarcely a trace was left in the succeeding period. The bar- 
 barians who invaded these districts, destroyed the monasteries 
 and churches, and instead of Christian rites, introduced their own 
 forms of heathenism. By the end of the sixth century the 
 greater part of Germany was subject to the rule of the Franks, 
 and bore the name of Western Franconia (Neustria), in contra«
 
 CONVERSION OF GERMANY. 303 
 
 distinction lo Austrasia or Eastern Franconia. South-Western 
 and South-Eastern Germany (Alemannia, Bavaria, Thuringia) 
 were governed by native princes under Frankish suzerainty , 
 while North-Western Germany (the Frisians and Saxons) stil' 
 maintained its national indci>en(lence. Tlie first successful 
 endeavours to restore Christianity in Austrasia were made about 
 the middle of the sixth century. The missionaries eng:ag:ed in 
 this work were partly of Franküh, partly of Scotch (either Irish 
 or British), and partly of Anglo-Saxon descent. At that time 
 the monasteries of Scotland and Ireland were crowded with men 
 whose natural love of travel was sanctified by an ardent desire to 
 preach the Gospel, and to extend the kingdom of Christ. These 
 feelings derived an additional stimulus from the circumstance, 
 that the distinctive confession to which they clung with so deep 
 attachment had just been suppressed (§ TY, 6). Their own 
 country seemed now dreary, while on the Continent they saw a 
 prospect of regaining wliat had been lost at home. Umler such 
 impulses, a large number of the inmates of the Irish and Scotch 
 monasteries went forth as missionaries to pagan Germany. 
 But thither also the Anglo-Saxons, who had the same love for 
 travel, the same missionary zeal, and the same attachment to 
 their own distinctive confession (the Romish), followed them. 
 Thus the former contest was renewed on German soil : there also 
 to end in the suppression of the British Confession. Almost 
 everywhere do we discover traces of these Scotch missionaries ; 
 but, uiifoftuiiately, the p.irticulars left us, as to the mode in 
 which they carried on their labours, as to their contests with the 
 representatives of the Romish Church, are exceedingly scanty. 
 The practical turn, so characteristic of the Anglo-Saxon race, 
 and the connection of these missionaries with the imposing 
 spiritual power wielded by the See of Rome, no doul)t con- 
 tributed not a little towards securing them the victory over their 
 Scotch brethren. For the Frankish missionaries also laboured 
 quite independently of Rome, so that the connection between 
 Germany and the Church of Rome was mainly due to the exer- 
 tions of the Anglo-Saxon preachers. — These missions succeeded 
 most rapidly in the districts where the Gospel had been preached 
 at a former period, chiefly along the banks of the Rhine and of 
 the Danube. Much more formidable were the difficulties en- 
 countered in districts where heathenism resembled an impenetra- 
 ble primitive forest — as in Frisia, Saxony, Hesse, and Tiuiringia.
 
 304 SECTION II. — FIRST PERIOD (C E N T. 4— 9 A. D.). 
 
 The protection which the Fratikish monarchs extended to 
 missionary labours in Germany, sprung chiefly from interested 
 motives — an interference which operated rather against than in 
 favour of the work. It appeared as if, on the one hand, heathen- 
 ism and national independence, and on the other, Christianity 
 and Prankish domination, were inseparably connected. If the 
 sword of the Franks opened the way for the Gospel, the labours 
 of the missionaries were, in return, to be made subservient for 
 the political subjugation of these countries. However unwilling 
 the missionaries were to become parties to this mixing up of 
 religious and political objects, it was frequently beyond their 
 power to resist it. 
 
 1. The Alemanni were a powerful race, inhabiting the south-western 
 PART OF Germany. Only scanty traces of former Christian institutions 
 remained in those districts. The victory of Tolpiac (496), which 
 decided Clovis in favour of Christianity, at the same time opened the 
 country of the vanquished Alemanni to the Gospel. But as the Franks 
 adopted no violent measures for its propagation, its progress was very 
 slow. The civil code of the Alemanni, as settled by Dagobert I. in 
 680, proceeds, indeed, on the supposition that the country had become 
 entirely christianized ; but at the time this must have only been by 
 way of anticipation. St. Fridolin, who founded the monastery of 
 Seckingen upon an island on the Rhine above Basle, is commonly 
 represented as the Apostle of Alemannia (about 510). He was a 
 native of Ireland ; but the accounts of his activity are quite legendary 
 and unreliable. More accurate and satisfactory are the details given 
 about St. Columban, who arrived in the year 589, accompanied by 
 twelve zealous missionaries, from the celebrated monastery of Bangor 
 in Ireland. He founded the well-known Luxovium (Luxeuil). The 
 missionaries reclaimed the wastes all around, and endeavoured to 
 restore Christian discipline and order among a population which had 
 been fearfully neglected. But their rigid adherence to the British 
 practice of calculating Easter [I 77, 1) raised prejudices against them; 
 the clergy of Burgundy felt their strict discipline a most unpleasant 
 innovation ; while Briinehilda, incensed that their influence over the 
 youthful Theodoric II., her grandcliild, endangered her ambitious 
 schemes, vowed their destruction. All these causes led to their expul- 
 sion, after they had laboured for twenty years in the country. The 
 exiles betook themselves to Switzerland, and settled at Tvggen, on the 
 Lake of Zurich. But the fanatical zeal with which they attacked 
 heathenism excited the hostility of the natives, who ill-used and drove 
 them away. Their next field was Bregenz. Here they laboured for 
 three years very successfully — a result principally achieved through 
 th preaching of St. Gallus, who had acquired the language of the
 
 OONVERSION OF GERMANY. 305 
 
 country. But fresh persecutions induced Columban to pass iL to Italy, 
 where, under the protection of Agilulf (^ 70, 8), he founded the cele- 
 brated monastery of liobbio, and took an active part in the Arian con- 
 troversy. Gallus, who at the time his colleagues left was ill, remained 
 in Switzerland, resolved to continue the work despite the unfavourablo 
 circumstances which had arisen. In a sequestered and wild valley, 
 and on a spot where a bush had caught hold of his garment whilo 
 engaged in prayer, he built a cell which afterwards became the abbacy 
 of Si. Gall. His labours were richly blessed. lie died in G4G, at the 
 advanced age of 95. Gallus does not appear to have been so tenacious 
 as Coluinbuu in contending for the British Confession. Magnoald, the 
 pupil of St. Gallus, carried on his work, and founded the monastery 
 of Füssen in Suabia. About the same time Trldpert, an hermit 
 (said to have been of Irish descent), laboured in the Brei«gau. He 
 laid the foundation of what afterwards became the abbacy of St. 
 Trudpert, at the foot of the Black Forest, but was ultimately murdered 
 by a servant of his own (043). Half a century later, Pirminius, a 
 Frankish ecclesiastic, carried the Gospel along the shores of the Lake 
 of Constance. Protected in his labours Vjy Charles Martel, he founded 
 the monastery of Reichenau ; but only three years afterwards he was 
 expelled in consequence of a national rising of the Alemanni against 
 the Frankish rule. He now descended the Rhine, and founded a 
 number of monasteries, — among them Uornhach, in the diocese of 
 Metz, where he died in 753. When about that time St. Boniface visited 
 Alemannia, he found the whole country nominally Christian and the 
 Church regularly organized. 
 
 2. South- Eastern Germany. — No notices have been left of the religious 
 history of the countries along the Danube during the period succeeding 
 the labours of St. Severinus (^ 70, 0). A century later these districta 
 were peopled by the Bavarians (the Boii), whose native rulers were 
 8uV)iect to the suzerainty of the Frankish monarchs. At that time 
 only scanty traces of the former profession of Christianity remained in 
 the country. In 015 the Frankish abbot, Eüstasius of Luxeuil, the 
 successor of Columban, went as missionary among the Bavarians. He 
 had to contend with Bonosian and Photinian errors — probably in con- 
 sequence of the Arianism which the Goths had spread in that neigh- 
 bourhood. St. Emmerax, Bishop of Poitiers, laboured about the middle 
 of the seventh century in Regensburg, at the court of Theodo I., Duke 
 of Bavaria. He continued only three years, when he suddenly left for 
 Italy. By the way he was killed (052) by the brother of the Princess 
 Ota, on a charge of having seduced her ; that princess having, at his 
 own suggestion, named him as her seducer, in order to shield the 
 guilty person from vengeance. After that the Church declined, owing 
 to the weakness of the Merovingian monarchs. But when, in conse- 
 quence of the victory of Testry in 087, Pepin of Heristal became the 
 26*
 
 306 SECTION II. FIRST PERIOD (c E N T. 4— 9 A. D.). 
 
 hereditary administrator of the realm, both the Frankish power and 
 the Church were restored. For the latter purpose, Duke Tlieodo IL 
 invited in 696 Bishop Ruodpert (Rupert), who proved indeed the 
 Apostle of Bavaria. He baptized the duke and his court, founded 
 numerous churches and monasteries, and made Christianity the religion 
 of almost the whole country. The see of Salzburg, which he had 
 founded, served as a centre for his operations. In 716 he returned to 
 his former see of Worms, where he died. He was succeeded by 
 CoRBiNiAN, a Frankish bishop (without a fixed see — or "regionary 
 bishop"), who in 717 founded the episcopal see of Freisiiigen. This 
 prelate is described as proud, unyielding, and severe in the exercise of 
 discipline. He swept away every remaining trace of heathen super- 
 stition, founded churches and monasteries, and, according to legend, per- 
 formed many miracles. (0&. 730.) — Among the Thuringians, heathen- 
 ism continued unopposed till the middle of the seventh century, when 
 KijUena or Kilian, an Irish missionary, commenced his evangelistic 
 labours in the neighbourhood of Würzburg. His zeal was rcM^arded 
 with the martyr's crown, and his work brought to a successful issue 
 under the ministry of St. Boniface. 
 
 3. North- Western Germany. — In the country around the Middle 
 Rhine the ancient Christian sees had survived, although, from the 
 prevalence of heathenism in their immediate vicinity, the character 
 and influence of the clergy had greatly declined. Despite their oppo- 
 sition, the labours of Goar, a hermit, about the middle of the sixth 
 century, proved to a large extent successful. The pretty little town 
 of St. Goar rose where his cell had stood. About the same time a 
 Langobard Stylite, Wulflaich, braved the severity of the climate, and 
 preached to the heathen from the top of his column ; but the neigh- 
 bouring bishops disapproved of his mad asceticism, and had the column 
 demolished. — Frankish missionaries — especially St. Amandus (the 
 Apostle of Belgium) — laboured among the Frisians, south of the 
 Scheid, since the commencement of the seventh century. In 647 
 Amandus became Bishop of Malines, and died in 679 in the monastery 
 of Elnon near Tournay (afterwards called St. Arnand). Simultaneously, 
 St. Eligius, formerly a goldsmith, and from 641 Bishop of Noyon, 
 engaged in the same work. — An Anglo-Saxon, Wilfrid (| 77, 6), was 
 the first to carry the Gospel to the Frisians north of the Scheid. He 
 had been elected Archbishop of York, but was expelled from his see 
 (^ 8.3, 1), and started for Rome to seek protection. Happily a storm 
 drove him to the coast of Frisia, instead of allowing him to land in 
 France, where hired assassins lay in wait for him. He spent the 
 winter in Frisia (677-678), preached daily, and baptized Aldf/ild, the 
 reigning duke, and thousands of his subjects. But Radbod {ob. 719), 
 the successor of Aldgild, who was continually engaged in contests with 
 Pepin and Charles Martel, hated and persecuted Christianity, as being 
 Üie religion of the Franks. The seed sown by Wilfrid soemed in
 
 CONVERSION OF GERMANY. 307 
 
 danger of being destroyed, when the victory of Pepin at Dotstedt (in 
 689) obliged the persecutor to relent, at least for a time. Wulfram 
 of Sens immediately recommenced missionary operations among the 
 people. Legend has it, that Radhod himself had expressed his readi- 
 ness to be baptized : but that when entering the water he drew back, 
 declaring that lie preferred being consigned to hell in company with 
 his ghirious ancestors, to going to heaven along with a crowd of 
 wretched people. The story, however, does not bear the test of 
 historical criticism. — But the evangelization of all Frisia was to be 
 accomplished by another Anglo-Saxon. Willibrord, assisted by twelve 
 other missionaries, devoted himself in 690 to this enterprise. Twice 
 he journeyed to Rome to submit his work to the direction of the Pope, 
 who changed his name to that of Clement, and ordained him Bishop 
 of the Frisians. Pepin assigned to him the castle of Utrecht as his 
 episcopal see. Thence his labours extended not only over the domains 
 of Radbod, but even beyond the Danish frontier. When on a visit on 
 the island of Heligoland, he ventured to baptize three persons in a 
 well which was regarded as sacred. Radbod was about to immolate 
 the bishop and his converts to the gods. Thrice he consulted the 
 sacred lot, but each time the decision was in favour of the Christians. 
 Willibrord continued his labours among the Frisians with varying 
 success for fifty years, and died in 739, in the 81st year of his life. He 
 was succeeded in the administration of the See of Utrecht by Gregory, 
 a noble Frank of Merovingian descent, who was the favourite pupil 
 of St. Boniface. But Gregory was not consecrated a bishop, as the 
 See of Cologne laid claim to jurisdiction over the Frisian Church. 
 When in 734 Charles Martel completely subjugated the Frisians, the 
 work of evangelization proceeded more rapidly. Among the mission- 
 aries who laboured in Frisia, Willehad, an Anglo-Saxon, whom Charle- 
 magne afterwards invested with the bishopric of Bremen, scenes to 
 have been the most successful. St. Lindner, a native of Frisia, and 
 afterwards Bishop of Munster, completed what his predecessors had 
 80 worthily begun. 
 
 4. Labours of St. Boniface, the Apostle of Germany. — Win f rid, a 
 native of Kirton in Wessex (about 680), had, by piety, devo*edness, 
 and ability, risen to distinction in his own church and country. But 
 his sympathies were wider than his sphere. Impelled by a sense of 
 the love of Christ, he resolved to devote himself to missionary work 
 among the heathen of Germany. He arrived in Frisia (in 716) at a 
 moment most unfavourable for his enterprise. Radhod was just en- 
 gaged in war with Charles Martel, and had wreaked his enmity on 
 Christian churches and monasteries. Winfrid was obliged to return 
 without having accomplished anything. But such discouragements 
 could not cool his missionary ardour. In the spring of 718 he again 
 crossed the Channel. He went first to Rome, where Gregory IL ft)rra- 
 »Uy set him apart for missionary work in Germany. In Thuringia and
 
 y08 SECTION II. FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 4— 9 A. K.). 
 
 Franconia, the field for which he had been designated, he found littU 
 encouragement. Accordingly, on hearing of the death of Radbod, he 
 returned to Frisia, where for three years he shared the labours of 
 Willibrord. This prelate, anxious to secure so efficient a missionary, 
 offered him the succession to the See of Utrecht. But such prospects 
 only served to remind Winfrid of the work for which he had been set 
 apart. Accordingly, in 722 he went to Upper Hesse, where he founded 
 the monastery of Amonaherg, and within a short period baptized thou- 
 sands of heathens. Summoned by the Pope to Rome (in 723), he was 
 consecrated "Regionary" Bishop of Germany by the name of BonU 
 facius (episcopus regionarius, i. e., without a definite diocese), and, 
 after having taken an oatli of allegiance to the See of Rome, returned 
 to his post armed with a letter of recommendation to Charles Martel. 
 Thus furnished with spiritual armory from Rome, and enjoying the 
 more doubtful advanage of Frankish protection, he resumed his labours 
 in Heiise. The fall of the ancient sacred oak at Geismar, near Fritzlar, 
 also marked that of heathenism in Central Germany. Surrounded by 
 a vast concourse of heathens, who gazed in breathless expectation, 
 Boniface himself had laid the axe to that sacred tree ; its wood now 
 furnished material for a Christian chapel. After that event his preach- 
 ing was attended with unparalleled success ; and within the space of 
 a year, Christianity had become the religion of almost all Hesse. In 
 725 he went to Thuringia, where British missionaries, who were unwil- 
 ling to submit to Papal supremacy, greatly perplexed him. He then 
 sent for additional labourers to England, and founded the monastery of 
 Ordorp, near Arnstadt, on the Ohra, for the education of a native min- 
 istry. Gregory II. died in 731 ; but Gregory III., whom Boniface kept 
 informed of the progress of the work, sent him the Pallium, and en- 
 trusted him with the task of founding episcopal sees in Germany and 
 ordaining bishops. Having erected the abbacy of Fritzlar, he pro- 
 ceeded to Bavaria, where he was engaged in hot controversy with some 
 representatives of the ancient British Confession. Boniface returned 
 to Hesse, accompanied by Sfurm, a zealous Bavarian youth, whom he 
 educated at Fritzlar for the clerical profession. In 738 he went a third 
 time to Rome, probably to consult the Pope about the final organization 
 of the German Church. There he met with the most respectful recep- 
 tion, and remained a whole year. On his return, he again visited 
 Bavaria, expelled his former British opponents, deposed some refractory 
 Frankish bishops, and divided the Church of Bavaria into four dioceses. 
 He next returned to Thitringia, whence also he drove the British mis- 
 sionaries, and where he instituted four dioceses. During the lifetime 
 of CItarles Martel, Boniface had been prevented from exercising any 
 authority over the churches on the other side of the Rhine. But after 
 the death of that monarch (in 741), his sons, Carloman in Austrasia, 
 and Pepin the Sltori in Neustria, requested his aid in reorganizing the 
 Church in their dominions, which had sadly df üliued. The work of
 
 CONVERSION OF GKRMANY. SOi» 
 
 reform commenced in Austrasia. In 742 Boniface presided over the 
 first Austrasian Sjmod (Concilium Gcruianicum) which pas&ed strin- 
 gent measui'es for the restoration of discipline, and the removal of the 
 heretical, the married and the foreign (British) clergy. At another 
 pynod held at Liptinoi [Lestuies, near Cambray) in 743, the bishops 
 present promised unconditional obedience to the See of Rome. Carlo 
 man, who was present at both these synods, gave legal sanction to their 
 decrees. In 742 Boniface founded the celebrated monastery of Fulda, 
 of which Sturm was the first al)])ot — an institution destined to become 
 the watch-tower and training-school of German monasticism. About 
 the same period he engaged in keen controversy with two noted here- 
 tics — Adalbert, a Frank, and Clement, a Scot; as also with Viryilius, 
 an Irishman. In 744, in his capacity of Papal Vicar, he entered into 
 negotiations for reorganizing the Church of Neustria. The authority 
 of the metropolitans, and the exercise of discipline, were restored at 
 the Synod of Soissons (in 744). At another synod, held the following 
 year (at Mayence?), Gewilih, the unworthy occupant of the See of 
 Mayence, who was convicted of having hired assassins, was deposed, 
 and his see assigned to Boniface as Metropolitan of Germany (though 
 he would rather have chosen that of Cologne). Carloman, tormented 
 by a guilty conscience, retired in 747 into a monastery, leaving his 
 brother Fejjin sole ruler. Only a few years later, Pepin, with the ex- 
 press sanction of the Pope (^ 82, 1), put an end to the figment of 
 Merovingian rule (in 751). The supposition that Boniface acted as 
 negotiator between the Pontiff and the Major-Domus in this transac- 
 tion, is entirely unfounded. On the contrary, we have reason to believe 
 that the prelate had to the utmost of his power opposed the scheme, 
 under the influence of certain notions about the Divine right of the 
 Merovingians. Amidst many cares and troubles, the Apostle of Ger- 
 many untiringly prosecuted the great mission of his life. But as he 
 grew in years, he longed to devolve some of his onerous duties on 
 younger shoulders. Gregory III. had, indeed, promised to allow him 
 to name his own successor ; but Pope Zacharias contemplated Avith 
 apprehension the appointment of a German primate who miglit prove 
 less submissive than Boniface. At last, however, he yielded to the 
 uigent entreaties of the aged Apostle. In the spring of 754 Boniface 
 conferred the archiepiscopal office on Lulhis, his favourite pupil, and 
 then sailed down the Rhine to spend his last days in evangelizing those 
 heathen Frisians to whom his youthful energies had been devoted. In 
 anticipation of his approaching end, he took along his shroud (755). 
 His tent was pitched in the neighbourhood of the modern Doccum, 
 whence he itinerated through Frisia, baptizing thousands of heathens. 
 On the 5th June 755, he had appointed a number of his converts to 
 meet him in order to receive confirmation. But early on the morning 
 of that day he was attacked by a band of heathen. Holding over his 
 head a copy of the Gospels, Boniface received the mortal blow. His
 
 810 SECTION II. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 4—9 A.D.;. 
 
 fifty-two co-labourers shared the same fate. The bones of the martj? 
 bishop were deposited in Fulda. 
 
 5. Conversion of tlie Saxons. — Two Anglo-Saxon monks, both of the 
 name of Ewald (Black and White Ewald), were the first missionaries 
 among the Saxons, who, from the north-western coasts of Germany, 
 had migrated to the neighbourhood of the Rhine. These preachers 
 were hospitably received by a Saxon peasant ; but no sooner had he 
 learned their object, than he and his servants fell upon them and cru- 
 elly murdered them (about 691). Boniface had never lost sight of the 
 Saxons ; and the choice of Fulda, close by the Saxon boundary, as the 
 site of a monastery, was no doubt determined partly with the view of 
 making it the basis of spiritual operations among the neighbouring 
 heathen. Still, for thirty years this mission remained only an object 
 of hope, till the work was done by the sword of the greatest of Frank- 
 ish monarchs. Charlemagne considered the subjugation of the hostile 
 and powerful Saxon nation as a politie^l necessity. But their perma- 
 nent political subjection could not be secured without their conversion 
 to Christianity, nor the latter be accomplished without the former, as 
 the Saxons hated the religion of the Franks not less than the Franks 
 themselves. Alcuin, indeed^ plead nobly and boldly with his royal 
 friend against recourse to violent measures for the purpose of securing 
 the conversion of the Saxons ; but political considerations proved more 
 powerful than the arguments of one whose counsels otherwise fre- 
 quently prevailed. The wars against the Saxons lasted for thirty-three 
 years (772-804). Even in the first campaign Eresburg, the great strong- 
 hold of the Saxons, was taken, and their most sacred idol, the Irmin- 
 column (on which the universe was supposed to rest), destroyed. 
 Frankish priests followed in the train of the Frankish army, and im- 
 mediately Christianized the conquered districts. But scarcely had the 
 armies of Charles withdrawn, when the Saxons again swept away 
 every trace of the hated religion. At last, however, they were obliged, 
 at the Diet of Paderborn in 777, to take an oath of fealty to the Frank- 
 ish monarch, on pain of losing life and property. But Widukind (Wit- 
 tekind), the most powei-ful of their leadei-s, had not attended this diet, 
 and again raised the standard of revolt. The Frankish army was 
 completely defeated, every Christian minister killed, and every church 
 destroyed. Charles took fearful vengeance. At Verden he ordered 
 4500 Saxons to be beheaded in one day. Still, another rebellion broke 
 out; and at a second diet, held ü.t Paderborn in 785, most stringent 
 laws were enacted, which punished with death the slightest opposition 
 to the ordinances of the Church. Widvkind and Albion, the two prin- 
 cipal Saxon chiefs, saw the uselessness of further resistance. They 
 were baptized in 785, after which they continued faithful both to the 
 king and to the Church. But the people in general were far from 
 quiet. In 804 Charles expelled 10,000 Saxon families from their homes, 
 and gave their lands to his allies, the Obotrites. This measure at last
 
 THE SLAVONIANS IN GERMANY. 311 
 
 2<joured peaje. Charles had fouiulod eight sees in Saxony. Undei 
 their fostering care, Christianity now spread among the Saxons, who 
 by and by learned to hold its truths with the same warmth and devout- 
 ness as the other German races. Of this the popular Epos, entitled 
 " The Saviour" (^ 88, 2), aifords suflScient evidence. 
 
 § 79. THE SLAVONIANS WITHIN THE BOUNDARIES OF 
 GERMANY. 
 
 Comp. Schafa)-ik, Dohrowsky, Philaret and Ginzcl (g 72). — /. Palacky, 
 Gesch. V. Böhmen. Vol. I. Prague 1836. 
 
 In their proo-ress, the Huns had driven the Slavonians south- 
 wards as far as the banks of the Danube, and westwards to those 
 of the Vistula. When, in the sixtli century, the Avari, a Mon- 
 gol race, took possession of Dacia, Pannonia, and Dalraatia, the 
 Slavonians were obliged to retreat still further westward. Dur- 
 inor this period no attempts seem to have been made to carry the 
 Gospel to the Slavonians in the north-eastern parts of Germany, 
 althougli the See of Salzburg made great efforts to convert both 
 the Slavonians in the south and the Avari. But these labours 
 were not attended with great success till the middle of the eighth 
 century. In 748 Boruth, the prince of the Garantani (in our 
 modern Carinthia), invoked the assistance of Thassilo II., Puke 
 of Bavaria, against the oppression of the Avari. His nephew 
 Ceitumar was educated in Bavaria in the Christian religion. 
 When in 753 he assumed the reins of government, he introduced 
 Christianity into his dominions. After the fall of Thassilo, 
 Carinthia became also subject to Frankish rule (in 788), and 
 Charlemagne extended his conquests likewise to the countries 
 of. the Avari and the Moravians. Commissioned by that mon- 
 arch, Arno was zealously engaged in Christianizing these tribes; 
 and with this object in view, his diocese of Salzburg was ele- 
 vated to the rank of a metropolitan see. In 796 Tudiin, prince 
 of the Avari, was baptized at Aix-la-chapelle amid a large con- 
 course of people ; and in 797 the whole nation pledged itself to 
 become Christianized, and desired Christian teachers. In the 
 ninth century the name Avari disappears from history. In 855 
 the Grand Duke i?as('i.s7aL' freed Moravia from Frankish domina- 
 tion, when the jurisdiction of the German bishops entirely ceasi;d. 
 The new ruler of Moravia applied to the Byzantine Emperor for 
 Slavonic missionaries. The brothers Cyrtll and Methodius,
 
 il2 SECTION II FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 4—9 A.D.). 
 
 who had already distinguished themselves in a kindred depart- 
 ment of missionary labour (§ *72, 2, 3), were dispatched on this 
 errand (863). They immediately introduced Slavonian worship 
 and liturgy ; and by preaching in the vernacular, readily gained 
 access to the hearts of the people. But political considerations 
 obliged the missionaries to join the Romish Church. The only 
 remnant of former independence left, was the permissio)i to 
 continue the use of the Slavonic liturgy. Through the friendly 
 intercourse subsisting between the Moravians and the Czechs in 
 Bohemia, the way was also opened for the evangelization of that 
 country. . 
 
 1. The Moravian Church. — Althovigh great success attended the 
 preaching of Cyrill and Methodius in Moravia, the political compli- 
 cations of that period rendered their position one of great difficulty. 
 Indeed, only under the protection of the Papacy could they hope to 
 maintain their ground. Accordingly, they gladly accepted an invita- 
 tion from Pope Nicholas I. (8G7) to visit Rome. On their arrival, they 
 found the Chair of Peter occupied by Hadrian IL CyriUus remained at 
 Rome, where he soon afterwards died. Methodiü§ made formal sub- 
 mission to the Papacy, and was consecrated Arclibishop of Moravia. 
 But the German Bishops, in their envy of the honours bestowed on a 
 hated rival, impugned the fealty of Methodius, charged him with 
 heresy, and inveighed against the Slavonic liturgy which he had in- 
 troduced. It was not difficult to arouse the suspicion of Pope John 
 VIIL, and Methodius was summoned to Rome in no gentle terms 
 (879). The evangelist obeyed ; he completely refuted these calumnies, 
 and returned to his diocese not only with his former title, but also with 
 the express permission to continue the Slavonic liturgy — only that, by 
 way of special distinction, the Gospel was to be read first in Latin and 
 then in Slavonic. Nothing daunted, the German bishops continued 
 by their intrigues to embitter the last days of the devoted missionary 
 [oh. 885.) After his death the Moravian priests were the objects of a 
 general persecution, and the archiepiscopal See of Moravia remained 
 vacant for fourteen years, till John IX. restored it in 899. But in 908 
 the independence of Moravia ceased, and the country was divided be- 
 tween the Bohemians and the Magyars. 
 
 2. Infroductinn of Christianiti/ into Bohemia. — On New Year's day 
 845 fourteen Czech nobles appeared at the court of Louis the Ger- 
 manic in Regensburg, and along with their suite requested baptism. 
 The motives and consequences of this step have not been recorded. 
 When Ratislav elevated Moravia to the rank and power of an inde- 
 pendent realm, the Bohemians entered into close alliance with the 
 Moravians. Svafopluk, the successor of Ratislav, married a daughter 
 ■)f Borzivoi. the ruler of Bohemia (871). After that, the labours of
 
 THE SCANDINAVIAN NATIONS. 313 
 
 Methodius were extended to Bohemia also, and their success was 
 marked. Borzivoi himself, and his wife St.Ludmilla, were baptized by 
 him so early as in 871. The sons of Borzivoi, Spitihnev {ob. 912) and 
 Vrafislav [ob. 92G), equally promoted the spread and establishment of 
 the Church in Bohemia, a work in which they were zealously aided by 
 their pious mother. (Comp. ^ 93, 2.) 
 
 ^ 80 THE SCANDINAVIAN NATIONS. 
 
 Comp. F. E. Dahlmann, Gesch, v. Dänem. Vol. I. Hamb. 1840. — 
 E. G. Geijer, Gesch. v. Schweden. Vol. I. Hamb. 1833.— f/-. Munter, 
 K.-G. V. Dänem. u. Norw. (Ch. Hist, of Denm. and Norway). Vol. I. 
 Leipz. 1823. — K. Maurer, d. Bekehr, d. norw. Stammes zum Christth. 
 (Conv. of the Norw. Race to Christian.) Vol. II. Munich 1850. — The 
 biographies of St. Ansgar by Kruse (Altona 1813), by F. A. Krumma- 
 eher (Brem. 1828), by Reuterdahl (Berlin 1837), by Erafft (in Latin, 
 Hamb. 1840), by Daniel (Halle 1842), and by Klippel (Bremen 1845). 
 
 At an early period the attention of the missionaries who 
 laboured among the Frisians and Saxons was directed to the 
 neighbouring provinces of Jutland and Denmark. Already in 
 696 Willihrord (§ 78, 3) carried the Gospel beyond the Eider ; 
 and Charlemagne perceived the necessity of extending his own 
 and the Church's conquests over the peninsula of Jutland, and 
 to the sea-shore, in order firmly to secure his rule over the 
 Saxons and Frisians. But circumstances prevented this monarch 
 from carrying this plan into execution. More favourai)le pros- 
 pects opened under the reign of Louis the Pious. King Harold, 
 who had been expelled from Denmark, repaired for protection to 
 the Frankish court. By the aid of Louis, he again obtained a 
 footing in Jutland. Ebho, Archbishop of Mayence, followed in 
 his train as missionary to Denmark (823). Under the protec- 
 tioh of Harold, Ebbo baptized many Danes ; but he was obliged 
 to retire after a stay of only one year. Harold himself was also 
 hardly beset. Accordingly, he resolved to throw off the heatlien- 
 isni of his country, and to ally himself completely with Germany. 
 For this purpose he embarked in 826, accompanied by his 
 wife and child, and a large suite, and was baptized with great' 
 pomp in the Church at Mayence, where Louis at the time held 
 his court. On his return he was accompanied by Ansoar, a 
 young monk from the convent of Corvey on the Weser, to whom 
 Louis entrusted the difficult and dangerous task of gaining 
 Scandinavia for the Church. Ansgar may be styled the Apostle 
 27
 
 314 SECTION II. FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 4—9 A.D.). 
 
 of the North. He devoted his whole life to the great work, and 
 succeeded, — at least so far as indomitable perseverence, de- 
 votedness, and self-denial among innumerable difficulties and 
 trials could secure such an object. 
 
 1. ,iit.s'gar, the son of Frankish parents, was educated in thft 
 monastery of Corvey in Picardy, whence he was removed to the con 
 vent of New Corvey, when the latter was founded. Even while a 
 child he had visions and dreams, in which missionary activity and the 
 martyr's crown were held out to him. His first missionary journey 
 (82G) promised little success. Harold settled on the borders of Jutland, 
 without venturing to advance into the mterior. This circumstance 
 necessarily restrained the zeal of Ansgar. Still he founded a school, 
 and bought a number of young Danish serfs in order to educate them 
 for the ministry among their countrymen. But in the following year 
 Harold was again expelled, and Ansgar also had to retire (827). Two 
 years afterAvards Louis obtained tidings that in Sweden there were a 
 number of Christians, and that the king himself and all his people were 
 desirous of obtaining Christian instruction. In company Avith several 
 other priests, Ansgar now undertook a mission to that country in 830. 
 On their journey the missionaries were plundered by pirates ; his 
 associates advised to return home, but the courage of Ansgar was not 
 shaken. After untold difficulties they at last landed at Birka, and 
 were well received by Björn, king of Sweden. A small number of 
 Christian captives received them with joy, and gathered around them 
 for worship : young serfs were bought, a school was erected, and the 
 Gospel preached to the people. Several Swedes were baptized, — 
 among them Uerigar, the Governor of Birka, on whose property the 
 first Christian church was built. After the lapse of a year and a half 
 Ansgar returned to the Frankish court, in order to have the mission 
 placed in a position which would promise greater stability. Louis the 
 Pious yielded to his representations, and founded at Hamlmrg, on the 
 borders of Denmark, an archiepiscopal see for Scandinavia. He de- 
 signated Ansgar as its first occupant, and assigned the revenues of the 
 rich abbej' of Tiirholt for his support and for that of the mission (833). 
 Ansgar repaired to Rome, and obtained from Gregory IV. a bull con- 
 firming his appointment, and nominating him Vicar Apostolic for the 
 North. He next built a cathedral and a convent at Hamburg, pur- 
 chased additional Danish youths to educate them for the ministry, and 
 sent fresh labourers to Sweden. But adversities of every kind now 
 overtook the Archbishop. In 840 the Normans invaded Hamburg, and 
 destroyed both the town, the church, the monastery, and the library. 
 With difficulty Ansgar and his monks escaped with their lives. Soon 
 afterwards the Swedish missionaries were expelled by the pagans of 
 that country, and for fifteen years evangelistic labours had in grea< 
 measure to be suspended. Louis died, and Harold apostatized.
 
 THE SCANDINAVIAN NATIONS 315 
 
 When Charles the Bald obtained Flanders (in 843) ir virtue of the 
 treaty of Verdun, that callous monarch immediately claimed the a})l)ey 
 of Turholt — to bestow it on one of his worthless favourites. Ans<:;ar 
 was now entirely destitute of all means of subsistence; his clergy, 
 whom he could no longer support, left him, and his educational 
 establishment was closed. Ilis neighbour Leuteric, Bishop of Bremen, 
 with whom he sought a refuge, and who had long envied his position 
 turned him from his door. At last he found an asylum with a noble 
 widow, who assigned a farmhouse on her property at Ramslo, near 
 Hamburg, for his residence. In 847 Leuteric of Bremen died ; and 
 Louis the Germanic resolved to conjoin the See of Bremen with that of 
 Hamburg, in order again to secure the means of subsistence to the 
 tried Apostle of the North. Against this arrangement the Bishops of 
 Verden and Cologne, from interested motives, raised objections ; but 
 their oppositicm was stopped by Pope Nicholas I. (858). Meantime 
 Ansgar had laboured indefatigably in connection with the Scandinavian 
 mission, notwithstanding the straits to which himself was reduced. 
 Dexmark was at that time under the rule of Eric (Horic), to whose 
 court Ansgar frequently repaired as ambassador of the German king. 
 He succeeded in gaining his favour, and was aUowed to build a church 
 at Schleswig, and to organize a mission which extended over the whole 
 of the country. Although Eric himself ventured not openly to profess 
 Christianity, the fanaticism of the pagans broke out in open revolt. 
 Eric was dethroned, and fell in battle (854). The victorious rebels 
 appointed a boy, Eric IL, his successor ; but the government was in 
 reality administered by a chief named Jovi, a furious enemy of the 
 Gospel, who expelled the Christian priests, and declared the profession 
 of Christianity a capital offence. In 855 Eric shook off the tutelage of 
 Jovi, and extended toleration to Christians. Missionary labours were 
 now resumed with fresh ardour and great success. — All attempts to 
 re-establish the mission in Swedex had failed, when Ansgar in 852 
 resolved himself to undertake this work. By rich presents and a 
 splendid entertainment he secured the favour of Ohf, king of Sweilen. 
 The question of tolerating Christianity was submitted in popular 
 assembly to the decision of the heathen lots, which fell in favour of 
 the Gospel. After that, the labours of the missionaries continued un- 
 disturbed in Sweden till the death of Ansgar in 865. The most ardent 
 hope of his life — to obtain the martyr's crown — was indeed disap- 
 pointed ; but a life so full of labours, sufferings, trials, devotedness, 
 perseverance, and self-denial, is surely greater than even a martyr's 
 crown. — lie was succeeded in the See of Ilamlnirg-Bremen by liiinherl, 
 his favourite pupil, the companion of almost all his missionary journeys, 
 and his biographer. It was Rimbert's ambition to fdlow in the wake 
 of his. great predecessor, and the Scandinavian mission formed the 
 object of his deep solicitude. But the irruptions of the Danish and 
 Norman pirates sadly interfered with the peaceful work of the Gospel
 
 316 SECTION II. — FIRST PERIOD (C E N T. 4--9 A. D.) , 
 
 These troubles increased after the death of Rimbert to such an extent, 
 that the Archbishop of Cologne could again bring forward his claima 
 on the See of Bremen, — this time with the plea, that the purpose for 
 which the see of Hamburg had been founded was wholly frustrated. 
 
 {^Principal Source : Adam Bremensis, Gesta Hamburgensis eccl. Epis- 
 
 coporum (to the year 1076). 
 
 I 81. CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAMISM. 
 
 Comp. /. Aschbach, Gesch. d. Ommaijaden in Sp. (Hist, of the Om- 
 miades in Spain). Frkf. 1829. 2 Vols.' — F. W. Lemke, Gesch. v. Sp., 
 continued by H. Schäfer. Vols. I. II. Hamb. 1831 — 44. — Cojfrfe'a 
 Ilistory of the Arabs in Spain, transl. by Mrs Foster. 3 Vols London 
 1854 (Bohn's Libr.). — M. Amari, Storia dei Musulmanni di Sicilia, 
 Firenze. 1854. 
 
 Since the year 665 the Saracens, and their allies the Moors 
 (or inhabitants of Barbary), who had become converts to 
 Mohammedanism, gradually extended their conquests in North- 
 ern Africa, till the rule of Byzantium (§ 16, 3) had finally to 
 give way before theirs. From Africa they passed, at the sug- 
 gestion of a traitor, in 111 to Spain, where they swept away the 
 Gothic domination. In less than five years the entire peninsula, 
 with the exception of the mountainous districts in the north, was 
 in their possession. The fruitful plains north of the Pyrenees 
 next excited their cupidity ; but the bloody defeat which Charles 
 Martel inflicted on the invaders at Poitiers in 132, effectually 
 checked such attempts. In this battle the Franks at the same 
 time saved Europe and preserved its Christianity. In 152 the 
 dynasty of the Ommiades at Damascus, whose sway extended 
 also over Moorish Spain, was supplanted by that of the Abassi- 
 des. Abderrhamaa I., a scion of the dethroned family, es- 
 caped to Spain, wehere he founded the independent caliphate of 
 Cordova, which soon became distinguished for the brilliant cul 
 ture which it encouraged. The dominion of the Arabs in Spain 
 was, however, threatened from two sides. When Roderic suc- 
 cumbed before the Saracens (111,), Pelai/o, a relative of the 
 Gothic monarch, retired with a small but heroic band to the 
 inaccessible mountain fastnesses of Asturio.. There, and in the 
 mountains by the Bay of Biscay, where Alfo7}so, his son-in-law, 
 held command, national inde})endence and Christianity were still 
 prese.'ved. At a later period Alfonso reigned over these two 
 districts, conquered Galicia and Castile, and restored in his do
 
 CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM ISM 317 
 
 minions the supremacy of Christianity. The people honoured 
 his memory by giving him the title of Catholic. By continued 
 expeditions against the infidels, his successors enlarged theit 
 possessions as far as the banks of the Duero. Among them 
 Alfonso IT., the Chaste (ob. 850), who fixed his residence at 
 Oviedo, was specially distinguished both for his bravery and his 
 love of literature. — In the eastern part of Spain also the arms 
 of the Christians drove the Moslems from their strong places. 
 In YYS Charlemagne conquered the country to the banks of the 
 Ebro. The revolt of the Saxons prevented him from penetra- 
 ting farther, and his most distinguished warriors were murdered 
 in the Pyrenees by the lawless Basques. But in two other cam- 
 paigns (in 800 and 801) he again subjected the country, as far 
 as the Ebro, to the Frankish sceptre. — In Sicily also the 
 Moslems gained a footing. In 82T a Byzantine colonel fled to 
 Africa, from the punislmient he had incurred, whence he re- 
 turned at the head of 10,000 Saracens, who ravaged Sicily. 
 Other succours followed, and in a few years all Sicily was sub- 
 ject to the Arabs, who every year made predatory incursions on 
 the coast of Italy, and on one occasion penetrated even to the 
 gates of Rome. In 880 they formed a settlement at the mouth 
 of the river Garigliano, levying heavy contributions on the 
 whole of Central Italy, until finally in 916 John X. succeeded in 
 expelling them. In 889 Spanish-Moorish pirates landed on the 
 coast of Provence, occupied the castle Fraxinetum, and pillaged 
 the regions of the Al])s and northern Italy for a whole century. 
 The effects of their rapacity, however, were most severely felt in 
 Southern Italy. This state of matters continued for two and 
 a half centuries, till in 1091 the Nornians finally expelled the 
 Saracens from Sicily. (Comp. § 95, 1.) '" 
 
 1. The Spanish Chrisfiana, who were subject to the rule of the 
 Ommiades, were called Mnzarabs (Arabi Mustaraba, i. e., arabized 
 Arabs, in contradistinction to the Arabi Araba, or Arahs properly so 
 called). In some respects, they enjoyed greater liberty than the 
 Eastern Christians under Saravon rule. Many Christian youths of the 
 best families attended the flourishing schools planted by the Moors. 
 were enthusiastic in their admiration of the Arab language and litera- 
 ture, and anxious to be employed at court, or as public servants. In 
 opposition to this anti-christian and anti-national movement, others, in 
 an excess of fanatical bigotry, rushed forward to martyrdom, and 
 indulged in gratuitous and unprovoked insults on the Mohammedan 
 2T*
 
 S18 SECTION II. — FIRST PERIOD (c E N T. 4— 9 A. D.). 
 
 rule' and religion. This species of Christian fanaticism awakened 
 kindred feelings in the Moslems, and led to bloody persecutions (850- 
 59). Perfedus, a monk, was the first of these martyrs. "When asked 
 what he thought of Mohammed, he denounced him as a false prophet, 
 for which he was executed. Abderrhaman IL, who at the time was 
 Caliph, was not a fanatic. In his anxiety to put an end to such scenes, 
 he prevailed on Recafrid, the Metropolitan of Seville, to issue an ordi- 
 nance, which interdicted all insults against the Moslem Prophet. But 
 this measure only served to increase the fanaticism of the extreme 
 party, which was headed by Evloghis (a presbyter, afterwards Arch- 
 bishop) nf Cordova, and by Pavhis Aharus. Euhgius himself kept 
 concealed a converted Moorish girl, and on that account was executed 
 along with her (in 859). He was the last victim of this persecution. 
 
 IL INDEPENDENT DEVELOPMENT OF THE GERMANIC CHURCH. 
 
 I 82. THE PAPACY AND THE CAROLINGIANS. 
 
 Comp, the works cited at ? 46. — J. Ellendorf, d. Karolinger u. d. 
 Hierarchie ihrer Zeit. Essen 1838. 2 Vols. — S. ^itgenheim, Gesch. d. 
 Entsteh, u. Ausb. d. Kirchenstaates (Hist, of the Rise and Growth of 
 the States of the Church). Leipz. 1851. — C. Hoffler, d. deutschen Päpste. 
 Regensb. 1839. — Scuddamore, Rome and England. London 1855. 
 
 The conversion of the Germanic races had been in g:reat 
 measure accomplished without direct aid from Rome. Hence 
 even the Catholic Germanic churches paid at first little homag^e 
 to the See of Peter. This remark applies especially to the 
 Gothic ClrKrch in Spain. Estranged from Rome even in peace- 
 ful times, the Saracen invasion of 711 necessarily cut it off from 
 all intercourse with the Papacy. But the independent Christian 
 provinces of Spain also remained, up to the eleventh century, 
 unconnected with Rome. The growth or decay of the Frankish 
 churcheft, both in Gaul and in Austrasia, under the reign of the 
 Merovingians, depended likewise solely on internal causes. It 
 was otherwiseinJ5^n^/anrf; where the intercourse with the mother- 
 church in Rome was close and continuous. From the first, the 
 principle of papal supremacy had been admitted, nor was it 
 contravened except in rare instances. Innumerable pilgrimages 
 T>f Anglo-Saxons, of all ranks, to the graves of the Princes of
 
 THE PAPACY AND THE CAROLINGIANS. 319 
 
 the Apostles, both iiulioated and fostered the national attach- 
 ment to the See of Peter. In the eighth century, tlie concourse 
 of so many English pilgrims in the Eternal City led to the 
 establishment of a great home or inn for them at Rome, called 
 the Schola Saxonica. The "/"e/ßr's pence," which afterwards 
 became a regular tribute paid by the English nation to the 
 Papal See, was first levied for the maintenance of this institu- 
 tion. The Anglo-Saxons — especially St. Bonifacius — not only 
 handed to Rome the fruits of their missionary labours gathered 
 in heathen lands, but reorganized after the Romish fashion the 
 national churches already existing in the various Frankish pro- 
 vinces, and reduced them to submission to the Papal See. At a 
 somewhat later period the intercourse between the popes and 
 the Carolingian rulers became so close, as to constitute almost 
 the entire diplomatic correspondence of the Curia. 
 
 1. Oriijin of ilie Stnte>^ of the Church. — By legacies and donations 
 the Roman See had gradually acquired very extensive landed property 
 (Patrimonium S. Petri), which supplied the means of relieving the 
 inhabitants of Italy during the troubles connected with the irruption 
 of the barbarians. This, however, did not imply any exercise of 
 sovereign rights, which, indeed, were never claimed. After the restora- 
 tion of Byzantine rule, which was represented in Italy by an exarch 
 (^ 76, 7), the political power of the popes rapidly increased. Indeed, 
 the continuance of the Exarchate often depended on the good-will of 
 the pontiffs, to whom the prospect of becoming the court-patriarchs of 
 a new Longobard-Koman dj-nasty would, of course, appear far from 
 attractive. Still, they were not able to prevent the Longolmrds from 
 conquering district after district, belonging to the Exarchate. At last 
 Gregory HI. api)lied to Charles Martel for help against LvUprand (in 
 738). The Frankish ruler despatched two clerics to Italy for the 
 purpose of negotiating a peace. Pope Zacharia.t, in virtue of hjs 
 apostolic authority, sanctioned the removal of Childeric III. (the Mero- 
 vingian puppet-king), when Pepin (he Short added the roj-al title to 
 the royal power, which he had long possessed (752). Meantime, the 
 Lombards, under Aistiilf had taken Ravenna, and demanded the sub- 
 mission of Rome. Pope Stephen II. now earnestly appealed to the 
 Franks for help. At the invitation of Pepin he even went to France, 
 and anointed that monarch and his sons; in return for which Pepin 
 made formal promise of taking the Exarchate from the Lombards, and 
 handing it to the Pope (7ö4). The Frankish ruler redeemed his 
 pledge ; and in two campaigns cleared the Exarchate from its occu- 
 pants, and formally gave it to St. Peter. The grateful Pontiff" l)estowed 
 •ipnn Pepin, as patron of the Romish Church, the insignia of Patrician
 
 B20 SECTION II. FIRST PERIOD (C EN T. 4— 9 A. D.). 
 
 of Rome. When ambassadors from Byzantium 3laimed for then 
 Emperor these provinces, Pepin only replied that the Franks had shed 
 their blood for St. Peter, and not for the Greeks (755). But the 
 Lombards continued to molest the Papal See, till, at the request of 
 Pope Hadrian I., CTiarhmagne again interfered (7G8-814), took Pavia, 
 put King Desiderivs into the convent of Corvey, and annexed Loni- 
 bardy to the Frankish Empire. On this occasion Charles confirmed 
 and increased what his father had given to the Papal See, and depo- 
 sited a formal document to that effect at the grave of the Prince of the 
 Apostles (774). Unfortunately, this and the other documents in this 
 transaction have gone amissing — probably intentionally ; but there iä 
 sufficient evidence that the donation of Charlemagne did not by any 
 means imply that the popes were to exercise absolute and independent 
 sway. The Frankish monarch himself retained the rights of supreme 
 lordship, and the Pope with all the citizens had to take an oath of 
 fealty to him. In fact, the Pope Avas a Frankish vassal, and the States 
 of the Church only formed the largest "immunity" of that period 
 The Pope had all inferior jurisdiction, and nominated the Government 
 officials ; but the latter were superintended and controlled by Frankish 
 Deputies (missi dominici), who were charged to hear appeals, to receive 
 complaints, and to adjudicate on them. These rights of suzerainty 
 were claimed even by the successors of Charlemagne, however well 
 the popes knew to avail themselves of the weakness of these sovereigns. 
 The popes, indeed, resisted as opportunity offered ; and the fable about 
 a Donatio Constantini, according to which the Franks had only restored 
 to St. Peter what he had possessed since the reign of Constantine, 
 dates even from the time of Charlemagne. (The story was that Con- 
 stantine had removed his residence to Byzantium for the express 
 purpose of securing to the Pope the undisturbed sovereignty over 
 Italy.) In the forged Decretals of Isidore (§ 87, 2), a copy of the 
 pretended authentic document, in which the donation had been con- 
 veyed, was inserted. Laur. Valla (de falso credita et ementita Con-- 
 stantini donatione, — edited by Ulric von Hütten in 1518, after the 
 author's forced retractation) was the first, on critical grounds, to prove 
 the spuriousness of this document, although it had previously been 
 questioned by individuals. — (Comp. E. Miuich, lib. d. Schenk. Konst. 
 (on the Donation of Const.), in his " Miscell. Works," Ludw. 1828. Vol. 
 II.— J. A. Tkeiner, de P. Isid. cann. Col. Vrat. l^l .— F. A. Kvmt, da 
 font, et cons, pseudois. Col. Goelt. 1832. For the genuineness: Mar 
 chetti, Saggio crit. sopra la storia di Fleuri. Rom. 1781 ; comp, als« 
 Wasserschieben, Beitr. z. Gesch. d. fal. Deer. (Contrib. to the Hist, of 
 the False Deer.). Breslau 1844.) 
 
 2. The Carolingian Dynasty. — Pope Hadrian I. was succeeded by 
 Leo HI. (794^816), whose election gave great offence to a powerful 
 party. A tumult was raised (799), but the Pope escaped to the c(mrt 
 of Charlemagne, whom he assured that his enemies had deprived liiir
 
 THE PAPACY AND THE C A R L I N Q I A NS . 321 
 
 5f his eyes and tongue, which, however, St. Peter had restored tho 
 following night. Ilis opponents, on the other hand, charged him before 
 the king with perjury and adultery.* The inquiry instituted must have 
 brought ugly matters to light ; at any rate, Alcuin immediately burned 
 the report which had been handed to him. The Pope was sent back 
 with all honours to Rome, and supported by a Frankish guard. The 
 following year Charles himself crossed the Alps with his army. He 
 convoked a synod at Rome; but the assembled bishops declined to act 
 as judges, on the plea that the successor of St. Peter, who was the head 
 of all, could not be tried by his inferiors. The Pope proved his inno- 
 cence by an oath, and afterwards interceded for his accusers. At 
 Christmas Charles attended service in the church of St. Peter. Mass 
 being ended, the Pope unexpectedly placed, amidst the shouts of the 
 people, a splendid gold crown upon his head (800). The coronation 
 was represented as the result of a sudden Divine inspiration ; in reality 
 it had been the subject of protracted negotiations, and the price at 
 which the Pope purchased the protection of the king. The empire 
 which Charlemagne founded was meant to be a vast theocratic mon- 
 archy, whose sway should extend over all the globe. The Greek mon- 
 archs had proved unworthy of this distinction, and God had now trans- 
 ferred it to the Frankish ruler. In his capacity as Emperor, Charles 
 was placed over all Christend(jm, and subject only to God and to Ilia 
 law. lie was indeed the most obedient son, the most devoted servant 
 of the Church, in so far as it was the medium and the channel of salva- 
 tion ; but its supreme lord and ruler, in so far as its organization was 
 earthly and it re({uired earthly direction. The provinces of State and 
 Church, though distinct and separate, were closely connected, and, so 
 to speak, combined in the person of the Emperor as their highest repre- 
 sentative. Hence many of the legislative ordinances of Charles bore 
 directly upon ecclesiastical affairs. When making statutes about the 
 government, worship, and teaching of the Church, the Emperor was 
 indeed wont to consult bishops and synods ; but he ratified, supple- 
 «Qented, or modified their decrees according to his own views of duty, 
 as he thought that the responsibility ultimately devolved upon himself. 
 The Pope he regarded as the successor of St. Peter and the visible head 
 of the Church, but as subject to the Emperor, who was placed above 
 both State and Church. In setting him apart to this exalted station, 
 the Pope had acted by immediate Divine direction and commission, 
 and not in the exercise of his own power or of that inherent in the 
 Papacy. Hence coronation by the Pope was a ceremony only once 
 enacted, and not to be repeated ; the office was hereditary in the family 
 of Charles, and the Emperor alone could beget or nominate another 
 emperor. Contrary to the Frankish law of succession, the empire was 
 to continue unbroken and undivided, and j-ounger sons were only to 
 occupy the subordinate posts of viceroys. Charles died in 814. Ilia- 
 ' Dean Milman thinks the latter charge refers to spin'liial adultery or Simontf,
 
 322 SECTION II. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 4— 9 A. D.). 
 
 son, Lo^ds the Pious (814-840), was far too weak to complete what hia 
 father had begun. Foolish affection for Charles the Bald, his son by a 
 second marriage, induced him to revoke the order of succession which 
 himself had formerly proclaimed (829). With the approval and aid of 
 some of the most influential Frankish bishops, and of Pope Gregory IV.. 
 the other sons of the Emperor now rose in rebellion. Louis was obliged 
 to do public penance at Coinpihgne in 833, and kept in humiliating 
 captivity by Lothair, his eldest son. But this circumstance aroused 
 public sympathy, and Louis (the Germanic), the Emperor's younger 
 son, restored his parent to liberty. Against the prelates who had 
 taken part in the conspiracy, severe sentences were now pronounced at 
 the Synod of Thionville in 835. Still the sons of Louis were continually 
 in arms against each other. Louis lived not to see the end of these 
 hostilities (o&. 848). The treaty of Verdun in 843 partitioned the West- 
 ern Empire into three separate and independent realms. Lothair, who 
 with the imperial title obtained Italy and a narrow territory between 
 Neustria and Austrasia, died in 855. Of his three sons, Louis II. in- 
 herited Italy and the imperial title ; Lothair, the district called after 
 him, Lotharingia ; and Charles Burgundy and the Provence. When 
 soon afterwards the two latter died without leaving issue (869), their 
 uncles seized their possessions before Louis II. had time to interpose. 
 By the treaty of Afersen in 870 Charles the Bald obtained the Romanic, 
 and Louis the Germanic the German portions of their father's empire. 
 Thus was the great Carolingian monarchy divided into three states, 
 each of distinct language and nationality, viz., Germany, France, and 
 Italy. 
 
 3. The Papacy till the Time of Nicholas I. — However weak and de- 
 vout, Louis the Pious was not prepared, any more than his immediate 
 successors, to surrender the supremacy which as Emperor he claimed 
 over the See and city of St. Peter. What the popes felt most galling 
 was, that before being consecrated their appointment required to be 
 ratified by the Emperor. As this had been eluded on more than one 
 occasion, Louis sent Lothair, his son, to Italy, in order to arrange the 
 matter once for all with Pope Eugen IL The so-called Const it ntio Ro' 
 mana now agreed upon enacted that in future the Romans should have 
 no voice in the election of the Pope, and that before the Pontiff was 
 consecrated his appointment should be ratified by the Emperor, to 
 whom the successor of St. Peter was to take an oath of fealty (824). 
 But although the emperors jealously watched over the rights thus 
 accorded them, pretexts were never awanting to evade the terms of 
 this agreement. — Between the pontificate of Leo IV. (o&. 855) and that 
 of Benedict III., the predecessor of Nicholas I., the Papal See was, 
 according to an old legend, occupied by a female called Joan. The 
 story runs, that a girl from Mayence had in male disguise accompanied 
 her paramour to Athens, where she a<;quired great learning ; that she
 
 THE PAPACY AND THE C AR O L I N G I AN S . 328 
 
 had next appeared under the name of Johannes Angeli(?us at R(jme, 
 und been elected Pope. During a solemn procession she had given 
 birth to a child, and soon afterwards died, having officiated for two 
 years, five months, and four days, under the name of John VIII. The 
 oldest testimony in favour of this legend is that of Anastasius, the 
 Roman librarian, whose "liber pontificalis" dates almost from that 
 period ; but according to the statements of Roman Catholic editors, 
 what passes a.s his biography of Joan is awanting in most MSS. of this 
 work, and must therefore be regarded as a spurious interpolation. 
 Marianus Scotus, ob. 1086), is the next witness in favour of the story. 
 It is furher related, with all its details, in the Chronicles of Martinus 
 Polonus (Grand Penitentiary of Rome, and afterwards Archbishop of 
 Gnesen, ob. 1278), and after him unhesitatingly reiterated by all sub- 
 sequent chroniclei's of the Middle Ages. Pope John XÄ. {ob. 1277) 
 acknoAvledged Joan as one of his predecessors, and accordingly styled 
 himself John XXI. In popular opinion, the seat of the marble chair 
 used in the Lateran Church at the consecration of the popes (the so- 
 called SELLA stercoraria), was supposed to be arranged with a view to 
 render in future the mistake of electing a female pontiff impossible ; 
 and a statue which, in the sixteenth century, was destroyed by order 
 of the Pope, was regarded as having been a monument of Joan. But 
 the silence of Photius, who would undoubtedly have made his own use 
 of such a piece of scandal, and contemporary evidence (such as the 
 Annals of Prudentius of Troyes, a letter by Hincmas of Rheims, a 
 diploma of Benedict, and a coin of Lothair), which proves that Bene- 
 dict III. immediately succeeded Leo IV., render it impossible to regard 
 this story as other than a legend. No clue, however, has yet been 
 found to its origin, unless, indeed, it was meant as a satire on the dis- 
 soluteness of such infamous pontiffs as John X., XI., or XII. — only 
 that in that case we should have expected a female Pope to have been 
 introduced in the tenth and not in the ninth century. — A Calvinistic 
 divine, David Blondel, was the first to show that the story could not 
 stand the test of sound criticism, and was utterly unworthy of credence 
 (Amst. 1649). Since then, however, its authenticity has again been 
 defended by Spanheim (0pp. II. 577), and latterly by N. Chr. Kid 
 ("Hi.st.theol.Zeitschr." for 1844. II.). Hase (Ch.Hist., 8th ed., p. 204) 
 regards it as at least conceivable that a church which has represented 
 as matter of history what has never taken place, may similarly have 
 blotted out what really took place, at least so long as the knowledge 
 of it seemed dangerous to the interests of the Papacy. 
 
 4. Nicholas I. and Hadrian IT. (858-67-72). — Of the pontiffs who 
 occupied the papal chair between the time of Gregory I. and that of 
 Gregory VII., Nicholas I. was by far the ablest. A man of unbend- 
 ing will, of keen penetration, and of a bold .spirit, he knew how to 
 avail himself of the political troubles of his time, of public opinion, 
 which proclaimed him another Elijah, and ultimately also of the pseudo-
 
 324 SECTION II. — FIRST PERIOD (C E N T . 4— 9 A. D.). 
 
 Isidorian Decretals, which emerged at that very time (see | 87, 2), tc 
 luvest his chiims for absolute papal supremacy with the appearance of 
 a contest on behalf of truth, right, and purity. Among the various 
 disputes in which he was involved (| 67, 1 ; § 83, 1), that with Lothair 
 JI. of Lotharingia proved the most important. That prince, desirous 
 of marrying Waldrada, with whom he had formed an improper connec- 
 tion, accused Thietberga, his spouse, of incest with her brother. Two 
 of his prelates, Günther of Cologne and Thictgunt of Treves, proved 
 sufficiently venal to gratify the adulterous monarch by dissolving hia 
 legitimate marriage at a synod held in Aix (859). Lothair now form- 
 ally espoused Waldrada ; but Thietberga escaped from the nunnery to 
 which she had been confined, to do penance for the crime with which 
 she was charged, and appealed to the Pope. The two uncles of Lothair, 
 Louis the Germanic and Charles the Bald, desirous of possessing them- 
 selves of their nephew's country, took her part. By appointment of 
 Charles, Hincmar of Rheims undertook the public defence of the queen. 
 Nicholas sent Rodoald of Porto (? comp. § 67, 1) and another Italian 
 bishop to Lotharingia to investigate the matter. These legates, how- 
 ever, were bribed, and a synod held at Metz (863) decided in favour of 
 the king. But the Pontiff excommunicated his own legates, and de- 
 posed the two metropolitans who had travelled to Rome in order there 
 to try what Lotharingian gold could effect for their master. To avenge 
 their wrongs, these prelates now incited the Emperor Louis IL, the 
 brother of Lothair, against the Pope. Imperial troops occupied Rome ; 
 but Louis soon came to an understanding with the Pontiff. Deserted 
 by his own subjects, and threatened in his possessions by his uncles, 
 Lothair was glad to make submission, and humbly implored the pro- 
 tection of the Pope against the covetousness of his relatives. Arsenius, 
 the legate whom Nicholas sent across the Alps to arrange matters, 
 acted as if he had been absolute lord of the three Frankish empires. 
 Lothair was obliged to take back Thietberga ; her rival was to have 
 accompanied the legate to Rome, but escaped by the way. In the 
 arms of Waldrada, Lothair soon forgot his former promises and oaths. 
 At the same time he succeeded in making his peace with his relatives, 
 whom the overbearing conduct of the legate had offended. Thietberga 
 herself now applied to the Pope for a divorce — a request which the 
 Pontiff absolutely refused. Nicholas I. died in 867. His successor, 
 Hadrian II., a man seventy-five years of age, was elected through the 
 influence of the imperial party. Accordingly, he proved at first more 
 tractable. He accepted the submission of the two metropolitans, al- 
 though without restoring them to their offices, and absolved Waldrada 
 from church censure, but refused the petition which Thietberga again 
 addressed for a divorce. Lothair himself now went to see the Pope , 
 he took a solemn oath that he had not cohabited with Waldrada since 
 the return of his wife, and received the sacrament from the hands of 
 the Pontiff. In the full hope of at last attaining his object, he returned
 
 THE PAPACY AND THE CAROLINGIANS. 32£ 
 
 homewards, but on his journey was cut oflF at Piacenza by a fever (8G9). 
 After his death the uncles of Lothair seized his dominions. Hadrian 
 in vain interposed his authority on behalf of the Emperor as the right- 
 ful heir, and even threatened to excommunicate those who refused to 
 obey. In the name of Charles the Bald, Hiiicmar of Rheims addressed 
 a remarkable epistle to Hadrian, in which he expressed it as the con 
 viction of the Prankish nobility, that the Pope had no right to interfere 
 with political questions. Hadrian was obliged to allow this act of defi 
 ance to pass unpunished. In another affair also (§ 83, 1) Hiacmar had 
 the better of the Pope. 
 
 5. John VIII. and his Successois. — The measures adopted by Johx 
 VIII. (872-882) for subjecting the Carolingian princes to papal supre- 
 macy were more successful than those of his predecessor. But then he 
 was also a greater adept in the art of intriguing, a more accomplished 
 hypocrite, and less troubled with conscientious scruples. By his efforts 
 the Papacy was made entirely independent of the Emperor, although, 
 on the other hand, it became an object of furious contention to rival 
 parties in Rome. Hence the almost incredible debasement of the Papal 
 See during the tenth century must be mainly imputed to this Pontiff. 
 On the decease of the Emperor Louis IL, in the year 875, this dignity 
 should have devolved on Louis the Germanic, as being both the elder 
 and the full brother of Louis's father. But John was anxious to show 
 the world that the imperial crown was in the gift of the successor of 
 the apostles. Accordingly, he invited Charles the Bald to Rome, and 
 crowned him at Christmas 875. In return for this act of grace, the 
 Emperor formally renounced his claims as superior of the States of the 
 Church, all control in future elections to the Papacy, and consented to 
 receive a papal vicar and primate for all Germany. But even this was 
 not all. At Pavia, Charles had to submit to become the elective mon- 
 arch of Lombardy, and then to concede to his own nobles the same 
 right of election, as also that of hereditary succession to their fiefs, in 
 order to obtain their consent to these transactions. But Hincmar and 
 the clergy of Neustria offered strenuous resistance, and stormy discus- 
 sions ensued at the St/nod of Pontion in 876. — From this shameful 
 compromise neither the Pope nor the Emperor derived advantage. The 
 reign of faction increased at Rome beyond the control of John, and the 
 Saracens ravaged Italy. The Emperor, unable to keep his own against 
 the Northmen, could afford no help. At last, having purchased a dis- 
 graceful peace, he crossed the Alps. But fresh domestic troubles 
 speedily obliged him to retrace his steps. Charles died in a miserable 
 hut at the foot of Mount Cenis, in consequence of poison administered 
 to him by his physician (877). Meantime the troubles of the Pope 
 increased, and his intrigues only served to make his situation more 
 dangerous. John VIII. died by the hand of an assassin in 882. The 
 year before his death he had been obliged to crown Charles the Fat, the 
 youngest son of Louis the Germanic. This prince was also elected 
 28
 
 826 SECTION II. FIRST PERIOD (C E N T. 4— 9 A. D.). 
 
 monarch of Neustria by the nobles of that realm ; so that the Tveakesi 
 of Charlemagne's successors once more combined all the dominions of 
 his great ancestor under his sway. But in 887 the Estates of Germany 
 deposed him, and elected in his stead Anmlph nf Carinthia, a natural 
 son of his brother Carloman. Pope Formosus (894) called in the aid 
 of that monarch, and crowned him Emperor. But Arnulph was not 
 able to maintain himself in Italy against his Langobard rival Lambert. 
 Formosus died soon after the departure of Arnulph (896). His suc- 
 cessor, Stephen VI., in the true spirit of Italian revenge, ordered the 
 body of Formosus to be exhumed, maltreated, and thrown into the 
 Tiber, because he had favoured the Germans. The three following 
 popes reigned only a few weeks or months, and were either killed or 
 expelled. In order to appease the German party, John IX. (898-900) 
 rescinded the sentence passed by Stephen against Formosus. Although 
 the reign of Arnulph in Germany had fallen in troubled times, it 
 proved vigorous and honourable. He died in 899, when the German 
 Estates chose his infant son, Louis the Child, his successor, — Arch- 
 bishop Hatto of Mayence acting as regent during the minority. But 
 Louis died in 911. With him the German branch of the Carolingians 
 became extinct ; in France the dynasty continued to exist till the death 
 of Lotus the Lidolent in 987. 
 
 § 83. THE PAPACY AND THE METROPOLITAN OFFICE. 
 
 Comp. Gass, Merkwürdigkk. aus dem Leben u. d. Schriften Hink- 
 mar's {Memorabilia in the Life and from the Writ, of Hincm.). Gottin- 
 gen 1806. 
 
 The office of Metropolitan was one of great importance and 
 influence in Germany. Amonj? the many various races and tribes 
 which inhabited the Frankish Empire, the metropolitans repre- 
 sented the unity of the National, just as the Pope that of the 
 Universal Church ; while, as influential members of the Estates, 
 they took an important part both in the internal administration 
 of the country, and in the direction of its foreign policy. The 
 concentration of spiritual power in one individual afforded to 
 the secular rulers a fresh guarantee for the political integrity of 
 their country. On that account they were opposed to the multi- 
 plication of metropolitan sets; and where the extent of the 
 country rendered it necessary to have more than one archiepis- 
 copal see, they were anxious to see the most influential of these 
 prelates invested with the authority and jurisdiction of Primate. 
 On the other hand, it was the policy of the popes to appoint in 
 every large country at least two or three metropolitans, and to re- 
 sist the appointment of prim ates, since it was quite possible that in
 
 PAPACY AND THE METRUPOLITAN OFFICE. 327 
 
 the supreme direction of a national church were confided to one 
 person, that prelate might, some time or other, conceive the wish 
 of emancipating his see from the authority of Rome, and con- 
 stituting himse^f an independent patriarch. — Since the time of 
 Charlemagne, the Prankish monarchs were also wont to esta- 
 blish episcopal and arch-episcopal sees along the borders of their 
 dominions, for the twofold purpose of sending the Gospel into 
 the neighbouring heathen countries, and of preparing for theii 
 conquest, or, where this had already been accomplished, strength- 
 ening their government. Theformer of these objects alone could 
 command the approbation of the pontiffs ; the latter they re- 
 sisted to the utmost of their power. It is but justice to say, that 
 the occupants of the See of St. Peter, remembering that they 
 represented the Church universal, always recognized, respected, 
 and watched over the rights of nationality. It was intended 
 that every country in which Christianity was established, should 
 preserve its nationality and political independence, and thus be- 
 come a member of that great family of which the Pontiff was 
 the spiritual father. In this grand organism, every people was 
 to stand in the same relation, since all were equally to be subject 
 to the Apostolic See. V/hile this policy was in accordance with 
 the rules of humanity and of the Gospel, it promoted at the 
 same time the selfish objects of the Papacy. Hence, whenever a 
 national church had been founded, it was the aim of Rome to 
 set it free from the superintendence of the German clergy, and 
 to render it independent, by giving it a hierarchy of its own. — 
 Lastly, the interests of the metropolitan, as the representative 
 and supreme ruler of a national church, were in great measure 
 identical with those of the sovereign country. Hence these pre- 
 lates were the strongest supporters of the throne ; while, on the 
 other hand, their authority also was most carefully guarded by 
 the secular princes. But this coalition between the metropoli- 
 tans and secular princes was fraught with manifest danger to the 
 liberties of the inferior clergy, who accordingly sought the pro- 
 tection of the See of Rome, by espousing its separate interests. 
 Towards the close of the reign of Louis the Pious, under the 
 pressure of circumstances, a wide-spread conspiracy of bishops 
 and abbots was formed for the twofold purpose of emancipating 
 the clergy, especially the bishops, from the control of the State 
 and of their metropolitans, and of placing them under the im- 
 mediate jurisdiction of the Papacy. The forged Decretals
 
 328 SECTION II. — FIRST PERIOD (C E N T. 4— 9 A. D.). 
 
 which bear the name of Isidore (§ 87, 2) represent these prin- 
 ciples as in force and acted upon since oldest times. Although 
 these tendencies met with the most strenuous opposition, the 
 principles of the forged Decretals ultimately became the esta- 
 blished law of the Church. 
 
 1. For a long time the English monarchs resisted the papal attempts 
 to establish another metropolitan see besides that of Canterbury, aa 
 such a measure endangered the political unity of the Heptarchy. The 
 contest raged most fiercely at the time of Wilfrid [1 11, 6 ; 78, 3), whom 
 the Romish party had appointed Archbishop of York. Wilfrid was 
 obliged to retire ; and, after a troubled career, died without having ob- 
 tained actual possession of the see to which he had been nominated 
 (709). But the Pope ultimately succeeded in his object. In 735 a 
 Northumbrian prince received tlie pall, and the archbishopric of York 
 has continued ever since. — In the north of Italy there were three 
 metropolitan sees — those of Ravenna, Milan, and Aquileja — each 
 claiming to be independent of Rome (|46). Indeed, Sergius, Arch- 
 bishop of Ravenna (about 7G0), would fain have followed the example 
 of the See of Rome, and transformed the Exarchate of Ravenna into 
 an independent state in connection with his own see. Of course, in- 
 stances of opposition to papal supremacy were of frequent occurrence. 
 But Pope Nicholas I. succeeded in finally checking these pretensions 
 (in 861), at a time when the See of Ravenna was occupied by John, a 
 prelate guilty of sacrilege and violence of every kind. The force of 
 public opinion obliged the Emperor to withdraw his protection from 
 a bishop justly excommunicated for his crimes. But during the ponti- 
 ficate of John VIIL, Ansbert, Archbishop of Milan and a partisan of 
 Germany, was strong enough to set both papal bans and sentences of 
 deposition at defiance [ob. 882). His successor, however, again acknow- 
 ledged the primacy of Rome. — The Metropolitan of Rheims occupied 
 the first place in the hierarchy of France. From 845 to 882 that see 
 was occupied by Hincmar, the most eminent, vigorous, and influential 
 prelate whom France has ever had. His life presents a series of 
 difi"erent contests. The first controversy in which he engaged Avas on 
 the subject of Predestination (^91, 4). But ecclesiastical law and 
 politics, not dogmatic intricacies, were his chosen field. In opposition 
 to the claims of the Papacy, and the attempts of the bishops to emanci- 
 pate themselves, he firmly and successfully contended for the inde- 
 pendence of secular princes from papal control, for the liberties of his 
 national Church, and for the rights of metropolitans. His controversy 
 with Rothad, Bishop of Soissons, deserves special notice. This prelate 
 had been deposed by Hincmar on account of insubordination (861), 
 from which sentence he appealed to Pope Nicholas L, on the ground of 
 the Sardican Canon (^ 46, 2), which hitherto had not been acknow- 
 ledged in the Frankish Empire ; while at the same time he supplied
 
 STATE OF THE CLERGY. 329 
 
 the Pope with the pretended Decretals of Isidore. On this forged 
 collection Nicholas took his stand, and, after considerable resistance, 
 carried the restoration of Rothad (805). Another collision arose out 
 of the contumacious conduct of his own nephew, Hincmar, liiahop of 
 Laon. In this instance also, both parties appealed to the forged 
 Decretals. Although Hadrian IL took the part of young Iliucmar 
 (869), the Metropolitan carried the day ; and the Bishop of Laon, who, 
 besides defying his king and his ecclesiastical superior, had entered 
 into treacherous communications with the German Court, was punished 
 with the loss of his eyes. Till the year 875, Ilincmar stood by his 
 monarch, and formed the strongest prop both of his policy and -of his 
 throne. But when Charles the Bald, in exchange for the imperial 
 dignity, bartered away the supremacy of the crown, the liberties of the 
 French Church, and the rights of its hierarchy, the pi-elate firmly op- 
 posed his monarch. Ilincmar died during his flight from the North- 
 men (882). With him the glory of the French hierarchy departed. 
 The authors of the forged Decretals prevailed. But if bishops were 
 emancipated from the rule of their own metropolitans, they were, ou 
 the other hand, left unprotected, and hence frequently exposed to the 
 lawless violence of secular grandees. — In Germany, metropolitan sees 
 had been founded at Salzburg, Cologne, Passau, Treves, and Hamburg. 
 Over these, and all other sees in the country, the Archbishop of 3Iay- 
 ence continued to exercise supremacy. Strange to say, in Germany the 
 pretended Decretals of Isidore, although originating in that country 
 under peculiar circumstances, did not affect an organized opposition 
 against the metropolitan office, as was the case in France. Indeed, 
 they recognized the primacy of the See of Mayence. Happily for the 
 Empire, the power of the Metropolitan of Germany continued un- 
 diminished for several centuries. 
 
 ? 84. STATE OF THE CLERGY. 
 
 Comp, ä Siigenheim, Staatsleben d. Klerus im M. A. (Polit. Stat« of 
 the Clergy in the Middle Ages). Berl. 1839. — A'. D. Hilllmann, Gesch. 
 d. Urspr. d. Stande in Deutschl. (Hist, of the Orig. of the Diff. Est. in 
 Germ.). 2d Ed. Berl, 1830. Vol. I, 
 
 Those prelates who bore a rank subordinate to the Metropo- 
 litan were called Diocesans, or also Suffragan bishops, from 
 their right to vote in provincial synods. In Germany, instead 
 of the former or canonical mode of episcopal election by the peo- 
 ple and clergy, the kings now claimed the right of appointing to 
 vacant sees. At the Synod of Aix-la-Chapelle (817), Louis the 
 Pious restored, indeed, to the people and clergy their former 
 privilege, reserving for the Crown only the right of confirming 
 the election ; but his successors on the throne paid no regard to 
 28*
 
 B30 SECTION II. — FIRSI PERIOD (CE N T . 4— 9 A. D.). 
 
 this enactment. — Sentence of deposition was commonly pro- 
 nounced by a provincial or national synod. The Investilure of 
 bishops with ring and staff (the shepherd's crook and the 
 marriage-ring) appears to have been practised — at least in 
 isolated cases — during the time of the Merovingians, and came 
 in general use in the ninth century. The so-called Chorepiscopi 
 of the eighth and ninth centuries — who, however, had nothing 
 but the designation in common with their namesakes of a pre- 
 ceding period (§30, 45) — seem to have been intended as suc- 
 cessors of the former "bishops without diocese," or episcopi 
 regionarii, who were originally set apart for missionary service. 
 They acted as subordinate assistants of diocesan bishops, in 
 cases where love of ease, want of zeal, or frequent absence on 
 public business rendered such aid necessary. But their arbitrary 
 and high-handed proceedings occasioned serious inconvenience 
 to those bishops who devolved not their work on delegates. The 
 oflSce was virtually abrogated by the Synod of Paris in 849, after 
 which it seems gradually to have ceased. The lower clergy were 
 in part drawn from the serfs ; generally speaking, they were held 
 in absolute subjection by their bishops. Yery frequently these 
 clerks were deficient in the first elements of education. Paro- 
 chial appointments rested with the bishop ; but in many cases the 
 founders of churches reserved to themselves and their successors 
 the right of liatronage. Towards the close of the Merovingian 
 and at the commencement of the Carolingian period, both the 
 higher and the lower clergy had sunk into a fearful state of moral 
 degeneracy. ' Boniface succeeded in restoring discipline, at least 
 to some extent (§ *78, 4) ; while the vigorous measures taken by 
 Charlemagne greatly tended to improve and elevate the state of 
 the clergy. But all this did not suffice to stem the almost 
 general corruption. Accordingly, in 816 Louis the Pious in- 
 troduced throughout his dominions the rule which Chrodegang 
 of Metz had half a century before instituted, with a view to the 
 reformation of the clergy of his own diocese. The remedy proved 
 efficacious — at least for a short period ; but during the weak 
 and disturbed reigns of the last Carolingians, ordinances like 
 these were easily set aside. — During this period the clergy ob- 
 tained the privilege of exemption from secular tr-ibun als ; but 
 only thus far, that the civil magistrate could not proceed against 
 a clergyman without the concurrence of the bishop, and that a 
 bishop was amenable only lu the king or to a provincial synod.
 
 STATE OF THE CLERGY ^31 
 
 1. In Germany tne higher clergy were from the first ren;arded as a 
 kind of spiritual aristocracy, whuse superior education ensured them 
 an influence in the State greater even than that of the secuhir nobility. 
 In all affairs of importance the bishops acted as advisers of the monarch ; 
 in almost every instance they were selected as ambassadors ; clerical 
 members sat on every commission ; and one half of the " Missi doniinici" 
 were always selected from the same privileged order. From their 
 proximity to the person of the king, and their influence in public 
 afiairs, the bishops became one of the estates of the realm. Another 
 element which contriliuted to the power of the hierarchy was, that, ac- 
 cording to Frankish law, the immunity which accompanied grants of 
 land made by the king, conferred on the proprietor the power of taxa- 
 tion and of jurisdiction. Thus the bishops wielded not only spiritual, 
 but also temporal sway, over a great part of the country. — As the resi- 
 dence of the Frankisli king was not stationary, a special court chapel, 
 to which a numerous body of clergy was attached, was requisite. 
 Commonly the most prominent and influential prelate of the realm 
 acted as arch-chaplain of the court, and from the clergy attached to this 
 chapel the future bishops of the country were generally chosen. 
 
 2. The gradual extension of episcopal dioceses rendered it necessary 
 to make some new arrangements in regard to the inferior clergy. 
 Formerly the afiBliated or country churches had been served by the 
 clergy attached to the cathedrals ; but now priests were appointed 
 specially to these charges. Such churches were called tititli, from the 
 circumstance that they were always dedicated to some saint, and their 
 priests intifulati, incardinaii, cardinales. Such was the origin of the 
 institution of the Parochia (rtapoixia) and of the Parochus or parson, 
 who was also designated Curate because the cvra animariim devolved 
 on him. An archipreshyter rtiralis was entrusted with the superintend- 
 ence of about ten parishes, from which circumstance he was called 
 Decanus (Dean), As at first he retained the exclusive right of ad- 
 ministering baptism, his church bore the name of Ecclesia haptismalis, 
 his district of Christianitas or Plebs, and he himself the title Plehanus. 
 In the eighth century, Ileddo, Bishop of Strasburg, formed his diocese 
 into seven archdeaconries for the purpose of efficiently superintending 
 the labours of the deans. Besides parochial churches, a number of 
 chapels or oratories existed, in which the nearest parish priest at stated 
 seasons celebrated divine service. In the same category we also in- 
 clude the private chapels in episcopal palaces and on the properties of 
 the nobility, which were supplied by domestic chaplains. Occasionally 
 the latter were degraded to do menial work, such as taking charge of 
 the dogs, waiting at table, or leading the horse of the lady of the manor. 
 Although the ancient canon, " ne quis vage ordinetur," was fre- 
 quently re-enacted, there were a large number of so-called Clerici vagi. 
 commonly lazy vagabonds, who wandered about the country in quest 
 of some livelihood, ordained by careless bishops for money.
 
 332 SECTION II. FIRST PERIOD (C E N T . 4—9 A.D.). 
 
 3. The German clergy were very reluctant to submit to the injnnction 
 of celibacy. Many instances of married bishops, presbyters, and deacons 
 occur. By far the greater part of the inferior clergy were married 
 At their ordination they pledged themselves indeed to separate from 
 their wives, and to abstain from intercourse with them ; but this 
 promise was rarely observed. The unmarried clergy were frequently 
 chargeable with uncleanness, adultery, and even with unnatural vices. 
 Accordingly JJhic, Bishop of Augsburg, scrupled not to expostulate 
 with Pope Nicholas I. on the subject of clerical celibacy, and in the 
 spirit of I'aphnutius of old (? 45, 4), unsparingly exposed the evils 
 connected with it. — In general, the moral state of the clergy was very 
 low. Attempts to get hold of the property of devotees, forgery of 
 documents, simony, and other abuses, were openly and shamelessly 
 carried on. The bishops imitated in their hunting and drinking bouts 
 the vices of the nobility, and were more expert with dogs and falcons 
 than in their own peculiar duties. In the seventh century, it was the 
 liking for the profession of arms which induced Frankish bishops to 
 take part in wars; at a later period, the obligation of furnishing a 
 military contingent from the lands belonging to the Church, furnished 
 an additional pretext. Pepin, Charlemagne, and Louis the Pious, 
 issued strict edicts against this practice ; but the later Carolingians not 
 only tolerated, but even encouraged the abuse. 
 
 4. Though Augustine's institution of a inonasterhnn Clericonim, 
 (^ 45, 1) had been adopted by several pious bishops of later times, it 
 was Chrodegang, Bishop of Metz, who first introduced it generally, 
 and laid down certain fixed rules for it. His scheme (canon) consisted 
 of an adaptation of the monastic Rule of St. Benedict (| 85), from 
 which it only diifered in dispensing with the vow of poverty. He 
 erected a spacious dwelling (called domus or monasterium, whence the 
 term Münster), where, under the strict and continuous supervision of 
 the bishop or archdeacon, all the clergy of his cathedral lived, prayed, 
 and wrought together, ate at a common table, and slept in a common 
 dormitory {vita, canonica, hence canons). After morning service all the 
 members assembled in the common hall, when the bishop or archdeacon 
 read a chapter of the Bible (frequently in the book of Levit.) or a 
 
 , portion of the " Rule," taking occasion at the same time to administer 
 any admonition or reproof that might be called for. Hence this hall 
 was called the chapier-Jtorise, and the designation of Chapter was also 
 given to the community as a whole. In towns which were not the 
 seats of bishoprics, the clergy were formed into colleges of canons 
 under an abbot or dean, in imitation of the cathedral chapters. Lords 
 the Pious commissioned Amalarius, a deacon of Metz, to revise the 
 Rule of Chrodegang, so as to make it generally applicable ; and at a 
 national assembly held in Aix-la-Chapelle in 816, it was sanctioned 
 for general use throughout the realm (Regula Aquisgranensij). But 
 the canons soon showed a desire to get rid of this troublesome super-
 
 MONASTICISM. 333 
 
 vision of their bishops. When Günther of CoJofjne (§ 82, 4) was 
 deposed by the Pope, he sought to retain his office, among other things, 
 by ingratiating himself with his cathedral chapter. Accordingly he 
 agreed to leave a great part of the property of the Church to their 
 uncontrolled disposal {prcebeiicla, prebends). What this chapter had 
 extorted, others also gradually obtained. 
 
 §85. MONASTICISM. 
 
 Comp. L. d'Achenj, Acta Ss. Ord. s. Benedicti. Sec. I.-VI. (500-1100). 
 ed. /. Mahillon. Par. 1G88. 9 Voll. M.—J. MahiUon, Annales Ord. S. 
 Benedicti ed. Martene. Par. 1703. 6 Voll. fol. — Gesch. d. Bened. Ord. 
 aus Spitflers Vorles. v. Giirlilt (Hist, of the Bened. Ord. from the Lect. 
 of Spittler, by Gurlitt). Ifamb. 1823.— C. Brandes, d. Ben. 0. in the 
 Tubingen Quarterly for 1851. — IMi/ot, Ilistoire des Ordres Ilelig. 
 
 The disasters which accompanied the irruption of barbarous 
 nations in the fifth century, extended also to the monastic insti- 
 tution. Indeed, it could scarcely have survived that period, at 
 least it could not have proved a source of so great and manifold 
 blessing to Western Christendom, if at the right moment unity, 
 order, and law, had not been introduced among the various 
 monasteries by the adoption of a fixed rule, suited to the times 
 and circumstances. For this the Church was indebted to Bene- 
 dict OF NuRSiA (ob. 543), who may be styled the Patriarch of 
 Western Monastieism. The rule which he prescribed to the 
 inmates of the monastery of Monte-Gasnino in Campania, which 
 he founded, was free from all ascetic extravagance. It secured 
 strict discipline and order, but breathed a mild and even 
 indulgent spirit, while at the same time it took account of the 
 «requirements of human nature and of the times; withal, it was 
 simple, plastic, and eminently practical. Besides, the disciples 
 of Benedict derived from the Rule of Cassiodorus (§ 47, 6) their 
 Impulse toward literary employments, and from Gregory the 
 Great their ardour in missionary enterprises. Thus the Bene- 
 dictine order became thoroughly prepared for the grand mission 
 which it accomplished throughout the West {St. Maurus trans- 
 planted it to France in 543), in reclaiming both soil and mind, 
 in clearing forests and cultivating waste land, in zealous and 
 faithful jn-eaching, in exterminating superstition and heathenism, 
 and in cultivating and preserving literature, science, and art. 
 But during the troublous period at the close of the Merovingian 
 rule, the Benedictine monasteries also suffered severely. The
 
 334 SECTION II. — FIRST PERIOD (C E N T, 4—9 A.D.». 
 
 court appointed its favourites to the office of abl»ot ; riclj 
 abbacies were given to the higher secular clergy tn commendam, 
 i. e., simply to enjoy its revenues, or else to counts and military 
 chiefs (lay-abbols, Ähhacomites) in reward for their services. 
 These lay-abbots occupied the monasteries with their families, 
 or with their friends and retainers, sometimes for months, con- 
 verting them into banqueting-halls, or using them for hunting 
 expeditions or for military exercises. The wealthiest abbacies 
 the kings either retained for themselves, or bestowed on their 
 sons and daughters, their wives and mistresses. Charlemagne 
 corrected this abuse also ; he insisted on strict discipline, and 
 made it a rule that schools should be planted in connection with 
 the various monasteries, and that literary labours were to be 
 prosecuted within their walls. At the Diet of Aix- la- Chape lie 
 in 817, Louis the Pious appointed Benedict of Aniane (ob. 
 821") to reorganize, and to introduce the needed reforms in, the 
 various monasteries throughout the empire. Along with com- 
 missioners specially appointed for the purpose, he visited every 
 monastery in the country, and obliged their inmates to adopt an 
 improved rule. — As yet the monks were not regarded as neces- 
 sarily belonging to the clerical order ; but gradually the two 
 professions became more identified. Clerical celibacy and the 
 introduction of the canonical rule (§ 84, 4) assimilated the 
 regular priests to the inmates of cloisters ; while the latter fre- 
 quently took ordination either with a view to missionary service, 
 or to enable them to conduct worship in their monasteries. 
 Withal, the monks would sometimes interfere with the rights and 
 duties of curates, giving rise to mutual jealousies and distrust. — 
 All monasteries were subject to the jurisdiction of the bishop 
 in whose diocese they lay. The exemptions granted at this 
 period only secured permission of freely choosing their own 
 abbots, or the power of administering without control their 
 own property, or else the right of receiving ordination without 
 payment of fees. 
 
 1. Our knowledge of the life of Benedict of Niirsia is solely derived 
 from the account given by credulous Pope Gregory the Great in the 
 second book of his Dialogues, which, unfortunately, is full of legendary 
 stories. The Rule of Benedict comprised seventy-three chapters. It 
 was laid down as the first duty of tlie inmates of a monastery, to pay 
 implicit oli(>dience to the abbot as the vicar of Christ. The brethren 
 h;id the ri'dit of choosing their own abbot, and the "Rule" did not
 
 MONASTICISM. 335 
 
 recognize any order of " serving brothers." Agriculture was to form 
 the principal employment ; all idleness was most strictly prohibited. 
 The monks were by turns (each for a week) to take charge of the 
 kitchen, and to read aloud in the refectory. Divine service was to 
 commence at two o'clock in the morning, and the seven "horse" to the 
 completorium were to be regularly celebrated (§ 56, 2). The monks 
 had two meals a day, and each a pint of wine ; only the sick or delicate 
 were allowed animal food. At table, and after the completorium, 
 unbroken silence was to be observed. The brothers slept in a common 
 dormitory — each, however, in a bed of his own — with their dress and 
 girdle on, to be ready for prayers at the first signal. The discipline 
 was careful and strict. Offenders were to be first privately, then 
 publicly reproved ; and if this was insufficient, punished with fasts, 
 with bodily chastisement, and finally with excommunication. Every 
 monastery was bound to entertain strangers, and to provide for the 
 poor in the district. The novitiate of candidates extended over one 
 year ; the votes prescribed were those of stahiUtas loci, of conversio 
 moriim (implying also poverty and chastity), and of ohsdientia. The 
 so-called ohlati, or children whom, during their minority, the parents 
 had off'ered to a monastery, were regarded as a kind of novices. They 
 were educated in the cloister, and not allowed to return to the world. 
 
 2. Benedict of Aniane was the son of a Visigoth count, and his real 
 name was Witiza. In early life he served in the army of Charlemagne. 
 But during a moment of imminent danger, while attempting to rescue 
 his brother from drowning, his mind received a new turn, and dis- 
 tinction in ascetic exercises became now the object of his ambition. 
 He founded the monastery of Aniane, by the river Anianus in Lan- 
 guedoc, and became the trusted and all-powerful adviser of Louis the 
 Pious, who built the monastery of Inda near Aix-la-Chapelle in order 
 to have his friend always beside him. Benedict composed, for the 
 reform of monasteries, a Codex regidarnm, which consisted of a col- 
 lection of the various monastic rules then known (best ed. by L. Hol- 
 stein; and next to it that by Brockie. Augsb. 1759. 6 Vols.), and a 
 Concordia regularum (ed. H. Menard. Par. 1638. 4to). 
 
 3. The rule of the first Benedict made no arrangements about N%in- 
 neries. Sc/iolastica, the sister of that saint, is, however, generally 
 regarded as having originated the female order of Benedictines. The 
 institution of Canonesses, in imitation of the " canonical life " of the 
 secular clergy, was another form of female asceticism. The Rule drawn 
 up for them in 816, by order of Louis the Pious, was much less strin- 
 gent than that which applied to ordinary nuns. By and by these 
 institutions became a provision for the unmarried daughters of the 
 nobility. — The canonical ago for entrants before taking the vow was 
 twonty-five years ; their novitiate lasted three years. Besides the 
 "propria profcssio," the " paterna devotio " was also regarded as
 
 336 SECTION II. — FIRST PERIOD (C E N T . 4— 9 A. D.). 
 
 binding. The taking of the veil formed the main part of the ceremony 
 of admission : the garland worn was intended to be the symbol of 
 virginity ; the ring, that of their spiritual marriage. At this period 
 the practice of cutting off the hair was only resorted to as punishment 
 of nuns who had broken their vow of chastity. From the respect 
 which the Germans were wont to pay to woman, the abbess occu- 
 pied a place of special distinction ; and in later times the principal 
 nunneries enjoyed even such privileges as exemption, a vote among 
 the estates of the realm, and the exercise of sovereign rights. It was 
 a peculiarity of German monasteries, that frequently they were con- 
 structed both for monks and nuns, who — of course in separate houses 
 — lived under the common rule of an abbess (as often in England) or of 
 an abbot. 
 
 4. To the Larger Monasteries a number of buildings were attached, 
 in which every conceivable spiritual or temporal occupation was 
 carried on. Some of these buildings were designed for agricultural 
 purposes, others for trades and arts of every descrijition, or for public 
 instruction, for private studies, for showing hospitality or taking charge 
 of the sick. They often formed of themselves a small town, around 
 which, in many instances, consi.lerable cities sprung up. The 
 monastery of Vivarium in Calabria, founded by Cassiodorus, claims the 
 merit of having awakened in the monks of Germany the desire of de- 
 voting themselves to literary avocations ; the arrangements of Monte 
 Cassino were adopted all over Western Europe. Through the exer- 
 tions of the inmates of Bohbio, founded by Columbanus, both heathen- 
 ism and Arianism were uprooted in Northern Italy ; the monks of lona 
 and Bangor, in Scotland and Ireland, sustained the important conflict 
 with Rome on behalf of the British Confession ; while the monastery of 
 Wearmouth, in England, was famed as a seminary of learning. St, 
 Denys near Paris, and Corhey in Picardy, were the most celebrated 
 abbacies in France. The most famous institutions of this kind in 
 Southern Germany were those of St. Gall, Reichenan, Lorsch, and 
 Hir schau ; in Central Germany, those of Fulda, Hersfeld, and Fritzlar ; 
 and in Northern Germany, that of New Corhey (an offshoot of Corbey 
 in France). 
 
 5. Tlie severity of the climate prevented Western ascetics from 
 imitating the example of former Styliies (§ 78, 3). Instead of this, 
 however, the so-called lieclusi or Rechisce adopted the practice of shut- 
 ting themselves up in their cells, without ever quitting them. A 
 peculiar class of anchorites, who lived in the woods, were found in many 
 parts of Germany. This kind of asceticism was peculiarly in accord- 
 ance with some national characteristics, such as the tendency to 
 dreamy melancholy, the passionate love of nature, and the delight in 
 roaming over mountain and forest. The practice of thus retiring into 
 solitude seems to have been chiefly in vogue during the sixth century ;
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL PROPERTY. 337 
 
 and the lonely valleys, glens, and mountains of Auvergne were peopled 
 with these saints. But the concourse of admiring followers soon con- 
 verted the cell of the saint into a monastery, and the practice gradually 
 ceased." 
 
 I 86. ECCLESIASTICAL PROPERTY. 
 
 Comp. Paid Roih, Gesch. d. Beneficialwesens bis zum lOten Jahrh. 
 (Hist, of Eccles. Benefices to the Tenth Cent.). Erlg. 1850 
 
 By donations and legacies both churches and monasteries 
 gradually acquired immense wealth. If princes knew no bounds 
 in making pious grants, private individuals not unfrequently even 
 surpassed them in this species of liberality. Nor could occasions 
 for its display be ever wanting. Restoration from dangerous 
 illness, deliverance from danger, the birth of a child, or any 
 extraordinary occurrence, swelled the treasury of the church 
 whose patron saint had been of use to the donor. This kind of 
 piety was of course greatly encouraged by the clergy, \vho, be- 
 sides, hesitated not to impose on the ignorance of the age by 
 unscrupulous forgeries. Gifts or grants of land, of which the 
 donor retained the use during his lifetime, were called Precariae. 
 Commonly, the private property of priests at their death, and 
 that of monks at their "conversio," went to the institutions with 
 which they were connected. Besides this revenue from property, 
 every church claimed tithes from all its parishioners. According 
 to the precedent of the Mosaic law, tithes were regarded as 
 "juris divini," and Charlemagne gave to this arrangement the 
 sanction of public law. On the other hand, the clergy were 
 prohibited from demanding payment for the discharge of their 
 spiritual functions. — It was the first fundamental principle ia 
 the administration of ecclesiastical property, that no part of it 
 might be sold or alienated. Hence it increased every year. 
 Thus, in the seventh century, fully one-third of all the landed 
 property in Gaul belonged to the Church, while the fiscal and 
 crown lands had all been alienated. Under these circumstances, 
 Charles Martel had no choice left but to reward his adherents 
 and servants by bestowing on them lay-abbacies. His sons, Car- 
 loman and Pepin, went even further; they claimed the right of 
 absolutely disposing of all ecclesiastical property, and at once 
 proceeded to secularize and divide the coveted possessions. 
 Charlemagne and Louis the Pious were anxious to atone for 
 these acts of injustice by making such restitution as was possible^ 
 29
 
 338 SECTION II. — riRST PERIOD (CENT. 4— 9 A, D.). 
 
 considering the reduced state of the fisc. By these restitutions, 
 and by new donations from wealthy individuals, the property 
 of the Church again accumulated as before. Thus, at the com- 
 mencement of the ninth century, the monastery of Luxeuil pos- 
 sessed not less than 15,000 manors (Mansi). — The manage 
 ment of Church property was entrusted to the bishops, that of 
 monasteries to their abbots. Special advocates or defensors 
 (advocati ecclesias) were appointed to watch over the temporal 
 rights of churches, and to exercise their secular jurisdiction. 
 But after a time these officials came greatly to abuse their 
 position ; they committed every kind of extortion, oppression, 
 and dishonesty ; claimed a great part of the ecclesiastical reve- 
 nues as their dues ; and generally disposed both of the property 
 and income of churches as if it were their own. 
 
 1. When Charles Martel undertook the government of the country, 
 he found that, by excessive liberality towards the Church, and towards 
 their OAvn immediate attendants, the Merovingians had completely 
 exhausted all available resources, so far as crown lands were concerned. 
 But in the peculiar circumstances of the counti'y, threatened by the 
 Saracens on the one hand, and surrounded on the other by a number 
 of petty tyrants, who would have broken up and so destroyed the realm, 
 Charles Martel was in more urgent want of pecuniary means than any 
 of his predecessors. These difficulties gave rise to the bestowal of what 
 were called benefices. The warriors, whose services gave them claims 
 upon the State or the monarch, were still rewarded by grants of land, 
 which conferred on the possessor the obligation of furnishing a mili- 
 tary contingent ; but these grants of land were no longer hereditary, 
 but valid only during the lifetime of the possessor (for his usufruct, 
 [heneficiinn). As the crown lands were almost entirely disposed of, 
 Charles Martel confiscated for this purpose the property of the Church. 
 Thus, without absolutely appropriating these lands, he filled the vacant 
 sees with creatures of his own, and induced them to grant benefices to 
 such of his followers as deserved rewards, while he himself similarly 
 bestowed abbacies in commendam (§ 85). But while this half measure 
 did not suffice for the wants of the case, it proved also the occasion of 
 more serious inconvenience to the Church than complete confiscation 
 would have been. Accordingly, the successors of Martel secularized a 
 large portion of the property of the Church. These measures were 
 initiated at the Synod of Lestines in 743 (§ 78, 4). St. Bonifacius, and 
 the clergy generally, felt that submission was absolutely requisite, and 
 that any hope of seeing ecclesiastical discipline restored, depended on 
 their willingness to yield. Accordingly, they gave their consent, in 
 the hope of obtaining in better times a restitution. The rights of the 
 ecclesiastical f-undation were preserved, at least in point of form; the
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL LEGISLATION. 339 
 
 lay improprietors granted letters precarlce, and agreed to pay for every 
 manor a yearly duty of one nolidus; Under the reign of Charlemagne 
 this tribute was converted into second tithes called Notice. But -when 
 Charlemagne and Louis made partial restitution of the Church pro- 
 perty formerly secularized, the obligations formerly imposed on bene- 
 ficiary possessors (especially that of furnishing contingents) were not 
 remitted, and, indeed, wei-e gradually extended to all ecclesiastical 
 property. — This system of beneficiary grants, though originating under 
 the pressure of circumstances, gradually spread, and became the basis 
 of social arrangements, and " one of the most important points in the 
 policy of the Middle Ages." — (Comp, also Hallam, Middle Ages, Vol. 
 I., pp. 159, etc j 
 
 ? 87. ECCLESIASTICAL LEGISLATION. 
 
 The duty of enacting ecclesiastical ordinances for the German 
 Empire devolved in the first place on the various synods. The 
 Papacy exercised scarcely any influence in this respect. It was 
 otherwise with the secular rulers. They convoked synods, sub- 
 mitted to them questions for deliberation, and confirmed their 
 decrees as they saw fit. But when the Frankish sees were filled 
 exclusively with natives, synods gradually ceased to be held, and 
 ecclesiastical affairs, if discussed at all, were settled at the Im- 
 perial Diets, in which the bishops took part, as belonging to the 
 estates of the realm. Even those great national synods which 
 St. Bonifacius held for the purpose of remodelling and restoring 
 ecclesiastical arrangements, which had fallen into sad confusion, 
 were Concilia mixta; and this continued to be the constitution 
 of such assemblies under the reign of Charlemagne and of Louis 
 the Pious. The former monarch, however, introduced better 
 order into these deliberations, by separating the assembled estates 
 into three distinct curi» — viz., that of bishops, of abbots, and 
 of counts. Under the rule of the Carolingians, royal ordinances 
 or Gajnlularies settled those ecclesiastical questions on which 
 formerly synods had published their decrees. But at that period, 
 purely ecclesiastical synods also were again held, — a practice 
 which came chiefly in vogue during the time of Hincmar. 
 
 1. Collections of Ecclesiastical Latcs. — Gregory II. furnished St. Boni- 
 facius, among other things, with a codex canomim (no doubt that of 
 Dionysius, g 43, 3) ; and Hadrian I. sent one to Charlemagne, which, 
 at the Diet of Aix-la-Chapelle in 802, received public sanctiou. — An- 
 other collection of canons was that made in Spain, of which the author- 
 ship was err* neously ascribed to Isidore, Bishop of Seville, and which
 
 3-40 SECTION II. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 4—9 A.D.). 
 
 accordingly is designated as the Hispana, or as the genuine Decretals of 
 laulore, in opposition to the forged or Frankish collection which bears 
 that title. In point of form, it resembles the collection of Dionysius. 
 In the ninth century it was introduced into the Frankish Empire, and 
 there gave its name to and became the occasion of the forged Decretah 
 of Isidore. Closely connected with this piece of imposture was the 
 collection made hj Benedicüts, "a Levite " of Mayence (about 840). 
 Although professing to be a collection of capitularies, it is chiefly com- 
 posed of ecclesiastical canons ; some genuine, others forged. The ear- 
 liest collection of capitularies was that made by Ansegis, Abbot of 
 Fontenelles, in 827, to which the work of Benedict formed a kind of 
 supplement (best ed. in Pertz, Monumenta Germ. III. IV.). Besides 
 these large and general collections, some bishops published abstracts 
 of ecclesiastical canons for the use of their own dioceses, several of 
 which have been preserved under the name of Capitula Episcoporiim. 
 Of these, the Capitula Angilramni, which were spuriously attributed 
 to Angilramnus, Bishop of Metz [oh. 701), are evidently composed in 
 the same spirit and for the same purpose as the Pseudo-Isidorian De- 
 cretals. What are the true relations of these three collections, so 
 much alike, is still disputed. Though the earlier opinion was that 
 Benedict had made use of the Decretals, Hinschius supposes that the 
 author of the Capitula wrote the Decretals, and then also the Capitu- 
 laries. In the above class of works we also include the Penitential 
 books and the Instructions for clerical visitations (§ 88, 5). 
 
 2. The Forged Decretals of Isidore. — About the middle of the ninth 
 century a collection of canons and decretals appeared in the Frankish 
 Empire, which bore the venerable name of Isidore, and embodied the 
 so-called Isidoriana, but contained, besides, also a number of spurious 
 decretals. This work was composed of the fifty Canones Apostt., which 
 were followed by fifty-nine forged decretal letters, professedly written 
 by the first thirty popes from Clem-ens Romanus to Melchiades {oh. 
 314). Part Second contained genuine canons of synods, and Part 
 Third another series of papal decretals, dating from the time of Syl- 
 vester, the successor of Melchiades, and extending to that of Gregory 
 II. {oh. 731), of which thirty-five are spurious. ^^ From their Frankish 
 Latinity, from the numberless anachronisms of the grossest kind which 
 occur in them, and from the evident purpose throughout the work, we 
 cannot but conclude that all the spurious portions were the production 
 of the same person, probably of the editor of this collection. The fol- 
 lowing are the leading characteristics of the system of Pseudo-Isidore : 
 — The Sacerdoiium which the Lord has instituted to govern and judge 
 the world, is infinitely superior to the secular Imperium, The See of 
 St. Peter represents the unity and the climax of this Sacerdotium. The 
 bishops stand in the same relation towards the Pope as the other apos- 
 tles occupied towards P >t ^i* ; metropolitans are only primi inter par?9.
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL LEGISLATION. 341 
 
 Between Pope and bishop was the patriarch, belonging to those metro- 
 politan sees set apart by the apostles and their immediate followers, 
 and to such aa were necessarily elevated because of a multitude of bish- 
 ops in lands converted in later times. Provincial Synods cannot be 
 held without leave of the Pope, and their decrees only become valid 
 by his confirmation. All causae majores, among them especially, all 
 charges against bishops, can only be decided by the Pope himself. 
 Priests are the "familiäres Dei" and " spirituales ; " while the laity 
 are "carnales." Even a clerk may not be summoned before a secular 
 tribunal, far less a bishop ; nay, a layman cannot even accuse a priest, 
 ■while synods are enjoined to render it as difficult as possible to bring 
 any charge against a bishop. A bishop who has already been deprived 
 of his see must be completely reinstated before an accusation can be 
 received against him. If the party accused thinks that the judges are 
 inimici or suspecti, he may appeal to the Pope, even before any inves- 
 tigation had actually commenced. At least seventy-two trustworthy 
 witnesses are required to substantiate a charge, etc. — The forged De- 
 cretals originated doubtless in the Frankish Empire, where they were 
 circulated for years before they were heard of in Rome. Blondel and 
 Knust ascribe them to Benedict the Levite, because they first became 
 known in his Capitularies. . PhiUipps charges them to Rothad of Sois- 
 Bons, who first brought them to Rome, in 8G4, WassersrJihhen says 
 they were written by Otgar, Archbishop of Mayence, because 0., as a 
 leader in the clerical conspiracy against Louis the Pious, might seek thus 
 to avert punishment. But Louis pardoned Otgar, without trial, as 
 soon as he regained his throne. Besides, there was in Germany no 
 ground for the hostile attitude of the Isidoriana toward the Chorepis- 
 copoi, and they appeared first not in Germany but France. Then the 
 claims put forth by the Decretals for the primacy could avail for Rheims 
 no less than Mayence. Weizsäcker and Von Noorden have, therefore, 
 thought Rheims was the home, and Archbishop Ebo the author (§ 83 ,1 ) ; 
 and Ebo was a leading conspirator. Louis had to humVjle himself be- 
 fore him ; and when fortunes changed he deposed and imprisoned E1)0. 
 He was restored by Lothair, only to flee from Charles the Bald in the 
 same year; and from then until Hincmar's elevation, Rheims was in 
 the hands of the local bishops. Before and during Ebb's restoration, 
 says Von N., the Decretals may have been written, Hinscliius, too, 
 thinks they sprang from Rheims, but not from the hand of Ebo, be- 
 cause, according to H's arguing, the Decretals were the source of Bene- 
 dict's collection, which was not completed until 847, when Ebo had 
 given up all hope of another restoration. And Ebo never used these 
 Decretals in his own defence. Had he meant to do so, he would not 
 have undertaken, when his time was so short, such a gigantic work, 
 containing so much apart from his immediate need. The work 
 seems far more likely to be the so-called pia fraus of some liigh' 
 churchman of the time, who had no specially pei'sonal interest in 
 29 *
 
 342 SECTION II, — FIRST PERIOD (c E N T. 4— 9 A. D.). 
 
 view ; and whose name we cannot determine. The Decretals must 
 have appeared about 851 or 852. At the time, the genuineness of the 
 Decretals was not called in question, even by Hincmar, who only 
 denied their validity so far as the Prankish court was concerned, and 
 who, besides, was so inconsistent as to appeal to their authority, in his 
 controversy with Charles the Bald, at the Council of Kiersy in 857, 
 though at a later period he designated them an "opus a quoquam com- 
 pilatum et confictum." — The Magdeburg Centuriones were the first to 
 show that these documents were a forgery. Notwithstanding their ex- 
 posure, Turriamts, a Jesuit (Flor. 1572), again entered the lists in de- 
 fence of their authenticity ; but was so completely silenced by Dav. 
 Blondel (Ps. Isidorus et Turrianus vapulantes. Genev. 1628) as to deter 
 any subsequent writer from taking up so forlorn a cause. (Cf. Knust, 
 defontibus et consilio Ps. Isid. Gottg. 1832. — H. Wasserschlehen, Beitr, 
 zur Gesch. d. falsch. Decretalien. Breslau 1844. — /. Weizsäcker, Hinc- 
 mar, u. Ps. Isidor.— In the Hist. Theol. Zeitschrift, 1858. III.— C. V. 
 Koorden, Ebo, Hincmar, u. Ps. Isidor. — In V. SyheVs last Zeitschrift, 
 Vol VII. 1862. — Hinschius, in the Prolog, to his edition of Ps. Isid. 
 Lps. 1863.) 
 
 ^88. STATE OE INTELLIGENCE, ECCLESIASTICAL USAGES 
 AND DISCIPLINE. 
 
 Cf. H. B. Schindler, der Aberglaube d. M. A. Bresl. 1858. 
 
 To convince ourselves how thoroughly the German mind could 
 enter into the spirit of genuine Christianity, we only require to 
 peruse the scanty specimens of religious poetry preserved from 
 that period. At first, indeed, the mass of the people had only 
 made outward profession of the new faith. Considerable time 
 lapsed before it reached the heart and leavened the life of the 
 nation. Accordingly, a number of tenets and superstitions foreign 
 to Christianity — the remnants of former heathen views — were 
 mixed up and almost formed part of the religious life. This 
 tendency was fostered by some adventitious circumstances. Gre- 
 gory the Great had recommended his missionaries not so much 
 to wage a war of extermination against heathenism, and to 
 »weep away its every trace, as rather to Christianize pagan rites, 
 and to assign a deeper Christian meaning to heathen tenets for- 
 merly cherished. In practice the Church continued to follow 
 this suggestion, thereby keeping alive not only the memory, but 
 also the forms, of ancient misbelief. Besides, the representatives 
 of the Church taught thit the heathen deities formerly worshipped 
 Yfeve real demons, and, as such, had actual existence. Hence,
 
 STATE OF INTELLIGENCE, ETC. 343 
 
 tn popular belief, they were regarded as a kind of dethroned 
 powers who still exercised an uncontrolled sway in certain do- 
 mains of nature, and whom it would therefore be dangerous to 
 offend. Withal, the highly imaginative and poetic turn so pecu- 
 liarly characteristic of Germans, their liking for the mysterious 
 and supernatural, their delight in speculation, exercised its own 
 influence in the same direction. The honours paid by the Church 
 to saints, and even its statements about the devil, opened to a 
 higlily imaginative race, as it were, a new range, and popular 
 belief soon peopled it with fantastic shapes and strange occur- 
 rences. The faithful were always exposed to the vexatious 
 enmity of demons, yet never so as to place them beyond the 
 miraculous protection of angels and saints. The agency of the 
 Prince of Darkness himself was frequently brought into requisi- 
 tion. At this period, however, the relation which the devil and 
 his angels occupied towards man, was regarded as far too serious 
 and solemn to favour the introduction of those stories which cir- 
 culated during the latter part of the Middle Ages, in which 
 Satan was uniformly duped, and represented as an object of 
 ridicule and contempt, whose impotent rage, as he disappeared, 
 could only find vent in leaving a horrid sulphurous smell, — It 
 must be admitted that the moral state of the Germanic races, 
 after their adoption of Christianity, sank very low. Indeed, a 
 more glaring contrast can scarcely be conceived than, for ex«,m- 
 ple, between the picture which Tacitus draws of ancient German 
 manners and morality, and the dreadful degeneracy and brutal 
 barbarism which Gregory of Tours describes during the Mero- 
 vingian period. But in no instance, also, were it more fallacious 
 than in this to reason : " Post hoc ergo propter hoc." The moral 
 decay of the German races which took place at the time when 
 they made their outward profession of Christianity, depended on 
 circumstances wholly distinct from their change of faith. It was, 
 in fact, the consequence of that entire transformation of views and 
 manners caused by the migration of nations. Having left home — • 
 that mightiest bulwark of ancestral manners — occupying the fer- 
 tile and opulent countries which they had recently conquered, 
 and there exposed to most demoralizing influences around, the 
 Germans threw themselves into enjoyments new to them with all 
 the avidity characteristic of a people which had hitherto been 
 unacquainted with luxury and its attendant vices ; their passions, 
 once let loose, soon swept away all the landmarks of decency an(^
 
 344 SECTION II. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 4—9 A..D.). 
 
 propriety. In proof of the correctness of this explanation, we 
 appeal to the fact that this moral decay took place chiefly among 
 those races which settled in countries where the degenerate Ro- 
 mans held sway (as was the case with the Franks in Gaul, and 
 the Langobards in Italy) ; while, on the other hand, the moral 
 development of other tribes, such as the Anglo-Saxons and the 
 inhabitants of Germany Proper, was entirely different and much 
 more regular. 
 
 1. Religious Education of the People. — Charlemagne was the first to 
 conceive the idea of popular education, and of the elevation of the 
 masses. It will readily be understood that only a small beginning of 
 this -could be made during his time. Great merit attaches in this 
 respect to Tkeodulf, Bishop of Orleans, who planted schools in every 
 village throughout his diocese. The religious instruction of youth com- 
 monly consisted of learning by heart the Lord's Prayer and Apostles' 
 Creed. Charlemagne directed that adults — male or female — who were 
 deficient in this modicum of popular theology, should be induced by 
 fasts or stripes to acquire it. A number of formulas still extant, dating 
 from the eighth and ninth centuries, employed in making abjuration, 
 confession of faith or of sins, or in orisons, indicate the kind of religious 
 knowledge common among the people. As further means of pojjular 
 religious instruction, we may mention the frequent attempts to render 
 patristic or Biblical books generally accessible by translating them into 
 the vernacular. Among German monasteries, the inmates of St. Gall 
 distinguished themselves by their zeal in promoting the growth of a 
 national literature. Alfred the Great prosecuted the same object among 
 the Anglo-Saxons, especially by his own contributions The latest 
 mention of Ulfilas's translation of the Bible occurs in the ninth cent., 
 after which it seems for many centuries to have remained unknown. 
 
 2. Popular Christian Poetry. — This species of composition firstappeared 
 at the close of the seventh, and continued to be cultivated till late in 
 the ninth cent., especially in England and Germany. A considerable 
 number of Biblical poems of great merit, on subjects connected with 
 the Old and New Testaments, have been preserved, which are ascribed 
 to the pen of Cccdmon, a Northumbrian [ob. 680). Even more interest- 
 ing is theGerniau-Saxon epos, entitled the Heliand, dating from the time 
 of Louis the Pious, — the first and only Christian poem on the Mes'^iah, 
 worthy its glorious subject, popular yet perfect in construction, simple 
 and elevated in its conception — in short, deep and genuine Christianity 
 presented in a Teutonic form. The "Krist" of Otfried (a monk at 
 Weissenburg, about 800) is a comparatively inferior production. It 
 was, indeed, the great aim of this author, as it had been that of the 
 Saxon pofit — to use Otfried's expression — " thaz wir Kriste sungen in 
 unsere Zungen" (to raise Christ's song in our own tongue) ; but the 
 poetry of the Saxon bears the same relation to that of the monk, " aa
 
 STATE OF INTELLIGENCE, ETC. 345 
 
 the song of thn lark under the broad sunlit canopy of heaven to the 
 artificial melody of the bird confined to its cage." To the same class 
 of compositions belong two other pieces, the so-called Wessohrunn Prayer, 
 of which the first and poetic portion is probably a fragment of a larger 
 poem intended to celebrate creation, and what is known by the name 
 of MuspilU, a poem in high German, treating of the end of the world 
 and the last judgment, of which, unfortunately, only a fragment, 
 unrivalled in depth and pathos, has been preserved. 
 
 3. Social State. — The high position which woman had always occu- 
 pied among the ancient Germans (§ 75, 2) prevented the spread of those 
 degrading views, both of her sex and of the married relationship, which 
 in great measure were the necessary consequence of the spurious 
 asceticism of churchmen. The Church attached special merit to com- 
 plete abstinence from conjugal intei'course, which, indeed, was entirely 
 prohibited during the three seasons of Quadragesima, on feast-days, 
 and on the " dies stationis" ("Wednesday, Friday, Saturday, and Sun- 
 day). Second marriages were stigmatized as incontinence, and had to 
 be expiated by temporai-y penance. The laws regulating divorce were, 
 however, still somewhat lax, and only in exceptional cases were persona 
 divorced prevented from again marrying. Intermarriage with Heathen, 
 Jews, and Ariaus was strictly prohibited. But the stringent regula- 
 tions about impediments to marriage arising from affinity (^61) were 
 more distasteful to the Germans than probably any other ordinance of 
 the Church. Such unions, especially that with a brother's widow, had 
 formerly been regarded in popular estimation as a kind of duty. — 
 The national customs and laws connected with property rendered it 
 impossible for the Church to interfere with the institution of serfdom; 
 indeed, monasteries and churches, in virtue of their large territorial 
 possessions, owned a considerable number of serfs. But the Church 
 always insisted on the fact, that masters and servants occupied exactly 
 the same place in a moral and religious point of view ; it extolled the 
 manumission of slaves as occupying the first rank in the scale of good 
 works, and ever threw the shield of its protection around those who 
 were oppressed by harsh masters. — Theca?'e of the poor was considered 
 one of the great concerns of the Church, from which even avaricious 
 and unfeeling bishops could not withdraw themselves. If circumstances 
 at all allowed it, every church had its own special buildings, in which 
 the poor, the sick, widows and orphans, were supported or entertained. 
 
 4, Administration of Justice. — The practice of tiikm^ private vengeance 
 was common among the German races. Some bounds, however, were 
 set to this abuse, by fixing by law the composition or atonement to be 
 paid for every injury (the Weregild). From aversion to inflicting 
 ca])ital punishment, the Church readily fell in with this custom. A 
 solemn oath, and the so-called judgment of God, were the means 
 adopted for leading judicial proof. Only a freeman who had not
 
 346 SECTION II. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 4—9 A.D.). 
 
 previously been convicted of ci ime vras allowed to take the oath of pui 
 gation ; a husband might take it for his wife, a father for his children, 
 or a master for his slave. Along with the person accused, his relatives, 
 friends, and neighbours appeared as compurgators (conjuratores) to 
 take the oath. Although they repeated the same formula as the party 
 impeached, their oath was only intended as a personal guarantee foi 
 the truthfulness and honour of the accused. If, from any circum- 
 stance, this oath of purgation could not be taken, if there were no 
 compurgators, or if other means of probation were awanting, resort 
 was had to the jiidr/ment of God (Ordale). This was ascertained — 
 1. 'By judicial combat, which owed its origin to the old popular belief: 
 •' Deum adesse bellantibus." Only a freeman could demand this mode 
 3f trial. Old persons, women, children, and clerks might be repre- 
 sented by a proper substitute. 2. By various experimenin with fire, 
 such as holding the hand for some time in the fire, walking over a 
 burning pile with no other dress on than a shirt, carrying a red-hot 
 iron with the naked hand for nine paces, or walking barefoot over nine 
 or twelve burning ploughshares. 3. By one of two experiments ivifh 
 water. The accused person had to fetch, with his naked arm, a ring 
 or a stone out of a cauldron filled with boiling water ; or he was thrown 
 into the water with a rope round his body. If he sank, he was de- 
 clared to have proved his innocence. 4. By the experiment of the cross. 
 Each party stood before the cross with arms expanded ; and the person 
 who first became weary, and allowed his hands to droop, lost the cause. 
 5. By the experiment with the Ettcharist, specially in disputes among 
 ecclesiastics. It was thought that the guilty party would soon after- 
 wards be struck by some manifestation of the Divine displeasure. The 
 laity underwent the experiment with the consecrated morsel (judicium 
 offge), which the party impeached had to swallow at mass. 6. By the 
 so-called "jvdicinm feretri." The accused touched the wounds of the 
 person murdered ; if blood flowed from them, or foam from his mouth, 
 it was held to establish guilt. — The implicit credence which the 
 Church attached to so many legendary miracles, sprung from the same 
 tendency which gave rise to these ordeals. It was, therefore, mani- 
 festly impossible for churchmen to combat such superstitions ; at most, 
 they could object to the pagan rites so frequently connected with them. 
 But by sanctioning and regulating these trials, the Church no doubt 
 contributed not a little to diminish the evils attendant upon them. 
 Af/ohard of Lyons {ob. 840) was the first to denounce these practices 
 as damnal)lc superstitions. After that, the See of Rome also (since 
 the pontificate of Nicholas I.) uniformly condemned every kind of 
 appeal to the "judgment of God." — Among the difi'erent kinds o{ peace 
 {i. e., immunity of person, property, office, and duty), next to the peace 
 of the King, that of the Church was most respected. For injuries to 
 ecclesiastical personages and property, or oifences committed in conse- 
 crated places, a threefold compensation was exacted. A bishop wa»
 
 STATE OF INTELLIGENCE, ETC, 347 
 
 reg;arded as equal to a duke, and a common priest to a count. — (Comp. 
 also Robertson, Charles V., First Section, and Notes 21, 22.) 
 
 5. Ecclesiastical Discipline and Penances. — In Germany, the State 
 fully recognized the jurisdiction of the Church and its right to inflict 
 punishment, so that an offence was considered expiated only when, 
 besides the requirements of the secular, those of the ecclesiastical tri- 
 bunal also had been satisfied. This gave rise to a system of regular 
 episcopal visitations, called Sends (Synodus, from send?), which came 
 into use during the reign of Charlemagne. The bishop was every year 
 to visit the whole of his diocese, accompanied by a royal Missus, and, 
 with the aid of bailiffs specially selected (from every congregation) 
 and sworn, to institute a searching inquiry into the moral and religious 
 state of every parish, and to punish the sins or misdemeanors brought 
 to light. Both Eegino of Früin and Hincmar of Rlieims composed 
 instructions for conducting these visitations. — The State also lent its 
 sanction and force to the sentences of ecclesiastical excommnni cation, 
 Pepin enjoined that those who had been excommunicated should not 
 enter a church, and prohibited Christians from eating and drinking 
 with, or even saluting such persons. The -public exercise of discipline 
 was repugnant to German notions of propriety, and the Church 
 generally yielded in this matter to popular feeling. The numerous 
 Penitential books which date from this period, gave ample direction 
 about the ADiiiNisTRAxioN OF DISCIPLINE, and adopting the custom of 
 judicial compensations, prescribed certain fines for every conceivable 
 kind of offence. Wasserschieben has collected and edited all the docu- 
 ments of this character still extant ("The Penitential Books of the 
 Western Church, with Hist. Introd." Halle 1851). They appear to 
 have been generally constructed after the penitential order of Theodore, 
 Archbishop of Canterbury. Manifestly, the fundamental idea of these 
 arrangements implied an entire misunderstanding of Christian disci- 
 pline ; and their frequent contradictions, their confusedness and arbi- 
 trary regulations, led to very sad consequences. Even the rendering 
 of the term poenitentia by "penance," i.e., compensation, shows how 
 superficial were the views entertained by the Church on this important 
 subject. Thus in the Penitential books, "pcenitere" is represented as 
 entirely identical with "jejunare." But if the idea o^ poenitentia, once 
 resolved itself into merely external acts, the penance of fasting might 
 readily give place to other spiritual exercises. Again, if it was only 
 requisite by some penance to make compensation for sins committed, 
 the services of another might fairly be employed as a substitute for 
 those of the guilty person. Accordingly, a system of redemption was 
 grailually introduced, which involved utter disregard of all moral 
 earnestness on the part of penitents. Tims, for example, the peniten- 
 tial l)()oks indicate how a rich man might, by hiring a sufficient number 
 of persons to fast in his stead, in three days go through a course of seven 
 years' penance, without incurring any personal trouble. This mora)
 
 348 SECTION II. FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 4—9 A.D.). 
 
 decay led in the eighth and ninth centuries to determined opposition 
 against penitential books, and the dangerous principles involved in their 
 arrangement. The reaction commenced in Britain at the Council q/ 
 ClovesJiove in 747, and soon spread to the Continent, vrhere it found 
 vent at the Synods of Chalons in 813, of Paris in 829, and of Mayence 
 in 847. The council of Paris ordered all penitential books to be de- 
 livered up and burnt. But their use was still retained. — At this period, 
 confession was not yet regarded as incumbent on the faithful generally. 
 In theory at least, it was still held that it sufficed to confess to God 
 alone. But already the custom of confessing once a year — during 
 Easter Quadragesima — seems to have been so general, that its omis- 
 sison was severely reprimanded at episcopal visitations. The formula 
 of absolution adopted was only of a deprecatory, not of a judicial 
 character. 
 
 I 89. PUBLIC WORSHIP AND THE FINE ARTS. 
 
 Wherever Arianism remained the creed in Germany, the ser- 
 vices of the Church were no doubt conducted in the vernacU' 
 lar. But when these races joined the Catholic Chuich, Latin 
 became the ecclesiastical language. Among tlie tribes which 
 were converted to Christianity by Catholic missionaries, the use 
 of Latin in the public services had from the first been intro- 
 duced. The Slavonians alone were allowed to worship in their 
 own language (§ 79, 1). — As the language, so also the liturgy 
 of Rome was everywhere enforced, except within the diocese of 
 Milan and in the Spanish Church. When Pepin entered into 
 negotiations M'ith the Papacy, iie consented to have the forms 
 of worsliip common among the Franks altered to suit the Romish 
 model (745). For the same purpose Hadrian I. furnished 
 Charlemagne with a Romish Sacramentariura, and that monarch 
 insisted on having the desired uniformity carried out. At first 
 sight, it may appear strange that the peculiar characteristics of 
 the German nund should not have expressed themselves in corre- 
 sponding modifications in the services of the Church. But it 
 must be remembered that the Romish ritual, when imported into 
 Germany, was not only in itself complete, but so constituted as 
 scarcely to admit improvements of a fundamental character; and 
 that, besides, tlie vernacular was excluded from the Liturgy, and 
 the people really took no active part in the services. Where, 
 as in this case, so much depends on the choice of expi'essions, 
 the national mind could not find full or free utterance so long aa 
 the use of a foreign idiom was enforced.
 
 PUBLIC WORSHIP AND THE FINE ARTS. 349 
 
 1. Liturgy and Preaching. — Besides the Roman or Gregorian, other 
 liturgies were in use ; differing from it in some respects. Such waa 
 the attachment both of the people and clergy of Milan to their old 
 Ambrosian Liturgy, that even Charlemagne was not strong enough to 
 displace it; and to this day has Milan preserved its possession of this 
 relic. Not less tenacious were the Spaniards in their adherence to 
 their national or so-called Mozarabic Liturgy (§81, 1). In several 
 points it resembled the Eastern liturgies ; after having been recast and 
 enlarged by Leander and Isidore of Seville, it was adopted throughout 
 the Spanish Church by the national Synod of Toledo in 633. This 
 similarity to Eastern liturgies is also noticeable in some of the older 
 GaUicnn liturgies, before the time of the Carolingians. — Throughout 
 the West, the Sermox always occupied a comparatively subordinate 
 place in public worship. The intellectual decay subsequent on the 
 migration of nations, almost banished it entirely from the services of 
 the Church. But when, in the seventh century, the Latin Church 
 addressed itself to missionary work, the great^mportance of sermons 
 in diffusing the truth was deeply felt. Few, however, of the clergy 
 were capable of composing sermons. Charlemagne therefore com- 
 missioned Paitlvs Diaconns (| 90, 3), in 782, to collect from tha 
 writings of the Fathers a (Latin) Ilomiliarium for Sundays and feast- 
 days, to serve as a model for similar compositions, or, where this could 
 not be expected, to be read to the people either in the original or in 
 translation. Of course the missionaries preached in the vernacular ; 
 in established congregations the sermon was mostly delivered in Latin. 
 But ('harlemagne and the synods of his time enjoined preaching, 
 either in German or in the Romanic. (Comp, also Johnson, English 
 Canons; ilfa5^•eZZ, Ancient Liturgy.) 
 
 2. (Cf. Hoffmann v. Fallersleb. Gesch. d. deutsch. Kirchenlieds bis 
 auf Luther. 3 Aufl. Ilann. 1854. — Ä. Sclinhiger, d. Sangerschule St. 
 Galleus. Einfiod. 183L) — According to the rule laid down by Gregory, 
 the chanting in churches was performed by the clergy. The ordinance 
 of Charlemagne, that the people should at least take part in singing 
 the "Gloria" and the Sanctus," was not obeyed. Between the 
 seventh and the ninth centuries flourished a number of Latin hymn- 
 writers, among whom we specially mention Beda Venerahilis, Paid 
 Warnrfried, Theodidf of Orleans, Alcuin, and Rahamis Manrus. The 
 beautiful hymn for Pentecost, " Veni creator Spiritus," is commonly 
 ascribed to Charlemagne himself. Instead of following, as formerly 
 the tone and style of the classics, the religious compositions of that 
 age became gradually more German and Christian in their spirit, 
 being characterized by deep simplicity and genuine feeling. Towards 
 the close of this period a considerable impulse was given to this species 
 of compositions by the adoption of what were called sequences 
 (sequential) into the service of the Mass. Instead of the long seriea 
 «f notes without words — intended to indicate that the feelings were 
 
 30
 
 350 SECTION II. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 4—9 A D.). 
 
 too strong for expression (hence the term JubiH) — which formerly had 
 followed upon the Hallelujah of the Mass, suitable rhythmical language 
 in Latin prose was adopted, which by and by was cast into metre, 
 rhyme, and stanzas. Nother Balbrdvs, a monk of St. Gall [oh. 912), 
 was the first distinguished writer of sequences. — The only part which 
 the people were allowed to take in the services of the Church was to 
 Bing, or rather to shout, the "Kyrie Eleison" in the Litany, and that 
 only at extraordinary seasons, such as processions, pilgrimages, the 
 transportation of relics, funerals, the consecration of churches, and 
 other similar occasions. In Germany, during the second half of the 
 ninth century, short verses in the vernacular were introduced at such 
 times — the Kyrie Eleison forming the refrain of every stanza. This 
 was the humble commencement of German hymnology. The only 
 monument of this kind of poetry still extant from that period is a 
 hymn in honour of St. Peter, composed in the old high German dialect. 
 — The Ambrosian chant (§ 59, 3) had entirely given place to the 
 Gregorian (the so-called Cantus firmus or choralis). When Stephen 
 IL visited France in 754, Pepin ordered that the Romish chant should 
 be universally adopted. To this injunction Charlemagne gave general 
 effect throughout the West, by entirely abolishing the Ambrosian chant, 
 by instituting excellent singing-schools at Metz, Soissons, Orleans, 
 Paris, Lyons, and in other places, over which he placed musicians sent 
 from Rome for the special purpose, and by introducing music as a 
 branch of education in all the higher schools throughout the Empire. 
 The first organ brought to France was that which the Byzantine 
 Emperor Copronymus presented to Pepin in 757. A second organ was 
 given to Charlemagne by the Emperor Michael I. and placed in the 
 church at Aix-la-Chapelle. After that it was gradually introduced 
 throughout the Church. But these instruments were still very imper- 
 fect ; they had only from nine to twelve notes, and the keys were so 
 ill constructed that they required to be struck with the fist. 
 
 3. TJie Sacrifice of the Mass. — The idea of a sacrifice attaching to 
 the Eucharist, which led to the celebration of masses for the benefit 
 of the dead (^ 58, 3), i. e., for alleviating and shortening the torments 
 of purgatory, was gradually developed and applied to other purposes. 
 Thus private masses were celebrated for the success of any under- 
 taking, as for the restoration of a sick person, for favourable weather, 
 etc. This increase of masses was somcAvhat limited by the enactment, 
 that only one mass might be celebrated at the same altar and by the 
 same priest in one day. The desire to secure as many masses as 
 possible after death, gave rise to associations of churches and monas- 
 teries on the covenant that a certain number of masses should be said 
 in all these churches and monasteries for every member of the asso- 
 ciation that died. The idea of such fraternities — into which, by 
 special favour, kings, princes, and lords were sometimes received — 
 ?oems to have originated with St. Boniface.
 
 PUBLIC WORSHIP AND THE FINE ARTS. 351 
 
 4. Among the Germans the worship of saints was in great repute, 
 especially as they served as substitutes for the displaced deities of 
 former days. Far above the other saints towered in popular esteem 
 the Mother of God, the fair and gracious Queen of Heaven — the full 
 ideal of woman, that object of ancient veneration among the Ger- 
 mans. Partly from the want of images, and partly from national 
 dislike, the worship paid to images was little in vogue in the 
 German Church. Indeed, during the time of the Carolingians, the 
 Prankish Church formally protested against such services (g 92, 1). 
 But all the greater was the zeal displayed in the worship of relics, 
 in which the saint reappeared, as it were, in concrete and bodily form. 
 Innumeraljle relics existed in the West, supplied partly from the inex- 
 haustible treasury at Rome, and partly from the band of zealous mis- 
 sionary martyrs, from the solitudes of hermits, or even from monasteiüea 
 and episcopal sees. The bones of these saints were the objects of en- 
 thusiastic veneration. When a church or a monastery acquired a new 
 relic, the whole country rejoiced in the accession ; the concourse of 
 multitudes, and an abundant harvest in the shape of donations by the 
 pious, attended the deposition of the prized memorial in the crypt of 
 the sanctuary. In the ninth century the Frankish monastery of Cen- 
 tula boasted of a large quantity of such relics ; among them, memorials 
 from the grave of the Innocents at Bethlehem, part of the milk of the 
 Virgin, of the beard of St. Peter, of his casula, of the Orarium of St. 
 Paul, nay, even of the wood with which Peter was about to construct 
 the three tabernacles on Mount Tabor. — Among the Germans, and 
 jspecially the Anglo-Saxons, who were so fond of travelling, the prac- 
 ncE OF making pilgrimages was very general. The favourite places 
 for such devotions were the tombs of the princes of the apostles at 
 Rome, the grave of St. Martin at Tours, and, towards the close of this 
 period, that of St. Jago de Compostella (Jacobus Apostolus the Elder, 
 the supposed founder of the Spanish Church, whose bones were disco- 
 vered by Alphonse the Chaste). But the demoralizing iufluencea 
 attendant on these pilgrimages, which formed subject of complaint 
 even in older times, were painfully felt. Accordingly, St. Boniface 
 insisted that his countrywomen should be prohibited joining them, 
 since they only served to provide loose women for the towns of Gaul 
 and Italy. — The idea of patron angels proved specially attractive to 
 the Germans. More particularly did they accord their sympathies to 
 Michael, the knightly Archangel, who had defeated the great dragon. 
 
 5. Ecclesiastical Seasons and Places. — Besides the Easter Quadra' 
 gesima, another was introduced after Pentecost, and a third before 
 Christmas. The ecclesiastical year now commenced at Christmas, 
 instead of Easter. In the ninth century, the Feast of All- Saints (§ 57, 
 1), which at first had been only celebrated at Rome, was observed 
 throughout the Church. — In consequence of the number of relics and 
 the increase of masses, additional altars were erected in the churches.
 
 352 SECTION II. — FIRST PERIOD (C E N T . 4— 9 A. D.) 
 
 Charlemagne enjoined them to be limited to the number actually re» 
 quired. The high altar stood unsupported in the centre of the nich« 
 in the choir. The other altars were either placed in juxtaposition or 
 supported by pillars. Pulpits and confessionals had not yet been in- 
 troduced into churches. Special baptistries adjoined those churches in 
 which the sacred rite was administered (? 84, 2). But when this privi- 
 lege was extended to all churches, a baptismal font was placed at the 
 left side of the principal entrance, or at the point where the nave was 
 crossed by the transept. This change contributed to the general intro- 
 duction of the practice of sprinkling instead of immersion in baptism. 
 Bells and towers were common ; the latter stood at first by themselves, 
 but since the time of Charlemagne they were connected with the main 
 building. Charlemagne prohibited the christening of bells, but the 
 practice still continued. 
 
 6. During the domination of the Ostrogoths, the Fitie Arts were 
 chiefly •cultivated on the other side, during that of the Carolingians on 
 this side, the Alps. On the British Isle also, considerable attention 
 was paid to their cultivation. The German monasteries of St. Gall 
 and Fulda bore, in the ninth century, the palm in artistic taste. Thus 
 Tidilo, a monk of St. Gall [ob. 912), was greatly distinguished as an 
 architect, painter, sculptor, poet, and general savant. The old Roman 
 Basilica still formed the model for ecclesiastical architecture. At Ra- 
 venna — the Byzantium of Italy — some splendid churches were built in 
 the Byzantine style during the domination of the Goths. Einhard was 
 the favourite architect of Charlemagne. Among the various churches 
 built by that monarch, the Münster of Aix-la-Chapelle, constructed 
 after the model of these Ravenna churches, is the most beautiful. 
 Being intended to serve as royal chapel, it was connected with the 
 palace by a colonnade. For the same reason, it was originally of mode- 
 rate size ; but being also used for coronations, it was enlarged in 1355 
 by the addition of the grand principal choir, in the Gothic style. The 
 ceremonies of the Church tended to the promotion of the jjlastic arts. 
 as costly shrines were required for relics ; and the crucifixes, candle- 
 sticks, ciboria, censers, and other vessels, called forth the skill of artists. 
 The liturgical books were covered with boards elaborately cai'ved, and 
 the doors of churches, the stalls of bishops, reading-desks, and bap- 
 tismal fonts adorned with decorations in relief. Among the various 
 kinds of pictorial representations, miniature painting was employed in 
 adorning copies of ecclesiastical books. — (Comp. G. Kinkel, Gesch. d, 
 bildenden Künste. I. Bonn 1845. — E. Förster, Gesch, d. deutsch. Kunst 
 Leips. 1851-55. 3 Vols.)
 
 SCIENCE AND THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE. 353 
 
 2 90. STATE OF SCIENCE AND OF THEOLOGICAL LITE- 
 RATURE. 
 
 Comp. /. C. F. Bahr, Gesch. d. rom. Liter, im karoling. Zeitalter. 
 Karlsr. 1840. 
 
 So long as Arianisra continued the creed of the German races, 
 independent scientific pursuits seem not to have been followed, 
 with the exception of those of Ulfilas. But Theodoric, the 
 generous monarch of the Ostrogoths, patronized and distin- 
 guished the representatives of ancient Roman literature. Among 
 them Boelhius and Cassiodorus have the merit of preserving the 
 remnants of classical and patristic learning in Italy. A similar 
 service Isidore of Seville {ob. 636) performed for Spain, and his 
 works were for centuries used also on the other side of the 
 Pyrenees as text-books and guides for students. The numerous 
 monasteries of Scotland and Ireland were, till late in the ninth 
 century, equally famed for the extensive learning and the deep 
 piety of their inmates. The learned Greek monk, Theodore of 
 Tarsus, whom the Pope elevated to the archiepiscopal See of 
 Canterbury (ob. 690), and his companion Hadrian, awakened 
 among the Anglo-Saxons an ardent zeal for the prosecution of 
 learned investigations, while Beda Venerabilis, though he never 
 left his monastery, was regarded, throughout the Western Church, 
 as a leading authority. For a time the Northmen pirates swept 
 away the traces of this high civilization, till Alfred the Great 
 (871 to 901) again restored it. This monarch, equally great in 
 peace and in war, distinguished as a general, a statesman, and a 
 legislator, and renowned both as a poet and prose writer, raised 
 the literature of his country to a height never before attained — 
 though, unfortunately, only for a time. In Gaul, Gregory of 
 Tours (ob. 595) was the last representative of Roman ecclesi- 
 astical lore. After him came that chaos which only under the 
 reign of Charlemagne (768 to 814) gave place to a new day, of 
 which the light shone throughout the West. The encourage- 
 ment which that monarch gave to literature dates from the period 
 of his first visit to Italy, in 774. There he made the acquaint- 
 ance of such men as Petrus of Pisa, Paul Warnefried, Paulinus 
 of Aqiiileja, and Theodulf of Orleans, whom he attached to hia 
 court. From the year 782, Alcuin, an Anglo-Saxon "Levite," 
 was the leading spirit at the Prankish court. Charlemagne had 
 30*
 
 ?/54 SECTION II. — FIRST PERIOD (c E N T. 4— 9 A. D.;. 
 
 onade hig acquaintance the year before in Italy. Study now 
 became one of the main pursuits, which even the royal family, 
 the court, and all connected with it, encouraged or followed; but 
 among these noble scholars, Charlemagne himself was the most 
 zealous and docile pupil of Alcuin. At the court school (schola 
 palatina), which, like the court itself, was migratory, the sons 
 and daughters of the king received, along with the children of 
 the noblest families in the empire, a liberal education. From 
 England, Ireland, and Italy, continual additions were made to 
 the staff of teachers employed in it. At last Charlemagne 
 issued, in *78t, a circular letter addressed to all the bishops and 
 abbots of his empire, in which, under pain of his royal displea- 
 sure, he commanded that schools should be attached to all mon- 
 asteries and cathedral churches. And, in truth, the result of 
 these measures was most encouraging, although as yet the course 
 of study was limited to the acquisition of classical or patristic 
 lore, to the neglect of anything like national literature. The 
 great, the liberal, and patriotic mind of Charlemagne perceived, 
 indeed, the importance of encouraging the growth of a national 
 literature ; but, with the exception of Paul Warnefried, his other 
 learned advisers had lost every sympathy with the spirit, the 
 language, and the nationality of Germany. They even regarded 
 such studies as endangering Christianity and encouraging the 
 spread of former heathen nations ; hence their influence was 
 rather in the way of discouraging these views of their monarch. 
 — The weak administration of Louis the Pious (814 to 840), 
 disturbed as it was by party fights and civil wars, was far from 
 favouriable to the promotion of science ; but as yet the fruits of 
 his father's labours had not disappeared. Lothair, his son, issued 
 an edict by which the scholastic arrangements of Italy were 
 entirely reorganized, and indeed completely remodelled. But 
 that country, with its factions and tumults, was not the place 
 where such institutions could for any length of time prosper. It 
 was otherwise in France, where, under the reign of Chai-les the 
 Bald (840-877), a new period was inaugurated. At his court, 
 as at that of his grandfather, the choice spirits of the West 
 gathered ; under the guidance of Johannes Erigena, a Scotch- 
 man, the court-school rose rapidly; the cathedral and monastic 
 Bchools of France emulated the most celebrated institutions of 
 Germany (such as St. Gall, Fulda, Keiclienau, etc.); and the 
 French sees were occupied by meu of the most extensive learn-
 
 SCIENCE AND THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE. 355 
 
 mg. But after the death of Charles this high state of cultiva- 
 tion rapidly disappeared, and, amidst the troubles of that period, 
 gave place to deep ignorance, confusion, and barbarism. 
 
 1. It was the primary object of these monastic and cathedral schools, 
 to train persons for the Church. The writings of Cassiodorus, of Isi- 
 dore, Bella, and Alcuin, were the manuals and text-books chiefly in 
 use. The inmates of monasteries were in the habit of making careful 
 copies of books, for the purpose of founding libraries and of multiply- 
 ing celebrated works. Alcuin arranged all knowledge under three 
 branches, viz., Ethics, Physics, and Theology. His Ethics included 
 what was afterwards designated as Triviiim (Grammar, Rhetoric, and 
 Dialectics) ; Physics corresponded to the later Quadrivmm (Arithmetic, 
 Geometry, Music, and Astronomy) ; both together constituting what 
 were called the Liberal Arts. Conversation and instruction were to 
 be carried on in Latin. In the higher schools Greek, of which Theo- 
 dore of Tarsus and his pupils had promoted the study, was also taught. 
 Acquaintance with Hebrew was a more rare accomplishment ; some 
 scholars obtained a knowledge of it by intercourse with learned Jews. 
 The writings of Boethius were the principal source for the study of 
 philosophy; Plato and Aristotle were known, however, to some extent, 
 and in the ninth century the Byzantine Emperor Michael presented 
 Louis the Pious {| 92, 1) with a copy of the so-called writings of Dio- 
 nysius the Areopagite. He was regarded as the same Dionysius who 
 had founded the Church of Paris, and on this ground his writings, 
 even when not understood, were vaunted. H'dduin, Abbot of St. Denis, 
 and afterwards Johannes Erigena, translated them into Latin. — Isidore 
 of Seville and Eahamis Manrus composed encyclopaedias which embo- 
 died a summary of the lore of their times. The work of Isidore, which 
 bears the title of Originum s. Etymologiarum LI. XX., is a remarkable 
 monument of industry and comprehensive learning. Almost the same 
 meed of praise is due to the LI. XXII. de Universo, by Rabanus. Both 
 writers group theology along with the other sciences. 
 
 2. The following were the most celebrated Theologians before the 
 time of the Caroliiigians : 
 
 (1.) Gregory of Tours, the scion of a noble Roman family. While 
 on a pilgrimage to the grave of St. Martin, to implore the removal of a 
 disease (in 573), he was elevated to the See of Tours, which he occu- 
 pied to his death [oh. 595). His family connections, his office, his 
 character, learning, and piety, contributed to make him one of the most 
 celebrated men of his time. Posterity is indebted to his writings for 
 its knowledge of public and private affairs at the time of the Merovin- 
 gians. (Best edition by Th. Ridnart. Par. 1G99 f. Comp, also /. W. 
 Loebell, Gregor von Tours u. s. Zeit. Leipz. 1869.) 
 
 (2.) Isidore of Seville (Ilispalensis), the scion of a distinguished 
 Gothic family, who succeeded Leander, his brother, in the archiepisco-
 
 356 SECTION II. — FIRST PERIOD (CE5IT. 4—9 A.D.). 
 
 pal See of Hispalis [ob. 636). He composed excellent and careful com 
 pilations, in which information and fragments not otherwise known 
 are preserved. For his cotemporaries he did a more important service, 
 by making the German Church acquainted with classical and patristic 
 lore. (Best ed. by F. Arevalo. Rom. 1797. 7 Voll. 4.) 
 
 (.3.) Beda Venerabilis, an Anglo-Saxon, educated in the monastery 
 of Wearmouth, which he afterwards left for that of Jarrow, where ha 
 died in 735. His fame for learning, in all branches of science known 
 at the time, was very great. These acquirements were combined with 
 great modesty, piety, and amiability. "While his numerous disciples 
 attained the highest posts in the Church, Beda himself continued in 
 quiet retirement, a simple monk, satisfied with this his chosen lot. 
 Even on his death-bed he was engaged in teaching and writing ; and 
 immediately before he expired, he dictated the last chapter of an Anglo- 
 Saxon version of the Gospel according to John. (Best ed. of his wri- 
 tings by /. A. Giles. London 1843.) 
 
 3. The most eminent theologian during the reign of Charlemagne 
 (768-814) was an anglo-Saxon, Alcuin (Albinus), surnamed Flaccus. 
 He was trained in the celebrated academy of York, under Egbert and 
 Elbert. When the latter was elevated to the archiepiscopal see, Alcuin 
 became president of this academy. On a journey to Rome (781), he 
 was introduced to the notice of Charlemagne, who invited him to his 
 court, where he became the teacher, friend, and most intimate advisei 
 of the monarch. To the period of his death (in 804), he continued the 
 king's great authority in all religious, ecclesiastical, and scholastic ques- 
 tions. In 790 he went as ambassador to his own country, whence he re- 
 turned in 792, no more to leave France. In 796 Charlemagne bestowed 
 on him the Abbacy of Tours ; and the school connected with it became 
 henceforth the most celebrated in the empire. — (Best ed. of his writings 
 by Frobenius. 2 Voll. f. 1777. — Comp. Fr. Lorentz, Life of Alcuin 
 transl. by J. M. Slee, London 1839. — F. Mounier, Alcuin. Par. 1853.', 
 — After Alcuin, the most learned man of that age was Paulus Diaco 
 Nus (son of) AVarnefrid, a Langobard of noble family, and chancellor 
 of King Desiderius. From grief over the decay of his own country, he 
 retired to the monastery of Monte Cassino, whence Charlemagne drew 
 him to his court in 774. His attainments were vaunted as those of a 
 Homer in Greek, of a Virgil, Horace, and Tibullus in Latin, and of a 
 Philo in Hebrew. But love to his country induced him to return to 
 his monastery (in 787), where he died at a very advanced age. The 
 story of his having conspired against Charlemagne, and being sent into 
 exile, is devoid of historical foundation. It deserves special notice that 
 this learned and amiable man was also distinguished for qualities rare 
 in his time, such as openness, enthusiastic admiration of the language, 
 the national legends, the poetry, and the ancient laws and customs of 
 his own people. Besides these two divines, the names of Paulinus, 
 Patriarch of Aquileia, a native of Friaul [ob. 804), oi Leidrad of
 
 SCIENCE AND THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE 35"/ 
 
 Li/ons [ob. 813), and of Theodulf of Orleans, deserve particular notice. 
 The latter acquired fame, not only as a poet and a man of learning, but 
 from his zeal in establishing elementary schools. Under the reign of 
 Louis the Pious, he was accused of traitorous communications with 
 Bernard of Italy, deposed and exiled (in 817), but afterwards pardoned. 
 He died before again reaching his own diocese (in 821). 
 
 4. The following were the most celebrated theologians under the 
 reign of Louis the Pious (814—840). 
 
 (1.) Agobard of Lyons, by birth a Spaniard, ob. as Bishop of Lyons 
 in 840. His anxiety for preserving the unity of the empire, and his 
 position as chief of the national party among the Frankish clergy, 
 implicated him in the conspiracy against Louis the Pious, in con- 
 sequence of which he was deposed and exiled (835). Two years after- 
 wards he obtained the royal pardon. Agobard was a man of rare 
 mental endowments and learning ; withal a keen opponent of eccle- 
 siastical and other superstitions (§ 92, 2). 
 
 (2.) Claudius, Bishop of Turin [ob. 840), also a Spaniard, and a 
 pupil of Felix of Urgellis (^ 91, 1) ; whose heretical views, however, he 
 did not share ; well known as a bold reformer. — (Comp. § 92, 2). 
 
 (3.) Jonas of Orleans, the successor of Theodulf {ob. 844), one of 
 the most renowned prelates of his age, who completely succeeded in 
 restoring discipline and order in his own diocese. 
 
 (4.) Amalarius, a priest of Metz (comp. § 84, 4). 
 
 (5.) Christian Druthmar, a monk of Corbey, and celebrated as at 
 the time the only advocate of a grammatical and historical exegesis. 
 
 (6.) Walafrid Strabo, teacher and Abbot of Reichenau [ob. 849). 
 
 (7.) Fredegis, an Anglo-Saxon, who came with Alcuin from England, 
 and succeeded him both in the school and Abbacy of Tours, — a man 
 whose philosophical investigations constitute him in a certain sense the 
 precursor of mediasval scholasticism. 
 
 5. The following were the most celebrated theologians during the 
 reign of Charles the Bald (840-877). 
 
 (1.) Rabaxus Magnextius Maurus, the descendant of an ancient 
 Roman family which had early settled in Germany, and a pupil of 
 Alcuin, who designated him St. Maurus (^ 85). He was first a teacher, 
 then became Abbot of Fulda, and finally Archbishop of Mayence {ob. 
 856). Maurus was the most learned man of his age, and under his 
 tuition the academy of Fulda rose to highest distinction. — (Comp. N: 
 Bach, Arab. Maur., der Schöpfer d. deutsch. Schulwesens (Rab. Maur., 
 the Originator of the Schol. System in Germ.). Fulda 1835. — Fr. 
 Kunstmaim, Arab. Magn. Maur. Mayence 1841). 
 
 (2.) lIiNCMAR of Rheims, (comp. 183, 1). (Best ed. of his writings 
 by /. Sirmoml. Par. 1645. 2 Voll. f.). 
 
 (3.) Pasohasius Radbertus, from 844 Abbot of Corbey, an ofiice 
 which he resigned in 851, when he dedicated himself exclusively to
 
 358 SECTION II. — FIRST PERIOD (C E N T . 4 -9 A. D.). 
 
 studies and writing [ob. 865). Despite occasional ultraisms, he was 
 deservedly celebrated (§ 91, 3). 
 
 (4.) Ratramnus, a monk of Corbey, the opponent of Radbertus ; a 
 clear and acute thinker, but somewhat rationalistic in his views. 
 
 (5.) Florus Magister, a clerk at Lyons, celebrated both for his 
 learning and for the share he took along with Agobard in certain con- 
 troversies. 
 
 (6.) IIaymo. Bishop of Halberstadt, a friend and class-mate of 
 Rabanus. 
 
 (7.) Servatus Lupus, Abbot of Ferriferes, a deep and independent 
 thinker, distinguished alike for his interest in science and in public 
 instruction. 
 
 (8.) Prudentius of Troyes. 
 
 (9.) Anastasius, papal librarian at Rome. 
 
 (10.) Regino, Abbot of Prüm {ob. 915) ; and lastly, that enigma and 
 •wonder of his time, Johannes Scotos Erigena. He was born in 
 England. Like a brilliant meteor, he appears at the court of 
 Charles the Bald; like a meteor he disappeared;, and no one knew 
 whence he came, or wliither he went. He was undoubtedly the 
 most learned man, and the deepest, boldest, and most independent 
 thinker of his time. His speculations have not been surpassed for 
 centuries before or after him. Had he lived three centuries later, 
 he might have occasioned a complete revolution in the learned 
 world ; but in his own time he was neither understood nor appreciated, 
 and scarcely deemed even worthy of being declared a heretic. The 
 latter omission, however, was rectified by the Church after the lapse 
 of three and a half centuries (^ 108, 2). For further details see below. 
 Note 7. — (Comp. F. A. Staudenmaier, J. Sc. Erig. u. d. Wiss. sr. Zeit. 
 Frankf. 1834. — M. Taillandier, Sc. Erigene et la philos. scholast. 
 Stras.sb. 1843.— iV. Möller, J. Sc. Erig. u. d. Wissensch. s. Z. Frankft. 
 1834. — J.. Torstrick, Phil. Erigenge. Gott. 1844; and Ritter, Gesch. d. 
 ehr. Phil. Voll. IIL — iV. Möller, J. Sc. Erig. u. s. Irrthümer. May- 
 ence 1844). 
 
 6. Tlie theological investigations of the German Church at that time 
 were specially directed to the immediate wants of the Church, and 
 hence chiefly of a practical character. \Yithal, such was the reverence 
 paid to the Fathers, that, whenever practicable, their words and thoughts 
 were employed in teaching, writing, preaching, demonstrating, and 
 refuting. But the reformatory movement initiated under Charlemagne 
 led. in the domain of theological science, also to greater freedom ; 
 while the controversies of the ninth century necessitated independen* 
 thinking, and gradually inspired theological writers with greater con- 
 fidence. — Among the various branches of theology, most attention was 
 paid to EXEGESIS, although commentators still confined themselves to 
 making notes on the Vidgate. Charlemagne commissioned Alcuin to 
 niake a ci t'cal revision of its text, which had been greatly corrupted.
 
 SCIENCE AND THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE 359 
 
 The first to oppose the theory of a mechanical inspiration was Agohard 
 cf Lyons. He started from the principle, that the prophets had not 
 been merely passive instruments like Balaam's ass, and that only the 
 sensus prccdicutioiiis and modi vel anfumenta diciionum, but not the 
 corporalia verba, had been inspired by the Holy Ghost. One only 
 among the numerous exegetical writers of that age, Christian Druth- 
 niar, perceived that it was the first and most important work of an 
 interpreter to ascertain the grammatical and historical meaning of the 
 text. All other interpreters set lightly by the literal meaning of the 
 text, while they sought to discover the treasures of Divine wisdom by 
 an allegorical, tropical, and anagogic interpretation. After Druthmar, 
 it was probably I'aschasius Radbertus who devoted greatest attention 
 to a calm investigation of the literal meaning of Scripture. Besides 
 these, the most celebrated exegetical authors at that time were Beda 
 Venerabilis, Alcuin, Rabanus Maiwus, and Walafrid Strabo, whose 
 " Glossoe ordinarias" formed, on account of their convenient size (next 
 to the more full commentaries of Rabanus), the exegetical manual in 
 common use during the Middle Ages. The work, however, contains 
 little that is original, by far the greater part being derived from the 
 Latin Fathers. 
 
 7. In the study of Systematic Theology, proportionally least attention 
 was bestowed upon apologetics. Though the illiterate character of the 
 heathen around called not for any elaborate refutation of their super- 
 stitions, this remark applies not either to Mohammedanism or to Juda- 
 ism. In Spain, a large number of Jews were obliged to submit to 
 baptism, or else expelled ; but in the Frankish Empire, especially under 
 the reign of Louis the Pious, wealth and briberies ensured them ample 
 protection. Thus encouraged, they not only prohibited their Jewish 
 and heathen slaves from beliig baptized, but obliged their Christian 
 servants to observe the Sabbath, to work on the Lord's dav^, and to eat 
 meat during Lent. Occasionally they even openly blasphemed the 
 name of Christ, derided the Chui'ch, and sold Christian slaves to the 
 Saracens. Agobard of Lyons Avas very active in opposing them, by his 
 preaching, writings, and measures ; but they enjoyed the protection 
 of the court. L<sidore of Seville and Rabanus Maurus also refuted their 
 distinctive tenets. — The department of polemical theology was more 
 fully cultivated than that of apologetics, especially since the time of 
 Charlemagne (comp. II 91, 92). — In his LI. III. Sententiarum, Isidore 
 of Seville collected from the writings of the Fathers a system of dog- 
 matics and ethics, which for several centuries continued the text-book 
 in use. Another manual of dogmatics, chiefly derived from the writ- 
 ings of Augustine, was Alcuin's LI. III. de fide sanctre et individuaß 
 trinitatis — Philosophical mysticism, which was first introduced by the 
 writings of the so-called Areopagite, was represented by Johannes 
 Scotus Erigena, a mind far in advance of his age. Following up the 
 gnosticism of t) e school of Origen, the theosophic mysticism of the
 
 360 SECTION II. FIRST PERIOD (CEN T. 4— 9 A. D.). 
 
 Arjopagite, and the dialectics of Maximus Confessor, his rork " De 
 Dirisione Naturae" embodied a system of speculative theology of \ast 
 dimensions. Though Erigena felt anxiously desirous to retain tho 
 fundamental doctrines of the Church, his system, from first to last, 
 was one great heterodoxy. He started from the principle, that true 
 theology and true philosophy were essentially the same, and differed 
 only in point of form. Faith had to do with the truth as "theologia 
 affirmativa" [xatafati-xr]), revealed in the Bible, and handed down by 
 the Church in a metaphorical and figurative garb, and in a manner 
 adapted to the limited capacity of the multitude. It was the task of 
 reason to strip off this envelope (theologia negativa, ato^atixri), and, by 
 means of speculation, to convert faith into knowledge. The peculiar 
 title of the work was intended to express its fundamental idea, viz., 
 that nature — i. e., the sum of everything existent and non-existent (aa 
 the necessary opposite of what existed) — manifested itself in a fourfold 
 manner, as natura creatrix non creata (r. e., God as the potential sum 
 of all existence and non-existence), natura creatrix creata {i. e., the 
 eternal thoughts of God as the grand eternal types of everything 
 created, the source and medium of which is the Logos), natura creata 
 non creans (the eternal, invisible, and ideal world), and natura nee 
 creata nee creans {.ie., God as the final end of everything created, to 
 which, after all antagonisms have been overcome, everything created 
 returns in the ajtoxatdat aaii tCjv ^tavtuiv). It is evident that this system 
 must speedily have merged into Pantheism ; but in the case of Erigena 
 himself genuine Christian feeling seems to have prevented these con- 
 sequences, and he was anxiously desirous of preserving at least the 
 fundamental truths of Christian Theism. 
 
 8. The Homiletic literature of that period was comparatively very 
 scanty. Besides the Homiliarius of Paul Warnefricl (^ 89, 1), only 
 Bede, Walafrid, Babanus, and Haymo appear to have been known aa 
 writers of original sermons. But the Theory of Worsliij) (its descrip- 
 tion and mystical interpretation) attracted considerable attention. The 
 first work of this kind was that of Isidore, " de officiis ecclesiasticis." 
 Charlemagne invited his theologians to discuss the import of the rites 
 connected with baptism. During the reign of Louis the Pious, Agohard 
 of Lyons proposed to reform the Liturgy, and defended himself with 
 considerable vehemence in several tractates against the attacks of 
 Amalarius of Metz, whose liturgical work (de officiis ecclesiasticis) he 
 öharply criticised. Florus Magister (de actione Missarum) also entered 
 the listvs against Amalarius. Of other important works on this subject, 
 we mention those of liabanus (de institutione Clerieorum), of Walafrid 
 (de exordiis et incrementis rerum ecclesiasticarum), and of lieniigius 
 of Anxerre (expositio Missa;). The great authority on questions con- 
 nected with ecclesiastical law and church-politics was Hincmar of 
 Rheims, and next to him Agobard and Regina of Prüm (g 88, 5).
 
 DOCTRINE AND DOGMATIC CONTROVRES.ES. 361 
 
 9. The scanty knowlclge of ancient Church Historij which theolo 
 gians pussessed, was solely derived from the works of llufinus and Cas- 
 Biüdorus. The ecclesiastical history of Haymo consists only of a com- 
 pilation from Rnfinus. All the more diligent were writers throughout 
 the Middle Ages in chronicling the current political and ecclesiastical 
 events, and in recording those which had taken place within the 
 memory of man. To these labours we owe a threefold kind of litera- 
 ture: — 1. That of NATioxAL historians. Thus the Visigoths had an 
 Isidore (Hist. Gothorum, Hist. Vandal, et Suevorum) ; the Ostrogoths a 
 Ca.tsiodonis (LI. XII. de reb. gestis Gothorum — a work which unfor- 
 tunately has been lost ; or at least only preserved in extracts, in the 
 tractate of Joriiandes, in 550, de Getarum orig. et reb. gestis) ; the Lan- 
 gobards a Paid Warnefrid (LI. VI. de gestis Langobardorum) ; the 
 Franks a Gregory of Tours (Hist, eccles. Francorum) ; the Britons a 
 Gildas (about 560) : Liber querulus de excidio Britannite) and a Nen- 
 niiis (Eulogium Brittannije s. hist. Britonum, about 850) ; and the 
 Anglo-Saxons a Bede (Hist, eccles. gentis Anglorum). 2. Annals or 
 Chronicles, chiefly composed in monasteries, and continued from year 
 to year. 3. Biographies of prominent political or ecclesiastical per- 
 sonages. Among the former, the most important are the Vita Caroli 
 M., by Eiuhard, and the Vitse Ludovici Pii, by Thegamts, hj Nithard, 
 and by an anonymous writer commonly designated as ^s;!ro/to/HHs. The 
 number of Vitce Sanctorum, compiled in a most credulous spirit, chiefly 
 in honour of local saints, was very great. In the same class we also 
 reckon the numerous martyrologies, generally arranged according to 
 the calendar. The best known of these compositions were compiled 
 by Bede, Ado of Vienne, Usuardtis, Rahanus, Notker Balhidus, and 
 Wandelbert. The Miraculorum hist., by Gregory of Tours, deserves 
 special mention. Books III. to VI. give an account of the miracles of 
 St. Martin; while Book VII. (de vitis patrum) describes the lives of 
 other twenty-three Frankish saints. — The Biographies of the Popes in 
 the Lil)er pontificalis of Anastasius the Librarian, the Historia Metten- 
 sium Episcoporum by Paidus War-nefrid, and the continuation of Je- 
 rome's Catalogus s. de ecclesiast. scriptoribus by Isidore, deserve to 
 be ranked among more solid historical contributions. 
 
 §91. DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTRINE AND DOGMATIC CON- 
 TROVERSIES. 
 
 Comp. C. G. Fr. Walch, hist. Adoptianorum, Gottg. 1755, and his 
 "Ketzerhist." (Hist, of Heret.) ; against him: Frohenius, Diss, in his 
 ed. of Alcuin. — /. G. Walch, Hist, controversige Gr^ecorum et Latin, de 
 process. Spir. s. Jena; 1751 . — G. Manguin (a Jansenist), Vett. auc- 
 tori;m, qui in Sec. IX. de prtedest. scripserunt opera et fragmenta. 
 Par. 1650. 2 Voll. 4to ; with hist, dissert. Against him : L. Cellot 
 (a Jesuit), Hist. Gotteschalci. Par. 1655. Jac. Usserii, Go:teschalci 
 et controversial ab eo motse hist. Dubl. 1631. 4to. 
 31
 
 362 SECTION II. — FIRST PERIOD (CE N T . 4— 9 a. D.). 
 
 The first important heresy of Germanic origin (at the time of 
 Charlemagne) was that to which the name of Adoptionism haa 
 been given, and which originated in Spain. Following up the 
 doctrine about the person of Christ, as it had been defined by the 
 sixth (Ecumenical Council of Constantinople in 680 (§ 52, 8), it 
 was argued that the idea of a twofold nature and of a twofold 
 will implied also that of a twofold Sonship. But tlie Frankish 
 divines regarded this innovation not as a further development 
 of the doctrine in question, but apostacy into Nestorianism, 
 and accordingly carried its condemnation. — About the same 
 time the doctrine of the procession of the Holy Spirit became 
 the subject of discussion, when the Frankish Church defended 
 orthodox truth against the objections of Eastern theologians. — 
 Several controversies took place during the reign of Charles the 
 Bald. In the Eucharistie Controversy, the principal Frankish 
 divines opposed the views of Radbertus about transubstantiation. 
 Connected with this was another discussion about i\\e p)arturition 
 of the Virgin. On neither of these questions did the Church 
 give any formal or synodical deliverance. ' It was otherwise in 
 reference to the controversy about predestination, which soon 
 afterwards broke out. Although discussed in councils, the 
 question was not finally settled. Of less importance was the 
 controversy about the appropriateness of the expression " irina 
 Deitas.^' 
 
 1. The Adoptionist Controversy (785-818). — Of all the doctrines of 
 Christianity, none was so repugnant to Moslem feelings, or excited 
 their ridicule more than that of the Divine Sunship of Christ. It was 
 probably with the view of meeting these Moslem objections that a num- 
 ber of Spanish bishops, headed by Elipandtis, Archbishop of Toledo, 
 and Felix, Bishop of TJrgellis, addressed themselves anew to the eluci- 
 dation of the doctrine concerning the person of Christ. These divines 
 held that Christ was properly the Son of God [flius Dei natura or 
 genere) only in reference to His divinity ; in reference to His humanity 
 He was properly a servant of God, as all of us, and only adopted as Son 
 {flius Dei adoptivus) by the determination of God, just as all of us are 
 by Him, and after His similitude to be transformed from servants to 
 children of God. Hence, according to His Divine nature, He was the 
 onhY-beyojten, according to His human nature the TiKST-begotien Son of 
 God. This adoption of His human nature into Sonship had commenced 
 at His conception by the Holy Ghost, appeared more fully at His bap- 
 tism, and had been completed at the resurrection. The controversy 
 »ccasioned by these views first broke out in Spain. Two representatives 
 of the Esturian clergy (^ 81), Beatus, a presbvter of Libana, and Eihe^
 
 DOCTRINE AND DOGMATIC CONTROVERSIES. 36S 
 
 ••ius, Bishop of Osma, attacked the views of Elipandus both by word 
 and writing (785). The doctrinal divergence between these divines 
 probably received a keener edge by the desire of emancipating the 
 Esturian Church from the See of Toledo, which was still subject to 
 Saracen rule. The Esturians appealed to Pope Hadrian I., who, in an 
 encyclical addressed to the bishops of Spain, condemned Adoptionism 
 as essentially akin to the Nestorian heresy (786). Another stage of 
 this controversy commenced with the interference of Charlemagne, 
 occasioned by the circumstance that Adoptionism was rapidly spread- 
 ing in the portion of Spain subject to his sceptre. Most probably he 
 gladly seized this opportunity of coming before the West in the char- 
 acter of Protector of Orthodoxy, and hence as Emperor in spe. At the 
 Synod of Ratishon in 792, Felix was obliged to abjure his heresy, and 
 was sent to Pope Hadrian I. In Rome he was made to repeat his 
 recantation ; but escaped from captivity and gained Saracen territory. 
 Meantime Alcuin had returned from his journey to England, and im- 
 mediately took part in the controversy by addressing to Felix a kind, 
 monitory letter. To this the Spaniards replied in strong language, 
 when Charlemagne convoked the celebrated Synod of Frankfort (794), 
 at which Adoptionism was again fully discussed and condemned. The 
 judgment of the Synod was accompanied by four detailed memorials 
 (to represent the diiferent national churches and authorities — in order 
 to give it an oecumenical character). Although dispatched with such 
 formalities to Spain, it produced little impression. No greater was the 
 success of a learned controversial work by Alcuin, to which Felix 
 replied in a clever tractate. Meantime Charlemagne had sent a com- 
 mission, with Leidrad of Lyons and Benedict of Aniane at its head, 
 into Spain, in order to put an end to the spread of this heresy. The 
 commissioners persuaded Felix to submit to a second investigation. At 
 tlie great council held at Aix-la-Chapelle in 799 he disputed for six days 
 with Alcuin, and at the close declared himself perfectly convinced. 
 Alcuin and Paulinus of Aquileja now pujalished controversial tractates 
 on the subject; and Leidrad went a second time into Spain, where he 
 succeeded, in almost extirpating the heresy from the Frankish provinces. 
 But the bishops who were subject to Saracen rule continued to defend 
 these opinions ; and when Alcuin addressed a flattering and conciliatory 
 letter to Elipandus, the latter replied in the most violent and coarse 
 language. Felix was, till his death in 818, committed to the charge of 
 the Bishop of Lyons. Agohard, the successor of Leidrad, found among 
 his papers clear evidence that Felix had to the end continued in heart 
 an adoptionist. Agobard now published another controversial tractate, 
 which happily proved the last written on the subject. In Spain Pro- 
 per, also, Adoptionism became extinct, with the death of its leading 
 representatives. 
 
 2. Controllers)/ about the Procession of the Holy Ghost. — At the Synod 
 of Gentilly in 767, held for the purpose of meeting a Byzantine em-
 
 364 SECTION II. FIRST PERIOD (C E N T . 4— 9 A. D.). 
 
 bassy in connection with the iconoclastic controversy, the question ol 
 the enlargement of the Creed by the addition of the expression ''fili- 
 oque" (^ 50, 6; 67, 1) was also discussed. The result of this conference 
 is not known. At the time of Charlemagne, Alcuin and Theodulf 
 wrote special tractates in defence of the Latin view. At the Synod 
 held in Friaul in 791, Paidinus of Aquileia vindicated the insertion of 
 the expression in the Creed — a view also defended by the Caroline 
 books (I 92). The question was discussed anew, when the Latin monks 
 on Mount Olivet appealed to the practice of the Frankish Church in 
 reply to the attacks of the Greeks. Fojje Leo III. communicated on the 
 subject with Charlemagne, and a Council held at Aix-la-Chapelle, in 
 809, gave its solemn sanction to the addition. But although the Pope 
 did not question the correctness of this tenet, he disapproved of the 
 alteration of the Creed. Accordingly, he erected in the Church of St. 
 Peter two silver tablets, on which the Creed was engraved without the 
 addition — manifestly as a kind of protest against the ecclesiastical 
 interferences of the Emperor. 
 
 3. Controversies of Paschasius Radbertus. — I. Eucharistic Contro- 
 versy (844). — (Cf. Ebrard u. Kahnis, | 33.—^. W. Dieckhof die 
 Abendmahlsl. im Reformationszeit. Göttg. 1854. Bd. I. — L. J. Riickert, 
 d. Abendmahlstreit im M. A., in Hilgenfeld's Ztschr. für wschl. Theol. 
 1858, I., II.) — So late as the ninth century the views of theologians 
 concerning the Eucharist were expressed in ambiguous terms (? 58, 2). 
 But in 831, Paschasius Radbertus, a monk of Corbey, wrote a treatise, 
 " De sanguine et corpore Domini," for the purpose of proving that the 
 elements were completely changed — an opinion which, even before his 
 t^ ', had been current in ecclesiastical practice and in popular belief. 
 The work of Radbertus breathes a spirit of genuine piety ; manifestly, 
 it was his chief aim to present the deep import of this sacrament in all 
 its fulness, power, and depth. Withal, the treatise was popularly 
 written. Already the author could, in the course of his argumentation, 
 appeal to a number of supposed facts in the "Vitis Sanctorum," in 
 which this internal Veritas had also become outwardly manifest. For 
 the circumstance that such was not always the case, he accounted on 
 the ground that the Eucharist was intended to be amysterium for faith, 
 and not a miracidmn for unbelief; as also, on that of the Divine con- 
 descension, which had regard to the infirmity of man and his shrinking 
 from flesh and blood, and which, besides, would cut off all occasion for 
 the heathen to blaspheme. The treatise at first remained unnoticed. 
 But when Radbertus became Abbot of Corboy, he recast and handed it 
 to Charles the Bald in 844. This monarch commissioned Ratramnus, 
 a learned monk of Corbey, to express his opinion on the question ; and 
 the latter gladly seized the opportunity of controverting the statements 
 of his abbot. In his tractate "De corp. et sang. Domini ad Carolum 
 Calvum," Ratramnus submitted the views of his abbot (without naming 
 him) to a searching criticism, and then explained his own opinions,
 
 DOCTRINE AND DOGMATIC CONTROVERSIES, 365 
 
 according to which the bodyand blood of Christ was present in the 
 Euchai-ist only " spiritaaliter et secundum potentiam." In the same 
 sense, Jfabanu.i Manrus, Scotiis Erigena, and Floriis of Lyons wrote 
 against Radbertus' view of a magic transformation. Hincmar and 
 Haymo took the side of Radbertus ; while Walafrid Sfrabo, and that 
 able interpreter of Scripture Christian Druthmar, sought to avoid either 
 extreme, and propounded the doctrine of impanationor consubstantial- 
 ity, as adequately expressing the import of this mystery. But Rad- 
 bertus had only given publicity to what really were the tendencies of 
 the Church generally; and the opposition of so many great divines 
 could only retard, but not prevent, the spread and prevalence of these 
 views. — II. Controversy about the Parturition of the Virgin (845). 
 In entire accordance with his fundamental views about the marvellous 
 influences of the Divine power and presence, Radbertus soon afterwards 
 composed a tractate, "De partu virginali," for the purpose of defending 
 the view that the Virgin had given birth " utero clauso," and without 
 pain — an opinion which Aml>rose and Jerome had already broached. 
 Ratramaus opposed this tenet as savouring of Docetism (De eo, quod 
 Christus ex Virgine natus est). — In the controversy about predestina- 
 tion, Ratramnus took the side of Gottschalk, and Radbertus that of his 
 opponents. 
 
 4. Controversy about Predestination (847-868). — (Cf. G. Maugnin 
 (Jansenist), Vett. auctorum, qui in seculo IX. de prajdest. scripserunt 
 opera et fragmenta. Par. 1050, 2 volls. with a hist. diss. Against him: 
 L. Cellot (Jesuit), hist. Gottschalkii. Par. 1655. — Jac. TJsserii Gottes- 
 chalkii et controv. ab eo motte hist. Dubl. 1631, 4to.) — The former dis- 
 cussions on this subject (§ 53, 5) had not issued in the final settlement 
 of the question. Indeed, the views of theologians varied from the 
 extreme of semi-Pelagianism to that of a predestination to condemna- 
 tion, which went even beyond the statements of Augustine. In the 
 ninth century the controversy broke out afresh. Gottschalk, the son 
 of Berno, a Saxon count, had as a child been devoted by his parents to 
 the monastic profession, and trained at Fulda. At a synod held in 
 Mayence (829), he obtained permission to leave that monastery; but 
 Rabanus Maurus, at the time Abbot of Fulda, prevailed on Louis the 
 Pious to annul this dispensation. Translated to the monastery of 
 Orbais in the diocese of Soissons, Gottschalk sought consolation in 
 ardent study of the writings of Augustine, from which he rose an en- 
 thusiastic advocate of the doctrine of absolute predestination. In one 
 point he went even beyond his great teacher, since he held a twofold 
 predestination (gemina pra?destinatio) — one to salvation, and the other 
 to condemnation ; whilst Augustine generally spoke of the latter only 
 as God leaving sinners to deserved condemnation. While travelling in 
 Italy in 847, he sought to gain adherents to his views. Among others, 
 he addressed himself to Noting, Bishop of Verona. This prelate gave 
 information to Rabanus, who in the meantime had be(m elevated to the 
 31 *
 
 366 SECTION II. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 4—9 A.D.). 
 
 See of Mayence. Rabanus immediately issued two thundering epistlea, 
 in which the views of Gottschalk were in some particulars misrepre- 
 sented, and certain unjust inferences drawn from them, more especially 
 in the way of transforming the " praedestinatio ad damnationem" into 
 a " prgedcstinatio ad peccatum." Rabanus himself distinguished be- 
 tween foreknowledge and predestination, ranging under the former 
 head the condemnation of the reprobate. But other weapons than 
 those of discussion were employed. A synod was convoked at Mayence 
 (848), before which Gottschalk appeared, strong in the conviction of 
 the orthodoxy of his statements. But the council took a different view 
 Gottschalk was excommunicated, and handed over to his metropolitan, 
 Hincmar of Rheims, for punishment. This prelate, not content with 
 the spiritual sentence which tJie Synod' of Chiersy pronounced against 
 him (849), condemned him to the most severe bodily chastisement, 
 since he refused to recant, and consigned him to a prison in the mon- 
 astery of Haut Villiers. In vain Gottschalk proposed to submit the 
 justice of his cause to a solemn ordeal. Hincmar, though otherwise 
 favourable to these trials, retorted by characterizing this offer as the 
 boast of a Simon Magus. — The inhuman treatment of which the poor 
 monk had been the victim, and the rejection of the doctrine of Augus- 
 tine by two influential prelates, excited an angry controversy in the 
 Prankish Church, of which the weight was chiefly directed against 
 Hincmar. Prudentius, Bishop of Troyes, was the first to publish a 
 tractate in favour of Gottschalk. Upon this Charles the Bald requested 
 Ratramnus of Corbey, and Servatus Lupus, Abbot of Ferri feres, to 
 express their judgment on the question, which in both cases was in 
 favour of Gottschalk. The position of Hincmar was becoming very 
 difficult, when at last he succeeded in enlisting the advocacy of Florus, 
 a deacon of Lyons, oi Amalarius, a priest of Metz, and oi John Scoius 
 Erigena. But the aid of Erigena was fraught with almost greater 
 danger to Hincmar than the attacks of his opponents. The Scotch 
 metaphysician founded his opposition to the doctrine of predestination 
 on the principle, hitherto unheard of in the West, that evil was only a 
 (jLri Of. Accordingly, he argued that condemnation was not a positive 
 punishment on the part of God, and only consisted in the tormenting 
 consciousness of having missed one's destiny. The cause of Hincmar 
 was fast getting into disrepute, as his opponents made him responsible 
 for the heresies of his Scottish friend. Not Prudentius of Troyes only, 
 who had long been his literary antagonist, but even Wenilo, Archbishop 
 of Sens, and Florus of Lyons, who hitherto had espoused his cause, 
 now turned their weapons against him. But Charles the Bald came to 
 the aid of his metropolitan. A national synod was convoked at Chiersy 
 in 853, when four articles {Capitida Carisiaca), embodying a moderate 
 form of Augustinianism, Avere adopted, and the doctrine of a twofold 
 predestination formally rejected. Tims the opponents of Hincmar in 
 Neustria were silenced. But Remigiiis, Archbishop of Lyons, convoked
 
 REFORMATORY MOVEMENTS. 367 
 
 a Lotharincfian Synod at Valence in 855, in which both the decrees of 
 Chiersy and the "Scottish mess" (pultes Scotorum) were stigmatized, 
 and six articles of a very different tone adopted, as the test of ortho- 
 doxy. At last the secular rulers interposed, and convoked a general 
 synod at Savonnihres, a suburb of Toul, in 859. But here also the dis- 
 putants could not arrive at an agreement. -Already the members were 
 about to separate in mutual estrangement, when Remigms proposed to 
 leave the settlement of the controversy to a future council in less trou- 
 bled times, and till then to continue in harmony. The Synod unani- 
 mously adopted this suggestion ; and as the proposed council never 
 took place, the controversy completely terminated. Abandoned by hia 
 former friends, Gottschalk now appealed to Pope Nicholas I., who 
 ordered Ilincmar to defend himself for his conduct towards the monk 
 before Papal legates at the Synod of Metz in 8G3 (| 82, 4). Hincmar 
 deemed it prudent not to obey the citation. Happily for him, the Pope 
 himself afterwards annulled the decrees of this sjmod on account of 
 the venality of his legates, and the metropolitan soon afterwards suc- 
 ceeded in appeasing the Pope by intercessions and letters. Thus 
 Gottschalk was deprived of his last hope. Twenty years had he lin- 
 gered in prison, but to his latest breath he rejected with indignation 
 every proposal of recantation. He died in 868, and by order of Hinc- 
 mar was interred in unconsecrated earth. — From his prison he had 
 charged his metropolitan with another heresy. In the hymn, " Te 
 Trina Deltas Unaque," Ilincmar had substituted the expression " Sancta 
 Deltas" for "Trina Deitas." On this ground his opponents accused 
 him of Sabollianism, a charge which Ratramnus embodied in a contro- 
 versial tractate. But the reply of Hincmar put an end to this agita- 
 tion (857). 
 
 ^92. REFORMATORY MOA^EMENTS. 
 
 The independence which Charlemagne restored to the German 
 Church seems to have awakened in the divines of Germany a 
 feeling that they were destined to become the reformers of pre- 
 vailing abuses. This tendency, though limited, one-sided, and 
 frequently liable to aberrations, manifested itself more or less 
 throughout the Middle Ages, until it reached its maturity and 
 perfection in the sixteenth century. The series of reformers 
 commenced with Charlemagne himself, who vigorously opposed 
 the image-worship of that time. Louis the Pious continued in 
 the path of his father, and allowed Agobard of Lyons and Clau- 
 dius of Turin to combat kindred forms of ecclesiastical super- 
 stition — in the case of the latter divine, perhaps, even beyono 
 the bounds of evangelical prudence.
 
 368 SECTION II. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 4—9 A.D.). 
 
 1. Opposition oj the Carlovingians to Image-Worsliip (790-825). — On 
 occasion of an embassy from the Emperor Constantinus Copronymus (g 66, 
 2), Pepin the Short had convoked in 767 a synod at Gentilly {^91,2), 
 where the question of image-worship was also discussed. But we are 
 left in ignorance of all beyond this fact, as the acts of the synod hav 
 been lost. Twenty years later Pope Hadrian I. sent to Charlemagne 
 the acts of the Seventh (Ecumenical Council of Nice (| 66, 3). In his 
 character of emperor-expectant, Charlemagne felt deeply aggrieved at 
 the presumption of the Greeks, who, without consulting the German 
 Church, had ventured to enact laws which were in direct opposition to 
 the practice of the Frankish Church. He replied by issuing in his own 
 name the so-called Lihn Cai-olini (best ed. by Heumarui, Han. 1731). 
 In this work the attempts of the Eastern prelates are sharply met, and 
 the acts of the Synod refuted seriatim. Although Charlemagne dis- 
 avowed the views of the iconoclasts, and admitted the utility of religious 
 images for exciting devotional feelings, for instructing the people, or 
 as suitable decorations in churches — with special reference to the views 
 of Gregory the Great (| 59, 3) — he reprobated every species of image- 
 worship as a kind of idolatry. On the other hand, the Libri Carolin! 
 expressed approbation of the reverence paid to saints, to relics, and to 
 the crucifix. Charlemagne sent this significant treatise, which in all 
 probability was composed hj Alcuin, to the Pope, who rejoined, although 
 in the most guarded language. But this reply made no impression on 
 the Frankish monarch. Nay, the authority of a great general council 
 of all the Germanic churches was to be opposed to that of the Council 
 of the Byzantine Court. During his sojourn in England (790-792), 
 Alcuin secured for this purpose the co-operation of the Anglo-Saxon 
 Church. The Synod met at Frankfort in 794, and solemnly confirmed 
 the principles of the " Libri Carolini." The Pope deemed it prudent 
 to leave this controversy to the operation of time and popular feeling. — ■ 
 Under the reign of Lotus the Pious the question was again discussed, 
 on occasion of an embassy from the iconoclastic emperor, Michael Bal- 
 bus. At a national synod held at Paris (825), the conduct of Hadrian I. 
 was reprehendcil, the practice of image-worship reprobated, and the 
 principles of tl ■■ "Libri Carolin!" once more confirmed. Pojie Eu- 
 gene II. made n«i roply. This rejection of the Second Nicene Council 
 and opposition to image-worship continued in the Frankish Empire till 
 the tenth century. 
 
 2. Soon after the Council of Paris, Agohard of Lyons (§ 90, 4) pub- 
 lished a tractate : Contra superstitionem eorum, qui picturis et imagi- 
 Dibus Sanctorum adorationis obsequium deferendum putant. But the 
 prelate went much further than the Libri Carolin!, He proposed 
 entirely to remove all images from churches, as the practice would 
 •nevitably lead to abuses. Besides, he also rejected the idea of paying 
 homage to saints, relics, or angels. Our confidence was to be placed 
 only in Almighty God, whom alone we were to worsliip through JesuH
 
 E E F R M A T R Y >I V K M E N T S . 369 
 
 Christ, the sole Mediator. At the same time, he wished to int: educe 
 certain reforms in the Liturgy (^ 90. 8). He also opposed those por- 
 tions of the public services which were merely designed to affect the 
 senses, and would have banished the use of all non-inspired hymns. 
 On the other hand, he insisted on the necessity of diligent study of the 
 Bible, and condemned all appeals to ordeals (^ 88, 4), and all the popu- 
 lar superstitions about witchcraft, and supernatural means for securing 
 favourable weather (Contra insulsam vulgi opinionem de graudine et 
 tonitruis) ; as also the belief, that diseases and other plagues might be 
 averted by donations to churches. On the subject of inspiration his 
 views were somewhat loose (^ 90, 6). Still nobody thouglit of charging 
 him with heresy. — Claudius, Bi-ihop of Turin (^ 90, 4), went even 
 beyond Agobard. From the writings of Augustine that prelate had 
 derived views, more deep and full than any of his cotempuraries, of the 
 blessed truth, that man is justified without any works of his own, only 
 through the mercy of God in Christ. Louis the Pious had elevated him 
 to the See of Turin for the express purpose of opposing image-worship 
 in Italy, the great stronghold of this superstition. In his diocese the 
 veneration paid to images, relics, and crucifixes had been carried to 
 fearful excess. These abuses seemed to call for stringent measures. 
 Accordingly, Claudius ordered all images and crucifixes to be flung out 
 of the churches. Popular tumults ensued in consequence, and only 
 fear of the Frankish arms could have preserved the life or protected 
 the office of the bold prelate. When Pope Paschal expostulated with 
 him on the subject, he replied, that he would only recognize his apos- 
 tolic dignity so long as he did the works of an apostle ; if otherwise. 
 Matt, xxiii. 2, 3, applied to him. Claudius expounded his views in 
 some exegetical tractates. In answer to Theodimir, Abbot of Psalmody, 
 the Bishop of Turin wrote, in 825, a work entitled " Apologeticus," 
 which is only known from the rejoinder of Theodimir. A Scotchman, 
 Dungal, teacher at Pavia, also wrote against him, and accused him 
 before the Emperor. Upon this Jonas, Bishop of Orleans, was com- 
 missioned to refute the Apologeticus. The work (de Cultu Imaginum 
 LI. III.), which appeared only after the death of Claudius, emtodiea 
 the principles of the Frankish Church on the subject of image-woiship.
 
 SECOND PERIOD 
 
 ir 
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY 
 
 IN ITS MEDIEVAL AND GERMANIC FORM OP DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 FROM THE TENTH TO THE THIRTEENTH CENT. 
 
 I. SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 I 93. MISSIONARY OPERATIONS DURING THAT PERIOD. 
 
 The christianization of the continent of Europe was almost 
 completed during this period, that of Lapland and Lithuania 
 alone being reserved for the following. Both the mode and 
 results of missionary operations continued as before. The 
 labours of the heralds of the Cross were supported by armed 
 force ; monasteries and fortresses became the bases for the spread 
 of Christianity ; political motives and marriages with Christian 
 princesses generally effected the conversion of heathen rulers ; 
 and the peoples were either obliged to follow the example of 
 their sovereigns, or submitted in silent resignation ; while, under 
 the cover of Christianity, many heathen superstitions continued 
 to exist. It was the policy of the German emperors to place 
 the newly-converted races under the spiritual supremacy of the 
 Metropolitan of Germang. Thus Hambiirg and Bremen was 
 made the see for Scandinavia and the Baltic Provinces, Magde- 
 burg that for Poland and the adjoining countries, Mayence for 
 Bohemia, Pansau and Salsburg for Hungary. But the Papacy 
 uniformly opposed such attempts of the German clergy and 
 rulers. Each of these countries was to have its independent 
 metropolitan, and thus to occupy a place of equality in the 
 great family of Christian states, of which the See of Rome waa 
 
 (370)
 
 MISSIONARY OPERATION». 371 
 
 to be the spiritual head (■§ 83"). — The Western Church repeatedly 
 commenced missionary operations among the Mongols of Asia 
 and the Saracens of Africa, but without leading to any lasting 
 results. 
 
 1. The Scandinavian Mi.-^sixm. — (Comp. Fr. Munter, K. G. v. Däne- 
 mark u. Norweg., I. Lpz. 1823. — K. Maiirer, ä. Bekehr, d. Norweg. 
 Stanimps. 2 Bde. Munch. 1856. — F. C. Dahlmann, Gesch. v. DUnem. I. 
 Ilanib. 1840.— C. G. Geijer, Gesch. Schwed. I. Hamb. 1832. — Main 
 Source: Adam i\ Bremen, Gesta Hamb. eccl. Pontiff.) — The labours of 
 An.s-gar and Rimhert (? 80) extended only to the border provinces of Jut- 
 land and some places of traflBc in Sweden ; and the churches even there 
 established had virtually died out. A revival of the mission was not 
 to be thought of, in the face of the predatory incursions of the 
 Normans, or Vikinger (Wikingar^ warrior), who were the terror of 
 the entire European coast, during the ninth and tenth centuries. But 
 their incursions opened the way, in other respects, for the neW intro- 
 duction of Christianity in those countries. Many of the returning 
 Vikinger had embraced Christianity abroad, and thus carried the 
 knowledge of it back to their homes. In France Norwegian Normans 
 founded (912) Normandy, under RoUo's guidance ; in England, in the 
 tenth century, the northern half of the country fell into the hands of 
 the Danish Normans, and ultimately King Sven of Denmark con- 
 quered (1013) the whole country. In both countries the invaders 
 embraced Christianity, and in virtue of the intimacy kept up with 
 their native countries, participated in the work of their conversion. — 
 In Denmark Gorm the Aged, the founder of the Danish monarchy, 
 showed violent hostility to Christianity. lie destroyed all the Christian 
 institutions of the country, drove away all the priests, and devastated 
 the neighbouring German coasts. Finally the German king Henry I. 
 went on an expedition against the Danes, made them tributary, and 
 exacted toleration of the Christian faith (934). At once Archbishop 
 Unni of Bremen resumed the work of missions. With a large part 
 of his clergy he went into the Danish territory, restored the churches 
 of Jutland, and died in Sweden (936). Gorm's son, Harold Blaatand 
 (Blue-tooth), was baptized after having concluded a peace with Otho I. 
 in 972. But his son, Sven Gabelbart, although likewise baptized, 
 became leader of a heathen reactionary party. Harold fell in battle 
 against him (986), and Sven madly persecuted the Christians. In 
 988, however, Erich of S^reden, ahso a heathen and foe of Christianity, 
 drove out Sven, and by the advice of a German embassy, tolerated 
 Christianity. After Erich's death Sven returned (90S). Converted 
 during his exile, he now furthered Christianity as zealously as he had 
 opposed it. In 1013 he conquered all England and died there in 1014. 
 His son, Canvte the Mighty (ob. 1036), united the two kingdoms undei 
 his sceptre, and made great efforts to reconcile both nations in a con>-
 
 372 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 10—13 A.D). 
 
 mon Christian faith, and thus form a bond of union between them. 
 The German mission of Bremen, urged by him, now actively co-operated 
 with an English mission. In 1026 he made a pilgrimage to Rome, 
 and effected an intimate connection of the Danish Church with the 
 ecclesiastical centre of the Western Church ; a movement which waa 
 probably based on far-seeing political considerations. Thenceforth 
 Denmark appears as a completely Christianized country. — (Main 
 Source, next to Adam of Bremen : Saxo Grammaticus, oh. 1204, Hist. 
 Danica.) — In Sweden also. Archbishop Unni of Bremen reopened the 
 work of missions, and died there in 936. From that time the German 
 mission continued uninterruptedly active. But little was effected, 
 however, until English missionaries went, early in the eleventh century, 
 from Norway, with Sigurd (Sigfried) at their head, and baptized King 
 Olaf Skmifkonung (Lap-king, ob. 1024). Olaf and his followers did all 
 they could to promote the mission, which was very successful in Goth- 
 land, also; whilst in Swealand (with the heathen temple at TJpsala), 
 heatheoism still prevailed. King Inge, having refused to relapse from 
 Christianity, was, 1080, driven with stones from a popular assemblage 
 at TJpsala. His brother-in-law. Blot Sven, headed the heathen reaction, 
 and excited a violent persecution against Christians. After reigning 
 three years he was killed, and Inge restored Christianity, which, how- 
 ever, first became predominant in Upper Sweden, under *S/. Erich 
 [ob. 1160). — (Sources: Adam v. Br. ; Saxo Gramm.) — Norway had early 
 obtained a knowledge of Christianity through the romantic adventures 
 of its seafaring youth, through captives, and by intercourse with 
 Norman colonies in England and Normandy. The first Christian king 
 of Norway was Haco the Good (934—61) who had been trained a Chris- 
 tian at the English court. After gaining the affections of his people 
 by his admirable government, he ventured to request them legally to 
 adopt Christianity. The people, however, compelled him to participate 
 in heathen sacrifices ; and when he made the sign of the cross over 
 the sacrificial bowl before he drank it, he barely escaped violence by 
 an evasive reference of the act to Thor's mark. He could never forgive 
 himself for this weakness, and died broken-hearted, not even deeming 
 himself worthy of a Christian burial. Olaf Try ggimson (995-1000), 
 at first the ideal of a Northern Viking, then of a Northern king, was 
 baptized during his last invasion of England, and bent all the energies 
 of his character to the forcible introduction of Christianity. Not even 
 a stranger left Norway without being persuaded or compelled by him 
 to be baptized. Those who resisted were imprisoned or put to death. 
 He fell in a battle against the Danes. His example was followed by 
 Olaf Haroldson (the Fat, afterwards Saint; 1014-30). Without pos- 
 sessing the amiability and noble-heartedness of his predecessor, but 
 pursuing his ecclesiastical and political schemes more arbitrarily and 
 cruelly, he soon lost the regard of his subjects. His enraged chief- 
 tains conspired with Canute the Dane; the whole country rose against
 
 MISSIONART OPERATIONS. 37S 
 
 him ; he fell in battle, and Norway became a Danish province. But 
 the hard Danish yoke soon changed the popular sentiments regai ling 
 Olaf, who now came to be considered a martyr of national freedom and 
 independence. Countless miracles were wrought by his relics, and in 
 1031 he was unanimouslj' proclaimed a national saint. Enthusiasm 
 in his worship daily increased, and with it enthusiasm for the libera- 
 tion of their country. Borne onward by this mighty agitation, Olafs 
 eon, Magnus the Good, expelled the Danes (1035). But although the 
 elevation of Olaf to saintship at first led to purely political results, it 
 was the means of stamping the country forever with the seal of Chris- 
 tianity (Source: Snorrs Sturleson 06. 1241 Heimskringla oder norw. 
 Kouigssagen). On the North-Western group of islands, the Hebrides, 
 Orkneys, Sketland, and Faroe islands, the sparse Christian Celtic 
 population was driven out in the ninth century by the immigration of 
 heathen Norwegian Vikinger, among whom Christianity was first 
 introduced by the two Norwegian Olafs. — The first mission to Ice- 
 land was conducted by the Icelander Thorwald, who, baptized in 
 Saxony by a bishop (?) Frederick, took him to Iceland to assist there 
 in the conversion of the heathen natives. After nearly five years' 
 labour a number were converted, but the Thing (national diet) con- 
 demned the movement, and the missionaries left the island (985). 
 OlaJ' Tnjggvason did not readily allow an Icelander visiting Norway 
 to return without being baptized, and twice sent expeditions thither 
 to convert the natives. The first, under Stefair, a native Icelander, 
 accomplished but little (996) ; the second, under Olafs court chaplain, 
 Dankhrand (a Saxon who was both priest and warrior, efi"ecting with 
 his sword what his preaching failed to accomplish), converted many 
 of the most powerful chieftains. A civil war threatened to ruin every- 
 thing, but was averted by a timely compromise, in accordance with 
 which all the natives were baptized. Christian worship only publicly 
 performed, whilst secretly idolatry, infanticide, and the eating of 
 horseflesh was tolerated (1000). Subsequently an embassy of the 
 Norwegian king, Olaf Haraldson, had these relics of heathenism 
 expunged from their laws. — Greenland also, which had been dis- 
 covered by an outlawed Icelander, Eric the Red, and soon after 
 colonized (985), owes its Christianity to King Olaf Tryggvason, 
 who sent thither (1000) a son of Eric, Leif the Lucky, with an expe- 
 dition for its conversion. The people did not objectto being baptized.'^ 
 This same Leif discovered on his voyage a rich fertile country, which 
 he called Vinland, from the wild grapes found there ; it. was subse- 
 quently colonized by Icelandei's. In the twelfth century yet, a Green- 
 land bishop, Eric, went thither to confirm the inhabitants in the faith. 
 It doubtless lay on the east coast of North America, and is prolably 
 identical with Massachusetts and Rhode Island. — (Main Source: 
 Snorrs Sturleson.) 
 2. The Slavonian Magyar Mission — (Comp. /. Palacky, Gesch. v. 
 32
 
 374 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (c E N T. 10— 13 A. D.J. 
 
 Böhmen. I. Prag. 1836.— C. G. v. Friese, K. G. d. Konigr. Polen. I. Bresi 
 1786.— i?. Roepell, Gesch. Polens. Hamb. 1840. 1.— J. v. Mailath, Gesch, 
 d. Magyaren, I.Wien 1828. 2 Ausg. Regensb. 1852. — L. Giesehrecht. 
 wendische Gesch. 3 Bde. Berl. 1843. — E. W. Spieker, K. u. Ref. Gesch, 
 d. Mark Brandenb. I. l%2>9. — Jul.Wiggers, K. G. Mecklenb. Parchim. 
 1840. — P. F. Kannegicsser, Bekehrungsgesch. d. Pommern. Greifsw. 
 1824. — i^. W. Barthhold, Gesch. v. Rügen u. Pommern. 2 Bde. Hamb. 
 1839. — F. L. Dilmmler, Piligrim v. Passau Lpz. 1854. — F. C. Kruse, 
 St, Vicelin. Altona 1826. (/. /. Sell) Otto v. Bamberg. Stettin 1792. — 
 C. F. Btisch, Memoria Ottonis ep. Bamb. Jen. 1824.) — The Gospel had 
 been introduced into Bohemia during the preceding period (| 79, 2). 
 After the death of Vratislav, Drahomira, his widow, a heathen, seized 
 the reins of government in name of Boleslav, her younger son. The 
 attempt of Ludmilla, with the aid of certain priests and Germans, to 
 elevate to the throne St.Wenceslav, the elder son, whom she had edu- 
 cated, was frustrated. Ludmilla was killed by order of Drahomira 
 (927), and Wenccslav fell by the hand of his brother. Boleslav at 
 first attempted to exterminate Christianity from his dominions, but 
 was obliged to relax his former severity after his defeat by Otho I. in 
 950. His son, Boleslav II., established Christianity in the country, 
 and founded the archiepiscopal see of Prague. The Pope gave his 
 consent to the erection of this see, on condition that the Romish Liturgy 
 should be introduced (973). — From Bohemia the Gospel spread tc 
 Poland, Duke Miecislav was induced by Dambro.vka, his wife, a 
 Bohemian princess (daughter of Boleslav I.), to adopt the Christian 
 religion (966). His subjects followed his example, and the See of 
 Posen was founded. The Church secured a firmer footing under his 
 son, the powerful Boleslav Chrohiij (992-1025), who, with the appro- 
 bation of Otto III., emancipated the Polish Church from allegiance to 
 the Magdeburg See, and founded an archiepiscopal see at Gnesen 
 (1000). He also freed Poland from fealty to the German empire, and 
 let himself be crowned shortly before his death (1025). Five years of 
 anarchy, which threatened to destroy Christianity in the land, were 
 brought to an end by his grandson Casimir (1039). Casimir's grand- 
 son, Boleslav II., murdered Bishop Stanislatis of Cracow (1079), who 
 had put him under the ban, and thus furnished Poland with a saint. — 
 (Main Source: Thietmar's v. Merseb. (ob. 1018) Chronik, and Martini 
 Galli (c. 1130) Chronic. Polon.) — The Gospel was first carried to 
 Hungary from Constantinople, where Gylas, a Hungarian prince, was 
 baptized in 950. He returned home with Hierotheus, a monk who had 
 been consecrated Bishop of Hungary ; but this connection with the 
 Greek Church was only temporary. After Henry I. routed the Hun- 
 garians (933) at Keuschberg, and still more after they had been 
 enfeebled by the defeat inflicted on them by Otto I. in 955, German 
 influence became predominant there. The indefatigable missionary 
 eeal of Bishop Piligrim of Passau, and the immigration of m-^n^
 
 MISSIONARY OPERATIONS. 371 
 
 foteigneri, especially Germans, soon secured for Christianity a com- 
 plete ascendancy over heathenism. This end was also favoured by 
 Duke Geisa (972-97), and his resolute, energetic wife, Sarolta, a 
 daughter of the above-named Gylas. The work was perfected by 
 Geisa's son, St. Stephen (997-1038), who was baptized at his marriage 
 with Gipela, sister of the subsequent Emp. Henry II., suppressed a 
 heathen insurrection, and gave the country a constitution and laws. 
 He also founded the archiepiscopate of Gran, with ten suffragan 
 bishops, put on his head the crown (1000) which had been solicited 
 from Pope Sylvester II., and made Hungary a powerful member of 
 the national confederacy of Christian Europe. Under his successors, 
 heathenism twice made menacing insurrections, but was soon put 
 down. Its last remains were annihilated by St. Ladislaus (1077-95). 
 — (Chief Source: Thietmar.) 
 
 Among the numerous tribes of Wends, in N. and N. E. Germany, 
 the most prominent were the Ohotrites, (in modern Holstein and 
 Mecklenburg), the Luticians or Wilzens, (between the Elbe and Oder), 
 the Pomeranians, (from the Oder to the Weichsel), and the Serbiann 
 or Sorbens, (southward in Saxony and Lusatia), Henry I. (919-36), 
 and his son Otho I. (936-73), subjected them to German rule, and Otho 
 founded, besides, several bishoprics, the archbishopric o{ Magdeburg (968). 
 The loss of their national liberty, as well as the pride and tyranny of 
 the German Margraves, rendered Christianity exceedingly odious to the 
 Wends, so that it could not be firmly established among them until 
 their freedom and nationality had been wholly eradicated, and the 
 Slavic population had been merged in the predominent German element. 
 An insurrection of the Obotrites, under Mistevoi (983), who hoped with 
 one blow to get rid of the German yoke and Christianity, overthrew all 
 Christian institutions. His grandson GotfschaUc was reared in a German 
 monastery, but enraged by the mui-der of his father, Udo (1032), fled 
 from the monastery, renounced Christianity, and excited a fearful per- 
 secution against Christians and Germans. This revengeful madness, 
 however, was soon followed by repentance. The Germans captured 
 him ; on being set free, he went to Denmark, but soon returned and 
 founded a great Wend empire which extended from the North sea to 
 the Oder (1045). He then bent all his energy, with glowing zeal, to 
 the establishment of the Church in his empire upon a national basis, 
 Adalbert of Bremen furnishing him with missionaries. He himself 
 became in a great measure their interpreter and expounder. The suc- 
 cess was lirilliant, but the national sentiment of the Wends hated him 
 as a friend of the Saxons and the Church. He was assassinated 1066. 
 Then fnUowed a most cruel persecution of the Christians. Gottschalk's 
 eon, Henry, was supplanted, and Crura (of the island Rügen), the 
 powerful prince of the Rani, a fanatical foe of Christianity, was chosen 
 ruler. At Henry's instigation, he was murdered, 1105, in his house. 
 Henry died 1119. A Danish prince, Canute, bought the Wend crown 
 irom the Saxon duke, Lothar; but he was murdered in 1131. Thus
 
 376 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (O E N T. 10— 13 A. D.). 
 
 ended the Wend empire; only among the Obotrites, prince Niclot (m& 
 1160), maintained his authority for some time. His son, Prihislas, 
 (the ancestor of the present princes of Mecklenburg), by a timelj 
 adoption of Christianity (1164), secured for himself a part of his 
 paternal inheritance, as a Saxon feudal principality. The rest of the 
 country Henry the Lion divided among his German warriors, settling 
 the devastated possessions with German colonists. The power of the 
 LuTiciANS was broken by Albert the Bear, the founder of Mark Bran- 
 denburg, after long contests and numerous insurrections (1157). He, 
 also, placed a great number of German colonists upon the desolated 
 country. The work of Christianizing the Sorbi was much easier. 
 After their first defeats by Henry I. (922-927), they never regained 
 tn^'y liberty. The mission of the sword more or less closely attended 
 the mission of the cross among the Wends. Among the Sorbi, bishop 
 Benno of Misnia [ob. 1106), laboured with special zeal; among the 
 Obotrites, St. Vicelin, under sore trials and sufferings. St. Viceliu died 
 whilst bishop at Oldenburg (1154). His successor, Gerold, who trans- 
 ferred the see to Lübeck, followed in his footsteps. Other zealous 
 Wend apostles deserving mention, are, bishop Everanod of Ratzeburg 
 (from 1154), bishop Berno of Schwerin (from 1158). (Chief sources: 
 — Widukinds. v. Corbei. (c. 970), Chronik. — Thietmar's Chronik. — 
 Adam v. Brem. — Helmold's [ob. 1170), Chronicon. Slavorum). The 
 Pomeranians were subjugated (1121), by the Polish duke Boleslav III., 
 who extorted from them an oath that they would embrace Christianity. 
 But the work of their conversion proved so difiScult, that he could find 
 no one among his clergy willing to undertake it. Thereupon Bern- 
 hard, a Spanish monk, offered his services (1122). But the Pomera- 
 nians drove him off as a beggar, asserting that if the God of the 
 Christians was really Lord of heaven and earth, he would send them 
 a servant corresponding with his dignity. This convinced Boleslav 
 that none but a man who combined with a true missionary spirit, the 
 show of worldly grandeur and wealth, could succeed on that field, and 
 bishop Otho v. Bamberg seemed to suit the case. Otho consented, and 
 in two missionary towns (1124, 1128), founded the Pomeranian Church. 
 Following Boleslav's counsel, he both times travelled in princely style. 
 The result was astonishing, though he several times came near losing 
 his life. The entire Middle Ages furnish no example (unless St. Boni- 
 face be excepted), of a like noble, pure, and successful missionary 
 effort. No missionary of that period exhibited the same firmness, with- 
 out egotism ; earnestness, without severity ; gentleness, and placability, 
 without weakness ; glowing zeal, without fanaticism ; and, in no other 
 instance did the German and Slavic nationalities merge so harmoniously. 
 The last bulwark of Wend heathenism was the island RItgen; it 
 yielded (1168), to a league between the Danish king Waldemar I., 
 and princes of Christian Pomeranians and Obotrites. — (Main source- 
 Vitae Ottoni).
 
 MISSIONARY OPERATIONS. 377 
 
 3. Missions among the Fins and Letonians. — (Cf. Fr. Rülis, Finnl. 
 u. s. Bewohner. Lpz. l%m. — F.K. Gadebusch, livl. Jahrb. 3 Bde. 
 Riga. 1780. — Fr. Kruse, Urgesch. d. esthnisch. Volksstainmes. Lpz. 
 1846 (unreliable). — 0,9^-. Kienifz, 24 Bb. livl. Gesch. Bd. I. Dorp. 
 1847. — K. V. Schlözer. Livl. u. d. Anfänge, d. dentsch. Lebens im bait. 
 Norden. Berl. 1850. — A. v. Richter, Gesch. d. russ. Kaiserth. einverl- 
 eibten, deutsch. Ostseeprov. Bd. I., Abth. I. (1158-1347), Riga. 1857. 
 — E. Papst, Meinhart, Livland's Apost. Reval. 1847-49. — /. Voigt, 
 Gesch. Preussens. bis z. Unterg. d. Herrsch, d. deutsch. Ordens. Bd. 
 I-Ill., Königsb. 1827.— Z'. 0. Tornwaldt, d. Leb. Adalb. v. Prag. &c., 
 in d. hist, theol. Ztschr. 1853, II. — /. 3f. Watterich, d. Gründung, d. 
 deutsch. Ordenstaates Preussen. Lpz. 1857). — Christianity vras in- 
 troduced into Finland by Si. Eric, by means of conquest and force 
 (1157). Bishop Henri/ of Upsala, the apostle of the Fins, who accom- 
 panied him, suifered martyrdom in 1158. The Fins hated Christianity 
 as ardently as the Swedish rule which brought it to them. It was only 
 after the third invasion, under the chief magistrate Thorkel Camdeson 
 (1293), that success was achieved. Lapland became subject to Sweden 
 in 1279, and Christianity was gradually introduced. In 1335, bishop 
 Hemming of upsala consecrated the first church in Tornea. Modern 
 EsTHONiA, Livonia, and Curland, were settled by people of Finnish 
 descent ; though Livonia and Curland were likewise settled by Leto- 
 nians from the South and East, (Letonians and Letonian-Gauls in 
 Livonia, and Semgauls and Wends in Curland). The first attempts to 
 plant Christianity in those regions proceeded from Swedes and Danes, 
 and, as early as 1048, under the Danish king Sven III., Estritson, a 
 church was built in Curland by Christian merchants ; and the Danes, 
 not long after, built the fortress Lindanisso, in Esthnia. The elevation 
 of the bishopric of Limd to a metropolitan see (1098), occurred with 
 reference to these countries. In 1171, Pope Alexander III. sent Fidco, 
 a monk, as bishop of Finland and Esthnia, to convert the heathen 
 there, but he seems not to have entered upon his duties. The first 
 permanent results were secured by German preachers and swords. 
 Merchants from Bremen and Lübeck had formed commercial leagues 
 with the regions along the Düna. Meinhart, a pious priest from the 
 monastery of Segeberg, in Holstein, undertook, in their company, and 
 under the auspices of the Bremen archbishop, Hartwig II., a missionary 
 journey thither (1186), established a church at UerküU, on the Düna, 
 and became its bishopi but died 1196. His companion, Dietrich, 
 laboured in the vicinity of Treiden, as far as into Esthnia. Meinhart's 
 successor as bishop was the Cistercian abbot Berthold v. Loccum, in 
 Hanover. Driven off soon after his arrival, he returned with a band 
 of German crusaders, and fell in battle, 1198. His successor was the 
 Bremen canon, Albert von Burhowden, (v. Appeldern). He removed 
 the see to Riga, which he built in 1201 ; and, for the protection of tho 
 mission, established, 1202, the Order of the Sword (^98,6), and 
 32*
 
 S78 SECTION II. SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 10—13 A.D.). 
 
 founded, amid constant conflicts with the Russians, Esthnians, Curs, 
 and Letonians, new bishoprics in Esthnia, Dorpat, Oesel, and Sem- 
 gaul, and wellnigh Christianized all these countries. He died 1229. 
 After 1219, the Danes co-operated with Albert in the conquest and 
 conversion of Esthnia. Waldemar IL founded Reval (1219), elevated 
 it to a bishopric, and used all means to expel the Germans ; but he 
 failed. Indeed the Danes were compelled (1227), to leave Esthnia. 
 After Albert's death, the difficulties of the Germans so increased, that 
 Vohjuiti, the excellent master of the Order, had to invoke the aid of 
 the new Prussian order of Teutonic Knights. The union of the two 
 orders, hindered by Danish intrigues, was not effected until 1237, when 
 a fearful defeat of the Germans by the Letonians not only threatened 
 the existence of the Order of the Sword, but the Livonian Church itself. 
 Then first was Curland (the see at Pilten), permanently subjugated 
 and converted; it had promised to embrace Christianity in 1230, but 
 soon again relapsed into heathenism. Finally, in 1253, Riga was also 
 made a metropolitan see ; Albert Suerheer (previously archbishop of 
 Armagh in Ireland), having been appointed by Innocent IV. arch- 
 bishop of Prussia, Livonia, and Esthnia, removed his see to Riga. 
 (Cf. P. V. Götze, Albert Suerbeer, St. Petersb. 1854). — (Chief sources: 
 Henri/ the Lettonian, [oh. after 1227), Origines Livonicae. — Ditleb's v. 
 Alepeke livl. Reimchronik.) — The old Prussians and Lithuanians also 
 belonged to the Letonians. To the Prussians (between the Weichsel and 
 Memel), St. Adalbert of Prague first bore the tidings of salvation, but 
 sufi'ered martyrdom soon after he commenced labours in Samland (997). 
 In 1009, the zealous monk Bruno, and eighteen companions, met with 
 a similar fate on the borders of Letonia. Two centuries elapsed before 
 another missionary showed himself in Prussia. The first was abbot 
 Godfrey, of the Polish monastery of Lukina. At the outset he and his 
 companion Philip were encouraged, but they soon sufi'ered martyrdom 
 (1207). The labours of the Cistercian Christian, of the Pomeranian 
 monastery Oliva, three years later (1209), were more successful and 
 permanent. He was the real apostle of the Prussians, became bishop 
 in 1214, and died in 1244. Following the example of the Order of the 
 Sword in Livonia, he founded, 1225, the order of the Milites Christi, 
 •which, however, was reduced to five men in the first year of its exist- 
 ence. — In union with duke Conrad of Masovia, whose country had 
 also suffered fearfully from the inroads of the heathen Prussians, 
 Christian called in the aid of the Teutonic Knights (| 98, 6), then 
 already in high repute in Germanj-, a branch of whom emigrated to 
 Culmerland in 1228, and thus laid the foundation of the civil sway of 
 the Teutonic Knights in Prussia. Then commenced a sanguinary con- 
 flict of sixty years' duration, for the extermination of Prussian heathen- 
 ism. This struggle may be said to have lasted until the greater part 
 of the Prussians, after numerous insurrections, victories, and defeats, 
 were slain (1283), by the swords of the Knights and of crusaders from
 
 MISSIONARY OPERATIONS, 370 
 
 Germany, Poland, Bohemia, &c. Among hosts of missionaries 
 (chiefly Dominicans), Bishop Christian, the papal legate William, 
 bishop of Modeua, and the Polish Dominican Hyacinth, an ardent 
 preacher of repentance and faith {oh. 1257), merit special mention. 
 As early as 1243, William of Modena had drawn up an ecclesiastical 
 constitution for the country, which divided Prussia into four bishoprics, 
 which, after 1253, were under the metropolitan of Riga. — (Chief 
 sources: the Clironicon Frussiw of Peter of Duisburg, of the 14th cent., 
 a Chron. van d. Duitscher Oirder of the 15th cent., and the Pruss. 
 Chnm. of Luk. David {oh. 1583), in which use was made of the, since 
 then, lost work of bishop Christian, Liber filiorum Belial). — The 
 establishment of Christianity in Lithuania proved a difficult task. 
 After liingold had founded (1230), a grand duchy in Lithuania, his 
 son Mindoive, (Mendog), resolved to extend it by conquest. The 
 Prussian Livonian Knights, however, so reduced him that he sued for 
 peace, and was compelled to be baptized (1252). But he had scarcely 
 recovered from his humiliation, when he threw aside the mask (1260), 
 and assailed his Christian neighbours anew. His son, Wolstinik, who 
 had adhered to the faith, reigned too short a time [ob. 12GG), to secure 
 recognition from his people. With him disappeared every trace of 
 Christianity in Lithuania. The grand duke Gedimin (1315-40), was 
 the first again to tolerate Christianity in his country. Under his suc- 
 cessor, Olgerd, Romish Dominicans and Russian priests rivalled each 
 other in their missionary zeal. Olgerd was baptized by the Greeks, 
 but soon relapsed. Ilis son, Jagello, whose mother was a Christian, 
 and who had married the young Polish queen, Uedioig, whose hand 
 and crown he obtained by being baptized, and obligating himself to 
 introduce Christianity into his country (1386), put an end to heathen- 
 ism in Lithuania. His subjects, to each of whom a woollen garment 
 was given by their sponsors, pressed in crowds to be baptized. An 
 episcopal see was founded at Wilna. 
 
 4. Missions among the Mongols. — (Cf. Marco Polo, Travels, &c. — 
 De Guignes, hist. g6n6rale des Iluns, des Turcs, des Mongols. Par. 
 1756. — D'Avezac, Relation des Mongoles ou Tartaros. Par. 1838, in 
 the Reeueil de voyages et memoires public par la soc. g^ogr. T. IV. — 
 Abel-Remusat, Memoires sur les relations politiques des princes Chre- 
 tiens avec les empereurs Mongols, in the Mem. des I'lnstit. royal de 
 France.— T. VI., 396, &c., VII., 355, &c.. Par. 1822, 1824.— D'ÖÄ.wa», 
 Hist, des Mong. depuis Tschingis-Khan jusqu'ä, Timur-lenk. Par. 1824, 
 — L. Mosheim, Hist. Tartarorum eccl. Helmst. 4to, 1741. — W. Hcgd, 
 Studien liber d. Kolonien d. röm. K. unter d. Tartaren, in the hist 
 theol. Ztschr. II. 1858). — The most extravagant accounts of the power 
 and glory of the Tartar priest-king John (§ 73, 1), were current in the 
 West, even after his kingdom was overthrown by Genghis Khan, in 
 1202. Pope Alexander III. sent an embassy to hnn (1177), of the 
 result of which nothing is known. The Mongol princes after the time
 
 380 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 10—13 \.. D.), 
 
 of Genghis Khan, in deistic indifference, showed themselves equall;y 
 tolerant and inclined towards Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism. The 
 Nestorians were very numerous, though greatly reduced in their 
 empire. In 1240 and 41, the Mongol hosts, in their constant advances 
 westward, threatened to overrun and lay waste all Europe. Russia, 
 Poland, Silesia, Moravia, and Hungary, had been already fearfully 
 devastated, when the wild plunderers suddenly and unexpectedly 
 turned their course. Pope Innocent IV. sent (1245), a Dominican em- 
 bassy, under Nick. Ascelimis, to the commander-in-chief Batclm, then 
 in Persia, and a Franciscan embassy under John of Plano-Carpini to 
 the Great Khan, Oldai, (successor of Genghis Khan, from 1227), to his 
 capital Caracorum, calling upon him to be converted, and commanding 
 him to abstain from his repeated incursions. Both embassies were 
 fruitless. Equally so were two embassies of Louis IX., of France, oc- 
 casioned by a pretended Mongol embassy, which told the king some 
 fabricated stories concerning the inclination of the Great Khan, Gajuk 
 and his princes, to Christianity and of their purpose to conquer the 
 Holy Land for the Christians. The first embassy (1241), proved an 
 utter failure, for the Mongols regarded the presents brought to them 
 as tribute and an acknowledgment of voluntary subjection. The 
 second, also, to the Great Khan Mangu (1253), although conducted by 
 that admirable tactician, the Franciscan, William Evi/sbroeJc (de Rubru- 
 quis), was fruitless, for, Mangu, instead of allowing them to remain 
 and preach the gospel in the country, sent them back to Louis, after 
 they had held a debate with the Mohammedans and Buddhists, with 
 a menacing demand of subjection to him. After Mangu's death (1257), 
 the Mongol empire was divided into an Eastern (China), and Western 
 (Persia). The former was ruled by the Khan Kublai, the latter by 
 the Khan Hulagu. Hulagu, whose mother and wife were Christians, 
 put an end to the caliphate of Bagdad, but was thereupon so pressed 
 by the Sultan of Egypt, that he opened a long series of embassies and 
 negotiations in England with the popes, and kings of France, who were 
 planning a common movement against the Saracens, and made splendid 
 offers to the East. His successor continued these negotiations, which, 
 however, were only empty promises and encouragements. The age of 
 the crusades had passed, and even the most powerful popes could not 
 revive them. The Persian khans, vaccilating between Islam and 
 Christianity, sank into greater impotence, until, finally, Tamerlane, 
 upon the ruins of their power undertook (1387), under the auspices of 
 the Crescent, to found a universal Mongol empire. But with his 
 death (1405), perished the rule of the Mongols in Persia, and that of 
 the Turcomans began. Thenceforth Islam remained the predominant 
 religion amidst all the changes of dynasties. Kuhlai-Klian, the ruler 
 of China, a genuine type of the mixed religion of the Mongols, also 
 seemed inclined to Christianity, but at the same time favour«! the 
 Mohammedans, and in 1260, gave to Buddhism a hierarchal form and
 
 MISSIONARY OPERATIONS 381 
 
 ÄOnsolidatioti hy the appointment of the first Grand Lama. The 
 journey of two Venetians, of the house of Poll, who returned from the 
 country of the Mongols in 1269, led to the establishment of an Eastern 
 Christian mission in China. In 1272, Pope Gregory X. sent two 
 Dominicans thither, who were joined ijy the two Poll, and the son of 
 one of them, Marco Polo, then seventeen years old. Marco won the 
 implicit confidence of the Khan, who entrusted him with an important 
 vicegerency. On his return he published a Perigrinatio s. LI. 4 de 
 Oriental, regicnilhus, which attracted great attention, and was the first 
 work to furnish the West with correct ideas of the state of Eastern 
 Asia. But the Franciscan, John de Monte-Corvino (1291-1329), one 
 of the most noble, discerning, and faithful missionaries of the entire 
 Middle Ages, was the first to start regular and persevering efi"i)rts to 
 evangelize that region. Having frustrated the inimical machinations 
 of the Nestorians, he gained a high degree of favour with the Khan. 
 He built two churches in Cambalu (Peking), the Khan's residence, 
 baptized about 6000 Mongols, and translated the Psalms and N. T. 
 into the Mongol language. Until 1303 he laboured alone. After that, 
 other Franciscans went to his aid. Clement V. appointed him arch- 
 bishop of Cambalu. Annually new congregations were gathered. But 
 intestine quarrels among Kublai's successors reduced the strength of 
 the Mongol dynasty, and it was overthrown in 1368, by the national 
 Ming dynasty. The Mongols were driven from China, and with them 
 the missionaries whom they had favoured, so that the harvest was lost. 
 
 5. Missions in Mohammedan Cotintries. — The princes and hosts of the 
 crusaders only desired to wrest the Holy Land from the power of the 
 unbelievers, but did not (unless we except Louis IX.) think of con- 
 ferring upon them the blessing of the Gospel. Still less could it be 
 expected that an influence favourable to Christianity would be ex- 
 erted upon them, by men so dissolute, covetous, cruel, faithless, and 
 immoral, as most of the crusaders were. At the commencement of the 
 13th century, the new orders of Franciscans and Dominicans started 
 zealous but unsuccessful missionary operations among the Moslems of 
 Africa and Spain. The leader in this movement was St. Francisc^is 
 himself, who, during the siege of Damietta by the crusaders, 1219, 
 went into the camp of the Sultan, Kamel, and challenged him to kindle 
 a large fire, into which St. F. and a Moslem priest should plunge. When 
 the priest, who was present, secretly withdrew, Franciscus offered to 
 enter the flames alone, if the Sultan would promise, that he and his 
 people would embrace Christianity if he came forth unhurt. The 
 Sultan declined the test, and dismissed Franciscus with presents, 
 which the latter rejected. Subsequently many Franciscan missions 
 were undertaken to the Moslem, which, however, accomplished noth- 
 ing but the increase of their number of martyrs. The Dominican!' 
 commenced similar efforts earlier, but with no better results. Their 
 Genei-al, Kayniun d of Pennajbrti [ob. 1273) devoted himself to this
 
 3S2 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (c E N T. 10— 13 A. D.). 
 
 work with great zeal. For the purpose of preparing the brethren of 
 his order for this work, he founded institutions at Tunis and Murcia, 
 for the study of Oriental languages. Most important were the labours 
 of Rayimind Lidlns of Majorca, who after his conversion, thoroughly 
 studied the requisite languages, and thrice visited North Africa, and 
 there engaged in disputations with Saracen scholars, to convince them 
 of the truth of Christianity. But his "great art" (?104, 2), which he 
 had devised for this purpose with extraordinary efforts, failed to secure 
 appreciation either there or in Europe. Imprisonment and abuse were 
 his usual reward. He died of maltreatment in 1315. 
 
 I 94. THE CRUSADES. 
 
 Sources: J. Bongars, Gesta Dei per Francos. Hann. 1611. 2 Voll. — 
 F. J. Michavd, Biblioth. des Croisades. Par. 1830. 4 T. — Comp. 
 William of Tyre, Hist, of the Crus. and of the Kingd. of Jerus. — 
 Chronicles of the Crusaders (in Bohn's Antiquar. Libr.) — /. Michaud, 
 Hist, des Croisades, transl. by W. Robson. London 1852, 3 Vols. — 
 F. Wilken, Gesch. d. Kreuzzüge (Hist, of the Cms.). Leips. 1807. 
 7 Vols. — H. V. Syhel, Gesch. d. ersen KreuzzUge. Diisseld. 1841 — 
 the same author: Aus d. Gesch. d. Kreuzz. and Braunschw. 1858. — 
 A. H. L. Heeren, Versuch u. Entw. d. Folgen d. Kreuzzüge fur Europa 
 (essay on the results of the Crus. for Europe). Göttg. 1808. 
 
 During the rule of the Arabs, Christian pilgrims to the Holy 
 Sepulchre had enjoyed ample protection. But under the reign 
 of the Fatimites, at the commencement of the tenth century, 
 persecutions commenced, especially during the Caliphate of 
 Hakim, who equally oppressed native Christians and pilgrims, 
 and interdicted their worship under severe penalty, probably in 
 order by such severities to wipe out the disgrace of having 
 sprung from a Christian mother. Under the dominion of the 
 Seljookian Turks, from 1070, these measures of oppression 
 greatly increased. The feeling evoked throughout the West by 
 these persecutions was all the more deep, since the expectation 
 of the approaching end of the world, which was general in the 
 tenth century (§ 106, 1), induced many to undertake pilgrimages 
 to the Holy Land. So early as the year 999 Sylvester II. had 
 — ex persona devastatae Hierosolymoe — made an appeal to 
 Christendom to rescue the Holy Land from the infidel. Gregory 
 VII. entered warmly into this project, and had indeed resolved 
 to head a crusade in person ; but his dissensions with Henry IV 
 prevcn;-,ed the execution of the plan. Twenty years later Peter 
 ^f Am 'ens, a hermit, returned from his pilgrimage. In burning
 
 THE CRUSADES. 383 
 
 language he portrayed to the Sovereign Pontiff (Urbar. II.) the 
 suflForings of the Christians ; he recounted a vision in which 
 Christ Himself had charged hira with the commission to rouse 
 Christendom for the delivery of the Holy Sepnlclire. By direc- 
 tion of Urban, Peter travelled through Italy and France, every- 
 where exciting the feelings of the people. A council was sum- 
 moned at Pi'rcenza in 109.5, where thiscause was pleaded. Still 
 greater success attended the address of Urban at the Council of 
 Glaremovt in the same year. In response to his enthusiastic 
 appeal for a holy war under the standard of the Cross, the 
 universal exclamation was heard : " It is the will of God ! " and 
 on the same day thousands enlisted in the cause, and had the red 
 cross affixed to their right shoulder — among them Adhemar, 
 Bishop of Le Puy, who was named Papal legate for the war. 
 On their return to their dioceses, the bishops everywhere 
 preached the Crusade, and before many weeks had elapsed 
 "Western Christendom was stirred to its inmost depths. Thus 
 commenced a movement which lasted for two centuries, and 
 which in its character can only be compared with the migration 
 of nations. By these expeditions Europe lost nearly 5,000,000 
 of men in bootless attempts. In the end every hope and purpose 
 cherished by the crusaders was frustrated. Still, the consequences 
 of these expeditions proved of deepest importance, and their 
 influence extended to all departments of life, both ecclesiastical 
 and political, spiritual and intellectual, civil and industrial, 
 New views, requirements, tendencies, and forces were introduced, 
 by the operation of which medifBval history entered on the last 
 stage of its development, and which prepared the way for the 
 modern phases of society. 
 
 1. Tlte Fir.'it Crufinde (1096). — In the spring of 1096 vast multitudes 
 of people, impatient of the tardy preparations of the princes, started on 
 their journey under the leadership of Walter the Pennile.'i.^. lie was fol- 
 lowed by Peter, with 40,000 men. But the excesses committed by them, 
 and the utter absence of all discipline, aroused the hostility of the popu- 
 lations: half the army was destroyed in Bulgaria, the rest perished by 
 the sword of the Saracens at Nicfea. Several fresh gatherinc;«, finally a 
 disorderly host of 200,000 men, perished in Hungary, or on its confines. 
 At length, in the month of August, the regular army of the crusaders set 
 out under the command of Godfrey of Bouillon. Originally it con- 
 sisted of 80,000 men; but by the way it increased to not less than 600,000. 
 The reception which the Byzantine Government accorded the crusaders 
 was by no means favorrablc. In 1097 they crossed to Asia. Nica?a. An-
 
 384 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (CE NT. 10— 13 A. D.). 
 
 tioch, and Edessa were taken, not without considerable resistance and 
 great losses. But their efforts ultimately proved successful, and on the 
 15th July, 1099, the crusaders scaled the walls of Jerusalem with the 
 shout, "It is the will of God !" By the light of burning houses, and wad- 
 ing in blood, they marched in solemn procession to the Church of the 
 Resurrection, repeating psalms. Godfrey was chosen King of Jerusa- 
 lem, but refused to wear a royal diadem where his Master had been 
 crowned with thorns. The pious leader of the crusaders died after the 
 lapse of only one year, and was succeeded by Baldwin, his brother, 
 who was crowned at Bethlehem. The bestowal of numerous fiefs soon 
 gathered a. number of vassals around the new monarch. Jei'usalem 
 was made the seat of a patriarchate, to which four archiepiscopal sees 
 and a corresponding number of bishoprics were subjected. Tidings 
 of these events awakened fresh enthusiasm throughout the West. So 
 early as the year 1101 three other large armies of crusaders set out. 
 They marched against Bagdad, with the view of breaking the Moslem 
 power in its great stronghold ; but these undisciplined masses never 
 reached their destination. 
 
 2. Second Crusade (1147). — The fall of Edessa (1146) — the great 
 bulwark of the kingdom of Jerusalem — seemed a loud call for renewed 
 exertions. Pope Eugene II. summoned the nations to arms. Bernard 
 oj Clairvaux, the great prophet of that period, preached the Crusade, 
 and predicted victory. Louis VII. of France took the cross, thereby 
 to expiate the sacrilege of having burned down a church filled with 
 people. Under the impression of the sermons of St. Bernard, Conrad 
 III. OF Germany followed his example, not without considerable reluctr 
 ance. But their noble armies fell under the sword of the Saracens, or 
 perished through the perfidy of the Greeks and the utter dissolution 
 of all discipline, amidst want, pestilence, and fatigue. Damascus was 
 not taken ; humbled, and with the scanty remnants of their armies, the 
 Christian princes returned to their own countries. 
 
 3. Third Crusade (1189). — A century had not elapsed before the 
 kingdom of Jerusalem had fallen into complete decay.^* The incessant 
 animosities between Greeks and Latins, the intrigues of vassals, the 
 licentiousness, luxury, and lawlessness of the people, the clergy, and 
 the nobles, and, after the extinction of the dynasty of Baldwin, the 
 disputes of pretenders to the crown, rendered order, security, or sta- 
 bility impossible. Under these circumstances, it was comparatively 
 easy for Sultan Saladin — that Moslem knight without fear or stain, 
 who had already dethroned the Fatimite dynasty in Egypt — after the 
 bloody victory of Tiberias, to put an end to the domination of Chris- 
 tians in Syria. Jerusalem was taken in October 1187. Tidings of 
 this calamity once more roused Western Christendom. Philijy Augustus 
 of France, and Henri/ II. of England, for a season laid aside their dis- 
 putes, and took the cross at the hand of William of Tyre, the historian 
 of tlie Crusades. They were joined by the Emperor Frederic I., in
 
 THE CRUSADES. 385 
 
 persDnal courage a youth, but old in years and experience, -whose 
 energy, prudence, and ability seemed to insure success. The intrigues 
 of the Byzantine court, and the indescribable difficulties of a march 
 through a desert, could not arrest his progress. He met and defeated 
 the well-appointed army of the Sultan of Iconium, and took his capi- 
 tal, but soon afterwards was drowned in a small river of Pisidia (1190). 
 The greater part of the army now dispersed ; the rest were led against 
 Ptolemais by Frederic of Swahia, the Emperor's son. Soon afterwards 
 appeared under the walls of that city Philip Augustus and Richard 
 C(EUR-DE-LioN, who, after the death of his father, had undertaken hia 
 vow, and on his passage to Syria conquered Cyprus. Ptolemais (St. 
 Jean d'Acre) fell in 1191 ; but disputes among the leaders prevented 
 any lasting success from that enterprise. Frederic of Swabia had 
 fallen, and Philip Augustus returned to France under pretence of ill- 
 ness. Richard gained, indeed, a splendid victory over Saladin, took 
 Joppa and Askelon, and was about to march upon Jerusalem, vrhen 
 tidings arrived that Philip Augustus "was arming against England. 
 Saladin, who respected the knightly qualities of his opponent, agreed 
 to an armistice for three years, on conditions favourable to Christian 
 pilgrims (1192). The district along the shore, from Joppa to Askelon, 
 was ceded to Henry of Champagne. On his return to England, Richard 
 was seized by Leopold of Austria, whose flag he had insulted before 
 Ptolemais, and kept a prisoner for two years. The Crusade was not 
 resumed even after his liberation. He died 1199. 
 
 4. Fourth Crusade (1217). — Pope Innocent III. summoned Christen- 
 dom a fourth time to the Holy War. The monarchs of Europe were 
 too much engaged with their own affairs to give heed to this call ; but 
 Fulk of NcuiUy, the great penitential preacher of his age, induced the 
 nobility of France to fit out a considerable armament. Instead, how- 
 ever, of marching against the Saracens, they were induced by Dundolo, 
 the Doge of Venice, to assist him in subduing Zara in Dalmatia, by 
 way of payment for the transport of the troops, and then to advance 
 against Constantinople, where Baldwin of Flanders founded a Latin 
 Empire (1204-1261 ; Cf. | 67, 4). The Pupe excommunicated the Doge 
 and the crusaders for the conquest of Zara, and strongly censured the 
 campaign against Constantinople. But he was appeased by the unex- 
 pected result; he rejoiced that Israel, after casting down the golden 
 calves in Dan and Bethel, was again united with Judah, and bestowed 
 the pallium, in Rome, upon the first Latin patriarch of Constantinople^ 
 — The Crusade of the Children (1212), which robbed parents in France 
 and Germany of 40,000 children (boys and girls), terminated most 
 sadly. Many thousands of them perished in Europe of hunger and 
 fatigue, the rest fell into the hands of ruthless men who sold them into 
 Egypt. At the urgent persuasion of Pope Honorius III., Andrew II. 
 of Hungary led another army of crusaders to Palestine in 1217. He 
 gained some advantages ; but, being betrayed or forsaken by the baron» 
 33
 
 386 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (C E N T. 10— 13 A. D.). 
 
 of Palestine, he returned the following year. The Germans, however, 
 who went out with him under Leopold VII. of Austria, remained, and, 
 having been strengthened by a fleet from Cologne and the Netherlands, 
 undertook (1218), in connection with King John of Jerusalem, a cam- 
 paign into Egypt. Damietta was taken ; but by the breaking of the 
 dykes of the Nile, they were driven to such extremities, that they 
 owed their escape to the generosity of Kamel (1221). 
 
 5. Fifth Crusade (1228). — The Emperor Frederic II. had also pro- 
 mised the Pope to undertake a crusade, but delayed on various pretexts, 
 till Pope Gregory at length excommunicated him. Frederic now set 
 out at the head of a comparatively small army (1228). Kamel, the 
 Sultan of Egypt, was at the time engaged in war with a rival. Under 
 the apprehension that Frederic might co-operate with him, he hastily 
 concluded peace, ceding Jerusalem and several other towns. On the 
 Holy Sepulchre the Emperor crowned himself with his own hands 
 (Jerusalem being the hereditary portion of his spouse Jolanthe), and 
 then returned to make his peace with the See of Rome (1229). — The 
 crusaders whom King Theobald of Novarra (1239) and Count Richard 
 of Cormoallis (1240) led to Palestine, accomplished nothing, in conse- 
 quence of factions among themselves, and the distractions prevailing 
 among Syrian Christians. 
 
 6. Sixth (1248) a^id Seventh Crusades (1270). — The ardour in this 
 3ause had for a considerable time been declining. Nevertheless St. 
 Louis (IX.) of France assumed the cross, during a dangerous illness 
 (1244). At that time Jerusalem was taken by the Carizmians, whom 
 the Sultan of Egypt had hired, amid the most fearful cruelties. Until 
 1247 the authority of the Christians in Palestine was confined to Acre 
 and some seaports. Louis could be restrained no longer. In 1248 he 
 once more set out at the head of a considerable army, and, having win- 
 tered in Cyprus, passed in 1249 into Egypt. He defeated the Egyptian? 
 both by sea and by land, and took Damiette. His army, however, was 
 decimated by battles, pestilence, and famine, and himself made pri- 
 soner by the Mamelukes, who had lately dethroned the dynasty of 
 Saladin. After payment of a heavy ransom, he was allowed to return 
 to his own country in 1250. The pious monarch still felt as if his vow 
 had not been fulfilled. Accordingly, he embarked a second time in 
 1270 for Tunis, in the hope of making that city the basis of further 
 operations. But half of his army, and the king himself, were swept 
 away by a pestilence that same year. Ptolemais, the last stronghold 
 of the Christians in the Holy Land, fell in 1291. The Popes failed 
 ever afterwards to awaken an interest in new crusades. 
 
 I 95. ISLAMISM AND THE JEWS IN EUROPE. 
 
 In the eleventh century the dominion of the Saracens in Sicily 
 (§ 81) gave place to that of the Normans. In Spain (§ 81)
 
 ISLAM ISM AND THE JEWS IN EUROPE. 387 
 
 also the sway of ^lohararaedanism was drawing to a close. Fre- 
 quent changes of rulers .and dynasties, and the division of the 
 country into small caliphates, had weakened the power of the 
 Moors ; while increasing degeneracy of morals, in a rich and 
 luxurious country, gradually diminished the military prowess and 
 ardour of the people. Although the Christian forces of the 
 country were also drawn from a number of small kingdoms, 
 patriotism and religious enthusiasm, which grew as the contest 
 continued, rendered them invincible. Rodrigo Diaz, the Casti- 
 lian hero (^called by the Moors the Cid, or Lord, by Christians 
 the Gampeador or Comn»inder) — oh. 1099 — appeared to these 
 warriors the embodiment of Spanish and Christian chivalry, 
 though it must be confessed that the conduct of this hero 
 towards vanquished infidels was at times neither Christian nor 
 knightly. The Moors called in the aid of the Almoravides 
 (1086); but neither could they nor the Almohades from Bar- 
 bary, who afterwards (1146) took their place, restore the former 
 glory of the Moorish arms.^ 
 
 1. Islamism in Sicily. — To the predatory incursions of the Sicilian 
 Saracens into Italy, the Norman settlers there put an end (from 
 1017). Robert Guiscard subverted the remnants of Greek rule in Lower 
 Italy, subdued the small Lombard dukedoms there, and founded an 
 independent Norman duchy of Apuleia and Calabria (1060), -^vhilst his 
 brother Roger, in a war of 30 years' duration, seized all Sicily from 
 the Saracens, and governed it as a vassal of his brother, under the 
 name of Count of Sicily {ob. 1101). His son Roger II. [ob. 1154) con- 
 nected the government of Apuleia and Calabria with that of Sicily, 
 had himself crowned king of Sicily in 1130, and in 1139 conquered 
 Naples. By the marriage of his daughter Constancia with Henry IV., 
 the Sicilian crown passed over to the Hohenstaufen (1194). But as 
 Robert Guiscard already had given an oath of fealty to Pope Nicholas 
 II., the successors of Peter regarded Sicily as a papal fief. 
 
 2. Islamism in Spain. — The times of Ahderrahman III. (912-61) 
 and Hakem II. (961-76), were the most brilliant and happy of the 
 Ommiyahen caliphate. After the death of the latter the Iladschib 
 Almansur {ob. 1002) reigned in the name of the effeminate and volup- 
 tuous Hescham II. But endless civil wars were the consequence of 
 this arrangement ; and in 1031, during one of these insurrections, the 
 last Oramiyah, Abderrahman IV., voluntarily renounced the crown 
 and fled. The caliphate was now divided into as many emirates as there 
 had been emirs. Amid these distractions Christian princes could 
 extend their power. Sancho the Great, King of Navarre (970-1035), 
 auited under his dominion, by marriage and conquest, welluigh the
 
 388 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (c E N T 11— 13 A.D.). 
 
 whole of Christian Spain, but severed it again by division among hi« 
 sons, of whom Ferdinand I. {oh. 1065) inherited Castile and conquered 
 Leon (1037). With him began the glory of Spanish knighthood. His 
 son Alfonzo IV. {ob. 1109) wrested (10S5) Toledo, and a great part of 
 Andalusia from the Moors. These called the potent Almoravide lord, 
 Yusvf Ben Taschfin, of Morocco, to their aid. The Christians were 
 defeated on the plains of Salacca (1086). Soon the victor turned his 
 arms against the confederates, and within six years all Moslem Spain 
 fell under his dominion. His son Ali, in the fearfully bloody battle of 
 TJcles (1107), annihilated the flower of the Castilian nobility. That 
 was the zenith of the Almoravide rule ; from that time their star grew 
 pale. ^Z/bnzo J. of Aragon (1105-34) took^aragossa (1118), and other 
 towns; Alfonzo VII. of Castile (1126-57), whose power rose to such a 
 height that most Christian princes acknowledged him as their feudal 
 lord, and that he had himself solemnly crowned, 1135, as Emperor of 
 Spain, made a splendid campaign into Andalusia, and pressed even to 
 the S. coast of Granada (1144). Alfonzo I. of Portugal wrested Lisbon 
 from the Moors. Count Baynnmd of Barcelona, took Tortosa, &c. Si- 
 multaneously the power of the Almoravides was undermined in Africa. 
 In 1146 Morocco, and the whole of N.W. Africa, fell into the hands of 
 Almoliaden Ahdolmumin, whose general Abu Amram at the same time 
 took Andalusia (Moslem Spain). Abdolmumin's son Yusvf himself 
 entered Spain, 1184, with an immense army, to exterminate Christian 
 rule there, but fell in the battle of Santerem, against Alfonzo I. of 
 Portugal. His son Yaktib avenged this defeat by the bloody battle of 
 Alarcos, in which 30,000 Castilians perished (1195). But as, after a 
 few years, the Christians made new attempts, Yakub's successor, Mo- 
 hammed, entered Spain with a half million of fanatical Africans. It 
 was the decisive hour for Spain. The Christians had gained time to 
 unite their strength. On the plains of Tolosa, 1212, they fought, under 
 Alfonzo VIII. of Castile, with unexampled heroism. More than 200,000 
 Africans were left dead on the field of battle. It was the death-blow of 
 Almohaden rule in Spain. In spite of the feuds which broke out among 
 the Christian princes, they conquered (especially St. Ferdinand III. 
 of Castile, 1217-52, and James I., the Conqueror of Aragon, 1213-76), 
 during twenty-five years, all Andalusia ; so that only in the extreme 
 south of Spain, in the kingdom of Granada, there remained a remnant 
 of Moslem dominion, under the Emir 3Iohammed Aben Alamar, where 
 the splendour of Arabic culture once more again shone forth. — In 1469 
 the two most powerful Christian kingdoms of Spain were united by the 
 marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon with Isabella of Castile. Then came 
 Granada's last hour. On January 2d, 1492, Abii-Abdilalii {Boabdil), 
 the last caliph, concluded a disgraceful treaty, in accordance with which 
 he evacuated Granada, and a few moments afterwards the Castilian 
 banner waved over the loftiest turret of the proud Alhambra. The 
 Pope bestowed upon the royal pair the title of Catholic kings. Those
 
 THE PAPACY AND THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 389 
 
 Moors who refused baptism were expelled ; but even the Moriscjes, or 
 baptized Moors, proved so dangerous an element in the state, that 
 Philip III., 1609, resolved upon their entire expulsion. Most of them 
 sought refuge in Africa, whore they again professed Islamism, vi'hich 
 the^' had never cordially renounced. 
 
 3. By trade and usury ihejews had obtained almost exclusive posses- 
 sion of the coined money. The influence thus acquired vras more than 
 counterbalanced by the cruelty and oppression to which, from their 
 wealth, they were exposed on the part of needy princes and nobles. 
 Ever}" public calamity was popularly ascribed to them ; they poisoned 
 the wells, and thus occasioned epidemics ; they stole consecrated wafers 
 in order to piei-ce them through with needles; they abducted Christian 
 children to sacrifice them at their Passover. Popular superstition and 
 enmity, thus excited, frequently found vent in tumults, in which thou- 
 sands of these J c^vs were slain. But their faith was even dearer to them 
 than their gold, and they feared baptism more than torture. Occasion- 
 ally the crusaders also commenced their heroic exploits at home with a 
 massacre of Jews. In Spain the synagogue suffered persecutions simi- 
 lar to those of the Moors and Moriscoes. Several of the popes — espe- 
 cially Gregory VII. , Alexander III., and Innocent III. — published ordi- 
 nances for the protection of the Jews, interdicted the practice of forced 
 conversions, and called attention to the circumstance that they were 
 destined by -Providence to be living evidences to the truth of Chris- 
 tianity. — The German Emperors, also, took the Jews under their special 
 protection, regarding them as servi camerce nostrce speciales (as Vespa- 
 sian and Titus had done). In England and France also, they were 
 considered as property of the crown. 
 
 II. HIERARCHY. THE CLERGY, AND MONASTICISM. 
 
 g96. THE PAPACY AND THE HOLY ROMAN GERMAN 
 EMPIRE. 
 
 Cf. W. Giesebrecht, Gesch. d. deutsch. Kaiserzeit. Brauuschw. 1852, 
 etc. (So far 2 vols.) 
 
 The history of the Papacy during this period opens amid its 
 deepest degradation. It was Germany which put an end to these 
 infamous abuses ; the Papacy once more recovered from its low- 
 state, and remembering its high aims, rapidly rose to the highest 
 pomt of its irfluence and power. With the alternative before it
 
 390 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (C E N T. 10— 13 A. D.). 
 
 of being subject to the secular power of the emperors or of ren 
 dering them subject to its spiritual sway, it entered into mortaj 
 conflict with that very monarchy to which it owed its recovery. 
 In this contest, which raged most fiercely during the disputes 
 with the Hohenstaufen dynasty, the Papacy carried indeed the 
 victory, but only again to experience that it could neither co- 
 exist nor dispense with a strong imperial government. As the 
 overturn of the empire of Charlemagne had reduced the Papacy 
 to utter degradation under the vile rule of Italian nobles, so its 
 victory over the German monarchs issued in rendering it subject 
 to French policy, to an extent scarcely less humiliating. — At 
 the time when the Papacy rose from its decay, the orders of 
 Clugny and Camaldoli (§ 98) proved its strongest supporters and 
 best advisers ; afterwards, the begging friars formed a sort of 
 Papal standing army ; while the Crusades, besides contributing 
 a good deal of enthusiasm in favour of the Church, found employ- 
 ment and a grave for troublesome princes and their armies. — 
 When the Papacy reached its climax, the Holy Father was 
 regarded as absolute head of the Church. Already theologians 
 argued that the position of the Supreme Pontiff in the theocracy 
 must insure the infallibility of his official decrees. Gregory VII 
 claimed for the chair of Peter the right of confirming all appoint 
 ments to vacant sees. From the time of Innocent III, what 
 formerly had been merely papal recommendations to vacant posts 
 {jireces, whence the parties recommended were called precistce) 
 were issued as man data ; while Clement IV. (ob. 1268) insisted 
 that the Pontiff possessed the power of " plenaria dispositio " 
 over all ecclesiastical benefices. According to these vicars of 
 Christ, Universal Coimcils had only a deliberative voice. From 
 every tribunal an o.ppeal might be taken to the successors of the 
 apostles ; they might grant dispensation from any law of the 
 Church, and they alone possessed the right of canonizing. The 
 practice of kissing the foot originated in an Italian custom ; and 
 even emperors stooped to hold the stirrup to the Pope.^® In all 
 countries, legates, with absolute power, acted as representatives 
 of the Pope. Theirs it was to convoke and to preside over pro- 
 vincial councils. From the time of Nicholas I. it was customary 
 to crown the Sovereign Pontiff, although at first only a simple 
 crown called tiara was used for the purpose. The College of 
 Cardinals, which consisted of the clergy of the cathedral at 
 Rome, and of the seven bishops in the metropolitan diocese.
 
 THE PAPACY AND THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 3Ü1 
 
 formed the ecclesiastical and secular council of the Pope. The 
 Romish curia discharged all the ordinary business; the mir.istry 
 of finance bore the name of Rota Romana. Besides the regular 
 revenues derived from the States of the Church and the annual 
 tribute from foreign countries, the bestowal of the pall upon 
 newly-elected metropolitans brought considerable sums into the 
 papal treasury. Under special circumstances, the popes also 
 claimed the right of levying a contribution from all churches. 
 
 1. Tke Papacij to the Death of Sylvester II. (904-1003). — (Cf. F. E. 
 Löscher, Gesch. d. röm. Ilurenregiments, 1707, 2. Aufl. unter d. Titel: 
 Hist. d. mittlem Zeiten als ein Licht aus d. Finsterniss. Lpz. 1725, 
 4to. — L. Ranke, Jahrb. d. deutsch. Reiches unter d. sächs. Hause v. 
 G. Waitz, R. Ä. Köpke, W. Donniges, W. Giesebrecht, u. R. Wilmanns, 
 3 Bd. Berl. 1837, &c. — Vehse, Otto d. Gr. u. s. Zeit. Zittau, 1835.— 
 C. Höfler, d. deutsch. Päpste. Bd. I. Regensb. 1839.— J'/o.ss, d. Papst- 
 wahl unter d. Ottonien. Treib. 1858.) — In the contests of the Italian 
 nobles which ensued after the departure of the Emperor Arnulf {I 82, 5), 
 the party of Adalbert, Margrave of Tuscany, proved ultimately victori- 
 ous. For half a century Theodora, the concubine of that prince — a 
 beautiful and noble Roman, but steeped in lowest vice — and her 
 equally infamous daughters, Marozia (Maria) and Theodora, filled the 
 See of Peter with their paramours, their sons, and grandsons, who sur- 
 passed each other in vileness and wickedness of every kind (the so-called 
 Pornocracy). The first of these pontifi"s was Sergius III. (904-911), 
 the paramour of Marozia. He was succeeded by John X. (914-928), 
 whom the elder Theodora summoned from his see at Ravenna, as the 
 distance of that city from Rome put some restraint on her infamous 
 connection with him. John successfully resisted the inroads of the 
 Saracens in Italy (? 81), and after the death of Theodora would have 
 put an end to the infamous rule of these women ; but Marozia had him 
 cast into prison and smothered. The next occupant of the papal chair 
 was John XI. (931), the son of Pope Sergius and Marozia. But Alberic, 
 his brother, deprived this pontiff and his successors of all secular 
 power {ob. 954). Ociaviunvs, the son of Alberic, and the most disso- 
 lute of that race, at the age of eighteen, once more combined the spirit- 
 ual and secular power. He was the first pontifi" who on his elevation 
 to the Papal See changed his name, adopting that of John XII. (955- 
 963). — Meanwhile matters had progressed beyond measure in Germany. 
 After the death of Louis III. (911), the last of the Carlovingians, the 
 Frank duke, Conrad I. (911-18), was chosen German king. Although 
 vigorously supported by the higher clergy (the Synod of Ilohenaltheim, 
 915, which invoked all the terrors of hell upon insurgents), his con- 
 flicts with other dukes prevented his founding a united German empire. 
 This point was first attained under his successor, Henry I. of Saxony 
 (919-3G), who, disclaiming the politics of the clergy, granted the dukes
 
 392 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (CE N T. 10— 13 A. D.). 
 
 independence in the government of their respective districti . His great 
 son, Otho I. (936-73), after long civil wars, reducing the power of the 
 dukes, conquering and converting the heathen Danes, Wends, Bohe- 
 mians, and Hungarians, decided on interference in the French dissen 
 sions ; and, gathering around him energetic German clergy, secured 
 such influence as no Western ruler since Charlemagne had enjoyed. — 
 Pt»pe John XII. and the princes of Lombardy invoked the aid of Otho I., 
 against Berengar II. Otho conquered the kingdom of Italy, and at 
 Candlemas, 692, in St. Peter's, was crowned by the pope as Roman Em- 
 peror — a dignity which had been extinct for thirty-eight years (962). 
 Thus was the holy Roman German Empire established — a power which 
 for centuries continued the central point of the history of the world 
 and the Churoh. But Otho had hardly left Rome before the Pope 
 changed sides, and entered into alliance with Berengar for the purpose 
 of expelling the Germans. Otho hastened to Rome, and at a synod 
 held in that city (963) deposed the Pontiff, as guilty of incest, perjury, 
 blasphemy, murder, and other crimes, and made the Romans swear 
 over the relics of St. Peter that they would never again elect or conse- 
 crate a pope, without obtaining the Emperor's privilege and approba- 
 tion. Otho suppressed repeated insurrections of the Romans, without 
 difficulty. After his death, the Tuscan party, under Crescentms, a son 
 of John XII. by the younger Theodora, again obtained the ascendency, 
 and was only temporarily kept in check by Otho II. (973-983). While 
 in Rome itself the Papacy was thus in the hands of an unprincipled 
 political party, its spiritual supremacy was seriously threatened in 
 France. In 987 Hugo Capet had assumed the French crown ; he now 
 appealed to Pope John XY. (985-96) to remove Arnulf, Archbishop of 
 Rheims, who had opened the gates of that city to the enemies of the 
 new monarch. The Pope hesitated ; but the French king summoned 
 a synod at Rheims, which deposed the rebellious prelate, whose place 
 was tilled by Gerbert (991), the most learned man and the ablest poli- 
 tician of his age. The council, at the same time, openly avowed the 
 purpose of separating the entire French Church from Rome, whose 
 bishops for a century had sunk into the deepest immoralities. Gerbert 
 presented a confession of faith, which rejected celibacy and fasting, 
 and only recognized the first four general councils. But the scheme 
 failed, less in consequence of the rather ineffectual opposition of the 
 Pope, than of a reaction of the high-church Cluniacensian party, and 
 popular feeling excited against it by that party. Gerbert could not 
 maintain his position, and was heartily glad to shake the dust of 
 Rheims from his feet, and to accept an honourable call of Otho III. to 
 become his classical tutor (997). Bobert, the successor of Hugo, was 
 weak enough to abandon Gerbert and to restore Arnulf (996). John 
 XV. called in the aid of Otho III. (983-1002) against the oppressions 
 of Crescentius, but died before the arrival of the Emperor (996). Otho 
 directed the choice upon Bi-nno. his cousin, who assumed the narie of
 
 THE PAPACY AND THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 393 
 
 GREGORi- Y. (99G-9), the first Germao pontiff. This excellent prelate 
 only survived to 999. Gerbert, who had lately been appointed Arch- 
 bishop of Ravenna, was now elected through the influence of the Em- 
 peror, lie ascended the chair of Peter by the name of Svlvester II. 
 (999-1003). In Ravenna, already, Gerbert had adopted high-church 
 views, and as pope he developed a degree of energy which made him 
 a worthy follower of Gregory V., and a more worthy predecessor of 
 Gregory VII. He especially assailed simony, that real cancer of the 
 Church, and by sending the ring and staff to Arnulf, he made the first 
 attempt at securing for the papacy the right of investiture. As Otho's 
 tutor he had flattered the young prince's vanity, by inspiring him with 
 the idea of reviving the ancient glory of Rome, and becoming a uni- 
 versal Emperor. This led Otho to raise Gerbert to the papal chair. 
 But now Gerbert endeavoured by various crafty measures to evade the 
 Bcheme. The phantom of a renovatio imperii Romani was actualized 
 by introducing the mummery of the ceremonies and grand titles of the 
 Byzantine Court. Upon the occasion of a pilgrimage to the tomb of 
 his friend, St. Adalbert, in Gnesen (^ 93, 3), the Emperor emancipated 
 the Polish Church, by elevating the see there to an archbishopric. 
 He also released Boleslav Chrohry (| 93, 3), the most dangerous foe of 
 Germany, from vassalage to the German Empire, and incorporating 
 him in his imaginary universal dominion, called him " A friend and 
 confederate of the Romish nation" (1000). In the same year Sylvester 
 bestowed, in the exercise of papal authority, the crown on St. Stephen 
 of Hungary, and appointed him, on the annual payment of a feudal 
 tax, papal vicar, with full power in ecclesiastical affairs over his coun- 
 try, which, by forming a separate meti-opolitinate at Gran, he wrested 
 from its ecclesiastical subjection to Passau and Salzburg. Thus Otho 
 allowed himself to be tied to the hierarchical leading-strings of his papal 
 friend ; although, on one occasion, when the Pope had obtained the 
 gift of eight manors in the Roman territory, Otho reminded him that 
 it was a free gift of imperial grace, and unsparingly chastised the 
 extravagance and covetousness of the popes, and pronounced the grant 
 of Constantine a fraudulent fable. His Germans, and especially the 
 German clergy, were alienated by his anti-national course. The Ger- 
 man princes charged him with treason against the German Empire. 
 Soon all Italy, with spoiled Rome at its head, was in open rebellion. 
 But an early death, in his twenty-second year (1002) rescued the un- 
 happy youth from extreme humiliation. The Pope's lucky star also 
 Bet. He died 1003. According to popular belief, he had practised the 
 black art, and was indebted for his learning and the success of hii 
 hierarchical measures to his league with the devil. 
 
 2. To thr Synod of Satri (1003-1046). — (Cf. /. G. H. Stenzel, Gesch. 
 Deutschi, unter d.'fränk. Kaisern, 2 Bde. Lpz. 1827. — C. lf'V//e;-, d. 
 Deutsche Päpste. 2 Bde. Regensb. 1839). — After the death of Otho 
 III., Henry IL (1002-24), Duke of Bavavia, a gre-it -grandson of Henry
 
 894 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 10—13 A. D }. 
 
 I., and the last ofiFshoot of the hou^e of Saxony, attained to the German 
 throne, one of the best rulers who ever occupied it. Neither a bigoted zealo* 
 nor a slave of the priests, and yet truly pious in the spirit of his age ; 
 strictly churchly, and looking to his bishops as the props of his empire 
 against all revolutionary tendencies of temporal princes, no German 
 emperor ever ruled the Church as he did, none ever so ventured to cut 
 away the excrescences which clung to her, or so thoroughly to reform 
 her abuses. In Rome, on the contrary, after the death of Otho III., 
 John Crescentius, son of Crescentius II., who had been beheaded by 
 Otho's orders, made himself sole ruler of the city, and placed his own 
 creatures on Peter's chair. But when he, and the pope he had last 
 appointed, both died, in 1012, the long-oppressed Tusculan party arose 
 and chose a scion of that family, Benedict VIII. (1012-24), as pope. 
 Gregory, whom the Crescentians had elevated, was compelled to flee. 
 He sought aid of Henry II. But Henry preferred the more mighty 
 and noble Benedict, had himself crowned by him (1014), and thence- 
 forth continued on the best of terms with him. Both the emperor and 
 pope maintained friendly relations with the monks of Clugny, both 
 acknowledged the need of a thorough reformation in the Church, and 
 both Avere every way well qualified to effect it. But Benedict was so 
 occupied with vanquishing the Crescentians, and then the Greeks and 
 Saracens in Italy, and Henry so engaged with the suppression of the 
 internal and external dissensions of his empire, that they could not 
 devise the desired measures until near the end of their life. Tlie pope 
 took the lead; at the Synod of Pavia (1018), he excommunicated all 
 priests having wives and concubines, and condemned their children to 
 servitude. The emperor had still larger schemes : he wished to call a 
 general Western council at Pavia, and there reform the entire Western 
 Church. But Benedict's death, and that of Henry, a few months later 
 (1024), frustrated these plans. Henry II. left no issue. After his 
 death, Conrad II. (1024-39), ascended the throne; he founded the 
 Frankish or Salic house. He was an energetic, and in his way, pious 
 ruler, who, however, lacked all deep views of the evils of the Church, 
 or of the means necessary to correct them. The empire was greatly 
 strengthened and extended by him, but the reformatory plans of his 
 predecessor were wholly disregarded by him. Still less did the co- 
 temporary popes attempt any thing in this direction. Benedict VIII. 
 was followed by his brother Fomanns, as John XIX. (1024-33), Avho 
 utterly lacked his brother's qualities (Cf. ? 07, 2). When he died, 
 Count Alberich of Tusculum persuaded the Romans, by bribes and 
 promises, to elect his son Theophylact, but ten years old, yet an adept 
 in the most scandalous vices ; he called himself Benedict IX. (103.3-48), 
 and dishonoured the chair of St. Peter with the most vile profligacy. 
 Not until Henry III, Conrad's son (1039-56), interfered, did mattera 
 improve. He aimed at establishing a universal monarchy, after the 
 idea of Charlemagne, and came nearer attaining this object than any
 
 THK PAPACY AND THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 395 
 
 other German emperor ; at the same time he was animated with a strong 
 desire to have the Church reformed. Benedict IX. was expelled the 
 second time by the Romans, in 1044. They sold the tiara to Sijlvester 
 III., whom, however, Benedict drove off three months afterwards. 
 Benedict now conceived the mad fancy of marrying as Pope ; but the 
 father of his chosen bride refused his assent. Then Benedict sold the 
 papal chair to the archdeacon, JohnGratian, for 1000 pounds of silver. 
 He, though a pious, unassuming man, subjected himself (by advice of 
 his Cluniacensian friends, among whom was a young Roman monk, 
 Hildehrand, the son of a blacksmith at Saona, who had then already 
 distinguished himself), to the scandal of simony, in order to l-escue the 
 papal chair from ruin. He assumed the name of Gregory VI. (1045- 
 46). But he lacked strength for his onerous task. Benedict, whose 
 marriage scheme failed, again set up as pope ; likewise Sylvester. 
 Rome had three popes at once, and all notorious simonists. The 
 Cluniacensian party abandoned Gregory, and invoked the intervention 
 of the German king. Henry came, and at the Synod of Sutri (1046), 
 caused all three popes to be deposed as simonists. The Romans 
 allowed him to choose a successor. He selected Bishop Sitidger of 
 Bamberg, who took the title of Clement II. (1046-47), and crowned the 
 king emperor on Christmas (1046). The Romans were so overjoyed 
 at the restoration of order in the city, that they conferred upon the 
 emperor the patriciate, and the right, perpetually, of chosing the pope, 
 and swore that they would never consecrate a pope without the 
 emperor's consent. Henry took the ex-pope, Gregory, to Germany, 
 where he died in Cologne. Hildebrand, his chaplain, attended him to 
 the last, and soon after his death entered the Clugny monastery. 
 
 3. To Gregory VU. (1046-73). — (Cf. Höfler and Stenzel, 11. cc— 7. 
 jP. Gaab, Apologie Gregor's VII. Tlibg. 1792. — /. Voigt, Hildebr. als 
 Gr. VII. u. s. Zeit. 2. A. Weimar, 1846. — G. Cassander, d. Zeitalter 
 Hildebr. für. u. wider ihn. Darmst. 1842.— J. M. Söltl, Greg. VII. Lpz. 
 1847. — J. Helfenstein, Gregor's VII. Bestrebungen nach d. Streitschfrr. 
 6. Zeit. Frankf. 1856. — ^.i^. Gfrörer, P. Greg. VII. u. s. Zeitalt. 
 Schaffh. 1859. Bd. I.— /. M. Söltl, Ileinr. IV. Munch. 1823.— S'. Floto, 
 Heinr. IV. u. s. Zeitalt. 2 Bde. Stuttg. 1855 etc. — R. A. Lipsins, zur 
 Gesch. Gr. VII. In the hist, theol. Ztschr. 1859, II.) — Clement IL 
 was the first of a long series of able German Popes. They were chosen 
 by Henry III., and under his protection laboured energetically and 
 effectually at reforming the Church. All the reformatory spirits of 
 that age, whether disciples of Clugny, pupils of Romuald, or hermits 
 of Vallambrosa (| 97, 1), acknowledged simony (or the procuring of 
 ecclesiastical oflBces by purchase and bribery. Acts 8 : 19), and Kico- 
 laitanism (? 19), which term designated all the carnal sins of the 
 clergy, including marriage and concubinage, as well as unnatural 
 lecheries, — as the root of all prevailing evils; and loth these were so 
 common, especially in Italy, that scarcely an ecclesiastic could bp
 
 396 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (CE \ T. 10— 13 A. D.). 
 
 found who was not guilty of them. Clement II. opened, in the empe 
 ror's presence, at a synod in Rome (1047), the attack on simony. But 
 he died (possibly of poison) before the end of a year. AVhilst Roman 
 ambassadors were seeking a new pope at the German court, Benedict 
 IX., supported by the Tusculan party, resumed the papacy, and Henry 
 had to use severe threats before his choice, Bishop Poppo of Brixen, 
 could ascend the papal throne as Damasus II. In twenty -three days 
 be was a corpse. This fatality cooled the ambition of German bishops 
 to obtain the tiara. After long resistance. Bishop Bruno of Tout, the 
 emperor's cousin, and Clugny's zealous friend, accepted the appoint- 
 ment, butonly on condition that the people and clergy of Rome should 
 assent to his choice, by a canonical election. At Besanqon he met 
 with Hildebrand, who, at his request, joined him, and induced him to 
 lay aside his papal insignia, and proceed to Rome in the garb of a 
 pilgrim. Bruno entered the Eternal City barefoot, and once more 
 elected by the clergy and people, ascended the throne as Leo IX. 
 (1048-54). He found the treasury utterly empty, and all the revenues 
 from estates seized by the nobility. But Hildebrand became his 
 treasurer, and soon improved the finances of the pope and his retinue, 
 Leo displayed unexampled activity for the reform of the Church and 
 the elevation of the papacy. No pope travelled about so much as he, 
 none held so many synods at different places. At all these the extir- 
 pation of simony was the burden of their decisions. Gratitude, con- 
 sanguinity, and inseparable common interests, bound him to the 
 German emperor. He could, therefore, not yet have thought of an 
 emancipation of the papacy from imperial supremacy. But in France 
 (Council of Rheims, 1049), he confirmed the Pseudoisidore decretal, and 
 demanded of the Greek emperor the restitution of Constantine's grant. 
 In the war with the excommunicated Normans in South Italy, his army 
 was routed, and he was taken prisoner (1053). But as soon as he 
 released them from the ban they kissed his feet most devoutly. On 
 the other hand his ambassadors in Constantinople completed the schism 
 between the Eastern and Western Church (? 67, 3). — After Leo's 
 death, Hildebrand's friends desired him to wear the papal robes; but 
 he refused. The Church had not yet acquired sufficient power to 
 endure the deadly conflict with imperial supremacy. He therefore 
 went at the head of an embassy which solicited the emperor to appoint 
 a new pope. Hildebrand had fixed upon Bishop Gehhard of Eichstädt, 
 who enjoyed the full confidence of the emperor, and was his ablest- 
 counsellor, and he did not rest until he had overcome Henry's and 
 then the bishop's objections. It was a masterpiece of Cluniacensian 
 policy; for thus the opposite party in Germany lost its ablest leader, 
 and Rome obtained a competent pope. At length Gebhard yielded to 
 the plea of the emperor with the declaration: "Well! I yield myself 
 Boul and body to St. Peter, but only on condition that you likewise 
 restore to him what belongs to him." The emperor consented to a
 
 THE PAPACY AND THE GERMAN EM?IRE. 397 
 
 Bupplementary election in Rome, and pledged himself to restore in 
 full the patrimony of St. Peter. Gebhard took the title of Victor II. 
 (1055-57). Henry kept his word ; he restored the papal territories in 
 the widest sense, and, besides, transferred to the pope the governor- 
 ship of all Italy. Henry died in 1056, having first conveyed the 
 regency to his wife Agnes, and earnestly recommended her to the 
 counsel and support of the pope, then present. But Victor, likewise, 
 died in 1057. Hildebrand could not boast of having ruled over him, 
 influential as his position was under Victor's reign. 
 
 After Victor's death, the cardinals, regardless of the imperial pre- 
 rogative, forthwith elected Cardinal Frederick of Lorraine, then abbot 
 of Monte-Cassino, and Hildebrand went to Germany to obtain the 
 approbation of the empress. Stephen IÄ. (1057-58) as Frederick called 
 himself, died before Hildebrand's return. During his absence the 
 Tusculan party elevated a pope after their own mind, Benedict X. 
 (1058.) But an embassy of Hildebrand to the empress procured 
 the selection of Bishop Gerliard of Florence as the successor of Peter. 
 Benedict had to flee, and Gerhard, under the name of Nicholas IL 
 (1058-61) ascended the papal chair. Then Hildebrand's greatness 
 began to shine forth in its full brightness ; he became, until his own 
 elevation, the ruling spirit of the Roman court. In spite of obstacles, 
 he raised the papacy and Church to unprecedented power and glory. 
 He advanced systematically, ever more boldly and irresistibly, toward 
 a total reformation of the Church. The freedom of the Church from the 
 arbitrariness and power of the State ; independence, in the election of 
 popes, of all temporal influences ; the extermina.tion of simony ; fearless 
 severity against the immorality of the clergy ; the enforcement of 
 celibacy as the most efficient means of emancipating the clergy from the 
 power of the world and the State ; and the appointment of the best men 
 to the respective offices, were the lever of this reformation. The indis- 
 pensable temporal support in these measures Hildebrand sought among 
 the Normans. Hence Nicholas II. early applied to them ; released 
 them of the ban under which they had rested since Stephen's time; 
 on the ground of Constantino's grant, invested their leader, Robert 
 Guiscard [I 95, 1) with the dominion over Apuleia, Calabria, and 
 Sicily (not yet wrested from the Saracens) ; took from him an oaih of 
 vassalage, l)y which he bound himself to pay an annual tribute, to 
 protect the papal chair against every invasion of its rights, and above 
 all to maintain the papal elections of the "meliores cardiiiales." After 
 Nicholas, aided by the Normans, had overthrown the last citadels of 
 the Tusculan counts, he issued a decree, at a Lateran Council in Rome 
 (1059), according to which the election of popes was thenceforth to be 
 made by the cardinals alone, and then recognized by the clergy and 
 people, yet salvo debito honore et reverentia dilecti filii nostri Ueiarici, 
 qui imprcEseatiarum rex habetur, et futurus imperator Deo eoncedente 
 speratur, sicut jam sibi concessimus et successoribus Ulms, qui ab apos- 
 34
 
 398 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 10— 13 A.D.J. 
 
 iolica sede personaliter hoc jus impetr aver int. — This decree, and no less 
 the league with the Normans, was a public insult to the impei-ial 
 rights over Italy and the papal chair. The empress, therefore, sum- 
 moned a council of German bishops, about Easter, 1061, at which a 
 sentepce of condemnation was passed upon Nicholas, and all his regu- 
 lations were annulled. The pope soon after died. The Tusculan party 
 now united with the Germans, under the Lombard Chancellor Wibert, 
 requested the empress to furnish a new pope. At the Coiincil of Basel 
 (1001), Bishop Cadahis of Parma was appointed. He assumed the 
 title of Honorins II. (1061-72). But Hildebrand had, four weeks 
 before, by agreement with Beatrix of Canossa, caused Bishop Änselm 
 of Lucca to be elected by the cardinals, and consecrated as Alex- 
 ander II. (1061-73) Honorius, led by Wibert, went to Rome and 
 repeatedly vanquished the party of his opponent in bloody conflicts. 
 Duke Godfrey the Bearded, of Lorraine, the husband of Beatrix, now 
 interfered as mediator. He induced both popes to return to their Sees, 
 and submit their controversy to the decision of the empress. IMean- 
 while, matters in Germany were tending toward a most pernicious 
 catastrophe. Archbishop Anno of Cologne, at the head of a conspiracy 
 of princes, allured the young king, then twelve years old, at Kaisers- 
 werth, on a Rhine vessel, and carried him off to Cologne (1062). He 
 now secured the guardianship of the royal youth, and with it the 
 government of the empire. A Council at Augsburg (1062) deposed 
 Honorius, and acknowledged Alexander as the legitimate pope. But 
 Honorius by no means yielded his claims. With a small army he 
 marched upon Rome (1064), seized the Leonine city, fortified himself 
 in St. Angelo castle, and repeatedly routed the troops of his opponent. 
 But Hildebrand reminded the Normans of their oath. They therefore 
 came, and for two years besieged the anti-pope in St. Angelo, when 
 he escaped by flight. At the Council of Mantua (1067), Alexander 
 was again acknowledged, and Honorius, who tried in vain to split the 
 council by martial force, once more deposed. After that he sank into 
 obscurity, and died forsaken in 1072. Meanwhile the proud, ambitious 
 priest of Cologne had to surrender the training of the young king, 
 Henry IV. (1050-1106), to his Northern colleague, Archbishop Adalbert 
 of Bremen ; and if the former, by his excessive severity, had exerted 
 an unhappy influence upon the royal youth, the latter spoiled him by 
 excessive leniency. In order to put a check upon his debaucheries, 
 Anno persuaded him to marry the Marchioness Bertlia. Ere long he 
 endeavoured to obtain a divorce, but his attempt was frustrated by 
 the opposition of the papal legate Damiani, at the Diet of Worms (1069). 
 This was Henry's first conflict with the papacy. Soon afterwards the 
 Saxons complained to the pope of his extreme oppression of his sub- 
 jects, and making merchandise of all the offices of the Church. Alex- 
 ander II. had the unprecedented boldness to cite him to Rome. The 
 pope died soon after, and escaped Henry's wrath, and the matter ended
 
 THE PAPACY AND THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 399 
 
 4. Gregory VII. (1073-85). — (For sources see the preceding section.) 
 ■ — nUdehvand had now sufficiently strengthened the papacy, and no 
 longer hesitated to complete, in his own name, the work which he had 
 so auspiciously begun. He ascended the chair of Peter by the name 
 of Gregory VII., and intimated his appointment to Henry IV. in a 
 letter so humble and conciliatory as to procure the emperor's con- 
 firmation. At a synod field in Borne in 1074, he re-enacted the old 
 stringent laws of celibacy ; declared all priests who lived in wedlock, 
 or had obtained their offices by simony, to be deposed, and their 
 priestly functions invalid. The lovrer clergy, who were generally 
 married, violently opposed this measure ; but Gregory carried the 
 point (comp. § 97, 2). Papal legates visited every country, and, sup 
 ported by the popular voice, carried the order of the Pope into exe 
 cution. At another synod held in Rome (1075), the real contest 
 against simony and the practice of receiving investiture from secular 
 lords was commenced. Any ecclesiastic who in future should accept 
 office from the hands of a layman was to be deposed, and the secular 
 lord who bestowed investiture to be excommunicated. This threat was 
 first put in execution in the case of Henry's personal advisers, who 
 had been guilty of the most shameless simony. The emperor, at the 
 time fully engaged with suppressing a revolt of the Saxons, concealed 
 his anger, and dismissed his advisers. They were, however, restored 
 at the close of the war, and the former simony, spoliation of churches, 
 and oppression recommenced. Meantime Gregory himself met with 
 opposition in Italy. Cencius, the leader of that party among the 
 nobles which was opposed to reform, attacked the pope in church 
 during the celebration of the Christmas festivities (1075) ; but the 
 Romans set him free, and Cencius had to fly. A papal embassy was 
 now (1076) despatched to the court at Goslar, to cite the emperor to 
 appear personally at Rome under pain of excommunication. Henry 
 no h)nger restrained his indignation ; he insulted the legates, and at a 
 synod held at Wo7'vis in 1076 had the pope deposed, on the charges of 
 tyranny, magic, and adultery. Gregory replied by excommunicating 
 all the bishops who had taken part in the synod, and by solemnly 
 deposing and excommunicating the emperor, at the same time freeing 
 his sul)jects from their oath of allegiance. The papal ban made a 
 deep impression on the people and princes of Germany, and the 
 prelates submitted one after the other. At a diet held at Tribiir the 
 election of a new emperor was even discussed, when the weak monarch, 
 as much dismayed as formerly he had been obstinate and imperious, 
 resolved upon humbling himself to the utmost. Indeed, such a step 
 had now become necessary, and took not the pope by surprise, although 
 it disconcerted his plans. — In the cold winter of 1077, from the 25th 
 to the 27th January, the emperor stood barefoot in the garb of a 
 penitent, and fasting the whole day, in the court of the castle of 
 Canossa, belonging to the Countess Matilda, whom Gregory was at the
 
 400 SECTION II. SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 10— 13 A.D.) 
 
 time visiting. At length the pope consented to give him absclution. 
 but only, on condition of his not assuming the royal dignity till hif 
 cause had been investigated and decided. But Henry immediately 
 broke his promise, and accepted the proffered aid of the Lombards. 
 Gregory again hurled his anathema, pope and emperor deposed each 
 other, and both parties set up antagonists. The armies of Henry vrere 
 successful. Rudolf of Sivabia, his opponent in the empire, died soon 
 after the battle of Merseburg (1080), and Henry escorted the anti- 
 pope, Clement III., to Italy. Rome was taken ; but still Gregory 
 refused all overtures of peace, and shut himself up in the castle of St. 
 Angelo, till the Norman duke, Robert Guiscard, restored him to liberty 
 in 1084. Gregory died the following year at Salerno (1085). 
 
 Gregory VII. also came in conflict with King Philip I. of France, 
 and threatened him with an interdict and with deposition for his simony. 
 But the result of this attempt was compa.-atively trifling. Philip 
 apparently obeyed the command of the Pope, but did not change his 
 course, and Gregory thought it prudent not to press the matter. Still 
 more cautiously did he act towards William the Conqueror, of England, 
 although William tyrannized with an iron grasp over the Church of 
 his realm, and was scarcely less guilty of simony than the Kings of 
 Germany and France. But the Pope, who hoped to engage William in 
 a war against Henry IV., and who even excited expectations of obtain- 
 ing the imperial crown, closed his eyes against William's faults, and 
 overloaded him with favours. The primate of England, also, Lanfranc 
 of Canterbury, who was displeased with the Pope for protecting the 
 heretic Berengar (§102, 2), showed no special zeal on behalf of the 
 reforms desired by the Pope. Indeed at a Synod at Winchester 
 (1076), the law of celibacy was defeated, though with the restriction 
 that the secular clergy should no longer be allowed to marry, but 
 priests then married were not required to dismiss their wives. 
 
 It was the great object of Hildebrand's life to form a universal 
 theocracy, of which the Pope, as vicar of Christ upon earth, and hence 
 as possessing supreme power, should be the visible head. Not that 
 the royal power was to be abrogated, or its independence limited ; it 
 was an institution of God, but its province sxtended only to secular 
 matters, and any invasion of spiritual rights was to be corrected and 
 punished by the Pope. In this grand papal theocracy, which itself 
 was subject only to God and His law, all Christian states were to be 
 joined together as members of one body. It was the spiritual power 
 which consecrated and bestowed divine sanction upon secular rulers ; 
 they reigned by the grace of God, but mediately, not immediately — 
 the Church being the medium between them and God. The Pope was 
 supreme arbiter and lord over them, to whose decisions they were im- 
 plicitly to submit. The relation between royalty and the Papacy was 
 similar to that of the moon to the sun, receiving from the latter 
 light and heat. As the Church gave its divine authority to secular
 
 THE PAPACY AND THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 401 
 
 rule, it might again ■withdra.'w it where power was abused, and in such 
 cases subjects were absolved from their allegiance. — Admitting that 
 this system was not consonant with the Gospel, it cannot be denied 
 that during this period of transition it formed a necessary counterpoise 
 to the arbitrary and despotic interferences on the part of the secular 
 power. Gregory, and with him the ablest men of his age, considered 
 that in this system alone lay the salvation of society, the sole and true 
 preservation both of Church and State, of princes and peoples. And 
 in a certain sense they were right. If the Church was to accomplish 
 its great mission in the training of those nations on whom the future 
 devolved, if it was not to perish amidst the barbarism of that period, 
 it must have been concentrated and secured in a power such as, ac- 
 cording to Gregory, the Papacy was intended to establish. — It was 
 not to place his own individuality on the summit of human authority, 
 Ijut to preserve the Church from imminent destruction, that Gregory 
 undertook his gigantic work. Not vulgar love of power nor vain 
 ambition animated him, but the idea of the high destiny of the Church, 
 to which he devoted his life with enthusiastic ardour. In such a 
 service only would he have spent his high intellectual and moral 
 powers. True, a strong individuality supported him in his struggles, 
 but at the same time he always preserved the consciousness of being a 
 poor sinner, who could find mercy only through the merits of the 
 Saviour. Occasionally, indeed, his energy degenerated into passionate 
 obstinacy, and his enthusiastic devoteduess to the interests of the 
 Church led him to forget what by Divine appointment was the pro- 
 vince and authority of the State ; but these exaggerations were pro- 
 voked by the determined perversity with which he was met. Even his 
 bitterest enemies could not impugn the strict morality of his conduct. 
 However strict and unbending in matters which he deemed true or 
 necessary, he displayed at the same time, not unfrequently, a kindli- 
 ness and liberality far in advance of his age, as, for example, in the 
 dispute of Berengar (§102, 2), and in his decided opposition to the 
 belief in witchcraft and magic, common at that period. 
 
 5. To the Settlement of the Dispute about Investiture (1085-1123) — < 
 (cf. E. Gurvais, polit. Gesch. Deutchl. unter. Heinr. V n. Lothar III. 
 2 Bde. Lpz. 1841, 2.) — The immediate successors of Ilildebrand had 
 been trained in his views, and adopted his policy. The contest between 
 the imperial and papal parties still continued. Urban II. (1088-1099), 
 the second in the See of Peter after Gregory, was indeed obliged to 
 vacate Rome in favour of Clement III., the imperial anti-Pope ; but the 
 enthusiasm for the deliverance of the Holy Sepulchre excited by Peter of 
 Amiens, and with which at the Council of Claremont (1095) the Pope 
 inspired Western Christendom, gave him the greatest influence among 
 his cotemporaries. An army of crusaders chased the anti-Pope from 
 Rome ; and Urban was able to resist successfully the opposition of Philip 
 I. of France," whom he had excommunicated at Clermont on account o£" 
 34*
 
 402 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 10—13 A.D.). 
 
 his adulterous connection with Bertrada. Tidings of the conqnest of J& 
 rusalem (1099) reached the Pope on his death-bed. He was succeeded 
 by Paschal II. (1099-1118), who also had been trained at Clugny. 
 This pontiiF completely humbled Henry IV. by supporting the cause 
 of his rebellious son. But no sooner had Henry V. (1106-1125) 
 attained the object of his ambition, than the dispute about investiture 
 commenced anew. The Pope, choosing to see the Church poor rather 
 than in bondage, was obliged to conclude a treaty by which the right 
 of investiture was conceded to the Church, on condition that all ecclesi- 
 astical fiefs obtained since the time of Charlemagne should be restored 
 to the State (1110). The bishops and abbots, however, resisted this 
 agreement, and rendered its fulfilment impossible. Henry took the 
 Pope prisoner, and obliged him to make a new treaty, by which the 
 investiture of bishops with ring and staff (the symbols of priestly 
 authority) before consecration was formally acknowledged as a right 
 belonging to the Emperor. But at a synod held at Borne (1112) the 
 party of Hildebrand called the Pope to account. His concessions 
 were declared invalid, and the Emperor excommunicated. The dispute 
 now broke out afresh. Henry took Rome, and the Pope died in exile. 
 At last the controversy terminated, so far as Germany was concerned, 
 by mutual concessions under the pontificate of Calixtus II. (1119- 
 1124). The Concordat of Worms (1122) settled that all elections of 
 bishops were to be freely conducted according to the laws of the 
 Church, but under the supervision of the Emperor ; and that the right 
 of spiritual investiture by ring and staff belonged to the Pope, while 
 that of secular infiefment with the sceptre was conceded to the Empe- 
 ror. This agreement was confirmed by the First General Lateran 
 Council in 1123 (called in the West the Ninth Oecumenical Council). 
 — In Enf/land the same controversy had been earlier brought to a close. 
 Even William the Conqueror (1066-1087) had been guilty of gross 
 simony. The abuse reached its highest point under the reign of his 
 son William Rtifus. Balph Flamhard, Archbishop of Canterbury, 
 acted as the trusty adviser of the king in this nefarious traffic. During 
 a severe illness William promised amendment, deposed Ralph (1093), 
 and in his place appointed a well-known ecclesiastic, Anselm, Abbot 
 of Bee (? 102, 1, 3). But the good resolutions of the king vanished 
 with hi.s illness ; he even ventured to insist upon payment of a large 
 sum from Anselm in consideration of his promotion. As this was 
 resisted by the new archbishop, the king confiscated the estates of the 
 archiepiscopal see, and continued to oppress Anselm till he fled tc 
 Rome fl097). Henry Reavclerc, the son of William, who usurped the 
 throne in violation of the claims of Robert, his elder brother, required 
 the support of the clergy to maintain his position, and hence recalled 
 the nrimate (1099), promising to abstain from every form of simony. 
 Durinsr his stay in Rome, Anselm had attended and voted at a synod 
 ajramst lay investiture. Accordingly, he now refused to take even the
 
 THE PAPACY AND THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 403 
 
 oath of fealty ; and as the king insisted upon this, left England a 
 Rccond time (1103), and lived for several years in exile at Lyons. 
 Piq)e Paschal II. took up his cause, and threatened to launch an 
 interdict. Ultimately, however, the king and archbishop, with con- 
 sent of the Pope, agreed, at a meeting held in the monastery of Bee, 
 wholly to dispense with the ceremony of investiture by ring and stafi', 
 and to go through, the formality of taking the oath of fealty (1106). 
 
 6. To the time of Innocent III. (1123-1198.) — (Cf. Fr.v. Raumer, 
 Gesch. d. Hohenstaufen, 4. A. 6 Bde. Lpz. 1871 etc. — W. Zimmerman, 
 die Ilohenst. oder d. Kampf d. Monarchie gegen d. Papst u. d. republ. 
 Freiheit. 2 Bde. Stuttg. 1838. — i/. Emtcr, Alex. Ill u. d. K. sr. Zeit. 
 
 Berl. 18G0, Ring, Friedr. I kn Kampf gegen Alex. 111. Stuttg, 
 
 1838. — H. Franke, Arn. v. Brescia u. sr. Zeit. Zurich 1825. — F. J. 
 Bass, d. h. Thomas v. Cantb. Mainz 1856). — A division among the 
 cardinals led to a double election to the Papacy in 1130. Innocent II. 
 (1130-1143) was for eight years kept out of Rome by his antagonist 
 Anaclete II. ; but the two oracles of that joeriod, Peter of Ciugny and 
 Bernard of Claircaitx, declared in his favour, nor did they rest satisfied 
 till the authority of Innocent had been recognized in the Eternal City. 
 Meantime a dangerous opponent to the system of Hildebrand had un- 
 expectedly arisen in the person of Arnold of Brescia, a young and 
 enthusiastic priest. To him a complete surrender of all worldly pos- 
 sessions and authority appeared necessary for the regeneration of the 
 Church ; at the same time the ancient republic of Rome was to be re- 
 stored, and to take the place of the Papal Government. Arnold was 
 formally condemned by the Second General Lateran Council (1139). 
 But his appeals to the people had found an echo in many breasts. In 
 1143 the Romans renounced the secular rule of the Pope. This feeling 
 continued till the time of Eugene III. (1145-1153), the third Pope 
 after Innocent, who again entered Rome, supported both by the 
 influence of Bernard of Clairvaux, his teacher and friend, and by the 
 newly awakened zeal for a Second Crusade (§ 94, 2). With Hadrian 
 IV. (1154-1159) commenced the contest between the Papacy and the 
 Hohenstaufen family, which lasted during a whole centur^^ and ended 
 in the extermination of that dynasty, when the Papacy' reached the 
 summit of its power and authority. Frederic I. Barbarossa (1152- 
 1190) ascended the throne with the full determination of carrying into 
 execution the ecclesiastical scheme of Charlemagne (whom he after- 
 wards had canonized by his Pope, Paschal III.). In 1154 Arnold of 
 Brescia fell into his hands. Frederic surrendered him to the Pope ; 
 the reformer was hanged, his body burned, and his ashes cast into the 
 Tiber (115-5). Still the Pope sought an occasion of dispute. At last 
 Frederic consented even to hold the stirrup to the Pontiff, while he 
 rejected with merited scorn the offer of the Romans, to receive from 
 their hand the crown, and ^^th it the government of the world. He 
 sras crowned by the Pope in 1155. Fresh dissensions with the Pope
 
 404 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 10—13 A.D.). 
 
 and the hostile attitude of the Lombards obliged the Emperor to pass 
 a second time into Italy. There he held in 1158 a diet, at which the 
 rights of the Emperor were expounded for the benefit of the Lombards 
 and of the Pope. The indignation of the Pontifi" was about to find 
 vent in an anathema, when death overtook him. He was succeeded 
 by Alexander III. (1159-1181). Three imperial anti-popes died 
 within a shoi't period ; and when the Emperor himself was defeated by 
 the Lombard confederates at Legnano (1176), he was obliged to recog- 
 nize Alexander as pontiff". — Shortly before, the Papacy had achieved 
 in England a victory even more complete than this. Henry II. (1154t- 
 1189) was bent on recovering the former supremacy over the clergy, 
 who now refused to acknowledge any other authority than that of the 
 Curia. Among his councillors none seemed better fitted to aid him in 
 carrying out this plan than Thomas a Becket, his chancellor, who 
 accordingly was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury. The king con- 
 voked an assembly of the estates of the realm at Clarendon (1164); 
 and Becketwas prevailed upon to take an oath to, the anti-papal statutes 
 there promulgated. But the Primate of the English Church soon 
 altered his conduct ; he did public penance for his thoughtless oath, 
 from which Alexander III. solemnly absolved him. Becket had to 
 flee, and in his exile in France continued to oppose his monarch. 
 In 1170 a reconciliation took place. Thomas a Becket returned, to 
 pronounce the ban upon all bishops who should submit to the statutes 
 of Clarendon. Four knights took up an unguarded expression of the 
 king, extorted from him in a moment of anger, and murdered the 
 archbishop at the altar of his chapel. The Pope canonized the martyr 
 of the Romish system, and the king was compelled to expiate his 
 off'ence by submitting on the gi'ave of his sainted enemy to a humilia- 
 ting penance (1174). At the Third Lateran Cotincil (the Eleventh 
 CEcumenical) in 1179, it was decreed that in future a majority of two- 
 thirds of the votes of cardinals should be required to render a papal 
 election valid. — Frederic I. died far from his country (| 94, 3). His 
 son, Henry VI. (1190-1197), obtained the crown of Sicily by marrying 
 Constance, the heiress to that country. He continued the measures 
 which his father had taken to secure the supremacy of the Emperor. 
 His opponent. Pope Coelestine III. (1191-1198), a man ninety years of 
 age, was too weak to resist the monarch. Soon afterwards Henry 
 died, leaving an infant son, Frederic, only three years of age (1197). 
 
 7. Innocent IIL (1198-1216). — (Cf. Fr. Hurter, P. Innoc. III. u. s. 
 Zeitgen. 3. A. 4 Bde. Hamb. 1845. — 0. Abel, König Philipp d. 
 Hohenst, Berl. 1852.— C. Höfler (Catholic), Kaiser Friedr. II. Ein 
 Beitr. z. Berichtig, d. d. Sturz d. Hohenst. Mlinch. 1844.) — For a 
 time, during the pontificate of Coelestine, it seemed doubtful whether 
 the results achieved by the policy of nilde])rand would prove lasting. 
 But in 1198 Innocent III., the .greatest Pope whom Rome has ever 
 seen, ascended the chair of Peter. With him the Papacy rose to the
 
 THE PAPACY AND THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 405 
 
 highest conceivable stage of influence and authority. In strength of 
 mind and purpose Innocent was nowise inferior tOvtiregory ; in learn- 
 ing, acuteness, and general ability, he was his superior ; while his 
 piety, moral purity, enthusiasm, and devotedness to the interests of the 
 Church, were at least as great, and indeed more deep and ardent 
 than in the case of his great predecessor. He came forward as the 
 avenger of every species of wrong; towards widows and orphans he 
 acted like a father ; he proved a peacemaker both to peoples and 
 princes ; and although himself living in poverty and simplicity, he 
 succeeded in accumulating such immense treasures as enabled him to 
 adopt measures for protecting the interests of the Papacy. Indeed his 
 history AA'as that of the period, inasmuch as his influence extended to 
 all countries and courts, not excepting that of Constantinople. Even 
 where his theocratic authority as vicar of Christ was not at first recog- 
 nized, he succeeded by his power and energy, by his prudence and 
 wisdom, in extorting the homage claimed. It was the great aim of his 
 life to achieve the j)oliiicul independence of the Papal See by strengthen- 
 ing the States of the Church, ridding Italy from foreign domination, 
 and emancipating Sicily and Naples from the rule of Germany. But 
 even this was only means to the higher end of securing the power of 
 exercising unlimited spiritual supremacy over all Christian states, 
 princes, and peoples. — The most important of his conflicts were those 
 with Germany and England. On her death-bed, Constance, the widow 
 of Henry VI., had committed to him the tutelage of her son Frederic, 
 who had been recognized as Emperor even in his third year. The 
 Pope justified her confidence by giving his pupil the most ample and 
 liberal education. But the circumstances of Germany required with- 
 out delay a strong ruler. The choice of the German nobles was 
 divided ; the Guelph party elected Otho IV., the Ghibellines Philip of 
 Swuhia. In virtue of his theocratic authority. Innocent gave his sanc- 
 tion to the choice of the Guelphs. Scarcely, however, had Otho, after 
 the murder of his rival, obtained the imperial crown, than he renewed 
 the old claims upon Italy. The Pope anathamatized him (1210), and 
 elevated Frederic II. (1215-1250) to the imperial throne, after that 
 prince had ceded Sicily in favour of Henry, his son. — In England, 
 Innocent displayed his authority in a manner even more decisive. In 
 consequence of a divided election there were two claimants to the See 
 of Canterbury (1207). Innocent rejected both, and appointed Stephen, 
 Lamjton to the office. The resistance of King John was punished with 
 excommunication and an interdict (1209). John, equally tyrannical 
 and weak, hated by the nobles, despised by the people, and deposed by 
 the Pope (1212), did penance, and received back his kingdom as a 
 papal fief (1213). But soon afterwards the estates obliged the king to 
 grant thb Magna Charta (1215) ; the protest of the Pope, his threats 
 of excommunication, and promise that their grievances should be other- 
 wise redressed, were equally vain. — In France, Innocent obliged Philip
 
 406 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 10—13 A.D.;. 
 
 Augustus to take back Ingeburgis, his wife, whom he hg,d repudiated 
 (1201). Arragon and Portugal submitted to a yearly tribute. He 
 frequently interposed in the affairs of Poland, Hungary, Dalmatia, and 
 Norway. Lastly, he gave a king to Bulgaria and WallacJiia. At the 
 close of his life, and looking back upon the work he had achieved, he 
 assembled, in 1215, the representatives of the Church at the Fourth 
 Lateran Synod (the Twelfth Qlcumenical), where the Eastern patri- 
 archs were also represented. The chief topics discussed in that assem- 
 bly were, a new crusade, the condemnation of the Albigenses, the doc- 
 trine of transubstantiation (which was formally approved), and the 
 coronation of Frederic II. 
 
 8. To Boniface VIII. (1216-1294). — (Cf. Th. Lau, d. Unterg. d. 
 Hohenst. Hamb. 1856.) — After the death of Innocent, Frederic IL 
 entirely changed his conduct. Pope Honorius III. (1216-1227) ab- 
 solved him from the obligation of separating Sicily from Germany. In 
 return, the Emperor guaranteed to the Church the property left to it 
 by the Countess Matilda, and promised to undertake a new crusade. 
 The latter he delayed under various pretexts, till Gregory IX. (1227- 
 1241) carried into execution the threat of anathematizing him. Upon 
 this Frederic commenced the Fifth Crusade (1228), without, however, 
 even requesting the removal of the papal ban. On his return, an ap- 
 parent reconciliation took place (1230). But the energetic measures 
 which the Emperor took to establish his supreme rule in Italy, soon 
 brought upon him another anathema (1239) — this time on the charge 
 of infidelity and blasphemy. It was said the Emperor had declared 
 the miraculous birth of the Saviour a fable, and pronounced Moses, 
 Jesus, and Mohammed the three greatest impostors, etc. These charges 
 do not seem to have been wholly ungrounded, although the tractate 
 "De tribus impostoribus" was certainly not written by the Emperor, 
 being a later production, erroneously imputed to Frederic on the ground 
 of those very charges made by the Pope. Frederic conquered the 
 States of the Church, penetrated to the gates of Rome, and prevented 
 the Meeting of the General Council which had been summoned against 
 him. Gregory died in 1241, and his successor. Cwlestine V., after a 
 pontificate of only seventeen days. Two years the Papal See remained 
 vacant. At length. Innocent IV. (1243-1254), formerly the friend of 
 Frederic, but as pope his mortal enemy, was elected. Innocent fled to 
 Lyons ; and at ih.Q First Council of Lyons in 1245 (the Thirteenth CEcu- 
 monical) excommunicated and deposed the Emperor, as guilty of blas- 
 phemy and sacrilege. Neither Emperor nor Pope would yield. Each 
 insisted on absolute submission, and the contest with pen and sword 
 continued. Frederic died in 1250 ; Innocent four years later. Urban 
 IV. (1261-64) called in the aid of Charles of Anjou, the brother ot Louis 
 IX. of France, for the purpose of conquering Sicily. Treason had pre- 
 pared the way. Manfred, the son of Frederic, fell in the battle of 
 Beneven'^o (1266), and Conradin, the grandson of Frederic, and tha
 
 THE CLERGY. 
 
 407 
 
 laat of the Ilohcnstaufen dynasty, died on the scaffold, after the battle 
 of Tagliacozzo (1268). — The Papacy had, indeed, obtained the vic- 
 tory ; but its triumph vras only apparent. The divisions in Germany 
 and the partition of Italy only increased the power of France, and 
 enabled that country effectually to subjugate the Papacy. The former 
 enthusiasm for crusades was extinct, and with it a powerful bulwark of 
 the Papacy had fallen. By ü. pnujmatic sanction (1269) Louis secured, 
 indeed, the French Church against simony, but at the same time, also, 
 against the interferences and extortions of the popes, — thereby laying 
 the foundation of the liberties afterwards claimed by the Galilean 
 Church. — Some ultramontane writers have unsuccessfully attempted to 
 prove that this document is a forgery, dating from the fifteenth century. 
 Compare, for example, Bösen, die pragm. Sanct., Mlinst. 1855 ; and 
 against this ultramontane production, Soldan in his "hist, theol. Zeit- 
 schr." for 1856, III. — The successors of Innocent IV. could no longer 
 control the supremacy of the French in Sicily ; they hated their arro- 
 gant liberators, and countenanced the conspiracy which issued in the 
 bloody Sicilian Vespers (1282). French influence was even exerted in 
 elections to the Papacy. After the Papal See had remained vacant 
 for three years, Gregory X. (1271-1276) decreed in 1274, at the Second 
 Synod of Lyons (the Fourteenth Ölcumenical), that in future the elec- 
 tion of cardinals should be conducted in conclave ; and that, in order 
 to accelerate a harmonious vote, their allowance of food should be daily 
 decreased. Still the evil continued. After another vacancy of the 
 Papal See which lasted two years, the antagonistic parties agreed in 
 the choice of a pious but simple-minded hermit — Ccelestine \. (1294), 
 who the same year consented to abdicate at the suggestion of the cun- 
 ning and ambitious Cardinal Cajetan (§ 112, 6). Cajetan himself now 
 ascended the papal throne, by the name of Boniface VIII." 
 
 §97. THE CLERGY. 
 
 After the tenth century, canonical life (§ 84, 4) gradually de- 
 generated and decayed. The attempts made to reform these 
 abuses, led to a distinction between "Canonici seculares" and 
 "reguläres." The latter contended for the ancient discipline 
 and order ; but in ccurse of time also shared in the general cor- 
 ruption. The most distinguished among the advocates of a 
 stricter discipline were, Geroch, Provost of Reichersberg in Ba- 
 varia (ob. 1169), and Norbert, a canon, the founder of tlie Order 
 of Prasmonstrants (§ 98, 3). The cathedral chapters were in the 
 habit of themselves filling up vacancies in their number ; since 
 the restoration of the old canonical mode of election, they also 
 chose their bishops generally from among themselves, and with-
 
 408 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (C E NT. 10— 13 A. D.). 
 
 out consulting the people. From the large incomes attaching to 
 3athedral stalls, these posts were commonly filled by members of 
 the aristocracy — an abuse against which the popes in vain pro- 
 tested. In the course of time the canons became more and more 
 independent of episcopal control ; they generally lived outside 
 their chapters, and employed vicars to discharge their duties. 
 The bishops exercised jurisdiction over all the clergy in their 
 dioceses, and punished offenders by deposition or by imprison- 
 ment in a monastery. All causes connected with marriage, tes- 
 tamentary dispositions, oaths, etc., were also pleaded before their 
 tribunals. The peculiarly German institution of Sends gave 
 place to the Roman form of judicial administration. The arch- 
 deacons threw off the authority of their bishops, and used their 
 power in so arbitrary a manner that, in the twelfth century, the 
 office had to be abrogated. Their duties were henceforth dis- 
 charged by episcopal officials and vicars. The office of chorepis- 
 cojn had ceased in the tenth century. During the Crusades a 
 number of Catholic sees had, however, been founded in the East, 
 the occupants of which retained their titles even after their expul- 
 sion, and found employment as assistants of Western prelates 
 (suffragan bishops). This gave rise to the institution of Episcopi 
 in p)ai'tihus (sc. infidelium"), which has continued ever since, in 
 testimony of the inalienable rights of the Church. — The wealth 
 of churches was greatly augmented, partly by tithes, legacies, 
 donations (especially during the Crusades), and royal fiefs, partly 
 from the increasing value of landed property. Of course the 
 poor shared in the benefits of this growing prosperity. Ecclesi- 
 astical property was subjected to taxation only in time of public 
 calamity. The celibacy of the clergy preserved the Church from 
 inevitable impoverishment, if its property had been allowed to 
 descend to the children of the clergy, as at one time seemed 
 likely to be the case. — Strict moralists, such asRaiherius (Bishop 
 of Yerona, ob. 9*74), and especially Petrus Damiani, Bishop of 
 Ostia {ob. lot-) — the friend and admirer ofGregoryYI I., whose 
 "liber gomorrhianus" contains a fearful picture of the dissolute- 
 ness of the clergy — and such monitors as St. Hildegarxl and the 
 Abbot Jo'ichim (§ 108, 4\ made fruitless attempts to arrest the 
 moral degeneracy of the clergy. Gregory had, indeed, succeeded 
 by his decrees in enforcing clerical celibacy, but not in putting 
 an end to concubinage, and even to worse offences. The labours 
 of St Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury (^ob. 988), were greatly
 
 THE CLERGY. 409 
 
 blessed to the moral elevation of the English clergy. — It must 
 not, however, be forgotten, that, despite this corruption, a large 
 number of the clergy were excellent and conscientious men ; and 
 that, even with a degenerate clergy, the clerical office, which the 
 people could distinguish from its occupants, proved the salt 
 of the age. Like other professions, the ecclesiastical reflected 
 the features of a period, big not only with gross abuses, but with 
 exalted virtues, deep thoij'ghts, and great forces. The ignorance 
 of the clergy, especially in respect to religious knowledge, proved 
 even a greater hindrance than their immorality to the progress 
 and prosperity of the Church. The Word of God was locked 
 np from the people in a dead language, and only a very small 
 proportion of the clergy were sufficiently educated or fitted to 
 declare and expound its blessed truths. 
 
 1. The Political Inßuence acquired by the higher Clergy during this 
 period was very great, especially in Germany. On more than one 
 occasion did the sagacious, firm, and consistent measures advocated by 
 the German clei-gy — forming as they did, under the leadership of the 
 primates of Mayence, a united and compact body — preserve the empire 
 from imminent ruin, or from division, through the folly of ambitious 
 princes and lords. The influence of these prelates was not only derived 
 from their sway over the consciences, but also from their having 
 standing in the Diet, and from the circumstance that they were terri- 
 torial lords. The possibility of a war frequently depended on the con- 
 sent or refusal of the spiritual princes to furnish contingents to the 
 imperial army. The clergy desired to see Germany united and strong ; 
 the neighbouring countries were to be connected with the German 
 Church, and to form part of the empire, but not, as the emperors 
 wished, in the shape of personal domains, but as incorporated with the 
 State. The German clergy always opposed those expeditions of the 
 emperors to Rome, which alienated the rulers from the distinctive 
 interests of Germany, and ruined the country. They desired to see 
 the chair of Peter free and independent — a European, not a German 
 institution — and the Emperor its protector, not its oppressor; but they 
 also resisted every assumption and interference on the part of the 
 popes. Such a type of the good old German prelates was WiUigis of 
 Mayence, to whom Germany owed one of its wisest and happiest admi- 
 nistrations under the sway of Henry II., whose elevation to the throne he 
 had procured . Under Henry IV. the German clergy were divided into three 
 parties. The Papalists were headed by Gebhard of Salzburg, and num- 
 bered almost all the Saxon bishops ; the Imperialists were led hj Adal- 
 bert of Bremen, who intended founding a northern Patriarchate, — 
 probably a northern papacy ; while the purely German party was guided 
 hjAnno of Cologne, the last genuine representative of the ancient episco- 
 35
 
 410 SECTION II SECOND PERIOD (C E N T. 10— 13 A. D.). 
 
 pal policy of the country. (Comp. C Grilnhagen, Adalb. v. Hamb. u. 
 d. Idee eines nord. Patriarchates. Leips. 1854.) Henry V. and the 
 first Hohenstaufens were vigorously supported by the German clergy. 
 But want of proper respect on the part of Frederic IL, and his oppres 
 sion of the bishops, entirely alienated the clergy from the crown.— 
 During the time of Otho 1. those high imperial offices originated, tt 
 whom, under the reign of Otho IV., the exclusive right of nominating 
 successors to the empire was entrusted. Thus the Archbishops of 
 Mayence, Treves, and Cologne were elevated to the rank of Spiritual 
 Princes, Electors, as holding the office of arch-chaplains or arch-chan- 
 cellors. These privileges and offices were confirmed and settled by the 
 Golden Bull of Charles IV. (1356). 
 
 2. The Pataria of Milan. — Among the Lombard clergy, more than 
 any other, simony, concubinage, and the marriage of priests, were com- 
 mon. Accordingly, the changes introduced by Hildebrand met with 
 most strenuous resistance in that country. The oppostion was headed 
 by Wido (Guido), Archbishop of Milan, whom Henry III. had in 1046 
 appointed to that diocese. Indeed, this prelate renewed the former 
 claims of his see to spiritual independence, and even renounced his 
 allegiance to Rome (| 83, 1). Wido was supported by the nobility and 
 clergy. But two deacons, Ariald and Landidf Cotta, organized a con- 
 spiracy among the common people, which their opponents, by way of 
 derision, designated Pataria, Paterini [i.e., blackguards). The papal 
 party adopted this name, and began a warfare against married priests, 
 which for thirty years led to continual scenes of violence and bloodshed. 
 
 I 98. THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS. 
 
 Comp. 1 2, 2. c. and Fr. Hurler, Innoc. III. u. s. Zeitgen. Bd. Ill, IV. 
 
 Despite growing corruptions, Monasticism reached at this 
 period its highest stage, and more than ever, before or after it, 
 earned the title of "Knighthood of Asceticism." A number of 
 new monastic orders were founded as an offset to the degeneracy 
 of older orders, partly in the form of branches (or so-called 
 congregationa) of the Benedictines, partly as independent insti- 
 tutions under a separate and distinct rule. Almost every day 
 new monasteries rose — frequently also in cities. The reformed 
 Benedictine monasteries organized themselves into a general 
 society, under the management of the parent monastery, and 
 styled themselves congregations. The oldest of these congrega- 
 tions, and for two centuries the most influential, was that of 
 Clugny. Its glowing zeal for high-church reforms, made it one 
 of the main instruments in elevating the Church and the Papacy
 
 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS. 411 
 
 from their decay during the tenth century. A smaller order, that 
 of the Camaldulites, was also helpful in that direction. The 
 monastery of Glairmux disputed with that of Clwjny the vene- 
 ration of Christendom. The ??on-reformed monasteries of the 
 Benedictines, on the contrary, persisted in their self-satisfied 
 isolation and their luxurious life. To distinguish them from the 
 Cistercians, who wore a white dress, they, and those of Clugny, 
 were called Black Monks. To prevent too great a subdivision 
 of the monastic orders. Innocent III., at the Fourth Lateran 
 Council in 1215, prohibited the formation of any new society. 
 But the Pope himself assisted in founding two new orders, which, 
 in importance and influence, soon surpassed all others — we mean 
 the two celebrated mendicant fraternities. The monks acted as 
 the standing army of the Papacy, and to them Gregory was 
 chiefly indebted for the success of his policy. The popes readily 
 exempted monasteries from the supervision of their diocesans ; 
 princes conferred dignities and offices on abbots ; while the peo- 
 ple, v/ho looked upon monasteries as representing the popular 
 element in the Church, regarded these institutions with the great- 
 est veneration. Legacies, donations, fiefs, and purchases swelled 
 the wealth and increased the landed property attaching to mon- 
 asteries. — From the tenth century monks were regarded as 
 constituting a special ecclesiastical order (ordo religiosorum) ; 
 the secular business of monasteries was entrusted to lay brethren 
 (conversi). These were addressed as fratres, whilst the others, 
 who had received clerical orders, were called jjatres. The mo- 
 nastic orders were distinguished from each other by different 
 garbs. Frequently disputes arose between these ecclesiastics 
 and the secular clergy, as the monks too often and improperly 
 interfered with the duties and emoluments of the regular priests. 
 — Besides these monastic orders, who were bound by a perpetual 
 vow and a fixed rule, voluntary associations of men and women — 
 the Beghards and Beguins — were formed. The members of 
 these communities were not under any monastic constraint, but 
 voluntarily agreed to retire from the world, and to devote them- 
 selves to their own spiritual advancement and to labours of 
 Christian love. — In consequence of the enthusiasm evoked by the 
 Crusades, the profession of monasticism was combined with 
 knighthood. Thus the knightly orders originated, of which 
 the members, under their grand-masters and commanders, were 
 arranged into knights, priests, and serving brothers. — (Cf § 112.)
 
 412 SECTION II. SECOND PERIOD (C E N T. 10— 13 A. D.). 
 
 1. Soon after the reformation introduced by Benedict of Anian« 
 (^ 85, 2), the Benedictine monasteries again degenerated in discipline 
 and morality. Accordingly, William, Duke of Aquitaine, entrusted to 
 Berno, a Burgundian count [oh. 927), who had already restored order 
 in two Burgundian cloisters of which he was the abbot, the duty of 
 founding a new monastery. Thus arose the celebrated Abbacy of 
 Cluyny (Cluniacum) in Burgundy, which its founder placed under the 
 Immediate supervision of the Pope (910). Under Odo, the successor of 
 Berno [oh. 942), a courtier, who had renounced the world during a dan- 
 gerous illness, this monastery became the centre of a separate "con- 
 gregation" — that of Clugny — which formed an offshoot from the 
 Benedictine Order. The strict asceticism of these monks, the great 
 splendour displayed in the celebration of all the rites of religion, their 
 zeal for science and literature, their efforts for the education of youth, 
 and lastly a succession of distinguished aV^bots — among them, especially 
 Odilo {ob. 1048), the friend of Ilildebrand, and Peter the Venerable [ob. 
 1156). — (Cf. C. A. Wilkens, Petrus d. Ehrw., &c., Lpz. 1857) — pro- 
 cured for the "congregation" an influence almost unexampled upon 
 their cotemporaries. In the twelfth century it numbered no fewer 
 than 2000 monasteries in France. At the head of this powerful order 
 was the Abbot of Clugny ; he appointed the priors of the subordinate 
 monasteries. Under the rule of Pontius, a dissolute man, who was de- 
 posed in 1122, the order decayed, but again rose when Peter the Ven- 
 erable became its head. — [C. Pelargus, Gesch. d. Abtei Clugny. Tub. 
 1858.) — In Italy, the Camaldolite Order occupied a position analogous 
 to that of Clugny in France. It was founded in 1018 by Romuald, a 
 scion of the ducal family of Ravenna, who built a monastery in Camal- 
 doli (campus Maldoli), a desolate part in the Apennines. Nunneries 
 were also erected in connection with these monasteries. Like the Order 
 of Clugny, that of Camaldoli espoused the High Church cause, and 
 acquired considerable influence upon their cotemporaries, although not 
 to the same extent as their French brethren. — Twenty years later, 
 Johannes Gualhertiis, a Florentine, founded the Vallamhrosian Order, 
 after the model of that of Camaldoli, in a shady vale (Vallis Umbrosa) 
 of the Apennines. It was the first to receive lay brethren for the pur- 
 pose of attending to temporal matters, that so the monks might observe 
 their vows of silence and of strict confinement to the walls of their cloister. 
 — The Conyregation of the Scotch Benedictine Monastery, in Germany, 
 owed its origin to the unabated love of travel which animated Irish and 
 Scotch monks, and which was excited anew, in the tenth century, by 
 , the invasions of the Danes and Normans (§ 93, 1). The finst convent 
 in Germany, designed exclusively for the reception of Irish monks, was 
 St. Martin's at Cologne (tenth century). But the Benedictine monas- 
 tery of St. James at Regensburg was more important. It was founded 
 by the Scot, Marianns, and two companions, in 1067. From it sprang 
 eleven others in southern Germany, which Innocent III., at the Lateran
 
 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS. 
 
 413 
 
 Council of 1215, confirmed as separate congregations. At first they 
 distinguished themselves by their zealous asceticism, strict discipline, 
 and literary labours ; but later they became notorious for immorality 
 and gluttony {1 112). — (Cf. Wattenbach, d. Congreg. d. Schottenkl. in 
 Deutschl. In Quast' u. Otte's Ztschr. f. christl. Archteol. Bd. I. 
 Lpz. 1856.) 
 
 2. From the year 1098, the Congregation of Cistercians, founded at 
 Citeanx (Cistercium), near Dijon, by Robert, proved a rival to the 
 popularity of the Order of Clugny, from which it difiered by voluntarily 
 submitting to episcopal supervision, and hj avoiding all splendour in 
 their churches and monasteries. Instead of the black cowl of the 
 Benedictines, the Cistercians wore the white ; otherwise, their con- 
 stitution was similar to the rule of the Order of Clugny. The order 
 enjoyed comparatively small influence, till the fame of Bernard, Abbot 
 OF Clairvaux — a monastery dependent on the institution at Citeaux — ■ 
 elevated it to the highest place in public esteem. In honour of him, 
 the order assumed the name of Bernardines. (On St. Bernard, comp, 
 below, I 103, 1.) In the thirteenth century the order numbered no 
 fewer than 2000 monasteries and 6000 nunneries. The jealousy sub- 
 sisting at one time between the monks of Clugny and those of Citeaux 
 gave place to more proper feelings, chiefly through the intimacy of St. 
 Bernard with Peter the Venerable. 
 
 3. The following were the most important among the numerous 
 other monastic orders at the time of Innocent III.: — 1. The Order of 
 Gh-ammont, in France, founded by Stephen of Tigerno (1073). It pro- 
 fessed no other rule than the Gospel. Its members led a quiet, unpre- 
 tending life. But the arrogance of their lay brethren led to its decay 
 in the twelfth century. 2. The Order of Fontevranx, founded in 1006 by 
 Robert of Arbrissel, at Fontevraux (Fons Ebraldi), in Poitou. The 
 founder travelled through the country, summoning all to repentance, 
 and reared nunneries for maidens, widows, and fallen females. The 
 abbess, who was regarded as the representative of the Blessed Vir- 
 gin, the patroness of the order, had the supervision even of the 
 priests employed by the nuns. 3. The Order of Gkiilbertines, a parallel 
 with the last-named, fcmndcd by Guilbert, an English priest, of noble 
 descent. In it, also, women constituted the chief element, holding all 
 the property of the order ; the men merely managed it. Its monaste- 
 ries were mostly double (for men and women). It was confined to 
 England, where the Order had twenty-one large convents, provided 
 with houses for paupers, invalids, and orphans. 4. The Carthusians, 
 founded by Bruno of Cologne, Principal of the Cathedral School at 
 Rheims (1084). From disgust at the dissolute life of Manasse, his 
 archbishop, he retired with some like-minded friends into a solitary 
 valley, near Gren(ible, called Chartreuse. He imposed on his monks 
 the obligations of the most rigid asceticism, of strict silence, study, 
 
 35*
 
 41-4 SECTION II. SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 10—13 A.D.) 
 
 prayer, and contemplation. 5. The Order of Prcemonstrants . It« 
 founder, Norbert (1121), had been a rich and worldly canon at Xanthen, 
 in the diocese of Cologne. His conversion was completed during a 
 furious tempest, when the lightning struck close by him. He now 
 changed not only his own conduct, but attempted to introduce a refor- 
 mation among his colleagues. Baffled in this, he retired with a few 
 friends into the desolate valley of Premontre (Prsemonstratum), near 
 Laon. His rule imposed on his followers the ordinary duties of the 
 cure of souls, while at the same time it bound them to a life of rigid 
 monasticism. When on a visit to Spires, where, at the time, the Em- 
 peror, papal legates, and deputies from the clergy of Magdeburg, were 
 met, he was chosen Archbishop of Magdebui-g, and was received with 
 great pomp in his diocese, still wearing the habit of his community. 
 The order numbered many monasteries and nunneries. 6. The Order 
 of the Carmelites was founded (1156) by Berthold of Calabria, a cru- 
 sader, who, along with some companions, settled in the cave of Elijah, 
 on Mount Carmel. The Patriarch of Jerusalem drew up a very rigid 
 rule for them. When expelled by the Saracens, the order settled in 
 Europe (12.38), and became a mendicant fraternity. The Carmelites 
 traced their origin to no less a personage than Elijah himself, and 
 stoutly denied that their order had been founded by Berthold. They 
 also maintained that the Blessed Virgin in person had handed to 
 Simon Stoch, the general of the order, the holy Scapulary, as its dis- 
 tinctive badge, with the promise, that whoever died wearing it, was 
 sure of eternal bliss. Every Saturday the Virgin descended into pur- 
 gatory to fetch thence the souls of those who had worn the Scapulary. 
 7. The Order of Trinitarians (called also " ordo sanctfe Trinitatis de 
 redemptione captivorum") was founded by Innocent III., for the re- 
 demption of Christian captives. 8. The Humiliati, in the eleventh 
 century, — an association of pious trades-people at Milan, of which the 
 members wrought at their crafts — had their possessions in common, 
 and engaged in spiritual exercises. The fraternity declined in the 
 sixteenth century. 
 
 4. The Mendicant Orders. — (Cf. E. Vogt, d. h. Franz, v. Assisi. 
 Tiibg. 1840. — K. Hase., Franc, v. Assisi, &c. Lpz. 1856. — Demore, 
 Leben d. h. Clara v. Assisi ; transl. from the French by Lochner. 
 Regensb. 1857. — Lacordaire, Yie de St. Dominique. Par. 1841. — E. 
 Caro, d. h. Dominicus u. d. Dominicaner, libers, v. E. W. Regensburg. 
 1854.) — These Orders originated in the desire of litei-ally carrying out 
 the vow of poverty. The idea was first conceived by St. Francis, the 
 son of a rich merchant at Assisi (born 1182). He seems to have been 
 greatly struck by the injunction of the Saviour (Matt. x. 8-10) to Ilis 
 disciples, to go forth carrying neither gold nor silver, staff nor scrip. 
 Accordingly, he gave away all his property, and henceforth depended 
 on charity for the necessaries of life. Cursed by his father, sometimes 
 derided by the populace as mad, at others worshipoed as a saint, he
 
 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS 415 
 
 travelled through the East and West, everywhere calling to repentance 
 (from 1208). Ilis complete renunciation of the world and of self, the 
 simplicity of his faith, the ardour of his love towards God and man, 
 and the deep treasures of his poverty, made St. Francis appear like a 
 heavenlj' stranger in the midst of a selfish world. His sympathy with 
 nature was truly marvellous. In childlike simplicity, he would hold 
 converse with the birds of the air and the beasts of the field as with 
 brothers and sisters, calling upon them to praise their Maker ; in fact, 
 the saint seemed again to restore the original position of man towards 
 the lower creation. When attempting to address the Pope and his 
 cardinals in a set oration, he utterly broke down ; but when he ad- 
 dressed them in language unprepared, and coming directly from the 
 fulness of his heart, his speech was like a miglity stream sweeping 
 away all resistance. Innocent III., " overcome by his simplicity and 
 humility, allowed the strange saint to go on." (According to an old 
 legend, he had first ordered him to take up his abode with swine, — an 
 injunction which the saint literally obeyed.) Honorius III., the suc- 
 cessor of Innocent, gave in 1223 his formal sanction to the association 
 which had gathered around Francis, and bestowed on the order of the 
 Fratres minores (Minors or Franciscans) the right of preaching and 
 exercising the cure of souls in any district or country. But according 
 to the idea of the founder, the order was to preach by deeds of complete 
 self-abnegation rather than by words. Its peculiar garb consisted of a 
 brown habit with a hood ; a rope round the waist served as girdle. 
 This contempt of the world, combined with unfeigned humility, and 
 ardent, self-denying love, made a deep impression on their cotempo- 
 raries, and procured for the order the designation of seraphic. A female 
 branch of the order (the Sisterhood of St. Clare) was founded in 
 1212 by Clara, a noble virgin of Assisi. St. Francis drew up a rule 
 for this sisterhood. The fraternity of Tertiaries [Tertivs ordo de 
 poenitentia) consisted of persons who were allowed to continue in the 
 world, but were bound by a semi-monastic rule, drawn up by St. 
 Francis. The church of Portiuncula, at Assisi, became the great 
 centre of the Franciscan Order, and successive popes enriched this 
 sanctuary with the most plenary indulgences. St. Francis died in 
 1226, stretched on the pavement of this church, and literally naked as 
 he had entered the world. A legend declares that during the last two 
 years of his life the saint had borne the marks of the crucifixion of the 
 Saviour (stigmata), which, during a trance, a seraph had impressed on 
 his body. The story, though strenuously attested by many witnesses, 
 does not bear the test of impartial criticism (comp. Hase, u. s.). Gre- 
 gory IX. canonized him in 1228. In the fourteenth century the General 
 Chapter of the Franciscans at Assisi gave its sanction to a book, enti- 
 tled " Liber Conformitatum," by one Bartholomew of Pisa, whiidi enu- 
 merated fi)rty points of similarity between Christ and St. Francis. At 
 the time of the Reformation a new edition of it appeared, with a pre«
 
 416 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (Cl N T . 10— 13 A. D.). 
 
 face by Luther, bearing the title, " Der Barfüssermönche Eulenspiegel 
 und Alkoran." 
 
 Even while St. Francis was alive, Elijali of Cortona, who during the 
 absence of the saint in the East had been intrusted with the superin- 
 tendence of the order, had attempted to soften its rigid discipline. 
 St. Francis resisted the innovation ; but when, after his death, Elijah 
 was nominated general of the order, he carried out his project. The 
 more rigid party joined St. Antliony of Padua, who lived and acted in 
 the spirit of St. Francis, and even preached to fishes when men refused 
 to give audience. Violent discussions arose within the order, and 
 Elijah was twice deposed. lie afterwards supported the cause of Fre- 
 dei^ic II., and was excommunicated along with him, but again recon- 
 ciled to the Church before his death (1253). The fanaticism of the 
 rigid party increased in proportion as their more lax opponents grew 
 in number. The popes supported the majority. At length the dispu- 
 tants separated. The milder party (fratres de communitate) strove to 
 reconcile the principles of their founder respecting poverty with their 
 actual tenure of property by distinguishing between absolute posses- 
 sion and usufruct, and by the formality of making over their posses- 
 sions to the Romish Church. The stricter party (spirituales, zelatores, 
 FratriceUi) gradually became avowed opponents of the Church and of 
 its rulers, who had disowned them, and even denounced the Pope as 
 Antichrist (comp. § 108, 4). — The Franciscans were, also, the first 
 barefoot monks. Their example in this respect was followed, subse- 
 quently, by many other orders (as by the Augustines), but not by the 
 Dominicans. Beyond Italy, in colder climates, however, even the 
 Franciscans were exempted from this peculiarity ; at least they might 
 wear sandals. 
 
 The Order of Dominicans was founded by Dominicus Guzman (born 
 in 1170), the scion of a noble Castilian family. Dominic was a priest 
 at Osma, and a man of considerable prudence and learning. From 
 zeal for the salvation of souls, he, along with some associates, went to 
 the south of France (1208), there to labour for the conversion of the 
 Albigenses. In 1215, he made a pilgrimage to Rome. Innocent III. 
 gave to this order a rule, which was afterwards enlarged by Honorius 
 III. Tha Dominicans, or Order of Preachers (ordo fratrum prasdica- 
 torum), were empowered everywhere to preach and to hear confession, 
 for the special object of restoring heretics to the bosom of the Church 
 by their sermons and teaching. At a later period (1220), Dominic and 
 his order adopted the rule of St. Francis, and became a mendicant fra- 
 ternity. He died in 1221, pronouncing an anathema on any one who 
 should contaminate his order by bestowing upon it worldly possessions 
 Dominic was canonized by Gregory IX. A female branch of the order 
 was formed by some of the Albigensian converts. Like the Francis- 
 cans, the Dominicans had male and female Tertiaries (fratres et sorca-ea 
 de militia Christi).
 
 THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS. 417 
 
 Various circumstances combined to give these two orders an extra- 
 ordinary popularity. Not only did they specially meet the -wants of 
 the time, but the fact that they required no endowment, a-d obtained 
 considerable privileges from the popes, enabled them to spread rapidly 
 throughout Western Europe. Each of these orders was under the 
 supreme rule of a general, who resided at Rome; provincials super- 
 intended the monasteries of particular countries ; while every monas- 
 tery had its own guardian (among the Franciscans) or prior (among 
 the Dominicans). From the first the Dominicans gave themselves to 
 literary pursuits; their primary object — the conversion of heretics — 
 rendering such studies necessary. Afterwards, they also displayed 
 considerable zeal in missionary labours; but their influence proved 
 greatest in the academic chair. Thus incited, the Franciscans also 
 began to cultivate these departments of labour, and sought to obtain a 
 standing in the universities. The veneration shown them by the com- 
 mon people, who preferred confessing their secrets to such migratory 
 mendicants, excited the envy of the secular clergy, as their increasing 
 influence in the universities, that of the learned. The opposition to 
 their growing interference was chiefly carried on by the University of 
 Paris. William of St. Amour, a doctor ofthat college, in 1156, charac- 
 terized them, in his controversial tractate, "De periculisnovissimorum 
 temporum," as the forerunners of Antichrist. To this attack learned 
 members of the order (such as Thomas Aquinas and Bonaventura) 
 replied, and they were supported both by papal authority and royal 
 power. But no sooner was this contest ended, than the former jealousy 
 and rivalry subsisting between the two orders reappeared. The feeling 
 of hostility increased as on .scholastic questions they took opposite sides. 
 —(Comp. I 104, 1, and | 112, 2.) 
 
 Only two other mendicant orders of later origin attained great influ- 
 ence, viz.: the Augustines, whom Pope Alexander IV. drew from the 
 members of monastic orders which had been scattered (1256) ; and the 
 Serviles (Servi b. Marise Virg.), instituted by seven pious Florentines 
 for the service of the Virgin Mary, in 1233 — an order very popular, 
 both in Italy and Germany. 
 
 5. The Begu ins and Beghards. — (Comp. MosJietm, de Beghardis et 
 Beguinabus. Lps. 1790. — E. Rallmann, Gesch. d. Ursp. d. belgischen 
 Beghiden (Hist, of the Orig. of the Beg. in Belg.). Berl. 1843.) — 
 Female associations of Beguins existed undoubtedly prior to those of 
 the Beghards. But the exact period when they arose, and even the 
 origin of the name, are matter of controversy. Older historians were 
 wont to trace the Beguins to St. Begga, a daughter of Pepin of Landen, 
 in the seventh century ; but on no other ground than the similarity of 
 name. Mosheim derived the name from the word beggen, to pray ; 
 latterly, however, Hallmann has shown, on grounds which to us seem 
 convincing, that both the name and the association were derived from 
 Lambert le Beghe, a celebrated preacher at Liege, during rhe twelfth-
 
 418 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (C EN T. l.r-13 A. D.^. 
 
 century. The Beguins took the three monastic vows, but only for th* 
 period during which they remained members of the society. Thej 
 were free to leave the society at any time, to marry, or to undertake 
 other duties. They placed themselves under the superintendence of a 
 lady-superior and a priest, and lived in what was called a Beginagium, 
 or Curtis Beguinarum, which generally consisted of a number of small 
 houses within a common enclosure. Each of the Beguins kept house 
 for herself. On entering the society, they entrusted their property to 
 the community, and received it back on leaving. The Beguins employed 
 themselves in manual labour — such as sewing, washing, or taking 
 charge of the sick. They were also engaged in teaching young females, 
 or attending to the spiritual wants of their own sex. Any profit derived 
 from these employments was applied in works of charity. Each asso- 
 ciation wore a distinctive habit. They soon spread over Belgium, 
 Germany, and France. By and by male associations of the same kind, 
 and for the same purposes (the Begliards), were founded. Those sup- 
 ported themselves also by manual labour, especially by weaving. But 
 in the course of the thirteenth century such associations became greatly 
 demoralized. Brothers and sisters of the Free Spirit (114, 3), Fratri- 
 celli, and other heretics, sought refuge among them from the persecu- 
 tions of the Church, and infected them with their errors. Accordingly, 
 the Inquisition (^ 109) directed its inquiries to their doings, and many 
 of their members were executed, especially in the south of France. 
 At the Fifteenth General Council of Vienne, in 1311, eight heretical 
 tenets, supposed to be held by them, were condemned. A number of 
 their houses were closed ; others only allowed to continue on condition 
 of their inmates joining the Franciscan or Dominican Tertiaries. Pope 
 John XXIII. (1410-1415) again extended protection to them, when the 
 community of Beguins once more increased. But their growing disso- 
 luteness, and concubinage with Beghards and secular priests, obliged 
 the secular and spiritual authorities to interfere. At the time of the 
 Reformation these houses were secularized ; in Belgium alone, some of 
 their communities still exist. 
 
 6. Knightly Orders. — (Cf. Biedenfeld, Gesch. u. Verfass. aller geistl. 
 u. weltl. Ritterorden. 2 Bde. Weim. 1841. — W. F. WilcJce, Gesch. d. 
 Tempelherrnord. 2 Bde. Lpz. 1826. — F. Munter, Statutenbuch d. Ord. 
 d. Tempi. Borl. 1794. — {Niethammer) Gesch. d. Malteserord. nach 
 Verst. Jena. 2 Bde. Dresd. 1833. — J. Voight, Gesch. Fressens bis zum 
 ünterg. d. Herrsch, d. deutsch. Ord. 4 Bde. Kgsb. 1827, &c. — J. Voightj 
 Gesch. d. deutsc. R.-Ord. in s. 12 Balleien. Berl. 1857, Bd. l. — j.M. 
 Watierich, d. Gründung d. deutsch. Ordenstaates in Preussen. Lpz. 
 1827.-- C. Hermig, Statutt. d. deutsch. Ord. Kgsb. 1806. — ^.«. Win- 
 ierfeld, Gesch. d. ritterl. Ordens St. Johannis. Berl. 1859. — The Orders 
 of Knight li took, besides the three monastic vows (of poverty, chastity, 
 and obedience), that of continual contest with the infidels. Among 
 ■^bese orders we reckon: — 1. The Order of the Templars, founded by
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL JURISPRUDENCE. 419 
 
 Hugh de Pai/ens (1118), for the protection of pilgrims in the Holy 
 Land. They wore a white cloak, with a red cross on the breast. St. 
 Bernai-d warmly interested himself in favour of this order, and accord- 
 ingly, procured a large accession to its membership. When St. Jean 
 d'Acre fell (in 1291), the Templars retired to Cyprus; but soon after- 
 wards returned to the West, when Paris became the head-quarters of 
 the order. The name of the order was derived from the circumstance, 
 that the palace which King Baldwin of Jerusalem assigned for their 
 use, was Imilt on the site of the temple of Solomon (cf. ^ 112, 2). 
 2. Originally the Knights of St. John, or Hospitallers, were ordinary 
 inmates of a monastery, whose special duty it was to take charge of 
 sick pilgrims, to relieve their wants, and to extend hospitality to them 
 (middle of 11th century). With these duties Raymond du Puy, the sec- 
 ond general of the order, combined, in 1118, the obligation of fighting 
 against the infidel. They wore a black dress, with a white cross on 
 the breast, and had a red cross on their banners. When expelled by 
 the Saracens, they settled first in Rhodes (1310), and lastly in Malta, 
 in 1530- 3. The Order of the Teutonic Knights consisted also, at first, 
 of the inmates of an hospital, or inn, founded during the siege of St. 
 Jean d'Acre, in 1190, by some citizens of Bremen and Lübeck, The 
 knights wore a white cloak, with a black cross on the breast. At a 
 later period the order settled in Prussia, where in 1237 it amalgamated 
 with that of the Livonian Brethren of the Sivord. — During the contest 
 with the Moors several knightly orders were founded in Spain. The 
 most important of these was the Order of Calatrava, founded by Velas- 
 quez, a Cistercian monk, for the purpose of defending the town of 
 Calatrava. In 1164 it obtained the formal sanction of Pope Alexander 
 III. At present, like the Order of Malta, it is only an honorary 
 distinction. 
 
 I 99. ECCLESIASTICAL JURISPRUDENCE. 
 
 The forged Decretals of Isidore (§ ST, 2) were not the only 
 collection of ecclesiastical laws made. But with the increase of 
 such works, contradictions only multiplied, and no attempt was 
 made to remove them. Among these compilations, that by Bur- 
 khard, Bishop of Worms, about 1020, that by Anselm, Bishop 
 of Lucca (ob. 1086), and that by Ivo, Bishop of Ghartres [ob. 
 1025), were the best known. In the twelfth century, Gratian, a 
 Camaldulite monk, at Bologna, undertook the difficult task of 
 making a complete collection of these laws, and of solving the 
 contradictions with which they abounded, by means of certain 
 scholastic deductions. The work, which appeared about the 
 year 1150, under the title " Concordantia discordantium cano- 
 num," commonly bears the name of Decrelum Gratiani. Thig
 
 420 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 10—13 A.D.). 
 
 work gave a fresh impulse to the study of ecclesiastical law, 
 especially in the universities of Paris and Bologna. While the 
 so-called Legists lectured on Roman law, the Decretisis taught 
 canonical law, wrote commentaries on the work of Gratian, and 
 made compilations similar to his. To put a stop to the confu- 
 sion which threatened to ensue, Gregory IX. commissioned, in 
 1234, Raymundus de Pennaforti, a Dominican, to make a new 
 compilation (Decretum Gregorii, consisting of five books), which, 
 besides the older decretals, contained his own and those of his 
 immediate predecessors. This work served as text-book for the 
 lectures delivered at Paris and Bologna. To this collection 
 Boniface YIII. added a sixth book, containing his own decretals; 
 and lastly, Clement V., those issued under his pontificate, with 
 the special title of Clementina. To this compilation the most 
 important decretals of later popes were added, in the year 1500, 
 under the title of Extravagantes, which completed the Corpus 
 juris canonici. 
 
 III. THEOLOGICAL SCIENCE AND CONTROVERSIES. 
 
 Comp. H. Bitter, Gesch. d. christl. Philos. Vols. III. IV. By tho 
 same author, Uebersicht liber d. Gesch. d. scholast. Philos., in Fau- 
 mer's hist. Taschenb. Ill, 7, p. 269 etc. Lpz. 1856. — B. Haureau, la 
 philos. scolast. 2 Voll. Par. 1850. — H. Schmid, d. Mystic, d. M. A. in 
 8. Entstehungsper. (Mystic, of the M. A. dur. the Per. of its Orig.). 
 Jena 1824. — Ä Helfferich, d. christl. Mystik in ihrer Entw. u. ihr. 
 Denkm. (Chr. Myst., its Develop, and Monum.). Gotha 1842. 2 Vols. 
 — / Gorres, d. chr. Myst. Regensb. 1836. 3 Vols. — Vaughan, Hours 
 with the Mystics. 
 
 I 100. GENERAL VIEW OF SCHOLASTICISM. 
 
 Notwithstanding the intellectual decay of the Middle Ages, 
 that period witnessed the growth of one of the most remarkable 
 productions of the human mind, which can only be likened to 
 those cathedrals reared in the Gothic style. Scholasticism, 
 which derived its name from the cathedral and monastic schools 
 where it originated, has aptly been designated as "the knight- 
 hood of theology." In liberality and enthusiasm, loyalty and
 
 GENERAL VIEW OF SCHOLASTICISM. 421 
 
 perseverance, courage and ardour, the schoolmen emulated the 
 knights properly so called ; only that their weapons were not 
 the sword and lance, but speculation and dialectics ; and their 
 ideal not knightly honour, but ecclesiastical orthodoxy. It was 
 the great object of scholasticism to analyze Christian dogmas by 
 means of dialectics, to develop them by speculation, and to show 
 their inherent truth and necessity. Generally speaking, scholas- 
 ticism adopted, expounded, and defended the ecclesiastical views 
 already in vogue (dogmatism) ; sometimes, however, a sceptical 
 tendency also appeared — at least for a time. In the latter 
 case, certain philosophical principles were laid down, and it was 
 attempted by means of these to harmonize reason with ecclesias- 
 tical dogmas. Along with scholasticism, sometimes in combina- 
 tion, at others in antagonism with it, another tendency appeared. 
 If scholasticism sought rationally to elucidate and develop 
 theology, it was the object of mysticism to apprehend the 
 salvation offered by the Church not by means of the intellect, 
 but by the feelings, and to develop it not by dialectics, but by in- 
 ward contemplation. These intellectual strivings, which con- 
 tinued throughout the Middle Ages, may historically be arranged 
 into four periods, each of which almost comprised a century. 1. 
 Tlie first traces of the new science occur during the tenth century 
 — a period in other respects intellectually barren, and aptly 
 called the " Seculum obscurum." The distinctive features of 
 scholasticism, however, did not yet appear. 2. These tendencies 
 became more manifest during the eleventh century, at first in the 
 form of dialectics, which again took either a sceptical or dog- 
 matical turn, and led to a contest betwixt these two directions. 
 3. During the twelfth century, mysticism appeared as a distinct 
 tendency by the side of the dialectics of the schoolmen. The 
 conflict which now ensued between mysticism and sceptical 
 dialectics ultiniatelyended in an alliance with dogmatic dialectics, 
 which proved mutually useful. 4. During the thirteenth century, 
 dialectic sclioJasticism, or dogmatism, attained its highest stage. 
 Generally speaking, the former alliance with mysticism was con- 
 tinued, although some of the schoolmen again tended towards 
 scepticism. 
 
 1. Nurseries of Scholasticism. — At the close of the eleventh century, 
 
 UNIVERSITIES were planted for the same purposes as the cathedral and 
 
 monastic schools, only with a wider range of subjects in view. These 
 
 seniinaries originated independently both of State and Church, of 
 
 36
 
 422 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 10—13 A.D.). 
 
 Emperor and Pope. Celebrated teachers appeared in the larger citie3 
 pupils from all countries gathered around them ; by a,nd by othei 
 lecturers joined those who had first taught in these cities ; and then 
 teachers and scholars constituted themselves by mutual agreement into 
 an independent corporation, and thus the University was founded. 
 But this designation did not imply anything like a " unive^rsitas 
 literarum," in which all the sciences should be cultivated. — Separate 
 faculties for different sciences did not as yet exist ; and where the 
 number of teachers and students rendered some division necessary, it 
 was made according to nations, not sciences. The name University 
 was only intended to designate the "universitas magistrorum et 
 scholarium" as an organised society. The studies carried on in these 
 seminaries were called " studium generale" or "universale," because 
 every person had free access to the lectures. At first one special science 
 was particularly — sometimes even exclusively — cultivated in different 
 universities. Thus theology was studied at Paris, at Oxford, and at a 
 later period at Cologne; jurisprudence at Bologna; and medicine at 
 Salerno. The first university expressly founded for the cultivation of 
 all sciences was that which Frederic II. instituted at Naples in 1224. 
 Our present arrangement into faculties originated from the circum- 
 stance, that the mendicant orders in Paris, being proscribed by the 
 other teachers in the University (g 98, 4), constituted themselves into 
 a separate theological faculty (1259). The number of students in the 
 universities — among them many persons advanced in life — was very 
 large, amounting in the most celebrated seats of learning occasionally 
 to from 10,000 to 20,000. All the members of the congregation of 
 Clugny had to pass through a curriculum of ten years (two years being 
 devoted to Logicalia, three years to Literae Naturales et Philosophiere, 
 and five years to Theology). The Council of Tours enjoined, in 1236, 
 that every priest should go through a preparatory course of five years' 
 study. (Comp. C. E. Bidasus, Hist. univ. Paris, et aliarum univers. 
 Par. 1665. 6 Voll. f. — A. Wood, Hist, et ant. univ. Oxon. Oxon. 1674. 
 2 Voll. l—Dtibarle, H. de I'Univ. Par. 1829.— Cr evier, Hist, de I'Univ. 
 de Paris. Par. 1761. 7 Tom. 12. — Chr. Meiners, Gesch. d. hohen Schu- 
 len. [Hist, of Univ.]. Göttg. 1802. — F. A. Huber, d. engl. Univ. Cassel 
 1839. 2 Vols. — i^. C. V. Savigny, Gesch. d. röm. Rechtes in M. A. Bd. 
 Ill, 2. A. Heidelb. 1834.). 
 
 2. The writings of Aristotle were introduced among the learned of 
 the West by the Moors of Spain, who since the eleventh century had 
 euccessfully prosecuted these studies. The Philosophy of Scholas- 
 ticism was derived from the dialectics of Aristotle, whose works were 
 translated into Latin, either from the Arabic (with the Commentaries 
 di Avicenna, oh. 1036, of Ghazali, oh. 1111, and o^ Averrhoiis, oh. 1217), 
 or else directly from the Greek. Hitherto the philosophy of Aristotle 
 had only been known at second hand, chiefly from the writings of 
 Boethius. But now, when scholars had the opportunity of perusing
 
 GENERAL VIEW OF SCHOLASTICISM. 423 
 
 the ■works of the " master" himself, their study was prosecuted with 
 great enthusiasm. At the commencement of the thirteenth century 
 this philosophy was for a short time in disrepute, and the study of 
 Aristotle prohibited by ecclesiastical ordinance — the origin of the pan- 
 theistic sect of the Holy Spirit (§ 108, 2) being traced to the teaching 
 of the Stagyrite. But when by the extinction of the sect this danger 
 was at an end, Gregory IX. again authorized the favourite study (1231) ; 
 and such was the esteem in which Aristotle was held, that he was 
 ranked with John the Baptist as the precursor of Christ, and that on 
 all scientific questions his writings enjoyed the same authority in the 
 Church as that of the Bible and tradition in matters of faith. At the 
 same time, there was also in the Middle Ages a school attached to the 
 philosophy of Plato. The study of the writings of Augustine and of 
 the Areopagite pointed towards Platonism, while the school of specu- 
 lative mystics was always opposed to the exclusive claims set up on 
 behalf of Aristotle. — Scholasticism started with a speculative inquiry 
 about the relation subsisting between thinking and being, or between the 
 idea of a thing and its essence. In answer to this question, the Nomi- 
 nalists, following up the views of the Stoics, maintained that those 
 general conceptions or generic ideas (universalia) which constitute the 
 common essence of a genus, were merely intellectual abstractions 
 (nomina) derived from the common properties of individual objects, 
 and possessing no real existence beyond the human intellect (univer- 
 salia POST res). The Realists, on the other hand, insisted on the 
 reality of these general conceptions, and believed in their objective 
 existence prior to and beyond the mere thinking of man. The Realists 
 were divided into two sections : the one, adopting the Platonic view of 
 ideas, held that these general conceptions existed pj-ior to the actual 
 origin of individual objects, being their archetypes in the Divine reason ; 
 and that hence they also existed in the intellect of man, even before he 
 came to the contemplation of things as outwardly presented to him 
 (universalia ante res). The other school of Realists, following in the 
 wake of Aristotle, held that these general conceptions were inherent in 
 the objects themselves, and thence passed by experience into the intel- 
 lect of man (universalia in rebus). Hence the former school of Real- 
 ists expected to reach the essence of things (or truth) by pure think- 
 ing, through the ideas innate in the intellect of man, while the second 
 school expected to attain that result by a contemplation of things 
 through experience and thinking. 
 
 3. Object and Method of Scholastic Theology. — The theological studies 
 carried on during the rule of the Carolingians had been directed exclu- 
 sively to practical objects, and fostered or prosecuted by practical men 
 (such as princes, bishops, and abbots) with the view of meeting present 
 ecclesiastical wants. But from the eleventh century this was no longer 
 the case. Gradually practical objects, and the immediate requirements 
 of the Church, gave place to purely scientific pursuits. Theological
 
 424 SECTION II.. — SECOND PERIOD (C E N T. 10— 13 A. D.). 
 
 studies and writings now breathe a spirit of speculation ; the ancieni 
 dogmas of the Church are explained and defended in a philosophical 
 manner ; and the great aim is to convert what had been an object of faith 
 into logical truths, and to arrange Christian doctrines into a compact 
 system. For this purpose the schoolmen employed dialectics, in order 
 by means of it to resolve and analyze the dogmas of the Church into 
 their constituent ideas, to explain and to demonstrate them, to marshal 
 and to combat all possible objections raised by scepticism, with the 
 view of thus establishing and proving the rationality of the dogmaa 
 of the Church. Withal, no attempt was, however, made to place these 
 doctrines on an exegetical basis, or to prove their truth from Scripture ; 
 philosophic proof was the only object sought, and dogmatics and ethics 
 the only departments of scholastic theology. If exegesis was at all 
 cultivated, writers either adopted the old allegorical method or com- 
 posed catence, while historical theology was entirely neglected. The 
 mystics among the schoolmen, on the other hand, sought more than 
 merely to understand, to vindicate, and to compose a system of dog- 
 matics. They recommended the practice of contemplation, by which 
 thinking and feeling would descend directly into the depths of Divine 
 truth, there to behold, to experience, and to enjoy what was Divine. 
 The necessary condition for this was purity of heart, deep love to God, 
 and complete abnegation of self. What had thus been perceived in 
 contemplation, discovered by means of speculation, or experienced in 
 immediate contact with the Divine, was afterwards to be presented in 
 a scientific and systematic form. 
 
 ? 101. THE SECULUM OBSCURUM (TENTH CENTURY). 
 
 Comp. ä. Vogel, Ratherius von Verona u. d. 10 Jahrh. Jen. 1854. 2 
 Vols. — M. Biidinger, über Gerbert's wissenschaftl. u. pol. Stellung. 
 (On the Scientif. and Pol. Place of Gerbert). 1 Sect. Kass. 1851. — i^r. 
 Hock, Gerbert u. s. Jahrh. Vienna 1837. — Gu. GiesebrecJit, de littera- 
 rum studiis opud Italos primis medii sevi saeculis. Berol. 1845. 
 
 Tlie darkness and ignorance of the tenth century, which also 
 witnessed the deepest decay of the Papacy, contrasts most un- 
 favourably not only with the culture and the science which at the 
 time flourished in the portion of Spain subject to the Moors, 
 more especially at the celebrated school of Cordova, but with 
 the learning and activity of the Church during the preceding 
 (ninth) century. And yet, during this very period of the 
 Church's deepest decay, and of the complete secularization of 
 the clergy, old classical heathenism and its literature were 
 enthusiastically cultivated in Italy. But all this stood in avowed 
 opposition to Christian theology and the Church, and proclaimed
 
 THE SECULUM OBSCURUM. 425 
 
 the praises of the most ungodly frivolity and the most unblushing 
 sensuality. A grammarian, WiUjard, taught publicly in Ravenna, 
 that Virgil, Horace, and Juvenal, were incomparably better and 
 nobler than Paul, Peter, or John. True, the Church still had 
 sufiBcient power to condemn him to death, as a heretic ; but men 
 of his spirit abounded in the cities of Italy, including clergymen 
 no less than others. This spirit was not wholly banished, until 
 the influence of the monks of Clugny, the efforts of Romuald, 
 and St. Nilus, combined with the elevation of the Church through 
 the Saxon Emperors, for its suppression. —The efforts of Alfred 
 the Great, and their results, ceased with the life of that monarch 
 {oh. 901). But in 959 the reformatory labours of JDunstan 
 (§ 97) were crowned with success, and with them both the 
 interest and the zeal for theological and national culture again 
 revived ; while the connection between the family of the Emperor 
 Otho and Byzance proved the means of awakening, also out- 
 side of Italy, a desire for the revival of classical lore. The 
 imperial chapel, founded by Bruno (Archb. of Cologne) the 
 brother of Otho I, became the nursery of the higher German 
 clergy, who were there trained, as thoroughly as the age 
 allowed, in politics, classics and theology. — Towards the close 
 of the century, the literary activity of the Moors attracted the 
 attention of Western Christendom, and incited to imitation. 
 Thus the seeds of learning were once more scattered over 
 Europe. 
 
 1. The writings of Roswitha, a learned nun in the convent of 
 
 Grandersheim (Helen of Rossow, oh. 984), who made religious subjects 
 the text of comedies composed after the model of Terence, may serve aa 
 index of the classical learning of that period. She also wrote a " Car- 
 men de gestiaOttonis I," and a " Carmen de primordiis coenobii Gander- 
 Bheim"Cf. Fr. höher, Hrotswitha u. ihre Zeit. In d. Munch, wissench. 
 Vortr. Braunschu. 1858; p. 405 etc. — Dunstan was ably supported iu 
 his labours by Ethelwold, Bishop of Wincliester, a prelate who with 
 his followers zealously j^rosecuted the study of the Anglo-Saxon tongue. 
 The most celebrated of his pupils was Aelfric of Malmesburj^, a monk, 
 who preached in the Anglo-Saxon, and commenced a translation of the 
 Bible into that language. — Notker Labeo, Abbot of St Gall, oh. 1022, 
 translated the Book of Psalms, the Organon of Aristotle, the Moralia 
 of Gregory the Great, and a number of the tractates of Boethius into 
 the old German. Ratherius, Bishop of Verona, and afterwards of 
 Lieges (from both which seats he was repeatedly expelled, ob, 974), 
 i, rigid reformer and reprover of clerical dissoluteness, equally insisted 
 3Ü*
 
 426 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (CEN T. 10— 13 A. D.). 
 
 on the duty of studying the Bible, and censured the bare heathenism of 
 the learned Italians, as well as work righteousness, superstition, and ev- 
 ery kind of ecclesiastical abuse. On this account, and from his attachment 
 to the interests ofGermany,he frequently suffered persecution. Ratherius 
 was certainly the ablest divine of the tenth century. Along with him 
 we mention Atto, Bishop of Vercelli, distinguished as an exegetical 
 writer, a preacher, and a strenuous advocate of the Church against the 
 oppression of the secular power (de pressuris ecclesiae) ; oh. 960. Odd 
 of Clugny composed hymns and homilies ; — his Collationum LI. III. 
 contains a philippic against the corrupt morals of his time. Lastly, 
 at the close of the century, we have Gerbert — oh. 1003 — a man versed 
 in classical and Arabic lore, highly celebrated as a theologian, mathe- 
 matician, astronomer, and natural philosopher, but regarded by the 
 people as a magician. His presence shed for the last time a passing 
 lustre on the school of Rheims. — Among historians of the tenth 
 century, Luitprand, secretary to Otho I., and afterwards Bishop of 
 Cremona, oh. 972 (Antapodosis, Hist, of Otho I.) ; Flodoard of Rheims, 
 oh. 966 (Hist. eccl. Rhemensis) ; Richer, a monk and pupil of Gerbert 
 (author of a history of his own time, 883-998) ; and Wid^ücind, from 
 940, a monk at New Corbey (author of a Saxon hist, in 3 vols.) — 
 deserve special notice. 
 
 ? 102. DIVISION AMONG THE DIALECTICIANS (ELEVENTH 
 
 CENT.). 
 
 When in the eleventh century the Church rose from its late 
 decay, the ardour for scientific literary pursuits also revived. 
 The anxiety so generally felt to put an end to former abuses and 
 stagnation manifested itself also in every department of theologi- 
 cal study. At first this new zeal appeared chiefly among the 
 Cistercian monks and their brethren of Clugny ; but towards the 
 close of the century it extended to the various universities. The 
 dialectic method was now almost exclusively employed in the 
 discussion of theological questions ; and dogmatism gained itb 
 first triumphs over scepticism in the Eucharistie controversy be- 
 tween LanfroMC and Berevgar, in that concerning the existence 
 of God between Anselm of Canterbury and Gaunilo, and in the 
 discussion between that prelate and Roscellinus about the 
 Trinity. 
 
 1. The series of schoolmen opens with Fulbert, a pupil of Gerbert, 
 und from 1007 Bishop of Chartres. Even before his elevation to the 
 episcopate he founded at Chartres a theological school. His fame 
 spread throughout Western Christendom, and students from all
 
 DIVISION AMONG THE DIALECTICIANS. 427 
 
 oountries attended his seminary. — One of his pupils was Berengar 
 oj Tours, a canon and teacher in the cathedral school of his own city, 
 and afterwards Archdeacon of Angers. His fame shed great Instre 
 upon the school of Angers. For further prrticulars see below. — Lan- 
 FRAXC, the antagonist of Berengar, Avas first a monk, then Abbot of 
 Bee in Normandy. In 1070 he was elevated to the archiepiscopal See 
 of Canterbury. Under his superintendence the school of Bee attained 
 its highest eminence. — Petrus Damiani, ob. 1072, Cardinal-Bishop of 
 Ostia, a friend of liildebrand, and a ^.ealous supporter of his views on 
 the subject of simony, of clerical purity, monastic austerity, and 
 priestly celibacy. Ilis tractrate, " Liber Gomorrhianus," contains an 
 unsparing exposure of the vices of the clergy. His own indulgencea 
 consisted in retiring into his cell, there to scourge himself till the blood 
 floAved from his shoulders. [A. Vogel, Petr. Damiani, Ein Vortrag. Jena 
 1856.) — Anselm of Canterbury, born at Aosta in Italy, educated in 
 the monastery of Bee, of which he was afterwards abbot, and finally 
 Archbishop of Canterbury, oh. 1109, comp. § 96, 5. It will be re- 
 membered that his courageous defence of the independence of the 
 Church, at least in the sense of liildebrand, cost that prelate three 
 years of exile. Anselm has been compared to St. Augustine, whose 
 theology he adopted and developed. By a rare combination, he united 
 acuteness with philosophic depth and ardent Christian feeling — the 
 practical tendency Avith dialecticism, and e\'en mysticism. Like his 
 great model, he regarded faith as the necessary condition of all true 
 knoAvledge, while, on the other hand, he aimed at elevating belief into 
 knowledge (" credo ut intelligam"). His most celebrated tractate was 
 that on the Incarnation of God ("Cur Deus homo?"), in which he 
 defended, on philosophical grounds, and developed the doctrine of the 
 vicarious atonement. Best ed. of his writings by G. Gerheron, Par. 
 1675 f. Comp. G. F. Frank, Anselm von Canterb. Tiibg. 1842.— i?'. R. 
 Hasse, Ans. v. C. Leips. 1843, 1852. 2 Vols. C. de. Remnsat, Ans. de 
 Cant, transl. into German by Würzbach. — Anselmus of Laon (Laudu- 
 nensis), surnamed Scholasticus, a pupil of his namesake of Canterbui'y. 
 From 1076 he lectured with great success at Paris, where indeed he 
 may be said to have originated the University. Afterwards he returned 
 to Laon, became archdeacon and scholasticus, and founded a theologi- 
 cal school ; ob. 1117. His theological views were the same as those of 
 his teacher. His " Glossa interlinearis " (being the Vulgate with 
 brief interlineal exposition) and Walafrid's Gl. ordinaria (^ 90, 6) 
 were favourite exegetical manuals of the Middle Ages. — William op 
 Champeaux (De Campellis), the real founder of the UniA'ersity of Paris. 
 He had for some time lectured with great success in that city on 
 rhetoric and dialectics, when the fame of Anselm brought him to Laon. 
 He returned to Paris in 1108, delivered theological lectures, and became 
 archdeacon. EA^ery year the number of his students increased. 
 Among them was Abelard, whose arrogance and continual disputation«.
 
 4*^8 SECTION II. SECOND PERIOD (C E N T. 10— 13 A. D.). 
 
 in. which the celebrated teacher ultimately had to own himself worsted, 
 so embittered his existence, that he retired from the chair.^^ He died in 
 1113 as Bishop of Chalons. — Among the chroniclers of this century 
 we mention the names of Ditmar, Bishop of Merseburg, oh. 1018 ; 
 Hermann the Lame (Contractus), a monk at Reichenau, oh. 1054; 
 Marianus Scotus, a monk at Mayence, ob. 1086 ; Lambert, a monk at 
 Hersfeld, oh. 1100 (Chronicon historicum apud Germanos) ; — as Church 
 historians Adam of Bremen (Gestallammen-burgens. eccles. Pontificum, 
 from 788-1072) ; as Danish historians Saxo Gramm., ob. 1204 (Hist. 
 Danica to 1186). Amatus of Salerno wrote a history of the Normana 
 in Italy. 
 
 2. Eucharistie Controversy of Berengar (1050-1079). — Berengar of 
 Tours had adopted views concerning the Eucharist in direct opposition 
 to the prevailing theory of Radbertus on the subject. He taught that 
 the elements were indeed changed, and that the body of Christ was 
 really j^resent in the Eucharist ; but he denied that this change was 
 one of substance, or the presence one of essence (essentialiter). The 
 presence of the body of Christ consisted in that of His potver in these 
 elements, and the change of the bread in the real manifestation of this 
 power under the form of the bread. But in order to secure the 
 presence of this power, consecration alone was not sufficient ; it also 
 needed faith on tlie part of him who partook of it, without which the 
 bread remained an empty and powerless sign. These views he dis- 
 seminated among his numerous pupils at Tours and Angers, without 
 for some time meeting with opposition. But when he expressed them 
 in an epistle addressed to Lanfranc, that divine entered the lists 
 against him. At a synod held in Rome (1050), he was condemned 
 unheard ; at another synod held the same year at Vercelli, before which 
 Berengar would have appeared, if in the meantime he had not been 
 imprisoned in France, the tractate of Ratramnus on the Eucharist 
 (which was erroneously ascribed to Erigena) was, in an excess of zeal, 
 torn to pieces and consigned to the flames, and the views of Berengar 
 were again condemned. Meantime Berengar had, by the intercession 
 of influential friends, been restored to liberty, and made the acquaint- 
 ance of Ilildebrand, at that period legate of the Pope. While Hilde- 
 brand believed the simple doctrine of the scriptures, that the bread and 
 wine in the sacrament were really the body and blood of Christ, he 
 probably took a middle view, equally avoiding the gross literalism of 
 Radbertus and the opinions of Berengar. The legate disapproved of 
 the fanaticism displayed by the opponents of Berengar, and at a synod 
 held in Tours (1054) declared himself satisfied with a statement upon 
 oath, that so far from denying the presence of Christ in the Eucharist, 
 he regarded the consecrated elements as the body and blood of Christ. 
 But even this formal acquittal did not satisfy the opponents of Beren- 
 gar, who accordingly in 1059 undertook a journey to Rome, in the hope 
 »f securing, through the influence of Ilildelrand, the protection of the
 
 DIVISION AMONG THE DIALECTICIANS. 42» 
 
 Papal See. His expectations were doomed to disappointment, and he 
 found himself confronted by a powerful party, under the leadership 
 of Cardinal Humbert. At a synod held in Home (1059) the unprinci- 
 pled man was obliged to consign his writings to the flames, and to 
 Bul)scribe a formula which in its gross literalism went far beyond even 
 the expressions used by Radbertus. On his return to France he re- 
 tracted his subscription, and once more defended, against Lanfranc 
 and others, his former views. This step excited a fresh storm. Ililde- 
 brand, who in the meantime had been elevated to the Papacy (in 1073), 
 vainly endeavoured to allay the dispute by getting Berengar to sub- 
 scribe a formula which, in temperate language, asserted the real 
 presence in the Eucharist. The opposite party even ventured to 
 attaint the orthodoxy of the Pope himself; and Hildebrand was obliged, 
 at a second synod held in Home (1079), to insist upon a full and un- 
 ap^biguous declaration of belief in the conversion of the substance of 
 the elements. Berengar was bold enough to appeal to his private 
 interviews with the Pope, — when Hildebrand ordered him immediately 
 to fall down and abjure his errors. Berengar tremblingly obeyed, and 
 was dismissed with testimonials of orthodoxy, and the injunction to 
 abstain from further discussions. Bent under the weight of years and 
 sorrows, he retired to the island of St. Come, near Tours, where he 
 lived in solitude and penitence, a rigid ascetic, and died, in 1088, at a 
 very advanced age, reconciled to the Church. — The principal treatise 
 of Berengar, " de Coena s. adv. Lafranc," was discovered by Lessing 
 in the library of Wolfenbüttel, and has been edited by Vischer, Berol. 
 1834. — (Comp. Lessmg, 'Ber. Turon. od. Ankünd. e. wicht. Werkes 
 dess. (or Notice of an import. Tract, of his). Bruns. 1770. 4 ; H. Su- 
 dendorf, Ber. Tur. od. e. Sammlung ihn betr. Br. (or a Collect, of 
 Letters concern, him). Hamb. 1850.) 
 
 3. Controversies of Anselm. — I. Following up his philosophical views 
 as a Realist, Anselm of Canterbury deduced an ontological and ä priori 
 argument for the being of a God, and maintained that the idea of an 
 entirely perfect Being was inherent in reason, real existence forming 
 one of the necessary attributes of this Being. This argumentation he 
 embodied in two treatises, the Monologium and the Proslogium. The 
 unsatisfactory character of this ratiocination, however, was ably ex- 
 posed by Gaunilo of Marmontiers, an Aristotelian Realist, who, in 
 answer to Anselm, wrote the "Liber pro insipiente" (as Anselm had 
 asserted that only an " insipiens" would deny that the existence of God 
 could be demonstrated). Anselm replied in a tractate entitled " Apo- 
 logeticus c. Gaunilonem," and the discussion terminated without lead- 
 ing to any definite result. — II. Of greater importance was the contro- 
 versy l)etween Anselm and Roscellinus, a canon of Compiegne. The 
 latter, a Nominalist, asserted that our generic conception of the Deity 
 was only an intellectual abstraction, and that the three Persons of the 
 Godhead could not be spoken of as Una Res (oixrJa), as otherwise they
 
 430 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (C E N T. 10— 13 A. D.). 
 
 must all have become incarnate in Christ. In a tractate, entitled " Ü« 
 fide trinitatis et de incarnatione verbi contra blasphemias Rucelini," 
 Anselm showed the fallacy of this argumentation. A synod held at 
 Soissons in 1092 condemned Roscellinus as a Tritheist. 
 
 I 103. SEPARATION AND REUNION OF DIALECTICS AND 
 MYSTICISM. 
 
 In the writings of Anselm dialectics and mysticism had still 
 been united ; soon afterwards, however, their champions were 
 marshalled in opposite camps. The great representative of dia- 
 lectic scepticism was Abelard, a man of singular boldness and 
 acuteness, who had already come victorious out of many a con- 
 test. But he was obliged to succumb before his great opponent, 
 St. Bernard. Of less importance was the discussion between 
 Bernard and Gilhertvs Porretanus. — After the defeat of Abe- 
 lard, the tendency which he represented was for a considerable 
 time in the minority, nor indeed did it ever again assert itself in 
 the same daring and reckless manner. In fact, dialectics was 
 now chiefly employed in the support and explanation of the 
 dogmas of the Church. Thus mysticism and dialectics were once 
 more reconciled and combined for a common purpose. This 
 union was accomplished by Petrus Lombardus, so far as dialec- 
 tics, and by Hugo of St. Victor, so far as mysticism was con- 
 cerned. The combination proved mutually helpful ; dialectics 
 gained in depth and ardour, mysticism acquired scientific dis- 
 tinctness and precision. — But even at that time men were not 
 wanting who perceived and exposed the defects and dangers of 
 scholasticism, however much it was in repute at the period. 
 Such divines chiefly inveighed against the neglect of Scripture 
 in the study of theology, against the barrenness of scholastic 
 speculations so far as the Christian life was concerned, and the 
 vain wrangling and pedantry of the schoolmen. 
 
 1. The Separation. — Petrus Abelard was born in 1079 at Palais in 
 Brittany. In acuteness, learning, dialectic readiness, and boldness of 
 speculation, as well as in arrogance and dlsputatiousness, he far sur- 
 passed all his contemporaries. In Paris he attended the lectures of 
 William of Champeaux, the most celebrated dialectician of his age. 
 But soon the pupil silenced his teacher in public discussion. Abelard 
 settled in Mehin near Paris, where thousands of students attended his 
 prelections. Soon afterwards he transported his school to Corbeil in 
 order to be nearer Paris, and thence to the walls of that capital. Nor
 
 DIALECTICS AND MYSTICISM. 431 
 
 did he cease to provoke and to humble William, till the latter had to 
 give place to him. In the hope of attaining yet greater distinction, 
 Abelard now commenced the study of theology, under the tuition of 
 Anselm of Laon. Very soon, however, the arrogant student deemed 
 himself superior to this teacher also.*' lie returned to Paris, where 
 once more a crowd of enthusiastic students gathered around him. A 
 canon, Fiilberf, engaged him to instruct his niece Heloise — a woman 
 equally distinguished for beauty, talent, and learning. Abelard gained 
 her affections ; but refusing to bear the name of his wife, in order to 
 enable her lover to attain the highest dignities in the Church, she was 
 clandestinely married to him. As Heloise persisted in denying this 
 marriage, and on that account was hai'shly used by her relatives, Abe- 
 lard carried her off to the nunnery of Argenteuil. The revenge of 
 Fulbert was fearful ; Abelard was surprised during the night, and 
 mutilated. In shame and despair he fled to the monastery of St. Denis ; 
 Heloise took the veil at Argenteuil. But his former pupils followed 
 him to St. Denis ; and, yielding to their entreaties, he resumed his lec- 
 tures. The supercilious and sarcastic manner in which he discussed 
 the doctrines of the Church, excited powerful opposition ; and at the 
 Synod of Soissons, in 1121, Abelard was obliged to consign his text- 
 book on theology (Introductio in theologiam) to the flames, and was 
 condemned to imprisonment in a monastery. By the intercession of 
 friends, he was again restored to liberty, and allowed to return to St. 
 Denis. But when he published the discovery that Dionysius of Paris 
 had been a different person from the Areopagite, he was exposed to 
 such violent persecution on the part of the monks, as to render it neces- 
 sary for him to flee into a wood near Troyes. Thither also his pupils 
 followed, and prevailed upon him again to resume his lectures. His 
 hermitage became transformed into the large Abbacy of " the Para- 
 clete." Renewed persecutions induced him to transfer this cloister to 
 Heloise, who in the meantime had become Abbess of Argenteuil, in 
 which capacity she had met with opposition from her nuns. Abelard 
 himself became abbot of a monastery in Brittany. After having for 
 eight years vainly endeavoured to restore its monastic discipline, he 
 once more appeared as teacher at St. Genevieve, near Paris. He wrote 
 a work on ethics, entitled " Scito te ipsum ;" re-edited his former 
 manual, under the title " Theologife Christiange LI. V. ;" and, by way 
 of exposing the follies of traditionalism, composed a tractate, " Sic et 
 non," which presented in juxtaposition a number of contradictory pas- 
 sages from the Fathers. His prelections excited great sensations. St. 
 Bernard was now induced to oppose views which were deemed so dan- 
 gerous. At a synod held in Sens (1140), Abelard was declared a 
 heretic. Pope Innocent IT. condemned the writings impeached to the 
 flames, .and their author to imprisonment in a monastery. His last 
 years were spent in retirement at Clugny, where, by intercourse with 
 Peter the Venerable, his spirit mellowed. Ultimately a reconciliation
 
 432 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 10—13 A D.). 
 
 was also effected between him and St. Bernard. He died in 1142.— 
 Reversing the statements of Augustine and of Anselm, that faith must 
 precede knowledge, Abelard maintained that only what was known 
 could be believed. Though professedly aiming to employ dialectics in 
 defence of the teaching of the Church, yet, as he commenced by calling 
 everything in question, he transformed each dogma into a problem 
 which required to be proved before it could be received. Thus faith 
 became merely an intellectual act, while at the same time the objects 
 of faith were frequently narrowed to bring them in accordance with- 
 the requirements of supposed rationality. This remark applies espe- 
 cially to the views of Abelard about the Trinity, which little differed 
 from the ancient heresy of Sabellian Modalism. — (Comp. F. C. Schlos- 
 ser, Abälard u. Dulcin, Leben e. Schwärmers u. e. Philosophen. Goth. 
 1807. — ^. wakens, Pet. Abäl. Brem. 1855. — iff. Carriere, Ab. u. 
 Heloise. Giessen. 1844. — /. L. Jacobi, Ab. u. Hel. Berl. 1850. 
 
 Gilbert de la Porree (Porretanus) — teacher of theology at Paris, 
 and from 1142 Bishop of Poictiers, ob. 1154 — soon afterwards excited 
 a fresh controversy. A rigid Realist, he was led to ascribe such real 
 existence to the universale God, that in his hands the doctrine of the 
 Trinity became almost transformed into one of Quaternity. His views 
 were opposed by St. Bernard, and condemned by the Synod of Bheims 
 in 1148 ; but Gilbert himself was not further molested. 
 
 History has recorded the names of few personages who exercised a 
 greater influence on their cotefnporaries, than Bernard of Clairvaux 
 (^ 98, 2) ; ob. 1153. Regarded in popular esteem as able to work 
 miracles, and endowed with a gift of rare eloquence, he was both the 
 support and the reprover of the vicars of Christ, and, while restoring 
 peace among princes, ever stood forward an avenger of wrongs. Hia 
 deep humility induced him to refuse ecclesiastical promotion ; his 
 attachment to the hierarchy did not hinder his exposing its many 
 abuses and scandals ; the power of his eloquence kindled throughout 
 Europe the enthusiasm requisite for a second crusade, and restored 
 many heretics and fanatics to the bosom of the Church. While him- 
 self seeking heavenly things, and leading a life of contemplation, 
 prayer, and study, he seemed almost to rule upon earth, and, by his 
 advjce, admonition, and reproof, influenced all departments and rela- 
 tionships. In him sincere attachment to the doctrines of the Church 
 was combined with ardent mysticism of a practical and contemplative 
 character. Like Abelard, he controverted the great theological axiom 
 of Anselm — only from a different point of view. The theology which 
 he loved was not one whose great object it was to elevate faith into 
 knowledge by means of speculation, but rather to make the light of 
 faith more clear and bright by sanctification of the heart and life. Not 
 that Bernard was opposed to scientific researches ; but the dialectic 
 wrangling of an Abelard, which recklessly undermined the eternal 
 foundations of saving truth, in order to rear them again in a manner
 
 DIALECTICS AND MYSTICISM. 433 
 
 oonformable to his ideas and for purposes of self-exaltation, appeared 
 to him equally destructive of all true theology and of the sanctifying 
 influences of faith. In his view only a theology of the heart, based 
 on inward piety, and fostered by prayer, contemplation, inward en- 
 lightenment, and sanctification, constituted true divinity. (Tan tun? 
 Deu^cognoscitur, quantum diligitur. — Orando facilius quam disputando 
 et dignius Deus quasritur et invenitur.) During his discussion with 
 Abelard he wrote the '' Tractatus de Erroribus Petri Aboelardi." Among 
 his other works the most important is that "de Consideratione LI. V.," 
 in which, with the affection of a friend, the earnestness of a teacher, 
 and the )>oldness of a prophet, he set before Pope Eugene III. both the 
 duties and the dangers of his position. All the depth and ardour of 
 his devout mysticism found utterance in his commentary on the Book 
 of Canticles. Bernard was ciinonized by Alexander III. in 1173, and 
 in 1830 Pope Pius VIII. solemnly received him into the number of the 
 great Latin Fathers (Doctores ecclesiae: Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine, 
 Gregory the Great). — (Comp. Neander, The Life and Times of St. Ber- 
 nard ; transl. by Matilda Wrench. Lond. 1843. — C. Ellendorf, Bernh. 
 v. Clairvaux u. s. Zeitalt. Essen 1837. — Th. Ratishonne, Hist, de S. 
 Bernarde. 2 Vols. Par.) 
 
 2. Eeconciliation. — Among the seats of learning in which it was 
 attempted to combine scholasticism with mysticism, the most distin- 
 guished was that " a Sancto Victore," a monastery at Paris, which 
 William of Cliampeaxix founded after he had given way before Abelard, 
 But this new school may be said to have originated with Hugo a St. 
 Victore, the scion of a noble German family, a friend of St. Bernard, 
 and the real successor of Anselm. His coteraporaries were wont to 
 designate him as " alter Augustinus," or " lingua Augustini." Tantum 
 Deus cüguoscitur, quantum diligitur. Tantum de veritate quisque 
 potest videre, quantum ipse est.) Hugo was one of the profoundest 
 thinkers of the Middle Ages, a man of great learning, enthusiastically 
 devoted to study, and at the same time of warm and deep affections. 
 Though carried off in the prime of life, he exercised a beneficial influ- 
 ence upon his age, on which he left the impress of his mind [oh. 1141). 
 Ills principal work is entitled : De sacramentis fidei Christianas LI. II. 
 (Comp. A. Liehner, Hugo v. St. Victor u. d. theol. Richtungen sr. Zeit. 
 Leips. 1832.) — The exposure of Abelai"d's errors and his condemnation, 
 made professed students of dialectics more careful ; they adhered niore 
 closely to the dogmas of the Church, which they endeavoured to explain 
 and support, and, after the precedent of Augustine and Anselm, intro- 
 duced certain mystical elements into their favourite science. Among 
 the representatives of this school, Petrus Lombardus, teacher, and 
 from 1159 Bishop of Paris [oh. 1164), was the most celebrated. Like 
 Hugo, whom he surpassed in dialectic talent, but not in depth of intel- 
 lect or of heart, he was a friend of St. Bernard. His celebrated manual 
 of dogmatics (Sententiarum LI. IV,), which procured for him the titla 
 
 3t
 
 434 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (CE N T . 10— 13 A. D.) 
 
 " maglster sententiarum," consists of a collection of doctrinal statements 
 from the Fathers, strung together and connected by the author accord- 
 ing to the favourite dialectic method. Himself was wont to compare 
 his work t j the widow's mite cast into the treasury of the Church ; but 
 it became the great standard of orthodoxy during the Middle Ages, 
 was frequently edited with commentaries, and finally obtained the 
 solemn sanction of the Church at the Lateran Council in 1215. Besides 
 Lombardus, Alanus ab Insülis deserves special mention. He was 
 born at Lille or Ryssel (Lat. Insulae), educated under Bernard of Clair- 
 vaux, and afterwards became Rector of the university of Paris and 
 Bishop of Auxerre. Alanus died in 1203 at Clairvaux, whither he had 
 retired in 1167. A peculiarity in that w^riter was his strictly mathe- 
 matical method of demonstration (almost like that of the school of 
 Wolf in the eighteenth century). Among other tractates, he wrote 
 " de fide catholica contra Waldenses, Albigenses, Judseos et Paganoa 
 8. Mohametanos." 
 
 3. Renewed Controversies. — After the death of Hugo the school of 
 St. Victor gradually gave up its former interest in dialectics. Even 
 the successor of Hugo, Richard a St. Victore [ob. 1173), characterized 
 the method of Lombardus as too dry and barren (comp. Engelhardt, 
 Rich, of St. Vict, and John Ruysbroek. Erl. 1838). — The following 
 abbot, Walter of St. Victor, published, in 1180, a virulent tractate, 
 " Contra quatuor labyrinthos Francige s. contra manifestas hgereses, 
 quas Abaelardus, Lombardus, Petrus Pictaviensis et Gilbertus Porre- 
 tanus libris sententiarum suarum acuunt, limant, roborant LI. IV." 
 He accused Lombardus of Nihilism, because he had maintained that 
 since the human nature of Christ was impersonal. He was in that 
 respect not an aliquid, i. e., an individual. — More moderate in the tone 
 of his opposition was John of Salisbury, the faithful friend of St. 
 Becket, and afterwards Bishop of Chartres [ob. 1182). In his " Poly- 
 craticus s. de nugis curialium et vestigiis philosophoVum LI. VIII." he 
 predicted that, in its anxiety for scientific form, scholasticism would by 
 and by lose all divine substance. (Comp. H. Eevter, John of Sal. 
 Berl. 1843.) — Petrus Cantor, teacher of theology at Paris, and after- 
 wards Bishop of Tournay [ob. 1197), showed, in his "Summa Theolo- 
 gife," that all the doctrines necessary for salvation might and should 
 be deduc'ed directly from the Scriptures. The Commentaries on Isaiah 
 and on the Epistles of Paul, which Herveus of Bourgdieu, a Benedictine, 
 published about 1130, contained a most accurate and clear exposition 
 of the doctrine of justification by faith. — More earnestly than any 
 other divine in the Middle Ages, Rupert, Abbot of Deutz, at the 
 beginning of this century, insisted on the necessity of studying the 
 Word of God. To him the Bible appeared the great text-book for all 
 ages and peoples, and the field where the precious pearl of salvation 
 lay concealed, which every person, whose vision faith had enlightened, 
 might there discover. But with all his veneration for i\& Scriptures,
 
 HIGHEST STAGE OP SCHOLASTICISM. 435 
 
 he saw not the absolute necessity of eliciting, in the first place, the 
 literal meaning of the text, and rather endeavoured by means of alle- 
 gorical iuterpretaions to bring out the dogmatic and mystic import of 
 the Word, although he seems to have consulted the Hebrew and Greek 
 text. Rupert wrote eommeutaries on most of the Biblical books, an 
 explanation of the Liturgy (de Divinis officiis), a " Dialogus intei 
 Christianum et Judjeum," etc. On the subject of the Eucharist, he 
 adopted the view known as that of consubstantiation (since it was 
 not the way of the Holy Spirit, " destruere vel corrumpere substantiara, 
 quam in usus suos assumit, sed substantise, permanenti quod erat, 
 invisibiliter adjicere, quod non erat"). Rupert died in 1135. 
 
 4. The most celebrated among the Historians of this century were : 
 Siyherius Gemblacensis, monk at Gemblours, oh. 1113; Otlio, Bisliop 
 of Freisingen, oh. 1158, the author of a Chronicon in eight books ; 
 Martinus Gallus, c. 1113, (Chron. Polonorum) ; Cosmas Pragensis, ob. 
 1125, (Chron. Bremor.) ; Helmold, c. 1170, (Chron. Slavorum) ; an 
 English Benedictine, Oderinis Vifalis, of Normandy, who wrote a hist, 
 ecclest. in thirteen books, and Hist. Normannorum LI. 13 ; William of 
 Malmesbury, oh. 1143, (de reb. gest. Anglorum ; de reb. gest. PontiflF. 
 Anglor., etc.). 
 
 I 104. HIGHEST STAGE OF SCHOLASTICISM (13TH CENT.). 
 
 Mediasval Theology attained its highest stage in the thirteenth 
 century. After the defeat of William of St. Amour (§ 98, 4), 
 the direction of theological studies was almost wholly left to the 
 Dominican and Franciscan monks. Scholasticism, which had 
 now got rid of all sceptical tendencies, was chiefly cultivated in 
 the University of Paris. The introduction of the writings of 
 Aristotle, which had lately been imported from the seats of 
 Moorish literature in Spain (§ 100, 2), gave a considerable im- 
 pulse to the labours of the schoolmen. The variety and richness 
 of form characteristic ofthat philosophy became now for the first 
 time fully known. These logical forms were adopted and em- 
 ployed in the construction of systems of dogmatics, and afforded 
 opportunity for all the acuteness and ingenuity of the schoolmen. 
 Scholasticism addressed itself exclusively to the elucidation of 
 ecclesiastical dogmas by means of the philosophy of Aristotle. 
 To Scripture these divines appealed not; yet, withal, it was not 
 wholly forgotten that the Bible alone was the source and 
 ultimate ground of all belief; and even in the thirteenth century, 
 those were not wanting who insisted on bringing back theology 
 to this its great standard of authority. — TCf. § 116, Ac.).*"
 
 436 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 10—13 A. D ). 
 
 1. The most celebrated scholastics of this century were : — 
 (1.) Alexander Halesiüs, educated at Hales in England, surnamed 
 "Doctor irrefragabilis," the first Franciscan professor at Paris; ob. 
 1245. He wrote commentaries on Aristotle, and on the sentences of 
 Lombardus (Summa theologise universte, in four books). He was the 
 first to assign to the philosophy of Aristotle its peculiar authority, so 
 far as form was concerned ; on which ground he has been called the 
 first scholastic (in the narrower sense). This method of discussing 
 theological subjects became now prevailing ; and his successors were 
 called Summists, as those of Lombardus had been called Sententiaries. 
 (2.) Albertus Magnus, born Count of BoUstadt in Swabia, a Domini- 
 can, and teacher of theology at Paris and Cologne, afterwards Bishop 
 of Regensburg ; ob. 1280, at a very advanced age. He surpassed all 
 other scholastics in learning, being equally conversant with philosophy, 
 theology, natural sciences, and even cabalistic lore. This mass of 
 knowledge he had acquired with much labour ; but as he had never 
 repaired to the great fountains of Scripture and nature, his learning 
 was of little real value. The people, however, regarded him as a 
 magician. So far as individuality and native talent are concerned, he 
 was much below the average of the great men of his age. The edition 
 of his works published at Leyden, in 1651, consists of twenty-one folio 
 vols. ; among them, five volumes of commentaries on Aristotle, three 
 vols, on Lombardus, a Summa Theol. in 2 vols., and a number of 
 works on natural science. — (Cf. /. Sighart, Alb. M., s. Leben u. s. 
 Wsch. Regensb. 1857). 
 
 (3.) The great ornament of the Franciscans, Johannes Fidanza, 
 better known by the name of Bonaventura, commenced his lectures 
 on theology in Paris the same day on which Thomas Aquinas occupied 
 for the first time the chair among the Dominicans (1253). These two 
 divines successfully resisted the opposition of William of St. Amour. 
 In gratitude for the service, Bonaventura was chosen general of his 
 order (1256), and in 1273 Gregory X. appointed him Cardinal-Bishop 
 of Ostia. By desire of the Pope, he attended the Council of Lyons in 
 1274 (?67, 4), and took an active part in its deliberations, but died 
 before its close (1274). A f«w years later he was canonized, and in 
 1587 Sixtus V. added his name to those of the Church-teachers. When 
 still a youth, his instructor designated him a " verus Israelita, in quo 
 Adam non peccasse videtur ;" while his cotemporaries, in their admira- 
 tion of his " angelic purity," styled him " Doctor seraphicus." His 
 writings have chiefly a practical bearing, and in his case dialectics 
 were always combined with a deep mystic tendency. His works 
 (Rom. 1588) are comprised in eight folio vols. 
 
 (4.) By far the ablest of the schoolmen was Thomas Aquinas 
 (Doctor angelicus). He was the son of a Count of Aquino in Calabria ; 
 became Dominican and a pupil of Albertus Magnus, and afterwards 
 teacher in Cologne, Paris, and Rome, whence he retired into a Domini
 
 HIGHEST STAGE OF SCHOLASTICISM. 437 
 
 «5an monastery at Naples. Gregory X. requested him to attend the 
 Council of Lyons'; but he died suddenly soon after leaving Naples, 
 perhaps from the effects of poison administered to him by order of his 
 sovereign, Charles of Sicily (1274). He was canonized, and ranked 
 among the Fathers. Aquinas was undoubtedly the most profound and 
 acute thinker of his age, exceedingly popular as a preacher, and 
 equally enthusiastic in his attachment to the doctrines of the Church 
 and in the prosecution of philosophical investigations. An admirer 
 and disciple of Augustine, he inclined towards mysticism, and was dis- 
 tinguished for genuine and deep piety. His principal work, the 
 " Summa Theologise," is in many respects a model for dogmatic 
 compositions. He also wrote a commentary on Lombardus, a valuable 
 «controversial tractate directed against the Jews and Mohammedans 
 (Summa fidei catholicoe contra Gentiles), commentaries on Aristotle, 
 and a " Catena aurea" on the Gospels. (Comp. Hotrtel, Thomas Aqu. 
 u. s. Z. Augsb. 1846. — D. Mettenleiter, Gesch. d. h. Th. v. Aq. 
 Regensb. 1856. — X. Werner, d. h. Thorn, v. Aq. Regensb. 1859.—/. 
 N. P. Oischinger, d. specul. Theol. d. h. Th. v. Aq. Landsh. 1859). 
 
 (5.) The fame of St. Thomas, which shed fresh lustre upon the Order 
 of the Dominicans, excited the jealousy of the Franciscans. At length 
 one of their own number appeared to rival the honours of Aquinas. 
 John Duns Scotus, called "Doctor subtilis," was inferior to Aquinas 
 in acuteness and moral depth, though not in dialectic talent. His sub- 
 tilty in analyzing and developing ideas was specially vaunted ; but his 
 ecclesiastical orthodoxy was not free from suspicion, while occasionally 
 he laid himself open to the charge of propounding rationalistic views. 
 He was teacher at Oxford, Paris, and Cologne, where he died in 1308. 
 
 The views held by these two teachers were afterwards adopted by 
 their respective orders, and rigidly adhered to and defended. Accord- 
 ingly the Dominicans were called Thomists, and the Franciscans Scot- 
 ISTS. In philosophy both orders were Realists — only that the Domini- 
 cans were Aristotelians, the Franciscans Platonists. More important 
 were their differences in theology. The Thomists adhered strictly to 
 the tenets of the Church, while the Scotists were rationalistic in some 
 of their views. On the doctrines of human depravity and of grace, 
 the Thomists held moderate Augustinian, the Scotists semi-Pelagian 
 opinions. The Dominicans adopted the views of Anselm on the atone- 
 ment — the merits of Christ as the God-man were of infinite value 
 (satisfactio superabundans), and hence in themselves a sufficient equiva- 
 lent for our redemption. The Scotists, on the other hand, maintained 
 that the merits of Christ were an equivalent for our redemption, not ic 
 themselves, but only in consequence of the declaration of God that He 
 accepted them as such (acceptatio gratuita). Lastly, the Franciscans 
 were strenuous advocates of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin 
 Mary (? 105, 2) — a view easily accounted for from their leaning toward» 
 Pelagianism, while thf Dominicans rejected this dogma. 
 37*
 
 438 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 10—1.3 A.D.). 
 
 2. Raimundus Lullus may be designated "the reformer of the scho 
 lastic method." His zeal for missionary work (^ '93, 5) made him 
 anxious to devise some method more suitable for demonstrating the 
 truths of the Gospel. After considerable labour, he succeeded in in- 
 venting a process by which — at least in his opinion — the highest truths 
 might be made patent to the weakest capacity, by using certain letters 
 and figures to represent ideas and their connections. This method he 
 called " ars magna" or " generalis," and largely employed it in his 
 discussions with the Saracens. He also translated into Arabic the 
 work in which he explained his new method. 
 
 3. Among the divines who were opposed to scholasticism, and ih its 
 stead insisted on the necessity of studying the Bible, we mention : 
 
 (1.) Robert Grosshead, teacher at Oxford, and afterwards Bishop 
 of Lincoln [ob. 1253), — a prelate equally eminent for personal worth, 
 and for his reform of many abuses in his diocese. 
 
 (2.) Roger Bacon (Doctor mirabilis), a pupil of Grosshead and a 
 teacher at Oxford [ob. 1294). He was undoubtedly the most learned 
 man in the Middle Ages ; thoroughly versed in Latin, Greek, Hebrew, 
 and Arabic, and conversant with mathematics, the natural sciences, 
 astronomy, and even medicine. With equal clearness and openness, 
 he pointed out the defects and dangers of scholasticism, and at the 
 same time insisted on the necessity of studying the Scriptures in the 
 original. In return for these bold assertions he was charged with 
 heresy and magic, and had to spend great part of his life within pri- 
 son-walls. The only one of his cotemporaries who seems to have un- 
 derstood and admired the genius of Bacon, was Pope Clement IV., who 
 as legate had made his acquaintance in England, and afterwards re- 
 stored him to liberty. 
 
 (3.) Robert of Sorbonne in Champagne, a teacher and canon at 
 Paris, and the founder of the Sorbonne (originally a seminary for poor 
 young secular priests, but which soon acquired such fame that it be- 
 came the theological faculty of the University). Robert earnestly 
 recommended his hearers to prosecute zealously the study of the Bible. 
 
 (4.) Hugo a St. Caro (de St. Chers, a suburb of Vienne), a Domini- 
 can and cardinal [ob. 1260). This divine likewise insisted on the 
 necessity of having continual recourse to the Scriptures, and endea- 
 voured to promote their study by publishing a "Postilla (Commentary) 
 in universa Biblia," and a " Concordantia Bibliorum." To his labours 
 we also owe our present division of the Bible into chapters. 
 
 (5.) Raymund Martini, a Dominican of Barcelona [ob. after 1286), 
 was untiring in his labours for the conversion of Jews and Mohamme- 
 dans, spoke Hebrew and Arabic as fluently as Latin, and wrote: Pugio 
 fidei contra Mauros et Judaeos. 
 
 4. As a precursor of German Mysticism, which was in its full bloom 
 in the fourteenth century (| 117), we must name David of Augsburg, 
 teacher of theology, and master of novitiates, in the Franciscan mon
 
 PUBLIC WORSHIP AND THE FINE ARTS. 439 
 
 astery at Augsburg [ob. 1271). Ilis writings, partly in Latin, partly 
 in German, are introductions and treatises upon contemplative, mystic 
 asceticism, equally distinguished by depth and fervour, as by pioua 
 earnestness and meek humility. The German portions especially (in 
 Pfeiffer's deutsch. Mystikern d. 14. Jahrh. Bd. I. Lpz. 1845) combine, 
 with excellence of matter, the attractions of beautiful and flowing lan- 
 guage, and belong to the choicest productions of any age. 
 
 5. Among the distinguished Historians of that century are: Arnold 
 of L'ubek, ob. 1212 (Chron. Slavorum), Alberich, a monk of Drlibek or 
 Tres-foutes, at Liege (Chron. to 1241), Matthew Paris, a monk of St. 
 Alban's, England, ob. 1259 (Hist. Major), and Martin Polonus, who 
 died as designated Bishop of Gnesen, 1278 (Chron.) ; William de Nan- 
 qis, a monk of St. Denis, ob. 1302 (Chron.). 
 
 IV. THE CHURCH AND THE PEOPLE. 
 § 105. PUBLIC WORSHIP AND THE FINE ARTS. 
 
 In the services of the Church, preaching occupied a subordi- 
 nate place, chiefly owing to the ignorance of the priesthood. On 
 the other hand, the externalism in religion prevalent among the 
 people rendered this want comparatively less felt. Popes and 
 synods, however, insisted on the necessity of employing priests 
 capable of teaching ; and the sermons of the Franciscans and 
 Dominicans were eagerly listened to by multitudes. Except in 
 Spain, the Bomish Liturgy was now everywhere introduced. 
 At a synod held in Toledo (1088), an attempt was made to set 
 aside the old llozarabic Ritual (§ 89, 1). But the people were 
 violently opposed to such a change ; and the decisions of a trial 
 by single combat and of the ordeal by fire were equally in favour 
 of the established order. After that, both liturgies were used. 
 The old Slavonic Ritual had been abolished in Moravia and 
 Bohemia so early as the tenth century. The Latin was and 
 continued the ecclesiastical language of all countries. — The 
 worship of saints, of relics and of images, came more and more 
 into vogue, and at last formed the principal part of the devotions. 
 
 1. New zeal for preachinct kindled with the revival of monasticism 
 from the tenth century, especially among the Cluniacensians and Cis- 
 tercians ; but these Orders, from the thirteenth centuiy allowed their 
 reputation, in this respect also, to jiass over to the Franciscans and
 
 440 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 1»~13A.D.). 
 
 Dominicans. Nearly all the heroes of monasticism and scholasticism 
 acquired renown, likewise, as preachers. In ordinary public worship 
 the sermon, when one was delivered, was preached in Latin. But 
 where the design was to work upon the people (sermons calling to re- 
 pentance, advocating crusades), the vernacular was, of course, em- 
 ployed. Then such crowds pressed to hear, that few churches could 
 hold them. St. Bernard is expressly said to have preached in French. 
 But of all mediseval preachers, none equalled in depth, fervour, sim- 
 plicity, power, impressiveness, and popular style, Berthold of Regens- 
 burg, the pupil and friend of David of Augsburg (^ 104, 4) ; he used 
 the German, went from town to town, and often had 100,000 hearers. 
 His themes were: the grace of God in Christ, the abuse of indulgences, 
 false confidence in saints, the madness of trusting in pilgrimages, etc. 
 (ob. 1272). A complete edition of his sermons has been prepared by 
 Pfeiffer. Vien. 1862. In regard to their language, also, they are in- 
 valuable treasure, and a glorious evidence of the power, depth, plea- 
 santness, and euphony of the German of that age. — As yet, the view* 
 of divines on the subject of the Sacraments were far from settled. 
 Petrus Damiani computed their number at twelve ;^'io»i6a/vii(.9 reduced 
 them to seven, and his influence prevailed in this respect also (the 
 seven Sacraments : Baptism, Confirmation, the Eucharist, Penance, 
 Extreme Unction, Marriage, and Ordination). At the Fourth Lateran 
 Council in 1215, the doctrine of transubstantiation was formally sanc- 
 tioned. Apprehension legt some of the blood of the Lord might be 
 spilt, led in the twelfth century to the withdrawal of the ctq) from the 
 laity, which henceforth was given only to priests. This alteration was 
 vindicated on the ground of what was called " concomitantia," or the 
 doctrine that communicants necessarily received with the body the 
 blood also. The practice of using ivafers (the host), instead of break- 
 ing bread, arose from a similar anxiety for precaution. At the Fourth 
 Lateran Council it was enjoined, on pain of excommunication, that 
 every one of the faithful should go to confession and to the communion 
 at least once a year, at Easter ; and auricular confession was declared 
 to be necessary before receiving absolution. As marriage was regarded 
 a sacrament in the proper sense of the term, divorce was of course 
 absolutely prohibited, even in case of adultery. Innocent III., who 
 enacted this law, (iiminished, however (1215), the former excessive 
 restrictions, by limiting the prohibition of marriage to the fourth, 
 instead of the seventh, degree of consanguinity. 
 
 2. Neto Festivals. — In honour of the Virgin (| 57, 2) a new feast was 
 instituted, under the name of the Festival of the Kativity of Man/, 
 which was celebrated on the 8th September. Another ceremonial in 
 connection with the growing reverence paid to the Virgin, was the 
 feast of the Immaculate Conception, on the 8th December, which was 
 introduced in the twelfth century. It will be remembered that Rad' 
 berttis Paschasius taught that both the parturition of the Virgin and
 
 PUBLIC WORSHIP AND THE FIN'S ARTS. 441 
 
 her own conception had been exempted from the taint and consequences 
 of original sin (^ 91, 3). In the twelfth century the canons of Lyons 
 followed up this idea, and in honour of it instituted a festival. But 
 St. Bernard protested equally against this doctrine and festival, and 
 Bonaventura and Thomas Aquinas were also opposed to it. From the 
 time of Duns Scotus, the Franciscans, however, again contended for 
 this doctrine, which only induced the Dominicans to oppose it all the 
 more energetically. Still the festival, at least, was pretty generally 
 observed during the thirteenth century ; and in 1389 Clement VII. 
 sanctioned it as one of the regular feasts of the Church. In 998 the 
 congregation of Clugny introduced the Feast of All Soids (on 2d No- 
 vember), which immediately followed upon the Feast of All Saints (on 
 1st November). Its object was to procure, by the prayers of the faith- 
 ful, the deliverance of souls from purgatory. During the twelfth cen- 
 tury, Trinity Day, being the Sunday after Pentecost, was observed. 
 The doctrine of transubstantiation gave rise to the institution of Corpus 
 Christi Day, on the Thursday following Trinity Sunday. It originated 
 in a vision vouchsafed during prayer to Juliana, a pious nun of Liege. 
 According to her statement, she discerned the full moon with a small 
 speck in it, which, as was revealed, implied that among the festivals 
 of the Church one was awanting in honour of the ever-recurring mira- 
 cle of the Eucharist (1261). Urban IV. gave his sanction to its ob- 
 servance ; but it was not generally celebrated till 1311, when Clement 
 V. enjoined it as a regular ecclesiastical festival. From that time the 
 Church displayed all its pomp and splendour in the celebration of this 
 feast. 
 
 3. Pilgrimages to Rome and Palestine continued in the tenth century, 
 in spite of Roman misrule (^ 90, 1) and the tyranny of the Seljiks. 
 On the contrary, the expectation that the end of the world was at hand 
 [I 106, 1), served to increase the fanaticism of the people in this re- 
 spect; the crusades even assumed the form of conquering armies. — The 
 ancient opposition of the Frankish clergy to the worship of images 
 seems to have entirely ceased in the eleventh century (| 92, 1). The 
 veneration now paid to images, so far from conflicting with the service 
 OF RELICS, rather increased the former ardour for this species of devo- 
 tion. On their return to Europe, the Crusaders brought with them a 
 large quantity of new relics, some of them sufficiently strange in char- 
 acter. Despite their almost endless number, these articles continually 
 increased in value. Castles and domains were occasionally not consi- 
 dered an exorbitant price to give for the relics of some celebrated 
 saint, which not unfrequently were stolen by devotees at the risk of 
 their lives. No story, related by traffickers in relics, was too extrava- 
 gant to be believed. Frequent canonizations — which, since the twelfth 
 century, were considered the exclusive right of the popes — furnished 
 ever new objects for the worship of saints. Jacobus a Voragine, a 
 Dominican (ob. 1298), may be considered the last writer of legends of
 
 i42 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT 10— 13 A, D,). 
 
 the saints. His " Legen'da aurea" consists of a colleUion of the most 
 extraordinary stories. Yet a French theologian, who had ventured to 
 style the work " Legenda ferrea," was obliged publicly to retract from 
 the pulpit this insult. In the homage paid to the Virgin, the angelic 
 salutation (Luke i. 28) formed a principal part of the devotions. To 
 assist the memory in the frequent repetition of this formula during the 
 prayers, the Dominicans devised the rosary (the fundamental idea 
 being that a garland of spiritual roses was to be formed from the dif- 
 ferent prayers). The idea must, however, ultimately be traced to 
 Macarius, a monk in the fourth century, who took three hundred little 
 stones into his lap, throwing away one of them after each prayer — a 
 practice which afterwards was frequently imitated. In the monasteriea 
 Saturday was generally set apart in honour of the blessed Virgin, and 
 a special "Officium s. Marige" celebrated. 
 
 4. Hymnology. — About the time when scholasticism attained its 
 highest stage, great progress was also made in the hymnology of the 
 Church. The most celebrated among the many religious poets of that 
 age were, Odo of Clugny, Bohert, King of France ("Veni sancte 
 Spiritus et emitte"), Petrus Damiani, Abelard, St. Bernard, Adam of 
 St. Victor, Bonaventura, Tliomas Aqiiinas, and the two Franciscans, 
 Thomas of Celano, ob. 1260 ("Dies irae"), ancS. Jacobus de Benedictus 
 or Jacoponus, Giacopone da Todi, ob. 1306 ("Stabat mater"). The 
 last-mentioned author was an eccentric enthusiast, and frequently in- 
 veighed against the clergy and Papacy, especially against the ambition 
 of Boniface VIII. When imprisoned by order of that pope, he replied 
 to his taunt, " When will you get out?" by, "When you shall get in " 
 — a prediction which soon afterwards was accomplished. — A number 
 of hymns were also composed in the vernacular, although they were 
 not employed in the public services of the Church (^ 89, 2). Th«» 
 oldest German Easter hymn dates from the twelfth century : " Christus 
 ist erstanden Von der Marter Banden." Some of the poems of the 
 "Minne-singers" in the thirteenth century had also a religious bear- 
 ing, being specially devoted to the celebration of the Virgin, and form- 
 ing a kind of spiritual " Minne-Songs." Occasionally religious poetry 
 was composed for the use of different classes — such as pilgrims, boat- 
 men, etc. — or to be sung in battle. The best of the relics of German 
 popular hymns, of the thirteenth century, is that for Pentecost: " Nu 
 bitten wir. den heil'gen Geist." But the twofold merit of introducing 
 into the public service the German religious poetry already existing, 
 and of greatly adding to this kind of literature and promoting its 
 spread among the people, belongs to the heretical sects of that period 
 rather than to the Church. — St. Francis wrote a number of hymns in 
 Italian. One of these compositions, written in honour of "brother 
 Sun" (de lo frate Sole), with characteristic boldness of figure introduces 
 brother Sun, sister Moon, brother Wind, sister Water, mother Earth, 
 |.nd lastly brother Death, as praising the Creator. The religious
 
 PUBLIC WORSHIP AND THE FINE ARTS. 443 
 
 poetry of some of the disciples of St. Francis, however, was greatly 
 superior to .that of the founder of their order. Among them we 
 iiiention the names of Fra Pacifico (formerly a troubadour, whom 
 Frederic II. had crowned poet laureate), Bonaventura, Giacomo da 
 Verona, Thomas da Celano, and Giacopone da Todi. The latter (and 
 not St. Francis) indited that hymn " In foco amor mi mise," which 
 breathes such ardent love to the crucified Saviour. (Comp. Hoffmann 
 V. Fallerslehen, Gesch. d. deutsch. Kirchenliedes Vjis auf Luther (Hist, 
 of Germ. Ch. Poetry to the Time of Luther). Han. 1854. — .4. F. 
 Ozanam, les Pontes Franciscans en Italie ; transl. into Germ., with 
 add., by Julius). 
 
 5. Ecclesiastical Music. — The Gregorian, or cantus firmus, soon fell 
 into decay. This result was chiefly owing to the scarcity and ex- 
 pensiveness of the Autiphonaria, as also to the frequent mistakes 
 occurring in them, to the difficulty of their system of notation, and to 
 the paucity of regularly trained singers. Errors committed in copying, 
 and even alterations or embellishments introduced to suit the taste of 
 some of the professional singers, multiplied. Thus the cantus firmus 
 became by and by a discantus, or cantus ßguratus (figurge = embellish- 
 ments), and, instead of singing in unison, duets were introduced. 
 Gradually, definite rules of harmony, of chords and intervals, were 
 framed. The merit of these improvements belongs chiefly to Huchald, 
 a monk of Rheims (about the year 900) ; to Beginns, a German monk 
 (about the year 920) ; and to Odo, Abbot of Clugny. Guido of Arezzo 
 (1000-1050) invented, in room of the curious Gregorian mode of nota- 
 tion, our present notes, which rendered it possible, along with the 
 cantus, to mark also the discantus (hence the term counterpoint, i. e., 
 punctum contra punctum). The measurement of the tones was in- 
 vented by Franco of Cologne, about 1200. The organ was almost 
 universally in use ; and Germany was celebrated as possessing the best 
 builders of, and the ablest performers upon, this instrument. 
 
 6. Ecclesiastical Architecture. — (Comp. H. Otie, Handb. d. kirchl. 
 Kunstarchäol. d. deutsch. M. A. Leips. 1854. — /. Kreuser, d. chr. 
 Kirchenbau (ehr. Eccl. Archit.). 2 Vols. Bonn 1851. — A. H. Springer, 
 d. Bauk. d. chr. M. A. Bonn 1854. — Quatremh-e de Quincy, Hist, de 
 la Vie et des Ouvrages des Architectes du XI. S. jusqu'ü, la fin du 
 XVIII. 2T. Par. 18.32).— The general decay prevailing during the 
 tenth century, and the common expectation of the approaching end of 
 the world at the close of the first 1000 years, operated unfavourably on 
 the progress of the fine arts, especially so far as architecture was con- 
 cerned. But these hindrances were only of a temporary character. 
 The Romanesque style of architecture, which prevailed chiefly in the 
 twelfth century, originated in the desire to give a distinctively German 
 mould to the older forms of ecclesiastical structures. But during the 
 entire periud of its prevalence we mark a continual progress ; hence,
 
 144 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 10— 13 A.. D.) 
 
 while retaining its fundamental character as a transition style, it 
 appeared in forms more varied than any other. In Romanesque 
 architecture the ancient Christian basilica still continued the type; the 
 chief innovation consisted in introducing the vaulted roof (especially in 
 the shape of a cross) instead of the flat wooden roof, whereby the in- 
 terior became more lofty, and gained in perspective effect. In other 
 respects also, marked progress was made. To this period belong the 
 general introduction of the rounded arch, and that increase of architec- 
 tural ornaments, which afforded scope for various symbolical devices 
 and for the vagaries of fancy. Its materials were derived from the 
 peculiar German view of the animal and vegetable kingdoms, from 
 legend or from local tradition. Finally, ecclesiastical structures were 
 completed by the addition of towers (as it were finger-posts pointing 
 upwards), which it was now attempted to connect with the body of the 
 church (sometimes by rearing them above the entrance to the central 
 nave, or over both ends of the aisles, or where the central and the 
 cross nave intersected, or on opposite sides of the choir). Frequently, 
 however, only a cupola rose over the central nave. The finest speci- 
 mens of this style are the cathedrals of Spires, of Mayence, and of 
 Worms. — But already the Gothic (or, more correctly, the Germanic) 
 STYLE of architecture was 'introduced, which attained highest perfec- 
 tion during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. This claims to be 
 an independent branch of the Romanesque style, in which the native 
 genius of Germany cast off its traditional adherence to ancient forms, 
 and displayed all its richness and boldness of imagination, and all its 
 depth and fulness of conception. So far as the vault was concerned, 
 the Romanesque style may be regarded as preparatory to the Gothic — 
 the ancient Christian basilica still continuing the fundamental type. 
 But while the Romanesque cross vault and the rounded arch rendered 
 it impossible to rear a very lofty building, and required heavy walls to 
 support the superincumbent weight, the pointed arch, by which any 
 breadth could be spanned and any height reached, removed the ap- 
 pearance of heaviness even from the most massive structures. Admit- 
 ting that the first knowledge of the pointed arch was derived from the 
 Saracens in Spain, in Sicily, or in the East, its application in Gothic 
 structures was distinctively German ; for whilst among the Saracens it 
 was used merely for decoration, it was in Germany mainly applied for 
 construction, especially for the support of the vault. The stiff Avail 
 was transformed into supporting pillars, and formed a grand architec- 
 tural skeleton, admitting of tasteful and varied designs for windows. 
 On the fundamental type of a cross, the Gothic cathedral rosp like a 
 primeval architectural forest, exhibiting rich variety, and far surpass- 
 ing in beauty every structure for secular purposes. Light and grace- 
 ful the most massive buildings rose ; the tall supporting pillars symbol- 
 ized the spirit tending heavenwards. Long rows of such columns 
 iprun^;, as it were from the earth, up towards the lofty vault. Every-
 
 POPULAR LIFE AND NATIONAL LITERATURE. 445 
 
 »hing seemed to live, to bud, and to bear. The pillars and the walla 
 were covered with leaves and blossoms, exhibited fantastic emblems, 
 or set forth holy persons. An immense rose (or round window) above 
 the entrance — the symbol of silence — proclaimed the fact that every- 
 thing worldly was excluded from these walls. Those large arched 
 windows, with their gorgeous paintings, threw a strange mellow light 
 into the sanctuary. Everything about the structure seemed to tend 
 upward, even to the towers in which the stone, dug out of the dark 
 depths below, appeared to become light and almost transparent. High 
 upwards they reached, till they were almost lost to view in the blue 
 sky. The victory also over the kingdom of darkness was represented 
 in that brood of dragons and demoniac forms which lay crushed 
 beneath pillars and door-posts, or were otherwise made subservient to 
 the convenience of the building. Nay, occasionally, by a bold stroke, 
 bishop.: and popes even were represented in such situations, just aa 
 Dante placed some of the popes in hell. The most splendid specimens 
 of this style are the cathedral of Cologne and the Munster of Strasburg. 
 The former was founded in 1248 by Archbishop Conrad of Hochsteden, 
 the plan having been designed by Henry Sunere, an architect of 
 Cologne ; but the choir alone was finished and consecrated in 1322. 
 The building of the Strasburg Munster was commenced by Enoin of 
 Sieinback in 1275. 
 
 7. The Plastic Art, which had been neglected by the ancient Church, 
 was much cultivated during the reign of the Hohenstaufen. Its first 
 great master in Italy was Nicholas of Pisa (Nicolo Pisano, oh. 1274). 
 Even before that period a school of sculptors had sprung up in Germany, 
 whose works (in the churches of Hildesheim, Ilalberstadt, Freiberg, 
 etc.) have descended to posterity, though their names are lost to fame. 
 Similarly, the art of the goldsmith and the coppersmith was largely 
 employed in the service of the Church. — Byzantine artists became the 
 teachers of the Italians in painting, from whom, in turn, the Germans 
 learned the art. A school of painters was formed at Pisa and Sienna 
 early in the thirteenth century, which, in honour of its patron 
 saint, was called the School of St. Luke. It was the aim of these 
 painters to impart life and warmth to the stiff pictures of the Greeks. 
 (hiido of Sienna, Giunta of Pisa, and Cimubue, a Florentine, ob. 1300, 
 were the great masters of this school. Mosaic painting, principally on 
 a ground of gold, was much in vogue in Italy. The art o{ glass ])aini- 
 ing originated in Germany, early in the eleventh century, and was 
 first employed in the monastery of Tegernsee, Bavaria, whence it spread 
 through the West. — (Cf. W. Wackeraagel, d. deutsche Glasmalerei, 
 Lpz. 1855). 
 
 I 106. POPULAR LIFE AND NATIONAL LITERATURE. 
 This was a period full of strangest contradictions, and pre- 
 senting most remarkable transitions in popular life. Everything,
 
 446 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 10—13 A.D.). 
 
 however, gave indication of unabated vigour, and still on the 
 unhewn block did the Church lay the fashioning chisel. If, on 
 the one hand, rude violence prevailed throughout Europe, on 
 the other, men, willingly or unwillingly, owned the higher and 
 invisible power of thought. The grossest sensuality was found 
 alongside the most entire renunciation of the world ; the most 
 unmitigated selfishness side by side with the rarest self-denial 
 and the deepest love ; keen and frivolous sarcasm, which made 
 parody even of what was most holy, occurred along with the 
 most thorough earnestness and tender anxiety for the salvation 
 of souls. If boundless superstition prevailed, so did the boldest 
 liberalism, and in the midst of general ignorance and barbarism, 
 lofty ideas, broad views, and singular individuality of mind, 
 w^ere found to exist. Above all, there was one characteristic 
 distinguishing this from every other age — we mean the capacity 
 and susceptibility for enthusiasm of every kind. 
 
 1. Popular Life. — The consciousness of deep religious and moral 
 decline, during the tenth and eleventh centuries, manifested itself in 
 the confident expectation of the approaching end of the tvorld, which in 
 turn led to fresh acts of devotion in the shape of pilgrimages, pious 
 donations, and foundations. If the secular power was too weak to 
 check the practice of private revenge, the Church exercised a beneficial 
 influence by enjoining the so-called truce of God (treuga Dei), which 
 ordained that during Advent and till eight days after Epiphany, during 
 Lent and till eight days after Pentecost, and during every week from 
 Wednesday evening till Monday morning, all such quarrels should be 
 suspended. This ordinance, which originated in 1032 in France, after 
 several years of famine, gradually spread into all other countries. (Cf. 
 A. Kluckhohn, Gesch. d. Gottesfr. Lpz. 1857 ; E. Semiclwn, la paix et 
 la trfeve de Dieu. Par. 1857) — Despite its barbarism, there was a reli- 
 gious cast about knighthood, which was greatly fostered in Spain by 
 the contest with the Saracens, and throughout all Europe in connec- 
 tion with the Crusades. All the tendencies and mental peculiarities 
 of the people found their appropriate expression in the various orders 
 of monasticism. Nor must we forget the important efi'ects achieved by 
 the Crusades. Not only was the religious sense of the people roused, 
 but their narrow horizon was enlarged, and the ardent longing of the 
 age became deepened. But, on the other hand, superstition and moral 
 laxity also increased ; and along with expanding commerce, the wants 
 or demands of the people also grew. In the fervent homage paid to 
 saints, the people forgot the worship due to Christ" and to the Father. 
 Every business and calling, every age and station, had its patron 
 saint; and under every mis(;hance or disease, there was some special 
 »aint to whom to apply for relief. The religion of the people was little
 
 POPULAR LIFE AND NATIONAL LITERATURE. 447 
 
 other than a kind of magic ; salvation was obtained by indulgences 
 and good works. A large amount of superstition had been imported 
 from heathenism. Belief in witchcraft, amulets, dreams, good and 
 bad omens, fairies, brownies, etc., merged with the dogmas of the 
 Church about saints, angels, and demons, and gave rise to a kind of 
 Christian mythology. The poetic spirit of the people found utterance 
 in legends, traditions, and fahles, mostly rich in meaning, and having 
 some religi(jus bearing. Almost in them all the devil plays the chief 
 part; but he is ever represented as a poor stupid being, who at last is 
 only cheated for his pains. Nay, the light-mindedness of the people 
 turned even holy subjects into extravagant follies. At the Feast op 
 Fools, which was celebrated in France about New Year's time, popes, 
 bishops, and abbots arrayed, as fools mimicked in the church, with 
 grotesque jokes, the sacred functions of these ecclesiastics. A similar 
 comedy was enacted at Christmas by boys (the so-called festiim inno- 
 centnm). At the Feast of the Ass, which was also celebrated at 
 Christmas, in honour of the animal on which Christ had made His 
 entry into Jerusalem, an ass, adorned with a surplice, was brought 
 into the church, and his praises sounded in a comic liturgy composed 
 for the purpose. Bishops and popes inveighed against these substitutes 
 for the ancient heathen festivities of December. But the lower clergy 
 and tiie people enjoyed the sport. At Easter, instead of preaching of 
 Him who had burst the bonds of death, the priests — to make some 
 amends for the previous long fast — amused their audiences with stories 
 and jokes, to which the people, as in duty bound, responded by the 
 so-called Easter-laughter (Risus paschalis). When councils and 
 bishops at last succeeded in banishing these follies from the churches, 
 the people took compensation in the amusements of the Carnival, which 
 preceded Easter quadragesima. — In imitation of the trade guilds which 
 originated in the twelfth century, a kind of spiritual guilds were 
 instituted, which enjoyed the countenance and . fostering care of the 
 secular clergy, in the hope of their proving a counterpoise to the influ- 
 ence which the mendicant orders had acquired among the people 
 through their Tertiaries. In many parts of Germany and France 
 associations of priests and laymen were formed, which undertook to 
 say a certain number of prayers and masses for the members and for 
 their relatives, whether living or dead. Such unions were called 
 Calends, from the circumstance that their meetings took place on the 
 calends (or first) of every month. By voluntary contributions and 
 legacies, these unions obtained ample means for founding special 
 " calend-houses." But their original pious object was soon forgotten, 
 and these meetings became by and by only occasions for feasting ^nd 
 revelry. At the time of the Reformation the calends were abolished, 
 aud their possessions applied tc useful purposes. 
 
 2. Popular Culture. — The learned schoolmen cai'ed little or nothing 
 for the instj-uction of the common people. But some of the earnest
 
 418 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (CE N T . 10— 13 A. DJ. 
 
 preacJiers of repentance addressed themselves to those who were other- 
 wise neglected, generally with remarkable success, especially in the 
 case of notorious or obstinate sinners. Unfortunately, those who were 
 thus converted retired into monasteries, instead of proving the salt of 
 the earth. No attempt was made to instruct the people ; and although 
 the Hohenstaufen endeavoured to establish elementary schools in Italy 
 — making attendance on them even obligatory — these institutions did 
 not succeed. From the eleventh century, associations were formed in 
 the south of France for the study of the Bible ; but their members by 
 and by generally took up a position hostile to the Church. The 
 spread of the Cathari and "Waldenses (| 108) was mainly due to the 
 fact that, by preaching, reading the Bible, singing and prayer in the 
 vernacular, they met the felt religious wants of the people. St. Domi- 
 nic proposed to counteract their influence by employing a similar 
 agency. In 1229, the Council of Toulouse prohibited laymen from 
 possessing the Old or the New Testament, and even from reading the 
 Psalter or the Breviary, in the vernacular. In lieu of the Bible thus 
 withheld, and of the martyrologies, which, being written in Latin, 
 were inaccessible to the masses, the Church introduced, in the thirteenth 
 century, legends in rhyme, composed in the vernacular. The oldest 
 work of this kind in German, by an unknown author, consists of three 
 books comprising about 100,000 lines. Book I. treats of Christ and of 
 Mary ; Book II. of the Apostles and the other personages mentioned in 
 the Gospels ; while Book III. gives a sketch of the lives of the saints, 
 according to their order in the Calendar. The first two books (edited 
 by K. A. Hahn, d. alte Passional. Frkf. 1845) contain a number of 
 apocryphal stories, couched in the genuine mediaeval style. As few 
 of the people were able to read, wandering minstrels were wont to re- 
 late these stories to the people. Another and more effectual mode of 
 conveying religious instruction was by means of religious theatricals, 
 which were introduced in the eleventh century, probably in France. 
 F. J. Mone has lately edited a number of these dramas in German 
 (Schauspiele d. M. A. 2 Vols. Karlsr. 1846). They originated in thoso 
 antiphonal chants in which it was the custom to celebrate the hero of 
 a festival during the worship in his honour. By and by these poems 
 were enlarged into dramas ; and in course of time a cycle of such 
 pieces existed for all the saints' feasts, which were acted by the clergy 
 in the churches, at first with Latin words, but afterwards in the ver- 
 nacular (of course with the exception of the prayers introduced in 
 them). Besides these historical dramas, which were called mysteries, 
 and the material of which was derived from the Bible, or the legends 
 of saints, allegorical moral plays were prepared ; these were called 
 moralities. They represented general moral truths, or personified 
 Biblical parables. Such dramatic representations flourished most 
 during the succeeding period (^ 114, 4). Cf. H. Alt, Theater u. Kirche. 
 Berl. 1846; K. Hase, d. geietl. Schauspiel. Lpz. 1858). — The imaqes.
 
 POPULAR LIFE AND NATIONAL L TERATURE. 449 
 
 mosaics, and reliefs, -which covered the doors and walls of the churches, 
 were also a means of recalling to mind Biblical events and legends 
 of saints. 
 
 3. National Literature. — (Cf. K. Barthel, d. class. Periode d. deutsch. 
 Nat.-Literat. im M. A. Braunschu, 1857). — The tenth and eleventh 
 centuries produced scarcely any works either in science or poetry. 
 But during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, when the Church rose 
 from its former decay, German national literature developed rapidly, 
 and in a manner most surprising. The writings of that period 
 occasionally breathe a S2:)irit hostile to the clerical rule — a remark 
 which specially applies to the compositions of Wolfram of Esehenbach. 
 Even the legend of Reinecke and Isegrimm are really, though not 
 intentionally, a cutting satire on the rapacity of the monks, the 
 hypocrisy of the clergy, the avarice of the popes, and the abuse of in- 
 dulgences. In the mind of the German troubadours, "those nightin- 
 gales of the Middle Ages, the whole fair sex appeared as the Holy 
 Virgin." Thus, while JValter von der Vogeliceide sang in happiest 
 strain of earthly love, he at the same time sounded the praises of the 
 Lord, of the Holy Virgin, jfnd of the Church. The Lay of the Nibe- 
 lungen was essentially heathen in its conception, and its last editor, 
 in the twelfth century, imparted to it only a slight Christian gloss. 
 But Wolfram of Esclienhach, a Christian poet in the highest sense of 
 the term, completely recast in his Parcival the ancient heathen legend 
 of St. Gral, and the Knights of the Round Table. The Parcival con- 
 tains continuous reference to the Christian life, as a contest for salva- 
 tion through the blood of the Son of God. A strain vastly different 
 was that from the lyre of Gottfried of Strassbiirg, whose " Tristan and 
 Isolt" celebrates the pleasures of earthly love in language of the most 
 fervent and sensuous character, while he completely ignores both the 
 Church and its sacrament of marriage. But Tristan remained incom- 
 plete, the poet having died, not a corporeal death, but that spiritual 
 death, by which he died to the lust of the world and the flesh, that he 
 might live in Christ. For Tristan he now substituted a poem which 
 glowed with the tenderest piety, the holiest inspiration, and the most 
 ardent longing after heaven, and another upon voluntary poverty, 
 which is pervaded by the Spirit of St. Franciscus, with his fanatical 
 fervor for poverty. The most recent investigations appear (J. M. 
 Watterich, Gottfr. v. Str., ein Sanger d. Gottesminne. Lpz. 1858) to 
 have clearly shown that blaster Gottfried and St. Franciscus must have 
 personally met each other, and that St. F. conferred upon Gottfried 
 both the garb and spirit of his order. In the south of France, the 
 merry strains of the Troubadours were interspersed with poems in 
 honour of the Church and of its saints ; while occasionally their com- 
 positions became the vehicle for heretics, giving expression to their 
 indignation against the Romish Babylon. Gonzalo of Berceo, the first 
 38*
 
 450 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. fO— 13 A. D.). 
 
 celebrated Spanish poet (in the thirteenth century), sung of th« 
 Virgin, of St. Dominic, and the Last Judgment. On the poets ftf Italy 
 comp. § 105, 4. 
 
 § 107. ECCLESIASTICAL DISCIPLINE AND INDULGENCES. 
 
 Those terrible engines, excommumcation, which was directed 
 against individuals guilty of open sin, and the interdict, which 
 rested on a whole district, rarely missed their aim. Till the 
 interdict was removed, the church-bells were silent, worship was 
 celebrated with closed doors, and only priests, beggars, and 
 children under two years of age, received at burial the rites of 
 the Church. Thus a whole district was made responsible for 
 the sin committed or tolerated in it, and seldom did the people 
 long brook this painful state of matters. Yet all this while 
 ecclesiastical discipline, which Petrus Lombardus had described 
 as "contritio cordis, confessio oris, and satisfactio operis," con- 
 tinually declined in moral earnestness. The expiation demanded 
 by the Church consisted of outward works (alms, fasts, pilgrim- 
 ages, etc.) ; and even these might be compensated for by fines, 
 in the shape of contributions for ecclesiastical purposes. This 
 moral aberration increased during the Crusades, when all who 
 took the cross received plenary indulgence for ecclesiastical 
 punishments incurred from any cause ; and even those who gave 
 of their means to the promotion of these undertakings, thereby 
 purchased a similar dispensation. The popes bestowed also on 
 individual churches the right of granting more or less extensive 
 indulgences to those who visited them. Sincere repentance and 
 amendment was indeed expressly mentioned, or tacitly understood 
 to be the condition of such indulgences ; but this important point 
 was too frequently lost to view in mere external observances.. — 
 In opposition to this lax mode of discipline, many priests — 
 especially the members of monastic orders — earnestly contended 
 for more serious measures. Some, indeed, fell into opposite 
 extravagance, and seemed to take a pride in excelling each other 
 in their flagellations (administered while reciting the Psalter). 
 A formal account was kept of the number of stripes thus 
 inflicted. Three thousand lashes were the number requisite for 
 one year of penance, etc. Self-inflicted scourging was regarded 
 as a voluntary and meritorious imitation of Christ and of the 
 martyrs. This species of superstition was carried to frightful 
 excess amid the calamities of the thirteenth and fourteenth
 
 OPPOSITION TO ECCLESIASTICISM. 451 
 
 centuries (the wars, pestilence, famine, and earthquakes of that 
 period). Compare § 114, 1. 
 
 1. The ingenuity of the schoohiien supplied theological argumenta 
 and a dogmatic vindication in favour of Indulgences. Lomhardus 
 applied for this purpose the doctrine of purgatory (which had received 
 ecclesiastical sanction at the time of Gregory the Great), or of the inter- 
 mediate state in which the souls of believers underwent punishment 
 for those venial sins which they had committed after baptism. But 
 according to Lombardus, the Church, in virtue of the merits of Christ, 
 possessed the power of changing these purifying torments of purgatory 
 into earthly punishments, from which, in turn, it might grant dispen- 
 sation in consideration of certain advantages accruing to the Church 
 as a whole. Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas* went even farther 
 than this, and propounded the view that the Church was the depositary 
 and absolute dispenser of an inexhaustible treasure, consisting of the 
 superfluous merits of Christ and of the saints (thesaurus supererogationis 
 perfectorum), since the latter also had, although in the strength of 
 Christ, done more good than was requisite for the discharge of their 
 own transgressions. — Still these divines continued to lay great stress 
 on the fact, that such indulgences were not in themselves equivalent 
 to the forgiveness of sins, but that they merely implied the remission 
 of ecclesiastical ininishments and «xemption from the torments of pur- 
 gatory, and even these only in the case of such who combined with 
 them genuine repentance. But the generality of preachers of indul- 
 gences intentionally concealed or avoided these explanations. 
 
 V. OPPOSITION TO THE PREVAILING SYSTEM OF 
 ECCLESIASTICISM. 
 
 I 108. ACTIVE OPPOSITION TO PREVAILING ECCLE- 
 SIASTICISM. 
 
 JoMP. /. C. Fllsslin, unparth. K. u. Ketzerhist. d. mittle. Zeit. (Im- 
 part. Hist, of th-e Ch. and of Ileret. Part, during the M. A.). Leips. 
 1770. 3 Vols. — L. Flafhe, ■Gesch. d. Vorl. i Reform. (Hist, of th« 
 Precursors of the Ref.). Leips. 1835. 2 Vols. — ülr. Hahn, Gesch. d. 
 Ketzer im M. A. Stuttg. 1845. 3 Vols. 
 
 With the varied and catholic doctrines of Christianity whicfe 
 had been established during the course of the ancient history of 
 the Church, a number of spurious elements concerning govern- 
 ment, doctrine, discipline, and worship, had been introduced. 
 * And Alexander of Uale».
 
 452 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 10—13 A.D.). 
 
 Thus, along with the truth, abuses had been imported into th« 
 German Church. These seeds of error sprung up and spread 
 during the Middle Ages, fostered by the barbarism of that 
 period, the sensuous disposition of the people, the ignorance of 
 the clergy, and the selfishness of the hierarchy. They manifested 
 themselves chiefly as boundless superstition of every kind, lax 
 and demoralizing discipline, spurious asceticism, work-righteous- 
 ness, secularism in the Church, ignorance and looseness among 
 the clergy, and the abuse of hierarchical power. These evils, 
 however, were not only felt during the Middle Ages, but frequent 
 attempts were made to remove them. Throughout that period we 
 can discern a reformatory tendency, which by various agencies — 
 properly or improperly — sought to make way for itself. Some- 
 times it manifested itself in combination with attachment to the 
 Church, when the attempt was made to introduce an internal 
 reformation, and thereby to bring back the Church to apostolic 
 purity ; in other cases, a sense of the hopelessness of such a task 
 led to separation from the Church, and to determined opposition 
 to prevailing ecclesiasticisra. Such movements, however, rarely 
 continued within the bounds of evangelical moderation ; more 
 commonly, along with error, part of the truth was also rejected, 
 fanaticism and heresy ensued, all social relationships were under- 
 mined, and the existence of the State as well as of the Church 
 endangered. Among the numberless sects of that period, the 
 most influential and revolutionary were those who held Manx- 
 chean views, and to whom the general name of Cathari has been 
 given. But in other directions also, parties hostile to the Church 
 sprung up. Thus the enthusiasm of the Montanists reappeared 
 in diff'erent prophetic and apocalyptical communities ; while the 
 Sect of the Holy Spirit entertained pantheistic views, and even 
 the errors of the Ebionites were again mooted by the Passagiere. 
 Another kind of sects owed their origin to the efforts of indi- 
 viduals, whose eyes had, by a perusal of the Scriptures, been 
 opened to the defects in the Church, but who, failing to perceive 
 at the same time the blessed truths of the Gospel, only aimed at 
 a complete subversion of the Church, and, along with error, 
 rejected also the truth. Among all these different parties, the 
 community of the Waldenses alone continued within the bounds 
 of evangelical moderation.
 
 OPPOSITION TO ECCLESIASTICISM. 453 
 
 1. The Cathari. — (Comp. Dr. Maiiland, Facts and Documents illustr. 
 •if the Hist., etc., of the Albig. and Waldens., Lund. 1832; and that 
 writer's Eicjht Essays, Lond. 1852. — C. Schmidt, Hist, et doctrines 
 des Cathares ou Albigeois. Par. 184^. 2 Voll. — E.Kunitz, ein katha- 
 risches Rituale. Jen. 1852.) — From the eleventh century a disposition 
 unfavourable to the hierarchy and the prevailing ecclesiastical system 
 began to manifest itself in many places, chiefly in Italy and in France. 
 This led to the formation of sects, which rapidly spread. It is not 
 difficult to account for the existence of this estrangement ; it originated 
 in felt religious wants, which the Church failed to satisfy. Such aspi- 
 rations became deeper and stronger in proportion as spiritual and intel- 
 lectual life, in all its departments, was quickened during the period 
 succeeding the lethargy of the tenth century. Accordingly, a strong 
 desire sprung up to procure for oneself what the Church could not or 
 would not give. But this desire must, to some extent at least, have 
 been quickened and fostered from without. As in the East (§ 71), so 
 in the West, Gnostic speculations had in all probability continued to 
 exist, though by secret tradition. In point of fact, we know that the 
 Vandals had transported shiploads of Manicheans to the shores of Italy, 
 while the Priscilianists openly avowed their tenets in Spain, so late as 
 the seventh century. Probably, however, the movement issued again 
 from the East, in all likelihood from Bidgaria, where, since the time 
 the Paulicians had settled in that district. Gnostic and Manichean 
 views were widely entertained and zealously propagated. Even the 
 names of these sects prove the correctness of this assertion. The most 
 general designation was that of Cathari (xo^pot) ; but they were also 
 called Bidgari (whence, in popular parlance, the opprobrious name 
 Bougre) or Gazari, perhaps after the inhabitants of the Crimea (the 
 Chazars), or else a different mode of pronouncing the word xa^apoC, and 
 Puhlicani, probably a transposition by which the foreign term of Pauli- 
 cians was converted into a well-known term of reproach. They were 
 also designated Patareni or Paterini ; either in the original sense of 
 that term (^ 97, 2), or because, since the contest between the Pataria 
 at Milan and the clergy, the term implied in general a spirit of hostility 
 to the priesthood. The name of Tisserands originated from the circum- 
 stance that many of their adherents were weavers by trade. The com- 
 mon characteristic of all these sects was opposition to the clergy and 
 the hierarchy. They differed in the extent to which, and the grounds 
 on which, they opposed the prevailing ecclesiasticism, or attempted to 
 set up a church of their own. Several of the charges preferred against 
 them may probably have arisen from misunderstanding or calumny. 
 The Paulician or Bogomile opinions which they had embraced — while 
 of a practical rather than of a sjieculative character, and variously 
 modified or kept in check — affected all their tenets and practices 
 Tiius they held Dualistic views, though, in many cases, only in the 
 way of carrying the scriptural doctrine of the devil and of original sin
 
 454 SECTION II. — SECOND TERIOD (CENT. 10— 13 A.D.;. 
 
 to an extreme (in opposition to the Pelagianism of the Church) ; thej 
 rejected the Old Testament ; marriage they regarded as a hindrance 
 to Christian perfection ; they contemned liaptism, the eucharist, and 
 clerical ordination ; prohibited th6 worship of saints and relics ; objected 
 to the use of images and crucifixes ; insisted on a literal observance of 
 all the injunctions of the Sermon on the Mount; and, despite their 
 spiritualism, laid great stress on fasting, genuflexions, and the frequent 
 repetition of certain prayers, especially the Lord's Prayer. Along with 
 prayer, preaching occupied the most prominent place in their public 
 services. Their adherents were divided into Crezentz (credentes = 
 catechumeni) and hos homes or bos Crestias (boni homines, boni Chris- 
 tiani = perfecti, electi). The so-called "auditores" formed a lower 
 class of catechumens, who were received among the credentes after a 
 term of instruction and probation (astenenzia = abstinentia). The 
 admission of credentes was marked by a formal delivery of the holy 
 prayer (or Lord's Prayer) and of the New Testament to the catechu- 
 mens, by exhortations and other ceremonies, such as washing of hands, 
 etc. The credentes were received into the number of perfecti by the 
 baptism of the Spirit (or the Consolamentum) , without which it was 
 impossible to have a part in eternal life. The ordinance was adminis- 
 tered by the elder [Ancia) laying a copy of the Gospels, and the other 
 bos Crestias their hands, on the head of the candidate. Those who 
 were thus set apart were required to abstain from marriage, from the 
 use of animal food, and from all polluting intercourse with those who 
 were not members of the sect, on which account they commonly 
 delayed till death receiving the Consolamentum. Generally they took, 
 on their admission among the credentes, a vow (Convenensa) of joining 
 the bos Crestias (or Ordo) at a future period ; while some, after having 
 received the Consolamentum, underwent the Endura, i. e., henceforth 
 abstained from all food and drink. At the time of their greatest 
 prosperity they had a regular hierarchy, with a pope, who resided in 
 Bulgaria, twelve magistri. and seventy-two bishops, each of whom had 
 a filius major and minor as their assistants. — Even their opponents 
 admitted their deep and moral earnestness; but the doctrine of justifi- 
 «ation by faith had no place in their system. Prayer, abstinence, and 
 the so-called baptism of the Spirit, were regarded as the sole means of 
 obtaining salvation. It may be true that occasionally some went to 
 the opposite extreme of antinomian excesses ; but more frequently such 
 charges originated in calumny. Generally they went to the stake with 
 the heroism and joyfulness of martyrs. — Sects of this kind were, since 
 the eleventh century, discovered in several places ; first in Aquitaine 
 in 1010 ; then in 1022 at Orleans, where thirteen of them were bound 
 to the stake ; in 1025 at Cambrai and Arras ; in 1030 in the diocese 
 of Turin ; in 1052 at Goslar, where their adherents were executed by 
 order of the Emperor ; and in other places. During the twelfth cen- 
 tury they rapidly increased in membership, and spread into different
 
 OPPOSITION TO ECOLESIASTICISM. 455 
 
 Countries. Kindness and rigorous measures were equally ana\ailing 
 to reclaim them. His deep love to erring sinners made St. Bernard 
 more successful than any other among them. At a later period learned 
 Dominicans tried the efficacy of preaching and discussions. ' The prin- 
 cipal centres of the Cathari AA'cre in Lombardy and in the south of 
 France ; but numerous communities also existed in Germany, Belgium, 
 and Spain. Indeed, such was their influence in France, that they 
 ventured to summon a general Council at Toulouse in 1167, which was 
 numerously attended. 
 
 The contest between the Ghibellines and the Guelphs afforded them 
 an opportunity of manifesting their enmity to the papal hierarchy, and 
 Frederic II. openly protected them. They continued so late as the 
 fourteenth century, despite the fearful persecution raised against them 
 (§ 109). Reinerius Sachoni (ob. 1259), a Dominican from Lombardy, 
 who at one time had himself been a " heresiarch" (Summa de Catharis 
 et Leonistis et Pauperibus de Lugd.), was the most distinguished con- 
 troversialist against the sect. The liturgy lately discovered by Kunitz 
 dates from the close of the thirteenth century, and gives a more favour- 
 able view of them than had formerly been entertained. 
 
 The small sect of the Passagieri in Lombardy (during the twelfth 
 century) went to an opposite extreme from the Manichiean rejection of 
 the Old Testament by the Cathari. With the exception of sacrifices, 
 they insisted on the obligation of the whole Mosaic law, including cir- 
 cumcision (along with baptism) ; they also entertained Arian views 
 about the person of Christ. Their name (from pasagium = passage) 
 seems to point to the practice of pilgrimages or crusades to the Holy 
 Land. Indeed, they may have originated in this manner. 
 
 2. Towards the close of the twelfth century a pantheistic movement 
 commenced in France, and found expression in the so-called Sect of 
 THE Holy Spirit. The party originated with Amalric of Bena, a 
 teacher at Paris. The first germs of this pantheistic mysticism were 
 probably derived from the writings of the pseudo-Dionysius and of 
 Erigena. The University of Paris and Innocent III. obliged Amalric 
 to recant his apparently Christian, but according to his own interpreta- 
 tion of it, really pantheistic statement, that none could be saved who 
 believed not that he was a member of the body of Christ. Chagrin at 
 this humiliatitm may have hastened his death, which took place soon 
 afterwards (1204). In the hands of his pupil, David of Dinanfo, the 
 pantheism of Amalric received a more Aristotelian and dialectic cast. 
 Besides these two, Simon of Tournay, a celebrated dialectician at 
 Paris, entertained similar views. While professing to teach the doc- 
 trines of the Church, he took care to indicate sufficiently that it was 
 much easier to refute than to demonstrate them. The opinions of these 
 men found way among the laity. Soon afterwards a goldsmith pro- 
 claimed the advent of the age of the Holy Spirit, when all positive 
 religion and every form of outward worship should cease, and God be
 
 456 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 10— 13 A. D.J. 
 
 all in all. As formerly in Christ, so now in every believer, did God 
 become incarnate ; and on this ground the Christian was God in the 
 same sense in which Christ had been. The Pope was Antichrist. 
 These views were condemned at a Synod held at Paris in 1209, the 
 writings of Erigena were reprobated, and several members of the sect 
 consigned to the stake. The bones of Amalric shared the same fate. — 
 (Comp. Eagelliardt, Am. v. Bena, in his " kirchengesch. Abh. ;" and 
 J. H. Krönlein in the "theol. Studien u. Kritt." for 1847. II.) 
 
 3. Revolutionary Reformers. — (Gump. H. Francke, Arn. v. Bresc. u 
 seine Zeit. Zur. 1825. — Mosheim, Gesch. d. Apostelord., in his "Vers, 
 e. unparth. u. griindl. Ketzergesch." Helmst. 1748. — J. Krone, Frä 
 Dolcino u. die Patarener. Leips. 1844. — Schlosser, 1. c, ^ 103, 1. — 
 Mariotti, Frä. Dolcino and his Times. Lond. 1853.) — Among them we 
 reckon : 
 
 (1.) The Petrobrusians, founded by Peter of Bruys, a priest in the 
 south of France, about 1104. He rejected the outward or visible 
 Church, and only acknowledged the true (invisible) Church in the 
 hearts of believers. In his opinion all churches and sanctuaries should 
 be destroyed, since God might be worshipped in a stable or tavern. He 
 used crucifixes for cooking purposes ; inveighed against celibacy, the 
 mass, and inümt baptism ; and after twenty years of continual dis- 
 turbances, ended his days at the stake by the hands of an infuriated 
 mob (1124). He was succeeded by one of his associates, Henry of 
 Lausanne, formerly a monk of the order of Clugny. Under him the 
 sect of the Petrobrusians greatly increased in numbers. St. Bernard 
 succeeded in converting many of them from their errors. Henry was 
 seized and condemned to imprisonment for life. He died in 1149. 
 
 (2.) Among these revolutionaries we must also include Arnold op 
 Brescia [oh. 1155, comp. § 96, 6), a pupil of Abelard. His fervent 
 oratory was chiefly directed against the secular power of the Church, 
 and its possession of property, — views which probably were based on 
 a more spiritual conception of what the Church really was. Other- 
 wise his doctrinal opinions seem to have been in accordance with those 
 commonly entertained. Long after his death, a party of so-called 
 Arnoldists cherished the political and ecclesiastical dreams of their 
 founder. 
 
 (3.) During the thirteenth century the "Apostolic Brethren," or 
 " Apostolicals," caused considerable excitement, especially in Italy. 
 In opposition to the luxuriousness of a wealthy clergy, they formed 
 religious societies which were to be entirely destitute of earthly pos- 
 sessions. As the popes prohibited their associations, they took up an 
 attitude of hostility to the clergy and the Church, and retired from 
 persecution to caves and woods. Anton Segarelli, their leader, was 
 seized, and died at the stake in Parma in 1300. His successor, Dolcino, 
 excited tliese sectaries to utmost fanaticism by his denunciations of 
 the new Babylon, and by his apocalyptic predictions. With 2000 fol-
 
 OPPOSITION TO ECCLESIASTICISM. 457 
 
 lowers he retired to a mountain, where he entrenched himself, and for 
 two years defied the army of crusaders summoned for the suppression 
 of the sect. Ultimately he had to succumb to superior forces and to 
 famine, and died at the stake in 1307. 
 
 4 Prophetic and Apocalyptic Opposition. — (Comp. Engelhardt, d. 
 Abt Joachim u. d. ewige Evangel., in his " kirchenhist. Abhandl." 
 Erlg. 18o2. — Ulrich Hahn, d. apokal. Lehren d. Joach. v. Floris, in 
 the " theol. Studien u. Kritt." for 1849. H. 2.) — The opposition to pre- 
 vailing abuses which appeared in all directions, found also vent in pro- 
 phetic denunciations. 
 
 . (1.) St. IIildegardis, the founder and abbess of a nunnery near 
 Bingen, whore she died in 1197 at the advanced age of ninety-nine 
 years, had visions and revelations, and was considered an oracle by 
 persons of all ranks. Even St. Bernard and Pope Eugenius III. re- 
 garded her as divinely commissioned. Her prophetic denunciations 
 were specially directed against the looseness of the clergy and the 
 assumptions of the hierarchy, to both of which she traced the decay 
 of the Church. She announced impending terrible judgments for the 
 purification of the Church. 
 
 (2.) St. Elizabeth, Abbess of the nunnery of Schönati {ob. 1165), 
 an elder cotemporary of Hildegard, also claimed to be a prophetess, 
 and in that capacity inveighed against the luxuriousness of the clergy. 
 Her predictions were translated and published by Ecbert, her brother. 
 The well-known legend about St. Ursula, a British princess, who, along 
 with her 11,000 virgins, had been martyred in the neighbourhood of 
 Cologne while on a pilgrimage, rests on the authority of her visions. 
 
 (3.) The prophetic visions of Joachim of Floris, an abbot in Cala- 
 bria {ob. 1202), deserve fuller notice. These apocalyptic predictiona 
 breathe a spirit of deep sorrow on account of the corruptions in the 
 Church, and of ardent longing for better times. According to Joachim, 
 scholasticism had paralyzed the energies of theology, while the deifi- 
 cation of man in the Papacy, the avarice and abuses of the clergy, and 
 the practices of indulgences, had converted the Church into a harlot. 
 Hence fearful judgments were impending. These were to be executed 
 by the German Empire, in which Antichrist should become manifest. 
 The only source of spiritual restoration still extant was to be found in 
 the monastic orders. Work-righteousness and pilgrimages were devices 
 of the enemy, but asceticism and contemplation delivered from destruc- 
 tion. The history of revelation was comprised within three periods — 
 that of the Father in the Old Covenant, that of the Son in the New 
 Testament, and the approaching period of the Holy Spirit. Peter was 
 the representative of the first, Paul of the second, and John of the 
 third of these periods. During the third era, which was to commence 
 about 1260, ])ut to last only a short time, the glory of Christianity 
 rould be fully manifested. — Joachim was held in high esteem by all 
 39
 
 458 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT, 10—1?. A.D.). 
 
 ranks, and their protection proved his safeguard against the enmity oi 
 the hierarchy, 
 
 (4.) The views broached by Joachim were eagerly adopted, espe- 
 cially by the Franciscan sectaries or Fratricelli (| 98, 4), and the 
 Beghards who had joined them (^ 98, 5), In their hands the tenets of 
 Joachim became what was called the doctrine of the "Everlasting 
 Gospel," or the message concerning the age of the Holy Spirit. These 
 views were expressed in the " Introductorius in Evangelium aeternum," 
 — a treatise composed either by John of Parma (formerly General of 
 the Franciscans, but deposed and succeeded by Bonaventura), or by 
 Gerhard, a monk whose tenets were impeached about the same time. 
 At the request of the University of Paris, the book was condemned by 
 Alexander IV. in 1254. At length Nicholas III. decided in 1279 the 
 controversy so long raging amo'ng the Franciscans as to the lawfulness 
 of holding property. The Pontiff ruled that the disciples of St. Francis 
 were only prohibited the possession, but not the usufruct of property. 
 This decision gave great offence to the extreme party, and their leader, 
 Johannes Petrus Oliva {ob. 1297), fulminated apocalyptic visions and 
 prophetic denunciations against the Romish Antichrist. Such visions 
 and outbursts of fanaticism rose almost to the pitch of madness in the 
 case of Tanchelm, a Dutchman, who designated himself God in virtue 
 of his having received the Holy Ghost, celebrated his affiancing to the 
 Virgin Mary, and was killed by a priest in 1124. A similar remark 
 applies to another fanatic, a native of Gascoigne, Eon, or Eudo de 
 Stella, who, applying to his own name the ecclesiastical formula "Per 
 EUM, qui venturus est judicare vivos et mortuos," claimed to be the 
 judge of the quick and the dead, and died in prison in 1148. 
 
 5, The Waldenses. — (Comp. /ean Leger, hist. g6n^rale des 6glise8 
 evang. de Piemont ou Vaudoises. Leyde 1666. Transl. into German by 
 de Schweinitz. Bresl. 1750. 2 Vols. — Ä. Monastier, Hist, des egl. Vaud. 
 Gen. 1847. 2 T.— ^. M^lston, I'Israel des Alpes. Par. 1851. 4 T. (re-' 
 peatedly transl. into Engl.). — F. Bender, Gesch. d. Wald. Ulm. 1850. 
 —Ä. W. Dieclhqf, d. Wald, im M. A. Gott. 1851. — /. /. Herzog, d. 
 roman. Wald. Halle 1853. — Maitland, u. s. Note 1.) — Waldus (Valdez, 
 or, as later authorities also call him, Petrus Waldus) was originally a 
 rich citizen of Lyons. For his personal instruction he got the New 
 Testament and a selection of pregnant passages from the Fathers 
 translated into the Romaunt by some clerical friends. By such studies 
 his mind became imbued with Gospel truth, when the sudden death of 
 a friend aroused and decided him to change his former mode of life 
 (about 1170). In pursuance of this resolution, he distributed all his 
 goods among the poor, and founded "an apostolic association" for 
 preaching the Gospel to the country people. In literal obedience to 
 the directions of Scripture, these missionaries were to go forth by two 
 and two, without staff or scrip, their feet shod with wooden .sandals 
 (sabates, sabots), they were to devote themselves to preaching audi
 
 OPPOSITION TO ECCLESIASTICISM. 459 
 
 tefv^hing, and in every respect to imitate apostolic poverty and sim- 
 plicity. They were called Pauperes de Lugduno, Leonistce, or Snhatati. 
 It certainly formed no part of the original plan of Waldus that hia 
 adherents should take up a position of hostility to the Church ; but 
 when the Archbishop of Lyons prohibited their preaching, when Pope 
 Alexander III. sullenly refused his sanction to their associations, and 
 when, soon afterwards, a papal Council at Verona, under Lucius III. 
 (1183), excommunicated them, the Catholic Church, by driving them 
 from its bosom, swept away those barriers which had hitherto restrained 
 them in their search after truth. Waldus himself was obliged to flee 
 from France, lie laboured for some time in Italy and in other coun- 
 tries ; lastly in Bohemia, where he died in 1197. Even at that early 
 period his adherents had already spread throughout the West. They 
 were most numerous in the south of France, in the east of Spain, and 
 in the north of Italy ; but many of their converts were also found in 
 Germany, in Switzerland, and in Bohemia. The so-called "Winkeler" 
 (or conventiclers), who were discovered and persecuted in the districts 
 along the Rhine in 1212, were probably also Waldenses. — Innocent III., 
 with his wonted sagacity, pei-ceived the injustice and impolicy of his 
 predecessors, whose blind zeal had deprived the Catholic Church of 
 what might have proved valuable auxiliaries. Accordingly, he at- 
 tempted (1210) to transform the community of Pauperes de Lugduno 
 into a monkish association of Pauperes Catholici, to whom, under the 
 superintendence of the bishops, he granted permission to preach, to 
 expound the Scriptures, and to hold meetings for religious purposes. 
 But the concession came too late ; already the Waldenses had suffi- 
 ciently advanced to know the unscriptural character of the papal 
 Church, and they now refused to purchase immunity by a sinful com- 
 promise. The cruel persecutions to which they were exposed, and in 
 which thousands were brought to the stake, proved even less efficacious 
 than the advances of the Pope in restoring them to the bosom of the 
 Church. They gradually retired from France, Spain, and Italy into 
 the remote valleys of Piedmont and Savoy. 
 
 According to modern Waldeusian tradition, which a number of Pro- 
 testant writers (most zealously U. Hahn, ut supra) have followed, the 
 Dame and origin of the Waldenses should be traced much beyond 
 Wiildus of Lyons. By their account, Waldensian or Vallensian con- 
 gregations existed in the vallcijs of Piedmont from the time of Claudius 
 of Turin (§92, 2), if not from apostolic times, and among them the 
 doctrines of the Gospel had throughout been preserved in their purity. 
 From them Petrus of Lyons had derived his religious knowledge and 
 the surname of AValdus, i. e., the Waldensian. In support of this 
 tradition they refer to the ancient Waldensian literature. But tlio 
 impartial and full investigations of Dieckhoff and Herzog have un- 
 fortunately shown that these statements are wholly ungrounded. The 
 ancient Waldensian literature may be divided into two very different
 
 4G0 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 10— l.-? A. D.). 
 
 classes. Tho writings of the first period, dating from the close of the 
 twelfth and the commencement of the thirteenth century, boar evidence 
 that at tliat time the community liad not completely separated from 
 the Church. Accordingly, while the corruptions of tho Church are 
 indeed de[)lored, the Catholic Church itself is not denounced ; fasting 
 and almsgiving are urgently recommended as meritorious works, 
 auricular confession is approved, the service of the Virgin and of saints 
 is still acknowledged, the priesthood of the Catholic Church recognized, 
 monasticism extolled as the highest stage of evangelical perfection, and 
 lastly the seven sacraments and the mass are owned. On all essential 
 points tliese writings tally with the statements of the Catholic con- 
 troversialists [Reiner ills, 1. c. Note 1; Alanus ad Insulis, §103, 2; 
 Slephanus de Borhone, and others). Above all, they make no allusion 
 to the existence of Waldenses in Piedmont before the appearance of 
 Waldus. It is otherwise with the writings which belong to the second 
 period of their history. In them Kome is denounced as Babylon, the 
 Poj)e as Antichrist, the worship of saints as idolatry, monasticism is 
 reprobated, while the doctrine of indulgences and of purgatory, tho 
 mass and auricular confession, are rejected. " If the writings of tho 
 former period show what the "Waldenses were, and what they sought, 
 before their separation from the Church, those of the second disclose 
 what they became after their expulsion, and in consequence of tho 
 fearful pcu-secutions to which they had been subjected. I>ut from the 
 very first there was this fundamental difference between them and the 
 Ilomish Church, that they were deeply impressed with the right and 
 duty of every Christian to study the Scriptures for himself; that they 
 anhmtly desired to restore the pristine purity and sim])licity of 
 Christian life — an object they sought to accomplish by a literal ob- 
 servance of the injunctifms of the Sermon on the M(mnt; and lastly, 
 that, like some of the later reformers, they believed that reverence and 
 obedience were due only to pious priests. In imitation of monastic 
 arrangements, their adherents were divided into the "perfecti" and 
 the " credentes," the former alone being bound to celibacy and 
 absolute pdverty. After their expulsion from the Cliurch, they were 
 of course oliliged to make ecclesiastical provision for tluiinsidves. The 
 apostolic succession in their ordination was preserved by means of 
 some bishops who had joined them. The presidents of particular con- 
 gre^^ations were called Jiarhea (uncles). Even their opfionents were 
 obliged to admit the purity of their morals and their separation from 
 the world; they were struck chiefly, however, with the knowledge 
 which they possessed of the Scriptures. A third era in their history, 
 when their dogmatic views underwent a complete change, and they 
 received the doctrine of justification by faith alone, commenced about 
 the time of Huss, and was completed under the influence of the Re- 
 formers, specially of Zwingle and Calvin.
 
 REACTION IN T II K II II R U . 401 
 
 S 100. HK.VCTION IN TIIIO (JIIIJIIOII. 
 It will readily be uiulerstood that the rapid spread of lici-ctics 
 and sectaries dvirint? the eleventh and twelfth centnries oxciled 
 considerable alarm in the Church. Indeed, its very existence 
 seemed now endanjjcercd. So early as the eleventli century, lead- 
 ing; ecclesiastics saw no other rcMnedy tJiiin the stake (a kind of 
 prelud(! to those tornnrnts which hereafter awaited heretics). 
 Only o»« voice, that of IJishop Wazo of Liejre {<>h. 104S), was 
 lifted atjainst this iniipiitons mode of conversion. Happily the 
 opponents of this favourite and easy metliod of terminating; con- 
 troversy were more numerous in the twelfth century. Petrus 
 VenerahUis (§ 08, 1), .S7. I/i/dniard, and ,S7. /icriwrd, i)ro- 
 tested ajjainst attempts at conviction by firo and sword ; while 
 the latter, by his own example and success, proved that alVec- 
 tionate admonition anil kindly teaching were likely to produce 
 more satisfactory results tlnui nu'asures which only converted 
 Bitnple-miinled nn'H into cntlinsiasli(" martyrs. Jiut (^xei-ntionera 
 and stakes were more readily procured than men like St. Bernard, 
 of whom, specially in the tvv(!ifth century, there was not a supor- 
 abundance. At a later period, St. Dominic doHpatched bin dis- 
 ciples to teach ami convert heretics by ])rea(diin<:; ami discussions. 
 So loni;; as they coiilim;d themsidves t,o these means, their laboin-s 
 were not unsuccessful. But by and l)y then also found it, more 
 easy and cfHcacious to employ the tliuml)-scrcw than syllojj;ismH. 
 The crusade a^'ainst tin; All)if^enses and the tribunals of the In- 
 quisition linally arrested the spread of heresy. 'V\\o. scattered 
 memlxM's of tliesc sects soufz;ht sa,f(;ty in concealnnüit. Throufi^h- 
 out, the Church ma<le no distinction b((tv\(M'n dillVrcnt seclaries, 
 and one and the same s(mtenc(; was [M"onounc(Ml on Ca.lhari and 
 Waldcnscs, on I'etrobrusians, Arnoldists, ami Kratricelli (spccicH 
 qnidem Inilxmtes diversas, wrote Innocent III., sed caudas ad 
 invicein colli<z;atas) ; ami imlecMl, so far as their opposition to the 
 Papacy and hierarchy was coiH;(!rn(;d, they were all at one. 
 
 1, Crmadc at/ainst thn AHui/ensrs ( 1 20'.)- 1 220). — (Comp. Slsinmidc 
 di Sismoiuli., Ioh croisad. contn! Ich Alliij:;. l*ar. 1K2H. — ./. S. Hnrrau 
 et A. n. Diirraf/oa, llint. des crois. o. les All). I'ar. 1K1.''>). — 'I'lie threat 
 Htn)ii;i;li<tl(l of the nutidxirleHH Hoets wlii(!li were dcHifrniiled hh (Jiitliari, 
 Bnl<;;iiriaiiH, MiinielioiiMH, etc., was in the Houth of Vvnwcc, wliere they 
 had Hecurcd llio protection of /ifa/iiKind VL, (yov.id of Tdii.loii.ac, and of 
 (itlicr poworfid vaHsal«. Innocent fll., who Hti^^inutized them as worH« 
 than the SuraceriH, commiHwionod the order of CiHtorci.uriH to effect tlioir 
 39*
 
 162 SECTION II. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 10—13 A.D.). 
 
 conversion, but their labours were unsuccessful. Upon this the Pope 
 despatched, in 1203, Peter of Castelnau as his legate, with ample 
 powers for their suppression. Peter was murdered in 1208, and sus- 
 picion fell on Raymund. By order of the Pontiff, Arnold, Abbot of 
 Citcmix, now proclaimed a crusade against the sectaries. The army 
 thus raised was commanded by Simon, Coimt of Montfort. The little 
 town of Albi, in the district of Albigeois, was regarded as the great 
 centre of the party ; whence the name of Albigenses, by which all 
 these sects were designated, though in many respects they greatly 
 differed. The murderous war which now ensued, and which in 
 fanaticism and cruelty (on both sides) was unparalleled, lasted for no 
 less than twenty years. Alike the guilty and the innocent, men and 
 women, children and aged persons, fell its victims ; the country was 
 changed into a desert, and the Albigenses were almost exterminated. 
 
 2. The Inquisition. — So early as at the Fourth Lateran Council 
 (1215), measures had been concerted against a revival of the Albigen- 
 sian heresy. No sooner was the crusade finished than a synod met at 
 Toidouse (1229) to carry out these precautions. Bishops were enjoined 
 to employ persons, whose sole duty it should be to hunt out heretics, 
 and to hand them over to the proper tribunals. Any secular or clerical 
 official who spared a heretic was to lose his property and office, every 
 house in which a heretic was sheltered should be levelled with the 
 ground; the people were to take the sacrament thi-ee times a year ; 
 every two years they were again to make declaration of their adherence 
 to the Romish Church ; those suspected of heresy were to be refused 
 every assistance, medical or otherwise, even in case of mortal illness, 
 etc. But the bishops were slow in enforcing these iniquitous ordinan- 
 ces. On this account Gregory IX. instituted special Tribunals of In- 
 quisition (Inquisitores hgereticse pravitatis), which were confided to 
 the Dominicans (1232). Let loose against the heretics as " Domini 
 canes" (a designation which they coveted as an honour), the in- 
 quisitors possessed unlimited power. Any party suspected or de- 
 nounced could be imprisoned and tried withovit being confronted either 
 with accuser or witnesses, and torture was freely employed to extract 
 confession. Those who recanted were generally condemned to im- 
 prisonment for life ; those who proved obstinate were (in accordance 
 with the principle, ecclesia non sitit sanguinem) handed to the secular 
 tribunal to l)e consumed at the stake. 
 
 The first Grand Inquisitor of Germany was a Dominican, Conrad of 
 Marhnrf/, known also for his unyielding harshness as confessor to St. 
 Elizabeth, princess of Thuringia and Hesse. After having for two 
 years carried on his dreadful occupation with implacable severity and 
 cruelty, he was killed by some nobleman (1233). It was also due to 
 Conrad that Gregory IX. ordered a crusade to be preached (1234) against 
 the " Sledingers," a tribe inhabiting Oldenburg, who, in their indigna- 
 tion at the oppression of the nobility and clergy, refused socage and 
 tithes, and on that ground were declared Albigensian heretics.
 
 THIRD PERIOD 
 
 OP 
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY 
 
 IN ITS MEDL^IVAL AND GERMANIC FORM OP DEVELOPMENT, 
 
 FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES. 
 
 I. THE HIERARCHY, THE CLERGY, AND MONASTICISM. 
 
 I 110. THE PAPACY. 
 
 At the accession of Boniface YIIT. the see of St. Peter still 
 possessed that power and influence with which Gregory and 
 Innocent had invested it. The first breach was now to be made 
 in the proud fortress. During the seventy years of (so-called) 
 Bahylonüh exile at Avignon the Papacy became the tool of 
 French intrigue, and fell into fearful decay. Nor was this all. 
 When at length the Curia was again transported to Rome, a 
 papal schism ensued. For forty years Europe had the spectacle 
 of two, or even three, pretended representatives of God on earth, 
 hurling against each other the most awful anathemas. At the 
 Councils of Pisa, Constance, and Basle, an attempt was made 
 to put an end to these abuses, and to introduce a thorough 
 reformation in head and members. Yet so deep was the con- 
 Tiction still entertained of the necessity for some central govern- 
 ment of the Church generally, such as the Papacy had hitherto 
 represented, that even the most determined reformers, the Fathers 
 of Constance and Basle,were the most strenuous advocates for its 
 continuance. But the abuses and the degeneracy of the Papacy, 
 the vileness and dissoluteness of most of its occupants at the 
 time, and of those by whom they were surrounded, the continual 
 demands for money made by the Curia under every kind of pre- 
 
 (4G3)
 
 ■iG4 SECTION II. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 14 & 15 A. D.). 
 
 text, which led to almost incredible simony, obliged the divines 
 of that age to fall back upon the old principle, that the infalli- 
 bility of the Church rested not in any one individual, but in the 
 representation of the Church universal in General Councils, and 
 that these assemblies were superior to the popes. The general 
 acknowledgment and establishment of this principle depended, 
 however, on the union and combination of individual or national 
 churches — which now more than ever felt that they were inde- 
 pendent members of the great hierarchical body — in their oppo 
 sition to the corrupt Papacy. Unfortunately the different churches 
 were not prepared for such measures. Content to make separate 
 treaties with the Papacy, in which even the most selfish demands 
 of a particular church were scarcely met, they neglected the 
 general good. Most successful, but also the most selfish, were 
 the policy and measures of the Galilean Church. Thus papal 
 cunning ultimately succeeded in disappointing and frustrating 
 the hopes and labours of these councils. From this its severest 
 conflict the Papacy issued once more triumphant ; but only, as 
 in the tenth, so now in the fifteenth century, again to descend to 
 the lowest depth of moral degeneracy and vileness. — Luxurious- 
 ness and dissoluteness, pomp and worldliness, nepotism, and, 
 since the return to Rome, incessant wars, had helplessly dis- 
 ordered the papal finances. The felt necessity of opening fresh 
 sources of income led to the adoption of new devices. Among 
 them we reckon the Annatce, a full year's income being claimed 
 at every vacancy by the pontiffs, as those who conferred bene- 
 fices ; the Beservationes, the popes claiming the right of appoint 
 ing to rich benefices, and exacting large sums for the nomination ; 
 the Exspectantice, the popes nominating successors to rich bene- 
 fices before the death of the incumbent, as that event did not 
 always take place at the period when papal requirements rendered 
 it desirable ; the Commendce, appointments being made, not defi 
 nitely, but provisionally, " in commendam," on condition of pay- 
 ing an annual tax ; the Jus spoliorum, the see of Peter declaring 
 itself the sole rightful heir of all property acquired by dignitaries 
 of the Church during their tenure of office ; the tithing of the 
 property of churches for urgent wants; the innumerable iiidul- 
 (jencps, dispensations, appeals, and many other rights, all of which 
 swelled the treasury of the Church. — Boniface VITT. abided to 
 the papal tiara a second erown, in token of spiritual and secular 
 rule ; Urban Y. surmounted it with a third, to indicate that its 
 wearer was the representative of Christ. The doctrine of pa- 
 pal infallibility made no progress in this period.
 
 THE PAPACY. 465 
 
 1. Boniface VIII. (1294-1303).— (Comp. W. Drumann, Gesch. Bonif. 
 VIII. Königsb. 1852, 2 Vols.) — In point of sagacity and energy, 
 Boniface was no way inferior to any of his predecessors. Otherwise, 
 however, he was more concerned about the gratification of his immode- 
 rate personal ambition than the welfare of the Church. He commenced 
 his reign by expelling the influential Roman family of the Colonnas, 
 who had declared the abdication of Coelestine V. to be unlawful. But 
 a more dangerous opponent to the Pontiff was Philip-) the Fair of France 
 (1285-1314). The first collision between them arose during the war 
 of Philip with Edward I. of England. In virtue of his hierarchical 
 supremacy, the Pope claimed to be arbiter between the monarchs 
 (1295). These pretensions were disdainfully rejected by the King of 
 France, who also levied on the clergy a heavy contribution for the pay- 
 ment of the expenses of the war. Upon this, Boniface issued, in 1296, 
 the bull " Clericis laicos," which pronounced excommunication against 
 all laymen who exacted contributions from the clergy, and against 
 those of the clergy who paid such taxes. Philip avenged himself by 
 prohibiting the exportation of money from the country. The Pope soon 
 felt the inconvenience of being deprived of his French revenues ; he 
 made overtures to the king, consented to certain concessions, and 
 canonized Louis IX., the grandfather of Philip. The king on the 
 other hand accepted his arbitration, but only in the character of a 
 personal confidant, not as Pope. But when the sentence of the Pontiff 
 proved adverse to Philip, the breach between them became irremedi- 
 able. The legate of the Pope — a French bishop — was seized on a 
 charge of treason ; Boniface denounced Philip as a heretic, and the 
 latter retorted by calling the Pope a fool. (The Pope wrote: Scire te 
 volumus, quod in spiritualibus et temporalibus nobis subes. Aliud 
 credentes, hgereticos reputamus. The king replied : Sciat maxima tua 
 fatuitas, in temporibus nos alicui non subesse. Secus credentes fatuoa 
 et dementes reputamus.) The view that, in its own province, the 
 secular power was perfectly independent of the spiritual, was branded 
 as Manicheanism in the bull "Uuam Sanctam" (1302). This measure 
 was soon followed by excommunication and the interdict, by suspen- 
 sion of the clergy and absolution of the people from their oath of alle- 
 giance. The French Parliament now preferred some most serious 
 charges against the orthodoxy and the life of the Pope, and appealed 
 to a general council (1303). William of Nogaref, the French chancel- 
 lor, and one of the expelled Colonnas, by force of arms seized the 
 Pope, who received his executioners in the most dignified manner, 
 sitting on his throne, and arrayed in all the gorgeousness of his robes. 
 The people soon restored Boniface to liberty. He died the same year 
 of an inflammatory disease. Dante has assigned him a place in holl. 
 
 2. The Papacy in its Babylonish Exile (1309-1377).— After the brief 
 interregnum of an Italian pope, Bertrand de Got, Archbishop of Bor- 
 deaux and a favourite of Boniface, was unanimously elected as Clb»
 
 40/» HKcrroN ti. — Tir i iin I'lcnioi» (obnt. H & 15 a. d.). 
 
 Kf.Si V. (I.'!()ri-|.'!M). But MÜH jiiflnlr! Iiiul [iniviouHly rnado a BCcrel 
 OdriMiiirt with IMiilip, un<l bound liiiiiHolf to KUj)|)i)rt Frotiuh policy 
 (liiriiiiil, iiiM'forrcd roiiiiiiiiin/^ on tho oUior sido of Uio AlpH, and in lo09 
 I'uniinWy IriinHliirrcid Um papiil (Jiiria to Avif^non, whcro it continued 
 for noarly Hovonty ycaiH. 'f liroiifijliout tliiH poriod tlio Papacy was 
 alinoHt cntircdy tlin tool of tho French rulcrH, while at tho »anio time it 
 UHHUMicd tiio nioHt arroji;ant tono towardH other countries. If, on the 
 other hand, the Hrciihu- jxiwcr in Fran(r(! Hiipportcd thcHc hicrar(!hical 
 ])rcl('nHi()nH, it iiIho took |>r(icniit-ionH to Hctciirc the libcrtioH of the (ialli- 
 caii ('hurcii. At Avignon the papal court hocanio increaslni^ly tho 
 cciihn (iC moral and reiij^jioiiH frivolity and looHcncHH, At iUo FiJ/cciUh 
 (I'l'iifni/ CiiiiurU h(l(l in, I'iriiiic (I.''. lU), (Menient wacriliccd to tho rapa- 
 city ol' I'hilip the rich order of the TeniplarH ; in return, he had the 
 HntiHfiirtion that the memory of llonifai^e VIII., whom I'hiliji would 
 ha.V(i iiad eonch^mned, wan vindicNited. (Mement died in ll! 14. For two 
 years the Kreneii and ilnlian parties anion;^ the cardiiuils contended 
 for the HuccesMioii ; at last the former prevailed, and Jo/iu A'A'II. was 
 chosen roiililV. IJ(> hiid promised tho Italians upon oath, never to 
 mount horse, except for tlu^ purpose of }j;oinf; to Homo — and took ship 
 to Avi)!;niin. At i\\o lime, Loiii.i of Jtararia (KiN-llMT) and Frederic 
 vf Aimlriti contended for the crown of («ornumy. The Tope declared 
 that the rij!;ht of settling the question rested with him al()n(>. Hut vic- 
 tory decided for Louis, who, in vindication of his title, appealed to the 
 vote of liie princt<-eI(H'li)rs, and referred (he ohjections of tho I'opo to 
 n futur(> j:;eneral countül, 'I'he pontilf rcplicMl by pronouncing; excom- 
 munication and the interdict ( l.'l'JI). 15ut Louis went to Italy (l.'i'JT), 
 received in Uome the imptM'ial «M'owu. and ap]iointcd a pious Francis- 
 can of till» extrtMue ])arly in that ordt>r [Nicholas V,) countcr-popo. 
 This rival, howev(>r, was not jiroperly su))i>orted ; and fresh anatluMuas 
 issuin;; from Avii!.'non, imperilled the position of the Fniperor. John 
 (lied in l.'i.'M. His successor, Hicnkuk'T Xll. (o/». l.'U'J), was sincerely 
 desirous of s(>llin;j; !iin\self fr<>e from French domination and nuvking 
 his pence will) (b(> Fmperor, but he was unable to carry out his inten- 
 tions. It was at (his tinu> that the i>riiirr.t eirrforx solemnly declared, 
 ut tlieir first »Mff/jm; m /iV/c/i.sr (l;i,'?S), tluit tlie otlice oi' Hitman king 
 depended, not on the Pope, but only on the choice of the electors. 
 Clniinif 17. (oh. 1,'^^"J) anain ^uonounced the ban upon Louis, and ap- 
 jioiuted as his successor t'harlcs \\ . of Hoheniia (lo4()), who. after the 
 death of l.ouis, was ackt\o\vledü;ed by the electors. He had formally 
 obligated himself to renounce all imperial prerogatives in the tcmjHiral 
 n>aiu>giMuen( of the Statt» of the Church, and at his coronation in Home, 
 perforn\ed by two cardin!\ls ( l.".^.^) by order of the absent pope, repeated 
 {his pledge. >u>twithstandiug that the Hon\ans urged him to maintain 
 his im|>erial rights. In l,'il7, (\>lii ili l\itii:i, the now tribune of tho 
 j»t<ople. restored the anciei\t Hepublic of Htmu\ in the full anticipation 
 tluit It wouKl again achieve tho comiuest of the world. These and
 
 THE PAPACY. 467 
 
 other disturbances in Italy rendered it increasingly necessary for the 
 popes to return to their ancient capital. Accoi-dingly, Urbax V. left 
 Avignon in 13G7 ; only a few of the cardinals, unwillingly, accompanied 
 him ; and so early as 1370 the Pope was obliged to go back to Avignon. 
 But under the rule of his successor, Gregory XL, in 1377, the papal 
 court was again transported to Rome, where Gregoi-y died the year 
 following. 
 
 3. The Papal Schism and the Reforming Councils (1378-1443) 
 Comp. /. H. V. Wesscnhcrg, die grossen Kirchenversamml. d. 15. 16. 
 Jahrh. (the Great Councils of the 15th and 10th Cent.) Const. 1840. 4 
 Vols. — After the death of Gregory, the Romans ül)liged the cardinals 
 to choose an Italian pope {Urban VI.). After the election, the French 
 party in the conclave fled, declared the election illegal, and appointed 
 a Frenchman [Clement VII.), who took up his residence at Avignon. 
 Thus commenced the papal schism (1378-1409), in consequence of 
 which two popes, each sun-ounded by a college of cardimils, anathe- 
 matized each other, and jointly contributed to the destruction of that 
 fabric which Gregory VII. had reared. For thirty years Europe sub- 
 mitted to this state of matters, — not, however, without strenuous pro- 
 testation against the scandal, especially on the part of the University 
 of Paris (the chancellor Pierre d'Ailh/, and the rector Nicholas de Cle- 
 mangis). After much fruitless negotiation even the cardinals on both 
 sides became tired of this state of matters, and summoned a General 
 Council at Pisa (1409) to pronounce on the claims of the two popes 
 {Gregorg XII. in Rome, and Benedict XIII. in Avignon). This 
 ßeasonaljle measure was chiefly due to the exertions of John Charlier 
 de Gcrson (^ 118), at the time Clianc«llor of the University of Paris. 
 That divine, while admitting the necessity of a visible chief of the 
 Church at Rome, insisted on the necessity of a reformation in head 
 and members, and laid down the principle that a general council was 
 superior to the Pope. The assembly at Pisa numbered among its 
 members the most influential churchmen of the time. The two popes 
 were summoned to its bar ; they failed to appear, and W(?re deposed. 
 But instead of now addressing itself to the work of reformation, the 
 Council hastened to elect another pontiff. Alexander V., the new 
 Pope, immediately adjourned the Council for three years, on pretext 
 that the necessary preparations for the proposed reformation had not 
 yet been made. Accordingly, the only result achieved was — that 
 there were three instead of two popes anathematizing each other. 
 
 Alexander V. died in 1410 at Bologna, probably in consequence of 
 poison administered to him by Cossa, the cardinal legate, a most de- 
 praved person, who in youth had been a pirate, and now exercised at 
 Bologna the most despotic sway. Cossa ascended the payal throne as 
 John XXIII. The new Pontiff was bold enough, in 1412, to summon 
 the long-promised General Council to Rome. At the same time, he 
 took care that all the passes leading into Italy should be occupied by
 
 468 SECTION II. — THIRD PERIOD (C E N T. 14 & 15 A. D.). 
 
 his friends the banditti. Hence only a few Italian bishops appeared 
 and the Council came to nothing. But D'Ailly and Gerson continued 
 their exertions. They were supported by the Emperor Sigismund 
 (1410-1437), who insisted on a free and general council to initiate a 
 thorough reformation. As John required the aid of the Emperor 
 against Naples, he had reluctantly to yield, and accordingly the 
 Council of Constance (1414-1418) was summoned. This assembly 
 was more numerously and influentially attended than any previous oi 
 subsequent council (by 18,000 clerics, and innumerable princes, counts, 
 and knights). It attracted, moreover, about 50,000 strangers to the 
 city, and among them many of the most disreputable character. From 
 the first, the calculations and intrigues of John proved futile. D'Ailly 
 and Gerson carried it, and the Council immediately declared itself 
 supreme in every respect, and competent to depose all the three popes 
 if it saw cause ; also, that the reformation in head and members was 
 taken in hand as the main business before them ; and that the vote was 
 taken, not according to persons, but according to nations, which 
 previously met and deliberated in separate assemblies. When an 
 accusation was now laid before the Council, charging the Pope with 
 murder, immorality, and simony, John hastily fled in the disguise of 
 a groom. It was with some difiBculty that Gerson managed to keep 
 the Council together. The Pontiff was deposed, and soon afterwards 
 made prisoner. Of the other two popes, one abdicated, the other was 
 deposed (1417) The Emperor and the Germans now insisted that the 
 proposed reformation should precede a new election to the Papacy ; but 
 they were unsuccessful. Cardinal Colonna was chosen as Martin V., 
 and all hopes of a reformation were again at an end. The intrigues 
 of the new Pontiff proved only too efficacious ; separate agreements 
 were made with individual nations ; and the Council, which had at any 
 rate grown tired of its protracted labours, was dissolved after the 
 forty-fifth general session. The Pope granted to all the members 
 plenary indulgence to the hour of their death, and left the town in 
 triumph. 
 
 It had been resolved at Constance that the next General Council 
 should meet at Pavia in 1423. But before its jnembers assembled, the 
 Pope transferred the assembly to Sienna, and then dissolved it after a 
 few sessions, on pretext that it did not command sufficient sympathy. 
 The next council was to have been convened seven years later at Basle. 
 Pope Martin V. died shortly after that term. His successor, Euoenius 
 IV., sent Cardinal Jvlianits Cesarini as legate to the Council of Basle 
 (1431-1443). The Council from the first took an independent position, 
 and re-asserted the principle of the absolute authority of general 
 Bynods. The Pope now proposed to transfer the Council to Bologna — 
 a measure against which even Cesarini protested. After some fruit- 
 less negotiations, the Pontiff formally dissolved the Council (1433). 
 But the assembled fathers continued their deliberations, and the Popo
 
 THE PAPACY. 469 
 
 was obliged from political reasons, again to recognize their validity 
 (1434). But as measures were now introduced for a reformation in 
 head and members, Eugenius once more transferred the Council, after 
 its twenty-fifth session, to Ferrara (1438), and thence to Florence. 
 •The solemn reconciliation of the Greeks to the Romish Church which 
 there took place (§ 67, 6), gave it the appearance of work and success. 
 Meantime the Council of Basle continued its sittings, although 
 Cesarini had left it. Its new president. Cardinal d' Allemand, filled 
 the places of the bishops who absented themselves with the relics of 
 the churches at Basle. The Pope excommunicated the Council, which 
 in turn deposed him (1439), and chose another Pontiff [Felix V.). 
 Europe, however, was tired of these disputes. The authority of Felix 
 was scarcely acknowledged by any, and the Council itself daily lost in 
 numbers and influence. One by one the ablest membei'S left its ranks ; 
 many even joined the party of Eugenius, among them, the astute 
 ^iieas Sylvius Piccolomini, a native of Sienna, and the learned and 
 worthy Nicholas of Cusa (^ 118, 2, 3). After its 45th session in 1443, 
 the Council continued merely in name ; its last representatives ulti- 
 mately recognized, in 1449, the authority of Nicholas V., the successor 
 of Eugenius. 
 
 4. The Last Popes before the Reformation (1443-1517). — From its 
 contest with the reforming councils the Papacy had issued triumphant. 
 It almost seemed, like a phoenix, to have sprung from its ashes. But 
 the abuses prevalent in the Church — most notably those caused by the 
 Papacy itself — were as deeply and generally felt as ever. The desire 
 among all the more noble-minded, both princes and subjects, for a re- 
 formation in head and members, was not abated ; and so long as it con- 
 tinued, the Papacy, as then constituted, was imperilled. The man 
 who was now at the helm of the Church was nowise fitted for the 
 emergency. Even under tbe successors of Eugenius, ^neas Sylviiis, 
 who had left the ranks of the Basle reformers to make his peace with 
 the Holy See, really wielded the authority of the Papacy. Shortly 
 afterwards he was elevated to the Chair of Peter as Pius II. (1458- 
 1464). yEneas would fain have been a second Hildebrand, but times 
 had changed ; besides, the Pontiff was in every respect inferior to his 
 great model. Hildebrand's accession took place after a period during 
 which the Papacy had reached its lowest depth. In the case of ^Eneas 
 it was exactly the reverse ; a similar degradation followed his pontifi- 
 cate. In point of learning, astuteness, and energy, he was however 
 equal to any of his predecessors, while in diplomatic skill he surpassed 
 them. The French Church alone succeeded in concluding a second 
 pragmatic sanction (1438), by which the principles asserted at Basle 
 were secured, and maintained even against Pius II. The attempts of 
 the German Church to obtain similar privileges proved fruitless. All 
 the efforts of the Germans and their princes were frustrated by th« 
 40
 
 470 SECTION II. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 14&15 A.D.). 
 
 callousness of the Emperor Frederic III. (1439-1493), and by tht 
 manoeuvres of ^neas. At a General Council held in Mantua in 1459, 
 the principles laid down at the Council of Constance were condemned 
 as heretical ; and shortly before his death the Pope himself expressly 
 retracted, in a bull addressed to the University of Cologne, his own 
 former liberal principles and writings. — The conquest of Constanti- 
 nople by the Turks (1453) seemed a loud call to take measures of pre- 
 caution against the great enemy of Christianity. Like his two prede- 
 cessors, Pious II. entered with spirit into this question. Even before 
 this time Culixtus III. had despatched a fleet of his own against the 
 Turks, after having in vain appealed to the secular princes on the 
 subject. But the victories it achieved led to no lasting result. Calix- 
 tus had next demanded tithes from all churches for the purpose of 
 carrying on the holy war ; but the call was treated as merely a pre- 
 text for raising money. Pius II. again reverted to this plan ; but his 
 enthusiastic appeal at the Council of Mantua failed to evoke the spirit 
 which fired the Council of Claremont. Like Hildebrand of old, he 
 would fain have headed a crusade in person ; but the most important 
 element — an army — was wanting. lie also addressed a letter to 
 Mohammed II., the conqueror of Constantinople, in which he earnestly 
 urged the claims of Christianity on his reception — it need scarcely be 
 added, without effect. (Comp. G. Voigt. Enea Silvio Pice, als P 
 Pius II. Bd. I. Berl. 1856). 
 
 Almost all the successors of Pius II, till the Reformation, were dis 
 tinguished for their dissoluteness, vileness, or at least for want of piety 
 Probably the best among them was Paul II. [ob. 1471), though he also 
 was fond of pomp and extravagance. Sixtus IV. [ob. 1484) increased 
 the revenues of his see by instituting brothels in Rome. Under his 
 pontificate the nepotism of his predecessors reached the highest stage ; 
 nor did the Pope scruple to take part in the frightful conspiracy 
 against the Medici at Florence. Innocent VIII. [ob. 1492), while 
 summoning Christendom to a war against the Turks, was at the same 
 time in receipt of regular pay from the Sultan for keeping his brother 
 a captive. To his zeal it was due that criminal procedure against 
 witches was introduced into Germany. Ilis paternal care for his six- 
 teen illegitimate children procured for him, in common parlance, the 
 title of " father of his country" (Octo Nocens genuit pueros, totidem- 
 que puellas, — Hunc merito potuit dicere Roma patrem). Alexander 
 YI. [ob. 1503) was not without political abilities, and proved an ener 
 getic although despotic ruler. He never scrupled at any measure to 
 attain his own objects, and even entered into a league with the 
 hereditary enemy of Christendom against the most Christian King (of 
 France). In short, nepotism and immorality were at no time carried 
 to a higher pitch than in the person and under the reign of Alexander. 
 Among other enormities, he was greatly suspected of incest with hia 
 daughter Lucrezia. Under his pontificate, Savonarola, the Florentine
 
 THE Ci^ERGY" 471 
 
 preacher, had to expiate his zeal and devotiun at the stake (? 119, 7) 
 The Pontiff died in consequence of poison, which his son Ccesar Borgia, 
 a monster of every vice, had destined for a wealthy cardinal. Julius 
 II. [ob. 1513) was a great warrior. His main object was to liberate 
 Italy from foreign domination, in order to aggrandize the States of the 
 Church. He expelled the French from the Peninsula, on account of 
 which a French National Council assembled at Tours, in 1510, re- 
 nounced his allegiance. Germany also showed signs of rebellion ; 
 and the Emperor Maximilian (1493-1519) commissioned the learned 
 and liberal Wimpfeling to draw up a list of many and serious griev- 
 ances against the Papacy, and to make a draft of a pragmatic sanction 
 for Germany. At last the French and German monarchs summoned a 
 general Council at Pisa in 1511, when the resolutions of Basle were 
 re-enacted, and the Pope was deposed. As Julius was at the time 
 dangerously ill, Maximilian, who had just lost his wife, conceived the 
 idea of assuming the Papacy himself. But Julius recovered, and with 
 his Swiss mercenaries dispersed the Council of Pisa, which fled to 
 Lyons. At the Fifth General Lateran Council in 1512, Louis XII. of 
 France was excommunicated, and a concordat concluded with Maxi- 
 milian, by which the most crying grievances of the Germans were re- 
 moved. Upon this Louis had a medal struck, bearing the inscription, 
 "Perdam Babylonis nomen," and marched against the Pope. But his 
 army was beaten by the papal troops in the Milanese territory, and 
 obliged to retire from Italy. Julius was succeeded by Leo X. [ob. 
 1521), one of the Medici — a man of the highest culture and the finest 
 taste, but luxurious and lavish, light-minded and careless, and destitute 
 of all genuine interest either in religion or in the Church. In 1517 
 the Pontiff celebrated, at a splendid Lateran Council, the triumph of 
 the Papacy, when Francis I. of France, in return for other concessions, 
 surrendered the pragmatic sanction. The Councils of Constance and 
 Basle were also again condemned. In the same year, and only a few 
 months later, the word of a poor German monk effected what the com- 
 bined power of all the nations of the West had failed to achieve in 
 these councils. 
 
 I 111. THE CLERGY. 
 
 During this period Provincial Synods lost almost all their 
 former importance. They were rarely held, and only under the 
 presidency of a papal legate. At Constance and Basle the 
 bishops attempted to break the yoke of papal despotism and 
 pecuniary exactions ; but the selfishness which marked the policy 
 of the nations represented at these councils, prevented the suc- 
 cess of such beneficial measures. Despite the proposals made at 
 Basle, the cathedral chapters continued to furnish a provision 
 for the younger and unportioned sons of the nobility, who in
 
 472 SECTION II. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 14 <fc 15 A. D.). 
 
 worMliness and excesses yielded nothing to their brothers. Th(? 
 clergy no longer gave itself tt the pursuit of study. In France 
 the political influence of the hierarchy was small ; and the 
 liberties of the Galilean Church were protected, not by the pre- 
 lates, but by the University and the Parliament. In England 
 the bishops formed an important part of the estates with strictly 
 defined rights. In Germany also they occupied an influential 
 position, as holding temporal sovereignty, while the spiritual 
 princes electors frequently swayed the destinies of the empire. 
 The moral condition of the clergy was sufficiently sad. The 
 bishops commonly lived in open concubinage. The lower secular 
 clergy followed their example, and in many cases paid for this 
 indulgence a yearly tax to the bishop. To this arrangement the 
 people — who distinguished between the office and its holder — 
 made no objection ; in fact, it secured their wives and daughters 
 from the temptations of the confessional. Thousands of loese 
 women from all countries had assembled at Constance and Basle 
 during the sittings of the councils. Unnatural vices also were 
 too common among the clergy, at least in Italy. Any move- 
 ment at Constance and Basle towards putting an end to these 
 vices of the clergy, by giving them leave to marry, was checked 
 by the fear that benefices might become hereditary, and that the 
 clergy would be made still more dependent on the State. Ac- 
 cordingly the advice of Gerson was taken in the matter, who 
 held, that as the vow of celibacy only referred to the marriage 
 of priests, concubinage was not a breach of that obligation, but 
 merely of the general commandment of chastity. 
 
 § 112. THE MONASTIC ORDERS. 
 
 The Monastic Orders shared the general corruption of the 
 jlergy. Too frequently the cloisters became the seats of dis- 
 soluteness, debauchery, idleness, crimes, and unnatural vices. 
 Monks and nuns of adjoining cloisters lived in open immorality, 
 on which account Nicholas of Clemangis was wont to say that 
 " virginem velare " was in reality little else than "virginem ad 
 Bcortandum exponere." The Councils of Constance and Basle 
 had their attention directed to these dreadful abuses, which 
 bishops and secular princes also endeavoured to remedy. But 
 all such attempts proved unavailing. The papal Curia, so far 
 from seconding any measures of reform, rather interposed tr
 
 THE MONASTIC ORDERS. 473 
 
 arres't them. Among the various orders, the Benedictines, with 
 their different branches, were probably most deeply tainted, 
 while the mendicant orders stood highest- in the moral scale. 
 Following the example of the cathedral chapters, the rich 
 monasteries distributed their revenues among their inmates 
 (Proprietarii). The gratification of the palate, and not the 
 pursuit of science, was the object of study in these cloisters. 
 The celebrated Scottish monastery of St. James, at Regens- 
 burg (§ 98, 1 ), had a regular tavern within its walls, and a pro- 
 verb said : Uxor amissa in monasterio Scotorum quseri debet. 
 The Franciscans and Dominicans were still the great representa- 
 tives of raonasticism ; they proved the pillars of the Papacy, and 
 in some measure contributed, at least in the fourteenth century, 
 to theological science. In the fifteenth century, however, they 
 became involved in the general corruption. The Carthusians 
 alone continued their ancient practice of asceticism. 
 
 1. The Benedictine monasteries having become socially and morally 
 corrupt, demerit V., at the Council of Vienne (1311), issued a series 
 of decrees, aiming at the revival of monastic discipline and literature. 
 They were, however, scarcely regarded. Hence Benedict XII. waa 
 constrained, with the co-operation of influential Franciscan abbots, to 
 prepare a new constitution for the Benedictines (1336), called after 
 him, Benedictina. According to this, all the monasteries of black 
 monks were to be divided into thirty-six provinces, each of vrhich was 
 to hold a triennial chapter for mutual consultation and decisions. 
 Moreover, in every abbey daily penitential chapters should be held, 
 for the maintenance of discipline, and an annual chapter for the 
 rendering of accounts. For the resuscitation of literary tastes and 
 efforts, it was enjoined upon each monastery to keep a number of its 
 members at a university for the study of theology and canon law. But 
 the disciplinary rules of the Benedictina proved futile against habits 
 of good living, and those contemplating reorganization were impotent 
 before the insuperal)le feelings of independence, which the monks and 
 abbots cherished. The measures proposed for the revival of learning 
 were more effectual ; they did not, necessarily, militate against deeply- 
 rooted luxurious habits. — A general chapter of Benedictines, accord- 
 inglv, met under the supervision of the Council of Constance, in order 
 to effect a reformation of the order. But this too proved unavailing. 
 At the instance of the Council of Basle, congregations of reformed 
 monasteries were organized, which for a time preserved stricter dis- 
 cipline, but soon again relapsed into their old ways. — The Olivetan^ 
 founded by Bernard Ptolemais, formed a new and independent branch 
 of tne Benedictines. Bernard taught philosophy in Siena, his native 
 40*
 
 i74 SECTION II. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 14 & 15 A.D.). 
 
 tuwn, but was compelled by blindness to desist. Healed by the inter 
 cession of the Virgin Mary, he renounced the world, and retired, with 
 several companions, into an almost inaccessible, rocky wild, ten mile» 
 from Siena (1313). As disciples gathered to him from all sides, he 
 built a monastery on a hill, called it Mt. Olivet, and founded, upon the 
 rule of the Benedictines, the congregation of the Blessed Virgin, which 
 John XXII. confirmed. Not until the fourth election for a general, 
 which was at first held annually, then triennially, did he consent to 
 assume this dignity for himself (1332) ; he then filled the office until 
 his death, caused by his attentions to those prostrated by the plague 
 (1348). The Abbots were also chosen triennially. The Olivetana 
 were long distinguished by their zealous worship of the Virgin and 
 by strict abstinence. They also prosecuted diligently theological and 
 philosophical studies in some of their monasteries, which exceeded a 
 hundred in number. An order of nuns, founded by Francisca Bomana 
 (1433), also joined the Olivetans. 
 
 2. The Dominicans, who were entrusted with the conduct of the In- 
 quisition, and were largely employed as confessors among the higher 
 classes, gradually ceased to be a mendicant order. Accordingly, they 
 now explained their vow of poverty as applying only to personal, not 
 to common possessions, and maintained that the latter had been held 
 even by Christ and His apostles. This proposition was controverted 
 by the Franciscans, who, in virtue of the nominal surrender of all 
 their property to the Church of Rome, professed still to adhere to their 
 original vow. When in 1321 the Inquisition at Narbonne condemned 
 a Beghard to the stake for asserttng that Christ and the apostles had 
 held neither personal nor common property, the Franciscans main- 
 tained the orthodoxy of this statement, and accused the Dominican8 
 before Pope Jolm XVII. The Pontiff took the part of the Dominicans, 
 and declared that the nominal donation of Franciscan property was 
 merely an illusion. This decision occasioned a rupture among the 
 Franciscans. The more rigorous members, with the general, Michael 
 of Cesena, and the celebrated William Occam, joined the party of the 
 •' spiritualists," and took the side of Louis of Bavaria against the Pope. 
 Forcible measures against them proved unavailing. A.ccordingly, they 
 were appeased at Constance by their formal recognition as brethren of 
 the stricter observance [ohservantes). The more lax party among the 
 Franciscans took the name of Conventuales, and continued to regard 
 their properties as really belonging to the donors, and themselves as 
 only enjoying their usufruct. The controversy about the Immaculate 
 Conception still continued to rage. St. Catharine had visions which 
 confirmed the dogma of the Dominicans, while St. Bridget gave the 
 same kind of sanction to the opinions of the Franciscans. The latter, 
 however, gained influence and authority. It was sanctioned by the 
 university of Paris in 1387 ; while the Council of Basle (in 1439) and 
 Pope Sixtus IV. anathematized any one who should declare the doctrine
 
 THE MONASTIC ORDERS. 475 
 
 of the Immaculate Conception to be heretical, or the fpsti^il in its 
 honour sinful. For the same purpose a comedy was enacted at Berne 
 in 1509, -wliich, however, had a tragical termination. The Dominicans 
 of that city imposed on the simplicity of a poor tailor called Jetzer. 
 The tailor had visions and revelations of the Virgin. Even the prints 
 of the nails which pierced the Saviour were reproduced in him by a 
 red-hot iron, and a picture of the Virgin shed in his sight bloody tears 
 over the godless opinlcms of the Franciscans. The clumsy imposture 
 was at last discovered, and the prior, with three of his monks, were 
 condemned to the stake. — In 1462 another controversy broke out 
 between the two orders. In Brescia, a Franciscan, Jacob of Marchia, 
 had on Easter day maintained in the pulpit that the blood which 
 Christ shed on the cross had, till His resurrection and consequent re- 
 assumption of it into His nature, continued separate from the hypostatic 
 union with the Logos, and hence had not, during that time, been an 
 Object of adoration. The Grand Inquisitor, Jacob of Brescia, declared 
 this sentiment heretical. A controversy arose ; and during Christmas 
 1463 three Dominicans and as many Minors discussed the question for 
 three days before the Pope and cardinals, but without leading to any 
 result. The Pope at the time reserved his decision, which, indeed, 
 was never pronounced. 
 
 St. Catharine of Siena, the daughter of a dyer, was one of the 
 chief ornaments of the Dominicans [ob. 1308). Even when a child she 
 had visions and ecstacies, during which Christ was said to have 
 formally betrothed Himself to her, and to have given her His heart 
 instead of her own. She also bore the prints of the nails, but only in- 
 wardly. Notwithstanding .her deep humility, the influence and 
 authority which she enjoyed were unparalleled. She became the 
 oracle of the Dominicans, and all Italy almost worshipped at her feet. 
 Contrary to her inclination, she was made the arbiter of the religious 
 and political controversies of the time. To her admonitions, and to 
 those of St. Bridget, it was mainly due that the Babylonish captivity 
 at Avignon came to a close. 
 
 The Order of St. Augustine had also its congregations for the re- 
 storaticm of pristine discipline. But these branches continued in con- 
 nection with the order itself, though they were subject to a vicar- 
 general of their own. Such a congregation existed in Saxony from 
 1493, and to it both Stavpitz and Luther belonged. 
 
 3. Abolition of the Order of Templars, 1312. — (Comp. Michelet, 
 proces des Templiers. Par. 1841-51. 2 T. — Maillard de Chambnre, 
 Regie et Statuts secrets des Temp. Par. 1841. — W. Ravemann, Gesch. 
 d. Ausgangs d. Templerord. — Hist, of the cess, of the Order of T. — 
 Stuttg. 1846. — /. V. Hammer-Purgstall, d. Schuld d. Templer — the 
 Guilt of the T. — Vienna 1855. — /. Choumnetz, d. gewaltthat. Aufheb 
 u. Ausrott. d. Ordens d. Tempelherren. Münster. 1856). — Among all 
 the knightly orders, the Templars, who since their return to Europe
 
 476 SECTION II. — THIRD PERIOD (c E N T. 14 & 15 A. D.) 
 
 chiefly resided at Paris, had attained greatest power and wealth, but 
 were also charged with most pride, rapacity, and dissoluteness. Taeir 
 independence of the State was as galling to Philip the Fair of France, 
 as their untold riches were attractive to his cupidity. Among the 
 common people rumours circulated that the members of the order were 
 secretly Mohammedans, that they practised the black art, and indulged 
 in unnatural vices. It was whispered that they even worshipped an 
 idol called Baffomet (Mohammed) ; that a black cat appeared in their 
 meetings; that at their reception into the order the knights blasphemed 
 the Saviour, and spat and trampled upon the crucifix. On these 
 grounds, or at least on such pretences, Philip ordered all the Templara 
 in his dominions to be imprisoned, and forthwith commenced a process 
 against them (1307). Pope Clement V. was obliged, at the Council of 
 Vienne (1312), formally to dissolve the order. Jacob of Molay, the last 
 grand master, with many of the knights, suffered at the stake. It is 
 diiScult, at this period of time, to pronounce with certainty as to their 
 guilt or innocence. Thus much at least is true, that they had deserted 
 the Christian cause in the East. Besides, it is also supposed by many 
 that they entertained Gnostic and Antinomian views akin to those 
 formerly held by the Ophites. 
 
 4. The principal New Orders founded at this time were: — 
 
 (1.) The Order of the Ccelestines, founded by Peter of Murrone 
 (afterwards Pope Coelestine V., comp. ^ 96, 6), who lived in a cave on 
 Mount Murrone, in Apulia, in the practice of strictest asceticism. 
 The fame of his sanctity soon attracted companions of his solitude, who 
 built a monastery on Mount Majella. Urban IV. imposed on them 
 the rule of the Benedictines. When Peter was elevated to the papal 
 see (1294), his companions adopted in his honour the name of Cceles- 
 tines. The new congregation rapidly extended throughout the West. 
 
 (2.) The Jeromites. This order arose from associations of hermits, 
 to whom Gregory XI. in 1374 gave a rule similar to that of the Augus- 
 tines. They chose St. Jerome as their patron saint. From Spain, 
 where the order originated, it spread into Italy. 
 
 (3.) The Jesuates, founded by Jo/tavMies CoZifm&mi of Sienna. With 
 an imagination inflamed by poring over the legends of saints, Colombini, 
 with some like-minded companions, resolved to found an association for 
 the twofold object of self-chastisement and attendance on the sick. 
 Urban V., after his return to Rome, imposed on them the rule of the 
 Augustines (13G7). Their name was derived from the circumstance 
 that they hailed every one whom they met with the name of Jesus. 
 
 (4.) The Minimi, a kind of Minors, founded by Franciscus de Patila, 
 in Calabria (1435). Their rule was exceedingly strict; the members 
 were prohibited the use of animal food, of milk, butter, eggs, etc., on 
 which account their mode of life was also designated as "vita quadra- 
 gesimalis." 
 
 (5.) The Nuns of St. Elizabeth, an order founded by St. ElizahetJi
 
 THE MONASTIC ORDERS. 477 
 
 of Thuringia [oh. 1231). After having in the most exemplary manner 
 discharged the various duties of a vrife, a mother, and a princess, Eli- 
 zabeth took the grey habit, confined at the waist with the Franciscan 
 cord, as also the three vows, and retired to a wretched cot near Mar- 
 burg, where she devoted herself to prayer, self-chastisement, and deeda 
 of beneficence. Her example was followed by a number of pious 
 women and maidens. These were in the fourteenth century regularly 
 organized into an order, which devoted itself exclusively to the care 
 of the poor and the sick. 
 
 (6.) The Nuns of St. Bridget. St. Bridget was a Swedish princess, 
 who early in life had visions, in which the Saviour appeared to her, 
 smitten and wounded. But her father obliged her to marry, and she 
 became the mother of eight children. On the death of her husband, 
 she subjected herself to the most rigid ascetic exercises, and in conse- 
 quence of some visions, founded at Wadstena near Linkoping a nun- 
 nery for sixty inmates, who devoted themselves to the service of the 
 Virgin. Connected with this institution was a separate dwelling for 
 thirteen priests (in imitation of the apostles), for four deacons (after 
 the four great faihers), and for eight lay brethren who had charge of 
 all secular aifairs. All these persons were subject to the rule of the 
 abbess. The order spread, especially in the north of Europe. 
 
 5. The most famed among the Hermits of this period, was Nicholas 
 von der Fliie, in the Alps, a worthy and pious man, who, after an active 
 life in the world, spent his last twenty years in solitude and commun- 
 ion with God {ob. 1487). Like St. Anthony of old, he acted as peace- 
 maker and adviser, not merely to the shepherds around him, but amid 
 the political troubles of his own country. Pius IX. canonized him. 
 
 6. The Brethren of the Common Life were an association of pious 
 clergymen, founded by Gerhard Groot, at Deventer, in the Netherlands 
 (1.384). Gerhard died that same year of pestilence ; but the work was 
 continued by Florentius Eadeicin, his likeminded pupil. The house 
 of the brethren at Deventer became the centre and nucleus of similar 
 institution^ throughout the north of Europe. The members of this 
 association consisted of clergy and laity, who, without submitting to 
 any formal vow or rule, devoted themselves to the concerns of their 
 own souls. Their earnest and evangelical sermons, their attention to 
 the spiritual interests of those with whom they were brought into con- 
 tact, and their schools, gave them a wide and very beneficial influence 
 among the people. The most frequented of their seminaries were those 
 of Deventer and the Hague, which at times numbered more than 1200 
 scholars. Similar institutions for Sisters of the Common Life were also 
 founded. Florentius somewhat enlarged the original plan by building 
 at Windesheim, near Zwoll, a monastery for regular canons (1386), 
 (also called, Kugelherren, Kappelherren, from cucnlla, from the peculiar 
 covering they used for the head). More celebrated even than this 
 cloifter was that on Mount St. Agnes, at Zwoll, of which Themas a
 
 478 SECTION II. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 14 & 15 A.D.). 
 
 Keinpis was an inmate. The labours of Florentius were seconded by 
 Gerhard of Zütvhen, who was wont to insist on the necessity of reading 
 the Bible in the vernacular, and on its importance both in preaching 
 and praying. Of course, the mendicant orders were violent enemies 
 of this pious association. At last a Dominican, Matthew Grabow, ac- 
 cused them before the Bishop of Utrecht, and also wrote a large volume 
 against them. The Bishop refused his suit ; and when Grabow appealed 
 to the Pope, the prelate carried the matter to the Council of Constance. 
 Gerson and d'Ailly took the part of the brethren ; and Martin V. not 
 only gave his sanction to their associations, but accorded their mem- 
 bei's the privilege of claiming ordination at any time. The brethren 
 in many respects prepared the way for the Reformation ; indeed, most 
 of them afterwards became its cordial adherents. After that period 
 they gradually declined, and ceased to exist in the seventeenth century. 
 (Comp. Gerardi Magni Epp. XIV., ed. /. G. Acqiioy. Amst. 1857. — 
 G. H. M. Delprat, over d. Broederschap van G. Groote (2d ed. Arnh. 
 1856), 1st ed. transl. into German with add. by il/b/^iiA;«. Leips. 1846. — 
 K. Vllmann, Reformers before the Reformation (transl. by Menzies, in 
 Clark's For. Theol. Libr.). Edinb. 2 Vols. —5. Bähring, Gerh. Groot 
 u. Florentius. Hamb. 1849.) 
 
 II. THE CHURCH AND THE PEOPLE. 
 § 113. PUBLIC WORSHIP AND THE FINE ARTS. '' 
 
 The Brethren of the Common Life, the Mystics, and a number 
 of sectaries, especially the Waldenses, Wickliffites, and Hussites, 
 had insisted on, and by their example promoted, the practice of 
 PREACHING in the vernacular. Great activity was also displayed, 
 especially during the fifteenth century, in the catechetical instruc- 
 tion of the people, both by means of books and pictures. The 
 ante-reformatory spirit of that period also exerted itself in pre- 
 paring hymns in the vernacular for general use ; church music, 
 likewise, was turned to similar account. And whilst the glory of 
 architecture is evidently waning, the plastic art and painting 
 reach their full bloom. The Feast of the Immaculate Concep- 
 tion was generally introduced in France, Germany, and England 
 during the fourteenth century. Other festivals were also insti- 
 tuted in bono ir of Mary. The Council of Constance had given 
 its sanction and authority to the practice of "comraunio sub
 
 I'UBLIC WORSHIP ANB THE FINE ARTS. 479 
 
 una.' In consequence, the miracle of a bleeding host now fre- 
 quently occurred, although the fraud was exposed in a number 
 of instances. The excessive anxiety for and veneration of relics 
 still continued and increased. In the fifteenth century originated 
 the legend, that angels had carried through the air the house of 
 Mary from Nazareth to the coast of Dalmatia (1291) ; thence, 
 on the lOth December, 1294, to Recanati, and lastly, after the 
 lapse of eight months, to Loretto.'^'^ 
 
 1. The following -were the New Festivals in Jionoiir of the Virgin 
 (I 105, 2 ; 57, 2) : the Feast of the Presentation of Mary, on the 21st 
 November (according to Leviticus xii. 5-8), a solemnity introduced in 
 the East at a much earlier period ; and the Festival of the Visitation of 
 Mary, on the 2d July, in allusion to Luke i. 39-56. During the fif- 
 teenth century, the Feast of the Seven Dolors of Mary, on the Friday 
 or Saturday before Palm-Sunday, was instituted. The worship of the 
 Virgin was chiefly promoted by the Dominicans, who had special Fror 
 ternities of the Bosary. Dominic himself is said to have observed the 
 Festival of the Rosary on the 1st of October (for the protection and 
 intercession of the Virgin). It was, however, only observed by the 
 Dominicans, till after the victory of Lepanto (1571), which was re- 
 garded as due to this species of devotion, when Gregory XIII. made it 
 a general festival. 
 
 2. Preaching, in the vernacular, now became much more common. 
 But it is a peculiar characteristic of this period, that even those who 
 thus preached, thought in Latin, or at least first wrote their sermons in 
 Latin before preaching them. Vocabulariapredicantium were prepared 
 for the use of less practised preachers. A Homiletics and Cateclietics, 
 valual>le for that age, was prepared by /. TJlr. Surgant, a preacher in 
 Basel [Manuale Curatorum), about the close of the fifteenth centuy. 
 Among t)ther points, he treated de regidis vidgarizandi, i.e., of render- 
 ing sermons written in Latin into the vernacular. Great stress was 
 also laid upon hearing sermons, by those who had the cure of souls : 
 the neglect thereof was reproved as a sin. In opposition to the scho- 
 lastic style of preaching, which used the pulpit only for the display 
 of learned ostentation and theological subtleties (as by Gabriel Biel, &Q.), 
 popular preachers arose, who laid practical hold of actual lii'e, and 
 denounced social vices, of high and low life, in plain, and sometimes in 
 ludicrous terms. Among these was Gabriel Barletta [ob. 1480), whose 
 spicy sermons so pleased the taste of his age, that it was usual to say: 
 Qui nescit barlettare, nescit prcedicare. He was imitated by Oliver 
 Maillard, a Franciscan and royal court-preacher, ob. 1502, and Michael 
 
 ■Menot, also a Franciscan, ob. 1518. The German minister, at Strass- 
 burg, Geiler of Kaisersberg [ob. 1510), equalled the preachers just 
 named in quaint plainness and cutting wit, but surpassed them all in 
 moral earnestness and spiritual depth (§ 114, 4).
 
 480 SECTION II. THIRD PERIOD (CEN T. 14& 15 A. D.). 
 
 3. Catecliization. — (Cf. J. Geffhen, d. Bilderkatechismus d. 15. Jahrh., 
 u. d. katech. Hauptstlicke in dieser Zeit bis auf Luther. I. Die 10 
 Gebote. Lpz. 1855.) — Next to preaching, the confessional afforded 
 opportunities for the instruction of the people. The subsequent division 
 of the catechism sprang rather from the mode of baptism and of making 
 confession, than from the actual instruction of the people and youth; 
 and among these, it is remarkable that the decalogue first found a place 
 since the thirteenth or fourteenth century. Previously the enumeration 
 of the seven cardinal sins and seven cardinal virtues was substituted 
 for the ten commandments. The more deeply to impress the doctrines 
 of the catechism, jDictorial illustrations were employed. The wealth 
 of the catechetical literature of that period, both in books of instruc- 
 tion for the clergy, and in doctrinal books in the vernacular for the 
 people, may be learned from Geffken's work above named. 
 
 4. Hymnology. — A very marked contrast is noticeable between the 
 number and value of the Latin hymns dating from the fourteenth and 
 fifteenth centuries and those of the preceding period. Only the Mys- 
 tics (as, for example, Thomas a Kempis) still produced such composi- 
 tions. On the other hand, it may be said that German hymnology 
 originated during this period. Strange though it may appear, the 
 processions of Flagellants in the fourteenth century contributed not a 
 little to the spread of religious poetry in the vernacular. The hymns 
 or chants of the Flagellants were in the vernacular, and thus found 
 ready access to the hearts of the people. But it was in the fifteenth 
 century, and during the Hussite movement, that really useful popular 
 hymns were composed, and for the first time introduced into the ser- 
 vices of the Church. Huss himself insisted on the necessity of the 
 people taking part in the service of song, and composed a number of 
 excellent hymns in the Bohemian. The various hymns used by the 
 "Bohemian Brethren" (400 in number) were collected and published 
 in 1504 by Lucas, a senior or Bishop of the "Brethren." The intro- 
 duction of German hymns was mainly due to Petrus Dresdensis, for- 
 merly assistant to Huss at Prague, and since 1420 rector at Zwickau. 
 His efforts were not unsuccessful. In some churches German hymns 
 were now sung at the great festivals, and at special ecclesiastical 
 solemnities, wliile in isolated cases they were even used at the principal 
 service and at mass. The religious poetry of that age was of a fourfold 
 character: — 1. MixedJii/miis, hu.li' German and half Latin (such as " Puer 
 uatus in Bethlehem, Dess freuet sich, Jerusalem," etc.). — 2. Trans- 
 lations and adaptations of Latin hymns. So early as the close of the 
 fourteenth century an attempt at such translations was made by Johan- 
 nes, " the monk uf Sakburg," and at a somewhat later period by Brother 
 Dietric. A collection of these versions appeared in 1404; but the 
 majority of the hymns were so badly rendered, that the force and point 
 of the original was completely lost. — 3. Original German hymns, com- 
 monly by monks or master singers. These, however, were too frequently
 
 PUBLIC WORSHIP AND THE FINE ARTS. 481 
 
 dtstitute of all religious fervour or poetic value. — 4. Adaptations of 
 secular o) of Miniie-soncjs. Thus the popular ditty, originally intended 
 for wandering apprentices, which commenced : " Inspruck, I must leave 
 thee, and go my lonely way, Far hence to foreign lands," etc., was 
 transformed into : "0 world, I must leave thee, and go my lonely*way, 
 Unto my Father's home," etc. Henrij of Lavfenbery, a priest at Frei- 
 burg, about 1450, seems to have been the ürst to attempt this kind of 
 poetry. In all cases the melody of the original was retained. Although 
 many of these adaptations were little better than a burlesque, they be- 
 came the means of associating popular ideas and melodies with the 
 hymns of the Church, thus preparing the way for the following period. 
 
 5. Church Music. — Great improvements were made at this period 
 in the building of organs ; the keys were made smaller, the pedal was 
 added, etc. Henri/ Cranz, who fiourished about 1500, was reputed the 
 most successful builder of organs at that period. Equally distinguished 
 as an organist was Antonio dagV Organi at Rome, who gathered 
 around him pupils from all countries {oh. 1498). A great deal was 
 also done for the improvement of church music ; the rules of counter- 
 point, and other musical rules, were enlarged or applied, and singing 
 in parts came into vogue. At this time the Dutch bore the palm in 
 music. William Dufay, the founder of the first Dutch School [oh. 
 1432), introduced his improvements even into the chapel at Rome, 
 although a century had not elapsed since John XXII. pronounced an 
 anathema against the practice of "discantare." John Ockenheim, the 
 founder of the second Dutch school at the close of the fifteenth century, 
 invented the canon and the fugue ; but his system of counterpoint was 
 very artificial, and he may be regarded as the first who corrupted the 
 musical taste of the time. The greatest composer of this school was 
 Josquin de Priz (Jodocus Pratensis), about 1500. His only rival in 
 the art was Adam of Fulda, a German. 
 
 6. Architecture and the Plastic Art. — The Gothic style was universally 
 adopted in Germany, France, and England. Into Italy it penetrated 
 no farther than Milan. The new Church of St. Peter at Rome, the 
 foundation of which was laid in 1506 by Pope Julius II., presents the 
 most splendid specimen of the antique Ri>r,ianesque style. Thej^lastic 
 art was carried to its highest perfection by such masters as Lorenzo 
 Ghiherti [oh. 1455) and Michael Angela [oh. 1564). The Art of Paint- 
 ing alsD reached its highest stage in the fifteenth century. There 
 ■were at this time four different schools of painters. The Florentine 
 School, which chiefly devoted itself to the representation of Scriptural 
 events, was founded by Giotto {oh. 1336), and numbered among its 
 members such masters as Angelico of Fiesole, who always joined prayei 
 with piinting, Leonardo da Vinci (the Last Supper), Fra Bartolomeo 
 and Michael Angelo. The Lombard School, oi v;h.ich. Bellini {oh. 1516) 
 was thj most distinguished representative, also gave itself at first to 
 
 41
 
 482 SECTION II. THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 14&15A. D.). 
 
 the study of sacred subjects, biat soon afterwards abandoned this for 
 the secular department. It reached the pinnacle of its renown through 
 the works of Corregio [ob. 1534, Night, The penitent Magdalen), and 
 Titian [oh. 1576. Venus, Ecce homo, the ascension of Mary). The 
 Umbrian School seemed almost to breathe the spirit of St. Francis. Its 
 most celebrated master was Raphael of TJrhino (the Sixtine Madonna 
 paintings on the walls of the Vatican, the Madonna della Sedia, etc.) 
 The German School was represented by such men as the brothers 
 Hubei t and John van Eyk, Albrecht Dürer, and Mans Holbein. 
 
 § 114. POPULAR LIFE AND NATIONAL LITERATURE. 
 
 The fearful decay of the Papacy, as well as the deep degeneracy 
 of the clergy and of the monastic orders, were not without their 
 effects upon the people. At no previous period had the Church 
 less influence on the moral and religious condition of the com- 
 munity. In truth, the ancient reverence for the Church and its 
 rites had been rudely shaken, though not entirely destroyed. 
 But the religious enthusiasm and the deep poetry of popular 
 life gradually disappeared. Such personages as a Catharine of 
 Sienna, a maid of Orleans, or a Nicholas von der Flue were only 
 isolated phenomena in the history of that period. As the prac- 
 tice of indulgences increased, all moral e.aimestness ceased, and 
 all religious /er uoK/" gave way. Yet, happily, not entirely ; the 
 existence of the Beghards and Lollards, nay, even the excesses 
 of the Flagellants, proved that men still thought seriously on the 
 most serious of subjects. The religious fervour still existing 
 among the people was nourished and cherished by the faithful 
 teachings of the Mystics, and found vent in the wide-spread 
 association known as the Friends of God. In an opposite 
 direction,' though, perhaps, ultimately traceable to the same 
 source, we have the Brothers and Sisters of the Free Sjnrit. 
 But along with such piety, superstition also greatly increased, all 
 the more dangerous now that it was no longer associated with 
 the poetry and naive irony of a former age. The men of this 
 period, on the contrary, firmly believed in the black art, in witch- 
 craft, in compacts with the devil, and similar absurdities. To- 
 wards the close of our period, however, a new era dawned. The 
 former mode of conducting warfare ceased, on the invention of 
 powder ; while the municipal institutions of the various and 
 flourisiung towns of Germany called forth and afforded scope for 
 civic virtues for love of freedom, energy, and industry. Lastly,
 
 POPULAR LIFE AND NATIONAL LITERATURE. 48S 
 
 the invention of the art of printing initiated the great changes 
 of which modern society is the result.^ 
 
 1. Eeligious Associations among the People. — Besides the Beghards 
 and Benguins, (§ 98, 5) another association was formed at Antwerp in 
 1300, on occasion of a pestilence. The Lollards (from hill = sing) 
 devoted themselves chiefly to attendance on the sick and the interment 
 of the dead. They also were exposed to the persecutions of the 
 Inquisition, till John XXII. in 1318 granted them toleration on certain 
 conditions. — But the strangest sight presented at that period were 
 those long trains of Flagellants, who, with faces covered, wandered 
 from country to country, amidst weeping, lamentation, and the chant 
 of penitential hymns, continually applying, as they marched, the 
 scourge to their naked backs. These revolting processions had 
 suddenly appeared in Italy (in 1260, at Perrugia) even at a former 
 period, during the horrors of the war between the Guelphs and 
 Ghibellines. They again paraded the cities of Europe on different 
 occasions during the fourteenth century, especially in 1348-50, during 
 the ravages of the " black death." The Flagellants made their appear- 
 ance nlong the banks of the Rhine, whence, growing like an avalanche^ 
 they passed through Germany, Belgium, Holland, Switzerland, Sweden, 
 and England. On the advice of Pope Clement VI., whom they had 
 summoned to join them, they were refused admittance into France. 
 The paroxysm lasted for three years. It was raised anew in 1399, 
 when famine, pestilence, war with the Turks, and expectation of the 
 approaching end of the world, excited the minds of men, and Flagel- 
 lants again passed through Lombardy. This time they were arrayed 
 in white garments, on which account they were called Bianchi or Al- 
 bati. In 1417, St. Vincent Ferreri, a celebrated Spanish preacher, led 
 a long train of Flagellants through Italy, France, and Spain. Princes, 
 popes, universities, and councils expostulated against this mad fanati- 
 cism, without, however, being able to suppress it. But aftor the 
 Council of Constance had denounced this species of penance, St. Vinceiot 
 himself' ceased to take part in it. Some of the Flagellants fell into 
 sectarianism and heresy ; they denounced the hierarchy as Antichrist, 
 rejected the rites of Christianity, and declared that the baptism of 
 blood, obtained by means of the scourge, was the only efficacious 
 sacrament. Many of these fanatics were condemned to the stake by 
 the Inquisition. (Comp. E. G. Förstemanii, d. chr. Geisslerges. — the 
 Chr. Flag. — Halle 1828 ; G. Mohnike, d. Geisslerges., in " Illgen'a 
 Journal," III. 2 ; L. Schueegaiis , le grand pilgrimage des Flag., transl. 
 into Germ, by Tischindorf, Leips. 1840; — L. Heller, Vine. Ferreri 
 Leben u. Wirken. Berl. 1830; Comes de Hohenthal-Stcedteln, de Vine. 
 Ferr. Lips. 1839.) 
 
 Another and kindred form of madness was that of the Jumpers or 
 Datwen (Chorisantes), who, bj way of penance, commenced frantic
 
 4»4 SECTlu« kl. — THIRD PERIOD (c E N T. 14 A 15 A. D.). 
 
 and hysteric dances, which by some infection carried away even 
 accidental and indifferent spectators. These fanatics appeared along 
 the banks of the Rhine in 1347 and 1418. They were regarded as 
 possessed, and the aid of St. Vitus was invoked for their cure (hence 
 the name of St. Vitus' dance). Comp. Hecker, die Tanzwuth e. Volk- 
 skrankh. d. M. A. (Dancing Madness an Epid. of the M. A.) Berl. 
 1832. H. Häser, Lehrb. d. Gesch. d. Medicin u. d. Volkskrankhh. 
 Jena, 1845, p. 282, etc. 
 
 2. The Friends of God. (Comp. C. Schmidt, d. Gottesfreunde im 14. 
 Jahrh. Jen. 1854. — During the fourteenth century a wide-spread and 
 deep spirit of mysticism seemed to pervade all Western Germany, from 
 the Low Countries to the borders of Italy. In truth a religious 
 awakening had taken place among the people, though from peculiar 
 causes it bore a mystic and contemplative character. All ranks and 
 classes, inmates of monasteries and Beguins, knights in their castles, 
 artisans in their workshops, and merchants in their warehouses, 
 equally came under its influence. Ultimately it led to the formation 
 of a great fraternity of so-called Friends of God, the various associa- 
 tions of which kept up personal or epistolary intercourse. This revival 
 was chiefly felt at Cologne, Strasburg, and Basle. Its preachers be- 
 longed mostly to the Dominican Order, and the views Avhich they ex- 
 pressed or propagated were drawn from the writings of the German 
 Mystics [I 117). They were entirely free from sectarianism, and 
 cherished the ceremonies of the Church as symbols and vehicles of 
 Divine grace. But from the year 1340 a mysterious personage 
 evidencly presides over this movement, and results wider than those 
 formerly sought began to be aimed after. Most of " the Friends" 
 themselves seem to have been ignorant of the name or residence of this 
 man. They call him " the enlightened layman," and " the great 
 friend of God from the Oberland." Twice only is the mystery partly 
 cleared awa,y, and we hear of the name of Nicholas of Basle. About 
 1340 he appeared at Strasburg, where he exercised a decisive influence 
 upon John Tanler (§ 117, 2). Again in 1356, when Basle was visited 
 by a fearful earthquake, he addressed a letter to universal Christendom 
 calling to repentance. In 1367 he retired into the Swiss mountains 
 with four of his most intimate associates ; and when Gregoi-y XI. re- 
 turned to Rome in 1377, Nicholas and one of his associates confronted 
 him, and urged upon him the present situation, the dangers, and the 
 requirements of the Church. The Pope at first received him with dis- 
 trust, but dismissed him in a very different spirit. It is diflScult ex- 
 actly to ascertain what Nicholas really aimed after, and by what 
 means he intended to accomplish his plans. This alone is certain, that 
 he had conceived some great plan for the Church, the execution of 
 which he deferred till the time which God should indicate to him. In 
 1379 those fru^nds which belonged to the inner circle held a meeting 
 in a mountain solitude, and finally resolved to adjourn for another
 
 POPULAR LIFE AND NATIONAL LITERATURE. iSt 
 
 year. After that term they again assembled on the same spot, when 
 it is said a letter from heaven fell among them, informing them that 
 God had delayed His judgments for other three years. From that 
 period we lose sight of them ; but several years later Nicholas and two 
 of his associates were burned by order of the Inquisition at Vienne, on 
 the charge of being Beghards, and the same punishment was awarded 
 at Cologne in 1393 to Martin, a Benedictine from Reichenau, one of 
 the adherents of Nicholas. The writings of Nicholas which are still 
 extant have been published by C. Schmidt, 1. c. and in his Life of 
 Tauler. 
 
 3. The Brothers and Sisters of the Free Spirit. — Originally they 
 may have been an offshoot from the sect of the Holy Spirit (§ 108, 2), 
 or else the result of a tendency similar to that which led to the forma- 
 tion of the Friends of God, only that in this case it led to the opposite 
 extreme of pantheism and antinomianism. They seem to have existed 
 in many parts of Germany at the beginning of the fourteenth century, 
 especially along the Rhine, Cologne being their principal centre. 
 They held essentially pantheistic views. Every pious person was a 
 Christ, in whom God became incarnate. Whatever was done in love 
 was right. The perfect were free from the law, and could not sin. 
 The Church, its sacraments and rites, were a deception or an impos- 
 ture ; purgatory, heaven, and hell, so many fables ; marriage was 
 against nature, and property, theft. Their secret services appropriately 
 closed with orgies. The Inquisition proceeded against them by the 
 sword and the stake. — Other parties of a kindred character were the 
 Adamites in Austria (1312), the Luciferians in Angermunde (1326), 
 and the Turlupines in the Isle of France (1372). At the commence- 
 ment of the fifteenth century they reappeared at Brussels under the 
 name of "Homines intelligentiaj ;" and in 1421 Ziska exterminated 
 the Bohemian Adamites, who, by way of imitating the paradisiacal 
 state, lived naked on an island in the Danube, and had their waves in 
 common. Hidden traces of them yet remain. 
 
 4. National Literature. — At the close of the thirteenth and the 
 commencement of the fourteenth century a new literature Siprung up in 
 IfALY, which in many respects affected the Church. To three Floren- 
 tine writers does Europe owe it, that the spell was broken by which 
 poetry and science had so long been bound to the Latin language. 
 The importance of this can scarcely be over-estimated. Not only have 
 these writers left uuperishing monuments of their own genius ; they 
 also became the fathers of the Italian language, and gave a great im- 
 pulse to national literature generally. The general prevalence of the 
 Latin was one of the means by which the Church of Rome retained its 
 absolute hold on the minds of men, repressed all independent and 
 national movements, and prevented the expression of those anti-papal 
 Bar tiraents which were rapidly pervading the peoples of Europe. In 
 
 41*
 
 486 SECTION II. THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 14 & 15 A.D.). 
 
 all these respects it was important that former restraints should be 
 removed. But the three writers to whom we allude were also enthusi- 
 astic admirers of classical literature; indeed, they prepared the wav 
 for the study of the classics, and became the precursors of the Human 
 ists (^ 120). Withal they were opposed, though not to the same de- 
 gree, to the subtleties of scholasticism, and boldly satirised the abuses 
 in the Church, the arrogance of the hierarchy, the rapacity and disso- 
 luteness of the Papacy, as also the moral and intellectual decay of the 
 clergy and of the monastic orders. Dante Alighieri (born at Florence 
 1256, oh. in exile at Ravenna 1321) stood on the boundary line of two 
 centuries and two epochs. His " Divina Comedia" may be regarded 
 as embodying the views and tendencies of his own age, and forecasting 
 the advent of another. He was an enthusiastic admirer of St. Thomas 
 and his theology ; but his scholasticism was transformed and spiritual- 
 ized by the finest aesthetic taste and the most fervid imagination. In 
 deep anguish of spirit he mourned over the decay of the Church. Thus 
 he relegated a Boniface VIII., but also a Frederic II., to hell. In 
 sharpest language he exposed the degeneracy of the monks, while he 
 at the same time extolled the bliss of St. Francis and St. Dominic. He 
 could admire the classic beauties of Virgil ; but more than all the rest, 
 he dwelt with peculiar delight on the fulness of Christian truth. 
 While reprobating the practice of indulgences, he continued to adhere 
 to the dogmas of the Church. Petrarch (born at Arezzo in 1304, oh. 
 near Padua in 1374) went much beyond his predecessor. His opposi- 
 tion to scholasticism brought upon him the hatred and persecution of 
 schoolmen and monks ; and although he still ranked the classics as far 
 subordinate to the teaching of the Church, his admiration of antiquity 
 occasionally led him beyond the bounds of proper moderation. Boc- 
 caccio (born in 1313, oh. 1375) was a most violent opponent of scholas- 
 ticism, monasticism, and the hierarchy. He speaks of them not in 
 language of indignation, but of irony and contempt. At the same 
 time, however, he also deals too lightly with the great moral and reli- 
 gious requirements of Christianity. In later years he expressed, in 
 his " Decamerone," deep regret for expressions of this kind occurring 
 in his youthful writings. 
 
 German national literature decayed along with the dynasty of the 
 Hohenstaufen. The only department deserving mention was that of 
 popular 2ioetry, secular and religious. The compositions of the master- 
 sinyers bear the character of proud self-consciousness on the part of 
 those towns of Germany whence they sprung. German prose writing 
 was richly cultivated by the Mystics (| 117), and German satire was 
 inaugurated by the "Narrenschiff" of Sehastian Brandt, 1494, the 
 Syndic of Strassburg. Amou^ jwjmlar 2)reachers, John Tauler of Strass- 
 burg (? 117, 2) wore the palm. The very original John Geiler of 
 Kaisershcrg [oh. 1510) was also a brilliant preacher in Strassburg ; hia 
 sermons abounded in pointed wit, biting sarcasm, and bold, often
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL DISCIPLINE. 487 
 
 quaint, applications, but also with deep and penetrating earnestaess. 
 Among hid numerous writings, his 412 sermons on Brandt's " Narren- 
 schiff," are best known. (Cf. Chr. Fr. v. Amnion, G. v. Kaisereb. 
 Leben, Lehren u. Schriften. Erl. 1826. A. Stroher, essai hist, et lit. 
 Bur la vie et les sermons de G. Strassb. 1834. See Ilerzog's (translated) 
 Theol. and Eccl. Encyclop. Art. Geiler. Philad. 1859. 
 
 The lieliyious Drama (^ 106, 2) reached its highest bloom in the 
 14th century. During the festival weeks, such dramas were performed 
 in almost every village. Their poetical value was, on the whole, small. 
 But in the Lamentations of Mary, they sometimes rose to an unusual 
 pitch of beauty. Comedies and burlesques (in which the characters 
 of Judas, the spice pedlars, and Mary Magdalene, still unconverted, 
 plaj'ed a prominent part) were allowed. Theod. Schernberg composed 
 a " Schön Spiel von Frau Jutte" (the popess Joanna ^ 82, 3), which 
 represented, in a very earnest waj', her fall and repentance. In the 
 plays performed during the Shrove Tuesday Carnival, reformatory 
 tendencies became obvious in the ridicule cast upon the clergy and 
 monks. Hans Eoscnplüt, a painter of escutcheons in Nurenberg, 1450, 
 was celebrated as the author of such plays for the carnival. In 
 France, near the end of the 14th century, some young persons, con- 
 nected with higher families, formed a society called enfans sans souci, 
 which performed Softies, in cities and at Courts, with great success ; 
 they did not spare the Church. The principal of their composers was 
 Pierre Gringore, who alluded very plainly, in his Chasse du Cerf des 
 Cerfs, to the Servus servorum, and represented the Church under the 
 fools; mother with a cap on (early in the I6th century). In Spain, 
 during the 15th century, the Auto's appeared, — a development of the 
 old mysteries, and rather allied in their form to the allegorical moral- 
 ites of the Middle Ages (| 106, 2). They breathed a true Spanish 
 Spirit, and were partly Autos al nasciemento, but mainly Autos sacra- 
 mentales. Their earliest composers were Jtian de la Encina, and the 
 Portuguese Gil Vincente. 
 
 § 115. ECCLESIASTICAL DISCIPLINE. 
 
 In 1343 Clement VI. gave his sanction to the teaching; of the 
 schoolmen regarding indulgences (§ lOY, 1). Nor was this mea- 
 sure in opposition to the view taken by the reformatory councils 
 of the fifteenth century, which only disapproved of their abuse, 
 for the purpose of raising money. In 1477 Siaius IV. confirmed 
 the tenet, that indulgences might be granted for those who were 
 defunct, and that they delivered souls from purgatory. In reply 
 to the somewhat impertinent question, why the Pope, who 
 possessed such ample powers, did not at once deliver all souls 
 from purgatory, it we 3 said, that the Church followed in the
 
 488 SECTION II. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. i4 A 15 A.D.). 
 
 wake of Divine justice, and dispensed its benefits only " discrete 
 et cum moderamine." The practice of indulgences was still 
 further carried out by the institution of years of Jubilee. On 
 the testimony of a man 101 years of age, that 100 years before 
 a jubilee had been proclaimed, Boniface VIII. promised, in 1320, 
 an indulgence of 100 years to all Christians who should peni- 
 tently visit for fifteen days the Church of the Holy Apostles at 
 Rome. No fewer than 200,000 availed themselves of the 
 privilege. His successors shortened the intervening period of 
 jubilees to fifty, to thirty-three, and lastly to twenty-five years. 
 Instead of making a personal pilgrimage to Rome, it was de- 
 clared suflficieut to pay the travelling expenses. Nepotism and 
 extravagance were emptying the coffers of the Pope, and the 
 traffic in indulgences offered the readiest means of replenishing 
 them. Wars with the Turks and the building of St. Peter's 
 Church served as a ready pretext for a fresh sale of these new 
 spiritual wares. The venders of indulgences did all in their 
 power to vaunt the excellency of their articles, and the necessity 
 for penitence and amendment were no longer mentioned. Indul- 
 gence was even granted for sins contemplated. Such abuses 
 rendered anything like ecclesiastical discipline impossible ; and 
 if any respect still existed for the confessional, it was speedily 
 destroyed by the interference of the mendicant orders, who 
 claimed the privilege of attending to penitents at any time and 
 place. Already excommunication and the interdict had lost 
 their terrors. On Corpus Christi Day, the bull " In coena 
 Domini " (issued by Martin Y. at the close of the Council of 
 Constance, and greatly enlarged by succeeding popes) was 
 solemnly recited at Rome, and the anathema against all heretics, 
 which it embodied, renewed. The Inquisition had still enough 
 to do, perseouting and burning Beghards, Lollards, Flagellants, 
 Fratricelli, Friends of God, and other sectaries. Innocent VIII. 
 gave his formal sanction (1484) to the popular superstition 
 about witches, and appointed two judges for such causes in 
 Germany — perhaps in some measure as a compensation for the 
 circumstance, that the Inquisition had never properly thriven in 
 that country. 
 
 1. The Inquisition attained greatest power in France and Italy. 
 The Spanish Inquisition (sanctum officium) was instituted in 1481 by 
 Ferdinand and Isabella, and organized in 1483 by the Inquisitor- 
 General, Thomas de Torquemada. In some respects it was as 
 much a political as an ecclesiastical institution, since the confis-
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL DISCIPLINE. 489 
 
 cation of property served to enrich the public treasury and to humble 
 the proud aristocracy. Its persecutions of the hated Moriscoes and 
 Jews made this dreadful tribunal popular among the Spaniards. The 
 Auto-da-fe's (or acts of faith) were celebrated amidst revolting displays 
 of pomp and state. According to the statement of Llorente (Hist, crit. 
 de rinquis. d'Espagne. Par. 1815), no fewer than 32,000 individuals 
 were burnt, 18,000 were similarly punished in efBgy, while 300,000 
 received other sentences at the hands of the Spanish Inquisition, from 
 its origin to tiie time when Napoleon swept it away in 1808. Comp. 
 C. J. Hefele (d. Cardinal Ximenez. 2d Ed. Tub. 1851), who has corrected 
 some of the statements of Llorente. 
 
 2. Procedure against Witches. (Comp. Hauher, Biblioth., acta et 
 scripta magica. Lemgo 1739-45. W. G. Soldan, Gesch. d. Hexenproc. — 
 Hist, of the Proced. ag. Witch. — Stuttg. 1843. C. G. v. Wächter, 
 Beitr. zur Gesch. d. deutsch. Strafr. Tub. 1845.) — In 1484 Innocent 
 VIII. issued the bull " Summis desiderantes affectibus," wherein he 
 informed the Germans that their country was overrun by witches, for 
 whose destruction he had appointed two inquisitors, Henry Krämer 
 and Jacob Sprenger. The paternal care of the Pope found too ready a 
 response among a superstitious people. From confessions extorted on 
 the rack, a perfect dogmatic and historical system was framed, in 
 which the various compacts made with the devil, or the improper 
 alliances contracted with him, obtained their due place, while the use 
 of broomsticks and pitchforks, the revelries of Walpurgis Night and 
 the scenes on the Blocksberg, found appropriate explanation. On the 
 basis of this new lore Sprenger elaborated a code of criminal procedure 
 against witches, which bore the title of " Malleus Maleficarum." The 
 delusion spread like an epidemic, and thousands of innocent females 
 expired amid tortures, not only in Germany, but in England, and even 
 in Scotland. Unfortunately, the Reformation made little difference in 
 this respect, and the sorrow with which we witness the persecutions 
 of supposed witches in Scotland, even during the most flourishing 
 periods of religious life, is only equalled by our indignation on finding 
 that an eminent Protestant lawyer on the Continent, Benedict Carpzov, 
 should, so late as the seventeenth century, have entered the lists in 
 defence of the practice. King James VI. showed his zeal by writing 
 a treatise on " Daemonologie." Christian Thomasius was the first in 
 1707, successfully to combat this superstition. (Cf. § 157, 3).
 
 490 SECTION II. — THIRD PERIOD (CE NT. 14 & 15 A. D ). 
 
 III. THEOLOGICAL SCIENCE. 
 § 116. SCHOLASTICISM AND ITS OPPONENl S. 
 
 A large number of schools of learning were founded during 
 this period. They increasingly assumed the character of uni- 
 versities, in the proper sense of the term, although chief atten- 
 tion was still paid to theology. These seminaries were generally 
 pledged to the defence of matters as then existing, with all the 
 abuses and defects of the system — hierarchical strongholds not 
 unfrequently planted in the heart of the enemy's camp. Paris 
 and Cologne were still the chief centres of scholasticism, which 
 was there professed by the mendicant friars. For a considerable 
 time realism had held undisputed sway, when William Occam 
 again entered the lists in Germany in favour of nominalism. 
 The controversy which now ensued was carried on with much 
 bitterness ; ultimately realism, which a number of the Keformers 
 (among others, Wycliffe and Huss) professed, was decried as the 
 source of all heresy. Aristotle continued the great authority on 
 all philosophical questions ; he was extolled as the precursor of 
 Christ, and his system formed the basis of theology. But what 
 of power and energy there was in scholasticism, had long passed 
 away ; bitter polemics, empty formalism, and mere casuistry now 
 constituted its sum and substance. The distinction made between 
 philosophical and theological truth, by which one and the same 
 proposition might be true in philosophy and false in theology, 
 was almost universally adopted. In ethics, the schoolmen ad- 
 dressed themselves chiefly to intricate questions, while on some 
 points their views were far from trustworthy (for example, in 
 their defence of the murder of a tyrant, or their doctrine of pro- 
 bability). But already the reign of scholasticism was drawing 
 to a close. Many complained of the abuse to which it had been 
 turned ; others endeavoured to improve and reform it, or, by the 
 study of the Bible and of the Fathers, to infuse into it a new 
 life. Generally, however, the opposition was one of principle, 
 and that chiefly on the part of the Mystics (§ 117), the English 
 and Bohemian Reformers (§ 119), and the Humanists (§ 120). 
 
 1. Among the Schoolmen, properly so called, ofthat period, the most 
 celebrated were Francis Matron, a Scotist at Paris — Doctor illumi- 
 natus or acutus — o\ 1325, and IIerveus Natalis, a Thomist and gene«
 
 SCHOLASTICISM AND ITS OPPONENTS. 491 
 
 ral of the Dominicans {ob. 1323). But more extensive and importunt 
 than theirs was the influence of two other schoolmen, who not only 
 renounced strict adherence to scholastic tenets, but ventured" to pro- 
 pound' evangelical views. William Dürandus de St. Porciano (near 
 Clermont), aim a Dominican — Doctor resolutissimus — and from 1326 
 Bishop of Meaux, had at first been a zealous advocate of Thomist 
 views. Afterwards, however, he saw cause to change his opinions. In 
 philosophy he became a nominalist, while, in opposition to the school- 
 men, he taught that there were doctrines which could not be demon- 
 strated, and which had to be received in simple faith as revealed truth. 
 On the subject of the Eucharist he held that the (Lutheran) doctrine 
 of consubstantiality was at least probable ; he also maintained that 
 marriage was not a sacrament in the same sense as the other six. He 
 wrote a commentary on Lombardus, and a " Tractatus de statu anima- 
 rum sanctarum postquam resolutae sunt a corpore." This work was 
 directed against the view of Pope John XXII., that the souls of the 
 blessed attained vision of God, only after the resurrection and the last 
 judgment. In general, this erroneous tenet was so strenuously opposed 
 throughout the Church, that the Pontiff himself was obliged to retract 
 it. Of kindred spirit was the Franciscan William Occam, an English- 
 man — Doctor invincibilis — teacher at Paris, and provincial of his order. 
 He was expelled by the Franciscans on account of his taking the part 
 of the more rigorous in the order, and espoused the cause of Louis of 
 Bavaria, whom he boldly defended against the interference of the 
 hierarchy [oh. 1347). On many subjects he dissented from the views 
 of Scotus, which were a kind of test of orthodoxy. In philosophy he 
 was a Nominalist; he rejected the doctrine of transubstantiation, and 
 adopted that of impanation. Against John XXII. he wrote a " Com- 
 pendium errorum Joannis XXII.," in which he charged the Pontiff 
 with a number of heresies ; among others, with that above referred to. 
 In his numerous writings he frequently defended the opinion, that the 
 Emperor was superior to, and the judge of, the Pope, and that the 
 decision of all questions connected with marriage belonged to the 
 State. (Comp. Eettberg, Occam u. Luther, in the " theol. Stud. u. 
 Kritt." for 1839. I.; also Turner, Hist, of England, Middle Ages. Vol. 
 III.) Of course the papal ban was hurled against him ; the University 
 of Paris also condemned his views. Still a large number of students 
 gathered around him (Occamists). — The last great representative of 
 tlie schoolmen was Gabriel Biel of Spires, a teacher at Tubingen [oh. 
 1495), and an admirer of Occam. He delivered sermons on the Ethics 
 of Aristotle ; but in other respects avoided many of the errors of scho- 
 lasticism, and at a later period joined the Brethren of the Common 
 Life. 
 
 2. Besides the Brethren of the Common Life (? 112, 6) and those 
 who advocated the views propounded at the Councils of Constance and 
 Basle (§ 118), the followinf were the principal Oppontnts, or rathei 
 reformers of scholasticism :
 
 492 SECTION II. -=- THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 14<tl5 A.D.). 
 
 (1.) Nicholas de Lyra, a Franciscan, a Jewish convert from Nop 
 mandy and teacher of theology at Paris {ob. 1340). His great merii 
 consisted in applying his stores of rabbinical and philological learning 
 to the interpretation of Scripture. Since Christian Druthmar (§ 90, 
 4), he was the first again to prosecute grammatical and historical exe- 
 gesis (Postilla in universa Biblia). A century later another Jewish 
 proselyte, Paid Burgensis [oh. 1435, whilst Bishop of Burgos), wrote on 
 the margin of his copy of the Postilla, a number of excellent Addi- 
 Hones, which were partly emendatory, partly supplementary, to the 
 original. For these additions he was assailed, about 20 or 30 years 
 afterwards, by Mattheiv Döring, provincial of the Saxon Franciscans, 
 in his " Replicje defensivas postillas." In translating the Bible, Luther 
 largely availed himself of the commentaries of Lyra. Accordingly 
 the enemies of the Reformer were wont to say : Si Lyra non Lyrasset, 
 Lutherus non saltasset. 
 
 (2.) Thomas of Bradwardine, Archbishop of Canterbury [ob. 1349), 
 a man of deep piety, and who charged his cotemporaries with Pelagi- 
 anism, but himself strayed into the most rugged predestinarianism. 
 
 (3.) The learned and acute Raymond of Sabunde at Toulouse, the 
 founder of the science of natural theology, designed to exhibit the 
 agreement between the book of nature and that of revelation. — (Comp. 
 F. HoJherg, de theol. natural! Raim. de Sabunde. Hal. 1843. — D. 
 Matzke, d. nat. Theol. d. Raim. v. Sab. Bresl. 1846.— ilf. Huttler, d. Rel. 
 Phil. d. R. v. S. Augsb. 1851. — Fr. Nitzch, qusestiones Raimundianae. 
 In the hist, theol. Ztschr. 1859, III.) 
 
 I 117. GERMAN MYSTICISM. 
 
 It will be remembered that during the twelfth and thirteenth 
 centuries wysticism had formed an alliance with scholasticism. 
 But as the latter gradually degenerated into unmeaning disputes 
 and empty formalism, mysticism escaped from its thraldom and 
 unfolded all the richness and depth of which, especially in that 
 age, it showed itself capable. Germany was now its chief centre, 
 and the national cast of this mysticism appeared even in the cir- 
 cumstance that its leading representatives wrote in the vernacu- 
 lar, and thereby contributed not a little to the development of 
 the German language and literature. The mysticism to which 
 we refer had a character of its own ; in it, lofty speculation, 
 which occasionally verged on and passed beyond the boundaries 
 of pantheism, was conjoined with deep contemplativeness. Dur- 
 ing the fifteenth century it lost much of its metaphysical char- 
 acter, but gained all the more in biblical truth and practica] 
 tendency (approximating in that respect the older Trench mys
 
 GERMAN MYSTICISM, 493 
 
 ticism). Two sentiments meet us in all the Mystics oi that age 
 — genuine sorrow for the decay of the Church, and equally 
 ardent longing for a reformalion. But mysticism, however 
 practical and popular in its form, however right and evangelical 
 in its aspirations, has never been able to bring about a thorough 
 and lasting renovation of religious life. It finds an echo only in 
 those isolated, quiet spirits which cherish deep longing for the 
 cultivation of the inner life. Hence at best it cannot lead to 
 results greater than the formation of separatist qjiurches, whose 
 exclusive cultivation of a subjective piety contains within itself 
 the germs of error and of destruction. It is characteristic of 
 such mysticism that, in its contemplation of what the Saviour 
 does IN us, it undervalues what He has done for us, and that it 
 devotes more attention to communion with God and sandifica- 
 tion than to justification by faith, which is the condition and 
 basis of all fellowship with God. In short, no genuine reforma- 
 tion can take place without mysticism, but it alone is iusufßcient 
 to accomplish that object. 
 
 1. The series of German philosophical Mystics opens with Master 
 EccART {ob. about 1329), a provincial of the Dominicans. In boldness 
 and vigour of speculation he was superior to all his successors, but at 
 the same time he strayed into open pantheism. It is more than pro- 
 bable that he stood in some relation to the Brothers and Sisters of the 
 Free Spirit, though he certainly did not share their antinoniian views 
 and practices. Archbishop Henry of Cologne summoned him before 
 his tribunal, and laid the case before Pope John XXII. The commis- 
 sion appointed to try Eccart extracted from his writings twenty-eight 
 propositions, of which seventeen were declared directly heretical, the 
 others at least suspicious and capable of heretical interpretation. The 
 Pope issued a bull of condemnation, in which however he stated that 
 Eccart had recanted shortly before his death, — which we suppose 
 amounted to this, that he denied holding the same views as the Bre- 
 thren of the Free Spirit. His numerous tractates, written in German, 
 were suppressed, and only fragments of them have been preserved. — 
 (Comp. //. Martensen, Meister Eccart. Ilamb. 1842. — C. Schmidt, in 
 the '* Stud. u. Kritt." for 1839. III.; Thomson, in the same Review for 
 1845. III.) 
 
 2. The writings and teaching of Eccart had produced a deep im 
 pression. He was followed during the fourteenth and fifteenth contu 
 ries by other and like-minded Mystics. If the speculations of Eccart 
 had been pantheistic in their tendency, they now endeavoured to give 
 them a more scriptural character, and to turn them to practical 
 account. Their writings and sermons in the vernacular contribute:^ 
 
 42
 
 494 SECTION II. — THIRD PERIOD (C E N T . 14 & 15 A. D.). 
 
 not a little to the revival of geauine piety among the people. Foröi 
 most among these Mystics we mention : — 1. The Dominican Johannes 
 Tatiler at Strasburg {ob. 1361), one of the most powerful preachers of 
 any age, whose labours seem to have been richly blessed. His own 
 conversion and spiritual growth were in great measure due to inter- 
 course with Nicholas of Basle, the "friend of God" (| 114, 2). He 
 was distinguished by deep humility, ardent love, and fervent piety. It 
 was the main object of all his labours that Christians should daily die 
 to the world and self, that so Christ might be found in them, and that 
 they should find themselves poor in spirit, that so they might become 
 rich in God. AVithal he clearly understood and preached the great 
 truth of justification by faith. Especially did he abound in labours 
 during the terrible year of 1348, when the black death ravaged Strass- 
 burg and the papal interdict rested on the doomed city. But no inter- 
 dict could bind Tauler. The best known of his writings is that on the 
 •' Imitation of the Poor Life of Christ." His style and diction entitle 
 him to a place among the best German prose writers before Luther. 
 (Comp. C. Schmidt, Joh. Taul. v. Strassb. Hamb. 1841. B. Bähring, 
 J. Taul. u. d. Gottesfreunde. Hamb. 1853. Euclelbach, christl. Biograr 
 phie, I. 3.) — 2. Henry Suso, a Dominican at Ulm, also called Amanclus, 
 the son of a Count of Berg [oh. 1365). His writings, full of sorrow for 
 sin and love to the Lord, which seem the very outpourings of his soul, 
 go straight to the heart. (Comp. Melch. Dlepenhrock, Suso's Leben u. 
 Schriften, with an Introd. by Gorres, 2d Ed. Regensb. 1837. C. 
 Schmidt, der Myst. H. Suso, in the " Stud. u. Kritt." for 1843. IV, 
 3. John Ruysbroek, an Augustine monk at Brussels [ob. 1381). He 
 was called Doctor eestaticus, from the circumstance that he laid such 
 stress on the ecstatic state, in which man cast ofi" the heavy and im- 
 peding bonds of outward sense, and opened his heart immediately and 
 directly to the influences of the love of God and the communications 
 of His Spirit. He wrote in Latin (Comp. Engelhardt, Rich. v. St. 
 Victor u. Joh. Ruysbr. Erlang, 1838). — 4. Hermann of Fritzlar, a 
 pious layman, who has left us a work on the Life of the Saints, which 
 has lately been again edited (by Fr. Pfeiffer, in his " teutsche Myst. 
 d. 14. Jahrh. Vol. I. Leips. 1845). In attractive language and with 
 most affectionate simplicity, he endeavoured to show how the outward 
 life of the saints reflected their inward purity. The book is entirely 
 free from dead externalism, and is interspersed with explanations and 
 remarks which breathe a deep mysticism and sublime speculation. 
 ). RuLMAN Merswin (Mecrschwoin ) a Wealthy merchant and broker in 
 Strassburg, wlio subsequently joined the " Friends of God," and gave 
 his riches to bcnovtjlent objects. He bought an old forsaken cloister 
 near the city, refitted it and gave it to the order of St. John. There 
 he spent the rest of his days in pious contemplation and good works 
 [ob. 1382). He is the author, as A^ Schmidt (hist, theol. ztschr. 1839) 
 has shown, of the " Buch von den neuen Felsen" found among Suso's
 
 RK FORM ATI ON IN HEAD AND MEMBERS. 495 
 
 works. It is a complaint of a devout laymen over the decay of the 
 Church, and the distractions of social life. Other writings by him are 
 Btill unpublished. — 6. Otto von Passau a Franciscan of the 14th 
 (some say 15thj century. He wrote a devotional book entitled, Die 
 24 Alten, oder der goldene Thron," which secured him a place among 
 the German mystics, perhaps on a level with Suso. — 7. The unknown 
 author of the tractate entitled Theologia Germanica, "a noble treatise, 
 which setteth forth what Adam and what Christ is, and how Adam is 
 to die and Christ to rise in us." The work treats principallj^ of the 
 incarnation of God in Christ, and the elevation of man by the »Saviour. 
 It was held in very high esteem by Luther, who published a new 
 edition of it. (Transl. into Engl, by Miss Winkworth, with a Pref. by 
 Kingsley.) — 8. John Staupitz, Vicar-General of the Augustine Order 
 in Germany, and the spiritual father of Luther. Himself a warm 
 admirer of the German Mystics, he succeeded in awakening similar 
 sentiments among the members of his order. But he felt unequal to 
 the contest on which Luther entered, and accordingly retired into a 
 Benedictine monastery at Salzburg, where he died in 1524. 
 
 3. Even in the case of Suso, speculative mysticism had assumed a 
 more practical cast. This change was finally completed by the 
 "Brethren of the Common Life" (| 112, 6). Most distinguished 
 among their writers was Thomas a Kempis [oh. 1471). According to 
 their views, the whole life, all thinking, knowledge, and action, were 
 to spring from love to God, and to manifest themselves in the way of 
 growing sanctification. Thomas a Kempis was the author of many 
 tractates ; the well-known book on the Imitation of Christ is generally 
 ascribed to him. With the exception of the Bible, perhaps no other 
 work has so frequently been reprinted, or translated into so many 
 languages, nor has any other been perused by so many persons of all 
 ranks and creeds. (Comp. /. P. Silbert, Gersen, Gerson u. Kempis, 
 welcher ist d. Verf. etc. — who is the author, etc. — Vienna, 1828. 
 TJllman, in the " Stud. u. Kritt." for 1843. I. G. Vert, Etudes his. sur 
 I'Imit. de J. C. Toul. 1957. B. Bähring, Th. v. Kempen. Berl. 1849.) 
 
 IV. REFORMATORY MOVEMENTS. 
 I 118. THE KEFORMATION IN HEAD AND MEMBERS. 
 
 The desire for a reformation in bead and members continued 
 to exist throughout the whole of this period, down to the Re- 
 formation, and even beyond it. It had found utterance in the 
 reformatory Councils of Pisa, Constance, and Basle; but the
 
 496 SECTION II. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 14 & 15 A.D.). 
 
 utter failure of all such attempts, however sincere and energetic, 
 and however wide the sympathies they commanded, proves that 
 they started from a wrong principle. While recognizing that 
 these councils kept themselves entirely free from all sectarian 
 tendencies, and honestly endeavoured not to destroy but to reform 
 the Church from within, we cannot shut our eyes to the manifest 
 defects of those movements. Foremost among them we place 
 the circumstance, that they aimed after a reformation only in 
 head and meinhers, not in spirit; an attempt which may be com- 
 pared to the pruning of wild branches, while that which in times 
 past caused, and would still promote their growth, is left un- 
 touched. In truth, it was never intended to abolish more than 
 the most grievous oppressions, and certain gross outward 
 scandals — such as the assumptions of the hierarchy, the exac- 
 tions of the Papacy, and the dissoluteness of the clergy. But 
 these councils entered not on questions of doctrine; despite their 
 corruption, the Romish interpretation of dogmas was universally 
 acknowledged. Nor was it understood that any genuine renova- 
 tion could only proceed from the preaching of repentance and 
 from a devout acknowledgment of the doctrine of justification by 
 faith in him who justifieth the ungodly. Hence it was that the 
 reformers of Constance condemned to the stake a Euss, who had 
 pointed out and endeavoured to apply this the only true lever 
 of a genuine reformation ; hence, also, the fathers of Basle hesi- 
 tated not to proclaim "the Immaculate Conception" as an 
 article of catholic faith. The miscarriage of all these attempts 
 must, therefore, not be ascribed to outward obstacles, either at 
 Pisa or Constance, such as, that befoi'e addressing themselves 
 to the work of reformation the fathers proceeded to the choice 
 of a new Pope, who afterwards prevented any genuine reforma- 
 tion. On the contrary, the circumstance that the members of 
 these councils refused to address themselves to a reformation of 
 the Church till they had given it a head, is rather an honourable 
 testimony to their conscientiousness ; but even had it been other- 
 wise, their defective principles would have led to the same result. 
 On this ground also we can understand why the ablest men in 
 the Council of Basle gradually retired from it in despair, and, 
 like Nicholas of Cusa, again embraced the phantom of papal 
 supremacy, which, under a Gregory and an Innocent, had proved 
 BO powerful an instrument of reform. However clearly they dis- 
 cerned that all such attempts as were made by councils had
 
 REFORMATION IN HEAD AND MEMBERS. 497 
 
 proved abortive, they failed to perceive the real cause of this, 
 and hence once more clung. to the Papacy as the sole anchor of 
 hope. 
 
 1. French Reformers. ^- The desire for a reformation of the Church 
 in head and members was chiefly fostered by the great representatives 
 of the University of Paris. Among these divines we mention : 
 
 (1.) Peter o'AiLLy, Chancellor of the University of Paris, from 
 1396 Bishop of Cambray, and from 1411 also a cardinal [oh. 1425). In 
 many respects he still adhered to the scholastic method, and even wrote 
 a commentary on Lombardus, while at the same time he endeavoured 
 to give a biblical basis to his fiivourite science. 
 
 (2.) John Charlier of Gerson (a little village^ near Rheims), 
 Doctor Christianissimus, the pupil and successor of d'Ailly at Paris 
 [oh. 1429). He strenuously insisted that a General Council was 
 superior to the Pope, — a principle which, in his opinion, was abso- 
 lutely necessary for any genuine reformation. Nor was he merely 
 alive to outward defects in the Church ; on the contrary, he was wont 
 to appeal to the Bible as the only source and rule of Christian know- 
 ledge, and contended against the abuse of the doctrine of indulgences, 
 and the multiplication of saints and festivals. Still he would have 
 withheld the Scriptures in the vernacular from the laity, and branded 
 every one as an heretic who did not implicitly receive the interpreta- 
 tion which the Church gave of a passage. Gerson was deeply impressed 
 with the desirableness of combining mysticism with scholasticism. Ilis 
 own mysticism, however, was rather practical than speculative. — (Comp. 
 C. Schmidt, Essai sur J. Gerson. Par. 1839. — D. Mettenleiter, J. Ger- 
 son u. s. Zeit. Augsb. 1857 ; and the Essays on G.'s Mystic, by Liehner 
 'in the " Stud. u. Kritt. for 1835. II., by Huncleshagen in Illgen's 
 Journal IV., and by Engelhardt ; Thomassy, Jean Gerson. Par. 1843; 
 Dr. J. H. ScJuvah (Rom. Cath.), Joh. Gerson, e. Monogr. Würzb. 1859). 
 
 (3.) Nicholas of Clemangis, Rector of the University of Paris, from 
 which he retired into solitude [oh. about 1440). Of all divines in the 
 Church he perceived most cleaidy existing abuses, and most fully re- 
 cognized the authority of the Scriptures as the rule of belief and of 
 judgment. — Comp. Ä. Müntz, Nie. de Cl^manges, sa vie et ses ecrits. 
 Strasb. 1846. 
 
 (4.) Louis d'Allemand, Cardinal and Archbishop of Aries, the 
 ablest and most eloquent member of the anti-papal party at Basle. He 
 was excommunicated and deposed by Eugenius lY. But when the 
 Council of Basle made subjection, Pope Nicholas V. restored him, and 
 in 1527 Clement VII. even allowed the faithful to venerate him as a 
 saint. 
 
 2. The Friends oj" Reform in Germany. — A considerable time before 
 the appearance of the French reformers, a German, Henry of Lanr/en- 
 ttein, near Marburg [Henricus de Hassia), had insisted that princes- 
 42*
 
 498 SECTION II. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 14 & 15 A.D.). 
 
 and prelates should summon a General Council in order to put an end 
 to the papal schism, and to initiate a reformation in the Church. Hi? 
 work, " Consilium pacis de unione ac reformatione ecclesiae in concilio 
 universali," appeared in 1381. It contained a humbling, but unfor- 
 tunately too correct account of the desolate state of the Church. The 
 monasteries he designated " prostibula meretricum," and the cathe- 
 dral churches " speluncse raptorum et latronum." He taught first 
 at Paris, and from 1381 in Vienna, where he died (1397), as rector of 
 the University. (Cf. 0. Hartwig, Henr. de Langenst. dictus de Hassia 
 Zwei ünterss. Marb. 1858.) — 2. Theodore of Niem (Neheim) was secre- 
 tary to Gregory IX., with whom he went from France to Rome. After- 
 wards he became Bishop of Verdun, and died in 1417, as Bishop of 
 Cambray, during the sittings of the Council of Constance, of which 
 he was a member. His writings, which have not yet received sufficient 
 attention, are of the greatest importance for the history of the schism 
 and of the Council. Throughout, his language is bold and unsparing. — 
 3. Gregory of Heimhurg. He attended the Council of Basle, as secre- 
 tary to^neas Sylvius, who at the time was still attached to the reform- 
 ing party. But his violent opposition to papal assumptions caused 
 such excitement, that ^neas deemed it prudent to dismiss his secre- 
 tary. He afterwards became Syndic of Nürnberg, and in 1459 attended 
 the Council of Mantua, as ambassador of the Emperor Sigismund. 
 Pope Pius II. (^neas Sylvius) excommunicated him, from which time 
 he wandered about from place to place, the victim of papal persecu- 
 tions. He died at Dresden, in 1472. His writings were collected and 
 published at Frankfort, in 1608, under the title, " Scripta nervosa justi« 
 tiaeque plena." On the relation between iEneas and Gregory compare 
 also G. Pfizer, d. Deutsche u. d. Welsche (the German and the Ital.). 
 Stuttg. 1844. — 4. Nicholas of Cusa, near Treves (his real name waa 
 Chryfftz = crab). He attended the Council of Basle, as Archdeacon 
 of Lieges, spoke and M'rote in defence of the principles of that Council 
 (de concordantia catholica LI. III.) ; but afterwards joined the papal 
 party, Avas rewarded with the episcopal see of Brixen, where he died 
 a cardinal in 1464. Against the abuses of the scholastic method he 
 wrote three books, " do docta ignorantia." [Q,omY>. F. A. Schariiff, (^. 
 kirchl. u. lit. Wirken d. Nie. v. Cusa (the Eccl. and Lit. Labours of 
 N. of C). Vol. I. May. 1843.—/. M. Dlix, d. deutsche Card. Nie. v. 
 Cusa u. d. Kirche s. Zeit. Regensb. 1847. 2 Vols.)^* 
 
 3. Italg also contributed to the Council of Basle one who at least for 
 a time appeared to be a reformer. j^7ieas Sylvius Piccolomini was 
 among the most determined opponents of Eugenius IV. lie wrote a 
 history of the Council of Basle, couclied in a violent, anti-papal spirit, 
 and became secretary of Felix, the Pontiff whom that Council elected. 
 But in 1442 he entered the service of the Emperor Frederic III., 
 became poet laureate and imperial counsellor. In this capacity he 
 displaved considerable diplomatic skill in bringing about the Concordat
 
 EVANGELICAL REFORMATION. 499 
 
 of Franlxfort in 1446, by which a reconciliation was effected between 
 Pope Eugenius and the German princes. Ten j^ears afterwards Calix- 
 tus IV. nominated him cardinal, and in 1458 he was elevated to the 
 papal see, as Pius II. His poetic effusions are full of most indecent 
 passages, and his former lasciviousness continued even after his acces- 
 sion to the see of Peter. (Cf. K. R. Uagenhach, Erinner, an ^En. Sylv. 
 Pice. Bas. 1840.) 
 
 §119. ATTEMPTS AT EVANGELICAL REFORMATION. 
 
 While the divines of Paris attacked the glaring abuses of the 
 Papacy, a more hopeful movement had commenced iu England 
 (especially by Wycliffe) and Bohemia (especially by Hus). 
 Not merely the outward corruptions of the Church, but their 
 hidden causes, were to be exposed and removed. Another dis- 
 tinctive feature of this Reformation was, that it addressed itself 
 to the people rather than to the learned, and aimed at enlisting 
 theü' sympathies and convictions. For the first time also was it 
 understood and proclaimed, more or less distinctly, that a genuine 
 reformation must be based on that great doctrine of justification 
 by faith, which had at first been the corner stone of the Church. It 
 is on this ground that Wycliffe and Hus have frequently been 
 represented as the precursors of the Reformation of the sixteenth 
 century. However correct in some respects the statement, there 
 was a vast difference between these men and the reformers of the 
 sixteenth century. Not to spea'k of the comparatively small suc- 
 cess of their labours, which in part may have been due to the 
 circumstance that the fulness of time for such' comprehensive 
 reforms had not yet come, they failed by adopting some hereticaJ 
 (spiritualistic) elements, which conflicted with the idea and truj 
 character of the Church, whilst the German Reformation either 
 shunned such errors, or gradually excluded them. Virtually 
 acknowledging no other than the invisible Church, they failed iu 
 establishing a visible community ; while in their aims after exces- 
 sive purity and simplicity, they disconnected themselves not only 
 from the past, but even from the present. Of the two reformers 
 whom we have mentioned, Hus was more a man of the people 
 than Wycliffe. If his views were less philosophical, and his 
 system less developed, his aims were more practical and popular 
 (by preaching justification by faith\ and more fully directed 
 towards inward and spiritual renovation than those of his great 
 English teacher. — These tendencies were not confined to England
 
 500 SECTION II. — THIRD PERIOD (CE N T. 14 <t 15 A D.). 
 
 «ir Bohemia. A similar movement sprung up in other lands, 
 especially in the Low Countries. In this case also submission 
 to the Scriptures, and faith in the crucified Saviour, as the ground 
 of salvation, were regarded as the only principles capable of 
 achieving a genuine reformation. Like ^ms and Wycliffe, those 
 divines adopted the theological system of St. Augustine, but their 
 activity was more quiet, confined to narrower circles, and rather 
 theological than popular. Even in Italy a reformer appeared. 
 Thoroughly imbued with evangelical sentiments, Savonarola ex- 
 ercised during his brief public career a most precious influence 
 upon his countrymen. 
 
 1. Wycliffe and the Wycliffites. — (Comp. /. Lewis, Hist, of the Life 
 and Sufferings of J. Wycliffe. Oxf. IS20. — R.Vaughan, J. de Wycliffe, 
 a Monograph. Lond. 1853. — O.Jäger, J. Wye. u. s. Bedentung fiir d. 
 Reform. Halle 1854. — G.Weber, Gesch. d. akathol. Kirchen u. Secten 
 V. Grossbrit. Leips. 1845. Vol. I. — F.A. Lewald, d. theol. Doctrin. J, 
 Wye. in the "Zeitsch. für hist. Theol." for 1846. II.-IV. ; and in the 
 same Journal for 1853. III. 1854. U.— G.V. LecJder, Wye. u. d. Lob 
 larden, and " Hist, of Engl, and France under the House of Lancaster." 
 Lond 1852. — (A number of W.'s treatises have of late been reprinted.) 
 — The kings and parliament of England had been long resisting the 
 oppressive yoke of the papal hierarchy ; and such men as John oj" Salis- 
 bury, Robert Greathead, Roger Bacon, and Thomas of Bradtvardine, had 
 lifted their voices against the inner corruptions of the Church. John 
 Wycliffe, a pupil of Bradwardine, was born 1324. As a fellow of 
 the university of Oxford, which was then involved in a controversy 
 with the mendicant monks, Wycliffe appeared in 1360 against these 
 monks, and in 1366 in defence of the English crown against the de- 
 mands of the papal court (then at Avignon), for feudal imposts. This 
 secured for him the favour of the English court, which conferred the 
 doctorate upon him, appointed him professor of theology in Oxford, and, 
 1374, placed him on an embassy to the pope to effect an adjustment of 
 existing difficulties. Then he learned, by immediate observation, how 
 corrupt the papacy was. After his return, he spoke and wrote openly 
 against the papal "Antichrist" and its system. Gregory XI. con- 
 demned (1377), nineteen points in his writings, but the English court 
 protected him against punishment. Wycliffe became more bold, 
 formed societies of pious men to preach the Gospel among the people, 
 (their enemies called them Lollards), and translated the Bible (from 
 the Vulgate), into English. By this time the anger of his enemies had 
 reached its height. lie now assailed transubstantiation, and revived 
 Berengar's view of the Lord's Supper ; the university expelled him, and 
 a synod at London condemned his works and doctrines as heretical 
 (1382). The court and Parliament could only protect his person. He
 
 EVANGELICAL REFORMATION. 501 
 
 retired to the parish of Lutterworth, and there died (1384). His ad- 
 herents, including many eminent and educated persons (among the 
 masses he found but little sympathy), were violently persecuted. The 
 Council of Constance condemned anew forty-five points in his writings, 
 and commanded his corpse to be disinterred, burnt, and scattered. 
 But much of the seed he sowed was preserved until, in the Reformation, 
 it sprang up and bloomed with greater purity and power. — In the last 
 years of his compulsory leisure, Wycliffe wrote his chief work, the 
 IVialogus, in which he fully sets forth his theological views. As the 
 fundamental principle of all theology and of a reformation, he main- 
 tained that the Holy Scriptures are the only source and rule of all 
 religious knowledge. But in rejecting all ecclesiastical tradition as a 
 mere human invention, he went beyond the limits of evangelical con- 
 sideration, and failed to distinguish between normal and abnormal 
 developments. Agreeably to his principle he renounced the worship 
 of relics and images, the use of the Latin language, the chanting of the 
 priests, the numerous festivals, private masses, extreme unction, and 
 in general all ceremonies. He pronounced the Catholic doctrine of in- 
 dulgences, as well as bans and interdicts, blasphemous ; auricular con- 
 fession, violence done to the conscience ; and the power of the keys con- 
 ditional, and its application impotent unless in harmony with the law 
 of Christ. He denied the real presence of the body and blood of 
 Christ in the Supper, and affirmed, with Berengar, a communication 
 of its power, which was not only dependent on the faith of the re- 
 cipient, but also on the worthiness of the administering priest. The 
 doctrine of purgatory he wholly rejected. He held predestination in 
 the rigid form of his teacher, Bradwardine. He maintained that the 
 papacy was Antichrist, and that the pope obtained his power only 
 from the emperor, not from God. For the hierarchical organization 
 should be substituted the presbyterial form of government. Ordination 
 imparts no ineradicable character ; a priest guilty of a mortal sin can- 
 not validly administer a sacrament. Every believer possesses a 
 priestly character. To the state belongs the prerogative of represent- 
 ing Christ as the theanthropic ruler of the world ; the clergy are 
 merely to represent the poor suffering life of his humanity. Monasti- 
 cisra is a monster, &c. 
 
 2. The Bohemian JReformers before Htis. — (Comp. /. P. Jordan, d. 
 Vorläufer d. Hussitenth. in Böhmen (the Precursors of H. in Bohemia. 
 Leips. 1846. — A.Zifte, Lebensbeschr. d. drei Vorl. d. Joh. IIus. Prague 
 1786. — i': Palachj, Gesch. v. Böhmen. Vol. 111., pp. 157, etc.) — It 
 will be remembered that the Bohemian Church had been founded by 
 missionaries from the East, and not from the West. The peculiar 
 direction which it got at first was never wholly lost ; and though, at a 
 later period, the Romish order and liturgy had been introduced, they 
 were not received without opposition or grudgj. In Bohemia the 
 founder of the Waldenses had spent the last y.^ars of his life; and
 
 502 SECTION II. — THIRD PERIOD (c E N T. 14 u. 15 A. H."). 
 
 there, at a later period, a number of his adherents had found an asylum 
 when driven from the valleys of Piedmont. The great stronghold ot 
 the Papacy in Bohemia was the University of Prague (founded in 1348) . 
 Most of its chairs were occupied by the mendicants, who were of course 
 zealous defenders of hierarchical principles ; while the arrangement 
 of the members of the University into four nations, of whom each had 
 one vote (Bohemia, Bavaria, Saxony, and Poland), prevented anything 
 like a national and independent movement on the part of the Bohe- 
 mians. Nor was it unimportant, in reference to the religious history 
 of the country, that the controversy between Realism and Nominalism 
 raged more violently at Prague than elsewhere, and that there also 
 Realism was regarded as suspicious, while Nominalism was considered 
 the great bulwark of ecclesiastical orthodoxy (Wycliffe also was a 
 Realist, but the Paris Reformers were zealo'as Nominalists.) Even 
 before the time of Hus, three earnest preachers had prepared the way 
 by their evangelical sermons and by their pastoral labours among the 
 Deople. These were Conrad of Waldhausen [oh. 1369), John Milicz 
 oh. 1374), and Matthias of Janov [oh. 1394). Milicz seems to have had 
 the clearest insight into evangelical truth, while Janov was loudest in 
 his denunciations of ecclesiastical abuses. All three gathered vast audi- 
 ences around them. In 1367 Milicz went to Rome to bear testimony 
 against ecclesiastical corruptions in the capital of Christendom. He 
 was soon silenced in a prison ; but either Pope JJrhan V., who had just 
 returned from Avignon, or the good oflices of some other friends, pro- 
 cured his liberation. Fresh persecutions awaited him on his return to 
 Bohemia. His opponents accused him of heresy before Pope G-i'egorij XI. 
 Milicz successfully defended his orthodoxy at Avignon, whither he had 
 gone to plead his cause in person. Janov has left two tractates, " De 
 sacerdotum et monachorum abhorrenda abominatione desolationis in 
 ecclesia Christi," and " De Antichristo," which contain a withering 
 exposure of the degenerate hierarchy, clergy, and monks of his time. 
 His hearers he warned against trusting in their own works, or attach- 
 ing value to mere ceremonies. Janov cherished the conviction that, 
 according to Christ's appointment, the laity should receive the cup as 
 well as tlie bread in the Eucharist; but, in obedience to his ecclesias- 
 tical superiors, he had yielded the point. The statement, however, 
 wants historical confirmation. 
 
 3. Hus and Jerome. — (Comp. A. Zitte, Lebensbeschr. d. Joh. Hus. 
 Prague, 1799. 2 Vols. — A. Zürn, J. Hus auf d. Concil zu Kotnitz. 
 Leips. 183Ö. — L. Köhler, J. Hus u. seine Zeit. Leips. 1846. 3 Vols. — 
 J. A. Helfert, Hus u. Hieron, Prague, 1853. — L. Heller, Hieron. v. 
 Prag. Tub. 1835. — F. Palachj, Gesch. v. Böhmen. Vol. III. — 
 John Hus, of Husinecz, was born in 1369. From 1398 he occupied the 
 chair of Philosophy in the University of Prague. Even before hia 
 public appearance, he had passed through deep personal experiences, 
 realizing his own sinfulness, and ultimately finding peace and comfort
 
 EVANGELICAL REFORMATION. Ö03 
 
 in the Word of God and in a cordial reception of the crucified Saviour, 
 These truths became a source of new life to him, and them he pro- 
 claimed when called in 1402 to officiate as preacher in the Bethlehem 
 Chapel at Prague, which was founded for the special purpose of giving 
 the people an opportunity of hearing the Gospel in the vernacular 
 Hitherto IIus had only been superficially acquainted with the writings 
 of Wyclifi"e, whose views on the Eucharist he rejected. But when 
 Jerome of P-iujue, a Bohemian knight, returned from Oxford an enthu- 
 siastic adherent of Wyclifi'e, he persuaded his friend to examine more 
 fully the writings and opinions of the British Refoi-mer. Jerome was 
 a man of brilliant talents, ardently attached to what he believed the 
 truth, and burning with a zeal wliich bordered on enthusiasm, but 
 deficient in that moderation and prudence for which IIus was so dis- 
 tinguished. The charge of sharing Wycliffe's views was first brought 
 against Hus in 1404, when two young English divines, pupils of Wyc- 
 lifi'e, being persecuted in Prague for their advocacy of their teacher's 
 tenets, exhibited a number of pictures, by way of showing the striking 
 contrast between the poverty of Christ and His apostles, and the pomp 
 and luxury of the Pope and his cardinals. IIus disapproved of the 
 conduct of the young men, although he admitted the truth of the con- 
 trast presented. The Bohemian members of the University took the 
 same view of the question ; the Germans and Poles the opposite. As 
 the foreigners commanded three votes in the university against the 
 one of the Bohemians, a resolution was published in 1408, by which 
 forty-five propositions of Wyclifi'e were formally condemned. But this 
 state of matters was not to continue. In 1409 the national party pre- 
 vailed on Wenceslaus, the King, to issue an order to the efi'ect that in 
 future the Bohemian nation should have three votes, and the other 
 nations, combined, only one. The foreigners (teachers and students 
 numbering, according to the lowest estimate, 5000) immediately left 
 Prague, and founded the University of Leipsig. The pai'ty of Hus 
 became dominant in Bohemia, but all the more unpopular in foreign 
 countries, and the charge of Wycliffism was generally preferred against 
 its loader. A])()ut the same time IIus became also more earnest and 
 energetic in his denunciations of ecclesiastical and clerical a])uses. 
 Sbynko, Archbishop of Prague, now laid an accusation against him in 
 Rome, and prohibited his preaching in the Bethlehem Chapel. But 
 the populace openly insulted the Archbishop in the streets, while Hus 
 appealed from the Pope ill-informed to the Pope better-informed. The 
 Bohemian Reformer was wont to declare that he received not implicitly 
 all the statements of Wyclitfe, but distinguished in them between truth 
 and error, and that i.e was prepared to retract the moment he should 
 be convinced from Scripture of his error. The Pope cited him to Rome ; 
 but, on the intercession of the King and the University, a temporary 
 truce was concluded between Hus and the Archbishop of Prague 
 Other occasions of dissension soon arose. In 1 412 John XXIII. pro-
 
 504 SECTION II. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 14&15 A.D.J. 
 
 claimed a crusade against Naples, which was also preached In Bohemia 
 Against this daring presumption Hus protested by pen and voice , 
 while Jerome, in his indignation, even ventured to burn the Pope's bull 
 at the public pillory. The Pope now excommunicated Hus, and laid 
 Prague under the interdict, so long as it sheltered the Reformer (1413). 
 Hus appealed to the tribunal of Jesus Christ, and retired from Prague 
 to his birthplace. Meantime the Council of Constance had been sum- 
 moned. There the cause of Hus was to be finally settled. At the 
 request of the Emperor Sigismund, and furnished by him with a safe- 
 conduct, the Reformer went (1414) to Constance, fully persuaded of the 
 justice of his cause, and prepared, if necessary, to suffer martyrdom. 
 On his first examination Hus was immediately committed to prison. 
 The Bohemian nobles who had accompanied him to Constance appealed 
 to the Emperor, who was on his way to that city. The Emperor sent 
 an order to restore Hus to liberty, which was not obeyed ; and a depu- 
 tation from the Council persuaded the weak monarch, that since Hus 
 was at the bar of the Council on the charge of heresy, he was beyond 
 imperial protection. For seven months the Reformer was tortured by 
 private examinations. At length a public audience was granted him 
 (in June, 1415). But he was not allowed to proceed to the discussion 
 of controverted points; the Council insisted on simple and unqualified 
 retractation. The humility, meekness, and gentleness of the Reformer, 
 his enthusiasm and confidence, gained him friends even in the Council. 
 From all sides, and by every kind of motive, he was pressed to yield. 
 These well-meant persuasions proved as inefi"ectual as the threats of hia 
 enemies. On the G^/i Jidy, his forty-sixth birthday, a solemn oration 
 was delivered in the cathedral on Romans vi. 6, after which Hus was 
 stripped of his priestly robes, handed over to the secular power, and 
 led to the stake. Amid prayer and praise he expired, joyously and 
 confidently, one of the numerous company of martyrs who with their 
 blo(jd have sealed a good confession. — Jerome of Prague, the friend of 
 Hus, had also appeared at Constance, though unsummoned. Perceiving 
 that a longer stay could be of no use to his friend and only exposed 
 himself to a similar fjite, he left the town, but was captured by the 
 way, and brought back in chains (April, 1415). Half a year spent in 
 a loathsome prison, and the continuous csolicitations of his judges, 
 induced him in an hour of weakness to recant, and to acknowledge the 
 sentence pronounced against Hus. But notwithstanding his recanta- 
 tion, he was still distrusted and kept in durance. Jerome soon re- 
 covered himself. He rcfjuestcd a public audience before the whole 
 Council, which was granted him in May, 1416. He now publicly and 
 formallv retracte<l his former recantation, and confounded the Council 
 by his eloquence and moral earnostness. On the 30th May, 141G, he 
 died at the stake, full of courage and joy. 
 
 The Doctrimd Vines of Hus, most clearly expressed in his tractate 
 *'de ecclesia," had but one error. Adopting the predestinarian views
 
 EVANGELICAL REFORMATION. 505 
 
 cf St. Augustine, he regarded the Church as the totality of the pre- 
 oestinate, and argued that only the predestinate could savingly dispense 
 the sacraments. This view annuls the objective power of the Church: 
 its nature, significance and office are evaporated; it is deprived of every 
 thing like a firm basis. An error so fundamental, which IIus shared 
 with Wycliife, rendered him incompetent to be a i-eformer, notwith- 
 standing his moral purity and power and the fulness of his evangelical 
 knowledge. A reformation based on such fundamental principles would 
 be apt to degenerate into sectarianism or fanaticism. In all other 
 respects his teaching was excellent, and thoroughly evangelical. In 
 regard to the Lord's Supper he diiFered decidedly from Wycliffe, and 
 adhered to the doctrine of the real presence, yea even to transubstan- 
 tiation. — We are scarcely surprised that the Council of Constance, 
 though led by a Gerson, should have pronounced sentence of death on 
 such a man. Other reasons also led to this result. The Fathers of 
 Constance were chiefly Nominalists, and to them the Realism of Hus 
 appeared the source of all his heresy ; besides, the controversy in the 
 University of Prague, and the decision of the king, which were chiefly 
 attributed to him, had raised a prejudice in the minds of the Germans. 
 Perhaps, also, his mistakes on the subject of the Church might appear 
 to the Council more dangerous than they really were ; while all the 
 other points, on which he advocated evangelical views, could not be 
 appreciated by such an assembly as that of Constance. Lastly, Hus 
 drew upon himself the enmity of both parties in the Council : the 
 hierarchical party wished to deter its opponents by showing that the 
 Church still possessed the power of burning heretics, while the liberal 
 party withdrew its protection, from apprehension that any suspicion 
 of sharing the heretical views of Hus might endanger the success of 
 their reformatory attempts. — The story, frequently related, that in his 
 last moments Hus uttered the prediction, "To-day you roast a goose 
 (in Slavonian = Hus), but from mine ashes will arise a swan (the 
 armorial device of Luther), whom you will not be able to destroy," is 
 entirely apocryphal. It probably originated during the time of the 
 Reformation, from the circumstance that the two martyrs had appealed 
 to the judgment of God of history. Has predicted that, instead of 
 the weak goose, strong eagles and falcons would soon come ; while 
 Jerome summoned his unjust judges to answer within a hundred years 
 before the highest tribunal. 
 
 4. The Hussites. — Comp. Z. Theobald, Hussitenkrieg. 3d Ed. BresL 
 1750. 4. — Lenfant, Hist, de la guerre des Huss. 2 T. 4. Suppl^m. par 
 Beausohre. Laus. 1745. — F. Palacky, u. s.). — During the imprison- 
 ment of Hus, Jacobus of Misa (Jacobellus) had acted as leader of the 
 Hussites. By advice of a Waldensian [Peter of Dresden), and with the 
 approbation of Hus, he dispensed to the laity the cup in the Eucharist. 
 In consequence of this, a violent controversy broke out between the 
 divines of Prague and those of Constance, about the lawfulness of with 
 43
 
 506 SECTION II. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 14&15A. D.). 
 
 holding the cup. On the proposal of Gerson, the Council resolved, 
 that any one who refused to submit in this matter to the Church, 
 should be treated as a heretic. This and the execution of Hus raised 
 popular feeling in Bohemia to the highest pitch. In the midst of the 
 excitement which ensued, King Wenceslaus died in 1419, and the 
 estates refused to acknowledge his brother, the "perjured" Emperor 
 Sio-ismund. For sixteen years a civil war raged, which, in bitterness 
 and cruelty on both sides, has rarely been equalled. The Hussites, 
 who had built the fortified town of Tabor on the top of a steep moun- 
 tain, were commanded by the one-eyed Ziska. The armies of crusaders 
 successively summoned against the Bohemians were defeated and 
 annihilated. But the mild evangelical spirit of Hus had forsaken the 
 great majority of his adherents, who were divided among themselves. 
 Two parties became more and more decidedly arrayed against each 
 other. The (aristocratic) Calixtines (from calix = cup) or Uiraqnists 
 (sub utraque, i. e., under both forms), which were headed by Rokycana, 
 the Bishop-elect of Prague, would have been satisfied if the Catholic 
 Church had conceded their four articles (1. The Eucharist under both 
 forms ; 2. The free preaching of the Gospel in the vernacular ; 3. Strict 
 discipline among the clergy ; 4. That the clergy should not possess 
 secular property). But the (democratic) Taborites refused to come 
 to any terms with the Catholic Church. They laid down the principle, 
 that whatever in government, doctrine, and worship could not be 
 proved from Scripture, should be implicitly rejected, and thus, by ignor- 
 ing all historical development, strayed into fanaticism, iconoclasm, and 
 other extravagances. After the death of Ziska (of pestilence in 1424), 
 the majority of the Taborites chose Procopius the Great his successor. 
 A minority, which deemed no man worthy to succeed their departed 
 leader, separated from Procopius, and took the name of " Orphans." 
 Meantime the Council of Basle had assembled ; and, after much fruit- 
 less negotiation, succeeded in 1433 in inducing the Hussites to send 
 300 deputies to Basle. The discussion on the four Calixtine articlea 
 lasted for fifty days, after which the Council conceded them, although 
 with restriction. On the ground of these Basle Compactates, as they 
 were called, the Calixtines returned, at least nominally, to the allegi- 
 ance of the Church. The Taborites regarded this as a betrayal of the 
 truth. Part of them once more tried the fate of arms, but were de- 
 feated and scattered at Böhmisclihmd, near Prague, in 1434. The 
 Emperor Sigismund confirmed the Compactates, and was acknowledged 
 king. As might have been expected, small as were these concessions, 
 they were continually ignored, and violated both by Church and State. 
 Sin'ismund died in 1437, and was succeeded by his infant grandson 
 Ladislavs, the government being administered by Georcje Podiehrad, a 
 zealous and able Calixtine. After the death of Ladislaus in 1457, 
 George Podiehrad became king. He adhered closely to the compac- 
 tates. He was acknowledged by Fius IL, in the hope of his joining
 
 EVANGELICAL REFORMATION. 507 
 
 the projected war against the Turks. When this hope iailed, the Pon- 
 titf in 14G2 went so far as even to disown the Compactates. Faul IL 
 excommunicated the king, and had a crusade preached against him. 
 But the crusade did not succeed, and George maintained himself till 
 his death in 1471. His successor, üladislaus, a Polish prince, though 
 a Roman Catholic, favoured the Calixtines. But their day was past. 
 A wretched remnant of tüem furtively obtained at times the use of the 
 cup, but, in the sixteenth century they wholly disappeared. 
 
 5. The Bohemian and Moravian Brethren. — (Comp. Jaoch. Came- 
 rarii, hist, narratio de fratr. orthod. ecclesiis in Bohem., Moravia et 
 Polonia. Heidelb. 1G05. — /. Amos Comenius, hist, fratrum Bohemorum, 
 c. pra3f. Fr. Buddei. Hall. 1702. 4. — G. C. Rieger, d. alt. u. neuen 
 böhm. Brüder. 24. St. Züllich. 1734, etc. — G. W. K. Lochner, Entsteh, 
 u. erste Schicks, d. Brlidergem. in Böhm. u. Mähr. — Orig. and Early 
 Hist, of the "Brethren." — Nlirnb. 1832. — A. Koppen, Kirchenordn. 
 u. Disciplin. d. hussit. Brüderk. in Böhm. u. Mähr. Leips. 1845. — 
 A. Gindely, Böhmen u. Mahren im Zeitalter d. Reformation. 2 Vols. 
 Prague 1857-58. — A. Edersheim, Bohemian Reformers and German 
 Puliticians, in the "Free Ch. Essays." Edinb. 1858). — In 1453, George 
 Podiebrad took Tabor, and scattered the last remnants of the Taborites. 
 Purified by their misfortunes, they gradually returned to evangelical 
 views. Peter of Chelcic, (Cheltschiz), a-Taborite friend of God, was 
 the central point of their communion, and George Podiebrad, at Roky- 
 cana's recommendation, directed them to occupy the village of Kun- 
 wald, on his hereditary estates. There, under the guidance of Michael 
 V. Bradacz, the minister of Senfftenberg, they organized themselves 
 (1457), as the ünitas fratrum, andassumedthenameof Bohemian and 
 Moravian Brethren. But in 14G1 Podiebrad withdrew his fevour, and 
 drove them from his estates. They fled to the forests, and held their 
 worship in caves, (also called Picards). In 1467, the most influential 
 of them in Bohemia and Moravia met at the Bohemian village, Lhota, 
 and in order to provide for the want of pastors, chose, by lot, three 
 brethren as priests. Michael Bradacz then went to the Bohemian 
 bishop of the Waldenses, and was ordained by him ; on his return, he 
 ordained the three brethren chosen at Lhota, Mathias of Kunwald as 
 bishop, the other two as priests. Thus the apostolic succession of the 
 episcopate was secured. Rokycana, embittered by this act, excited 
 more violent persecutions against them. Still the communion was so 
 much increased by the accession of Waldenses in Bohemia and others, 
 that at the commencement of the sixteenth century it embraced nearly 
 200 churches and houses for prayer in Bohemia, Moravia, and Poland. 
 Under TJladislaus, to whom they submitted an apology in 1508, per- 
 uecutione against them abated. They sent the same apology to Eras 
 mvs, in 1511, with the request that he would furnish them with his 
 opinion upon it. Erasmus declined doing this. They hailed Luther's 
 m-^vement with hearty rejoicing. Repeated messengers were sent bj
 
 508 SECTION 1 1. — T HIRD PERIOD (CENT. 14&15A. D.)- 
 
 them to Luther, but were offended that he did not give as much pro 
 minence as they desired to apostolic discipline. 
 
 6. Reformers in the Low Countries. — (Comp. C. TJllmann, Re- 
 formers before the Reform. Edinb. Clarks' For. Thool. Libr.). — Most 
 of these reformers had learned in the school of the "Brethren of the 
 Common Life." The following were the most celebrated among them : 
 
 (1.) John Pupper of Goch, prior of a cloister of canonesses at Ma- 
 lines which himself had founded [oh. 1475). From his writings (de 
 libertate Christiana, de quatuor erroribus circa legem) we gather that 
 he was a man of deep piety. His theology is entirely that of Augus- 
 tine ; he insists at great length that love, which constitutes the liberty 
 of the children of God, forms the great subject-matter of theology, while 
 the exclusive authority of Scripture affords the sole testing point of 
 Christian truth. He also inveighed against legalism, work-righteous- 
 ness, and all externalism in religion. 
 
 (2.) John Ruchrath of Wesel, professor at Erfurt, then preacher 
 at Mayence and Worms [oh. 1481). His theology was also cast in the 
 mould of St. Augustine. He denied the power of the Pope to issue 
 anathemas or to grant indulgences, and preached the doctrine of salva- 
 tion by faith alone. In opposition to transubstantiation he maintained 
 the doctrine of impanation ; his views of the Church bordered on 
 spiritualism. He wrote a tractate, "de jejunio," against ecclesiastical 
 fasts ; another, " de indulgentiis," against indulgences ; and a third, 
 " de potestate ecclesiastica," against the hierarchy. The Dominicans 
 in Mayence accused and condemned him as a heretic. Bent by age 
 and disease, he was prevailed upon to recant and to commit hia 
 writings to the flames, while he himself was condemned to imprison- 
 ment for life. His writings and those of Pupper are partially reprinted 
 in Fr.Walch's Monumenta medii sevi. Gottg. 1757. 
 
 (3.) John AVessel, from Groningen, educated by the Brethren of the 
 Common Life at Zwoll, where Thomas a Kempis exercised considerable 
 influence upon him. After having taught at Heidelberg for some 
 years, he retired to the monastery on Mount St. Agues near Zwoll, 
 where he died in 1489. His friends called him "Lux Mundi." In 
 rare measure he combined accomplishments so diverse ae scholastic 
 dialectics, mystic speculation, and thorough classical training. Luther 
 said of him : " If I had read Wessel before I began, my opponents 
 would have imagined that Luther had derived everything from Wessel 
 — so entirely do we two agree in spirit." In one point, however, the 
 doctrine of the Lord's Supper, he lost himself in a volatilizing spiritual- 
 ism. The patronage of influential friends proved his safeguard from 
 the Inquisition. Unfortunately, some of his numerous writings have 
 been entirely suppressed through the exertions of the mendicants. An 
 edition of those still extant has been pul)lished by Petrus Pappus 
 (Grcming. 1G14). The most important /)f them, which bears the titl« 
 " Farrago," consists of a collection of small but very interesting essays.
 
 EVANGELICAL REFORMATION. 50S 
 
 Along with these Netherland Reformers, before the reformation, 
 Kicholas Bttss, a priest of Rostock, (near the end of the fifteenth, or 
 beginning of the sixteenth century), merits honourable notice. From 
 the catalogus testium veritatis of Flacius it was known that, in a work 
 " De triplici funiculo," he zealously assailed the hierarchy, monasticism, 
 indulgences, work-righteousness, the worship of relics and saints ; also, 
 that he kept up intimate intercourse with the Waldenses in Bohemia, 
 had to endure much defamation and persecution on account of his re- 
 formatory eiforts, and, finally, died as an exile in Livonia. Ilis work 
 above named, written in Low Dutch, of which man}- copies were 
 printed, was also destroyed. But one of his friends rescued some 
 copies ])}- concealing them in a chest. Flacius intended to have it 
 translated and printed in German, but did not accomplish it. Fronr 
 that time nothing was known of the book until, in 1850, Julius Wigr/ers 
 discovered a copy in the library at Rostock, and published an abstract 
 of it in the Hist. Theol. Ztschr. of Niedner 1850, II. It is entitled : 
 " Von dem Strick, oder den drei Strängen ;" for in order to draw men 
 from the pit of destruction a cord is necessary, and this, to be suffi- 
 ciently strong, must be composed of three strands : faith, hope, and 
 love. These are then minutely described. Thus the book furnishes a 
 complete guide to the Christian's faith and life, with severe assaults 
 upon the degenerate doctrines and morals of the Church of his age. 
 
 7. An Italian Reformer. — (Comp. A. G. JRudelbach, Hier. Savonarola 
 u. seine Zeit. Hamb. 1835. — F. C. Meier, Girolamo Savon. Berl. 1836. 
 — K. Hase, neue Propheten. Leips. 1851. — F. T. Perrens, Jerome Sav. 
 Par. — a book to which the French Acad, awarded the 1st prize — 2d 
 Ed. 1857; transl. into Germ, by Dr. Schröder). — The reformation 
 which Savonarola inaugurated in Italy towards the close of the fifteenth 
 century, was directed not only against ecclesiastical, but also against 
 political abuses. It was this combination of different objects which 
 proved fatal to himself and his work. Jerome Savonarola, a Domini- 
 can, had leai'ned the truths of the Gospel from Scripture and from the 
 writings of St. Augustine. These truths he now proclaimed at Florence 
 (since 1489). His brilliant oratory, his bold and almost fanatical de- 
 nunciations of the corruptions prevalent among clergy and laity, 
 princes and people, attracted crowds around him. With intimate 
 knowledge of the way of salvation, he combined a strange apocalyptic 
 and prophetic turn. Many an obstinate sinner was aroused by having 
 discovered his most secret sins, while some of his political predictions 
 were fulfilled in the most remarkable manner. Savonarola soon 
 became the idol of the people ; and measures were taken to carry into 
 practice not only the moral and religious, but also the political reforma- 
 tion which he had proposed. Florence was to become the capital of a 
 new democratic theocracy. What his enemies, especially Pope Alex- 
 ander, could not effect by the ofi"er of a cardinal's hat, was accomplished 
 by the folly of a tickle populace. For a time political complications in 
 43*
 
 510 SECTION II . T HIRD PERIOD (CENT. 14 Ä 15 A. D.). 
 
 Italy became more unfavourable, and seemed to run counter to some 
 of his predictions, vrhile a famine desolated the land. The nobility 
 and the loose young men of Florence had always been his bitter 
 enemies ; popular opinion also now began to turn against him. The 
 Pope had chosen the right moment to hurl his anathema against the 
 reformer, and to lay the city which sheltered him under the interdict 
 (1497). An excited mob made him prisoner; his most bitter enemies 
 were his judges. He was condemned to the stake as a heretic and a 
 seducer of the people. Savonarola submitted to his doom in child- 
 like confidence on Him who had died for him (1498). Among the 
 heresies laid to his charge, was that of having taught the doctrine of 
 justification by faith. — (Comp. G. Bajip, die erweekl. Schriften (the 
 Popul. Relig. Treat.) d. Martyr. H. Savon. Stuttg. 1839. 
 
 ? 120. THE SO-CALLED REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 
 
 Comp. Heeren, Gesch. d. class. Literat, im M. A. Meiners, Lebens- 
 beschr. berühmt. Manner aus d. Zeit d. Wiederherst. d. Wiss. (Biogr. 
 of Celebr. Men at the Time of the Reviv. of Learn.) Zur. 1775. 2 Vols. 
 ^H. A. Erhard, Gesch. d. AViederaufbl. d. wiss. Bild. (Hist, of the 
 Reviv. of Learn.) Magd. 1827-32. 3 Vols. 
 
 The classical literature of ancient Greece and Rome was not 
 so entirely neglected during the Middle Ages as is supposed. 
 On the contrary, frequent and successful attempts had been made 
 throughout that period to introduce such studies. Such mou- 
 archs as Charlemagne, Charles the Bald, Alfred the Great, 
 and the Otho^s of Germany, encouraged learned pursuits, and 
 men like Erigena, Gerhert, Roger Bacon, and others, possessed 
 a comparatively extensive knowledge of the classics. Nor must 
 it be forgotten that the circle of classical literature was enlarged 
 during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries by the labours of the 
 Moors iu Spain, and by frequent intercourse with Byzantine 
 students. Tlie founders of the national literature of Italy in the 
 fourteenth century — Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio — were 
 also the most zealous promoters of classical studies. Such pur- 
 suits received during the fifteenth cent, a very great impulse. If, 
 during the meeting of the Greeks and Italians at the Council of 
 Florence in 1439 ^§67, 6), afresh interest had been awakened 
 in the study of the classics, the conquest of Constantinople by 
 the Turks in 1453 all'ordcd the opportunity of greatly increasing, 
 and at the same time of fully gratifying it. A large number of 
 learned men from Byzantium sought refuge in Italy ; they found 
 an enthusiastic reception in Rome, and also especially by the
 
 THE SO-CALLED REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 511 
 
 generous princes of tlie House of Medici. The art of printing, 
 discovered in 1440, had ah-eady rendered the treasures of classical . 
 antiquity generally accessiljle. But this immigration gave a 
 new direction as well as a fresh impulse to classical studies. If 
 during the Middle Ages they had almost exclusively been em- 
 ployed for ecclesiastical and theological purposes, they werö now 
 prosecuted for their own sakes, and as the basis of that general 
 culture expected in educated men (hence the name Humanismus, 
 and the terra "Humanity," still used in English colleges). 
 Humanism renounced the service of the Church ; gradually it 
 assumed a posture of indifference and of proud disdain towards 
 Christianity. Many of its votaries even strayed into the worship 
 of heathen antiquity. With superstition, faith was also derided ; 
 sacred history and Greek mythology were placed on the same 
 level. From all parts the youth of Europe crowded to Italy, to 
 draw in its academies from the newly opened springs. On their 
 return they brought with them and spread around an ardent 
 zeal for classical lore. Happily the infidelity with which it was 
 too frequently conjoined in Italy, did not make such rapid pro- 
 gress in other countries. In Germany these studies were chiefly 
 cultivated by the " Brethren of the Common Life," who suc- 
 ceeded in adapting the new weapons to the service of theology 
 and of the Church. This school gave birth to many of the co- 
 adjutors of the Lutheran reformation. — It will be understood, 
 that to a certain extent the sympathies of the Humanists must 
 have gone with those who sought to reform the Church. They 
 joined them in their opposition to the absurdities of scholasti- 
 cism, to superstition, monasticism, and other abuses. But while 
 agreed in their aversion to the prevailing state of things, both 
 the grounds on which, and the manner in which, they carried on 
 the contest, were widely different. The Reformers opposed 
 abuses because they were contrary to Scripture, and led away 
 from the great object of faith ; the Humanists, because such 
 views agreed not with those of heathen antiquity. The Re- 
 formers contended with weapons drawn from the Word of God, 
 and for the highest of all objects — the salvation, of souls; the 
 Humanists, with shafts of wit and satire, content if they secured 
 earthly well-being. In truth, the despised schoolmen and the 
 derided monks were not always in the wrong in their opposition 
 to the Humanists. A reformation of the Church, accomplished 
 by them alone, would speedily have landed in heathenism. But
 
 512 SECTION II. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. x4 & 15 A.D.). 
 
 ander the direction of men of genuine piety, the revival of 
 classical learning opened a rich and till then unknown source of 
 philological, philosophical, and general knowledge, without 
 which the faithful translation and interpretation of the Scriptures, 
 and consequently that revision of dogmatics which marked the 
 Reformation of the sixteenth century, could not have been ac- 
 complished so rapidly, so comprehensively, or so safely. 
 
 1. Tke Italian Humanists. Comp. {Dittmar)'D\Q Humanisten u. da8 
 Evangelium, in the Erland. " Zeitschr. für Protestsm. u. K." July and 
 Oct. 1855. — Italy was the great nursery of Humanism, and the Greeks 
 who emigrated thither were its parents. The first Greek who taught 
 in that country was Emanuel Chrysoloras (1396). After the Council 
 of Florence Bessarion and Gemistius Pletho settled in Italy, and 
 being warm admirers of the Platonic philosophy, brought it into vogue 
 in the land of their adoption. After 1453 a large number of literary 
 men from the East sought an asylum in Rome and Florence. From 
 their seminaries classical learning and heathen ideas spread over Italy. 
 They found access even among the highest members of the hierarchy. 
 Even though the well-known saying ascribed to Leo X., " Of what ad- 
 vantage this fable about Christ has been to us and ours is sufficiently 
 known to all centuries," be not authentic, it affords an insight into 
 the character and spirit animating the papal court. Cardinal Bembus, 
 the private secretary of Leo, translated the realities of the Gospel into 
 mythological equivalents, couched in classical Latin. Christ he called 
 " Minervam e Jovis capite ortam," the Holy Ghost, " auram Zephyri 
 cselestis," while he paraphrased forgiveness of sin as " Deos superos- 
 que manesque placare." So early as the meeting of the Council of 
 Florence, Pletho had ventured to express an opinion, that Christianity 
 would soon give place to a universal religion which would not greatly 
 differ from heathenism. When Pletho died, Bessarion addressed a 
 letter of consolation to his sons, telling them that their father had risen 
 to purer and heavenly spheres, where he had joined the Olympic gods 
 in their mystic, Bacchantic dances. The new Platonic school, which 
 assembled in the gardens of the Medici, assigned to the philosophy of 
 Plato a place much higher than to Christianity. A new Pei-ipatetic 
 school M^as also founded. Its great representative, Petro Pomponazzo 
 {ob. 152G), openly declared, that from a philosophic point of view the 
 immortality of the soul was more than doubtful. Another member of 
 that school, the celebrated historian MachiarelU, introduced a system 
 of politics entirely alien to the spirit of Christianity. Moral frivolity 
 went hand in hand with religious laxity. The most obscene poetry 
 and the most lascivious pictures circulated among the Humanists, and 
 their practice was certainly no better than their theory. — In tlieir 
 public declarations the Italian Humanists were careful at least to ig- 
 nore the Church and its doctrines, from fear of bringing down ven-
 
 THE SO-CALLED REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 513 
 
 geance. Laurentius Valla, however, ventured, in his " Aunotitiones 
 in Novum Testam." (afterwards edited by Erasmus), to point out a 
 number of errors in the Vulgate. He even went further. Having 
 proved on irrefragable historical evidence that the pretended donation 
 of Constant, to the see of Rome was spurious (§ 82, 1), he inveighed 
 against the ambition of the Papa,cy. Valla was summoned before the 
 Inquisition, but escaped with a retraction. Nicholas V. suppressed 
 the investigation, and by kindness attached him to the papal see. 
 Valla was not, however, one of those Humanists who had lost all reve- 
 rence fur Christianity. He died in 1456 as papal secretary. — But the 
 phoenix of that age was Johannes Picus Prince o/'Mirandola, who 
 combined in himself all the nobler aspirations of the period. He was 
 a courtier and a poet, a scholastic, a mystic, a cabbalist and a human- 
 ist, a historian, a mathematician, and an astronomer — and equally 
 versed in classical and Oriental lore. During the last ten years of his 
 brief career (he died at thirty years of age) he renounced the world 
 and its pomp, and wholly devoted himself to the study of the Scrip- 
 tures. He had intended to travel through Europe to preach Christ 
 crucified, when death called him from the field of labour. Characte- 
 ristic is his saying: Philosophia veritatem quaerit, theologia invenit, 
 religio possidet. 
 
 2. The German Humanists. (Comp. C A. Cornelius, d. miinster. 
 Human, u. ihr Verh. zur Reform. — The Munster Hum. and their rel. 
 to the Reform. — Mlinst, 1851. K. Hagen, Deutschlands liter, u. relig. 
 Zustände im Zeitalter d. Reform. Erl. 1841. 3 Vols. E. Th. Mayerhoff, 
 Joh. Reuchlin u. s. Zeit. Berl. 1830. F. W. Kampfschulte, die. Univ. 
 Erfurt in ihr. Verh. zum Humanism, u. zur Reform. 2 Bde, Trier. 
 1858. The universities of Heidelberg and Erfurt were the chief seats 
 of German Humanism. — Rudolph Agricola of Heidelberg, a pupil 
 and associate of Wessel and Kempis [oh. 1482), may be designated the 
 father of German Humanism. Most of his numerous pupils [Alexander 
 Hegius at Deventer, Eiidoljjh Lange at Miinster, Hermann Busch at 
 Wesel, and others) joined Luther's Reformation. The example 
 set by Maximilian I. induced the princes and knights of the em- 
 pire to take an interest in scientific and literary pursuits. After 
 the death of Agricola, John Reuchlin (Capnio), a celebrated jurist, 
 became the leader of the German Humanists [oh. 1522). He gave 
 himself more especially to the study of the language of the Old Testa- 
 ment, which he prosecuted with the greatest zeal and with unsurpassed 
 success. Well might he in 1506 conclude his " Rudimenta linguaa 
 Hebraic««" with the woi-ds of Horace, " Exegi monumentum, etc." 
 The work has become the basis of all later studies in Hebrew philology. 
 He also wrote a tractate on the difficult subject of the Hebrew accents 
 (De ace. et orthogr. hebr. LI. 111.). His work, "de arte cabbalistica,"_ 
 treats of the secret philosophy of the Jews. Such was his interest in 
 the Jews, with whom he had continual and intimate intercourse, thafc
 
 514 SECTION II . — T HIRD PERIOD (CENT. 14 & 15 A. D.). 
 
 in 1505 he published " an Open Letter to a Nolleman, why the Jewa 
 have so long been suffering" ("Tiitsch Missiv an einen Junkherrn, 
 warumb die Juden so lang im Eilend sind"). In this tractate he 
 offered to instruct any Jew in the Christian religion, and at the same 
 time to provide for his temporal support. His predilection for Rab- 
 binical studies involved him in a controversy, by which, however, his 
 fame only spread over Germany and Europe. In 1509 one Pfeffer- 
 korn, a baptized Jew at Cologne, called upon the Emperor Maximilian 
 to order all Rabbinical writings to be burnt, on account of the blasphe- 
 mies against Christ which they contained. When Reuchlin protested 
 against this summary measure, Pfefferkorn and the Dominicans of 
 Cologne fell upon the Humanist, who defended himself with stinging 
 satire. Jacob of Hogstraten, the Inquisitor of Cologne, cited him before 
 his tribunal. Reuchlin appealed to Leo X. The commission of in- 
 quiry appointed by the Pope condemned the Dominicans to pay the 
 expenses of the process (1514) ; the forcible collection of these 111 gold 
 florins was a real labour of love and pleasure on the part of Knight 
 Francis of SicJdngen (1519). Meantime a number of able pens had 
 been set in motion on behalf of Reuchlin. In 15 IG the Epistolce obscii- 
 rorum Virorum appeared, professedly a correspondence between 
 Ortuiaus Gratius of Deventer, a teacher at Cologne, and some friends. 
 That this man, a pupil of the Brethren of the Common Life, and from 
 all we know of him, an honourable, pious, and not a bigoted man, 
 should have been selected as the butt for such sarcasm, can only be 
 explained on the ground of personal motives (comp. Mohnike in the 
 "Zeitschr. fur hist. Theol." 1843. III. IV.). In the most exquisite 
 monkish Latin, the stupid, and in part obscene love affairs of the 
 mendicants, are related with such apparent sincerity and frankness, 
 with a continual running reference to their controversy with Reuch- 
 lin, that at first some of the Dominicans themselves regarded these 
 letters as genuine, and excused their somewhat curious expressions as 
 due to the "vis sententiarum." All the greater was the merriment 
 and scorn which was heaped upon them by the learned of Europe. At 
 the request of the mendicants, Leo X. indeed issued a severe bull against 
 all readers of the blasphemous tractate, but this measure only increased 
 their number. These letters were in all probability composed by such 
 men as Crotus Rubianus, Hermann Busch, Wilibald Firkheimer, and 
 by the publisher of the work, Wolfgang Angst, at Ilagenau. This 
 termination of the controversy with Reuchlin had given the re- 
 formatory movement in Germany a false and even dangerous turn. 
 A contest carried on with such unholy and carnal weapons could 
 only liave ended in complete subversion of both Church and State. 
 To the circle of writers from which the " Epist. obsc. vir." came be- 
 longed also U/ric von Ilniten, a knight of noble Franconian family. It 
 was, however, in the cause of liberty, rather than in that of the Gospel, 
 that he fought all his life long against pedantry of every kind, against
 
 THE SO-CALLED REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 515 
 
 ihe monastic orders, and indeed against all constraint in matters of 
 3onscience. In 1504 he escaped from the monastery of Fulda, where 
 he was to be trained for the clerical profession. He next studied in 
 Erfurt, and fought in the army of Maximilian, as he afterwards con- 
 tended with his pen on behalf of Reuchlin, When deprived of the aid 
 of Sickingen, he wandered about homeless, and at last died in wretched- 
 ness in 1523. His works were published by E. J. H. Manch, Berlin 
 1821, etc., 5 Bde.— (Comp. L. Schubart, Ulr. v. H. Leips. 1791.— 
 Herder's Denkmal (Memorial). — G. C. F. Mohnike, U. v. H.'s Jugendl. 
 Greifsw. 1816. — G. J. W. Wagenseil, U. v. H. Nürnb. 1803. — G. W. 
 Panzer, Ü. v. H. in lit. Bezieh. Nürnb. 1798. — E.v. Brunnow, U. v. 
 H. Leips. 1842. — Z>. Strauss, U. v. H. Leips. 1871. 2 Vols.). 
 
 3. Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam. — (Comp. Biirigny, Vie d'Er., 
 translated into German by Reich, with add. by Henke. Halle 1782. 
 2 Y oh. — Sal. Hess, Er. v. R. Zur. 1790. 2 Vols. — ^fZ. Müller, Leben 
 d. Er. V. R. Hamburg 1828.) — The most distinguished among all 
 the Humanists, either before or at the time of the Reformation, was 
 Erasmus (Gerhard Gerhardson). The child of conjugal affectiuna 
 which were shamefully defrauded of the happiness of valid marriage, 
 he was educated at Deventer and at the Hague by "the Brethren of 
 the Common Life." Forced by relatives to enter a monastery in 1486, 
 he was ultimately set free through the interposition of an ecclesiastical 
 dignitary from his conventual prison, and thus enabled wholly to devote 
 himself to the pursuit of science (1496). He next attended the Uni- 
 versity of Paris. Having finished his studies, he travelled through 
 Europe, when he made personal acquaintanceship with almost all the 
 eminent ^en of. his time. For several years he occupied the Chair of 
 Greek in 0«lwa, and ultimately settled in Basle with his learned pub- 
 lisher Frohenius (1521). In this retreat he refused every ofiice, and 
 even the dignity of cardinal, although not liberal pensions ; and amidst 
 learned labours of varied kinds, and a most extensive epistolary inter- 
 course, lived as a kind of scientific monarch. His chief merit con- 
 sisted in his promotion of classical learning, and in its application to 
 theological purposes. In many other ways also he promoted the Refor- 
 mation. Thus he pointed out the defects in the theological study of 
 the time, especially the absurdities of the prevailing scholastic method. 
 He also exposed the abuses in the Church, castigated the moral cor- 
 ruption of all ranks, and unsparingly denounced the ignorance, idle- 
 ness, and dissoluteness of the monastic orders. On the other hand, he 
 also disapproved of the paganizing spirit of many of the Humanists, 
 and of the revolutionary ideas of such men as Ulric von Hütten. His 
 own views were essentially Pelagian ; he was, accordingly, quite unable 
 to understand the peculiar doctrines of the Gospel. While anxious 
 for a reformation of the Church, he neither was nor felt himself called 
 to be a Reformer. With him the whole was merely a question of 
 rationality ; religious depth, strength of faith, self-denying love, coq-
 
 516 SECTION II. — THIRD PERIOD (c £ N T . 14 & 15 A. D.) 
 
 viction, and courage, such as martyrs require, were utterly wanting is, 
 him. He loved his quiet and comfortable life too well to jeopard it ; 
 and his knowledge of the real causes of prevailing abuses, and of th? 
 kind of reformation requisite, was entirely insufficient. Erasmus 
 would have accomplished the work by human science, and not by the 
 agency of a pure Gospel. When, in 1529, the Reformation prevailed 
 at Basle, Erasmus left it, and settled at Freiburg in Breisgau, but 
 died at Basle (whither he had gone to have a personal interview with 
 Frobenius), "sine lux, sine crux, sine Deus" (1536). The best edition 
 of his writings is that by J. Clericus (Lugd. 1702. 10 Voll. foL). 
 Among his writings, the most important for theology, are his critical 
 and exegetical notes on the N. T. (note 5). He also edited a number 
 of the Fathers (Jer., Hilar., Ambros., Iren., Äthan., Chrys., etc.). His 
 controversy with Luther belongs properly to a later period. The 
 " Ecclesiastes s. concionator evangelicus" was intended as a kind of 
 homiletics. The syxJ^fiiof ^wpJaj s. laus stultitige, dedicated to his friend 
 Thomas More, contains a most cutting satire on the monks and the 
 clergy generally. Even in his " CoUoquiis," by which he hoped to 
 make boys " latiniores et meliores," he allowed not an opportunity to 
 pass of deriding the monks, the clergy, and those rites which he re- 
 garded as superstitions (such as monastic vows, fasts, pilgrimages, 
 indulgences, auricular confession, the worship of saints, etc.). 
 
 4. Humanism in England, France, and Sjjain. — In England, also, 
 the new study excited considerable interest. Its chief friend and ad- 
 vocate there was Thomas More, Lord High Chancellor of Henry VIII. 
 More was on intimate terms with Erasmus, and shared his objections 
 to prevalent abuses in the Church. But it appears from his well-known 
 treatise, "De optimo reipublicas statu deque nova insula Utopia," that 
 he rather inclined towards Deism than desired an evangelical reforma- 
 tion. In the treatise to which we have referred, he expressed at some 
 length the expectation, that a more rational and natural arrangement 
 of social relations would lead to universal happiness. The contem- 
 plated religion of Utopia is undisguised Deism : providence, virtue, im- 
 mortality, and retribution ; everything distinctively Christian is care- 
 fully ignored. In his capacity of Chancellor, More suppressed the 
 Reformation in England, and took the side of the King in his contro- 
 versy with Luther. But when Henry VIII. quarreled with the Pon- 
 tiff, and laid claim to reform the Church in his own fashion. More 
 resigned his offices, refused to acknowledge the King as head of the 
 English Church, arul was beheaded in 1535, after a long and close 
 imprisonment. (Comp. G. Th. Rudhart, Leben d. Th. "Mor. Nlirnb. 
 1829.) 
 
 In Spain Humanism found a patron in no less a personage than 
 Fr.\ncis Xime.nes, Archbishop of Toledo, Grand Inquisitor, and Minister 
 of Ferdinand and Isabella (ob. 1517). (Comp. C. J. Hefele, d. Card, 
 Xim, 2d Ed. Tub. 1851. — W. Havemann, Darstellungen aus d. innern
 
 THE SO-CALLED REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 517 
 
 Gesch. Span, ira 15., IG. u. 17. Jahrh. Gott. 1850.) Among those who 
 prosecuted the new study in Spain the ablest was Anthony of Lerija, 
 Professor at Salamanca. In 1508 Ximenes assigned him a chair in the 
 new university of ^Zca/a (Complutum). The Cardinal availed himself 
 of his assistance in the Complutensian Polyglott, and protected him 
 from the Inquisition, before which he was summoned to answer for 
 his criticisms on the Vulgate. lie died in 1522. 
 
 Humanism scarcely made any progi*ess in France. For this we can 
 only account by the great influence which theUniversity of Paris brought 
 to bear against it. However, one man at least presented the new learn- 
 ing, and was led to devote himself to the critical investigation of the 
 Bible. John FaberStapulensis, a doctor of the Sorbonne [ob. 1537), 
 who reached the patriarchal age of 100, gave himself to the study of 
 the Scriptures in the original, and pointed out and corrected the cor- 
 ruptions in the text of the Vulgate. He also insisted that the Bible 
 should be read in the vernacular, and translated the Scriptures into 
 the French. For these oflPences he was expelled the Sorbonne, and de- 
 prived of his doctorate. The French Parliament likewise took measures 
 against his heresy; happily, he enjoyed the protection oi Francis I., 
 who entrusted him with the education of the royal princesses. The 
 Council of Trent placed his works in the " Index Prohibitorum," though 
 with the remark, " donee corrigantur." (Comp. K. U. Graf, J. Fab. 
 Stap. : Ein Beitr. zur Gesch. d. Reform, in Frankr., in the " hist, theol. 
 Zeitschr." for 1852. I.) 
 
 5. The Shidjj of the Scriptures. — The greatest advantage which the 
 Church and theology derived from the so-called restoration of the 
 sciences was this, that the Scriptures were taken from under the bushel 
 which had concealed them, and again placed on the candlestick. The 
 Vulgate (of which ninety-eight printed editions appeared before the 
 year 1500) was now compared with the text of the original, and the 
 allegorical mode of interpretation gave place to grammatical and his- 
 torical exegesis. This was mainly accomplished by providing the 
 necessary means for carrying on philological studies, while the print- 
 ing-press spread the original text throughout Europe. Since the inven- 
 tion of printing, the Jews diffused the Old Testament in the original. 
 In 1502 Ximenes employed a number of learned men to edit that splen- 
 did work known as the Complutensian Polyglott (the Old Testament 
 was edited b}'^ learned Jewish proselytes) — the whole was com2:)leted 
 in 1517. The work contained the Hebrew and Greek' text of the Old 
 and New Testaments, the Targumim, the Septuagint, the Vulgate, and 
 a Latin translation of the Septuagint and of the Targumim, together 
 with a somewhat meagre grammatical and philological apparatus — the 
 whole in six volumes (four for the Old Testament). About the same 
 time, Daniel Bomberg, a learned bookseller in Antwerp, was engaged 
 at Venice in bringing out various editions of the Old Testament, partly 
 with and partly without Rabbinical commentaries. Bomberg had 
 44
 
 518 SECTION II . T HIRD l-ERIOD (CENT. 14&15A. D.). 
 
 made himself thoroughly familiar with the Hebrew ; ho was also aidea 
 hj Felix Pratensis, a converted Jew, and hj Jacob Ben Chajim, a Rabbi 
 from Tunis. The first two editions appeared in 1518, and were soon 
 followed by other three. — But the great expense of the Complutensian 
 Polyglott placed it within the reach of very few. To Erasmus belongs 
 the great merit of publishing a pocket edition of the Greek New Testae 
 ment (with a Latin translation of his own). The first edition of this 
 work appeared in 1516. The first who distinguished himself in this 
 branch of study was Laurentius Valla, whose "Annotationes in N. T." 
 were published by Erasmus. Erasmus himself composed paraphrases 
 on the whole New Testament (excepting the Book of Revelations) ; 
 Faher Stapulensis wrote commentaries on the Gospels and the Epistles 
 of Paul, while Lerija published critical remarks on the Vulgate. 
 
 The want of translations of the Bible into the vernacular was also 
 increasingly felt. Faher composed an excellent translation of the 
 Scriptures in French, which has formed the basis of all later versions 
 (it was completed in 1530). Wycliffe had translated the Bible into 
 English ; and before the time of Luther there were no fewer than four- 
 teen translations of the Scriptures into German and six in Low Dutch. 
 And yet they are essentially but one and the same version, translated 
 of course from the Vulgate. The translator, or translators are wholly 
 unknown. Throughout the language is wretched, and the sense is 
 often unintelligible. Some portions, however, are better, and Luther 
 seems to have consulted them. (Comp. /. Kelirein, zur Gesch. d. deut- 
 Bchen Bibelubers. vor Luther (Contrib. to the History of the German 
 Bible before L.). Stuttg. 1851.)
 
 INDEX. 
 
 ( The numeraJ.s refer to the Paragraphs and notes.) 
 
 AuBACOMirES, 85 
 Abbots "in commen- 
 
 dam," 115 
 Abbuua, 52, 7 
 Abdas of Susa, 64, 2 
 Abderrliaman, 81 ; 95 
 Abelard, 105, 1 
 Abgar, 25 
 
 Uchomo, 14, 2 
 
 Ahodrites, 63, 2 
 Abraxas, 28, 2 
 Abrenunciatio diab., 32 ; 
 
 58, 1 
 Absolution, Formula of, 
 
 88, 5 
 Acacius of Araida, 64, 2 
 of Constantinople, 
 
 52, 5 
 Academy, New, 8, 4 
 Acliamoth, 28, 8 
 Acoimetes, 44, 4 ; 52, 6 
 Acolythi, 30, 1 
 Acroteleutia, 59, 3 
 Acta facientes, 23, 5 
 Adalbert of Bremen, 96, 
 
 3 ; 97, 1 
 
 of Prague, 93, 3 
 
 of Tuscany, 96, 1 
 
 the Heretic, 78, 4 
 
 Adam of Bremen, 4, 1 ; 
 
 102, 1 
 
 of Fulda, 113, 5 
 
 of St. Victor, 105, 4 
 
 Adamites, 114, 3 
 Adesius, 64, 1 
 Adoptiouists, 91, 1 
 Adrianus, 48, 1 
 Advent, 56, 5 
 Advocati eccl., 86 
 adesius, 94, 1 
 iKneas Sylv., 110, 3, 4; 
 
 118. 3 
 ;Eons, 26 
 
 Aerius, 62 
 
 Aetius, 50, 3 
 
 Africa, 25; 76, 3 
 
 Agapes, 18, 5; 33 
 
 Agapetse, 36, 3 
 
 Agapetus, 52, 6 
 
 Agathangelos, 64, 3 
 
 Agatho, 52. 8 
 
 Age, Canonical, 70, 1 
 
 Agilulf, 76, 8 
 
 Agnes, Empress, 96, 2 
 
 Agobard, 88, 4; 90, 4; 
 
 91, 1; 92, 2 
 Agricola, Rudolf, 120, 2 
 Aidan, 77, 5 
 
 d'Ailly, 110, 3; 118, 1 
 
 Aistulf, 82, 1 
 
 Aix la Chapelle, Council 
 
 at, 91, 1, 2 
 Aizanas, 61, 1 
 'AfEc/iaAoi, 52, 5 
 äKfioaaii, 36, 2 
 ditpoijixevoi, 32, 1 
 
 Alamanni, 78, 1 
 Alanus ab Insulis, 103, 2 
 Alaric, 76, 2 
 Alaviv, 70, 1 
 Albati, 114, 1 
 Alberic, 96, 1 
 Alberic v.Driibeck, 104,5 
 Albert of Apeldern, 93,4 
 
 the Bear, 93, 3 
 
 of Bushöwden,93,3 
 
 of Suerbeer, 93, 3 
 
 Albertus Magnus, 104, 1 
 Albigenses, 109, 1 
 Alboin, 76, 8 
 Alcuin, 90, 3; 91, 1, 2 ; 
 
 92, 1 
 Aldgild, 78, 3 
 Alexander II., Pope,96,2 
 III.. 96, 4 
 
 v., VI., 110, 3, 4 
 
 Alexander of Alex , 50, 1 
 
 of Ant., 63, 1 
 
 Halesius, 104, 1 
 
 Severus, 23, 3 
 
 Alexandria, Council of, 
 
 50, 4 ; 52, 1 
 School of, 39, 4 ; 
 
 47, 4; 52, 2 
 Alexius Comnenus, 71, 
 
 1, 3 
 Alfonso the Chaste, 81 
 
 the Catholic, 81 
 
 the III. of Castile, 
 
 95, 2 
 Alfred the Great, 88,1; 99 
 Alfric, 101, 1 
 d'AIlemand, 100, 3 ; 
 
 118, 1 
 Alogi, 40, 2 
 All-Saints, 57, 1 ; 89, 5 
 All-Souls, 105, 2 
 Altar, 35 ; 60, 2 ; 89, 5 
 Alvarus 81, 1 
 Alzog, 4, 4 
 
 Amalarius, 84, 4; 90, 4 
 Amalric of Bena, 108, 2 
 Amandus, St., 78, 3 
 Amatus of Salerno, 102,1 
 Ambon, 60, 3 
 Ambrosiaster, 48, 1 
 Ambrosius, 47, 5 ; 50, 
 
 4; 57, 2, 3; 59, 3 
 Ammonius, 44 
 
 Saccas, 24, 2 
 
 Ananus, 17 
 Anastasius Bibl., 4, 1 
 
 of Rome, 51, 2. 
 
 Sinaita, 48, 1 
 
 Anathema, 52, 3 
 Anchorites, 36, 3 ; 44 
 Ancyra, Council of, 50 
 Andrew II. of Hungarj 
 
 94, 4 
 
 (519)
 
 520 
 
 INDEX, 
 
 Andronicus Palseol.,67,5 
 Angelico of Fiesole, 
 
 113, 6 
 Angelici, 57, 3 
 Angelo, Mich., 113, 3 
 Angels, Worship of, 87, 3 
 Angilram, 87, 1 
 Anglo-Saxons, 77, 4 
 Angst, Wolfg., 120, 2 
 Anicetus, 33, 1 
 Ann, St., 72, 4 
 AnnatiB, 110 
 Anno of Cologne, 96, 3 ; 
 
 97, 1 
 Anomoites, 50, 3 
 Ansbert of Maild., 83, 1 
 Ansegis, 87, 1 
 Anselm of Canterbury, 
 
 67, 4; 96, 5 
 
 of Havelb., 67, 4 
 
 of Laon, 102, 1 
 
 of Lucca, 96, 3 ; 99 
 
 Ansgar, 80, 1 
 Anthimus of Const, 52, 6 
 Antidicomariauites 57, 2 
 
 62 
 
 avriiiopa, 58, 4 
 
 Antilegomena, 34, 2 
 Antinomianism, 19 
 Antioch, Council of, 50, 2 
 School of, 47, 1 ; 
 
 52, 2 
 Antiphones, 34, 4 
 Antiphonous Singing, 
 
 59, 3 
 Antiphonariura, 59, 3 
 Antitactes, 28, 6 
 Antony, St., 44, 1 
 
 of Padua, 98, 4 
 
 Antoninus Pius, 23, 2 
 Apiarius, 4G, 2 
 Apinus, 64, 1 
 Apocrisarians, 46 
 Apocrypha, 39, 7 ; 41, 5 
 Apollinaris. 52, 1 
 
 Claudius, 41, 1 
 
 Apollonius of Tyana, 
 
 32, 1 
 Apollos, 19 
 Apologetics, 24; 41, 1; 
 
 48, 3 
 Apostles, Meeting of, 
 
 19, 1 
 Apostolic Brethren, 108, 3 
 Constitutions and 
 
 Canons, 41, 6 
 
 Apostolic Fathers, 39 
 Apostolici, 62 
 Apostolicity, 13 
 Apsis, 60, 1 
 Aquarii, 28, 8 
 Arausio, Council of, 53,5 
 Arcadifts, Emperor, 42, 
 
 3; 51, 3 
 Arcesilaus, 8, 4 
 Archbishops, see Metro- 
 politans. 
 Archchaplain, 84, 1 
 
 Deacon, 45, 5 ; 84, 
 
 2; 87, 9 
 
 Presbyter, 45, 5 
 
 Architecture, Ecclesias- 
 tical, 105, 6; 113, 6 
 Arevurdi's, 71, 2 
 Ariald, 97, 2 
 Ariaus 50 ; 76 
 Ariold, 97, 2 
 Aristides, 41, 1 
 Aristobulus, 11, 1 
 Ariston of Pella, 41, 1 
 Aristotle, 8, 4; 100. 2 
 Arius, 50, 1, 2 
 Armenia, 64, 3 ; 73, 2 
 Arno of Salzb., 79 
 Arnobius, 41, 1 
 
 the Younger, 83, 5 
 
 Arnold, Gottfr., 4, 3 
 
 of Brescia, 96, 6 ; 
 
 108, 3 
 
 of Citeaux, 109, 1 
 
 of Lübeck, 104, 5 
 
 Arnulf of Carinthia, 82,5 
 
 of Rheims, 96, 1 
 
 Arsacius, 51 
 Arsenius, 70, 1 ; 82, 4 
 Artabasdus, 66, 2 
 Artemon, 32, 2 
 Ascension, 56, 4 
 Asceticism, 36, 3 
 Ash Wednesday, 56, 4 
 Associations for the 
 
 Dead, 8.9, 3 
 Asterius, 50, 6 
 
 of Amasa, 57, 4 
 
 iVstronomus, 90, 9 
 Asylum, Right of, 43 
 Athanaric, 76 
 Athaiiasian Creed, 50, 6 
 Athanasius, 44 ; 47, 4 ; 
 
 50; 52, 2 
 Atlienagoras, 41, 1 
 Athenogenes, 41, 4 
 
 Athos, Monks of, 69, "• , 
 
 70, 3 
 Atrium, 60, 1 
 Atto of Vercelli, 101, 1 
 Audians, 62 
 Audientes, 32, 1 
 Augustine, 45, 1 ; 47, 
 
 5 ; 53, 2, 4, 5 ; 54, 1. 
 
 58, 3 ; 63, 2 
 the Missionary, 77, 
 
 4 
 Augustines, 98, 4;112, S 
 Aurelian, Emp., 23, 5; 
 
 40, 7 
 
 of Carth., 63, 2 
 
 Auto da {6, 115, 1 
 Auxentius, 76, 1 
 Avari, 79 
 Averrhoes, 100, 2 
 Avicenna, 100, 2 
 Avitus, 48, 9; 53, 6; 
 
 76, 5 
 Azymites, 67, 3 
 
 Baanes, 71, 1 
 
 Bacon, Roger, 104, 3 
 
 Baffomet, 112, 2 
 
 Baldwin of Jerusalem, 
 94, 1 ; 98, 6 
 
 of Flanders, 94, 4 
 
 Bangor, 85, 4 
 
 Baptism, doctrine of, 
 32, 3 
 
 of Blood, 32, 3 
 
 of Heretics, 32, 2 
 
 of Infants, see In- 
 fant Baptism. 
 
 Godfathers, 32 ; 
 
 56, 4 
 
 Mode of, 32; 58, 1 
 
 Baptismal Font, 60, 1; 
 89, 5 
 
 Baptismus Clinic, 32 
 
 Baptisterium, 60, 2 
 
 Baradai, 52, 7 
 
 Bar-Cochba, 21 
 
 Bardesanes, 32, 9 
 
 Barhebrteus, 73, 2 
 
 Barlaam, 67, 5: 69, 1 
 
 Barletta, 113, 2 
 
 Barnabas, 15 ; 41, 1 
 
 Baronius, 4, 2 
 
 Barsumas, 52, 3 
 
 Biirtholomen of Lucca, 
 4, 1 
 
 Bartholomew of Pisa, 98,4
 
 INDEX. 
 
 521 
 
 Bartolomeo, Fra, 113, 4 
 Basilica, GO, 1 
 Basilides, the Gnost., 
 
 28, 2 
 
 the Martyr, 23, 4 
 
 Basiliscus, 52, 5 
 Basilius the Great, 44, 
 
 3; 47, 4 
 , Leader of the Bo- 
 
 gomiles, 71, 3 
 
 of Anc.yra, 50, 3 
 
 the Macedonian, 57, 
 
 1; 68, ]; 71, 1; 72, 1 
 Basle, Council of. 110, 3 
 
 Reform, in, 120, 3, 8 
 
 Bas-relief, 60, 3 
 Baumgarten, 76, 2 
 Bavaria, 78, 2 
 Beatus, Presb., 91, 2 
 Beccus, 67, 4 
 Bede, the Venerable, 
 
 90, 2 
 Beghards and Beguins, 
 
 99, 5 
 Behram V., 64, 2 
 Bellini, 113, 4 
 Bells, 60, 3 
 
 Baptism of, 89, 5 
 
 ßniia, 60, 1 
 Bembus, 120, 1 
 Benedict VIII., 96, 2 
 
 IX. 96, 2 
 
 X. 96, 3 
 
 XII. 67, 5; 110, 2; 
 
 112, 1 
 
 of Aniane, 85, 2 
 
 Levita, 87, 1 
 
 of Nursia, 85, 1 
 
 Benedictina, 112, 1 
 Benedictines, 85; 98, 1 ; 
 
 112, 1 
 Benefices, 86, 1 
 Benno of Meissen, 93, 3 
 Berengar, 102, 1, 2 
 
 II. 96, 1 
 
 Bernard of Clairv., 94,2; 
 
 96, 6 ; 98, 2 ; 105, 2, 
 
 4; 108, 1, 3; 109 
 Bernardines, 98, 2 
 Berno, Abbot, 98, 1 
 Bertha, 77, 4 
 Berthold of Calabria, 
 
 98, 3 
 
 of Loccum, 93, 4 
 
 of Regensb., 105 
 
 Bertrada, 96, 3 
 
 44* 
 
 Bertrand de Got, 110, 2 
 Beryll us, 40, 5 
 Bessarion, 67, 6; 68, 2 ; 
 
 120, 1 
 Biaiichi, 114, 1 
 Bible, Transl. of, 32, 3 
 Biel, Gabr., 116 
 Bishops, "18, 2; 30, 1 
 
 , Transl. of, 45 
 
 Bjürn, 80, 1 
 Blaudina, 23, 3 
 Boabdil, 95 
 Bobbio, 78, 1 ; 85, 4. 
 Boccaccio, 114, 4 
 Boethius, 47, 6 
 Bogomiles, 71, 1 
 Bogoris, 72, 3 
 Bohemia, 79, 2 ; 93, 2. 
 Bohemian Brethren, 
 
 119, 5 
 Boleslav, I., III., of Po- 
 land, 93, 2 
 1, II. of Bohemia, 
 
 93, 2 
 
 Chrobry,93,2;96, 1 
 
 Bomberg, 120, 5 
 Bonaventura, 104, 1 : 
 
 105, 4 
 Boniface, St., 78, 4 
 
 VIII., 99; 110, 1 
 
 Boni homines, 108, 1 
 
 Bonosus, 62 
 
 Borgia, Ctesar, 114, 4 
 
 Boruth, 79 
 
 Borzivoi, 79, 2 
 
 Bossuet, 7 
 
 Bradacz, Mich, v., 119, 5 
 
 Bradwardine, Th., of, 
 
 116, 2 
 Braga, Synod of, 76, 4 
 Brandt, Seb. 114, 4 
 Brest, Synod of, 72, 4 
 Brethren, " the four 
 
 long," 51, 3 
 
 Bohemian, 119, 5 
 
 of the Common Life, 
 
 112, 6 
 of the Free Spirit, 
 
 114, 3 
 BretwaMa, 77, 4 
 Bridget, St., 112, 2, 4 
 Britons, 77 
 Bruinalia, 56, 5 
 Brunehilda, 78, 1 
 Bruno the Missionary, 
 
 93, 3 
 
 Bruno of Cologne, 101 
 
 of Rheinis, 98, 3 
 
 of Toul, 96, 2 
 
 Bulgaria, 67, 1 ; 72, 8 
 
 Bulgari, 108, 1 
 
 Bull, In Coena Domini, 
 
 115 
 Burchard of Worms, 99 
 Burgundians, 76, 5 
 Busch, Herrn, of, 120, 2 
 Bythos, 28, 3 
 
 Cabasilas, see Nicholas 
 Cadalus of Parma, 96, 3 
 Csecilianus, 63, 2 
 Caedmon, 88, 2 
 Ctesarius of Arel., 47, 4 ; 
 
 58, 5 
 Cainites, 28, 4 
 Cajus, 37, 2; 60, 8 
 Calaud, 106, 1 
 Calatrava, Order of, 
 
 98, 6 
 Calixt, George, 4, 3 
 Calixtus L, 60, 1 ; 40, 4 
 
 IL, 96, 5 
 
 III.', 110, 4 
 
 Callinice, 71, 1 
 Camaldulensians, 98, 1 
 Canon of the Mass, 59, 4 
 
 in music, 113, 5 
 
 Canons of Synods, 43, 2 
 Canonesses, 85, 3 
 Canonical Life, 84, 4 ; 97 
 Canonici, 84, 4 ; 97 
 Cantores, 30, 1 
 Cantus Ambros., 59, 3 
 
 Firmus, 59, 3 
 
 Figuratus, 105, 5 
 
 Canute the Gr., 123, 1 
 Capitula Episcop., 87, 1 
 Capitula, three, contro- 
 versy about. 52, 6 
 Capitularies, 87, 1 
 Cai'antani, 79 
 Carbeas, 71, 1 
 Cardianls, 96 
 Carmelites, 98, 3 
 Carnival, 56, 4; 106, 1 
 Carpocrates, 34, 5 
 Carthusians, 98, 3; 1!2 
 Casimir of Pol. 93, 2 
 Cassianus, 44 ; 53, 5 
 Cassiodorus, 4; 47, 6 
 Catacombs, 61, 3 
 Catechists, 30, 1
 
 522 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Catechetical Seh »1, 39,4 
 
 Catechumens, 32, 1 
 
 Catenae, 48, 1 
 
 Cathari, 38, 2; 108, 1 
 
 Catharine, St., 122, 2 
 
 Cathedral Chapters, 84, 
 4; 97: 111 
 
 Catholicity, 13; 30, 3 
 
 Catholicos, 52, 7 
 
 Ceitumar, 79 
 
 Celibacy, 36, 3; 45, 4; 
 84, 3; 96, 2; 111 
 
 Celsus, 24, 4 
 
 Cencius, 96, 2 
 
 Centuria. Magdb., 4, 2 
 
 Cerdo, 28, 10 
 
 CerJuthus, 1 8 ; 28, 1 
 
 Cesarini, 110, 3 
 
 ChalcedoH, (Ec. Counc. 
 of, 46 ; 52, 4 [2 
 
 Chaldean Christians, 52, 
 
 Chapels, 84, 3 
 
 Chapter, Chapter-house, 
 84, 4 
 
 Charismata, 18, 1 
 
 Charlemagne, 81, 1; 92, 
 1; 97 
 
 Charles Martel, 81 : 82, 1 
 
 of Anjou, 96, 8 
 
 the Bald, 82, 2, 4, 
 
 5; 90 
 
 Chazars, 72, 2 
 
 Chelbes, 28, 4 
 
 Chiersy, Synod of, 91, 4 
 
 Children ofthe Sun, 71, 2 
 
 Chilperic II., 76, 5 
 
 China, 93, 5 
 
 Chinghis-Khan, 73, 1 
 
 Chorepiscopoi, 30 ; 45 
 
 Chosroes II., 64, 2 
 
 Chrisma, 32 
 
 Christians, persecutions 
 of, 21 ; 23 
 
 :]hristianitates, 84, 2 
 
 Christmas, 53 ; 86, 5 
 
 Christ, controversies 
 concerning the Per- 
 son of, 52 
 
 Chrodegang, 84, 4 
 
 Chrysam, 45, 3 
 
 Chrysoloras, 120, 1 
 
 Chrysostom, 47, 1; 51, 
 3 ; 53, 1 
 
 Church. See also Eccle- 
 siastical. [5 
 
 Consecration of,59, 
 
 Church, Nave of, 60, 1 
 
 Peace of, 88, 4 
 
 States of, 82, 1 
 
 Churches, 35 
 Ciborium, 60, 3 
 Cid, 95 
 
 Cimabue, 105, 7 
 Circumcelliones, 63, 2 
 Cistercians, 98, 2 
 Clara, of Assissi, 98, 4 
 
 Order of, 128, 4 
 
 Clarendon, Assembly at, 
 
 96, 4 
 Claudius, Emp., 23, 1 
 
 of Turin, 92, 2 
 
 Clemanges, 110, 3;118,1 
 Clement II., 96, 2, 3 
 
 III., 96, 4 
 
 V.,. 99; 110, 2; 
 
 112, 2 
 VI.. 110, 2; 114, 
 
 1; 115 
 
 VII., 110, 3 
 
 the Heretic, 78, 4 
 
 of Alexandria, 39, 4 
 
 of Rome, 39, 1 
 
 Clementines, 27, 4 
 
 (jus can.), 99 
 
 Clergy, 30 
 
 Choice of, 45 
 
 Clerical Dress, 45, 3 
 Clerici vagi, 84, 2 
 Clericis laicos, 110, 1 
 Clermont, Synod of, 94 
 Clinici, 30, 1 ; 45, 2 
 Cloveshoo, Svnod of,88,5 
 Clugny, Monks of, 98, 1 
 Ccemeteria, 35 
 Coelestine of Rome, 52, 
 
 3 ; 53, 4 
 
 III., 96, 6 
 
 IV., 96, 8 
 
 Coelestines, 112, 4 
 Coelestius, 53, 4 
 Coelicoli», 37, 2 
 Coena Domini, bull, 115 
 Coifi, 77, 4 
 
 Cola di Rienzi, 110, 2 
 Colidei, 77, 1 
 Collatio cum Donat, 63, 2 
 Colleges of Canons, 84, 4 
 Collyridians, 57, 2 
 Colman, 77, 6 
 Colombino, 112, 4 
 Colonna, 110, 1, 3 
 Colet, 120, 4 
 
 Columba, 77, 3 
 Columbanus, 78, 1 
 Comes Hieron., 59 
 Commendae, 110 
 Commodian, 41, 1 
 Commodus, 23, 3 
 Communic. idiom., 87, 7 
 Communion of Children, 
 
 33 ; 58, 4 
 Competentes, 32, 1 
 Compiegne, Synod of. 
 
 82, 2 
 Compurgators, 88, 4 
 Concha, 60 
 Conclave, 96, 6 
 Concubitus (Edipod., 23 
 Confession, 33; 61, 1; 
 
 88, 5 
 Confessors, 23, 5; 36,2,4 
 Confirmation, 32 
 Conrad of Hochsteden, 
 
 105, 6 
 
 of Marburg:, 1 09, 2 
 
 I., II., 96,^1, 2 
 
 III., 94, 2 
 
 Conradin, 96, 6 
 Consolamentum, 108, 1 
 Constance, 96, 5 
 
 Council of, 110, 3 
 
 Constantia, 50, 2 
 Constantine the Great, 
 
 23, 7; 42, 1; 50, 1; 
 
 63,2 
 Constantinus Chrysoma- 
 
 lus, 70, 4 
 
 Copronymus, 66, 2 
 
 of Mananalis, 71, 2 
 
 Monomachus, 67, 3 
 
 Pogonatus, 52, 8 
 
 Porphyrogenneta, 
 
 68, 1 
 the Philosopher, 
 
 72 2 
 Constantinople, (Ecum 
 Council of, II., 46 
 
 50, 4, 5 ; 52, 1 
 
 v., 52, 6 
 
 VI., 52, 8 
 
 VII., 66, 2, 3 
 
 VIII., 67, 1 
 
 Constantius. 42, 1 ; 50, 2 
 
 Chlorus, 23. 6 
 
 Constitutio Romana, 82, 3 
 Continentes, 36, 3 
 Convenensa, 108, 1 
 Conventiclers, 108, 5
 
 INDEX. 
 
 523 
 
 Conventuales, 112, 1 
 Couversi, 98 
 Copts, 52, 7; 73, 2 
 Corbiuian, 78, 2 
 Cornelius of Rome, 30, 2 
 Corporale, 60, 2 
 Corpus Christi day, 105,2 
 Corpus jur. can., 99 
 Coneggio, 113, 4 
 Cosmas ludicoplastes, 
 
 48, 2 
 
 Patriarch, 70, 4 
 
 the Usurper, 6G, 1 
 
 Cossa, 110, 3 
 Councils, 30, 2 
 
 General, 43, 2 
 
 Courland, 93, 4 
 Court chapels, 84, 1 
 Cranz, H., 113, 3 
 Creatianism, 53, 1 
 Crescentius, 96, 1 
 Crimthan, 77, 3 
 Cross, discovery of, 57, 5 
 
 elevation of, 57, 5 
 
 experiment of, 88, 4 
 
 particles of, 57, 5 
 
 sign of, 36, 1 
 
 Crotus Rubianus, 120, 2 
 Crucifix, 60, 3 
 Crusades, 94 
 Crypts, 60, 1 
 Culdees, 77, 1 
 Cupola, 60, 1 
 Curates, 84, 2 
 Cursores, 60, 3 
 Cusa, Nich. of, 110, 3; 
 
 118, 2 
 Cyprian of Carthage, 23, 
 
 5 ; 30, 3 ; 32, 2 ; 36 ; 
 
 38, 2; 39, 5 
 Cyril of Alexandria, 45, 
 
 9 ; 52. 2, 3 
 
 of Jerusalem, 48, 5 
 
 and Methodius, 72, 
 
 2, 8 
 Cyrus of Alexandria,52,8 
 Dagobert I., 78, 1 
 Damasus, 63, 1 
 Dambrovka, 93, 2 
 Damiani, see Petrus. 
 Dandalo, 94, 4 
 Dante, 144, 4 
 David of Dinanto, 108, 2 
 Deacons, 18, 3; 80, 1 
 
 ■ Subdeacons, 51, 1 
 
 Decani, Deans, 84, 2 
 
 Decalogue, 113, 3 
 Decius, Emp., 28, 5 
 Decretals, 43, 3 ; 46, 2 
 Decretists, 99 
 Decretum Gratiani, 99 
 
 Gregorii, 99 
 
 Defensores, 45, 5 
 Defiuitiones, 43, 2 
 Demetrius of Alex- 
 andria, 31, 4 
 Demiurgos, 26, 1 
 Dendrites, 70, 3 
 Denmark, 80 ; 93, 1 
 Desiderius, 82, 1 
 Desk, 85 ; 60, 2 
 Dhu-Nowas, 64, 4 
 Didenhofen, Synod of, 
 
 82, 2 
 Didymus of Alexandria, 
 
 45, 6 
 Dies stationum, 32 
 Dinanto, see David. 
 Diodorus, monk, 34, 5 
 of Tarsus, 47, 1 ; 
 
 48, 1 
 Diognetus. 39, 1 
 Donysius of Alexandria, 
 
 39, 4 ; 40, 6, 8 
 the Areopag., 47, 6 ; 
 
 48, 5 ; 90, 1 
 Exiguus, 43, 3 ; 48, 
 
 2 ; 56, 3 
 
 of Paris, 25 
 
 of Rome, 40, 6 
 
 Dioscurus, 52, 4 
 Diptychs, 59, 4 
 Disciplina arcani, 33, 2 
 Discipline, Eccles., 36, 
 
 2; 61, 1 ; 88, 5 
 
 ■ stages of, 36, 2 
 
 Discussion at Aix la 
 
 Chapelle, 91, 1 
 Docetism, 19; 26, 1 
 Doctor audientium, 30, 1 
 
 angelicus, 104, 1 
 
 ecstaticus, 117, 2 
 
 Doctor invincibilis, 116,1 
 
 irrefragabilis, 104,1 
 
 mirabilis, 104, 8 
 
 resolutissimus, 1 1 6, 1 
 
 seraphicus, 104, 1 
 
 subtilis, 104, 1 
 
 Dolcino, 108, 3 
 Döllinger, 4, 4 
 Dominicans, 98,4; 109, 
 
 2; 112, 1 
 
 Domitian, the Abbot, 
 
 52, 6 
 
 Emp., 24 
 
 Donation of Constantinei 
 
 82, 1 
 Donatists, 68, 2 
 Dorotheas, 89, 6 
 Dositheus, 22, 1 
 Double Monasteries, 85,3 
 Drahomira, 98, 2 
 Druids, 77, 2 
 Druthmar, Christian, 90 
 
 4,6:91,3 
 Drys, Synod of, 51, 3 
 Dualism, 26, 1 
 Dubrawka, 93, 2 
 Dufay. 113, 8 
 Dungal, 92, 2 
 Dunstan, 97 ; 101 
 Durandus, 116, 1 
 Dürer, A., 113, 4 
 
 Eadbald, 77, 4 
 
 Eanfled, 77, 6 
 
 Easter, Festival of, 32 
 
 calculation of, 56, 3 
 
 observance, dis- 
 putes about, 86, 1 
 
 plays, 106,2; ll4,4 
 
 risus paschalis, 
 
 106, 1 
 
 East Indies, 64, 4 
 
 Ebbo of Mayence, 80 
 
 Ebed-Jesu, 73, 1 
 
 Ebionites, 88, 2 
 
 Ecbert of Shönau, 108, 4 
 
 Eccart, Master, 117, 1 
 
 Ecclesiastical architec- 
 ture, see Architec. 
 
 Discipline, 36 ; 91 
 
 Functionaries, 45,5 
 
 Law, 41, 3; 43, 3; 
 
 99 
 
 Revenues, 45 
 
 Year, 56, 7 
 
 Ecetes, 70, 8 
 
 Ecthesis, 52, 8 
 
 Edgemiadzin, 73, 2 
 
 Edwin, 77. 4 
 
 Einhard, 89, 6 
 
 BiV')»'';, 36, 2 
 
 Electors, princes, W7, 1 
 
 Eleesban, 64, 4 
 
 Eligius, 78, 8 
 
 Elijah of Cortona, 98, 4 
 
 Elipandus, 91, 1
 
 624 
 
 INDEX, 
 
 Elizabeth, St., 109, 2; 
 
 112, 3 
 
 Order of, 112, 3 
 
 of Shonau, 108, 4 
 
 Elkesaites, 33, 3 
 Elvira, Synod of, 60, 3 
 Elxai, 27, 3 
 Emanation, 26, 1 
 Emma, 93, 1 
 Emmelia, 47, 4 
 Empire, Prankish, 82, 2 
 
 Latin, 67, 4 ; 94, 4 
 
 Encratites, 28, 8 
 Encyclical Letter of Pho- 
 
 tius. 67, 1 
 Encyclion, 52, 5 
 Endemic Synods, 43, 2 
 Endura, 108, 1 
 Enfans Sanssouci, 114, 2 
 Engelhardt, 4, 4 
 Ennodius, 46, 2 
 Enthusiasts, 71, 3 
 Eon, 108, 4 
 
 Epaon, Council of, 76, 5 
 Ephesus, Council of, 52, 
 
 3 ; 53, 4 
 Ephraem, 47, 2 ; 59, 2 
 Epicurus, 8, 4 
 Epiphanes, 28, 5 
 Epiphanias, 32 ; 56, 5 
 Epiphanius, 47, 4 ; 51, 2, 
 
 3 ; 57, 4 
 Episcopi in partibus, 97 
 
 regionarii, 84 
 
 Epistolse canonicse, 38, 3 
 
 decretals, 46, 2 
 
 formatae, 30 
 
 obscur. vir., 120, 2 
 
 Epulse Thyest., 23 
 Erasmus, 119, 5; 120, 
 
 3, 5 
 Eric II., 80, 1 
 
 St., 93, 1, 3 
 
 the red, 93, 1 
 
 Erigena, J. Sc, 90, 5, 
 
 7; 91, 4; 108, 2 
 Ertenki Mani, 29, 1 [6 
 Erwin of Steinbach, 105, 
 Esnig, 64. 3 
 Essenes, 9, 2 
 Estates of the Empire, 
 
 114, 1 
 Esthonia, 93, 4 
 Etholberga. 77, 4 
 Ethelbert. 77, 4 
 Ethelwold, 101, 1 
 
 Etherius of Osma, 91, 1 
 Ethiopia, 64, 1 
 Eucharist. 18, 5; 33, 1 
 doctrine of, 33, 3 ; 
 
 58, 2; 91, 3 
 elements of, 33 ; 
 
 58, 4 
 Eucherius, 48, 1 
 Euchetes, Christian, 44, 
 
 5; 71, 3 
 
 Heathen, 42, 2 
 
 Eudo da Stella, 108,^4 
 Eudocia, 48, 8; 52, 4, 5 
 Eudoxia, 51, 3 
 Eugenicus of Ephesus, 
 
 67, 6 
 Eugenius II., 82, 3 
 
 IIL, 96, 4 
 
 IV., 67, 6; 110, 3 
 
 Eulogia, 58, 4 [4 
 
 Eulogius of Caesarsa, 53, 
 
 of Cordova, 81, 1 
 
 Eunapius, 42, 4 
 Eunomius, 50, 3 
 Euphemitc'!, 42, 5 
 Euphrates, 28, 4 
 Euric, 76, 2 
 Eusebiaus, 50, 2 
 Eusebius of Caesarea, 6 : 
 
 47, 3 ; 48, 2 
 
 of Emisa, 48, 1 
 
 of Nicomed., 50, 1 
 
 of Vercelli, 50, 2 
 
 Eustasius of Luxeuil, 
 
 78, 2 
 Eustathians, 44, 5 
 Eustathius of Ant., 48, 1 
 
 of Sebaste, 44, 5 
 
 of Thessalonica, 68, 
 
 5 : 70, 4 
 Eustochium, 44, 2 
 Euthalius, 59, 1 
 Euthymius Zigabenus, 
 
 68 
 Eutyches, 52, 4 
 Evagrius, 4, 1 
 Evangelists, 18, 3 
 Evangelium seteruum, 
 
 108, 4 
 Ewald, the White and 
 
 the Black, 78, 5 
 Exarchate, 76, 7 
 Exarchs, 41, 1 
 Excommunication 32, 2 
 
 'E^OjioXöyriaii, 36, 2 
 
 Exorcism, 32 
 
 Exorcists, 30, 1 
 Expectantiae, 110 
 Extraneae, 36, 3 
 Extravagantes, 99 
 Experiment, see Oideal 
 Exucontians, 50, 3 
 Eyck, 113, 4 
 
 Fabeb Stapulensis, 120 
 4, 5 
 
 Facundus of Hermiane 
 
 52, 6 
 Faustus of Mileve, 54, 1 
 
 of Rhegium, 53, 5 
 
 Feast of the Ass, 106, 1 
 
 of Fools, 106, 1 
 
 of Peter and Paul, 
 
 57, 1 
 Felicissimus, 38, 2 
 Felicitas, 20 
 Felix IL, 52, 5 
 
 v., 110, 3 
 
 of Aphthunga, 63, 2 
 
 Pratensis, 120, 5 
 
 of Urgellis, 91, 1 
 
 Ferdinand of Castile, I., 
 
 III., 95, 2 
 Ferrara, Council of, 67, 
 
 6; 110, 3 
 Ferula, 60, 1 
 Festa Cathedrae Petri, 
 
 57, 1 
 Feudalism, 86, 1 
 Feyin, Synod of, 64, 3 
 Filioque, 50, 6; 67, 1; 
 
 91, 2 
 Finland, 93, 4 
 Firmicus Maternus, 42 ; 
 
 48, 3 
 Firmilian, 32, 2 
 Flacius, 4, 2 
 Flagellants, 114, 1 
 Flavian, monk, 34, 4 
 
 Patr. of Const., 52,4 
 
 of Ant., 44, 5 
 
 Fleury, 4, 2 
 
 Flodoard of Rheims, 101 
 
 Florence, Council of, 67, 
 
 6; 72, 4; 110, 3 
 Florus Magister, 90, 5; 
 
 91, 4 
 Fontevraux, Order of, 
 
 98, 3 
 Formosus, 82, 5 
 Fortunatus, 42, 5 ; 48, 8 
 Franciscans, 98,4; 112,2
 
 INDEX, 
 
 52ö 
 
 Francis, St., 93, 5; 98, 
 
 4; 105, 4 
 
 . de Paula, 112, 3 
 
 Frankfort, Synod of, 91, 
 
 1 ; 92, 1 [5 
 
 Franco of Cologne, 105, 
 Franks, 76, 9 [4 
 
 Fratres de Commun., 98, 
 
 intelligentins, 114,3 
 
 minores, 98, 4 
 
 pn^dicat, 98, 4 
 
 Fratricelli, 98,4; 108, 4 
 Fredegis, 90. 4 
 Frederic I. Barb., 94, 3: 
 
 96, 4 
 II., Emp., 94, 5; 
 
 96, 5, 6; 97, 1; 108,1 
 Frisia, 78, 3 
 Frithigern. 76, 1 
 Fritzlar, 78, 4 
 Frobenius, 120, 3 
 Frumentius, 64, 1 
 Fugue, 113. 3 [1 
 Fulbertof Chartres, 101, 
 Fulco, 93, 3 
 Fulda, 78, 4 
 Fulgentius Ferr., 77, 3 
 of Ruspe, 47, 6 
 
 GAiLERof Kaisersb., 113 
 Galerius, 23, 3 
 Gallienus, 23, 5 
 Gallus, St., 78, 1 
 
 Emp., 23, 5 
 
 Gangra Synod of, 44, 5 ; 
 
 45, 4 
 Gaunilo, 102, 3 
 Gazari, 108, 1 
 Gebhard of Eichstedt, 
 
 96, 2 
 
 of Salzburg, 97, 1 
 
 Gegnesius, 71, 1 
 Geiler, 113, 2; 114, 4 
 Geismar, 78, 4 
 Gelasius I., 59, 4 
 Gelimer, 76, 3 
 re>'iiha, 36, 4 
 Genera tianism, 53, 1 
 Gennadias, 48, 2 
 
 Patr., 68, 5 
 
 Gentile Christians, 19 
 Gentilly, Synod of, 91, 
 
 2; 92, 1 
 Genuflectentes, 32, 1 
 Seorge Acindynos, 69, 1 
 
 - of Trebizond, 68, 2 
 
 Gerbert, 96, 1 ; 101, 1 
 Gerhard Segarelli, 108,. 
 
 of Zutphen, 112, 5 
 
 Germanu.s, Patr., 66, 1 
 Geroch of Reichersb., 97 
 Gerson, 110, 3; 118, 1 
 Gewilibnf Mayence,78, 4 
 Goysa, 93, 2 
 G frörer, 4, 4 
 Ghazali, 100, 2 
 Ghiberti, 113, 6 [4 
 
 Giacomo da Verona,105, 
 Giacoponi da Todi, 105, 4 
 Gieseler, 4, 4 
 Gilbert, Porret, 103, 1 
 Gildas, 90, 9 
 Giotto, 113. 4 
 Giunta of Pisa, 105, 7 
 Gnosticism, 19; 26, 1; 
 
 28 
 Goar, 78, 3 
 Goch, 119, 1 
 God, truce of, 106, 1 
 
 Friends of, 114, 2 
 
 judgment of, 88, 4 
 
 Godfrey of Bouillon, 94,1 
 
 the Bearded. 96, 2 
 
 of Lucina, 93, 3 
 
 of Strasburg, 106,3 
 
 yoi/i)(cAii'Oi'7-£{, 32, 1 
 Gonzalo of Berceo, 106, 3 
 Gordianus, 23, 4 
 Gorm, the Old, 93, 1 
 Goths, 76 
 Gottschalk, 91, 4, 
 Prince of theWends, 
 
 93, 3 
 Grobow, 112, 5 
 
 ypiilifjara r£riiTrai^£i'a, 30 
 
 Grammont,()rderof,98,3 
 Gratian, canonist, 99 
 
 Emp., 42, 3 
 
 Greenland, 93, 1 
 Gregentius, 48, 3 
 Gregory I., 42, 1 ; 47, 1 : 
 
 57, 4; 58, 3; 59, 3; 
 
 76, 8; 77, 4 
 
 II., 66. 1 
 
 III., 66, 1; 78, 4; 
 
 82, 1 
 
 IV., 82, 2 
 
 v., 86, 1 
 
 VII., 84; 86, 2 
 
 IX., 86, 6; 89 
 
 X., 67, 4 
 
 XI., 110, 2 
 
 G.egory XII., 110, 3 
 
 Abalfaragus, 73, 2 
 
 Illuminator, 64, 3 
 
 Palamas, 69, 1 
 
 Scholaris, 68, 5 
 
 Thaumaturgus, 39, 
 
 4; 41, 2 
 
 of Nazianzus, 47, 4 
 
 of Nyssa, 47, 5 
 
 of Tours, 4, 1;90, 2 
 
 of Utrecht. 78, 3 
 
 Grimoald, 76, 8 
 Groot, Gerhard, 112, 5 
 Grossteste, 104, 3 
 Grundtvig, 75, 9 
 Gaulbertus. J., 98, 1 
 Guardian, 98, 4 
 Guericke, 4, 4 
 Guido of Arezzo, 105, 5 
 
 of Sienna, 105, 7 
 
 Gundioch, 76, 5 
 Gundobald, 76, 5 
 Gunthamund, 76, 3 
 Günther of Cologne, 82,4 
 Gyrovagi, 44, 5 
 
 Haco the Good, 83, 1 
 Hadrian, Emp., 21 ; 23,2 
 1., 66, 3; 82, 1; 
 
 92, 1 
 II., 67, 1; 82, 4; 
 
 83, 1 
 
 IV., 90, 4 
 
 Hadrumetuni, 53, 6 
 Hagenbach, 4, 4 
 Hakim, Caliph, 94 
 Hamburg, See of, 70, 1 
 Harmotiiiis, 30, 9 
 Harold, 80 
 
 Blaatand, 93, 1 
 
 Hase, 4, 4 
 
 Haymo of Halberst, 90, 
 
 5, 9 
 Heathenism, 8 
 Heddo of Strasb., 84, 2 
 Hedwig, 93, 2 
 Hegesippus, 4, 1 
 Hegira, 65 
 He<riu.s, Al., 120, 2 
 Heimbnrg, Gr.,of, 118,2 
 Helena, the Tyrian, 22, 2 
 
 the Empress, 57, 5,6 
 
 Heliand, 88. 2 
 Heliogabalus, 23, 4 
 Hellenists, 11 
 Heloise, 103, 1
 
 526 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Helvidius, 62 
 Hemerobaptists, 22 
 Hemming of Upsala,93, 4 
 Kenoticon, 52, 2 
 Henry II., Emp., 97, 1 
 
 Ill-, 96, 1 
 
 IV., 96, 2 
 
 v., 96, 3 
 
 VI., 96, 4 
 
 ■ II., of England, 96,4 
 
 ■ Beauclerc, 96, 3 
 
 de Hassia, 118, 2 
 
 of Laufenberg, 113,2 
 
 of Lausanne, 108, 3 
 
 Heraclion, 28, 3 
 Heraclius, 52, 8 ; 57, 5 ; 
 
 64, 2 
 Herigar, 80, 1 
 Hermann of Fritzlar, 
 
 117, 1 
 
 the Lame, 102, 1 
 
 Hermas, 39, 1 
 Hermeneutae, 30, 1 
 Hermias, 41, 1 
 Hermogenes, 37, 11 
 Herveus, 103. 3 
 
 . Natalis, 116, 1 
 
 Hesychasts, 69, 1 
 Hetteri«, 23, 2 
 Hierocles, 24, 4 
 Hilarion, 44 
 Hilarius of Arelate, 46, 2 
 
 of Poictiers, 47, 5 
 
 Hildebrand, 96, 2: 102,2 
 Hildegard, 97; 108, 4; 
 
 109 
 Hilderic, 76, 3 
 Himerius, 42 
 Hincmar of Laon, 83, 1 
 , of Rheinis, 82, 4 ; 
 
 83, 1 ; 91, 4 
 Hippolytus, 38, 1 ; 39, 
 
 3 ; 40, 4 
 Hogstraten, 120, 2 
 Hohenstaufen, 96, 4, 5, 6 
 Holbein, 113, 4 
 Holland, see Nether- 
 lands. 
 Homilies, 34 
 Homoiites, 50, 3 
 llomologoumena, 34, 2 
 Homoiuosians, 50, 2 
 Humoousians, 40,1 ; 50,1 
 Honora;;us, 44 
 Honorius, Emp., 42, 3 ; 
 
 53, 4 
 
 Honorius of Rome, 52, 8 
 HorsB, 56, 2 
 Horic, 80, 1 
 
 Hormisdasof Rome, 52,6 
 Hormuz, King, 29 
 Hornbach, 78, 1 
 -Opot, 43, 2 
 Hosius, 50, 1, 2, 3 
 Hospitallers, 98, 6 
 Hottinger, 4, 2 
 Hucbald, 105, 5 
 Hugo Capet, 96, 1 
 
 a St. Caro, 104, 3 
 
 a St. Victore, 103, 2 
 
 Hugo de Payens, 98, 6 
 Humanists, 120 
 Humbert, 67, 3 ; 102, 2 
 Humiliati, 98, 3 
 Huneric, 76, 3 
 Hungary, 93, 2 
 Hus, 113,2; 119; 3 
 Husig, 64, 3 
 Hütten, Ulric of, 120, 2 
 Hy, see lona. 
 Hyle, Hylic, 26, 1 
 Hymnology, 18, 5; 34, 
 
 4;59, 2, 3;89,2; 105, 
 
 3; 113, 2, 3 
 Hypatia, 42, 3 
 Hypophonous singmg, 
 
 59, 3 
 
 vnÖJTTO>aii, 36, 2 
 
 Hypostasianism, 40, 1 
 Hypsistarians, 42, 5 
 
 IBAS, 52, 3 
 Iberians, 64, 4 
 Idacius, 54, 2 
 Ignatius of Ant., 23, 2; 
 
 30; 39, 1 
 
 Patr. of Const., 67,1 
 
 Images, worship of, 57, 
 
 4; 89, 4; 92 
 controversy about 
 
 (iconoclastic), 66 ; 92,1 
 Immacul.Conceptio, 105, 
 
 2; 112, 4 
 Immunity, 84, 1 
 Incense, burning of, 59,5 
 Indulgences, 92, 1 ; 107 ; 
 
 115 
 Infant Baptism, 18, 5; 
 
 32 ; 58, 1 
 Innocent I., 46, 2; 53, 
 
 4; 61, 2, 3 
 II.. 96, 4 
 
 Innocent III ,96,5; 108 
 
 5; 109, 1 
 
 IV., 96, 6 [2 
 
 VIII., 110, 4; 115, 
 
 Innocentum festum, 57, 
 
 1 ; 106, 1 [1 
 
 Inquisition, 109, 2; 115, 
 Inspiration, 34, 1 
 Insula Sanctorum, 77, 2 
 Intercession, episc, 43 
 Interdict, 107 
 Investiture, 40, 3; 84; 
 
 96, 2, 3 
 lona, 77, 3 
 Ireland, 77, 2 
 Irenaäus, 39, 3 
 Irene, 66, 3 
 Irmin-column, 78, 5 
 Isaac the Gr., 52, 2 
 
 (64, 3) 
 Isidorus, Gnostic, 28, 2 
 
 Presbyter, 51, 2, 3 
 
 Metrop. of Russia, 
 
 72, 4 
 
 of Seville, 90, 2 
 
 Islam, 65; 81 ; 95 
 Itala, 34, 3 
 Ithacius, 54, 2 
 Ittig, 78, 4 
 
 Jablonskt, 4, 3 
 Jacobellus, 119, 4 
 Jacobites, 52, 7 
 Jacoponus, 105, 4 
 Jagello, 93, 2 
 Jacobus a Benedictis, 
 
 105. 4 
 
 a Voragine, 105, 3 
 
 el Baradai, 52, 7 
 
 of Brescia, 112, 1 
 
 of Harkh, 71, 2 
 
 of Marchia, 112, 1 
 
 of Misa, 119, 4 
 
 of Nisibis, 46, 2 
 
 of Sarug, 59, 2 
 
 Jaldabaoth, 28, 4 
 Jamblichus, 24, 2 
 .Janitores, 36, 1 
 Jaroslav, 72, 4 
 .Jazelic, 52, 3 
 Jeremias II,, 72, 4 
 Jerome, St., 48, 1 ; 61, 
 
 2 : 53, 4 ; 62 
 
 of Prague, 119, 8 
 
 .Jeromites, 112, 3 
 Jesuates, 110, 3
 
 INDEX. 
 
 52^ 
 
 Jews, 90, 7 ; 96, 1 
 
 Jewish Christians, 19, 1 
 Jetzer, 112, 2 
 Joacliiin, Abbot, 97 ; 
 
 108, 4 
 Johanna, female pope, 
 
 82, 3 
 Johannes v., Palaeologus, 
 67, 5 
 
 VII., 67, 6 
 
 of Parma, 108, 4 
 
 Philoponus, 47 
 
 of Ravenna, 83, 1 
 
 of Salisbury, 102, 3 
 
 Scholasticus, 43, 3 
 
 Scotus Erigena, 90, 
 
 5, 7; 91, 4 
 
 of Talaja, 52, 5 
 
 of Trani, 67, 8 
 
 Tzimisces, 71, 1 
 
 John, Apostle, 17 
 
 disciples of, 22 
 
 festival of, 57, 1 
 
 St., Knights of, 98,6 
 
 VIII., 67. 1; 82, 5 
 
 IX., 82, 5 
 
 X., XL, XII., XV., 
 
 96, 1 
 
 XIX., 67, 2; 96, 2 
 
 XX., 82, 3 
 
 XXII., 110,2: 112, 
 
 1; 116. 1 [3 
 
 XXIII., 98, 5; 110, 
 
 of Ant., 52, 3 
 
 Beccos, 67, 3 
 
 Cassianus, 44 ; 53,5 
 
 Damascenus, 66, 1 ; 
 
 68, 4, 5 
 
 Duns Scotus, 104, 1 
 
 Jejunator,, 46, 2; 
 
 61, 1 [4 
 
 of Jerus, 51, 2; 53, 
 
 of England, 96, 5 
 
 de Monte Corvino, 
 
 93, 5 
 
 ■ Ozniensis, 73, 2 
 
 Johnites, 51, 3 
 Jolanthe, 94, 5 
 Jonas of Orleans, 90, 4 ; 
 
 92, 2 
 Jemandes, 90, 9 
 Joseph, Patr.,ü7, 4; 70,1 
 Josephus, 11 ; 14, 2 
 Josquin de Pr^z, 113, 3 
 Jovi, 80, 1 
 Jovinian, 62 
 
 Jubilee, 115 
 Jubili, 89, 2 
 Juiiicatum, 52, 6 
 Julia Mamm£ea, 23, 4 
 Juliana, 105, 2 
 Julianists, 52, 7 
 Julianus, Emp., 42, 2, 4 
 63, 2 
 
 of Eclanum, 53, 4 
 
 Julius I., 46, 2; 50, 2 
 
 II., 110, 4 
 
 Africanus, 41, 5 
 
 Junilius, 48, 1 
 .Jus circa sacra, 43, 1 
 Justina, 50, 4 
 Justinian I., 42, 3 ; 82, 6 
 
 II., 63, 3 
 
 Justinus I., Emp., 52, 5 
 
 Gnostic, 28, 4 
 
 Martyr, 39, 2; 41,1 
 
 Juvenal of Jerus., 52, 3 
 Juvencus, 48, 8 
 
 Kelbes, 28, 4 
 
 Keldeer, 77, 1 
 
 Kempis, Thomas a, 112,5 
 
 Keraits, 73, 1 
 
 Keys, power of, 61, 1 
 
 Kilian, 78, 2 
 
 Kiss, fraternal, 18, 5; 
 
 33, 1 ; 36, 1 
 Kissing the Pope's toe, 
 
 96 
 Knightly orders, 98, 6 
 Krämer, 115, 2 
 
 Labaru.m, 23, 7 
 Lactantius, 39, 5; 41, 1 
 Lambert of Aschaffen- 
 
 burg, 102, 1 
 
 le Begue, 98, 5 
 
 Landulf Cotta, 97, 2 
 Lanfranc, 101, 1, 2 
 Lange, Rudolph, 120, 2 
 Langenstein, H. of, 118,2 
 Langobards, 76, 8 
 Langthon, 96, 5 
 Laos, 30 
 Lapland, 93, 4 
 Lapsi, 23, 5 
 Lateran Synod I., 52 8; 
 
 96, 3 
 
 II., 96, 4 
 
 IV., 96, 5 
 
 Laurentius, Archb., 7 ,4 
 Martyr, 23, 5 
 
 Lajrentius, Valla, 120, 1 
 Lay-Abbots, 75 
 
 Brethren, 98, 1 
 
 Lectio, 30 
 Lectionaria, 59 
 Lectures, 34; 59 
 Legates, 96 
 Legenda'aurea, 105, 3 
 Legio fulmin., 23, 3 
 Legists, 99 
 Leidrad of Lyons, 90, 3 ; 
 
 91, 1 
 Lentulus, 14, 2 
 Leo L the Gr., 45, 4; 
 
 46, 2; 47, 5; 52, 4; 
 
 54, 1, 2; 61, 1 
 
 IL, 82, 2; 91, 2 
 
 IX., 67, 3; 90, 2 
 
 X., 110,4; 120, 1,2 
 
 of Achrida, 67, 3 
 
 the Armenian, 66, 
 
 4; 71, 1 
 
 Chazarus, 66, 3 
 
 the Isaurian, 66, 1 ; 
 
 71, 1 
 the Philos., 67,1,2; 
 
 68, 1 [4 
 
 Leonardo da Vinci, 103, 
 Leonistae, 108, 5 
 Leontius of Byz., 48, 2 
 Leovigild, 76, 2 
 Leporius, 52, 2 
 Lerija, A. of, 120, 4, 5 
 Lestines, Synod of, 78, 4 
 Libanius, 42, 4 
 Libellatici, 23, 5 
 Libelli pacis, 36, 2 
 Liber conformit., 98, 4 
 Liber pa^chalis, 56, 3 
 Liberatus of Carth., 52,6 
 Liberius of Rome, 50, 2, 
 
 3; 63, 1 
 Libri Carolini, 92, 1 
 Liciuius, 23, 7' 
 Limiua apost., 57, 7 
 Lindner, Br., 4, 4 
 Liptinae, Synod of, 78,4 
 Litany, 59 
 Litliuania, 93, 2 
 Liturgy, 33, 1 ; 59, 4; 
 
 89. 1 ; 105 
 Liudger, 78, 3 
 Lintprand, 82, 1 
 Livonia, 93, 4 
 Lollards, 114, 1; 119, I 
 Lombardus, P.. 103, 2
 
 528 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Lord'sDay,-l8,.5;32;56,l 
 Loretto, 113 
 Lothair, Emp., 82, 2 
 II., of Lothar., 82, 
 
 3, 4 [2 
 
 Louis, the Germanic, 82, 
 
 the Child, 82, 5 
 
 the Inclol.,'82, 5 
 
 the Pious, 82, 2 
 
 II., 82, 2 
 
 VII., 94, 2 
 
 IX., St., 93,5; 94, 
 
 6; 96, 6 
 
 XII., 110, 4 
 
 of Bavaria, 110, 2 
 
 Lucas,Bohem.Sen.,113,2 
 Lucian of Ant., 39, 6 
 
 of Samos., 24, 3 
 
 Lucidus, 53, 5 
 
 Lucifer of Calaris, 50, 2, 
 
 3; 63, 1 
 Luciferites, Schismatics, 
 
 63, 1 
 
 Heretics, 114, 3 
 
 Lucilla, 63, 2 
 Lucius, Brit. King, 77 
 Lucrezia, 1 10, 4 
 Ludmilla, 79, 2 
 Lullas, Archb., 78, 4 
 
 Raim., 93,5; 104,2 
 
 Lund, 93, 4 
 
 Luxeuil, 78, 1 
 
 Lyons, Council of, 67, 
 
 4 ; 96, 6 
 Lyra, Nicholas of, 116,2 
 
 Macarius the Gr., 48, 7 
 Maccabees, festival of, 
 
 57, 1 
 Madedonius, 50, 5 
 Macrianus. 23, 5 
 Macrina, 47. 4 
 Magdeburg, 93, 3 
 Magister sent., 103, 2 
 Magnoald, 78, 1 
 Mainots. 42, 3 ; 72, 1 
 Maiorinus, 63, 2 
 Malta, Knights of, 98, 6 
 Mamertus, 59 
 Mandeans, 22 ; 27, 3 
 Mani and Manich., 28, 
 
 54, 1 
 Mansur, 68, 5 
 Mantua, Counc. of, 110,4 
 Manuel Conin., 69 
 Maphrian, 52, 7 
 
 Mara, 14, 2 
 
 Marcellus of Anc, 50, 2 
 Marcia, 23, 3 
 Marcian, Emp., 52, 4 
 Marcion, Gnos., 30, 10 
 Marco Polo, 93, 5 
 Marcus Anrelius, 23, 3 
 
 EvaiiL'elist, 17 
 
 Marianus 8cotus, 102, 1 
 Marius Mercator, 53, 4 
 Maris, 52, 3 
 
 Maronites, 52, 3 ; 73, 3 ; 
 Marozia, 96, 1 
 Marriage, 36, 1; 61, 2; 
 
 88, 1 ; 105, 1 
 Mass, canon of, 59, 4 
 sacrifice of, 58, 3 ; 
 
 89, 3 
 
 Masses for the Dead, 58, 
 
 3 ; 89, 3 
 Martin I., 52, 8 
 
 v., 110, 3 
 
 of Duma, 76, 4 
 
 Polonus, 104, 3 
 
 of Tours, 49; 54, 2 
 
 Martyrs, 33, 5; 36, 4; 
 
 57, 5 
 Massilians, 53, 5 
 Mastersingers, 114, 4 
 Matthew Paris, 104, 3 
 Matilda of Can., 96, 2 
 Maurus, St., 85 
 Maxentius, 23, 7 
 Maximianus, 23, 6 
 Maximilian I.. 110, 4 
 Maximilla, 37, 1 
 Maximinus, Emp., 23, 6 
 
 the Thracian, 23, 4 
 
 Maximus, Emp., 54, 2 
 
 Confess., 47,6; 52,8 
 
 Mayence, Synod of, 91, 4 
 Mayron, 116, 1 [4 
 
 Meinhard of Bremen, 93, 
 Melchiades, 63, 2 
 Melchisedechites, 40, 2 
 Melohites, 52, 7 
 Melitus of Ant., 63, 1 
 
 of Lvcopol., 38, 3 
 
 Melito, 39, 3; 41, 1, 4 
 Memnon of Eph., 52, 3 
 Memoriae, 57 
 Mendicant orders, 98, 4 
 Mennas, 52, 6 
 Menot, 113 
 Mcnsurius, 63, 2 
 Messalians, Chr. 44, 5 
 
 MesssJans Heathen, 42,-5 
 Methc iius, 72, 3 ; 79 
 cf Olympus 32, 8; 
 
 33, 2 
 Metrophanes, 67, 6 
 Metropolitans, 30; 83 
 Michael Balbus, 66, 4 
 Bohem., senior, 
 
 119, 5 
 
 Cserularius, 67, 8 
 
 de Cesena, 112, 1 
 
 the Drunkard, 67, 1 
 
 Palaeologus, 67, 4 
 
 festival of, 57, 3 
 
 Angelo, 113, 8 
 
 Middle Ages, 74 
 Miecislav, 93, 2 
 Miesrob, 64, 3 
 Milicz, 119, 2 
 Militia Christi, 36 
 Millennarianism, 40, 8 
 Miltiades, 41, 1 
 Minimi, 112, 3 
 Minnesingers, 106, 3 
 Minorites, 98, 4 
 Minucius, Felix, 41, 1 
 
 Fund., 23, 2 
 
 Missa catech.et fidelium, 
 
 33, 1 
 Missale Rom., 59, 4 
 Mistvoi, 93, 3 
 Medalists, 40 
 Mogtasilah. 27, 3 
 Mohamet, 65 
 Möhler, 4, 4 
 Molay, J., 112, 2 
 Monarchians, 40 
 Monasterium Cler., 45, 1 
 Mongols, 93, 5 
 Monica, 47, 5 
 Monophysites, 52, 5, 7 ; 
 
 73, 2 
 Monotheletes, 52, 8 
 Montanists, 37 
 Monte-Cassino, 85 
 Montfort, S. of, 109, 1 
 Moors, 81 ; 95 
 Morality, higher and 
 
 lower, 36 
 Moravia, 79, 1 
 More, Thomas, 110, I 
 Moriscoes, 95 [^ 
 
 Morsel, consecrated, 8S, 
 Mosaic, 60, 3 
 Moses of Chorene, 64, 3 
 Moslems, 65
 
 INDEX. 
 
 529 
 
 Mozarabs, 81 
 
 Music, 59, 3; 105, 5: 
 
 113. 2 
 Muspili, 88, 2 
 Mysticism, Greek, 68, 3 
 
 Latin, 100, etc. 
 
 German, 117 
 
 Naassenes, 28, 
 
 Näp3r)f, 60, 1 
 
 Natales episcop., 45, 3 
 Natalis, 4, 2 
 Natalitia mart., 36, 4 
 Nazarenes, 27, 1 
 Neander, 4, 4 
 Nectarius, 61, 1 
 Nennius, 90, 9 
 Neophytes, 30, 1 
 Neoplatonists, 24, 2 ; 42 
 Nepos of Arsinoe, 40, 8 
 Nero, 23, 1 
 Nerses. 64, 3 
 
 Clajensis, 73, 2 
 
 of Lampron, 73, 2 
 
 Nerva, 23, 1 
 Nestorians, 52, 3 ; 64, 
 
 2 ; 73, 1 
 Nestorius, 52, 3 
 Neumse, 59, 3 
 New-year, 56, 5 
 Niebelungen, 106, 3 
 Nice, Council of, 46, 2 ; 
 
 50, 1 (66, 3). 
 Nicephorus Gregoras, 
 
 69, 1 
 
 Callisti, 68, 4 [5 
 
 Nicetas Acominatus, 68, 
 
 of Nicomed., 67, 4 
 
 Pectoratus, 67, 3 
 
 Nicolaitanes, 19; 28, 6 
 Nicholas I., 67, 1; 72, 
 
 3; 82, 4; 83, 1 ; 91, 4 
 
 II., 96, 2 
 
 of Basle, 114, 2 
 
 Nicholas von der Flue, 
 
 112, 5 
 Cabasilas, 68, 5 ; 
 
 70, 4 
 
 of Methone, 68, 5 
 
 Mysticus, 67, 2 
 
 Nicola Pisano, 105, 7 
 Niedner, 4, 4 
 Nimbus, 60, 3 
 Ninian, 77, 3 
 Niphon, monk, 70, 4 
 Patr., 70, 1 
 
 45 
 
 Nitrian Desert, 51, 1 
 Nithard, 90, 9 
 Noetus, 40, 4 
 Nogaret, W. of, 110, 1 
 Nominalists, 100, 2 
 Nomocanon, 43, 3 
 Nonae, 86, 1 
 Nonua, 47, 4 
 Nonnus of Panop., 48, 8 
 Norbert, 98, 3 
 Norway, 91, 1 
 Noting of Verona, 91, 4 
 Notker Labeo, 101, 1 
 Novatians, 38, 3 
 Novatus, 38, 2 
 Noviciate, 44, 3 ; 86, 1 
 Nunia, 64, 4 
 Nuns, 44 ; 85, 3 
 Nynias, 77, 3 
 
 Oblati, 85, 1 
 Oblations, 33 
 Obotrites, 93, 3 
 Observantes, 112, 1 [1 
 Occam, W., 112,1; 116, 
 Ockenheim, 113, 3 . 
 Octavte, 56, 4 
 Odericus Vitalis, 103, 3 
 Odilo of Clugny, 98, 1 
 Odo of Clugny, 98, 1; 
 
 101, 1 
 Odoacer, 76, 6 
 (Ecumenius, 68, 4 
 Officials, 97 
 Officium Sanctge Manse, 
 
 105, 3 
 
 OiKOvofiia, 40, 1 
 
 OlKOi/OlXOt, 45, 5 
 
 Oktai-Khan, 93, 5 
 Olaf, 80, 1 ; 93, 1 
 Olga, 72, 4 
 Oliva, J. P., 108, 4 
 Olivetans, 112, 1 
 Ommiades, 81, 1; 9-5, 2 
 Omphalopsychoi, 69, 1 
 Onochoetes Deus, 23 
 Ophites, 28, 4 
 Optatus of Mileve, 63, 2 
 Oranges, Synod of, 53, 5 
 Oratories, 84, 2 
 Ordeals, 88, 4 
 Ordination, 30, 1 ; 45, 3 
 Ordines majores et mi- 
 nores, 30, 1 
 Ordo Rom., 59, 4 
 OrdruflF, 78, 4 
 
 Organ, 89, 2 
 
 Origen, 39, 4; 40, 6; 
 
 41, 3 
 Origenists, 51 
 Orosius, P., 53, 4; £4, 2 
 Orphans, 115, 4 
 Orthodoxy, festival ef, 
 
 64, 4 
 Ortuinus Gratus, 120, 2 
 Osculum pacis, 32 
 Ostiarii, 30, 1 
 Ostrogoths, 76, 7 
 Oswald, 77, 5 
 Oswy, 77, 5, 6 
 Ota, 78, 2 
 
 Otgar of Mayence, 87, 2 
 Otho I., 93, 2, 3; 96, 1 
 
 II., III., 96, 1 
 
 IV., 96, 5 
 
 of Bamberg, 93, 3 
 
 of Freisingen, 103,4 
 
 Pabulatores, 44, 5 
 Pachomius, 44 
 Pacifico, 105, 4 
 Pagani, 42. 3 
 Painting, 60, 3; 105, 7; 
 
 113, 4 
 Palladius, 48, 2 ; 77, 2 
 Pallium, 46 
 Palm Sunday, 56, 4 
 Pamphilus, 41, 2 ; 47, 3 
 PantEenus, 39, 4 
 Paphnutius, 45, 4 
 Papias, 39, 1 
 Parabolani, 4-5, 5 
 Paris, Synod of, 92, 1 
 Parochia, 84, 2 
 Parochus, 30 ; 84, 2 
 Pasagii, 108, 1 
 Paschal II., 96, 3 
 Paschasius Radb., 91, 3 
 Passover, 32 
 Uaaxa, &C., 31 
 Patareni, 108, 1 
 Pataria, 97, 2 
 Pater orthod., 47, 4 
 Patriarchs, 46 
 Patricius, 77, 2 
 Patripassians, 40, 3 
 Patronage, 84 
 Patronus, 57 
 Paul IL, 110, 4: 119, 4 
 
 Diaconus, 90, 3 
 
 of Sanios., 36,, 3.; 
 
 40, 7
 
 530 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Paul Silentiarius, 48, 4 
 
 of Thebes, 36, 3 
 
 Warnefrid, 90, 3 
 
 Paula, St., 44, 2 
 Pauliciaiis, 71, 1 
 Paulinus of Ant., 63, 1 
 
 of Aquileja, 90, 3 
 
 Nolanus, 48, 8 [4 
 
 the Missionary, 77, 
 
 Pauperes de Lugduno, 
 
 108. 5 
 Payens, Hugh de, 98, 6 
 Pelagius, 48, 1 ; 53, 3 
 
 of Rome, 52, 6 
 
 Pelayo, 81 
 
 Penance, priest of, 61, 1 
 
 redemption of, 98, 5 
 
 Peiida, 77, 4 
 Penitential books, 78, 5 
 Pentecost, 56, 4 
 Pepin, 82, 1 
 Pepuziaui, 37, 1 
 Peratics, 28, 4 
 Peregrinus, 24, 3 
 Perfectus, 81 
 Periodeutes, 45, 5 
 Peristerium, 60, 2 
 Perpetua, 23, 5 
 Person of Christ, con- 
 troversies about, 52 
 Persia, 64, 2 
 Peschito, 36, 3 
 Peter's pence, 82 
 Petilian, 63, 2 
 Petrarch, 114, 4 
 Petrobrusians, 108, 3 
 Peter, Ap., 17 
 
 of Alex., 38, 4 
 
 of Amiens, 94 
 
 of Bruys, 108, 3 
 
 Cantor, 103, 3 
 
 of Castelnau, 109, 1 
 
 Chrysolanus, 67, 4 
 
 Damiani, 97 ; 102, 1 
 
 Dresdensis, 113, 2 
 
 Fullo, 52, 5 
 
 Lombardus, 103, 
 
 2; 105, 1 
 
 Mongus, 52, 5 
 
 of Murrnne, 112, 3 
 
 of Pisa, 90 
 
 Sicuhi.s, 71, 1 
 
 Venerabilis, 98, 1 ; 
 
 109 
 
 Waldus, 108, 5 
 
 Pfefferkorn, 120, 1 
 
 Pharensis Syn., 77, 6 
 Pharisees, 9, 2 
 Pherozas, 64, 2 
 Philip I. of France, 96, 3 
 
 III., of Spain, 95 
 
 Aug. of France, 94, 
 
 3 ; 96, 5 
 
 the Fair, 110, 1 
 
 Philippopolis, Synod of, 
 
 50, 2 
 Philippus, the Evang., 
 
 15; 17 
 
 Arabs, 23, 4 
 
 Philo, 11, 1 
 Philopatris, 43 
 Philoponus, 47, 6 
 Philosophy, Greek, 8, 4 
 Philostorgius, 4, 1 
 Philoxeuus, 59, 1 
 Phocas, 46, 2 
 Photinus, 50, 2 
 Photius, 67, 1 ; 68, 5 
 
 <t>dapTo\dTpaiy 52, 7 
 '^OiTi'^Onei'Ot, 32, 1 
 Piacenza, Council of, 94 
 Picts, 77, 3 
 Pictures, 37 
 
 Pilgrim of Passau, 93, 2 
 Pilgrimages, 57, 6 ; 89, 4 
 Pirkheimer, 120, 2 
 Pirminius, 78, 1 
 Pisa, Council of, 110,3,4 
 Pistis Sophia, 28, 4 
 Pius II., 110.4; 108,3; 
 
 119, 4 
 Planck, 4, 3 
 Plastic Art, 66, 3; 105, 
 
 7; 113, 4 
 Plato, 8, 4; 47, 5; 68,3; 
 
 100, 2 
 Plebani, 84, 2 
 Plebes, 84, 2 
 Plebs, 30 
 Pleroma, 26 
 Pletho, 68, 2; 120, 1 
 Pliny, 23, 2 
 Plotinus, 24, 2 
 Plutarch, 24, 2 
 Pneumatics, 26, 1 ; 37, 1 
 Pneumatomachoi, 50, 5 
 Podiebrad, 119, 4 
 Poets, Christian Latin, 
 
 48, 8 
 Polycarp, 23, 8 ; 32, 1 ; 
 
 39. 1 
 Polycrates, 32, 1 
 
 Polyglotts, 120, 6 
 Pomerania, 93, 3 
 Pompa diab., 36 
 Pomponazzo, 120, 
 Pontianus, 38, 1 
 Ponticus, 23, 3 
 Poution, Synod of, 82, S 
 Pontius, 98, 1 
 Poor, case of, 88, 8 
 Popes, coronation of, 
 
 96; 115 
 election of, 96, 2, 
 
 4, 6 
 Porphyrins, 24, 2, 3 
 Portiuncula, 98, 4 
 Possessed, the, 30 
 Possessor of Carth., 53, 5 
 Potamisena, 23, 4 
 Pothinus, 23, 3 
 Prsemonstrants, 98, 8 
 Prsepositi, 84, 2 
 Pragmatic sanction, 97, 
 
 6; 110, 4 
 Praxeas, 37, 2 ; 47, 3 
 Prayer, 36 
 Prebends, 84, 4 
 Predestination, 53 ; 91, 4 
 Preaching, 34 ; 59 ; 105 ; 
 
 113 [4 
 
 Preachers, Order of, 98, 
 PrecariEe, 86 
 Precists, 96 
 
 Presbyter, 18, 2; 30; 45 
 Primacy of the Pope, 30, 
 
 3; 46, 1, 2 
 Primasius, 48, 1 
 Primian, 63, 2 
 Priscilla, 37, 1 
 Priscillianists, 54, 2 
 Private Confession, 61, 1 
 
 Masses, 56, 3 
 
 Procession of the Holy 
 
 Spirit, 50, 6 ; 67, 1 ; 
 
 91, 2 ' 
 Processions, 59 
 Proclus, 42 ; 48, 3 
 ProcopiustheGr., 119,4 
 
 of Gaza, 48, 1 
 
 Proculus, 23, 4 
 
 the Montanist, 40, 8 
 
 Prodicians, 28, 6 
 Proselytes, Jewish, 11, 2 
 np6iK\avaii, 36, 2 
 Ilpoi(popai, 33 
 Prosper Aquit 48, 8; 
 
 53, 6
 
 INDEX. 
 
 531 
 
 Proterius, 52, 2 
 Provosts, 84, 2 
 Prudentius, 48, 8 
 
 of Troyes, 91, 4 
 
 Prussia, 93, 4 
 Psalter, 30, 1 
 Psellus, G8, 5; 71, 3 
 Pseudepigraphs, 39, 7 ; 
 
 63, 1 
 Pseudo-Basilidians, 28,2 
 Dionj'sius, 47, 1 ; 
 
 48, 5 ; 90, 1 
 
 Isidore, 87, 2 
 
 Psychicoi, 26, 1 ; 37, 1 
 Publicani, 108, 1 
 Pulclieria, 52, 4 
 Purgatory, 58, 3 ; 67, 6 ; 
 
 101, 1 
 
 Quadragesima, 32 ; 56,4 
 Quadratus, 43, 1 
 Quartodecimani, 30, 1 ; 
 
 56, 3 
 Quercum, Syn. ad, 51,3 
 Quicunque, symbol. ,50,7 
 Quinisextum, 63, 3 [4 
 Quinquagesima, 32 ; 56, 
 
 Rabanus Maurüs, 90, 
 
 5; 91, 3, 4 
 Rabulas of Edessa, 52, 3 
 Radbertus Pasch., 90, 
 
 5; 91, 3; 105, 2 
 Radbod, 78, 3 
 Radewin, 112, 5 
 Raimundus Lullus, 93, 
 
 5; 104, 2 
 
 de Pennaforti, 99 
 
 du Puy, 98, 6 
 
 of Sabunde, 116, 2 
 
 of Toulouse, 109, 1 
 
 Ralph Flambard, 96, 3 
 Raphael, 113, 4 
 Rastislav, 79 
 Ratherius, 97 ; 101, 1 
 Ratisbon, Synod of, 91, 1 
 Ratramnus, 67, 1 ; 90, 
 
 5; 91, 3. 4 
 Realists, 100, 2 
 Realm, estates of, 84, 1 
 Recafrid, 81, 1 
 Reccared, 76, 2 
 Rechiar, 76, 4 
 Reclusi, 85, 5 
 Recognit. Clem., 43, 4 
 Reconciliatio, 36, 2 
 
 Redemptions, 88, 5 
 Reformation in Head 
 
 and Members, 118 
 Regino of Prüm, 88, 5 
 Reginus, 105, 5 
 Regiouary Bishops, 84 
 Reichenau, 78, 1 
 Reinerius Sachoni, 108,1 
 Relics, worship of, 36, 
 
 4; 57,5; 89,4; 105,3 
 Religiosi, 43, 3 
 Remigius of Lyons, 91, 4 
 
 of Rheims, 76, 9 
 
 Remismund, 76, 4 
 Remoboth, 44, 5 [6 
 
 Reparatus of Garth., 52, 
 Reservationes, 110 
 Reuchlin, 120, 2 
 Revenues of the Church, 
 
 45 
 Rhense, meeting of 
 
 Elect., 110, 2 
 Rhodoald of Porto, 67, 
 
 1 ; 82, 4 
 Richard Coeur de Lion, 
 
 95, 3 
 
 a St. Victore, 103, 3 
 
 Richer, 101, 1 
 Rienzi. Cola di, 110, 2 
 Rimbert, 80, 1 
 Rimini, Council of, 50, 3 
 Risus paschalis, 106, 1 
 Ritter, J., 4, 4 
 Robber Svnod, 52, 4 
 Robert of Arbrissci, 98,3 
 
 of Citeaux, 98, 2 
 
 Grossteste, 104, 3 
 
 Guiscard, 96, 2 
 
 of Sorbonne, 104,3 
 
 King of France, 
 
 105, 4 
 Roger Bacon, 104, 3 
 Rokycana, 119, 4 
 Romanesque style, 105,6 
 Romanus, 96, 1 
 Romuald, 98, 1 
 Rosary, 105, 3 
 Fraternity of, 
 
 113, I 
 Roscellinus, 102, 3 
 Rosenpliit, Hans, 114, 4 
 Rota Rom , 96 
 Rothad of Soissons, 83, 1 
 Rubianu.s, Crotus, 120, 2 
 Rudolph of Swabia, 
 
 96. 2 
 
 Rufinus, 4, 1 ; 47, 5 ; 48; 
 
 2; 51, 2 
 Rügen, 93, 3 
 Rugians, 76, 6 
 Rupert, 78, 2 
 
 of Deutz, 103, 3 
 
 Russia, 72, 4 [1 
 Ruysbroek, John of, 117; 
 William, 93, 5 
 
 Sab.\tati, 108, 5 
 Sabbath, 56, 1 
 Sabellius, 40, 4, 6 
 Sabians, 22 
 Sabinianus, 60, 2 
 Sacraments, 105, 1 
 Sacramentarium, 59, 4 
 Sacrificati, 23, 5 
 Sacrificial Theory, 33, 3 
 Sacrum rescr., 53, 3 
 Sadducees, 9, 2 
 Saints, worship of, 57 ; 
 
 105, 3 
 Saladin, 94, 3 
 Salvianus, 48, 3 
 Salzburg. 78, 2 ; 79 
 Samaritans, 10; 22 
 Sampseans, 27, 3 
 Sanction, Pragm., 96, 6 
 Sapores II., 64, 2 
 Sarabaites, 39, 5 
 Sardica, Synod of, 46, 2 ; 
 
 50, 5 
 Sarmatio, 62 
 Sarolta, 93, 2 
 Saturnalia, 56, 5 
 Saturninus, 28, 7 
 Savonarola, 119, 2 
 Savaniferes, Synod of, 
 
 91, 4 
 Sbynlco, 119, 3 
 Scepticism, 8, 4 
 Scetian Desert, 51, 1 
 Schism, Papal, 110, 3 
 
 Eastern, 67 
 
 Schisms, 38 
 Schmidt, Christ., 4, 4 
 Schola Palat., 90 
 
 Saxonica, 72 
 
 Scholastica, 85, 3 
 Scholasticism, Greek,47, 
 
 6; 68, 3 
 
 Latin, 100, etc., 116 
 
 Schools, Monastic, 90, I 
 Popular, 118, 1, 
 
 106, 2
 
 5b^ 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Schools, Ancient Theo- 
 logical, 39, 3, 4, 5; 
 
 47 ; 52, 2 
 Scotists, 104, 1 
 Scotus, Erig., 90, 5, 7; 
 91, 4 
 
 J. Duns, 104, 1 
 
 Seckingen, 78, 1 
 Secundus, 50, 1 
 Sedes apostolicse, 30 
 Sedulius, 48, 8 
 Segarelli, 108, 3 
 Sembat, 71, 2 
 Semiarians, 50, 3 
 Semipelagians, 53, 5 
 Semler, 4, 3 
 Sends, 88, 5 ; 97 
 Sens, Synod of, 103, 1 
 Septimius Sev., 23, 4 
 Septuagint, 9, 2 ; 34, 2; 
 
 56, 4 
 Sequences, 89, 2 
 Serapeion, 36 [2 
 
 Serenius Granianus, 23, 
 Serenas of Massil., 57, 4 
 Sergius of Const., 52, 8 
 
 of Ravenna, 83, 1 
 
 of Rome, 63, 3 
 
 Tychicus, 71, 1 
 
 Servatus Lupus, 91, 4 
 Servites, 98, 4 
 Sethians, 34, 4 
 Severa, 23, 4 ; 26 
 Severians, 52, 7 
 Severinus, 76, 6 
 Shiites, 05, 1 
 Sibylline Books, 41, 1 
 Sicilian Vespers, 96, 6 
 Sickingen, 120, 2 
 
 Tiär]Qointvoi, 70, 3 
 
 Siena, Council of, 110, 3 
 Sigillaria, 56, 5 
 Sigismond, of Burgundy, 
 
 76, 5 [3 
 
 Emp., 110, 3; 119, 
 
 Sigurd, 93, 1 
 
 Simeon Metaphr., 68, 4 
 
 ofTlie8salonica,68,5 
 
 Simon Magus, 22, 2 
 
 of Tuurnay, 108, 2 
 
 Simony, 96, 2 
 Singing Schools, 89, 2 
 Sirmium, Council of, 50, 
 
 2, 3 
 Sixtus II., 23, 5 
 
 Sixtus IV., 112, 1; 115 
 
 Socrates, 8, 4 
 
 the Church Hist., 4,1 
 
 Soissons, Synod of, 78, 
 4 ; 103, 1 
 
 Sophronius, 52, 8 
 
 Sorbonne, 104, "3 
 
 Sorores, 36, 3 
 
 Sotties, 114, 4 
 
 Sozomenus, 4, 1 
 
 Spanheim, 4, 2 
 
 Spirit, Sect of the Holy, 
 108, 2 
 
 Spirituales, 98, 4 
 
 Spittler, 4, 3 
 Spolia, 140 
 Sponsors, 32 
 Sprenger, 115, 2 
 Ssufis, 65, 1 
 Staupitz, 117, 1 
 Stedingers, 109, 2 
 Stephen of Rome, 32. 2 
 
 II., 66, 2; 82, 1 
 
 III., 66, 2 
 
 VI., 82, 5 
 
 St., 93, 2; 96, 1 
 
 de Borbone, 108, 5 
 
 Langthon, 96, 5 
 
 of Siiuic, 73, 2 
 
 festival of, 57, 1 
 
 Stock, Simon, 98, 3 
 Stoicism, 8, 4 
 Stolberg, L. of, 4, 4 
 Streaneshalch, Synod of, 
 
 77, 6 
 Studites, 44, 4 
 Sturm of Fulda, 78, 4 
 Stylites, 39, 4 ; 85, 5 
 Subdeacons, 30, 1 
 Subintroductae, 36, 3 
 Succat, 77, 2 
 Suevi, 76, 4 
 Suffragiins, 84 
 Sulpitius Sever., 4, 1 
 Summis desiderantibus, 
 115, 2 
 
 YmeiariKTOi, 36, 3 
 Sfiirra^ij, 36, 2 
 
 Suniiites, 65, 1 
 Suso, H., 117, 1 
 Sutri, Synod of, 96, 1 
 Svatopluk, 79, 2 
 Svatoslav, 72, 4 
 Sven, 93, 1 
 Sweden, 80 ; 93, 1 
 
 Sword, Brethren of, 98^ 
 
 4 ; 98, 6 
 Sylvanus, 71, 1 
 Sylvester I„ 59, 3 
 
 II., 94; 96, 1 
 
 Symbols, 35, 1 
 Symeon, 72, 3 
 
 called Titus, 71, 1 
 
 of Jerus., 23, 2 
 
 Symmachus, 42 
 Synagogues, 9, 2 ; 18, £ 
 Syncelli, 46 
 Synergists, 53, 1 
 Synesius, 47, 4 
 Synods, see Councils. 
 Synodus Palmaris, 46, 2 
 Syzygia, 27, 4 ; 28, 3 
 
 Tabernaculum, 60, 2 
 Taborites, 119, 4 
 Talmud, 22 
 Tamerlane, 73, 1 
 Tanchelm, 108, 4 
 Tartares, 73, 1 
 Tatian, 28, 8; 41, 1 
 Tauler, 117, 1 
 Templars, 98, 6; 112, 2 
 Tempus clausum, 56, 4 
 Terebinth, 29, 1 
 Tertiaries, 98, 4 
 Tertullian, 37, 2; 39, 5; 
 
 40, 3 ; 53, 1 
 Tertullianiöts, 37, 2 
 Theatricals, religious, 
 
 106, 2 
 Theganus, 90, 9 
 Themistius, 42, 4 
 Theodelinda, 76, 8 
 Theodemir, abbot, 98, 2 
 
 I., 76, 4 
 
 Theoderic, 76, 7 
 Theodo I., 78, 2 
 Theodora, 52, 6 (66, 4) ; 
 
 71, 1 (96, 1) 
 Theodoret, 44, 5; 52, 
 
 3, 4 
 Theodorus Ascidas, 52, g 
 
 Balsamon, 48, 3 
 
 of Mops., 47, 1; 
 
 48, 1 ; 52, 3 ; 53, 4 
 
 of Niem, 118, 2 
 
 Studita, 66, 4 
 
 Theodulf of Orl, 88, 1 ; 
 
 90, 3 
 Theognis of Nicisa, 50, 1
 
 INDEX. 
 
 533 
 
 Theologia Germanica, 
 
 117 
 Theonas, 50, 1 
 Theopaschites, 52, 6 
 Theophano, 96, 6 
 Theopliilus, Emp., 66, 4 
 of Alex., 42, 3; 51, 
 
 2 3 
 
 ^of Ant, 41, 1 
 
 of Diu, 64, 4 
 
 Theophylact, 68, 5 
 eioräxas, 52, 2, 3 
 Therapeutae, 11 
 Thesaur. superog., 107 
 Thietberga, 82, 4 
 Thietgaut of Treves, 82,4 
 Thomas Aquinas, 104, 1; 
 
 105, 1 
 
 , a Becket, 96, 4 
 
 of Celana, 105, 4 
 
 a Kempis, 112, 5 
 
 Thomas-Cliristians, 52, 3 
 Thomasius,Christ., 115,2 
 Thomists, 104, 1 
 Thontracians, 71, 2 
 Thrasamond, 76, 3 
 Thuribulum, 60, 3 
 Thurificati, 23, 5 
 Tiberius, 23, 1 
 Tillemont, 4, 2 
 Timotlieus ^lurus, 52, 5 
 Tiridates III., 64, 3 
 Tithes, 86 
 Titian, 113, 4 
 Tituli, 84, 2 
 Torquemada, 115, 1 
 Toulouse, Synods of, 
 
 106, 2; 108, 1; 109,2 
 Tours, Syn. of, 102, 2; 
 
 110, 4 
 Towers, 60, 1 
 Tradition, 30, 3 
 Traditores, 23, 6 
 Traducianism, 53, 1 
 Trajan, 23, 2 
 Transfiguration, festival 
 
 of, 56, 6 
 Translations, 57 
 Transubstantiation, 58, 
 
 2 ; 105, 1 
 Treuga Dei, 106, 1 
 Tribur, diet at, 96, 2 
 Trinity, festival of, 105,2 
 Trinitarians, Order of, 
 
 98, 3 
 
 45* 
 
 Trinitarian controversy, 
 
 40; 50 
 Troubadours, 106, 3 
 Trullanum I., 52, 8 
 
 II., 63, 3 
 
 Turlupines, 114, 3 
 Turribius, 54, 2 
 Tutilo, 89, 6 
 Tychonius, 48, 1 
 Typos, 52, 8 
 Tyre, Synod of, 50, 2 
 
 Uladislaus, 119, 5, 6 
 
 Ultilas, 76, 1 
 
 Ulric of Augsburg, 
 
 84,3 
 Unam sanctam, 110, 1 
 Unction, Extreme, 61, 
 
 2 ; 70, 2 
 Union of Greek with 
 
 Rom. Ch., 72, 4 
 Unitas fratrum, 119, 6 
 United Greeks, 72, 4 
 Universities, 100, 1 
 Unni of Hamb., 93, 1 
 Urban II., 96, 3 
 
 IV., 96, 6 
 
 v., 110, 2 
 
 VI., 110, 3 
 
 Ursinus of Rome, 63, 1 
 Ursula, 108, 4 
 Usuardus, 90, 9 
 Utraquists, 119, 5 
 
 Valence, Synod of, 
 
 91, 4 
 Valens, Bishop, 50, 3 
 
 Emp., 50, 4; 6' 
 
 Valentinian I., 42, 3 
 
 IL, 42, 3 
 
 III., 46, 2 
 
 Valentinus, 28, 3 
 Valerianus, 23, 6 
 Valla, Laur., 120, 1 
 Vallambrosians, 98, 5 
 Vandals, 76, 3 
 Varanes, 29, 1 
 
 v., 64, 2 
 
 Velasquez, 98, 6 
 Vengeance, private, 88, 4 
 Vercelli, Synod of, 
 
 102, 2 
 Verdun, treaty of, 82, 2 
 Veronica, 14, 2 
 Vespers, Sicil., 96, 8 
 
 Vestibulum, 60 
 Vicelinus, 93, 2 
 Victor I. of Rome, 
 
 32, 1 
 
 II., 96, 2 
 
 Vienna, Council of, 110, 
 
 2; 112, 2, 3 
 Vigilantius, 62 
 Vigils, 32 ; 56, 4 
 Vigilius of Rome, 52, 6 
 Vincentius Ferreri, 1 14, 1 
 of Lirinum, 48, 6 ; 
 
 53, 5 
 Virgilius of Salzb., 
 
 78, 4 
 Virgin, festivals in 
 
 honour of, 57, 2 ; 105, 
 
 2; 113, 1 
 Visigoths, 76, 
 Vladimir, 72, 4 
 Vulgate, 59, 1 
 
 Wadstex\a, 112, 3 
 Walafrid Strabo, 90, 4, 
 
 6; 91, 3 
 Waldenses, 108, 5 
 Waldhausen, conr. of 
 
 119, 3 
 Walter the Penniless, 
 
 94 1 
 
 'of St. Victore, 103,3 
 
 von derVogelweide, 
 
 106, 3 
 Warnefrid, Paul, 90, S 
 Wazo of Lieges, 109 
 Wearmouth, 85, 4 
 Wechabites, 65, 1 
 Week, the great, 32 
 Welsh, 4 
 
 Wenceslaus, 119, 4 
 Wenceslav, 93, 2 
 Wends, 93, 3 
 Wesel, J. of, 119, 1 
 Wessel, J., 119, 1 
 Wido of Milan, 97, 2 
 Widukind, 101, 1 
 Wilfrid, 77, 6 ; 78, 3 
 Willibrord, 78, 3 
 Willehad, 78, 3 
 William of St. Amour, 
 
 98, 4 
 
 of Aquitaine, 98, 1 
 
 of Champeaux, 
 
 102, 1 
 the Conqueror, 96,3
 
 534 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 William of Nogaret, 1 10, 1 
 
 Rufus, 96, 3 
 
 ' Ruysbroek, 93, 5 
 
 of Tyre, 94, 3 
 
 Willigis of Mayence, 
 
 97, 1 
 Wilzen, 93, 3 
 Winfrid, 78, 4 
 Witches, malleus male- 
 
 ficarum, 115, 2 
 procedure against, 
 
 115, 2 
 Wittekiud, 78, 5 
 
 Wolfram of Eschenb., 
 
 106, 3 
 Worms, Syn. of, 96, 2 
 concordat of, 
 
 96, 3 
 Wulflaich, 78, 3 
 Wulfram, 78, 3 ' 
 Wycliife, 119 
 
 theology of, 119, 1 
 
 successors of, 119,2 
 
 Xerophagiai, 37, 8 
 Ximeaes, 120, 4, 6 
 
 Zachaeias, 82, 1 
 
 of Anagni, 67, 1 
 
 Zanzalus, J., 52, 7 
 Zelatores, 98, 4 
 Zeno, 8 
 
 Emp., 52, 5 
 
 Zenobia, 40, 7 
 
 Ziska, 119, 4 
 
 Zosimus, 42, 4 ; 53, 
 
 3, 4 
 Ziitphen, Gerh. of, 112, 
 
 5
 
 TBXT-BOOK 
 
 OP 
 
 Chukch Histoet. 
 
 BY 
 
 DR. JOHN HEi^RY KURTZ, 
 
 PROFESSOR OF THEOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF DORPAT: AUTHOR OF "a MANUAL 
 OF SACRED HISTORY," "THE BIBLE AND ASTRONOMY," ETC., ETC. 
 
 ^m ^$lnm$ w ^m, 
 
 Revised, with Corrections and Additions from the Seventh 
 German Edition. 
 
 VOL. II. 
 FROM THE REFOR^IATION. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA : 
 
 SMITH, Eis^GLISH & CO., 
 
 No. 710 Arch Street. 
 18 80.
 
 Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1875, by 
 
 SMITH, ENGLISH & CO., 
 
 in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 
 
 CAXTON PRESS OF SHERMAN & CO.
 
 TRANSLATORS' PREFACE. 
 
 [The present volume completes " Kurtz's Text-book of Church 
 History." In preparing the translation, I was largely aided by 
 the Rev, John Beck, A.M., of Easton, who consented to carry 
 on the work during my protracted summer's illness, and to whom 
 the last twenty paragraphs must be accredited. 
 
 This volume differs from the first in being a direct American 
 translation from the original, instead of a republication of a 
 foreign work. Its preparation, consequently, demanded a greater 
 amount of labor than that expended on the first volume, but it 
 was labor of a vastly more pleasant kind. And I cannot but 
 hope, that the course thus adopted will receive general approval. 
 
 As the prosecution of the undertaking has necessarily brought 
 me into closer intimacy with this Text-book, my earlier convic- 
 tions of its great excellence have been fully confirmed. It would 
 be hard to find a text-hook in any department of literature, to 
 equal it in lucid conciseness, and its admirable arrangement of 
 the material on hand. In this respect it is a book which cannot 
 fail to be welcomed by teachers and students, in all our institu- 
 tions of learning, in which due attention is given to this im- 
 portant branch of knowledge. 
 
 The book possesses, however, another virtue, worthy of com- 
 mendation. I refer to the courageous distinctness with which it 
 assumes and maintains its theological and ecclesiastical character. 
 Dr. Kurtz, of Dorpat, is a true Lutheran, and is not ashamed to 
 let his book bear testimony to the fact. To many moving in 
 
 (üi)
 
 IV translators' preface. 
 
 a different Church sphere this may seem an objection, and they 
 may especially complain of occasional partialities of statement 
 into which his denominational preferences may have betrayed 
 him. But such faults are fully atoned for by excellencies 
 springing from the same root with themselves, and should be the 
 less offensive because they may be so easily corrected by every 
 intelligent student. 
 
 With but three exceptions, the author has been allowed to 
 pursue his course uninterruptedly, and even then the brief cor- 
 rections of what are thought misstatements- have been thrown 
 into brackets, easily distinguished from the author's text, or into 
 a foot-note. 
 
 Those parts of Dr. Kurtz's history referring to the British 
 and American Churches will be found somewhat meagre and 
 defective. But its wants, in this respect, may be readily sup- 
 plied by those into whose hands the book may fall. 
 
 It has been the single aim of the translators to furnish the 
 English student and reader with a true and faithful rendering 
 of the original, holding themselves responsible, not for the senti- 
 ments of the author, but only for the style and fidelity of the 
 translation. 
 
 J. H. A. BOMBERGER. 
 
 Philadelphia, December 13, 1861.
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 THIRD SECTION. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH IN ITS MODERN GERMANIC 
 FORM OF DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 I 1. Its Character and Limitations Page 27-29 
 
 FIRST PERIOD OF CHURCH HISTORY IN ITS MODERN GERMANIC 
 
 FORM OF DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 (Sixteenth Century.) 
 
 I. THE REFORMATION. 
 
 a. Establishment of the Reformation. 
 
 I 2. Commencement of the Wittenberg Reformation (1517-1519) 82 
 
 1. Luther's Early Years, 2. The Theses. 3. Cajetaa and 
 Miltiz. 4. The Leipsic Disputation. 5. Melanchthon. 
 
 1 3. The Period of Luther's Conflicts and Trials 36 
 
 1. The Bull of Excommunication. 2. Erasmus. 3. Charles V. 
 4. Luther at Worms. 5. The AVartburg Exile. 
 § 4. Degeneracy and Purification of the Reformation in Wittenberg.... 42 
 1. The Wittenberg Fanaticism. 2. Francis of Sickingen. 3. 
 Carlstadt. 4. Thomas Miinzer. 5. The Peasants' AVar. 
 
 § 5. Luther's Feuds -with Henry VIIL and Erasmus 46 
 
 1. Luther and Erasmus. 2. Thomas Murner. 3. Berthold of 
 Chiem-see. 
 
 2 6. Development of the Reformation in the Empire 48 
 
 1. The Diet of Nuremberg. 2. Spread of Evangelical Doc- 
 trines. 3. The Diet of Nuremberg, in 1524. 4. Conven- 
 tion of Regensburg. 5. The Evangelical States. 6. The 
 Torgau Alliance. 7. The Diet of Spires (1526). 
 45* (v)
 
 yi CONTENTS. 
 
 I 7. Establishment of the National Evangelical Churches 54 
 
 1. Electoral Saxony. 2. Hesse. 3. Other German States 
 4. Lower Germany. 
 
 § 8. Martyrs of the Evangelical Faith (1521-9) 57 
 
 I 9, Luther's Private and Public Life 58 
 
 § 10, The Reformation in German Svritzerland (1519-21) 6C 
 
 1. Ulric Zwingli. 2. The Reformation in Zurich. 3. In 
 Basel. 4. In other Cantons. 5. Anabaptists. 6. Dis- 
 putation in Baden. 7. Disputation in Berne. 8. Triumph 
 of the Reformation in Basel, St. Gall, and Schaffhausen. 
 9. First Peace of Cappel. 10. Second Peace of Cappel. 
 g 11. The Sacramentarian Controversy (1525-1529) 68 
 
 { 12. The Protest and Confession of the Evangelical States 7C 
 
 1. The Pack Affair. 2. The Emperor's Position. 3. The 
 Diet of Spires (1529). 4. The Marburg Colloquy. 5. 
 The Schwabach Convention. 6. The Diet of Augsburg. 
 7. The Augsburg Confession. 8. Recess of the Augs- 
 burg Diet (1580). 
 
 g 18. Events and Negotiations during 1531-36 76 
 
 1. The Smalcaldic League. 2. The Religious Peace of Nu- 
 remberg. 3. The Evangelization of Wiirtemberg. 4. The 
 Reformation in Anhalt and Pomerania. 5. In West- 
 phalia. 6. The Münster Faction. 7. Extension of the 
 Smalcaldic League. 8. The Wittenberg Concord. 
 
 { 14. Events and Negotiations during 1537-39 83 
 
 1. The Smalcald Articles. 2. The Nuremberg League. 3. 
 The Frankfort Suspension. 4. The Reformation in Al- 
 bertinian Saxony. 5. In Mark Brandenburg. 
 
 § 15. The Period of Union Efforts (1540-46) 87 
 
 1. The Landgrave's Bigamy. 2. Religious Colloquy at Worms. 
 3. At Regensburg. 4. Regensburg Declaration. 5. The 
 See of Naumburg and the Würzen Quarrel. 6. The Re- 
 formation in Brunswick and the Palatinate. 7. In the 
 Principality of Cologne. 8. The Emperor's Embarrass- 
 ments. 9. Diet of Spires. 10. Quarrels of the Emperor 
 with the Evangelical States. 11. Luther's Last Days. 
 
 I 16 The Smalcald War and the Interim (1546-51) 96 
 
 1. Preparations for the War. 2. The Campaign along the 
 Danube. 3. On the Elbe. 4. The Council of Trent. 5. 
 The Augsburg Interim. 6. Its Introduction. 7. The 
 Leipsic Interim. 8. Resumption of the Council of Trent. 
 
 g 17. The Elector Maurice and the Peace of Augsburg (1550-55) 104 
 
 1. The State of Affairs. 2. The Elector Maurice. 3. The 
 Treaty of Passau. 4. The Death of Maurice. 5. The 
 Religious Peace of Augsburg. 6. The Second Attempt 
 to reform Cologne.
 
 CONTENTS. VU 
 
 5 18. The Reformation in French Switzerland 109 
 
 1. Calvin's Forerunners. 2. Calvin prior to his Labors in 
 Geneva. 3. Calvin's First Period in Geneva. 4. His 
 Second Residence there. 5. Calvin's Writings. 6. Doc- 
 trinal System. 7. The Triumph of Calvinism over Zwiu- 
 glianism . 
 
 J 19. The Reformation in other Countries 114 
 
 1. Sweden. 2. Denmark. 3. Courland, Livonia, and Es- 
 thonia. 4. England. 5. Scotland. 6. The Netherlands. 
 7. France. 8. Poland. 9. Bohemia and Moravia. 10. 
 Hungary. 11. Transylvania. 12. Spain. 13. Italy. 
 14. Turkey. 
 
 b. Inner History of the Churches of the Reformation. 
 
 20. The Distinctive Character of the Lutheran Church 129 
 
 21. Doctrinal Controversies in the Lutheran Church 13Ö 
 
 1. The Philippists. 2. The Antinomian Controversy. 3. Tb« 
 Osiandrian. 4. The Adiaphoristic. 5. The Majoristic. 
 6. The Synergistic. 7. The Crypto-Calvinistic. 8. The 
 Karg and -lEpiue. 9. The Form of Concord. 10. Elec- 
 toral Saxony Articles of Visitation. 11. The Huber Con- 
 troversy. 
 
 22. Constitution, Cultus, Life and Literature of the Lutheran Church.. 140 
 
 1. Constitution. 2. Public Worship and Art. 3. Hymnology. 
 4. Psalmody. 5. Theology. 6. National Literature. 7. 
 Missions. 
 
 23. Internal Character of the Reformed Church 148 
 
 1. Psalmody. 2. Theology. 3. Missions. 
 
 24. Culvinizing of German Lutheran National Churches.... 150 
 
 n. THE DEFORMATION. 
 
 I 25. Character of the Deformation 153 
 
 g 26. Mysticism 154 
 
 1. Schwenkfeld. 2. Agrippa, Paracelsus, Weigel. 3. Seb. 
 Franck, Giord. Bruno. 4. The Familists. 
 
 I 27. Anabaptism 157 
 
 1. David Joris. 2. Menno Simons. 
 
 § 28. Antitrinitarians and Unitarians 159 
 
 1. German Antitrinitarians. 2. Servetus. 3. Italian Anti- 
 trinitarians before Socinus. 4. Socinus and the Soci- 
 nians.
 
 Vm CONTENTS. 
 
 III. THE COUNTER-REFORMATION. 
 
 { 29. Efforts to Strengthen and Renovate the Catholic Church 16i 
 
 1. The Council and the Popes. 2. The Society of Jesus. 3. 
 New Orders for Inner Missions. 4. Reformation of the 
 old Orders. 5. Augustinianism. 6. Theology. 7. Music, 
 Art, Poetry. 8. Piety. 
 
 80. Transmarine Missions 169 
 
 1. East India and Japan. 2. China. 3. America. 4. Abys- 
 sinia and Egypt. 
 
 I 31. Catholic Restoration Efforts 171 
 
 1. Views of the German Emperors. 2. Attempts at Resto- 
 ration in Germany. 8. In other European Countrie«. 
 4. Russia and the United Greeks. 
 
 SECOND PERIOD OF CHURCH HISTORY IN ITS MODERN GER- 
 MANIC FORM OF DEVELOPMENT. 
 • ^.Seyenteenth Century.) 
 
 I. RECIPROCAL RELATIONS OF THE CHURCHES. 
 
 I 32. The Oriental Churches and the West , 176 
 
 1. Expectations of the Catholics. 2. Of the Calvinists. 3. 
 Orthodoxy Confirmed. 
 
 § 33. Catholicism and Protestantism , 176 
 
 1. The Restoration in Germany and adjacent Territories. 2. 
 Protestants in France, and Waldenses in Piedmont. 3. 
 The Catholics in England. 4. Converted Princes. 5. 
 Union Efforts. 
 
 534. Lutheranism, Calvinism, Anglicanism 181 
 
 1. Calvinising of Hesse-Cassel. 2. Of the Earldom of Lippe. 
 
 3. Transition of the House of Brandenburg. 4. Union 
 Efforts. 5. English Non-conformists. 
 
 II. THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 
 
 §35. The Papacy, Monasticism, and Missions 184 
 
 1. The Papacy. 2. New Orders. 3. Missions. 
 I 36. Mysticism, Quietism, Jansenism -. 188 
 
 1. Mysticism and Quietism. 2. Jansenism in its First Stages. 
 I 37. Science and Art 192 
 
 1. Theology. 2. Church Music. 3. Poetry. 
 
 III. THE LUTHERAN CHURCH. 
 
 I 38. Lutheran Orthodoxy and its Struggles 196 
 
 1. Orthodoxy in Conflict with itself. 2. The Syncretistic Con- 
 troversy. 3. First Stages of the Pietistic Controversy. 
 
 4. Theology.
 
 * CONTENTS. VL 
 
 l 39. Religious Life in the Lutheran Church 202 
 
 1. Mysticism and Asceticism. 2. Mysticism and Theosophy. 
 
 5. Church Hymns. 4. Psalmody. 5. Christian Life. 
 
 6. Missions. 
 
 lY. THE REFORMED CHURCH. 
 
 § 40. Reformed Theology and its Conflicts 207 
 
 1. The Armiuian Controversy. 2. Its Effects. 3. The Carte- 
 sian and Cocceian Controversies. 4. Theology. 
 
 §41. Piety in the Reformed Church 216 
 
 1. iNIusic and ^Esthetics. 2. Missions. 
 
 V. ANTI AXD EXTRA-ECCLESIASTICAL MATTERS. 
 
 §42. Sects and Fanatics 218 
 
 1. The Netherland Anabaptists. 2. The English Baptists. 
 3. The Quakers. 4. Schismatics and Sects. 5. Russian 
 Sects. 
 
 §43. Philosophers and Free-thinkers 222 
 
 1. Philosophers. 2. Free-thinkers. 
 
 THIRD PERIOD OF CHURCH HISTORY IN ITS MODERN GERMANIC 
 FORM OF DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 (Eighteenth Century.) 
 I. THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. 
 
 § 44. The Roman Catholic Church .'. 226 
 
 1. The Popes of the first half of this Century. 2. New Orders. 
 3. jNIissions. 4. The Counter-reformation. 5. Conver- 
 sions. 6. .Jansenism in its second stage. 7. The Order 
 of Jesuits abolished. 8. Anti-hierarchical movements in 
 Germany. 9. The French Revolution. 10. Illumination. 
 11. Theology. 
 I 45. Oriental Orthodox Church 288 
 
 II. THE PROTESTANT CHURCH. 
 
 § 46. The Liitheran Church before the Illumination 240 
 
 1. Second stage of the Pietistic Controversies. 2. Theology. 
 3. Theories of Canon-law. 4. Hymnology. 5. Psal- 
 mody. 6. Piety and Devotional Literature. 7. Mis- 
 sions. 
 §47. The Moravians (Unitas Fratrum) 252 
 
 1. Zinzendorf. 2. Establishment of the Church. 3. Progress 
 of the Church. 4. Zinzendorf's Plans and Labors. 5. 
 Spangenberg. G. Missions. 
 5 48. The Reformed Church and Methodism 26Ö 
 
 1. Methodism. 2. Union Efforts. 3. Theology.
 
 X CONTENTS. 
 
 g 49. New Sects and Fanatics 269 
 
 1. Fanatics and Schismatics in Germany. 2. The Inspiration 
 Congregations in Wetterau. 3. Dippel. 4. Hypocriti- 
 cal and Immoral Sects. 5. Swedenborgianism. 6. New 
 Baptist Sects. 7. New Quaker Sects. 8. The Hebrews 
 and Hattemists. 
 § 50. The Theology and Literature of the period of Illumination 276 
 
 1. English Deists. 2. The Forerunners of German Illumina- 
 tion, o. Illumination in Germany from 1750. 4. Tran- 
 sition Theology. 5. Rationalistic Theology. 6. Supra- 
 naturalistic Theology. 7. German Philosophy. 8. Na- 
 tional Literature. 
 2 51. Ecclesiastical Life during the period of Illumination 288 
 
 1. Dilution of Hymn-books, and Sacred Poetry. 2. Psalmody. 
 3. Church parties. 4. Christian Societies and Missions. 
 
 FOURTH PERIOD OF CHURCH HISTORY IN ITS MODERN GER- 
 MANIC FORM OF DEVELOPMENT, 
 
 (Nineteenth Century.) 
 
 I. GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 
 
 ^ 52. Review of Religious Movements during the Nineteenth Century... 293 
 2 53. General basis of culture in the nineteenth century, in its relations 
 
 to Theology and the Church 295 
 
 1. German Philosophy. 2. The Sciences. 3. National Lite- 
 * rature 4. National Culture. 5. Art. 
 
 II. PROTESTANTISM. 
 
 2 64. The Protestant Church in general, especially in Germany 306 
 
 1. Rationalism. 2. Pietism. 3. The Union. 4. Lutheran 
 opposition to the Union. 5. The Confederation. 6. Lu- 
 theranism. 7. Melanchthonianism and Calvinism. 8. 
 Complications regarding Worship. 9. Home ; and, 10. 
 Foreign Missions. 
 
 g 55. Protestant Established Church 327 
 
 1. Prussia. 2. Saxony. 3. Hanover, Oldenbui-g, Mecklen- 
 burg, Hessen, Lippe. 4. Würtemberg and Baden. 5. 
 Switzerland. 6. Austria. 7. Bavaria. 8. England, 
 Scotland, Ireland. 9. Holland, Denmark, Sweden, Nor- 
 way. 10. France and Belgium. 11. Italy, Spain, Rus- 
 sia, Turkey. 12. North America. 
 
 5 56. Protestant Theology in Germany 351 
 
 1. The Founders of the Theology of the Nineteenth Century. 
 2. Rationalistic Theology. 3. The Supranaturalistic 
 Schools. 4. Speculative Theology and the School of 
 Baur. 5. The ^lodern or German School. 6. Lutheran 
 Confessional Theology.
 
 CONTENTS. XI 
 
 ITI. ROMAN CATHOLICISM. 
 
 J 57. Eouian Catholicism in general 376 
 
 1. The Papacy. 2. The Jesuits, Trappists, School-sisters. 
 3. Proselj'tisin. 4. Ultramontism. 5. National Reli- 
 gious Liberalism. 6. The Unions. 7. Theology. 
 
 1 58. Roman Catholic National Churches 392 
 
 1. Italy. 2. Spain, Portugal, South America. 3. France, 
 Belgium, Holland. 4. England, Ireland, N. America. 
 5. Austria, Bavaria, and Hanover. 6. The Church Pro- 
 vince of the Upper Rhine. 7. Prussia and Mecklen- 
 burg. 8. Switzerland, 
 g 59. The Orthodox Greek Church 403 
 
 IT. ANTI-CIIRISTIANITY. 
 § 60. Sects and Fanatics 405 
 
 1. The Propagation of the older Sects. 2. Fanatical Pheno- 
 mena. 3. The Harmonites. 4. The New Templars. 
 5. The Hypocrites of Königsberg. 6. The Irwingians. 
 7. The Darbyites. 8. The Amen Society. 9. The Mor- 
 mons. 
 
 2 01. Practical Anti-Christianity „ 414 
 
 1. The St. Simonites. 2. Socialists and Communists. 
 Chronological Tables. 
 Index.
 
 THIRD SECTION. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH 
 
 MODERN GERMANIC FORM OF DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 46 (26)
 
 I 1. CHARACTER AND LIMITATIONS OF CHURCH HISTORY 
 IN THE MODERN GERMANIC FORM OF DEYELOPxMENT. 
 
 In the Reformation of the sixteenth century, the Germanic 
 spirit, which, until then, had been under the tutelage and disci- 
 pline of the Romish Church, attained to maturity and inde- 
 pendence. It fully emancipated itself from the bondage of its 
 master, who had become an ambitious oppressor, and had made 
 every eflTort to suppress all independent attempts to secure eccle- 
 siastical, theological, and scientific freedom — all movements in 
 favor of evangelical reforms. In the primitive history of the 
 Church, the person of Christ was made the centre of salvation, 
 and the Holy Scriptures were set forth as the source of all an- 
 nouncements and knowledge of salvation. The development of 
 Christianity was impelled in the ancient Church by tradition, 
 in the medicBval by the hierarchy, in the modern by science. 
 Tradition represents the continued agency of the Holy Ghost 
 in the Church — the hierarchy represents Christas supremacy over 
 the Church. By the former the catholicity of the Church was 
 developed ; the latter protected the Church against the storms 
 which arose amid the conflicts of the ancient and modern world, 
 and secured its perpetuation. But both tradition and the hier- 
 archy transcended their proper limits ; hence upon modern 
 science devolved the duty of leading men back to the fountain 
 of salvation in Christ, and of the knowledge of that salvation 
 in the Scriptures, that thus the truth might be sifted of false- 
 hood, and that which was normal be separated from abnormal 
 developments in the history of the Church. This happened in 
 the Reformation. Not that science produced the Reformation, 
 for it was rather called forth by deep anxieties for tlie salvation 
 of the soul, against which Romisli tradition had sealed the Sacred 
 Scriptures, and Romish indulgences and justification by works 
 
 (27)
 
 28 CHARACTER OF MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. 
 
 had barred faith in Christ. But the Reformation became the most 
 zealous patron of science, because science furnished the means 
 of discovering, establishing, and perfecting the principles of true 
 reform. These principles were : the sole normal authority of 
 the Holy Scriptures, and justification by faith alone, without any 
 merit of works. 
 
 1. As the Romish Church, in opposition to the Reformation, clung 
 to its peculiarities, both in form and substance, and even reaffirmed 
 them, the occidental Church was sundered into an Evangelical Pro- 
 testant and a Roman Catholic Church. And, as the principles of the 
 Reformation were differently apprehended. Protestantism divided into 
 two branches, the Lutheran and the Reformed Churches. In addition 
 to these three western Churches, and the ancient oriental Church, all 
 which were based upon the common foundation of primitive Catholi- 
 cism, various sects arose which repudiated that Catholicism, and set up 
 for themselves. In consequence of these divisions and schisms, modern 
 Church History exhibits varieties, activities, and rivalries, with good 
 and bad fruits, such as no previous period presents. Another still 
 more distinctive peculiarity of this age of the Church is found in the 
 fact that infidelity, fanaticism, worldliness, and anti-Christianity have 
 developed tnemselves in its course more vigorously, widely, and con- 
 sistently, than ever before, so that an anti-Christian secular Church is 
 seen in violent antagonism to the true Church of Christ. This progress 
 of anti-Christianity has its ground in this : that, according to prophecy 
 and historical necessity, the kingdom of darkness will develop itself 
 parallel with the kingdom of God more decidedly and vigorously as it 
 approaches its end, and thus become ripe for judgment. In regai-d to 
 the duty of the Church to extend its limits, we find that, whilst the 
 early Church prosecuted the work of missions among the Greeks and 
 Romans, and the mediseval Church spread Christianity among the 
 Germanic-Slavonian nations, the modern Church has engaged in the 
 work of bearing the Gospel to countries beyond the ocean, so that, be- 
 fore the end of all things, Christianity may make the circuit of the 
 earth. 
 
 2. Modern Church History clearly and distinctly presents four sepa- 
 rate forms of development, by which its division into as many periods 
 is justified. The main characteristic points of their distinction consists 
 partly in the opposition between particular Churches, partly in the 
 antagonism between faith and infidelity. The transitions from one 
 period to another nearly correspond with those of the several centuries. 
 'Yh.Q first period is the age of the Reformation (the sixteenth century), 
 in which the reformatory German church-life was separated from the 
 Romano-German, and their reciprocal relation became fixed. The 
 second period, extending beyond the seventeenth century, was that 
 of the general conflict between the leading particular Churches, anc
 
 CHARACTER OF MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. 29 
 
 exhibits their free, independent development. It is characterized as the 
 age of orthodoxy, and of the supremacy of confessions of faith. In the 
 third period, reaching to the commencement of the nineteenth century, 
 infidelity, in the form of deism, rationalism, and naturalism, began to 
 assert its authority. The fourth period, beginning with the present 
 century, includes our own times. Revived faith, invigorated by its 
 triumphant conflict with rationalism, branches out on the side of Pro- 
 testantism, into latitudinarian unionism, and strict confessionalism, 
 whilst the Romish Church mounts to the pinnacle of the most zealous 
 ultra-montanism. Infidelity, also, assumes new and decidedly anti- 
 Christian forms, in the shape of ])antheism, materialism, and commu- 
 ni-im, and seems to wage a war of extermination against everything 
 Christian in Church and State, in science and faith, in social and poli- 
 tical life. 
 
 46 =
 
 FIRST PERIOD 
 
 OP 
 
 CHURCH HISTORY 
 
 IN ITS MODERN GERMANIC FORM OF DEVELOPMENT 
 
 SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 I. THE REFORMATION. 
 
 Sources: 1. Luther's "Works, published by J. G. Walch, Halle, 1740- 
 52, 24 vols. 4to. Erlangen ed. 1826-55, 65 vols. 8vo. Mdanchthon' s 
 Works in the Corpus Reformatorum, ed. C. G. Brefschneider. Hal., 
 1834, sqq. (thus far 25 vols. 4to.) — G. Spalatini Annales reform, to 
 1543, publ. by Cyprian, Leips. 1718 ; ib. hist. Nachl. u. Briefe, publ. 
 by Neudecker u. Preller, Jen. 1851. — Fr. Myconii Ref. Hisi., publ. by 
 Cyprian, Gotha, 1715. — Ratzeberger (kursUchs. Leibarzt) handschr. 
 Gesch. über Luther u. s. Zeit, publ. by Neudecker, Jena, 1850. — /. 
 Cochlaei (Catholic) Commentt. de actis et scriptis Lutheri, Mog. 1549. 
 In opposition to it, J. Sleidani commentt. de statu relig. et reipubl. 
 Carolo V. CfBsare. Arg. 1555. — Ahr. Sculteti Annales evang. Sec. 
 XVI. (to 1536) ed. H. van der Hardt. Frcf. 1717. 
 
 2. V. E. Löscher, vollst. Ref. Acta (to 1519). Lpz. 1720, etc. 3 Bde. 
 4to. — C. G. Neudecker, Urkd. aus d. Ref. Zeit. Cass. 1836; id., Acten- 
 stücke, Nürnb. 1838 ; id.. Neue Beitr. Lpz. 1841. — C. G. Försiemann, 
 Archiv für die Gesch. d. Ref. Halle, 1831, etc. ; id. Neues Urkunden- 
 buch, Ilamb. 1842, 4to. 
 
 3. L. Maimhourg (a Jesuit) Hist, du Luth6ranisme, Par. 1680. In 
 Opposition to this : L. de Seckendorf, Commentarius Hist, et Apol. de 
 Lutheranismo, Frcf 1688, 4to. — W. C. Tenfzel, hist. Bericht von d. 
 Anf. u. Fortg. d. Ref. Lutheri, publ. by Cyprian, Lpz. 1718, 3 Bde. — 
 C. A. Salig, Gesch. d. augsb. Conf. (to 1555). Halle, 1730, etc. 3 Bde. 
 4to. — Dan. Gerdesii introd. in hist. ref. Groning. 1744, 4 vols. 4to. 
 
 4. G. J. Planck, Gesch. d. Entst. Verändr. u. Rild. d. prot. Lehrbegr. 
 bis zur Concordienf. 2. A. Lpz. 1791, etc., 7 Bde. — Ph. Marheineke, 
 Gesch. d deutsch. Ref. (to 1555). 2. A. Berl. 1831, etc.— C. G. Neu- 
 
 (30)
 
 THE WITTENBERG REFORMATION. 31 
 
 decTcer, Gesch. d. deutsch. Ref. (to 1532). Lpz. 1843. — C. H. Bresshr, 
 Gesch. d. deutsch. Ref. Danz. 1846, 2 Bde.— Ä". N. Hagenhach, Vorless. 
 üb. Wes. u. Gesch. d. Ref. Bd. 1. 2. Gesch. d. Ref. in Deutschi. u. d. 
 Schweiz. 2. A. Lpz. 1851. — /. H. Merle-d'Auhigne, Hist, of the Ref. 
 of the Sixteenth Cent. (5 vols, publ.) — B. ter Haar, d. Ref. Gesch. ia 
 Schilderungen, from the Dutch by C. Gross. Hamb. 1856. 2 Bde. 
 
 5. J. G. Müller, Denkwürdigkk. aus d. Gesch. d. Ref. Lpz. 1806. — 
 K. Hagen, Deutschi, literat. u. rel. Zustände im Zeitalt. d. Ref Erlg. 
 1841, etc. 3 Bde. — F. A. Hohhausen, d. Protest, nach sr. gesch. Entst., 
 BegrUnd. u. Fortbild. Lpz. 1844-49. 2 Bde. — D. Schenkel das Wesen 
 d. Protest. Schaif h. 1845, etc., 3 Bde. — H. Heppe, Gesch. d. deutsch. 
 Protest. Marb. 1852. Bd. I. (the Melanchth. tendency in Ch. hist.) 
 
 6. K. Riffel, K. G. d. neust. Zeit. 2. A. Mainz, 1847, etc. 3 Bde. — 
 Ign. Döllinger, de Ref. im Umfange d. Luth. Bekenntn. 2. A. Regensb. 
 1852, etc. 3 Bde. (both odiously ultra-montane). 
 
 7. Luther's Lehen, by Melanchthon, Wittb. 1546 ; by /. Maihesms 
 (in sermons), publ. by Riist. Berl. 1841, and often: by i^^ic. Sclnecker, 
 ed. Mayer. AVittb. 1687, 4to. ; by D. Herrnschmidt, ilalle, 1742; by 
 /. G. IValch, in the 24th vol. of Luther's works ; by F. S. Keil, Lpz. 
 1764; by G. H.A. ükert, Goth. 1817. 2 Bde ; by G. Pfizer, Stuttg. 
 1836 ; by C. F. G. Stang,\ Stuttg. 1838 ; by M. Meiirer, 2. A. Dresd. 
 1852; by K. Jürgens (to 1517), Lpz. 1846. 3 Bde; by L. Weißmann, 
 Hamb. isSO ; by H. Gelzer, mit bildl. Darstell, v. G. König, Ilamb. 
 1851. 
 
 8. C. A. Menzel, Neuere Gesch. d. Deutsch. Berl. 1826, etc. Bd. 1.^8. 
 — Leop. Ranke, deutsch. Gersch. in Zeitalter d. Ref. 3. A. Berl. 1852. 
 6 Bde. — C. cle Villers, Essai sur I'esprit et I'influence de la r6f. du XYI 
 Bifecle. 5 ed. Par. 1851. [Transl. by Sam. Miller, Princeton. 1833.] 
 
 9. H. Bullinger, Ref. Gesch. (to 1532), publ. by Hoftinger u. Vogeli. 
 Frauenf. 1838. 3 Bde.—/. C. Fusslin, Beitr. zur ErlUutr. d. K. Ref. 
 Hist. d. Schweizerlande. Zürich, 1751, etc., 5 Bde. — /. /. Simler, 
 Samml. alt. u. neuer Urkd. Zürich. 1757. 5 Bde.— i. Maimbonrg, Hist, 
 du Calvanlsme. Par. 1682. In opposition : P. Barjle. Critique g^nörale, 
 etc. Rottd. 1684. 2 voll. — /. Basnage, Hist, de la relig. des ^glisea 
 ref. 2 ed. Haye, 1725. 2 voll. 4to.— /. /. Hoftinger, helvet. K. G. 
 Zürich, 1805, etc. 5 Bde. — ^. Ruchat, Hist, de la r6f de la Suisse. 
 Gen. 1727, etc. 6 voll. — /. D. Beavsobre, Hist, de la r^f. (to 1530) 
 Berl. 1785. 3 voll. — L. Wirz u. M. Kirchhofer, neuere helv. K. G 
 Zürich. 1813. 2 Bde.
 
 32 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A.D.). 
 
 J. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE REFORMATION. 
 
 g 2. COMMENCEMENT OF THE WITTENBERG 
 REFORMATION. (1517-19.) 
 
 No historical event so clearly and plainly displays a ruling 
 divine Providence as the German Reformation. In its case, 
 place, time, persons, circumstances, and relations, religious and 
 political, all combined most wonderfully to secure, for the great 
 work, a firm basis, a safe position, a healthy tendency, strict 
 purity, powerful protection, general recognition, successful pro- 
 gress, and permanent results. There was a lively sense of the 
 errors of the Church, and a deep and general longing after a 
 reformation ; and science offered it ample means to effect a 
 reformation. The papal chair was occupied by a man as indif- 
 ferent and indolent as Leo X. ; and another, as foolhardy and 
 shameless as Tetzel, vended indulgences For the tender plant, 
 there was provided a protector as pious, faithful, and consci- 
 entious, as honored and esteemed, as Frederick the Wise. On 
 the imperial throne sat Charles V., sufficiently powerful and 
 inimical to kindle the purifying fires of affliction, but too much 
 involved in political troubles to render a reckless and violent 
 suppression of the movement either prudent or possible. Be- 
 sides these, there were a great many other persons, circumstances, 
 and complications, all which seemed to conspire, as by design, 
 to strengthen and advance the cause. Then, finally, at the pro- 
 per time, at the most desirable place, and amid the most favor- 
 able circumstances, arose a genius like Luther, in whom was 
 found the rarest combination of all the gifts and qualities of 
 spirit, mind, character, and will, requisite to the great work. 
 He was, moreover, providentially trained for his high mission by 
 the events of his life, and by being made to experience in his 
 own soul the essential principles of the Reformation, and to 
 make such proof of its divine power, that he felt irresistibly 
 impelled to communicate to the world this most sacred and pre- 
 cious e.xperience of his life. The great work began with the 
 nailing of ninety-five simple theses to the door of the Witten- 
 berg Castle ohurch, and the Leipsic disputation constituted the 
 Srst prominent point in his history.
 
 THE WITTENBERG REFORMATION. 33 
 
 1. Luther's Early Years. — Martin Luther was born at Eisleben, No- 
 vember 10, 1483. After growing up under strict parental discipline, 
 and amidst the wants and privations of poverty, he went, in 1501, to 
 study law at the university of Erfurt. Deeply affected by the sudden 
 death of his friend Alexius, he entered the Augustine monastery at 
 Erfurt in 1505. In great distress for the salvation of his soul, he 
 sought to quiet his conscience by fastings, prayers, and penances. But 
 his temptations ever returned with new power. An old brother in the 
 monastery, one day, repeated to the distressed and almost exhausted 
 penitent the article of the creed: " I believe in the forgiveness of sins." 
 It was a word of comfort to his soul. He was still more cheered by 
 the counsel of his noble superior, John Staupitz, the provincial of the 
 Augustines for Germany. He pointed out to him the way of true 
 repentance and faith in the Saviour, who was crucified not for imaginary 
 sins. Following his advice, Luther zealously studied the Bible, along 
 with the writings of Augustine, and of the mystics of the middle ages. 
 In 1508, Staupitz aided him in obtaining an appointment to the chair 
 of philosophy in the University of Wittenberg, founded in 1502. This 
 compelled him thoroughly to study scholastic authors. A journey to 
 Rome, undertaken in 151^^ at the request of his order, had a mighty 
 influence upon his future course. Indignant at the blasphemous levity 
 and immorality exhibited there by the clergy, and unappeased by the 
 outward penances to which he submitted, he returned home. All the 
 way back, these words resounded in his ears: "The just shall live by 
 faith." It was a voice from God to his soul, and filled his troubled 
 spirit with divine peace. After his return, Staupitz gave him no rest 
 until he was promoted to the theological doctorate (1512), when he 
 commenced lecturing upon theology, and also preaching in Wittenberg. 
 Guided by the study of Augustine, he penetrated ever more deeply 
 into the knowledge of the Scriptures, and of their fundamental doc- 
 trine of justification by faith; he attained daily to greater freedom 
 fi'om the trammels of scholastic formalism, and from those of mediajval 
 pantheistic mysticism, by which he had, at first, allowed himself to 
 be unduly influenced. 
 
 2. Luther's Theses. (Cf. F. G. Hoffmann, Lebensbeschr. Tetzel's. 
 Lpz. 1844. — FaZ. (?rö«e (Cath.) Tetzel u. Luther. Soest. 1853. In 
 reply: H. 0. Köhler, röm. Geschichtsverdrehung, etc., in the Luth. 
 Ztschr., 1855, III.—/. //. Heniies, Albr. v. Brandb. Mainz, 1858).— 
 Pope Leo X. had authorized a general indulgence, avowedly to com- 
 plete St. Peter's, but really to relieve his pecuniary embarrassments, 
 and gratify his love of splendor. Germany was divided among three 
 commissioners. The Elector Alhrecht of Mai/enee. who was also Arch- 
 bishop of Magdeburg (a brother of the Elector of Brandenburg), him- 
 eelf assumed the chief management of the commission for his pro- 
 vinces, reserving the half of the receipts for the liquidation of his own 
 debts. Among the vendors of indulgences whom he aiipoiuted, John-
 
 34 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A.D.} 
 
 Teizel, the Dominican prior, was the most scandalous. Attended by a 
 numerous retinue, he travelled from place to place, and offered hia 
 wares with the most unexampled impudence and obtrusive publicity. 
 Thus he set up in JlUerbock, near Wittenberg, and attracted crowds 
 of purchasers from all directions. Luther discovered, in the confes- 
 sional, the pernicious consequences of this disorder, and on the eve of 
 All Saints' Day, Oct. 31, 1517, -he nailed ninety-five theses (in Latin), 
 " in explanation of the power of indulgences," on the door of the castle 
 church in Wittenberg. Although these theses did not assail the doc- 
 trine of indulgence itself, but merely its abuse, their decided reference 
 to faith in Christ as the only ground of salvation, involved the life- 
 principle of the Reformation. With incredible rapidity the theses 
 were spread over Germany, and indeed over all Europe. Luther con- 
 nected with them a sermon for the people upon " indulgences and 
 grace." The movement met with so much favour, that the friends of 
 the old order of things were compelled to resist it. Tetzel publicly 
 burned the theses at JUterbock, and, with the aid of Conrad Wimpina 
 of Frankfort, prepared counter-theses, which he wished to discuss with 
 Luther. A number of copies of these were bought by the Wittenberg 
 students, and, in retaliation, burned by them ; an act of which Luther 
 highly disapproved. John Eck, pro-chancellor in Ingolstadt, one of 
 the most learned theologians of his day, and a professed friend of 
 Luther, wrote Obeliscos, in which, without naming Luther, he severely 
 denounced the Bohemian poison. Luther rejoined in his Asteriscos 
 At first Leo X., in his self-security, regarded the matter as nothing 
 more than an unimportant quarrel among the monks, and even praised 
 Brother Martin as a remarkable genius. Hogstraten' s cry of heresy he 
 did not heed, but had no objections that the Dominican, Si/lvestei' Pri- 
 erias, master sacri palatii, should controvert Luther. His book was a 
 miserable affair. Luther briefly and effectually refuted it. Prierias 
 wrote a second more wretched reply. Luther, instead of replying to 
 this, published it himself. Leo then enjoined silence upon his unskilful 
 advocate. — In May, 1518, Luther addressed a humble letter to the 
 pope, and, in self-justification, added detailed Resolutiones upon hia 
 theses. Both were to be sent to Leo by Staupitz. 
 
 3. Cajetan and Mlltiz (1518). — At length it was resolved, at Rome, to 
 lay vigorous hold of the Wittenberg movement. The papal fiscal entered 
 complaints against Luther, who was thereupon summoned to answer to 
 the charge, in Rome, within sixty days. But, at the solicitation of 
 the University of Wittenberg, and especially of Frederick the Wise, the 
 pope committed the settlement of the matter to his legate, Cardinal 
 Cajetan, at the Diet of Augsburg. Luther appeared and appealed to 
 the Bible. But the legate wished to refute him by the testimony of 
 the scholastics, and, after vainly demanding an unqualified retraction, 
 arrogantly turned away. Luther made a formal appeal to the pope, 
 mid happily escaped from Augsburg. Cajetan now sought to incite
 
 THE WITTENBERG REFORMATION. ö5 
 
 Frederick the Wise (1480-1525) against the refractory monk, but 
 Luther's meek and cheerful confidence won the heart of the noble 
 elector.— No good was to be looked for from Rome ; hence Luther pre- 
 pared, in advance, an appeal to a general council, which, however, the 
 covetousness of the printer prematurely circulated, against the will 
 of Luther. — In Rome, the unhappy issue of the diet was charged to 
 Cajetan's unwise obstinacy. By a papal bull, the doctrine of indul- 
 gences was carefully defined, their abuse disapproved, and the papal 
 chamberlain, Charles of Miliiz, a Saxon, a man of worldly adroitness, 
 was sent, in 1519, as papal nuncio to Saxony, to confer upon the elector 
 the sacred golden rose, and adjust the controversy. He began his work 
 by severely condemning Tetzel, and approached Luther with the most 
 flattering kindness. Luther apologized for his violence, wrote a 
 humble, submissive letter to the pope, and, in order to do all in hia 
 power, publicly issued an explanation of the views ascribed to him by 
 his opponent. But, notwithstanding these concessions, he firmly ad- 
 hered to the doctrine of justification by faith alone, without any merit 
 of good Avorks. He promised the nuncio to abstain from further con- 
 troversy, provided his opponents also remained silent; these, however, 
 did not comply. 
 
 4. The Leipsic Disputation (1519). (Cf /. K. Seidemann, d. Lpz. 
 Disp. Dresd. 1843.— C. G. Hering, de disp. Lps. hab. Lpz. 1839).— 
 John Eck, of Ingolstadt, who had previously exchanged cantroversial 
 treatises with Luther, had engaged in a dispute with Andrew Boden- 
 stein, of Carlstadt, a zealous adherent and colleague of Luther, a pro- 
 fessor and preacher in Wittenberg, and Luther himself had proposed 
 a disputation between them. This was to take place in Leipsic, in 
 1519. But the vain Eck not only sought to attract as much attention 
 as possible to the pi'oposed disputation, but to involve Luther in the 
 controversy. For eight days Eck debated with Carlstadt upon grace 
 and free will, and with overpowering skill, boldness, and learning, 
 defended Romish semi-pelagianism. Then for fourteen days he dis- 
 cussed, with Luther, the pope's primacy, repentance, indulgences, and 
 purgatory, and sorely pressed him with accusations of the Hussite heresy. 
 But Luther vigorously defended himself with Bible proofs, and became 
 convinced that even general councils (like that of Constance) might 
 err, and that not all Hussite doctrines are heretical. Both parties 
 claimed the victory. Luther followed up the debate with several con- 
 troversial tracts ; neither did Eck keep silent. Other combatants also 
 entered the field. The party of Liberal German Humanists had, at 
 first, taken but little notice of Luther's movements. But the Leipsic 
 disputation changed their views of the case. Luther seemed to them 
 a second Reuchlin, Eck as another Ortuinus Gratius. A pungent 
 anonymous satire, "Der abgehobelte Eck," which surpassed the Aris- 
 tophanian wit of the epistolte obscurorum virorum, was published 
 early in 1520. It was succeeded by several satires by Uhic von
 
 36 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A.D.). 
 
 Hütten ("Die Anschauenden," " Vadiscus, oder die römische Dreifal 
 tigkeit," etc.), whom Luther's appearance at Leipsic had anew elec- 
 trified. Hütten and Sickingen offered themselves and their entire 
 party, scul and body, pen and sword, to the service of Luther. Though 
 this league with the Humanists was temporarily needful to the Re- 
 formation, it would have given a wholly false direction to the cause, 
 had it not been, in due time, providentially dissolved. — The Leipsic 
 disputation likewise led to amicable relations between the Bohemian 
 Hussites and the German reformer ; letters, gifts, and messages, were 
 exchanged between them. But, on the other hand, Duke George of 
 Saxony, in whose castle and presence the disputation was held, became 
 from that time an irreconcilable foe of Luther and his Reformation. 
 (Cf. A. M. Schulze, Herz. Georg, u. M. Luther. Lpz. 1834.) 
 
 5. Philip Melanchthon. (Cf. Melanchthon's Leben by jP. Galle, Halle, 
 1840, and by K. F. Matthes, Altenb. 1841.) — There was a man present 
 at the Leipsic disputation who occupied a prominent place in the pro- 
 gress of the Reformation. Born at Bretten, in the Palatinate, in 
 1497, Philip Melanchthon [Schwartzerd) entered the university at 
 Heidelberg in his thirteenth year. Three years later he published a 
 Greek grammar ; in his seventeenth year he obtained the master's 
 degree, and in his twenty-first (1518), at the recommendation of 
 Reuchlin, a relative, was appointed professor of Greek at Wittenberg. 
 His fame soon spread over all Europe, and attracted to him thousands 
 of hearers from all countries. Luther and Erasmus both lauded his 
 talents, his fine culture, and his learning, and his age pronounced him 
 the Prceceptor Germanice. He was an Erasmus of loftier power and 
 nobler mien, a complementary counterpart of Luther. His entire 
 nature breathed forth modesty, mildness, and goodness. With child- 
 like simplicity he yielded to the power of evangelical truth, and humbly 
 bowed to the more forcible practical spirit of Luther, who, on his part, 
 however, gratefully acknowledged the goodness of God in raising up 
 such a coadjutor for him and his cause. — Melanchthon wrote a report 
 of the Leipsic disputation to his friend CEcolampadius, which incident- 
 ally fell into Eck's hands. This occasioned a controversy between 
 them, in which Eck's vain self-exaltation, and Melanchthon's noble 
 modesty, were equally manifest. His first participation in the new 
 movement was in the form of an apology for Luther, issued under an 
 assumed name. 
 
 §3. THE PERIOD OF LUTHER'S EARLIEST CONFLICTS 
 AND STRAITS. (1520, 1521.) 
 
 The Leipsic disputation led Lutlier to assume an essentially 
 freer point of view. He was made to see that he could not 
 stop half-way ; that his great principle of justification by faith 
 was wholly incompatible with the hierarchical system of the
 
 LUTHER'S CONFLICTS AND STRUTS. 3? 
 
 papacy and its fundamental doctrines. But along with his 
 violence and subjective one-sidedness, which he displayed in this 
 period of his earliest conflicts and straits (1520, 1521), he still 
 possessed sufficient considerateness to hold fast to the spiritual 
 chai^acter of his reformatory labors, and to reject the carnal aid 
 offered by Ulric von Hütten and his warlike associates, how- 
 ever thankfully he acknowledged their ardent sympathy. The 
 position he then occupied, as well as the full height of his sub- 
 jectivism at that time, are set forth in two papers written during 
 the first half of the year 1520 : "An kaiserliche 3IaJestät und 
 den christl. Adel deutsclur Nation von des christlichen Standes 
 Besserung," in which he razed the three breastworks behind 
 which the papacy had intrenched itself (the supremacy of the 
 pope over all temporal powers, his exclusive authority to inter- 
 pret the Bible, and his sole right to convoke councils), and pro- 
 posed measures for the radical improvement and reconstruction 
 of the German Church, — and " De.captivitate babylonica eecle- 
 sice," the main subject of which was the doctrine of the sacra- 
 ments. He admits only three (baptism, repentance, and the 
 Supper), and rejects the communio sub una, traiisubstantiation, 
 and the idea of a sacrifice in the Mass. Some of his works of 
 a more edifying character, also belong to this period, as the 
 exposition of Galatians, the manual on confession, the sermon 
 on good works, etc. The papal bull of excommunication incited 
 him to more violent words and acts, and with heroic boldness he 
 hastened to Worms, to lender an account of his doings before 
 the emperor and diet. The papal ban was followed by the 
 imperial proscription. But as an exile in Wartburg he escaped 
 from the hands of his foes and — his friends. 
 
 1. T/te Romish hidl of excommunication (1520). — To reap the fruits 
 of his imaginary victory, Eck had gone back to Rome, and returned 
 triumphantly as a papal nuncio with a bull dated June 15, 1520, in 
 which Luther was pronounced a heretic, his writings ordered to be 
 burned, and he threatened with the ban, unless he appeared in Rome 
 within sixty days. Miltiz made new attempts to compromise matters, 
 which, of course, were unsuccessful, altliough Luther, to show his 
 good intentions, gave them consideration, and proposed a basis of com- 
 promise in his tract — "Von der Freiheit eines Christenmenschen," in 
 which lie shunned controversy as much as possible. lie accompanied 
 this paper with a letter to the pope, in which, with all its sincere 
 expressions of humility, and reverence for the person of the pope, 
 whom he represented as dwelling in the midst of a most abominable. 
 47
 
 38 SECTION III. FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A.D.). 
 
 Romish Sodom and Gomorrah, like a sheep among -wolves, or like 
 Daniel in the lions' den, there was no trace of repentance or retraction. 
 It was easy to foresee, however, that neither paper would suit the taste 
 of the Romish court. Meanwhile, Eck came with the bull itself. After 
 its publication, Luther opened his assault upon it with three writings 
 (" Von den neuen Eckischen Bullen und Lügen," " Contra exsecra- 
 bilem Antichristi buUam," "Assertio omnium articulorum per bullam 
 Leonis X. novissimam damnatorum "), and renewed his appeal to a 
 general council, which he had carefully prepared two years before. — 
 In Saxony, Eck's bull only excited derision, but in Lyons, Mayence, 
 Cologne, etc., Luther's writings were really burned. Then Luther 
 took the boldest step of his life. Attended by a large concourse of 
 doctors and students, invited by a placard posted on the black board, 
 he burned the bull with the papal decretals on Dec. 10, 1520, at 9 a. m. 
 This was an absolute divorce from the pope and Romish Church. He 
 had thus rendered all retreat impossible. Ilutten shouted approbation, 
 and proclaimed in German rhymes a full catalogue of the sins of the 
 Romish curia. 
 
 2. Erasmus (1520). (Cf. Wr CMehus, Erasm. u. Luth., in the hist, 
 theol. Ztschr. 1845, II.— TF. E. Ehcrliardi, Warum blief Erasm. Kath., 
 ibid. 1839, III.) — Thus far Erasmus kept on good terms with Luther; 
 they cherished mutual respect and esteem. However diverse their 
 positive tendencies, they agreed in opposing scholasticism and monas- 
 ticism. Erasmus rejoiced in the defeat of an obnoxious monasticism, 
 and persistently rejected all solicitations to write against Luther; 
 neither did he care, as he confessed, to feel the rasp of Luther's wrath. 
 When the papal bull appeared, he decidedly disapproved of it, and 
 even expressed doubts as to its genuineness. As the oracle of his day, 
 his opinion of the whole matter was often asked. He said, the papal 
 decision itself was not to be condemned, but its manner and form. 
 He desired an arbitration of learned and pious men, with three princes 
 (the German emperor, and the kings of England and Hungary), to 
 whose decision Luther should submit. Frederick the Wise also (before 
 Luther had taken his boldest step) had consulted Erasmus, who then 
 said, that Luther had made two mistakes, he had touched the pontiff's 
 crown and the monks' bellies ; he also regretted Luther's want of 
 moderation and considerateuess. The elector heard these declarations 
 of Erasmus, not without approbation. The proposal to submit the 
 case to an arbitration, also had its influence upon "'ubsequent public 
 measures against Luther. 
 
 3. The Emperor Charles V. (1519-20).— The Emperor Maximilian 
 died Jan. 12, 1519. The Elector of Saxony, the regent of the empire, 
 declined his election in favour of Charles I., the young King of Spain, 
 Maximilian's grandson, who was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle, on 
 Oct. 23 All hopes centered in the young emperor. It was expected
 
 Luther's conflicts and straits. 39 
 
 tliat he would place himself at the head of the religious and rational 
 movement in Germany. But Charles, who was a stranger to the 
 impulses of the German spirit, and did not even understand the 
 language, had interests which he was not disposed to subordinate to 
 German politics. The German crown was but an integral part of his 
 power ; its interests had to subserve the general interests of the empire, 
 on whose domain the sun never set. He considered the religious 
 agitation in Germany important, but not so much in its religious as in 
 its political aspect. It furnished him with the desired means of keep- 
 ing the pope in check, and of compelling him to favour his interests. 
 Charles demanded two things of the pope for the suppression of the 
 religious movement in Germany : first, that he should renounce French 
 alliances, and league with the emperor against France ; secondly, the 
 withdrawal of the previously issued papal breve, which ordered a recon- 
 struction of the Spanish Inquisition — a main prop of absolute monarchy 
 in Spain. Leo X. yielded to both demands, and thus the hopes of the 
 Germans, that Charles would at length rid the nation of the igno- 
 minious Roman yoke, were frustrated. The compact between the 
 emperor and pope was concluded on May 8, 1521. — Charles opened his 
 first diet at Woi-ms on Jan. 28, 1521. In February a papal brief 
 arrived, urgently admonishing the emperor legally to enforce the bull 
 against Luther. During a tournament Charles summoned the princes 
 to^his quarters, communicated the breve to them, and submitted an 
 edict couched in strong terms, enjoining the execution of the bull. He 
 desired them, at once to give their assent. But he mot with unex- 
 pected opposition. The States demanded that Luther should be sum- 
 moned to Worms, under an imperial safe-conduct, to answer the charges 
 made against him. They could not consider his assaults upon Romish 
 abuses a crime, since they themselves had drawn up an indictment 
 of 101 gravaminam against Rome, which they intended laying before 
 the diet. Still they declared themselves ready to subscribe the edict, 
 if Luther would not retract in regard to points of doctrinal dispute. 
 Earnestly as the papal legate Alexander protested against a temporal 
 diet affording a heretic the opportunity of a trial, the opinion of the 
 Estates prevailed. An imperial herald was dispatched to Witten]>erg 
 to summon Luther to "Worms under an imperial safe-conduct. Before 
 his arrival, the confessor of the emperor, Glapio, a Franciscan, wlio 
 was by no means a blind devotee of the Romish chair, sought to effect 
 an amicable settlement of the affair. He thought if Luther would 
 but retract the most offensive of his books, as that of the Babylonian 
 captivity of the Church, and acknowledge the decrees of Constance, 
 the whole case might be dismissed. He first laid this proposition 
 before tlio Elector of Saxony, and after failing with him, sought Francis 
 of Sichingen in the castle of Ebern He embraced the plan, and 
 invited Luther to a conference in his castle. But Luther did not true* 
 Glapio, and declined the invitation.
 
 40 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CEVT. 16A. D.). 
 
 4. Luther at the Diet of Worms (1521). (Cf. W. Bot/e, Luth. zu "W 
 Halle. 2 A. 1824.— Zimmer, Luth. zu W. Heidelb. 1821.) — In th« 
 meantime Luther had not been idle at Wittenberg. He preached 
 twice daily, delivered lectures, wrote books and letters, had confer 
 ences, and contended with opponents, especially with Jerome Emser 
 in Leipsic, with whom he became involved in a long and odious corre« 
 spondence in regard to his memorial addressed to the German nobility. 
 The imperial herald found him in the midst of these various labors. 
 He dropped everything, and obeyed the citation with courage and 
 confidence. The fears of his friends in Wittenberg, the admonitions 
 to return which were addressed to him on his way, he discarded with 
 Christian heroism, in his usual vigorous manner. His journey re- 
 sembled a triumphal march. He reached Worms on April 14, amidst 
 a dense mass of people, attended by his theological friends, Justus 
 Jonas and Nicholas Amsdorf, and the legal counsellor, Jerome Schürf. 
 Soon after his arrival, on April 17, he was cited before the diet. He 
 acknowledged the books laid before him as his own ; in regard to the 
 required retraction, he obtained time for consideration until the follow- 
 ing day. In his subsequent declaration, he divided his books into 
 three classes (those setting forth positive doctrines, controversial writ- 
 ings against the papacy and papal doctrines, and those directed against 
 private persons), and gave his reasons, at length, for refusing to recall 
 any of them. A direct answer was demanded. He gave this by saying 
 that he would not and could not retract, unless it could be shown, from 
 Scripture, or by other clear proofs, that he was in error, and concluded 
 with the words: "Hier stehe ich, ich kann nicht anders, Gott helfe 
 mir ! Amen." He had won the hearts of many German knights and 
 princes, but had not favorably impressed the emperor. Still, Charles 
 spurned the suggestion to withdraw the promised safe-conduct from the 
 heretic. Well-meant attempts, urging him still to retract, Luther 
 met with the words of Gamaliel (Acts 5 : 38, 39), and on April 26, 
 left Worms without hindrance. On May 26, after some of the princes 
 (including the Elector of Saxony) had gone away, the papal legate suc- 
 ceeded, by various secret machinations, in having the imperial decree, 
 couched in the severest terms, pronounced against Luther and all his 
 adherents, and falsely antedated May 8 [the edict of Worms). But 
 Luther had been safely concealed. 
 
 5. The Wartbtirg Exile (1521-22). (Cf. C. Köhler, Luth. auf d. 
 Wartb. Eisenach, 1798, 4to.) — By the provident arrangement of the 
 elector, two masked knights, with some servants, had surrounded Lu- 
 ther's carriage, in a forest near Eisenach, seized Luther, and, with 
 seeming violence, borne him ofi" to the Wartburg, where, dressed in 
 the garb of a knight, and known as Knight George, he was directed 
 quietly to await further developments. It was generally supposed that 
 he was dead. But when Cardinal Albert, of Mayence (as Archb. of 
 Magdeburg), reopened the sale of indulgences in Halle, he soon dis-
 
 Luther's conflicts and straits. 41 
 
 covered, to his terror, that the bold monk was still li\;ing. At tht 
 elector's request, he indeed kept back his tract, "Wider den Al gott von 
 Halle," for the time, but in a letter addressed to the cardinal, peremp- 
 torily required him to cease the traffic within fourteen days. The arch- 
 bishop succumbed, and wrote a mild apologetic answer. Luther also 
 gave more public proof that he still lived, and was not inclined to 
 keep silent, or change his course, by writings of an instructive or 
 destructive character. He completed his exposition of the Magnificat, 
 sent forth the first part of his Church-postils, wrote " Wider den IMiss- 
 brauch der Messen," "Von den geistlichen und Klostergelübden," etc. 
 Nevertheless, he was greatly dissatisfied with the elector's precaution, 
 by which, at such a time, he was withdrawn from active life. He 
 would rather " burn on glowing coals than rot in such inaction." But 
 this very involuntary exile rescued him and the Reformation from a 
 ruinous downfall. Apart from the dangers to which the imperial sen- 
 tence exposed him, and which might have compelled him to seek refuge 
 with an Ulric von Hütten and his associates, which would have made 
 the Reformation degenerate into a revolution — apart from this, the 
 compulsory detention in the Wartburg was advantageous and im- 
 portant to Luther and his cause, in many respects. One advantage of 
 it was, that men thus learned to distinguish Luther's work from his 
 person ; but a still greater advantage was that which accrued to Luther 
 himself from this exile. His past life had exposed him to the danger 
 of attempting to carry on the work by violent, stormy measures, rather 
 than by considerate and positive means. The leisure of the Wart- 
 burg compelled him quietly and earnestly to examine himself and his 
 labors, which he could not do amid the conflicts and perplexities of his 
 public life, and the fanaticism of the Wittenberg iconoclasts, and pro- 
 phets of Zwickau, which he could now observe and judge of calmly 
 and without prejudice, showed him, as in a warning mirror, whither 
 he too, and his work, might have been hurried. His theological know- 
 ledge, also, had not acquired that ripeness, circumspection, and clear- 
 ness, which he needed to carry on his work, for he was still largely 
 involved in subjectivism. At the Wartburg, howevei", he could turn 
 from his work of demolition to that of building up, and by the undis- 
 turbed study of the Holy Scriptures, extend, purify, and strengthen his 
 religious views. It was of special importance, also, that at the Wart- 
 burg he formed and partly (in regard to the.New Testament) executed 
 the plan of translatinci the wliole Bible into German. His exile, like- 
 wise, by restraining his violent temper, and, by the inward temptations 
 and conflicts he then experienced, served to humble him, to strengthen 
 his religious character, and to purge and sanctify his entire nature. 
 
 47*
 
 i2 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A.D.). 
 
 g 4. DEGENERACY AND PURIFICATION OF THE REFORMA 
 TION IN WITTENBERG. (1522-25.) 
 
 During Luther's absence, the Reformation had progressed, iu 
 Wittenberg, only too rapidly, and soon became entangled in the 
 wildest fanaticisms. But Luther hastened to the scene, obtained 
 control of the movement, and soon brought it back to moderate 
 evangelical measures. The fanatics fled from Wittenberg, but 
 only to carry on their revolutionary disorders elsewhere. At the 
 same time, however, danger threatened from other directions. 
 The religious movement started by Luther happened to be simul 
 taneous with a twofold political agitation, the conflict of the 
 German knights with the princes, and the insurrection of the 
 German peasants against the nobility. The Reformation was in 
 danger of being mixed up with these political movements, and 
 of sharing their fate. But Luther stood firm as a rock against 
 all temptations, and the dangers passed by. 
 
 1. The Wittenberg Fanaticism (1522). (Cf. H. W. Erhham, Gesch. d. 
 protest. Secten im Zeitalter d. Ref. Hamb. 1848. — /. Hast, Gesch. d. 
 Wiedertäufer von ihrer Entst. zu Zwickau bis zu ihr. Sturz in Münst. 
 1835.) — An Augustine monk, Gabriel Didymus, preached in the Church 
 of St. Augustine in glowing terms against vows and private masses. 
 Thirteen of his Order left it together in consequence of his preaching. 
 Two neighboring priests married. Carlstadt wrote against celibacy, 
 and followed their example. At a monastery of the Order in Witten- 
 berg it was resolved to abolish mendicancy and the mass. But this 
 was not all. Didymus, and still more Carlstadt, so inflamed the people 
 and students, that under their guidance they perpetrated the grossest 
 violence. Public worship was wantonly disturbed, under the pretence 
 of exterminating the "idolatry" of the mass; images were cast out 
 of the churches, altars were broken down, and some desired wholly to 
 abolish the clergy and theological learning. A fanatical spirit began 
 to show itself simultaneously in Zwickau. At the head of the move- 
 ment were two weavers, Nicholas Storch and Thomas Marx, and a 
 literary character, Marcus Stübner, who pretended to divine revela- 
 tions, whilst Thomas M'änzer proclaimed the new gospel from the pul- 
 pit with glowing eloquence. Restrained in their operations by energetic 
 civil interference, the Zwickau prophets went abroad. Miinzer went 
 to Prague ; Storch, Marx, and Stübner to Wittenberg. There they 
 proclaimed their revelations, and zealously denounced infant baptism 
 as an institution of Satan. The disorder in Wittenberg daily increased. 
 The enemies of the Reformation rejoiced ; Melanchthon was at his 
 wits' end ; the elector was thunderstruck. Luther could endure it no 
 longer. Against the elector's express command he left the Wartburs
 
 DEGENERACY, ETC., OF THE REFORMATION. 4S 
 
 May 3, 1522, vrrote a heroic letter to the electors, availed himself of 
 his knightly incognito at a hotel in Jena, and calmly indulged in 
 cheerful fellowship [John Kessler), and soon after appeared publicly in 
 Wittenberg. For a whole week he preached night and day against the 
 fanatics, and soon became master of the storm. The Zwickau agita- 
 tors left Wittenberg ; Carlstadt remained, but kept quiet for a few 
 years, Luther and Melanchthon labored steadfastly to lay a positive 
 basis for the Reformation : Melanchthon had already made a beginning 
 in Dec. 1521, by publishing his Loci communes rerum theolog icarum. 
 In 1522, Luther also published, against the wish of his modest friend, 
 Melanchthon's Annotationes in Epist. Pauli ad Rom. et Cor. The same 
 year Luther's translation of the N. T. appeared, besides many defensive 
 and offensive reformatory writings, 
 
 2. Frauds of Sickingen (1522-23). (Cf. E. J. H. Munch, Fr. v. Sick. 
 Stuttg. 1827, 2 Bde.) — It was primarily a private feud, like those of 
 the middle ages, which led Francis of Sickingen, with a considerable 
 force, to invade the domain of the elector and Archbishop of Treves. 
 But prospective interests of quite a different character were connected 
 with it, and incited the whole body of knights to take part with Sick- 
 ingen. Sickingen's opponent was a prelate and an avowed foe of the 
 Reformation ; he was also a prince of the empire. Sickingen assailed him 
 in both capacities, and invoked co-operation in the name of religion 
 and political libei'ty. The knights who thoroughly disliked the state 
 of public affiiirs, and were dissatisfied with the imperial government 
 and the court, with princes and prelates, joined him in great numbers. 
 Sickino-en eagerly desired to have Luther in the league, but Luther 
 could not be moved. — Sickingen's enterprise proved unfortunate. The 
 Elector of the Palatinate, and the young Landgrave of Hesse, hastened 
 to the assistance of their princely neighbor. The knights were singly 
 put down, and Sickingen died of a mortal wound immediately after 
 the storming of Ebernburg (May, 1523). The power of the knights 
 was completely broken. The Reformation thus lost a brave and vigor- 
 ous protector, but escaped destruction. 
 
 3. Andrew Bodensfein of Carlsfadt (152-1-25). (Cf. 3fax Göbel, 
 Andr. Bodst. v. Karlst. ; in the Stud. u. Krit. 1841. — C. F. Jäger, 
 Andr. Bodst. v. Karlst. Stuttg. 185G.— /f. W. Erhkam, 1. c, p. 174. etc.) 
 — Even after the suppression of the Wittenberg fanaticism, Carlstadt 
 adhered to his revolutionary tendencies, and with difficulty remained 
 quiet for two years. In 1524, he left Wittenberg and wont to Orla- 
 münde. There he violently denounced Luther's popery, again assailed 
 the images, and began to advocate his view of the Lord's Supper, in 
 which he wholly rejected the doctrine of the real presence. (§11,1). 
 To check the disorder, iMther went to Jena, by direction of the elector, 
 and there preached in Carlstadt's presence against the iconoclasts and 
 eacramentarians. Carlstadt was greatly enraged. During a visit to
 
 44 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 1^ A. D.). 
 
 Orlamünde, Luther was greeted with curses and stones. The electoi 
 now commanded Carlstadt to quit the country. He first went to Strass« 
 burg, and tried to gain Martin Buc.er and Wolfgang Capito to his side. 
 Luther addressed a warning to the Christians of Strassburg, who en- 
 deavored to reconcile the two. Carlstadt next went to Basel, and issued 
 still more violent tracts against Luther's " stupid and shallow literal 
 theology." Luther rejoined earnestly, thoroughly, and severely in his 
 " "Wider den himmlischen Propheten von den Bildern und Sacrament" 
 (1525). Carlsfadi, meanwhile, had drawn the Swiss Reformers into 
 his disputes, and they kept up the controversy with Luther. He him- 
 self became implicated in the peasants' war ; then, through Luther's 
 mediation, obtained permission to return to Saxony, retracted his 
 errors, but soon again revived his old agitations ; and, after wandering 
 from place to place, became professor and preacher at Basel, Avhere he 
 died of the plague (1541). 
 
 4. r/wmas Münzer (1523-24). (Cf. Ph. Melanchtlion, Hist. Th. 
 Müntzer's; in Luther's Works by Walch, XVI.— G*. Th. Strohd, Leb.,. 
 Schriften, u. Lehren Th. Müntzer's. NUremb. 1795. — /. K. Seide- 
 mann, Th. M. Dresd. 1842. — L. Köhler, Th. M. u. s. Genossen. Lpz. 
 1846, 3 Bde.) — In Wittenberg, fanaticism had, happily, been subdued. 
 But a great portion of Germany began to ferment with a kindred, l)ut 
 more general and dangerous agitation. The prophets driven from Wit- 
 tenberg had not been idle, and 'persons of a still more fanatical and 
 factious spirit strove to uproot all order in Church and State. Their 
 leader was Thomas Münzer. After his expulsion from Zwickau he had 
 gone to Bohemia, and became an apostle of the Taborite doctrines. In 
 1523 he returned to Saxony, and took up his abode in Allstädt. There 
 he gained many adherents. Ther Wittenberg Reformation was as vehe- 
 mently reviled as the papacy. Not the letter of the Holy Scriptures, 
 but the Spirit should be made the principle of this reformation ; not 
 only all ecclesiastical but all civil institutions should be abolished, and 
 spiritualized. The doctrine of the evangelical liberty of Christians 
 was grossly abused, the sacraments despised, infant baptism reviled, 
 and all importance attached to the so-called baptism of the Spirit. 
 Princes should be driven away, the foes of the Gospel be extirpated 
 with the sword, and all possessions be held in common. When Luther 
 wrote a letter to the church at Mühlhausen, warning it against these 
 fanatical measures. Münzer became furious, and issued a libellous 
 reply, entitled : " Hoch verursachte Schutzrede und Antwort gegen das 
 geistlose sanftlebende Fleisch zu Wittenberg," in which he he.aped 
 upon Luther the most vulgar revilings, and sneered at his " honigsüs- 
 sen Christum," and " gedichtetes Evangelium." Soon afterwards he 
 was ordered by the elector to leave Saxcmy (1524). He went to the 
 Upper Rhine districts, where he found a luxuriant soil for his factious 
 Bjhemes.
 
 DEGENERACY, ETC., OF THE REFORMATION. 45 
 
 5. The Feasants' War (1525). (Cf. G. Sarforlus, Ber! 1795.— 
 F. Fr. Occhsle, Ileilbr. l^ZQ.—Burkhardt, Lpz. 1832. 2 Bdc- S.Bauer, 
 Ulm, 1836. — If. W. Bensen, Erlg. IMO. — W. Zimmermann, 2. Aufl. 
 Stuttg. 185G.— Tr. Wachsmuth, Lpx. 1834.—/. G. Jörg (Cath.), Deutschl. 
 in d. lievolutionsepoche 1522-25, Freib. 1851 ; and also K. Hegel, in 
 the kieler allg. Monattsschr. für Wsch. u. Kunst 1852, July and Au- 
 gust.) — For thirty years the peasantry of the empire had been restive 
 under oppressive political exactions. Twice, already (1502 and 1514), 
 had conspiracies (called " Bundschuh," from their signal,) been formed 
 and quelled. They now seized upon Luther's ideas of Christian liberty, 
 and drew their own inferences from them ; and when M'dazer began to 
 operate among them with his agitating and fanatical sermons, their 
 perverted views tended more and more to decided communism. As 
 early as August, 1524, an insurrection of peasants broke out in the 
 Black Forest ; but it was speedily put down. But, in the beginning 
 of 1525, fresh disturbances arose, and assumed a much more dangerous 
 character. The peasants reduced their demands to twelve articles, and 
 compelled princes, nobles, and prelates, to concede them. All Fran- 
 conia and Swabia soon joined the movement, and even many cities 
 made common cause with the insurgents. Still Münzer was not satis- 
 fied with the result. The twelve articles were too temperate for him, 
 and the compacts concluded with the nobility and clergy were not at 
 all to his mind. Returning to Thuringia, he took up his abode in 
 Mühlhausen, endeavored to stir up fanaticism in the entire country, 
 and organized a general insurrection. Thousands were murdered with 
 unmerciful cruelty ; all the monasteries, castles, and courts, were 
 attacked and destroyed. — Boldly as Luther had assailed the existing 
 ecclesiastical powers, he just as firmly maintained civil authority, and 
 preached that the Gospel secured spiritual liberty, hut did not subvert 
 civil government and social institutions. He did indeed sympathize 
 with the peasants in their extreme oppressions, and, whilst their de- 
 mands were limited to the twelve articles, he hoped the movement 
 might bo controlled by the power of the Gospel. The insurgents had 
 declared that, if any of their twelve articles could be proved incon- 
 sistent with the Word of God, they would yield. When Münzer began 
 his disturbances in Thuringia, Luther himself visited the towns most 
 in danger, and admonished them to quietness and subordination. He 
 was recalled to Wittenberg by the death of the Elector Frederick (who 
 departed in peace. May 5, 1525). From Wittenberg Luther then 
 addressed his " Ermahnung zum Frieden auf die 12 Artikel der Bauer- 
 echaft in Schwaben," in which he appealed earnestly to the consciences 
 of the princes as well as the peasants. But as the factious malcontents 
 still gained greater ascendancy, and cruelties were multiplied, he gave 
 vent to his ire in the book entitled, "Wider die rUnl)erischen und 
 mörderischen Bauern." In it he warmly called upon the princes tc 
 put down the Satanic rebellion by violent and effectual measures.
 
 46 SECTION III. — FIRST PEllIOD ^CENT. 16 A.D.). 
 
 PhUqj of Hessen was the first to respond. He was joined by the new 
 Elector of Saxony, John the Constant (1525-32), the brother of Frederick, 
 and soon after by George of Saxony and Henry of Brunsioick. On 
 May 15, 1525, the re])els were annihilated at Frankenhausen, after a 
 stubborn resistance. Münzer was captured and beheaded. In Southerr 
 Germany, also, the princes everywhere almost simultaneously obtained 
 the mastery over the insurrection. A hundred thousand people perished 
 in this war, and the most flourishing districts were laid utterly waste. 
 
 1 5. LUTHER'S FEUDS WITH HENRY VIII. AND WITH 
 ERASMUS. (1523-26.) 
 
 Cf. Chlebns, I. c. I 3, 2. — Jul. Müller, Luther, de. predest. et lib. 
 arbitr. doctr. Gottg. 1832. 4to. 
 
 Henry VIII., of England, originally destined for the priest- 
 hood, always retained a partiality for theological studies, and 
 was ambitious to be thought a learned theologian. This led 
 him to enter the arena of controversy in defence of the Romish 
 doctrine of the seven sacraments, against Luther's " Babylonian 
 Captivity of the Church." In his book he treated the peasant's 
 son with the greatest contempt. Luther paid him back in his 
 own coin, and dealt with his crowned antagonist as tliongh he 
 were an Emser or an Eck (1523). Henry, indeed, obtained what 
 he sought ; the pope conferred upon him the honorary title of 
 defensor fidei. But Luther's plain dealing extinguished all desire 
 to prosecute the controversy. He complained to the elector, 
 who consolingly referred him to a general council. But this 
 affair bore heavily upon the relation between Erasmus and 
 Luther, who had thus far continued upon tolerably pleasant 
 terms with each other. Erasmus, who was under obligations to 
 Henry for many favors, became bitterly enraged against Luther 
 for liis unsparing severity. Hitherto he had declined all solici- 
 tations to write against Lutlier, so that many papists charged 
 him with collusion with the heretic, and others said he was afraid 
 of Luther's pen. All this incited him, at length, to come out 
 against the reformer. He diligently studied Luther's writings, 
 after obtaining papal permission to do so, and seized upon a 
 doctrine, in discussing which he would not be required to defend 
 Romish errors, but which he was least qualified to comprehend. 
 
 1. Luther's personal experience, associated with his study of Paul's 
 Epistles and the writings of St. Augustine, had served to convince hun 
 that man was incapable of doing good, and therefore not free, and that
 
 Luther's feuds with henry viii. etc. 47 
 
 he could obtain salvation only through the free grace of God, without 
 anj- personal merit. This persuasion, in his case, as in Augustine's, had 
 led him to embrace the doctrine of absolute predestination. Melaneh- 
 thon, also, had avowed the same view in the first edition of his Loci 
 communes. It was upon this doctrine Erasmus seized in his Aiatptßij 
 de libero arbitrio, denouncing it as dangerous and unscriptural, and 
 setting forth in opposition to it his own semi-pelagianism (1524). 
 After the lapse of a year, Luther replied in the work : De servo arbitrio 
 (in German by Justus Jonas : " Daz der freie Wille nichts sei "), exhi- 
 biting the power and confidence of personal conviction. Erasmus 
 rejoined in his Hyperaspistes diatribes adv. Lutheri servum arbitrium 
 (152G), in which he gave full vent to his passion, but without adding 
 aught to the argument, wherefore Luther paid no further attention to 
 his attack. 
 
 2. Among the most violent opponents and abusive villifiers of Luther 
 and his cause, was the satirist, Thomas Murner, a Franciscan monk 
 of Strassburg, subsequently of Luzerne (died about 1536). First of 
 all, he issued a perverted translation of Luther's Babylonian Captivity 
 (1520). To this he added slanderous productions: " Ain new Lied von 
 dem Undergang des christl. Glaubens ;" " Von dem Babstenthume 
 wyder Dr. M. L. ;" "An den Adal tUtscher Nation, das sye den christl. 
 Glauben beschirmen wyder den Zerstörer des Glaubens Christi. M. 
 Luther, einen Verfiehrer der einfeltigen Christen," and many others 
 of the sort. lie also translated the book of Henry YIII., concerning 
 the seven sacraments, and defended Henry in a tract entitled; "Ob 
 der König uss Engellant ein Lügner sei oder der Luther." Ilis prin- 
 cipal satire against Luther is "Von dem grossen Lutherisclien Narren, 
 wie ihn Dr. Murner beschworen hat 1522." It is the most important 
 satirical production ever written against the Reformation. The 
 author, it is true, does not take up tRe real nature of the Reformation ; 
 indeed he could not appreciate it ; but its revolutionary, fanatical, and 
 rhetorical element which then, already, followed at its heels, is chas- 
 tised with uncouth but vigorous severity, and with the keenest wit 
 (New ed. by H. Kitrfz, Zurich, 1848). — Luther allowed the rude 
 satirical reviler to pass unrebukod ; but the humanist poured down 
 upon him a very flood of scornful satires and lacerating lampoons. 
 
 3. The "Onusecclesiae,"of Bishop Berthold of Chiem-see, published 
 antmymously, at Landshut, 1524, bore remarkable Catholic testimony 
 in favor of the Reformation. Appealing to the Apocalypse, he unspar- 
 ingly depicts tlie corruptions of the Church, and argues for the neces- 
 sity of a thorough reformaticm, if the Cliurcli should be saved from utter 
 ruin. He does not wish the reformation to be effected in the manner 
 of Luther, whom lie reproaches as the leader of a sect, a perverter of 
 the Scriptures, and a seditious person, although he approves of Luther's 
 views concerning indulgences ; but he desires the work to proceed
 
 48 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A.D.). 
 
 from within the Church, and by its own proper organs. His book is 
 the more remarkable, since the same author published a " Teutsche 
 Theologey," four years later (Munich, 1528. Republished by W. 
 Reithmeier, Munich, 1852), in which he attempts to ignore and conceal 
 the corruptions of the Catholic Church (^ 19, 6), although it still con- 
 tains traces of his previous views, especially concerning indulgences. 
 (Cf. Dr. Schwarz, of Jena, in Galzer's protest. Monatsblatt. I. 210, etc.) 
 
 I 6. DEVELOPMENT OF THE WORK OF THE REFORMATION 
 IN THE EMPIRE. (1522-26). 
 
 At the diet of Worms, Charles V., to secure his election, had 
 been compelled to assent to the establishment of an imperial 
 regency of the estates, at Nuremberg, which exercised supreme 
 authority during his absence in Spain. Although the Archduke 
 Ferdinand, the emperor's brother, and vicegerent, presided over 
 this board of regents, a decided majority of its members soon 
 became favorable to the new religious movement, and furthered 
 it. Protected by the highest authority of the empire, and even 
 in league with it; the Reformation found, for a time, no obstacles 
 to its spread, and really made rapid progress. The Nuremberg 
 regency, indeed, soon succumbed to the united efforts of its 
 political opponents, among whom were many friends of the evan- 
 gelical cause ; but these only the more energetically sustained, 
 by their personal zeal, the interests of the Reformation, which 
 had lost an important support in the downfall of the regency. 
 And their exertions were so effectual, that measures were vigor- 
 ously urged for disposing finally of the whole matter, favorably 
 to the Reformation, by a general national assembly of the 
 German States, independent of the pope and council. But, 
 in opposition to this, the papal legate, Campegius, induced the 
 Catholic estates to form a league at Regensberg (1524), for the 
 maintenance of the edict of Worms ; against this movement, 
 the evangelical party.did not form their defensive league of Tor- 
 gau until 1526. The general national assembly was prevented 
 by the strict prohibition of the emperor, and thus the hoped-for 
 union was not effected. But the decision of the diet of Spires 
 0526) gave all the estates the right of managing the religious 
 affairs of their respective districts, according to their own 
 judgment. 
 
 1. The Diet of Nuremberg (1522-23). — The regency of the empire 
 opened its first diet towards the close of 1522. Pope Hadrian VI. was»
 
 THE REFORMATION IN THE EMPIRE. 49 
 
 represented in it by l^s legate, Chieregati. Leo X. had died in December, 
 1521. Hadrian (1522-23), the son of an Utrecht mechanic, after having 
 been a professor at Louvain, tutor of Charles, Bishop of Tortosa, and 
 grand inquisitor of Aragon, succeeded Leo X. He was a pious and 
 learned Dominican, firm in his principles, zealous for the Thomist 
 orthodoxy, anti-hierarchical in his opinicms, and deeply lamented the 
 secularization and corruptions of the Church. He ascended the papal 
 chair with the determined purpose of restoring the purity of the Brida 
 of Christ, yet of simultaneously suppressing the Lutheran heresy. 
 At Nuremberg, his legate handed in a papal brief, which admitted and 
 deplored the fallen condition of the Church, and promised a thorough 
 reformation, but likewise earnestly insisted upon the execution of the 
 papal ban, and the edict of Worms. A committee of the regency, 
 selected for the purpose, submitted to the diet an opinion upon the 
 overtures of the pope, in which they urged the immediate convocation 
 of a general council, in some German city, at which the temporal 
 estates should likewise be represented, and liberty guaranteed to utter 
 evangelical sentiments ; but they declared the execution of the edict 
 of Worms to be impracticable, mainly on account of the admitted cor- 
 ruptions of the Church. Until the opening of the council, all contro- 
 versy should be shunned, and the Word of God preached according to 
 its true Christian, evangelical sense. The estates, who, on their part, 
 had submitted a new paper, containing 100 complaints against the 
 Roman court, adopted the report of the committee, with some slight 
 modifications, as the decree of the empire. 
 
 2. Spread of EvangeUcal Doctrines (1522-24).— The monastic orders 
 furnished the'most energetic heralds of the Reformation. Their moral 
 C(mdition had become so corrupt, that purer spirits among them could 
 no longer endure the foul odors of dissolution. All such, glad to catch 
 a brealh of the new life, sprang forth, everywhere, as the zealous 
 evangelists of the purified doctrine. Foremost among them were the 
 Atigustiue monks, almost to a man. This order likewise enjoys the 
 honor of having furnished the first martyr to the evangelical cause 
 [l 8, 1). The Order regarded Luther's honor and reproach as its own. 
 'i\xe Franciscans came next, by no means so generally, but with all 
 the greater power and energy on the part of those who tore loose from 
 their traditions. A spirit of opposition to secularization and moral 
 corruptions had constantly, from the earliest times, exhibited itself. 
 In numerous cases, this opposition had degenerated into fanaticism 
 (Vol. I. I 98, 4). Now it assumed a true form. The two distinguished 
 preachers, Eherlin of Günzburg au(\ Henri/ of Kettenbach ; the Ham- 
 burg reformer, Siephen Kempen; the fiery Lambert, the reformer of 
 Hessen; Luther's friend, Myronivs, and many others, had been Fran- 
 ciscans. But all the other orders yielded their contingents to tb« mar- 
 tial hosts of the Gospel, not excepting the Dominicans, to whimi the 
 Strassburg reformer, Martin Buccr, belouged. Ambrose Blaurer, th« 
 48
 
 50 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A.D.;. 
 
 Würtemberg reformer, was a Benedictine ; Urbaiffits Rheghis, once a 
 pupil of Eck, was a Carmelite ; Bugenhagen, in Pomerania, was a 
 Prsemonstrant ; Otto Brunsfels, a Carthusian, etc. The secular clergy 
 also, in many instances, took part. At least one of the German 
 bishops, Polenz of Samland, at once openly joined the movement, 
 preached the Gospel even from the pulpits of Königsberg, and ap- 
 pointed men of like views to the parishes of his diocese. Other bishops, 
 as those of Augsburg, Basel, Bamberg, and Merseburg, participated in 
 the movement, or at least laid no hindrances in its way. The inferior 
 secular clergy, however, furnished multitudes of advocates. In the 
 pulpits of all the larger, and even in many of the smaller towns of 
 Germany, Luther's sentiments were preached with the approbation of 
 the magistrates ; and where this was prohibited, the doctrines were 
 proclaimed in the market-place and in the field. When clergymen 
 were wanting to do this, mechanics and knights, even women and vir- 
 gins, became missionaries. A distinguished lady, Agnes (Argula) of 
 Staiiferi, married to Grumbach, having compelled a young magister 
 to recant, challenged the whole university of Ingolstadt to discuss the 
 doctrines with her, upon the basis of the Scriptures. — Wittenberg was, 
 and remained, the heart and centre of the entire movement — the 
 gathering-place of all who were persecuted and banished for con- 
 science' sake — the nursery and fountain of new advocates of the cause. 
 
 3. The Diet of Nuremberg (1524). — On Jan. 14, 1524, a new diet 
 was opened at Nuremberg. Its first business was the continuance of 
 the regency of the empire. As that had become decidedly favorable to 
 the Reformation, the question of its existence seemed to involve that 
 of the continued existence of the Reformation. Among its chief sup- 
 porters were the arch-Catholic Ferdinand, who hoped, through it, to 
 obtain the Roman crown ; the Elector of Mayence, the author of the 
 traffic in indulgences (who favored the regency because he hated its 
 foes) ; the Elector of Saxony, who was really its originator, and the 
 house of the Brandenburg princes. But the opposite party was 
 stronger. It included the Swabian league, the princes of Treves, the 
 Palatinate, and Hessen, who had triumphed over Sickingen, and the 
 states of the empire, *who, though agreeing with the reformatory views 
 of the regency, were inimical to it on account of its fiscal measures 
 and projects. The opposition acquired a new confederate in the papal 
 legate Campeggio. Hadrian VI. died in 1523, and was succeeded by 
 Clement VIL (1523-34), an illegitimate son of Julian de Medici. 
 Clement was, in all respects, the reverse of his predecessor. A skilful 
 politician, yet regardless of religious interests, he was exceedingly 
 zealous to raise to its highest pitch the temporal power of his chair. 
 Campeggio was the man for his purpose.— The opposition triumphed, 
 the regency fell, and even Ferdinand, after long resistance, consented 
 to its dissolution. A new regency was organized, which was but a 
 shadow of the old one, for it had neither power, influence, nor inde-
 
 THE REFORMATION IN THE EMPIRE. 51 
 
 pendence. Thus the Reformation lost a second important prop, and 
 the legate, confident of success, insisted upon the execution of the 
 edict of Worms. Then the evangelical party combined all their 
 powers, especially the cities, and once more secured a majority. The 
 states had, indeed, to acknowledge the legal authority of the edict ; 
 they also promised to maintain it, with the clause " as far as possible." 
 But, at the same time, they insisted upon the calling of a council, in 
 the sense of the diet of the preceding year, and resolved to hold a 
 national assembly at Spires, in November of the current year, which 
 should be exclusively devoted to the careful consideration and disposal 
 of religious and ecclesiastical afi"airs. Meanwhile, as the preceding 
 diet had enjoined, the Gospel and the Word of God should be preached 
 in all simplicity. 
 
 4. The Convention of Regenshnrri (1524). — "Whilst the theologians 
 and diplomatists of the evangelically-inclined states of the empire 
 were zealously engaged in preparing for the diet of Spires, a meeting 
 of the adherents of the old order of things was held at Begenshurg 
 (June and July, 1524). In direct violation of the unity of the empire, 
 partizan resolutions, with reference to religious and ecclesiastical ques- 
 tions, were there adopted, which, according to the decision of the Nu- 
 remberg diet, were to be discussed and acted upon by all the states 
 at Spires. This was the work of the legate Campeggio. In the main- 
 tenance of the edict of Worms, he was joined, in Regensburg, by the 
 Archduke Ferdinand, the Bavarian dukes, the Archbishop of Salzburg, 
 and most of the bishops of Southern Germany. Luther's books were 
 once more prohibited, and all subjects were strictly forbidden to visit 
 the University of Wittenberg. Some external abuses were corrected, 
 ecclesiastical imposts weie alleviated, the number of festivals dimin- 
 ished : the four Latin Church fathers, Ambrose, 'Jerome, Augustine,, 
 and Gregory, were declared standard authorities in matters of faith and 
 doctrine, and public worship was to be conducted in the ancient form. 
 The unity of the empire, thus rent asunder, could never again be 
 restored. — Simultaneously, the emperor was wrought upon by appeals 
 from Rome. The imperial and papal policy were still identical in 
 interest ; both the diets of Nuremberg, with their national tendencies, 
 were offensive to the emperor ; so that, as early as the end of July, an 
 imperial proclamation was issued, calling the states to an account for 
 their course, and prohilnting the contemplated national assembly, as a 
 crimen hvsa3 majestatis, on pain of the ban and double ban. The 
 states oboj-ed, the assembly was abandoned, and with it all hopes of 
 a peaceable and organic development of Germany, as a united political 
 power, vanished. 
 
 5. The Evangelical States (1524). — The evangelical states still 
 persisted in maintaining their position as constituents of unity of the 
 empire. Several princes, also, who had hitherto been indifferent oi
 
 52 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A.D.). 
 
 neutral, now became more decided in favor of the evangelical cause. 
 This was the case, first of all, with the young landgrave Philip of 
 Hesse, who was led, by a conversation with Melanchthon, to devote 
 the whole strength of his youthful energy to the service of the Refor- 
 mation. The Margrave Casimir of Brandenburg, Duke Ernest of 
 Lüneburg, the Elector of the Palatinate, and Frederick I. of Denmark 
 (as Duke of Schleswig and Holstein), in their several countries, also 
 promoted the cause with more or less energy and decision. The ejected 
 Duke TJlric of Wilrtemberg was also gained over, and his subjects, 
 groaning under the Austria.n oppressions, were already desiring his 
 return. Albert of Prussia, the grand-master of the Teutonic Order, 
 returned from the diet of Nuremberg, where he had frequented Osian- 
 der's preaching, with doubts as to the consistency of his office with 
 the Word of God ; and, during a visit to Wittenberg, did not take it 
 amiss when Luther advised him to dissolve the Order, to marry, and to 
 raise Prussia to a hereditary duchy. — But the cities took the most de- 
 cided measures. At two large municipal diets, in Spires and Ulm 
 (1524), it was resolved that the clergy should be sustained in preach- 
 ing the pure Gospel, and that they should mutually aid each other in 
 self-defence against any attempt to execute the edict of 'Worms. 
 
 6. The Torgau Alliance (1524). — The friends and foes of the Refor- 
 mation had unitedly opposed the insurrection of the peasants, and 
 with equal zeal (|4, 5). Their religious diversities had, thereupon, 
 displayed themselves all the more decidedly. In July, 1525, Duke 
 George had a conference at Dessau with several Catholic princes, and, 
 noon afterwards, he ordered two citizens of Leipsic, with whom Lu- 
 theran books had been found, to be executed. The Elector of Saxony, 
 also, made Casimir of Brandenberg promise, at Saalfeld, that he would 
 adhere to the Word of God under all circumstances, and in the castle 
 •of Grimmenstein (subsequently called Friedenstein), Hesse and the 
 electorate of Saxony pledged themselves to stand by each other as one 
 man, in matters aifecting the Gospel. A diet convened at Augsburg 
 in Dec. 1525 could conclude nothing definitely for want of a quorum. 
 A new diet was called at Spires, and all the princes required to be 
 personally present. It seemed that it would bring matters to a point. 
 Both parties zealously prepared for it. Duke George and several Ca- 
 tholic princes met at Leipsic. They agreed to send one of their number 
 [Henry of Brunswick) to the emperor in Spain. He arrived most op- 
 portunely. Not long before, the emperor had concluded the peace of 
 Madrid (Jan. 1520) with the King of France, whom he had captured 
 in the battle of Pavia (1525). Francis I. had agreed to everything, 
 >>ec;ause he did not intend to fulfil any of the conditions proposed ; 
 (unong the rest, also, promised to make common cause against the 
 heretics. Charles believed that his hands were now free, and was re- 
 Bolvcd, before doing anything else, to exterminate the German heresy, 
 '^ienry of Brunswick brought back a d'jcument from Charles in which
 
 THE REFORMATION IN THE EMPIRE. 53 
 
 he strenuously avowed his purpose. But before its arrival the land- 
 grave and elector had met at Torgau (Feb. 1526) and entered into an 
 alliance to sustain each other in defence of the Gospel in Saxony. 
 Philip undertook to induce the estates of upper Germany to join the 
 league ; but he effected little, most of them having feared the emperor. 
 The elector succeeded better in his mission to the states of Lower 
 Germany. On the 9th of June the princes of electoral Saxony, Lüne- 
 burg, Grubenhagen, Anhalt, and Mansfeld, met in Magdehnrg, and all 
 signed the Torgau league. The city of Magdebvrg, also, which had 
 in 1524 cast off the jurisdiction of its archbishop, Albert of Mayence, 
 and made the Lutheran Confession predominant, was admitted into 
 the alliance. 
 
 7. The Diet of Spires (1526).— The diet convened on June 26, 1526. 
 The evangelical princes were of good cheer. On their escutcheons was 
 inscribed : Verbum Dei manet in seternum. In spite of the opposition 
 of the prelates, three committees (one of the electors, one of the princes, 
 and one of the states) were appointed to deliberate upon the best 
 means of correcting abuses. Of their three reports, that of the princes 
 insisted upon a rule which should be equally binding on both parties, 
 and thus, with all the existing diversity of evangelical views (Scriptura 
 scriptura3 interpres) possessed a conciliatory character (the Communio 
 sub una, ex. gr. was left free, and the seven sacraments were retained). 
 This report was received for further consideration. But just as the 
 debates, the issue of which could be foreseen, were about to begin, the 
 imperial commissaries submitted an imperial order, commanding that 
 no resolution should by any means be passed, which proposed a change 
 of any of the old customs in doctrine or worship, and that provision 
 should be made for ultimate execution of the edict of Worms. At first 
 this produced general consternation among the evangelical members 
 of the diet, and many wished at once to leave, as nothing could be 
 effected. On calmer reflection, however, it was noted how far back 
 the order dated, for it was known at Spires that since its date the poli- 
 tical circumstances of the emperor had greatly changed. For some 
 time there hud been serious misunderstandings between Charles and 
 the pope. Francis I. had been released of his oath by the pope, and 
 informed the emperor that he would observe none of the conditions of 
 the peace of Madrid. Francis I., the pope, and all the Italian princes, 
 had formed a league at Cognac, to which Henry VIII. of England also 
 gave his assent. All Western Europe was leagued together to break 
 the preponderance of power which the Spanish-Burgundy house had 
 gained at Pavia, and the duped emperor found himself in a most diffi- 
 cult position. Could he still hold the views expressed in his instruc- 
 tions? It was probable that at Ferdinand's request the commissaries 
 had kept back the paper, until the cause of Catholicism seemed lost in 
 the diet, and the prelates urged them to present it. Thus at least tlioir 
 strange conduct was interpreted by the evangelical party. Their first. 
 48*
 
 54 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A. D.j. 
 
 panic over, the states resolved to send an embassy to the emperor. 
 But before they had started Charles anticipated their desires. In a 
 letter to his brother he communicated a plan prepared by his privy- 
 council, for the abrogation of the penalties of the edict of "Worms and 
 the adjustment of religious differences by a council. (But he advised 
 iiis brother to delay the formal abrogation of the edict, lest the Catholic 
 princes should be too much provoked). At the same time he asked for 
 aid against his foes in Italy. — But as neither the repeal nor execution 
 ('f the edict seemed advisable, nothing remained but to allow each 
 ttate to do as seemed best in the respective territories. The diet 
 therefore decreed that' " each state should act, in matters relating to 
 the edict of AVorms, so as to be able to render a good account to God 
 and the emperor." This was the birthday and legitimation of the 
 territorial constitutions. 
 
 g7. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE NATIONAL EVANGELICAL 
 CHURCHES. (1526-29.) 
 
 It was now not only the privilege, but the duty, of the states 
 to arrange ecclesiastical affairs, within their territories, according 
 to their best judgment. The next succeeding three years, there- 
 fore, form the period of the founding and organization of the 
 evangelical state churches. Electoral Saxony set a good ex- 
 ample. In imitation of her ecclesiastical constitution, the 
 churches of Hesse, Franconia, Lüneburg, East Friesland, 
 Schleswig and Holstein, Silesia, Prussia, and a number of cities 
 of lower Germany, were organized. 
 
 1. Organization of the Church in the Electorate of Saxony (1528-29). 
 (Cf. 2Em. L. Riclder, Die ev. Kirchenordungen d. 16. Jahrh. Weim. 
 1846. Bd. I.) — Luther advised the elector to order a thorough Church- 
 visitation of his entire country, in order thus to gain accurate informa- 
 tion of its ecclesiastical condition. To this end, Melanchthon drafted 
 a paper of " Instructions of the Visitors to the Clergy in the Electorate 
 of Saxony," which Luther published early in 1528. In these the min- 
 isters were directed what and how to preach and teach. The instruc- 
 tions were moderate, but positive in tone. Controversy with the papacy 
 was not encouraged. Reforms in worship Avere to be made with ex- 
 treme forbearance. To guard against an abuse of the doctrine of justi- 
 fication by faith alone, the necessity of preaching the law, and the 
 freedom of the human will, in matters of worldly righteousness 
 (justltia civilis), was recognized. This modification of strict Lutheran 
 doctrines exposed Melanchthon to the assault of some zealous adhe, 
 rents of Lutlier (especially Amnclorf and John Agricola). But Luther 
 reconciled these difficulties. — Thereupon instructions for the visitors 
 themselves were prepared, in accordance with which they performed
 
 THE NATIONAL EVANGELICAL CHURCHES. 55 
 
 their circuit in 1528-29. The entire territory was divided among foui 
 commissions, consisting of secular and clerical members. To Luther 
 the electorate vras assigned ; to Melanchthon, another district. Igno- 
 rant or otherwise unfit clergymen were removed, but provided for. A 
 large number of abuses were corrected ; preachers and teachers of 
 schools were carefully instructed how to discharge their duties most 
 efficiently, and their future supervision was entrusted to superintend- 
 ents, to whom, also, matrimonial questions were referred. Those who 
 adhered to the old order, and would not accept of improvements, were 
 " commended to God," but not disturbed ; vacated benefices were pro- 
 tected against avarice, and applied to the improvement of churches and 
 schools ; those not yet vacated, were obliged to contribute their portion 
 to the same objects. Various measures were also adopted for the erec- 
 tion of hospitals, the relief of the poor, and the founding of schools. 
 The Constitution of the Church of Saxony, which resulted from thia 
 visitation, became the model for the organization of the other evan- 
 gelical State Churches. The gloomy experience which Luther thus 
 acquired of the incredible ignorance of the people and their teachers, 
 led him to prepare his two catechisms (1529). 
 
 2. Orc/aiuzation of the Church in Hesse (1526-28). (Cf. B. Den- 
 hard, Gesch. d. Entw. d. Christenth. in d. hess. Ländern bis zur Thei- 
 lung. Frkf. 1847. — Martin, Nachr. v. d. Syn. zu Homberg. Cass. 1804. — 
 W. Bach, Gesch. d. kurhess. Kirchenverf. Marb. 1832. — K. A. Credner, 
 Philipp's hess. K.O. Giess. 1852. — /. W. Baum, Franz Lambert v. 
 Avignon. Strassb. 1840.) — As early as Oct. 1526, the Landgrave Philip, 
 of Hesse, had convened the temporal and spiritual states of his ter- 
 ritory at Homberg, for consultation in regard to ecclesiastical reforms. 
 A reactionary attempt of the Catholic party quailed before the fiery 
 eloquence of the Franciscan, Francis Lam}>ert, of Avignon. lie was a 
 most remarkable man, and had been awakened by reading Luther's 
 works, in his convent at Avignon. Not fully convinced, he started f )r 
 Wittenberg, stopped on the way at Zurich, and engaged in a public 
 disputation (1522) against Zwingli's reforms. Converted by his oppo- 
 nent, he left Zurich, passed through Luther's school at "Wittenberg, 
 and then, at Melanchthon's recommendation, went to Hesse. Lam- 
 bert's spirit ruled the Synod. An organization of the Church wa? 
 drafted, according to Lambert's ideal of a communion of saints, on a 
 democratic basis, and with a strict church discipline, to be adminis- 
 tered by the congregations themselves. But the inadequacy of thig 
 Homberg scheme was soon demonstrated, and, in 1528, the Hessian 
 Church adopted the principles of the Saxon Church visitation. The 
 confiscated benefices were appropriated to the foundation of the Uni^ 
 versity of Marburg (1527), as the second nursery of reformed theology. 
 Lambert became one of its first professors. 
 
 3. Organization of other German State Churches (1528-30). (Cf. 
 Bhesa, de primis sacrorum reformataribus in Prussia. Regiom. 1825-27.
 
 56 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT, 16 A. D.). 
 
 — W. Lohe, Erinner, aus d. Refgesch. v. Franken. Nürnb. 1847. — i» 
 Wallis, Abr. d. Refgesch. Llineb. Liineb. 1832). — Margrave George, of 
 Franconian-Brandenburg, after the death of his brother Casimir, organ- 
 ized the Church of his territory, at the diet of Anspach (1528), upon 
 the model of that in Saxony. Under the direction of its excellent 
 recorder, Lazarus Spengler, Nuremberg united with George in intro- 
 ducing the organization adopted. The same was done in Lüneburg, at 
 the diet of Scharnebeck (1527). LJlric of Dornum took the matter 
 into his own hands in East Friesland, the ruler of the country not 
 venturing to introduce a reformation of the Church there. In Schles- 
 wig and Holstein, the prelates made no opposition, and the civil go- 
 vernment favored the change. In Silesia, both the princes of Liegnitz, 
 Podiebrad's grandsons, and Margrave George of Brandenburg, who 
 had estates there, cheerfully granted the request of the people for an 
 evangelical constitution. In Breslau, the Reformation had long been 
 predominant ; and even the archduke, who, as King of Bohemia, pos- 
 sessed feudal supremacy over Silesia, found himself obliged to allow 
 his states there the same rights which the diet of Spires had granted 
 to the imperial states. In Prussia, the grand-master Albert of Bran- 
 denburg (the brother of the Margraves Casimir and George) had, with 
 the approval of the Polish crown, become hereditary duke (1525), and 
 gave to his duchy, with the cordial cooperation of both his bishops, a 
 thoroughly evangelical constitution. 
 
 4. TJie Reformation in the Cities of Lower Germany (1524-31). — 
 In the cities of Lower Germany there prevailed, even before the rise 
 of the Reformation, a powerful effort to effect emancipation of epis- 
 copal and aristocratic rule. Hence their inhabitants, for the most 
 part, embraced the Reformation with open arms. A characteristic 
 feature of the work, there, is the surprisingly potent influence of Lu- 
 theran psalms and hymns. The Reformation was introduced into 
 Magdeburg as early as 1524, and the Church there was organized by 
 Nich. of Amsdorf whom Luther sent thither. From 1525, Martin 
 Scultetus preached and labored there with great success. In 1526, the 
 city joined the Torgau alliance. In Brunswick, at the close of a Ca- 
 tholic controversial sermon (1526), the congregation began to sing: 
 "Ach Gott vom Himmel sieh darein." In 1528, Bugenhagen went 
 over from Wittenberg and organized the Church. In Gosslar, Eim- 
 beck, Göttingen, Rostock, Hamburg, etc., the enthusiasm of the people 
 for Lutheran hymns and doctriney carried the council with them, 
 whether they would or no. In Bremen, as early as 1525, all the 
 churches but the cathedral were in the hands of Lutheran preachers ; 
 in 1527, the monasteries were converted into schools and hospitals, and 
 the cathedral, with its grounds, taken from the Catholics. Still more 
 violent excitement attended the introduction of the Reformation into 
 Lübeck (1529-31). Until then, the nobility, council, and clergy, had 
 suppressed all reformatory movements, and expelled the evangelical
 
 MARTYRS OF THE EVANGELICAL FAITH. 57 
 
 preachers. But financial embarrassments compelled the council (1529) 
 to ask the citizens for extraordinary levies. They appointed a com- 
 mittee of sixty-four citizens, -who constrained the council to yield one 
 condition after another. The expelled preachers were to be recalled, 
 the Catholic priests to be removed, the monasteries to be converted into 
 hospitals and schools, and, finally, Bngenhagen was called in to frame 
 a Lutheran constitution for the Church. 
 
 §8. MARTYRS OF THE EVANGELICAL FAITH. 
 
 (1521-29). 
 
 Cf. L. VoIJcert u. G. W. H. Brock, d. h. Märtyrer d. evang. K. Erlg 
 1845. — M. Gubel, Gesch. d. chr. Lebens in d. rhein. westph. K. Gobi, 
 1849. Bd. I.— Rudelbach, chr. Biogr. Bd. I. H. 4. 
 
 The lands of the Reformation were early enriched by the blood 
 of martyrs. Persecutions were begun, soon after the issue of 
 the edict of Worms, by some Catholic princes, Dukie George of 
 Saxony taking the lead. He imprisoned, scourged, and banished 
 Luther's adherents; and, in 1.521, had a bookseller, who sold 
 Luther's works, beheaded (cf. § 6, 6). Persecution raged most, 
 however, in the Netherlands, the hereditary territories of tlie 
 emperor, not connected with the German Empire (where, really, 
 the first martyr's blood was shed, 1523), but also in the Austrian 
 domains, in Bavaria, and in tlie territory of the Swabian league, 
 especially after the conclusion of the Regensburg confederacy 
 (1524). The peasants' war (1525), added fuel to the persecu- 
 tions. Under pretence of punishing the insurgents, the execu- 
 tioners of the Regensburg confederates went through the land, 
 and, along with the guilty, put to death many who were innocent 
 of every crime but adherence to the Gospel. The decision of the 
 diet of Spires fanned the flames (1526). The more cheerfully 
 the evangelical states, on the strength of that decision, pro- 
 ceeded to organize evangelical Churches in their territories, so 
 much the more zealously did the foes of the innovations inflict 
 upon their evangelical subjects the most cruel persecutions. 
 The forgeries of Pack, moreover, revived, and increased the 
 spirit of persecution. In 1527-28, a church-visitation was insti- 
 tuted in Austria, similar to that in Saxony, but for the purpose 
 of detecting and punishing heretics. In Bavaria, the public 
 roads were guarded, to )>revent pilgrims from going abroad 
 into other countries ; those caught were first fined, then drowned 
 or burned in large numbers.
 
 58 SECTION III. — FIRST TERIOD (CENT. 16 A.D.). 
 
 1. The first martyrs were two young Augustine monks, at Antwerp 
 Henry Voes and John Esch, whose heroic sufferings (1523) Luther cele- 
 brated ^n a beautiful hymn (" Ein neues Lied wir heben an"). Theii 
 example was followed by Lampert Thoi-n, the prior of the monastery, 
 who was suffocated in prison. The same year, Geafge Buchfulirer was 
 burnt in Hungary, and, during the next year, a large number of scaf- 
 folds and stakes were erected, for Protestants, in Austria, Bavaria, 
 and Swabia. The most notable of these was Caspar Tauber, who was 
 beheaded and burnt in Vienna. Instead of the recantation he was 
 expected to announce, he bore powerful testimony, from the pulpit, in 
 favor of evangelical truth. Among later martyrs, Leonard Käser 
 (Kaiser) holds a distinguished place. Impelled by filial love to visit 
 his dying father in Pas^sau, he perished there at the stake, with joyful 
 courage, Aug. 16, L527. A few months previously, George Carpenta- 
 rius, an ecclesiastic, had obtained the honor in Munich. — The Swabian 
 League, after the recess of Spires, revived its cruel executions against 
 all who held evangelical views, under an order for the extermination 
 of Anabaptists. In 1527, the Bishop of Constance had John H'dglin 
 (Heuglin) burnt alive, as an opposer of the Holy Mother Church. 
 The Elector of Mayence summoned the cathedral preacher of Halle, 
 George Winkler, to Anschaffenburg, for having administered the Com- 
 munion under both forms. Winkler vindicated himself, and was 
 acquitted, but was murdered on his way home. This led Luther to 
 write his "Tröstungen an die Christen zu Halle über den Tod ihres 
 Predigers." — In Cologne, on Sept. 28, 1529, Adolf Clarenbach and 
 Peter Fbjsteden, were honored with martyrdom, and the 'joy and 
 steadfastness of their faith shone forth amid the flames. — In Northern 
 Germany no blood was shed, but Duke George drove those who 
 confessed the evangelical faith out of the land with scourges. The 
 Elector Joachim of Brandenburg and his states resolved, 1527, zealously 
 to maintain old doctrines and customs. Nevertheless, the Gospel took 
 continually deeper root in his territory ; and his own wife, Elizabeth, 
 secretly read and admired Luther's writings, and, in her private 
 chamber, even received the Lord's Supper according to the Lutheran 
 mode. But she was betrayed, and the elector raged and threatened to 
 imprison the offender. Disguised as a peasant, she fled to her relative, 
 the Elector of Saxony. 
 
 I 9. LUTHER'S PRIVATE AND PUBLIC LIFE. (1523-29.) 
 
 Cf. W. F. Walch, warb. Gesch. d. Frau Kath. v. Bora. Halle, 1751. 
 — W. Beste, Kath. v. B. Halle, 1843. — i^. G. Hoffmann, Luther als 
 Gatte u. Vater. Lpz. 1845. — Apologetisches liber Luther's Tischreden 
 in d. Ztschr. für Protestantism u. K. Bd. II. H. 4. 5. 
 
 Luther and the prior, the last of its inhabitants, did not leave 
 the monastery until December, 1524. In July, 1525, he married
 
 Luther's private and public life. 59 
 
 Catharine v. Bora, of the monastery of Nimptsch. Although 
 Luther was often prostrated by sickness, almost overwhelmed 
 with business, and kept constantly sensible of the uncertainty of 
 his life by the threats of enemies against it, he still preserved a 
 cheerful disposition, and spent many happy hours in the circle 
 of his friends, joining them in simple repasts, in singing, music, 
 religious conversation, and harmless, though often pungent and 
 lively jokes (cf. his Table-Talk, subsequently collected by Auri- 
 faber^. At the same time he cheered and aided, by his counsel 
 and efforts, all who were in straits. By his unremitted literary 
 labors, by personal intercourse with students and strangers who 
 flocked to Wittenberg, and by extensive correspondence, he ac- 
 quired and retained an extraordinary influence upon the spread 
 and firmer establishment of the Reformation. By his transla- 
 tions and exjoositions of the Scriptures, by his sermons and 
 didactic writings, his evangelical views spread among all classes 
 of people. German hymns proved a mighty lever of the Re- 
 formation ; by them a pure knowledge and cheerful confession 
 of the truth were planted deeply in the heart of the nation. By 
 translating or reconstructing older hymns, and by cynposing new 
 ones of unsurpassed excellence, which he furnished at the same 
 time with remarkably vigorous and beautiful tunes, Luther laid 
 the basis of the incomparably rich and glorious hymuological 
 treasury of the German evangelical Church. He labored, also, 
 with special diligence for the improvement of instrzu-tion in the 
 churches and schools ; urged the establishment of new schools, 
 both for the higher and ordinary branches of education, and 
 insisted upon the importance of philological studies for the 
 Church of the pure word. 
 
 The first collection of spiritual hymns and psalms appeared in 
 1524, with a preface by Luther. In the reformation of the citlfus, 
 Luther proceeded cautiously and with forbearance. In 1523, he issued 
 his "Deutsches Taufb'dchlein," and his "Weise, chx-istliche Messe zu 
 halten und zum Tische Gottes zu gehen," in which all allusions to a 
 sacrifice were avoided, and the communio sub utraque was maintained. 
 In 1524, he sent forth his tract: " Yom Greuel der Stillniesse," in 
 which he directly assailed the canon of the mass, the central point of 
 the Romish system. i Finally, in 1526, he published his "Deutsche 
 Messe und Ordnung des Gottesdienstes," which was introduced into 
 most of the churches of electoral Saxony. The system of edncalion 
 was espeeuiUy improved by his impressive tract: "An die Biirgormoistor 
 und Rathsherren aller Städte Deutschlands, dass sie christliche SdiulcD
 
 60 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A.D."). 
 
 aufrichten und halten sollen." Besides his controversy with Erasmus 
 and Carlstadt, against Münzer and the insurgent peasants, as well as 
 against the sacramentarians of the upper countries (cf. § 11), he had, 
 during this period, his dispute with Cochlceus, whose abusive assault 
 Luther parried with his tract: "Wider den gewappneten Mann 
 Cochläus, ein Bescheid vom Glauben und Werken" (1523). A papal 
 bull, canonizing Bishop Benno of Meissen (died, 1106), called forth 
 Luther's tract: "Wider den neuen Abgott und alten Teufel, so zu 
 Meissen soll erhoben werden" (1524). In reply to a soldier who had 
 doubts concerning the lawfulness of his profession, he wrote the small 
 volume: "Ob Kriegsleute auch in seligem Stande sein können" 
 (1526) ; and, for sport, had some copies struck ofiP, without the author's 
 name, or that of the place of publication, and sent to Duke George. 
 At the persistent request of Christian II., of Denmark, he wrote a very 
 humble letter to Henry VIII., which called forth, from England, an 
 extremely malignant and opprobrious answer. He quieted the tri- 
 umphant outcry of his foes, that he had recanted, by his tract : 
 "Wider des König's von England Lästerschrift" (1527), in which he 
 again displayed the confident tone and fearlessness of his polemics. 
 He fared no better in an equally humble attempt to reconcile Duke 
 George, to which he was persuaded (1526). He continued to work, 
 untiringly, at the translation of the Scriptures. The first edition of 
 the entire Bibte was published in 1534, by Hans Luftt, Wittenberg.^^ 
 
 § 10. THE REFORMATION IN GERMAN SWITZERLAND. 
 
 (1519-31). 
 
 Whilst Luther's Reformation in Q-ermany spread more widely 
 every day, and became purer, stronger, and more fully organized, 
 a similar movement was started in the adjacent country of (Ger- 
 man) Switzerland. Indeed, its first symptoms were of earlier 
 date (1516) ; but it did not make decided or comprehensive pro- 
 gress until two years after Luther came forward. The differ- 
 ently constituted peculiarities of its first and chief leader, and 
 the politico-democratic current in which it moved, imparted to 
 it a tendency differing from the Lutheran reform, in various 
 respects. Most strongly did the opposition between them ap- 
 pear in the doctrine of the Lord's Supper (§ 11). As the Swiss 
 view of this doctrine found favor in the cities of Upper Ger- 
 many, the division spread into the Reformed Church of Germany, 
 and, in spite of common interests and perils, hindered their com- 
 mon progress and co-operation (§ 13, 14). 
 
 1. TJlric Ziinngli. (Cf. Zwingli's Leben von Osw. Myconiiis. Bas, 
 1536 ; J. J. Hess, Zürich, 1818 ; Rotermund, Bremen, 1818 ; Schuler,
 
 REFORMATION IN GERMAN SWITZERLAND. CI 
 
 Zürich, 1818 : J. J. Hoffim/er, Zürich, 1843 [transl. by T. C. Porter, 
 Harrisburg, 1857] ; W. Eöder, St. Gall, 1854. [Especially: R Chris- 
 toffel, Elberfeld, 1857.]— Zwingli's Works: Gnalter, Tig. 1581, 4 voll.; 
 Schuler u. Schulihess, Zürich, 1829, etc., 8 vols., royal 8vo. ; Ustei-i u. 
 Vögelin, Zürich, 1819, 2 Bde.). — Zidngli, born in Wildhaus. in tho 
 Toggenburg, on Jan. 1, 1484, a pupil of the learned humanist, Thomas 
 Wyttenbach, in Basel, arose as a reformer, in German Switzerland, 
 almost simultaneously with Luther. Unlike Luther, he was not led 
 to greater purity and freedom of religious knowledge by any inward 
 experience, but by classical culture, and a scientific study of the Sacred 
 Scriptures. After serving the parish of Glarus as pastor for ten years, 
 he received charge of that at Einsiedeln, in 1516. The miraculous 
 virtues attributed to an image of Mary, there, attracted crowds of 
 pilgrims. This led Zwingli to preach against superstitious reliance on 
 good works. But he took a much more decided stand after Jan. 1, 1519. 
 as a public preacher in Zurich, where he first learned of Luther's move- 
 ments, and defended his course against Rome. But, from the begin- 
 ning, Zwingli's reformatory measures diverged from those of Luther. 
 He aimed at being not only a religious but political reformer. For 
 several years he had strenuously endeavored to abolish the practice of 
 hiring Swiss youth as mercenary soldiers to foreign powers. lie main- 
 tained the struggle with this evil during his whole life. His political 
 opponents, the oligarchy, who were anxious to retain this source of 
 revenue, were consequently also his religious enemies, as, reversely, 
 the democracy supported him. A still more fundamental difi"erence 
 ■was, that Zwingli had been trained for his reformatory work, not by 
 convictions of sin, or spiritual struggles, but by classical studies. 
 Justification by faith, therefore, was by no means so central and vital 
 a matter, in his life and labors, as in Luther's case. He began his 
 work, as a reformer, not so much with the purification of doctrine as 
 the life-bhiod of all churchliness, but with external improvements in 
 worship, order, and manners. Of the two anti-Romish reformatory 
 principles [material, in opposition to Romish work-righteousness: 
 justification by faith; — formal, in opposition to an unqualified adhe- 
 rence to all the traditions of the Romish Church: the sole authority 
 of the Holy Scriptures), the Wittenberg Refi)rmation gave most promi- 
 nence to the material, the Zurich Reformation to the formal, principle. 
 The former rejected only such things as were irreconcilable with the 
 Scriptures, the latter every thing not expressly taught by them. The 
 former proceeded cautiously and forbearingly in changing forms of 
 worship and external customs ; the latter was destructive, impetuous, 
 and violent. Luther retained images, altars, the ornaments of churches, 
 and the sacerdotal character of public worship, simply pruning off its 
 uncvangclical cxcrescenses and deformities ; Zwingli rejected all, un- 
 conditionally, as idolatry, and even abolished organs and bells. Despite 
 the one-sided prominence given by Zwingli to his formal principle, he 
 49
 
 62 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A. D.). 
 
 often did violence to the Scriptures ; for he approached them externally, 
 and explained them according to his subjective judgment, and called 
 Luther's real submission to them servitude to their letter ! Luther 
 acknowledged no operation of the Spirit, excepting through the Word 
 and the Sacraments ; Zwingli severed the influence of the Spirit from 
 those instruments, and held that he could operate immediately upon 
 the heart. He regarded the sacraments as only commemorative signs ; 
 in the doctrine of the person of Christ, he verged towards Nestorian- 
 ism, by denying that the human nature of Christ participated in the 
 divine predicates. For him, justification by the merits of Christ alone 
 was less of positive than of negative (in opposition to Romish work- 
 righteousness) importance, for, in original sin, he saw only a moral 
 disease, which, of itself, did not constitute sin ; and his views of the 
 essence of virtue were so superficial, that he ranked even heathen, 
 like Socrates and Cato, without further qualifications, in the com- 
 munion of saints. Along with this, his speculations led him to adopt 
 Si fatalistic predestination, which deprives the will of moral freedom, 
 as over against divine providence. — Luther was right in subsequently 
 saying to Zwingli: "Ihr habt einen andern Geist, denn wir." — (Cf. 
 E. Zeller, das theol. System Zwingli's. Tübg. 1853. — Chr. Siywart, 
 Dir. Zw. Der Char. sr. Theol. mit bes. Rucks, auf Pic. v. Mirandola. 
 Stuttg. 1855. [See, also, Ebrard's Lehre v. heil. Abendm., for a com- 
 plete refutation of the above, and Zwingli no Radical, in the Mercers- 
 burg Review, 1849, p. 263, etc. — Tr.] 
 
 2. The Reformation in Zurich (1519-25). (Cf. Sal. Hess, Urspr. 
 Gang, etc., der durch Zw. in Z. bewirkt. Ref. Zürich, 1820.) — In Swit- 
 zerland, also, a seller of indulgences, Bernard Sampson, prosecuted 
 his scandalous business. At Zwingli's instigation, the gates of Zurich 
 were closed against him. Soon afterwards (1520) the council granted 
 the priests and preachers of the city and territory the privilege of 
 preaching according to the Scriptures of the Old and New Testament 
 alone. All this took place under the eyes of two papal nuncios, then 
 in Zurich — and yet it went unpunished, for the Roman court was then 
 too intent upon procuring troops for a papal army, designed for the 
 conquest of Milan. Nevertheless, a large annuity was offered to 
 Zwingli, if he would cease to preach against the Pope. He rejected 
 the oö'er, and went forward on his reformatory course. Under the con- 
 tinued forbearance of Rome, the new views took deeper root. During 
 Lent, 1522, the people of Zurich unscrupulously ate meat and eggs. 
 Then first did the bishop (of Constance) adopt corrective measures; 
 the opponents of reform in the city and council also roused themselves. 
 At this time, Francis Lambert, of Avignon (| 7, 2), came to Zurich. 
 He preached against the innovations, had a public debate with Zwingli 
 in July, and declared himself vanquished and convinced. Zwingli'a 
 opponents had reckoned confidently upon Lambert's eloquence and 
 dialectic skill. The unexpected result of the disputation produced
 
 BEFORMATION IN GERMAN SWITZERLAND. G3 
 
 the greater effect. The council changed the permission to preach the Gos- 
 pel into a command to do nothing else. Against this the adherents of 
 Rome protested. A public disputation ^vas therefore appointed in 
 Feb., 1523. John Faher, a former friend of Zwingli, but -who had 
 totally changed his views, ifter a visit to Rome, and had been made 
 vicar-general of the Bishop of Constance, undertook the defence of 
 old doctrines and customs against Zwingli. Having let himself be 
 drawn into the Scriptural argument, he was defeated. The clergy now 
 began to marry, and the monasteries were forsaken. Violent assaults 
 were made upon the mass, and the worship of images and saints. The 
 council resolved to have the question concerning images decided by 
 another disputation, in Oct., 1523. Leo Juda, pastor of St. Peter's, in 
 Zurich, discussed the worship of images ; Zwingli, the mass ; and they 
 met with scarcely any opposition. At Whitsuntide, 1524, the council 
 ordered all images to be removed from the churches, the frescoes to be 
 cut out, and the walls to be painted white. The playing of organs and 
 ringing of bells were likewise to be abolished, because they were con- 
 nected with superstitions. A new, purely Scriptural formula of bap- 
 tism was introduced, and, finally, the mass abolished (1525). At 
 Easter, 1525, Zwingli administered a love-feast, at which the bread was 
 carried about in wooden trays, and the wine was drunk from wooden 
 cups. Thus he thought he had restored the Lord's Supper to its apos- 
 tolic Christian simplicity ! 
 
 3. TJie Reformation in Basel (1520-25). (Cf. CEcolampad's Leben, 
 by Grynaeus, Bas. 1536. — Sal. Hess, Zurich, 1793. — J. J. Herzog, Bas. 
 1843, 2 Bde.— [^. R. Hagenbach, Elberfeld, ISb^.^—Bmxkhard, die 
 Ref. in Basel. Bas. 1818.) — Wolfgang Fabricius Capita (Köpflin) ana 
 Caspar Hedio early began to preach the Gospel in Basel. But, before 
 they could lay a firm foundation, they obeyed a call to Mayence (1520), 
 and soon afterwards went to Strassburg. Their work was carried on 
 with zeal and success by William Röublin. He preached against the 
 Tiass, purgatory^, and the worship of images, often to four thousand 
 hearers. At Corpus Christi, instead of relics, which he ridiculed as 
 dead men's bones, he carried a Bible before him. He was banished, 
 and subsequently joined the Anabaptists. A new epoch for Basel 
 opened with 1523. Johji Hansschein or (Ecolampadins, of Weinsberg, 
 in Franconia (Zwingli's Melanchthon), preached in Basel, as early as 
 1516. Then he accepted a call to the cathedral in Augsluirg, but, in 
 the course of a year, withdrew to a monastery of St. Bridget, in Augs- 
 burg. There he studied Luther's writings, and, being persecuted for 
 this, he took refuge in the castle of Sickingcn, where he oflBciatod for 
 a season as chaplain. After Sickingen's overthrow, he fled to Basel 
 (1523), became preacher at St. Martin's, and professor in tl.e univer- 
 sity. A circle of young men, awakened by him, soon gathered around 
 him, and energetically sustained him in his reformattry lalors. They 
 baptized in German, administered the eucharist in both forms, and
 
 64 SECTION III. —FIRST PERItD (CENT 16 A.D.). 
 
 were untiring in their preaching. In 1524, the council gave all monks 
 and nuns liberty to quit the monastery. Williain Farel, of Dauphin^, 
 ä refugee from France, whom Qilcolampadius kindly received, remained 
 several months in Basel (1524), and rendered important service in 
 furthering the Reformation. In February, he had a public disputation 
 with the opponents of the cause. The university and bishop had for- 
 bidden it, but the council was only the more intent upon it. Its resuh 
 gave a mighty impulse to the Reformation. 
 
 4. The Reformation in other Cantons (1520-25). (Cf. Stierlein, die 
 Ref. in Bern. Bern. 1827.— S. Fischer, d. Ref. in Bern. 1827.—/. Kuhn, 
 die Reformatoren Berns. Bern. 1828. — M. Kirchhof er, B. Haller's Le- 
 ben. Zürich. 1828. — C. Grüneisen, Nicl. Manuel, Leb. u. Wirk, eines 
 Malers, Dichters, Kriegers, Staatsm. u. Ref. Stuttg. 1837.) — From 
 1518, Berchtold Haller, of Piothweil, in Swabia, with Francis Kolb 
 "and Sehast. Meyer, labored in Bern as political and religious reformers, 
 in harmony with Zwingli. As an auxiliary to their preaching, Nicholas 
 Manuel, poet and painter, wrote and issued satirical plays for the car- 
 nival ("Der Todtenfresser," 1522; "Die Krankheit der Messe," 
 1526, etc.). In 1523, the council authorized the monks and nuns to 
 leave the monastery ; some left and married. The opposite party 
 called upon John Heim, a Dominican, to defend their cause in the city 
 (1524). A violent controversy arose between him and the Franciscan, 
 Sebastian Meyer, and the council expelled both from the city. Thus 
 Haller alone remained. But he was vigilant, and the cause pro- 
 gressed. — In Mühlhausen, where Ulric v. Hütten had found refuge in 
 his last days, the council issued an ordinance (1524) which gave free 
 course to the Reformation ; in Biel, also, it was admitted without 
 restriction. In Eastern Switzerland, St. Gall distinguished itself for 
 zeal in the cause, under the lead of its burgomaster, Vadian. John 
 Kessler (? 4, 1) preached the Gospel in the corporation hall of Sattler- 
 schurz, and Ralth. Hiibmeier from the pulpit. Hubmeier afterwards 
 wentover to the Anabaptists. In Srhaffhcmsen, the Catholics put for- 
 ward Erasmns Ritter in a disputation with the Reformed preacher, 
 Sehast. Hofmeister. Ritter acknowledged his defeat, and thenceforth 
 cooperated with Hofmeister. In Valais, Thomas Plater, the original 
 and learned rope-maker (afterwards rector of the high-school of Burg), 
 was active in preparing the way for the Reformation. In Appenzel 
 and Glarns also, as well as in the confederate cantons, the cause every- 
 where progressed. — In the interior, on the contrary, the nobility, 
 clinging to their pensions, resisted ; the mountain people also, whose 
 idea of religion consisted of pilgrimages, images, and saints, persist- 
 ently opposed all innovations, fjuzerne, at the head of the original 
 cantons, and Freiburg in the West, were the chief bulwarks of popery 
 in Switzerland. 
 
 5. Anabaptist Disorders. — Although the Reformers in Switzerlan('
 
 REFORMATION IN GERMAN S WITZER J, AND 65 
 
 carried their operations to greater extremes, a multitude of fan »tical 
 ultraists sprang up, ■who thought that far too little was done. Among 
 them, also, Anabaptism was tSe symbol of, those fanatical, spiritual- 
 istic, communistic movements which first overran Zwickau. Their 
 chief leaders in Svs'itzerland were Lewis Hetzer, Conrad Grebel, Felix 
 Manz, Balth. Uubmeier, and Stephen Siohr. They began their dis- 
 orders in Zoltikon, near Zurich. Hubmeier, on Easter-eve (1525), 
 held a council of Anabaptists at Waldshut. The district of Basel, 
 ■where Thomas Münzer had been uprooting the soil, now arose in open 
 clamors against the city. In St. Gall, alone, there were 800 Anabap- 
 tists. At Zwingli's ui-gent advice, Zurich adopted thorough measures 
 against them. Many were banished, some were drowned without 
 mercy. Bern, Basel, at St. Gall, followed this example. 
 
 6. The Disputation at Baden (1526). — At the public assemblies, the 
 anti-reform party of the oligarchs, whose spirit of opposition was sus- 
 tained by their fear of losing their annuities, was still predominant. 
 John Faber, of Constance, was the soul of the party. Zurich was 
 repeatedly required to abstain from the innovations. At the assembly 
 of 1525, it declared itself ready to comply, as soon as they were refuted 
 by the Scriptures. The oligarchs could not evade the demands for a 
 disputation ; but, in spite of all pi-otests, they appointed it in the 
 strictly Catholic Baden. The contestants and representatives of the 
 cantons, and bishops, met there in May, 1526. Faber again stood at 
 the head of the papists, but wisely committed the defence to Eck of 
 Ingolstadt, who had offered his services. Opposed to him were Haller, 
 of Borne, and (EcoJamimdius, of Basel. The Reformed party was 
 treated most shamefully, whilst every honor and advantage was shown 
 the Catholics. Eck, it was said, bathed in Baden, but in wine. 
 Zwinr/Ji was not there : the council of Zurich had forbid his going ; 
 but Thnmris Plater sent him a daily account of the proceedings. Eck's 
 theses were discussed one by one ; this took eight days, Eck's bois- 
 terousness drowned (Ecolampadius' weak voice ; but the calm self- 
 possession of the latter had an imposing effect. At the close, Thomas 
 Murner (? 5, 2), the monk of Luzerne, arose and read forty abusive 
 articles against Zwingli. (Ecolampadius, and ten of his friends, per- 
 severed to the end in rejecting Eck's theses; all the rest subscribed 
 them. The assembly pronounced the Reformers heretics, and called 
 upon the respective cantons to banish them. 
 
 7. The Disputation at Berne (1528). (Cf. S. Fischer, Gesch. d. Disp. 
 zu Berne. Berne, 1828.) — Berne and Basel were higlily offended at 
 the indignity done to their deputies at Baden. The democratic ele- 
 ment, which was on the side of the Reformers, was increasing in 
 strength. Berne grew weary of the distraction. A solenn disputation 
 •was therefore instituted, to Avhich deputies were invited from all parts, 
 who should decide the matter. It took place on January 7-27, 1528. 
 
 49*
 
 66 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A.D.). 
 
 Zwingli was present. On the Catholic side there were no competeni 
 debaters, and they were completely defeated. Every trace of Ca- 
 tholicism, in worship and discipline, was then exterminated. The 
 various institutions and monasteries were secularized ; preachers 
 made their oath of office to the civil rulers. Some violent measures 
 attended the abolition of images. The valuable organ, in the church 
 of St. Vincent, was stamped to pieces under the rough heels of the 
 iconoclasts. The political reformation progressed simultaneously with 
 that of religion, and all annual stipends were recalled. 
 
 8. Complete Triumph of the Reformation in Basel, St. Gall, and 
 Schaffhausen (1529). — The burgomaster, Vadian, brought back tidings 
 of the triumphant issue of the Berne disputation to St. Gall. This 
 was the death-blow to the Catholic party. As early as 1528, though 
 not without some iconoclastic excesses, the Reformation gained sole 
 sway. — In Basel the council Avas divided, hence its measures were par- 
 tial and wavering. On Good Friday, some citizens (without the know- 
 ledge of Q^colampadius) destroyed the images in St. Martin's Church. 
 They were imprisoned for it. But an insurrection of the citizens com- 
 pelled the council to release them, and to grant the Reformed the un- 
 conditional use of several churches, from which, of course, all images 
 were removed. In December, 1528, the guilds presented a petition, 
 couched in the most moderate terms, for the entire abolition of "idol- 
 atry." The Catholic party took up arms ; the Reformed followed their 
 example ; a civil war threatened. The council succeeded in quelling 
 the distui'bance by appointing another public disputation, after which 
 the whole matter was to be decided by a vote of the citizens. But the 
 Catholic minority protested so energetically against this, that the 
 council again had recourse to half-way measures. The dissatisfaction 
 of the Reformed exploded in a fearful destruction of images, on Shrove 
 Tuesday, 1529. Great piles of broken images and altars were burnt. 
 The strictly Catholic members of the council fled, and the rest had to 
 yield to the will of the burghers. Erasmus, also (Vol. I., | 120, 3), 
 escaped. — In Schaffhausen, likewise, dissensions prevailed until 1529. 
 But the course of things in Berne and Basel hastened the victory of 
 the new measures. Here the drama ended very cheerily with a double 
 marriage. The Abbot of All-Saints married a nun, and Erasmus 
 Ritter married a sister of the abbot. The images were removed with- 
 out a tumult, and the mass abolished. 
 
 9. The First Peace of Cappel (1529). — The Catholic party had re- 
 tained the ascendency in the five primitive cantons. They were as 
 unwilling to lose the annuities, and the right of eng-agino; in foreign 
 military service, as to give up the mass and saints, and sanguinarily 
 punished every attempt to smuggle the new doctrine into their terri- 
 tories. But they wished to have their measures carried out in all the 
 allied bailiwicks. Zurich and Berne resolved no longer to endure this.
 
 REFORMATION IN GERMAN SWITIERLAND. 67 
 
 As, moreover, ünterwalden had, under these circumstances, leen 
 guilty of publicly violating the peace of the confederacy, and was 
 sustained by the other four cantons, the burgher cities threatened 
 serious vengeance against this infraction. The forest cities turned to 
 Austria, the old hereditary foe of Swiss liberty, and, in the beginning 
 of 1529, concluded a formal treaty with King Ferdinand, at Insbrlick, 
 pledging reciprocal aid in matters of faith. Emboldened by this 
 treaty, they increased their persecutions of the Reformed, nailed the 
 escutcheons of the burgher cities to the gallows, and burnt alive a 
 Zurich preacher, Jacob Keijser, whom they took on the highway, in 
 neutral territory. Then the Zürichers broke out. With their decided 
 preponderance, they might easily have put down the five cantons, and 
 thus have opened all Switzerland to the Reformation ; and Zwingli 
 urged this course. But Berne was jealous of Zurich's growing power, 
 and even many Zürichers, fearing war, were inclined to negotiate for 
 peace with their confederated brethren. This led to the First Peace 
 of Cappel, Nov. IG, 1529. The five cantons gave up the deed of con- 
 federation with Austria, which the mediators immediately tore in 
 pieces ; they agreed to pay the costs of the war, and conceded that, in 
 the bailiwicks, each congregation should decide by vote upon matters 
 of faith. In regard to preaching the Gospel, it was agreed that neither 
 party would disturb the faith of the other. The matter of foreign pen- 
 sions was adroitly evaded. Thus, much was gained, but less than 
 Zwingli desired. On the basis of this peace, Thurgovia, Baden, Schaff- 
 hausen, Solothurn, Neuenburg, Toggenburg, etc., did away with the 
 mass, images, and altars. 
 
 10. The Second Peace of Caj^pel (1531). — Even after the peace, the 
 five cantons continued stubborn in excluding and persecuting the Re- 
 formed, and formed a new alliance with Austria. At the diet, by the 
 old laws of confederacy, they still had the preponderance ; a fact which 
 stood in glaring contrast with the actuallj"^ much greater preponderance 
 of the burgher cities. Zurich, therefore, insisted upon a reorganization 
 of the confederacy. On the other hand, the forest cantons treated the 
 Reformed with greater cruelty. Then Zurich decided, forthwith, to 
 seize arms ; but Berne carried a decree to punish the forest cantons by 
 cutting off all intercourse with them. This measure, however, totally 
 failed. It excited, in those cantons, the greatest indignation and anger, 
 not against their stubborn rulers, as the Bernese hoped, but against 
 their unmerciful oppressors, so that the people only clung the more 
 closely to their governments. At the diet of Luzerne, the five cantons 
 resolved (Sept., 1531) to save themselves from perisliing with hunger, 
 by immediately renewing the war. By carefully guarding the burdors, 
 thcv kept their resolution and preparations so secret, that no tidings 
 thereof reacheil the burglier cities. These, conscious of their greater 
 strength, were therefore wholly unprepared, when suddenly, Oct. 9, 
 an army of 8000 men, breathing vengeance, invaded the territory of
 
 58 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A. D.") . 
 
 Zurich. Zurich hastily collected a force of 2000 men, which met the 
 foe at Cappel, Oct. 11, and was wellnigh annihilated. Zwingli was 
 among the slain. His body was quartered, burned, and his ashes scat 
 tered to the winds. Zurich and Berne soon brought to the field aa 
 army of 20,000 men ; but the courage and audacity of the enemy had 
 increased, whilst the defeat of Cappel had robbed the Reformed of con- 
 fidence and hope. They attacked the enemy, intrenched at Baar, near 
 the Zug mountain, but were repulsed with great loss. The season was 
 against them, and, what was worse, they were disheartened. Hence, 
 when the forest cantons reassumed the offensive, the other party sub- 
 mitted to the scandalous Second Peace of Cappel (1531), which, whilst 
 it guaranteed them liberty to maintain the Reformation in their own 
 territories, gave to the five cantons the right of restoring Catholicism 
 in the bailiwicks. The Reformed had to defray the costs of the war, 
 and to surrender their deed of confederacy with Strassburg, Con- 
 Btance, and Hessen. A restoration of Catholicism was now begun. 
 The Catholic minority, till then kept down, was active on all sides, 
 and carried its measures more or less triumphantly through in many 
 places. Thus in Aargau, Thurgovia, Rheinthal, Sollure, Glarus, Rap- 
 perschwyl, St. Gall, etc. 
 
 § 11. THE SACRAMENTARIAN CONTROVERSY. (1525-29). 
 
 Cf. {Selnecker u. Chemintez), Hist. d. Sacramentstreites. Lpz. 1591. 
 — V. E. Löscher, ausf. hist, motuum Zw. Luth. u. Ref. 2. A. Frkf. u. 
 Lpz. 1722, etc. — M. Göbel, Luther's Abendmahlslehre vor u. in der 
 Streite mit Karlstadt; in d. Studd. u. Kritt. 1843, III. — Ib., Karl- 
 stadt's Abendmahlslehre, id. 1842, II. — /. H. A. Ebrard, d. Dogma, v. 
 h. Abdm. u. s. Gesch. Frkf. 1846. Bd. IL; adv.: K. F. A. Kahnis, d. 
 Lehre v. Abdm. Lpz. 1851. — A. W. Dieckhoff, d. evang. Abendmahlsl. 
 im Reform. Zeitalter. Göttg. 1854, Bd. l.— C. F. Jager (§4. 3). 
 
 Luther, in bis work on the Babylonian captivity of the Church 
 (1520), had given rather undue prominence to the subjective 
 aspect of the sacraments, in opposition to the prevailing view, 
 which attributed their efficacy to the mere objective reception 
 of them, independently of subjective faith (opus operatum). 
 Thus, in the first period of his reformatory hibors, he was in 
 danger, as he subsequently admitted in his message to the Strass- 
 burgers, of erring by a depreciation or denial of the divinely- 
 objective contents of the sacraments. But, whilst he decidedly 
 opposed transubstantiation as a scholastic invention, and was 
 Maturally inclined to regard the bread and wine as mere symbols 
 the words of Holy Writ impressed him so powerfully, that he 
 could not deny the real presence of the body and blood of Christ.
 
 THE SACRAMENTARIAN CONTROVERSY. 69 
 
 The vagaries of fanatics and sacramentarians soon led him to 
 that unconditional submission to the letter of the Scriptures, to 
 that firm and joyful confidence in its import, which thenceforth 
 became the support and guide of his life. Teaching that the 
 true body and blood of Christ were received in, with, and 
 UNDER, the bread and wine — to the benefit of believers, and 
 the judgment of unbelievers — he maintained the true Biblical 
 medium between the unbiblical extremes of papists and sacra- 
 mentarians. 
 
 1. Carlstadt had already, in Orlamund (| 4, 3), advanced his doc- 
 trine of the Supper, totally denying the presence of the body and 
 blood of Christ in the sacrament. He explained away the force of the 
 words of institution by an absurd explanation of tovto. He argued 
 that Christ thereby pointed to his body then present, and designed to 
 say: " This is my body, which I will offer in death for you, and, in 
 remembrance of the fact, eat this bread." When Carlstadt, driven 
 from Saxony, went to Strassburg, he interested the ministers of that 
 city, Martin Bucer and Wolfgang Capita, in favor of his views. Their 
 efforts to effect a reconciliation were, of course, unavailing with Luther. 
 Ztoingli, also, sympathized with Carlstadt. Agreeing with him, essen- 
 tially, though on different grounds, Zwingli explained the words of 
 institution, " This is" by " this signifies," and reduced the entire sig- 
 nificance of the sacrament to a symbolical commemoration of the suf- 
 ferings and death of Christ. In a letter to Matthew Alber, in Reut- 
 lingen (1524), who held Luther's view, he expressed this opinion, and 
 defended Carlstadt against Luther. He developed the same opinion 
 more fully in his " Commentarius de vera et falsa religione," 1525, in 
 which he designates Luther's view as an opinio non solum rustica sed 
 etiam impia et frivola. GEcolampadius also took part in the contro- 
 versy, and vindicated his friend Zwingli against Bugenhagen' s attack, 
 in his " De genuina verborum Domini : Hoc est corpus meum, expo- 
 tione," 1525. In this work, GEcolampadius attempts to show that 
 Bw/xa, in the words of institution, signify as much as "sign of the 
 body." He submitted the work to the Swabian reformers, John Brenz 
 and Erhard Schnepf, who, in conjunction with twelve other Swabian 
 preachers, replied to it in accordance with Luther's view. The con- 
 troversy spread, disputants multiplied, each eagerly replying to his 
 opponent. Luther issued two more powerful works upon the subject: 
 one in 1527, "Das die Worte: das ist mein Leib, noch fest stehen;" 
 the other in 1526, " IJekenntniss vom Abendmahle." The struggle 
 progressed, in spite of the conciliatory efforts of the Strassburg divines. 
 Zwingli's view became the shibboleth (jf the Swiss Reformation, and 
 was approved in many cities of Upper Germany. Strassburg, Lindau, 
 Memmingen, and Constance adopted it; it even found favor in übt», 
 A.ugsburg, Reutlingen, etc.
 
 70 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A.D.). 
 
 § 12. THE PROTEST AND CONFESSION OF THE EVANGEL 
 ICAL STATES. (1529-30.) 
 
 After the diet of Spires, public action upon religious matters 
 was suspended for three years. But, incited by the growing 
 strength and the progress of the Reformation during this time, 
 embittered by intervening mistakes, and encouraged by the im- 
 provement of the emperor's political position, the Catholic party 
 obtained the preponderance again at the next diet of Spires 
 (1529), and secured the passage of a decision designed to put 
 a full end to the evangelical cause. The evangelical party 
 entered a formal protest (thenceforth they were called Protest- 
 ants), and made every effort to give it effect. The attempted 
 union with the Swiss and cities of Upper Germany failed ; but, 
 in the Augsburg Confession, they raised, at Augsburg (1530), 
 a banner in the presence of the emperor and empire, around 
 which they thenceforth confidently rallied. 
 
 1. The Affair of Pack (1527-28). — In 1527, gloomy reports were 
 spread of some imminent peril to the evangelical cause. The land- 
 grave suspected a conspiracy of the Catholic princes in Germany. He, 
 therefore, pressed Otto v. Pack, the chancellor of Duke George, to 
 reveal what he knew of the matter. Pack, at length, confessed that a 
 league was already formed against the Lutherans. The landgrave 
 offered him 10,000 guilders for the original document. Pack brought 
 a copy with the ducal seal affixed. According to this paper, the Ca- 
 tholic princes of Germany had bound themselves to fall upon electoral 
 Saxony and Hesse with their united forces, to exterminate the Reform- 
 ation, and divide the country among them, etc. The landgrave was 
 fired with indignation, and even Elector John allowed himself to be 
 drawn into a league, by virtue of which both were to make energetic 
 demonstrations against the impending assault. But Luther and Me- 
 lanchihon reminded the elector of the words of the Lord: "He that 
 taketh the sword shall perish by the sword ;" and persuaded him to 
 await the attack, and confine himself to a simple defence against 
 attack. The landgrave, greatly provoked by the loss of his ally, sent 
 a copy of Pack's document to Duke George, who pronounced it a 
 shameful falsehood and forgery. Meanwhile, Philip had entered the 
 territory of his ecclesiastical neighbor. At Wittenberg, bitter tears 
 were shed at this violent infraction of the peace of the country. The 
 landgrave, also, on calmer reflection after his return, was ashamed of 
 his course. Pack was examined ; he contradicted himself, and was 
 soon found to be a bad character, who had been guilty of other frauds. 
 The landgrave banished him. For a long time he wandered about,
 
 EVANGELICAL PROTEST AND CONFESSION. li 
 
 and, finally at the instigation of Duke George, was beheaded in the 
 Netherlands. This affair greatly damaged the evangelical cause. 
 Mutual confidence was irretrievaldy lost ; the Catholic princes now 
 seemed to be the injured party, and they were highly exasperated. 
 
 2. The Emperor's Position (1527-29). — The treachery of the King 
 of France, and the consummation of the league of Cognac, had placed 
 the emperor in a most trying position. Old Freundsberg gathered an 
 army in Germany ; and the German soldiery, burning with a desire 
 to vex the pope, marched over the Alps without hire or pay. On May 
 6, 1527, they stormed Rome ; the pope yielded himself a captive. But 
 once more Germany's hope in her emperor fiiiled. Regard for the 
 sentiments prevailing in his Spanish hereditary domains, and his own 
 antipathy against tlie Saxon heresy, together with other political 
 combinations, caused him to forget that he had been rescued by 
 Lutherans. In June, 1528, he concluded a peace with the pope at 
 Barcelona, and pledged his entire strength for the extermination of the 
 heresy. The Peace of Cambray (July, 1529). finally terminated the 
 war with France. In the articles of peace, both sovereigns promised 
 to support the dignity of the papal chair, and Francis I. renewed the 
 pledge to furnish aid against heretics and the Turks. Charles then 
 hastened to Italy, to be crowned by the pope, intending, after that, to 
 go to Germany in person, and adjust existing difliculties there. 
 
 3. The Diet of Spires (1529). (Cf. /. /. Milller, Hist. v. d. ev. Stände 
 Protestation. Jena, 1705, 4to. — J. A. H. Titimann, d. Protest, d. ev. 
 Stände, Lpz. 1829.) — In the latter part of 1528, an imperial message 
 was sent from Spain, appointing a diet at Spires, on Feb. 21, 1529, for 
 the purpose of devising measures in regard to the war with the Turks, 
 and to religious innovations. The existing state of affairs differed 
 widely from that in 1526 (| 6, 7). The Catholic princes were irritated 
 by the frauds of Pack ; the wavering states were controlled by fear 
 of "the emperor; the prelates were present in full numbers; and the 
 Catholic party had, for the first time since the diet of Worms, a de- 
 cided majority. The proposition of the imperial commissaries, to 
 annul the decision of the diet of 1526, was approved by a committee, 
 adopted by a majority, and engrossed, by Ferdinand's orders, as a 
 decision of the diet. Thus all who had hitherto observed the edict of 
 Worms were still to maintain it, and others were forbidilen to intro- 
 duce further innovations, at least until a council should be held : the 
 mass was to be tolerated, and the jurisdiction and revenues of the 
 bishops were t(^be every where restored. It was the death-sentence 
 of the Reformation ; for the last point, especially, gave bishops full 
 power arbitrarily to punish or depose offensive ministers. As no 
 remonstrances availed with the stubborn Ferdinand, the evangelical 
 party entered a solemn protest against the decision, and demanded its 
 incorporation with the decision. But Ferdinand declined accepting it
 
 12 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CE NT. 1 6 A. D.). 
 
 The Protestants at once prepared and published a document legally 
 drawn up, and containing all the acts, in which they stated their 
 grievances, and appealed to the emperor, a free council, and a German 
 national convention. The document was signed by the Elector of 
 Saxony, Landgrave of Hesse, Margrave George of Brandenburg, the 
 two Dukes of LUneberg, and Prince Wolfgang of Anhalt. Fourteen 
 cities of Upper Germany subscribed it. 
 
 4. The Marburg Colloquy (1529). (Cf. Rudelbach, Ref. Lutherth. u. 
 Union, p. 345, etc. — H. Heppe, d. 15 Marb. Artikel. With a fac-simile 
 of the autographs. 2 Aufl. Kass. 1854.) — Before leaving Spires, elec- 
 toral Saxony and Hesse united with Strassburg, Ulm, and Nuremberg, 
 in a defensive alliance. The theologians present strongly opposed the 
 admission of Strassburg to this league, on account of its Zwinglian 
 views. At the same time the landgrave formed a compact with Zurich, 
 and Zurich applied to Francis I. of France. Thus a coalition was 
 forming which might have become more dangerous to the house of 
 Austria than any preceding one. But 07ie point was ignored which 
 soon frustrated all these plans, the diversity between the Lutheran and 
 Zwinglian confessions. Melanchthon returned to Wittenberg with 
 severe chidings of conscience. Luther was opposed to any confederacy 
 — most of all, to fraternization with sacramentarians — and the elector 
 half agreed with him. The Nuremberg theologians had the same 
 scruples. The league was to be ratified at Rotach, in June. The 
 parties met, but effected nothing. The Mndgrave was distracted, but 
 the elector remained firm. Philip then invited the leading theologians 
 of both sides to hold a colloquy at his castle in Marburg. It lasted 
 from Oct. 1-3, 1529. On the one side were Luther, Melanchthon, Justus 
 Jonas, from Wittenberg, John Brenz, from Swabian Hall, and Andrew 
 Oslander, from Nuremberg ; on the other side were Zivingli, from 
 Zurich, CEcolampadius, from Basel, and Bucer and Hedio, from Strass- 
 burg. After private interviews between Zwingli and Melanchthon, 
 and Luther and ö^colampadius, according to the well-considered 
 arrangement of the landgrave, the public colloquy commenced on the 
 second day. In the first place, several points were discussed touching 
 the divinity of Christ, original sin, baptism, the Word of God, etc., 
 regarding which the Wittenbergers suspected the orthodoxy of Zwingli. 
 These were all secondary matters with Zwingli, in reference to which 
 he dropped his unchurchly views, and declared his agreement with the 
 views of the oecumenical councils. But, in regard to the article of 
 the Lord's vSupper, he was the more persistent. Appealing to John, 
 6 : 33, " The flesh prof tetk nothing," he showed the sujiposed absurdity 
 of Luther's view. Luther had written, with chalk, on the table : 
 " This is my body," and insisted that these were words of God, which 
 fihould not be perverted. Agreement was out of the question. Zwingli, 
 nevertheless, declared himself ready to maintain fraternal fellowship, 
 but Luther and his party rejected the offer. Luther said: "Ihr habt
 
 EVANGELICAL PROTEST AND CONFESSION. 73 
 
 ftinen andern Geist denn wir." Still Luther found that his opponents 
 4id not hold as offensive views as he supposed ; and the Swiss, also, 
 that Luther's doctrine was not so gross and Capernaitic as they thought. 
 They united, therefore, in a mutual promise to drop disputes, and to 
 earnestly pray God to lead them all to a right understanding of the 
 truth. They adopted and subscribed fifteen articles. In the first four- 
 teen they declared unanimous consent to the oecumenical faith of the 
 Church against the errors of Papists and Anabaptists. In the fifteenth, 
 the Swiss conceded that the body and blood of Christ were present in 
 the sacrament, but they could not agree to his corporeal presence in tTie 
 bread and icine. 
 
 5. ITie Convention of Schwabach (1529). — Whilst the theologians 
 were conferring at Marburg, the Elector John and Margrave George 
 were in consultation at Schlciz. They agreed that unanimity in faith 
 was the indispensable condition of fraternity. In October following, 
 a convention was held at Schwabach, in accordance with the agreement 
 at Rotach. On the basis of the Marburg articles, Luther had drawn 
 up a confession {the seventeen a^iicles o/ Schv^abach), -which the dele- 
 gates from Upper Germany were required to subscribe liefore pro- 
 ceeding further. They declined doing this, and the convention was 
 adjourned. Meanwhile, the imperial orders with regard to the recess 
 of the diet, which arrived from Spain, contained very ungracious ex- 
 pressions against the Protestants. The evangelical States sent an 
 embassy to the emperor, then in Italy ; but he, also, refused to receive 
 their protest, and wellnigh treated the commissioners as prisoners. 
 But they escaped, and brought back bad news. Hitherto the only 
 question had been about n defensive and ofiensive league against the 
 apprehended assaults of the Swabian league, or other Catholic princes. 
 Luther's hope that the emperor would still examine the matter was 
 now destroyed. The question could not be shunned, what to do if the 
 assault upon their faith came from the emperor himself. The jurists, 
 indeed, thought that the German princes were not in a relation of un- 
 conditional subjection to the emperor, but that they themselves were 
 rulers by the grace of God, and, as such, bound to protect their sub- 
 jects. But Luther did not hesitate, for a moment, to compare the 
 relation of his elector to the emperor with tliat of the burgomaster of 
 Targau to the elector, for he clung to the idea of the empire as firmly 
 as to that of the Church. He entreated the princes not to resist tlie 
 emperor, and for God's sake to suffer every thing for themselves and 
 their countries. Only, if the emperor should retpiire them to perse- 
 cute, banish, or put to death their own subjects for conscience' sake, 
 they were not bound to obey. Under such circumstances, the Conven- 
 tion q/ Smalcald, agreed upon at Schwabach, took place, but witliout 
 result. 
 
 6. J7ie Diet of Auijsburg (1530). (Cf. die Jubelschr. v. Pfaf, Nu- 
 remb. 1830 ; Veesenmeyer, Nuremb. 1830 ; Facias, Lpz. 1830, and 
 
 50
 
 74 SECTION III — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A.D.). 
 
 Förstemann, Urkundenb. z. Gesch. d. Reichst, zu Augsb. Lpz. 1830-35, 
 2 Bde.) — From Bologna, where the Pope crowned him, the emperoi 
 issued a call for a diet at Augsburg, which, after being absent from 
 Germany nine years, he promised to attend in person. The removal 
 of religious errors was to be the chief business. He wished, first of 
 all, to try, by peaceable means, to win back the Protestants to the old 
 faith. Hence his proclamation was conciliatory in its tone. But be- 
 fore his arrival in Augsburg, new disorders arose. The Elector John 
 had brought Melanchfhon, Jonas, and ßpalatin, with him to Augsburg, 
 and had them preach there. The emperor heard of this with great 
 displeasure, and dispatched a message requiring him to have this 
 stopped. The admonition Avas not heeded. On June 15, he, accom- 
 panied by the papal legate, Campegius, entered the city in great 
 pomp; the Protestants (according to 2 Chr. 5: 18, 19) participated, 
 without opposition, in all the religious and civil ceremonies of recep- 
 tion. The emperor tuen the more confidently demanded the preaching 
 to be stopped. But the Protestants were firm. Margrave George 
 broke the fury of the emperor's rage by his equally decided and 
 humble declaration : before he would renounce the Word of God, he 
 would kneel down on the spot, and let his head be cut off. "With like 
 firmness did they refuse to participate in the procession of Corpus 
 Christi, because it was announced to be " in honor of Almighty God." 
 In regard to preaching, they finally consented to impose silence on 
 their clergy during the emperor's stay, since the opposite party was 
 also required to abstain from controversial discourses. The diet was 
 opened on June 20. The matter of the Turkish war, which the em- 
 peror first introduced, was postponed until the religious questions 
 should be settled. 
 
 7. The Augsburg Confession {Jiine25, 1530). (Cf. D. CJiyträus, Hist, 
 d. Augsb. Conf. Rost. 1576, 4to. — E. Sal. Cyprian, Hist. d. A. C. Gotha, 
 1730.— C/»-. A. Salig, vollst. Hist. d. A. C. Halle, 1730, 4to. — G. G. 
 Weber, krit. Gesch. d. A. C. Frkf. 1784, 2 Bde. — J. G. Rudelbach, 
 hist.-krit. Einl. in d. A. C. Lpz. 1841. [G. J. Planch, Gesch. d. prot. 
 Lehrbegr. III.] — When the imperial proclamation announced the pur- 
 pose of settling religious dissensions amicably, the elector requested 
 his theologians to prepare a brief and lucid statement of the evangel- 
 ical faith. They presented him, accordingly, a revised copy of the 
 seventeen Articles of Schwabach (the Torgau Articles). As the em- 
 oeror's arrival was delayed, Melanchthon improved the interval in 
 preparing the Augsburg Confession (Confessio Augustana) on the basis 
 of the Torgau Articles. This compact, lucid document, as decided as 
 it was mild, received the full approval of Luther, whom the elector 
 had left in Coburg, because he was still under sentence of excommuni- 
 cation and proscription. It contained twenty-one articuli fidei prae- 
 cipui, and seven articuli in quibus recensentur abusus mutati. On 
 June 24, the Protestants desired to read their confession ; but it was
 
 EVANGELICAL PROTEST AND CONFESSION. 75 
 
 only with great difficulty that the emperor consented to its being read 
 on June 25 — and then not in the great hall of the public sessions, but 
 in the much smaller chamber of the episcopal chapter, to which only 
 the members of the diet were admitted. The chancellors of electoral 
 Saxony, Doctors Baier and Brück, each came forward with a copy of 
 the Ciinfession, the former in German, the latter in Latin. Charles 
 wished the latter to be read, but the elector carried the point of having 
 the German copy read on German soil. This done. Brück handed both 
 copies to Charles, who kept the Latin copy and gave the other to the 
 Elector of Mayence. The former was subsequently placed in the 
 archives of Brussels, but was taken thence by the Duke of Alba, and 
 lost ; the other was deposited in the archives of Maj^ence, but only a 
 copy of it was afterwards found there. Both were signed by the 
 Elector John, the Margrave George, Duke Ernest of Lüneburg, the 
 Landgrave Philip, Prince Wolfgang of Anhalt, and the cities of Nu- 
 remberg and Reutlingen. The Confession made a favorable impression 
 upon many of the assembled princes, and scattered many prejudices 
 against the faith of the Protestants, whilst the evangelical confessors 
 felt themselves greatly strengthened by the unanimous confession of 
 their faith before the emperor and nation. Qharles now directed the 
 Catholic theologians, John Faber, Eclc, and Cochlceus, to refute the 
 Confession. They prepared a so-called Confutation, which was read 
 Aug. 3. Charles declared that their document contained the views by 
 which he would abide ; that he m ould expect the princes to do the 
 same ; otherwise, he was the protector of the Church, and was not dis- 
 posed to tolerate a schism in Germany. The Protestants requested a 
 copy of the Confutation, that they might examine it more closely ; this 
 was denied them. Then the landgrave left the diet. lie told the 
 elector that he placed person and property, country and people, at his 
 disposal ; and to the delegates of the cities he wrote : " Tell the cities 
 not to be women, but men. You need not fear; God is on our side." 
 The Zwinglian cities of Strassburg, Memmingen, Constance, and Lin- 
 dau, handed in their own confession {Confessio tetrapolitana), the 18th 
 article of which declares: Christ, in the sacrament, gives his true body 
 and true blood, to be eaten and drunk for the nourishment of the soul. 
 Charles directed a Catholic refutation of this also to be read, as a set- 
 tlement of the matter. — Meanwhile iMÜier, at Coburg, had, by his 
 earnest prayers, counsel, and encouragement (Exod. 7 : 11), sustained 
 his friends in their conflicts at Augsburg. He preached often, wrote 
 numerous letters, negotiated with Bucer (| 13, 7), labored at the trans- 
 lation of the Prophets, and wrote several works for edification. Pro- 
 bably the powerful hymn : " Eine veste Burg," etc., and its tune, were 
 not composed here. 
 
 8. Recess of the Augsburg Diet (1530.) — The hopeful firmness with 
 which the Protestant minority maintained their position, caused the 
 Catholic majority to hesitate about a public rupture. They therefore
 
 76 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A.D.). 
 
 resolved to attempt a mediation once more. For this purpose the em- 
 peror appointed a commission of two princes, two doctors of canon law, 
 and three theologians, from each party. The 21 doctrinal articles of 
 the Confession were assented to, without altering a single fundamental 
 point ; on the other hand the Protestants were to give up everything 
 relating to constitution and customs. So the measure failed. Five 
 imperial cities took sides with the emperor, the others attached them- 
 selves to the protesting princes. At the close the Protestants desired 
 to read and present an Ajyologrj of the Augsburg Confession, drawn up 
 by Melanchthon, as an offset to the Catholic confutation, but the Em- 
 peror inflexibly refused permission. (After the adjournment of the 
 diet, Melanchthon obtained a full copy of the confutation, and revised 
 his admirable apology ; — it is among the most decided productions of 
 his pen, and was translated into German by Justus Jonas.) On Sept. 
 22, the Protestant states were notified by the recess of the diet, that 
 time would be given them until April 15 following, to consider the 
 matter ; but meanwhile no new work should be published, aud confes- 
 sion and the mass should be tolerated in their dominions. A promise 
 was also given that a general council should be called within six 
 months. The spiritual, princes were confirmed anew in all their pre- 
 rogatives. The emperor declared that it was his fixed purpose strictly 
 to maintain the edict of Worms, and enjoined his fiscal to prosecute all 
 violations, even to passing sentence of proscription. The supreme 
 court of judicature itself was formally and expressly bound to maintain 
 the recess of the diet. Finally, Charles expressed the desire that, in 
 view of his frequent absence, his bi'other Ferdinand might be chosen 
 King of the Romans. This was soon afterwards done at Frankfurt ; 
 but electoral Saxony entered a protest against it. 
 
 § 13. EVENTS AND NEGOTIATIONS DURING 1531-36. 
 
 The Protestants had not yet been able to effect a permanent 
 alliance. Now, however, it became necessary to set themselves 
 earnestly abont it. Thus arose the Smalcaldic league, 1531, for six 
 years. To this energetic measure, and the simultaneous political 
 exigency of the emperor, the Protestants owed the concession 
 of the first or Nuremberg Religious Peace. The bold progress 
 of the landgrave released Wiirtemherg from the Austrian yoke, 
 and popish coercion. At the same time the Reformation tri- 
 umphed in Anhalt, Pomerania, and several cities of Westpha- 
 lia. But for the Anabaptist disorders of Münster, all Westphalia 
 would have become Protestant. The untiring assiduity of Bucer, 
 also, secured the northern countries for the Smalcaldic league, 
 by means cf the Wittenberg concord. The league now presented 
 an imposing and powerful front.
 
 EVENTS AND N E G O T I A T I N S (l 53 1-3 6). 77 
 
 1. The Formation of the SmaJcaldic Leaffue (1530-31). — Tlie obli^'i.- 
 tion of the imperial chamber to carry out the Augsburg recess, threat- 
 ened most danger to the Protestants. To ward off this danger the 
 evangelical states unanimously resolved, at a convention in Snialcuhx 
 (Dec. 1530), to sustain each other against eA'ery attack of the chamber. 
 But vrhen the question arose whether, in any extremity, they Tvould 
 be justified in taking arms against the emperor himself, their viewa 
 were divided. The legal opinions of the jurists finally prevailed over 
 all religious scruples, and the Elector of Saxony demanded the forma- 
 tion of a league against everi/ assailant, even should it be the emperor 
 himself. At a second convention in Smalcald, March, 1531, such a 
 league was formally concluded, for six years. The parties to it were : 
 Electoral Saxony, Hesse, Lüneburg, Anhalt, Mansfcld, and eleven 
 cities. 
 
 2. The Eeliyious Peace of Nuremberg (1532). — The energetic combi- 
 nation of the Protestants made an impression ; its effect was also in- 
 creased by a threatened attack of the Sultan Soliman, who seemed 
 determined to enforce his pretensions to imperial power and universal 
 dominion. In order to subdue the Protestants, it would be necessary 
 to make terms with the Turks ; or, if these were to be humbled, a peace- 
 able union with the Protestants was indispensable. Ferdinand de- 
 cided upon the latter policy, and by his advice the emperor ordered a 
 diet at Regensburg, and directed his fiscal of the chamber to stay all 
 proceedings, instituted by virtue of the Augsburg recess, until the 
 diet should convene. But the catastrophe in Switzerland, soon after, 
 [I 10, 10,) changed Ferdifiand's policy. This seemed to him the best 
 time for inflicting the same fate upon the evangelical party in Germany 
 which befell the Swiss. lie therefore sent an embassy to the Sultan, 
 which was authorized to propose the most ignominious terms of peace. 
 But Soliman spurned every offer, and, in April, 1532, marched for- 
 ward with an army of 300,000 men. In the meantime the diet was 
 opened at Regensburg, April 17, 1532. Here the Protestants were not, 
 as two years previously, the suppliants, but the entreated party. They 
 would no longer listen to a compromise, but demanded peace in reli- 
 gious matters, the annulling of all religious processes in the chamber, 
 and a free general council, where matters at issue should be decided 
 alone according to the Word of God. As long as Ferdinand could hope 
 that his ambassadors to the Turks would obtain a favorable answer, he 
 did not seriously entertain negotiations for peace. But when this hope 
 was destroyed, and he saw the terrible army of Soliman rolling on- 
 ward, there was no time to be lost. To be nearer the emperor, (in 
 Brussels,) the diet's further proceedings were transferred to Nuremberg, 
 where the first, or Nuremberg Bcllgiovs Peace, was concluded (July 23, 
 1532). On account of the Catholic majority, and the papal legate, the 
 demand regarding the imperial cbamlior could not be engrossed in the 
 public records ; hence the emperor granted it in a separate pledge, but 
 
 50*
 
 78 SECTION III — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A. D.), 
 
 only in favor of the then existing states. It was permitted the Elector 
 John, as a reward for his fidelity, to see this peace concluded. He died 
 soon after (1532) of apoplexy, and was succeeded by his son, John Fre- 
 derick the Magnanimous. — A considerable army was soon gathered. 
 Soliman was defeated by land and sea, and returned home discom- 
 fited. The emperor then went to Italy, and urged the pope to call a 
 general council. The pope, however, thought the measure premature. 
 The other condition of the peace, the staying of processes before the 
 chamber, was also disregarded for a time. Charles had indeed at 
 Mantua directed his fiscal to delay all religious suits until further orders. 
 But the chamber declared that the pending processes (mostly relating 
 to the restitution of ecclesiastical property and immunities) were not 
 of a religious nature, but involved violations of public peace and con- 
 fiscations. Then the Protestants entered (Jan., 1534) a formal recusa- 
 tion of the chamber, which, nevertheless, did not stay its proceedings, 
 and was about to pass sentence of ban upon some states, when occur- 
 rences in Wiirtemberg changed the aspect of things. 
 
 3. Tlie Evangelization of Würtemherg (1534^35).— (Cf. /. C. Schmidt 
 u. F. E. Pfister, Denkw. d. württb. Ref. Gesch. Tübg. 1817.—/. Hart- 
 mann, Gesch. d. Ref. in W. Stuttg. 1835. — K. Mann, Jubelbüchl. d. ev. 
 Ref. in W. Stuttg. 1836.— C. Römer, K. G. Ws. Stuttg. 1848; K. Th. 
 Keim, schwäb. Ref. Gesch. Tübg. 1855. — L. F. Heyd, Herz. Ulr. v. W. 
 Tübg. 1841, etc., u. 3 Bde. — J. Hartmann u. K. Jäger, Leb. u. Wirk, 
 d. Joh. Brenz. Ilamb. 1840, 2 Bde. — J. G. Vaihinger, Leb. u. Wirk. d. 
 Joh. Brentz. Stuttg. 1841.) — After the expulsion of Duke Ulrich, by 
 virtue of the Swabian league (1528) Würtemberg was under Austrian 
 rule. The fanaticism with which every reformatory movement was put 
 down, had long awakened in the breast of the people a desire for the 
 return of their hereditary prince, and this desire was increased by his 
 adoption of the evangelical faith in his Swiss exile. But the vigilance 
 of the Swabian league had thus far frustrated all the attempts of Ulrich 
 to regain the inheritance of his fathers. His son Christopher was edu- 
 cated at the court of Ferdinand, and was to accompany (1532) the 
 emperor to Spain. Whilst crossing the Alps he fled, and openly re- 
 claimed his inheritance in Germany. The Landgrave Philip, Ulrich's 
 personal friend, had long resolved to seize the first opportunity of re- 
 covering Würtemberg for him. At length, in the spring of 1534, he 
 carried out his plan, with the aid of French gold. At Lavjen, Ferdi- 
 nand's army was well-nigh destroyed, and he was compelled, at the 
 Peace of Kadan (1534) to cede Würtemberg to Ulrich as a mesne fief, 
 granting him, however, a seat and vote at the diet, and allowing him 
 ^uU liberty to introduce the Reformation into his territory. The Elector 
 of Saxony, also, participated in this Peace, by acknowledging Ferdi- 
 nand as King of the Romans, and for this receiving the assurance that 
 the chamber should definitively arrest all proceedings against existing 
 members of the Smalcald league. From the beginning, Luther's views
 
 EVENTS AND NEGOTIATIONS (1531-36). 79 
 
 nad met with a warm response in Wiirtemberg ; but all expressions 
 of sympathy therewith had been suppressed by Ferdinand's bloody 
 rule. Now the Keformation spread all the more rapidly over the laud. 
 Ulrich committed the reformation of the district above the Staig to 
 Ambrose Blaurer, a respectable theologian of that section, a pupil of 
 Zwingli, and a friend of Bucer, approving of Bucer's conciliatory mea- 
 sures (n. 7). The reformation of the countries below the Staig was 
 undertaken by Erhard Schnejtf, a professor at Marburg, and a decided 
 adherent of Luther. Both agreed upon a doctrinal formula (" Corpus 
 et sanguinem Christi vere, i. e. suhstantialiter et essential iter, non autcm 
 quantitative vel localiter prcesentia esse et exhiheri in coeiia.") Ulrich 
 merits special praise for the establishment of the university at Tubin- 
 gen, modelled after that at Marburg, and which became one of the most 
 important nurseries of Protestant learning. The example of Wiirtem- 
 berg encouraged many of the neighboring courts of the empire and 
 imperial cities to follow its course, and among them the powerful 
 city of Augsburg. 
 
 4. The Reformation in Anhalt and Pomerania (1532-34). — (Cf. F. L. 
 B. V. Medem, Gesch. d. Einf. d. ev. Lehre in Pommer. Greifsw. 1837.) — 
 Prince Wolfgang of Anhalt, one of the evangelical confessors at Spires 
 and Augsburg, had previously introduced the Reformation into the 
 district along the Saale and into Zerbst. In 1532, another Anhalt 
 prince, George, cathedral provost of Magdeburg and Merseburg, at 
 first an opponent of Luther, but afterAvards won over by his writings, 
 began the work in the district east of the Elbe, not so much by his 
 authority as a temporal prince as by virtue of his ecclesiastical juris- 
 diction, in exercising which he did not allow the opposition of the 
 archbishop cardinal Albrocht to hinder him. At his right hand stood 
 Nicholas Hausmann, a friend of Luther ; and when the Bishop of Bran- 
 denburg refused to consecrate his married priests, he had them ordained 
 by Luther in Wittenberg. In Pomerania, however, the cause was 
 introduced amid more violent agitations. The nobility and clergy en- 
 deavored to restrain by force the inclinations of the people. Prince 
 Barnim had been an admirer of Luther ever since the Leipsic disputa- 
 tion, whilst his brother George united with the clergy in their opposi- 
 tion. But George died, and his son Philip cooperated with Barnim in 
 introducing the Reformation into the entire territory. At the diet of 
 Treptow (Dee., 1534) they submitted a plan for carrying on the work, 
 whicli the cities hailed with joy, and which Bugenhagen executed by a 
 visitation of .the churches like that pursued in Saxony. 
 
 5. The Beformation in Westphalia (1532-34).— (Cf. C. A. Cornelius, 
 Gosch. d. Münster. vVufruhrs. Bd. I. Die Reformation. Lpz. 1855. — 
 H. Joohmns, Gesch. d. Kirclienref. zu Münster. Münst. WZü. — Max. 
 Göbel, Gesch. d. Chr. Lebens in d. rhein. Westphal. K. Cobl. 1840. 
 Bd. I.)--In the cities o*" Westphalia, the Reformation assumed the
 
 80 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A. D.). 
 
 same character as in those of Lower Germany, Lutheran hymns doing 
 the chief work. Plderiiz, a pastor in Lemgo, was an adherent of Eck. 
 In order to see the nature of Lutheranism with his own eyes, he visited 
 Brunswick, and returned with wholly altered views. He then reformed 
 the city without opposition. — In Soest, the Catholic council resolved to 
 inspire terror by condemning to death Schlachtorp, a tanner, who had 
 severely denounced the council. The Lutheran citizens, following 
 Luther's example, endured the violence of the authorities without re- 
 sistance. But the executioner, missing the neck of his victim, dealt 
 him a terrible wound in the back. Another executioner came forward 
 to finish the work, when Schlachtorp, reviving, wrested the sword from 
 his hand, and was borne home in triumph by the crowd. S. died the 
 next day. The council left the city, and thus Catholicism lost its last 
 footing there (July, 1533). — In Paderborn, the people had defiantly 
 claimed the freedom of the pulpit ; and when the Elector Hermann of 
 Cologne visited the place to receive allegiance (§ 15, 7), the refractori- 
 ness of the Lutherans was reported to him in so glaring a light, that 
 he ordered some of the leaders to be seized. By means of the torture 
 he wrung from them a confession of a treasonable combination with 
 the Landgrave of Ilesse, of which they had been falsely accused, and 
 for this he condemned them to death. But when they reached the 
 scafi'old, the request of an old man to be beheaded with them, and the 
 entreaties of the women and maidens, s(# wrought upon Hermann, tha'^ 
 he spared their lives. The nobility and clergy, however, managed t& 
 maintain Catholicism. — In Münster, the doctrine of Luther was early 
 preached by Bernli. Rottmann. The council had to open St. Lambert 
 church to him, and the friends of the new cause soon became ascendant. 
 The council and priests left the city. The new bishop, Francis of 
 Waldeck, cut oS"all communication with the city, but during Christmas, 
 1532, 900 armed citizens of Münster fell upon Telgt, by night, where 
 the diet was then convened, to take the oath of allegiance. The bishop, 
 who had just departed, escaped the assailants, but the most noted 
 leaders among the nobility and priests were captured and taken to 
 Münster. The bishop was then compelled to grant the city uncondi- 
 tional religious liberty. Neighboring cities had already begun to 
 follow this example, when a catastrophe occurred, which resulted in 
 the full restoration of Catholicism. 
 
 6. The Münster Faction. — (Cf. Jochrnns, 1. c. /. C. Wallmann, John v. 
 Leyden. Quedlb. 1844. — K. Hase, neue Propheten. Lpz. 1851. — C. Ä. 
 Cornelius, Berichte d. Augenzeugen üb. d. Münster. Wiedertäuferreich. 
 Münst. 1853). — Rottmann had for some time embraced the Zwinglian 
 doctrine of the Lord's Supper; his next step was to reject infant bap« 
 tism. In a disputation with some theologians of Hesse, he was defeated. 
 Nevertheless, he managed to remain in the city, and to strengthen his 
 party by gathering in Anabaptist elements from other places. On the 
 festival ol' the Three Kings, 1534, the prophet John Mathys, a baker
 
 EVENTS AND N E G O T I A T I N S (l 5 3 1-3 6). 81 
 
 of Harlom, and his ardent apostle, John BockeJson, a tailor of Leyden, 
 came to Münster. The populace, especially women, crowded to their 
 preaching. Eottinann, and a few other preachers, at once joined them 
 Their adherents soon multiplied to such an extent, that they thought 
 they might bid defiance to the council. During an insurrection, the 
 council was so weak and forbearing, that it made a treaty which secured 
 to them legal recognition. Anabaptist fanatics then poured into Mün- 
 ster from all directions. After a few weeks they had the preponderance 
 in the council. Mathys, the prophet, announced it as the will of God, 
 that all unbelievers should be driven from the city. This was done, 
 Feb. 27, 1534. Seven deacons divided the eflects they left behind, 
 among the believers. In May, the bishop laid siege to the city. By 
 this means the disorder was at least confined to Münster. After having 
 destroyed all the images, organs, and books, (only saving the Bible,) 
 the fanatics introduced a community of goods. Mathys, who imagined 
 himself called to slay the besieging foe, fell during a sally by their 
 sword. Bockelson took the J)rophet's place. In accordance with his 
 revelations the council was deposed, and a theocratic government of 
 twelve elders, who let themselves be inspired by the prophet, was 
 established. That he might marry the beautiful widow of Mathj's, 
 Bockelson introduced polygamy. The still surviving moral sense of 
 the citizens in vain resisted this enormity. Those who were dissatisfied 
 rallied around Mollenhok, a blacksmith, were defeated, and all con- 
 demned to death. Bockelson, proclaimed king of the whole earth by 
 one of his co-prophets, set up a splendid court, and introduced the most 
 heinous abominations, lie claimed authority to inaugurate the Millen- 
 nium, sent out twenty-eight apostles to spread his kingdom, and ap- 
 pointed twelve dukes, to govern the earth as his vicegerents. Mean- 
 while the besieging army failed in an attempt to storm the city (Aug., 
 1534) ; had not help arrived from Hesse, Treves, Cleve, Mayence, and 
 Cologne, thoy would have been conTpelled to raise the siege. All they 
 could do was to starve out the city, and this plan was succeeding weh. 
 But on St. John's eve, 1535, a deserter led the soldiers to scale the walls 
 After a stubborn struggle, the Anabaptists were overpowered. Kott- 
 mann plunged into the thickest part of the fight, and perished. King 
 John, with his governor, KnipperdoUing, and chancellor, Krechting, 
 were captured, pinched to dea^h with red-hot tongs, and then hung 
 up at the tower of St. Lambert's church in iron cages. Catholicism, 
 in an absolutely exclusive form, was restored. 
 
 7. Extension of the Smalcal die Learjue (1536). — In the summer of 
 1534, the emperor determined to chastise those German princes who 
 had sundered Würtemburg from the possessions of liis house. But 
 he was hindered from executing this purjiose l)y fear of tiie bold pirate 
 Chaireddin (Barbarossa), who had established himself in Tunis, and 
 constantlv threatened the coasts of his Italian and Spanish States. 
 In the summer of 1535, the corsair was defeated, but a war which then
 
 82 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A.D.). 
 
 broke out with France (1536) engaged all the emperor's powers. Th« 
 danger was increased by a formal league which Francis I. concluded with 
 Soliman for a united attack upon the emperor. Instead, therefore, of 
 chastising the Protestant princes, Charles had to use all means to secure 
 their friendship, and especially as Francis offered them great induce 
 ments to engage them on his side. Accordingly, from the summer of 
 1535, Ferdinand made advances towards the Protestants. In No- 
 vember, the elector visited him in Vienna, conferred upon him the 
 electoral dignity, and guaranteed the extension of the Nuremberg Peace 
 to all the States that had since then gone over to Protestantism. From 
 Vienna the elector went to a convention at Smalcald, where the Smal- 
 caldic League was extended to ten years, whilst the overtures of the 
 French ambassadors were declined, and the hostile position towards 
 Austria was abandoned. On the basis of the Vienna compact, Wiirt- 
 emberg, Pomerania, Anhalt, and several cities, were admitted to the 
 League ; but subscription to the Augsburg Confession was the indis- 
 pensable condition. Bucer has the credit of having induced the cities 
 to do this. 
 
 8. The Wittenberg Concord (1536). (Cf. Rudelbach, Ref. Lutherth. 
 u. Union, p. 363, etc.) — The study of Luther's works upon the Lord's 
 Supper, and the colloquy at Marburg, had led Bucer to a deeper appre- 
 ciation of the views of Luther upon that subject.' This fact exerted 
 an important influence upon the Confessio tetrapoUtana (| 12, 7), in 
 preparing which he took a prominent part. But Bucer desired to effect 
 a union, and conferred with Luther on the subject (1530) at Coburg. 
 As he confessed in his own name, and that of his colleagues, that 
 Christ was present in the bread and to the mouth in the sacrament, and 
 admitted, at least on his own part, that the ungodbj also really par- 
 took of the body of Christ, Luther declared himself satisfied, and will- 
 ing to concede the nice distinctions »by which Bucer sought to reconcile 
 a spiritual participation with the real presence, and a symbolical with 
 a sacramental significance of the elements. The cities actually assented 
 to this accommodation, and even Q^colampadius was not wholly averse 
 to it. But Zicingli utterly rejected it. Bucer, therefore, exerted him- 
 self the more to persuade the Churches of Upper Germany to adhere 
 to it. In December, 1535, he and Melanchthon had a colloquy at 
 Cassd. They there agreed upon a fuller conference at Eisenach, 
 which, however, was held at Wittenberg, on account of Luther's bad 
 health. Bucer and Capito, with eight of the most distinguished theo- 
 logians of Upper Germany, were present. And as they assented, in 
 advance, to the real presence of the body of Christ in the bread, and 
 its oral reception, as well as to the formula in, witli, and under, the 
 only question discussed related to the participation of unbelievers. The 
 theologians from Upper Germany at length conceded this in regard to 
 unworthg communicants, but not to ungodh/ persons, and Luther de- 
 clared himself satisfied. Accordingly, on May 25, the so-called Wit-
 
 EVENTS AND NEGOTIATIONS (1537-39). 83 
 
 lenberg Concord was signed by all, and further confirmed by their com 
 mon celebration of the Lord's Supper. — In consequence of this union, 
 the most influential theologians of Switzerland met in Basel, and ap- 
 pointed three of their number {Henry BulUngcr of Zurich, Oswald 
 Mi/conius and Simon Grijnäeus of Basel) to prepare a confession of 
 faith distinctly setting forth Zwingli's doctrine concerning the Lord's 
 Supper. This originated the Confessio Helvetica prior, which Leo Juda 
 translated into German. 
 
 § 14. EVENTS AND NEGOTIATIONS DURING 1537-39. 
 
 Pope Clement VII. endeavored, by various excuses, to evade the 
 emperor's increasingly urgent demand for a council. At length, 
 in 1533, he pro^nised to convoke a council at Mayüua, within a 
 year, but insisted, in advance, that the Protestants should pledge 
 unconditional submission to its decrees; a pledge whicli, of 
 course, they would not make. His successor, Paul III. 
 (1534-49), actually summoned a council at Mantua, in 1537. 
 Luther prepared the Smalcald Articles for presentation, but the 
 Protestants finally forl)ade the transmission of them, as they re- 
 solved to renew their demand for a free council in a German city. 
 Hence the summoned council never convened. On the contrary, 
 the Catholic States concluded, at Nuremberg, the so-called Holy 
 League (1538), for the strict maintenance of the recess of Augs- 
 burg ; but political exigencies compelled the emperor to make 
 new concessions to the Protestants in the Frankfort Sxis^pension 
 (1539). During the same year, the Duchy of Saxony and the 
 Electorate of Brandenburg embraced the Reformation. At the 
 commencement of 1540, almost the whole of Northern Germany 
 was Protestant. Duke Henry of Brunswick, alone, remained in 
 the tottering citadel of the old faith. 
 
 1. The Smalcald Articles (1537). (Cf. M. Menrer, d. Tag zu Sohmalk. 
 u. d. schm. Artt. Lpz. 1837. — Chr. Ziemssen, d. welthist. Bcdcut. d. 
 Schmalk. Convents im J. 1537; in d. hist, theol. Ztschr. 1840, III.— 
 Chr. H. Stxt, Petr. Paul. Yergerius, päpstl. Nuntius, kath. Bischof, u. 
 Vorkämpfer d. Evang. Braunschw. 1855). — Paul III. sent (1535) his 
 legate, Vergerins (cf. f 19, 13), mainly to secure definite agreement as 
 to the place for holding the council. He visited Wittenberg, where 
 Luther, in company with Bugenhagen, called upon him. Luther did 
 not expect much from a council, and therefore was indifferent as to tha 
 place of holding it ; the elector was of the same mind. Hence, in the 
 fall of 1536, a general council was. in due form, convoked to meet in 
 Mantua, May 23, 1537. The call was written with care and muderar
 
 84 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A.D.). 
 
 tion, but expressions made by the Pope, in other places, showed clearlj 
 what Protestants had to expect. The matter was discussed at a diet 
 in Smalcald, Feb. 1537. At the request of the elector, Luther had 
 previously drawn up articles, which would be immovably adhered to 
 at the council. These articles, written in German, and known as the 
 Smalcald Articles, Luther brought with him to Smalcald. In accord- 
 ance with the circumstances, their character is predominantly polemic. 
 They boldly break through the limits of cautious forbearance towards 
 the papal hierarchy, within which all the official declarations of the 
 evangelical party had thus far been kept. The first part, concerning 
 the Majesty of God, briefly set forth four undisputed articles concern- 
 ing the Trinity and the person of Christ ; — the second part treats of 
 the office and work of Christ, or our redemption, and definitely lays 
 down points of difference between the two parties, from which there 
 would be no retraction ; — the third part states those points which were 
 open for discussion by the Council. — In the second part, Luther uncon- 
 ditionally rejected the primacy of the pope, as unsupported by tht. 
 Word of God, and incompatible with the character of a truly evan- 
 gelical Church. When the theologians subscribed the paper, Me 
 lanchthon added to his name this statement: "Concerning the pope. 
 I hold that, if he would grant a free Gospel, he might be allowed, for 
 the sake of peace and unity among Christians now, or who may here- 
 after be, subject to him, to exercise a jure humano superiority over 
 the bishops." At the request of the meeting, Melanchthon further 
 prepared a historical paper : " Concerning the Power and Authority 
 of the Pope," and "Concerning the Power and Jurisdiction of Bishops," 
 which was likewise subscribed by the theologians, and added to the 
 Articles of Smalcald. — They then debated the question of attending 
 the council, and on what conditions to do so. They finally agreed tc 
 decline attending it, but once more to ask the emperor to convene a 
 truly free Christian council, in a German city. The elector boldly 
 proposed that Dr. M. Luther and his co-bishops should call a council 
 (at Augsburg, if they pleased) in opposition to that of the pope ; but, 
 as this measure was directly at variance with the entire policy of the 
 Protestants thus far, it was rejected. 
 
 2. The Nuremberg League (1538). — Near the close of the Con- 
 vention of Smalcald (1537), the imperial orator (vice-chancellor), Dr. 
 Held, appeared. The Protestant princes had good reason to suppose 
 that they stood on the best of terms, with the emperor. They were, 
 therefore, no little astonished when the orator declared to them, avow- 
 edly in the emperor's name, that the court was fully justified in pro- 
 secuting the pending suits, nay, even bound to do so ; but he seemed 
 to know nothing of the Peace of Kadan and the Treaty of Vienna. 
 They immediately reassumed their posture of opposition. But Held 
 visited all the Catholic courts, and sought — avowedly by the emperor's 
 authority — to effect a confederation of Catholics, for the complete sup-
 
 EVENTS AND NEGOTIATIONS (l5b7-39). 85 
 
 pression of the Protestants, on the basis of han edicts of the imperial 
 chamber. Ferdinand, who well knew that Held had gone beyond hi» 
 instructions, or even against them, was very indignant, for the emperor 
 was placed in a very critical position. But matters had been carried 
 80 far that it was impossible to recede without greatly offending the 
 Catholic princes. Hence a confederacy, called the Hohj League, was 
 formed at Nuremberg, July 10, 1538, by George of Saxony, Albert of 
 Brandenburg, Henry and Erick of Brunswick, King Ferdinand, and 
 the Archbishop of Salzburg; its object was to sustain the imperial 
 chamber in its official acts, and in the immediate execution of the ban 
 edicts. On the other side, the Smalcald States prepared to meet vio- 
 lence with violence. A general sanguinary war seemed inevitable. 
 
 Z.^The Frankfort Suspension (1539). — At this juncture, however, 
 the emperor needed the vigorous support of the empire against the 
 thi'eatening advances of Soliman. It was highly important for him, 
 therefore, to assuage the anger of the Protestants. Held was recalled, 
 and John v. Veeze, former Archbishop of Leyden, took his place. The 
 Electors of Brandeaaburg and the Palatinate offered to act as mediators. 
 They went, with the new orator, to Frankfort on the M., and opened 
 negotiations with the Protestants then there. These demanded an un- 
 wnditional, permanent, indisputable peace, which should, under no 
 jircumstances, be disturbed, and that the chamber should be constituted 
 af an equal number of Protestants and Catholics. Though the orator 
 was disposed to concession, he could not yield this point. But the 
 danger from the Turks daily increased, and compelled him to renew 
 the negotiations, which had been suspended. He adopted another 
 course, proposing that, at the diet to be held during the following sum- 
 mer, a committee of learned theologians, and discerning, peaceable 
 laymen, should meet, and endeavor to effect a final arrangement in 
 regard to doctrines and usages. He also agreed to a suspension of all 
 proceedings against Protestant States for eighteen montlis. Thus the 
 Protestants gained a prospect of securing, finally, what they liad in 
 vain sought after since the diets of Nuremberg (1523, 1524). They 
 consented, therefore, to this compromise (the Frankfort Suspension). 
 It was a triumph of the Smalcald League over that of Nuremberg 
 (which was really not represented at Frankfort). Confidence in Pro- 
 testantism grew mightily, and an important extension of its territory 
 was the consequence. 
 
 4. The Reformation in Alhertinian Saxony (1539). (Cf. H. G. Hasse, 
 Abr. d. meissnisch-albertinisch-sächs. K. G. Bd. II. Lpz. 1S47.) — Puk<j 
 George of Saxony (1500-39) had endeavored, with extreme sever)'. y, 
 to suppress the Reformation, for which no country, probal)ly. shewed 
 stronger sympathy than his own. Only one of his four sons was still 
 living, and he was imbecile. Nevertheless he had him married, but 
 he died a few months after his wedding. The old duke was in great 
 51
 
 86 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (c E N T. 16 A D.). 
 
 perplexity, his only heir being his brother Henry, whose small ter- 
 ritory (with its capital, Freiburg) had long before embraced the Re- 
 formation, and become a refuge for all whom George persecuted and 
 banished for conscience' sake. He could not endure the thought that 
 all the painful toils of his life should be frustrated in a single night. 
 On the day of his last son's death, therefore, he submitted a plan of 
 succession to his States, by which his brother Henry should not be 
 allowed to succeed him, unless he would bind himself to stand by and 
 immovably maintain the League of Nuremberg. If he refused to do 
 this, the duchy should pass over to the emperor or the king. Henry, 
 of course, rejected this proposal, and George died before other measures 
 could be devised. The country received its new prince with great 
 rejoicings ; and, whilst he was receiving homage in Leipsic, Luther 
 once more visited the city (the first time for twenty years)* and 
 preached with the greatest acceptance. The reformation of the entire 
 duchy was now rapidly carried forward. Ferdinand desired, indeed, 
 to carry George's will into effect, but the Smalcald League declared 
 that they would defend the new duke against all opposition, and Fer- 
 dinand prudently abstained from further measures'! 
 
 5. The Reformation in Mark Brandenburg, and some adjacent DiS' 
 tricts (1539). (Cf. A. Midler, Gesch. d. Ref. in d. M. Br. Berl. 1839.— 
 C. W. Spieker, K. u. Ref. Gesch. d. M. Br. Berl. 1839. Bd. I. — H. v. 
 Müller, Gesch. d. ev. K. Verf. in d. M. Br. Weim. 1846. — Jul. Wiggers, 
 K. G. Mecklenb. Parch. 1840.) — The Elector Joachim I. [ob. 1535), on 
 his death-bed, bound both his sons to maintain the old faith. Henry, 
 the younger, who inherited the new Mark, had for some time embraced 
 evangelical views. He joined the Smalcald League, and reformed his 
 territory. But the older, Elector /oac7iü« II. (1535-71), adhered for 
 several years to the old faith and usages, but nowhere prevented the 
 preaching of the pure Gospel, which was quietly gaining influence over 
 his own mind. Finally, at the beginning of 1539, his mind was fully 
 convinced, probably under the influence of the negotiations at Frank- 
 fort. At the same time his States became desirous to introduce evan- 
 gelical doctrines. Bei'lin requested permission to have the communio 
 snb utraque, and a large number of the nobility earnestly begged Mat- 
 thias of Janoio, the Bishop of Brandenburg, "to embrace and stead- 
 fastly confess the pure doctrines of God." On Nov. 1, 1539, Joachim 
 assembled all the preachers of his country in the church of St. Nicholas 
 in Spandau ; the Bishop of Brandenburg celebrated the first evangelical 
 mass, and the entire court, together with many knights, received the 
 communion in both forms. The country followed the example of the 
 princes. Joachim prepared a liturgy which retained more of the old 
 ceremonies than those of other countries, but set forth justification by 
 faith as a central doctrine, and adopted the communio sub utraque as the 
 basis of Christian worship. Ferdinand was displeased at the elector's 
 course, but seemed contented with the assurance that he had not joined
 
 THE PERIOD OF UNION EFFORTS. 87 
 
 the Smalcald League. The Duchess Elizabeth of Calenberg-Brunswick 
 (sister of the Elector of Brandenburg) followed the example of her 
 brother. After the death of her husband, Erich, who held other views, 
 she used her authority as regent to reform the duchy. On the other 
 hand, Albert of Brandenbury, cardinal-archbishop, endeavored in every 
 way to prevent the defection of his territory, but in order to secure 
 compliance with his constant demands for money, he had to grant the 
 cities the free preaching of the Gospel. lie opposed the innovations 
 more earnestly in Halle, but the citizens only insisted more deter- 
 minedly upon being allowed the same privileges with other cities. 
 Justus Jonas, of AVittenberg, introduced the reformation into the city 
 under his very eyes ; the only vengeance he could take was to leave 
 Halle, and remove his court to Mayence. About the same time the 
 Mecklenburg countries obtained an evangelical constitution, in estab- 
 lishing which, Magnus, one of the princes, and also Bishop of Schwerin, 
 was particularly active. Anna of Siolberg, abbess of Quedlinburg, did 
 not venture publicly to avow her evangelical views during the lifetime 
 of George of Saxony ; but now she introduced the reform into her con- 
 vent and the city without opposition. 
 
 ? 15. THE PERIOD OF UNION EFFORTS. (1540-40). 
 
 The Frankfort Suspension revived llie idea of a /?-ee union 
 on the basis of a common faith and worship, which had- been 
 dropped since the Nuremberg diet of 1524, and awakened hopes 
 of its speedy realization. And as the embarrassment of the 
 emperor continued, a series of religious conferences with refer- 
 ence to this object was really held. But although the desired 
 result seemed, several times, to be almost achieved, the negotia- 
 tions as often failed in the end, because the emperor would not 
 recognize them unless a papal legate had taken part in them. 
 And just at the time when the imposing power of the Protestant 
 States justified the most brilliant hopes, the Protestant princes 
 themselves laid the root of their extreme subsequent humiliation 
 — the Landgrave Philip, by his higamg, and the elector by his 
 quarrel with the court of ducal Saxony. 
 
 1. T7ie Landgrave's Bigamy (1540). (Of H. Heppe, urkundl. Beitr. 
 z. Gesch. d. Doppelehe, etc.;' in d. Hist. Theol. Ztschr. 1853. III.) — 
 Landgrave Philip of Hesse had married Christina, a daughter of the 
 decoiised Duke George of Saxony. Bodily disorders and ofiVnsive liabits 
 had alienated him from hor ; and gross sensuality, which had gained 
 a mastery over him, had led him to frequent acts of infidelity. For 
 this his conscience so troubled him, that he thought himself unworthy 
 to commune, ardently as he desired to do so, and he was harassed with
 
 88 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (^CENT. 16 A.D.). 
 
 doubts of his salvation. Regard for his wife, however, deterred him 
 from seeking a divorce. Assuming, therefore, the tolei'ation of poly- 
 gamy in the Old Testament, as nowhere abolished in the New Testa- 
 ment, it occurred to him that, with his wife's consent, he might formally 
 contract a second marriage with Margaret v. d. Saale, a court lady of 
 his sister. In Nov., 1539, he sent Bucer, one of his spiritual advisers, 
 to Wittenberg, to obtain the advice of Luther and Melanchthon. Ac- 
 cording to Bucer's account, the only question discussed was the alter- 
 native of Philip's continuance in adultery, and so incurring temporal 
 and eternal ruin, or his being allowed, with his wife's consent, to have 
 another wife, and thus live within the due restraints of lawful marriage. 
 Luther and Melanchthon both strove, in their reply, to dissuade Philip 
 from his proposed course, as well for his own, as for the Gospel's sake, 
 on which his conduct would bring great scandal ; but, in conclusion, 
 half conceded that bigamy would be more advisable, as doing less vio- 
 lence to the conscience, than to live in adultery. But, to avoid causing 
 public offence, they required that he should be secretly married, and 
 that their answer should not be taken as a theological opinion, but only as 
 private counsel. Thereupon, Philip took a second wife in May, 1540. But 
 the matter was soon rumored abroad. The Albertine Saxon court became 
 greatly enraged, the elector furious, the theologians fearfully perplexed. 
 About this time Melanchthon started for the religious conference at 
 Hagenau, but anxiety about the case, and the conviction that he had 
 done wrong with the rest, prostrated him with disease when he reached 
 Weimar. He was on the brink of death when Luther hastened to him, 
 and rescued him by the omnipotence of Christian prayer. At Eisenach 
 the Hessian and Saxon theologians discussed the propriety of publicly 
 justifying the step taken by Philip. Liither opposed it with all his 
 might. But Bucer went so far as to publish an apology under the as- 
 sumed name of Ulrich Neohulns, for doing which Luther called him a 
 villain and a nehulo. Even the landgrave endeavored to suppress Bucer's 
 tract. This affair, besides bringing reproach upon the Gospel, proved 
 sorely detrimental to the Reformation, as it resulted in a temporary 
 alienation of Philip from his confederates, and led him, as a security 
 against the capital penalty to which his bigamy exposed him, to attach 
 himself more closely to the emperor's interests. This did the cause 
 of Protestantism more harm, probably, than if he had wholly aban- 
 doned it. 
 
 2. The Religious Conference at Worms (1540). The Pope did all in 
 his power to frustrate the union measures of the Frankfort Suspen- 
 Bion. To remove all obstacles out of the emperor's way, he endea- 
 vored to restore peace with France, and secured an armistice with the 
 Turks. But his negotiations with France proved abortive, so that 
 Charles could not risk an open rupture with the Protestants. The 
 emperor, therefore, summoned the States to meet at Spires for consul- 
 tation with reference to the prospective compact at Frankfort (Juno,
 
 THE PERIOD OF UNION EFFORTS. 89 
 
 1540). A contagious disease, however, led him to transfer the meeting 
 to Hagenau. There, in spite of the stubborn opposition of the Catholio 
 majority, it was resolved that a religious conference should be convoked 
 at Worms, in ten weeks from that date, for the purpose of effecting a 
 Christian settlement of their differences, on the basis of the Holy Scrip- 
 tures. Ferdinand himself designated to the Catholic States what theo- 
 logians to select, and showed by his choice how anxious he was that 
 the measure should succeed. In Nov., 1540, the delegates met at 
 Worms, the imperial orator Granvella presiding. On the Protestant 
 side were: Melanchtlion, Bucer, Capito, Brenz, and Calvin (from Strass- 
 burg) ; on the other side : Eck, the Spaniard Malvenda, etc. But 
 Charles insisted upon having the papal nuncio Morrone allowed to take 
 part, and thus, contrary to his intention, frustrated the entire measure. 
 For Morrone first placed a number of obstacles in the way, and when 
 at length the conference fairly began, Jan., 1541, and aroused threat- 
 ening fears for the papacy, he did not rest until Granvella dissolved 
 the conference, in the emperor's name, before they had finished dis- 
 cussing the first article, concerning original sin. But the emperor did 
 not relinquish the scheme ; he convoked a diet at Regensburg, where 
 the interrupted negotiations should be resumed. 
 
 3. The Conference at Regenshurg (1541). (Cf. Ä. Jansen, de Julio 
 Pflugio ejusque sociis. Berl. 1858.) — The diet of Regenshurg was opened 
 April 5, 1541. The imperial address insisted earnestly upon the adop- 
 tion of a common Christian platform, and, in spite of the resistance 
 of the Catholic States, he would not relinquish the right of appointing 
 collocutors. He appointed Eck, John Gropper, canon of Cologne, and 
 Julius V. Pflugk, cathedral dean of Meissen, on the Catholic side (ex- 
 cepting Eck, the most conciliatory to be found) ; and on the Protestant 
 side, Melanchihon, Bucer, and John Pistorius, a pastor from Nidda in 
 Hesse. Granvella and Count Palatine Frederick, were to preside ; 
 the nuncio Contarini was to represent the court of Rome. From par- 
 ties so well chosen there was reason to hope for the desired issue. A 
 party of men versed in the Scriptures had sprung up in Italy, who, 
 starting from the principle of justification by faith, hoped, on this 
 basis, to regenerate the Church, without disturbing the papal primacy, 
 or the hierarchical system. Contarini was one of the leaders of this 
 party. He agreed with the emperor, that the doctrine of justification 
 by faith, the cup for the laity, and the marriage of priests, sliould be 
 yielded to Germany, and that the Protestants, on their part, sliuuld 
 acknowledge the primacy of the Pope. Bucer had already drawn up 
 a plan of agreement, which, after being circulated among those inte- 
 rested, was adopted as a basis of negotiations. The doctrine of man's 
 original state, and of original sin, pasf^ed without difficulty, in an 
 essentially Protestant form. In regard to justification, a justitia im- 
 putativa, in the evangelical sense, was admitted ; but Contarini insisted 
 upon affirming, also, a justitia inhjcrens (i. e. a virtue wrought in mac 
 51*
 
 90 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (c E N T. 16 A. D.). 
 
 by his acceptance of Christ's merits, so that he was thus not only pro 
 nounced righteous, but was really made righteous). But as he so- 
 lemnly acknowledged the former to be the marrow of the entire system 
 of faith, and the latter only a consequence of the former, and based 
 wholly upon the grace of God, to the exclusion of all personal merit, 
 the Protestants yielded. Upon the article concerning the Church, 
 however, such diversities of opinion were expressed, that it was post- 
 poned for subsequent consideration. Then the sacrament of the altar 
 was taken up. The Communio sub utraque was readily conceded. 
 But on the margin of Bucer's concord, the word transubstantio waa 
 written by some unknown hand. On this I'ock the whole measure was 
 dashed into pieces. Contarini, who had received admonitions from 
 Rome, would yield nothing more, and the Protestants were equally 
 firm. The colloquy closed. Nevertheless, the emperor desired that 
 the articles, so far agreed upon, should be made a common basis for 
 both parties, and that, in reference to other points, they should exer- 
 cise mutual toleration ; but he could not prevail upon the Catholic 
 majority to assent to this. Wherefore the recess of the diet confirmed 
 the Peace of Nuremberg, extended it to all then connected with the 
 Smalcald League, and bound the Protestants alone by the articles 
 agreed upon [Regenshurg Interim). 
 
 4. The Regensbiirg Declaration (1541). — The Protestants, naturally 
 enough, were not pleased with the recess. To pacify them, the em- 
 peror granted them a special declaration, which, whilst not obligatory 
 upon the imperial States, still bound him their supreme head. The 
 declaration conceded that the assessors of the imperial chamber should 
 no longer be sworn to execute the Augsburg Recess, and that the ad- 
 herents of the Augsburg Confession should be allowed a representation 
 in the chamber, and not be excluded. It was further granted that 
 religious institutions and monasteries should adhere to the Reforma- 
 tion, and should teach, in addition to the articles agreed upon, the 
 additions of the Protestant members of the Conference. The decision 
 of the recess, that no one should deprive the clergy of their rents, 
 was likewise extended to Protestant clergy. — But on the very day 
 when the emperor signed this declaratio'i, he had a separate meeting 
 witli the Catholic majority, at which the Nuremberg League -was renewed, 
 and the pope admitted as a member of it. In this way he hoped to 
 secure aid from both parties, and to delay a warlike conflict between 
 them, until a more favorable season for resuming his scheme of recon- 
 ciliation. Moreover, he concluded separate treaties with the Landgrave 
 Philip, and the Elector Joachim II. Both obligated themselves to ad- 
 here firmly to the emperor in all political divisions. The elector also 
 promised not to join the Smalcald League, and in return the constitu- 
 tion of his Church was confirmed. The landgrave obligated himself to 
 oppose, not only every alliance of the Smalcald League with foreign 
 powers (England and France), but also with the Duke of Cleves, with
 
 THE PERIOD OF UNION EFFORTS. 91 
 
 whom the emperor was then in dispute about a hereditary claim to 
 Guelderhmd. The landgrave on his part obtained an amnesty for all 
 he had done, and a promise that he should be left undisturbed in reli- 
 gious matters. The emperor had, also, special negotiations -with the 
 Elector of Saxony, but they failed on account of the claims of Charles 
 to Guelderlaud, for Cleves was the elector's brother-in-law. 
 
 5. The See of Naumburg and the Würzen Quarrel (1541-42). (Cf. 
 Lepsius, Bericht üb. d. Wahl u. Einführ. Nik. v. Amsd. Norah. 1835.) 
 — Lutheran doctrines had gained the ascendancy in the See of Kaum- 
 hurg-Zeitz, from 1520, notwithstanding the constant opposition of the 
 papal chapter. On the death of the bishop (1541), the chapter hastened 
 to elect the learned and gentle provost, Julius v. Pflugk, to the vacancy. 
 But the elector thought it his duty to furnish a Lutheran country with 
 a Lutheran bishop ; and having been displeased by the deceitful conduct 
 of the chapter, which first concealed the death of the bishop for a long 
 time, then secretly held an election, without regard to the rights of the 
 prince, and finally paid no attention to his protest, he persistently re- 
 fused to confirm their choice. He still hoped that Pflugk, who asked 
 six months' time for considering the matter, would decline the election. 
 But this expectation was disappointed. Indeed Ptlugk, supjiorted by 
 the emperor, maintained his claims. Then the elector, not without 
 some violent means, placed Nich. v. Amsdorf, superintendent of Mag- 
 deburg, in the See. Luther ordained him on Jan. 20, 1542, " without 
 chrism, and also without butter, lard, fat, grease, incense, or coals." 
 The temporal jurisdiction of the See devolved upon an electoral officer. 
 Amsdorf y?;siS satisfied with the scanty salary of 600 guilders; the re- 
 maining revenues were applied to pious uses. After the battle of 
 Mühlberg, 1547, Amsdorf was driven ofi", and Pflugk restored. Pflugk 
 died in 1564. The cliapter then became Lutheran, but Amsdorf was 
 not restored ; the administration was transferred to a Saxon prince. — 
 The violent course of the elector in this case, caused great displeasure 
 at the Albertine court. But a much more threatening difficulty occurred 
 in the same year. On the occasion of collecting the Turkish tax (1542), 
 the elector sought to exercise his supremacy over the district of Wür- 
 zen, in the See of Meissen. But when the bishop refused to submit to 
 his demands, he ordered his soldiers forthwith to occupy the district. 
 The Albertine court, however, also claimed sovereignty over Würzen, 
 Duke Henry died in 1541. Maurice, his son and successor, at once 
 placed an army in the field ; the elector, also, prepared for war. It 
 was with difficulty that Luther and the landgrave succeeded in amica- 
 bly adjusting the quarrel. But the mutual estrangement and rivalry 
 of the two courts from that time burned like a hidden fire, and after a 
 few years broke out in a devastating conflagration. 
 
 6. The Reformation in Brunswick and the Palatinate (1542-4.3). 
 (Cf. G. II. Lenz, braunschw. K. Ref. Wolfb. 1828.-6'' W. H. Brock, 
 Gesch d. ev. luth. K. d. Pfalsgrafsch. Neu^mrg. Nördl. 1847. — F.
 
 92 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A.D.). 
 
 Blaul, d. Reformationsw. in d. Pfalz. Speier. 1846.) — Duke Hennj of 
 Brunswick- Wolfenhilttel entered complaint against the city of Goslar^ 
 before the imperial chamber, because it had torn down two monaste- 
 ries, from which the duke might easily have assailed the city. In spite 
 of all the concessions of the emperor and king to the Protestants, the 
 court proscribed the city (at the end of 1540), and Henry resolved to 
 execute the ban. But the Smalcald League espoused the cause of the 
 city, and substituting offensive for defensive measures, the landgrave 
 and the Elector of Saxony invaded Henry's territory and subdued it 
 (1542). Brunswick now obtained the long-desired preaching of the 
 Gospel, and Btigenhagen introduced into it an evangelical organization 
 and agenda. Thus the whole of northern Germany became a trophy 
 of the Gospel, whilst in the south and west of Germany it also spread. 
 In Oct., 1542, Regensburg adopted the Reformation. Bavaria forbade 
 its subjects having any intercourse with the heretical city, but did not 
 venture an open assault upon it ; King Ferdinand would not have toler- 
 ated in a rival such an attempt to extend its power. In the upper 
 Palatinate, evangelical preachers had long been tolerated by the terri- 
 torial diet. Next in turn came the Neiih^irg- Palatinate. Its young 
 prince, Ottheinrich, called Osiancler from Nuremberg, who introduced 
 the Reformation. The prince joined the Smalcald League (1543). In 
 1543, the Elector Leivis, of the Palatinate, died. His brother, Frederic 
 II., though not averse to the Reformation, did not formally introduce 
 it into the Electoral Palatinate until 1546. In Austria, also, consider- 
 ing the circumstances of the times, the new religious movement made 
 daily progress. Ferdinand was neither able nor disposed to hinder its 
 progress with the determined and bloody measures with which he had 
 previously opposed it. 
 
 7. The Reformation in the Electoral Principaliti/ of Cologne (1542- 
 44). (Cf. L. Emien (Catholic), Gesch. d. Ref. in d. Erzdiöc, Köln. 
 Köln 1849.-3/. Decker's (Cath.), Herm. v. Wied. Köln, 1840.) — Her- 
 mannv. Weid (| 13, 5), Archbishop and Elector of Cologne, had studied 
 Luther's version of the Bible, and become fully convinced that the 
 Augsburg Confession harmonized with its doctrines. After much 
 hesitation he resolved to introduce the Reformation into his territory, 
 supposing that the recess of the Regensburg diet, which recommended 
 a Christian reformation of their several institutions to the prelates, 
 obligated him to such a course. At the next diet, held in Bonn, March, 
 1542, he reported what he had done, and received the most cordial ap- 
 proval of his States. The elector hoped to realize in his domain the 
 plan of union, which it was expected the Regensburg diet would secure 
 for the whole country, but which was there frustrated. To accomplish 
 this he summoned Bucer to his aid ; Gropprr was to cooperate, but his 
 contracted popish views soon led him to withdraw. Melanchthon took 
 his place. Already in July, 1543, the elector was enabled to lay before 
 his States a Reformed constitution, to which they fully assented. But
 
 THE PERIOD OF UNION EFFORTS. 93 
 
 meantime an opposition party was formed. The cathedral chapter and 
 university resisted from regai'd for the papacy ; the Council of Cologne 
 objected because it fearid lest by the change its authority would be 
 curtailed. The movement, however, steadily progressed, and it was 
 hoped that the opposition would be gradually weakened, or at least 
 prove harmless. In other respects the Cologne Reformation took a 
 peculiar course ; the chapter was not secularized, but continued an 
 ecclesiastical principality, only in an evangelical form. The Bishop 
 of Münster at once prepared to follow this example ; and had the work 
 in Cologne proved permanent, a number of other chapters would doubt- 
 less have adopted the same measures. (Cf. § 16, 2). 
 
 8. Embarrassments of the ^w^ero?- (1543-44). — Soon after the Re- 
 gensburg diet (1541), which had granted but inconsiderable aid against 
 the Turks, Soliman had taken Hungary without opposition. He con- 
 verted the principal church at Ofen into a mosque, and appointed a 
 pasha with three tails over the whole country, which he proclaimed a 
 Turkish province. Early in 1852, a diet met in Spires. Though there 
 was much wrangling about religious matters, large aids were voted 
 against the Turks, for which the Protestants obtained an armistice of 
 five years after the termination of the war. The campaign against the 
 Turks, however, commanded by Joachim XL, accomplished nothing. 
 Meanwhile new disputes arose with France, and Soliman prepared for 
 another campaign. In this strait Charles summoned a diet at Knrein- 
 hery (Jan., 1543). The Protestants demanded that the Regensburg 
 declaration should be included in the recess of the diet, and the disso- 
 lution of the existing imperial chamber. Ferdinand consented, but 
 William of Bavaria declared that he would rather see the world perish, 
 or the crescent rule over all Germany. The recess postponed the Bruns- 
 wick affair until the emperor should be present, and guaranteed anew 
 to the Protestants a five years' armistice ; but these demanded an in- 
 disputable, permanent peace, and rejected the recess. A grant of aid 
 against the Turks was out of the question. With the summer of 1543, 
 apprehended dangers broke in upon the emperor from all sides ; France 
 seized upon the Netherlands, Soliman conquered Gran, the Danes 
 barred the Sund against the emperor's subjects, a Turkish-French fleet 
 held mastery over the Mediterranean, and had already taken Nizza, 
 and the Protestants also assumed a tlircatening posture. Christian III. 
 of Denmark, and Gustavus Vasa of Sweden, sought admission to the 
 Smalcald League (which, of course, could not be allowed, unless the 
 landgrave, by his separate compact with Charles, would withdraw from 
 it). The Duke of Cleves, also, broke the stipulated armistice. This 
 provoked the emperor most of all. lie hastened forth, and subdued 
 Cleve and Geldern ; the Smalcald League had to allow it, on tlie land- 
 grave's account (1543). Both countries were restored to Catliolicism. 
 The position of the emperor then somewhat improved. Cleve was dis- 
 posed of; England and Denmark made peace with him. But bis most
 
 94 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (C E N T. 1 6 A.D.). 
 
 dangerous foes, Soliman and Francis I., were still in arms. He stilk 
 needed the most vigorous support of the empire, i. e. of the Protestants. 
 
 9. The Diet of Spires (1544). — The diet of Sjnres was opened by the 
 emperor in Feb., 1544. He knew well that he could obtain help against 
 the French or Turks only by making important religious concessions. 
 And he yielded to this necessity. The recess allowed the Protestants 
 to use the ecclesiastical property for the improvement of their churches 
 and schools ; earlier unfavorable recesses were annulled ; Lutherana 
 likewise were admitted as advisory members of the imperial chamber. 
 The territory of Brunswick was ceded to the emperor for temporary 
 sequestration, only its religion was to remain in statu quo. The adjust- 
 ment of religious dissensions was referred to a " general, free, Chris- 
 tian" council ; and if it could not succeed, matters should be fully and 
 finally settled by a national convention, to be held the following fall, 
 independently of the pope or a council. The emperor promised to bring 
 a plan of reformation with him then, and allowed the other States to 
 do the same. After such concessions the Protestants entered with 
 spirit upon the consideration of the emperor's political propositions. 
 First of all, he desired aid against the French. It was granted, and 
 the same year yet he marched, with an army composed chiefly of Pro- 
 testants, into France, and forced upon the king the Peace of Crespy 
 (Sept., 1544). This would have been the time to prepare for the war 
 against the Turks, according to the agreement at Spires. The Pro- 
 testants burned with a desire to give the emperor proof of their zeal 
 and devotion. Having confidence in the success of the national con- 
 vention promised at Spires, the Elector of Saxony directed his theolo- 
 gians to draw up a plan of reformation, to be laid before the conven- 
 tion. This document, known as the Wittenberg Reformation, is re- 
 markable for having proposed a new measure ; it guaranteed the 
 prelates their spiritual and temporal prerogatives, their dignities, do- 
 mains, and jurisdictions, as well as the right of ordination, visitation, 
 and excommunication ; though, of course, on the condition that all this 
 should be understood in an evangelical sense. 
 
 10. Quarrels of the Emperor toiih the Evangelical States (1545-46). 
 The recess of Spires, with its promise of a national convention, finally 
 induced the pope to order the long-called-for Council at Trent. He 
 trusted that its decisions would sever the emperor from the Protestants 
 — but the very appointment of it, already, produced this result. After 
 the Protestants had conquered the Peace of Crespy for the 3mperor, 
 and thus cleared the way for his general policy, he desired to carry out 
 his earlier scheme of a complete reformation of the whole Church, the 
 execution of which had been checked by the premature death of 
 Hadrian VI. But, to effect this, he could not exempt the Protestants 
 from subjection to the council. At the diet of Worms (May, 1545), 
 however, they decidedly refused consent. Charles assured them that
 
 THE PERIOD OF UNION EFFORTS. 95 
 
 he had no thought of using violence against them in matters of reli- 
 gion, but insisted on his demand, and began to make secret prepara- 
 tions. The Cologne affair (n. 7) also estranged him from them. The 
 agitations -which the reformation of ^he archbishopric excited in the 
 Netherlands, were of the most threatening character for the system of 
 government which obtained there. Hence the emperor took part with 
 the opposition, and admitted a complaint of the chapter against the 
 elector. An energetic intercession of the Smalcald League aggravated 
 his antipathies. The growing power of the league filled him with ap- 
 prehensions. Henry of Brunswick had just made an attempt to recover 
 his domain, but was defeated by the united forces of Hesse and the 
 two Saxonies, and taken prisoner. Simultaneously Frederick II. com- 
 menced the reformation of the Palatinate, and negotiated for admission 
 to the Smalcald League. Thus four of the six electors had already 
 defected, and the fifth, Sebastian of Heusenstamm, who, after the death 
 of Cardinal Albert (1545), had been made Elector of Mayence, through 
 the influence of Hesse and the Palatinate, had promised to do the 
 same. Charles became alarmed. He concluded an armistice with the 
 Turks (Oct., 1545), and negotiated with the pope, who pledged all his 
 possessions and his triple crown for the overthrow of the heretics. On 
 Dec. ^, 1545, he opened the Council of Trent, and did not conceal that 
 its purpose Avas to suppress the Protestants. Charles once more endea- 
 vored to induce the Protestants to take part, and once more he insti- 
 tuted a colloquy at Regeiisbtirg (Jan., 1546). Tlie zealous papists, 
 Malveada, Cochlceus, and Billik, and a little later, Jul. v. Pßuyk, were 
 opposed by Bucer, Brenz, and Major. The former would not yield a 
 hair-breadth, and demanded a promise that no one should be told what 
 transpired. Hence the colloquy failed. The horrible fratricide perpe- 
 trated during that time upon a young Spaniard, John Diaz, in Xeu- 
 burg (whose brother Alphonso preferred his death to his joining the 
 heretics), went unpunished, and furnished Protestants an instance of 
 the way in which good Catholics thought heretics should be treated, 
 
 11. Luther's lAist Days (154G). (Cf. K. E. Förstemann, Denkra. d. 
 Dr. M. L. errichtet. Nordh. 184G, and the Jubelschrr. v. Pasig, Lpz. 
 184Ü; Köthe, Jen. 1846; John, Magd. 184G). — AVhilst the st<."rm was 
 gathering which should soon burst upon the heads of the evangelical 
 party, the mercy of God hastened the man, who had laid the immova- 
 ble basis of a renovation of the Church, away from the struggles and 
 trials of his completed labors. Luther died at Eislchcn, Feb. 18, 1546, 
 at the age of QiZ years. His last years were burdened with manifold 
 tribulations. The thoroughly political character forced upon the Re- 
 furniation after the diet of Augsburg, was repugnant to him, but he 
 could not alter it. Many things occurred in Wittenberg, also, of which 
 he disapproved, and which caused him much anxiety and sorrow. 
 Weary of his arduous labors, suffering violent bodily pains, and with 
 increasing debility, he often longed to die in peace, and his prayer waa
 
 96 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A.D.). 
 
 answered. Early in 1546, the counts of Mansfeld called him to Eisle 
 ben, to settle the disputes then existing between them. Thus engaged, 
 he spent the last three weeks of his life in the place of his birth, and 
 without any particular previous* illness, fell peacefully and happily 
 asleep in the Lord, during the night of Feb. 18. His corpse was takeu 
 to Wittenberg, and there deposited in the chapel of the castle. 
 
 I 16. THE SMALCALD WAR AND THE INTERIM. (1546-51.) 
 
 All attempts at reconciliation in religious matters had failed. 
 The pope, on the contrary, had ultimately consented to order a 
 general council in some German city. The emperor turned to- 
 wards it with his conciliatory schemes, and hoped that, as his 
 hands were again free, since the conclusion of peace with France, 
 he might carry out his idea of a reformation, i. e., thoroughly 
 correct all hierarchical abuses, allow priests to marry, grant the 
 cup to the laity, and yield the doctrine of justification by faith. 
 But on this subject he quarrelled with the Protestants, and war 
 broke out before the Smalcald confederates were ready for it. 
 Still their strength far exceeded the emperor's ; but, through 
 useless scruples, delays, and indecision, they allowed victory to 
 escape them, when they had several certain opportunities of 
 securing it. The power of the league was completely annihilated ; 
 that of the emperor reached its highest point. The whole of 
 southern Germany was compelled to submit to the odious Augs- 
 burg Interim ; and even in northern Germany, despised Magde- 
 burg alone maintained pure Protestantism, in spite of the em- 
 peror and empire. 
 
 1. Preparations for the Smalcald IFar (1546). [Q^. Hortleder, lAüXidl. 
 u. Auschr. V. d. Ursachen d. deutsch. Krieg. Frkf. 1617. 2 Bde. f. /. G, 
 Jahn, Gesch. d. schm. Kr. Lpz. 1837. — F. A. v. Langenn, Moritz, Herz, 
 u. Kurf. V. Sachsen. Lpz. 1841, 2 Bde.) — After the emperor had con- 
 cluded a league with the pope against the Protestants, he tried to find 
 confederates in Germany also. To the Duke of Bavaria he held out 
 the prospect of the electoral dignity, to which he had long aspired. 
 This succeeded, but to guard against unfortunate issues, the duke pro- 
 mised only secret pecuniary aid. Charles next attempted to gain alliea 
 from among the Protestants themselves, whose mutual discords gave 
 him hope of success. Margrave Hans of Kustrin and Duke Eric of 
 Brunsioick-Calenherg, the former a son-in-law, the latter an uncle of 
 the expelled and captured Prince of Wolfenbüttel, offered their services 
 in the contest against the robbers of that invaded country But Charles 
 was more concerned to gain the young Duke Maurice of Saxony. Th»
 
 THE SMALCALD WAR AND THE INTERIM. 91 
 
 continued rivalry and variance between him and his uncle, the elector, 
 gave ground to hope that he also might be won over. The attempt 
 succeeded. For the electoral dignity of Saxony, and the greater jxart 
 of the lands belonging to electoral Saxony, Maurice turned traitor. 
 The emperor could, indeed, no more exempt him than the other two 
 princes from a formal subjection to the council, but he promised them 
 forbearance in the application of the decree of the council, and that in 
 any case, the doctrine of justification, the cups for the laity, and the 
 marriage of priests, should be guaranteed to their countries. Having 
 thus secured Maurice, the emperor prosecuted his preparations quite 
 openly, and made no secret of his intention to chastise some princes 
 who had shown contempt for his imperial dignity, and violently seized 
 possessions not belonging to them, under the cloak of religion. The 
 Smalcald confederates could no longer deceive themselves. They also 
 made preparations for war. With this open rupture ended the diei of 
 Begenshurg (June, 1546). 
 
 2. The Campaign along the Danube (1546). — The northern cities were 
 most zealous in their preparations. Uniting with WUrtcmberg, they 
 sent a respectable army into the field, under the command of the vigi- 
 lant Schärtlin, before the emperor had matured his preparations. Had 
 the Protestant council of war in Ulm permitted, SchUrtlin would have 
 marched forthwith to Regensburg, where the emperor was surrounded 
 by an excited Protestant population, and without protection. But the 
 council thought nothing should be done to irritate Williatyi of Jiavaria, 
 who was playing a neutral part. Then Schärtlin wished to take Tyrol, 
 and pay a visit to the Council of Trent. He had already started, when 
 the council commanded him to return, in the foolish hope that King 
 Ferdinand would remain neutral. Thus Charles gained time to collect 
 his forces. Under date of June 20, 1546, he issued from Regensburg 
 a ban edict against the Landgrave Philip and the Elector Jolin Frede- 
 rick, as vassals who had violated their duty and oath. Both pultlished 
 proclamations in defence of their course, entered the field with consi- 
 derable forces, and joined Schärtlin at Donawert. There papal des- 
 patches to the Catholic cantons of Switzerland fell into their hands, in 
 which the pope informed them that he had made a league with the 
 emperor for the extermination of heretics, and promised plenary in- 
 dulgence to all who would aid the crusade against them with prayers 
 or money. Even after all the delays, the issue of the war would hardly 
 have been doubtful, had the Protestants carried out their plans with 
 unity, decision, and vigor. But in this they failed. The winter waa 
 approaching without their coming to a battle. Meanwhile, however, 
 Maurice, (to whom the emperor had transferred the Saxon electorate, 
 by a formal decree of Oct. 27, 1546), on pretence of friendly concern, 
 took possession of the domain of the dishonored elector, and received 
 the oath of allegiance. Tidings of these events constrained the land- 
 grave and ex-elector to return to their countries, and Schärtlin, in want 
 52
 
 98 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (C E N T. 1 6 A. D.) . 
 
 of money and munitions, was unable even to establish permanent wiu- 
 ter quarters in Franconia, for the protection of northern Germany. 
 The whole country, therefore, was exposed to the emperor. One city 
 after another capitulated, on more or less severe terms. Wlirtemberg 
 and the Palatinate had also to yield. In regard to religious matters, 
 the emperor wisely granted to all the same privileges he had promised 
 before the campaign to his allied princes. At the beginning of 1547, 
 he was master of the whole of southern Germany. He then disposed, 
 also, of the Cologne affair (§ 15, 7). In April, 1546, the pope had pro- 
 nounced the ban against its archbishop, and authorized Charles to exe- 
 cute it. But the emperor prudently delayed, lest the elector should 
 attach himself to the enemy. Now, however, Charles published the 
 ban. His commissaries called a meeting of the States at Cologne, and 
 made the coadjutor archbishop and elector, in spite of the opposition 
 of the States. Hermann was ready to purchase the religious freedom 
 of the country by a voluntary resignation ; but this was rejected, and 
 having no power to resist, he resigned unconditionally. Thus the Rhine 
 country was hopelessly lost to Prcjtestantism. 
 
 3. The Campaign of the Elbe (1547). — John Frederick entered Thu- 
 ringia about the middle of Dec, 1546. He was received warmly and 
 with rejoicings, and in a short time conquered not only his own do- 
 main, but the greater part of the Albertine district. The cities of lower 
 Germany formed a league with him. The Bohemians, also, refused 
 Ferdinand's demand that they should fight against their brethren in 
 ' the faith, and on their own responsibility confederated with the ex- 
 elector. John Frederick once more assumed a highly important posi- 
 tion, the danger of which the emperor fully appreciated. Hastily 
 gathering a considerable army, Charles joined Ferdinand and Maurice 
 in Eger, and by rapid marches moved towards the Elbe. At Mühlberg, 
 he overtook his enemy. There was hardly a battle. John Frederick's 
 troops were overpowered by the imperial army, of whose approach he 
 had no knowledge, and he was taken prisoner (April 24, 1547). Sen- 
 tence of death was pronounced upon him, as a rebel and heretic. But 
 the council of war thought it more prudent to force from him by treaty 
 the surrender of his fortress, than to waste time in uncertain attempts 
 at conquest. In matters of religion the pious prince would not yield, 
 but he resigned his electoral dignity, and consented to the surrender 
 of his fortress, the transfer of the greater portion of his domain to 
 Maurice., and imprisonment for life. The Landgrave Philip, meanwhile, 
 had been able to do nothing, for want of munitions, money, and troops. 
 The tidings of John Frederick's misfortune filled him with dismay. 
 Unable to offer any resistance, he surrendered unconditionally to the 
 emperor. His son-in-law Mavrice, and the Elector Joachim II., offered 
 to act as mediators. In a document, which was immediately accepted 
 in the case, the emperor vowed that " solche Ergebung Aveder zu Lei- 
 besstrafe noch zu ewigem (al. einigem) Gefängniss gereichen solle," for
 
 THE SMALCALD WAR AND THE INTERIM. OS 
 
 the landgrave. Farike's careful investigations have shown that the 
 first version is undoubtedly the correct one. But in the further trans- 
 actions in the matter, this compact, with its document, was so far lost 
 sight of, that both the mediators must have considered it set aside, and 
 even feared they would ofi'end the emperor by asking for its formal 
 annulment. An imprisonment was not named in any of the subsequent 
 transactions, nor in the final capitulation ; indeed the latter, in most 
 of its conditions, assumed the personal freedom of the landgrave. la 
 conformity with it, the landc/rave, of course, surrendered himself at 
 discretion, but the emperor promised an amnesty in advance. The 
 landgrave was required to prostrate himself before him, to demolish 
 all his fortresses but one, to give up all his arms, never to tolerate an 
 enemy of the emperor in his territory, to enter into no leagues, to 
 liberate Duke Henry of Brunswick, and restore him to his domain. 
 The ceremony of prostration took place on July 19, at the residence in 
 Halle. Both the electors, with the landgrave, then went unsuspiciously 
 to sup, by invitation, with the Duke of Alba. After supper, the duke 
 declared that the landgrave was his prisoner. The electors remon- 
 strated in vain with the duke, and the next day with the imperial 
 councillors, who coolly produced the earlier document. The emperor 
 was also entreated without avail. 
 
 4. The Council of Trent (1545-47) . — The Council of Trent was opened 
 in Dec, 1545. At the very beginning, the pope, against the express 
 will of the emperor, introduced resolutions which precluded the parti- 
 cipation of the Protestants. The Scriptures and tradition were first 
 discussed. The same authority was ascribed to the Apocrypha as to 
 the other books of the Bible, and the Vulgate was acknowledged as the 
 authentic version and only basis of all theological transactions, discus- 
 sions, and sermons. Tradition was declared fully coordinate with the 
 sacred Scriptures, only care was taken for once to settle and fi.x the 
 limits of its contents. The total extermination o^ original sin by bap- 
 tism was affirmed, the remaining concupiscence being pronounced no 
 sin ; after baptism there were none but actual sins. The scholastic 
 view of jvstification was, substantially, reasserted, although it was 
 purged of its worst excrescences, and conformed as much as possible 
 to scriptural modes of expression. Justification was made to consist 
 in the actual conversion of a sinner into a righteous person — not only 
 in the forgiveness of sin, but the sanctification and renewal of the 
 inner man. It is effected not by an imputation of Christ's merits, but 
 by an infusion of habitual righteousness, which enables man to secure 
 eternal life by his own good works. It is not an actiat Dei fnrcnsi.f, but 
 an actus pJn/sims, is effected not at once, and through faith a!one, Init 
 gradually, under the training of the Church, through those means 
 which it offers, and by man's free cooperation. The emperor, who saw 
 his own conciliatory schemes set aside by these decisions, was greatly 
 displeased, and peremptorily demanded that their promulgation should
 
 100 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A.D.). 
 
 be postponed. The pope listened for a time, but as the interference of 
 the victorious emperor in the affairs of the council assumed a mora 
 threatening character, he directed his legates forthwith to publish the 
 suspended decisions (Jan., 1547), and a few weeks later, on pretence 
 of a dangerous pestilence, transferred the council to Bologna (March, 
 1547), where, however, it did no additional business. 
 
 5. The Augsburg Interim (1548). (Cf. /. E. Biek, das dreifache Int. 
 Lpz. 1721. /. A. Schmid, hist, interimistica. Helmst. 1750.) — Early 
 in Sept., 1547, the emperor opened a diet at Augsburg. The humbled 
 Protestants promised, almost unresistingly, to submit to the council, 
 if it were restored to Trent, and its proceedings begun afresh. Charles 
 energetically urged the pope to concede these unavoidable demands. 
 The refusal of the pope compelled him once more to attempt effecting 
 a religious union without the pope or council, and to institute an in- 
 terim which should be the law for both parties until the action of a 
 proper council could be obtained. King Ferdinand proposed Bishop 
 Julius V. Pflugk and the suffragan Bishop Michael Helding of Mayence ; 
 the Elector Joachim II., his court-preacher John Agricola of Eisleben, 
 as a committee to prepare the interim. Charles consented; Agricola's 
 boasts of his influence in the committee were as vain as his magnilo- 
 quent promises that large concessions would be granted were proven 
 to be falsehoods. Joachim had enjoined it upon him to adhere to four 
 points (justification, the cup for the laity, the marriage of the clergy, 
 and the setting aside of the opus operatum), but Agricola could not 
 even, unqualifiedly, secure them. The second and third were granted, 
 but in regard to the doctrine oi justification, the Bishop of Naumburg 
 could not go directly in the face of the decrees of Trent, whilst the 
 Protestants on their part could make no concessions on this point. 
 They agreed, therefore, to reject the inanis fiducia of faith without 
 workf, as well as the false confidence of resting in works without true 
 faith, and to acknowledge both an inherent and imputed righteous- 
 ness ; — and if, on the one hand, they declared that God justifies men 
 not on account of works, but of his mercy, and without any merit of 
 man, they affirmed on the other that there might be works which 
 transcended the divine commands, and that sxich were meritorious. 
 Upon the ynass they agreed more readily. Pflugk, indeed, clung to the 
 idea of a sacrifice, but not in the sense of an atonement, but of a me- 
 morial or thank-offering ; not as a repetition of the death of Christ, but 
 as an appropriation of its fruits. In the doctrine of the Church, the 
 power of the pope was essentially limited ; he was acknowledged only 
 as the supreme bishop, in the sense of a primus inter pares, in whom 
 the unity of the Church was visibly represented. On the other hand, 
 the right of interpreting the Scriptures, and to ordain doctrines and 
 usages according to it, was claimed exclusively for the Church. The 
 seven sacraments were confirmed, including chrism and extreme unction, 
 and special stress was laid upon transubstantiation. The duty of fast-
 
 THE SMALCALD WAR AND THE INTERIM. 101 
 
 Ing and of praying to the Virgin and saints for their intercessions, all 
 the ceremonies of Catholic worship, the pomp of processions, the festi- 
 vals of saints, of Mary, and especially Corpus Christi, remained in full 
 force. — This compromise received the emperor's entire approval, and 
 even several Protestant princes believed that any wrong thus done to 
 pure doctrine was richly compensated by the prospect of having some 
 of their views legally introduced into Catholic countries. The Electors 
 of Brandenburg and the Palatinate at once assented to the measure. 
 Maurice found it more difficult to do so ; he could not shut his eyes to 
 the impossibility of getting the consent of his States. Finally he half 
 consented, and the emperor took it as a full approval. Hans, of Klis- 
 trin, and WoIf(jaiig, of Zweibrücken, decidedly opposed the plan, but 
 Charles took no further notice of them than to say to them that in a 
 short time a few thousand Spaniards would be sent into their districts. 
 Then it came to the turn of the Catholic princes. William of Bavaria 
 irritated, apart from this, on account of supposed neglect on the part 
 of the emperor, had consulted the pope, and decidedly rejected the 
 Interim. The other Catholic States followed his example. The em- . 
 peror did not think himself powerful enough to compel their approval, 
 and the recess of the diet made the Interim binding only on the Pro- 
 testant States. The Landgrave Philip, whose power was completely 
 broken, assented, but nothing could induce the brave-hearted John 
 Frederick to do it. Even the pope persistently declined acknowledging 
 the Interim, until in Aug., 1549, he authorized his bishops to tolerate 
 the concessions it made for the Protestants. 
 
 6. Tlie Introduction of the Interim (1548). — Everywhere the Interim 
 had to be introduced by violence. This was first done in the cities of 
 northern Germany. People and preachers steadfastly resisted it, but 
 the magistrates let themselves be overawed by the threats and demon- 
 strations of the emperor, and thus it was admitted by one city after 
 another — by Nnremberg, Augsbiirff, and Ulm. Constance made a show 
 of resistance, but it was proscribed, lost all its privileges, and instead 
 of the Interim, popery was restored, and evangelical preaching pro- 
 hibited on pain of death. Intimidated ]>j this example, the other cities 
 sul)mittcd to what was unavoidable. The Palatinate yielded at once. 
 Wiirtemberg soon followed its example. All the ministers who refused 
 to accept the Interim were banished and persecuted. About 400 faith- 
 ful prcacliQrs of the Gospel, with their wives and children, wand(M-ed 
 without fi)od or shelter through southern Germany. Frecht, of Ulm, 
 was loaded with chains, and dragged after tlie imperial camp. John 
 Brenz, of Swal)ian-IIall, one of the most decided opponents of the 
 Interim, more than once, in his wanderings, miraculously escaped being 
 captured. In northern Germany, the opposition was more persistent. 
 The example of John Frederick encouraged others to imitate liim. The 
 opposition was concentrated in the cities of lower Germany, especially 
 In Magdeburg, which had been under the imperial ban since the SmaJ 
 52*
 
 102 SE3TI0N III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A. D.). 
 
 cald war. The fugitive opponents of the Interim gathered there froiB 
 all parts; there alone, (in "God's chancery,") the ^ess was still free 
 to combat the Interim. A flood of tracts, satires, and caricatures issued 
 then ie, spread over aH Germany, and fanned the inextinguishable 
 hatred. The Landgrave Philip advised his sons to accept the Interim, 
 but the people would not consent. Even the Elector of Brandenburg 
 could not carry it out in his domain, still less the Elector Maurice. 
 
 7. The Leipsic or Small Interim (1548). (Of H. Rössel, Melanchth. 
 u. d. Int., in his theol. works. Berl. 1847). — The Elector Maurice was 
 surrounded by peculiar difficulties. Pressed by his States, whom he 
 had promised to protect in maintaining pure doctrines, and no less 
 pressed by the emperor, who expected him at once to adopt the In- 
 terim, he resolved to prepare a compromise of these adverse demands, 
 with which both parties might be satisfied. To effect this he needed 
 the consent and aid of the Wittenberg theologians, above all of Me- 
 lanchthon. Melanchthon had for several years been greatly restrained 
 in his theological views by Luther, and by the strictly Lutheran court 
 of John Frederick ; but since Luther's death, and the change of dynasty, 
 he felt more at liberty, but was also less decided. He was compliant 
 beyond all expectations. His timid spirit feared that unconditional 
 opposition would utterly destroy Protestantism, whilst obedience and 
 concession would at least save the essentials of the Gospel as seed-corn 
 for better times. In a letter to Carlowitz, he spoke in very moderate 
 terms of a sketch of the Interim, approved of the restoration of old 
 usages, and revelled in the remembrance of the powerful impressions 
 which they had made on him in his youth. In his pliancy he so far 
 forgot himself as to complain to this man, the most bitter enemy of 
 Luther and of the noble John Frederick, of Luther's obstinacy and 
 controversial spirit, and to utter odioi;s insinuations against the former 
 government. In an official opinion "which he was requested to give, he 
 said that it was necessary to adapt one'self to the sad times, and to 
 approve and obey the will of the emperor, as far as it could be done in 
 harmony with the essentialf, of evangelical faith. At Meissen, Torgau, 
 Monkscell, and JUterbock, the States had shown a more unmanageable 
 and firm spirit than the theologians, and the subject of their conventions 
 was extensively discussed. At length, at the diet of Leipsic, Dec. 22, 
 1548, the Interim prepared by the Wittenberg theologians [Melanch- 
 thon, G. Major, P. Eber, Bugenhagen, and Cruciger), according to Me- 
 lanchthon's modified views, was adopted as the law of religious worship 
 and usages for the countries of Saxony, and the theologians were 
 directed to prepare a liturgy corresponding with the new Interim, 
 which was accordingly published in July, 1549. Julius v. Pflugk was 
 very well satisfied with this Leipsic Interim, and oflFered to recommend 
 it to the emperor ; Agrirola triumphed, the preachers of the Margravite 
 naively wrote to the Wittenbergers, asking whether the incredible 
 news was true, the letters of Calvin and Brenz lacerated Melanchthon's
 
 THE SMALCALD AVAR ANL THE INTERIM. 103 
 
 heart, zealous Lutherans everywhere were enraged, and denounced the 
 measure, and the Protestants generally hated the Leipsic more than 
 the Augsburg Interim. Its introduction was aided by imprisonment 
 and exile, but hostility to it daily increased. The Leipsic Interim 
 restored Catholic customs and ceremonies, almost without exception, 
 as adiaphora, took no notice of less essential doctrinal differences, and 
 set forth fundamental articles in such terms, that they miglit accord 
 either with pure evangelical tenets or at the same time with the Augs- 
 burg Interim. The evangelical doctrine of justification was, indeed, not 
 essentially altered, but it was not expressed in decided and unequivocal 
 terms, and still less were Catholic errors distinctly and unambiguously 
 rejected. Good works were declared to be useful and necessai-y, though 
 not as meritorious of salvation. It was not said whether good works 
 could be done beyond the requirements of the divine law. Concerning 
 the Church and the hierarchy, the definitions of the Augsburg Interim 
 were retained ; all the clergy should be subject and obedient to the 
 pope, as the supreme bishop, and to other bishops who discharged their 
 office according to the will of God, to edification and not injuriously. 
 The seven sacraments were recognized, but not in the Romish sense of 
 them. In the mass, the Latin language was restored. Saints' images 
 were allowed, but not to be worshipped, and also the festivals of Mary 
 and Corpus Christi, but without processions, etc. 
 
 8. Resumption of the Council of Trent (1551). — In Sept., 1549, Paul 
 III. dissolved the council at Bologna, the nullity of which had long 
 been apparent. His successor, Julius III. (1550-55), who had been 
 elevated by the imperial party, resolved at once to reopen the council 
 at Trent, in accordance with the emperor's desire. The Protestant 
 States declared themselves ready to take part in it, but demanded the 
 reconsideration of its previous proceedings, as well as a seat and vote 
 for their delegates. These demands the emperor was willing to grant, 
 but the pope and prelates demurred. The council was opened on May 
 1, 1551, with the discussion of the doctrine of the Lord's Supper. 
 Meanwhile, the Protestants equipped themselves for it by drawing up 
 new confessions of faith which should be made the basis of their trans- 
 actions with the Council. MelawMhon, whose courage began to revive, 
 prepared the Confessio Saxonica (or, as he could properly call it, the 
 Repetitio Conf. Augustanae), in which we discover no further trace of 
 the vacillation and duplicity of the Leipsic Interim. On the contrary, 
 the true doctrine is set forth positively and polemically, with firmness 
 and confidence, though in moderate and conciliatory terms. Brenz, 
 also, who had so far remained in concealment, drew up the Wilrtemherg 
 Confession, by direction of his ruler, Duke Christopher. Both con- 
 fessions were subscribed, likewise, by other States. The first Protest- 
 ants arrived in Trent in Nov., 1551. They were the temporal delegates 
 of Wurtemberg and Strassburg. In Jan., 1552, the delegates of elec- 
 toral Saxony. On Jan. 24, they presented their demands to the Council,
 
 104 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD '(CENT. 16 A. D.). 
 
 but despite the support of the imperial commissary, they were unable 
 to carry them through. In March, the theologians of Wlirtemberg 
 and Strassburg arrived, with Brenz at their head. Melanchthon, and 
 two Leipsic preachers, were on the way. Suddenly, Maurice put an 
 end to the inextricable perplexities of the council. 
 
 g 17. THE ELECTOR MAURICE AND THE PEACE OF 
 AUGSBURG. (1550-55). 
 
 In 1550. the affairs of the Reformation were in a wo.rse con' 
 dition than at any previous time. Bound by the fetters of the 
 Interim, it seemed like a culprit on whom sentence of death was 
 about to be passed. But in this extremity there arose a man 
 who burst the fetters, and restored strength and honor to the 
 cause. He was the Elector Maurice. By betraying the Pro- 
 testant cause, he had brought it to the verge of ruin ; by trea- 
 chery towards the emperor, he rescued it. The treaty of Passau 
 guaranteed 'full religious liberty to the Protestant States, and 
 equal rights with the Catholics, until a new council could be 
 convened. The Religious Peace of Augsburg finally removed 
 this restriction also, and terminated the history of the Germau 
 Reformation. 
 
 1. The State of Affairs m 1550. — It was a dark and perilous period 
 for Germany. The emperor had reached the summit of his power, the 
 end of all his desires and efforts. He now openly avowed his cherished 
 plan of securing to his son, Don Philip of Spain, the succession in his 
 imperial dignity. In the aifairs of the empire he publicly assumed 
 autocratic power, regardless of the rights of the States. In violation 
 of treaties and capitulations, he retained the Spanish troops, who daily 
 became more exacting, insolent, and oppressive. Although all the 
 conditions were long fulfilled, on which the landgrave was promised 
 fi-eedom, Charles obstinately refused to liberate him. Protestant Ger- 
 many was groaning under bondage to the Interim. The most that 
 could be expected of the Council was the confirmation of the hated 
 Interim ; and even this was uncertain. But one bulwark of evangelical 
 liberty still stood in the emperor's way, the enthusiasm of the brave, 
 outlawed city of Magdeburg. How long it might hold out, no one 
 knew. Until the fall of 1550, all attempts to storm it had failed. Then 
 Mattrice undertook to execute the ban, by the emperor's direction, and 
 at the cost of the empire. 
 
 2. The Elector Maurice (1551). — Maurice had wholly alienated the 
 hearts of his subjects. Many of his States were directing their atten- 
 tion to his brother Augustus, whilst others thought of a restoration of 
 the old electoral house. Throughout Protestant Germany he was re-
 
 THE PEACE OF AUGSBURG. 105 
 
 garded with aversion. Had the smothered hatred exploded, he might 
 easily have lost Germany, in spite of imperial aid. On the other hand, 
 Maurice was still too much of a German and Protestant prince to give 
 his unconditional approval to the emperor's dynastic and compromise 
 measures, whilst, at the same time, he was personally aggrieved by 
 the continued imprisonment of his father-in-law. Under these circum- 
 stances he resolved to make amends, by treachery against the emperor, 
 for the wrong he had done by treachery against his evangelical con- 
 federates. Skilful in dissimulation, he vigorously prosecuted the siege 
 of Magdeburg, but at the same time made a secret compact with the 
 Margrave Hans of Kiistrin, Albert of Franconian-Brandenburg, and the 
 sons of the landgrave, for the restoration of the liberty of religion and 
 of the States. He also opened negotiations with Henri/ II. of France. 
 who gladly promised pecuniary aid. At length, Magdeburg capitulated, 
 and Maurice entered the city on Nov. 4, 1551. The arrearages still due 
 served as a pretext for not discharging the troops of the empire, and 
 strengthened by the possession of Magdeburg, and by the subsidies 
 which his confederates furnished, he threw off the mask, and issued 
 public proclamations, in which he set forth a long list of accusations 
 and complaints against the emperor, and declared that he would no 
 longer submit to be trampled upon by priests and Spaniards. All the 
 interests of the emperor were once more at stake. In vain he looked 
 to the Catholic princes for help. Without men or money, he was shut 
 up in Innspruck, which could not endure a siege, and every way of 
 escape to his hereditai*y domains seemed closed against him ; for, inde- 
 pendently of his exposure to the confederated German princes, the 
 Turks were watching him by sea, and the French by land. Maurice 
 was on his way to Innspruck, in order, as he irreverently said, " to 
 catch the fox in his hole." But the refractoriness of his troops de- 
 manding their pay, detained him, and Charles gained time to flee 
 from Innspruck. During a cold rainy night, suffering with severe 
 illness, he fled over the mountains covered with snow, and found refuge 
 in Villach. Three days later, Maurice entered Innspruck ; — the council 
 had long been scattered. 
 
 3. The Treaty of Passau (1552). — Before the flight of the emperor 
 from Innspruck, Maurice had met King Ferdinand at Linz. He there 
 demanded, not only the liberation of the landgrave, but also the abro- 
 gation of the Interim, a German national assembly for the purpose of 
 effecting religious union, and, in case this could not be brought about, 
 permanent and unconditional religious liberty. Ferdinand was not 
 averse to these demands, but the emperor, in spite of his embarrassment, 
 indignantly rejected them. The negotiations at Linz, therefore, failed ; 
 but their early resumption at Passau was agreed upon. Meanwhile the 
 flight of Charles from Innspruck, and the entrance of Maurice into the 
 city, occurred. At the appointed time, delegates from most of tlie States 
 arrived at Passau. The Protestants had once more a decided majority,
 
 106 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A.D.). 
 
 and the Catholic States, by no means favorable to the dynastic schemes 
 of the emperor, were more yielding than ever. Maurice resumed his 
 Linz demands, and the States in the main assented to them. Ferdi- 
 nand, also, agreed to them ; but not the emperor. Ferdinand vreut 
 personally to Villach, and used all his eloquence to persuade Charles ; 
 but in regard to the chief point, the demand of a permanent, uncondi- 
 tional peace, even if the States should succeed in establishing religious 
 concord, the emperor would not yield. Ferdinand had to return to 
 Passau without having accomplished his purpose, and the perseverance 
 of Charles triumphed. The majority bowed to his firmness, and a treaty 
 was concluded, which secured to the Protestants complete amnesty, 
 universal peace, and equal rights, until a national assembly or general 
 council could be held, to effect a religious union. Provision for such a 
 council or assembly was to be made by the next diet. In the meantime 
 the emperor had made great preparations for war. Frankford was the 
 place of rendezvous. Maurice hastened to the city, and besieged it, but 
 a sally of the besieged inflicted a heavy loss upon him, and a speedy 
 conquest of the city was out of the question. At this juncture the 
 Passau delegates arrived in his camp with the projected treaty. Had 
 he refused to sign it, he would doubtless have been put under the ban, 
 and his relative restored to the electoral dignity. He therefore signed 
 it. Ferdinand had great difficulty in obtaining the emperor's signature, 
 who now thought himself able to maintain the conflict. The captive 
 princes were thus, at length, set at liberty, and preachers who had 
 been banished by the Interim returned to their homes. 
 
 4. The Death of Maurice (1553). — Domestic and foreign disturbances 
 occurred the following years. Of chief moment was the death of the 
 Elector Maurice, whilst involved in a contest with his early friend and 
 confederate, the Margrave ÄlheH of Brandenburg, the son of the Mar- 
 grave Casimir. Although a Protestant, Albert had stood with Maurice, 
 in the Smalcald war, on the emperor's side ; with Maurice he also took 
 part in opposition to the emperor. Whilst Maurice attacked Charles 
 personally. Albert laid the spiritual principalities and Sees under tri- 
 bute, and compelled them to make the most disadvantageous treaties. 
 After the treaty of Passau, which he did not sign, he continued the 
 war against the spiritual princes on his own responsibility. Thus he 
 fell out with Maurice. But Charles enlisted his services, and not only 
 granted him full amnesty for all his pillages and infractions of the 
 peace of the country, but even promised the recognition of all the 
 treaties which had been forced from the bishops. In return, Albert 
 assisted the emperor against the French, and then, on his own respon- 
 silMlity, prosecuted his invasions of German territories. Ere long he 
 and Maurice were involved in an open war. In the battle of Sievers- 
 haiisen, July 11, 1558, Maurice gained a brilliant victory, but also 
 received a fatal wound, of which he died after two days. Albert fled 
 to France. Hin misfortune subdued his warlike spirit; the religious
 
 THE PEACE OF AUGSBURG. 107 
 
 impressions of his youth revived ; and the composition of the beautiful 
 Djmn : " Was mein Gott will, das gescheh allzeit," exhibits the great 
 change which now took place in him. He died in 1557. The year 1554 
 was wholly occupied with the gradual settlement of the internal dis- 
 tractions of the empire. There was a predominant desire for final and 
 permanent peace. In the dissensions of the last year, Protestants and 
 Catholics were leagued together on both sides. In this way Maurice 
 and Henry of Brunswick were closely united, and the latter now volun- 
 tarily tolerated Protestantism in his territory. 
 
 5. The ReUyious Peace of Aiigsbiirg (1555). (Cf. Lehmann, Acta 
 publ. de pace rel. d. i. Reichverhandll. u. Protokk. d. Rel. Fr. Frkf. 
 1707-9, M.— G. Lifzel, Gesch. d. Rel. Fr. Frkf. 1755, 4to. — Chr. W. 
 Spieker, Gesch. d. A. Rel. Fr. Schleiz, 1854.) — It happened, fortunately 
 for Protestantism, that the next diet, which by the treaty of Passau 
 should have been held within a half year, did not convene for two and 
 a half years ; for the intervening political distractions and embarrass- 
 ments so far mellowed the temper of Charles, that he consented to 
 what he had no power to alter. The diet of Augsburg was opened in 
 Feb., 1555. The emperor could not shut his eyes against the fact that 
 the aim and results of all his past endeavors were about to perish ; but 
 his pride and his conscience would not allow him personally to approve 
 and sanction what was unavoidable. He therefore disclaimed all par- 
 ticipati(m in the transactions — his brother might see to it, how to re- 
 concile his course with his conscience, and settle the matter with his 
 States. After a long and violent struggle, the Protestants carried the 
 point of having the subject of a religious peace first taken up. Then 
 followed a controversy about the official designation of both parties. 
 The Protestants had to allow their opponents to be stj'led — adherents 
 of the ancient Catholic religion: themselves — adherents of the Augsburg 
 confession. The decree of perpetual, unconditional religious peace, 
 then passed the electoral college without difficulty ; but in the council 
 of the princes it met with violent opposition. There the papal legate 
 Morrone (g 15, 2), unexpectedly made fanatical use of his influence, 
 and Otto v. Tmchsess, Bishop of Augsburg, solemnly declared that he 
 could consent to no part of the plan proposed, and affirmed that he 
 would rather forfeit property and life than take part in such negotia- 
 tions. This firmness made a great impression upon the Catholic States ; 
 but the Protestants, also, united more closely, and refused to yield. 
 Ferdinand inclined to their side. Nevertheless, the severest conflict 
 was yet to be passed through, and it might even result in the hostile 
 dissolution of the diet. Then the condition of aifairs suddenly changed. 
 Juliits III. died. Morrone and Tmchsess, both cardinals, hastened to 
 Rome, to take part in the election of a new pope. Thus the power of 
 the fanatical papal opposition was broken in the diet. The ])lan of a 
 peace was now carried ; but new disputes arose concerning the details 
 i>f the peace. The Protestant States demanded that all shimld enjoy
 
 108 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (cENT. 16 A.D.) 
 
 its advantages who, in the future, might embrace their confession. In 
 the electoral college Cologne opposed this, but Treves turned the scale , 
 in favor of the demand. In the council of the princes the demand 
 aroused a new storm. Finally, they united upon the simple, general 
 statement, that "no one should be assailed for adhering to the Augs- 
 burg confession." But the contest about this question merely formed 
 the transition to another of infinitely greater importance, as to what 
 should be done, if, in future, spiritual princes themselves should join 
 that confession. This was the proper life-question of German Catho- 
 licism ; to decide that, as the Protestants desired, would have dealt a 
 death-blow to it. This the spiritual States full well understood, and 
 struggled pro aris et focis. They urged the claims of the reservatum 
 ecclesiasticum, by which every defecting prelate lost not only his eccle- 
 siastical dignity and prerogatives, but also, unavoidably, his temporal 
 power and dominion. In this instance, the Protestants did not carry 
 their point, not even in the electoral college. Daniel Brendel had just 
 been appointed successor of the recently deceased Heusenstamm, as 
 Archbishop of Mayence, which, thus far, had always voted for the Pro- 
 testants, and Brendel had now to act with reference to the pope's con- 
 firmation of his appointment. Both parties were obstinate. Two 
 opposite drafts were submitted to Ferdinand, who hesitated to decide. 
 Meanwhile, the States proceeded to the consideration of the peace of 
 the country. This brought up the affairs of the imperial chamber. 
 The Protestants obtained an enactment, requiring associate members 
 to be sworn to maintairfthe Religious Peace, and to be selected equally 
 from both parties. At length, on Aug. 30, Ferdinand reported his 
 decision. It was to be expected that he would support the opinion of 
 the Catholic States in regard to ecclesiastical reservations ; but con- 
 trary to all expectation, he went still further, and refused to confirm a 
 perpetual unconditional peace. But, in regard to the latter point, he 
 was evidently not in earnest. On Sept. 6, he declared himself ready 
 to yield, provided the Protestants would do the same in regard to eccle- 
 siastical reservations. Hi» affirmation that he would never give that 
 up, was so decided and isolemn, that the Protestants abandoned all 
 hope of changing his mind. But they determined to sell their conces- 
 sion as dearly as possible, by requiring legislative assurance that 
 evangelical subjects of Catholic States should be forever protected in 
 the free enjoyment of their religion. But the Catholic prelates were 
 unwilling to surrender the advantages of the territorial system which 
 the Protestants themselves had introduced (^6, 7). The subject led to 
 the most violent debates, and the excitement hourly increased. Ferdi- 
 nand settled the dispute by a medium measure. It was decided that in 
 matters of religion the States should have territorial power, but that 
 subjects of a different faith, if refused the free enjoyment of tlieir reli- 
 gion, should be allowed to leave the territory without impediment, or 
 loss of hfl nor, property, or liberty. On Sept. 25, 1555, the recess wae
 
 REFORMATICN IN FRENCH SWITZERLAND. 109 
 
 published. The. hope of effecting a reconciliation in religious matters 
 at some future time was by no means abandoned, but the Religious 
 Peace was not made contingent thereon. The maintenance of the peace 
 was devolved upon the Corpus Catholicorum et Evangelicorum. The 
 Reformed were not admitted to the Peace. In Germany, the political 
 strength and extent of the Protestant and Catholic Churches were 
 almost equal. Over against the three spiritual electors of Cologne, 
 Mayence, and Treves, stood the' three Protestant electors of Saxony, 
 the Palatinate, and Brandenburg ; and the power of the Protestant 
 cities of the empire, as well as of most of the smaller princes, nearly 
 balanced that of Austria and Bavaria. 
 
 6. Second Attempt to introduce the Reformation into the Electorate of 
 Coloc/ne (1582). — Ecclesiastical reservation was a mighty obstacle tc 
 the progress of Protestantism ; in fact it prevented its further territo- 
 rial spread. The only attempt made to extend it, failed. In 1582, 
 Gebhard TrucJisess, of Waldenberg, the Archbishop and Elector of 
 Cologne, joined the Protestant Church, married the Countess Agnes of 
 Mansfield, pi'oclaimed unqualified religious liberty, and intended to 
 convert his spiritual into a temporal electorate. His plan was highly 
 approved by the people and the nobility, but the cathedral chapter 
 opposed it with all its might. The pope fulminated a ban against him, 
 and the Emperor, Rudolph II., declared him deposed. The Protestant 
 princes ultimately deserted him, and the newly elected Archbishop, 
 Duke Ernest of Bavaria, overcame him by force of arms (1584). The 
 issue of Gebhard's attempt deterred several other spiritual princes vho 
 had contemplated a similar movement. (Cf. § 31, 2.) 
 
 § 18. THE REFORMATION IN FRENCH SWITZERLAND. 
 
 Cf. G. Weber, gesch. Darst. d. Calvinism, im Verhältniss zum Staute 
 in Genf. u. Frankr. Heidelb. 1836. 
 
 The Reformation penetrated French Switzerland somewhat 
 later than German Switzerland, and assumed a peculiar form. 
 It is primarily associated with the names of Farel and Viret, 
 the forerunners of Calvin, who completed its organization. 
 Calvin's powerful mind gained, for tlie system he adopted, a 
 victory over Zwinglianism in Switzerland, in his lifetime already, 
 and from Switzerland it spread triumphantly through the Re- 
 formed Churches of other countries. 
 
 1. Calvin's Forerunners. (Cf. M. Kirchhofer, Farel's Leben. Zur. 
 1831, 2 Bde.— CA. Schmidt, Etudes sur Farel. Strassb. 1836.— CÄ€?i6- 
 vidre, Farel, Froment, Viret. Strassb. 1836. — Jaqiiemot, Viret, r6forma- 
 teur de Lausanne. Strassb. 1836. — \ Schmidt, Farel u. Viret, in thr, 
 Leben, etc., d. Väter, etc., d. Ref. K Elberf. 1860].)— William Farel 
 53
 
 110 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (c E N T. 16 A. D.). 
 
 a pupil and friend of the liberal exegete and critic Faber Stapulensis, 
 (vol. i. ? 120, 4), was born at Gap, Dauphin^, in 1482. When the Sor- 
 bonne, in 1521, condemned Luther's doctrines and writings, Farel, who 
 was known as a zealous adherent of Luther, had to leave Paris. lie 
 withdrew to Meaux, where Bishop Briqonnct kindly received him, and 
 where he, and his friend Le Clerc, founded a Reformed congregation. 
 But, in 1523, the authorities took measures against the movement 
 Farel fled to Basel, where he labored as a champion of reform (§ 10, 3). 
 Next he went to Montbeliard. His reckless zeal often endangered his 
 life. At length he had to flee. He first gained a firm footing in Nevf- 
 chatel, where he succeeded in getting the Reformation introduced in 
 Nov., 1530. Ip 1532, he left Neufchatel to labor in Geneva. But the 
 civil authorities of the city could not protect him against the power of 
 the bishop and clergy, lie had to leave the city, and Anthony Fro- 
 vient and Eohert Olivetanus carried on the work. Violent agitations 
 followed, the bishop withdrew, and fulminated the ban against the 
 rebellious metropolis. Farel then returned to Geneva (1534), accom- 
 panied by Peter Viret, the subsequent reformer of Lausanne. Viret 
 was born at Orbe, in 1511, and during his studies at Paris had imbibed 
 the principles of the Reformation. On this account he too had to shun 
 Paris. He went to Orbe, and toiled zealously there for the spread of 
 evangelical knowledge. There Farel learned to know him. The arrival 
 of both these reformers, glowing with zeal, caused a struggle for life 
 in Geneva, in which the Reformation triumphed. After a public dis- 
 putation in 1535, the magistracy declared itself in favor of the new 
 cause, to which Farel imparted doctrinal firmness by preparing a con- 
 fession of faith. In 1536, CttZiJm passed through Geneva. Farel adjured 
 him in the name of God to remain. Indeed Farel needed a co-laborer 
 of Calvin's spirit and power, for severe struggles still awaited them. 
 
 2. Calvin prior to his Labors in Geneva. (Cf. Theod. de B^ze, hist, 
 de la vie et mort de J. Calvin. Gen. 1564, 4to.) — (In opposition a libel 
 by Bolsec, hist, de la vie de Calv. Par. 1577). P. Henry Leb. Calv. 
 Ilamb., 1836-45, 4 Bde. [transl. by Stehhing, N. York, 1854]. — /. J. 
 Herzor/, J. Calv. eine biogr. Skizze. Bas. 1843. — /. M. Audin (Catholic), 
 Gesch. d. Leb. d. Lehre u. Schriften Calvin's, aus d. Franz, v. Egger, 
 Augsb., 1843.) — John Calvin, a son of the episcopal procureur Gerard 
 Caulvin, was born, 1509, in Noyon, Picardy. Intended for the priest- 
 hood, he held a benefice so early as his twelfth year. Intercourse with 
 his relative. Boh. Olivetan, awakened doubts in his mind as to the 
 truth of the Catholic system. This, together with a special preferenct 
 for politics, led him to relinquish his benefice, and engage in the study 
 of law, which he prosecuted at Orleans and Bourges with zealous assi- 
 duity. In Bourges, however, a German, Melchior Wolmar, professor 
 of Greek, exerted so powerful an influence upon him, especially through 
 the study )f the Scriptures, that he resolved thenceforth to devote him- 
 self exclusively to theology. To this end he went to Paris, 1532 There
 
 REFORMATION IN FRENCH SWITZERLvND. Ill 
 
 he zealously embraced the principles of the Reformation. A remark- 
 able occurrence soon caused his hasty departure from the city. The 
 recently appointed re3tor of the Sorbonne, Nicholas Cop, had, accord- 
 ing to custom, to deliver a discourse on All-Saint's day, 1533. Calvin 
 wrote it for him, and gave utterance to views which had never before 
 been preached there. Cop read it all, and escaped imprisonment by 
 timely flight. Calvin also found it advisable to leave Paris. The 
 bloody persecutions of Protestants under Francis I. led Calvin, at 
 length, to resolve to leave France. In 1535, he went to Basel, where 
 he became intimate with Capito and Grynaeus. During the same year 
 he issued the first edition of his Institutio Relig. Christianae. It was 
 designed as a vindication of the Protestants in France, whom Francis I. 
 was persecuting, under the pretence of quelling Anabaptist and insur- 
 rectionary movements ; hence it was dedicated to the king in an earnest 
 and candid preface. Not long afterwards he left Basel, and went to the 
 court of the Duchess Benata of Ferrara, a sister-in-law of the French 
 king, and a warm friend of the Reformation, to solicit her interference 
 on behalf of his oppressed brethren. But having failed in this attempt, 
 he set out on his return. In Geneva, Farel and Viret detained him 
 (1536), and succeeded in having him appointed preacher and teacher 
 of theology. On Oct. 1, 1536, the three reformers, in a public disputa- 
 tion at Lausanne, vindicated the principles of the Reformation. Viret 
 remained in Lausanne, and completed the work of the Reformation 
 there. 
 
 3. Calvin's First Period of Labor in Geneva (1536-38). — In Geneva, 
 as elsewhere, there sprung up a movement simultaneously with the Re- 
 formation, and in opposition to it, which aimed at tearing down existing 
 institutions, and emancipating itself from all law and order. The doc- 
 trines of these Geneva Spiriiuels and Libertins were thoroughly pan- 
 theistic ; they made God and man identical, sin a mere conceit, marriage 
 a hateful infringement on personal liberty, the Scriptures nothing, and 
 the so-called spirit everything. In his conflict with this dangerous 
 Darty, which found much ftivor with the aristocratic youth of Geneva, 
 Calvin displayed the full power of his consistent and determined mind, 
 and he sought to subdue it by an inexorably severe Church discipline. 
 He instituted an ecclesiastical consistory, which had the power of in- 
 flicting heavy civil penalties, as well as of excommunication. This not 
 only roused the Libertine party to violent opposition, but excited the 
 jealousy of the magistrates. Both conspired for the overthrow of the 
 consistory, which placed the city under ban and interdict. The magis- 
 trates banished the preachers (April, 1538). Farel went to Neufchatel, 
 and remained there until his death (1565). Calvin went to Strasshtirff, 
 where Bucer, Capito, and Iledio procured him a post as professor and 
 preacher. During his three years' residence there, he often officiated 
 as the delegate of Strassburg, and was thus brought into intimate re 
 lations with the German reformers, especially with Melauohthon
 
 112 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (C E N T. 1 6 A. D.) . 
 
 (Frankford, Hagenau, Worms, and Regensburg (Cf. g 14, 15). Bt h« 
 still kept up close correspondence with Geneva, and his friends thert 
 did all in their power to turn the minds of the council and citizens in 
 his favor. In this they found it easier to succeed, as the Libertino 
 party had carried its disorders to the furthest extreme since the over- 
 throw of the theocratic consistory. By a decree of the council, Oct. 20, 
 1540, Calvin was most honorably recalled. After protracted considera- 
 tion he returned in Sept., 1541, and now prosecuted his work, with in- 
 creased vigor and energy, to its legitimate completion. 
 
 4. Calvin's Second Residence in Geneva (1541-64). — Immediately 
 after his return, Calvin restored the consistory, and through it exer- 
 cised almost unlimited authority. It was a thoroughly organized in- 
 quisitorial tribunal, which kept strict watch over the moral and reli- 
 gious conduct of the citizens, called them to account for every suspicious 
 expression, banished the incorrigible, and put dangerous persons to 
 death. The Ciceronian translator of the Bible, Sebastian Castellio, 
 promoted by Calvin to the rectorship of the Genevan school, fell out 
 with the severe moral discipline and the rigidly maintained orthodoxy 
 of the Calvinistic rule, charged the clergy with arrogance and pride, 
 and controverted, in Pelagian style, the doctrine of predestination. 
 Calvin assailed him with such violence, that Castellio thought it prudent 
 to get out of the way of further proceedings, by fleeing to Basel. A 
 Genevan physician, Jerome Bolsec (previously a Carmelite monk in 
 Paris), was put in prison for speaking rather freely of Calvin's doctrine 
 of predestination, and then banished (1551). Subsequently he avenged 
 himself by writing a biography of Calvin, which teemed with bitter 
 invectives. Michael Servefns {^ 28, 2), a Spaniard, fared still worse, for 
 denying the doctrine of the Trinity. Bucer, Melanchthon, and Beza, 
 approved of his execution. Calvin died, May 25, 1564, and committed the 
 prosecution of his work to his milder friend, Theodore Beza (died 1605), 
 the learned critic, translator, and exjDounder of the New Testament. 
 
 5. Calvin's Works. — Of the numerous works of Calvin, the Institutio 
 chrisi. relig. is the most important ; it corresponds with Melanchthon's 
 loci, but is more complete in its formal scientific construction (1535). 
 It exhibits Calvin's religious depth of thought, the speculative power 
 and copiousness of his mind, the bold consistency of his thoughts in 
 pursuing a theory to its last results, combined with a clear and beauti- 
 ful style, and surprising massiveness of conception. Next to the Insti- 
 tutes, his expositions of nearly all the books of the Bible are most dis- 
 tinguished. In these, also, he proves himself to be a man of brilliant 
 acuteness, religious geniality, profound Christian sentiment, and con- 
 Biderable exegetical talent ; but, at the same time, he betrays a hyper- 
 critical disposition, and a defiant adherence to doctrinal prejudices. 
 Moreover, we do not find in his exegetical works the genial warmth 
 and childlike devotion to the text, which so eminently distinguished
 
 REFORMATION IN FRENCH SWITZERIAND. 113 
 
 Lather, •whilst thoy are formally more scientific and pregnant. On the 
 pulpit, Calvin was the same strict and consistent logician, as in his 
 theological and polemic writings. He had not a particle of Luther's 
 popular eloquence. The best edition of his works is that of Amster- 
 dam, in 9 folio volumes. 
 
 6. Calvin's Doctrinal System. — Calvin thought Zwingli far inferior 
 to Luther, and did not hesitate to pronounce the doctrine of the former 
 concerning the Lord's Supper, profane. He never stood in any close 
 personal relation with Luther (who highly esteemed him), but was in- 
 timate with Melanchthon, and exerted some influence over him. Far 
 as he surpassed Zwingli in religious depth and fervor, and decidedly as 
 his views approximated those of Luther, he stood, in the fundamental 
 jyrinciple of his system, on the same basis with Zwingli, and not with 
 Luther. Fundamentally, he sustains the same relation as Zwingli to 
 the principles of the Reformation. His expositions of the Scriptures 
 are incomparably more profound than Zwingli's, and often more tho- 
 rough, acute, and scientific than Luther's ; but he could not enter into 
 the inmost sense of the text with the childlike freedom from prejudice 
 and simplicity of Luther, and exhibit its meaning with the same bold- 
 ness and ease. He was as decidedly hostile to ecclesiastical tradition 
 as Zwingli. On the doctrine of the person of Christ, he, like Zwingli, 
 inclined to Nestorianism, and therefore could not apprehend the doc- 
 trine of the Lord's Supper in the fullness of Luther's faith. He taught, 
 as Berengar had done previously, that the believer was, through faith, 
 fed only spiritually, but in a real way, by the body and blood of Christ 
 in the supper (through a vivtue issuing from the glorified body of 
 Christ, seated at the right hand of God), but that unbelievers receive 
 mere bread and wine. In regard to justification, he agreed formally 
 with Luther, but differed fundamentally in maintaining a rigid legality, 
 almost like that of the Old Testament. The inex(n-able consistency 
 witli M'hich he carried out his views of predestination, made them ex- 
 ceed Augustine's doctrine in inflexible rigidity and severity. 
 
 7. Triumph of Calvinism over Zwinglianistn. — After Zwingli's death, 
 Henri/ BuUinger stood at the head of the clergy of Zurich. Calvin 
 opened a theological correspondence with him, and they soon came to 
 a mutual understanding with regard to their views. In the Consensus 
 Tifivrinvs (1549), prepared by Calvin, German Switzerland embraced 
 Calvin's view of the Lord's Supper ;• and by the Consensus Genevensis 
 (1554), his doctrine of predestination secured a victory. By means of 
 extensive correspondence, and his numerous works, his influence reached 
 far beyond the limits of Switzerland. Geneva became the refuge of all 
 religious fugitives; and the university which Calvin founded there, 
 furnished almost all foreign Reformed congregations with pastors 
 trained in the strictly Calvinistic spirit. The Second Helvetic Coiifes- 
 gion (Conf Helv. posterior), prepared in Zurich by BuUinger, at the 
 
 53*
 
 114 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A D.''. 
 
 request of Frederic III. of the Palatinate, by far the most important 
 of all the Reformed confessions,* was published in 1566, was acknow- 
 ledged by all the Reformed countries (last of all by Basel), and is de- 
 cidedly Calvinistic. 
 
 I 19. THE REFORMATION IN OTHER COUNTRIES. 
 
 A religious movement so powerful as the Reformation, could 
 not be confined to the countries in which it originated (Germany 
 and Switzerland). Its mighty waves soon rolled beyond the 
 parent countries, and spread to the utmost boundaries of Europe. 
 And the conscious or unconscious sense of the need of ecclesias- 
 tical improvement was so deep and general, that the movement 
 was everywhere welcomed. Opposition was, indeed, also made 
 to it on all sides, but it is indubitably certain, that it would have 
 triumphed, even to the remotest corners of Europe, if the contest 
 had been conducted on that field alone, where all such contests 
 should be settled, and with those weapons which alone should be 
 employed. But the champions of the Catholic Church checked 
 the steady progress of the Reformation by means of armies, 
 stakes, and scaffolds, and thus succeeded in wholly suppressing 
 the cause in some countries, and in having it restricted in others 
 to the limits of a merely tolerated sect. In general, the German 
 Lutheran confession was received with" more favor in the North ; 
 the Swiss reformed in the South and West; the former prevailed 
 in Scandinavian, the latter in Roman countries ; whilst both were 
 received, side by side, by Slavonians and Magyars. That Luther- 
 anism, which first struck root in Roman countries also, was sub- 
 sequently supplanted by the Reformed faith, was owing to various 
 external causes. The first of these was the powerful ascendency 
 and wide-spread influence acquired by Geneva through Calvin's 
 illustrious labors, by its active intercourse with other countries, 
 through countless fugitives, travellers, and students, and partly, 
 also, by affinity of language and nationality, geographical proxi- 
 mity (at least in the case of France and Italy), etc. But these 
 external reasons furnish only a partial explanation of the fact, 
 indeed they indicate, already, the existence of internal causes. 
 
 * This is one among several misstatements concerning the Reformed Church, 
 intii which the author's strong Lutheran prejudices have betrayed him. The He.i' 
 defberff Catechism (§ 24, 1], published three years before (1563), has the preeini- 
 oence even over the Helvetic Confession. — Tr.
 
 REFORMATION IN OTHER COUNTRIES. lib 
 
 And these lie, as it seems, in the fact that their national pecu- 
 •iarities were rfiore strongly attracted by the Genevan than the 
 "Wittenberg plan and method of effecting a Reformation. Two 
 things especially led to this : the tendency of the llomanic na- 
 tional character to extremes, which found fuller satisfaction in 
 the more thorough and radical measures of the Genevan Refor- 
 mation, than in the more moderate and mediating cours of 
 the Wittenbergers ; and a preference for a democratic repub- 
 lican form of government, which the former favored. 
 
 Beyond the German confederated States, the Lutheran Re- 
 formation first took root (1525) in Prussia, the seat of the 
 Teutonic kniglits (§ 7, 3), then in Scandinavian domains. It 
 acquired complete and exclusive predominance in Swede)i (1527). 
 Denmark and Norivay (15.37). It penetrated the countries along 
 the Baltic within the first twenty years. In Livonia and Estho- 
 nia, all opposition was overcome as early as 1539. In Courland, 
 it was not fully organized until some twenty years later. The 
 Reformed Cliurch was exclusively established in England {\b(i2), 
 Scotland (1560), and in the Netherlands (1579). Mere toleration 
 was secured for the Reformed Church in France (1598), for the 
 Reformed and Lutheran Churches in Poland (1573), in Bohemia 
 and Moravia (1609), in Hungary (1606), and in Transylvania 
 (1557). In Spain and Italy alone could the Catholic Church 
 completely master the Reformed movement. A few attempts tc 
 enlist the Greek Church in favor of the cause, proved fruitless 
 
 1. The Reformation in Sweden. (Cf. J. A. Schinmeyer, Lebensbeschr. 
 d. drei schwed. Reformatoren. Lüb. 178.3. — P. E. Thyselius, Einführ. 
 d. Ref. in Schw. ; in the hist, theol. Ztschr. 1846. II.) — Sioeden had 
 freed itself of the Danish yoke, which, for fifty years, had boon im- 
 posed upon it by the Calmar union (1.397). But the higher clergy was 
 constantly conspiring with Denmark. Gmttavns TroUe had an open 
 rupture with the regent, Sfen Sfurc, and was deposed. Loo X. placed 
 Sweden under ban and interdict, and Christian II. of Denmark sub- 
 dued the country (l.')20), and during the coronation ceremonies, com- 
 manded 600 of the first men of Sweden, whom the arclibishop had 
 pointed out as enemies of the Danes, to be executed by the masaacre 
 of Stockholm. But Christian had scarcely reached home, when Gii.t- 
 tavtis Vasa returned from Lübeck, whither he had fled, drove out the 
 Danes, and was chosen king (b')21). During his exile, indeed, he had 
 become inclined to the Reformation ; he now adopted it as a confederate 
 against the predominance of the resisting clergy. Two brothers, Ohjis 
 and Lawrence Peterson, who had studied in "Wittenberg, had labored
 
 116 äECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A.D.). 
 
 for the spread of evangelical doctrines in their native country sinc< 
 1519, in connection -with. Lawrence Anderson, episcopal vicar at Streng 
 näs. Gustavus Vasa appointed Anderson his chancellor ; Olaus vras 
 chosen preacher at Stockholm ; his brother, professor of theology at 
 Upsala. But during the king's absence tvro Anabaptists, Melchior Bing 
 and Knipperdolli"-g (| 13, 6), arrived in Stockholm, gained adherents, 
 and began to tear down images, altars, and organs. Even the impetu- 
 ous Olaus allovs'ed himself to be shaken by them. Fortunately the 
 king soon returned, and by energetic measures speedily put an end to 
 the disorders. In 1524, he instituted a disputation at upsala, in which 
 Olaus Petri and Peter Galle opposed each other. Galle used decretals 
 and councils as his weapons ; Olaus used only the Bible. The king 
 declared Olaus victorious. Meanwhile Anderson translated the New 
 Testament, and Olaus, aided by his learned brother, undertook the 
 translation of the Old Testament. But notwithstanding all this, the 
 Reformation made but slow progress, for the people clung tenaciously 
 to the ancient faith. Moreover, the overbearing bishops caused the 
 king much trouble. Wherefore, at the diet of Westeräs (1527), he 
 earnestly submitted to the States the alternative of his abdication, or 
 the Reformation. The clergy violently opposed the latter, and Gustavus 
 went away from the assembly in tears, firmly resolved to lay down his 
 sceptre. Then the love of the people for their king burst the fetters by 
 which the clergy held them bound. They did not rest until Gustavus, 
 after much opposition, resumed his abandoned crown. The States had 
 now to yield to his wishes. The Reformation was introduced into the 
 whole coantry without resistance or force, and the diet of (Erebro 
 (1529, 1537), and Westeräs (1544), completed the work. Episcopacy 
 was transferred to the new organization, and in worship many Catholic 
 ceremonies were still retained (exorcism, the elevation of the host, 
 prayers for the dead, sacerdotal robes), from connivance at the preju- 
 dices of the people. Gustavus died in 1560. Under his son Eric, a 
 Catholic reaction sprung up, and his brother, JoJm III., secretly con- 
 fessed Catholicism to the Jesuit Possevin; he was prompted to this by 
 his Catholic wife, and the prospect of obtaining the crown of Poland. 
 John's son Sigismund, King of Poland, publicly professed the Catholic 
 faith. But his uncle, Charles of Sudermania, a zealous Protestant, 
 having been appointed regent after John's death, immediately assem- 
 bled the States at upsala, 1593, where the Latin missal imposed upon 
 the country was prohibited, and the Augsburg Confession was rein- 
 stKted. But as Sigismund continued to favor Catholicism, the States 
 declared (1004) that he had forfeited his throne: and his uncle, Charles 
 IX., was made king. From Sweden the Reformation had long before 
 spread into f^inland. 
 
 2. The Reformation in Denmark. (Cf. E. Pontoppidan, kurzgef. 
 Ref. Gesch. d. dan. K. Koph. 1734.— J'. Munter, K. G. v. D. Dd. III.— 
 C. H. Clauss, Christian III Ein biogr. Beitrag zur Gesch. d 16.
 
 REFORMATION IN OTHER COUNTRIES. 117 
 
 Jahrh. Dessau, 1859.) — Although Christian II., nephew of the Elector 
 of Saxony, and brother-in-law of the Emperor Charles V., had leagued 
 with the Catholic hierarchy for the suppression of the national party 
 in Sweden, he took sides in Denmark with the friends of the Reforma- 
 tion, against the predominant clergy. At his request, Martin Reinhard 
 was sent to him from Wittenberg (1520). Reinhard's preaching met 
 with great favor, and was supported by the Carmelite provost, Paul 
 Elia. But the clergy compelled the former to flee, and Elia, fearing a 
 violent outbreak, withdrew. Christian now (1521) endeavored to secure 
 the services of Luther, or at least of Carlstadt. The latter went, but 
 as the affairs of Christian grew worse, he had soon to leave again. At 
 length the clergy and nobility renounced allegiance to the king, and 
 transferred the crown to his uncle, Duke Frederick I. of Schleswig and 
 Holstein. Christian fled to Saxony, was there led fully by Luther 
 to embrace the Reformation, even converted his wife, the emperor's 
 sister, and had the first Danish translation of the New Testament 
 printed at Leipsic, and circulated in Denmark. But in order to secure 
 the emperor's aid, he abjured the evangelical faith at Augsburg (1530). 
 In 1531, he conquered Norway, and on receiving the oath of allegiance, 
 he had to pledge himself to protect the Catholic Church. In 1532, 
 however, he had to surrender himself to Frederick I., and spent his 
 last years [oh. 1536) in prison, where he enjoyed leisure to repent of 
 his apostacy, and to confirm his views of truth by studying the Danish 
 Bible. But Frederick I., also, was from the first favorable to the Re- 
 formation. His hands were tied, however, by the terms of his election. 
 His son Christian carried forward the work all the more vigorously in 
 the duchies, and by this course encouraged his father. In 152G, he 
 publicly confessed the evangelical faith, and called John Tausen, the 
 Danish reformer, a pupil of Luther, who had labored for the Gospel 
 amid much persecution since 1524, as preacher to Copenhagen. He 
 laid the basis of a general reformation for the country, at the diet of 
 Odense (1527), by limiting episcopal jurisdiction, proclaiming universal 
 religious liberty, allowing priests to marry, and monks to forsake their 
 cloisters. At the same diet, Tausen submitted to the States a separate 
 confession [Confessio Ilafnica). From that time the cause spread 
 rapidly, and the considerate monarch directed his attention to check, 
 by timely measures, violent disorders which broke out in different 
 places. He died in 1533. The States refused to acknowledge his son. 
 Christian III. But when George Wullcnu-eher, burgomaster of Lübeck, 
 sought to avail himself of the prevailing anarchy, and bring Denmark 
 under the dominion of the proud commercial city, the States of Jutland 
 hastily recognized Christian III. He expelled the Lübeck foes, and by 
 153G subdued the whole country. Then he resolved to put an end to 
 the machinations of the clergy. In August, 1536, he ordered all the 
 bishops to be seized in one day, and at the diet of Copenhagen they 
 were formalH ieposod. Th^ir property was cast into the royal trea-
 
 118 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (C E N T. 16 A. D.). 
 
 sury ; all the monasteries were secularized ; in part bestowed upon 
 the nobility, and in part converted into hospitals and schools. John 
 Bugenhagen was called over to complete the organization of the Church. 
 He crowned the royal couple, drew up a liturgy, which the biet oi 
 Odense adopted, taught at the university of the capital until 1542, and 
 then returned to Wittenberg. Lutheran superintendents were substi- 
 tuted tor the bishop s, though this latter title was afterwards restored. 
 The Augsburg Confession became the standard of doctrine. Simulta- 
 neously the Reformation was introduced into Norway, which took the 
 oath of allegiance to the king in 1536. Olaus Engelhrechtsen, Arch- 
 bishop of Drontheim, fled to the Netherlands with the tj-easures of the 
 Church. Iceland resisted the movement for some time, but yielded in 
 1551, when the power of the insurrectionary priests was broken. 
 
 3. The Reformation in C'ourland, Livonia, and Esthonia. (Cf. Brach' 
 mann, d. Ref. in Livl., — in the " Mittheill. aus d. livl. Gesch." V. I. 
 Riga, 1849. — Th. Kalbneger, d. Begriind. d. ev. luth. K. in Karl. [do. 
 VI. 1, 2.] Riga, 1851.) — Livonia was under the dominion of the Teutonic 
 Knights of Prussia, but had its own Grand-Master, who then was 
 Walter v. Plettenherg, who, in 1521, dissolved his connection with the 
 Grand-Master Albert, and was recognized as an independent prince of 
 the German empire. Soon after this, Andrew Knopken, a school-teacher, 
 driven from Pomerania as a Lutheran heretic, arrived in Riga (1521). 
 He was appointed archdeacon, and in a moderate way preached evan- 
 gelical doctrines. Ere long, Sylv. Tegetmeir, of Rostock, became his 
 assistant, and preached so violently against image-worship, that the 
 excited populace forced open the churches, and destroyed the images. 
 Nevertheless, he was protected by the council and General. John Loh- 
 müller, city clerk in Riga, cooperated with them, with untiring zeal, 
 for the establishment and spread of the Reformation in the city and 
 country. As early as 1522, he opened a correspondence with Luther. 
 Melchior Hoffmann, a furrier from Swabia, whose Lutheranism, how- 
 ever, had already degenerated into Anabaptist fanaticism, labored in 
 Dorpat. The monastery of (Esel passed over to the evangelical Church 
 without opposition, and at the aame time a Lutheran congregation was 
 formed in Reval. In 1523, Plettenberg sent his chancellor to Luther, 
 who took that occasion to address an earnest letter of instruction and 
 admonition to the Christians of Livonia. In spite of constant collisions 
 and conflicts with the archbishop, but supported by the Grand-Master, 
 Riga maintained its evangelical confession, and joined the Smalcald 
 League in 1538. When William of Brandenburg, the brother of the 
 Duke of Prussia, became archbishop (1539), he favored the evangelical 
 cause, and all opposition to it ceased, so that in a short time all Livonia 
 and Esthonia embraced the Augsburg Confession. But political diffi' 
 culties (caused especially by the Russians), compelled the last Grand- 
 Master, Gotthard Kettler, to cede Livonia to Sigismund Augustus of 
 Poland, though with a f( rmal guarantee of the evangelical faith (1561),
 
 REFORMATION IN OTH^R COUNTRIES. 119 
 
 Kettler received Courland and Sem/yallia as a hereditary duchy, under 
 Polish supremacy, and devoted his untiring care to the evangelical 
 organization of his country, in which he was energetically aided by 
 Stephen Bi'dau, the first superintendent of Courland. 
 
 4. T/ie Befonnatioii in England. (Cf. A. W. Böhme, Acht Bücher 
 V. d. Ref. d. K. in Engl. Al'tona, 1734. — C. Fr. Stäudlin, K. G. v. 
 Grossbrit. Gottg. 1849. Bd. l.— G. Weher, Gesch. d. akath. Kirchen u. 
 Secten. v. Grossbrit. Lpz. 1845, etc. 2 Bde. — /. v. Gnmpach, Gesch, d. 
 Trennung d. engl. K. v. Rom. Darmst. 1845. — [For English lit. on tliis 
 subject see: Herzog' s Theol. and Eccl. Encycl., Philad. 18G0, art. 
 Eiujland, etc. Also: Short's Hist, of the Ch. of England, etc. Philad. 
 1843. — Massingberd, the Engl. Ref.; Southei/'s Book of the Church; 
 and D'Aubigne's Ref. vol. V.—TR.].)—J?e/n7/ VIII. (1509-47), King of 
 England, after his literary feud with Luther (^ 5), preferred prosecuting 
 his vocation as "defender of the faith," by means of the gallows and 
 the sword. But his adulterous love for Anna Jiolei/n impelled him to 
 renounce the pope (1532), who refused to annul his marriage with 
 Catharine of Aragon, his brother's widow, for fear of offending her 
 nephew, the emperor. Nevertheless, Henry wished to continue a good 
 Catholic in doctrine, and so raved both against Lutherans and Papists. 
 Luther's works were diligently read in England, and two noble Eng- 
 lishmen, John Frith and William Tgndale, furnished their native coun- 
 try with a translation of the New Testament, published as early as 
 1526, at Antwerp. [Two Gospels were published at Hamburg in 1524. 
 Tr.] Frith was rewarded by being burnt at the stake, 1533, and Tgn- 
 dale by being beheaded in the Netherlands, 1535. The Catholic bishop, 
 Fisher, also suffered martyrdom, and the former chancellor. Sir Thomas 
 More (Vol. I., § 120, 4). Thomas Cranmer was chosen to carry out the 
 king's plan of reform, and to this end he was elevated to the arch- 
 bishopric of Canterbury ; but at heart Cranmer was a zealous friend 
 of the Swiss Reformation, and secretly did all he could to introduce it. 
 Under the youthful Edward VI. (1547-53), he could act with less re- 
 straint. At his solicitation, many foreign theologians were called to 
 England, among whom were Martin Bucer {ob. 1551), Parti Fagius of 
 Strassburg, Peter Martyr Vermillio, Bernard Ochino, John a Lasco, 
 (see below, 8, 13), and others, who, as professors and preachers, pro- 
 claimed pure doctrine, mostly according to the Reformed system. In 
 unison with the noble Bishop Itidleg, Cranmer prepared (1549) a liturgy 
 for the English Church, and in 1552 drew up 42 articles of faith. The 
 former was a medium between the Catholic and Protestant form of 
 worship, the latter a medium between Lutheranism and Calvinism. 
 After Edward's early death, the fanatical Catholic Mary, Catharine's 
 daughter, obtained the crown (1553-58). Ridley and Cranmer were 
 burnt (1556), and the devout Mary raved with unsparing cruelty against 
 all who confessed the Gospel. Two hundred and seventy-seven persons, 
 bishops, preachers, and laymen, women, children, and aged persons,
 
 120 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A.D.). 
 
 perished in the flames, and measures were already adopted to establish 
 a permanent inquisition, when Miry was called away from her bloody 
 work. She was followed by Elizabeth (1558-1603), the daughter of 
 Anne Boleyn. Educated by Cranmer in the Protestant faith, she 
 triumphantly established the Reformation in England. On the basis 
 of the previous labors of Cranmer and Ridley, the Convocation of 
 London (1562), adopted XXXIX Articles as a confession of faith, and 
 a liturgical directory for the Anglican Church Both were combined, 
 for more general use, in the Book of Common Prayer. The XXXIX 
 Articles, which were incorporated into the English statutes by an act 
 of Parliament (13 Eliz. c. II., April, 1571), adopted Calvin's view of 
 the Lord's Supper, but not his dogma of predestination [see Herzog's 
 Encycl., art. Anglican Church]. In the organization and worship of 
 the Church, many catholicizing elements were retained (the episcopacy, 
 apostolical succession, a copious ceremonial). In opposition to this, the 
 Puritans or Presbyterians introduced a presbyterial constitution, mo- 
 delled after that of Geneva, with a strict discipline, and a rigid, one- 
 sided predominance of the formal principle, touching the sole authority 
 of the Scriptures (extermination of the Apocrypha), a zealous adher- 
 ence to Calvinism, an extremely bald form of worship, which scrupu- 
 lously excluded the leaven of popery (clerical vestments, altars, candles, 
 crucifixes, the sign of the cross, forms of prayer, sponsors in baptism, 
 confirmation, kneeling at the sacrament, bowing the head at the name 
 of Jesus, bells, organs, and all festivals, retaining only the Sabbath), 
 To restore ecclesiastical unity, the queen directed the passage of the 
 Act of Uniformity (1563), and punished all non-conformists with fines, 
 imprisonment, and banishment. This increased the evil. A party of 
 non- conformists, called Independents (also Congregationalists, and 
 Brownists, after their founder Robert Browne), carried their opposition 
 to all ecclesiastical courts so far that they rejected synods and presby- 
 teries, and made their preachers amenable to the arbitrary vote of single 
 congregations, though they established a Congregational Board at 
 London, as a central point of union, which was a synod formed of de- 
 legates sent by the respective congregations. Persecuted by the govern- 
 ment, they fled to Holland, but returned under Cromwell, and subse- 
 quently emigrated to North America. — Elizabeth introduced the Angli- 
 can Church into Ireland, also, and gave it all the church property 
 there. But in spite of constant oppression, the mass of the Irish 
 adhered to the Catholic Church. (Cf. ? 33, 3 ; 34, 3.) 
 
 5. The Reformation in Scotland. (Cf. Stävdlin and G. Weber, 1. c. 
 K. G. V. Ru'dlof, Gesch. d. Ref.. in Schottl. Berl. 1847. 2 Bde.— ^. H. 
 Sack, d. K. v. 'Schottland. Ileidelb. 1844. 2 Bde. — J. Köstliii,, d. Schott. 
 K. seit d. Ref. Ilamb., 1852. — A. H. Niemeyer, J. Knox and the two 
 Marys. Lpz., 1824.— [7)/' CWe'.? Life of John Knox. Edinb., 1814.— i^. 
 Tytler, Hist, of Scotl., vols. VI. VII.— Tr.].)— In Scotland, the Gospel was 
 early preached by Patrick Hamilton, who had studied in Wittenberg,
 
 REFORMATION IN OTHER COUNTRIES. 121 
 
 and perished at the stake (1528) at the age of 24 years. His martyr- 
 dom was followed by many others. But amid all the political disorders, 
 the Reformation took deeper root in the hearts of the people and no- 
 bility, in spite of the hostility of the Stuarts and the bishops. John 
 Knox [ob. 1572), however, was the proper reformer in Scotland. Edu- 
 cated at Geneva, he impressed the most severe and rigid Calvinism 
 upon the constitution and doctrines of the Scotch Church. Having, as 
 a galley slave, acquired an iron inflexibility of character, he set at 
 defiance both the anger and tears of the young queen, Mart/ Stuart, 
 and with glowing zeal, and by a revolutionary storm, urged the Refor- 
 mation to a triumphant issue. [Confessio Scoiica, 1500.) To the un- 
 fortunate queen there was nothing left at last but to throw herself 
 into the arms of her deadly foe Elizabeth. In 1587, she suffered death 
 on an English scaffold. Her son James VI., still a child, was crowned, 
 and the reformers exercised the regency. After Elizabeth's death, he 
 assumed the united crowns of England and Scotland. 
 
 6. TJie Reformation in the Netherlands. (Cf. H. Leo, Zwölf Bb. 
 niederl. Gesch. Halle, 1835. 2 Bde.—/. L. Motley, Hist, of the Dutch 
 Republ. [Herzog, Encycl., art. Holland].) — CharlesY. held the Nether- 
 lands as an inheritance from his grandmother, Maria of Burgundy. So 
 much had happened in the period preceding the Reformation (see Vol. 
 I., ^ 119, G) to prepare the way for it, that it was now received with 
 very great favor by the people, who had independent and active minds. 
 Luther's writings were early circulated, and the first martyrs of the 
 Lutheran faith (| 8, 1) perished at Antwerp (1523). Connections with 
 France and Switzerland, however, subsequently led to the predominance 
 of the Reformed Confession. Here the emperor commanded the edict 
 of Worms to be executed in all its severity, and thousands perished by 
 the sword and at the stake as martyrs to the evangelical faith. Under 
 Charles's son and successor, Philip II. of Spain, the Inquisition perpe- 
 trated still more terrible cruelties, with the purpose of suppressing the 
 spirit of both political and religious liberty (from 1555). The Bcbjic 
 Confession (1562), maintained Calvinistic tenets. The Compromise 
 (1566), a confederacy of nobles for the overthrow of the Spanish rule, 
 and which adopted the name of Guyses (gueux-beggars), which the 
 Spaniards applied to them in ridicule, daily grew stronger, and the 
 maddened populace tore down churches, images, and altars. The Duke 
 of Alba was sent with an army to put down the insurrection, which 
 Margaret of Parma was unable to control, notwithstanding the bloody 
 measures she was compelled to adopt (1567). By unexampled cruelties 
 he temporarily succeeded. But the seven northern provinces combined 
 in the Utrecht Union (1579), and William of Orangt and, after his 
 murder (1584), his son ^awrice, secured civil and religious liberty for 
 the northern Netherlands, after a tedious and sanguinary struggle. 
 The southern Belgic provinces were held by Alexander of Parma, 
 under Spanish rule, and in the Catholic faith. 
 54
 
 122 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A.D.). 
 
 7. The Reformation in France. (Cf. Th. Beza, Hist, ecclst. des 6gl 
 reform^es du royaume de France. Anv. 1580. — Ä. L. Heermann, 
 Frankr. Rel. u. Bürg;erkriege im 16 Jahrh. Lpz., 1828. — Leop. Ranke, 
 franz. Gesch. in 16. u. 17. Jahrh. Stuttg., 1852. Bd. I. — W. G. Soldan, 
 Gesch. d. Protestsm. in Frank, bis zum Tode Karl's IX. Lpz., 1855. 
 2 Bde. — G. V. Potenz, Gesch. d. franz. Calvinism, Bd. I. Gotha, 1857. 
 
 — F. W. Barthold, Deutschi. u. d. Hugenotten. Brem., 1847.— G. 
 Weber, 1. c. (g 18). — L. Wachler, die par. Bluthochz. Lpz., 1828,— 
 W. G. Soldan, Frankr. u. d. Barthol. Nacht, in Raumer's hist. Taschb., 
 1854.—^. Siähelin, d. Uebertritt König Heinrich's IV. Basel, 1856.) 
 
 — The first occasion of the Reformation in France proceeded from 
 Wittenberg. In 1521, the Sorbonne directed Luther's writings to be 
 burned in Paris. But Geneva soon acquired preponderant and exclusive 
 influence. Francis I. (1515-47), favored the Reformation in Germany, 
 but persecuted the Protestants {Hugtienots) of his own country. Henry 
 II. [ob. 1559), and Francis II. [ob. 1560), did likewise. Many thou 
 sands of heroic confessors were put to death by the sword and by fire. 
 And yet the Reformed Church, especially in southern France, spread 
 rapidly, and at the ßrst General Synod in Paris (1559), adopted the 
 Confessio Gallicana. Even a powerful branch of the royal family, the 
 Bourbons [Anthony of Navarre, and his spirited wife Jeanne d'Albret, 
 Anthony's brother Lotiis Bourbon, and Prince Louis of Cond6), and 
 persons of eminence (Admiral Coligny, and several parliamentary coun- 
 cillors, etc.), embraced Protestantism, whilst their political rivals, the 
 Guises, of the ducal house of Lorraine [Francis Guise, and his brother 
 Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine), sought support in the hostility of the 
 Catholics. This gave additional strength to the peculiar tendency of 
 the Reformed Church, to combine political with religious aims (accord- 
 ing to the theocratic example of the Old Testament), in their reforma- 
 tory measures, and decidedly impressed it with the character of a 
 political party. Under the regency (from 1560) of Catharine de Medici 
 (the mother of Charles IX., ob. 1574), the prospects of the Huguenots 
 brightened. The noble Chancellor Michael de V Hospital, a Catholic, 
 but a foe of all sanguinary proceedings, instituted a religious confer- 
 ence in the abbey of Poissy, near Paris (1561), where, among others, 
 Tlieodore Beza and the Jesuit General Lainez, confronted each other. 
 The edict of St. Germain (1562) secured toleration and the free enjoy- 
 ment of religious worship to the Protestants of the border cities. This 
 encouraged large numbers of secret friends of Protestantism openly to 
 avow their faith, and the rage of the Catholics was inflamed anew. At 
 Cahors, a Huguenot meeting-house was surrounded by the rabble and 
 fired ; all assembled perished ; those who escaped the fire were murdered 
 At Vassi, in Provence, where the Huguenots were gathered for wor- 
 ship in a barn, Francis of Guise perpetrated a more fearful carnage, 
 swearing that he would cut the accursed edict into pieces with his 
 sword. The religious and civil war then broke out in consuming flames.
 
 REFORMATION IN OTHER COUNTRIES. 123 
 
 Twice a peace of short duration was concluded (at Amhoise, 15G3, and 
 at Longjumeau, 15G8). A third Peace of St. Germain (1570) secured to 
 the Huguenots full liberty of conscience and religion ; only Paris and 
 the residence of the court were excepted. As a pledge of peace, four 
 important fortresses were given to them (La Rochelle, Montaubon, 
 Cognac, and La Charit6), and Henry of Navarre, Anthony's son, was 
 betrothed to the sister of Charles IX. At their man-iage (Aug. 18, 
 1572), the Huguenot chieftains assembled in Paris. Henry's mother, 
 Jeanne d'Albret, died soon after her arrival ; her death having probably 
 been caused by poisoned gloves presented to her, and an unsuccessful 
 attempt was made to assassinate Coliyny. Late in Bartholomeio' s niyht 
 (Aug. 24, 1572), the castle-bell suddenly tolled. It was the signal for 
 the butchery of all the Huguenots. The bloody tragedy lasted inces- 
 santly for four days. Coligny fell, praying, under the blows of his 
 murderers; no Huguenot was spared — neither children, women, nor 
 the aged. Henry and Conde were offered the mass or death ; they 
 chose the former. Meanwhile, couriers were dispatched with the mur- 
 derous decree through the provinces, and the slaughter was renewed. 
 The number of the slaughtered is variously given at 20,000 — 100,000. 
 Pope Gregory XIII. commanded all the bells in Rome to be rung, a 
 Te Deum to be sung, and a medal to be struck with the inscription 
 Ugonottorum Sfrages, in honor of the glorious victory of the Church. 
 (The result of Soldan's investigations is, that the horrible decree of 
 death was enacted, not after long consultation, but suddenly, in conse- 
 quence of political complications. The queen-mother having disagreed 
 with her son, determined to maintain her position by Coligny's assassi- 
 nation. This failed. The king swore that he would severely avenge 
 the iniquity upon the unknown authors of it. Then Catharine used 
 all means to avert the threatening destruction. She succeeded in con- 
 vincing the king that Coligny was at the head of a Huguenot conspi- 
 racy. Beside himself with rage, the king swore that not only the 
 leaders, who alone were implicated, but all the Huguenots of France 
 should die, so that no one might remain to reproach him for the deed. 
 But it is certain, notwithstanding, that the thought of such a Satanic 
 deed was previously broached, though it may have been but transiently. 
 At the Spanish and Roman courts, the French government reported 
 the tragedy as an acte premedite ; at the German court as an acte non 
 premedit6 : but in a letter previously sent to the emperor from Rome, 
 it was said: Que k cette heure (the marriage festival) que tons les 
 oyseaux estoient en la cage, ou les pouvoit prendre tons ensemble, et 
 qu'il y en avoit, qui le desiroient.) — But the horrible deed failed of its 
 purpose. If even 100,000 were murdered, ten times that numlior re- 
 mained, and found strong rallying points in their fortresses. Hence 
 civil war broke out afresh. The Peace of Reaidieu (1576), which once 
 more guaranteed to the Huguenots their rights, was of brief duration. 
 The Guises formed a Holy League, which was directed as much against
 
 124 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT 16 A.D.). 
 
 the pusillanimoxis king, Henry III. (1574-89), as against the Protestants, 
 BO that to escape their hands, he fled to the camp of the Huguenots, 
 where he was murdered by the Dominican Clement. Henry (IV.) of 
 Navarre then ascended the throne (1589-lGlO), and to secure it the 
 better, abjured his faith (1593), but by the Edict of Nantes (1598), 
 guaranteed full religious liberty to his earlier fellow-believers, in all 
 the cities where Reformed worship had been previously practised, and 
 unconditional equality with the Catholics in all civil rights and privi- 
 leges, and powerfully protected them therein. His reward for this was 
 the dagger of Ravaillac, a Feuillant, and a disciple of the Jesuits. 
 (Cf I 33, 2.) 
 
 8. The Reformation in Poland. (Cf. C. G. v. Friese, Ref. Gesch". v. 
 Pol. u. Lith. Brsl. 1786. 3 Bde. — V. Krasinski, Gesch. d. Ref. in Polen. 
 Lpz., 1841. — /. Lucaszewicz, Gesch. d. ref. K. in Lith. Lpz., 1848, 2 
 Bde.) — The way was prepared for the Reformation in Poland by fugi- 
 tive Bohemian brethren, and Luther's works were eagerly read there 
 soon after their appearance. Sigismund I. (1506-48) opposed it with 
 all his might. It was most cordially welcomed in Prussian Poland. 
 As early as 1525, the Catholic council was driven from Dantzic. Sigis- 
 mund repaired thither, caused several citizens to be executed, and re- 
 stored the ancient worship (152G). But he had hardly left the city 
 until the Lutheran faith was again embraced. This example was fol- 
 lowed by Elbing and Thorn. In Poland proper, also, the new move- 
 ment spread with great power. In spite of prohibitions, many young 
 Poles went to Wittenberg, and returned with glowing enthusiasm for 
 Luther and his doctrine. Along with it, however, the Swiss Confession 
 also reached Poland, and the persecutions with which Ferdinand of 
 Austria threatened Bohemia and Moravia, led crowds of Bohemian 
 brethren into the country. Sigismund Augustus (1548-72) was per- 
 sonally inclined to the Reformation. He demanded of the pope the 
 permission of priests to marry, the communion sub utraque, the mass 
 in the vernacular, and the abrogation of annates. The pope not only 
 refused, but sent a legate into the country to subdue the heresy. The 
 Protestant noljles now (1556) recalled their renowned countryman, 
 John a Lasco, who, 16 years before, had left his office and country on 
 account of his evangelical vieM^s. In the meantime he had aided in 
 the reformation of East Friesland, and preached for several years in 
 Emdon ; subsequently he went to England, at Cranmer's call, and after 
 Edward VI. 's death, sought a refuge in Denmark, which, however, was 
 refused him on account of his Zwinglian views ; after that he preached 
 to a congregation of French, English, and Holland fugitives, in Frank- 
 fort-on-the-Maine. After his return to Poland, he labored to effect a 
 union of the Lutherans and Reformed, in connection with several 
 friends translated the Bible, and died in 1560. At the General Synod 
 of Sendomir (1570), a union of the three dissenting parties was finally 
 affected (Consensus Sendomiriensis), which recognized the Lutheran
 
 REFORMATION IN OTHER COUNTRIES. 125 
 
 doctrine of the Lord's Supper, but in so indefinite a way that the article 
 migb*", also bear a Calvinistic sense. The opposition of the Lutherans 
 was suppressed by earnest entreaties, but soon after broke forth only 
 the more violently. At 'the Sijnod of Thorn (1595), Paul Gerike, a 
 Lutheran preacher, stood up for the Lutheran view, but one of the no- 
 bles present put a sword at his breast, and the synod suspended him 
 from his office as a disturber of the peace. Sigismund Augustus died 
 in 1572. During the interregnum which occurred, the Protestant no- 
 bility formed a confederacy which effected a general religious Peace 
 (Pax dissidentium, 1573), before the election of another king, Ijy which 
 Catholics and Protestants were pledged perpetually to maintain peace, 
 and allow each other to enjoy equal civil rights. The new king, Henry 
 of Anjou (subsequently Henry III. of France), endeavored to evade 
 this Peace, but the marshal of the kingdom told him dryly : Si non 
 jurabis, non regnabis. In the following year he secretly left Poland 
 to ascend the French throne. Stephen Baihori (from 1576) took the 
 oath of Peace unhesitatingly, and kept it also. But under his successor, 
 Sigismund III. (a Swedish prince, from 1587), the Protestants com- 
 plained of many violations of their rights, and the evils increased until 
 the dissolution of the Polish kingdom (1772). (Cf. ^ 33, 5 ; 44, 4.) 
 
 9. The Reformation in Bohemia and Moravia. (Cf. B. Ilanpach, d. 
 evang. (Estr. Ilamb., 1832. 3 Bde., 4to.— G^. C. Waldau, Gesch. d. 
 Prot, in (Estr. Ansp., 1784. 2 Bde.— ^. Gindely, 1. c. (Vol. I. § 119, 5) ; 
 ib. Gesch. d. MajestUtsbriefes. Prag., 1858.) — The numerous Bohe- 
 mian and Moravian Brethren had frequent interviews with Luther. 
 In his Reformation they saw a want of discipline, whilst he was dis- 
 satisfied with their latitudinarianism in doctrine, and Novatian exalta- 
 tion of external deportment. But in 1532, the Brethren presented an 
 apology of their doctrines and usages to the Margrave George of Bran- 
 denburg, of which Luther fully approved. At the last interview in 
 1542, Luther offered their delegates his hand as a pledge of perpetual 
 friendship. But genuine Lutheranism and Calvinism were both ad- 
 mitted into Bohemia. The refusal of the Bohemians to fight against 
 their German brethren, in the Smalcald war, led Ferdinand to inflict a 
 severe chastisement upon them. But Ferdinand became more consi- 
 derate in his last years, and Maximilian II. (1564-70) did not disturb 
 them. Rudolf II. (157Ö-1012), who was educated at the Spanish court, 
 revived the oppressions. This roused the Bohemians, and compelled 
 him to grant Letters of Majesty (1009), Avhich ceded unconditional reli- 
 gious liberty, their own consistory, and an academy at Prague. Thus 
 Bohemia became an evangelical country; in a hundred inhabitants, 
 not more than one or two were Catholics. (Cf. ^ 33, 1.) 
 
 10. The Reformation in Hnngary. (Cf. History of the Prot. Ch. in 
 Hungary, with an introd. by D'Anbigne. Boston and N. York, 1854.) 
 — Fr^m 1524, Martin Cyiaci, a Wittenberg pupil, lalwred in Hungary 
 
 54*
 
 126 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (C E N T. 16 A. D.). 
 
 for the spread of pure doctrine. Kino; Lewis II. threatened its adherenti 
 with tlie severest penalties. But he fell in the battle of Mohacz, (1526). 
 The new election produced two kings : Ferdinand of Austria, and the 
 Vaivode John Zai)oyla. Both immediately persecuted the Reformation, 
 in order to gain the support of the clergy ; the cause nevertheles? ac- 
 quired a powerful ascendancy. Mathias Devay, also a disciple of Lu- 
 ther, translated the Bible, and the synod of Erdöd (1545) adopted the 
 Augsburg Confession. But the Swiss doctrines had also found their 
 way into the country, and daily gained new adherents. The Reformed 
 held a council at Czeager (1557), at which the Confessio Hungarica , 
 embracing the Calvinistic view of the Lord's Supper and of predesti- 
 nation, was adopted. Under Maximilian II. the Reformation made 
 unobstructed progress. But when Rudolph II. revived forcible mea- 
 sures, the Protestants arose under Stephen Botskai, and compelled him 
 to conclude the Peace of Vienna (1606), which guaranteed them full 
 religious liberty. Among the native Hungarians, the Reformed Con- 
 fession prevailed, but the German settlers remained true to Luther- 
 anism. 
 
 11. The Reformation in Transylvania. — Merchants from Herman- 
 stadt brought Luther's writings to Transylvania as early as 1521. But 
 there, also, Lewis II. of Hungary persecuted the Evangelicals ; and, 
 after his death, John Zapoyla did the same. Nevertheless, in 1529, 
 Hermanstadt ventured to drive all the adherents of the pope from the 
 city. In Cronstadt, the reform was introduced (1534) \>j Jacob Hont er, 
 who had studied in Basel. After Zapoyla had secured the permanent 
 possession of Transylvania by a treaty with Ferdinand (1538), he 
 showed more moderation towards the Protestants. After his death, the 
 monk Martinuzzi, then made Bishop of Groswardein, exercised the 
 regency during the minority of Zapoyla's son. He threatened the 
 Protestants with bloody persecutions, whilst Isabella, Zapoyla's widow, 
 favored them. On this account, Martinuzzi transferred the country to 
 Ferdinand, but he was murdered in 1551. After some years, Isabella 
 returned with her son, and a diet at Clausenburg (1557) constituted the 
 country an independent principality, and proclaimed universal reli- 
 gious liberty. The Saxons adhered to Lutheranism, whilst the Szecler 
 and Magyars preferred the Reformed Confession. 
 
 12. The Reformation in Spain. (Cf. Th. M'Crie, Hist, of the Ref. 
 in Spain. E. Böhmer, Inquisit. u. Evang. in Sp., in Schneider's 
 deutsch. Ztschr. 1852, No. 13, etc.) — The connection with Germany, 
 brought al)Out by the empire of Charles V., led to the early trans- 
 plantation of Luther's doctrine to Spain. Very many theologians and 
 statesmen who accompanied Charles to Germany, returned nome with 
 tvangelical convictions — among these were ^4 /;/bnso c^e Virves, court 
 chaplain to the emperor, and his private secretary, Alfonso Valdez, 
 also a statesman. Rodrigo de Valero, a layman, attained to evangeli 
 cal knowledge, by diligently studying the Scriptures, and led many
 
 REFORMATION IN OTHER COUNTRIES. 127 
 
 others into the way of salvation. The Inquisition seized his property, 
 and condemned him to wear the sanbenito. Juan Egidius (Gil), Va- 
 lero's friend, Bishop of Tortosa, formed societies for the study of the 
 Bible. The Inquisition deposed him, and but for the protection of 
 Charles, he would have perished at the stake. After his death, hia 
 remains were exhumed and burnt. The first martyr in Spain was 
 Francisco San Eomano, a merchant, who had become acquainted with 
 Luther's doctrines in Antwerp. He was burnt at the stake in Valhi- 
 dolid, in 1544. Franc. Enzina translated the New Testament. He 
 was imprisoned, and the book prohibited. About 1550, the reforma- 
 tory movement acquired so general and comprehensive a character, 
 that a Spanish historian of that period expresses the belief that all 
 Spain would have fallen a prey to the heresy, if the Inquisition had 
 delayed the application of the remedy but three months. But it now 
 began vigorously to apply the remedy, especially after Philip II. 
 (1555-98) assumed the government. Scarcely a year passed in which 
 each of the twelve inquisitorial tribunals did not celebrate one or more 
 great auto-da-fes, at which multitudes of heretics were burned. The 
 remedy proved effectual. In twenty or thirty years the evangelical 
 cause was suppressed. 
 
 13. The Reformation in Italy. (Cf. Th. M'Crie, Hist, of the Ref. in 
 Italy. — E. F. Leopold, d. lief. u. deren Verfall in Ital. ; in the hist, 
 theo!. Ztschr. 1843, II.) — Reformatory measures in Italy took various 
 courses. A large part of the Humanists had given up all interest in 
 Christianity for a self sufficient sort of heathenism, and maintained the 
 same position towards the Reformation as to the old Church ; another 
 portion desired a reformation in an Erasmian sense. Both remained 
 in their old ecclesiastical relations. At the same time many learned 
 men took a more decided stand, some of whom took matters into their 
 own hands, and assailed the fundamental truths of Christianity. (Italy 
 was, especially, the rendezvous of rasinj Anti- Trinitarians, ^ 28), whilst 
 others attached themselves to the German, but most to the Helvetic 
 Reformation. Each party endeavored to reach the people by preaching 
 and writings, and they often succeeded in founding separate cimgroga- 
 tions in Italian cities. But to save their lives the reformers had to flee 
 from the country; and in 1542, a special Inquisition was instituted to 
 suppress Protestantism in Italy, which, with reckless, f\inatical fury, 
 punished every appearance of Protestantism with imprisonment, the 
 galleys, the scaffold, and the stake ; nevertheless it did not accomplish 
 its purpose until towards the close of the century. Almost all the 
 writings of the German and Swiss Reformers were translated into 
 Italian soon after their publication, and being anonymous, wore widely 
 circulated before the Inquisition seized upon them. Antonio Bnirioli 
 translated the Bible (1530, etc.) It was placed in the Index prohil)i- 
 torum, although the translator remained in the Catholic Cliurch. The 
 Duchess Renata de Ferrara, a sister of Francis I. of France, distin-
 
 128 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A. D.) 
 
 guished herself as a promoter of the Reformation. Her court became 
 the refuge and resort of French fugitives. Previously (^ 15, 3), it had 
 been proposed to establish in Italy a propaganda of noble Catholic 
 Christians, whose personal experience had convinced them that justifi- 
 cation by faith was the central doctrine of all true faith and practice, 
 and who hoped to reanimate the Catholic Church, without fighting 
 against it. To this society such men as Cardinal Reginald Pains be- 
 longed ; Bishop Morone of Modena ; the Spaniard Juan Valdez (secre- 
 tary of the Viceroy of Naples) ; James Sadoletits (author of a Commen- 
 tary on the Romans) ; the legate Contarini, and others. The principles 
 of this movement are most clearly and perfectly set forth in the small 
 work del heneficio di Giisu Christo, whose author, Äoimts Palearius, 
 was prof, of class, liter, at Siena. In six years, 60,000 copies were 
 printed at Venice alone. A large number of editions appeared else- 
 where, partly in the original, partly in translations. But thirty years 
 afterwards, no copy in the original could be found, and after one hun- 
 dred years no translation ; so thoroughly and consistently had the In- 
 quisition done its work of extermination. In Rome, piles of it as high 
 as houses were burnt. But in 1843, a copy of the original of 1543, was 
 discovered and republished in London in 1853. Among the most dis- 
 tinguished reformers who wholly renounced popery were : (1.) Bernar- 
 dino Ochino, from 1538 General of the Capuchins, and long renowned 
 as a controversialist against the Lutheran and Zwinglian heresy ; but 
 in that very way led to a closer acquaintance with reformation writings. 
 He united with the Refijrmed Church in 1542, fled to Geneva, and after 
 that labored in Basel, Augsburg, Strassburg, and London. After the 
 death of Edward VI. he had to flee from England, became preacher in 
 Zurich, inclined to Socinianism, and even vindicated polygamy. On 
 this account he was deposed, fled to Poland, and died (1564) in Mora- 
 via. (2.) Peter Martyr Vermilio, an Augustine monk and esteemed 
 preacher. He was induced to leave the Catholic Church by studying 
 the writings of Erasmus, Zwingli, and Bucer. He fled to Zurich, be- 
 came Professor in Strassburg, and was also called to England by 
 Cranmer, where he accepted a Professorship in Oxford. Wlien Mary 
 became queen, he returned to Strassburg, and died whilst professor in 
 Zurich (1562). [Cf. C. Schmidt, P. M. Vermigli, etc. Elberfeld, 1857. 
 — Tr.] (3.) Peter Patd Vergerius, Bishop of Capo d'Istria, and papal 
 legate in Germany (^ 14, 1), when he personally conferred with Luther. 
 After that, his enemies accused him with being a secret adherent of 
 Luther. To clear himself of this charge, he studied Luther's writings 
 with the purpose of assailing them, and thus attained to the knowledge 
 of evangelical truth, and had to flee. The awful end of Francis Speira 
 in Padua (who denied his faith in the Gospel, and thereafter fell a prey 
 to tormenting doubts, and fears that he had committed the sin against 
 the Holy Ghost), made a tremendous impression on him. He then 
 openly joined the evangelical Church, labored for some time in the
 
 CHARACTER OF LUTHERAN CHURCH. 129 
 
 district of Graubünden (but as a Lutheran, not as a Reformed), and 
 died whilst professor in Tübingen (15G5). (Cf. C. H. Sixt., P. P. Verg. 
 Eine reformationsgeschichtliche Monogr. Braunschw. 1855.) 
 
 14. Common opposition to the Roman papacy awakened a desire to 
 form a connection with the Eastern Church. Demetrms Mi/sos, a deacon 
 of Constantinople, spent some months with Melanchthon in 1559, and 
 on his retui'n took a Greek translation of the Augsburg Confession with 
 him ; but no notice was taken of the matter. Twenty years later, the 
 other theologians opened new negotiations with the patriarch Jeremiah 
 II., through the Lutheran clergyman Stephen Gcrlack, who visited 
 Constantinople on an emb.assy of Maximilian II. Thereupon, the 
 ministers of Tübingen sent the patriarch a Greek translation of the 
 Augsburg Confession, prepared by Martin Crusius, and requested liia 
 opinion upon it. The patriarch candidly pointed out, in his reply, the 
 errors of the book. The Tübingen clergy vindicated their creed, and 
 in a second reply the patriarch reiterated his objections. A third letter 
 was wTitten, but the patriarch refused to give further explanations; 
 and to a fourth he made no reply. (Cf. § 32, 2.) 
 
 B. INNER HISTORY OF THE CHURCHES OF 
 THE REFORMATION. 
 
 ? 20. THE DISTINCTIVE CHARACTER OF THE LUTHERAN 
 CHURCH. 
 
 Cf. Max Gobel, d. rel. Eigenthümlichk. d. luth. u. ref. K. 1837. — Fu- 
 delbach, Ref., Luthersh., u. Union. Lpz., 1839. — Wiggers, kirchl. 
 Statistik. I. 92, etc. — K. Strohel, d. Unterschied d. luth u. ref. K. ; in 
 the luth. Ztschr. 1842, III. — [D'Aiibigne. Lutheranism and the Re- 
 form. ; in the Bibl. Repository for Jan. 1845. — Tr.] 
 
 Western Christianity has reached its purest, richest, and most 
 vigorous form in the Lutheran Church. In it the Germanic 
 Christian spirit, which had striven after independence frotn tlie 
 time of Boniface and Cliarlemagne, attained to Christian matu- 
 rity, and emancipated itself from its Roman tutor, who had lie- 
 come a selfish tyrant. It appropriates without solicitude the 
 rich treasures of true catholicity which the ancient Church had 
 developed in the form of Grteco-Romanic culture, enriched by 
 the experiences and events of mediiBval toils. It is the Church 
 occupying the true medium between all sensualizing and spi- 
 ritualizing forms of Religion, between a slavisli objective and an
 
 130 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A.D.). 
 
 arbitrary subjective ecclesiasticism, as the former has more of 
 less predominated in the Roman Catholic, and the other in thp 
 Helvetic Reformed Church. This, its proper mission, to repre- 
 sent and develop the true harmonizing; medium between the eccle- 
 siastical extremes of the West, the Lutheran Church has accom- 
 plished primarily, most vigorously, purely, and completely, with 
 reference to doctrine. And it was right to do so. For the 
 doctrine of the Gospel is the life-blood of the Church, the pulsa- 
 tions of which throb through her entire organism. But the 
 Lutheran Church had a similar vocation in regard to all the 
 other forms of ecclesiasticism. And this calling it endeavored 
 from the start to fulfil. It must indeed be admitted that in its 
 process of reformation and resuscitation, it may not have at- 
 tained to that complete firmness and certainty, clearness and 
 truth, of which it can boast in regard to doctrine. Nevertheless, 
 it cannot be denied, that even its otherwise still imperfect or 
 defective forms are animated by a powerful impulse to harmonize 
 extremes. But this much is undeniable, and has been its most 
 distinctive characteristic ever since its establishment at the 
 Augsburg diet, in opposition to the Catholic and Reformed 
 Churches : it is the Church of the pure doctrine, a doctrine 
 which truly reconciles and unites extremes, equally guarded 
 against heresy, and open to scientific development. [Cf. § 21]. 
 
 The Lutheran Church maintains a genuine conciliatory character 
 between the Catholic and Reformed Churches, even in its fundamental 
 view of Christianity. The essence of Christianity consists in the union 
 of the divine and human (in the person of Christ as the prototype, also 
 in the Bible, in the Church, in the sacrament, in the Christian life, 
 etc.) The ultimate and inmost ground of diversity between the three 
 Western Churches, lies in their different manner and method of con- 
 templating and apprehending this union. The Catholic Church wishes 
 to see it, the Lutlieran to believe it, the Reformed to understand it. The 
 tendency of the Catholic Church is to confound the divine with the 
 human, and in such a way that the human loses its character as human, 
 and the union with the divine is regarded as an identification. The 
 Reformed Church, on the other hand, is disposed to separate the two, 
 contemplating each by itself, and regarding the union as it. juxtaposi- 
 tion, not objectively hut sul)jectively, not really but ideally. The Lu- 
 theran Church, equally avoiding the idea of a confusion and a separa- 
 tion of the two elements, regards the union as a most vital, intimate, 
 and efficient communion, penetration, and reciprocity, thus completely 
 harminizing the fundamental principles of the 3d and 4th General
 
 CHARACTER OF LUTHERAN CHURCH. 131 
 
 Councils, most clearly developing them, and giving them their most 
 comprehensive application. In the view of the CatJwJic Clmrch, the 
 human and earthly, which is often the imperfect bearer of the divine, 
 in which the divine is too often manifested under narrowing limitations, 
 are often taken in themselves for the divine. Thus in its conception 
 of the Church, which leads to the doctrine of a merely external Church, 
 which alone can give salvation ; its idea of the human historical deve- 
 lopment of the Church, leading to the' absolute authority of tradition, 
 and the perversion of the true relation between the Scriptures and 
 tradition ; its view of the sacraments, hence its contemplation of them 
 as opus operatum, and its doctrine of transubstantiation ; its theory 
 of the priesthood, leading to the hierarchy ; its doctrine of sanctifica- 
 tion, favoring semipelagianism, and righteousness by works, etc. The 
 Rejbrined Church contemplated truth in a diametrically opposite way. 
 It isolated the divine in Christianity from its earthly, visible bearer, 
 sublimating and spiritualizing the former, despising the other, and re- 
 garding the operation of the divine upon the human as purely spiritual, 
 and conditioned by personal faith. In the Scriptures it largely denies 
 the human historical element, so that even the vowel points and punc- 
 tuations were thought to be inspired. The divinely historical in the 
 Church, on the other hand, was not recognized by it, but all tradition 
 was rejected, and with it all historical development, normal or abnor- 
 mal, was cut off. In its apprehension of Scriptures, the literal sense 
 was disregarded in favor of the spiritual import, and in its conception 
 of the Church, the significance of the visible was disparaged in favor 
 of the invisible Church. In reference to the person of Christ, it allowed 
 itself, in Nestorian style, to exclude the human nature of the exalted 
 Redeemer from a full personal participation in all the attributes of hig 
 Godhead. In the sacraments, it separated the supersensuous grace 
 from the material elements ; and in the doctrine of predestination, it 
 isolated the divine predetermination from human self-determination, 
 etc. The Lutheran Church, on the contrary, shunned both these ex- 
 tremes, and combined the truths which underlay each, into a living, 
 connected unity. In regard to the Bible, it neither holds to the letter 
 without the spirit, nor to the spirit without the letter ; in history, it 
 recognizes the presence and operation of the Spirit of God within the 
 sphere of the human development of the Chui-ch, and only rejects a 
 false tradition, which does not proceed organically from the Scriptures, 
 but is rather contradictory to it. In regard to the Church, it maintains 
 the significance of the invisible as much as that of the visible Church. 
 Touching the doctrine of the person of Christ, it aöirms the complete 
 humanity and complete divinity of both natures, in their living union, 
 and most intimate reciprocal relation. In regard to the sacraments, it 
 concedes the reality of the objective act of God, which offers heavenly 
 grace through earthly elements, and that of man's subjective position, 
 by which, according to his faith or unbelief, the sacrament minister«
 
 132 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A.D.). 
 
 to his salvation or condemnation. And in regard to the divine decrees 
 it solves the seeming contradiction between God's predestination and 
 man's self-determination, by making the former conditional upon God'a 
 prescience (not reversely, as Calvin declares). 
 
 § 21. DOCTRINAL CONTROVERSIES IN THE LUTHERAN 
 CHURCH. 
 
 Cf. G. Walch, Einleit. in d. Religionstreitigk. d. luth. K. Jena, 1733, 
 5 Bde. — Thomasius, d. Bekenntn. d. ev.-luth. K. in d. Consequ. s. 
 Princips. Nliremb. 1848. — Planck, Gesch. d. protest. Theol. bis z. 
 Concordienformel. Lpz., 1796, 3 Bde. — H. Heppe, Gesch. d. deutsch. 
 Protestant, v. J. 1551-81. 4 Bde. 1852, etc. 
 
 Even during Luther's life, and still more after his death (1546), 
 various, and, in part, very violent doctrinal controversies, broke 
 out in the newly established Lutheran Church. The same ne- 
 cessity which impelled the ancient Church, in the 4th and 5th 
 centuries, accurately to define and fix Catholic views of doctrine, 
 prevailed in this case also ; and what was said, in the history of 
 that period, of the importance of ecclesiastical controversies in 
 general, and the violence which often attended them, applies in 
 part to the present instance. The Lutheran Church, moreover, 
 was driven into these struggles by its peculiar character. As 
 the Church which occupied the true middle ground, it had to 
 define the limits which separated it from the frontiers of the two 
 ecclesiastical extremes, strictly and sharply, distinctly and truly ; 
 and as the Church of pure doctrine, it was necessary for it to 
 clear up, perfect, and definitely settle its own doctrinal system. 
 But these struggles, notwithstanding their violence, did not lead 
 to a schism in the communions, because the Lutheran Church 
 was so firmly and securely rooted, from the start, in ancient, 
 genuine Catholicity. 
 
 1. The riiiUppists. — Soon after the adoption of the common confes- 
 sion at Avigsl)urg, two tendencies, which gradually separated more 
 widely, Vjcgan to develop themselves in the Lutheran Church. The one 
 party, headed by Mclanclithon (Philippists), endeavored to widen the 
 platform, on which Catholics on the one hand, and Reformed on the 
 other, might stand, and thus effect an approximation to union and 
 harmony. The other party, led by Amsdorf, Flacius, and Wir/and, 
 strove rather to define the pure Lutheran system with all possible 
 strictness, so as to guard it against any admixture with Catholicising 
 OT Oalvinistic elements. Luther attached himself to neither party, but
 
 CONTROVERSIES IN LUTHERAN CHURCH. 133 
 
 endeavored to keep both from plunging into their respective extremeSv 
 and, as far as possible, to maintain peace between both. In a new 
 edition of the Augsburg Confession, of 1540, Melanchthon modified the 
 statement concerning faith and works, to conciliate Catholics, and that 
 touching the Lord's Supper to accommodate Calvinists. The unaltered 
 confession declared : Docent, quod corpus et sanguis Domini vere adsint 
 et distribuaiitur vescentibus in coena Domini, et improbant seciis do- 
 centes. For this he substituted : Quod cum pane et vino vere exliiheantur 
 corpus et sanguis Christi vescentibus in coena Domini. This statement 
 was, indeed, not directly and exclusively Calvinistic, for then it should 
 have used credentibus for vescentibus. Nevertheless, this arbitrary 
 and Calvinising change embittered the stringent Lutherans, and even 
 Luther admonished the author that the book was not his, but was the 
 confession of the entire Church. When the Philippists, therefore, after 
 Luther's death, made m.any other concessions to the Catholics, in the 
 Leipsic Interim (1548), the Lutherans pronounced it open treachery to 
 the Church. Magdehurg persistently rejected the Interim, and became 
 the refuge of all zealous Lutherans ; and in opposition to Philippist 
 Wittenberg, the sons of the ex-elector, John Frederick, founded, by hia 
 direction, the university of Jena, as the stronghold of rigid Lutheranism. 
 From the antagonisms of these two parties sprang, chiefly, the doctrinal 
 controversies of the Reformation period. 
 
 2. The Antinomian Controversy (1537-40) was about the authority of 
 the law in Christianity. John Agricola of Eisleben (from 1536 Prof, in 
 Wittenberg, and from 1540 court-preacher in Berlin, aided in preparing 
 the Augsburg Interim, 1548, ob. 1566), took oflFenee, as early as 1527, 
 at Melanchthon's urging the preacher, in the visitation circulars, to in- 
 struct the people diligently in the law. From 1537, he disputed with 
 lAither himself about it. He did not contend against the use of the 
 law outside of the Church for educational and ciyil purposes ; but upon 
 the correct principle that an authoritative system of morality could not 
 help man, he erroneously maintained that the law no longer concerned 
 Christians, and that only the Gospel should be preached, which would 
 lead men to repentance through the power of divine love. Melanch- 
 thon and Luther, on the contrary, regarded sorrow and contrition over 
 sin as the fruits of the law, but the saving purpose of amendment as 
 the effect of the Gospel ; and they required the law to be continuously 
 preached, because, in the imperfection of man's present holiness, a re- 
 pentance daily renewed is necessary. The deeper ground of difference in 
 these views lay in Agricola's over-estimate of human nature, which he 
 did not think so depraved but that, without being smitten by the ter- 
 rors of the law and condemnation, it might be induced to hate sin and 
 follow righteousness. In antithesis to the Catholic " Pelagianism of the 
 law," which concedes to man a natural ability to do good works, and coop- 
 eration in his justification, he fell into a "Pelagianism of the Gospel," 
 which ascribes to man a natural ability to accept proffered righteous* 
 55
 
 134 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A.D.). 
 
 ness for its own sake. After carrying on th-e control' ersy, orallj and 
 with tlie pen, for several years, Agricola discovered the error of hia 
 theory, and formally renounced it. (Berlin, 1540.) 
 
 3. The subject of the Osiandrian Controversy (1549-67) was the na- 
 ture of justification and its relation to sanctification. In opposition to 
 the Catholic doctrine of justification by works also, Luther regarded 
 redemption as a twofold act of God, bestowed upon man only through 
 faith. He distinguished between Justification as a divine act wrought 
 for man, and sanctification as a divine operation in man. The former 
 consists in this, that Christ made atonement on the cross, once for all, 
 for the sins of the whole world, and that God now imputes the merits 
 of Christ's atoning death to every single believer, as his own (as it 
 were forensically), and thus declares him righteous, but does not make 
 him so. The believer becomes actually righteous, rather on the ground 
 and as a consequence of his being declared so, through a growing 
 sanctification, extending over his entii'e earthly life, but never attaining 
 absolute perfection here, by virtue of the communication of the new 
 life, provided and brought to light by Christ. Andrew Osiander (from 
 1522 preacher in Nuremberg, and in 1549 made professor at the newly 
 founded university of Königsberg, by Duke Albert of Prussia, who 
 had been converted to the evangelical faith by his, preaching. He died 
 in 1552), advocated, in Königsberg, a view varying from this, and ap- 
 proximating the Catholic doctrine. He confounded sanctification with 
 justification, and regarded the latter not as a declaring righteous, but 
 as a making righteous, not as a judicial but a sanitary act, efiected 
 by an infusion, i. e., a constant inflowing of the righteousness of 
 Christ. He considered the atoning death of Christ only as the nega- 
 tive condition of justification, the positive condition being Christ's in- 
 carnation, and justification the formation of Christ in the believer. 
 Osiander objected to Luther's forensic view, because it seemed to him 
 to exclude the subjective element in justification (which, however, is 
 present in faith as tlie subjective condition of man's being declared 
 righteous). The controversy was carried on by the Osiandrists and 
 their Königsberg opponents {Mörlin, Sta]}hylas, Stancarus, etc.) with 
 equal vagueness and vehemence, and several theologians from a dis- 
 tance failed, by written opinions sent in (among them one from Me- 
 lanchthon, and another from Brenz), to settle the dispute. After Osian- 
 der's death, his son-in-law, the court-preacher John Funk, also in favor 
 with tlie duke, was at the head of the party, and filled all the offices 
 with his adherents. He likewise rashly mixed in with political in- 
 trigues, and, in execution of a sentence of the supreme Polish commis- 
 sion, was beheaded for high treason in 1556. The other Osiandrists 
 were deposed and banished. Mörlia, previously exiled, returned, and 
 as Bishop of Samland, reorganized the Prussian Church, and Martin 
 Chemnitz (previously rector in Königsberg, then superintendent in 
 Brunswick), was called to prepare a standard »f doctrine (Corpus doc
 
 CONTROVERSIES IN LUTHERAN CHURCH. 135 
 
 trinae Pruthenicum). — The preference given by Oslander to the divine 
 nature in the work of redemption, led to another controvers}- about tho 
 declaration of Stancar (a man notorious for his petty disputes — hence 
 the expression : Stänkereien), that man's redemption rests wholly upon 
 the human nature of Christ. (Cf. H. WUken, Osiander's Leben, etc. 
 I. Strals., 1844. — Häberle, Osiander's Lehre; in the Studd. u. Kritt., 
 1844. — i?(7wÄ/, d. Rechtfertigungsl. d. A. Os. in the Jahrbb. für 
 deutsche Theol. von Dorner u. Liebner. II. H. 4.) 
 
 4. The Adiaphoristic Controversy (1548-55), concerning the admissi- 
 bility of Catholic forms in the constitution and worship of the Church, 
 sprang from the introduction of the Catholicising Leipsic Interim. This 
 regarded most Catholic forms as adiaphora, or neutral matters, which 
 might be admitted as non-essential. On the other hand the Lutherans 
 maintained that matters in themselves indifferent, ceased to be so under 
 circumstances like the present. Of course the cause of this controversy 
 was removed by the Augsburg Peace. 
 
 5. The Majorlstic Controversy (1551-62) turned upon the necessity 
 of good works. The Interim led strict Lutherans to regard the Philip- 
 pists with Vjoundless mistrust. "When, therefore, in 1551, George Major 
 of Wittenberg affirmed, in essential accordance with the Interim and 
 Melanchthon's theology, that good tcork^ icere necessary to salvation, 
 and refused to retract, Arnsdorf X.f)o\L the equally objectionable position 
 that good works were detrimeräal to salvation. Notwithstanding the 
 violence of this controversy, also, more reflecting persons saw that bnth 
 parties erred by using vague and extreme expressions, and acknow- 
 ledged, on the one hand, that not good works in themselves, but only 
 faith, was necessary to salvation, whilst at the same time, good works 
 were the indispensable fruit of genuine saving faith, and necessary to 
 its maintenance ; and, on the other hand, that good works were not in 
 themselves pernicious, but only reliance upon them, instead of upon 
 the merits of Christ alone. For the sake of peace. Major recalled his 
 assertion. But the controversy was kept up for years. 
 
 6. The Synergistic Controversy (1555-67) was about the cooperation 
 of the human will in conversion. Lutfier, in his controversy with 
 Erasmus, in accordance with the first edition of Melanchthon's Loci, 
 had totally denied the ability of human nature to embrace salvation 
 by its own power, and taught the absolute and exclusive agency of 
 divine grace in conversion. In later editions of the Loci and of the 
 Augsburg Confession, however, Melanchthon taught a certain coopera- 
 tion (synergism) of the remains of free-will in man, in conversion ; 
 and in the edition of 1548, he defined this as the ability of man to em- 
 brace proffered salvation of his own accord (facultas se applicandi ad 
 gratiam). In the Leipsic Interim, also, he avoided the Lutheran 
 shibboleth sold (by faith "alone*'), though he most decidedly denied 
 all merit to man in conversion Luther bore Melanchthon's change
 
 136 SECTION III — FIRST PERIOD (C E N T. 1 » A. D.). 
 
 of opinion with noble toleration, with a charity that hopeth all things 
 and endureth all things, only he reproached him for smuggling his 
 views into the confession of the Church. After the enactment of the 
 Leipsic Interim, the suspicion and dissatisfaction of the rigid Lutherans 
 daily increased, and it burst forth in a most violent controversy, when 
 John Pfeffiager, superintendent in Leipsic, who had participated in the 
 odious Interim, issued a book on free-will in vindication of Melanch- 
 thon's synei'gism (1555). The leaders of rigid Lutheranism, Nicholas 
 V. Amsdorf, Matthias Flacitis of Illyria, and John Wigand, colleagues 
 at the university of Jena, felt that they dare no longer keep silence. 
 At the request of the Duke of Weimar, they prepared a confutation, 
 designed to be the standard of restored Lutheranism ; and Victorin 
 Strigel, a professor in Jena, who was. appointed to assist them, had to 
 atone for his sympathy with synergistic views, by a severe imprison- 
 ment. But the duke soon became more favorably disposed towards 
 Strigel ; and the rigid Lutherans, who persistently opposed the duke's 
 injunctions, were expelled, and the university chairs were filled with 
 Melanchthonians. A change in the government, however, restored 
 the Lutheran party to power in the duchy of Saxony (1567), and in 
 electoral Saxony, also, synergism gradually lost its supports (Melanch- 
 thon died in 1560). — In a colloquy with Strigel at Weimar (1560), 
 Flacius allowed himself to assert, in the heat of controversy, that 
 original sin was not something accidental, in man, but something s^ib- 
 stantial. His friends, even, urged him to retract this manifestly 
 Manichaean statement, which sounded worse than he meant. But a 
 man of Flacius' character could not easily be induced to do this. In 
 1562 he was banished, with the other Lutherans, and in 1567 he was 
 not recalled with them. He now roamed restlessly about, driven from 
 every place, and only a short time before his death (1575), recalled his 
 hasty expression. — Thus, a man of strong character and astonishing 
 erudition, was destroyed by unpropitious circumstances, for which he 
 was partly innocent and partly to blame. (Cf. E. Schmidt, d. Flacius 
 Erbsündenstreit; in the hist, theol. Ztschr. 1849, I. II. — A. Twesten, 
 Matth. Fl. Illyr., Berl., 1844.— IF. Freger, M. Fl. 111. u. s. Zeit. Lpz. 
 1859. Bd. I.) 
 
 7. In the Crypto- Calvinistic Controversy (1552-74), the doctrine of 
 the Lord's Supper was the subject of dispute. The union effected with 
 the Zwinglian cities of southern Germany, by the Wittenberg Concord 
 (15.36), had since then been shaken in many ways, and the attacks of 
 the Zürichers compelled Luther (1544) to draw up a final "Confession 
 of the Holy Sacrament, against the fanatics." If this demonstrated an 
 incurable rupture with the Zwinglians, it also showed that a union with 
 the incomparably more profound doctrines of Calvin was possible. It 
 was Melai*chthon' s most ardent desire to effect such a union. He be- 
 came convinced, not indeed that the Lutheran doctrine of the real 
 presence of the body and blood in the bread and wine was erroneous,
 
 7 0NTRCVERSIES IN LUTHERAN CHURCH- 137 
 
 but that Calvin's doctrine of a spiritual participation of the body and 
 blood of Chi-ist (through faith) in the Supper, did violence to no essen- 
 tial religious point ; therefore he sought to avoid what seemed to him 
 an unessential difference in confession and doctrine. But the rigid 
 Lutherans were by no means agreed to this ; and tedious, violent con- 
 troversies sprang up in various Lutheran countries (especially in lower 
 Saxony, in the Palatinate, and in electoral Saxony), concerning it. The 
 dispute was not confined, however, to the doctrine of the Lord's Supper, 
 but was extended to its deepest basis. Luther, carrying out the princi- 
 ples of the third and fourth General Councils, had taught that the per- 
 sonal union of both natures in Christ rested upon a coimmmication of 
 file attributes of the one to the other (communicatio idiomatum), so that 
 Christ, having resumed, since his ascension to heaven, the full exercise 
 of his divine attributes, as God-man, is also corporeally omnipresent 
 (ubiquitas corporis Christi), and he could not be shaken in his opinion 
 by the assertion that a corporeal omnipresence was incomprehensible 
 by the natural understanding. In this way he answered the main 
 objection of Zwingli and Calvin to Luther's doctrine of the Lord's 
 Supper, that the body of Christ could not be simultaneously in heaven 
 at the right hand of God, and in the bread and wine on earth. But the 
 entire spirit, both of Calvin and Zwingli, led them to regard the doc- 
 trine of the ubiquity of the glorified body of Christ as wholly absurd, 
 and, by an openly Nestorian rejection of the communicatio idiomatum, 
 to teach that the glorification of the body of Christ was confined to its 
 transfiguration, and that in heaven, as formerly upon earth, it could be 
 onhj in one place. A necessary consequence of this view was the rejec- 
 tion of the corporeal presence in the Lord's Supper, and, even when 
 high ground was taken, the admission that a communication of power 
 from the exalted body of Christ was granted to believers through the 
 sacrament. The struggle was begun by Joachim Westphal, a preacher 
 in Hamburg, who openly assailed Calvin's doctrine, and its secret ac- 
 ceptance by many Lutheran theologians (1552). The controversy became 
 most violent in Bremen, where the cathedral preacher Hardenberg pub- 
 licly assailed the ai-tiele in the Augsburg Confession concerning the 
 Lord's Supper, and in Heidelberg, where Deacon Kiebitz maintained 
 Calvinistic theses concerning the Lord's Supper. In both cities the 
 struggle ended with the expulsion of Lutheranism (? 24, \, 2). In 
 Wittenberg, also, the Philippists G. Major, Paul Eber, Paul Crell, etc., 
 aided by Caspar Peucer, the elector's physician, and Melanchthon's 
 öon-in-law, who had great influence, labored from 1559 to introduce 
 Calvinism. Melanchthon himself did not live to see the distractions 
 resulting from this movement, the Lord having mercifully released the 
 deeply humbled, desponding man, who had long prayed to be delivered 
 a rabie theologorum. He died April 19, L560 . — Wiiilst the Elector 
 Aitgnstus (1553-86) still considered his Wittenberg tlie chief bulwark 
 T»f genuine Lutheranism, the Philippists carried forward their plana 
 55*
 
 138 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A. D ). 
 
 with increasing Voldness, and endeavored to have every post filled hj 
 persons of their ovra vievrs, and to secure the field by anonymous Cal- 
 vinistic books. At length, however, the elector was convinced of the 
 dangers which threatened Lutheranism. The Philippists were all ex- 
 pelled, and their leaders imprisoned (Peucer for twelve years). The 
 final complete victory of Lutheranism was celebrated by thanksgivings 
 in all the churches, and by having a commemorative medal struck 
 (1574). (Cf. the literature under § 11.) 
 
 8. Of far less importance were: (1.) The Karg Controversy (1563) 
 about the imputation of the active obedience of Christ, which George 
 Karg (Parsimonius) a minister of Anspach, controverted for a season; 
 afterwards he retracted, having been convinced of his error by the 
 Wittenberg theologians. (2.) The controversy with John ^pinus, 
 minister in Hamburg, who, in a commentary on the 16th Psalm, 
 adopted the Reformed view of Christ's descent into hell, that it belonged 
 to his state of humiliation, and completed the passive obedience of 
 Christ by his endurance of hell-punishment, whilst the current Lutheran 
 regarded it as a triumphant proof of his victory over hell and death, 
 and as belonging to his state of exaltation. A Wittenberg opinion 
 (1550) on the subject left the point undecided, and the Form of Con- 
 cord, also, rested with the" assertion that Christ, in his entire person, 
 descended into hell, to deliver man from death and from the power of 
 the devil. 
 
 9. The Form of Concord (1577). (Cf. J. N. Anton, Gesch. d. Concor- 
 dienf. Lpz., 1779, 2 Bde. — /. C. G. Johannsen, Jac. Andrea's concor- 
 dist. Thätigk. ; in d. hist, theol. Ztschr. 1853, III. — H. Heppe, 1. c. 
 Bd. IIL IV. Gesch. d. luth. Concordienf. u. Concordie. Marb. 1857-58. 
 — K. F. Göschel, d. C. F. nach ihrer Gesch. Lehre, u. Bdtg. Lpz., 1858, 
 —F. H. R. Frank, d. Theol. d. C. F. Erlg. 1858.)— Jacoö Andrea, the 
 learned chancellor of Tubingen, had been laboring indefatigably for 
 some time, to restore peace among the tlieologians of the Lutheran 
 Chui'ch. In connection with Martin Chemnitz, a prudent and moderate 
 admirer of Melanchthon, and after consultation with many other theo- 
 logians, Andrea prepared a form of union (1574), which was thoroughly 
 revised at a theological convention in the Wlirtemberg monastery of 
 MauJhronn. This Maulhronn Form was submitted to the judgment of a 
 number of theologians, after which a second convention of theologians 
 was held at Torgau (1576), which took into consideration the opinions 
 received, and prepared the Torgau Book. Upon this production, also, 
 the evangelical princes solicited numerous opinions ; and then, by their 
 direction, Jacob Andrea, Chemnitz, Selnecker, Chytrceus, And. Musculus, 
 etc., met in the monastery of Bergen, near Magdeburg, to prepare a 
 final plan. Thus the Bergic Book, or Form of Concord, originated. 
 Besides setting forth views upon pfviously controverted doctrines 
 (especially that concerning the person Df Christ, as the basis of the
 
 CONTROVERSIES IN LUTHERAN CHURCH. 139 
 
 doctrine of the Lord's Supper), the decision regarding the synergistic 
 question, rendered it necessary to refer to the subject of i'redestina- 
 TiON, in the Form of Concord, although there had not been any actual 
 dispute about it in the Lutheran Church. Luther at first spoke in favor 
 of a particular election, but gradually receded from the doctrine. Me- 
 lanchthon had done the same, only with the important difference, that 
 whilst Luther denied to the last all human cooperation in conversion, 
 Melanchthon felt constrained to admit a certain measure of cooperation, 
 and even Calvin's reproof could not dissuade him from it. The Form 
 of Concord most decidedly rejected synergism, and afBrmed that since 
 the Fall man had not a spark (ne scintilla quidem) of spiritual power 
 remaining, to embrace, of his own accord, proffered grace. It assumed, 
 therefore, in opposition to Melanchthon, the same ground which had 
 forced Calvin, by rigid logical consequences, to adopt the theory of 
 absolute predestination, and it could not avoid explaining its relation 
 to that theory. It escapes Calvinistic conclusions by admitting that, 
 although man has no power in himself to reach after or coöoperate 
 with divine grace, he can resist and reject it. In accordance with this 
 it can affirm the explicit doctrine of the Scriptures, which teaches that 
 it is the will of God that all men be saved, and regard salvation as an 
 absolute work of grace, but man's damnation as the consequence of his 
 own guilt. It considers man's salvation, only, as an object of divine 
 predestination, whilst his damnation is an object of divine ^resc?e/tce. — 
 The character of this new confession was not so much popular as, in 
 accordance with its purpose and aim, scientific and theological ; and 
 its wisdom, moderation, and cautiousness, as well as its precision, 
 clearness, and depth, are really great and admirable. The signa- 
 tures of 9000 Church teachers testified that it answered its pur- 
 pose. Denmark, Sweden, Holstein, Pomerania, Hessen, Anhalt, and 
 eight cities (Magdeburg, Nuremberg, Strassburg, etc.), without show- 
 ing hostility to it, refused their subscriptions ; but it was subsequently 
 recognized in many of those countries (Sweden, Holstein, Pomerania, 
 etc.) The Elector Augustus of Saxony caused a collection of all the 
 Lutheran Confessions to be printed with the Book of Concord, and, 
 signed by 51 princes and 35 cities, to be promulgated on June 25, 1580, 
 the anniversary of the Augsburg Confession. 
 
 10. The Articles of Visitation of Electoral Saxony (1592). — The 
 Calvinistic efforts of the Philippists were once more revived under the 
 successor of Augustus, Christian I. (from 1586), who was gained for 
 this object through his relationship with the princely house of the 
 Palatinate. His chancellor, Nicholas Crell, filled all the ecclesiastical 
 offices with persons holding his own views, abolished exorc^'<m at bap- 
 tism, and had begun to publish an edition of the Bible with Calvinistic 
 notes, when Christian died (1591). Altenburg, the regent during Duke 
 Frederick William's minority, immediately restored rigid Lutheranism; 
 and having ordered a Church visitation, inserted in the Articles of
 
 140 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (C E N T. 16 A.D.). 
 
 Visiiation a new anti-Calvinistic rule of faith, which all the ecclesias- 
 tical and civil officials of Saxony had thenceforth to swear to maintain 
 (1592). In these articles the doctrinal diversities concerning the Lord's 
 Supper, the person of Christ, baptism, and election, were set forth in 
 brief, lucid, and exact theses and anti-theses. (In regard to baptism, 
 the anti-Calvinistic doctrine is affirmed, that regeneration is effected 
 through baptism, and that therefore all who are baptized are regene- 
 rated.) Crell, who had violently supplanted the nobility during his 
 regency, was beheaded for high treason after ten years' imprisonment. 
 — ^gidius Hunnius had taken the most active part in preparing the 
 Articles of Visitation. From 1576-92, he had been professor in Mar- 
 burg, and opposed with all his might the attempt to make Hesse 
 Calvinistic, and had shown himself a most zealous advocate of rigid 
 Lutheranism, by his defence of ubiquitarianism (" Bekenntniss von der 
 Person Christi, 1577;" " Libelli IV. de persona Christi ejusque ad 
 dexteram Dei sedentis divina majestate, 1585"). From Marburg he 
 was called to Wittenberg. [Oh. 1603.) 
 
 11. The Hubei' Controversy (1595). — Samuel Ruber, a Reformed 
 preacher in the canton of Berne", became involved in a controversy with 
 Wolfg. Musculus about election, by transcending the Lutheran doctrine, 
 and affirming that all men are predestinated unto salvation, though, 
 through their own fault, all will not be saved. Banished from Berne, 
 he joined the Lutheran Church, and was appointed a preacher in W'lir- 
 temberg. There he accused Prof. Gerlach of Crypto-Calvinism, because 
 he taught that only believers were predestinated to salvation. The 
 controversy was stopped by his being called to Wittenberg. But he 
 thought he discovered similar Crypto-Calvlnism in his colleagues there 
 {Poli/c. Leyser and ^gidius Hunnius), and opposed it. All the dispu- 
 tations and conferences upon the subject failed to change his views; 
 and as parties arose among the students, he was dismissed from Wit- 
 tenberg. He continued the controversy with increasing virulence, and 
 wandered about in Germany many years, endeavoring to propagate hia 
 views, but without success. [Ob. 1624.) 
 
 {22. CONSTITUTION, CULTUS, LIFE, AND LITERATURE OF 
 THE LUTHERAN CHURCH. 
 
 In regard to its constitution, the Lutheran Church aimed to 
 maintain its character as a mediator between extremes, although, 
 amidst the external and internal agitations which disturbed it, it 
 was least successful in securing the same degree of stability and 
 completeness, which shone forth so brilliantly in its doctrinal 
 system. In regard to Church cultiis, it was more fortunate. The 
 Reformation finally annulled the hierarchical ban, which had for 
 jeuturies excluded congregational singing and the rernacular
 
 CONSTITUTION, ETC. OF LUTHERAN CHURCH 141 
 
 tongue from public worship ; and during the period of the Re- 
 formation, already (but only in the Lutheran Church), German 
 Church hymuology flourished amazingly, and furnished the most 
 brilliant example of the fullness, strength, and fervor of the lofty 
 strain and freshness of the religious life of that age. Church 
 hymns are the Confession of the Lutheran laity, and have done 
 more than preaching to spread and inculcate evangelical truth. 
 A hymh had scarcely gushed from the heart of a poet before it 
 spread everywhere among the people, penetrated families and 
 churches, was sung before every door, in workshops, market- 
 places, streets and fields, and with a single stroke won whole 
 cities to the evangelical faith. " No subsequent period was, or 
 ever will be, able to produce anything equally genuine, effectual, 
 popular, original, or edifying for the people." The religious life 
 of the people in the Lutheran Church combined deep, earnest 
 penitence, and a joyful assured confidence of justification by 
 faith, with the cheerful integrity and cordiality of the German 
 citizen. Pastoral fidelity, earnest preaching, and the zealous 
 instruction of youth, even without rigidly practised discipline, 
 begat in the people a hearty fear of God, sincere attachment to 
 the Church, strict family discipline, and true submission to civil 
 authority. Theological learning flourished especially at the 
 universities of Wittenberg, Tübingen, Strassburg, Marburg, and 
 Jena. But there were also many who cultivated it, among those 
 engaged in more practical spheres. 
 
 1. The Constitution of the Church. (Cf. L. Richter, Gesch. d. ev. 
 K.-verf. in Deutschl. Lpz. 1851.) — Between hierarchy and Caesar- 
 ism, between the absorption of the State by the Church, and of the 
 Church by the State, the Lutheran Church occupied a medium which 
 was in the main correct, although somewhat yacillating in theory and 
 practice. It decidedly protested both against every admixture and 
 suppression of the two spheres. In the exigency of the Church, the 
 princes and magistrates assumed unavoidable episcopal power, managed 
 the affairs of the Church, and appointed consistories composed of lay- 
 men and clergy, to execute their orders and plans, and take special 
 charge of the clergy, Church discipline, and matrimonial questions. 
 This gradually led to the permanent institution of the episcopal system 
 (the chief civil ruler holding the position of summus episcopus. Cf. 
 I 46, 3). The canon law, after a careful modification of what was most 
 indispensable, became the basis of ecclesiastical jurisprudence. The 
 restoration of the biblical idea of a universal priesthood of all helievers, 
 would not endure the opinion of an essential distinction between tha
 
 142 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A.D.). 
 
 clergy and laity. The clergy were the regularly called servants 
 (miuistri, ministerium) of the Church, of the Word, of the altar, enjoy- 
 ing equal rights in spiritual things. Lay-baptism was allowed in ex- 
 treme cases. Hierarchical grades among the clergy were considered 
 antagonistic to the spirit of Christianity, although offices of authority 
 (such as superintendants, provosts, but only jure humano), were thought 
 allowable and advantageous. The property of the Church was frequently 
 seized and secularized by the arbitrary avarice of princes and nobles, 
 though the greater part of it, especially in Germany, either remained 
 in the Church, or was used in founding schools, universities, and chari- 
 table institutions. The monasteries met with the richly merited reward 
 of their degeneracy. Unhaj^pily, their reorganization upon evangelical 
 principles was not thought of amidst the pressure and agitation of the 
 times. 
 
 2. Public Worship and Art. (Cf. Th. Kliefoth, d. urspr. Gottesdienst- 
 ordnungen in d. luth. K. Rost. 1847. — Ibid. Liturg. Abhandle. Schwer. 
 1854. Bd. 1-3.— Ä Alt, d. ehr. Cultus. 2 A. Berl. 1851.— A'. Barthel, 
 d. Verb. d. Protstsm. zur Kunst; in d. hist. th. Ztschr. 1840. III.) — 
 Catholic worship appeals only to the imagination and feelings ; the wor- 
 ship of the Reformed Church satisfies merely the understanding ; but 
 Lutheran worship, combining both these elements, appeals to the heart. 
 The first sensualizes everything, the second spiritualizes everything, 
 whilst in the last all is harmonized in a well-balanced, vital manner. 
 The unity of the Church is not made to consist in identifying forms 
 of worship, but in oneness of faith ; hence the forms of worship are 
 nowhere imposed by law. Altars ornamented with candles and cruci- 
 fixes, as well as images, were retained in the churches, not for adora- 
 tion, but to excite and elevate devotion. Its Liturgy was based upon 
 the Roman missal, only unevangelical elements being excluded. The 
 preaching of the word was the centre of jiublic worship. Luther's 
 manner of preaching, the noble, vigorous popularity of which was 
 never equalled afterwards, still less surpassed, was the exemplar and 
 type for other Lutheran preachers, among whom Ant. Corviii, Just. 
 Jonas, Ge. Rpalatin, J. Bugenhagen, Jerome Weiler, J. Brenz, Veit 
 Dietrich, J. Mathesins, and M. Cliemnitz, were most noteworthy. The 
 essential requisition of all public worship was the personal participa- 
 tion of the congregation, and, as indispensable to this, the exclusive use 
 of the native language. Festivals were limited to the leading facts in 
 the history of redemption, and only such saints' days were retained as 
 were authorized by the Gospel (Apostles' days, the Annunciation, 
 Michaelmas, John the Baptist's day, etc.) Luther held ar^,in high 
 esteem, especially music. Lucas Cranach, Hans Holbein, and Albert 
 Dürer, employed their art (painting) in the service of the Gospel, and 
 ornamented Lutheran churches with elegant and significant paintings, 
 
 3. Hymnology. (Cf. E. E. Koch, Gesch. d. K. L. u. K. Ges. 2. A. 
 Stuttg. 1853. 4 Bde.— i^. A. Cunz, Gesch. d. K. L. Lpz. 1855. 2 Bde.
 
 CONSTITUTION, ETC. OF LUTHERAN CHURCH. 143 
 
 — Ph. WacJcernagel, d deutsche K.-L. von Luther bis Hermann u. 
 Bhuirer. Stuttg. 1841.—/. MiUzell, Geistl. Lieder d. ev. K. d. 16. 
 Jahrh. Berl. 1855. 3 Bde.) — The general character of Lutheran 
 hymuology in the 16th century is its true churchliness and popular 
 style. It is doctrinal, devotional, and bears the impress of olyective- 
 ness. The poet does not give vent to his own frame of mind, his indi- 
 vidual feelings, but the Church itself, through his lips, confesses, be- 
 lieves, comforts, praises, and adores. At the same time it is truly 
 popular ; truthful, natural, cordial, bold and fearless in expression, 
 moving with rapid steps ; no pausing, no retrospect, no minute deli- 
 neat^ions or extended descriptions, no didactic demonstrations. In its 
 outward form it followed the old German epos, and popular narrative 
 poetry, and aimed above all at being not only read but sung, and sung 
 by the congregation. The psalmody of the Reformation exhibits, of 
 course, all these characteristics in their fullest original vigor. Luther 
 ranks first. His 37 hymns are in part free translations of Latin hymns 
 ("Gelobet seist du Jesu Christ," "Der du bist drei in Einigkeit," 
 "Der Tag der ist so freudenreich," "Wir glauben all an einen Gott," 
 "Herr Gott, dich loben wir," "Mitten wir im Leben sind," "Komm 
 Gott Schöpfer, heiliger Geist," etc.) ; partly revisions of original Ger- 
 man hvmns: ("Christ lag in Todesbanden," "Nun bitten wir den 
 heilgen Geist," "Gott der Vater wohn uns bei," "Gott sei gelobet") ; 
 partly versions of Psalms: ("Ach Gott vom Himmel sieh darein," 
 Ps. 12, " Eine feste Burg ist unser Gott," Ps. 46, " Es woU uns Gott 
 gnädig sein," Ps. 67, " War Gott nicht mit uns diese Zeit," Ps. 124, 
 " Aus tiefer Noth schrei ich zu dir," Ps. 130, etc.), or single passages 
 of Scripture: ("Dies sind die heiligen zehn Gebot," "Jesaja dem 
 Propheten das geschah," Is. 6, " Vom Himmel hoch, da komm ich 
 her," Luke 2, " Christ unser Herr zum Jordan kam," etc.), and wholly 
 original hymns, both as to form and contents ("Nun freut euch liebe 
 Christen gemein," "Jesus Christus unser Heiland der den Tod," 
 "Erhalt uns Herr bei deinem AVort," etc.) Prominent next to Luther, 
 were : Paul Sperahis, reformer in Prussia {ob. 1554), author of the in- 
 comparable " Es ist das Heil uns kommen her ; " — Nicholas Decivs, a 
 monk who became an evangelical preacher in Stettin, about 1524. 
 ("Allein Gott in der Höh sei Ehr," "0 Lamm Gottes unschuldig") ; 
 — PiüiJ Eher, professor and superintendent in Wittenberg, oh. 1569 
 (the Michaelmas hymn " Herr Gott, dich loben Alle wir," " Wenn wir 
 in höchsten Nöthen sein," " Herr Jesu Christ, wahr'r Mensch und 
 Gott," "In Christi Wunden schlaf ich ein," etc.); — Lazarm Spaii/Ier, 
 clerk of the council in Nuremberg, oh. 1534 ("Durch Adams' Fall ist 
 ganz verderbt"); — TTan.? Sach.^, a shoemaker in Nuremberg, oh. 1576 
 (" Warum betrübst du dich, mein Herz," etc.) ;— /. Graumann (Polian- 
 der), Eck's amanuensis, afterwards an evangelical preacher in Königs- 
 berg, ob. 1541 ("Nun lob meine Seele den Herrn");—/. Schneesing 
 (Chiomusus), minister in Gothachsen, ob. 1567 ("Allein zu dir, Herr
 
 144 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A. D.) 
 
 Jesu Christ") ; Adam Reussner, a lawyer in Frankfurt, oh. 1574 ("Auf 
 dich hab ich gehoffet"); — John Mathesius, rector and deacon in Joa- 
 chimsthal (who also preached some sermons on Luther's life), oh. 1565 
 (the morning-hymn, "Aus meines Herzen's Grunde," also the sweet 
 evangelical cradle-hymn, "Nun schlaf mein liebes Kindelein"); — 
 Nicholas Hen-mann, the fiiend of Mathesius, and cantor in Joachims- 
 thal, ob. 1561 ("Die helle Sonn leucht jetzt herfür," "Hinunter ist 
 der Sonnenschein," "Wenn mein Stündlein vorhanden ist," etc.); — ■ 
 Erasmus Alherus, superintendent at Brandenburg, oh. 1553 ("Nun 
 freut euch, Gotteskinder all").— To these must be added Michael Weisse, 
 a German minister in Bohemia, the translator and author of the hymns 
 of the Bohemian Hussites (Of. § 42), oh. 1540 ("Christ ist erstanden 
 von der Marter alle," "Gottes Sohn ist kommen," "Christus der uns 
 selig macht"), above all, that precious funeral hymn, "Nun lasst uns 
 den Leib begraben," to which Luther added a verse. 
 
 In the next succeeding period, however (1560-1618), many without 
 a poet's call volunteered worthless religious rhymes. Even those 
 divinely gifted for the work were altogether too prolific, but still they 
 contributed a large number of genuine Church hymns, true to the 
 character of higher objectiveness, childlike simplicity, and true fitness 
 for general use. We may, of course, observe a transition to the subjec- 
 tive style of the following period, didactic matter is occasionally intro- 
 duced, and some hymns refer to special personal circumstances ; but 
 the idea of an objective faith still predominates. Among the sacred 
 poets of this period, the most noted are : Barth. Ringioalt, a preacher 
 in Mark Brandenburg, oh. 1597 (" Es ist gewisslich an der Zeit," etc.) ; 
 Nich. Selnecker, during his last years superintendent in Leipsic [ob. 
 1592). As a pupil of Melanchthon he was at first suspected of Crypto- 
 Calvinism, but after his participation in drawing up the Form of Con- 
 cord he became an object of bitter hatred and continued persecutions 
 to the Crypto-Calvinists. (He composed : " Ach bleib bei uns Herr 
 Jesu Christ"). Ludwig Helmbold, superintendent in Mühlhausen, ob. 
 1598 (" Von Gott will ich nicht lassen") ; — Martin Schalling, preacher 
 in Reo-ensburg and Nuremberg, oh. 1608 (" Herzlich lieb hab ich 
 ,jj(.h"j; — Caspar Bienemann (Melissander) superintendent in Alten- 
 buro-, ob. 1591 ("Herr, wie du Avilt so schicks mit mir"); — Martin 
 Moller, preacher in Görlitz, oh. 1606 (" Nimm von uns, Herr, du treuer 
 Qott") ; — Martin Böhme (B 'hemb) preacher in Lausitz, ob. 1621 ("Herr 
 Jesu Christ, meins Lebens Licht"); — Valerius Herherger, preacher in 
 Fraustadt, Poland, ob. 1627 (" Valet will ich dir geben," written during 
 a plague in 1613) ; — Philip Nicolai, preacher in Hamburg {ob. 1608), 
 whose soaring poetry, pervaded by a spirit of profound love, afiiliatea 
 it with the Canticles (" Wie schön leucht uns der Morgenstern," "Wa- 
 chet auf, ruft uns die Stimme"). (Cf. ^ 39, 3.) 
 
 4. Rsahnodg. (Cf. A. J. Rambach, Luther's Verd. um den K.-ges. 
 Hamb. 1813.— f. Mortimer d. Choralges. zur Zeit d. Ref. Berl. 1820,
 
 CONSTITUTION, ETC. OF LUTHERAN CHURCH. l-4i 
 
 4l().— X. Krmissold, d. altprnt,. Choral. Fürth, 1851.—^. E. Koch, 1. c. 
 J. JE. Häuser, Gesch. d. ehr. K.-ges. Lpz. 1834. — C. v. Winter/eld, 
 d. ev. K.-ges. Lpz. 1843, 2 Bde.) — Congregational singing, as incor- 
 porated by the Reformation in the worship of the Church, was substan- 
 tially a revival of the Ambrosian psalmody, in a purified and richer 
 form. It was distinguished, at the start, from the Gregorian style, by 
 being national and congregational, and not performed by a choir of 
 priests (although the name Chorahjesang was retained, and even be- 
 came the technical designation of the new style of singing), — further 
 by substituting for solo monotonous singing, in uniform loud notes of 
 equal value, a copious rhythm with lively modulations, — and, finally, 
 by the introduction of several parts instead of the original solo unison. 
 On the other hand, this choral music restored the ancient cantus firmus, 
 by abolishing the secular keys, the counterpointing and other artificial 
 oi-naments with which music had been garnished during the middle 
 ages. The cantus firmus (or air) was sung by the congregation, and 
 the singers in the choir (not the organ, which was used during the 
 Reformation period only to support and accompany the choir) accom- 
 panied the congregation in the several parts. The melody was set to 
 what was called tenor, because it led the parts. The tunes for the 
 new hymns were obtained in part, by modifying the old tunes of 
 Latin hymns and sequences, partly by employing national religious 
 airs of the middle ages, especially such as were preserved among the 
 Bohemian brethren, but mainly by appropriating without reserve the 
 rich treasure of song-tunes in popular use — many hymns being them- 
 selves parodies of secular songs. The few original tunes of this period 
 were composed mostly by the authors of the hymns, or at least by lay 
 musicians, and were the utterance of the same inspiration which pro- 
 duced the hymns ; hence they are rarely equalled by subsequent more 
 artistic compositions, in unction, spirit, and power. This is especially 
 true of Luther's melodies. The people were taught these tunes by 
 travelling musicians, singing processions of school-boys, and city cor- 
 netters. Those who arranged the music differed from vocalists or the 
 authors of the tunes, and, as the proper composers, wrote out the several 
 parts for public use, according to the laws of harmony. Especially 
 distinguished among these were the two intimate friends of Luther, 
 George Rhaw (cantor in Leipsic, afterwards a printer in Wittenberg) and 
 Hans Wcdflicr (conductor of the elector's band). Next to these we must 
 name : Lewis Senfl, Martiti Agricola, Sixt. Dieterich, John Kiigelmann, 
 Nich. Hermann, Hans Leo Hassler, and near the close of the century, 
 the four Hamburg organists, Jacob and Jerome Prätorivs (father and 
 Bon), David Scheidemann, and Joachim Decker, who, in 1(504, issued a 
 volume of eighty-eight new and admirably harmonized melodies. 
 The close of the 16th century was tlie most flourishing period of evan- 
 gelical psalmody. The groat composer, John Eccart (during iiis last 
 years organist in Berlin, oh. 1011), was most active in important 
 56
 
 146 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A.D.). 
 
 improvements in it. In order to give more prominence to the tune, it 
 was transferred from the tenor to the treble. The other parts were 
 idded as simple chords to the tune, and the organ (which had under- 
 gone the most important mechanical improvements), with its pure, rich, 
 copious harmony, was more generally used to support and accompany 
 the congregational singing. The distinction between singers and com- 
 posers, also, gradually disappeared, the more artistic parts of the sing- 
 ing were more intimately conformed to that of the congregation, and 
 the inventive talent, which produced an abundance of original tunes, 
 with suitable chords, increased from year to year. Next to Eccart, the 
 most noted masters of this new school are : Joachim v. Burgk, the teacher 
 and friend of Eccart, cantor in Mühlhausen [ob. 1596) ; Martin Zeuner ; 
 Melch. Vulpms, cantor in Weimar [ob. 1616) ; Michael Prätorius, con- 
 ductor of the elector's band [ob. 1621) ; John Stobäus, a pupil of Eccart, 
 leader of a band in Königsberg, who chiefly sang tunes to the hymns 
 of the Königsberg poets Thilo, Weissei, and Dach ; and, finally, those 
 who led in the tunes of their own hymns, Nich. Selnecker and Philip 
 Nicolai. (Cf. § 39, 4.) 
 
 5. Theology. (Cf. G. W. Meyer, Gesch. d. Schrifterkl. Bd. II. Göttg. 
 1803, and Fr. Siändlin, Gesch. d. theol. Wisch. Göttg. 1810, 2 Bde.— 
 W. Gass, Gesch. d. prot. Dogm. Bd. I. Berl. 1854.) — As the Reforma- 
 tion proceeded from the Word of God, and was based on it alone, that 
 Word claimed the chief and diligent study of its theology. John Förster 
 [ob. 1556) und John Ävenarius [ob. 1576), both of Wittenberg, published 
 Hebrew lexicons, the result of original investigations (not borrowed 
 from the Rabbins), and Matthew Flacius, in his Clavis Scripturfs sacras, 
 furnished a most valuable aid, for that period, in the study of the Bible. 
 The first part contains an explanation of Scripture terms and phrases 
 in alphabetical order ; the second an excellent outline of hermeneutics. 
 There Avere numerous exegetical Avorks ; among these Luther's are un- 
 surpassed, and, in their kind, unsurpassable. Next to him the most 
 prominent Lutheran exegetes of that period are, for the New Testament, 
 Melanchthoii, Victor Strigel (Hypomn. in omnes LI. N. T.), Flacius 
 (Glossa compendiaria in N. T.), Joachim Camerarius (Notationes in 
 N. T.), Martin Chemnitz (Harmonia IV. Evangg., subsequently con- 
 tinued by Polyc. T^eyser, and completed by John Gerhard) : for the Old 
 Testament, John Brenz, whose excellent commentary still possesses 
 great merit. Of less value are the numerous and comprehensive com- 
 mentaries on the 0. and N. T., by David Chyträus in Rostock. At thf3 
 head of the list of Lutheran theologians stands Melanchthon (Loci com- 
 munes, 1521). (Cf. Schwa7'Z, Mel.'s loci nach ihrer weitern Eutw., iu 
 the Studd. u. Kritt. 1857, II.) Martin Chemnitz, in his Locis theoL, 
 furnished an excellent commentary upon it, which is still regarded aa 
 one of the principal works on theology in the Lutheran Church ; and 
 his Examen Concilii Tridentini (1562) is not only a learned, profound, 
 and thorough refutation of Catholic doctrines, but is equally discreet,
 
 CONSTITUTION, ETC. OF LUTHERAN CHURCH. 147 
 
 kind, and moderate. Vict. Strigel and Nich. Selnecker, also, wrote 
 valuable text-books of theology. Controversy was actively maintained, 
 and was often conducted with great violence. In Church history, the 
 Magdeburg Centuries were produced by the colossal spirit of Matth. 
 Flacius. He had previously demonstrated, by his Catalogus testiu'm 
 veritatis, that the Church of Christ never lacked intelligent, pious, and 
 heroic defenders of the faith, to preserve unbroken the chain of histo- 
 rical connection between the primitive Apostolic Church, and the evan- 
 gelical Church of the IGth century. (Cf. § 38, 4.) 
 
 6. National Literature of Germany. — The Reformation occurred in a 
 period of the deepest decline of poetry and general literature in Ger- 
 many. But it awakened new creative energies id the secular and reli- 
 gious life of the nation. Luther's pioneer example opened the way for 
 the introduction of " a new all-conquering prose, as a form of utterance 
 for a new world-consciousness," which impelled Germans to think and 
 teach in German. Especially did the contact of spirits caused by re- 
 formatory movements call satire into being, in a blooming, vigorous, 
 and popular form and degree unknown to German literature before, 
 and not equalled since. Countless fugitive productions, of the most 
 diversified imagery and style, in verse and prose, in Latin and German, 
 written by Catholics and Protestants (those of the latter being vastly 
 more rich, vigorous, and witty), assailed or vindicated the Reformation, 
 with satire, ridicule, and contempt. (Cf. 0. Schade, Satyren u. Pasquille 
 aus d. Reformationszeit. Bd. 1. IL Hannover, 1856, etc.) Most promi- 
 nent among these well-nigh countless, and for the most part anonymous 
 satirical writers of the 16th century, are the Catholic Thos. Murner 
 [I 5, 2), the Reformed Nich. Manuel (| 10, 4), and the Lutheran John 
 FiscHART, who far excels the other two, and is unquestionably the 
 greatest satirist Germany ever produced. Like Seb. Brant and Murner, 
 he was a native of Strassburg, for some time was advocate at the im- 
 perial chamber, and died in 1589. His satiric vein first opened with 
 Church matters: " Der Nachtrabe und die Nebelkrähe" (against one 
 J. Rabe, who turned Catholic); "Der Barfiisser Secten-und Kutten- 
 etveit," and "Von St. Dominici und St. Francisci artlichem Leben" 
 (a satire upon the Franciscans and Dominicans) ; " Bienenkorb des h. 
 römischen Immenschwarms" (the best known of his productions); 
 "Das vicrhörnige Jesuitenhlitlein" (inverse, the most biting, witty, 
 and striking satire, ever written against the Jesuits). He next took hold 
 of secular subjects: "Aller Praktik Grossmutter ;" " Gargantua oder 
 affenthouerliche, naupengeheucrliche Geschichsklitterung ; " " Flöh- 
 hatz, Weibertratz," etc. Ilis Bee-hive may be regarded as an offset to 
 Murner's Lutheran fools, in spirit, wit, and cheerful, merry ridicule, 
 with a consciousness of triumph, but far surpasses that rough prt)duc- 
 tion, dealing such passionate blows as to endanger itself. (Cf. Vohnar, 
 in Ersch and Gruber's Encycl. I. Bd. 51.) — Among the secular poeta 
 of this century, Haiis Sachs [ob. 1576), a Nuremberg cobbler, holds the
 
 148 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A.D.). 
 
 first place. He was a genuine type of a Lutheran citizen, and althougt 
 as a minstrel scarcely of more repute than his associates in poetic jovial 
 tales, legends, and stories, he excelled by waggish simplicity, honest 
 cordiality, freshness, vivacity, and rapid delineation. He produced 208 
 comedies and tragedies, 1700 humorous pieces, and 4200 songs. As 
 early as 1523, he gave the Reformation a joyful greeting in his poem: 
 " Die Wittenbergisch Nachtigall ; " and did much to secure a welcome 
 for it among his fellow-citizens. 
 
 For 3Iis3inns among the Heathen little was done during this period, 
 and for obvious reasons. First of all, the Lutheran Church was too 
 much occupied with internal matters. It had neither the same call to 
 engage in the work, by which the Catholic Church was led to lay hold 
 of it through the political and commercial relations of its countries with 
 distant pagan lands, nor those means of doing so, which the monastic 
 orders afforded, etc. And yet we meet with beginnings of a Lutheran 
 mission even in this period ; for Gustavns Vasa of Sweden established 
 one (1559) among the neglected Laplanders. (Cf. | 39, 6.) 
 
 1 23. INTERNAL CHARACTER OF THE REFORMED 
 CHURCH. 
 
 Cf. M. Gobel u. Jul. Wiggers 11. cc. § 20.—/. P. Lange, die Eigenthlk. 
 d. ref. K. Zürich. 1841. — K. R. Hagenbach, d. ref. K. in Bezieh, auf 
 Verf. u. Cult. Schaf h. 1842. — K. Ulhnann, zur Charaktrst. d. ref. K., 
 in the Studd. u. Kritt. 1843. III. 
 
 As the birth-place of the Reformed Church was free Switzerland, 
 its constitution bears, to some extent, the impress of a democratic 
 character ; and as it strove to imitate the theocratic constitution 
 of the Old Testament, it felt justified in claiming for the Church 
 a decided voice in purely political matters. Instead of the Lu- 
 theran episcopacy under the chief civil magistrate (as summus 
 episcopus), it adopted a presbyterial constitution, with its eman- 
 cipation of individual congregations from the idea of a united 
 Church. The firm consolidation of all the Lutheran State Churches 
 'under one confession, is lacking in the Reformed Church ; for 
 the Church of each country adopted its own confession. The 
 ministers of the Church are only pj-eachers, even the name pastor 
 was avoided. Presbyteries exercised a more rigid external dis- 
 cipline. Civil and domestic life assumed a strictly legal, often a 
 gloomy rigorous character (especially in the Scotch Church and 
 among the 1^'nglish Puritans) ; but, along with this, developed a 
 wonderful degree of moral energy, which, however, too often 
 ran into extremes, and an unjustifiable application of Old Tes-
 
 INTERNAL CHARACTER OF REFORMED CHURCH, ]4S 
 
 tament principles and examples. In regard to its cultus, the 
 Reformed Church exhibits the extreme reverse of that of the 
 Catholic Church, with its abundant sensuous ceremonies. Zwingli 
 wislied to abolish the ringing of bells [during thunder-storms, 
 etc., for Huperstitious purposes — Tr.]; organ-playing, and sing- 
 ing in Churches [by priests, as was then the exclusive custom, 
 in the Romish Church — Tr.], and he approved of the removal 
 of altars [as used for crucifixes, etc., and for the sacrifice of 
 the mass — Tr.], and the destruction of images. The more 
 prudent Calvinists, even, would not tolerate altars [as used by 
 Romanists — Tr.]; crucifixes, images, candles, etc., in the 
 Churches, because they were thought absolutely incompatible 
 with the prohibitions of the decalogue. The Churches were 
 con-\^rted into naked prayer-halls and auditories, altars into 
 simple communion-tables ; kneeling was discarded as an outward 
 ceremony, in the Lord's Supper (at which the symbolical element 
 predominated, if it was not the only one) ; the breaking of bread 
 was introduced as essential, private confession was rejected, the 
 baptism of dying persons prohibited, and the liturgy changed 
 into simple spoken (not sung) prayers. In France, however, 
 the singing of Psalms was introduced, and their use spread from 
 France to other countries ; there were no proper hymns. The 
 number of festivals was reduced as much as possible, and only 
 the principal Christian festivals were tolerated. On the other 
 hand, Sunday was observed with well-nigh Old Testament strict- 
 ness. In regard to the exceptions to all this, in the theory and 
 practice of the Anglican Church, cf. § 19, 4. 
 
 1. The adoption of psalmody into the worship of the Reformed Church 
 was etfectcd especially by the otforts of John Zwick (a clergyman in 
 Constance, oh. 1542). In 1536, he puhlislied a small hymn-book, with 
 versions of some Psalms, adapted to Lutheran tunes. At Calvin's re- 
 quest, Clement Marot prepared versions of most of the Psalms, in the 
 measure of popular French songs and tunes. Th. Beza comjileted 
 them, and Calvin introduced this French Psalter into the Genevan 
 Churclies (1555). In 15G2, Claude Goudimel published 10 of tliese 
 P.salms, with music for four parts. (He was murdered in Lyons (1572), 
 in connection Avith the St. Bartholomew's massacre.) Ambrose Lob- 
 wasser, Prof, of Jurisprudence in Königsberg, in imitation of Marot, 
 prepared the Psalter in German (1573). Notwithstanding its total lack 
 of poetic merit, this Psalter was, for a long time, exclusively used in 
 the German churches. The few, and for the most part, unimportant 
 authors of hymns (the chief of whom were Zwick and Ambr. Blanker — 
 56*
 
 150 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A.D.). 
 
 who subsequently embraced Zwinglianism), failed to have them adopted 
 in the churches. The Reformed Church continued to denounce the use 
 of organs. (Cf. § 41, 1.) 
 
 2. Theological Studies flourished in the Reformed Church, also, espe- 
 cially in Basel and Geneva, in the French Church at the theol. semina- 
 ries in Montauban, Sedan, and Montpellier. Biblical studies were pro- 
 secuted with special interest. Sebastian Münster, then at Heidelberg, 
 afterwards at Basel, published a Hebrew lexicon as early as 1523. 
 Zurich theologians {Leo Juda, etc.), published Luther's translation of 
 the Bible, in the Swiss dialect, revised, however, according to the 
 original text. At the suggestion of the Waldenses, Robert Olivetanus 
 undertook the difficult task of a translation of the Holy Scriptures 
 into the French language, and with the assistance of eminent co- 
 workers completed it in less than ten years (1535). Th. Beza published 
 improved recension of the New Testament text, with a new Latin 
 version. Seb. Münster edited the Old Testament text, with an inde- 
 pendent Latin version. Leo Juda, in Zurich, an able linguist, also 
 undertook one. Seb. Castellio-, in Geneva, devoted himself to a trans- 
 lation of the Prophets and Apostles' writings in elegant Ciceronian 
 Latin. The ablest was the Latin version of the Old Testament, made 
 by Tinanuel Tremellius of Heidelberg, and his son-in-law Francis 
 Junius. The number of commentators, also, was large. Besides Cal- 
 vin, who excelled all the rest (^ 18, 5), distinguished exegetical con- 
 tributions were furnished by Zwingli [Annot. in Gen., Exod., Isaiam, 
 Jerem., Evangg. In hist. Dom. pass., Rom., Corinth., Philip., Colos., 
 Thessal., Jac, Hebr. 1 Joann. — Tr,], CEcolampadius [Conciones XXI. 
 in Ep. Joh. I., 1524; Comment, in Proph. Es., 11. V., Annot. in Ep, 
 ad Rom., 1525. — Tr.], Conr. Pellicanus [of Zurich, Comm. on the 0. 
 T., in which special use was made of the Rabbins, on Paul's Epp., and 
 the Cath. Epp.— Tr.], Th. Beza (Annot. on the N. T., 1527.— Tr.], 
 Francis Junius [prof, of theol. in Leyden. Praelect. in tria prima cap. 
 Gen. ; Exposit. Dan. ; Analys. Apocal. — Tr.], John Mercerus, and the 
 Frenchman Marlaratus. — As a theologian, also, Calvin indisputably 
 occupied the first place in the Reformed Church. In speculative 
 power, and a masterly use of his material, he excelled all his cotem- 
 poraries. Andrew Hyperius, of Marburg, held an honorable position 
 as a theologian, in the Reformed Church of Germany. But little was 
 done, during this period, in ecclesiastical history, by Reformed theo- 
 logians. Th. Beza, however, wrote an excellent history of the French 
 Church. Cf. I 40, 4. 
 
 3. The Genevan Church engaged in a Missionary enterprise as early 
 as 1557. A French adventurer, Villegagnon, submitted a plan to Ad- 
 miral Coligny for the colonization of persecuted Huguenots in Brazil, 
 who should found a mission among the native heathen. Sustained by
 
 CALVINISING OF GERMAN LUTHERAN CHURCHES. 151 
 
 Coligny, he sailed in 1555 with a number of Huguenot mechanics, and 
 established Fort Culiguy near Rio de Janeiro. At his request Calvin 
 sent out two Genevan clergymen (1557). The intolerable tyranny exer- 
 cised by Villegagnon over the defenceless colonists, their failure to effect 
 anything amongst the natives, together with their destitution and va- 
 rious sufferings, compelled them to return in 1558, on a very frail vessel. 
 It could not hold all, and many of those admitted perished of hunger 
 on the voyage. (Cf. § 41, 2.) 
 
 1 24. CALVINISING OF GERMAN LUTHERAN STATE 
 CHURCHES. 
 
 The crypto-Calvinistic controversies were conducted with so 
 much violence, that they frustrated the scheme of the Philippists 
 to effect an imperceptible transition of the entire Lutheran Church 
 to Calvinism ( § 21, 1) ; but they could not prevent several na- 
 tional Lutheran Churches in Germany from adoptin«:, or being 
 compelled to adopt, the Reformed Confession. The Palatinate 
 was the first to pass over ; its example was soon followed by 
 Bremen, Anhalt, and, at the commencement of the following 
 3entury, Hesse - Gassel, Lippe, and Electoral Brandenburg. — 
 (Cf. § 34, 1-3.) 
 
 1. The Palatinate (1560). (Cf. D. Seisen, Gesch. d. Ref in Heidelb. 
 Heidelb. 1846.— F. Blavl, d. Ref. Werk in d. Pfalz. Speier, 1846.)— 
 Tilemann HessJnis, a violent advocate of pure Lutheranism, had been 
 driven from Goslar and from Rostock, as a disturber of the peace. At 
 Melanchthon's recommendation, the Elector Otho Henry of the Palatinate 
 appointed him professor and general superintendent at Heidelberg 
 (1558). There he soon disputed with his deacon, William Kiebitz. 
 During a brief absence of Hesshus, Kiebitz, by vindicating Calvinistic 
 views of the Lord's Supper, secured his own promotion as baccalaureus. 
 Hesshus disciplined and suspended him. But Kiebitz would not leave. 
 The violence of both exceeded all bounds ; they even seized each other 
 by the hair at the altar. The new elector, Frederick III., drove off 
 both (1559), obtained Melanchthon's opinion on the subject, and joined 
 the Reformed Church (1500). He then appointed Calvinistic teachers 
 throughout his country, and directed two Heidelberg professors, Za- 
 charias Ursinms and Caspar Olevianus to prepare the Heidelberg Cate- 
 chism, for the use of the schools of the Palatinate. (In popular simpli- 
 city, power, and depth, it is far inferior to Luther's smaller catechism ; 
 but in other respects it is distinguished by its method of instruction, 
 theological skill, Christian fervor, and conciliatory mildness, and richly 
 merits the favor with which it has ever been received, not only by the 
 Reformed of Germany^ but of other countries. It avoids Calvin's doo
 
 152 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A. D.). 
 
 trinp of predestination, and makes the nearest possible approach to th« 
 Lutheran dogma concerning the Lord's Supper. The Catholic mass it 
 denounces as an accursed idolatry.) [Cf. Sudliojf, Olevianus u. Ursinus. 
 Elberf. 1857. — Van Alpen, Gesch. etc., d. Heid. Cat. The highest com- 
 mendation of the Heidelberg Catechism, as a systematic exhibition of 
 evangelical doctrines, is found in the fact that it was at once cordially 
 welcomed by all but Romanists and extreme Lutherans ; that it was 
 speedily translated into many different languages ; and that it is, vir- 
 tually, the doctrinal platform occupied at the present day, by the largest 
 portion of the Protestant Church, especially in regard to its moderate 
 Calvinistic and sacramental doctrines. — Tr.] The government of 
 Lewis VL (1576-83), a zealous friend of the Form. Concord., was of 
 too short duration fully to check the transition of the Palatinate to 
 Calvinism. The Elector John Casimir, whilst exercising the regency, 
 banished all the Lutheran preachers, and had his ward, Frederick IV., 
 educated in the strictest Calvinism. 
 
 2. Bremen (1562). (Cf. H. W. Rotermund, Gesch. d. Domkirche 
 zu Bremen. Brem., 1829.) — In Bremen, Albert Rizäus v. Hardenberg, 
 cathedral preacher, publicly assailed the 10th art. of the Augsb. Conf., 
 and became involved in a controversy respecting it with his colleague, 
 John Timann. All the clergy sustained Timann, but Hardenberg was 
 powerfully supported by the burgomaster Büren, and he was favored 
 by an opinion of Melanchthon (1557), counselling them to hush up the 
 matter. As he also refused to take oath in support of the Augsb. Conf., 
 the disturbance daily increased. Timann died in 1559. Hesshus, who 
 had been driven from Heidelberg, was called to take his place. He at 
 once put Hardenberg under the ban, and accused him before the League 
 of the cities of lower Saxony. It held a martial diet at Brunswick 
 (1561) which deposed Hardenberg, yet without depriving him of his 
 ofBce. He went to Oldenberg, and became preacher at Emden, where 
 he died in 1574. Hesshus, also, soon left Bremen ; and after having 
 been expelled from eight other posts, as an agitator, became prof, in 
 Helmstadt, where he died in 1588. His successor at Bremen, Simon 
 Musäeits, no less violent than himself, insisted upon the banishment 
 of all Hardenberg's adherents, and the council had actually consented 
 to this, when affairs took a sudden change. In spite of all opposition, 
 Büren was chosen chief burgomaster in 1562. Musäeus and 13 other 
 preachers were driven off, and even the Lutheran members of the 
 council had to leave the city. Foreign mediation effected a compromise, 
 however, in 1568, by which those who had been expelled were allowed 
 to return to the city, but not to resume their offices. All the churches 
 of Bremen, ths cathedral excepted, remained Reformed. 
 
 3. Anhalt (1597). (Cf. G. Schubring, Gesch. d. Einführ. d. ref Conf. 
 in Anh. Lpz. 1848.) — After the death of Prince Joachim Ernest, his 
 Bons founded four Anhalt lines (Dessau, Bernburg, Köthen, Zerbst). 
 John Georg« founder of the house of Anhalt-Dessau, reigned for hia
 
 CHARACTER OF THE DEFORMATION. 15? 
 
 minor brothers from 1587-1603. Subscription to the Form of Concord 
 had been previously declined, and in 1589 Calvinism began to be in 
 troduced into the country, by the abrogation of exorcism. This wag 
 followed by substituting a Reformed for the old Lutheran directory. Not 
 long afterwards, Luther's catechism was also laid aside, and in 1597 a 
 copy of 28 Calvinistic articles was laid before the clergy, which they 
 were required to subscribe on pain of banishment. The prime movers 
 in this were Caspar Pcucer (§ 21, 7), who had been expelled from Wit- 
 tenberg, and Wolfr/. Amimg, the superintendent at Zerbst. In 1644, 
 Anhalt-Zerbst was restored to the old confession by Prince JoJin, who 
 had been reared by his mother in the Lutheran faith. 
 
 II. THE TEFORMATION. 
 
 § 25. CHARACTER OF THE DEFORMATION. 
 
 Cf. ff. W. Erhkam, Gesch. d. protestant, Secten in Zeitalt. d. Ref. 
 Hamb., 1848. 
 
 That fanatics and ultraists of various grades would endeavor 
 to produce a sensation during a period of such agitation as cha- 
 racterized the Reformation, will be readily conceived ; but that 
 the Reformation itself is not chargeable with such excrescences, 
 is proven by the excluding opposition in which it ever stood to 
 those deformities. Both have, indeed, the same starting-point, 
 opposition to the degenerate churchisra of that period. But the 
 Reformation at once wholly renounced the Deformation, and 
 often even joined Catholicism in efforts to suppress it ; whereas 
 the Deformation vented its bitterest hatred upon the former. 
 The origin of the Deformation may be traced, on the one hand, 
 to the tendency of human nature, when once aroused to opposi- 
 tion, to run into radicalism, partly in the form of rationalism, 
 partly that of mysticism. If the Reformation recognizes the 
 Bible as the sole norm and rule of religious faith and practice, 
 and as the judge of tradition, deformatory raiiovoJism subjects 
 the Bible to the authority of the reason, and regulates revealed 
 truth by the demands of logical thinking. If the former opposes 
 the deification of the Church, the latter even disputes the divinity 
 of Christ. On the other hand, deformatory Mysticism carried 
 the evangelical demand for inward religious experience to the 
 extreme opposite of the externalizing formalism of the Romish
 
 154 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A.D.). 
 
 Church, and by the side of the inspiration of the Word of God 
 Bet up an assumed illumination by the Holy Spirit, as a higher 
 revelation, despised the sacraments, and aimed at forming a visi- 
 ble communion of saints. The denial of the doctrine of the 
 Trinity became the shibboleth of the former (Anti- TrinitaTians, 
 Unitarians), the rejection of infant baptism, that of the latter 
 (Anabaptists). It cannot seem surprising, however, that both 
 tendencies often commingled, since the so-called inner light is, 
 after all, nothing else than a fanatical excited reason. As a 
 third deformatory tendency, the liberalist, revolutionary, and 
 antinomian movements of this period might be named, the com- 
 mon character of which consists in the transfer of the Reforma- 
 tory demand for the freedom of the Christian from the spiritual 
 thraldom of the hierarchy, to political, civil, social, and moral 
 spheres. But these movements partly lacked independency, be- 
 ing merely offshoots of some other tendency, or they were so 
 speedily suppressed, that they were but of temporary import- 
 ance, and have already been noticed. (Cf. § 4, 2, 5 ; § 18, 3.) 
 
 As to the way in which Protestantism should dispose of heretics, 
 mediaeval principles still so far prevailed, that a Calvin could urge the 
 burning of a man who denied the Trinity, and even the mild Melanch- 
 thon approve of his execution (§ 28, 2). [Servetus perished at the stake, 
 not for denying the Trinity, but for the scandalous blasphemies he 
 uttered against the Godhead in this form, and for political machina- 
 tions. See Henry's Life of Calvin, and Calvin and Servetus, mainly 
 from the French of M. A. Rilliet, by W. K. Tweedie, Edinb. 1848.— Tr.] 
 But in both theory and practice the view prevailed that heretics should 
 not be forced, or punished with death, th'''"'s;h they might be impri- 
 soned to bring them to reflection, or prv,v"t , their doing harm, or be 
 banished. 
 
 I 26. MYSTICISM. 
 
 Cf. M. Carriere, d. philosoph. "Weltanschauung d. Reformationszeit. 
 
 Stuttg. 1847. 
 
 Beside the truly evangelical and churchly mysticism, which, as 
 a sincere apprehension of the Christian life, Luther ever highly 
 esteerned, and which the Lutheran Church never wholly excluded, 
 an unevangelical and unchurchly mysticism early manifested 
 itself in various forms. To the intoxicated fanaticism, and 
 tumultuous revolutionary agitations of the Anabaptists (§ 2*7), 
 ^ chvoenkf eld's mysticism presents a favorable contrast, di^tin-
 
 MYSTICISM. 155 
 
 guished by its theological moderation, and quiet efforts to extend 
 its influence. Agrippa and Paracelsus advocated a mysticisn? 
 constructed upon a basis of natural philosophy, and their phan- 
 tasies were adopted by Val. Weigel in his theosophy. Seb. Frank 
 derived nourishment for his pantheistic mysticism from the writ- 
 ings of Eccart and Tauler. Jordanus Bruno was rewarded with 
 the stake for his fanatical bacchanalian mysticism, supported by 
 the boldest pantheism ; whilst the Familists were united toge- 
 ther as members of a family, in the service of a deified love. — 
 (Cf. § 36, 1 ; 39, 2.) 
 
 1. Among the mystics of the age of the Reformation who were hos- 
 tile to the Church, Caspar Schwenkfeld of Ossigk, in Silesia, was 
 distinguished for his sincere piety. At first he ardently embraced the 
 Wittenberg Reformation ; in its progress, however, it wholly failed to 
 satisfy his spirit, which was exclusively bent upon an inward mystical 
 Christianity. In 1525 he personally met Luther in Wittenberg. The 
 friendly relation there maintained between them, notwithstanding 
 fundamental difi'erences in the tendency of their views, soon yielded 
 to open opposition on Schwenkfeld's part. In his dissatisfaction with 
 the Wittenberg Reformers, he even declared that he would rather join 
 the Papists than the Lutherans. As early as 1528, he was banished 
 from his native country, and commenced laboring in Swabia and along 
 the Rhine, in the face of constant opposition, against both the German 
 and Swiss Reformation, seeking quietly to carry on a reformation ac- 
 cording to his own views. He died in 1561, leaving behind a small 
 company of adherents. The party has perpetuated itself to the present 
 day. [A colony settled in Pennsylvania, N. A., in 1734. They have 5 
 churches and about 800 members. — Tr.] SchipenJcf eld's main dislike 
 of the Lutheran Reformation was its scriptural churchly objectiveness. 
 He called Luther's insistinfj; upon the unconditional authority of the 
 Word of God a bondage to the letter, and exalted the inner word of the 
 Spirit above the written Word of the Scriptures. He was wholly op- 
 posed to all outward church forms. He confounded justification with 
 sanctification, similarly with Oslander, and declared it to be an incar- 
 nation of Christ in the believer. Besides, be taught (Eutichianistically) 
 that Christ was born of God even according to tbe flesh, and that his 
 human nature was absorbed by the divine. He disapproved of infant 
 baptism, and aflirmed that a regenerated person might live without 
 sin. In the Lord's Supper he made everything rest upon the inner 
 operation of the spirit; the bread was merely a symbol of Christ as the 
 food of the soul (he considered Tov-to the predicate: My body is this, 
 BC. the bread of life). Ilis " Christlich orthodoxischon Bücher u. 
 Schriften," were published in 4 vols. (1564), by Hans Ossigh. 
 
 2. Agrippa of Nettesheim [oh. 1535), a man of extensive learning,
 
 156 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A.D.). 
 
 and an ostentatious dealer in mysteries, led a most unsettled, adven 
 turous life, was a politician and a soldier, taught medicine, theology^ 
 and law, with cutting satires flagellated the monks, who persecuted 
 him as a heretic, and developed his magniloquent wisdom in his de 
 occulta 2)hilosophi a. Of the same cast was the learned Swiss physician 
 Theophrastus Bomhastus Paracelsus ah Hohenheim {ob. 1541), a man 
 as genial and profound as he was fantastic and conceited, a man who 
 solved all the mysteries of the Godhead, as well as of things natural 
 and supernatural, and who affirmed that he had found the philosopher's 
 stone. (Cf. H. A. Preu, d. Theol. des Th. Parac. Berl. 1839.) They both 
 remained in the Catholic Church. Valentine Weigel was a Lutheran 
 preacher in Saxony, universally esteemed for his piety and edifying 
 labors [oh. 1588). His mystic theosophy, which led him to reject all 
 external Church forms, and to regard the doctrines of the Church as 
 merely an allegorical veil of deeper knowledge, first became fully 
 known by the publication of his works after his death. He had many 
 admirers among "the quiet in the land" until the present century. 
 
 3. Sebastian Frank at first devoted himself zealously to the cause of 
 the Reformation, but afterwards opposed it, denounced and ridiculed 
 all the theological views of his times, took refuge in a pantheistic, 
 dualistic mysticism, demanded unlimited religious liberty, defended 
 the Anabaptists against the intolerance of theologians, and died in 
 Ulm (1543), at enmity with all the world. He deserves great praise, 
 however, as the author of the first history of the world in the German 
 language. (Cf. H. Bischof, Seb. Fr. u. d. deutsche Geschichtschreibung. 
 Tübg. 1857.) — Giordano Bruno, a Dominican of Nola near Naples, 
 was a man of much more vigorous mind. His ridicule of the monks 
 and of ecclesiastical doctrines compelled him to flee to Geneva. Sub- 
 sequently he lived and taught in London, Paris, Wittenberg, and 
 Helmstädt, then returned to Italy, and was burned at Rome in 1600. 
 He never left the Catholic Church. 
 
 4. The Familists (familia charitatis) were a mystic sect founded in 
 England under Elizabeth, by Henry Nicolai of Münster, who was 
 previously associated with David Joris (§ 27, 1) ; the queen instituted 
 an investigation against them (1580). They difi"ered from the Anabap- 
 tists by indifferently allowing infant baptism. Nicolai professed to be 
 an apostle of love, by and through which the mystical deification of 
 man was to be effected. Although an illiterate man, he wrote several 
 works, and in one of them claimed to be " deified with God in the spirit 
 of his love." His adherents were accused of mystical licentiousness, 
 and he was said to teach that Christ was only a divine "condition," 
 which was communicated to all the pious. In a confession of faith and 
 m apology (1575), however, they acknowledge the three oecumenical 
 syralMds, and sought to prove their affinity to the evangelical Church. 
 James I. still speaks of the infamis Anabaptistarum secta, quaj familia 
 amoris vocatur. After that they disappear.
 
 ANABAPTISM. 157 
 
 § 27. ANABAPTISM. 
 
 Cf. /. A. Stark, Gesch. d. Taufe u. d. Taufgesinnten. Lps. 1789.— 
 J. Hast, 1. c. (g 24, 1) ; Erhkam, 1. c. (g 25). /. M. Cramp, Bap. Hist. Phila. 
 
 The Anabaptist movement, tlie operations of which, so far as 
 they immediately entered into the history of the Reformation, 
 were mentioned in § 4, 1, 3, 4, 5 ; § 10, 5 ; § 13, 16, everywhere 
 followed upon its heels, in Germany, Switzerland, the Nether- 
 lands, England, Sweden, Denmark, Livonia, etc. In spite of 
 numerous defeats, it pushed itself most audaciously forward, 
 when John of Leyden established his splendid kingdom in 
 Münster, and sent out his apostles into all the world, to gather 
 the people of God into the new Zion. But the unhappy issue 
 of this transient glory spoiled all its high hopes. Its scattered 
 remnants were everywhere imprisoned, banished, or executed. 
 Moreover, it was rent with internal factions. Two men, of a 
 wholly different character, labored indefatigably, from 1536, to 
 gather and reorganize these fragments ; they were David Joris 
 and Menno Simons. The latter, by adopting prudent measu^^^s 
 of reform, managed to perpetuate his party. 
 
 1. David Joris, a glass-painter of Delft, was a fanatic of the worst 
 stamp. AVith Anabaptist revelations, by which he claimed to be the 
 true Christ according to the Spirit, he combined sabellian, anti-trini 
 tarian, and antinomian doctrines. He travelled over Germany, disse- 
 minating his views by his writings, and orally. At last a reward was 
 offered for his apprehension. Assuming another name, he went to 
 Basel, and remained there undisturbed until his death (1550). When, 
 subsequently, his true name was discovered, the city authorities had 
 his body dug up and burned. 
 
 2. Menno Simons, a Catholic priest in Wittmarsum, Holstein, gave 
 himself to the diligent study of the Scriptures, and soon was troubled 
 with many doubts concerning Catholic doctrines. The martyr-like 
 courage of an Anabaptist directed his attention to that subject, and he 
 soon was induced to believe in the correctness of the views of the 
 Anabaptists. In 15.36 he resigned his priesthood, and was baptized. 
 With indescribable toils and untiring patience, he labored to reorganize 
 the sect. He drew up a distinct form of doctrine, related to that of the 
 Reformed Church, differing from it only in rejecting infant baptism, 
 and in an unqualified spiritualization of the idea of the Church as a 
 communion of such only as were true saints. He also forbade military 
 and civil service, and the oath, and in addition to baptism and the 
 Lord's Supper, introduced feet-washing (John 13). By means of a 
 
 5t
 
 158 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A. d; 
 
 rigid ecclesiastical discipline, he maintained a simple mode of living 
 and strict morality. The quiet, pious disposition of the Meanoaites, 
 soon secured religious toleration for them in Holland ; afterwards, also, 
 in Germany and England. Menno died in 1561. Even during his life 
 his sect in Holland divided into two parties, the j?«e and the coarse, the 
 latter disregarding Menno's severe discipline. (Cf. I 42, 1.) 
 
 I 28. ANTI-TRINITARIANS AND UNITARIANS. 
 
 Cf. F. Trechsel, d. prot. Antitrin. vor Faust. Socin. Heidelb. 1839 
 44. 2 Bde.— 0. Fock, d. Socinianism. Kiel, 1847. 2 Bde. 
 
 The first opponents of the doctrine of the Trinity were German 
 Anabaptists (John Campanus, Lewis Hetzer, and John Denck). 
 The Spaniard, Michael Servetus, reduced his Unitarianism to 
 organic connection with a complete pantheistic, philosophical 
 system. But Italy was the proper home of the rationalistic de- 
 nial of the doctrine ; it was the fruit of the half pagan humanism 
 which flourished there. Its advocates, compelled to flee, took 
 refuge in Switzerland, but being persecuted there,- and banished, 
 they went to Poland, Hungary, and Transylvania, where princes 
 or nobles protected them. The several scattered Unitarians 
 were furnished with a complete doctrinal system by the two 
 Sozinni {^uncle and nephew), and thus, also, secured an eccle- 
 siastical organization. 
 
 1. Fanatical Anabaptist Anti- Trinitarians. — The most notable of 
 these are: (1.) John Denck, of the Upper Palatinate. In 1524, he be- 
 came rector in Nuremberg ; after that he wandered about until QGco- 
 lampadius gave him shelter in Basel, where he died of the plague in 
 1528. He rejected the written Word and infant bastism, resolved the 
 doctrine of the Trinity into a pantheistic speculation, and taught an 
 apocatastasis, but recanted shortly before his death. (2.) Lewis Hetzer, 
 of Switzerland, was a priest in Zurich, and at first a zealous adherent 
 and fellow-laborer of Zwingli. Subsequently he was converted by 
 Denck, joined the Anabaptists, published (even before Luther) a Ger- 
 man translation of the Prophets, and by means of hymns spread his 
 monarchianistic views, until he was beheaded for polygamy at Con- 
 stance in 1529. (Cf. Kaim, L. Hetzer. In the Jahrbb. für deutsche 
 Theol., by Dnrner u. Liehner, I. 2.) (3.) John Campanus of Jülich. 
 Driven from Cologne, where he studied, he went to Wittenberg (1528), 
 accompanied the Reformers to Marburg, where be endeavored to har- 
 monize the disputants by interpreting: This i« my body, to mean: 
 This is a body made by me. Returning to Witienberg, he began to 
 circulate Anabaptist and Arian views, and to vilify the Reformers in 
 bis preaching and writings (" Wider die ganze Welt nach den Apos-
 
 ANTI-TRINITARIANS AND LNITARIANS. 159 
 
 tcln " "Göttlicher u. heiliger Schrift Restitution u. Besserung"), he 
 was cxjielled from Saxony (1532). Imprisoned for preaching Chiliastic 
 sermons, he died, after twenty years' confinement, in Cleve, (1574). 
 
 2. Michael Servetus, of Spain, was a man endowed with speculative 
 talents, but of restive mind. Driven from Spain, he wandered about 
 through France and Switzerland. Luckily escaping the stake in 
 Yionue (though burnt in effigy), he was imprisoned in Geneva (1553), 
 at Calvin's instigation, and having refused to recant, was burnt there 
 as a disturber of the peace and a blasphemer. [Cf. § 25, 1. — Tr.] His 
 pantheistic monarchianism was fully developed in his works: de trini- 
 tatis erroribus LI. VII., and Dialogorum de trinitate LI. II, He taught 
 that the Logos was an emanation of the divine light, which became 
 personal at the incarnation. The grosser materials of his body he 
 received from his mother, the substance of the divine light taking the 
 place of the male seed. By both he is God o^oovoioj, for even the 
 earthly matter of his body is only a grosser form of the primal light. 
 The Holy Spirit, from which the Logos diifered in being a more corpo- 
 real manifestation of God, was the soul of Christ. Servetus also denied 
 original sin, controverted justification by faith, disapproved of infant 
 baptism, advocated a spiritualistic view of the Lord's Supper, and 
 cherished Chiliastic expectations. (Cf. L. Mosheim, ünparth. Ketzer- 
 gesch. Bd. II. Helmst. 1750. Trechsel, 1. c. Bd. I. Heberle, Servet's 
 Trinitätsl. u. Christol., in the Tübg. Ztschr. 1840. II.) 
 
 3. Italian Unitarians before Socinus. — The most noted are: (1.) 
 Claudius of Savoy. In 1534, in Berne, he contended that Christ should 
 be called God only because the fulness of the divine Spirit was com- 
 municated to him. Driven thence, and soon afterwards from Basel 
 also, he went to Wittenberg, where he was likewise badly received. 
 In 1537 he recanted at a synod in Lausanne. Then he went to Augs- 
 burg, and operated as a popular agitator. In 1550 he still appeai'ed 
 as a prophet in Memmingen. After that, we lose sight of him. (2.) 
 Valentine Gentilis, of Calabria, driven from Berne, went to Poland 
 (1552). In 1556, having ventured back to Berne, he was beheaded. 
 (3.) George Blandrata, a physician of Saluzzo, in Piedmont, fled from 
 his native country to Switzerland, and thence to Poland. In 1553 he 
 was appointed private physician to the prince, in Transylvania. There 
 he spread anti-trinitarian doctrines, and was murdered (1590) by his 
 nephew, whose avarice could not wait for his death. 
 
 To the Italian infidelity of this period probably belongs, also, the 
 authorship of the book de trihus impostorihus (Moses, Jesus, Moham- 
 med), even though the conception is mediaeval (Vol. I., ^ 96, 8). The 
 work is first mentioned in the 16th cent. (Editions by Gentlie, Lpz., 
 1833 ; Weller, Lpz. 1846 ; Rosenkranz, d. Zweifel am Glauben, Kritik 
 d. Schrift de trib. impost. Halle, 1830). Of similar tendency is the 
 work of the French jurist Jean Bodin [oh. 1597) : Heptaplomeres, a 
 dialogue upon Religion between seven learned free-thinkers of Venice,
 
 160 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A. B.j. 
 
 in -which all positive religions are set forth as possessing the same 
 merits and defects. Ideal deism is commended, however, as the true 
 religion. Edidit L. Noack. Schwerin. 1857. (Cf. G. E. Guhrauer, 
 d. Heptapl. v. J. Bodin. Berl. 1844.) 
 
 4. Lcelius Socmus, sprung from a celebrated family of jurists in 
 Siena, himself a jurist, was early led to the conviction that Romish 
 theology did not accord with the Bible. To acquire more certain know- 
 ledge of the matter, he learned the original languages of the Scriptures ; 
 on a journey he became acquainted with the most prominent theologians 
 of Switzerland, Germany, and Poland ; and constructed a complete, 
 consistent system of Unitarianism. He died in Zurich (1562), and hi? 
 nephew Faustus Socimis, whom he had indoctrinated into his own 
 views, set himself about forming a Unitarian society from the anti- 
 Trinitarians of Transylvania, who were in a very distracted state. His 
 untiring efforts were successful. Rakov became the chief seat of 
 Socinians, and the Eakovian Catechism (1602) their confession of faith. 
 Faustus died (1604), and soon after his death the Socinian congrega- 
 tions in Poland and Transylvania flourished beyond all expectation. 
 Learned men, like John Crell, Schlichting, Wolzogen, Wissowatius, etc., 
 advocated and defended Socinianism in numerous works. This pros- 
 perity lasted a half century. But in consequence of a premeditated 
 insult offered to the crucifix by some Rakov students, their church in 
 that place was closed (1638), and their flourishing school broken up ; 
 and in 1658 they were excluded, in Poland, from the Religious Peace, 
 and ordered to leave the country. In Transylvania, however, some 
 Socinian congregations are still found at the present day. 
 
 The Socinian System is, substantially, the following : The Bible is 
 the sole source of our knowledge of the plan of salvation, but it con- 
 tains nothing contrary to reason. The doctrine of the Trinity conflicts 
 with the Bible and with reason ; God is only one person. Jesus was a 
 mere man, who, however, was endowed with divine power to accom- 
 plish man's salvation, and was rewarded for his perfect obedience by 
 being exalted to divine majesty, and invested with authority to judge 
 the quick and the dead ; hence divine honors are due him. The Holy 
 Spirit is only a power of God. Man's original likeness to God con- 
 sisted in his dominion over all creatures. Man was mortal by nature, 
 though if he had not sinned, God might, by a supernatural operation, 
 have caused him to pass into eternal life without first dying. There is 
 no original sin, but original evil, and a hereditary inclination to sin, 
 which, however, involves no personal culpability. God's foreknowledge 
 of human actions must be disclaimed, because it would lead to the doc- 
 trine of absolute predestination. Redemption consists in Christ's 
 having, by his doctrine and life, pointed out the way of moral improve- 
 ment. God bestows upon all who choose this way the pardon of sin and 
 eternal life. The death of Christ was not an atonement, but simply 
 sealed his doctrine, and opened to him the way to divine nonors. Con-
 
 RENOVATION OF THE CATHOLID CHURCH. 161 
 
 version must be begun by personal efiFort, but it cannot be completed 
 without the aid of the Holj Spirit. The sacraments are mere ceremo- 
 nies, which might be dispensed with, though it is better to retain them 
 as ancient and beautiful customs, etc. 
 
 III. THE COUNTER-REFORMATION. 
 
 I 29. EFFORTS TO STRENGTHEN AND RENOVATE THE 
 CATHOLIC CHURCH.'' 
 
 The exertions of the Catholic Church to confine the triumphs 
 of the Reformation to the narrowest possible limits, and to con- 
 quer as much as possible of their lost territory, are so promi- 
 nent, so absorbing, and predominant, that we may exhibit its 
 whole history during this period under the aspect of a counter- 
 reformation. These efforts aimed partly at strengthening and 
 reviving the Church inwardly, partly at securing its outrvard 
 extension and increase — and this both by missions among the 
 heathen, and by a violent suppression of Protestantism. The 
 Council of Trent was designed to inclose mediaeval, scholastic 
 Catliolicism with a brazen wall, which should forever secure it 
 against reformatory measures, whilst, at the same time, manj 
 abuses were either corrected or curtailed. The old degenerate 
 monastic orders, once so mighty a support of the papacy, were 
 unable to resist the violence of the Reformation. A new order 
 took their place, the Jesuits, which propped up the tottering 
 hierarchy for some centuries, and sought in every way to hinder 
 the spread of the Reformation. There also arose a number of 
 other orders, partly new, partly reformed, mostly having a prac- 
 tical Christian tendency, none of which acquired the importance 
 of the Jesuits, or even of many earlier orders, but which labored 
 all the more beneficially in narrower spheres. Conflicts and 
 rivalry with Protestantism likewise excited theological science to 
 fresh and more profitable activity. 
 
 1. T/>e Council and tJie Popes. — (Cf. /. /. Eamhacli, Gesch. d. röm. 
 Pp. seit d. Ref. Magd. 1779, 2 Bde. Aio.—L.ßanke, d. röm. P., ihre K. 
 u. ihr Staat, 3 A. Berl. 1844. — Pao?o Sarpi (Petro Soave Solano), 
 Istoria del cone. Trident., ed. M. A. de Dominis. Lond. 1G19. Fol. 
 In French, by P. Fr. le Courayer, with valuable notes. Lond. 1736. 
 ? vols. fol. German, by F. E. Ramhach, Halle, 1701, 6 vols. Contra: 
 57*
 
 162 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A.D.). 
 
 Sforza PaUavicino, 1st. del cone, di Trento. Rom. 1656.— -C. A. Salig 
 TOllst. Hist. d. trid. Cone. Halle, 1741, 3 Bd. 4to. — /. H. t,. Wessenherg^ 
 d. gr. K.-verfass d. 15. u. 16. Jahrh. Konst. 1844. Bd. III. lY. — E. 
 Köllner, Symbolik. Hamb. 1844. Bd. II.) — Pope Paul III., at the 
 earnest and .repeated solicitations of princes and people, opened the 
 general Council of Trent in 15.37. Its continuance, however, in a Ger^ 
 man city, seemed to him unadvisable, in view of the emperor's power 
 and influence. On pretence of avoiding the plague, therefore, he re- 
 moved it to Bologne in 1547, and in 1549 wholly dissolved it. Julius 
 III. was constrained' to reopen it (1551) in Trent, but the terror which 
 preceded the army of Maurice scattered it so early as 1552. (Cf. I 14, 
 1 ; 15, 10 ; 16. 4, 8 ; 17, 2.) It was not reopened again until Pius IV. 
 (1559-65) convoked it in January, 1562, at Trent, where it adjourned 
 after the 25th solemn plenary session in December, 1563. Some 
 French and Spanish bishops plead for a thorough reformation, but 
 they were voted down. Of 255 persons who participated in its busi- 
 ness, more than two-thirds were Italians. The papal legates had un- 
 limited sway, and it was an open secret that the Holy Spirit had 
 been brought from Rome to Trent in a portmanteau. In the doctrinal 
 decrees, mediaeval dogmas were confirmed (only shunning points of 
 diversity between the Franciscans and Dominicans), all Protestant 
 departures therefrom condemned. The decrees touching a reformation 
 ordered various improvements, so far as they could be introduced with- 
 out infraction upon hierarchical interests. Pius IV. confirmed all the 
 decrees, but strictly forbade, on pain of the ban, all explanations and 
 expositions of them, as all such belonged solely to the apostolic chair. 
 Greqorii XIII. (1572-85) completed the Reformed Calendar {1582) or- 
 dered by the Council of Trent. The Gregorian Calendar, which obvi- 
 ated the diversity between the civil and solar year by suppressing ten 
 days in the civil calendar, was received with opposition even by the 
 Catholic States. The Evangelical States of Germany did not accept it 
 until 1700, and it was not introduced into England until 1752. Russia, 
 and the entire Greek Church, still retains the old Julian Calendar 
 Among the succeeding popes, Sixtns V. (1585-90), who rose, from be- 
 ing a shepherd's boy (Felix Peretti), through all the grades of the 
 hierarachy (Cardinal Montalto) to the papacy, distinguished himself 
 by his vigorous reign and far-reaching plans.'''' 
 
 Addend. About the close of this century arose the celebrated pro- 
 phecy, ascribed to St. Malachi, archb. of Armagh [ob. 1148), which 
 describes the popes. 111 in all, from Coclestin II. (1143) to Sixtus V. 
 (1590), in brief sketches, which, though spiritless, are very accurate, 
 and mainly derived from the papal coats of arms. The succeeding popes, 
 to the last (who is represented as guarding the Church amid great tri- 
 bulations, and as surviving the downfiill of the city of seven hills, and 
 the coming of the day of judgment), are characterized by similar deli- 
 neations, for the most part, however, indefinite and inapposite, though
 
 RENOVATION OF THE C&.THOLIC CHURCn. 163 
 
 in a few cases remarkably striking (ex. gr. Pius VI. : peregrinus apo» 
 tolicus, I 44, 8, 9 ; Pius IX. : crux de cruce, ^ 57, 1). There are to bo 
 ßtill eleven popes. — The real author of this prophecy is most probably 
 the Benedictine Wio7i, in whose Lignum vitoe (1595), it was first made 
 known. He probably aserilied it to St. Malachi, because St. Barnard, 
 Malachi's friend and biographer, praises his gift of prophecy, or be- 
 cause he bears the name of the last prophet of the Old Testament. The 
 aim of the prophecy was apologetic, by showing, in opposition to Pro- 
 testantism, that the Papacy would maintain the Church to the coming 
 of Christ. The author may possilily, also, have desired to influence 
 the choice of the conclave of 1590, by directing special attention to 
 that cardinal, as divinely indicated, whom he wished to see elected. 
 (Cf. H. Weingarten, in the theol. Studd. u. Kritt, 1857. III.) 
 
 2. The Society of Jesiis (1540). — (Cf. Ribadaneira, Vita Ign. Loy. 
 Neap. 1572. — /. G. v. Gumpach, Ign. Loy. u. s. Gefährten. Darmst. 
 1845. — Hospiniani hist. Jesuitar. Zürich, 1619, fol. — /. C. Uarenherg, 
 pragm. Gesch. d. Ord. d. Jes. Halle, 1760, 2 Bde., 4to. {Adefunr/) Verf. 
 e. neuen Gesch. d. Jesuitenord. Berl. 1769, 2 Bde. — P. P. Wolf, allg. 
 Gesch. d. Jes. 2. A. Lpz. 1803, 4 Bde.— i^. Kortllm, d. Entsth.-Gesch. d. 
 Jes. Ord. Mannheim, 1843.— S. Siigenlieim, Gesch. d. Jes. in Deutschl. 
 Frkf. 1842, 2 Bde.— G'. Miiis, d. Jes. Gesch. d. Grand., Ausbr. u. Entw. 
 Lpz. 1845. — Catholic authors: J. B. Leu, Beitr. zur Würdigung d. 
 Jesuitenord. nebst. e. Gesch. d. Ord. v. /. A. Möhler, Luzern, 1840. — 
 /. Cretineai(x-Johj, Gesch. d. Gesellsch. Jesu. From the French. Wien, 
 1845, etc., b^^e. — F.J. Buss, d. Gesellsch. Jesu. Mainz (1853.) — 
 Ignatius of Loyola, descended from a notable family of Spanish 
 knights, was severely wounded at the siege of Pampelona by the 
 French. During his long and painful confinement he amused himself 
 by reading romances of knight-errantry, and, after completing those, 
 saints' legends. The latter made a deep impression upon him, and 
 kindled in his breast a burning desire to imitate the saints in their 
 renunciation of and victory over the world. Religious ecstacies and 
 apparitions of the queen of heaven, invested this tendency with a celes- 
 tial sanction. After his convalescence he gave all his possessions to 
 the poor, and assuming the garb of a mendicant, practised the severest 
 asceticism. At the age of 33 years he joined a class of boys, and 
 studied the elements of Latin (1524), then philosophy at Complu- 
 tum, and theology at Paris. With an iron will he surmounted all 
 hindrances. In Paris, six men of like mind associated themselves with 
 him : Peter Faher (Le Ffevre) of Savoy, (then already a priest), Francis 
 Xavier, of a family of Spanish grandees, James JMinez, a Castilian, 
 Simon Rodriguez, a Portuguese, Alfonso Salmeron, and Alfonso Boba- 
 dilla, both Spaniards. With glowiwg zeal they prepared a plan for a 
 new order, bound themselves by a solemn oath to entire poverty and 
 chastity, and to serve the Catholic faith in accordance with the pleasure 
 of the pope (1534). They completed their studies under the most rigid
 
 164 SECTION III FIRST PERIOD (c E N T. 16 A.I).). 
 
 asceticism, anu were consecrated priests. Then they went to Eome, 
 and after some hesitation Paul III. confirmed their association as the 
 Order of the Society of Jesus (1540). Ignatius was chosen their first 
 general. In this capacity, also, he continued, with energetic power of 
 will, to devote himself to religious discipline, the service of the sick, 
 and the care of souls. It was not until after his death (1556) that the 
 Order acquired great historical importance, under his successors, the 
 skillful Lainez and vigorous Francis Borgia (a Spanish grandee), who 
 far surpassed him in intellect, sagacity, and their far-reaching mea- 
 sures. The popes, also, bestowed a number of privileges upon the 
 Order, and it rapidly grew in power and energy. 
 
 Subject and responsible only to the pope, exempted from all other 
 jurisdiction, the Order constituted a close organization, with the most 
 perfect unity of membership ever possessed by any of the large societies 
 of any age. The circle nearest the general, who resided in Rome, con- 
 sisted of the Professi, the choicest members of the Order. The chief 
 officers of the Order (procurators, superiors, and rectors), were selected 
 from their number. In addition to the three usual monastic vows, they 
 took ^fourth, by which they bound themselves to unconditional obe- 
 dience to the pope. They were supported in their houses by charity. 
 The coadjtitors formed the second grade, who were either ecclesiastics, 
 having charge of the course of studies, of instruction, and of spiritual 
 matters, or seculars, who attended to all other interests. That these 
 might follow their vocation without hindrance, they were excused from 
 the fourth vow, and also from that of living by alms. The scholastics 
 formed the third class, and the novices the fourth, who became scholas- 
 tics, as soon as they had »passed through their studies and ascetic exer- 
 cises. Only such as enjoyed good bodily health, and were talented, 
 were admitted to the novitiate. The general had monarchial authority, 
 but, as a restraint upon violations of the rules of the Order, he was 
 under the supervision of five assistants. Everything otherwise dear 
 and sacred tl) man was sacrificed to the interests of the Order, and un- 
 conditional submission to its superiors. Country, friends, personal in- 
 clinations and aversions, even private opinions and the conscience, were 
 to ]>e as nothing, the Order everything. No government ever better 
 understood each member's talents, or where to place him, and how to 
 use him for its own ends ; and none ever devised and employed so 
 thorough and universal a system of mutual espionage. The Order 
 made all conceivable means, science, learning, art, cultivation, politics, 
 even commerce and trade, subservient to its purposes. It seized the 
 management of the education of youth of the higher classes of society, 
 and thus trained devoted and powerful friends ; by preaching and pri- 
 vate counsel, it operated upon the people, and in the confessional secured 
 control over princes, and penetrated into all the relationships of life, 
 and ol)tained possession of all secrets. And all these thousands of 
 iieans, these eminent powers and talents, were united under one will,
 
 RENOVATION OF THE CATHOLIC CH U.ICH. 165 
 
 served one purpose : positively, the furtherance of Catholicism, nega- 
 tively, the suppression of Protestantism. Assuredly, the fact that 
 Protestantism was not wholly vanquished by this stupendous agency, 
 proves incontrovertibly, that it was animated by a higher than human 
 spirit. 
 
 A system of casuistry threatening all morality was involved in the 
 fundamental principle of all the efforts of the Order, and was not 
 merely suggested by the private opinion of some inconsiderate moralists ; 
 and this does not require us to deny that the Order had, at all times, 
 many members eminent for piety and strict morality. Primarily, and 
 in a general way, the ethics of the Order showed a most decided ten- 
 dency to Pelagianism, and the most distinctly avowed opposition to 
 Augustinianism. But Jesuit ethics became especially notorious for 
 the following principles : (1.) The end sanctifies the means. (2.) An 
 action is justifiable, or at least excusable, when there is a probability 
 of its goodness, or when approved by some respectaVjle theologian (pro- 
 babilismus). (3.) Mental reservations are allowable in making oaths or 
 promises, the person so obligating himself being bound only by his 
 intention. (4.) Philosophically, every violation of a divine command- 
 ment is a sin ; theologically, only such violations as are perpetrated 
 with full consciousness of the wrong, and a set purpose to break God's 
 law. The most celebrated Jesuit moralists who contended for these 
 principles were : Francis Toletus [oh. 1596), Gabriel Vasquez {ob. 1604), 
 Thomas Sanchez (o6. 1610), Francis Sqnarez [ob. 1617), Herrn. Busen- 
 bäum [ob. 1669). In politics, the Order for the benefit of the papacy 
 maintained the principle of the sovereignty of the people. Only the 
 pope derives his authority from God (Matth.*16: 18, etc.), that of 
 princes is derived from the people. Hence, if a king becomes a tyrant 
 or a heretic, the people may depose him ; or, if he refuses to submit to 
 this, kill liiin. Thus Bellarmine (de potestate pontificis in temporali- 
 bus), and still more openly and decidedly, Mariana, in the work ascribed 
 to him, de rege et regis institutione LI. III. (Tolet. 1598, 4to.) — In the 
 nature of the case, the operations of the Order in their heathen mis- 
 sions, were of a less exceptionable character (| 30). (Cf. | 44, 7.)'^' 
 
 3. Neio Orders for Inner Missions. — To these belong: (1.) The 
 Theatines. They originated in an association of pious clergymen of 
 Thiene or Theate, formed by Gceiano da Thiene, with the advice of 
 Bishop John Peler Caraffa of Theate (afterwards Pope Paul IV.) In 
 1524 they were confirmed as Clerici reguläres. They desired to depend 
 for support, not upon begging, but upon divine providence furnishing 
 them with means not solicited from any person, and acquired importr 
 ance as a nursery for the higher clergy. Their regulations required 
 them, moreover, to operate upon the people by frequent preacliing, to 
 give temporal and spiritual aid to the sick, to labor for the salvation 
 of criminals, and oppose the rise of heresies. (2.) The Barnabites, 
 likewise an association of regular clergy, founded by Antonio Mwna
 
 166 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A.D.). 
 
 ZaccaHa, in Milan, confirmed by Clement VII, (1532). They obligated 
 themselves to devote their whole life to vi^orks of mercy, the care of 
 eouls, the instruction of youth, preaching, confession, and missions. 
 Their great patron was St. Bor'>-omeo, Archb. of Milan. They derived 
 their name from the Church of St. Barnabas, which was assigned to 
 their use. The Society of Angelicas, founded by Louisa Torelli, Coun- 
 tess Guastalla (a wealthy lady, who had been twice widowed by the 
 25th year of her age), was attached to the Barnabites, and confirmed 
 by Paul III. (1534). At first they accompanied the Barnabites on their 
 missions, and labored for the conversion of women. But subsequently 
 they were required to remain in a convent. Each member adds the 
 name of the Order, Angelica, to her own, to be admonished thereby to 
 be pure as the angels. (3.) Brothers of Mercy (1550), a society for the 
 care of the sick, irrespective of their religion, founded by the friends 
 of a poor, but excellent Portuguese, whom his bishop honored with the 
 name John de Dio. (4.) The ürsulines, founded by a pious young wo- 
 man, Angela of Brescia, for the succor of all classes of suiferers, but 
 especially for the education of young women (1537). (5.) Priests of 
 the Oratory, or Order of the Holy Trinity, founded by St. Philip de Neri 
 of Florence (1548). They united works of mercy with devotional exer- 
 cises and biblical studies, attended to in the Oratory of a hospital 
 erected by them. A branch, or rather imitation of this society, arose 
 in France (1611), under the name of Fathers of the Oratory of Jesus. 
 (Cf. I 35, 2.) 
 
 4. Reformation of the Old Orders. — (1.) An independent divis- 
 ion of the Franciscans was affected by the Capuchins, whose fouunder, 
 Mattheio de Bassi, was a monk in the monastery of the Observantes at 
 Montefalco, in the duchy of Urbino. Having incidentally discovered that 
 St. Francis wore a cloak with a long pointed cowl, and, soon after, having 
 had a vision of the saint in such a garb, he fled from his monastery, 
 went to Rome, and besought the pope to allow him to restore the cowl 
 (1525). His request was granted, and thus he formed a new congrega- 
 tion of the Hermits of the Minorite Brethren. The unusual dress at- 
 tracted universal attention. Whenever one of the brethren appeared 
 on the street, boys ran after him crying : Capucino. They adopted the 
 name as that of their Order. Their self-denying philanthropy during a 
 plague in Italy won general esteem for the Order, so that in a short 
 time it spread over all Italy. The conversion of its third vicar-general, 
 Bernliard Ochino, to the Reformed faith, brought it, however, into bad 
 repute for a time. The mem])crs were characterized by a total want 
 of scientific training, which often sank into low rudeness. (2.) Theresa, 
 the daughter of a Spanish grandee, effected a reformation of the Car- 
 melites (1562). Tlic revived Order (monks and nuns) assumed the name 
 of Barefooted Carmelites, and was devoted to the instruction of youth, 
 and to works of mercy. In the reorganization of the male Carmelites 
 ehe was assisted by the acute and pious mystic JoJm of the Cross. 
 (3.) A reformation of the Cistercians was finally effected by Jean de la
 
 RENOVATION OF THE CATHOLIC CnVRCH. 167 
 
 Barriere, abbot of the monastery of Feuillans, whence the congregation 
 acquired the name of Feuillanles (Fuliensians). The manner of life 
 he introduced was so rigid, that fourteen members died under it in the 
 course of a few years; this led to a moderation of their rule (1595). 
 Henry III. called its founder to Paris to establish a monastery there. 
 lie remained true to the king, even after he had renounced the league, 
 and thus incurred the hatred of the ftinatically Catholic brethren of 
 his Order, so that, in 1592, they deposed and banished him. A subse- 
 quent committee of investigation under Cardinal Baronius, however, 
 pronounced him innocent. 
 
 5. The Strvggle against Atigustinia7iis7n. — The Council of Trent had * 
 prudently guarded against giving a decision in the old dispute between 
 the Thomists and Scotists, concerning grace. The Jesuits now joined 
 the Scotists. Michael Baius, the learned and pious professor at Lou- 
 vain, and his colleague John Hessels, defended the Augustinian doc- 
 trine ; but the Franciscans gathered 76 propositions from the writings 
 of Baius, Avhich, through the aid of the Jesuits, they induced Pius V. 
 to condemn (1567). Baius had to abjure them. The controversy was 
 renewed in 1588, when the Jesuit Louis Molina, in Portugal, published 
 some semi-pelagian views upon the doctrine in question (Liberi arbitrii 
 cum gratia3 donis concordia). The Dominicans, with the learned Do- 
 minicus Banez at their head, made a violent attack upon him, but the 
 entire Order of the Jesuits, to a man, defended Molina. Such was the 
 violence of the controversy, that it had to be settled by a papal deci- 
 sion. Clement VIII. appointed a special congregation (congregatio de 
 auxiliis) to examine the subject of dispute (1597), which labored in 
 vain for ten years to frame a formula which would satisfy both the 
 powerful parties. At length Paul V. dismissed them (1607), promised 
 to give a decision at a convenient time, and forbade all controversy upon 
 the subject. The prohibition availed but little. Soon the controversy 
 broke out afresh, in a very threatening form. (Cf. § 44, 6.) 
 
 6. Theologij. — Various measures were adopted to establish the doc- 
 trine%of Trent. Even at Trent already, Indices librorum prohibitorura 
 and expurgandorum were instituted, which were afterwards con- 
 tinued. The Professio fidei tridentin.-B (1564) and the catechismu^ 
 romanus (1566) were prepared as authentic exhiliitions of the doctrinal 
 system of Trent; and in 1588 a permanent congregation, even, was ap- 
 pointed to interpret its meaning upon any point which might come up. 
 The Breviarium romanum (1568), Missale romanum (1570). and Cle- 
 mentine edition of the Vulgate (1592) served the same purposes. Moan- 
 while Catholic scholars, in spite of the decree of Trent, began to examine 
 into the authenticity of the A'ulgate, and earnestly to study the original 
 text of the Scriptures. The Dominican Sanfcs Pagninns of Lucca {oh. 
 1541), a pupil of Savonarola, published a Hebrew lexicon (1529), 
 (closely following ral)binical helps), a Hebrew grammar (1528), a 
 literal faithful translation of the Old and New Testament from the 
 original, at which he labored thirty years, an isagogic (with extended
 
 168 SECTION I.I. — FIRST PERIOD (CENT. 16 A.D.). 
 
 explanations of Biblical tropes), and wrote commentaries upon the 
 Pentateuch and the Psalms. He regarded the literal sense as palea, 
 folium, cortex ; the mystical as triticum, fructus, nucleus suavissimus 
 The Dominican Sixtus'of Siena {ob. 1569), laid more stress upon the 
 historical sense. His Bibliotheca sancta, in 8 vols., was for that period 
 an important introduction to the Bible. The Jesuit Cardinal Robert 
 Bellarmine {ob. 1621), in his LI. IV. de verbo Dei, controverted the 
 Protestant rule : Scriptura scripturae interpres. Jei'ome Emser violently 
 abused Luther's version of the Bible, and in opposition to it issued a 
 translation of the New Testament (1527) claimed as his own, but which 
 is no more than a copy of Luther's, with some unimportant verbal 
 alterations. John Deitenberger, of Mayence, perpetrated the same bare- 
 faced deception in regard to the Old Testament. Luther and Leo Juda 
 are literally copied (1534). John Eck, also, of Ingolstadt, published a 
 translation of the Bible from the Vulgate, into the most wretched Ger- 
 man, without any reference to the original text (1537). The learned 
 Spaniard Arias Montanus, aided by King Philip II., furnished the 
 Antwerp Polyglott, in 8 vols., with a large number of learned additions 
 (1569, etc.) Towards the close of the century, the number of exegetes 
 who began to give decided prominence to the literal sense, greatly in- 
 creased. The most notable are : Arias Montanus {oh. 1598, upon nearly 
 the whole Bible) ; the Jesuit John Maldonatus {ob. 1583, upon the four 
 Gospels) ; John Mariana {ob. 1624, Scholia in V. et N. T.) ; Nich. Serra- 
 rius {ob. 1609, on the 0. and N. T.) ; and William Estius of Douay 
 {ob. 1613, on the Epistles). In the sphere of dogmatics, the old method 
 of commenting upon the Lombards was continued. But as early as 
 1528, Berthold Pirstinger, Bishop of Chiemsee, published a complete 
 text-book of dogmatics, in the upper German dialect, entitled " Tewtsche 
 Theologey," which was wholly emancipated from the scholastic form 
 (cf. I 5, 3), and John Eck published a counterpart to Melanchthon's locis 
 (Enchiridion locorum communium), which passed through 30 editions. 
 Of far greater importance were the Loci theologici of the Spanish 
 Dominican Melchior Canus {ob. 1560), which appeared in Salagaanca 
 (1563). The work is not so much a system of dogmatics as a thorough 
 and learned introductory investigation of the soui'ces, principles, me- 
 thod, and fundamental idea of dogmatics. He controverts the absurdi- 
 ties of the scholastic method, but instead of wholly discarding it, de- 
 sires that it should be pruned, and rescued from its errors. The Jesuit 
 Peter Canisius acquired a high reputation in the Church for his two 
 Catechisms (Cat. major 1554, and Cat. minor 1566), which for two cen- 
 turies were used in all the Catholic schools of Germany, and are still 
 considered unsurpassed. Among Catholic controversialists. Cardinal 
 BeJlarmlne holds indisputably the first place. His Disputationes de 
 controvcrsiis chr. tidei adv. hujus temp, haäreticos (1581-93) have, in 
 many respects, not been surpassed even to this day. Previously, Wil- 
 liam, fjindanvs. Bishop of Ghent (Panoplia evangelica, Colon. 1563), 
 and the Jesuit Francis Coster, of Mecheln (Enchiridion controversia-
 
 TRANSMARINE MISSIONS. 169 
 
 torn.. Col. 1585), had acquired great celebrity among Catholics, as 
 assailants of Protestantism. The merits of Cardinal Baronius, as an 
 eccl. historian, have already been acknowledged (Vol. I., I 4, 2), 
 
 7. Music, Art, and Poetry. — Musical taste had been completely spoiled 
 in the second Netherland school (Vol. I., § 113, 3), and Church music, 
 especially, had become so artificial, fanciful, and secular, that some 
 fathers at the Council of Trent earnestly proposed that music should 
 be wholly excluded from Church service (at the mass). Then Pales- 
 trina [ob. 1594) saved and improved it. He was a pupil of Goudimel 
 (I 23, 1), and by direction of the Council composed three masses, of 
 which the Missa oSIarcelli is the most celebrated, in a grand, churchly 
 style ; artistic and yet not artificial, lofty and fervent, but not secular 
 or sentimental, they mark a new epoch in the Romish Church music. 
 In poetry, Torquato Tasso {ob. 15v5) celebrated the Christian heroism 
 of mediaival Catholicism in his Gerusalemme liberata. — Painting still 
 made important contributions to the service of the Catholic Church. 
 Besides, and after, Corregrjio and Titian, the noble masters Caracci, Do- 
 menichino, and Guido Reni.vrere distinguished. Michael Agnolo (not Art- 
 gelo) (ob. 1564, in his 90th year) developed the most profound Christian 
 ideas in the most lofty productions of painting and sculpture, was like- 
 wise distinguished as an architect, and ranks among the greatest poets 
 of Italy. Not only as painter and sculptor, but also as poet, he was 
 far from doing slavish homage to the worship of Mary and the saints ; 
 he rather gave utterance, in glowing sonnets, to his poignant sense of 
 ein, and his strong faith in the crucified destroyer of sin. (Cf. | 37, 
 2,3.) 
 
 8. The new efforts which Catholicism was driven to make for its self- 
 preservation, by the progress of the Reformation, produced some happy 
 results in the practical lifo of the Church. The awakened zeal for 
 inner missions furnishes a bright proof of this, and the Catholic Church 
 could once more produce saints worthy of being placed beside those of 
 the middle ages. In addition to those already named, we meet with 
 one especially distinguished by his elevated and noble character, 
 Charles Borromeo {ob. 1587), who, as a nephew of the pope, and a high 
 dignitary of the Church (Archb. of Milan), exerted considerable influ 
 euce upon the Council of Trent and the Curia, and succeeded in having 
 many abuses corrected. His life furnishes a perfect ideal of a Catholic 
 pastor ; and to this day his lofty form looks down from a colossal statue 
 upon the streets of Milan, as the revered patron of the land.^^ 
 
 ? 30. TRANSMARINE MISSIONS. 
 Cf //. Brown, Hist, of the propag. of Christianity among the heathen 
 since the Ref. Lond. 1814, 2 \o\s. — P. Wittmann, d. Herrlichk. d. K. 
 in ihr. Miss, seit d. Glaubensspalt. Augsb. 1841, 2 Bde. — Baron Hen- 
 rion, allg. Gesch. d. kath. Miss, seit d. 13. Jahrh. From the French- 
 Schaff h. 1845, etc. SBde. — M. Müllbauer, Gesch. d. kath. Miss, in 
 58
 
 170 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (C E N T. 16 A.D.J. 
 
 Ostind. Freib. 1852. — W. Hof mann, d. Epochen d. K. G. Indiens. 
 Berl. 1855. Gesch. d. kath. Miss, in China. Wien, 1845, 2 Bde. 
 
 The extensive geographical discoveries which immediately 
 preceded the Reformation period, and the serious losses of eccle- 
 siastical territory in Europe, resuscitated the missionary zeal of 
 the Catholic Church. Opportunity and incitement to transma- 
 rine missions were afforded by the commerce and conquests which 
 were still almost exclusively carried forward by the Catholic na- 
 tions ; and abundant means were furnished, to sustain them by 
 the numerous old and new monastic Orders. The missionary 
 efforts of the Jesuits were especially brilliant. But the mutual 
 jealousies and animosities of some of the Orders soon caused 
 many interruptions. (Cf. § 35, 3.) 
 
 1. East India and Japan. — The Portuguese had established bishop- 
 rics in their possessions in East India as early as 1510, though there were 
 no churches there. Then Francis Xaoier, Loyola's companion, the 
 Apostle of India, fired with glowing zeal for the salvation of men, im- 
 bued with apostolic simplicity, and filled with love and a spirit of self- 
 denial, entered that field in 1542, and baptized many thousands, mostly 
 belonging to the despised caste of Pariahs ; but he progressed so rapidly 
 that he nowhere took time to secure an inward basis for this external 
 success. His unrestrained missionary zeal impelled him still onward. 
 From East India he went to Japan, and only his death prevented his 
 entering China [oh. 1552). — An inquisition for the maintenance of the 
 Catholic faith was instituted in East India in 15G0, which destroyed 
 the remnants of the ancient Thomas Christians. Among the Brahmins 
 the Jesuit Nobili labored Avith some success, by accommodating him- 
 self to their prejudices, and avoiding all intercourse with the Pariahs. 
 In Japan the Jesuits carried forward Xavier's work with brilliant suc- 
 cess ; even some princes embraced Christianity. But in 1587 a violent 
 persecution broke out, and the Jesuits held their position in the country 
 with great difficulty. The envious devices of the Franciscans against 
 the Jesuits, and the political rivalries which arose between the Hol- 
 landers and Portuguese, increased the trouble ; persecutions were re- 
 newed, and resulted in the utter extermination of the Church (1637). 
 
 2. China. — Commerce also opened the way for missions to China, 
 where a proud contempt of all foreigners was the chief obstacle. But 
 the Jesuits, with Matthew Ricci at their head, contrived (1582) to gain 
 entrance to the imperial court, by their matliematical, mechanical, and 
 architectui-al knowledge. Ricci first nationalized himself, and then 
 began to preach Christianity. He died in IGIO, but his work was car- 
 ried on by his Order, and hundreds of churches had spread like a net- 
 work over a large portion of the country. 
 
 3. America. — Zeal for the spread of the kingdom of Christ was not 
 me of the least impulses which influenced Christopher Columbus in hia
 
 CATHOLIC RESTORATION EFFORTS. 171 
 
 Heal for geographical discoveries. But the avajice, cruelty, and immo- 
 rality of the Spanish invaders, who were less concerned to make the 
 natives Christians than slaves, proved a mighty hindrance to the suc- 
 cessful Christianization of the country. The missionaries, especially 
 the Dominicans and Franciscans, earnestly, but unavailingly, vindi- 
 cated the human rights of the abused Indians. The noble Spanish 
 Bishop Bartholomew de las Casas, devoting his whole life (1474-1566) 
 to the sacred work, labored untiringly not only for the conversion of 
 the Indians, but also fur their deliverance from the hands of his avari- 
 cious and blood-thirsty countrymen. He visited Spain six times, to 
 intercede personally with the highest authorities for the amelioration 
 of the lot of the poor natives, and he had to go the seventh time to 
 defend himself against the complaints of his bitter foes. As early as 
 1517, Charles V., at his entreaty, had granted the Indians personal 
 liberty, but simultaneously allowed the colonists to introduce Negro 
 slavery for the severe labors of the mines and plantations, and Las 
 Casas was compelled to assent. But Indian slavery was still continued, 
 and not until 1547 were earnest measures adopted for its abolition, 
 after many millions of Indians had been sacrificed. Christianity had 
 then already spread as far as Spanish rule reached, and was placed 
 under the care of the Inquisition. In South America the Portuguese 
 held dominion over Brazil, a rich but little known country. In 1549 
 King John III. sent a Jesuit mission thither, with Emanuel Nobrei/a at 
 its head. Amid indescribable toils they prevailed upon the native 
 cannibals to embrace Christianity and civilization. 
 
 4. Abyssinia and E</>/pt. — The revived missionary zeal also directed 
 its efforts towards the sclilsmatic Churches of the East. Early in the 
 16th century it was ascertained through Portuguese merchants that an 
 independent Jacobite Christian empire still existed in Abyssinia. The 
 Abyssinian sultan, David, willingly received a Catholic patriarch {Ber- 
 mudez). upon assurances of Portuguese aid against the encroachments 
 of neigliboring Mahommedan States. But his successor Claudius drove 
 the patriarch ofi". From 1546 Jesuit missionaries went thither, but 
 Claudius denounced them as Arians, and the people refused to listen to 
 them. Paul V., at the commencement of the 17th century, encouraged 
 by a friendly letter of the Coptic patriarch, sent the Jesuit Christopher 
 Rodrifjuez to Egypt. The patrmrch took the rich presents he brought 
 along, and then let him return home without having effected anything. 
 
 I 31. CATHOLIC RESTORATION EFFORTS. 
 
 Cf. L. Ranke, d. röm. Päpste. Bd. IL—//. Ileppe, d. Restaur, d. 
 Katholicism. in Fulda, auf d. Eichsfelde u. in Würzb. Marb. 1850.— 
 Ch. Ä. Fescheck, Gesch. d. Gegenref. in Böhmen. Lpz. 1844. 2 Bde. 
 
 No sooner had the Catholic Church settled and secured matters 
 at home, by the happy termination of the Council of Trent, than
 
 172 SECTION III. — FIRST PERI, D (CENT. 16 A. D.). 
 
 it put forth all its strength to recover as much as possible of the 
 territory it had lost. It can, at least, not be denied, that the 
 efforts made for this purpose were extensive, persevering, bold, 
 and successful. Two things favored the scheme, one was the 
 territorial system (§ 17, 5), legalized by the enactments of the 
 empire, which was originally devised for the rescue of Protest- 
 antism (§ 6, T), but now operated to its destruction ; the other 
 was the policy of the Jesuits, who spread over Europe, and, ac- 
 cording to circumstances, openly or under close concealment, 
 combined with, or intrigued against State authorities, for the 
 overthrow of Protestantism, wherever it had taken root. Their 
 craftiness, boldness, skill, their diplomatic arts, machinations, 
 and practice in controversy, succeeded in one place in fanning 
 the scarcely glimmering spark of Catholicism into a bright fl£.me ; 
 in another, either in exterminating Protestantism root and branch, 
 or reducing it to the limits of a scarcely tolerated sect. Above 
 all, they aimed to secure the management of the seminaries <ind 
 schools, in order to plant hatred of Protestantism in the breasts 
 of the rising generation. The other monastic Orders, also, were 
 not idle ; but in extensive plans, thorough system, and strict 
 unity, they fell far short of the vast and comprehensive energy 
 of the Jesuits. The efforts at restoration, however, were most 
 stupendous, comprehensive, and general, during their first epoch, 
 which were begun, reached their climax, and achieved their last 
 renowned feat, for the time, in the sixty years intervening be- 
 tween the death of Maximilian IT. (ISTß), and the restoration 
 edict (1629) of Ferdinand II. (Cf. § 33, 1.) 
 
 1. The Views of the German Emperors. — Ferdinand I. (1556-64), 
 more patient than his brother even as archduke and Roman king, and 
 often the mediator between Charles and the Evangelicals, displayed a 
 still more conciliatory and gentle disposition towards Protestantism 
 during the last years of his own government. He was greatly dissatis- 
 fied with the Council of Ttent. Indeed,* he tried anew the old ineffectual 
 plan of a union by mutual concessions, and had union schemes pre- 
 pared (1564) by the theologians near him, George Cassander, Fred. 
 Staphylns, and Geo. Wizel (the last two had been Protestants). Cas- 
 sander's opinion, the only one entertained, proposed the abandonment, 
 for the sake of peace, of all doctrines ari customs not founded upon 
 the Scriptures. But he supposed many things supported by the Scrip- 
 tures whicih Protestants could not find there, and the Catholics Avould 
 not admit the principle. Hence the negotiations failed (cf. | 33, 5). 
 Ferdinand's son Maximilian 11. (1564-76) had been educated well-nigb
 
 CATHOLIC RESTORATION EFFORTS. 173 
 
 in an evangelical spirit by his instructor WoJfy. Severius. lie gave full 
 liberty to the Protestants in his country, conferred many high and in- 
 ferior State offices upon them, had little to do vrith the Jesuits, and vras 
 kept from embracing Protestantism only by political considei'ations 
 regarding Spain and his Catholic princes. But these considerations 
 crippled his good intentions, and his half-way measures caused compli- 
 cations which subsequently led to the 30 years' war. His son, Rudolf 
 II., educated by Jesuits at the Spanish court, gave them free scope for 
 their operations everywhere, inflicted injuries on Protestantism, and 
 was restrained from attempting totally to suppress it, only by his inde- 
 3ision and timidity. 
 
 2, Restoration Attempts in Germany. — After the treaty of Passau, , 
 political disorders and the exhaustion of the princes operated very 
 favorably for Protestantism. It had spread mightily in the Catholic 
 States ; the States, and especially the nobility, did not conceal their 
 sympathy for it, and demanded a religious concession of the prince for 
 every grant made. Many spiritual princes had almost more Protestant 
 than Catholic councillors; at their courts the Protestant nobility had 
 unrestrained intercourse ; Protestant cities were partly their residences, 
 and the benefices were often held by evangelical canons. But for the 
 Jesuits all Germany would, in a few years, have come under the Evan- 
 gelical Church, in spite of territorial authority and ecclesiastical reser- 
 vations. The first Jesuits, thirteen in number, came as Spanish priests 
 to Vienna in 1551, at the call of Ferdinand. Several years later they 
 nestled themselves in Cologne and Ingolstadt (1566). From these cities 
 they spread in a few years over the whole of Catholic Germany, and 
 the hereditary States of Austria. Then the work of restoration began. 
 First in Bavaria (1564), Duke Albert V., converted into a zealous Ca- 
 tholic by the opposition of his Protestant States, excluded Protestant 
 nobles from the Bavarian diet ; banished all the evangelical preachers ; 
 compelled all his evangelical subjects, who refused to embrace Catho- 
 licism, to leave the country ; and required all professors and persons 
 holding office, to subscribe under oath the Trent Confession of Faith. 
 For this the Jesuits commended him as a second Josiah and Theodo- 
 sius, called Munich a second Rome, and the pope conferred on him the 
 prerogatives of a summus Episcopus in his domain. When he obtained 
 Haag as a hereditary earldom, and when Baden-Baden came under his 
 rule as guardian, he extirpated Protestantism from those countries also. 
 The Electors of Treves and Maijence followed the example of Bavaria, 
 :hough with a measure of moderation. The latter [Daniel Brendel) 
 restored Catholicism (1574) in Eichsfelde, which had become wholly 
 evangelical. Balthasar von Dernbach, Abbot of Fulda, who was almost 
 the only Cathidic in his district, pursued the same course (1575). But 
 he fell out with the chapter, which, with the knights, drove him off. The 
 Bishop of Wilrzburg, Julius Echter, who had aided them, assumed the 
 government of the institution (1576), But early in 1577 the abbot was 
 58*
 
 174 SECTION III. — FIRST PERIOD (C E N T. 1 6 A. D.) 
 
 restored by imperial authority, and the last trace of Protestantism wa« 
 then obliterated. Julius of Wiirzburg, who was placed in great peril, 
 would probably liave followed the example of Gebhard of Cologne (§ 17, 
 6), if the result had been different; but, as it was, he justified himself 
 in exterminating Protestantism from his almost wholly Protestant dis- 
 trict (from 1584). His example was followed by the bishops of Bamberg, 
 Salzburg, Hildesheim, Münster, Paderborn, etc. The Jesuits were every- 
 where at work, openly and secretly. Then Ferdinand II. of Steiermark 
 (emperor from 1619) and Maximilian I. of Bavaria, both great pupils 
 of the Jesuits, and educated at Ingolstadt, appeared on the stage. When 
 Ferdinand celebrated Easter (1596) in Gratz, he was the only one who 
 communed according to the Catholic mode. Two years afterwards he 
 began the counter-reformation, and carried it to a glorious completion, 
 in the spirit of the Jesuits. His relative, Emperor Rudolf II., encou- 
 raged by this, followed his example (cf. § 19, 9). In Switzerland, also, 
 the Jesuits and papal nuncios made successful efforts to restore Catho- 
 licism fully, in the Catholic and mixed cantons. (Cf. I 33, 1.) 
 
 3. But the restoration was not limited to Germany, It embraced all 
 Europe. Everywhere, the Jesuits urged their way, and contrived to 
 effect something even where there seemed to be no prospect of success. 
 (Cf. I 19.) In France the sanguinary civil wars broke out in 1562; 
 in the Netherlands the Duke of Alba aroae in 1567. The Jesuits pene 
 trated Poland in 1569, and thence worked their way into Livonia. In 
 1578 the cunning Jesuit Possevin appeared in Sweden, and converted 
 the king. Even in England, where Elizabeth threatened (1582) every 
 Jesuit with death, scores of them toiled in secret, and kept alive 
 the glimmering spark of Catholicism with promises of better times 
 (cf. I 33, 3). 
 
 4. Bussia and the United Greeks. — The attempts made from time to 
 time, after the Council of Florence, to win over the Russian Church, 
 had been abortive. Then the unhappy war between Ivan II. Wassilje- 
 vitsch and Stephen Rathori of Poland, broke out, and afforded the pope 
 the desired opportunity of offering himself as a mediator. To this end 
 Gregorij XIII. sent the subtle Jesuit Anthony Possevin to Poland and 
 Russia (1581). The czar received him with great distinction, granted 
 him, also, a religious conference, but he neither could be induced to at- 
 tach himself to Rome nor to banish the Lutherans. On the other hand, 
 Rome triuninhed in having effected a union of the Greeks in the pro- 
 vinces of Western Russia, which had revolted to Poland, partly by 
 violence, partly by deception ; the union having been ratified by the 
 Church at the Sf/nod of Brest (1594). The united Greeks were required 
 to submit to the supremacy of Rome and 'ts doctrine, but were allowed 
 to retain their old ecclesiastical customs. (Cf. ^42, 5 ; 45.)
 
 SECOND PERIOD 
 
 CHURCH HISTORY 
 
 IN ITS MODERN GERMANIC FORM OF DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 1 RECIPROCAL RELATIONS OF THE CHURCHES TO EACH OTHER 
 
 I 32. THE ORIENTAL CHURCHES AND THE WEST. 
 
 Cf. K. R. Hagenhach, Vorless. U. Wesen u. Gesch. d. Ref. Bd. IV. 
 
 2 A. Lpz. 1854. 
 
 The Eastern Church opened new prospects of conquest to 
 Popery ; but either no actual results were secured, or they soon 
 again disappeared. Still more illusory were the hopes awakened 
 in London and Geneva, that a Calvinistic regeneration of the 
 Greek Church might be effected. 
 
 1. Expectations of the Catholics. — Rome sent successive missions, 
 mostly Jesuits, into Turkish countries, to operate both among the or- 
 thodox and schismatic Greek Churches, and at the same time to oppose 
 Protestant interests there. They succeeded, however, only in the matter 
 last mentioned. The Jesuit mission in Aln/ssinia, which we loft f| oO, 4) 
 in a rather hopeless condition, was now reaping a glorious harvest. 
 The Jesuit Peter Paez acquired influence over the Sultan Segued, and 
 induced him to renounce the Jacobite heresy by promises of Spani.sh 
 support. Urban VIII. appointed the Jesuit Alfonso Mendez Catholic 
 patriarch of Abyssinia (1025). But the clergy and people .several 
 times rose up against the sultan and his patriarch. They were con- 
 quered in a bloody civil war, but Sei/ucd thouo-ht it prudent to abate 
 his coercive measures, notwithstanding the dissatisfaction of the Je- 
 suits with his course. His successor Saghed expelled the entire Jesuit 
 mission, and almost every trace of Catholicism disappeared (1642). — 
 New prospects of gaining Russia opened under the pseudo Demetrius 
 (1005), who attached himself to the Catholic interests of Poland; but 
 
 (175)
 
 l76 SECTION III. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 17 A.D.). 
 
 just this convinced the Russians that Demetrius could be no genuin* 
 son of the Czars. When his Catholic bride, a Pole, entered Moscow 
 with 200 of her countrymen, an insurrection occurred which cost him 
 his life. 
 
 2. Expectations of the Calvinists. — Cyrillus Lucaris, of Candia (pa- 
 triarch of Alexandria from 1602-1621, then patriarch of Constanti- 
 nople), had imbibed a decided partiality for Calvinism during his visits 
 to Geneva, and after his return earnestly thought of effecting a union. 
 By means of letters and messengers he maintained a constant corre- 
 spondence with Reformed theologians in England, Holland, and Swit- 
 zerland, and in 1626 sent a well-nigh Calvinistic confession of faith to 
 Geneva. But the other Greek bishops persistently opposed his plans 
 of union, and influential Jesuits in Constantinople excited political 
 suspicions against him. On this account the sultan several times de- 
 posed him, and he was finally (16.38) seized and strangled for high 
 treason. (Cf. Hefele, in d. tUbg. Quartalscher. 1843. IV. — A. Twesten, 
 in d. deutsch. Ztschr. v. Schneider, 1840. Nr. 39.) 
 
 3. Orthodoxy Confirmed. — The Russian orthodox Church, after its 
 emancipation from Constantinople, and the establishment of an inde- 
 pendent patriarchate at Moscow (1589), had become decidedly more 
 prominent than that of Greek countries, and the Russian Czar had 
 assumed the position of the former Roman Emperor of the East, as 
 protector of the entire orthodox Church. The various perils which for 
 some time threatened the orthodox faith, by a Catholic and Protestant 
 union, led the learned metropolitan Petrus Mogila of Kiev to prepare a 
 new confession of faith, which was formally approved (1643), at a 
 Bvnod in Constantinople, by all the orthodox patriarchs (of Constanti- 
 nople, Alexandria, Autioch, Jerusalem, Moscow), as 6p^5o|oj b^oXoyia, 
 tri xcC^oXix^i xai ajioatoXixrn ixx%Tjacai. 
 
 I 33. CATHOLICISM AND PROTESTANTISM. 
 
 The Jesuit counter-reformation progressed with unabated 
 vigor, and during the first quarter of this century achieved the 
 most brilliant results in Bohemia. The Peace of Westphalia set 
 bounds to its violent measures, but not to its secret machinations 
 and open arts of deception. Next to the conversion of the 
 Bohemians, the restoration accomplished most in France by the 
 revocation of the edict of Nantes. The Catholic cause gloried 
 also in the return of many Protestant princes, who were converted 
 mostly by the zeal of the Jesuits. Tlie most remarkable exam- 
 ples of this kind were the capricious conversion of Christina 
 of S^veden, and that of the dynasty of Electoral Saxony. Re- 
 peated union efforts were also started, but they proved as abor- 
 tive as earlier attempts.
 
 CAIHOLICISM AND PROTESTANTISM. 177 
 
 1. The Restoration in Germany and the neighboring Territories. (Cf. 
 Pescheck, 1. c. § 31.) — In 1609 the Emperor Rudolf W. had guaranteed 
 the existence and freedom of Protestantism in Bohemia, by a letter of 
 majestj-. But tlie Emperor Matthias, by preventing the erection of a 
 church-editico, practically violated the promises of the letter of majesty. 
 The excited Bohemians cast the imperial councillors out of the window, 
 chased off the Jesuits, and chose the Elector Frederick V. of the Pala- 
 tinate as their king (1018). But Ferdinand II. conquered, tore up the 
 letter of majesty, led back the Jesuits, expelled the Protestant clergy, 
 etc. Christian IV. of Denmark, with some other princes, attempted to 
 rescue Protestantism, but they, also, were defeated. Ferdinand II., 
 drunken with victory, issued an edict of restoration (1629), as an autho- 
 ritative declaration of religious peace, by which the Protestants were 
 to deliver up all the monasteries confiscated after the treaty of Passau. 
 Calvinists were excluded from the Peace, and the Catholic States were 
 granted unconditional liberty to suppress Protestantism in their here- 
 ditary countries. Then Gustavxis AdoJphns (ob. 1632) of Sweden, im- 
 pelled no less by religious than political motives, stood forth as the 
 deliverer of Protestantism. The unhappy war was finally terminated 
 by the Peace of Westphalia, at Münster and Osnabrück. Germany lost 
 many excellent provinces, but liberty of thought and religion was se- 
 cured. The Religious Peace of Augsburg was confirmed by a Swedish 
 and French guaranty, and extended to the Ileformed, also, as related 
 to the Augsburg Confession. Jan. 1, 1624, was fixed as the date when 
 possession should be taken of the Church property. Thus the political 
 balance of the Protestant and Catholic States in Germany was estab- 
 lished. But the pope persistently refused to recognize the Peace ; and 
 by means of Jesuitic manoeuvring and political measures, considerable 
 limitations were imposed upon the Protestant Church. It was wholly 
 exterminated in Bohemia, and in the other Austrian hereditary States 
 the oppressions increased until the reign of Joseph II. In Silesia 
 more than 1000 churches were taken from the Evangelicals after the 
 edict of restoration. A restitution was not thought of; the persecution 
 and oppression continued during the entire century (§ 44, 4), and com- 
 pelled thousands to emigrate (mostly to upper Lusatia). In Hungary 
 the number of Protestants was reduced one-half, by various intrigues 
 and enticements. Transylvania, however, continued a place of refuge 
 for the dissenters. In Livonia, also, which was under Polish dominion 
 from 1561, the Jesuits had eff"ected an entrance, and began their work 
 of restoration ; but Swedish rule, under Gnstavus Adolphus (from 1621), 
 put an end to their machinations. The Valteline massacre (1620) was 
 a Swiss Bartholomew's eve on- a small scale, but with equal madness 
 and cruelty. All the Protestants were murdered in one day. The 
 conspirators, at the ringing of the storm-l)ell at the earliest dawn, broke 
 into the houses of the heretics, and murdered all they met with, to the 
 babe at the breast. From four to five hundred were killed. The Fala-
 
 178 SECTION III. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 17 A.D.). 
 
 tinate, into which the Reformed faith had been forcibly introduced, 
 came (1685) under the dominion of the Catholic house of Neuburg, 
 and then the Reformed Church suffered most from the oppressive mea- 
 sures adopted. In Jvliers-CIeve-Berg the Reformation had from the 
 first progressed successfully, but was stopped and thrown back by the 
 victory of Charles V. (? 15, 8) and the fall of Archb. Hermann (§ 16, 2). 
 From the middle of the 16th century, however, a number of Walloon 
 zealous Refornxed fugitives from Belgium settled in those districts, and 
 powerfully strengthened the Protestant element. From that time the 
 Reformed Church had a decided preponderance over the Lutheran ; and 
 the Lutherans, whilst strictly adhering to the doctrine of their Church, 
 adopted many Reformed peculiarities in Church government and wor- 
 ship. By the treaty concerning inheritance of Juliers-Cleve (1666), 
 Cleve, Mark, and Ravensberg passed over to the Reformed house of 
 Brandenburg, but Juliers and Berg to the Catholic Palatinate, whilst 
 each government pledged protection to subjects of a different faith from 
 its own. and also conceded to them the jus retortionis, if their complainta 
 did not secure reparation. 
 
 2. Protestants in France, and Waldenses in Piedmont. (Cf. /. Clir. 
 K. Hoffmann, Gesch. d. Aufruhrs in d. Sevennen. Nördl. 1838. — G. v. 
 Polenz, d. Camisarden u.d. Kirchen d. Wüste; in the ev. K. Z. 1846, 
 Nr. 64, etc., 74, etc. ; 1848, Nr. 18, etc.)— Henry lY. (1588-1610) faith- 
 fully adhered to the promises of the Edict of Nantes. But under Lotiis 
 XIII. (1610-43) oppressions of the Huguenots were revived, and excited 
 them to new insurrections. Richelieu annulled their political claims, 
 though in the Peace of Nismes (1629) their religious rights were re- 
 tained. Louis XIV. (1643-1715) allowed his confessors to persuade 
 him to atone for his excesses by purging his dominions of all heretics. 
 Money and court-influence having done their part, the terrible dragon- 
 nades commenced the work of converting the Protestants (1681). In 
 1685 the formal Revocation of the Edict of Nantes was issued, and the 
 work of conversion was carried forward more furiously than ever. 
 Thousands of churches were demolished, confessoi-s past numbering 
 were executed or doomed to the galleys, and violently robbed of their 
 children, etc. In spite of fearful penalties against emigration, and 
 the most careful guarding of the borders, hundreds of thousands of 
 refu<»-ees escaped, and were received with open arms in Brandenburg, 
 Holland, England, and Switzerland. Many fled to the Cevennes, where 
 (called Camisards), with incredible courage, and under various fanati- 
 cal, prophetic manifestations, they maintained themselves against the 
 converting and persecuting efforts of the Catholics, during a struggle 
 of 20 years, and finally secured tolerable conditions of peace (1704). 
 France lost a half milli jn of its most pious, industrious, and thrifty 
 inhabitants, and still two millions of Reformed remained in the country, 
 though deprived of almost every right. — The oppressions of the Wal- 
 denses in Piedmont were intimately connected with the persecutions of
 
 CATHOLICISM AND PROTESTANTISM. 179 
 
 the Huguenots in France. Although the Duke of Savoy confirmed to 
 them their privileges in 1654, a fearfully bloody persecution broke out 
 against them in 1655, professedly for the purpose of purging their 
 abodes for the Papists banished during the Irish massacre under Crom- 
 well (see 3, below). The cruelties of the troops despatched for this 
 purpose drove the Waldenses to a desperate resistance. Through the 
 mediation of the Protestant cantons of Switzerland a miserable toleration 
 was again secured ; and l)y large contributions of money from abroad, 
 their temporal losses were measurably repaired. But in 1685 the per- 
 secution and civil war were revived at the instigation of Louis XIV. 
 The soldiers forced their way through the valleys and compelled the 
 inhabitants to flee. A portion found refuge in Wlirtemberg, others in 
 Switzerland. The latter, supported by Swiss troops, invaded Piedmont 
 in 1689, and reconquered their homes.* Thenceforth they maintained 
 their rights in spite of all conceivable oppressions. 
 
 3. The Catholics in England. — When James I. (1603-25), the son of 
 Mary Stuart, ascended the throne of England, the Catholics expected 
 nothing less of him than the complete restoration of Catholicism. But 
 however strongly he was inclined to Catholicism, his predilection for a 
 cesareo-papistic form of government was still stronger. Hence James 
 persecuted the Jesuits with reckless severity, because they opposed 
 royal supremacy over the Church. This enraged the Catholics to the 
 highest degree. They formed a conspiracy (the Gunpowder-plot, 1605), 
 by which they intended to destroy the king and his family, as well as 
 the members of the parliament, at its next opening. The plot was 
 discovered shortly before its execution, and the conspirators, with two 
 Jesuit abettors, were executed. Thenceforth still more rigid measures 
 were used against Catholicism and its adherents, not only in England, 
 but in Ireland also, the mass of the people there adhering firmly to the 
 Papacy. The endless sufferings and oppressions inflicted upon them, 
 led to a most sanguinary catastrophe there, the Irish massacre oyiö-H. 
 In October, 1641, a conspiracy, spread among all the Catholics of the 
 country, broke out. It aimed at the annihilation of all the Protestants 
 in Ireland. The conspirators forced the houses of Protestants, and 
 murdered the occupants, or drove them naked and helpless from their 
 homes. Thousands died of hunger and cold upon the highways. Others 
 were driven in crowds into rivers, where they were drowned, or into 
 empty houses, which were then fired. The number of those who perished 
 is said b}' some to have reached 400,000. This event, of which Charles I. 
 is accused of having been previously aware, or even the mstigator, was 
 his first step to the scaffold (1649). In opposition to the Catholic sym- 
 pathies of Charles II. (1660-85), the Parliament ordained the Test-act 
 (1673), by which every public officer, in the civil or military service, 
 was required to take the oath of supremacy, to condemn transubstan- 
 tiation and the worship of saints, and partake of the Lord's Supper in 
 the Anglican Episcopal Church. The declaration of a certain Titus
 
 180 SECTION III. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 17 A.D.). 
 
 Oates, that the Jesuits had formed a conspiracy to murder the king, 
 and restore Popery (1678), caused a terrible excitement thi-c«ghout the 
 kingdom, and led to numerous executions. The assertion of Oates, how- 
 ever, was to all appearances unfounded, and was the result of an in- 
 trigue, designed to secure the exclusion of the king's Catholic brother 
 James II. from the succession. When James II. assumed the crown 
 (1685-88), he at once opened negotiations with Rome, and appointed 
 scarcely any but Catholics to the various civil offices. At the invitation 
 of the Protestants, William III. of Orange, the king's son-in-law, landed 
 in England (1688), and after the flight of James was pi'oclaimed King 
 of England by the Parliament (1689). 
 
 4. Converted Princes. — (Cf. Gallerie d. denkw. Personen, welche im 
 16. 17. 18. Jahrh. zur kath. K. übergetr. sind. Herausgeg. v. F. W. Ph. 
 Amnion. Erlg. 1833.) — The first reigning prince who returned to Ca- 
 tholicism was the Margrave Jacob III. of Baden, in 1590. But incom- 
 parably greater surprise was occasioned by the conversion of Queen 
 Christina of Sweden, the daughter of Gustavus Adolphus, a highly 
 gifted and intelligent, but also a vain and perverse princess. Her 
 chief motive was to do something extraordinary, for in reality she 
 esteemed the new religion as little as she did the old. As she pre- 
 viously abdicated the throne (1654), the Catholic Church gained no- 
 thing by her conversion but the vain glory of it, and Pope Alexander 
 VII. had to grant his spiritual daughter a pension of 10,000 scudi, to 
 keep her from starving. Of greater account was the apostacy of the 
 Elector Frederic Augri-sius of Saxony (1697), the Mighty, mighty in 
 herculean strength, still more mighty in unbounded profligacy. (Cf 
 Bar. V. PöUnitz, d. galante Sachsen. OfFb. 1735). He was tempted to 
 this by the crown of Poland. The people and States, however, main- 
 tained their ecclesiastical rights. He himself died trusting in the 
 mercy of God in Christ to penitent sinners. But Saxony, the father- 
 land of the Reformation, is still ruled by a Catholic prince. 
 
 5. Union Efforts. — (Cf. C. W. Hering, Gesch. d. kirchl. Unionsvers, 
 seit d. Ref. Lpz. 1836-38, 2 Bde.)— (1.) King Wladislas IV. of Poland 
 thought it possible to effect an understanding and reconciliation be- 
 tween the Catholics and Protestants of his kingdom; and to this end 
 appointed a Religious colloquy at Thorn (1645). Prussia and Branden- 
 burg were also invited to participate. The elector sent his court- 
 preacher, John Berg, and requested the Duke of Brunswick to send the 
 Helmstädt theologian George Calixtvs. The principal Lutheran speakers 
 were Ahr. Calov of Dantzig and John Hülsemann of Wittenberg. That 
 Calixtus, a Lutheran, supported the Reformed, embittered the Lu- 
 therans at the outset, beyond measure. The result was an aggravation 
 of the schisms on all sides (? 44, 4). The Reformed set forth their 
 views in the Declaratio Thortmieyisis, which acquired symbolical signi- 
 ficance in Brandenburg. (2.) Jacques Benigne Bossiiet {ob. 1704), 
 Bishop of Mcaux, employed his extraordinary eloquence (from 1671)
 
 LUTHERANISM, CALVINISM, ANGLICANISM. 18j 
 
 in efforts to open the way for the return of the Protestants to the only 
 true Church. In several works (Exposition de la doctrine de I'^glise 
 cath. sur les matiferes de controverse, 1G71, and Hist, des variationa 
 des 6gliscs prot. 1688), he set forth the Catholic faith in an ideal form, 
 concealed those points in it specially objectionable to Protestants, and 
 endeavored, acutely but sophistically, to show that the doctrines of 
 Protestants were untenable and contradictory. Simultaneously a union 
 project was started again at the imperial court, at the instigation of 
 the Spaniard Spinola, Bishop of Neustadt near Vienna, who had come 
 into the country as confessor of the queen. The controverted points 
 were to lie decided by a free council, but the primacy of the pope, and 
 the hierarchical orders, were to be antecedently admitted, as estal)lished 
 jure humano. In order to awaken interest in this plan, Spinola, by 
 order of the Emperor Leopold I., travelled through almost the whole 
 of Germany. He was most favorably received, from regard for the 
 emperor, in Hanover, where Molanus, the Abbot of Loccum, very 
 earnestly furthered the union effort ; Bossuet on the side of the Catho- 
 lics, and the great philosopher Leibnitz on the side of the Protestants, 
 taking part in the measure. But notwithstanding some reciprocal 
 approximation, his exertions were fruitless. Some have supposed that 
 Leibnitz had secretly embraced Catholicism, from a MS. discovered 
 after his death, inscribed by a strange hand: Systema theologicum 
 Leibnitii (transl. into German by Räss u. Weis. 3d ed. Mayence, 1825). 
 It contains a Latin treatise in vindication of the doctrines and usages 
 of the Romish Church. Fully as Leibnitz may have been inclined and 
 qualified to fathom and acknowledge what is profound and true in 
 Catholicism, his aim in this treatise, most probably, was to see whether 
 and how far Catholicism might be vindicated from its own stand-point. 
 That the work does not set forth his own doctrinal views, is manifest 
 from many other declarations, in which he affirms most distinctly the 
 irreconcilable opposition between his Protestant views and Catholic 
 doctrines. (Cf. Tholuck, verm. Sehr. I. 318, etc.) 
 
 I 34. LUTHERANISM, CALVINISM, ANGLICANISM. 
 
 The transition of Hesse- Cassel (1604), of the earldom of 
 Lippe (1602, etc.), and 'of the reisrnin"^ house of Brandenburg 
 (1613), gave new strength to the Reformed Church in the heart 
 of Lutheran Germany. Renewed attempts to imite the two 
 Churches were as abortive as the efforts to effect a union between 
 the Catholic and Protestant Churches. In England and Scot- 
 land, the Act of Toleration (1689), was gained by the Dissenters 
 after protracted struggles. 
 
 1. The Calvini.ting of Hesse- Casscl (1604).— (Cf. TT. Münscher, Vers. 
 e. Gesch. d. hess. ref. K. Cass. 1850.—^. Heppe, Gesch. d. hess. Gene- 
 59
 
 182 
 
 SECTION III. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 17 A.D.). 
 
 ralsyn. v. 1568-82. Cass. 1847, 2 Bde., together -with the Erlangei 
 Ztschr. für Prot. u. K. 1855. I. : d. Bekenntnissstand d. s. g. ref. K. in 
 Kurhessen.) —Even the Landgrave Philip regarded the diiference be 
 tvreen the Lutherans and Reformed as non-essential, and without hesi- 
 tation appointed the Ref. theol. Andrew Hyperius to a chair at Mar- 
 burg. Ilis son William IV., who inherited Hesse-Cassel (1567-92), 
 declined accepting the Form of Concord, and by the proceedings of 
 four general synods prepared the way for the adoption of .^alvinism in 
 the land ; his son Maurice completed the work. Maurice embraced 
 Calvinism in 1604, prohibited the Lutheran Catechism, introduced the 
 Reformed worship, and expelled resisting preachers. In 1604 Hesse- 
 Marburg came under his rule. He promised, indeed, not to disturb 
 the existing religion, but broke his word. The Lutheran professors fled 
 to Giessen, where the zealous Lutheran Lewis V. of Hesse-Darmstadt 
 founded a Lutheran university. A violent popular tumult broke out in 
 Marburg; Maurice suppressed it, and by force executed a total change 
 in Church matters. His cousin Lewis accused him before the emperor, 
 and the imperial chamber transferred Marburg to Hesse-Darmstadt. 
 But during the disorders of the Thirty Years' war, William V., son of 
 Maurice, reclaimed it. Meanwhile the brief Lutheran interregnum 
 had strengthened Lutheranism there, so that it existed in Upper Hesse, 
 beside Calvinism, whilst all Lower Hesse remained Reformed. 
 
 2. The Calvinising of the Earldom of Lippe (1602, etc.). — Simon VI. 
 of Lippe, was brought, by his stirring life, into frequent contact with 
 the Reformed Netherlands, and into special intimacy with Maurice of 
 Hesse. His earldom was soundly Lutheran, but from 1602 Calvinism 
 glided imperceptibly into it, by the decided favor of the prince. The 
 «hief agent of this innovation was Henry Dreckmeyer, appointed gene- 
 ral superintendent in Detmold (1599). During a visitation in 1602, 
 the festivals of Mary and the Apostles, exorcism, signing with the 
 cross, the host, burning candles, and Luther's catechism, were abolished. 
 The clergy who resisted were deposed, and Calvinists were appointed 
 in their stead. The city of Lemgo withstood the longest, and by a 
 struggle of eleven years with the prince (1606-17), saved its Lutheran 
 faith. After the death of Simon VI., his successor Simon VII. finally 
 allowed the city the free exercise of its Lutheran form of religion. 
 
 3. The Transition of the Electoral House of Brandenburg was of 
 greater importance, at least in its consequences, than all earlier con- 
 quests of Calvinism. JohnSigismund{l60S-l9) had by oath promised 
 his father Joachim Frederick, that he would adhere to the Lutheran 
 Church, and was thrice required to give a bond to this effect. But his 
 own inclination, which was fostered by his connection with the Palati- 
 nate court, together with his expectation of inheriting Juliers-Cleves, 
 and securing an advantageous alliance with the Netherlands, prevailed 
 over his vow. His Calvinistic court-preacher, Sol. Fink, no doubt^ 
 also, contributed to this result. At any r*te, on Christmas (1613), he
 
 ' LUTHERANISM, CALVINISM, ANGLICANISM. 183 
 
 entoved the Reformed Church, chiiming that iu divine matters no bon({ 
 could obligate against the conscience. The Augsburg Confession (of 
 course the Variata) — the condition of admittance to the lleligious 
 Peace of Augsburg — he retained. But he introduced a Calvinistic 
 symbol of his own {Conf. Siyismundi or Marchica (1614), omitting 
 the doctrine of predestination. He could not, however, compel his 
 people to follow his example ; even his wife, Anna of Prussia, refused. 
 No efforts were spared. His court-preacher, John Gerike, had to flee, 
 likewise Martin Willich, another preacher, from Berlin. But when 
 they began to remove the altars, pictures, and baptismal fonts from 
 the Berlin churches, a mighty popular insurrection was excited, which 
 was not quelled without bloodshed (1G15), The following year the 
 elector forbade the teaching of the communicatio idiomatum and ubiqui- 
 tas corporis, at the university of Frankfort-on-the-Odor, till then Lu- 
 theran ; and when the Wittenbergers [Leonard Hutter) issued a violent 
 •issault upon him (Calvinista aulico-politicus, d. i. chr. u. nothwend. 
 Bericht von don vornehmst, polit. Hauptgründen, durch welche man 
 die Calvinisterei in die hochlobl. Kur-u. Mark Br. einzuführen, sich 
 eben stark bemüht, 161C)),heforbadeall his subjects visiting tiie univer- 
 sity of Wittenberg, and commanded that the Form of Concord, which 
 he and the whole country had previously subscribed, should be stricken 
 from the collection of the symbolical books of the Lutheran Church of 
 his land. 
 
 4. Union Efforts. (Cf. Rudelbach, 1. c. § 13, 8.) — Amidst the trou- 
 bles of the Thirty Years' war, the princes of the electorates of Saxony 
 and Brandenburg, and of Hesse-Cassel, appointed a Religious Colloquy 
 at Leipsic (1031), to heal, if possible, the old schisms. The Reformed 
 were much inclined to yield ; they were even willing to acknowledge 
 the invariata. The Lutherans (the Dresden court-preacher Hoe of 
 Hoenegg, and the Leipsic professors, Polyc. Legser and Henry Höpfner), 
 accepted this, but remonstrated against explaining the 10th art. in the 
 sense of a spiritual participation. They parted amicably, but the 
 matter ended with that. On the contrai-y, the Religious Colloquy of 
 Thorn (1645) only aggravated the schism (| 33, 5). That of Cassel 
 (1661), between some Marburg and IlelmstUdt theologians, was well 
 meant; but at a time when the syncretistic controversy was raging, 
 reciprocal concessions could only make the parties more bitter. The 
 great elector Frederick William of Brandenburg (1640-88) labored 
 zealously to restore religious unity among his Lutheran and Reformed 
 subjects, though, indeed, in a spirit of indifference to the points of 
 diversity between them. The Lutherans could not be content with 
 this. Confessors, also, were not wanting among them. The noblest 
 of these was the admirable composer of hymns, Paul Gerhardt. (Cf. 
 G. Langhecker, Leben, u. Leid. v. P. G. Bcrl. 1841.— C. A. Wildenhahn, 
 P. G., ein kirchengesch. Lebensbild, Lpz. 1845, 2 Bde.) As preacher 
 at the church of St. Nichola-s he was the life of the Lutheran opposition.
 
 184 SECTION III. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 17 A.D.)'. 
 
 As he steadfastly refused to sign a pledge wholly to abstain from at>> 
 tacking the Reformed doctrines,» he was deposed in 1666, but restored 
 again in 1667 (mainly at the earnest request of the noble consort of 
 the elector, Louisa Henrieiia, ■ Princess of Orange, and therefore Re- 
 formed, cf. ^ 41, 1), in the expectation that he would conform to the 
 wish of the elector, even without giving a written pledge. But his 
 conscience troubled him, and he made a public declaration which led 
 to his being again deposed. Soon afterwards he was called as preacher 
 to Lubben, in Lausatia. {Ob. 1676.) (Cf. | 48, 2.) 
 
 5. The English Non- Conformists. (Cf. J. H. Merle d'Auhigne, the 
 Protector, or the Engl. Republic under Cromwell.) — James I. (1603-25), 
 the son of Mary Stuart, was hated by the Papists, whose expectations 
 of him were disappointed, no less than by the Calvinistic Dissenters, 
 who accused him of being openly inclined to popery, on account of his 
 hierarchical views. His son Charles I. inherited this animosity (1625- 
 49). The Scotch made a covenant for the maintenance of Calvinism; 
 the English were afraid that Catholicism would be again introduced ; 
 the Irish massacre (1641, cf. § 33, 3) was charged upon the king; and 
 the political religious fanaticism of the Independents under Oliver 
 Cromwell, brought Charles to the scaffold (1649). Under Ci'omwell's 
 government the adherents of the Episcopal Church were oppressed, 
 whilst Dissenters were greatly favored. When Charles II. ascended 
 the throne (1660), this was reversed. The Test Act (1673, cf. | 33, 3), 
 though primarily aimed against the Catholics, also struck Dissenters, 
 and excluded them from all civil and military offices. But William of 
 Orange (from 1689), by the Act of 1689, secured toleration to Dis- 
 senters also ; only Socinians and Catholics were excluded from its 
 privileges. 
 
 II. THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 
 
 §35. THE PAPACY, MONASTICISM, AND HEATHEN 
 MISSIONS. 
 
 The theocratic system of Hildebrand had perished beyond re- 
 deraption. Even Catholic princes refused to be any longer ruled 
 in political affairs by the vicegerent of Christ. The ban had lost 
 its power, but the popes still strove to rescue the idea, even 
 where they had to yield the fact, and never ceased to enter im- 
 potent protests against measures of which they disapproved. 
 Politically the pope was only a prince among princes. Among 
 existing monastic orders, the Jesuits enjoyed by far the most 
 power and influence. They extended the pope's infallibility
 
 PAPACY, MONASTICISM, HEATHE.I MISSIONS. 185 
 
 even to matters of fact. The other Orders were envious and 
 jealous, and vigilantly seized every opportunity of assailing the 
 Jesuits, especially the Disciples of St. Thomas, who were also 
 their doctrinal antipodes. During this period also. Catholic 
 missions among the heathen were prosecuted with vigorous acti- 
 vity. The Jesuits were still most energetic ; next to them the 
 Dominicans and Franciscans. 
 
 1. The Papacy. — Paul V. (1605-21), equally energetic in politics and 
 the interests of the hierarchy, had nevertheless to experience the impo- 
 tence of the papal ban and interdict, in a controversy with the Republic 
 of Venice. The pious and learned Servite, Paul Say-pi (historian of 
 the Council of Trent), a man who deeply deplored the errors of his 
 Church, and who was familiar with the"(S'<y^wmCMricB," but did not fear 
 it, boldly defended the liberty of the Church and the State, and the 
 pope had to yield. His successor Gregory XV. (1621-23) wrote a secret 
 scrutiny for the election of a pope, canonized Loyola, and enriched the 
 Vatican library with the valuable treasures of the Heidelberg library, 
 given him by Maximilian I. after the conquest of the Palatinate. 
 Urban VIII. (Card. Barberini, 1623-24) gave the bull Coena Domini 
 its present form, but in other respects did more for the martial than 
 religious prosperity of the Church State. Innocent X. (1644-55) was 
 derided as another Johanna Papissa, on account of his shameful subjec- 
 tion to a woman (Donna Olympia). His fourth successor Innocent XI. 
 (1676-89), an energetic pope, and one who sincerely labored for the 
 good of the Church, became involved in a dangerous controversy with 
 France. Louis XIV. (1643-1715) exercised the established right of 
 appropriating the revenues of vacant benefices, in the widest sense, 
 and had the celebrated principles of the Galilean Church (propositiones 
 cleri Gallicani) adopted by an assembly of the Paris clergy. (I.) The 
 power of the pope extends only to spiritual, not to temporal matters. 
 (2.) The spiritual power of the pope, according to the decision of the 
 Council of Constance, is suVjject to the supreme authority of general 
 councils. (3.) In France his power is further limited by the old eccle- 
 siastical laws of France. (4.) The decisions of the pope in matters of 
 faith are only infallible by their agreement with the entire Church. 
 The pope energetically opposed these claims, refused to confirm French 
 bishops; and his successor Innocent XII. had the satisfaction of seeing 
 the king and clergy humbly yielding their demands (1691). Never- 
 theless, the idea of the liberty of the Gallican Church, once awakened, 
 was not abandoned ; and the celebrated Bishop Rosseut of Meaux wrote 
 a learned and extended vindication of it (Defensio declarationis cele- 
 berrimae, quam de potestate ecclest. sanxit Clerus gallicanus, 2 vols. 
 4to.) (Cf. I 44, l.)» 
 
 2. New Congregations and Orders.— {!.) The Benedictine Congrega- 
 59*
 
 186 SECTION III. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 17 A.D.). 
 
 Hon of St. Valine, at Verdun, founded by Didier de la Cour, stands 
 foremost among the creations of this century. Elected Abbot of St. 
 Vanne, in 1596, Didier devoted all his energies to the refoi'mation of 
 that monastery, which had utterly degenerated. A papal bull of 1604 
 granted certain rich privileges to all monasteries which would unite in 
 a congregation with St. Vanne. By degrees all the Benedictine monas- 
 teries in Lorraine and Elsace also joined that congregation. Didier's 
 reform aimed mainly at morals and asceticism. But learning and 
 education [Calmet, Ceillier, etc.) were also diligently promoted by the 
 new congregation. (2.) The Fathers of the Oratory of Jesus, an imita- 
 tion of Philip de Neri's priests of the oratory (| 29, 3). It was founded 
 by Peter of Berylle, son of a Parliamentary counsellor, by the establish- 
 ment of an oratory in Paris. Peter was more given to mysticism than 
 learning, but his Order took another course. It produced many stars 
 of Catholic, and at the same time very liberal, erudition (Malebranche, 
 Morinus, Thomassinus, Rich. Simon, Houbigant, etc.) (3.) The Maurines 
 in France (1618). Taking their name from St. Maurus, the pupil of 
 St. Benedict, they aimed at a revival of the fallen Order of Benedic- 
 tines, and were distinguished for producing many really learned men. 
 Patristics and Church History owe much to their untiring diligence. 
 To this Order belong such brilliant names as those of Mabillon, Mont- 
 fau^on, Ruinart, Martfene, D'Achery, LeNourry, etc. (Cf. J. G. Herhst, 
 d. Verdienste d. Maur. um d. Wissch., in the tiibg. Quartalschr. 1833, 
 I. II.) (4.) The Fiarists, founded (1600) by the Spaniard Joseph Cala- 
 sanze, in Rome, for the instruction of youth ; in this sphere they were 
 the hated rivals of the Jesuits. (5.) The Order of the Visitation of our 
 beloved Ladies, or Salesians. It owed its origin (1618) to that superior 
 mystic Count Francis of Sales (| 36, 1), a zealous proselyter of Pro- 
 testants, and the Baroness Francisca of Chantal, who stood in intimate 
 spiritual fellowship with him. The care of the sick and training of 
 children was its object (cf. B. Rensing, Leb. d. h. Fr. v. Sales. Paderb. 
 1848). (6.) The Priests of the Missions, and (7.) Sisters of Mercy, were 
 both founded by Vincent of Paula. Born of poor parents, after com- 
 pleting his studies, he was captured by pirates, and succeeded, as a 
 slave, in converting his master, a renegade Christian. Afterwards he 
 was settled at Chatillon, as priest, and with the aid of the family of 
 Count Gondy, awakened, though with the most unassuming humility, 
 a really wonderful and efficient measure of zeal for home missions. In 
 1618 he established the Order of Sisters of Mercy, who devoted them- 
 selves faithfully to the care of the sick, throughout France ; and in 
 1627 the Order of Priests of the Missions (also called Lazarists), who 
 travelled over the country ministering to the souls and bodies of men. 
 A fter the death of the Countess of Gondy, he appointed Louise le Gras, 
 a widow distinguished alike for intelligence and piety, superior of the 
 Order. Vincent died in 1660, and was subsequently canonized (cf. L. 
 V. Stolberg, Leb. d. h. Vine. v. Paula. Wien, 1819, and H. E. Schmieder
 
 PAPACY, MONASTICISM, HEATHEN MISSIONS. 187 
 
 V. v., P., in d. evang. K. Z. 1832, Nr. 77, etc.) (8.) The Trappists, 
 founded by Jean le Bouthillier de Ranee [ob. 1700), a distinguished 
 canon, who was led to renounce his worldly life by an alarming event, 
 and ran into the opposite extreme of over-wrought asceticism (1664). 
 The Order took its name from the Cistercian Abbey la Trappe, in Nor- 
 mandy, whose commendatory abbot was Ranee. After many diificulties 
 he succeeded in persuading the worldly voluptuous monks to adopt a 
 life of unexampled austerity. Ilis rule imposed unbroken silence, 
 excepting in prayer and singing, and the occasional admonition: 
 memenlo mori, when they met each other. Their bed was a hard board, 
 with a little straw, their only food bread and water, roots, herbs, some 
 fruit and vegetables, but without butter, fat, or oil. All literary pur- 
 suits were forbidden; farming their recreation. Their dress consisted 
 of a dark-brown cowl, and wooden shoes. Such austerities kept most 
 other monasteries from adopting the rule (cf. | 57, 2, and E. L. Ritsert, 
 d. Ord. d. Trappisten. Darmst. 1833. — Chateaubriand, Leb. d. Paters 
 Bouth. de Kanc6. In German, Ulm, 1844). (9.) The Christian School 
 Brethren, founded in 1680, by the Kheiras canon JeanBapt. de la Salle, 
 for the training and instruction of children of the laboring classes. 
 The members assume the vow of poverty, chastity, obedience, and con- 
 tinuance in the institution, but they dare not be priests, nor strive to 
 become priests. In the course of time the institution spread mightily 
 (over Friince, Belgium, and N. Amei'ica), and was allowed to have a 
 supei'ior-general with eight assistants, at Paris. (10.) The English 
 Ladies, founded by MaryWard, the daughter of an English nobleman 
 who adhered to Catholicism. Fleeing with her family, she founded a 
 society of English young ladies, fugitives like herself, at St. Omor in 
 France, for the education of young girls. The institution was soon 
 enlarged by admitting persons from other countries. Houses wore 
 also establisiied in Germany (Ct)logne, Munich, Vienna, etc.), Italy, and 
 the Netherlands. It never obtained papal confirmation ; indeed Urban 
 VIII., listening to the complaints of their enemies, who charged them 
 with heresy, formally abolished the society. All their houses and 
 schools were closed (excepting that in Munich, at Maximilian's especial 
 request). Mary herself was imprisoned and handed over to the Inqui- 
 sition in Rome. But Urban was soon convinced of her innocence, and 
 released her. The scattered young women soon assembled again, but 
 the society was not formally confirmed until 1703, by Clement XL, 58 
 years after the death of the founder. Its object is the care of the sick 
 and education of youth. The members are divided into three classes : 
 ladies (nobles), young women (civilians), and waiting sisters. All 
 assume the three vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience, annually, 
 or triennially renewed, and binding only for that period. They may, 
 therefore, leave the society and marry. They still have many houses 
 in Germany, France, Belgium, England, and Italy. 
 3. Heathen Missions. (Cf. I 30.)— From 1G22, the missionary operas
 
 188 SECTION III — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 17 A. D.) 
 
 tions of the Catholic Church acquired unity, strength, and permanence, 
 through the grand institution of Gregory XV., the Congregatio de pro- 
 paganda fide (cf. 0. Mejer, d. Propag., ihre Provinzen u. ihr Recht. 2 
 Bde. Göttg. 1852, etc.) With its seminary for the education of mis- 
 sionaries it became the heart of Catholic missions, celebrating the 
 Epiphany in Rome by having the praises of the Lord sung in all the 
 languages of the world. The astonishing success of Catholic missions 
 is owing partly, no doubt, to the zeal, perseverance, and self-denial of 
 the missionaries, but, also, to the readiness with which they accommo- 
 date themselves to the habits and views of different nations, if the 
 people will only outwardly embrace Christianity, without antecedent 
 knowledge or conversion. Ricci's death in 1610 did not interrupt the 
 labors of the Jesuits in the Chinese Mission. In 1628, Adam Schall, a 
 German Jesuit, arrived, and by his skill in mathematics won great 
 respect at the Chinese court. Everything progressed admirably. The 
 mission flourished gloriously in its way. But in 1631 the Dominicans 
 also entered China. They found a half million nominal Christians, 
 and innumerable Churches, but objected earnestly to the accommoda- 
 tion measures of the Jesuits, and the mixture of heathen and Christian 
 elements. Rome dismissed their complaints, and the Jesuits went 
 boldly forward. Louis XIV. then founded a missionary college in 
 Paris, designed mainly for China, which sent Jesuits, thoroughly edu- 
 cated in mathematics, into the central empire. Soon, however, the old 
 complaints of the Dominicans were revived, and with increased vigor. 
 In 1701 the pope sent a legate, Thomas of Tournon, to Asia ; but the 
 Jesuits put him out of the way (he died (1710) in prison at Macao), 
 and continued their operations, despite papal injunctions and their own 
 fourth vow. Their doings in Paraguay, S. America (from 1608), were 
 most renowned. There they converted the savages, taught them Euro- 
 pean customs, trades, and arts, and organized a complete independent 
 government, in which the natives, under the mild patriarchal rule 
 of the Jesuits, whom they obeyed like children, long dwelt in pros- 
 perity ; the Order, meanwhile, grew very rich. (Cf. I 44, 3.) 
 
 I 36. MYSTICISM, QUIETISM, AND JANSENISM. 
 
 The Reformation drove back the Romish Church, which had 
 become wholly externalized in life and doctrine, to a revival of 
 mediaeval mysticism. The preceding period, already, exhibits 
 evidences of this tendency (St. Theresa, John of the Cross, etc.), 
 but in the present epoch it manifested itself more energetically. 
 The powerful Jesuits, however, who, in the mechanical character 
 of all their religious practices, hated, as much as they did Au- 
 gustinism, every species of mysticism which held outward religious 
 forms in little esteem, and was, indeed, not wholly free from fana-
 
 MYSTICISM, QUIETISM, AND JANSENISM. 189 
 
 tical enthusiasm. They branded it with me heretical name of 
 Quietism ; and did all in their power, by violent persecutions, to 
 harass those who devoted themselves to quiet communion with 
 God, and to prevent the successful propagation of their views. 
 Tiie reaction in favor of Augustinism, thus far confined to the 
 Dominicans, and only a matter of theological parties, now found 
 a citadel in French Jansenism. Combined with deep moral 
 earnestness, it spread out, pervading and purifying Christian Ufe 
 as well as theological science. 
 
 1. Mij-iticism and Quietism. — The noblest, tendcrest, and most devout 
 mystic of the Catholic Church, after the Reformation, was Francis of 
 Sales (^ 35, 2), B. of Geneva (?'. e. in partibus, then at Annecy, ob. 
 1622). Ills overflowing love, and conciliatory manners, led crowds of 
 Protestants back to the Romish Church. Ilis " Philothea, " gives 
 directions to the people of the world, for maintaining a devout life, and 
 enjoying a sense of the love of God, amidst all the distractions of their 
 business. Next to the " Imitation of Christ," it is the most popular 
 and common devotional book in the Catholic Church. In his " Thco- 
 time" the reader is led further into the faintings and longings, the 
 pains and pangs, the joy and felicity of a life hid in God. — John Schemer 
 (Angelus Silesius) flourished in Germany; he was a friend of Jacob 
 Böhm, previously a Protestant, then a convert, physician to the em- 
 peror, Catholic priest, and a zealous controversialist [ob. 1077). "Whilst 
 a Protestant he composed several very sweet, devout hymns. After- 
 wards he produced "der cherubinische Wandersman," a collection of 
 poetical sayings, in which, with childlike simplicity and ardent love, 
 he buries himself in the depths of the universal Godhead, and pro- 
 pounds the boldest pantheistic theses. (Cf. C. F. Gaupp, d. rum. K. 
 beleuchtet in einem ihrer Proselyten. Dresd. 1810. — A. Kaklert, Aug. 
 Sil. Brcsl. 1853.— P. Wittmann (Cath.), Aug. Sil. als Convert., Dichter 
 u. Polera. Augsb. 1842. Adv. W. Schrader, Aug. Sil. u. s. Mystik. 
 Halle, 1853, who endeavors to show that Aug. Sil. and Scheffler are 
 two different persons ; cf. G. Schuster, Aug. Sil. in the hist, theol. 
 Ztschr. 1857, III.) — Similar causes produced a mystical tendency in 
 Spain, the friends of which were called Alovibrados (illuminati). 
 Michael Molinos of Saragossa imparted to this movement a more sub- 
 stantial character. From 1669, as priest in Rome, he became the 
 spiritual guide of many earnest souls, and taught them how to find 
 the highest enjoyment of piety, in sincere prayer, in pure love to God, 
 and in a calm, peaceful, immediate contemplation of God. He was 
 unmolested until the jealousy of the Jesuits, and especially the machi- 
 nations of the confessor of Lonis XIV., La Chaise, incited the Inquisi- 
 tion against him. lie was put in confinement, compelled to abjure 68 
 Btatements selected from his books (the principal one was his Guida
 
 190 SECTION III. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 17 A.D.). 
 
 spirituale, published in Latin by A. H. Francke; Manuductio spiritua- 
 lis, Lpz. 1687, in German by G. Arnold; Geistl. Wegw. Frkf. 1690) as 
 heretical and blasphemous (1687), and was then condemned to perpetua? 
 confinement in a monastery, and rigid spiritual oversight [oh. 1696) 
 His adherents were branded as Quietists (cf. C. E. Scharliinj, Mich, do 
 MoL, in the hist, theol. Ztschr. 1854, III. IV., 1855, I.) But the mys- 
 tical tendency was not thus suppressed. In France, especially, it found 
 many wann friends and supporters. Antoinette Bourignon [ob. 1680) 
 spread her theosophic and fanatical mysticism in the Netherlands, and 
 adjacent parts of Germany. Peter Poiret, court-preacher of the palatine 
 Deux-Ponts (once a Cartesian philosopher, then an ardent admirer of 
 Mad. Bourignon and Guyon) published her works in 25 vols. Amst. 
 etc. Concerning her doctrines, cf. W. Klose in the hist, theol. Ztschr. 
 1851, p. 497. — The mystical love of Johanna Maria de la Mothe Guyon 
 {ob. 1717) was much richer and purer. Early left a widow, after a 
 vain course of life, she devoted herself to a glowing love of God. That 
 man should die to himself and to all self-will, so that Christ alone 
 might live in him, and that man should love God without regard to 
 reward or punishment, yea, even though it should please God to damn 
 him for ever, were the thoughts which underlay her life and labors, 
 and which she cherished with most ardent, sincere, and tender love. 
 She travelled many years with her confessor, La Combe, who shared 
 her views, through France and Switzerland ; and by means of numerous 
 writings, and oral instruction, kindled a like burning love to God in 
 the hearts of countless disciples, male and female. No tribulations, 
 persecutions, imprisonments, could divert her from her purpose. She 
 found powerful protectors at the court ; Mad. Maintenon secured her 
 liberation from prison. Above all, one of the noblest men who ever 
 lived, defended her against her enemies' accusations of heresy. This 
 WHS Francis de Salignac de la Mothe F^nelon, formerly tutor of the 
 king's nephews, from 1695 Archbishop of Cambray [ob. 1715). By his 
 advice she begged the king for an examination of her writings. A 
 commission, headed by Bossiiet, objected to her Amour desinteress6. 
 Fendon then defended the doctrine, and Bossuet, incited by passion 
 and jealousy, answered in several writings. Fen6lon sent his own 
 writings to Rome. In the mean time he had lost the king's fixvor. It 
 was the more easy, therefore, for his adversaries to induce the pope to 
 condemn his views. Fendon (who adhered most cordially to the Ca- 
 tholic Church, and had ever labored zealously for the conversion of 
 Protestants), with admirable self-denial and humility, read the brief 
 of his own condemnation from the pulpit, and, putting all the blame 
 upon his own imperfect and erroneous productions, admonished his 
 people to obedience (1699). Among the works of Mad. Guyon, the 
 most important is: La Bible de Mad. Guyon avec des explications et 
 reflexions, qui regardent la vie Interieure, ed. by P. Poiret. Col. 1715, 
 etc., in 20 vols. ; a German transl., Regensb., 1835, etc. (Cf. La vie de
 
 MYSTICISM, QUIETISM, AND JANSENISM. 191 
 
 Mad. de Guyon ^crite par elle-meme. Col. 1721. — C. TTermes, Züge aus 
 d. Leben d. Fr. v. Guyon. Magd. 1845. — Ramsay, Hist, de la vie de 
 F6uelon ; A la Ilaye, 1723. — L. v. Bausset, LebensgeSch. Fcnel., from 
 the French, 3 Bde. WUrzb. 1811; Fenelon's works, in German, by M. 
 Claudius, 3 Bde. Ilamb. 1823. — Ilerzog's Theol. and Eccl. Encycl., 
 Philud. II., 1860. — Ruckgaher, d. Quietism, in Frankr., in the tiibg. 
 Quartschr. 1856. II.) 
 
 2. Jansenism in its First Stage. — (Cf. Melcli. Leijdeckcr, de hist. 
 Jansen. LI. YI. Traj. ad Rh. 1695. (G. Gerberon) Hist. g6n6r. du Jan- 
 sen. Amst. 1711, 3 vols.— IT. Reuchlin, Gesch. v. Port-royal, 1839, 1844. 
 2 Bde. — A. Sainte-Beuve, Port-royal, 1840, 2 Bde. — GtYyoire, Les mines 
 de P(.rt-royal. Par. 1809.— Reuchlin, Pascal's Leb. Stuttg. 1840. [Pas- 
 cal's Provincial Letters, transl. by M'Crie, N.York, 1850]). — Bishop 
 Cornelius Jansen of Ypern (ob. 1638) had devoted his whole life to the 
 most careful study of the works of St. Augustine. The result of these 
 studies Avas a learned work entitled Augustinus, first published (1640) 
 after Jansen's death, in 3 vols. fol. As the great Church father's doc- 
 trine of sin and grace were here exhibited in their whole truth and 
 bluntness, the Jesuits violently assailed the work, and secured a pro- 
 hibition of it from the pope (1642). But there were in France many 
 friends of Augustine's doctrine, who were distinguished for talent and 
 learning. Among them was the excellent Jean Duvergier de Hauranne, 
 abbot of the Benedictine monastery of St. Cyran {ob. 1643), and the 
 equally able teacher at the Sorbonne, Anthony Arnold. The latter, by 
 his works (De la fr6quente communion, against the Opus operatum in 
 the sacrament ; La th^ologie morale des Jesuites ; La morale practi- 
 que des Jes.) soon became involved in an open controversy with the 
 Jesuits. These persuaded Innocent X. to condemn five Jansenist theses 
 as heretical (1653). The adherents of Augustine's doctrine did not 
 assail the papal decision ; but affirmed, however, that the views con- 
 demned were not found in Jansen's Augustinus in that sense. At the 
 instigation of the Jesuits Arnold was ejected from the Sorbonne. He 
 took refuge with his sister, Angelica Arnold, abbess of the Cistercian 
 nunnery of Port-royal near Paris, a woman of deep, earnest piety. 
 Through her Port-royal became a centre of religious life and zeal in 
 France. Much in the manner of the ancient anchorets, a large number 
 of the most talented and pious men of France, at once admirers of 
 Augustine and hostile to the destructive morality of the Jesuits, 
 gathered around this monastery. The profound and talented Blaise 
 Pascal (author of the Pens6es sur la religion) was of the same spirit 
 with these men. Under the name of Louis de Montalte he published 
 (1656) his celebrated Lettres provinciales, in which he exposed, in all 
 their hatefulness, the pernicious moral principles of many Jesuits, with 
 autlientic proofs, and with equal earnestness and wit. The book pro- 
 duced a wonderful sensation ; but the Jesuits avenged themselves by 
 means of a papal bull (1656), which dojlared that Jansen taught the
 
 192 SECTION III. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 17 A.D.). 
 
 five points in question in the very sense in which they were condemned 
 The Jansenists affirmed that the pope was not competent to decide upon 
 a question du fait ; but the king and pope demanded that all French 
 ecclesiastics, monks and nuns, should take oath in acknowledgment of 
 the bull, and in condemnation of the Jansenist heresy (16G5). Those 
 who refused were banished, and fled into the Netherlands. Subse- 
 quently subscription to a milder declaration was allowed. But the 
 hatred of the Jesuits still rested on Port-royal. In 1709 the institution 
 was abolished and destroyed. Although the Jansenists agreed with 
 the Calvinistic doctrine of predestination, and though their fundamen- 
 tal tendency was truly Protestant, they were, it would seem because 
 of these points of similarity, zealously opposed to the Protestants. 
 (Cf. § 44, 6.) 
 
 I 37. SCIENCE AND ART IN THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. 
 
 Catholic theology flourished more during the I7th century than 
 it had done from the 1 2th and 13th down to the present time. And 
 an active liberal scientific life bloomed in the Galilean Church, 
 above all the Catholic Churches of other countries. The Sor- 
 bonne of Paris, and still more the Orders of the Jesuits, Maurines, 
 and Oratorians, rivalled each other in the most praiseworthy 
 manner, in theological, but especially in patristic literature, and 
 Church history ; and the cotemporaneous bloom of theological 
 learning in the Reformed Church of France was a powerful in- 
 centive to such rivalry. The flourishing period of the plastic 
 arts, especially painting, had passed. But Church music was 
 enriched, though also enei'vated and secularized. Religious poetry 
 was cultivated to any notable extent, only in Spain and G-ermany. 
 
 1. Theology. — The parliamentary advocate, Mich, le Jay, at his own 
 cost, had the Pari.'i Polyglott published, in 8 vols. fol. (1629-45), which, 
 besides complete Syriac and Arabic versions, included the Samaritan. 
 Morinn.s was the chief editor. Sixtvs V. had caused a new edition of 
 the Vulgate to be published (1590), and in spite of its many (but partly 
 covered or erased) errors, pronounced it authentic (Editio Sixtina). 
 Nevertheless Clement VIII. published a recension which varied from 
 it in many points (Ed. Clementina, 1592), and strictly forbid any de- 
 parture from it: but in 1593 he himself caused another edition to be 
 issued, in which many variations occur. Caspar TJlenherg (once a 
 Lutheran) of Lippe issued a new German version (1630), in which free 
 use was made of Luther's. The learned Oratorian /. Morinus [oh. 1659) 
 edited the Septuagint and Samaritan version, both which he pronounced 
 Infinitely better than the masoretic text corrupted by the Jews. An- 
 other Oratorian, the renowned Richard Simon [oh. 1712), wrote a criti-
 
 SCIENCE AND ART IN TUE CATHOLIC CnURCH. 193 
 
 jipra of the Scriptures (Ilistoire critique du Yieux Test, and du Nouv, 
 Test.), which surpassed in boldness anything before heard of. He waa 
 assailed, indeed, by Catholic reviewers, but as his criticisms served to 
 sap the basis of the Protestant theory, the Curia allowed his boldness 
 to go unpunished. (Cf. K. H. Graff, Rich. Sim. ; in the Strassb. Beitr. 
 zu. d. theol. Wsch. I., 158, etc.) The most notable exegetes are the Je- 
 suits James Bonfrh-e {ob. 1643, a diffuse coram, on the Pentat.) ; Cor- 
 nelius a Lapide {ob. 1637, exposition of the Bible in its fourfold sense) ; 
 Stephen Menockius of Milan {ob. 1655) and James Tirinus of Antwerp 
 {ob. 1636). In systematic theology, the old scholastic method still had 
 full sway. Among controversialists, the Brabant Jesuit Martin 'Becamis 
 {ob. 1624) was distinguished as author of the Manuale controversiarum, 
 Bishop Bossuet (§ 33, 5), and the Jansenists Peter Nicole and Anthony 
 Arnauld, who, to purge themselves from the charge of Calvinism, both 
 endeavored to prove that the Catholic doctrine of the Lord's Supper 
 was taught by the Apostles, and ever held by the Church, (La perp6- 
 tuite de la foi cath. touchant Teueharistie. Par. 1664), and exchanged 
 a number of controversial papers upon this subject, with the Reformed 
 Claude and Jurien. Here we must also mention the writings of the 
 apostate Lutherans Casper Ulenherg (Causaj graves et justse, in Ger- 
 man, by Kerz, Mayence (1836), and Ulrich Hunnius, son of the cele- 
 brated ^gid. 11. (Invicta prorsus et indissolubilia argumenta, etc.) in 
 defence of their course. Apologetics received valuable contributions 
 from Blaise Pascal (in his Pensies, cf. § 36, 2), the Oratorians Le Vassor 
 (De la veritable religion. Subsequently he entered the Anglican Church), 
 Bernh. l,amy (Preuves evidentes, etc.) and the French bishop, Peter Dan. 
 Huetius, the ed. of Origen {ob. 1721), who, in his principal work. De- 
 monstratio evangelica, attempts to show that all the myths and fables 
 of heathenism are distortions of Biblical histories ; he also defended 
 the Pentateuch against Spinoza's attacks. In his Qucestiones Alnetanai 
 (written in the monastery of D'Annay), he controverts the Cartesian 
 philosophy. The learned Jesuit Pionysius Petavius (Jesuitarum aquila, 
 ob. 1652), in addition to his hercu'ean chronological labors, wrote a 
 profoundly learned history of doctrines, or rather a work exhibiting 
 the doctrines of the fathers (Dogmata theologica), which, however, was 
 not completed (it embraces, in 3 fol. vols., only the first five loci). The 
 Oratorian Louis Thomassinus followed his example (Dogm. theol. 3 
 vols. fol. Par. 1680). But his arch.ieological work is of more import- 
 ance: Vetus et nova ecclesios disciplina circa bencficia et bcneficiarios, 
 3 vols. fol. In the department of Church History, Catholic theology, 
 especially in France, acquired a superior reputation. It was incited to 
 this by rivalry with Protestantism, and controversies with the learned 
 Reformed theologians of France. This was allowed by the freedom of 
 the Gallican Church (cf. ^ 35, 1). Besides excellent works on general 
 Church History by Godeau, Nat. Alexander, Fleury, Bossuet, Tillemoni, 
 t") whom we must add Ant. Pagi (Critica hist.-chronol. etc.) the keen 
 60
 
 194 SECTION III. — SECOND PERIOD (^CENT. 17 A.D.) 
 
 ed. of Baronius, the study of ecclesiastical sources was promoted by 
 excellent editions of the Church fathers, with most learned critical and 
 historical apparatus, by editions and collections of mediaeval works, 
 archives, etc. {Sinnoud, MabiUon, D'Achery, Marlhne, Baluzius), the 
 acts of Councils {Labbä and Cossart ; especially of the French, by/. 
 Sirmond, of the Spanish by Aguirre), of the acts of Martyrs {Ruinart), 
 monastic rules [Luc. Holstenius), etc. Charles du Fresne du Gange, by 
 his wonderful Glossarium medijB et infimas latinitatis, and his Gloss 
 med. et inf. grgecitatis, greatly advanced the full understanding of the 
 sources in regard to language and contents. Jolin Mahillon was doubt- 
 less the bi-ightest star in the constellation of learning [oh. 1707, author 
 of: Acta Sanctorum Ordinis s. Benedicti ; Annales Ordinis s. Bened. ; 
 Vetera Analecta; de re diplomatica, etc.) Peter de Marca, finally 
 Archb. of Paris [ob. 1662), wrote the celebrated work De concordia 
 sacerdotii et imperii s. de libertatibus eccl. Gallicanje ; the Jansenist 
 doctor of the Sorbonne, Elijah du Pin [ob. 1719), the Nouvelle biblio- 
 thfeque des auteurs ecclest. in 47 vols. ; the Antwerp Jesuits Bolland, 
 Senschen, and Papebroch, began (1643) the herculean Acta Sanctorum, 
 arranged according to the Roman calendar, and learned members of 
 their Order (the Bollandists) in Belgium continued it, until the French 
 invasion of 1794 interrupted the work, when it had reached the 53d 
 fol. vol., ending with Oct. 15. Recently Belgic Jesuits have resumed 
 the work, but not with the critical care or the liberality of their pre- 
 decessors. In Venice, Paolo Sarpi [ob. 1623) wrote a history of the 
 Council of Trent, which is one of the most brilliant historical contri- 
 butions ever composed. Leo Allatius, a Greek convert in Rome [ob. 
 1669) wrote his celebrated work De eccl. Occidentalis et Orientalia 
 perpetua consensione. Cardinal Bona, Cistercian general, was a bril- 
 liant liturgical author (De divina psalmodia ; Rerum liturgicarum LI. 
 II.) But distinguished names in the department of Church History 
 are too numerous to allow us to name them all. Pulpit eloquence, also, 
 flourished in France to a degree not since attained [Flechier, Bossuet, 
 Bourdaloue, Bridaine, Fendon, and Massillon). In Vienna, Ulrich 
 Megerle (Abraham de St. Clara) zealously denounced the corruption of 
 the times, in odd, witty, and yet thoughtful addresses. Though he 
 assumed the manners of a clown, he often gave utterance to most solemn 
 and pungent truths. (Cf. § 44, 11.) 
 
 2. Church Music. — The Italian Greg. Allegri [ob. 1652) was the 
 greatest master of the school f)unded by Palestrina. His Miserere wag 
 annually performed on Wednesday afternoon of Holy Week in the 
 Sixtine Chapel, Rome, with powerful effect. The application of the 
 operatic style to the lofty music of this school gave rise to the oratories, 
 or musical dramas, composed of Biblical material, designed to be pro- 
 duced only with music, not theatrically. They were mainly practised 
 in the school for music established by Philip de Neri, in his oratory ; 
 nence their name. This new style, which required that the musio
 
 SCIENCE AND ART IN THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. 195 
 
 Bhould be clopely suited to the word and to musical declamation, soon 
 excluded tlie Canto fermo with its counterpoint combination of voices, 
 and for it substituted a religions concert. Thus solo and recitative sing« 
 ing became very common, and attained great perfection. The chromatia 
 scale was to furnish the means of producing feelings in the hearer cor- 
 responding with the sentiments of the words sung ; the general basa, 
 as the foundation of the piece, which, by the accompanj-ing signatures, 
 ehould indicate its entire harmony, was also to leave room for the freest 
 action, and independent production of the several voices ; and finally, 
 by combining instrumental music with the singing, it was intended tc 
 call forth the most lively variety and fulness. This new style of Church 
 music, meanwhile, became more secular and effeminate, and gradually 
 sank into an operatic performance, from which it has not thus far been 
 raised up. 
 
 3. Christian Poetry. — The Spanish poet Calderon {ob. 1681) composed 
 128 dramas, 95 autos sacramentales, and 200 preludes. The focus of 
 his mostly allegorical compositions was religion. In fertility, variety, 
 as well as in poetical geniality and religious depth, Calderon was ex- 
 celled by his countryman Lope de Vega [ob. 1635, author of 1500 come- 
 dies and 320 autos). The noble German Jesuit Fred. i\ Spee {ob. 1635) 
 merits special prominence. Ills religious poems glow with sincere love 
 to the Redeemer, combined with a child-like spirit, and a deep, thought- 
 ful naturalness, and seem to be related both to the medifcval minstrel 
 songs, and the cotemporaneous evangelical hymns. They appeared 
 after his death under the title of " Trutz-Kaclif igall," but were unno- 
 ticed even by the Romish Church, until the German novelists of the 
 19th century drew them forth again from the dust. Spee was one of 
 the first but unavailing opponents of the insane process for detecting 
 witches. Vexation in regard to it early turned his hair gray. The 
 Jesuit Jacob Bälde of Munich {ob. 1688) was another eminent poetic 
 genius of this period. His lyric compositions were the most brilliant. 
 His few German poems are far inferior to those in Latin. A deep reli- 
 gious longing, which turns with fervor and spirit to the Queen of heaven, 
 as the only deliverer from earthly troubles, pervades all his poems. He 
 too was long forgotten, until Herder rescued him from oblivion. Alb. 
 Knapp gives an excellent description of the noble poet in his Christo- 
 terpe 1848.
 
 196 SECTION III. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 17 A.D.), 
 
 III. THE LUTHERAN CHURCH. 
 
 I 38. LUTHERAN ORTHODOXY AND ITS STRUGGLES. 
 
 Of. J. G. Walch, die Religionsstreitigk, in d. luth. K. Jena, 1733, S 
 Bde. — G. J. Planck, Gesch. d. prot. Theol. v. d. Concordienf. bis Mitta 
 d. 18. Jahrh. Göttg. 1831. — W. Gass, Gesch. d. prot. Dogmatik. Bd. L 
 Berl. 1854. — ^. Tholuck, d. Geist, d. luth. Theol. Wittb. im Verlaufe 
 d. 17. Jahrh. Hamb. 1852.— Die Theologie d. 17. Jahrh. In d. Zeitschr. 
 für Protestantism, u. K. 1856, H. I., VII. 
 
 The precision, clearness, and carefulness of the Form of Con- 
 cord, gradually overcame all opposition to it. The result proved 
 that, in spite of the ridicule of antagonists (cf. Eospinian's Con- 
 cordia discors), it had really restored harmony. It now exercised 
 authority not by means of the imperative power of princes, but 
 through the free moral power of science, and introduced a flourish- 
 ing period of Lutheran theology of more than a century, during 
 which the teachers of the Church adhered as one man firmly and 
 unitedly to its doctrine. Theology was most fully developed, and 
 reared like a mighty Gothic dome with astonishing acuteness, 
 harmonious in its minutest parts, and firmly knit together as a 
 whole. But the tendency towards an extremely subtile develop- 
 ment and precise definition of doctrines, which sprang from the 
 controversies of the preceding century, became continually more 
 one-sided. Hence it called into existence a dialectic scholasti- 
 cism, which was in no way inferior to that of the most flourishing 
 period of the middle ages, either in the greatness or minute- 
 ness of the careful and acute development of its scientific form, 
 or in the full and accurate exhibition of its religious contents. 
 But, like mediaeval scholasticism, in its concern for logic it al- 
 most lost vitality. Orthodoxy degenerated into orthodoxisra ; 
 externally, not only discerning essential diversities, but disre- 
 garding the^ broad basis of a common faith, and running into 
 odious and unrestrained controversy ; internally, holding to the 
 form of pure doctrine, but neglecting cordially to embrace it, 
 and to live consistently with it. Nevertheless, this scholastic 
 orthodoxy, with all its one-sidedness, imparted to Lutlieran 
 theology a fulness and wealth, an acuteness and consistency of 
 structure, the grandeur of which even a Lessing was compelled 
 to acknowledge. And it cannot be denied that this period, so 
 commonly reviled as that of "dead orthodoxy," possessed more
 
 LUTHERAN ORTHODOXY AND ITS STRUGGLES. 197 
 
 true piety and spiritual life, than the period (18th century) which 
 most decried it. At the same time the one-sidedness aud dege- 
 neracy of that orthodoxy is not to be denied, nor the propriety, 
 necessity, and beneficial influence of the opposition to it which 
 sprang from the bosom of the Church ; though it cannot be dis- 
 puted that this opposition was marked by a one-sidedness of 
 another sort. The opposition was of a two-fold character: in the 
 syncretistic controversy it was confined exclusively to the sphere 
 of theology ; in the pielislic controversy, it more largely concerned 
 the Christian life. 
 
 1. Orthodoxy in Conflict with itself. — This includes the controversy 
 between the theologians of Tilbimjen and Giessen concerning the state 
 of humiliation. The Giessen theologians, with Balth. Mentzer at their 
 head, referred the humiliation of Christ solely to his human nature, 
 and pronounced it an actual xtViooij, that is, a complete, though free 
 surrender of the omnipresence and omnipotence immanent in his divi- 
 nity {xrrjaii but without ;^p>;ot5), yet so that he might at any moment 
 (as in working miracles) exercise them. The Tübingen theologians, on 
 the contrary, with Luc. Osiandcr at their head, referred his humilia- 
 tion to both natures, and taught that during it he was omnipresent 
 even secundum carnem, and governed heaven and earth, though in a 
 manner concealed from us. They said the humiliation was no KEvuaiq, 
 but only a ;tpu4t5- -A- commission from electoral Saxony (Hoe v. Iloe- 
 negg, iEgid. Strauch, etc.) decided in favor of the Giessen party (1()24). 
 The matter was attended with no further results. 
 
 2. The Syncretistic Controversy. {E. Henke, Helmst. im. 16. Jahrh. 
 Halle, 183.3 ; id. G. Calixt's Briefwechsel, Halle, 1833 ; id. G. Calixt u. 
 s. Zeit. Halle, 1853, 56. 2Bde.— ZT. Schmid, Gesch. d. synkr. Streitigkk. 
 Erig. 1846.— TF. Gass, G. Calixt u. d. Synkr. Brsl. 1847.)— The univer- 
 sity of Helmstädt followed a prevailingly humanistic tendency, and 
 allowed, even in theology, larger liberty of views than was granted by 
 the Form of Concord, which the city had not accepted. This school 
 produced, and for 43 years (from 1613) employed, George Calixtus, a 
 man of superior scientific and social accomplishments. A thorough 
 study of Church History, and intercourse with distinguished theolo- 
 gians of all Churches, enjoyed during his extensive travels in Europe, 
 had begotten in him not only an irenical turn of mind, but a more 
 liberal judgment of foreign Churches, than was commonly indulged. 
 He did, indeed, not desire a formal union of the various Churches, hut 
 that they should recognize, tolerate, and love each other. To this end 
 he proposed, as a secondary principle of Christian theology (next to 
 the Holy Scriptures as its primary principle), the concurrence of the 
 first five centuries (Consensus quinquesecularis), as a common basis 
 for all the Churches, and sought to show that subsequent diversitie» 
 
 60*
 
 198 SECTION III. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 17 A.D.). 
 
 were either non-essential, or less essential. But rigid Lutheran theolO' 
 gians, who were mistrustful of all irenical measures, ever since th« 
 trouble with crypto-Calvinism, pronounced this a religious medley 
 [syncretism), and crypto-Catholicism. As early as 1639, Statins Buscher, 
 a Hanoverian clergyman, denounced him, on this account, as a secret 
 papist. His efforts were more generally assailed, after he attended the 
 Colloquj/ of Thorn (§ 33, 5), as the assistant of the Reformed theolo- 
 gians of Brandenburg (1645). A most furious controversy arose, which 
 divided the entire Lutheran Church into two parties. On the one side 
 were the universities of HcJmstädt and Königsberg, on the other espe- 
 cially the theologians of electoral Saxony, with John Hillsemann, in 
 Leipsic, Jacob Weiler, in Dresden, and above all, Abr. Calov, in Wit- 
 tenberg, at their head ; Calov alone wrote 2(j controversial tracts. Jena 
 sought in vain to mediate between the parties. The Wittenbergers 
 hoped to fortify the Lutheran Church by a new symbol (which, how- 
 ever, was never legally ratified) : Theologorum Saxonicorum Consensus 
 repetitus fidei vere Lutherange (1655), in which, among other things, 
 they rejected, as syncretistic errors, the assertions, that the Apostles' 
 creed taught everything necessary to salvation ; thai the Catholic and 
 Reformed Churches had not disturbed the real basis of the doctrines 
 of grace ; that original sin is only of a privative nature, that God is in- 
 directe, improprie et par accidens the cause of sin ; that the doctrine 
 of the Trinity was first clearly revealed in the New Testament, etc. 
 Calixtus died in the midst of the passionate contentions. But his son 
 Ulrich, who possessed neither his father's spirit nor moderation, took 
 his place. The strife was finally swallowed up by a suit for damages 
 (between Ulr. Calixtus and his violent antagonist Strauch in Witten- 
 berg), without anything important having been gained for the theology 
 or science of that period. Weary of this barren controversy, the atten- 
 tion of theologians was turned to the pietistic movement which now 
 commenced its career. 
 
 3. TJie Pietistic Controversy in its First Stage. (Cf. C. H.v. Canstein, 
 Muster e. rechtsch. Lehrers in d. Leb. Spener's. Halle, 1740. — W. 
 Eossbach, Ph. J. Spener u. s. Zeit. 2 A. v. Ch. Schioeder. Berl. 1853.— 
 C. A. Wildenhahn, Leb. Spener's ; in d. Sonntagsbibl. 4, 5. Bielef 
 1845.— IT. E. F. Guericke, A. H. Francke. Halle, 1827.— C. F. Eigen, 
 Hist, collegii philobiblici Lipsiensis. 4 Pp. Lps. 1836-41. — Ph. Spener, 
 wahrhaft. Erzähl, dess., was wegen d.,s. g. Pietismi in. Deutsch, vorgeg. 
 Frkf. 1097. — Fr. Rvddeus, wahrh. u. grlindl. Erzähl, alles dess. was 
 zwischen d. s. g. Pietisten gesch. Jena, 1719.) — Philip Jacob Spener, 
 of Rappoltsweiler, Elsace, on account of his distinguished talents and 
 rare learning (which was profound, thorough, and comprehensive, ex- 
 tending even beyond the sphere of theology to that of heraldry, his- 
 tory, geography, and philosophy), and his religious zeal, was chosen 
 senior of the eccles. ministerium of Frankfort-on-the-Main, in his 31st 
 year (1666), then chief court-preacher at Dresden (1686), and, havinj^
 
 LUTHERAN ORTHODOXY AND ITS STRUGGLES. 109 
 
 btsen forced to leave Dresden, on account of his great zeal for vital 
 piety, finally provost in Berlin (1091), where he died in 1705. He was 
 most heartily attached to the Lutheran Church, but believed that in 
 adhering to its then prevalent orthodoxy, it had departed from the 
 earnest lively gospel of the Reformers, and was in danger of burying 
 its talent in a sterile theology of words, and dead orthodoxy ; and that 
 it therefore greatly needed to be reformed again. As he discovered in 
 it an exuberance of pure doctrine and tlie most vigorous susceptibility 
 to exhibit genuine Christian piety above all other Churches, it was far 
 from his thought to seek the powers of the necessary resuscitation any- 
 where else than in that Church itself, (i. e., in unionistic or syncretistic 
 schemes). A return from scholastic theology to the Holy Scriptures 
 as the living source of all saving knowledge, a conversion of the out- 
 ward orthodox confession into an inner living theology of the heart, 
 and a demonstration thereof in true piety of life — these were the ways 
 and means by which he proposed to effect the desired reform. In his 
 child-like, pious humility, he did not deem himself called to commence 
 this reform, but simply regarded it as his duty tb point out the need 
 of it, and some means of effecting it. This was done, especially, in 
 his (1678) "Pia desideria oder herzliches Verlangen nach gottgefälli- 
 ger Besserung d. wahren evangelischen Kirche ; " and as his chief 
 concern was to have every Christian become experimentally acquainted 
 with practical Christianity, as taught in the Bible, he revived the well- 
 nigh forgotten doctrine of " the spiritual priesthood" of all Christians, 
 in a special work, and in 1680 published his "Allgemeine Gottesge- 
 lahrtheit aller gläubigen Christen und rechtschaffenen Theologen." 
 At the same time he himself engaged in the work by holding religious 
 meetings in his house [Collegia pietatis) for the revival of genuine 
 piety in the congregation ; similar meetings were soon started in other 
 places. 
 
 Spener's position in Dresden gave him more decided and extensive 
 influence over the Lutheran Church. Animated by his spirit, Aug. 
 Herrn. Francke, Paul Anton, and John Casp. Schade, three young ma- 
 gisters in Leipsic, began in 1686 to hold Collegia philobihlica, exclu- 
 sively for mutual edification by a practical exposition of the Scriptures, 
 in German (a thing unheard of at the universities). But the theologi- 
 cal faculty of Leipsic, with -John Bened. Carpzov at their head, accused 
 them of contempt of regular public worship and theological science, 
 and of promoting separatism. The Collegia philobihlica were prohibited, 
 and the three friends, whose movement was designated Pietism (an effort 
 to make display of extravagant piety), had to leave Leipsic (1690) ; thus 
 the tedious ineti.ttic controversies began. Soon after this, Spener was 
 compelled to leave Dresden (1091), l)ut in his new position in Berlin he 
 acquired decided influence in the appointment of professors of theology 
 in the new university, which the pacific Elector Frederick III. of Bran, 
 denburg founded in Halle, in opposition to the contentious institutions
 
 2U0 SECTION III. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 17 A.D.). 
 
 at Wittenberg and Leipsic, and the organization of which he entrusted 
 (1694) to the jurist Christian Thomasius, who also had been driven 
 from Leipsic (on account of his indiiferentism), and who had in Leipsic, 
 already, been the advocate of the pietists. In connection with others 
 of like sentiments (Anton, Breithaupt) Francke was appointed a mem- 
 ber of the theol. faculty. Halle now, for a time, acquired almost the 
 importance which Wittenberg and Geneva possessed in the period of the 
 Reformation, and the pietistic controversy entered upon its second more 
 general and violent stage (cf. ^ 46, 1). 
 
 4. Theological Literature. — Solomon Glassius (prof, in Jena, general- 
 sup, in Gotha, oh. 1656) contributed to Biblical philology, his Philolo- 
 gia sacra (1623), which had, for nearly two centuries, almost classic 
 authority. Planned upon a large scale, the German, Hebrew, and 
 Greek concordance of the Bible, by J. Lankish (of which only the first, 
 German, part was publ. 1677, and often) was an invaluable aid in the 
 study of the Bible. From about 1675-1700 a lively controversy con- 
 cerning the Greek of the New Testament was kept up, in which the 
 Lutherans and (chiefly) the Reformed participated. The Purists vio- 
 lently contended for the classical purity of the N. T. idiom, because 
 they thought the inspiration of the Scriptures was imperilled by the 
 opposite view. Michael Walther, general-sup. in Celle, issued the first 
 hist, critical introduction to the Bible (officina biblica, Lps. 1636). 
 Aug. Pfeiffer, of Leipsic [ob. 1698), rendered good service to Bibl. crit. 
 and Ilermeneut. by his critica sacra (1680), and his Hermeneut. s. 
 (1684). In spite of its servile adherence to the interpretation of dog- 
 matic proof-texts, traditionally fixed, and its mechanical theory of in- 
 spiration, the exegesis was valuable. The most distinguished exegetea 
 were : Erasmus Schmidt of Wittenberg [ob. 1637, Opus posthumum, a 
 Lat. trans, of the N. T. with excellent notes). He also contributed a 
 very useful concordance of the Greek N, T., entitled Ta^wiov (revised 
 by K. H. Bruder, Lpz. 1841); Theod. Hakspan of Altdorf [ob. 1659. 
 Notae philol. theol. in diflSciliora Scr. s. loca. 3 Pp.» 1664) ; Martin Geier, 
 of Leipsic [ob. 1680, an excellent comm. on Daniel and the poet, books 
 of the 0. T., even still worthy of notice) ; Seb. Schmidt, of Strassburg 
 [ob. 1696, comm. on Joshua, the Judges, Isaiah, Jeremiah, and several 
 of Paul's epp.) ; Aiig. Pfeiffer (Dubia vexata), and Abraham Calov, of 
 Wittenberg [ob. 1686, Biljlia illustrata, in 4 vols, fol., which took up 
 and improved the comm. uf Grotius, a work of stupendous labor, bril- 
 liant Biblical knowledge, and profound leai*ning, but throughout too 
 subservient to dogmatics). — The orthodox school gave still greater dili- 
 gence to the study of dogmatics, the Lutheran fulness and depth of 
 which was developed with amazing acuteness and brilliant learning, 
 in a strictly scholastic form. Its greatest masters are : Leonard Hutter 
 of Wittenberg [ob. 1616, Loci communes theologici, and for the use of 
 schools, Compendium loc. theol.) ; John Gerhard, prof, at Jena [oh. 
 1637, Loci theol. in 9 vols. fol. 1600, etc. The best ed. with notes by
 
 LUTHERAN ORTHODOXY AND ITS STRUGGLES. 2Ul 
 
 I. F. Cotta, Tül)g. 1762, etc., 22 vols. 4to. It is the opus palmare of 
 liuth. theology) ; and J. Andr. Quenstedt of Wittenberg [ob. 1688, 
 Theol. didactico-polemica, the completion of Lutheran scholasticism, 
 in its lights and shadows). Next to these were: Brochmand, prof, in 
 Copenhagen [ob. 1652, Universae theol. systema) ; Conrad Dannhauer, 
 in Strassburg {ob. 1666, Ilodosophia Christiana) ; Abr. Calov (Systema 
 loc. theul.) ; König in Rostock [ob. 1664, Theol. positiva acroamatica) ; 
 Scherzer in Leipsic [ob. 1683, Systema theol.) ; John Musäus in Jena 
 {ob. 1681) ; and Baier in Halle [ob. 1695). The most prominent theo- 
 logian of the Calixtin-e school is Conr. Horiieius (Comp, theol.) Culix- 
 iris himself did not publish a theol. work, but his lectures were printed. 
 He, also, originated the division subsequently made between morals 
 and theology (Epitome th. moralis). John Gerhard's Confessio Catho- 
 lica was a complete refutation of Catholicism. But the most untiring 
 controversialist was Abr. Calov (Hist, syncretistica ; Mataelogia papis- 
 tica ; Socinianismus protiigatus ; Consideratt. Arminianismi ; Theses 
 de Labadismo ; Anti-Boehmius ; Discussio controversiarum inter eccle- 
 sias orthod. et reformatas, etc.) Nicholas Hunnius, son of ^gid. H. 
 (§ 21, 10), prof, in AVittenberg, and from 1623 superintdt. in Lübeck 
 {ob. 1643), was also distinguished as an able opponent of papism (Demon- 
 stratio ministerii Lutherani ; and when Lancelot, an Augustinian of 
 Mechlen, fulminated a Capistrum Hunni against him, he retorted in 
 his Capistrum Hunnio paratum, Lanceloto injectum), of Socinianism 
 (Examen errorum Photinianorum), and of the enthusiasts (Christi. 
 Betracht, d. neuen Paracelsischen u. Weigilianischen Theol.) Of chief 
 importance is his Aiacjxf^'^j de fundamentali dissensu doctrinal Luth. et 
 Calvin, s. Reform. His Epitome credendorum or Inhalt d. Christi, 
 Lehre reached 19 editions. The syncretistic controversies led him, in 
 his " Consultatio, oder wohlmeinendes Bedenken," to devise the plan 
 of a Collegium irenicum s. pacificatorium (Collegium Hunnianum), as 
 a permanent theol. senate for the adjustment of all theological dis- 
 putes. (Cf. L. Heller, Nik. Hunnius, s. Leben u. Wirken. Lübeck, 
 1843.) Little was done, in the nature of the circumstances, in the de- 
 partment of Church History. Nevertheless, Rechenberg, Kortholt, Itiig, 
 Sagittarius, Veit Ludio. v. Seclcendorf, deserve to be named for theii 
 contributions to the history of the Reformation. Calixtus, however 
 awakened new zeal and spirit for the study of Church History, ana 
 Gottfried Arnold of Giessen {ob. 1714), a thoroughly learned investi- 
 gator, but so violently opposed to every form of orthodoxy, that he 
 could not find true Christianity, since the 4th century, anywhere but 
 among sects, separatists, and heretics, threw the entire tlieol. world 
 into an uproar, by his Impartial History of Churches and Heretics 
 (T.H, 2.) (Cf. H6, 2.)
 
 202 SECTION III. — SECOND PERIOD (C E N T. 17 A. D.) 
 
 ? 39. RELIGIOUS LIFE IN THE LUTHERAN CHURCH. 
 
 • The great importance which the Lutheran Church of this period 
 attached to pure doctrine and a genuine confession, exposed it 
 to the danger of a one-sided over-estimation and externalization 
 of the same to a mere dead orthodoxy, an evil, indeed, which 
 showed itself in various ways. But a great number of the most 
 excellent and learned theologians, who recognized the influence 
 of pure doctrine upon personal piety, as well as the necessity of 
 possessing a theology of the heart, and of maintaining practical 
 Christianity, opposed this evil tendency in a conciliatory but 
 decided manner by their writings, preaching, and pastoral labors. 
 During this whole century, but especially during its first half, 
 there were many influential advocates of a noble Lutheran mys- 
 ticism,, which harmonized with orthodoxy both in faith and 
 knowledge, and only opposed its threatening or actually existing 
 externalization of Christianity. But by the side of this mysti- 
 cism, we find that separatism, an unchurchly mysticism, and theo- 
 soj)hy, broke forth as excrescences, or caricatures of the truth. 
 Church, hymnology acquired a new life, during the tribulations 
 of the Thirty Years' war, but after that gradually lost its sublime 
 objective cliurchly character, for which the fluent rhyme, the 
 easy style, and more elegant form, wei'e only a feeble, and in 
 part questionable substitute. Church music was correspondingly 
 developed. * 
 
 1. Mysticism and Asceticism. — John Arndt, " the Fenelon of Luther- 
 anism," stands at the head of those vigilant and faithful servants of the 
 Church, who strove to vindicate the inalienable right, and urgent duty 
 of the Lutheran Church to maintain a hearty sincere mysticism over 
 against formal orthodoxy, which had allowed justifying faith and a 
 correct belief to degenerate into a new opus operatum. His " Sechs 
 Bücher vom wahren Christenthum," and his " Paradiesgärtlein," which 
 have been translated into almost every living tongue, conferred incal- 
 culable blessings both upon his own and subsequent generations ; upon 
 himself, however, they brought great reproach and hostility, from the 
 advocates of a malevolent or dead orthodoxy. He died in 1621, whilst 
 General-superintendent in Celle, after he had been driven from Anhalt, 
 as a confessor of Lutheran orthodoxy, for refusing to denounce exor- 
 cism as an ungodly superstition, and then openly accused by his col- 
 league Denecke and other Lutheran zealots of papism, Calvinism, 
 Osiandrianism, Flacianism, Schwenkfellianism, Paracelscism, Alchymy, 
 etc. (Cf. F. Arndt, J. Arndt. Berl. 1838.-5^, L. Pertz, de Joh. Arndtio
 
 RELIGIOUS LIFE IN THE LUTHERAN CHURCH. 208 
 
 ajiiaque libris de vero Christ. Ilann. 1852, 4to. Also, the lively descrip 
 iions of the historically faithful romance of A. Wildcnliahn, J. A. ein 
 Zeitbild aus Braunschweig« K. u. Stadtgesch. Lpz. 1847, 2 Bdo.) Other 
 Buccessful advocates of a living Christianity are met with in the great 
 theologian John Gerhard, of Jena [oh. 1637, Meditationes sacra;, and 
 Schola pietatis d. i. Christi, u. heils. Untericht v. d. Uebung d. wahren 
 Gottseligk.) ; Stephen Prätorius of Salzwedel {ob. 1610, Geistl. Schatz- 
 kammer) ; Herrn. Eathmann of Dantzig [ob. 1628, Jesu Christi Gnaden- 
 reich, cf. J. G. V. Engelhardt, üb. d. Rahtmannschen Streit, in the hist, 
 theol. Ztschr. 1854, 1) ; Valerius Herben/er of Fraustadt [ob. 1627, Ev. 
 Herzpostille; Geistlich. Trauerbinden ; Magnalia Dei, etc.) ; Heinrich 
 Müller of Rostock [ob. 1675, Himmlischer Liebeskuss ; Geistl. Er- 
 quickstunden, etc.) ; Chri.s-tian Scriver (Geistl. Seenlenschatz ; Siech- 
 und Siegesbette ; Gottholds zufällige Andachten), Ähasveriis Friisch, 
 privy councillor and chancellor in Schwartzburg-Rudolstadt {ob. 1701, 
 Christenthums fragen), Ph. Jak. Spener and others. Johann Valentin 
 Andrea of Wiirtemberg {ob. 1654), grandson of one of the authors of 
 the Form of Concord, opposed the corruption of his time, by writings 
 mostly satirical and allegorical, in an entirely original and genial 
 manner, which, however, on account of its originality, was often mis- 
 understood. Especially was his allegory of the union of the cross and 
 the rose (as symbols of Christianity and science) in the society of the 
 Rosicrucians, grossly misunderstood, as though such a society pos- 
 sessed the science of magical arts, — an assumption of which fixnatics 
 and impostors took great advantage (Fama fraternitas Rosacea3 Crucis 
 or Brüderschaft d. hochlöbl. Ordens d. Rosenkr. an die Häupter, Stände 
 u. Gelehrten Europas, 1614 ; Confess, u. Bekenntniss d. Briidersch. d. 
 R. Cr. ; Menippus, s. dialogorum satyric. Centuria ; Mythologia christ. 
 B. de virtut. et vitiis hum. vitce ; Turris Babel, s. Ros. Crucis chaos ; 
 ReipublicfB Christiana politanoe descriptio ; Veroe unionis in Chr. J. 
 specimen, etc. ; cf. W. Hossbach, Val. Andr. u. s. Zeitalt. Berl. 1819.) 
 (Cf. I 46, 6.) 
 
 2. Mysticism and Theosophy. (Cf. Fr. Deutsch, d. Naturphilos. 
 Mysticism, innerh. d. luth. K. ; in the Ztschr. f. Luth. Theol. 1841, III. 
 ~Fr. V. Fiiqne, Jac. Böhme. Greiz, 1821.— TF. L. WiiUen, J. B.'s Leben. 
 u. Lehre. Stuttg. 1836.— >1. E. Umbreit, J. B. Heidelb. 1835.— JhZ. 
 Hamhenjer, d. Lehre d. deutsch. Philos. J. B. Munich, 1844. — //. A. 
 Fechner, Jac. B. s. Leben u. s. Schriften. Görlitz, 1857.)— A mystical 
 theosophy, though much despised, partly remained within the limit« 
 of outward Church union, and was preserved by ecclesiastical restraints 
 from grosser theoretical and practical errors, and partly also tore loose 
 from the Church as a degenerate Babel (g 42, 1). This movement re- 
 ceived impetus and strength from the works of Agrippa and Paracelsus 
 upon natural philosophy and alchemy, from the devotional, mystical, 
 and theosophic posthumous works of Val. Weigel, and above all from 
 the profornd revelations of the mighty cobbler of Görlitz, Jacob Böhme
 
 204 SECTION III. SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 17 A.D.). 
 
 (philosophus teutonicus), the greatest, most profound, and most inge 
 nious of all theosophists who ever lived — a man who, with all his un- 
 churchly speculations, nevertheless in his life sincerely maintained 
 true piety, and faithfully adhered to the Lutheran Church. As a tra- 
 velling journeyman, already, he experienced blessed peace for seven 
 days, from being encompassed by a divine light. But he dates his 
 fuller theosophic illumination from a certain moment when, as a young 
 master, just married, he was thrown into an ecstacy by the reflection 
 of the sun from a brightly polished pewter plate, and beheld the mys- 
 teries of Deity, even to the last principles of all things, so as to discern 
 their inmost quality. Ilis theosophy, like ancient Gnosticism, starts 
 with the question concerning the origin of evil. He solves it by as- 
 suming an emanation of all things from God, who completely attempers 
 and harmonizes in himself fire and light, the quality of bitterness and 
 sweetness, which become separated in the creatures emanating from 
 him, but are reconciled and united again, to godlike harmony, by re- 
 generation in Christ. In speculative power, and poetic wealth, exhi- 
 bited with epic and dramatic effect, his system surpasses everything 
 of the kind ever written. His works (Aurora, oder die Morgenrothe 
 im Aufgang ; Mysterium magnum, a sort of comm. on Genesis ; Psy- 
 chologia vera; Der Weg zu Christo; Von der Gnadenwahl; Von d. 
 heil. Taufe u. d. Abendmahl, etc.) were published by Gichtel, Am st. 
 1682, 2 Bde. 4to. ; and recently by K. W. Schiebler, Lpz. 1831, etc., 6 
 Bde. The blustering fanaticism of Gregorius Richter, preacher in 
 Görlitz, caused Böhme much trouble, for at his instigation B. was 
 banished from the city, after the publication of the Aurora. Subse- 
 quently he was allowed to return, on giving a pledge not to write any 
 more books. But as he could not keep this promise, the angry zeal of 
 his ecclesiastical superior vented itself in increased severity. Abr. 
 Calov, also, entered the lists as a watchman of Zion, against the fana- 
 ticism of the Görlitz cobbler ( Anti-Boehmius, etc.), whilst in the Dres- 
 den consistorium he found a fa vox-able judgment and forbearing tolera- 
 tion. Böhme died in the arms of his family in Görlitz, after having 
 long banished himself from his native place (1624). Gottfr. Arnold 
 (ob. 1714), for a time prof, at Giessen, sustained an intimate relation 
 to the Böhmists, separatists, and pietists, and yet fell out with all of 
 them. In several writings he described in a fanciful way, mai'tyrdom, 
 marriage, and the entire life of the first Christians, wrote and sung 
 about tho mysteries of the divine Sophia (when, Adam, originally a 
 man-woman, ^ell, his female nature, the heavenly Sophia, was taken 
 from him, and instead of it a carnal woman was formed out of his rib), 
 reviled the orthodoxy of all ages and churches, and canonized all 
 heretics. But notwithstanding all this, he remained externally in the 
 Lutheran communion, and even entered the ministry in that Church. 
 (Cf. I 42, 4.) 
 
 3. Church Hyrnns. — The first period of its development in this oen-
 
 RELIGIOUS LIFE OF THE LUTHERAN CHURCH. 205 
 
 tury, embraces that of the Thirty Years' war (1G18-48). David's 
 Psalms become the model and type of the poets, and the most earnest 
 hymns of comfort in trouble, of imperishable value, spring from the 
 trials of the times. This, of course, caused prominence to Ije given to the 
 personal element. The influence of Opitz is also seen in Church hymns, 
 inasmuch as more care is given to precision and purity of language, as 
 well as to a fluent and pleasing measure. Instead of the expressive 
 brevity, and vigorous terseness of earlier times, we meet with a certain 
 cordial expansion and enlargement of the thought. As deserving spe- 
 cial prominence, we name: the pious sufferer John Heerman, pastor in 
 the principality of Glogau {ob. 1G47), who composed 400 hymns, in- 
 cluding: '* Ilerzliebster Jesu, was hast du verbrochen;" "Früh Mor- 
 gens, da die Sonn aufsteht;" " So wahr ich lebe, spricht dein Gott;" 
 " Wo Süll ich fliehen hin ;" '' Gott, du frommer Gott ; " " Zion klagt 
 mit Angst, u. Schmerzen ;" " Gottlob, die Stund ist kommen ;" etc. — 
 Heinr. Held, a Silesian lawyer {ob. 1643), "Gott sey dank durch alle 
 Welt;" — Paul Flemming, in Voigtland, a physician {ob. 1640J, "In 
 allen meinen.Thaten," written on a journey to Pei-sia ; — Mattk. Meijffart, 
 prof, and pastor in Erfurt {ob. 1642), "Jerusalem, du hochgebaute 
 Stadt;" — Martin Rink-art, pastor at Eilenberg in Saxony {ob. 1648), 
 "Nun danket alle Gott;" — Ajielles v. Löwenstern {ob. 1648), "Christe, 
 du Beistand deiner Kreuzgemeine ; " — Joshua Stegmann, superintendent 
 in Rinteln {ob. 1632), "Ach bleib mit deiner Gnade;" — Joshua Wege- 
 li}i, minister in Augsburg and Presburg, "Auf Christi Himmelfahrt;" 
 — David Denicke, consistorial councillor in Hanover {ob. 1680), "Wir 
 Menschen sind zu dem, Gott ; " — Just. Gesenius, superint. in Hanover 
 {ob. 1673), "Wenn meine Siind mich kränken;" — Tob. Clausnitzer, 
 pastor in the Palatinate {ob. 1648), " Liebster Jesu wir sind hier, dich 
 und dein." — The poets just named belong mostly to the ßrst Silesian 
 school, which gathered around Opitz. John Rist (preacher in Holstein 
 ob. 1667) occupies an independent position, though he too was some- 
 what influenced by Opitz. lie wrote 658 spiritual songs, many of which 
 are remarkable for vivacity, solemnity, and elevated thought; "Auf, 
 auf, ihr lleichsgenossen," " Ermuntre dich, mein schwacher Geist," 
 "Jesu, der du meine Seele," "Du Lebensfürst, Herr Jesu Christ," 
 "0 Trauerigkeit, Herzeleid," "Werde munter, mein Gemüthe." 
 "0 Ewigkeit, du Donnerwort," etc. — At the head of the cotempora- 
 neous Königsburg school stood : Simoti Dach, prof, of poetry in Königsb. 
 {ob. 16ü8), who composed 150 religious poems, including: "0 wie 
 selig seid ihr doch, ihr Frommen," etc. Distinguished among his co- 
 temporaries were: Ilenrg Alberti, organist in Königsburg {ob. 1668), 
 "Gott des Himmels und der Erde," etc. — Val. Thilo, prof, of elocution 
 in Königsb. {ob. 1662), " Mit Ernst, ihr Menschenkinder ;"—Ceo/-(/« 
 Weissei, minister in Königsb. {ob. 1655), "Macht hoch die Thür," 
 " Such wei da will." 
 
 From the middle of the 17th century, hymns assumed more and 
 61
 
 206 SECTION 111 -SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 1? A.D.). 
 
 more of a subjective character, wl.ich gave rise to a great diversity ot 
 style and classes. The Church no longer sings in the words of the 
 poet, but the poet makes his own feelings and state of mind predomi- 
 nate. Confessional hymns became more rare, and those of a purely 
 edifying character, having reference to various events in life, death, 
 suffering, consolation, the family, became more numerous. Thus, as 
 the objective feature is given up one characteristic of true Church 
 hymns disappears from the religious poetry of this period. And yet 
 some essential marks still remain, such as a popular form and matter, 
 freshness, vivacity, and a naive style, the reality of personal experience, 
 and full assurance of faith, etc. Even subjective individual feelings 
 and frames still spring from the soil of a churchly faith, and are firmly 
 and immovably ruoted therein. Thus then the best hymns of this 
 period are still Church-hymns, and bear upon their brow the impress 
 of immortality. The poets of this period form three classes: (1.) The 
 transition group from objectivity to subjectivity. The great master of 
 this class, and next to Luther the greatest religious poet of the 
 evangelical church in general, is Pmd Gerhardt, the faitliful confes- 
 sor of Luther in suffering and persecution (^ 34, 4). In him the new 
 subjective tendency exhibits itself in its noblest, purest, and most 
 vigorous form. And by its side we also discover the old objective ten- 
 dency, with its direct Church-consciousness and immovable faith, with 
 its noble, vigorous popular character, in all the fullness and vigor 
 of Luther, and, as to form, even more perfect. His 120 hymns, if not 
 all Church-hymns in the narrower sense, are nevertheless choice 
 hymns of the finest gold (ex gr. " Wie soll ich dich empfangen," 
 " Fröhlich soll mein Herze springen," " Wir singen dir Immanuel," 
 "Nun lasst uns gehen und treten," "Ein Lämmlein geht und trägt," 
 "0 Haupt voll Blut und Wunden," "0 Welt, sieh hier dein Leben," 
 " Sei fröhlich alles weit und breit," " Ich singe dir mit Herz und 
 Mund," " Befiehl du deine Wege," " Gieb dich zufrieden," " Nun 
 ruhen alle Wälder," "Geh aus, mein Herz, und suche Freud," etc.) 
 To this class belong, furthermore, William II., Duke of Saxe- Weimar 
 [oh. 1662, " Herr Jesu Christ, dich zu uns wend") ; — Geo. Neumark, 
 Librarian in Weimar [oh. 1681, "Wer nur den lieben Gott lässt 
 walten") ; — Christian Keymann, rector in Zittau {oh. 1663, "Meinen 
 Jesum lass ich nicht") ; — John Franck, burgomaster of Guben, Lausa- 
 tia [ob. 1677), next to Paul Gerhardt the greatest poet of this period, 
 composer of 110 hymns, less popular and cordial, but more soaring 
 than Gerhardt. ("Heut ist uns der Tag erschienen," "Jesu meine 
 Freude," " Schmücke dich, liebe Seele," " Unsre müden Augenli- 
 der," etc.); — Christopher Homburg, actuary in Naumburg [ob. 1681, 
 "Jesu, meines Lebens Leben") ; — Geo. Albinus, pastor in Naumburg 
 [ob. 1679, " Straff mich nicht in deinem Zorn," "Alle Menschen müssen 
 sterben'"^ -j'-Mich. Schirmer, conrector in Berlin [ob. 1673, "0 heiiger 
 Geist, kehr bei uns ein"). — (2.) The next class of hymns is rather
 
 RELIGIOUS LIFE OP THE LUTHERAN CHURCH. 207 
 
 moulded after the Canticles than the Psalms. The chief iteme is the 
 Bpousal relation of the soul to Christ. Feeling and fancy become pre- 
 dominant, and sometimes degenerate into sentimentalism and puerility. 
 This tendency received a new impulse by a conjunction of tlie mystical 
 contemplative element vrith it. To it belong : Sigm. v. Bircken (Betu- 
 lius, ob. 1GG8, " Lasset uns mit Jesu ziehen") ; — Christopher Wec/lei- 
 ter, prof, and preacher in Altdorf {ob. 1706, " Beschvrertes Ilerz, leg ab 
 die Sorgen") ; — Mich. Franck, chief baker, then preceptor in Coburg 
 [ob. 16G7, " Gen Himmel aufgefahren ist") ; — Anr/elus Silesins (? 3G, 1), 
 the chief poet of this class, -who wrote, as Protestant, many admirably 
 sweet hymns ("Mir nach spricht Christus, unser Held," "Der am 
 Kreuz ist meine Liebe," " Ich will dich lieben, meine Stärke," "Liebe, 
 die du mich zum Bilde," etc.) ; — next to these, Christian Knorrv. liosen- 
 roth, died in Sulzbach (1G89) ("Morgenglanz der Ewigkeit"); — 
 Ludämilie Elizabeth, Countess of Schwarzl)urg-Rudolstadt [ob. 1G72, 
 composer of 215 precious hymns to Jesus : " Zeuch uns nach dir ") etc. ; 
 — Caspar Neumann, prof, and pastor at Breslau [ob. 1715, " Gottes und 
 Mariens Sohn"). — (3.) The cotemporaries and conyenial friends of 
 Spener, men who longed for a resuscitation of practical piety in the 
 Church. Their hymns are pervaded by a healthy and sincere piety. 
 Spener's effusions are of small importance. /. Jac. Schütz, Spener's 
 friend, a counsellor-at-law in Frankfürt [ob. 1G90), composed only one, 
 but an important hymn ("Sei Lob und Ehr"); — Ad. Drese, chapel- 
 master in Weimar [ob. 1718, three hymns, " Seelenbräutigam," etc.) ; — 
 Sam. liodigast, rector in Berlin [ob. 1708, " "Was Gott thut, das ist 
 wohlgetiian") ; — Laurentius Laurentii, director of music in Bremen 
 [ob. 1722, "Wach auf mein Ilerz, die Nacht 'ist hin"); — Ci/riacus 
 Günther, gymnasial teacher in Gotha [ob. 1704, " Halt im Gedächtuiss 
 Jesum Christ"); — Gottfr. Arnold [ob. 1714, " Durchbrecher aller 
 Bande"). (Cf. H6, 4.) 
 
 4. Music. — Simultaneously with the change effected, through the 
 influence of Opitz, in the style and character of Church hymns, a cor- 
 responding change took place in Church music, through the influence 
 of the new Italian school. Here also, as in the case of hymnology, 
 we may discover a transition period, which retained the essential ex- 
 cellencies of the old style, but was ready, also, to adopt the more 
 elegant and polished form, as well as the subjective emotionalism of 
 the new style, impressing it with the fervor and energy of the German 
 evangelical spirit. The first prominent master of tliis transition-stage 
 is .John Tlerm. Schein, cantor at the St. Thomas school in Leipsic [ob. 
 1630). Still more prominent than he was .John Criiger, cantor at the 
 Church of St. Nichdlas, Berlin [ob. 1662). He did for music what Paul 
 Gerhardt did for hymnology. He composed 71 new tunes, full of the 
 energy of faith, and tender fervor, adapted to Gerhardt's, Iloerman's, 
 J. Frinck's, Dach's, Binkart's, etc., hymns, and his tunes held their 
 plac9 in the Church until the period of illumination. Next to him we
 
 208 SECTION III. — SECOND PERIOD (c E N T. 17 Ä.. D.). 
 
 must name: Ja^ob Rintze in Berlin [oh. 1695) ; John Ebelinj, Crliger's 
 successor as cantor, who composed tunes for Gerhardt's 120 hymns 
 John Schop, leader of a band in Hamburg {ob. 1600), who composed 
 lively popular tunes to the best of Rist's hymns ; and Thorn. Seile, 
 town cantor in Hamburg [ob. 1663), also an excellent singer of Rist'a 
 hymns. 
 
 In the second half of the 17th century, the modern style gained a 
 decided preponderance' over the antique method. Musical declamation, 
 and expression suited to the words, prevail ; rythmical irregularities 
 and the old churchly tunes disappear before a regular measure, and 
 modern softer tunes ; so that psalmody becomes wholly alienated from 
 its original vital element, as popular singing. Religious concert music, 
 which contained no reminiscent traces even of the old Church melodies, 
 and despised the form of hymns and strophes, was more constantly 
 cultivated. Thus the congregation wholly ceased taking part in the 
 singing. Among the masters of this concert style, in Italian fashion, 
 Heinrich Schütz, masterof the chapel of electoral Saxony {ob. 1672) was 
 distinguished. He was the first to transplant to Germany the new 
 artificial form, by elaborating single passages from the Psalms, Canti- 
 cles, and the Prophets, into religious harmony (" Symphomia3 sacrae," 
 1629) ; and in these he entirely set aside the old popular Church tunes. 
 But some time elapsed (forming the transition stage already spoken of), 
 before so radical a reform could naturalize itself. This was effected by 
 John Rosenmüller, leader of a band in Wolfenbüttel {ob. 1686), who 
 published " Kernsprüche aus heiliger Schrift Alten u. Neuen Testa- 
 ments," in concert style. A reaction against the exclusive predominance 
 of the Italian fashion, and the unchurching influence of artificial reli- 
 gious music, was introduced by Andr. Hammerschmidt, organist in 
 Zittau (1675), one of the noblest and most pious composers of the 
 German nation. By interweaving old Church melodies with religious 
 symphony,the old style of psalmody was combined with the new artifi- 
 cial style, somewhat in the form of a dialogue. The origin of arias is 
 closely connected with this last movement, since, instead of the inter- 
 woven old Church melodies, suitable and stirring artificial tunes, ac- 
 cording to the new taste, were invented for the hymns of cotemporaneous 
 poets. The excellent composer Rud. Ahle, organist and burgomaster 
 in Mühlhausen {ob. 1673), must be regarded as the proper author of 
 the aria style. He introduced his own agreeable arias into the regular 
 Lord's day and festival services. By being frequently repeated, the 
 pleasant ornate sounds impressed themselves upon the memory of all 
 that heard them, so that they were soon adopted in the congregational 
 singing. His religious arias, besides appropriating all the ornaments 
 of the modern style, are distinguished by their youthful freshness and 
 vigor, breathe a holy earnestness, and are still free of the secularization 
 and playful trivialities into which the aria style soon fel . Next to 
 Ahle, mention must be made of Peter Sohr, schoolmaster in Elhing,
 
 REFORMED THEOLOGY AND IIS CONFLICTS. 209 
 
 many o^ whos : arial tunes passed into Church use. As the massive, 
 grand fnrnis o_ the old melodies by this time already appeared too hard 
 and irregular, Wolfg. Charles Briegel, cantor at Gotha, undertook to 
 modify them (1G87), so as to suit the altered taste of the times. John 
 Pachelbel, organist in Nuremberg [oh. 1706), the greatest performer o^ 
 his day, belongs to this tendency as a composer. (Cf. ^ 46, 5.) 
 
 5. Christian Life. — Notwithstanding numerous orthodoxistic and 
 separatistic excrescences, the reliyimis poetry of this period furnishes 
 brilliant testimony concerning the fulness, depth, and fervor of the 
 religious life of the period. And an abundance of excellent devotional 
 books, of imperishable value, as well as popular expositions (especially 
 that of Ernesti, Nuremb. 1641) of the Bible, afibrd proof of pastoral 
 fidelity and zeal, as well as of the favor with which these attentions 
 ■were received by the Lutheran people. Ernest the Pious, of Saxe-fiotha, 
 appears almost an ideal of a Christian prince {oh. 1675, cf. /. Gelbke, 
 Herzog E. d. Fr. 1810, 3 Bde.) (Cf. § 46, 6.) 
 
 6. Missions. — The missionary efforts of the Lutheran Church are 
 still limited to their relatively low level. Gustavus Adolphus, of Swe- 
 den, however, prosecuted the Lapland mission with increased zeal, and 
 Denmark, also, cheerfully aided' in the work. A Norwegian clergy- 
 man, Thomas von Westen {ob. 1727), may, on account of liis eiBcient 
 zeal, be called the apostle of this mission (completed more recently by 
 Stockfleth. — Cf A. G. liudelbach, d. finnisch-lappische Mission u. Thom. 
 V. Westen, in A. Knapp's Christoterpe, 1833). Peter Heyling, a German 
 of Lübeck, went as a missionaVy to Abyssinia (1635), and several of 
 his friends went to other countries of the East, at the same time, and 
 for a similar purpose. Of the latter nothing was ever heard. But an 
 Abyssinian abbot who visited Europe, brought tidings of Heyling. 
 At first he was opposed by the machinations of the Jesuits. As soon, 
 however, as they were driven off, he gained access to the court, became 
 minister to the king, one of whose relatives he married. The ultimate 
 fate of him and his mission is unknown. 
 
 IV. THE REFORMED CHURCH. 
 
 I 40. REFORMED THEOLOGY AND ITS CONFLICTS. 
 
 Theological science flourished in the Reformed Church during 
 the 17th century, to an unexampled degree. The contributions 
 to Biblical philology, to antiquarian and historical researches, 
 were especially remarkable. The Reformed theologians of France 
 sought to out-rival the Maurines and Oratorians of that country, 
 and those of the Netherlands, England, and Switzerland, sought 
 61*
 
 210 SECTION III. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 17 A. D.). 
 
 to keep up with the reputation for learning acquired by their 
 French brethren. But a union of the Reformed Churches 
 of different countries, in faith and confession, and by means 
 of general synods, failed at the first attempt to affect it, in 
 Dort. Opposition to Calvin's rugged doctrine of predestination 
 started a Pelagianizing current in the Reformed Church, which 
 carried with it others besides ex professo Ärminians. In Eng- 
 land this opposition found its expression in latifudinarianism, 
 and, still worse, in deism (§ 43, 2). In France it took a more 
 moderate course, and led, in several respects, to an approxima- 
 tion to the Lutheran doctrine. In general, however, all these 
 movements are to be regarded as a reaction of Zxvinglianism, 
 which, though repelled, had not been overcome by Calvinism. 
 The intrusion of the Cartesian philosophy into the Reformed 
 Church, was successfully resisted by Voetius; but then a scholas- 
 licism obtained the ascendancy, in comparison with which that 
 of Quenstedt is only child's play. In opposition to it the federal 
 theology of Oocceius forced its way back to the Scriptural life- 
 source, and to a certain extent corresponds with the pietistic 
 movement. 
 
 1. TJie Armiyiian Controversy. (Cf. /. Regenhoog, Hist. d. Remon- 
 stranten. From the Dutch, Lemgo, 1781, 2 Bde. — M. Graf, Betr. zur 
 Gesch. d. Syn. v. Dordr. Bas. 1825. [Herzog's Encycl. Philad. 1860, 
 articles Arminius, Dart]). — Calvin's dogma of absolute predestination 
 (which even the German Reformed Church evaded, or softened down), 
 produced in the Netherlands a passionate controversy, w^hich ended in 
 the split of the Netherland Reformed Church. In the 16th century, 
 :already, the milder view of the ivfralapsarians, who held that the act 
 of predestination followed the fall, was set up in opposition to that of 
 the stricter Calvinists, who maintained that God had passed that act, 
 before the fall, and who were therefore called sup7-alapsainans. Drawn 
 into this controversy, James Arminnis, prof, in Leyden since 1603, be- 
 came more and more convinced, that the dogma of an absolute predes- 
 tination was anti-scriptural, but then wandered into Pelagian paths. 
 His colleague, Francis Gomartis, violently opposed him. The conflict 
 soon became so bitter and general, that the Holland States supposed 
 they would have to interfere. A religious colloquy proved the more 
 fruitless, as Arminius died during its progress (1609). The States, 
 favoring the Arminians, declared the differences non-essential, and 
 enjoined peace. Simon Episcopius, from 1611 prof, in Leyden, placed 
 himself at the head of the Arminian party. But as the Arminians 
 were continually reproached and assailed by the Gomarists as Pela- 
 gians, they laid a Remonstrance before the States (1610), which, in five
 
 REFORMED THEOLOGY AlfD ITS CONFLICTS. 211 
 
 articles, set forth a carefully restricted semipelagianism. Thenceforth 
 they were called Remonstrants, their opponents Contra-Remonstrants. 
 There were influential men on the side of the Arniinians, including 
 the syndic OMenöarHei-eW, and i/wf/oCroitus,'" distinguished as a jurist, 
 humanist, and theologian, — heads of the liberal, republican party. 
 The Stadtholter Maurice of Oranye, on the other hand, took part with 
 the Gomarists, in order by their influence to pave his way to the throne. 
 By a master-stroke he succeeded in overpowering the leaders of the 
 opposing party. It was ordered that the religious controversy should 
 be decided by a general Synod at Dort (1618-19). An invitation to 
 attend was extended to theologians of all Reformed countries, and 28 
 foreigners were present. The synod held 154 sessions. The result 
 could be foreseen. The doctrine of the Remonstrants was rejected, 
 absolute predestination was established anew as a doctrine of the 
 Church, but the infralapsarian view was allowed. Remonstrant con 
 gregations were not tolerated in Holland until 1630 (after the death of 
 Maurice). Their original semipelagianism, however, gradually dege- 
 nerated into decided Pelagianism. Concerning the CoUegiants, see 
 ? 42, 1. 
 
 2. Effects of the Arm,inian Controversy. — The canons of Dort were 
 by no means received by all the Reformed Churches. In Germany, 
 Brandenburg, Hesse, and Bremen, expressly and decidedly refused 
 assent to them. The tempered Calvinism of the Ilcidellierg Catechism, 
 and the Confessio Marchica, continued to prevail there, with more or 
 less sympathy for Arminianism. In Enyland and Scotland spirited 
 efforts were made by the Presbyterians to secure the ascendancy of 
 Dort, whilst the Episcojml Cimrch would have nothing to do with it, 
 and, from its aversion to exclusive Calvinism, gave place to latitudina- 
 rian tendencies, which allowed the distinction of essential and non- 
 essential articles of faith, and thus largely fell into a state of lukewarm- 
 ness and indifferentism. The most distinguished latitudinarians of this 
 period are: William Chillinyworth (oh. 1644), who became disgusted 
 with the theological collisions of his Church, and took refuge in Catho- 
 licism, but soon discovered his mistake, retraced his steps, and sought 
 and found true peace in the Word of God alone. (Cf. A. Keander, 
 Erinn. an Wil. Ch. Berlin, 1«32.— [The works of Ch., etc., Philad., 
 1841]); the renowned pulpit orator, John Tillotson, Archb. of Cant. 
 {ob. 1694); Gilb. Burnet [ob. 1715), author of a Hist, of the Ref. etc., 
 and others. — The French reformed Church remained, in general, true 
 to strict Calvinistic orthodoxy, although several of its esteemed theolo- 
 gians strove to soften down the sharp points of the predestinarian 
 system. Thus Moses Amyrault, prof, at the Ref. acad. of Saumur (ob. 
 1664), who proposed the doctrine of a universalismus hypothcticus, 
 which taught that God had determined by a Decretum universale et 
 hypotheticum to save all men (even the heathen on the ground of a 
 fides implicita) through Jesu? Christ, on condition of faith, to effect
 
 212 SECTION III. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 17 A.D.). 
 
 which gratia resistibilis is given to all, whilst, in consequence of a 
 decretum absolutum et speciale, only the elect receive gratia irresisti- 
 bilis. (Traite de la predestination, 1634). Two French synods, at 
 Alen^on (1637) and Charenton (1644), pronounced this doctrine to be 
 admissible, and many highly respected theologians [Dav. Rlondel, Jean 
 DailM, and /. Claude) defended it. Others, however, [Pet. du Moulin 
 in Sedan, Andr. Rivet, and Fr. Spanheim in Leyden, Sam. Maresius 
 in Grüningen), assailed it most violently (cf. A. Schweizer, Mos. Amy- 
 raldus, in the Tub. Jahrbb. 1852, I.) Amyrald's colleague, Joshua 
 de la Place (Placseus, ob. 1655) went still further, and denied the un- 
 conditional imputation of Adam's sin, and regarded original sin only 
 as an evil which does not involve guilt until actual sin has been com- 
 mitted. The synods above named condemned this doctrine. Some 
 time afterwards, Claude Pagon, at Saumur [oh. 1685), excited a lively 
 controversy by a declaration which pointed to universal grace, affirm- 
 ing that all the operations of Divine providence and of the Holy Spirit 
 were designed to effect man's conversion, the former by the events of 
 life, the latter by means of the Word of God. A number of French 
 synods condemned this doctrine, and aflBrmed an immediate, as well 
 as a mediate operation of the Holy Spirit and of providence (cf. ÄI. 
 Schweizer, d. Pajonismus, in the tlibg. Jahrbb. 1853, I.) — In Stvitzer- 
 land, genuine Calvinism was most rigidly adhered to. In its defence, 
 the Zurich theologian _/. H. Heidegger, aided by Prof. Fr, Turretin of 
 Geneva, drew up a new symbol, the Formula consensus helvetici, which 
 was recognized by most of the cantons in 1675. Besides setting forth 
 a rigid predestinarian doctrine, this consensus also laid it down as a 
 doctrine of the Church, that the Hebrew vowel points of the Old Testa- 
 ment were inspired, a view for which the two Basel professors, John 
 Buxtorf, father [oh. 1629) and son [oh. 1664), contended, and which 
 Louis Capelliis of Saumur [oh. 1658) opposed. 
 
 3. The Cartesian and Cocceian Controversies. — Even after the subsi- 
 dence of the^Arminian controversy, the Netherlands were the scene 
 of violent theological disputes. The philosophy of the French Catholic 
 Re)i6 Descartes (^ 43, 1) found great favor among the Reformed of 
 Holland. It sustained, indeed, in itself, no immediate relation to 
 Christianity, or the Church, and its theological adherents desired to 
 have it used only as a means of formal cultivation. But its funda- 
 mental principle, that all real knowledge proceeds from doubt, was 
 regarded by the leading representatives of a strict orthodoxy as most 
 perilous to the Church. The most respected, talented, and violent of 
 these opponents, was Gishert Voe'tius. prof, of theol. at Utrecht (1634- 
 76). He succeeded in obtaining from the States' General a prohibition 
 (1656) of the Cartesian philosophy. The system did, indeed, produce 
 very suspicious fruits. One of its chief advocates, Alex. Poll, a Ger- 
 man, and prof, at Utrecht [ob. 1718), not only taught that the divinity 
 of the Holy Scriptures must be demonstrated by reason, inasmucli as
 
 REFORMED THEOLOGY AND ITS CONFLICTS. 213 
 
 the testimonium Spir. s, internum was limited to believers, but he, also 
 disputed the imputation of original sin, the doctrine that the death of 
 saints is a penalty of sin, and the eternal generation of the Son. An- 
 other zealous Cartesian, Balth. Bekker (preacher at Amsterdam, de- 
 posed 1692, ob. 1698), in his " De betooverde Weereld," denied the 
 agency of the devil and of demons in general. Such evil fruits justified 
 the cry of heresy raised by the orthodox party, and brought Carte- 
 sianism into very bad credit. But the theological scholasticism which 
 Voetius and his school so fully elaborated, called forth a more powerful 
 reaction from another side, which successfully contended against it, as 
 barren, and producing an ossification both of science and religious life. 
 John Cocceius (Koch), prof, of theol. at Franeker and Leyden (o6. 
 1669), stood at the head of this reaction. The great aim of his life was 
 to lead theology back to the Bible, as its only living source, and to 
 supply it with a vital foundation, gathered from the Bible itself. He 
 believed that he had found such a basis in the idea of a two-fold cove- 
 nant of God with man (the foedus naturge before, and the foedus gratiae 
 after the fall). Thus he became the author of the federal theology, which 
 made the historical development of Revelation the ruling principle of 
 theological inquiry, and of theology as a system, and thus became the 
 founder of a purely biblical theology (as a history of Redemption), 
 He adhered as closely as possible to predestinarian orthodoxy, but it 
 was only a mechanical adhesion. It is not the idea of an election of 
 grace, but of a guidance of grace, which predominates in his whole 
 system. In exegesis he set up the rule : Id significant verba, quod 
 significare possunt in integra oratione sic ut omnino inter se conveniant. 
 But Christ is the centre of the history of Redemption, the Church, and 
 the world ; hence everything found in the Bible, history, doctrine, pro- 
 phecy, stands in immediate and necessary relation to Christ, The Old 
 Testament furnishes, everywhere, prophecies and types pointing to the 
 coming of Christ in the flesh, and as all histories written after his 
 coming, point to his second advent, both the Old and New Testaments 
 foretell and foreshadow the history of the Church and the world to the 
 end of time. Thus Typology becomes the essence and guide of Coc- 
 ceian theology; but it also often wanders into innumerable arbiti'ary 
 allegories, and an almost puerile trifling with external, incidental, and 
 forced resemlilances. Common opposition to scholasticism brought the 
 Cartesians and Cocceians into a somewhat close relationship. The 
 former took up with the favorite ideas of the Cocceians, and these 
 prized the Cartesian philosophy as a formal means of culture. This, 
 however, excited the scholastics to a violent assault upon both. They 
 especially charged Cocceian theology with Judaism, Pelagianism, 
 Chiliasm, and all conceivable heresies, whilst Cocceius and his adhe- 
 rents blamed orthodoxy ü, la mode with the radical ruin of the Reformed 
 Church. Politics was mixed up with this controversy, also, as with 
 the Arminian. The Orange party sought support among the Yoetians ;,
 
 214 SECTION III. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 17 A.D.). 
 
 the liberal republican party looked to the Cocceians. A formal schisok 
 as in the former case, was prevented only by the urgent entreaties and 
 admonitions of foreign (German Reformed) synods. Cocceian theology 
 secured toleration and even admission to theological chairs, and soon 
 acquired a decided preponderance over scholastic theology. (Cf. Melch. 
 Leydecker, Synopsis controversiarum de foed. et testamentis Dei, quae 
 hodie in Belgio moventur, Traj. 1690.) 
 
 4. Theological Literature. — Biblical oriental philology flourished 
 mightily in the Reformed Church of this period, especially through the 
 labors of John Drusius of Franeker {ob. 1616), the greatest Old Testa- 
 ment exegete of his day ; then through the two Buxtorfs in Basel 
 (father, ob. 1629 ; and son, ob. 1664), who were the greatest rabbinical 
 scholars in the Christian Church. The former wrote Chaldaic and 
 Syriac grammars, and a Hebrew-Chaldee lexicon, Tiberias s. Commen- 
 tarius Masorethicus (inspiration of the vowel points), etc. His two 
 greatest works : Concordantiae Bibl. hebr. and Lexicon Chald. Talmud, 
 et Rabinlcum, proofs of his gigantic industry, were first completed by 
 his no less laborious son, who also contributed a number of his own 
 works to this department of learning. Both were rivalled by /. Henry 
 Hottinger of Zurich [ob. 1667), who made himself master of oriental 
 literature and languages, so far as they were then accessible, and made 
 them subservient to Biblical philology in a great number of learned 
 works, and found time, besides, to write a comprehensive and learned 
 Church history. Cocceius, also, holds an important place among He- 
 brew lexicographers. In England, Brian Walton [ob. 1661), in con- 
 nection with a number of English scholars, undertook to issue the 
 London Polyglott, which far surpassed all previous similar publications- 
 in the completeness of its material and apparatus. Edm. Castellus, 
 prof, at Cambridge, contributed his renowned Lexicon heptaglotton, as 
 the 7th volume of this great work. The Elzevir printing-ofiices in Am- 
 sterdam and Leyden eifected the issue of a textus receptus of the New 
 Testament (1624). J. Pearson collected the most valuable exegetical 
 contributions of earlier times, and published them in his great work: 
 Critici Sac7-i, Lond. 1660, 9 vols. fol. ; and Matthew Pole did the same 
 in his Synopsis criticoru'm, Lond. 1669, 5 vols. fol. The most distin- 
 guished exegetes of this period were : in France, the brothers Jacob 
 Capellus, in Sedan [ob. 1624), and Louis Capellus in Saumur [ob. 1658), 
 for their thorough knowledge of languages, and liberal criticisms ; in 
 England,, Edio. PococJce in Oxford [ob. 1691, Ilosea, Joel, Micah, Mala- 
 chi), and John Lightfoot in Cambridge [ob. 1695, Horae hebraicae et 
 talmudicae, in elucidation of the New Testament) ; in the Netherlands, 
 John Cocceius, who wrote comm. on almost the whole Bible, giving, 
 beside the typological significations, a thorough grammatical historical 
 interpretation, — and his pupil Campegius Vitringa in Franeker [ob. 
 1716), the distinguished expositor of Isaiah and the Apocalypse. 
 Among the Arminian exegetes we name the learned statesman and
 
 REFORMED THEOLOGY AND ITS CONFLICTS. 215 
 
 jurist Hugo Grothts {oh. 1645), and John Clericus in Amsterdam (bort. 
 1657, oh. 1736), the two greatest masters of historioo-grammatical expo- 
 sition, of this and the succeeding century, and who also levied upon 
 classical literature and philology for illustrations of the Scriptures. 
 Specially deserving of notice is John Andr. Ei^enmenger, prof, of the 
 oriental languages in Heidelberg [oh. 1704), author of the renowned 
 work: "Entdecktes Judenthum," 2 Bde. 4to., in which he collected 
 from countless Jewish works, with stupendous industry, enormoua 
 learning, and fanatical partiality, the absurdities and blasphemies of 
 the Rabbinical theology, having been prompted to the undertaking by 
 the assumptions and arrogance of the Jews of that day. The book 
 was published in Frankfurt (2000 copies), and Eisenmenger devoted 
 his entire property to it. The Jews offered him 12,000 guilders to 
 suppress it, but he demanded 30,000. They then procured an order 
 from the court of Vienna, for the confiscation of the entire edition, be- 
 fore a single copy could be sold. Eisenmenger died soon after this 
 (1704), and his heirs endeavored in vain to secure the release of the 
 book. Even the urgent intervention of King Frederick of Prussia was 
 unavailing. The king finally (1711) resolved to have another edition 
 printed at his own cost, in Königsberg, from a copy which had been 
 presented before the book was confiscated. After this was done the 
 Frankfürt edition was likewise released. The Reformed Church of this 
 period made truly brilliant contributions to the departments of Biblical 
 Archccology and History, including those of the Englishmen J. Seiden 
 (de synedriis vett. Hebr. ; De Diis Syris. ; uxor hebr. ; De jure naturali 
 et gentium juxtadiscipl. Ilebr.), Thomas Goodwin (Moses and Aaron), 
 James Usher (Usserius, Annales V. et N. T.), /. Marsham (Canon 
 chronicus), John Spencer {oh. 1693, de legibus Hebr. ritual., with an 
 arbitrary reference of them to Egyptian customs, on the ground of a 
 divine accommodation) ; of the Frenchman Sam. Bochart (Hierozoicon, 
 a nat. hist, of the Bible ; Phaleg, or bibl. geography as a comm. on 
 Genesis, c. 10; both works almost inexhaustible treasures of the most 
 exquisite learning) ; in the Netherlands, Pet. Cunceus (de republ. 
 Hebr.) /. Braun (de vestitu pontif. hebr.), C. Vitringa (de Synagoga 
 vett.), etc. 
 
 Dogmatic theology throve most on Netherland soil. A Pole, John 
 Makoiosky (Maccopius, oh. 1644), as teacher of theol. at Franekcr, in- 
 troduced the scholastic method into Reformed dogmatics (Loci com- 
 munes theol.) The synod of Dort acquitted him. indeed, of the charge 
 of heresy, but disapproved of his scholastic method. Nevertheless it 
 soon became predominant. Its most distinguished advocates are Samuel 
 Maresius of Groningen {oh. 1673), Gishert Voetius of Utrecht {oh. 1676, 
 SelectJB disputt. theol.), John Hoornbeck of Leyden {oh. 1666) ; and 
 among the Germans, Fred. Wendelin, Rector in Zerbst {oh. 1652). The 
 most distinguished /ef7er«7 theologians, next to Cocceius (Summa doe- 
 trinse de fcedere et testamentis Die 1648), are: Francis Momma, Abr.
 
 216 SECTION III. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 17 A.D.). 
 
 Heidanus, Casp. Wittig, Sol. v. Till, and Heni-ij Hulsius, of Leyden ; 
 John Braun of Groningen ; Herman Witsius of Franeker ; Francis 
 Burmann and Melch. Leydecker of Utrecht. — The Frenchman, Is. PeyrC' 
 rius, attracted great attention by his declaration, based on Rom. 5 : 12, 
 etc., that Adam was primogenitor of the Jews only, and that the Gen- 
 tiles were of pre-Adamite origin, and that the flood was not universal 
 (Syst. theol. ex Praeadamitarum hypothesi, 1655). He escaped impri- 
 sonment by entering the Catholic Church ; he recanted, but still adhered 
 to his views [oh. 1676). — Morality, which had been largely limited to 
 an exposition of the decalogue, was raised by Moses Amyrauli to an 
 independent science (La morale chretienne, 6 vols.) Casuistry was 
 treated of by W. Perkins of Cambridge, and W. Amesius of Rotterdam. 
 General polemics were prosecuted by Iloornbeck, Francis Turretin, of 
 Geneva, Fred. Spanheim of Leyden, etc. The most extensive contro 
 versial work was produced by Dan. Chamier of Montauban [oh. 1621) 
 against the Catholics (Panstratia catholica, 4 vols, fol.) The historical 
 studies of the Reformed Church were, likewise, almost exclusively pur- 
 sued for the purposes of controversy against the Catholics, and were 
 prosecuted with a thoroughness and zeal which contributed largely to 
 the elucidation of the science. General Church history was studied 
 by/. H. Hottinger of Zurich, Fred. Spanheim of Leyden, Jacob Basnage 
 of Zlitphen, ob. 1691 (adv. Baronius). Among the numerous historical 
 mono<^raphs, we must specially name the works of Dav. Blondel, James 
 Daille (Dallseus), Claude Salmasius, J. Usher, Bodicell, Spanheim, 
 Heidegger, etc. (Cf. § 48, 3.) 
 
 § 41. PIETY IN THE REFORMED CHURCH. 
 
 The piety of the Reformed Church is characterized by an 
 austere legality, a rigoristic renunciation of the world, and a 
 resolute earnestness which disregarded consequences, coupled 
 with a decision and energy of will, which nothing in the world 
 could break or bend. It was the spirit of Calvin which impressed 
 this character upon it, and his doctrine which supported it. 
 Only by countries where Calvin's spirit was enervated or re- 
 pressed, as in the Lutheranizing German Reformed, or Catholi- 
 cising Anglican Churches, was this tendency resisted. But it 
 manifests itself in an enhanced degree, often to extreme harsh- 
 ness, among the English and Scotch Puritans, as well as among 
 the French Huguenots, nourished, as it was, by persecution and 
 oppression. Hemmed in by the narrowest legal limits, the reli- 
 gious life of the Reformed could not move so freely, and could 
 not exhibit itself in such rich and various forms, as are expressed 
 ia the hymns and singing of the German Lutheran Church,
 
 PIETY IN THE REFORMED CHURCH. 217 
 
 yevertbeless the Reformed Church furnished the pattern of a 
 princely saint, in the person of the noble Electress Louisa Hen- 
 rietta, who may be favorably compared with the pious Duke 
 Ernest (§ 39, 5). She, likewise, composed several hymns of 
 great merit, but they, and similar productions, breathe not a 
 Romanic Calvinistic, but rather a German spirit, formed partly 
 by Lutheran influences. — But the highest g'lory of the Romanic 
 Reformed Church of this period, a glory which renders it honor- 
 able in all ages, is its incomparable martyr-spirit, which it dis- 
 played most brilliantly in France. 
 
 . 1. In its public singing, the ReformeU Church still continued to use, 
 mainly, Marot's and Lobwasser's metrical versions of the Psalms 
 [I 23, 1). Maurice of Hesse issued a new edition (1612) of the latter, 
 with some new austere melodies, for the use of the Church in his coun- 
 try. But Lutheran psalmody gradually passed over into the Reformed 
 Church, whilst the latter furnished a couple of religious poets during 
 this period, whose hymns, as true Church hymns, were adopted by 
 Lutheran hymn-books. They are: Louisa Henrietta, Princess of 
 Orange, wife of the great Elector [ob. 1667). She furnished four h^^mns 
 for a hymn-book provided by her for Reformed congregations (including 
 "Jesus meine Zuversicht," and "Ich will von meiner Missethat"), 
 and Joachim Neander, preacher in Bremen [oh. 1680. " Lobe den Herrn, 
 den mächtigen König"). Among ascetic writers, Richard Baxter oacw- 
 pies the first rank. He was a moderate Puritan, and a chaplain in 
 Cromwell's army [ob. 1691. " Saints' Rest," " Call to the Uncon- 
 verted," "The Reformed Pastor," etc.) The Puritans can also boast 
 of a most distinguished poet in John Milton (Paradise Lost, Paradise 
 Regained), who, however, also handled a severe controversial pen, and 
 vindicated the execution of Charles I. 
 
 2. The Reformed Church had two opportunities of proving the ai'dor 
 of its Christian love in the work of missions among the heathen, one by 
 the cession of the Portuguese East India colonies to the Netherlands, 
 at the beginning of the 17th century, another by the colonies which 
 went from England to North America, during that entire century. 
 The Netherland government, in its missionary operations, followed 
 in the footsteps of its Portuguese predecessor. It demanded of all the 
 natives who sought any official position, that they should be baptized 
 and subscribe the Belgic confession. Many thousands outwardly com- 
 plied with these terms, who, morally, remained what they were before. 
 On the other hand the English Puritans, who had emigrated to Ame- 
 rica on account of their faith, displayed a zeal in their efiorts to con- 
 vert the Indians, which was worthy of the Protestant name. One of 
 their number, Jolin Eliot, was called the apostle of the Indians. For 
 fifty years he labored among them with untiring and self-denying zeal, 
 62
 
 218 SECTION III. — SECOND PERIOD (CEN T. 17 A. D.). 
 
 translated the Bible into their own language, and estalished 17 mis- 
 sion stations among them, 10 of which, however, were broken up during 
 his lifetime by a bloody war. He died in 1690. Eliot's work was con- 
 tinued for five generations by the Mayliew family. English Puritans 
 in London established a society for the propagation of the Gospel in 
 1647. 
 
 V. ANTI- AND EXTRA-ECCLESIASTICAL MATTERS. 
 § 42. SECTS AND FANATICS. 
 
 All the four principal Churches contribute a share to the 
 history of sectarianism and fanaticism, not excluding the Catho- 
 lic (§ 36, 1) or even the Greek. The Baptists in England, like 
 the Anabaptists of the continent, rejected infant baptism ; whilst 
 the Quakers, carrying this tendency to its furthest extreme, 
 wholly rejected baptism and the Lord's Supper, adopted the old 
 theory of an inner light, and made it the basis of their organi- 
 zation. A number of other fanatics and separatists did not get 
 so far as to form a permanent organization. The chief rendezvous 
 of these was in the Netherlands, where a free government afforded 
 a refuge for all who were banished on account of their faith. 
 There alone, also, did the press enjoy sufficient liberty to aid in 
 the propagation of mystical and theosophic works, without hin- 
 drance. The sects of Russia, finally, which have been but little 
 inquired after, possess very special interest, and claim our notice. 
 (Cf. § 49.) 
 
 1. Netherland Anabaptists. (Cf. | 27, 2). — Even during Menno's 
 life, the Mennonites had divided into the moderate or Wateiiandians, 
 and rigid or Ftemingians. The former, who departed in many respects 
 from the original strictness of the sect, in regard to morals and disci- 
 pline, and constituted a preponderant majority, soon separated, in con- 
 sequence of the Acminian controversy, into a remonstrant and a pre- 
 destinarian party. The former were designated Gatenists, after their 
 leader Galenus de Ilaen, and Lammists, because their church adopted 
 the symbol of the Lamb. The others were called Apostoolians, from 
 their leader Samuel Apostool, or Sunnists, because the sign of the sun 
 was placed on the front of their churches. The Lammists, who rejected 
 all confessions of faith, gradually gained a decided ascendency ; but in 
 1800 the two parties united, and the Sunnists adopted the principles 
 and doctrines of the Lammists. The Remonstrant Anabaptists received
 
 SECTS AND FANATICS. 219 
 
 a large accession from the Arminian Collegiants. During the time that 
 the Arminianswere nol tolerated by the State, and when their teachers 
 were banished, the lack of clergymen among them induced the three 
 brothers Van der Codde to found another sect, called Collegianta, who 
 abolished the office of the ministry, allowed laymen to preach and 
 administer the sacraments, and admitted only adults to baptism, by 
 immersion. Their place of immersion was the village of Rhynshurg 
 on the Rhine ; hence they were also called Rhymbnryers. They were 
 called Cullegiants from their assemblies, which were designated Col- 
 legia. 
 
 2. The English Baptists. — About the middle of the 17th century, the 
 Baptist party sprang from the English Independents. They differed 
 from the latter in the rejection of infant baptism, from the Anabaptists 
 of the Continent, by retaining the independent or congrcgationalist 
 constitution. They baptized by immersion. They also rejected ordi- 
 nation. Through the influence of Arminianism, they split (1791) into 
 Particidar Baptists, who hold to Calvinistic predestination (gratia 
 particularis) and General Baptists, who reject that doctrine. The 
 former were by far the more numerous. Another sect, the Seventh-day 
 Baptists, was started toward the close of the 17th century by Francis 
 Bampßeld. They derive their name from their observance of the seventh 
 instead of the first day of the week, as their Sabbath. From England 
 the Baptists soon went to North America, which thenceforth became 
 their chief seat. There the original English form of the sect was diver- 
 sified with a great variety of shades. All the American Baptists re- 
 tained the Congregational constitution. (Cf. ^ 49, 6.) 
 
 3. The Quakers. (Cf. William Penn, a summary of the hist, discipl. 
 and doctrine of Friends. Lond. 1692. — O. W. Alberti, aufr. Nachricht 
 von d. Rel., Gottesdienst Sitt. u. Gebr. d. Qu. Hann. 1750.— A". Tuke, 
 Principles of Rel. as professed by the Quakers. {NcaVs Hist, of the 
 Puritans. — Sewell's and Rutty' s Ilist. of the Quakers]). — Geoige Fox 
 {ob. 1091), a shoemaker in the county of Leicester, arose (1G47) as a 
 preacher of repentance and a reformer, during the disturbances which 
 then distracted Church and State in England. Rejecting all external 
 Churchism, he desired to base Christianity wholly upon the inner light 
 of the Spirit in man, as a continuous divine revelation. lie gained 
 many adherents, and in 1G49 founded a distinct religious communion, 
 which assumed the name of the Society of Friends, but their opponents, 
 in ridicule, called them Quakers (tremblers, probably, from Philip. 
 2 : 12.) The doctrinal views of the Friends were reduced to a system, 
 during Fox's life, by George Keith (who, however, subsequently re- 
 turned to the Anglican Church, and assailed Quakerism), and especially 
 by Robert Barclay {ob. 1090. Theologian vere Christ, apologia, and a 
 Catechism or Confession of Faith, pronounced good l)y the general 
 assembly of the patriarchs, prophets, and apostles). Their refusal to 
 ?erve in war, to take the oath, or to pay tithes, subjected them to severe
 
 220 SECTION IIx. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 17 A.D.). 
 
 persecutions, imprisonment, etc. William Penn {ob. 171S), son of the 
 English admiral, then appeared as their deliverer and second founder. 
 In payment of a debt due his father, the Government conveyed to him 
 \ a large tract of land along the Delaware, in North America, vrhich he 
 converted into an asylum for all the persecuted and oppressed, and not 
 only from among Quakers. He founded, there, the colony of Pennsyl- 
 vania (1G82), under the English Government. Its chief city was Phi- 
 ladelphia, and the fundamental principle of its charter complete liberty 
 of religion and conscience. In England, also, the Quakers soon ob- 
 tained toleration, and were granted the same rights with other dissent- 
 ers, all possible forbearance being exercised towards their views con- 
 cerning the oath, war, etc. The Quakers acknowledge the Bible as 
 the word of God, but regard the inner word of God in men as of supe- 
 rior force, the former being considered merely as the starting-point of 
 the latter, and a means of exciting it. They wholly reject the ministry 
 and theological learning. Their communion consists only of such as 
 are enlightened. In their meetings, whoever is moved by the Spirit, 
 man or woman, may speak, pray, or exhort. If none is thus moved, 
 they continue sitting for a while in silent contemplation, and then as 
 quietly separate. They )iave no singing or music. Baptism and the 
 Lord's Supper are not observed by them. In social life, the Quakers 
 are distinguished by strict honesty, earnestness, an extremely simple 
 mode of living, a contempt of all luxury, change of fashion, or conven- 
 tional rules of society, etc. They conscientiously forbade taking the 
 oath, and all military and civil service. Subsequently, however, many 
 of them abated their rigorous severity in life and manners ; such were 
 called the ivet, whilst those who adhered to their original rigor were 
 called the dry, Quakers. During the present century a new party arose 
 among the American Quakers, under Elias Hides, who wholly tore 
 loose from historical Christianity, by denying the divinity of Christ, 
 and the inspiration of the Holy Scriptures. This movement compelled 
 the opposing party, called Evangelical Friends, to attach themselves 
 more closely to the authority of the Holy Scriptures. (Cf. ^ 49, 7. 
 [Also, Gurney, on the peculiarities of Friends, and Is. Crewdson, Bea- 
 con to the Friends, 1835J). 
 
 4. Many other fanatics arose during this period, who failed, however, 
 to found permanent sects. Jean de Lahadie, of France, whom the Je- 
 suits educated, joined the Reformed Chui'ch, and by the aid of his 
 talented and learned adherent, Anna Maria von Scliurmanr^ founded 
 the sect of Labadists in the Netherlands, who insisted upon an inner 
 Christianity, in true mystic sectarian style. — Peter Poiret, court- 
 preacher at Deux-Ponts in tue Palatinate, previously a Cartesian phi- 
 losopher, was a warm admirer of Bourignon and Guyon, whose writings 
 he published, and whose genuine Catholic mysticism he caricatured by 
 protestanizing it (L'economie divine. Amsterd. 1687, 7 Bde.). — Jane 
 Leade, of the county of Norfolk, a great admirer of Böhme's writings,
 
 SECTS AND FANATICS. 221 
 
 had spasms and visions, in which divine ■wisdom appeared to her in 
 the form of a virgin. She spread her Gnostic revelations by means of 
 numerous tracts, founded the Philadelphia Society, and died in 1704, 
 aged 81 years. The chief of her adherents was John Porduge, a phy- 
 sician, whose writings furnish the most insane specimen of the mystical 
 gibberish. — From the Lutheran Church sprang Fred. Breclcling, a Hol- 
 stein preacher, who was called to account for his slanders against the 
 Lutheran Church and its ministers, and fled to Holland. There he 
 preached for some time at Zwoll, but was then deposed for his Chiliasm. 
 After that he lived privately, and wrote a number of unimportant 
 mystical works {ob. 1711). — Quirinus Kiihlmann of Breslau, who tra- 
 velled through all Europe and part of Asia, advocating insane schemes 
 jf a reformation and union of all religions and sciences, and finally 
 perished at the stake in Moscow (1689). — Of greater importanc-e was 
 John Gichtel [ob. 1710), previously procurator of the imperial chamber 
 at Spires, an eccentric admirer of Böhme. He desired to tear himself 
 loose from all natural bonds, and descend into the depths of the God- 
 head. He had revelations and visions, and zealously opposed the doc- 
 trine of justification. His adherents, Gichtelians, called themselves 
 Angelic Brethren (Matt. 22 : 30), and strove, in the spirit of their 
 master, to attain to an angelic sinlessness, by tearing loose from all 
 carnal desires, cares, and toils, and to a priesthood after the order of 
 Melchisedec, to appease the wrath of God. (Cf. § 49.) 
 
 5. Russian Sects. (Cf. A. v. Harthausen, Studien über d. innern 
 Zustand Russlands. Hann. 1847, I. 337, etc.) — A great number of sects 
 arose in the Russian empire, designated by the general name of 
 Raskolniki (apostates). Their origin and history is involved in much 
 obscurity. According to their fundamental character, they form two 
 diametrically opposite leading classes: I. The Staroioerzi, or those 
 holding the ancient faith. Their origin was occasioned by the litur- 
 gical reformation of the learned and powerful patriarch Nikon, who 
 (1652) attempted to effect a thorough improvement of the liturgical 
 books, which had been greatly perverted by previous ignorance. But 
 his movement was strongly opposed by the people, who adhered to 
 their old forms. This opposition was by no means ovei-come, but led 
 to a separation of many (farmers) from the parent Church, They 
 combine with their stiff adherence to the old liturgical forms, a con- 
 tracted aversion to all new customs, and articles of luxury, introduced 
 into society (ex. gr. think it a sin to shave the beard, to smoke tobacco, 
 to drink tea or coffee, etc.) This sect, which is still very numerous, is 
 in general distinguished by a simple, moral, and temperate manner 
 of life. There are three kinds of Starowerzi : (1.) The Jedinoioerzi 
 (holding the same faith), who approach nearest to the orthodox Church, 
 recognize its priesthood, and differ from it only in their religious cere- 
 monies and social manners. (2.) The Starovbradzi (adherents to the 
 old customs), who differ from the last named only by their refusal to 
 62*
 
 222 SECTION III SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 17 A.D.). 
 
 recognize the priests of the orthodox Church. (3.) The Bespopowtschim 
 (the priestless), who have no priests, but only elders. They are split 
 up into numerous smaller sects, some of which have adopted decidedly 
 Gnostic elements. — II. Extremely opposite to the Starowerzi we find a 
 number of sects of a fundamentally Gnostic, mystic, and fanatical ten- 
 dency, rejecting all external churchism, with its ceremonies and sacra- 
 ments, or utterly diluting them. Many of these sects, whose Gnosticism 
 is embraced in fanatical forms, probably perpetuated themselves from the 
 Middle Ages, by means of secret traditions, that period having been ex- 
 ceedingly fertile in Gnostic and Manichfean productions. To this sect 
 belong the MorelscJiiki (the self-sacrificing), who submit from time to 
 time to a "baptism by fire," by burning themselves; the Skopsi 
 (eunuchs) who mutilate themselves ; the Chlistowtschini (flagellants •, 
 who are also accused of practising immoral orgies ; the Dumb, whom n" 
 torture can constrain to utter an audible sound, etc. Other sorts of 
 spiritualistic Gnostic fanatics arose in the 18th century, through occi- 
 dental influences. (Cf. | 45, 1.) 
 
 I 43. PHILOSOPHERS AND FREETHINKERS. 
 
 The scholastic philosophy of the middle ages had outlived 
 itself even during the pre-Reformation period. But a long time 
 elapsed before the philosophical impulse of the new era created 
 for itself independent and appropriate forms and methods. The 
 Italian Dominican, Thomas Campanella, may be regarded as an 
 echo of the philosophical movement of the 16th century, and 
 Bacon of Verulam, England, as the forerunner of modern philo- 
 sophy whilst Desca7'tes of France must be acknowledged as its 
 proper founder. After him we find the pinnacles of philosophi- 
 cal development occupied by Spinoza, Locke, and Leibnitz. By 
 the side of philosophy, we see a number o? free-thinkers starting 
 up, and borrowing from its armory weapons of attack upon 
 theology and the Church. They were the heralds of the univer- 
 sal predominance, in the following century, of that infidelity 
 which declared the Bible and Revelation as only imaginary and 
 deceptive sources of religit)us knowledge, and nature and reason 
 to be alone reliable. 
 
 1. Philosophj. (Cf. H. Ritter, Gesch. d. ehr. Philos. Bd. 6, 7.— J. E. 
 Erdiaann, Vers. e. Wsch. Darstell, d. Gesch. neueren Philos., Lpz., 
 1836, etc.) — Thomas Campanella, of Stilo in Calabria, entered the 
 Dominican Order, but soon lost all taste for Aristotelian philosophy 
 and scholastic theology, and turned to Plato, the Cabala, Astrology, 
 magic, etc Suspected of holding republican sentiments, he was placed
 
 PHILOSOPHERS AND FREE-THINKERS. 223 
 
 in custody by the Spanish government (1599). Seven times he endured 
 the rack for 24 hours without confessing, and then pined for 27 years 
 in a hard imprisonment. Pope Urban VIII. at length (1626) effected 
 his transfer to the prison of the papal Inquisition, In 1629 the Inqui- 
 sition acquitted him, and a pension vras bestovred on him. But the 
 Spaniards laid new snares for him, and he was compelled to flee to 
 France, to his patron Ilichelieu. lie died in 1639. His most complete 
 philosophical work is the Philosophia rationalis. In his Atheismus 
 triumphatus he defended the Christian Religion, in the Romish form, 
 but so unsatisfactorily that many thought Atheismus triumphans 
 would have been a more appropriate title. His Monarchia Messiae, 
 also, seemed even to Catholics, an unfortunate apology for popery. In 
 his Civitas solis, an imitation of Plato's Republic, he advanced com- 
 munistic views. Herder, in his Adrastea, revived his memory as a 
 \wet. — Francis Bacon of Verulam (for a time Lord High-Chancellor 
 of England), the great successor of Roger Bacon (I. § 104, 3), was the 
 first prominent and successful reformer of the scholastic mode. With 
 a most comprehensive mind, and as a prophet of science, he organized 
 its entire sphere, and prognosticated its future development. ("De 
 augmentis scientiarum," and "Novum Organum scientiarum.") He 
 strictly distinguished between sphere of knowledge (philosophy and 
 nature), which can only be acquired by experience, and that o? faith 
 (theology and the Church), of which revelation is the only source of 
 knowledge. But in spite of this distinction he uttered the sentiment : 
 Philosophia obiter libata a Deo abducit, pleniter hausta ad Deum 
 reducit. He earnestly insisted upon the close observance of nature, 
 as the only way of perfecting knowledge, and rendering it available ; 
 thus he became the author of empiricism in philosophy, and the patri- 
 arch of the utilitarianism of modern times. — The honor of being the 
 founder of modern philosophy (in the proper sense), really belongs to 
 Eene Descartes of France (Renatus Cartesius, ob. 1650). The corner- 
 stone of his system is the proposition : Cogito, ergo sum. The think- 
 ing essence is the scfbl. Philosophy starts with doubting, and by 
 means of definite cogitation arrives at a knowledge of what is true 
 and certain in surrounding objects. The consciousness of imperfection 
 to which the soul thus attains, leads to the idea of a most perfect being, 
 to whose perfection existence is also necessary (the outological proof). 
 His philosophy, which, however, did not pretend to sustain any rela- 
 tion to Christianity or the Church, gained many adherents among the 
 French Jansenists and Oratorians, and even penetrated into the Re- 
 formed theology of Holland, where it provoked a passionate contro- 
 versy, in which Catholic [Iluetius, etc.) as well as Reformed (Voetius, 
 etc.) theologians participated. — Benedict Spinoza, a Jewish convert in 
 Holland {oh. 1677), acquired but little influence over the philosophical 
 studies of his day, by the profound but obviously pantheistic philoso- 
 phy exhibited in his "Ethica," It was reserved for modern times to
 
 224 SECTION III. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 17 A. D.). 
 
 be carried away by it. But his " Tractatus theologico-politicus," in 
 which he critically assailed the Christian idea of Revelation, and the 
 authenticity of the Old Testament books, especially the Pentateuch, 
 and vindicated absolute free-thinking, called forth the theologians of 
 his day in opposition to his views, and in defence of Christianity. (Cf. 
 Schilder, die Lehre d. Sp. Mlinst. 1836. — Sigwart, d. Spinozismus hist. 
 u. philos. erläutert. Tub. 1839. — C.v. OrelU, Spinoza's Leben u. Lehre. 
 Aarau, 1843 ; Spinoza's Works, in German, by Auerbach, Stuttg. 1841.) 
 — In the sensualism of John Locke {ob. 1704) we have a middle term 
 between Bacon's empiricism and Descartes' rationalism on the one 
 hand, and English deism and French materialism on the other. His 
 " Essay on the Human Understanding" denies all innate ideas, and strives 
 to prove that all our ideas are the products of outward or inward ex- 
 perience (sensation or reflection). Even in this work, and still more 
 in his " Reasonableness of Christianity," which professes to be an 
 apology for Christianity, and, indeed, admits the truth of the bibli- 
 cal history, of miracles, and of the Messiaship of Christ, we find con- 
 cealed a lurking pelagianism, as the basis of his religious contemplation, 
 which discards the ideas of sin and an atonement, and openly i-educes 
 Christianity to the low level of a sound human understanding. — Gott- 
 fried With. Leibnitz (a Hanoverian statesman, ob. 1716), opened the 
 first period of German philosophy. The philosophy of Leibnitz is 
 equally opposed to the Paracelsian theosophy of Böhme, the empiricism 
 of Bacon and Locke, the pantheism of Spinoza, and the skepticism and 
 manichseism of Bayle, and is, indeed, a Christian philosophy, though, 
 alas ! it did not attain to its full, legitimate development. But as it 
 took up, improved, and carried out the philosophical rationalism of 
 Descartes, it furnished a starting-point for subsequent theological ra- 
 tionalism. The foundation of his system (which is most fully exhibited 
 in his works: "Essai de Theodicee" against Bayle, " Nouveau essai 
 Bur I'entendement humain" against Locke, and " Principia philosophise 
 ad principem Eugenium") is the doctrine of monads. In opposition to 
 the atom theory of materialism, he regarded all terrestrial phenomena 
 as concentrations of the so-called monads [i. e. most simple, indivisible 
 substances), each one of which, according to its particular place and 
 desijrn, was an image or reflection of the entire universe. Of these 
 monads, emanating from God as the Monas monadum, the world was 
 made a harmony, permanently arranged by God (harmonia praästabi- 
 lita). This world must be the best that could lae made, or it would not 
 exist at all (optimism). In opposition to Bayle, who had argued against 
 the wisdom, goodness, and justice of God, in Manichaäan style, because 
 of the existence of evil and sin, Leibnitz endeavored to show that the 
 presence of evil in the world did not conflict with the idea of a best 
 possible world, nor with the goodness, wisdom, etc. of God, since the 
 very idea of a creature necessarily involved finiteness and imperfection, 
 Vr, in other words, metaphysical evil, and that this rendered moral and
 
 PHILOSOPHERS AND FREE-THINKERS. 22£ 
 
 physical evil an unavoidable consequence, but not a consequence which 
 disturbed the harmonia proestabilita. Against Locke he vindicated the 
 existence of innate ideas as eternal truths ; he assailed indeterminism 
 against Clarl-e ; affirmed the agreement of philosophy with Revelation, 
 which might be above reason, but not against it ; and he hoped that he 
 could demonstrate the truth of his system with the same measure of 
 evidence employed in mathematics. (Cf. Lndovici, Entw. e. hist. d. 
 Leibuitzischon Phil. Lpz. 1737, 2 Bde.— (?. E. Guhrauer, G.W. v. Leib- 
 nitz, e. Biogr. Bresl. 1842, 2 Thle.) (Cf. ^ 50, 7.) 
 
 2. Free-thinkers. (Cf. /. A. Triniits, freidenkerlexic. Lpz. 1759.- 
 U. G. Thorschmidt, author of a complete English Free-thinker library. 
 Halle, 17Ü5, fol., 4 \o\s.—Leland, Abr. d. vornehmst, deist. Sehr, aus 
 d. Engl. V. II. G. Schmidt. Hann. 1755. 3 Bde.— (?. V. Lechler, Gesch. 
 d. engl. Deism. Stuttg. 1841.— i. Noack, die Freidenker in d. ReL 
 Bd. 1. Die englischen Deistcn. Bern, 1853.) — The pressure of the 
 spirit of the times and of worldliness, towards emancipation from all 
 positive Christianity, first appeared amidst the political freedom and 
 ecclesiastical ruptures of England. The tendency was called Na- 
 turalism, because it would acknowledge only a natural instead of re- 
 vealed religion — and Deism, because it acknowledged only a general 
 providence of the one God, instead of the triune God of redemption. 
 The impossibility of revelation, inspiration, prophecies and miracles, 
 was affirmed on philosophical grounds ; their actual existence in the 
 Bible and history was denied on critical grounds. The simple system 
 of deism was : God, providence, freedom of the will, virtue and con- 
 tinuation of the soul after death. The Christian doctrines of the 
 Trinity, original sin, satisfaction, justification, resurrection, etc., ap- 
 peared absurd and irrational. Deism in England, however, only met 
 with sympathy among educated and prominent worldlings; the people 
 and the entire" clergy adhered to positive religion. The theological re- 
 futations of the system were numerous, but their polemical power was 
 broken by a latitudinarian spirit. The most important English Deists 
 of this century were: (1.) Edward Herbert of Cherbimj, knight and 
 'honorable statesman [ob. 1G48). He reduced religion to five points: 
 belief in God ; obligation to honor him by an upright life ; expiation of 
 sin by sincere repentance; retribution in eternal life. (Writings: De 
 veritate, Doreligionegentilium). (2.) Thomas Hobbes [ob. 1019), an acute 
 and productive philosophico-political author, who regarded Christianity 
 as an oriental phantom, only of importance as a support of absolute 
 royalty and as an antidote against revolution. The state of nature 
 is a bellum omnium contra omnes ; religion is the means by which 
 civilizati(m and order is restored. It belongs to the State to determine 
 the religion which shall be established. Every one, indeed, may be- 
 lieve what he chooses, but, in reference to worship and churchdora, he 
 must submit entirely to the regulations of the State, whose representa- 
 tive is the king. (Chief work : Leviathan, or the matter, form, and
 
 226 SECTION III. — SECOND PERIOD (CENT. 17 A.D.). 
 
 power of a commonwealth, ecclesiastical and civil, 1651). (3.) Charles 
 Blount [oh. 1693, by suicide), a rabid opponent of all miracles as pure 
 priestly frauds. (Oracles of Reason, Religio Laici, Great is the Diana 
 of the Ephesians, Translation of the life of ApoUonius of Tyana, by 
 Philostratus). (4.) Thomas Broivn, a physician [oh. 1682, Religio 
 Medici). — The most celebrated of the opponents of deism of this period 
 are: Richard Baxter {§ 41, 1), Ralph Cudworth {oh. 1688), a latitudi- 
 narian theologian and platonizing philosopher, who attempted to prove 
 the chief doctrines of Christianity by means of the theory of innate 
 ideas (his principal treatise, Systema intellectuale, was published by 
 Lor V. Mosheim, in a Lat. translation, with remarks), and Samuel 
 Clarke [oh. 1729), who himself was charged with holding Arian views 
 of the Trinity). The pious Irishman, Robert Boyle, in London founded 
 (1691) an annual stipend of £40 sterling for combating deistic and 
 atheistic unbelief, in eight annual sermons. (Cf. §. 50, 1.) 
 
 The same hostility to positive religion which inspired the English 
 deists, manifested itself also at the same time in other countries, al- 
 though in more separate and transient forms. In Germany, since 1672, 
 Mathias Knutzen ("Hans Friederich von der Vernunft"), a travelling 
 candidate of Holstein, endeavored, by scattering numberless tracts, to 
 establish a sect of free-thinkers, under the name of the "conscientious" 
 (conscientiarii). The Christian "Koran" Avas said to contain only lies 
 and frauds; reason and conscience were the true Bible ; neither a God, 
 nor a hell, nor a heaven existed ; priests and magistrates ought to be 
 driven out of the world, etc. As he asserted that in Jena and the 
 neighborhood there existed already more than 700 believers in his doc- 
 trines, the academic senate authorized the most careful and anxious 
 investigation ; the result proved his statement to be empty bragging. 
 (Cf. H. Rössel, in the th. studd. u. Kritt. 1844. IV.) —In France, the 
 path of a frivolous unbelief was opened by the talented but flippant 
 sceptic Peter Bayle [oh. 1706). The Jesuits gained him, the son of a 
 Reformed preacher, for their church ; but within a year and a half 
 afterwards he apostatized. He applied himself now to the study of 
 Cartesian philosophy, defended Protestantism in several polemic trea-' 
 tises, and wrote his celebrated Dictionnaire historique et critique, in 
 which, it is true, he avoids any open hostility to, or ridicule of, the 
 facts of revelation, but nevertheless invites thereto by his frivolous) 
 treatment of them. (Cf §. 44, 10.)
 
 THIKT) PERIOD 
 
 OF 
 
 CHUUCH HISTORY 
 
 IN ITS MODERN GERMANIC FORM ' OF DEVELOPMENT 
 
 EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 Cf. /. A. C. Einem, vers. c. vollet. K. G. 18. Jahrb. Lpz. 1782. 3Bae. 
 ^J. B. Schleyd, K. G. d. 18. Jahrb. Heilbr. 1784. 2 Bde.— J. v. Huth, 
 vers. e. K. G. d. 18. lahrb.. Augsb. 1807. 2Bde.— i^. C. Schlosser, Gesch. 
 d. 18. Jahrb. 4. A. Heidelb. 1853. if. 4 Bde.— Z. R. Hagenhach, K. G. 
 d. 18. 19. Jahrb. 2 A. Lpz. 1856. 2 Bde.—/. C. L. Gieseler, K. G. d. 18. 
 Jahrb. Ilerausg. v. C. R. Redepenning. Bonn, 1857. — The Weimar 
 Acta hist, ecclest. or gesamm. Nachr. v. d. neuest. K. G. Weim. 1734- 
 58. 20 Bde. ; Nova acta, 1758-74. 12 Bde. ; acta nostri temp. 1774-90. 
 13 Bde.— -P?-. Walch, Neueste Rel. Gesch. Lemgo, 1771, fiF. 9 Bde.— G'. 
 J. Planck, Neueste Rel. Gesch. Lemgo, 1787, ff. 3 Bde. — iW. Grigoire, 
 Hist, des sectes religieuses depuis le commenc. du siecle dernier. Par. 
 1828. 5 vols. 
 
 I. THE PROVINCE OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. 
 I 44. THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 
 
 Even during the first half of this century, many slights and 
 defeats, that were hard to bear, were inflicted upon the papal 
 hierarchy by the Roman Catholic courts. In the second half, 
 however, dangers, which threatened even its existence, encom- 
 passed it on every side. Portugal and the Bourbon court in 
 France, Spain, and Italy, did not rest until the papacy pro- 
 nounced the sentence of death upon the Jesuits, who had become 
 its strong support, but also its master. Soon thereupon the Ger- 
 man archbishops threatened to emancipate themselves and the 
 German Church from Rome, and what they were not able to 
 achieve in the way of ecclesiastical progress, that a German 
 
 ( 2::7 )
 
 228 SECTION III. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 18 A.D.). 
 
 emperor undertook in the way of civil reforms. This danger was 
 scarcely avoided, before the horrors of the French Revolution 
 began, which attempted to exterminate Christianity as well as 
 the papacy. Nevertheless, Catholicism celebrated, especially 
 during the first decennia of this century, many victories after its 
 fashion, through contra-reformation and conversion. Its heathen 
 missions, however, which had been so gloriously begun, came to 
 a sad end, and home missions were also crippled everywhere. 
 The Jansenist controversy entered upon a new stage at the be- 
 ginning of this century, which drove the Roman Catholic Church 
 into open semipelagianism, and the Janseuists into extreme 
 fanaticism. Ecclesiastical theology sank gradually into complete 
 impotency, and the Roman Catholic world contributed a quota 
 to illumination, in comparison with which that of the Protestant 
 world was only a dim twilight. 
 
 1. The Popes of the first half of the Century. — Clement XI. (1700- 
 21) protested in vain against the Elector of Brandenburg placing a 
 royal crown upon his head. He fell into a controversy with the Em- 
 peror Joseph I. about the Jus priniarum precum (the right of proposal 
 to vacant benefices, which Joseph treated as the right of nomination), 
 and about Parma, which the pope declared to be a papal, the emperor 
 an imperial fief. Clement even took up arms, but came ofi" the loser. 
 The sovereign power of the Sicilian crown in ecclesiastical matters he 
 attempted to break by ban and interdict, but was compelled instead to 
 support 3000 exiled priests. Benedict XIII. (1721-30) lived to see 
 John V. of Portugal, who already under Clement XI. obtained by defi- 
 ance a patriarch of Lisbon, suspend all intercourse with Rome, because 
 the pope would not appoint the nuncio, recalled from Portugal, cardinal. 
 He canonized Gregory VII. in the vain hope thereby also to canonize 
 his system, but almost all courts forbade the acknowledgment of the 
 new saint. His second successor, Benedict XIV. (1740-58), on the other 
 hand, desired, from free conviction, to liberate the papistic theocratic 
 principles from their mediaeval character, and give them a proportion 
 more adapted to the present circumstances ; he also insisted upon the 
 scientific culture of the clergy, and undertook to lessen the number of 
 festival days, but abandoned the latter on account of violent opposition. 
 
 2. Old and Neio Orders. — The Mechitar ist- Congregation traces its 
 origin to the Armenian Mekhitar, who (1701) organized at Constantino- 
 ple an association for the promotion of religious and scientific culture 
 among his countrymen ; but, being opposed by the Armenian bishop, 
 he fled to Morea (then under Venetian rule) and connected himself 
 with the united Armenians. The pope confirmed the congregation 
 (1712), which, during the war with the Turks, emigrated to Venice,
 
 THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHUACH. 229 
 
 and sottlad upon the island of St. Lazaro. Its members, mostly Arme 
 nians by birth, united in themselves, since then, Armenian and Euro- 
 pean learning, transplanted Roman Catholic literature to Armenia, 
 and transmitted the knowledge of Armenian literature to the Occident. 
 In modern times a celebrated Mechitarist college has been founded at 
 Vienna, which has done great service in educating the youth and people 
 by publishing and selling books. The order of Liguorians or Hedemf- 
 TiONisTS was founded (1732) hj ÄlpJionsus Maria de Liguori (formerly 
 attorney at Naples), to aid the poorest and most abandoned among the 
 people by pastoral care and instructing the young. The chief vehicles 
 of its efficiency were the adoration of the most holy sacrament of the 
 altar and the worship of the most blessed virgin. The founder died in 
 1782, and was canonized in 1839. His numerous devotional writings 
 found great favor in the Roman Catholic Church, and have been trans- 
 lated into all the languages of Europe His Order, meanwhile, only 
 attained to great importance after receiving into its bosom crowds of 
 Jesuits, who had been scattered by the abolition of their Order (1773). 
 The Jesuits especially were active in promoting the silly worship of the 
 heart of Jcsits by establishing brotherhoods and .sisterhoods among the 
 people ; but they met with much opposition, especially from the Domi- 
 nicans, who dragged the anatomy of the heart into their mocking 
 polemics. Rome also hesitated long in acknowledging it, until finally 
 the friend of the Jesuits, Clement XIII., to please his proteges, intro- 
 duced (1765) the Festival of the Heart of Jesus (Feb. 6). With regard 
 to the old Orders, the fate of Clugny is worthy of special mention. 
 After the 13th century, luxuriancy and worldliness spread without re- 
 sistance, on account of the prevailing love of pomp and enormous 
 wealth of this congregation. All attempts at reformation were fruit- 
 less. In order to escape the rapacity of the neighboring lords, Clugny 
 placed itself under royal protection, and became now a royal com- 
 mandry. At the time of the Reformation, its abbots were, for the 
 most part, from the house of the Guises. But their attempts at reform 
 were also without permanent results ; they rather caused endless divi- 
 sions and collisions. The plan to unite the party of the Reformers ^v'lth. 
 the Maurinians, which Cardinal Richelieu carried out (1627), as also 
 the later attempts of Cardinal Mazarin, to support them by a union 
 with the congregation of St. Yanne, failed on account of the opposition 
 of the Cluniacensians. The abbots squandered the revenues at the 
 court, and allowed everything to go topsy-turvy in the monasteries. 
 When (1790) all the monasteries in France were closed, the town of 
 Clugny purchased the monastery and its church for 100,000 fr., and 
 levelled them to the ground. 
 
 3. Heathen Missions. (Cf. | 35,3), — The accommodation contro- 
 versy extended from the previous century also into the present. Finally 
 the Dominicans were victorious. In 1742, all the .Jesuit missionaries 
 in China were compelled to swear that they would more strictly reject 
 63
 
 230 SECTION III. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 18 A.D.). 
 
 all heathen customs and usages. But the rejection of native customs 
 provoked, instead of the toleration hitherto existing, a long persecu- 
 tion, from which only some ruins of the church were saved. In East 
 India labored at the beginning of this century the Italian Jesuit Beschi, 
 a great linguist, who toiled zealously, and with incredible success, to 
 secure the native literature for missionary purposes, and to substitute 
 for it a Christian one. Besides, the Capuchins opposed the Jesuits 
 also here with the same arguments, with the same result as in China. 
 Violent persecutions were provoked by the enjoined renunciation of 
 the accommodation system, and ruined the mission. The idyllic Jesuit 
 state in Paraguay was also finally (1750) destroyed by a treaty between 
 Portugal and Spain. 
 
 4. Contra-Reformation. — In Poland, the Protestants lost (1717) the 
 right to build new churches, and were even declared (1733) incapable 
 of holding civil offices, and of participating in the diets. In the Pro- 
 testant city of Thorn, the Jesuits avenged a popular riot directed against 
 their college there, by a fearful official massacre (1724). In Salzburg 
 the Archbishop Count Firmian attempted forcibly to convert the evan- 
 gelicals, who had been tolerated up to this time as quiet and industrious 
 subjects (1729). But their elders swore upon the host and consecrated 
 salt (2 Chron. 13 : 5) to remain true to their faith. This "salt cove- 
 nant" was interpreted as rebellion, and in spite of the intervention of 
 Protestant princes, all the evangelicals were banished from house and 
 home in the bitter winter of 1731. About 20,000 were gladly welcomed 
 in Prussian Litthauen, others emigrated to America. The pope highly 
 praised the "glorious" Archbishop (cf. /. /. Moser, Actenmäsziger 
 Bericht, etc., Erl. 1732, 2 Bde. — K. Panse, Gesch. d. ausw. d. ev. Salzb. 
 Lpz. 1827). — CharlesXIl. of Sweden, who, being at war with August. 
 II. of Poland, had taken military possession of Silesia and Saxony, 
 compelled the Emperor Joseph I. in the Old-Ranstadt treaty (1707) 
 again solemnly to confirm to the Protestants in Silesia the concessions 
 of the Westphalian peace, and to restore to them a part of the churches 
 taken from them by force. 
 
 In France, the persecutions continued against the Huguenots. Their 
 pastors (the pasteurs du desert) could perform spiritual offices only in 
 constant danger of death ; and though many of them received the 
 martyr's crown at the hands of the hangman, there were not wanting 
 heroic men, who filled the gaps, and those committed to their care re- 
 warded them by faithfulness and steadfastness in faith (cf. C. H. Co- 
 querel, Hist, des eglises du desert. Par. 1841, 2 vols. — Peyrat, Hist, 
 des pasteurs du desert. Par. 1842, 2 vols. — G. Schilling, die verfolg. 
 d. prot. K. in Fi'kr. nach Coquerel. Stuttg. 1846). — A terrible exam- 
 ple of the fanaticism of Rom. Cath. France is presented in the judicial 
 murder of Jean Galas at Toulouse (1762). One of his sons hung him- 
 self in an attack of melancholy. The report spread that it was done 
 by his father, to anticipate the contemplated conversion of the son.
 
 THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHTJICH. 231 
 
 The Dominicans canonized the suicide as a martyr of the Roman Ca- 
 tholic faith ; the excited mob ci-ied for vengeance, and the parliament 
 permitted the unfortunate father to be broken upon the wheel. The 
 remaining sons vrere compelled to renounce their faith, and the daugh- 
 ters were placed in a nunnery. Two years later Voltaire brought this 
 dreadful crime again to notice in his Treatise ^ur la tolerance, and, by 
 agitating public opinion, he brought to pass a revision of the trial, 
 which placed the entire innocence of the abused family in the clearest 
 light. Louis XV. gave them a sum of 30,000 livres. The fanatical 
 accusers, the false witnesses, and the judicial murderers, were not 
 punished. Still this event contributed towards improving in a measure 
 the condition of the Protestants, and in 1787 Louis XVI. issued the 
 edict of Versailles, by which a legal civil existence was guaranteed to 
 them. Only the French Revolution brought them (already 1789, by a 
 decree of the National Convention) religious freedom, and Napoleon's 
 organic law (1802) also renewed and confirmed to them this con- 
 cession. 
 
 5. Conversions. — Pecuniary embarrassment and the prospect of 
 marrying a rich heiress, influenced Duke Charles Alexander von WUr- 
 temberg, who was then in the military service of Austria, to permit 
 himself to be converted by the Jesuits in 1712. But when he ascended 
 the throne, he was bound in the most solemn manner to permit the old 
 state of things to exist, and to allow no Roman Catholic worship in the 
 land, outside of his court-chapel. The most important of the other 
 converts of this century are Winckelmann and Stolberg. In the case 
 of both, although in directly opposite ways, Protestant illumination 
 was blamed with their apostacy from Protestantism. Whilst Winck- 
 elmann, the greatest art critic of all, times, was not led by religious, 
 but by artistic ultra-montanism, into the bosom of the only saving 
 church (1754), the warm heart of a Leop. v. Stolberg was not able 
 longer to hold out beneath the air-pump of Protestant rationalism, and 
 escaped to the perfumed atmosphere of the Roman Catholic Church 
 (1800). 
 
 6. Jansenism in its Second Stage. (Cf. | 36, 2.) — A new measure 
 of violence, proceeding from the papal court, which was controlled by 
 French influence, renewed the Jansenist controversy in a much more 
 tlireatening form. A priest of the OVatorium, who had been driven 
 from Paris, Paschasiris Quesnel [ob. 1719), published in 1693 an edition 
 of the New Testament, with excellent edifying remarks of an evange- 
 lical character. Many bishops used and recommended this book, 
 among them also the Archbishop of Paris, Cardinal Noailles, who had 
 it previously examined by Bossuet. The Jesuits, who hated the ener 
 getic and honest archbishop as greatly as the "Jansenist" book, re- 
 commended by him, obtained, through the artful confessor of the king, 
 the Jesuit Le Tellier, a papal bull (1713) from Clement XL, the so- 
 ■jalled Constitution " Unigenitus," in which 101 sentences, taken from
 
 232 SECTION III, — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 18 A. Dj. 
 
 Quesnel's New Testament, were condemned as heretical. This act oi 
 papal indiscretion, by which the most palpable semipelagianism was 
 stamped as Roman Catholic doctrine, and Augustine practically made 
 a heretic, divided the French Church into the two parties, y'vl., the 
 Constitutionalists or Acceptants, who accepted the constitution, and 
 the Appellants, at the head of whom was Noailles, who formally and 
 solemnly protested against it. The death of Louis XIV. (1715), and 
 the regency of the Duke of Orleans, aiforded the appellants free scope 
 for a time ; even the thunderbolt of excommunication hurled at them 
 in 1718, had no effect. But Dubois, the favorite of the duke, strove 
 after the cardinal's hat, and took sides against the appellants ; and 
 Louis XV., led by his former teacher. Cardinal Fleury, oppressed them 
 in every way. Noailles was compelled (1728) to submit, and (1730) 
 the constitution was formally registered as the law of the empire. A 
 fanatical ascetic spirit now took possession of the extremely oppressed 
 Jansenists. A young Jansenist clergyman, Francis v. Paris, died with 
 an appellation document in his hand (1727). His followers honored 
 him as a saint, and numerous reports of miracles, that occurred at his 
 grave in the grave-yard of Medardus in Paris, made the same a daily 
 place of pilgrimage for thousands of fanatics. The wild fanaticism, 
 which manifested itself in convulsions and prophecies concerning the 
 destruction of the State and Church, spread wider and wider, and 
 seized also, with contagious power, many who were altogether frivolous 
 and hitherto unbelieving men. The government had the church-yard 
 walled up (1732), but portions of the earth from the grave of the saint 
 also produced convulsions and worked miracles. Thousands of con- 
 vulsionaires were now cast into prison, and the Archbishop Beaumont 
 of Paris, in connection with many bishops, resolved (1752) to refuse 
 the dying sacraments to all those'who produced no evidence that they 
 accepted the constitution. The grave of " St. Francis" became, mean- 
 while, the grave of Jansenism, for every fanaticism carries in itself the 
 germ of death, and communicates it to every phenomenon, which it 
 brings under its power. Nevertheless, remnants of Jansenists existed 
 in France even to the Revolution, which they had prophesied ; and in 
 the Netherlands a Jansenist Roman Catholic Church, embracing 50.00 
 souls in 25 congregations, independent of the pope, under the Arch- 
 bishop of Utrecht and the Bishops of Harlem and Daintry, has con- 
 tinued to the present time. In the northern part of the Netherlands 
 the Roman Catholic Church was abolished by the Reformation, except 
 in Utrecht, where there remained a chapter and an archbishop in par- 
 tibus. In 1704 the occupant of this position, Peter Codde, was charged 
 by the Jesuits with being a Jansenist, and was deposed by the pope. 
 The chapter, however, would not acknowledge his Jesuit successor. 
 All later attempts at reconciliation were frustrated by the refusal of 
 the citizens of Utrecht to receive the constitution unigenitus. (Cf. 
 Th. Fliedner, Collectenreise nach Holland und England. Essen,1831.)*"
 
 THE ROMAN CATHOL.C CHURCH, 233 
 
 7. Tlie Abolition of the Order of the Jesuits (1773). (Cf. G v. Murr, 
 Gesch. d. Jes. in Portug. Nürmb. 1787, 2 Bde. [le Bret.] Sinunl. d. 
 merkw. Sehr. d. Auf h. d. Jes. betr. Frkf. 1773, 4 Bde. 4.— AI. v. St. 
 Priest, Gesch. d. Sturzes d. Jes. deutsch v. L. v. Moseler, Hamm. 184cj. 
 — Carracioli, vie de Clem. XIV., Par. 1775.— Auff. Theiner, Gesch. d. 
 Pontificals Clem. XIV. nach unedist. Staatsschr. Lpz., 1853, 2 Bde.) — 
 The Jesuits strove continually with increasing zeal and success towards 
 a dominion of the world, and in addition to or instead of the original 
 absolute subjection to the interests of the papacy, the founding of an 
 independent politico-hierarchical power seemed more and more to be- 
 come the chief object in view. Their aspiration after sovereignty lost, 
 it is true, its first support by the destruction of the Jesuit-state in 
 Paraguay, but for that they obtained a part of the cormnerce of the 
 world, and endeavored to control the politics of Europe. The Jansenist 
 controversy also increased the hatred of the people towards them ; 
 Pascal exposed them before the whole educated world, the other orders 
 of monks were from the beginning hostile to them : their participation 
 in commerce excited the jealousy of traders, and their interference 
 with politics finally overthrew them entirely. The government of Por- 
 tugal took the first decided step. A rebellion in Paraguay, and an 
 attempt upon the life of the king (Joseph Emanuel), were generally 
 attributed to them ; and the minister Pombal, whose plans of reform 
 they opposed everywhere, accomplished their entire banishment from 
 Portugal in 1759, together with the confiscation of their property 
 Pope Clement XIII. (1758-69), who was elected and ruled by the Je- 
 suits, took them into his protection by a bull ; but Portugal prohibited 
 the bull, conveyed the papal nuncio beyond the frontiers, suspended 
 all intercourse with Rome, and sent whole ship-loads of Jesuits to the 
 pope. France followed the example of Portugal, when the General, 
 Lor. Ricci, answered the demands of the king for a reformation of hia 
 order with the laconic words : Sint ut sunt, aut non sint. The whole 
 order was held responsible for the great bankruptcy of the Jesuit La 
 Valette, and it was at length (1764) banished from France as being 
 dangerous to the State. Spain also, and Naples, and Parma, soon 
 thereupon had all Jesuits arrested and carried beyond the frontiers. 
 The new election for pope, after the death of Clement XIII., was a 
 vital question for the Order, but the influence of the courts triumphed, 
 and the liberal Minorite Ganganelli was elected as Clement XIV. 
 (1769-74). Urged by the Bourbon courts, he finally, after long waver- 
 ino- and hesitation, pronounced, by the bull Dominus ac Redemtor 
 no°ter (1773), the abolition of the Order (which now numbered 22,6U0 
 members), as an act of present necessity, but added thereto, >ighiug: 
 Questa suppressionc mi dara la morte. And it so happened, for in the 
 next year he died, with all the signs of having been poisoned. All tlie 
 Roman Catholic courts carried out the abolition, even Austria, after 
 that the Spanish court had sent to the Empress Maria Theresa a copy 
 63*
 
 234 SECTION III — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 18 A.D.). 
 
 of their general confession from the confiscated papers of the Jesuits» 
 The heretic Frederick II., however, still tolerated the Order for a time 
 in Silesia, and Catharine II. in her Polish provinces. (Clement XIV. 
 also abolished the reading of the Lord's Supper bull on Maundy Thurs- 
 day, § 115.) (Cf. ^ 57, 1, 2.) 
 
 8. Anti- Hierarchical Movement in Germany. (Cf. E. v. Munch, 
 Gesch. d. emser Congresses u. s. Peructation. Karlsr. 1S40. — Ph. 
 Wolf, Gesch. d. röm. kath. K. unter Pius VI., 1802, 7 Bde.— (7rosz- 
 Hoffinger, Leb. u. Regier.-Gesch, Joseph's II. Stuttg. 1835, 3 Bde. — • 
 M. C. Paganel, Gesch. Joseph's II., aus d. Franz, v. Fr. Köhler. Lpz. 
 1844. — E. V. Munch, Leop. v. Oest. als Reformator ; in dess. Denkwiir- 
 digkk. zur Gesch. p. 303, sq. — De Potter, Leb. u. Memoiren dos Scipio 
 V. Ricci, Aus d. Fr. Stuttg. 1826, 4 Bde.)— The suffi-agan Bishop of 
 Ti'eves, Nicholas von Hontheim, published, at the time when Clement 
 XIII. was contending with the Bourbon courts, a treatise (De statu 
 ecclesiae et legit, potestati Rom. Pontificis ad reuniendos dissidentes in 
 rel. Christ, composit. Bullion! [Frcf.] 1763-74, 4 vol. 4to.), in which he 
 defended, with ability and learning, the superior authority of the 
 general councils and the independence of the bishops against the 
 hierarchical pretensions of the popes. The book produced a profound 
 sensation in and beyond Germany, and the pope did not dare to harm 
 the bold champion of the freedom of the Church. It was only his se- 
 cond successor, Pius VI. (1775-99) who had the poor satisfaction of 
 extorting a retraction from the dying old man (1778), but he also lived 
 to see other and more dangerous storms break loose upon the hierarchy. 
 First, the Electors of Mayence, Treves, and Cologne, together with the 
 Ai'chbishop of Salzburg, provoked by the arbitrary conduct of a papal 
 nuncio, assembled together in a spiritual congress at Ems (1786), and 
 resolved upon the restoration of a German Roman Catholic National 
 Church, independent of Rome, in the so-called Ems Punctation. 
 But the German bishops found it more convenient to obey the distant 
 pope than the near archbishops. They joined their opposition with 
 that of the pope, and the project of the archbishops produced no re- 
 sults. Still more threatening to the continuance of the hierarchy was 
 the government of the Emperor Joseph II. in Austria (1765-90). He 
 had scarcely come into possession of sole authority, after the death of 
 his mother, before he began a radical reform of ecclesiastical affairs iu 
 his kingdom. Already in 1781 he issued the edict of tolerance, by 
 which political rights and the free exercise of religion was secured to 
 the Protestants. The Roman Catholic Church was to be torn from 
 Roman influence, to be placed under a sovereign episcopate, and made 
 serviceable for the religious and moral culture of the nation, and all 
 its institutions, which could not be used to promote this object, were to 
 be abolished. The bishops, as well as the pope, protested in vain ; the 
 latter even, trusting in the power of his personality, undertook a jour- 
 ney to Vienna (1782). He was politely and solemnly received, but was
 
 THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 235 
 
 not able to change the decision of the emperor in the least. Still Jo- 
 seph's undertaking, which was carried on in haste, without proper 
 discretion and reflection, without sparing what had been historically 
 established, and generally more from a humanitarian than religious 
 stand-point, failed on account of the brief reign of the emperor and 
 the reaction of all those who had suffered from it. The Grand-Duke, 
 Leopold von Tuscany, .Joseph's brother, also attempted, since 1786, 
 to reform in a similar way the Church of his province, with the co- 
 operation of the pious (Jansenist) Bishop Scipio of Ricci [Synod at 
 Fistoja, 178G), but in this case also th" hierarchy was finally triumph- 
 ant. (Cf. |57, 5.) 
 
 9. The French Revolution. (Cf. Abbe Baldassari, Gesch. der Weg- 
 führung u. Gefangenschaft Pius VI., aus d. Franz. v. H. Steck, Llibg. 
 1844.) — Pills VI. was to survive a still worse state of affairs. In 1789 
 the horrors of the Revolution began to afflict the Church no less than 
 the State. The National Assembly (1789-91) did not design to interfere 
 with the faith of the people, but only with the hierarchy, and to deliver 
 the State out of its financial embarrassments by the possessions of the 
 Church. All monasteries were abolished (1790) and their possessions 
 sold. (Concerning the fate of Clugny, cf. above 2, and of La Trappe, 
 § 57, 2.) The clergy were to be paid by the State and elected by the 
 people. The liberty of faith was declared to be an inalienable right 
 of man. The National Assembly required the clergy to take the oath 
 of allegiance to the Constitution ; the pope forbade it; both under the pen- 
 alty of removal from office. Thus a formal schism took place ; the priests, 
 who refused to take the oath, for the most part emigrated. Avignon 
 was united with the French State. The terroristic National Convention 
 (1792-95) brought the king to the scaffold, destroyed all Christian 
 customs, and formally abolished Christianity (cf. I 10). The Directory 
 (1795-99), occupied more with foreign affairs, again, it is true, per- 
 mitted Christian worship, but French armies overran Italy and avenged 
 the opposition of the pope by proclaiming a Roman republic (1798). 
 Pius VI. was taken as a prisoner to France, and died from the cruelties 
 of the French, without doing anything to prejudice himself and his 
 dignity (1799). (Cf. I 57, 1.) 
 
 10. The Roman Catholic Contribution toicards Illumination. (Cf. 
 L. Noack, d. Freidenker in d. Relig. Bd. II. Die Tranzös. Freidenker, 
 Berne, 1854.) — The Sifecle de Louis XIV., with the morality of its 
 Jesuistic confessors, with its licentiousness, bigotry, and hypocrisy at 
 the court, with its dragoon and Bastile polemics against all reactions 
 of a living Christianity (among Huguenots, mystics, and Janseuists), 
 with its Cevennes prophets and Jansenist convulsionaires, etc., called 
 forth a free-thinking spirit in the educated French world, to which 
 Catholicism, Jansenism, and Protestantism, appeared both ridiculous 
 and absurd. This spirit was essentially different from English deism. 
 The principle of English deism was Common-sense, the general nioi-a)
 
 23ü SECTION III. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 18 A.D.). 
 
 consciousness in man, advocated with the clumsy weapons of raticmal 
 criticism ; it still held fast to something ideal and moral in man, and 
 had a kfnd of religion (providence, virtue, immortality). French Na- 
 turalism, on the other hand, was a philosophy of esprit, that pecu- 
 liarly French, frivolous ingenuity, using the weapons of ridicule and 
 wit, which denied and derided everything moral and ideal. Neverthe- 
 less, a close and causal connection existed between the two ; the philo- 
 sophy of Common-sense was carried over to France, and was here 
 remodelled into a philosophy of esprit : this was a travesty of that. 
 The birth-places of this French philosophy were the bureaux d'esprit, 
 the clubs and salons of the metropolis, its common and widely circu- 
 lating organ was the Encyclopedic, edited by Diderot and D 'Alembert. 
 Its most brilliant and influential representatives, whose numerous 
 writings uuchristianized and demoralized not only France, but also the 
 educated and leading classes in remaining Europe, were, besides the 
 two above-named : Voltaire [ob. 1778), Helvetius, Montesquieu, and 
 Rousseau [oh. 111^). The physician De la Mettrie ("L'homme ma- 
 chine," etc.), and the German-French Baron de Holbach (" Systfeme de 
 la nature," etc.), reduced it to the most shameless materialism. The 
 French Revolution ripened the fruit of this sowing. The National 
 Convention formally abolished Christianity, permitted about 2000 
 churches to be burned and destroyed, and built a temple de la Raison, 
 in which a harlot represented the goddess of reason (179-1). The Arch- 
 bishop of Paris, Gobel, appeared with his clergy before the bar of the 
 Convention, and declared that his previous life had been a delusion ; 
 that he now acknowledged no other religion but that of liberty. Bo- 
 bespierre, however, had the resolution passed in 1794 : Le peuple fran- 
 ^ais rcQonnait I'Etre supreme et I'immortalite de l'äme, and had a 
 stupid Fete de I'Etre supreme celebrated. The Directory, it is true, 
 allowed Christian worship again, but it also favored, as it was able, 
 the deistic sect of Theophilanthropists, which, with its hollow phrases, 
 soon provoked the ridicule of public opinion. 
 
 The German Roman Catholic Church also suffered from this spirit 
 of illumination, which, since the middle of this century, spread through 
 Protestant Germany. Whilst the (magnetic?) exorcisms and cures of 
 Paier Gassner in Regensburg still gained many triumphs for Roman 
 Catholicism (certainly of so doubtful a character, that the bishops, the 
 emperor, and finally the Roman court itself, foupd it necessary to check 
 the doings of the wonder-worker), Ad. Weishaupt, professor in Ingol- 
 stadt, instituted, with the forms of Free-masonry, the secret Order of 
 Eluminati (1770), which spread the most superficial ideas of progress 
 and human perfectibility over the whole of Germany, although it was 
 already dissolved in 1786 by the Bavarian government, in consequence 
 of the treason of several members. But its secondary effects existed 
 long afterwards. The spirit of illumination also influenced Roman 
 .•Catholic theology. But that the Church still possessed power to check
 
 THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. ^ 237 
 
 it, is shown, by the fate of Prof. Lorenzo IsenbieJd of Mayence, who ap> 
 plied the passage, Isaiah 7 : 14, not to the mother of Clirisst, but to the 
 betrothed bride of the prophet, and was therefor deposed and «eut back 
 to the seminary for two years on account of deficient theological know- 
 ledge (17J4). When he later (1778) published a learned treatise on 
 the°same subject, he had to atone for it by imprisonment. The pope 
 also condemned his interpretation, and Iscnbiehl recanted as a good 
 Catholic. It went still harder with a young jurist of Salzburg, named 
 Steinhiihler, who, on account of several satires on Roman Catholic 
 ceremonies, was condemned to death (1781), but was afterwards par- 
 doned, although he soon afterwards died from the cruel treatment he 
 received. 
 
 11. Roman Catholic Theology .—The revocation of the edict of Nantes 
 ■was the sentence of death for French Reformed theology, which waa 
 thereby deprived of all the conditions of life ; but it at the same time 
 also deprived French Roman Catholic theology of its stimulus and im- 
 pulse. The latter could now lie peaceably on its lees, since Huguenot 
 polemics were silenced, and Huguenot learning no longer provoked to 
 rivalry, and resignedly commit the carrying on of polemics to the dra- 
 goons", the scaffold, and the Bastile. There was yet added to this the 
 violent extermination of Jansenism, which deprived the French Roman 
 Catholic Church of its noblest powers. The first half of this century 
 has, nevertheless, a few distinguished names to show, as sporadic se- 
 condary effects of the previous brilliant epoch ; in the second half, 
 however, theology sank into absolute impotency. Retribution did not 
 tarry. The Huguenot opposition to the papacy and the Jansenist 
 to Pelagianism were destroyed, but the most ^shameless naturalism, 
 atheisnC and materialism, with the war-cry : Ecrasez I'infame, stood 
 now victorious on the plain ; and Roman Catholic theology sunk into so 
 deep a lethargy, that it could not even attempt earnestly to combat and 
 resist, but was compelled to surrender itself and the entire French na- 
 tion to the monster. Theological learning had also greatly declined in 
 the other Roman Catholic countries. Only Italy had a fcw brilliant 
 names in the first half of this century. In Roman Catholic Germany 
 a self-dependent activity in theology only manifested itself in the time 
 of Joseph II., and under the tolerance which he granted an almost 
 cynical spirit of free-thinking (especially in judging matters of a 
 Church-historical character) developed itself among many Roman 
 Catholic theologians of the empire [Royko, Wolff, Dannenmagr, Michl, 
 etc.) On the other hand, from the school of the noble mystic, Michael 
 Sailer [oh. 1832), there went forth a Catholicism that was as hearty 
 and warm as it was mild and irenical, which could also be enjoyed 
 by pious Protestants of a common faith and life, and whose brotherly 
 spiritual communion needed not to be repelled. Sailer wa-s removed 
 from his office in DiUingen (1794), because he was not '^""■'^''^"•e-;! suffi- 
 ciently orthodox, but he became later Prof, at Ingolstadt, and (o6. i«ÖZ) 
 as Bishop of Regensburg.
 
 238 SECTION III. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 18 A.D.). 
 
 Distinguished in the sphere of Biblical Theology are: the Oratorian 
 Jac. le Long [ob. 1721), whose chief work, Bibliotheca Sacra, presents 
 a very valuable historical apparatus for the study of the Bible, — espo 
 cially in the essentially improved form, which has been given to it by 
 the Protestant editors Bonier and Masch (Halle, 1778, 4 Bde. 4to.). 
 JoJin Martianay [ob. 1717), the learned publisher of Jerome, also wrote 
 an admirable work on Hermeneutics, in which he lays down the prin- 
 ciple, that the Bible is to be explained by the Bible. The Benedictine, 
 Auguistine Calmet [ob. 1757), contributed a valuable Dictionnaire hist, 
 chronol. geogr. de la Bible and a Commentaire litteral et critique on 
 the whole Bible, in 23 vols. 4to. Ilis exegesis is especially valuable as 
 regards external matters, but its theology is superficial. The most 
 valuable are the appended historical and critical Dissertations, which 
 Mosheim had translated and accompanied with condensed remarks. 
 The Oratorian Houbigant and the Italian Bernard de Rossi contributed 
 much of importance for the criticism of the text of the Old Testament. 
 In the time of Joseph II., the free-thinking, latitudinarian, supernatu- 
 ralistic John Jahn, Prof, at Vienna, elevated the study of the Bible 
 in the German Roman Catholic Church, by publishing a number of 
 learned works (the most valuable of which are : Einleitung ins A. T. 
 4 Bde. u. Biblische Archäologie, 5 Bde.) ; but he was compelled to 
 abandon his professorship, on account of unchurchly tendencies, and 
 died in 1816, as canon at Vienna. In the sphere of Church History, the 
 Italian John Dominic Mansi [ob. 1769) (Vollständigste u. beste Samm- 
 lung der Concilienacten 1759, sq. 31 vols, fol.) and Ant. Muratori, [ob. 
 1750), (Scriptores rerum Italic, 28 vols. fol. ; Antiqu. Italic, med. aevi, 
 6 vols, fol.), gave proof of splendid scholarship and of unwearying in- 
 dustry in collecting material. There are no contributions of a dogmatic 
 or polemic character of any importance. But amid the horrors of the 
 French Revolution, the noble theosophist, Louis Claude de St. Martin, 
 an ardent admirer of Jacob Böhme, wrote his spirited and profound 
 works (Des erreurs et de la v^rite, L'homme de desir, etc.), and the 
 Viscount Chateaubriand praised the beauties of Christianity (Genie du 
 Christianisme), and celebrated in song the Christian martyrs. (Cf. 
 §57,6.) 
 
 § 45. THE ORIENTAL ORTHODOX CHURCH. 
 
 The oppressed condition of the orthodox Church in the Otto- 
 man empire remained unchangeably the same. It developed it?,elf 
 more powerfully and richly in Bu>isia, where it was the ruling 
 Church. Although the Russian Church, since it possessed an 
 independent patriarchate at Moscow (1589), was independent of 
 the mother-church at Constantinople in regard to the form of 
 government, it still stood in the most intimate religious connec- 
 tion with it, especially as the bond of a common confession had
 
 THE ORIENTAL ORTHODOX CHURCH. 239 
 
 been again lately strengthened by the confessional treatise of 
 Peter ]\IogiJa. The patriarchal form of government was, mean- 
 while, only a temporary one in Russia, for the great Emperor 
 Peter I. permitted the patriarchate to remain vacant after the 
 death of the patriarch Hadrian (1702), connected ecclesiastical 
 supremacy with the imperial power, and constituted (1721) the 
 Iwly directing Synod, to which he transferred tlie supreme con- 
 trol of spiritual and ecclesiastical aiFairs ; — to which also the 
 patriarch of Constantinople gave his consent. Theophanes 
 Prokopoioicz, the metropolitan of Nowgorod, was the emperor's 
 right hand in this reform of Church government. 
 
 Since the liturf:;ical reformation of the Patriarch Nikon (| 42, 
 5), a new and peculiar style of Church Music developed itself in 
 the Russian Church, which was sung by pure and powerful male voices, 
 without any instrumental accompaniment, a splendid foil for the rich 
 liturgy. Russian Church music attained its perfection under Catharine 
 II. Among the Russian Theologians the above-named Prokopoivicz 
 (ob. 173G) holds a prominent position. His dogmatic Handbook (in 
 Lat. transl. Christ, orthod. theologia. Regiom, 1773, 5 vols.) is distin- 
 guished by learning, clearness of style, and moderation of judgment. 
 Since the middle of this century, however, a Protestantizing tendency 
 crept in among many representatives of theological science, especially 
 among the higher clergy, which tendency, it is true, held firmly fast 
 to the older oecumenical synodal theology, but avoided the later dog- 
 matic forms, or at least attached no importance to them. Already the 
 excellent catechism of orthodox doctrines (transl. into German. Riga, 
 1770), wliich the learned Platan (late metropolitan of Moscow) as tutor 
 of the Grand-Duke I'aul Petrowitsch, published, at first for the use of 
 his noble pupil, is not entirely free from this tendency. It appears 
 more decidedly in the dogmatic text-book of the archimandric Thcophy- 
 lactus of Moscow (1773). It was only in recent times that it was 
 entirely overcome and suppressed. To the Sects of the 17th cen- 
 tury (I 42, 5), there were added in the 18th a number of new onea 
 of spiritualistic gnostic tendency, in the organization of which proba- 
 bly occidental influences cooperated. To these belong especially the 
 Matacani (milk-eaters) and Duchoborzens (champions of the spirit), 
 which again divide into a number of minor sects, and which may also 
 have absorbed many of the older (mediaeval) sects. Their doctrines 
 are a remarkable mixture of Gnosticism, thcosophy, mysticism, Pro- 
 testantism, and Rationalism. The Duchoborzens especially, although 
 belonging only to the peasantry, have a completely finished theological 
 system of a wonderful speculative character. (Cf. A. v. Harthansen, 
 referred to at § 42, 5, and T. E. Lenfz, de Duchoborzis. Dorpati. 
 1829, 4to.)
 
 240 SECTION III. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 18 A.D.). 
 
 IL THE PROTESTANT CHURCH. 
 
 § 46. THE LUTHERAN CHURCH BEFORE THE ILLUMI- 
 NATION. 
 
 By the founding of the University at Halle (1694), the pie- 
 tistic controversy received a nevv impulse, and soon involved the 
 whole German Church in a passionate strife, in which, on both 
 sides, the right and true medium was only too often missed in 
 establishing their own views, and those of the opponents were 
 perverted by unwarranted inferences. Spener died as early as 1705, 
 Francke in 1727, Breithaupt in 1732. Hallean pietism became, 
 after the loss of its chiefs, continually weaker, more illiberal, 
 unscientific, and indifferent towards purity of doctrine, more prone 
 to fall into artificial pious feelings, more zealous and exclusive in 
 pious phrases and methodistic forms of life. The conventicle 
 mode of worship, originated and nourished by it, became a Pan- 
 dora-box of all possible fanaticism and sectarianism (§ 49, 1). 
 But still it produced a fermentation in theology and the Church, 
 which worked wholesomely for many years. More than 6000 
 theologians from all parts of Germany, received, up to Francke''s 
 death, their theological education at Halle, and carried the leaven 
 of his spirit into as many congregations and schools. In a short 
 time, a large number of distinguished teachers of theology ap- 
 peared in almost all the German Lutheran established Churches, 
 who, being as far removed from the one-sidedness of the pietists 
 as their opponents, practised and taught pure doctrines and 
 pious living, without denying the orthodox stand-point, so far as 
 it was authorized and beneficial, and derived benefit from the 
 syncretistic as well as pietistic controversies. From Calixtus 
 they learned mildness and justice towards the Reformed and 
 Roman Catholic Church ; by Spener they were incited to deep 
 experimental piety, which also enriched their theological know- 
 ledge with a new stream of life ; from Gottfr. Arnold's one-sided- 
 noss they learned to seek after distorted truth even among here- 
 tics and sectarians ; and from Calov and Loscher they inherited 
 a zeal for pure doctrines. The most prominent of them all were 
 Alh.Bengel in Wiirtemberg {oh. 1752), and Chr. Aug. Crusius 
 in Leipsic (ob. 1T75), both stars of the first magnitude, and at 
 ihe same time prophecies of a future time of blooming of Lu- 
 theran theology ; a future one, for this stand- point, deepened
 
 LUTHERAN CHURCH BEFORE ILLUMINATION. 241 
 
 and ennobled in so many ways, did not at that time attain perfect 
 development and dominion (§ 50). The deluge of illuminatioL 
 since the middle of this century rushed in upon the German Lu- 
 theran Church, and overflowed also the seed sown by these noble 
 men. Nevertheless, the first five decades of this century still 
 constitute, in spite of many excrescences, a blooming period of 
 theological science and Christian life in the Lutheran Chun^h. 
 
 1. The Pietistic Controversies since the Founding of the University at 
 Halle. (Cf. the lit. at g 38, 3, and Mor. v. Engelhardt, Val. C. Löscher, 
 2d ed. Stuttg. 1855.) — That Pietism, which had been condemned by 
 and excluded from the orthodox Universities of Leipsic and Witten- 
 berg, now found a refuge at Halle, where, protected and encouraged 
 by the civil power, it freely developed itself in practical life and in 
 science, and from here coijld spread over all the provinces of Germany 
 through crowds of students ; this provoked the anger of the orthodox. 
 The faculty of Wittenberg, with John Deuischmann at the head, pub- 
 lished (1605) a controversial treatise (Christlich. Vorstelking, etc.), 
 in which they charged Spener with holding not less than 264 errors. 
 The faculty of Leipsic also was not silent, and Carpzov abused the 
 mild and peace-loving Spener as a procella ecclcsife. Next to Carpzov 
 and Deutschmann, the most violent opponents of the pietists were Sam. 
 Schelwig in Dantzic {ob. 1716), (Synopsis controverss. sub pietatia 
 pr^textu motarum 1701), Friedr. Mayer in Wittenberg, Hamburg and 
 Greifswalde [ob. 1712), and John Fecht in Rostock {ob. 1716). When 
 Spener died (1705), it was most earnestly disputed whether he could 
 be called the sainted. Fecht (de beatit. mort. in Dom.) denied it. 
 Among the later champions for the palladium of pure doctrines, the 
 learned Valent. Ernst Löscher, superint. at Dresden (1709-47), who at 
 least cannot be charged with dead orthodoxy, was the most estimable 
 and able. He opened the contest (1702) by publishing an anti-pietistic 
 journal (Unschuldige Nachrichten von alten und neuen theol. Sachen), 
 of which 31 vols, appeared up to 1751. His " Vollständiger Timotheua 
 Verinus" is, without doubt, the most thorough of all the oontroversial 
 treatises against Pietism (2 vols. 1718-21; the first sketch appeared 
 already, nil, in the Unschuldigen Nachrichten). Franz Ritddeus of 
 Jena carried on a mediation between Löscher and the Ilallean theolo- 
 gians for a time, but without result. Francke and Breithhaupt received 
 (1710) an ever ready colleague and fellow-combatant in Joachim Lange 
 {ob. 1744). (Antibarbarus orthodoxiae dogmatico-hermeneuticus 1700- 
 11 ;'_die Gestalt des Kreuzreiches Christi, 1713 ;— Abfertig, d. Tim. 
 Ve'r. 1710, etc.) ; who, however, was in no respect a match for his op- 
 -^onent Löscher. Pietism, meanwhile, penetrated the popular life more 
 and more, and excited in many places even violent popular tumults. 
 Many States prohibited the pietistic conventicles, others permitte(J 
 64
 
 242 SECTION III. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 18 A.D.). 
 
 them (ex. gr. Wlirtemberg and Denmark). A very singular pheno 
 menon were the j)?-ai/ing children in Silesia (1707). Children of foul 
 years of age and above that assembled on the open field to sing and 
 pray (especially for the recovery of the Churches taken possession of 
 by the Roman Catholics). Proceeding, probably, from the imitative 
 instinct of children, and from the impression which the open-air wor- 
 ßhip of the Swedish army made upon them, this phenomenon obtained 
 an epidemic and contagious character, and spread over the entire 
 country. In vain the pulpits declaimed against it, in vain the civil 
 authorities proceeded against it ; blows and confinement only increased 
 the zeal of the children. Finally it was resolved to provide churches 
 for their worship. After that the excitement gradually subsided. But 
 the matter was discussed for a long time afterwards by the orthodox 
 and pietists, the former (ex. gr. Erdm. Neumeister) declared it to be a 
 work of the devil ; the latter (Freylinghausen, Petersen, etc.) a won- 
 derful awakening of divine grace. (Cf. J.^G. Walcli, 1. c. I., 853, sq. 
 and Hagenhacli, d. Kinderkreuzzug u. die betenden Kinder; in A. 
 Knapp's Christoterpe, 1853.) 
 
 The Orthodox regarded the Pietists as a new sect, holding doctrines 
 that were dangerous and hostile to the pure doctrines of the Lutheran 
 Church ; whilst the Pietists themselves declared, that they only wished 
 to preserve Lutheran orthodoxy unadulterated, and to substitute a 
 biblical, practical Christianity for its then existing rigid form and 
 dead externality. The single points of controversy concentrated espe- 
 cially around the doctrines of regeneration, of justification, of sancti- 
 fication, of the Church, and of the millenium (Rev. 20 : 5, 7). (1.) 
 Regeneration. The orthodox affirmed, that regeneration took place in 
 baptism ; that every baptized person was regenerated ; but that the 
 new birth required fostering, noui-ishment, and gi-owth ; and where 
 these had been wanting, reawakening. The Pietists, on the other 
 hand, identified awakening or conversion with regeneration, which 
 was conditioned in subsequent life by the Word of God, mediated by 
 spiritual and physical conflicts of repentance, and thereupon following 
 coimmmication of grace, and sealed by a very palpable approbation of 
 God in the state of grace attained. With this sealing began the life of 
 the child in Christ. Accordingly th ey distinguished between a theologia 
 viatorum, viz., the churchly symbolical doctrine, and a theologia rege 
 nitorum, which has to do with the conditions of the soul after regene- 
 ration ; on which account they were also charged with holding the 
 doctrine, that a true Christian, who had attained the age of spiritual 
 manhood, could and must be Avithout sin even in this life. (2.) 
 Justification and Sanctif cation. In opposition to a very common view 
 of the doctrine of justification, which made it too external, »Spener 
 taught that living faith alone attained justification, and that it must 
 be active in preserving it (although without any merit). A sure 
 guarantee of attained justification existed only in a faith which gave
 
 LUTHERAN CHURCH BEFORE ILLUMINATION. 24S 
 
 evidence of being alive in a pious life and active Christianity, and not 
 already in a belief in the external, objective promise of the word of 
 God. His opponents charged him, on this account, vrith coi founding 
 justification with sanctification, and with disregarding the former at 
 the expense of the latter. And if the royal doctrine of justification 
 was not allowed to recede into the back-ground by Spener himself, it 
 was by many of his adherents ; and an importance was attached, in a 
 one-sided vray, to practical Christianity, such as the Lutheran Church 
 could never approve. Moreover, Spener and Francke preached against 
 worldly dissipations and amusements, and against the dance, the 
 theatre, card-playing (to which othei-s in their blind zeal added even 
 laughing, taking a walk, smoking tobacco, etc.), as inimical to earnest- 
 ness and progress in sanctification, and therefore sinful; whilst the 
 orthodox placed these things among the adiaphora. (3.) The Church 
 and Office. Orthodoxy regarded the word, the sacraments, and the 
 oflBce, administering them, as the basis and foundation of the Church ; 
 Pietism, on the contrary, conditioned the nature and existence of the 
 Church by individual believers ; according to the former, the Church 
 begat, nourished, and fostered believers ; according to the latter, be- 
 lievers constituted, preserved, and renewed the Church ; to which end, 
 conventicles (ecclesiolte in ecclesia), as meeting places and propaganda 
 of living Christianity, were the most appropriate means. Orthodoxy 
 lay all stress upon the office and the official grace vouchsafed to it; 
 Pietism upon the person and his faith. Spener taught, that only he, 
 who had experienced the grace of the Gospel in his heart, i. e., who 
 was regenerated, could be a true preacher and pastor ; Löscher, on tho 
 contrary, affirmed, that the ministrations of even an unconverted, 
 though decidedly orthodox preacher, were blessed just as much as 
 those of a converted one, because the saving power resided not in the 
 person of the preacher, but in the Avord of God, which he still preached 
 in its purity, and in the sacraments, which he administered according 
 to their appointment. The Pietists then went so far as entirely to deny 
 that there was any saving power in the preaching of an unconverted 
 person. The official promise of absolution without internal sealing 
 had no significance for them ; they even regarded it as dangerous and 
 injurious, because it lulled the conscience to sleep and made sinners 
 secure. Hence they cherished great aversion to private confession and 
 priestly absolution. They altogether rejected such a thing as official 
 grace ; true ordination was regeneration ; every regenerated person, 
 and he alone, was a true preacher. Orthodoxy demanded above all 
 else pure doctrines and churchly confession ; Pietism also declared 
 these to 1)6 necessary, but not as being the principal things. Spener 
 held firmly fast to the necessity of adhesion to the s>/mhols ; but tho 
 later pietists disputed it, l)ecause the symbols as a work of man could 
 contain errors. Among the orthodox, on the contrary, some went sc 
 far as to affirm a freedom from all err ir ir the symbols, which rested
 
 244 SECTION III. — THIRD PERIOD QCENT. 18 A.D.). 
 
 not only upon an accidental, but upon an indirect, divine illumination. 
 Spener's aversion to coercion as to the use of the pericopes, to prescribed 
 prayers, and to exorcism, became also a matter of violent controversy ; 
 on the contrary, his rdntroduction of confirmation before the first par- 
 ticipation of the Lord's Supper met with approbation and imitation 
 also among the orthodox. (4.) Uschatolor/y. Spener intei-preted the 
 biblical doctrine of the millennium to mean, that at some future time, 
 after the overthrow of the papacy, after the conversion of the heathens 
 and Jews, there would come a period of the most glorious and undis- 
 turbed development and formation for the Church of Christ on earth, 
 as ante-sabbath of the eternal sabbath. His opponents stigmatized 
 this as Chiliasm and fanaticism ; and they were right, not, however, 
 as against Spener, but as against the abuse and misrepresentation of 
 his doctrine by many of his adherents. Connected with this finally 
 (5.) was a controversy about divine providence, occasioned by the 
 founding of the orphans' house at Halle, by A. H. Francke. The 
 Pietists spoke of the origin and prosperity of this institution as a fact 
 of direct (miraculous) divine providence; whilst Löscher, by proving 
 the use of the ordinary means, which were contributed towards it, 
 exhibited the entire matter as lying within the sjihere of general and 
 daily providence, without thereby, meanwhile, denying the value of 
 the strong faith in God, and of the active love possessed by its founder, 
 as also the significance of the divine blessing, which rested upon the 
 undertaking. 
 
 2. Lutheran Theology. — The last important representative of the Old 
 Orthodox School was Val. Ernst Löscher, who, with his rich scholar- 
 ßhip, contributed, besides his polemics against pietism, much that was 
 valuable to biblical philosophy and Church history (De causis linguee 
 hebr. ; Ausflihrl. Hist, motuum zw. d. Luth. u. Reform. ; VoUständ. 
 Ref. Acta; Ilistoire d. mittl. zeiten, etc.). The Pietistic School, which, 
 from principle, was more concerned about making theology fruitful 
 for practical Christianity than about its scientific advancement, only 
 contributed works of permanent value to devotional literature (6). 
 The learned, copious author, Joachim Lange, published, in 7 fol. vols., 
 a prolix commentary on the whole Bible (Mosaisches, Biblisch-hist.. 
 Davidisch-salomonisches, Prophetisches, Evangelisches, Apostoliscnes, 
 Apokalyptisches Licht und Recht). The jurist, Christian Thomasius, 
 at first connected himself with the pietists, only, however, in mutual 
 external contest against the enslavement of conscience by the orthodox ; 
 but he was soon disavowed by them as an indiiferentist. To him be- 
 longs the honor of turning public opinion against prosecution for 
 witchcraft. (Vernünftige u. christl. aber nicht scheinheil. Gedanken 
 über allerhand Händel ; — Kurze Lehrsätze vom Laster d. Zauberei 
 mit d. Hexenprocess.) 
 
 But there came forth, out of the conflicts between the orthodox and 
 üietistic schools, a third school, which cast off the errors and partialis
 
 LUTHERAN CHURCH B^EFORE ILLUMINATION. 245 
 
 ties of both, and united in itself their excellencies, in which Lutheran 
 theology, uniting orthodoxy with free investigation, scholarship with 
 religious fervoi-, penetration with depth, decided adhesion to confes- 
 sions with mildness and justice, produced yet much splendid fruit. 
 The most important theologians of this school are : David Hollaz in 
 Pomerania [ob. 1713), (Examen theologicum acroamaticum), Bened. 
 Starck of Leipsic {oh. 1727), (Notae selectae in loca dub. et diffic. V. T. 
 et in N. T.), Francis Buddeus of Jena (o6. 1729), (Hist, ecclst. Vet. 
 Test. ; Institutiones theol. dogm. et theol. moralis, Isagoge hist, theol. 
 ad theol. univ.), Ernst. Sal. Cyprian of Gotha [oh. 1745), Gesch. d. 
 Papstth. ; Hist. d. Augsb. Conf.) ; John Christian rPoZ/ of Hamburg 
 [oh. 17o9), (Bibliotheca Hebraica ; Curje philol. et crit. in N.T.); 
 Eberh. JFeti-wa«?! of Tübingen (oi. 1747), (Hist, ecclest.) ; Sal. Dei/ling 
 of Leipsic {oh. 1755), (Observatt. ss.) ; John Gottl. Carpzov of Leipsic 
 {oh. 1767), (Critica s. V. T. ; Introductio ad libros can. V. T. ; Apparatus 
 antiquitt. s. Codicis) ; /. Heinr. Michaelis of Halle {oh. 1731), (Biblia 
 hebr. s. ^arirs lectionibus et brev. annott. ; uberiores annott. in Hagio- 
 graphos., 3 Bde. 4to ; his nephew, Christian Bened. Michaelis of 
 Halle {oh. 1764), assisted him in both these works) ; John George Walch 
 of Jena {oh. 1775), Einl. in d. Religionsstreitigkk. ausser d. luth. K., 
 5 Bde., in d. luth. K., 5 Bde., Biblioth. theol. selecta, Biblioth. patria- 
 tica, Luther's Werke) ; Christoph. Matthew Pfajfof Tübingen {ob. 1760), 
 (K-G., K-Recht, Dogmatik, Moral) ; Lorenz von Mosheim of Helmstädt 
 and Göttingen {oh. 1755), the father of modern Church history (Institutt. 
 hist, eccl., Commentarii de rebus Christianorum ante Constant. M. ; 
 Dissertationes, Sittenlehre, etc.) ; John Alb. Bengel, prelate at Stutt- 
 gard {oh. 1752), (eine Krit. Ausg. d. N. T. ; Gnomon N. T., a commen- 
 tary on the N. T., distinguished by pregnancy of expression and depth 
 of comprehension ; Erklärte Ofi'b. Job., which intimated that the 
 dawning of the millennium could be looked for in the year 1836 ; Ordo 
 temporum, etc. Cf. J. C. Bnrk, Bengel's Leben u. Wirken. Stuttg., 
 1831) ; and Christian Aug. Crnsius of Leipsic {oh. 1775), (Hypomnemata 
 ad theol. propheticum. Cf. Fr. Delitzch, d. bibl. proph. Theol., ihre 
 Fortbild. durch Chr. A. Cr., etc. Lpz. 1845). — A fourth school of 
 theologians was created by the application of the mathematical de- 
 monstration method of the philosopher Christian von Wolf, of Halle 
 {oh. 1754). Wolf connected his philosophy with Leibnitz, and also 
 endeavored to reconcile philosophy and Christianity ; but under the 
 Kianipulations of his dry, logical, mathematical method, the living; 
 breath of the Leibnitzian system departed ; the harmonia prajstabilita 
 of the world became a machine, etc. The great evil done by his system 
 of philosophising consisted in this, that, applied to the demonstration 
 of Christian truth, it only proved its logical correctness without giving 
 any insight into its nature and significance, that it only formally called 
 the understanding into exercise, and left the soul en pty and the heart 
 cold, whereby a degeneration into natural theology, which rejected re- 
 64*
 
 246 SECTION III. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. IS A.D.). 
 
 velation and mysteries, was unavoidable. Consequently the polemics 
 of t.'ie theologians, among which were not only narrow-minded pietists, 
 like Joach. Lange, but also such able, calm, and enlightened men, like 
 Chr. A. Crusius and Fr. Buddeus, were not without foundation, when 
 they included them also in part in their accusations (which ex. gr. run 
 into fatalism and atheism with Lange). Wolf was deposed (1723) by 
 a government-order of Frederick William I., and was compelled to 
 leave the Prussian States within two days, under penalty of the halter. 
 But Frederick II. had scarcely ascended the throne before he recalled 
 (1740) the philosopher to Halle, and heaped honors upon him. (C-f. 
 Tholuck, Verm. Sehr. IL, p. 10, sq.) — Wolf's philosophical method in- 
 troduced into theology, was first accepted by the pious and learned 
 Prof. Sigmund Jacob Baumgarten in Halle [ob. 1757 ). His theology as tc 
 its contents was still based on orthodox ground (Ev. Glaubenslehre ; 
 Gesch. d. Religionsparteien ; Theol. Bedenken). /. Gust. Beinheck, 
 provost in Berlin [ob. 1741), also belongs to the more moderate repre- 
 sentatives of this tendencj (Betrachtungen ü. d. in d. Augsb. Conf. 
 enth. gottl. Wahrhh. 4 Bde. 4to., fortges. v. J. G. Cam, Bd. 5-9). The 
 application of the mathematical method of demonstration was carried 
 farthest by Joh. Carpov of Weimar [ob. 1768), (Theol. revelata me- 
 thodo scientifica adornata, 4 vols. 4to). A'S applied to the sermon, the 
 method degenerated into the most offensive insipidity. (Cf. § 50.) 
 
 3. Theories of Canon Law. — Church government passed, on account 
 of the exigencies of the first century of the Protestant Church, into 
 the hands of the princes, who, just because no one else existed for this 
 purpose, exercised as praecipua membra ecclesise the jura episcopalia 
 (I 22, 1). This matter of exigency became in years by degrees a 
 matter of right. Orthodox theology and the jurisprudence connected 
 with it (especially Benedict Carpzov of Leipsic, ob. 166G) justified the 
 change by the Episcopal Sgsiem. This retained the mediaeval distinc- 
 tion between spiritual and temporal authority, as two independent 
 spheres appointed by God ; but it at the same time made the prince to 
 be the summus episcopus, in whose person, consequently, the highest 
 spiritual authority was joined with the highest temporal authority. 
 The deep contradictions of this system, however, appeared so glaringly 
 in countries having mixed confessions (inasmuch as often a Reformed 
 or even a Papist prince was the summus episcopus of the Lutheran 
 Chui-ch of his country), that it was necessary to establish the exist- 
 ing right of princes on other grounds. These were found first in the 
 Territorial System, according to which the prince possessed the highest 
 spiritual authority, not as proecipuum membrum ecclesiae, but as head 
 of the State, which spiritual authority, therefore, was regarded not as 
 independent by the side of civil authority, but only as one side of the 
 same (Cujus regio, illius et religio). This system was already pra:- 
 tically prepared for by the historical development of the German Re- 
 formation (Diet of Speiers a. 152Ö), and received a legal basis through
 
 lUTHERAN CHURCH BEFORE ILLUMINATION. 247 
 
 the Augsburg as well as the Westphalian peace. It lacked onlj' a scien- 
 tific foundation. This was given first by Samuel Piifendorf oi Heidel- 
 berg [ob. 1694), adopting the views of Hobbes [I 43, 2). It was 
 more perfectly developed and more generally commended by Christian 
 Tliomasius of Halle [ob. 1728), and the celebrated Justus Henning 
 Böhmer made it the foundation of his Jus ecclesiasticum protestantium. 
 Thomasius' connection with the Pietists, and their indifference to 
 creeds, obtained for it admission and favor among them. Spener him- 
 self preferred the Calvinistic Presbyterian form of government, be- 
 cause by it the equally authorized cooperation of the three Orders 
 (Ministerium ecclesiasticum, Magistratus politicus, Status oeconomicus) 
 could most easily be realized. This protest by Spener against both 
 systems was certainly nut without influence in the construction of a 
 third system, the CoUeyiate System, whose originator was the Chancellor 
 iya^ of Tübingen {ob. 1760). According to it, only the right of eccle- 
 siastical sovereignty (jus circa sacra) is incumbent on the ruler of the 
 country as such ; whilst the jura in sacra (doctrines, worship, ecclesias- 
 tical legislation and its execution, appointment to the ministry and 
 excommunication) are incumVjent as jura coUegialia on the totality of 
 all church-members. The normal constitution would therefore be this, 
 when all together carried it into execution in a collegiate way (through 
 synods and elections in the congregation). External circumstances, 
 however, at the period of the Reformation, made it also necessary to 
 transfer the collegiate rights to the princes, which is also not in itself 
 inadmi-ssible, provided only that the principle is held fast, that the 
 prince administers them ex commisso, and is always accountable and 
 responsible to those who have committed them to him. This system, 
 which, because it in fact left everything in the old way, could only 
 claim the honor of an old theory, and if it was to be seriously carried 
 out, would entirely destroy the ecclesiastical organism by its under- 
 valuing the ministerii ecclesiastici (the ministry), found its most zeal- 
 ous defenders among the later rationalists, on account of its democratic 
 tendency. Practically, however, neither of the three systems were 
 purely and consistently introduced and carried through. In most of 
 the churches the form of government vacillated among all three. 
 
 4. Uymnology also bore many precious fruits during the first half 
 of this century. We distinguish the following groups of composers 
 of hymns: (A.) The Pietistic School, with a scriptural-practical and 
 devotional tendency. The spiritual life of believers, the breaking 
 through of grace in conversion, growth in holiness, the changing con- 
 ditions, experiences, and feelings in the life of the soul, were made the 
 objects of contemplation and description. They are for the most part 
 no longer hymns for the congregation, for the people, for common wor- 
 ship, but more for individual edification, and for the closet. There are 
 only, relatively speaking, a few hymns of this school that make an 
 exception, and still deserve the name of church-hymns. When pietisia
 
 248 SECTION III. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 18 A.D.), 
 
 declined, the spiritual poetical inspiration awakened by it decLned 
 also gradually ; it lost its original truth, power, and depth, and dege- 
 nerated into sentimentality and spiritless trifling with figures, allego- 
 ries, and phrases. Moreover, among the Halleau pietists, we must 
 distinguish between an older (1690-1720) and a younger poetical 
 school (1720-52), the former characterized by a sound piety in the 
 spirit of A. H. Francke, with hymns in a simple, tender, and profound 
 tone. I. The most distinguished of the very numerous poets of this 
 oldei' school are : Anastasius Freyliaghausen, Francke's son-in-law and 
 director of the orphan's house at Halle [oh. 1739), (" Wer ist wohl wie 
 du"); — Breithavpt, JoacJi. Lange, theological Professors at Halle; 
 —Dan. Herrnsclimidt, Prof. at Halle [oh. 1723), ("Lobe den Herrn, 
 iueine Seele") ; — Christian Friedr. Richter, physician to the orphan's 
 house [oh. 1711), author of 33 excellent hymns ("Gott, den ich als die 
 Liebe kenne," "Es glänzet der Christen invendiges Leben") ; — Emily 
 Julianna, Countess of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt [ob. 1706), composed 
 687 hymns, among which also : " Wer weiss, wie nahe mir mein Ende," 
 the authorship of which was also claimed by a cotemporary preacher, 
 named Pfefferkorn ; — J. Heinrich Schröder, pastor in Magdeburg [oh. 
 1728), ("Eins ist Noth") ; — J. Jos. Winckler, pastor of the Cathedral 
 of Magde])urg [oh. 1722), ("Ringe recht") ;— Christoph Dessler, con- 
 rector in Nuremberg [oh. 1722), ("Wie wohl ist mir, o. Freund der 
 Seelen"); — Andr. Gotter, aulic counsellor in Wernigerode [oh. 1735), 
 ("Schaffet, schaffet, Menschenkinder"); — Barth. Crasselius, preacher 
 at Düsseldorf ("Dir, dir, Jehova, will ich singen").— II. T\\q younger 
 Hallean school embraces the period of declining pietism. The superior 
 poets of this school are : E. H. o. Bogatzky [oh. 1774), also an esteemed 
 ascetic author; — John Jak. Bamhach, Prof, in Giessen [oh. 1735), the 
 most churchly of the poets of this school ("Grosser Mittler," etc. ); — 
 Conrad AUendorf, court-preacher at Köthen [oh. 1773), publisher of 
 the so-called Köthnisen Lieder — a collection of spiritual love-hyrans in 
 the spirit of Solomon's Song — ("Unter Lilien jener Freuden"); — 
 Fried. Lehr, deacon in Köthen (o5.1744), (" Mein. Jesus nimmt die Sünder 
 au"); — E. Gottl. WoUersdorf, pastor in Bunzlau, founder of the or- 
 phan's house there (o6. 1761). 
 
 (B.) The poets of the Orthodox Tendency. Although the poets of this 
 school were in part opponents of the pietists, they yet were all more or 
 less incited to a more living apprehension of piety by the spirit which 
 proceeded from Spener. Orthodox poets of the strictest observance 
 were, Val. E. Löscher and Erdmann Neumeister (pastor and inspector 
 of schools at Hamburg, oh. 1756), both being as zealous, and even 
 violent in their opposition to the one-sidedness of pietism, as they were 
 fresh and strong in their orthodoxy, as spiritual poets also not insigni- 
 ficant, -without, however, being able to soar to the region of the genuine 
 churcli-hymn, from which tliey were hindered especially by their di- 
 dactic character. Ad. Lehinus, otherwise a pious and spirited man,
 
 LUTHERAN CHURCH BEFORE ILLU MIN ATION . 215* 
 
 reduced the entire doctrinal system and all the pericopes to verse, 
 Benj. Schmolck's (pastor at Schweidnitz, oh. 1737), and Sal. Franck'i 
 (secretary of the consistory at Weimar, oh. 1725) hymns have the same 
 devout and tender expression, that vre find amon^ the better pietists. 
 Franck composed about 300 hymns (" So ruhest du, meine Ruh") ; 
 Sehmolck even more than lÜOO (among which the baptismal hymn: 
 " Liebster Jesu, wir sind hier"). — To the tendency, mediating between 
 pietism and orthodoxy, which was represented in theology by Bengel 
 and Crusius, belong yet several very important poets : John Ändr. Rothe, 
 Zinzendorf's colleague at Berthelsdorf [oh. 1758), author of the beau- 
 tiful hymn: "Ich habe nun den Grund gefunden;" John Mentzer, 
 preacher in Oberlausitz, [ob. 1734), ("0 dass ich tausend Zungen 
 hätte"); and Phil. Friedr. Eiller of Würtembcrg [ob. 1769), who 
 composed more than 1000 hymns ; and Liidw. v. Pfeil, statesman [ob. 
 1784). — In 1751, J. Jacob v. Moser collected a register of 50,000 
 printed hymns in the German language. (Cf. | 54, 1.) 
 
 5. Church Music. — The original inventive fullness of the nationft». 
 song (from which proceeded the old church hymn) was already ex- 
 hausted in the 17th century, and finally even the taste for and pleasure 
 in it gradually disappeared through the influence of the opera. The 
 then existing secuhir national song borrowed its melodies from the ope- 
 ra, and in a short time found means of introducing it into the spiritual 
 song. When usually the composers of hymns, towards the end of the 
 17th century, following the pattern of Solomon's Song, struck the key- 
 notes of spiritual nuptial love for the bridegroom of souls, they sought 
 after corresponding musical sounds, and found them in the flatteringly 
 sweet and languishing melodies of the operatic national song of that 
 period. Pietism, otherwise so exclusive of everything worldly, followed 
 this example in a still more unlimited degree ; and, in fact, the sweet, 
 tender, and languishing tones of the secular national song must have 
 appeared to it to be better adapted to the peculiarity of its hymns, than 
 the old churchly tones, and the joyful, fresh, and powerful jubilee of 
 the rythm of the old church music. Thus, through the mighty influ- 
 ence of pietism, a large number of this kind of melodies (the so-called 
 Ifallean melodies) were introduced to churchly use. Anast. Frey- 
 linghausen, is to be regarded as its proper father. He not only himself 
 composed many of the so-called Ilalleun melodies, but he also col- 
 lected the best composed by other musicians, and combined them in 
 his hymn book, which appeared (1704) with the most mournful of 
 the older melodies. The ablest musicians of this tendency, in addition 
 to him, are: Knorr v. Rosenroth, Adam Drese, Chr. Fr. Richter, fur- 
 ther, H. George Reuss, rector in BUuikenburg [oh. 17 10), and /, G. 
 Hille, cantor in Glancha about the year 1739. 
 
 The musicians of this period had already entirely lost all taste for 
 the old choral, and the aria-style had degenerated greatly under the 
 influence of pietism, when a master appeared, in whom was gathered
 
 250 SECTION III. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 18 A. D;. 
 
 and concentrated everything; grand and glorious that had been contri 
 buted by evangelical, churclily, congregational, and artistic music, a 
 musician educated for the kingdom of heaven, like unto a householder, 
 ■who bringeth forth out of his treasury things new and old ;■— in whom 
 also the development of church music was -concluded for a whole cen- 
 tury. This was John Sebast. Bach, since 1723 musical director in the 
 Thomas-school in Leipsic {ob. 1750), the most perfect organist that ever 
 lived. He returned, with unqualified predilection, to the old choral, 
 which no one appreciated and understood more thoroughly than he. 
 He harmonized it for the organ, unfolded his inmost being and his 
 deepest thoughts in the richest fullness of harmony through four- 
 voiced melodies ; and made, after Hammerschmidt's manner, many old 
 splendid chorals in the form of a dialogue in the language of Scripture, 
 together with recitatives, duetts, and arias, echo with wonderful power 
 in his sacred concerts. In the art of fugue, in knowledge of the 
 mysteries of harmony, in richness of modulation, etc., he was the 
 greatest master of all times. He advanced the aria-style to its most 
 glorious and exalted development, and the greatest and most sublime 
 thoughts of German Protestantism are clothed in heavenly music in 
 his passion-oratorios. We have from him, besides, five annual church- 
 compositions for every Sunday and festival. (Of. C. L. Hilgenfeldi, J. 
 Seb. Bach's Leben, Wirk. u. Werke. Lpz. 1850.)— Besides Bach, there 
 was also another master of unapproachable greatness in the oratorio, 
 George Friedr. Händel of Halle, who, however, lived from 1710 to his 
 death (1759) mostly in England. He labored for the opera for more 
 than 25 years, and only turned to the oratorio in his later years. Whilst 
 his operas have long since been forgotten, he will be distinguished in 
 this department for all time. His most perfect oratorio is the " Mes- 
 siah;" Herder called it a Christian epopee in sounds. Of his other 
 great oratorios are to be mentioned: " Samson," "JudasMaccabeus," 
 " Joshua," and " Jephtha." (Cf. § 81, 2.) 
 
 6. Christian Life and Devotional Literature. — Pietism poured a 
 mighty religious stream into the national life, and sustained it by 
 zealous pi-eaching, pastoral care, devotional meetings, and an almost 
 exuberant devotional literature. Orthodoxy, also, which had been en- 
 riched by pietism, manifested a not less efficient and still more sterling 
 activity through the ministry, word, and pen. August. Hermann 
 Francke [ob. 1727) founded, with seven florins in his hand, but with 
 strong faith in his heart, the orphan's house at Halle ; Woltersdorf 
 proved himself to be Francke's successor in faith and love, by founding 
 the orphan's house at Bunzlau ; the Baron vo^i Canstein (ob. 1719) 
 devoted his wealth to founding the Bible institution at Halle, from 
 which millions of Bibles have been already sent forth, etc. The newly 
 awakened zeal for missions gives evidence of the stirring religious life 
 and interest in the Lutheran church. The most important of the many 
 ascetic authors are : /. Anast. Freylinghausen (Grundlegung der Theo
 
 LUTHERAN CHURCH BEFORE ILLUMINATION. 251 
 
 logie), John Porst, provost at Berlin [oh. 1728;, (Göttl. Führung d. 
 Seelen ; Wachsthum d. Wiedergebornen ; an excellent hymn-book) ; 
 George Kitsch of Gotha [ob. 1729), (Theol. Sendschreiben) ; John Jacob 
 Rambach of Giessen [ob. 1735), distinguished both as a learned theolo- 
 gian and as a spiritual poet and pulpit orator (Passionsbetrachtungen, 
 etc.); Benj. Schmolck of Schweidnitz [oh. 1737), (Communionbuch ; 
 Morgen-und Abendsegen, etc.) ; Dav. Hollaz, son of the dogmatist 
 (Evang. Guadenordnung) ; George Conrad Bieger of Stutgärd [ob. 
 1743), (Ilerzenspostille, etc.); J. A. Steinmetz, Abbot of Klosterbergen 
 [oh. 1703), (Sendschreiben; Sammlung auserlesener materien zum 
 Bau des Reiches Gottes, etc.). Among those who were not theologians, 
 the following are especially distinguished as ascetic authors : the Sile 
 sian nobleman Charles Henry von Bogatzky of Halle [ob. 1774), a man 
 who was unweariedly laborious in promoting the kingdom of God in 
 every way (Güldenes Schatzkastlein, Tägliches Hausbuch der Kinder 
 Gottes, Communionbuch, etc.), and John Jacob von Moser, a celebrated 
 statesman and publicist, a man of the most solid and approved piety 
 (although the Moravian congregation at Ebersdorf excluded him from 
 the Lord's Supper), died in 1785, at Stutgärd, after a life filled with 
 persecutions and troubles (having been imprisoned for six years in the 
 fortress of Hohentwiel). — How great also the need for solid and in- 
 structive edification was, is shown by the many popular expositions of 
 the Bible, the best of which are the Pfqffische Bibelwerk (Tübg. 1730), 
 the Hirschberger Bibel (1756), by Liebich und Burg, the Synopsis 
 biblioth. exeg. or kurzgef. Auszug d. Auslegung, etc. (Lpz. 1741, 6 
 Bde. 4to.), by Christoph Starke, and the comprehensive Hallesche Bibel 
 by S. J. Baumgarten, Jacob Brucker, Romanus Teller, etc. (Lpz. 1748, 
 sq. 19 Bde. 4to.) 
 
 7. Heathen Missions. (Of. A. H. and C. A. Francke, Berichte d. Dan. 
 miss, in Ostind. Halle, 1708-72. — St. Schulz, Leitungen des Höchsten, 
 etc. Halle, 1771, sq. 5 Bde. — /. F. Fenger, Gesch. d. tranquebar' sehen 
 mission, aus d. Dan. v. C. Francke. Grimma, 1845. — K. Graul, Ausbr. 
 u. Entwickl. d. ehr. K. unter d. Tamulen ; in the hist, theol. Ztschr., 
 1850, 111. — J. H. Brauer, Beitr. zur Gesch. d. Heidenbek. II. II.: 
 Zeigenbalg. Alt. 1837. — /. C. G. Schmidt, kurzgef. Lebcnsbeschr. ev. 
 miss. Bd. I. and III. Lpz. 1839. — R. Vormbaum, ev. missionsgesch. in 
 Biographien, Bd. II. Düsseid. 1852. — H. Egede, Ausf. nachr. v. d. 
 gronUlnd. miss. Hamb., 1740. — ^. G. Rudelbach, II. Egede; in s. 
 Christi. Biogr. Bd. I. Lpz. 1850.) — The revival of practical Chris- 
 tianity, which proceeded from pietism, contributed greatly also to the 
 extension of Heathen missions. Frederick IV. of Denmark founded 
 the mission at Tranquebar for his East India possessions, for which 
 Francke sent to him two very excellent and zealous laborers, Heni-y 
 Plützschau and Barth. Ziegenbalg. The latter translated the New 
 Testament into the Tamul language [ob 1719). This Danish East 
 Indian mission extended its labors also into the English possessions
 
 252 SECTION III. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 18 A.D.). 
 
 The orphan's house at Halle contributed to it quite a number of ex 
 cellent missionaries, the most prominent of whom was Christian Frie-' 
 derich Schwarz {ob. 1798), the patriarch of Lutheran missions, who 
 labored almost 50 years as a faithful missionary. In the last quarter 
 of this century, however, the zeal for this mission expired under the 
 influence of rationalism ; the connection with the orphan's house was 
 dissolved, and the rich Lutheran harvest was gathered almost entirely 
 into the garners of the Anglican church. The Ilallean Prof. Callen- 
 herg founded (1728) a special institute at Halle for the conversion of 
 the Jews, under whose auspices Stephen Schulz travelled over Europe, 
 Asia, and Africa, to preach the Gospel to the Jews. As early as the 
 11th century the Gospel had been carried to Greenland, since which 
 time, however, the church there had been forgotten, and, as it now 
 appears, had disappeared entirely from view. This negligence of 
 Christendom pressed heavily on the heart of the preacher Hans 
 Egede, in Norway ; he did not rest until he, supported by a Danish- 
 Norwegian commercial enterprise, could tread upon the icy land with 
 his family in 1721. He labored unweariedly amid incredible hardships 
 and privations; and at the beginning with but little success ; and he 
 also remained alone behind when the commercial enterprise was aban- 
 doned. In 1733 he had the unexpected joy of being joined by three 
 Moravian missionaries. Christian David, and the brothers Stach. But, 
 alas ! this joy was only too soon embittered by the pride of the new- 
 comers, who wished to model everything after their peculiar Moravian 
 principles, and slandered and avoided the brave Eyede, who could not 
 submit to their demands, as an unholy and unconverted man ; whilst 
 he was justly oifended at their confusion of justification and sanctifica- 
 tLon, at tneir contempt for pure doctrines, and their special, unscrip- 
 tural notions and phrases, disposed as lie also was, to overlook their 
 want of theological education. He repaid their hostility with the most 
 self-denying care when they were attacked by a contagious disease. 
 In 1736, having transferred the prosecution of his work to his son Paid, 
 he returned to Denmark, and labored since then in Copenhagen aa 
 suporintendant of a Greeulandish missionary seminary (06. 1758). 
 (Cf. I 51, 5.) 
 
 § 47. THE MORAVIANS. 
 
 ^ Cf. N. L. V. Zinzendorf, UfU Uvtoi od. naturelle Reflexiones über 
 Bich selbst. 1749. — A. G. Spangenberg, Leben d. Grafen v. Z. Barby, 
 1772, 8 Bde. — /. W. Verbeek, des Grafen v. Z. Leb. u. Char. Gnadau, 
 1845.— Z. C. V. Schrauteyibach (a younger contemporary of Z., not be- 
 longing to the denomination, but closely related to it), Erinner.an. d. 
 Gr. Z. (1781). Berlin, 1828, and more thorough; Der G. v. Z. u. d. 
 Brlidergem. sr. zeit; herausg. v. F. W. Kolbing. Gnadau, 1851.— 
 Bnrnhagen von Ense, Leb. d. Gr. v. z. in d. Biogr. Denkmalen, Bd. V., 
 Berlin, 1830.— i^/-. Pilgram, Leb. u. Wirk. d. Gr. N. L. v. Z., aus (röm.)
 
 THE MORAVIANS. 253 
 
 Kath.-Glaubensprinclpien betrachtet. Lpz., 1857. — Jei. Risler, Leb. 
 Spangenberg's, Barby, 1794. — K. F. LedderJwse, Leb. Sp's. Heidlb., 
 1846. — [Zinzendorf], Biidingische Samml. einiger in d. K. G. einsch- 
 lagender Schriften. Büd. 1742, ff. 3 Bde.— ^. G. Spangenberg, kurzgef. 
 bist. Nachr. v. d. gegenw. Verf. d. ev. Brliderunit. 5. A. Gnadau, 1833. 
 Dav. Cranz, alte u. neue Brüderhist. Barby, 1774, continued (Bd. 2-4) 
 by J. K. Hegner, 1791, ff. [Kölbing), Die Gedenktage der erneuerten 
 Brüdergem. Gnadau, 1821. — C. V. Lijnar, Nachr. v. d. Urspr. u. Fortg. 
 d. Brüdernuit. Halle, 1781. — F. Litiz, Blicke in d. Gegenw. u. A^er- 
 gangenh. d. ev. Brüdergem. Lpz., 1846. — E. W. Cröger, Gesch. d. 
 erneuerten Brüderkirche. Gnadau, 1852, ff. 3 Bde. — J. F. Schröder, 
 d. Gr. V. Z. u. Herrnh. od. Gesch. d. Brüderunität. Nordh. 1857. — A. Benr 
 gel, Abriss d. s. g. Brüdergem. Stuttg. 1751, 2 Thle. — /. G. Walch, 
 theol. Bedenk, v. d. Beschaffenh. d. herrnhütischen Secti. Frkf. 1747. — 
 J. Ph. Fresenius, bewarbt Nachr. v. herrnhütischen Sachen. 2. A. Lpz. 
 1746, ff. 4 Bde. — Ä. /. Baumgarten, theol. Bedenk. 1741, W. — N. L. v 
 Zinzendorf, die gegenw. Gestalt, d. Kreuzreiches Christi. Lpz. 1745, 
 4to. — A. G. Spangenberg, apol. Schlussschrift, worinnen über tausend 
 Beschuldigg. nach d. Wahrh. beantw. werden. Lpz. 1752, 2 Bde. 4 
 Dess., Declaration ü. d. Besclmldigg., etc. Lpz. 1751, 4to. — Max. Göbel, 
 Gesch. d. Inspirationsgemeinden, lY. Der herrnhütische Periodus 
 1730-43 ; in the bist, theol. Ztschr. 1855, I. — A. Christiani, d. Gr. 
 Zinzend. u. d. Sattler Rock; in d. Mittheill. für. d. ev. K. Russl., 
 1855, V. [The Moravian Manual. E. De Schweinitz. Philada. 1859]. 
 
 The talented Count Zinzendorf, captivated when but a boy, 
 glowing with burning love towards the Saviour, by the idea of a 
 spiritual fraternity of the friends of Jesus, obtained an opportu- 
 nity to realize this idea in a way peculiar to himself, by the arri- 
 val of several Moravian exiles upon his estates. Upon Ilutberg 
 he cast the mustard-seed of his youthful dreams into fruitful 
 ground, and it soon grew up to a stately tree under the unweary- 
 ing culture of the noble gardener, and its vigorous sprouts were 
 not only transplanted to all the Protestant countries of Europe, 
 but also to all other parts of the world. The communion which 
 he founded was called the " renewed fraternity,'^ but in fact it 
 was not a renewed, but a new fraternity, the most faithful copy 
 )f his altogether original peculiarity, which for a time ran into- 
 nnheard-of extravagances. That the communion did not perish 
 by these extravagances, that its fraternization with fanatics and 
 persons professing to be inspired, its sectarian establishment of a 
 Bpecial covenant with the Saviour, and the not too humble ima- 
 gination of their philadelphian position in the kingdom of God, 
 did not plunge it into bottomless fanaticism, and that it was able 
 65
 
 254 SECTION III. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 18 A.D.). 
 
 to preserve itself upright upon the slippery and dangerous ground 
 of its marriage-mystery, is a phenomenon that stands alone in 
 Church History, and testifies stronger than everything else, how 
 deeply and firmly the originator and the communion were rooted 
 in the Gospel. The count himself laid aside many of his extra- 
 vagances, and what remained were eradicated so far as they were 
 not connected with the fundamental idea of the special covenant 
 by his successor, the prudent and circumspect Spangenberg. He 
 succeeded, not indeed in abolishing the sectarian character of the 
 fraternity, but in modifying and concealing it. A great advan- 
 tage to the fraternity in this view, was the contrast of its faith- 
 ful adhesion to the foundation of salvatioö, with the general 
 apostacy from faith which prevailed everywhere in the Church. 
 In this period of general apostacy it preserved the faith of many 
 pious souls, and afforded them a welcome refuge, with rich spiritual 
 nourishment and care. But with the resuscitation of religious 
 life in the 19th century, it lost more and more its significance for 
 Europe, on account of its adhesion to its old one-sidedness, its 
 continuing indifference to science, and aversion to conflict. In 
 one respect, however, its efficiency is greatly felt, even to the 
 present day, — that is, its heathen missions, and its widely ramified 
 system of education also deserves special acknowledgment. They have 
 now a half million members, with about a hundred settlements. 
 
 1. The Founder of the Moravians, Nicliolas Louis Count von Zin- 
 zendorf and Pottendorf, was born in the year 1700, at Dresden. Spener 
 was among his sponsors. As his father died early, and his mother 
 married a second time, his pious, pietistically-inclined grandmother, a 
 woman of Gersdorf, undertook the training of the boy, who was en- 
 dowed with rich gifts of the head and heart. With her he learned, 
 even in his tenderest youth, to seek his happiness in the most inti- 
 mate personal communion with the Lord. But her training was directed 
 only towards nourishing his religious feelings, and neglected to confine 
 them within the limits of wholesome discipline, which was doubly ne- 
 cessary for his bold, rich, and aspiring spirit. At this time already 
 the tendency of his whole life fixed itself. When 10 years old he 
 •entered the grammar-school at Halle under the direction of Ä. H. 
 Francke, where the pietistic fundamental idea of the necessity of an 
 ecclesiola in ecclesia, took root in his soul. Already in his 15th year 
 he sought to realize it by founding & mustard-seed order (Matt. 13 : 31) 
 among his fellow-pupils. Having completed his preparatory studies, 
 his uncle and guardian, who began to have scruples about his pietistic 
 extravagances, sent him to orthodox Wittenberg to study law. Here 
 he at first found a kind of satisfaction, a morsel of martyr-happiness.
 
 THE MORAVIANS. 255 
 
 :b s-wimming, as a rigid pietist, against the orthod:x stream. Never- 
 theless, his residence at Wittenberg exerted a wholesome influence on 
 him, fur it liberated him insensibly from the narrow-mindedness of 
 Hullean pietism, which, at all events, did not accord with the catholic 
 tendency of his spirit. The fundamental idea of pietism (ecclesiola in 
 ecclesia) he, meanwhile, held fast ; but it assumed in his spirit a form 
 80 grand and comprehensive, such as pietism was not able to produce. 
 His efforts to bring to pass a personal conference, and if possible a 
 union between the Hallean and Wittenberg leaders, were fruitless. 
 In 1715 he left Wittenberg, and during a two years' tour came into 
 personal contact with the most distinguished Christian men of all con- 
 fessions and sects (in Paris with Noailles and the Jansenists). After 
 his return home (1721), he entered the civil service of Saxony, in 
 obedioace to the desire of his relatives. But a religious genius such 
 as Zinzendorf could find no satisfaction in such service, and soon an 
 opportunity was afforded him to realize the plan which ruled all his 
 thoughts and feelings. 
 
 2. The Founding :f the Moravians (1722-27). — Already the Smal- 
 caldian, and much more the Thirty-years' war, inflicted unspeakable 
 calamities and persecution upon the Bohemian and Moravian Brethren. 
 Many of them sought a refuge for their foith and life in emigration to 
 Poland and Prussia (among them also Bishop John Amos Comenius, 
 ob. 1671). Those that remained were exposed to the most wicked 
 oppression, even after the Westphalian peace. They could only serve 
 God after the faith of their ftithers in their houses* secretly and in C'<n- 
 stant danger of death ; externally and publicly they must belong to 
 the Piomish Church. Thus gradually the light of the Gospel went out 
 in tlie dwellings of their descendants, and the remembrance of the 
 faith and the Church of their fathers was preserved only in a tradition 
 which continually faded more and more. A Moravian carpenter. Chris- 
 tian David, born and educated in the Koman Catholic Church, but 
 awakened on his travels through evangelical preaching, rekindled, at 
 the beginning of the 18th century, the dying flame iu several families. 
 They emigrated under David's guidance, and sought a refuge upon the 
 estates of Count Zinzendorf in Lausatia (1722). The count was absent 
 at the time, but his steward, with the approbation of the count's grand- 
 mother, allowed them to settle on Ilutberg near Berthelsdorf. Uttering 
 the words of Pa. 84 : 4, Christian David struck the axe into the tree, 
 which was cut down to build the first house. Soon the village of 
 Herrnhut sprung up, and became the centre of the society, which Zin- 
 zendorf now made every effort to establish. Gradually other Moravian 
 exiles gathered in ; but a much greater number of religiously awakened 
 people of all nations flocked thither. Pietists, Separatists, Calvinists, 
 Schwcnkfeldians, etc. Zinzendorf did not contemplate a separation 
 from the Lutheran Church. The colonists were placed in the parish 
 of the excellent preacher Rothe of Berthelsdorf (g 46, 4). It was no
 
 256 SECTION III. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 18 A.D.). 
 
 easy matter to organize such a mixed crowd ; and only ihe glowing 
 enthusiasm of Ziuzendorf for the idea of a collection of souls, his 
 eminent talent for organization, the wonderful elasticity and tenacity 
 of his will, the extraordinary prudence, circumspection, and wisdom 
 of his understanding, were able to hold the diverse elements together, 
 and to avoid an open rupture amid the constantly occurring dissensions. 
 The Moravians demanded the re-establishment of the old Moravian 
 constitution and discipline ; and of the other elements, each one desired 
 that to be placed in the foreground, which was the most important to 
 it. All only sympathized with each other in the aversion to holding 
 fast simply to the Lutheran Church and its preacher Rothe. Thus the 
 count saw himself compelled to create a new and separate society of 
 unity. The old Moravian constitution did not specially commend itself 
 to him, but the lot decided in favor of it, and the consideration of be- 
 ing able to appear as the continuation of an ante-reformatory martyr- 
 church, had also its weight. Thus then Ziuzendorf formed a constitu- 
 tion with old Moravian forms and names, but pervaded throughout 
 with a new spirit, and ruled by quite other tendencies. The Moravians 
 did not venture to condemn the difference ; the most able among them, 
 who perhaps discovered it, were silenced by prominent positions ; in- 
 dividual discontents left Herrnhut. On the basis of this constitution, 
 chartered by Zinzendorf, the colony now constituted itself, Aug. 13, 
 1727, under the name of Renewed Moravian Church. 
 
 3. The Progress of the Church to Zinzendorf s Death (1727-60). — 
 Immediately after the organization of the Church or Society, it began 
 to manifest an astonishing activity in propagating itself, the life and 
 soul of which Zinzendorf was, and remained until his death. New 
 congregations were organized in Germany, Holland, England, Ireland, 
 Denmark, Norway, and North America ; members of the society were 
 sent to Protestant countries to form smaller societies among the dioas- 
 pora within the established churches, but with Moravian spirit and 
 forms, thus for instance with special success in Livonia and Esthonia 
 since 1729. Zinzendorf was examined (1734) at Tübingen as a candi- 
 date for the ministry, and received (1737) from the hand of Jablonsly, 
 court-preacher at Berlin, who was at the same time Bishop of the Mo- 
 ravians, episcopal ordination, which the same had given already two 
 years bef >re to another member of the fraternity, David Nitschmann 
 (a wheelwright by trade) ; as also generally increasing importance was 
 attached to episcopal succession in proportion as the connection with 
 England became more intimate. Meanwhile, the movements of the 
 societv attracted the greatest attention. The government of Saxony 
 sent (1736) a commission to Herrnhut, of which Val. E. Löscher was a 
 member. Although this commission made, upon the whole, a favorable 
 report, nevertheless the originator of the society was banished from 
 the country. This exile continued for ten years. Zinzendorf, like all 
 religious fugitives theu, fled to Wetteraw. He settled with his little
 
 THE MORAVIANS. 257 
 
 congregation at Ronneburg near Büdingen, established flourishing 
 congregations at Marienborn and Herruhaag, and made extensive 
 journeys in Europe and America. This period of exile is the period 
 of the greatest outward extension, but also (especially the years 1742— 
 50) the period of the greatest internal dangers. The historians of the 
 society designate these years as the sifliag-period. At the same time a 
 real tloud of controversial treatises and lampoons began to break upon 
 the society and its founders, partly in an earnest and dignified tone, 
 with a sharply penetrating criticism from the side of most honorable, 
 worth}-, and learned representatives of Lutheran theology [John Phil. 
 Fresenius, S. J. Baumgarten, J. G. Walch, Abbot Steinmetz, Alb. 
 Bengel, et al.), partly in a coarse, offensive, and scandalous manner, 
 ex. qr. by /. Leonh. Fröreisen (Abschilderung des Mahomet's und des 
 Zinzendorf's als seines heutigen Affen. Strasb. 1747, etc.), the latter 
 being done especially also by members who had withdrawn from the 
 society, concerning whom we may presuppose the most exact know- 
 ledge of the internal condition of the society, but also the strongest 
 disposition to misrepresent and ridicule it. (Cf. ex. gr. B. Alex. Volck, 
 town-clerk of Büdingen, das entdeckte Geheimnisz d. Bosh. d. herrnh. 
 Secte. Frkf. 1749, ff., and H. Joach. Bothe, tailor in Berlin, Zuverl. 
 Nachr. des entd. herrnh. Ehegeheimnisses. Berl. 1751, 2 Bde.) It is, 
 however, nevertheless true, that the count and his society at this time 
 gave only too much matter and occasion for misrepresentation, perver- 
 sion, and slander, by extravagances and peculiarities of the most 
 obnoxious and dangerous kind. To this period belongs, first of all, the 
 celebrated fiction of the special covenant — the Pandora-box of all other 
 errors — and the bold political stratagem (1741) by which Zinzendorf 
 made Leonhard Dober to "succeed" the Lord Jesus in the ofBce of 
 chief-elder. To this period belong also the greatest literary fruitfulness 
 of the count, together with the development of his peculiar theological 
 views, modes of speech, and doctrines; the composition and public use 
 in worship of the notorious, later expelled, spiritual hymns, with their 
 indescribably foolish trifling, and their partly blasphemous, partly 
 obscene images and analogies ; further, the mountebank laudation of 
 his society, the not always honest proselytism, the introduction and 
 practice of a very questionable and shameless matrimonial discipline ; 
 finally, the so-called elegancies [i. e. excepting joyful festivities, whose 
 centre was the cultus of the " Seitenhöhlchens," with illuminated or 
 transparent representations and tasteless emblems or decorations of 
 the same, etc.), such as the ''mite-societies" for preparing these ele- 
 gancies, towards which especially the congregation at Herrnhaag, the 
 model for all the others, contributed the non-plus-ultra of silly insi- 
 pidity. Even the pietistic party, whose theory of repentance and con- 
 version was certainly and justly offensive to the society, opposed it on 
 account of its blessed resting in the favor of its Saviour, which inclined 
 to Antinomism. (Cf. K. H. v. Bogatzhj, Aufr. Declaration Ü. e. gegen 
 G5*
 
 258 SECTION III. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 18 A.D.). 
 
 ihn herausgek. herrnhutische Schrift, mit e. Vorr. v. Abt Steinmetz. 
 Halle, 1751. — G. Terstegen, Warnungsschreiben wider die Leichtsin« 
 nigk. sc. der Herrnhuter, im weg d. Wahrh. St. V.). The controversial 
 treatises of inspired fanatics in Wetteraw, with whom Zinzendorf for- 
 merly fraternized, but had now completely broken, brought things to 
 light, of which those without had no idea, and which greatly compro- 
 mised Zinzendorf's sincerity and integrity (| 49, 2). — All this opposi- 
 tion, odious as it for the most part, was, produced meanwhile a salutary 
 eflfect. The count became gradually more careful as to himself, more 
 cautious in his addresses, more discreet in his conduct, removed several 
 of the worst excrescences in doctrine and practice, and exterminated 
 also in great part the fanatical element. In 1747, finally, the go- 
 vernment of Saxony revoked the edict of exile against the founder of 
 the society ; and as it two years later explicitly accepted the Augsburg 
 Confession, it attained formal recognition in Saxony, At the same 
 time it was recognized in England by an act of parliament (1749) as a 
 church entitled to equal privileges with that of the Anglican Episcopal, 
 with pure episcopal succession. Zinzendorf managed all the important 
 matters of the society until his death, and it adhered to him with child- 
 like confidence, and was a faithful copy of his character, inheriting not 
 only his fervor, but also his extravagances in forms of expression, of 
 doctrine, and of life, lie died (1760) in the perfect enjoyment ofthat 
 happiness which his glowing love to the Saviour had prepared for him. 
 
 4. Zinzendorf's Plan and Lahors. — The pietistic idea of the neces- 
 sity of an ecclesiola in ecclesia gave him the first impulse to the work 
 of his life. But the weakness of this tendency could not remain con- 
 cealed to his sharp and penetrating spirit. With clear vision he looked 
 through the little, narrow-minded doings of Pietism, which never could 
 accomplish anything rightly with its establishment of institutions, its 
 unscriptural methods of piety, and theories of conversion and sealing. 
 Zinzendorf, therefore, desired not a conventicle, but a society ; not an 
 ideal, invisible, but a real, visible Church ; not a narrow-minded me- 
 thodisni, but a free, rich dominion of the Christian spirit. He did not 
 aim at first at the conversion of the world, nor at the reformation of 
 the Church, but at the collection and conservation of souls belonging 
 to the Saviour. But he hoped to build a reservoir, into which all the 
 rivulets of the water of life would flow together, and from which he 
 would be able to water the whole world. And as he succeeded so well 
 in forming a society, and it had progressed so rapidly, he was perfectly 
 convinced that it was the Philadelphia of Revelations (3 : 7 fi".), that 
 with it had begun the Fhiladclphian period of Church History, concern- 
 ing which all the prophets and apostles had prophesied. His plan waa 
 designed originally for all Christendom, and he took steps to realize it 
 in this form. To build a bridge between the Roman Catholic Church 
 and his society, he published (1727) a small Christian- CatJiolic hymn 
 and prayer-book, mostly taken from Angelus Silesius' " Hcly Delight
 
 THE MORAVIANS. 259 
 
 of the Soul " and sketched a letter to the pope (publi-ihed later by 
 Walch) with which he intended to send this book to him. Zinzen- 
 dorf positively denied the -vrhole matter, and pronounced the 
 letter to be a pasquil ; but Spangenberg admitted that the count had 
 sketched it, but never sent it off. lie also endeavored to interest the 
 Greek Church in his society by writing to the patriarch and to the 
 Empress Elizabeth of Russia, whereby he brought the Greek descent 
 of the Moravian brethren to bear. Practicallji, however, his collection 
 of souls was confined within the limits of the Protestant Church, and 
 ■within these limits contributions were made to it from all confessions, 
 sects, and communions. lie was personally attached sincerely to the 
 Lutheran Church and its characteristic doctrines. But in a society 
 which was in principle designed to be the rendezvous of the pious out 
 of all nations, doctrine and creed could not be the uniting and cement- 
 ing bund. It could only form a communion of love, not of faith. The 
 inmost kernel of Lutheranisni, reconciliation by the blood of Christ, 
 was preserved, and even made to be the proper living elemenfof the 
 societj'', though only as the blessed yee/uu/ of his blood. But this con- 
 tinued to be the properly Litt/ieraii basis in the society, which also, 
 when it was divided into confessional tropes (into the Moravian, Lu- 
 theran, and Reformed trope), remained in all the common basis. This 
 division first took place in 1744, and was occasioned by the founding 
 of the new ccmgregations at Marienborn and Ilerrnhaag in Wetteraw, 
 in which the Reformed element was predominant. The uniting head 
 of the three divisions was the count himself, who, in this capacity, bore 
 the title Ordinarius. But this matter of division was also only some- 
 thing external, and introduced no confessional precision into the so- 
 ciety ; it was consequently also of no duration. The later adhesion to 
 the Angshunj Confession (1749) was only an act of policy, which ob- 
 tained civil recognition, otherwise it was without any eftect. The 
 society remained, as it had been before, without and indifferent to any 
 confession. As now Zinzeii<hn-f 's society rejected the unity of confession 
 as a principle of communion, and as no permanent communion can be 
 based on a mere feeling of love, consequently nothing remained to the 
 founder but to make the Constitution the bond of unity instead of the 
 confession. The forms of this constitution were borrowed, from exter- 
 nal considerations, from the Old Moravian Church-discipline, but not 
 Bradacz's, but Zinzendorf's spirit filled and ruled them. The old 
 Moravian constitution was an episcopal-clerical one, and started from 
 the idea of the Church ; the new one was essentially Presbyterian, and 
 started from the idea of the congregation, and that a congregation of 
 saints. IMoravian bishops are only titular ones ; they have no dioceses, 
 no church government, nor ban. All tliis resides in the power of the 
 Unity-elders, among whom the lay-element is decidedly predominant. 
 Further, Moravians have no pastors, but only preaching brethren ; the 
 care of souls is assigned to the elders and their assistants. In addition
 
 260 SECTION III. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 18 A.D.). 
 
 to that half-Lutheran and this pseudo-Moravian element, the society 
 had also as basis a Donatist element. This consisted already in the 
 fundamental idea of a collection and communion of only true children 
 of God, and found its completion as well as its dogmatic establishment 
 in the conclusion of a Special covenant with the Saviour on Sept. 16, 
 1741, in London. The " Gedenktage" (p. 241, if.) report the following 
 concerning it: Leonhard Doher had filled the office of a General-elder 
 for several years. But it was observed at a synod held in London that 
 he had not the proper talents for this office. He now asked to be dis- 
 missed. In the anxiety to refill the office, " it occurred to all at the 
 same time, to accept the Saviour for it." They looked after the watch- 
 word of the day, and found Isaiah 45 : 11 (a passage not correctly 
 translated by Luther). " Instantly we all resolved to accept no other 
 than him as General-elder, and he gave us to understand that He ap- 
 proved (How?). We asked for permission ; we obtained it. (How?). 
 The question loas not, whether the Saviour was generally the shepherd 
 and bishop of our souls ; but our purpose and concern was : that he 
 should make a special covenant v^'iih his insignificant people, and re- 
 ceive us as his special jwssession, take care of all our concerns, specially 
 watch over us, personally unite himself with each member of the society, 
 and do everything in perfection that our former elder had done among 
 us in weakness." In a circular addressed to " the Church of the Lamb," 
 Zinzendorf announced the unheard-of favor which had been bestowed 
 upon them; — and, as is customary on the accession of a new king to 
 the throne, a letter of grace proclaimed "a universal forgiveness of 
 sins, committed either against the society or its members," and ofi'ered 
 " all apostates, to the last, whom the Lord according to his Avonderful 
 and inscrutable counsel had excluded," restoration to the society. In 
 America, the congregation at Philadelphia issued a proclamation to all 
 Christians, which begins with the words : To-day a visible Church of 
 the Lord is finally seen and recognized here ; we constitute the body 
 of the Lord ; hither to us, all ye who belong to the Lord ! 
 
 Among the numberless extravagances perpetrated by Zinzendorf and 
 the society, during the so-called sifting-period, which, however, Zin- 
 zendorf himself partly abandoned later, the following are the most 
 remarkable and obnoxious : (1.) The doctrine of the maternal office of 
 the Holt/ Ghost. Zinzendorf viewed the Holy Trinity as "man, wife, 
 and child" (" papa, mamma, and their little flame, brother lambkin"). 
 The Holy Ghost fills the position of mother (God the Father's eternal 
 wife, heart-mamma) ; his maternal office is exercised in a three-fold 
 way : at the eternal generation of the Son of God, at the conception 
 of the man Jesus, at the regeneration of believers. (2.) The doctrine 
 of the paternal office of Jesus Christ (according to Isaiah 9 : 6.) The 
 (^reation of the world was accomplished alone and exclusively by the 
 Sun (the " blessed potter" according to Gen. 2 : 7), therefore Christ is 
 lur special father, our direct father. The father of our Lord Jesu?
 
 THE MORAVIANS. 261 
 
 Christ is only * what the world calls a father-in-law, a grandfather." 
 (3.) Concerning the earthly life of our Saviour, Zinzendorf, in order to 
 make prominent and clear the depth of his humiliation, loved to use 
 the most disrespectful expressions (journeyman-carpenter, journey- 
 man, he hung upon the cross as a gallows-bird, etc.). (4.) He spoke 
 equally disrespectfully also of the " miserable fisherman's, shepherd's, 
 and visitator stylo, of the classical obscurity and rabbinical scholastic 
 terminology of the Holy Scriptures. On the other hand, he pronounced 
 his society to be a living Bible. (5.) The theory and practice of the 
 marriage-mystery, according to Eph. 5 : 32. The society and every 
 single soul in it is the spiritual bride of Christ, and to make the inti- 
 mate character of this relation clear, marriage-life is depicted even to 
 obscenity, and applied to the spiritual marriage with Christ, especially' 
 in the hymns. But Christ is also the proper husband in corporeal 
 matrimony. The begetting of children is a work of Christ (belongs 
 to his paternal office) ; earthly husbands are only " his procurators, in 
 whose favor he has resigned it ; " they are the vice-christs, vice-men 
 of the wives. Marriage is a real sacrament, sanctified thereto by the 
 circumcision of Christ and the opening of his side with the spear. The 
 blood of Christ shed thereby is the oil of matrimony, and the begettino- 
 of children is a holy, divine work, that should be performed by true 
 Christians without any sensation of fleshly lust, and consequently also 
 without shame. The " dog-priucipiis tolerated" by the apostle (1 Cor. 
 7 : 9), which are now only practised by negroes and islanders, must be 
 denied admission into the society. To this end the contraction of mar- 
 riage and the copula carnalis were placed under the special supervision 
 of the stewards of the society ; and the latter was done for a time by 
 the newly married amidst the singing and prayer of the society assem- 
 bled in an adjoining room. 
 
 Zinzendorf, almost apotheosized by his adherents, has not met with 
 a proper judgment, either as to his greatness or his weakness, from 
 his opponents. His (jreatness lay in his heart glowing with love to the 
 Saviour ("I have only one passion, that is He, only He"), in the 
 universal love, with which he gladly embraced all believers, in order 
 to gather them beneath the cross. This greatness, which he possessed, 
 is not even acknowledged by his most estimable opponents, among 
 whom Bengel is by far the most important. His weakness consisted 
 almost less in the various extravagances of which he was guilty, than 
 in the fact that he regarded himself as being called to establish a 
 society. But apart from this, his labors bear the stamp of grandeur, 
 on account of the great self-sacrifice, unwearied energy, and self-deny- 
 ing faithfulness with which he performed them. He devoted his whole 
 life, soul, heart, and wealth, to his self-chosen calling. The advan- 
 tages, also, which birth, position, and high secular culture oS'ered him, 
 he knew how to make subservient to his mission. He was personally 
 persuaded of his divine calling, and as he was not accustomed to bow
 
 262 SECTION III. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 18 A.D.). 
 
 to the written Word of God, but interpreted it according to his subjeo 
 tive canon: " It appears so to me," and made only this (together with 
 the lot) the rule of his life and labors, it is easily explicable how he, 
 in spite of great spiritual illumination and a rich fund of Christian 
 sense, could fall into fanatical errors. And from this relation to 
 his calling, the advancement of which by all imaginable means he 
 had always and only in View, are explained also single impurities in 
 his life (especially want of strict truthfulness, where it might appear 
 to be injurious to his cause). Very much of what was crooked and 
 perverse in his character must also be attributed to the distracted age 
 in which he lived. Zinzendorf 's writings, of which there are more 
 than 100, are marked by originality, genial thoughts, and peculiar 
 phrases. Among his more than 2000 hymns, many of them improvised 
 in the act of worship, of which Alb. Knapp published (Stuttg. 1845) 
 700 of the best, there are many possessing great fervor and sweetness, 
 some of really poetic merit, a few also (" Jesu, geh voran," " Du unser 
 auserwähltes Haupt"), which have found their way into the hymn- 
 books of the evangelical Church. The largest portion of them are mere 
 rhymes, a repertorium of theological and spiritual extravagances. 
 
 5. The Moravians since Spangenberg' s Labors. — The society owes its 
 present form to the prudent, wise, and temperate bishop, Aug. Gottlieh 
 Spangenberg {ob. 1792), who, after Ziuzendorf's death, obtained a 
 superior influence, and is justly regarded as its second founder. It 
 received from him the measured forms which yet characterise it. The 
 constitution was revised and perfected at the synod of Marienborn 
 (1764). Zinzendorf's monarchical position was changed into the con- 
 ference of unity-elders, and Spangenberg removed the yet remaining 
 excrescences of fanaticism. But the fundamental error of a special 
 covenant remained untouched, and still constituted the fundamental 
 presupposition of everything that the society as such thought, taught, 
 wrote, did, and accomplished, — and it continues to celebrate on the 
 IGth Sept., "the blessed experience of the elder's office of Jesus," as 
 its proper birth-day and special Whitsuntide. In the statutes of the 
 evang. Briidr.-Uuit. Gnadau (1819, ^5), it defines itself in distinction 
 from the existing churches as a " society of true children of God, as a 
 family of God, which has Jesus for its head," — in the Hist. Nachricht. 
 V. d. Verfass. d. Brdr.-Unit. Gnadau, 1823, ^ 4, as " a collection of 
 living members of the invisible body of Jesus Christ," and in its 
 " Litanei am Ostermorgen" (Gesangb. Nr. 210), in immediate connec- 
 tion with the creed of universal Christendom is placed as fourth, spe- 
 ciallv Moravian credo : " / believe, that our brethren N. N. and our 
 sisters N. N. (N.B. Here persons who have died at the nlace since the 
 previous Easter are mentioned % name) have gone to the upper con- 
 gregation, and have entered into the joy of their Lord." However, 
 the synod of 1848 made a change in this article of faith, but not so 
 great a.s to abandon the principle. But it is certain that the society
 
 THE MORAVIANS. 263 
 
 did not, ir. a public way, cause the consciousness of its special election 
 to appear so prominently in the foreground. This considerate and 
 purified Moravianism received, in Spangenberg's Idea Fidei fratrum, 
 a do'jmatic expression, which was connected with the Lutheran doc- 
 trine, but not the less thoroughly penetrated by the above-mentioned 
 fundamental presupposition. Only a few new societies were established 
 after Zinzcudorf 's death, and none of these were of much importance. 
 Rather before this event, the flourishing congregations in Wetteraw 
 were destroyed and scattered (1750) by the ruler of the country. Count 
 von Isenburg-Büdingen (because they refused to take the oath of alle- 
 giance). The labors among fhe Diaspora in Livonia and Edhonia, 
 after the first attempt to establish the society there (1729-43), had 
 ended in the banishmeut of the Moravians, were more successful in 
 the second half of this century, and assumed a form here as nowhere 
 else in a national church. They organized here formally a church 
 within the church, whose members, sustained by the conviction that 
 they had been added to " the little band" of the elect by the infallible 
 . voice of the Lord in the lot, gave infinite trouble to the orthodox cler- 
 gymen of the country, especially of Livonia who saw the destructive 
 character of this course, and testified against it from the Word of 
 God. This testimony manifested its conquering power here also, and 
 Moravianism began to reform (1857) not only too late, but also in too 
 lukewarm a manner, to save its institutions in Livonia from the certain 
 destruction which impended over them. (Cf. Tli. Haritack, d. luth. K. 
 Livland's u. d. herrnhut. Brüdergemeine, in der kirchl. Zeitschr. v. 
 Kleifoth u. Mejer 1«55, V. VI. 1857, IX. X.) 
 
 With regard to the doctrinal peatliariti/ of the Moravians, the firsi 
 thing to be made prominent is, that freedom from all creeds is a {prin- 
 ciple. The acceptance of the Augustana, in 1749, was not a real 
 appropriation of them ; and how merely external the relation of the 
 society to them still is, is shown by the sjaiodic indulgence of 1848. 
 Consequently, it is difficult to say what the doctrines of the Moravians 
 are. If we confine ourselves to Spangenberg's Idea Fidei, and to the 
 sermons and devotional works, then their doctrinal views do not by 
 any means appear to be either un-Luthcran or anti-Lutheran, but 
 rather such as contain neither the extensive fulness nor the intensive 
 wealth of the Lutheran doctrines, — and Bengel's sharp criticism : that 
 the Moravians pluck ofi" the leaves from the entire tree of wholesome 
 doctrines, expose that which is most hidden, and even divide this in 
 half, is even yet perfectly true. First of all they repudiate science 
 (according to a wrong ti-anslation and application of Eph. 3: 19) 
 as unnecessary to the appropriation of redemption, and seek to appre- 
 hend and preserve salvation by direct faith and love. As regards the 
 objects of faith, the Son (the God-man) is regarded as the exclusive 
 agent by wliom salvation is applied and accomplished, so that the re- 
 lations of the Father and the Holy Ghost to redemption are entirely
 
 264 SECTION III. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 18 A.D.). 
 
 ignored. Further, entire redemption is again attributed, in a one-sided 
 way, to the sufferings and death of the Son ; and the other not less 
 essential side of the same, which is grounded in his life and resurrec- 
 tion, is left out of view, or lather its fi'uits are likewise traced to his 
 atoning death. Consequently not only justification, but also sanctifi- 
 cation, are attributed exclusively to the death of Christ, and this is 
 apprehended not so much as a legal satisfaction (without, however, 
 expressly denying this directly), as a divine manifestation of love, 
 which awakens reciprocal love. Redemption is viewed as emanating 
 solely from the blood and wounds of Christ, and as in this aspect 
 the justice of God comes less into view than His grace and love, so also 
 the Gospel is made prominent to the almost entire exclusion of the law 
 (almost to Antinomianism). Sermon and doctrine should be directed 
 towards exciting pious feelings of love, and thus promote a certain 
 religious sentimentality. The weak side of the society is, accordingly, 
 its inahilitij to religiously develop the ivhole man with all his capacities 
 and powers, and to make the entire fulness of the gospel contribute to 
 this end; — its strong side, on the other hand, is its inioardness, and. 
 even this is unsound, because it is penetrated with the idea of a special 
 covenant with the Lord. 
 
 The peculiarity of their worship also contributed towards exciting 
 pious feeling, including pleasant sacred music, affecting melodies, rich 
 liturgical service, love-feasts (agapae, with tea, rusk, and the singing 
 oi ^i\\orü\s), feet-washing, and the fraternal kiss at the communion, etc. 
 The daily watch-words (from the 0. T.) and doctrinal texts (from the 
 N. T.) are designed to control and direct the feelings and meditations 
 of each day, and are regarded as being a kind of oracle both for the 
 congregation and for private life. So early as 1734 the society pos- 
 sessed a hymn-book of its own, with 972 hymns. The most of these 
 hymns proceeded from the society itself, and are a faithful copy of its 
 condition at that time. It contained, besides, the Bohemian and Mo- 
 ravian hymns translated by M. Weiss, and also many old choice hymns 
 of the evangelical church ; the latter, however, were most miserably 
 mutilated and abbreviated. By degrees (to 1749) twelve appendices 
 and four additions were made to it, so that the number of hymns in- 
 creased to 2357. The one-sidedness of the emotional tendency dege- 
 nerated, especially in these additions, and most of all in the twelfth, 
 to the most offensive caricature, in the insipid, and more than childish 
 trifling with the blood and wounds of Christ, etc. Zinzendorf himself 
 discovered this degeneracy in time, struck off the twelve appendices in 
 1751, and prepared in London a new revised hymn-book (the so-called 
 London hymn-book). Under Spangenberg's superintendence of the 
 Bociety, Christian Gregor (at that time music-director, later Bishop, 
 oh. 1801) undertook the publication of the hymn-book yet in use. With- 
 out possessing poetical talent, he yet did good service by retouching 
 and abbreviating the hymns then in use. lie retained 542 of Zinzen-
 
 THE MORAVIANS. 265 
 
 dorf 8 hymns, and added not less than 308 of his own pious rhymes 
 This "Neue Gesangbuch der Brüdergemeinen" appeared in 1778; in 
 1784, a book of chorals, likewise prepared by Gregor, was added to it. 
 Zinzendorf is the chief religious poet of the society. The count's only, 
 early deceased (1752) son. Christian Rcnatus (commonly called Chris 
 ieJ) bequeathed to the society a number of hymns (among which is 
 " Die wir uns allhier beisamen finden"). The other numerous reli- 
 gious poets are of no importance. Worthy of special mention is Span- 
 genberg's hymn: " Heil'ge Einfalt! Gnadenwunder!"- -The Melodies 
 were of the Hallean type, but strayed even more than these into the 
 sentimental, emotional, and unchurchly, until in 1784 Gregor, by his 
 new choral-book, brought this tendency within the limit« of the renewed 
 spirit of the society. 
 
 The Christian Practical Life of the society, after it had come out of 
 its sifting period, purified through Spangenberg's efiorts, manifested 
 itself in "an almost monkish contraction of civil and social life," with 
 stereotyped phrases and peculiar usages, even as to clothing (the caps 
 of the wives, widows, and maidens). Characteristic of the society is 
 further the blessed, quiotistic feeling of favor in personal communion 
 with the Saviour, the peace, which avoided all conflict and controversy, 
 the prudent, measured cutting-out of the whole life, etc. .The unbe- 
 lief that reigned in the Protestant Church, gave for a time an apparent 
 justification to the separation, conditioned by the special covenant. 
 Since the revival of Christian life in the Church, this separatism has 
 also, at least in its external relations, receded into the background, 
 but has not by any means entirely disappeared. The society still re- 
 gards itself as being the preferred and favored people of the Lord. 
 
 Finally, with regard to the Form of Church Government, Christ him- 
 self is the chief elder of the Church, who governs it by means of the 
 lot. The leaders of the society at least hold fast to the use of the lot, 
 in spite of the opposition which has arisen in the society within several 
 decades. "With it the special covenant would lose all significance, and 
 the existence of the society outside of the Church all justification. The 
 lot is used in marriages, in filling ecclesiastical offices, in sending forth 
 missionaries, in receiving into the society, etc. Nevertheless, the so- 
 ciety has permitted a relaxation of the practice in marriages, inasmuch 
 as it is only used with consent of the candidates of matrimony, and the 
 result is not regarded as binding, which, in fact, involves a contradic- 
 tion and an abandonment of the principle. The administration of the 
 aff"airs of the society resides in the Unity-elders' conference (with tliree 
 departments, one for ecclesiastical and educational aifairs, another for 
 economical affairs, and a third for missions). From time to time Gene- 
 ral Synods are also convoked, possessing legislative authority. The 
 society is divided into separate bands, the married, the widowed, the 
 unmarried brethren, the maidens and children, with special stewards, 
 living for the most part also in separate houses, and holding >pecial 
 66
 
 266 SECTION I]T. — THIHD PERIOD (CENT. 18 A.D.). 
 
 religious services in addition to those that are general. The ecclesiaS' 
 tical officers are divided into bishops, presbyters, deacons, deaconesses, 
 and acolytes. 
 
 6. Heathen Missions. (Cf. D. Cranz, Hist. v. Grönl. Barby, 1762, 
 2 Thle. — G. Ä. Oldendorp, Gesch. d. Miss. d. ev. Br. auf den Caraib, 
 Inseln. Barby, 1777, 2 Bde.— G'. H. Loskiel, Gesch. d. Miss. d. ev. Br. 
 unter d. Indianern in Nordamerika, Barby, 1789. — F. L. Kölbing, 
 Gesch. d. Miss, in Grönl. u. Labrador. Gnadau, 1S31, 2 Bde.) — Zeal 
 for missions was early kindled in Zinzendorf 's heart by meeting vrith 
 a A7est Indian negro at Copenhagen. He laid the subject before his 
 young society, and as early as 1732 the first Moravian missionaries, 
 Leoiih. Doher and Dav. Nitschmann, vrere sent to St. Thomas ; and in 
 the next foUovring years the missions of the society were extended in 
 every direction over Greenland (§46, 7), North America, almost all 
 the West India islands. South America, Kapland (among the Hotten- 
 tots), East India, Labrador (among the Esquimaux), etc. The mis- 
 sionary labors of the Moravians constitute the most beneficent and 
 honorable portion of their history. Their mode of missionary opera- 
 tions was chiefly adapted to uncivilized nations, and only to such. In 
 East India ex. gr. they were not able to accomplish anything. The 
 society did not lack self-sacrificing missionaries, of whom nothing was 
 demanded but love to the Saviour and devotion to their calling. They 
 were for the most part pious, enlightened mechanics, who brought 
 practical adaptedness to their new calling, which was of great im- 
 portance, simply preached the cross, and cared for the bodily and 
 spiritual welfare of those committed to them, with maternal solicitude. 
 The Moravian guardianship of souls is here transfigured into a real 
 patriarchal relationship. The brightest example of such a missionary 
 patriarch was Dav. Zeisherger, who labored for 63 years [ob. 1808) 
 among the North American Indians. In contrast with the enormous 
 expenditure of money hj Protestant missions, it is to be remarked with 
 honor, that the Moravian missions were able to accomplish the greatest 
 results with the least pecuniary means. 
 
 I 48. THE REFORMED CHURCH AND METHODISM. 
 
 What Pietism and Moravianisra was to the Lutheran Church, 
 that MethoJism was to the Reformed Church of England, from 
 which it proceeded almost at the same time. In the Dutch and 
 German Reformed Churches, Goccejanism (§ 40, 3), which was 
 still in favor in the first decades of the 18th century, made its 
 influence felt. After that the rigidly Calvinistic system had been 
 softened by it, the antithesis between Calvinistic orthodoxy and 
 Arminian heterodoxy lost its sharpness, and Arminian tenden- 
 cies were felt more and more in Reformed theology. The sharp-
 
 REFORMED CHURCH AND METHODISM. 267 
 
 ness of the antithesis between Calvinism and Lutheranism was 
 also moderated on both sides, although the Union viovements, 
 made from time to time, failed on account of Lutheran oppo- 
 sition. 
 
 1. Methodism. (Cf. /. Hampson, Life of J Wesley, 2 vols. — /. Roh. 
 Southey, Life of J. Wesley, 2 vols. — H. Moore, the Life of the Rev. J. 
 Wesley. Lond. 1824, 2 vols.— A. Watson, Life of J. AVesley.— G. Whit- 
 field's Leben, nach. d. Engl, herausg. v. A. Tholuck. Lpz. 183-1. 
 Leben J. Fletcher's mit vorw. v. A. Tholuck. Lpz. 1838. — /. H. Burk- 
 hard, Vollst. Gesch. d. Methodisten. Nlirub. 1795, 2 Bde. — Th. Jack- 
 son, Hist, of the Rise and Pi-ogress of Methodism. — J. Taylor, Wesley 
 and Methodism. Lond. 1851. — S. L. Jacoby, Handb. d. Methodism, 
 2 A. Brem. 1855.—/. W. Banm, d. Methodismus. Zürich, 1838.)— 
 The living power of the gospel was paralj'zed in the English episcopal 
 Church by the formalism of scholastic learning, and by the mechanism 
 of a style of worship rich in forms. A reaction was produced by John 
 Wesley, a young man of deep religious earnestness and glowing zeal to 
 save souls. While pursuing his studies at Oxford, he fonned a society 
 with several friends, the object of which was to promote pious living 
 and labors (1729). These united friends were now already called, in 
 ridicule, Methodists, because they were charged, not unjustly, with 
 practising piety in a methodical way. Wesley, by friendly intercourse 
 with several Moravians, grew in Christian experience and in living 
 faith. In 1732, he found a worthy co-laborer in George Whitfield, a 
 young man, possessing like zeal with Wesley for his own salvation as 
 well as for that of his fellow-men, and still greater talents. Both now 
 labored with ceaseless activity to awaken and quicken the religious 
 life of the people, not only in England, but also in America. After 
 his return from America (1738), AVesley organized a comprehensive 
 religious union, which, under the direction of a conference, sent local 
 and travelling preachers into all the world. The Methodists did not 
 desire to separate from tlie Episcopal Church ; they rather wished to 
 work in it as a spiritual leaven. Whitfield also returned to England 
 in 1739. Both preached now powerfully and unceasingly, for the most 
 part in the open air, often in the presence of 20,000 to 30,000 hearers, 
 and were subjected to much insult and ridicule ; but also called many 
 hardened sinners, mostly from the lower classes, to repentance and 
 faith. (Whitfield alone preached about 18.000 sermons in 34 years). 
 The most distinguished of their co-laborers is John Fletclier [ob. 1785). 
 Wesley founded a seminary at Kingswood to educate Methodist 
 preachers. The connection with the Moravians was soon broken up, 
 because the Methodist mode of salvation was directed (in glaring con- 
 trast with the quiet and emotional mode of the Moravians) towards an 
 arousing of the secure sinner by all the terrors of the law and all the 
 horrors of hell, as also towards producing a conflict of repentance w'tb
 
 268 SECTION III.— THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 18 A. D.). 
 
 a final violent conversion. But an irreconcilable rupture took place 
 already (1741) among the leaders, concerning the Calvinistic doctrines 
 of predestination, which caused a separation of the Methodists into 
 Arminian Wesleyans and Calvinistic Whitfieldians, the former being 
 the most numerous. Whitfield died in 1770, Wesley in 1791. The 
 Methodists were, in various ways, in spite of all their extravagances, a 
 wholesome salt for the Protestant Church of England and America, 
 and remained such during the entire period of reigning unbelief down 
 to the present time ; when, however, their one-sidedness, over against 
 the newly awakened life of the Church, ran frequently into the most 
 extreme and glaring perversity. (Cf. | 55, 12.) Methodism also in- 
 herited from its founder a zeal for missions as a Christian duty, and 
 has labored to promote them with wonderful energy, perseverance, and 
 self-sacrifice. 
 
 2. The Endeavors after Union. — The Brandenburg dynasty made 
 constant efibrt (| 34, 2) to prepare the way for a union of the Lutheran 
 and Reformed Churches of the country. Frederick I. (III.) established 
 in 1703 a Collegium caritativum to this end under the presidency of 
 the Reformed court-preacher TJrsinus, in which the Reformed Church 
 was also represented by Jablonsky, formerly Moravian bishop, and the 
 Lutheran by cathedral-preacher TFw^to* of Magdeburg and the provost 
 Liitkens of Cologne on the Spree. Spener, who did not wish a forced, 
 but a spontaneous union, refused to participate in the movement ; Liit- 
 kens withdrew displeased after a few sessions ; and when Winkler pub- 
 lished a plan of union (Arcanum regium), which surrendered the 
 Lutheran Church into the hands of the Reformed king, there arose so 
 great a storm against the project ( Val. E. Löscher of Dresden also op- 
 posed it), that it had to be abandoned. But already in the following 
 year the king took the plan up again, but in another form, namely: 
 Jablonsky, with a commission from the king, entered upon negotiations 
 with England concerning the introduction of the Anglican form of 
 Church government into Prussia, in order to build a bridge by it for 
 the union with the Lutheran Church. But this plan failed also (cf. 
 Darleg. der im vor. Jahrh. wegen Einf. d. engl. K. Verf. in Pr. gepflog, 
 unterhh. Lpz. 1842). — Equally fruitless were the union efibrts which 
 were made by the Chancellor Chr. Matth. Pfaff of Tubingen (Nubea 
 testium pro moderato et pacifico de reb. theol. judicio, etc. Genev., 
 1719, 4to.), and by Prof. J. Alf. Turretin of Geneva. Cyprian of Gotha 
 (Abgedrung. Uuterr. von kirchl. Verein d. Prot. Frkf. 1722), and even 
 Weissmann of Tübingen and Mosheim of Helmstedt opposed them. 
 But several decades later even a Lutheran theologian, Christopher Aug 
 Heumann of Göttingen, undertook to prove "that the doctrine of the 
 Reformed Church on the Lord's Supper was the correct one." The 
 treatise was published after his death (Gottg. 1764), and there was no 
 Löscher or Cyprian living to refute it. 
 
 3. Thcolojical Literature. — Arminian theology can point to the bril-
 
 NEW SECTS AND FANATICS. 269 
 
 Hant names (f John Clericus {ob. 1736), (biblical criticism, hermeneu- 
 tics, exegesis, Ciiurch History) and JoJni Jacob Wetstein. The latter 
 was Dean at Basle, but was deposed (1730) on account of heterodox 
 views, and [ob. 1754) as Prof, of the Remonstrant gymnasium at Am- 
 sterdam. His critical edition of the N. T. (Amsterdam, 1751, 2 Bde., 
 fol.) gained for him imperishable renown. Alb. Scliultens of Leyden 
 {ob. 1750) extended the science of philology by the comparison of 
 kindred dialects, especially of the Arabic. He also wrote commentaries 
 on Job and the Proverbs. Of the Coccejanian interpreters of the Scrip- 
 tures are to be named Fr. Ad. Lampe of Bremen {ob. 1729), (Ev. Joh. 
 3 Bde., 4to. ; Geheimnisz d. Gnadenbundes, 6 Bde., etc.) and /. Mark 
 of Leyden {ob. 1731), (kl. Proph.) Hadr. lieJand of Utrecht {ob. 1718) 
 contributed much of importance to biblical antiquity (Palestina ex 
 vett. monum. illustr., Antiquitt. ss.) Prominent among the anti-deistic 
 apologists are the Englishmen J. Leland {ob. 1760) and Th. Stackhouse 
 (oi.l752), (Biblical History), and the Frenchman Jak. Saurin (oft. 1720), 
 (Biblical History) ; — among the systematic theologians, /. F. Stapper 
 of Berne {ob. 1775) (Institutt. theol. polem., 5 vols. ; Grundlegung d. 
 wahr. Rel., 12 vols. ; Sittenlehre, 6 vols.) ; and Dan. Wittenbach of 
 Marburg {ob. 1779) (Thcol. elenchthicae initia; Tentamen theolog. 
 dogm., with the application of the AVolfian method) ; among the Church 
 historians, /. Alf. Tnrretin of Geneva {ob. 1737) and Herrn. Venema 
 of Franeker {ob. 1787.) — Finally, mention is yet to be made of an un- 
 paralleled phenomenon in the Reformed Church, namely, a mystic, 
 and that one of the noblest and most pious that ever lived : Gerh. Ter- 
 steegen, ribbon-weaver at Mühlheim on the Ruhr {ob. 1769), (he was not 
 able to complete his preparation for a learned calling). He is also 
 distinguished as a sacred poet ("Gott ist gegenwärtig"). He was a 
 patriarchal hermit, to whom anxious souls came from far and near to 
 receive spiritual counsel, comfort, and refreshment; and he was withal 
 a child in humility and simplicity. Without being a separatist, he 
 regarded the Church with indifference and neglect. The most popular 
 of his numerous writings are: Geistl. Blumengartlein, Geistl. Brosa- 
 men, Harfenspiel d. Kinder Zions, Der Frommen Lotterie, Geistl. 
 Briefe, Weg d. Wahsh., Lebensbeschr. heiliger Seelen (R. C»th. mys- 
 tics), 3 Bde., 4to. (Cf. K. Barthel, G. Terst's Leben, in the Bielefel- 
 der Sonntagsbibl. V. 0.) (Cf. l 50.) 
 
 l 49. NEW SECTS AND FANATICS. 
 
 The same phenomenon, which appeared everywhere in the 16th 
 3entury, viz., the Reformation having attaclied to it, as a carica- 
 ture, fanatics and ultraists of all kinds, — repeated itself in the 
 religious agitations which Pietism caused in the beginning of 
 the 18th century. Even as Pietism gathered believers and tho 
 66*
 
 270 SECTION III. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 18 A.D.). 
 
 awakened into small bauds, which as ecclesiolae in ecclesia were 
 to be centres of life in the dead mass and alarm-voices for the 
 sleeping ; so also through the same excitant, a host of Sepa- 
 ratists were produced, who denounced the Church as Babel, her 
 means of grace as impure, and her preaching empty and hypo- 
 critical babbling. They derived their spiritual nourishment from 
 the writings of Böhme, Gichtel, Guyon, Poiret, and otlier theo- 
 sopliists. Their most important rendezvous was Wetteraw, where 
 the princely house of Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg afforded a 
 refuge for all exiled Pietists. Count Casimir formed his court 
 and civil officers out of these, although he belonged to the Na- 
 tional Reformed Church. Nevertheless, there was scarcely a 
 section in Protestant Germany, in Switzerland, and in the Ne- 
 therlands, where kindred phenomena did not appear. In Swe- 
 denhorgianiam, a new phenomenon appeared, independently of 
 the pietistic movement. The BajJtists and Quakers, among the 
 older fanatical sects, furnished new off-shoots ; while on the other 
 side Dort orthodoxy also ran, in some of its forms, into secta- 
 rianism. 
 
 1. Fanatics and Separatists in Germany. (Cf. Max. Göhel, Gesch. 
 d. ehr. Lebens in d. rhein. westph. K. Bd. II. Kobl. 1852.— i^. W. Bar- 
 thold, d. Erweckten im prot. Deutschi., bes. d. frommen Grafenhöfe ; 
 in ßaumer's hist. Taschenb. 1852-53. — F. W. Winkel, Aus. d. Leb. 
 Casimir's, Gr. v. Sayn Wittgenst. Frkf. 1842. — The same, Casimir u. d. 
 rel. Leb. sr. Zeit. In the Sonntagsbibl. IV. 1. Bielef. 1851). — Rosa- 
 mond Juliana von Ässehurg, a young lady generally esteemed on ac- 
 count of her piety, in the neighborhood of Magdeburg, declared that 
 from her seventh year she had received visions and revelations, chiefiy 
 concerning the millennium. She found in Dr. John WiUi. Peterseii, 
 superintendent at Lüneburg, a zealous adherent, who, especially after 
 his marriage with Joh. Elenore v. Merlau, also pretended to have re- 
 ceived divine revelations, promulgated by speaking and writing the 
 most fantastic Chiliasm in connection with the heresy of the restora- 
 tion of all things. He was deposed from his office in 1692, and died in 
 1727. Henry Horch, Prof, of theology at Herborn, and author of the 
 mystic and prophetic Bible (Marb. 1712, 4to.), was a similar pheno- 
 menon in the Pteformed Church. The most prominent among the 
 itinerant apostles of a fanatical separatism are, the preacher Tuchfeldt 
 of Magdeburg, the wig-maker John Tennhardt (as chancery clerk of 
 the heavenly majesty), the spur-maker Rosenbach, and the hermit 
 Ernst Christoph. Hochmann. The latter, a man of imposing appear- 
 ance and captivating eloquence, labored for a long time at Mühlheim 
 on the Ruhr, and was also highly esteemed by Tersteegen. Having
 
 / 
 
 NEW SECTS AND FANAT[CS. 271 
 
 been expelled from here, he found a last refuge at Schwarzenau in 
 Berleburg. In Wiirtemberg the pious court-preacher Hcdinyer of 
 Stutgart [oh. 1703) was the father of Pietism and Separatism (cf. hia 
 life by A. Knapp, in the Christoterpe). The most important of his 
 adherents were the learned preacher Eberh. Ludw. Gruber and the 
 saddler John Frederick Bock. Being banished from Wiirtemberg, they 
 emigrated to Wetteraw, the former following the occupation of a farmer, 
 the latter that of court-saddler (170G). Here ihei/ and a multitude of 
 other separatists, for whom the Wittgenstein count had provided a re- 
 fuge, lived several years as anchorites, restricted to self-communion 
 and to communion with this or that brother in prayer, without bap- 
 tism, the Lord's Supper, and public worship. Count Casimir's court 
 in particular was the rendezvous of saints from all nations. The most 
 important of these were the count's physician in ordinary, Dr. Carl, 
 the French mystic Marsay, the exile from Strasburg Jolm Frederick 
 Haiiff, learned in oriental languages, and later Dippel. Out of this 
 circle proceeded a multitude of mystic, separatistic writings, especially 
 the Berleburg Bible (7 vols. fol. 1726-42), of which Hang was the 
 chief author. It renews interpretation according to the threefold 
 sense, violently combats the orthodox doctrine of justification, confes- 
 sional books, the clergy, the dead church, and contains many deep 
 glimpses and profound observations, but also many trivialities and 
 monstrosities. Its mysticism lacks originality, and is compiled from 
 the theosophic writings of all centuries, from Origen to modern times. 
 (Cf. F. W. Winkel, in d. bonner Monatsschr. 1851, I.) 
 
 2. T/ie Inspiration- Conyrei/ations in Wetteraw. (Cf. if. Gobel, Gesch.. 
 d. wahr. lusp. Gemd. ; in the hist, theol. Ztschr. 1854, II. III., 1855, 
 I. 111.) — Several of the chief Sevenna-prophets fled to England (1705) 
 after the unfortunate issue of the Camisardian war. At first they met 
 with much sympathy, but were afterwards excommunicated and placed 
 in the pillory. They now went to the Netherlands, and wandei-ed 
 thence through Germany. They awakened at Halle the gift of inspi- 
 ration, among others in three students, the brothers Pott, and these 
 were the persons who transferred it to Wetteraw (1714). The chiefs 
 of the Separatists there, Grxiber and Rock, at first stoutly opposed the 
 Inspiration-phenomenon, but they also were overpowered, and soon 
 became the most powerful of the " instruments". Prayer associations 
 were now formed, grand love-feasts were held, and an ecclesia ambu- 
 latoria was established by itinerant brethren, who carried spiritual 
 nourishment to the scattered quiet ones in the country, and the children 
 of the prophets were gathered from all lands. The utterances, which 
 took place in an ecstatic state, were exhortations tc repentance, to 
 prayer, to imitation of Christ, revelations of the divine will in regard 
 to the affairs of the society, and announcement of the approaching 
 judgment of God over the degenerate world and church, although 
 jrithout fanatical, sensual Chiliasm. Apart from contempt for the
 
 272 SECTION III. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 18 A.D.). 
 
 sacraments, the doctrines of the church were not essentially perverted. 
 Nevertheless, already in 1715 a division took place between those who 
 were truly, and those who, by their unbridled and impure utterances, 
 were regarded as falsely inspired. Those who were truly inspired 
 formed a church organization, and excluded from it all who would not 
 submit to its discipline (1716). Hereby they lost many " instruments", 
 and those who proved themselves to be genuine also gradually grew 
 dumb. Only Rock possessed the gift of inspiration after 1719, and he 
 continued to claim it to his death (1749). Gruber died in 1728, and 
 with him a pillar of the societies fell. Rock was now the only support. 
 A new epoch of their history begins with their contact Avith Mora- 
 vianism. Zinzendorf formed a connection with them in 1730 through 
 a deputation, and then he personally visited them in Berleburg. 
 Rock's deep Christian character made a powerful impression on him. 
 It is true, he was oflended at his contempt for baptism and the Lord's 
 Supper, and at the convulsive form of his utterances ; but this did not 
 withhold him from yielding to the high spirit of this powei'ful man, 
 from pressing his companionship upon him, and from inviting him, 
 the notorious blasphemer of baptism, to the sponsorship of his new- 
 born daughter. In 1732 Rock visited Herrnhut. He took sides, in an 
 utterance, with the fraternity against the Lutheran clergyman Rothe 
 of Berthelsdorf, and departed after a love-feast, at which their souls 
 flowed together in a renewed eternal brotherhood. But Zinzendorf 
 had only the interests of his society in view ; his crooked and ambi- 
 guous relation to those professing to be inspired drove him to many 
 inconsistencies, which oifended Rock's straiglitforward and open dis- 
 position, and estranged him. The establishment of a flourishing Mo- 
 ravian congregation in Wetteraw, which was chiefly composed of pro- 
 selytes, completed the rupture. Rock denounced the " Hutberger" as 
 Babel-cobblers. Zinzendorf, on the other hand, condemned him as a 
 false prophet. When the Moravians were driven from Wetteraw in 
 1750 (§ 47, 5), the Inspirationists took possession of their property and 
 splendid buildings. AVith Rock's death, however, the spirit of pro- 
 phecy ceased entirely. The societies declined more and more from that 
 time, both internally and externally, until the revival of religious life 
 in the 19th century, when they also were revived. "Instruments" 
 ao^ain made their appearance, and those who were awakened by them 
 were newly organized. The refusal of governments to tolerate them, 
 however, compelled the greater part of them to emigrate to America. 
 
 3. John Conrad Dippel, theologian, physician, and alchymist, disco- 
 verer of Prussian-blue and of the Oleum Dippelii, occupied a peculiar 
 position among the Separatists of this period. He was at first an or- 
 thodox opponent of Pietism, then aroused by Gottfr. Arnold he became 
 a champion of Pietism, and advanced to Separatism. Since 1697 he 
 appeared under the name Christianus Democritus (orthodoxia ortho- 
 doxorum, oder die ve-kehrte Wahrh. u. d. wahrh. Lügen d. s. g. Lu-
 
 NEW SECTS AND FANATICS. 273 
 
 theraner; Papismus Protestantium vapulans od. d. gestäupte Papstth. 
 an d. blinden Verfechtern blinden Menschensatz. ; Fatum fatuum, i. e. 
 foolish necessity, etc.) in a mocking spirit as the opponent of all ex- 
 ternally orthodox Christianity, mixing mysticism and rationalism in a 
 remarkable manner, and yet not without Christian depth and expe- 
 rience. Persecuted, banished, and imprisoned everywhere, he roamed 
 over Germany, the Netherlands, Denmark, and Sweden, and finally 
 found a permanent refuge at the court of Casimir in Berleburg (1729- 
 34). Here he came into contact with the Inspirationists, who offered 
 everything to gain him, but he declared that he would ratlier submit 
 to the devil than to this Spirit of God. He was most intimately asso- 
 ciated with Zinzendorf for a time, but later he also assailed him with 
 the bitterest sarcasm. He died in 1734, at the castle of Wittgenstein. 
 Ilis writings are collected under the title : Eröffneter Weg zum Frieden 
 mit Gott und aller Creaturen. Berieb. 1747, 3 Bde. 4to. (Cf. W. 
 Klose in the hist, theol. Ztschr. 1851, III. and K. Büchner in Raumcr'a 
 histor. Taschenbuch, 1857.) 
 
 4. Hypocritical and Criminal Separatistic Sects. — Whilst the Sepa- 
 ratists and the inspired ones of this period preserved their moral life 
 pure in general, some of their societies degenerated into the most scan- 
 dalous debauchery. The most shameless of all was the Butllar Sect, 
 founded by Eoa von Butllar, at Allendorf in Hesse, 1702. Having 
 been expelled from here within 6 weeks, the sect carried on its criminal 
 proceedings at many other places, whither it emigrated. Eva was 
 honored as the door of Paradise, as the New Jerusalem, as the Mother 
 of us all, as the Sophia come down from heaven, the new Eve and the 
 incarnation of the Holy Spirit. God the Father was incarnate in the 
 candidate Winter, and God the Son in her youthful paramour Appen- 
 J'eller. Marriage was declared to be sinful ; sensual lust must be put 
 to death in spiritual communion, then carnal communion is also holy. 
 Eva lived in the most shameful harlotry with all the men of the sect ; 
 likewise the other women belonging to it, in whom the ovary had been 
 crushed in Satanic foresight. At Sasmannshausen in Wittgenstein, 
 where their secret worship had been watched, they were threatened 
 with punishment, but escaped. In Cologne they connected themselves 
 with the Roman Catholic Church. At Lüde, near P3'rmont, their 
 criminal madness reached its highest point. Winter was condemned 
 to death, but had his punishment commuted to scourging (170G). Eva 
 escaped the same punishment by flight, and carried on her scandalous 
 conduct for some years longer, but with more prudence. (Cf. E. F. 
 Keller, if» the hist, theol. Ztschr. 1845, IV. and M. Gübel, Gesch. d. ehr. 
 Lebens II. 778 ff.). — Of a similar character was the Bordelnm Sect, 
 founded by the licentiate David Bär, at Bordelum near Flensburg, 
 about 1739, and the BrlUigelcr Sect at Briiggelu, in the canton of Berne, 
 where the two brothers Köhler announced themselves to be the two 
 witnesses mentioned in Rev. ii. ( 1748). — The sect of the Zionites at Rons-
 
 274 SECTION III. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 18 A.D.). 
 
 dorf in the duchy of Berg also belongs here. Elias Eller, overseer of 
 a manufactory at Elberfield, being religiously excited by reading all 
 kinds of mystic and theological writings, married in 1725 an elderly, 
 rich widow ; but he soon found greater pleasure in a pretty young 
 maiden, Anna von Buchel, whom he drove into prophetic ecstasy by 
 fanatical excitement. She prophesied the approaching dawn üf the 
 millennium. Eller appointed her the mother of Zion (Rev. 12 : 1 ff.) 
 and himself father of Zion, while he assigned his wife the part of the 
 harlot of Babylon. When the latter had been tormented to death by 
 jealousy and confinement, he married Buchel, and founded, with hia 
 adherents, Ronsdorf (1737), as the new Zion. The colony obtained 
 the privileges of a town, and Eller became burgomaster. When Anna 
 died (1744), Eller gave to the faithful a new mother of Zion, and be- 
 came more insane in his deception and tj'ranny. At length, after long 
 infatuation, the eyes of the Reformed preacher Schleiermacher (the 
 grandfather of the celebrated Frederick Daniel S.) were opened. He 
 escaped, by flight to the Netherlands, the fate of another apostle, who, 
 at EUer's instigation, had been condemned to death as a sorcerer at 
 Düsseldorf. Eller was able to ward off every complaint against him- 
 self by bribery at the court. The sect was led fnr a time after his death 
 (1750) by his step-son. (Cf. F. W. Krug, krit. Gesch. d. Schwärmerei 
 in Groszherzogth. Berg. Elbf. 1851, p. 64, ff.) 
 
 5. Swedenhorgianism. (Cf. /. A. Muhler, U. d. Lehre Sw.'s ; in the 
 tübg. Quartalschr. 1830, IV. — /. G. Vaihinger, d. ^wedenborgianism, 
 nebst d. Katech. d. neuen K. Tlibg. 1843.— C. F. Nam, E. Sw. d. nord. 
 Seher. Schw. Hall. 2. Q. 1850.— Jwm. Tafel, Samml. v. Urkunden et 
 Tlibg. 1839, ff. 3 Abth. — The same, Vergleich. Darstell, d. Lehrgegens. 
 d. Kath. u. Prot., zugleich Darstell, d. Unterscheidungslehre Sw.'s. 
 Tlibg. 1835.) — Immanuel von Swedenborg, son of the Lutheran bishop 
 of West Gothland, Jesper Swedberg (cf. Rudelbach's chr. Biogr. I. 
 293, ff. ), and councillor in the Bergwerks college at Stockholm, was a 
 man of comprehensive learning in the natural sciences, and of specu- 
 lative talents. After long investigation into the mysteries of nature, 
 he fell into magfietic ecstatic states, in which, sometimes transported 
 to heaven, sometimes to hell, he had intercourse with spirits. In 1734 
 he came to the conviction that he was called by such revelations to re- 
 form degenerate Christianity to a Church of the New Jerusalem as the 
 completion of all churchdom. The apocalyptic revelations, which he 
 imagined he received, he designated as a new gospel. After his death 
 (1772) his writings were collected and published by his disciples; and 
 in 1788 they formed themselves into congregations in Sweden and 
 England. The new church began in the 19th century to spread in a 
 threatening manner. In addition to Sweden, England, and North 
 America, it also has many warm and zealous adherents in Germany, 
 'ihiofly in Wlirtemberg. Here already since 1765 the prelate Oetinger 
 called attention to Swedenborg's revelations, and took up many of their
 
 NEW SECTS AND FANATICS. 276 
 
 elements into his own profound theosophy. Lately the procurator 
 Lndw. Hiifachcr, and especially the librarian Tafel, have been active 
 in propaf^ating the new church, partly by their own writings, r.nd 
 partly by publishing and translating Swedenborg'« works. A general 
 conference of tlie church in Great Britain and Ireland published a 
 confession of faith and a catechism in 1828. Swedenborg's rcUijious 
 system was a speculative mysticism with a physical foundation and 
 rationalizing tendency. For him the object of religion is the opening 
 of an intimate correspondence between the spirit and human world, 
 and the penetrating into the mysteries of connection between both. 
 The Bible (although with the exclusion of the Apostolic Epistles as 
 mere explanatory treatises), above all the Apocalypse, was the word 
 of God for him, although he despised the letter, and only acknowledged 
 the validity of the spirit or inner sense. There is not one of the fun- 
 damental orthodox doctrines which he either did not reject or ration- 
 alize. He rejected the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity in the strongest 
 terms. According to him, God is only one person, and this one God- 
 head is Christ, who manifests himself in a three-fold form: the Father 
 is the principle of the manifesting God, the Son the form, the Spirit 
 the activity of the manifested God. The design of the manifestation 
 of Christ is the union of the human and divine ; redemption is nothing 
 more than the fighting with and overcoming hellish spirits. Angels 
 and devils are the spirits of departed men, either in a state of bliss or 
 of despair. There is no resurrection of the dead, but the spiritual form 
 of the body continues to exist after death. The second coming of 
 Christ is not to be personal and visible, but spiritual by means of the 
 revelation of the spiritual sense of the Scriptures, whereby the church 
 of \^i& New Jerusalem is founded. 
 
 0. New Bapti.s-fic Sects. — In 1708 there were also Anabaptists {Tun- 
 kers) in Wetteraw, but, finding little sympathy and much difficulty in 
 thfe way of their progress here, they for the most part emigrated in 
 1714 to North America, and founded several colonics here (German- 
 town and Ephrata), wliich yet number about 40,000 souls. From the 
 Baptists, wiio emigrated from England, proceeded the Christians (now 
 about 300,000 souls), who, rejecting every Christian party-name (almost 
 like 1 Cor. 1 : 12), also reduced the Christian faith to a minimum. The 
 Baptists, since the middle of the 18th ceutui-y, also emigrated to Scot- 
 land, where the brothers Haldane founded the baptistic sect of the 
 Haldanites ("Apostolic Church"), who likewise disti;iguisiied them- 
 selves by great indifi'erence towards doctrines and the ministry, but 
 also by great energy in practical life. 
 
 7. Ncio Quaker Sects. — 1\\q Jumpers, who appeared in Cornwallis 
 about 1760, were in principle at least related to the Quakers. Appeal- 
 ino- to David's dancing before the ark of the covenant, they professed 
 to give evidence of Ixiing possessed by the Spirit by convulsive leaping 
 ^nd dancing, connected with a kind of barking (whence they are aläO
 
 276 SECTION III. THIRD PERIOD (^C E N T. 18 A.D.^, 
 
 called Barkers). The sect emigrated to North America, where ther« 
 still are some adherents. A somewhat similar sect are the Shakers. 
 Its founder was Anna Lee {ob. 1782). She professed to be the bride of 
 the Lamb, but died without giving birth to the promised Messiah. 
 Nevertheless, this sect exists to the present day in several villages on 
 the Hudson river. Its adherents live in celibacy and community of 
 goods. They derive their name from the manner in which they move 
 their bodies at their meetings, which often extends to exhaustive 
 dancing and jumping, which is regarded as a symbol partly of trem- 
 bling at the anger of God, partly of joy on account of salvation through 
 Christ. 
 
 8. In contrast with the general apostacy from the rigid orthodoxy 
 of Dort in the Netherlands, was the increase of the sect of the Hebrews, 
 which traced its origin (about 1730) to a certain Mirgam Vos and a 
 licentiate Verschooren, and run the doctrine of predestination to the 
 affirmation, that an elect person could not sin, but a non-elect one could 
 onI>/ sin. They derived their name from the circumstance, that they 
 declared it to be the indispensable duty of all true Christians to read 
 the word of God in the original languages. Another sect, that of the 
 Hattemists, adherents of the Dutch preacher Pontiaan van Hattem, 
 who was deposed in 1740, are said to have drawn from the doctrine of 
 predestination the conclusion, that sin, because it was predestined by 
 God, was only sin in the imagination of men, and that Christ delivered 
 men from this imagination (Acta ecclst. Weim. IV. 1060 ff.) 
 
 ^50. THE THEOLOGY AND LITERATURE OF THE PERIOD 
 OF ILLUMINATION. 
 
 Cf. L. Noack, die Freidenker in d. Relig. Bd. III. Die Deutsche 
 Auf klUning. Berne, 1855. — F. Bialloblotzkij and F. Sander, das Aufkom- 
 men u. Sinken d. Rationalism, in Deutschl. ; nach d. Engl. d. E. -B. 
 Pusey bearb. Elbf. 1829. — Chr. O. Picker, krit. Gesch. d. Rationalism, 
 in Deutschl. ; nach d. Franz, d. Amand Saintes bearb. Lpz. 1847. — K. 
 P. A. Kahnis, d. innere Gang d. deutsch. Protestsm. seit der Mitte d. 
 vor Jahrh. Lpz. 1854. — A. Tholuck, Abrisz e. Gesch. d. Umwälz., die 
 R. 1750, auf. d. Gebiete d. Theol. in Deutschl. stattgef. ; in his miscel- 
 laneous works Bd. IL Hamb. 1839. — /. A. H. Tittmann, pragm. Gesch. 
 d. Theol. u. Rel. in d. prot. K. seit 1750. Lpz. 1824.—^. F. Stäudlin, 
 Gesch. d. Rationalism, u. Supranaturalism. Göttg. 1826. 
 
 Since the middle of this century, English deistic unbelief 
 having already outlived itself, illumination under the name of 
 Rafioiialisni crept into the Protestant theology of the continent, 
 especially of Germany. There proceeded, it is true, out of the 
 agitation of the pietistic controversies, a theology (§ 46) which, 
 overcoming as well the rigid objectivism of orthodoxy as the
 
 THEOLOGY AND LITERATURE OF ILLUMINATION. 277 
 
 weak subjectivism of Pietism, saving, however, from the former 
 a firm basis and wholesome moderation, from the latter religious 
 inwardness and freedom, was in itself able and worthy to inherit 
 and control the future of the church. But this inheritance, to 
 the possession of which it seemed to be called, was taken from 
 it by the theology of illumination. It was yet too immature and 
 unfinished, its representatives and champions were too few and 
 scattered, to be able to resist successfully as a solid phalanx the 
 storm of illumination. The storm came from abroad, but it was 
 invested with the mighty power of the spirit of the age, and it 
 found a dissolution and agitation going on within, which brought 
 sympathies and allies to it from all sides, and promoted the 
 transition of the one extreme into the other. Arminian Pela- 
 gianisni, possessing brilliant learning (Clericus, Wetstein\ Eng- 
 lish Deism, circulated by translations and refutations, and French 
 Naturalism, introduced by a great and generally admired king, 
 were the assailing powers from without. The Free-Mason 
 Lodges also, which had been transplanted to Germany from 
 England in 1733, mightily opposed illumination in their endeavor 
 to realize a moral, practical, universal I'eligion. And there was 
 withmesTpecxsiWy the Wolfian philosophy, pojndarphilosopJiy, and 
 Pietism, with its step-brother Separatism, which directly made 
 the ground productive for the growth of Rationalism. Ortho- 
 doxisra, on account of the secondary effects, which survived it, 
 can also be reckoned among the accessories. German national- 
 ism, however, is essentially different from Deism and Naturalism 
 in this, that it does not, like these, altogether reject the Bible 
 and the Church, but, rather adhering to both, supposes that it 
 has presented their unperishable substance in its rational religion, 
 purified from accommodation and the ideas of the age; and it 
 has, therefore, retained the Bible as an indispensable record of 
 religion, and the Church as a wholesome institution of religion. 
 Nevertheless, Rationalism, during the whole period of its domi- 
 nion, was opposed by a Snpranaturalism, that held fast to re- 
 vealed religion. It was a dilution of the old faith of the Church, 
 efi"ected by the water of illumination. The reaction- which it 
 caused was consequently from the beginning weak and feeble. 
 The power of the vulgar Rationalism of that day, meanwhile, 
 lay not in itself, but in the allies which it had in the hollowness 
 and superficiality of the spirit of the age. Because now the 
 philosophy and especially the national literature of the Germans' 
 67
 
 Z'^S SECTION III. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 18 A.D.). 
 
 began to wage a successful warfare against this feuperficiality, 
 they in a certain degree obtained the significance of a school- 
 master to Christ, although they were in themselves for the most 
 part indifferent, even hostile to Christianity. 
 
 1. The English Deists. (Cf. § 43, 2.) — Deism entered upon a new 
 stage of its development with Locke's Philosophy (| 43, 1). It waa 
 henceforth the basis of its reasoning. The most important Deists of 
 this period are : John Toland, an Irishman, first a Roman Catholic, 
 then Arminian [oh. 1722), (Cliristianity not mysterious; Nazarenus, 
 or Jewish, Gentile, and Mahometan Christianity, etc.) ; the Earl of 
 Shaftesbury [oh. 1713), (Characteristics of men, manners, opinions, 
 times) ; Anthony Collins, justice of the peace in the county of Essex, 
 and as such highly esteemed {oh. 1729), (Priestcraft in perfection, or a 
 detection of the fraud, etc., A discourse of free-thinking, et al.) ; Tho- 
 mas Woolston, fellow of Cambridge [oh. 1733, in prison), (A discourse 
 on the miracles of our Saviour) ; Bernh. v. Mandeville from Dort, phy- 
 sician in London [oh. 1733), (Free thoughts on Religion) ; Matthew 
 Tindal, professor of law at Oxford [ob. 1733), (Christianity as old aa 
 the Creation) ; Thomas Morgan, Nonconformist preacher, deposed as 
 an Arian, then physician [ob. 1743), (The moral philosopher) ; Thomas 
 Chubb, glove-maker and tallow-chandler at Salisbury [oh. 1747), popu- 
 larizing compiler, (The true gospel of Jesus Christ) ; Henry, Viscount 
 BoUnybroke, high civil officer, charged with high-treason and pardoned 
 [oh. 1751), (Philosophical works). — Deism never found favor among 
 the people, and an attempt was not once made to organize a congrega- 
 tion. The following of the numerous opponents of Deism are worthy 
 of special mention: Thomas Sherlock, Bishop of London (ob. 1761); 
 Edward Chandler, Bishop of Durham [oh. 1750) ; John Leland, Pres- 
 byterian preacher in Dublin [oh. 1766) ; William Warburton, Bishop 
 of Gloucester [oh. 1779) ; Nath. iorfZ«er, Dissenting preacher [oh. 1768). 
 — The celebrated historian and skeptic, David Hume, librarian in Edin- 
 burg [oh. 1776), may yet be added to the Deists as an opponent of posi- 
 tive Christianity (Treatise upon human nature ; Essays, moral, political, 
 and literary ; Enquiry concerning the human understanding ; Natural 
 history of religion ; Dialogues concerning natural religion). 
 
 2. The Forerunners of German Illumination. — We have already 
 learned to know Knufzen [^ 43, 2) and Dippel (| 49, 3) as such. In 
 their footsteps walked John Christian Edelmann, a vagabondizing 
 licentiate of theology of Weissenfels [ob. 1767), who, since 1735, 
 hawked about a multitude of fanatical works, written in rude and low, 
 but powerful language, full of glowing wrath and scoffing wit against 
 All positive Christianity. He passed from one Christian sect to another, 
 but found in none what he sought. In 1741 he accepted an invitation 
 from Zmzendorf who at the same time furnished him with travelling
 
 THEOLOGY AND LITERATURE OF ILLUMINATION. 279 
 
 money, and lived for a time in his family. Then he connected himself with 
 the Berleburg Separatists ("because they recognized baptism and tlie 
 Lord's Supper," the abominations of the Church), and assisted on the 
 commentary, although Hawj had greatly to change his elaborations, in 
 order to use them. This, and his contempt for prayer, ruptured the 
 bond of unioH. After that he wandered over the whole of Germany. 
 He regarded himself as being a favorite of providence, at least as a 
 second Luther. He pronounced Christianity to be the most irrational 
 and absurd of all religions ; Church history a conglomerate of immo- 
 rality, lies, hypocrisy, and fanaticism ; the prophets and apostles bed- 
 lamites ; and Christ was not even an example and teacher. The world 
 needs only one salvation, vix., salvation from Christianity. Providence, 
 virtue, and immortality (the latter established by manifestation of 
 spirits), are the only objects of religion. His writings made a great 
 noise (Unschuldige Walirheiten ; Bereitete Schläge auf der Narren 
 Rücken ; Moses mit aufgedecktem Angesicht von zwei ungleichen 
 Brüdern, Lichtlieb und Blindlieb, beschauet ; Christus and Belial, et 
 al.), and called forth an incredible number of counter-treatises, of 
 which Trinrus mentions not loss than IGO in the Freidenker lexicon. 
 (Cf. J. H. Pralje, Hist. Nachr. v. J. Chr. Edelmann, 2. A. Hamb. 1755. 
 Edelmannes Selbst-biographie, herausg. v. C. W. Klose. Berl. 1840, 
 and also Ev. K. Z. 1851, No. 31, ff.) To the forerunners of illumina- 
 tion belongs also the private tutor Lorenz Schmidt of Wertheim in 
 Baden, a pupil of the philosopher Wolf [I 46, 2), [ob. 1749). He is 
 the author of the notorious 'P/crtheim translation of the Bible (First 
 part, containing the laws of the Israelites, Werth. 1735), which para- 
 phrases the language of the Bible, and thereby eviscerates all positive 
 Christianity. His book was confiscated by the supreme court of the 
 empire, and he was punished with severe imprisonment. 
 
 3. Ithiminaiion in Germany since 1750. — Hostility to all positive 
 Christianity spread from England and France also over Germany. The 
 writings of the English Deists were translated and refuted, but mostly 
 in so weak a manner, that the refutation accomplished the opposite of 
 what it designed. Whilst English Deism with its apparent profound- 
 ness found favor with the learned, the poison of frivolous French Na- 
 turalism tainted the higher classes. Prussia's great king, Frederick II. 
 (1740-8G), who surrounded himself with French free-thinkers (Vol- 
 taire, D'Argens, Le Mettrie, etc.), contributed largely to the spread of 
 unbelief. He desired, that in his states every one should be saved 
 according to his own fashion, in which desire he was also in earnest, 
 although his personal aversion to churchly and pietistic piety often 
 misled"him to act unjustly and severely, as ex. gr. when he inflicted 
 upon the "grumbler"' Franrke in Halle, who opposed the visiting of 
 theatres by theological students, the punishment of himself visiting 
 the theatre, and of obtaining the attestation of tlic .lirector of the 
 theatre that he had done so. Under the name of Germun poimlar phi-
 
 280 SECTION III. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 18 A.D.). 
 
 losophj [Meiidelsschn, Garoe, Eberhard, Platne-, Steinhart, etc.), which 
 proceeded from the Wolfian philosophy emptied of its Christian con- 
 tents, a bold, superficial, and self-sufficient reasoninj]; of the common 
 human understanding gave itself airs. Basedow became the reformer 
 of pedagogy in the sense of illumination (Philanthropia in Dessau, 
 pädagogisches Elementarwerk), and created quite a furgr for a timo 
 by the charlatan trumpeting of his contributions; although Herder 
 declared, that he would not commit calves, to say nothing of human 
 beings, to the training of the distinguished pedagogue. Basedow's 
 most distinguished pupils and co-laborers were Salzmann in Schnep- 
 fenthal near Gotha, and Campe in Braunschweig. The '■'Allgemeine 
 deutsche Bibliothek" (lOG Bde. 17G5-92), published by the bookseller 
 Nicolai in Berlin, assumed the position of a literary inquisitorial 
 tribunal against everything noble and profound, that the period was 
 still able to produce, and branded it as superstition and Jesuitism. 
 Illumination made itself felt in theology under the name of Rationalism. 
 Pietistic Halle cast its skin, and in connection with Berlin stood at the 
 head of the illuminatory movement. Soon numerous heralds of the 
 new light sprung up also in the other universities, and rationalizing 
 pastors arose in all sections of Germany, who only preached about a 
 moral reformation of man ; also, it is true, on Christmas, about the 
 advantage of feeding cattle in the stable, and on Easter about the 
 tokens of apparent death, or about the advantages of early rising. The 
 old liturgies were mutilated or supplanted, and all the superficiality 
 and insipidity of the period were called into requisition to eliminate 
 the old faith out of the churchly hymn-books, and to smuggle in, in the 
 place of the old choice hymns, the weakest hymns of moral reforma- 
 tion. With. Abraham Teller, provost of Berlin, declared publicly, that 
 he was willing to recognize the Jews as genuine Christians, on the basis 
 of their faith in God, virtue, and immortality. K. Friedr. Bahrdt, 
 after having been removed from various spiritual and academical offices 
 on account of his immoral conduct, and proscribed by the theologians, 
 gave the people as tavern-keeper in Halle the benefit of his wisdom, 
 and died from a disgraceful disease (1792). The Prussian government, 
 under Frederick William II., attempted in vain to secure to the church 
 its old legal basis by the edict concerning religion of 1788, by which 
 the severest punishment was threatened every departure in doctrine 
 and preaching from the orthodox confessions : it accomplished nothing, 
 with all its rigor, against the reigning spirit of the age (only one depo- 
 sition, that of the preacher Schulz at Gielsdorf near Berlin, an old 
 insolent rationalist, could be carried into effect), and Frederick iVilliam 
 III. (1797-1840) suspended the edict at his accession to the throne. 
 
 4. Transition Th-eology. — It was four men, especially, who, although 
 still adhering to the faith in a divine revelation', nevertheless prepared 
 the way for the admission of Rationalism into theology: viz., Ernesti 
 of JiCipai: in exegesis of thj New Testament, Michaelis of Göttingen
 
 THEOLOGY AND LITERATURE OF ILLUMINATION. 281 
 
 in exegesis )f the Old Testtunent, Semler of Halle in biblical and his- 
 torical criticism, Töllner of Frankfiirt-on-the-Oder in dogmatic theo- 
 logy. John All;/. Ernesti {ob. 1781), since 1734 rector of the Thoma»- 
 cchool, since 1742 Prof, of the University of Leipsic, and there the 
 rival and antipode of his colleague Chr. Aug. Cmsins, was originally 
 a classical philologist, and remained such also as professor of theology. 
 His Institutlo interpretis N. T. (1701) laid it down as a fundamental 
 law of exegesis, that the interpretation of the Holy Scriptures was to 
 be conducted entirely in the same manner as the interpretation of a 
 profane author. But it holds good also with regard to classical litera- 
 ture, that a full and complete understanding of an author can only be 
 obtained in so far as the interpreter possesses, in addition to the neces- 
 sary knowledge of the language, history, and age, also the same spirit 
 in which the author thought and wrote. A'nd because Ernesti lacked 
 the conviction of this necessity, his biblical hermeneutics was ration- 
 alistic, and Jie the father of rationalistic exegesis, strongly as he ad- 
 hered still to the idea of inspiration as also to orthodox doctrines. 
 What Ernesti was in regard to the N. T., that /o//?i David Michaelis 
 (son of the pious and orthodox Chr. Bened. M.), since 1750 Prof, at 
 Güttingen [oh. 1791), became in regard to the 0. T. He acknowledged 
 openly, that he never perceived anythiüg of the testimonium Sp. s. 
 internum ; and he based his demonstration of the divinity of the Scrip- 
 tures alone upon external evidences, such as the miracles, prophesies, 
 authenticity, etc., a web which unbelief tore to yiieces with ease. No 
 one was a greater master than he in the art of substituting his own 
 empty, superficial, and conceited spirit for that of the sacred authors, 
 and then to explain it at great length. His "Mosaisches Recht," 6 
 Bde., is classic in this view. He left behind 82 works, some very volu- 
 minous (among which are: Eiul. ins N. T. ; Uebers. des A. T. mit 
 Anm. für Ungelehrte, 13 Bde. 4to. Orient, und exeg. Biblioth., 24 
 Bde. ; Einl. ins A. T., etc.) John Sal. Semler, a pupil of Baumgarten, 
 and since 1751 Prof, at Halle [ob. 1791), was a forerunner of Ration- 
 alism in a still greater and more comprehensive measure than Ernesti 
 and Michaelis. Growing up under the influence of Ilalloan Pietism, 
 and consequently possessing a kind of religion of habit, which he called 
 his private religion, and of which he could never rid himself, endowed 
 with uncomuKm understanding and acuteness, but without any depth 
 of spirit, he acquired an immense mass of chaotic knowledge, and un- 
 dermined, widiout wishing to touch Christianity, the pillars of orthodox 
 theology, by arbitrarily disputing the genuineness of the biblical writ- 
 ings ("Abhandlung von der freien Unters, d. Kanoivs"); by laying 
 down a theory of inspiration and accommodation, which allowed error, 
 mistake, and well-meant delusion in the Scriptures : by an interpreta- 
 tion which disposed of everything disagreeable in the Now Testament as 
 "Jewish notions" (ex. gr. De doamoniaois) ; by a critical treatment of 
 church and dog'xiatic history which permitted the doctrine of the 
 67*
 
 282 SECTION III. — THIRD PERIOD i^CENT. 18 A.D.). 
 
 church to appear as a result of misconception, want of judgment, and 
 violence, etc. The number of his writings amounts to 151. lie soweJ 
 the wind and reaped a whirlwind, at which he himself trembled. 
 Therefore he opposed perseveringly the appointment of Bahrdt to 
 Halle, and earnestly combated the Wolfenhüttier Fragments, written 
 by Reimarus, Prof, at Hamburg [ob. 1765), discovered and published 
 (1774 and 1778) in the Wolfenbiittler library as manuscript by Lessing, 
 which attributed the introduction of Christianity to bold deception 
 But Semler could not resist the storm, and he died broken-hearted, just 
 when it reached its height. (Cf. H. Schmid, die Theologie Semler's. 
 Erlg. 1858.) — John Gottl. ToHner, since 1756 Prof, at Frankfiirt-on-the- 
 Oder [ob. 1774), was by no means equal to the beforenamed in learn- 
 ing, influence, and authority ; nevertheless, he is worthy of a place 
 beside them, in so far as he first opened the way for the introduction 
 of nationalism into dogmatic theology. He also still adhered to th» 
 idea of revelation, miracle, and prophecy, but he also contributed the 
 " proof, that God leads men to happiness already by the revelation of 
 nature ; " the revelation of Scripture is only a more certain and perfect 
 means thereto. He investigated further "the divine inspiration of the 
 Scriptures," and found that the sacred authors thought and wrote 
 without any special divine aid, and God was thereby active only In a 
 way not to be more particularly defined. Finally, he investigated " the 
 active obedience of Jesus Christ," and in doing so he gives an example 
 of how orthodox dogmas are to be set aside. 
 
 5. Rationalistic Theology. — From the schools formed by these men, 
 especially from Semler's, went forth crowds of Rationalists, who, 
 subsequent to 1770, occupied almost all the professors' chairs and 
 pulpits in Protestant Germany. At their head stands Charles Fred, 
 Bahrdt (since 1779 at Halle, oh. 1792), who, at first an author of or- 
 thodox text-books, then sinking deeper and deeper through vanity, 
 want of principle, and immorality, and walking in Elderman's foot- 
 steps, first struck the shamelessly bold key (Die neuesten Offenbarun- 
 gen Gotts, 4Bde. ; Briefe über die Bebel im volkston, 5 Thle.; Kir- 
 chen-und Ketzeralmanach ; Selbstbragaophie, etc., altogether 102 
 works), Avhich indeed the preacher Charles Ventnrini of Horndorf 
 in Braunschweig [oh. 1807) was able to excel (Natiirl. Gesch. d. groszen 
 Proph. von Nazareth, 3 Bde.) Similar to them was the orientalist 
 /. Will. Fred. Uezel, since 18U2 Prof, at Dorpat, at the same also rum- 
 distiller, millwright, and inventor of building clay-walls by stamping 
 the layers [ob. 1829), (81 works, among which: Die Bibel mit vollst, 
 erkl. Anm., 12 Bde.) In contrast with these, however, the majority 
 of the Rationalists endeavored to obtain a reputation for respectability 
 in life, doctrines, and literary productions. Subsequent to 1790 the 
 Kantian philosophy exerted an important and, relatively, also an 
 ennobling influence on rationalistic theology. /. Jacob Griesbach 
 (of Jena, 1812) contributed much of importance in the sphere of the
 
 THEOLOGY AND LITERATURE OF ILLUMINATION. 283 
 
 criticism o'' the tjxt of the New Testament. The introduction to tha 
 N. T. was prepared h-^ .Charles Alex. v. Hänlein of Erlangen {oh. 1820). 
 Will. Abr. Teller of Berlin contributed a dictionary of the X. T. (5 A. 
 1792J, which inaugurated the superficial mode of treating the ideas of 
 the N. T. (ex. gr. sanctification, reformation, regeneration, resolution to 
 lead a different life). Following his example, /. Beiij. Koppe of Göt- 
 tinj^en {ob. 1791), (N. T. grsece e. perpet. illustr. continued by H. 
 Heinrichs and Jul. Pott, 6 Bde.) and /. George Rosenmi'dler of Leipsic 
 {ph. 1815), (Scholia in N. T., 6 Bde.), interpreted the N. T. with in- 
 credible superficiality. In the same. spirit, J. Chr. Schlitze of Giessen, 
 {oh. 1806), (Scholia in V. Y.), and Lorenz Bauer of Heidelberg {oh. 
 1806) (Forts, der Scholia v. Schalze, Einl. ins A. T., Theol. d. A. T., 
 Mythol. d. A. u. N. T., Moral d. A. T., Hebr. AllerthUmer, etc.), 
 labored in the sphere of the Old Testament. The contributions of /, 
 Gottfr. Eichhorn of Göttingen {oh. 1827), Einl. ins A. T., 5 Bde. ; Re- 
 pertorium für bibl. u. morgenl. Lit. ; Bibl. Urgesch. fortges. v. /. Ph. 
 Gabler) and Leonh. Bertholdt of Erlangen {oh. 1822), (Einl. ins A. T., 
 Comm. z. Daniel; Dogmengesch.), are more profound and respectable. 
 The rationalistic stand-point was represented in Church History by U. 
 Ph. Conrad Henlce of Helmstedt {ob. 1807), and the Wiirtemberg minis- 
 ter of state, L. Tim. v. Spiitler {oh. 1810). Rationalistic doctrines of 
 faith and morals were spread less in learned and scientific, than in 
 popular and practical works. Sam. Steinbart of FrankriirtH)n-the-Oder 
 {oh. 1809), wrote and defended his " System der reinen Philos. od. 
 Glück.seligkeitslehre des Christenthums ; " and John Aug. Eberhard, 
 Prof. of philosophy at Halle {ob. 1809), apotheosized Socrates and 
 classic heathenism ("Neue Apologie des Socrates," 2 Bde.), in the 
 spirit of the popular philosophy. The acute John Henry Tieftrunk, 
 Prof, of philosophy at Halle {oh. 1837), on the other hand, introduced 
 Kantian philosophy with its rigid categories into theology (Einzig 
 möglicher Zweck Jesu ; Censur d. christl. prot. Lehrbegr., 3 Bde. ; 
 Die Mündigk in d. Rel., 2 Bde.). Jerusalem of Wolfenbüttel {oh. 1789), 
 Zollikoffer, Ref. preacher in Leipsic {oh. 1784), Spalding, provost at 
 Berlin (oö. 1804), (Werth der Gefühle im Christth. ; Nutzbarkeit d. 
 Predigtamtes), Fr. Ad. Sach of Berlin {oh. 1817), Marezoll of Jena 
 {ob. 1828), Uffler of Gotha {ob. 1816), J. G. RosenmüUer of Leipsic 
 (oft. 1815), TÖbler of Zürich {ob. 1808), Aug. Herrn. Kirnm/er (A. H. 
 Francke's great-grandson). Chancellor in Halle {ob. 1828), (Charak- 
 teristik d. Bibel., 5 Bde. ; Gumdsätze d. Erzich., 3 Bde. ; Lehrb. d. 
 Rel. für gelehrte Sehnlen. 18 A. 1843), Hufnagel of Erlangen {oh. 
 1830), Jonath. Schudetoff of Ronneburg {oh. 1843), (kirchenreckl. 
 Schriften, bes. zur. Yertheichgung des Collegialsystems), etc., contri- 
 buted towards the spread of Rationalism by sermons and by popular 
 doctrinal and devotional works. (Cf. I 56, 2.) 
 
 6. A theological tendency, abandoning the old orthodoxy, -t^ ithout, 
 dowever, resigning itself to Rationalism, maintained itself in the most
 
 284 SECTION III. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 18 A.D.). 
 
 various gradations between both, under the name of Supranaturalism, 
 which desired still to preserve faith in a supernatural revelation. Thje 
 faith was certainly of a very weak kind among many so-called supra- 
 naturalists ; a revelation remained, which scarcely revealed anything 
 that was not already known to reason. But in addition to these, a not 
 insignificant number of worthy men also labored, who were really in 
 earnest to save the essential truths of salvation ; but it is characteristic 
 of almost all of them, that, although belonging to the Lutheran church, 
 they approximated in principle at least to the Reformed church in their 
 views and apprehensions of Scripture and of the Church. The most 
 influential and able fosterer of Supranaturalism during this period 
 was the university of Tübingen. The series of spiritless supranatu- 
 ralistic dogmatists is opened by Morns of Leipsic [ob. 1792), (Epitome 
 theol. cl^rist.) Less of Göttingen [ob. 1797), Döderleiiiof Jena (ob. 1792^1, 
 Seiler of Erlangen, and A^össclt of Halle [ob. 1807), became less and 
 less spirited ; the latter can even be numbered among the Rationalists. 
 The ablest and most worthy representatives of Supranaturalism, who 
 most powerfully and successfully resisted the current of the age, are 
 Gotll. Christian Starr of Tubingen [ob. 1805), (Comm. z. Hebräerbr. ; 
 Zweck d. evang. Gesch. ; Apologie d. Offb. Joh. ; Doctrina christ. pars 
 theoretica, translated by C. C. Halt; Lehrb. d. chr. Dogmatik. 1813. 
 He also had a controversy with the Königsberg philosopher ; Annott. 
 quaedam theol. ad philos. Cantii doctrinam 1793 — by which he gained 
 his high esteem); G. Christian Knapp of Halle [ob. 1825), (Vorless. 
 u. d. chr. Glaubensl., published by Thilo ; Scripta varii argumenti, 
 etc.), and Francis Volkmar Reinhard, Prof, at Wittenberg, chief court- 
 preacher at Dresden [ob. 1812), the most eloquent preacher of this age 
 (System d. chr. moral, 5 Bde.; Versuch ii. d. Plan Jesu; Predigten, 
 35 Bde. ; Geständnisse ; Vorless. ü. d. Dogmatik). In a sermon on the 
 anniversary of the Reformation in 1800, Reinhard professed his adhe- 
 sion to the Lutheran doctrine of justification, with such decision, that 
 all Germany was agitated by it, especially as a ministerial decree held 
 this sermon up as a model for all the preachers of Saxony. Worthy 
 of all honor as Apologists are the great mathematician Leonh. Eider 
 of St. Petersburg [ob. 1783), (Rettung der Ofi"enbarung gegen die 
 Einwürfe der Freigeister), the not less great physiologist Albr. Haller 
 of Zürich [ob. Uli), (Briefe ü. d. wicht. Wahrhh. d. Offenb., Briefe U. 
 einige Einwürfe noch lebender Freigeister). More comprehensive and 
 thorough were the contributions of the theologians Theod. Christopher 
 Lilienthal of Königsberg [ob. 1782), (Die gute Sache der göttl. Offb., 
 16 Bde., against the attacks of Deists) ; John Fred. Elenker of Kiel 
 [ob. 1827), (Neue Prüfung u. Erklär, d. vorzügl. Beweire für d. Wahrh. 
 d. Christth., 3 Bde. ; Ausf. Unters, d. Gründe Tür die Echth. u. Glaub- 
 würdigk. d. schriftl. Urk. d. Christth., 5 Bde. ; Bibl. Sympathien, 
 od. Botraohtt. u. d. Berichte d. Evangelisten, etc.), and Dan. Joach. 
 Koppln, preacher in Mecklenburg (Die Bibel, e. Werk d. göttl. Welsh.)
 
 THEOLOGY AND LITERATURE OF ILLUMINATION. 285 
 
 The zealous preacher, who was abused beyond all measure, John Melch, 
 Götze, chief pastor of Ilamburii; {oh. 1786), a Löscher redivivus, con- 
 tended for the palladium of Lutheran orthodoxy against his ration- 
 alistic colleagues, against the theatre as a school for the German peo- 
 ple, against Barth, Basedow, and consorts, against the Wolfenblittler 
 fragments, against Werther's Sorrows, etc. Ilis polemics were not 
 without passion and malice, and in spite of all his learning he was by 
 no means a match for an opponent like Lessinc/. But he was not a 
 blockhead, pettifogger, and fanatic ; this is evident from the intimate 
 friendship which existed between him and Lessing for many years, 
 before the occurrence of the controversy. Worthy of special mention 
 as authors in the sphere of Biblical History are : the excellent super- 
 intendent John Jacob Hess of Zürich [oh. 1828), (Gesch. d. Israel, vor 
 d. Zeiten Jesu, 12 Bde. ; Lebensgesch. Jesu, 3 Bde. ; Lehre Jesu, 2 
 Bde. ; Gesch. d. Apostel, S Bde. ; Vom Reiche Gottes, 2 Bde. ; Kern 
 d. Lehre vom R. Gs. ; Briefe ü. d. Offenb. Job.) ; J. Conr. Pfenninger, 
 deacon at Zurich (oh. 1792), (Jüdische Briefe, €. Messiade in Prosa, 
 12 Bde.) ; 3fa(/n. Fred. Boos, prelate of Würtemberg (oh. 1804), (Einl. 
 in d. bibl. Gesch. bis auf Abraham ; Fusstapfen d. Glaubens Abr. in 
 d. Gesch. d. Patr. u. Proph.) Lacater and Herder also are to be named 
 here. Supranaturalism was represented in the sphere of Church His- 
 tort/hjthe industrious John Matth. Schröckh of Wittenberg (oh. 1808) ; 
 the profound Christ. Will. Francis Walch of Göttingen (oh. 1784), 
 (Vollst. Hist. d. Päpste ; Hist. d. K. Versammll. ; Hist. d. Ketzereien, 
 11 Bde. ; Neueste Rel. Gesch. 9 Bde.) ; the Kantian Charles Fred. 
 Stäudlin of Göttingen (oh. 1826), (Universalgesch. d. K. ; Gesch. d. 
 Sittenlehre Jesu, 4Bde. ; Gesch. d. theol: Wissch. s. 1500; K. G. v. 
 Groszbrit., 2 Bde. ; many historical monographs on the oath, prayer, 
 conscience, marriage, friendship, the drama, etc.), and the "Venerable" 
 Gottl. Jacob Planck of Göttingen, oh. 1833 (82 years old), a leading 
 representative of "pragmatic" historiography (Gesch. d. Entsteh., d. 
 Veränderungen u. d. Bildung unseres prot. Lehrbegr., 6 Bde. ; Gesch. 
 d. Entst. u. Ausbild. d. chr. kirchl. Gesellschaftsverf., 5 Bde. ; Gesch. 
 d. Christth. in d. Per. sr. Einfülirung, 2 Bde., etc.) The Würtemberg 
 prelate Fred. Christopher Oetinger (oh. 1782), the magus of the South, 
 occupied a quite peculiar position (Theol. ex idea vitiB deducta; Etwas 
 Ganzes vom Evangelio, on Isaiah 40 ff. ; Biblisch-cmblemat. Wörter- 
 buch zum N. T., opposed to that by Teller; Selbstbiogr., published by 
 Hamherger, Stuttg., 1845, etc.). He was a disciple of Bengel, deeply 
 learned, like him, in the Scriptures, but also an admirer of Jacob 
 Böhme, and even not opposed to Swedenborg's ghost-seeing revelations. 
 But notwithstanding all this, he is still deeply rooted in Lutheran 
 orthodoxy with his bil)lical realism and his theosophy, which acknow- 
 ledges corporeity as the jnd of the ways of God, and the first repre- 
 sentative of a theology :f the future, which, it is true, in its develop- 
 X3nt might need thoroijh purifying and close sifting, but yet might
 
 286 SECTION III. — THIRD PERIOD (CEN T. 18 A. D.) . 
 
 be adapted to represent, in its fundamental idea, the basis for the final 
 true reconciliation of Idealism and Realism. (Cf. C. A. Auherlen, die 
 Theosophie Oettinger's nach ihren Grundzügen. Tübg. 1848.) (Cf. 
 ^ 56, 3.) 
 
 7. German Philosophy. (Cf. Erdmann, s. c. § 163, 1. — H. M. Chaly- 
 bäics, hist. Entw. d. spec. Phil. v. Kant, bis Hegel. 3 A. Dresd. 1843. — 
 K. Biedermann, d. deutsche Phil, von Kant bis auf unsere Zeit. Lpz. 
 1842, 2 Bde.— C. Fortlage, Genet. Gesch. d. Phil, seit Kant. Lpz. 1852.) 
 — As Locke fills the interval between Bacon and Deism and Materialism, 
 so does Cliristian v. Wolf [^ 46, 2) constitute the centre and transition 
 from Leibnitz to popular philosophy. Immanuel Kant of Königsberg 
 [ob. 1804), saved philosophy from the superficial self-suflBciency and 
 quackery of the latter, and led it upon the arena of a mental conflict, 
 ■which is unparalleled in power, energy, extent, and continuance. 
 Kant's philosophy ("Kritik der reinen Vernunft," "Die Religion in- 
 nerhald der Grenzen der bloszen Vernunft"), stood altogether outside 
 of Christianity, and upon the same ground with theological Ration- 
 alism. Nevertheless, by digging deep into this ground, it brought out 
 much superior ore, of whose existence vulgar Rationalism had no idea, 
 and became, without wishing or knowing it, a schoolmaster to Christ 
 in manifold ways. Kant demonstrated the impossibility of a know- 
 ledge of supersensuous things by means of the pure reason, but ac- 
 knowledged the ideas of God, freedom, and immortality, as postulates 
 of the practical reason (conscience) and as the principle of all religion, 
 whose contents was alone the moral law ; Christianity and the Bible, 
 when they have become the foundations of national culture, are to be 
 retained, but must be made efficient by moral interpretation. Whilst 
 he thus, on the one hand, approached the sympathies of Rationalism, 
 he also, on the othei-, powerfully opposed its superficiality and self- 
 sufficiency, as it came to him in the form of popular philosophy. His 
 sharp criticism of pure reason, his deep knowledge of human weakness 
 and depravity revealed in his doctrine of the radical evil, his categorical 
 imperative of the moral law, were well adapted to produce in profound 
 minds a despair of themselves, a disgust with the hoUowness of the 
 age, and a want which Christianity alone could fully satisfy. — Fr. H. 
 Jacobi {ob. 1819), in his heart a Christian, in his understanding a hea- 
 then, led religion from the limits of abstract reason back into the 
 depths of tlie soul, and thus awakened a positive longing. — John Gottl. 
 Fichte {ob. 181 f) transformed Kantianism, which he at first uncondi- 
 tionally embraced, into an ideali.'itic "theory of the sciences," in which 
 only the Ego appears as real, — but the Non-ego attains reality through 
 the Ego, and thus the world and nature are only important as the 
 reflex of the spirit. But when, having reached atheism, he was ex- 
 pelled from his position at Jena, a spiritual revolution to.k place in 
 him, which led him away from the brink of atheism upon the way of 
 mysticism nearer to Christianity. In his "Anweisung zum seliger
 
 THEOLOGY AND LITERATURE OF ILLUMINATION 281 
 
 Leben" (180G), he frees religion from the mere service of morality, 
 and seeks the blessedness of life in the loving surrender of the whole 
 soul to the All-Spirit, the fullest expression of which he found in St. 
 John's gospel. On the other hand, Pauline Christianity, with its fun- 
 damental doctrines of sin and atonement, appeared to him as a dege- 
 neration, and Christ himself as the most perfect representative of the 
 incarnation of God, which is repeated in all ages and in every pious 
 person. — Already in the last years of this century, SchelUng came 
 forward with his philosophy of identity, which became one of the most 
 powerful agencies in creating a new age. (Cf. § 53, 1.) 
 
 8. German National Literature. (Cf H, GeJzer, d. deutsche poet. 
 Liter, seit Klopstock u. Lessing, nach ihren ethischen u. rel. Gesicht- 
 spunkten. 2. A. Lpz. 1848, f.) — When the loud tones of the evangelical 
 hymn were about to expire in Gellert's [ob. 1789) pious hymns, Klop- 
 stock appeared {ob. 1803) to praise the Messiah in a new song. But 
 the pathos of his odes had no effect, and his Messiade, as mistaken in 
 form as in contents, had the fate of only being praised and not 
 read. Lessing {oh. 1781) did not wish to have orthodoxy cast away, 
 impure as it was, until there should be found to take its place 
 something better than the new-fashioned theology. He could 
 only see a patchwork of bunglers and half -philosophers in the 
 new system, not in the old one ; he rather declared that he 
 knew of nothing in the world, on which human acuteness had been 
 more exercised, than on it. It vexed him, that it was imagined possi- 
 ble to suspend the weight of an eternity upon the thin thread of ex- 
 ternal evidences ; and therefore it was a pleasure to him to throw the 
 Wolfenblittler fragments at the heads of the theologians, and to cover 
 the chief pastor Götze, who was offended at it, with ridicule and 
 mockery ("Antigotze"). In his " Nathan" he permits, in an almost 
 pei'fidious waj% Christianity to be represented by a stupid zealot ; — as 
 the proper solution of the problem, the thought gleams through, that 
 in the end all tliree of the rings were spurious. In another work he 
 presents revehition from the stand-point of a gradual, progressive 
 "training of the human race," which lost its signitieanoc as soon as it 
 reached its end ; and in confidential conversations with Jacobi he pro- 
 fessed his belief in Spinoza's "Ev xai Uav. Wieland {ob. 1813) was 
 soon transformed from a youthful zealot for orthodoxy to a refined 
 voluptuary by the popular philosophy. Herder {ob. 1803), with his 
 enthusiasm for the infinitely deep and sublimely jt^oc/Zc contents of the 
 liible, especially of the Old Testament, exposed at least the lifelessness 
 and insipidity of the customary treatment of the Old Testament. 
 Goethe {ob. 1832) hated thoroughly the vandalism of Neology, took 
 pleasure in the " confessions of a beautiful soul," had, in his early 
 youth, s(mic sympathy for the Moravians, but believed, in the ripeness 
 of his manhood, that he did not need Christianity. Schiller {oh. 1805), 
 enthusiastic for everything that was noble, beautiful, and good, never-
 
 288 SECTION III. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. IS A. D.j. 
 
 theless disregarded Christianity and insinuated Kantian Rationalism 
 clothed with poetic beauty into the hearts of the German people. His 
 sorrow on account of the destruction of the mythology of old Hellas, 
 was, consciously or otherwise, less in contrast with Christianity than 
 with the poverty of Deism, which had banished the living God of 
 Christianity, and supplied his place with the dead laws of nature. 
 And even if he was earnest in supposing that he was able from reli' 
 gious feeling to profess no religion, still he unconsciously paid homage 
 to Christianity in many Christian views. Jacobi's mental philosophy 
 also had its poetical interpreters in Jean Paul [ob. 1825) and Hebel 
 {ob. 1826), in whom the same disunion exists between the pious mind, 
 which felt itself irresistibly drawn towards Christianity, and the cold 
 understanding, which turned away from faith and towards the reign- 
 ing unbelief. /. H. Voss, possessing a coarse Dutch rustic constitution, 
 delineates in his Louisa the ideal of a rationalistic rural pastor, and 
 persecuted with inquisitorial severity the blockheads and bondmen. — 
 But by the side of these worldlings, and as much respected by them 
 as they were insulted and slandered by the heroes of the " deutschen 
 Bibliothek," stood two genuine sons of Luther, the Wandsbecker Mes- 
 senger [Matth. Claudius, ob. 1815, cf. W. Herbst, M. CI. d. Wandsb. 
 Bote. Gotha, 1857), and Hamann [ob. 1788), the Magnus of the North 
 of whom Jean Paul says, that his commas are planetary, his periods 
 solar systems (cf. C. H. Gildemeister, J. G. Ham. d. Mag. d. Nord., 
 Leb. u. Schriften, 3 Bde. Gotha, 1857), and two noble sons of the Re- 
 formed Church, the laborious Lavater (ob. 18Ö1), and the prayerful 
 Jung-Stilling [ob. 1817). Besides these, we must not forget the cele- 
 brated historian John Von Midler [ob. 1809), who recognized Christ as 
 the centre of all ages in a way more profound than any historian be- 
 fore him. (Cf. ^ 53, 3.) 
 
 § 51. ECCLESIASTICAL LIFE DURING THE PERIOD OF 
 ILLUMINATION. 
 
 The old church faith, meanwhile, had still during this period 
 of reigning unbelief its seven thousand who had not bowed their 
 knees before the Baal of the spirit of the age. A Lavater and 
 Stilling, a Claudius and Hamann, are not by far the only, though 
 the most brilliant and best known names of the faitliful sons of 
 the Church. A high place of honor among them is also occupied 
 by the preacher JuJvi Fred. Oberlin of Waldbach (Ban de la 
 Roche) {oh. 1826), who is scarcely sufficiently honored by being 
 called a saint of the Protestant Church. ^'Father Oberlin,^^ by 
 official labors extending through 60 years, elevated his morally 
 and spiritually depraved and temporally poor congregation to a 
 condition of industrial prosperity, noble civilization, and pure
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL LIFE DURING ILLUMINATION. 289 
 
 churchly piety, and transformed the barren, waste Steintlial into 
 a patriarchal Paradise. Amonp: the supranaturalistic theohjg'ians 
 there were also many who adhered in their hearts to the old faith, 
 even though they also in their science clothed it with garments 
 of the new fashion. The flower of the German people was still 
 rooted in biblical and churchly Christianity. Where the pulpit 
 permitted it to die out, there they derived rich spiritual nourish- 
 ment from the writings .of the fathers, and where the modern 
 vandalism of Illumination had mutilated and diluted the churchly 
 hymn-books, there the old choice hymns still lived in the hearts 
 of the mothirs and fathers, and resounded with power at family 
 worship, and a, Hippel exempViüed in his "Lebensläufen" their 
 wonderful power in the life, loving, and suffering of a Christian. 
 The Moravian Church became often a haven of safety for the 
 educated, who were more exposed to danger. The common 
 danger also united pious Roman Catholics and pious Protestants 
 in the love of a common Saviour. Thus in Münster a circle of 
 the noblest souls of the Roman Catholic Ciiurch was formed 
 around the noble princess Galizin and the able minister Fürsten- 
 berg, in which also ex. gr. a Hamann with his genuine Lutheran 
 spirit found the most intimate communion and the warmest recep- 
 tion. Pestalozzi (ob. 1827) appeared already in 1775 in Swit- 
 zerland to rescue the science of teaching from the superficiality 
 of Basedow, reforming the national school in a spirit that was 
 genuinely popular, and at least not hostile to Christianity. 
 
 1. T/ie Dihdion of the Hymn-Books and Sacred Poetry. — It waa 
 Klopstock who opened the way for the unparalleled hymn-book van- 
 dalism of this period, by remodelling 29 old church hymns (1758). 
 lie, as also his immediate successors, Cramer and J. Ad. Scldeyel, only 
 wished to improve the form, i. e., modernize them, which, however, 
 could not be done without diluting their contents. Their numberless 
 successors among the champions of Illumination only made tlie more 
 thorough havoc both with contents and form. General superintendents, 
 consistorial counsellors, and court-preachers, rivalled each other in 
 preparing and introducing new hymn-books, with diluted old and still 
 more watery new hymns. Every town had its own and peculiarly 
 amended hymn-book. Meanwhile, to the honor of the German people 
 of this period, especially of AViirtemberg, it must be said, that they 
 with reluctance permitted the old treasure of their hymn-books to be 
 taken from them, and the new fabrications to be forced upon them. 
 Only a few voices from the educated classes, as ex. gr. the poet Sehn- 
 bart, were raised against the nuisance, but they were unheard. — As 
 68
 
 290 SECTION III.— THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 18 A.D.). 
 
 poor as the spirit of Illumination was in faith and in poetry, so rich 
 ■was it, nevertheless, in the production of so-called sacred hymns. 
 These are almost entirely of a moral character, and where a well- 
 meant hymn of faith appears, it bears not the least comparison with 
 the hymns of the 16th and 17th centuries. Abstraction, dogmatic tone, 
 and pathos, are the substitutes for the sublimity, inwardness, fresh- 
 ness, and nationality of the old hymns. The hymns of the noble and 
 pious Geliert are by far the best contributed by this period. Klopstock 
 repudiated Gellert's doctrinal tone, and sought to awaken and stir up 
 religious feeling. On the other hand, he lacked popularity, of which 
 Geliert possessed at least a minimum. Among the sacred poets who 
 inherited his spirit, Lavater is the most able and Christian, (Cf. 
 § 54, 8.) 
 
 2. Sacred Music. — Sacred music sunk also with the hymns of this 
 period to the lowest degree of its existence. The old chorals were 
 recast into modern forms, by which they altogether lost their ancient 
 power and beauty. A multitude of new, unnational, and difficult me- 
 lodies, in a dry pedantic style, appeared ; the last trace of the old 
 rhythm disappeared, and tedious, heavy monotony gained the ascend- 
 ency, by which all sublimity and freshness was lost. Preludes and 
 interludes of a secular character were introduced as substitutes. An 
 operatic overture generally introduced the people into the church ; a 
 march or a waltz dismissed them from it. The church ceased to foster 
 and to produce music ; the theatre and concert-hall took its place. The 
 operatic supplanted all taste for the oratorio style. Cantata of a tho- 
 roughly secular and effeminate spirit were composed for festival occa- 
 sions. A proper church style in music no longer existed, on which 
 account also Winter/eld closes his history of evangelical sacred music 
 with Seb. Bach. It was almost worse with the Roman Catholic mass- 
 music. Palestrina's earnest and elevated school had almost entirely 
 disappeared in the polite operatic style, and a greater nuisance was 
 and is still made of the organ than in the Protestant churches. (Cf. 
 § 54, 8.) 
 
 3. Religious Parties within the Church. — From the secondary effects 
 of Spener's Pietism, enriched by Oetinger's theosophy, proceeded in 
 Wlirtemberg the party of the Michelians. Its founder was a layman, 
 Michael Hahn, a butcher {ob. 1819). His writings are full of deep 
 views of the Divine economy of salvation (among which especially s. 
 Briefe von d. ersten Offenb. Gottes durch die ganze Schöpfung bis an 
 das Ziel aller Dinge). The doctrine of a double fall (whence resulted 
 a great disregard, but not rejection of marriage), of the restoration of 
 all things; further and especially the disregarding of justification in 
 favor of sanctification, of Christ for un in favor of Christ in us, the 
 urging of uninterrupted repentance, etc., was peculiar to him. The 
 latter was enhanced by the extreme contrast of the Pregizerians (with 
 preacher Pregizer of Haiterbach at their head), who, laying all stress
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL LIFE DURING ILLUMINATION. 291 
 
 upon Laptism and justification, certain in the faith of their happiness, 
 and not needing self-tormenting repentance, impressed upon their life 
 and worship the character of great cheerfulness and joyfulness. Both 
 parties, having spread over the whole of Wiirtemberg, still exist, but 
 have approached each other very nearly in common opposition to the 
 destructive tendencies of modern times. They had besides a common 
 ground in their Chiliasm and in the doctrine of restoration. (Cf. Ih(ug, 
 d. Secte d. Michelianer ; in d. Studien d. ev. Geistlichk. WUrtb. XI. I. — ■ 
 Grilncisen, Gesch. d. rel. Gemeinschaften in Wiirtomb. ; in the hist, 
 theol. Ztschr. 1841, 1.) — The party of the Collenhuschians in Berg stood 
 also in a certain connection with Oetinger's theosophy and other Wiir- 
 temberg elements. Sam. CoUenhusch, practising physician at Wich- 
 linghausen [ob. 1803), who, being ofiended by the orthodox doctrines 
 of original sin as original guilt, of the wrath of God and of the repre- 
 s^tative satisfaction of Christ, formed a doctrinal system, in which 
 Christ, laying aside his divine attributes, took upon himself with 
 human flesh also the susceptibility of sinning, the sufferings of Christ 
 were derived from the wrath of Satan, and have only the significance 
 of the sufferings of trial and of steadfastness, and redemption consists 
 in the fact, that Christ bore Satan's wrath for ns and sends his Spirit 
 into us to work sanctification. The most important of the theological 
 adherents of the pious physician are both the Hasenkamps and the 
 excellent Gottfr. Menken, Reformed preacher in Bremen (ob. 1831), 
 (Homilien über die Gesch. d. Elias und zu Ilebr. 11 ; Anleitung zun: 
 eigenen Unterricht in d. Wahrhh. d. h. Schrift). (Cf. F. W. Krug 
 Gesch. der Schwärmerei, etc., Elberf. 1851, p. 205, ff., and M. Gubel 
 Gesch. d. ehr. Lebens, Bd. II.) 
 
 4. German Illumination found, outside of Germany, but little favor at 
 first. It spread soonest and most in the NetJierlands, then in Denmark 
 and Noricay, and but little in Sweden. In Amsterdam a part of the 
 Lutheran congregation tore itself loose, when a neological preacher 
 was forced upon it (1791), and organized itself independently as the 
 " Restored Lntheran Church," or the " Old Light." It still numbers 
 seven Dutch congregations, with 12,000 members. In 1797 several 
 members of the Wallonian (French Reformed) congregation at Delft 
 in the Netherlands formed a religious society under the name Christo 
 sacrum, which wished to adopt all the Christian confessions, and to 
 unite all in a true Church of Christ upon the foundation of faith com- 
 mon to all. The confessional doctrinal differences were to be regarded 
 as unessential, and loft to private conviction, on which account also a 
 separation from the old churches was not regarded as necessary. But, 
 although the new congregation at first made some progress, and the 
 government formally guaranteed it religious freedom in 1802, it soon 
 declined for want of internal strength and under the power of growing 
 unbelief, and exists now only in several weak and needy remnants.— 
 In K'urwaij a powerful religious excitement was created by the peasant
 
 292 SECTION III. — THIRD PERIOD (CENT. 18 A D.). 
 
 Nielsen Hange, who, since 1795, preached the gospel there. In Eng- 
 land the Dissenters, especially the Methodists, exerted a wholesome 
 influence on the national church. Here in the person of W. Cowpef 
 [ob. 1800) we meet with a noble sacred poet of high lyrical endow- 
 ments, whose life and poetry, however, are consumed by melancholy, 
 caused by the bugbears of predestinarian despair and methodistic care 
 of his soul. 
 
 5. Protestant Union and Missionary Labors. (Cf. Jul. Wiggers, 
 Gesch. d. ev. Miss. Hamb. 1845, 2 Bde.) — In order to establish propa- 
 ganda to realize the grand thought of union effort for Christian, prac- 
 tical ends, the Augsburg senior John Urlsperger travelled over Eng- 
 land, Holland, and Germany. But his zeal was first crowned with 
 permanent success in Basle by establishing the German Society/ of 
 Christianity ("Deutsche Gesellsch. zur Beförder. christl. Wahrh. u. 
 Gottseligkeit") 1780. Soon a number of branch societies were formed in 
 Switzerland and South Germany. A periodical: "Sammlungen für 
 Liebhaber christl. Wahrheit und Gottseligkeit" became the organ of 
 the society (1784), which drew within the province of its labors all 
 possible Christian objects (Bible and tract distribution, care of the 
 poor and sick, itinerant preaching, circulating libraries, evangelization 
 of Roman Catholics, missions among the Jews, Turks, and Heathen, 
 etc.). Gradually some of the branches grew strong enough to be in- 
 dependent, ex. gr. 1804, the Basle Bible Society, 1816, the Missionary 
 Society, 1820, the Beuggen Institution for neglected children and the 
 educa^'ion of charity-school teachers ; further, a union for the frienda 
 of Israel, a tract-union, a deaf and dumb-asylum, etc., whereby a dis- 
 solution of the society was prepared for in a way not to be regretted. — 
 In the last decade of this century, a feeling for united labor for Chris- 
 tian objects was also awakened in England, and first of all for Heathen 
 Missions. This took place in the year 1795, when a lai-ge number of 
 Christians of all parties, mostly Dissenters, united to found the general 
 London Missionary Society, and already in the following year the first 
 missionary ship sailed to the South Sea islands under Captain Wilson, 
 with 29 missionaries on board. They labored, almost hopelessly, but 
 perseveringly, for 16 years, until finally King Pomare II. of Tahiti be- 
 came the first of the converts. A victory over a heathen reaction-party 
 (1815) secured full dominion for Christianity. The example of the 
 London Missionary Society led to imitation in other quarters ; thus 
 arose in 1796 two Scotch, and in 1797 a Netherland Missionary Society, 
 and in 1800 in London the Episcopal Missionary Society for the Eng- 
 lish possessions in Africa, Asia, etc. In the same year Jänicke of 
 Berlin founded his mission institute. The Danish Lutheran (| 47, 7) 
 and the Moravian missions (| 47, 6) carried on, meanwhile, their mis- 
 sionary operations vigorously, especially the latter. (Cf. ^ 54, 9, 10.)
 
 FOURTH PERIOD 
 
 OF 
 
 CHURCH HISTORY 
 
 IN ITS MODERN GERMANIC FORM OF DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 Jf. K. R. Hayenbach, K. G. d. 18 u. 19 Jahrh. 2. A. Lpz. 185G. Bd 
 11. — J. C. L. Gieseler, K. G. d. neuesten Zeit. Ilerausg. v. C. R. Rede- 
 pennig, Bonn 1855. — F. A. Schai-p ff^ (kath.), Vorless. lib d. neueste K 
 G. Freib. 1852. — Ä Gams (kath.), Gesch. d. K. Christi im 19. Jahrh. 
 Innsbr. 1853, ff., 2 Bde.— Jul. Wingers, kirchl. Statistic. Ilamb. 1842, f. 
 2 Bde. — Ders. d. kirchl. Bewegung in Deutschl. Rost. 1848. — K. Netz, 
 die Kirchen d. europ. Abendl. Frkf. 1847, Bd. I. — D. Schenkel, die 
 rcl. Zeitkämpfe. Hamb. 1847. — G. Fr. Rheinwald, Acta hist, ecclst. 
 Seculi XIX. Hamb. 183Ö-38, 3 Bde.— Z^. Matthes, allg. kirchl. Chronik. 
 1 -IV. Lpz. 1855-58. 
 
 I. GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 
 
 I 52. REVIEW OF THE RELIGIOUS AGITATION DURING 
 THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 The horrors of the French Revolution demonstrated what 
 must become of the modern world without God and Christianity; 
 the reign of the new divine scourge lifted the eyes and hearts of 
 the people to Him, from whom alone help was yet to be hoped 
 for ; the wars for liberty in their enthusiasm (" with God for 
 king and fatherland") did place their trust in this help, and the 
 double victory (1813 aud 1815) gloriously justified this trust 
 Princes and people were filled with thankfulness to God. Alex- 
 ander I., Francis I., and Frederick William III. (being at the 
 same time representatives of the three principal churches) formed. 
 68 * ( '■^'^)
 
 294 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (C E N T. 1 9 A.D.) 
 
 after the Congress of Vienna had established the political rela 
 tions, the Holy Alliance (1815), which had for its object the 
 cultivation and preservation of Christian brotherly love among 
 the nations as the branches of one family, and among the princes 
 as the fathers of the same. " To make Christianity the highest 
 law of national life, in spite of all confessional dissensions," was 
 the declared object of the Holy Alliance, which was joined by all 
 the princes of Europe, excepting the Pope, the Sultan, and the 
 King of England, but which, nevertheless, soon became anti- 
 quated as a political idyll. Alexander II., at his accession to 
 the throne (1855), first again recognized in this idyll an eternally 
 true ideal of Christian rulers. — A religious fermentation had also 
 been produced among the people ; but what six decades had 
 levelled to the ground could not rise again in a night. Old and 
 new, and partly very heterogeneous elements, were commingling 
 and fermenting in the national spiritual life, in poetry and philo- 
 sophy, in theology and the church. Subsequent to 1830 a decided 
 clarification has taken place, and the antitheses have manifested 
 themselves purely and independently. The restitution of the 
 papacy in 1814 already awakened a new enthusiasm for ultra- 
 montane Roman Catholicism, as also the jubilee of the Refor- 
 mation in 1817 for Protestantism ; whilst the theological and 
 practical principles of the Lutheran and Reformed Churches, 
 which had been repressed, the former in Supranaturalisra, the 
 latter in Pietism, by a premature union, which regarded them as 
 no longer existing, were likewise agitated anew. A powerful 
 effort was also made by the old sects to obtain a wider influence, 
 ' and new sects full of powerful errors appeared. Thus the eccle- 
 siastical and religious principles were drawn out sharper and 
 increased, and over against the church and Christianity a naked 
 and bold anti-Christianity asserted itself in Socialism and Com- 
 munism, in political, religious, and scientific Libertinism ; whilst 
 pauperism and proletarianism, a fruit chiefly of the largely mul- 
 tiplied manufactories, increased in a terrible way. In 1848 the 
 igniting spark fell upon this accumulated mass of powder, and 
 in a short time Western Europe was enveloped in the flames of 
 political revolution. The two years of reaction (1849-50) suc- 
 ceeded in mastering this wild conflagration. But the fire still 
 smouldered beneath the ashes. May God grant, that in a night, 
 when the watchmen may sleep, another whirlwind may not kindle 
 it anew I Within the sphere of religious lifo agitation existed
 
 GENERAL BASIS OF CULTURE. 295 
 
 '0 every direction. Pantheism, Materialism, and Atheism de- 
 vastated science and practical life, even to the lowest strata of 
 the people. Old and new sects increased in a threatening man- 
 ner. TJltramontanism bent its bow more tightly. The Protestant 
 Union became in every direction a covcordia discora, and even 
 Lwtiieranisra, which sundered itself from it, concealed a danger- 
 ous dissension in its bosom. The prophecies of Scripture alone 
 opened a view, through all confusions and anxieties, to the final 
 issue of all history, for which, whether it be near or far off, even 
 the complications of the present must prepare the way. 
 
 g.53. THE GENERAL BASIS OF THE CULTURE OF THE NINE- 
 TEENTH CENTURY IN ITS CONNECTIONS WITH THEO- 
 LOGY AND THE CHURCH. 
 
 Philosoph'/ exerted an important influence upon the religious 
 development of this period, both as regards science and practical 
 life. Whilst Rationalism in its philosophical development was 
 not able to go beyond Kant, the other theological tendencies 
 were more or less directed by the philosophy of this period. In 
 addition to philosophy, Belles Letlres, which was also in mani- 
 fold ways affected by philosophy, exerted a powerful influence 
 upon the religious views of the educated classes. The exact 
 sciences also were brought into a closer relation to Christianity, 
 partly friendly and partly hostile. But, generally, a Christian 
 tendency made itself felt more decidedly than ever in the sciences; 
 and it appears as characteristic that, whilst formerly the Chris- 
 tian convictions of the learned had little or no influence in the 
 formation of these sciences, now the endeavors of many educated 
 Christian men were directed towards penetrating them with the 
 Christian principle and permitting it to remodel them. 
 
 1. German Philnxophy. (Cf. ?50, 1 .)— Fries [oh. 1843) also acquired 
 importance for the development of Protestant theology, by the influence 
 which his philosophy exerted upon several distinguished thcolopians 
 (De Wette, Hase). His philosophy started from Kantian Rationalism, 
 which it regarded as standing in need of being made more profound 
 and thoroujih, and which it sought to do in a method nearly similar to 
 Jaco])i's. SchelUncf's philosophy of identity, on the other hand, started 
 from Fichte's idealism, and, in its progress, assumed the form of essen- 
 tially pantheistic Natural PhUosoplnj. lie learned from Fichte that 
 the world was null and void without the spirit, but he inverted the 
 relation. Whilst Fichte allowed reality to the woi-ld (the Non-ego)
 
 29G SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A.D.) 
 
 only in so far as man apprehended and penetrated it with his spirit, 
 and this first gave it real existence, according to Schelling the spirit ia 
 nothing else than the life of nature itself, and consequently identical 
 with it, or rather both are the opposite poles of the same phenomenon. 
 The spirit still slumbers and dreams in the lower grades of natural 
 life, but in man it has attained to self-consciousness. The total life 
 of nature, or the soul of the world, is God. Man is a reflection of God 
 and a microcosm. God reaches objective reality and the unfolding of 
 his self-consciousness in the development or history of the world ; Chris- 
 tianity is a turning-point in the history of the world ; its fundamental 
 doctrines of revelation, Trinity, incarnation, and reconciliation are 
 regarded as prescient attempts to solve the enigma of the world. Schel- 
 ling's living, poetic view of the world penetrated all the sciences and 
 gave them a new and unprecedented inspiration. But it was an abo- 
 mination to the reigning rationalistic theology. It returned its hatred 
 with ridicule and contempt. It introduced a new and fresh element 
 of life among the younger generation of theologians. As Schelling 
 was connected with Fichte, so was Hegel with Schelling, whose pan- 
 theislfic Natural Philosophy he transformed into pantheistic Mental 
 Philosophy. According to this philosophy, divine revelation as an 
 unfolding of the divine self-consciousness from non-existence to exist- 
 ■snce, i. e. from mere self-existence to real-existence, manifests itself not 
 ^0 much in the life of nature, as rather in the thinking and acting of 
 the human spirit. Judaism, heathenism, and Christianity are the three 
 progressive stages of the development of this process of revelation ; Ju- 
 daism is far inferior to classic heathenism, but in Christianity we have 
 the perfect religion, of course only in the lower form of conception, 
 which it is the mission of philosophy to convert into knowledge. It at 
 least again brought Protestant orthodox doctrines into formal repute. 
 When Marheineke again constructed Lutheran orthodoxy in" its entire 
 dialectic perfection into a speculative system of dogmatics, upon the 
 basis of this philosophy; when, further, the talented and profound 
 jurist Göschel united it with a refreshing Pietism, then the illusion 
 was entertained for a time that the long-sought-for reconciliation of 
 philosophy and theology had been finally discovered in this philosophy. 
 (The berliner Jahrbücher was for a long time its organ.) But the 
 condition of things changed immediately after the Master's death (1831). 
 Hegel's school was divided into an orthodox and a numerically larger 
 (or "young Hegelian") one; the former advancing the churchly ten- 
 dency of the Master; the latter despising Christianity as an antiquated 
 form of conception, and running his philosophical views into the most 
 open self-deification and self-worship of the human spirit (Anthropo- 
 theism). David Strauss, Bruno Bauer, and Louis Feuerbach introduced 
 this tendency into theology, whilst Arnold Ruge endeavored to intro- 
 duce and make it felt in the social, aesthetic, and political relations of 
 life. The organ of this tendency was since 1837 the "Halleschen (latei
 
 GENERAL BASIS OF CULTURE. 291 
 
 Deutsche Jahrbücher." When these were suppressed in 1843 by th« 
 State, the Young- Hegelians, in order to obtain a strong support, con- 
 nected themselves with the Rationalists (now friends of light), -whom 
 but a short time before they ridiculed as the " antediluvian theolo- 
 gians". In the revolution of 1848, Ruge, with some of his companions, 
 affiliated with the communistic Republicans. Schelling, who had been 
 silent for almost three decades, and had meanwhile transformed his 
 former Pantheism into Christian Gnosticism, occupied (1841) Hegel's 
 chair in Berlin as his declared opponent, but was able to produce only 
 a transient excitement among the younger generation of theologians 
 with his dualistic doctrine of potencies, which was announced as the 
 finally attained understanding of Cliristianlty. lie died upon a jour- 
 ney to Switzerland (1854), after his brilliant career at Berlin had come 
 and gone like a meteor. His son has commenced to erect to him a 
 worthy monument by publishing his collected works. 
 
 The hegemony of Hegelian philosophy was ruined by the division 
 of the schools and by the radicalism of its adherents ; and Schelling, 
 in the second stadium of his philosophical development, was not able 
 to found a peculiar school. On the other hand, quite a series of younger 
 philosophers appeared, who, starting from Hegelian dialectics, pur- 
 posed to free philosophy from the ban of Pantheism, and instead of it 
 to substitute a speculative Tlieism, which made Itself felt as Christian 
 philosophy, and came in fact into a closer relation to historical Chris- 
 tianity, b}' acknowledging its positive contents. At the head of these 
 most honorable men stood Fielders son; besides him, Weisse, Braniss, 
 Chafi/bäiis, Fischer, Ulrici, Wirih, etc. Its organ is the "Zeitschrift 
 für Philosophie und Philosophische Kl-itik," published by Fichte, Jr. 
 But important as the phiU)Sophical power of these men is, they still 
 have not been able to obtain the influence in German science which 
 Schelling and Hegel possessed in so large a degree. — Herbart, Kant's 
 successor at Königsberg [ob. 1841 at Göttingen), challenged the entire 
 new philosophy from Fichte the father to Fichte the son, by declaring 
 that the metaphysical God lay altogether beyond the horizon of philo- 
 sophy, which he would confine to the limits of empiricism. His 
 Realism was the sharpest antithesis of Hegelian Idealism. His philo- 
 sophy, abstractedly considered, stands indifferent to Christianity, but 
 is not incapable of l)elng brought into a friendly relation to it, as 
 Tautens philosophy of religion has demonstrated. Nevertheless, Hcr- 
 bart's philosophy also was not able to exert a great influence on prac- 
 tical life and science. The tendency of the present age, which Is mure 
 decidedly in the directlim of practical interests, is in the main not 
 favorable to the cultivation of philosophy. 
 
 2. The Exact Sciences. — Schelling's profound views became so 
 very significant in that they were not confined to the philosophical 
 movements of the age, but also breathed a new life into the other 
 sciences. This influence was most widely exerted upon the natural
 
 298 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A. D.) 
 
 sciences. There was not wanting, it is true, a certain wavering and 
 mistiness, to which mesmeric magnetisni especially contributed largely, 
 but the turbid fermentation was gradually clarified, and the Christian 
 views separated themselves from their pantheistic appendages. The 
 genial Henry Steffens [oh. 1845), and in a much greater measure the 
 profound and judicious G. H. v. Sclmhert, taught how to fathom and 
 understand the book of nature as the reflection and supplement of the 
 divine revelation in the Holy Scriptures. A congenial spirit of the 
 latter was the Frankfurt senator Fr. v. Meyer, who contributed less, it 
 is true, for and through his special science, but on that account more 
 for and through deep Christian apprehension of the divine mysteries? 
 iij nature and history. Hegel's philosophy also appeared at first to 
 deepen and enrich, in a Christian way, the other sciences ; at least it 
 presents in Goschel a thinker, who in a Christian spirit transfigures 
 jurisprudence, and confirms Christianity in a legal way. On the other 
 side, however, Hegel's philosophy, in its application to the other 
 departments of knowledge, brought into sway an abstruse, dialectical 
 tendency; its disciples of the extreme left wing wished to construct 
 all the sciences ä priori from abstract ideas, and at tlie same time to 
 eradicate from them the last reminiscences of a Christian spirit. 
 
 If we consider the sciences singly, and their relation to Christianity, 
 it is the Natural Sciences, above all others, which here come into view. 
 Their great and glorious names, which history praises as their proper 
 founders ( Copernicus, oh. 1543, Kepler, oh. 1630, Newton, oh. Vlll, 
 Haller, oh. 1777, Davy, oh. 1829, Cuvier, oh. 1832, etc.), have also a 
 glorious and native sound for the Christian ear. All of them, and 
 many others of the great masters of natural philosophy, professed 
 their faith with heart and lips in Christian truth, which, in their 
 opinion, was not the least endangered by their brilliant discoveries. 
 It was otherwise with the theologians. Even a Schleier macher (Sends- 
 chriften an Lücke in the Studd. u. Kritt. 1829) apprehended the fore- 
 seen destruction of all Christian views of the world through the irre- 
 sistible results of natural philosophy ; and Bretschneider (Sendschriften 
 an einem Staatsmann, 1830) proclaimed to the world without pity, that 
 v.hat Schleiermacher had only feared, had already fully taken place. 
 A natural philosopher [K. v. Raumer) proved to them, however, that 
 there was yet no ground at all either for rationalistic rejoicing or for 
 Christian fear, and convicted the superficial babbler Ballenstedt, a 
 rationalistic rural pastor of the purest water ("Die Urwelt," 1819), 
 of the most colossal ignorance. But the condition of things was soon 
 advanced to a new stage. The investigation of nature, awakening 
 from the intoxication of Schelling's natural philosophy, pronounced all 
 speculation to be contraband and pure empiricism, and the prudent 
 investigation of the actual to be the only admissible, the only useful 
 object of its pursuit. This was well meant, and also honestly and judi- 
 «iously carried out by the majority of natural philosophers. But whilst
 
 GENERAL BASIS OF CULTURE. 299 
 
 they committed the spirit in and above nature to the investigation of 
 theologians and philosophers, as not belonging to the province of em- 
 pirical investigation of nature, those young in the natural sciences, 
 here also effecting the emancipation of the flesh from the spirit, de- 
 clared that the spirit was not at all present, because it could not be 
 discovered by the dissecting knife. Charles Vogt, formerly regent of 
 the empire of the year 1841), asserted in all earnestness, that thought 
 ■was only a secretion of the brain, in the same way as urine was a se- 
 cretion of the kidneys ; and Moleschott declared all life to be a mere 
 change of matter, and recognized no other destination of man after 
 death than to he manure for the ground. The rabble of science and 
 of life shouted its approbation of them, but men of true science [Rud, 
 Wagner, AnJr. Wui/ner, Liehig, and many others), chastised the irra- 
 tional and unscientific spirit as it deserved, and openly and firmly 
 professed their adhesion to Christian truth. The celebrated discoverer 
 of electro-magnetism, Oerstedt, had earlier already sought " the spirit 
 in nature ;" but of course the spirit which he found was not the spirit 
 I of the Bible and of the Church. The grand-master of German Natural 
 Philosophy, Al. v. Humboldt, also acknowledged the system of the world 
 to be a Köofjuoj full of grand harmony in the whole and in the parts; 
 but he also discovered no Christian ideas and views in God's great 
 book of nature.** Medicine stood and stands on the same level with the 
 natural sciences. Only a De Valenti (" Medicina pastoralis") per- 
 ceived, with Protestant soberness, in the Christian faith a vehicle of 
 medical science ; whilst a Ringseis in München pronounced even the 
 entire Romish papacy with the adoration of saints and worship of the 
 host to be a oonditio sine qua non of all medicine. The physicians 
 also, who believed in magnetism, stood for the most part personally 
 and with their science in intimate relation to Christianity (ex. gr. 
 Fassavant, Ennemoser, etc.) — Magnetic Somnambulism, the ■\Vürten>- 
 berg ghost-seeing, the North American Spirit-rappings, and the uni- 
 versal Table-moving and Table-writing, have, in spite of the wrath of 
 many natural philosophers, who saw therein only refined fraud or ob- 
 stinate self-deception, and of many earnest Christians, who warned 
 vgainst Satan's deception and arts, found crowds of believers, who 
 gave ear to the new revelation with rapture. 
 
 Of all the sciences, no one was so thoroughly pervaded by the Chris- 
 tian spirit as Jurisprudence. A large number of excellent jurists, who 
 are reckoned among the most distinguished notabilities of this science, 
 and who were always ready to give evidence of their zeal for the CliurcK 
 and Christianity in practical life as well as in science, adorned many 
 German professorships and tribunals, or filled high civil offices. Aa 
 examples we need only mention the names of Fr. v. Mn/er, Goschel, 
 Stahl, Bcthmann-HoUweg, Savigng, Fiichta, Thibaut, Bickell, Jacobson, 
 Richter, Mählcr, Göschen, Wasserschlebcn, Iluschke, Mejcr, Scheuert, 
 etc., and the Roman Catholics Walter, Fhilipps, et. al—Hiito/iograph>/,
 
 300 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A. 1>.) 
 
 after it had surmounted the superficial pragmatism of the rationalistic 
 period, and objectivity had again acquired its rights, also followed the 
 Christian and churchly factors of history with love and recognition. 
 Protestant historical inquiry especially manifested throughout an al- 
 most boundless readiness to acknowledge and admire the grand pheno- 
 mena of mediaeval Roman Catholicism, even with the denial of the 
 Protestant consciousness ; and proceeded from the apotheosis of a Boni- 
 face, Gregory VII., and Innocent III., to the defamation of the Refor- 
 mation as a revolution (John Voigt, H. Leo, C. A. Menzel, Hurter, 
 Gfrörer, etc.) Ultramontane historiography accepted such admissions, 
 but by no means thought of recompensing like with like, but only in- 
 tensified its old method of wickedly and perfidiously slandering every- 
 thing Protestant [Riffel, Döllinger, etc.), and of making history instead 
 of impartially investigating. Geograpliy, which was first raised to a 
 science by Charles Ritter, paid to Christianity the tribute of its recog. 
 nition, which it also deserved from this quarter. Finally, ancient 
 classic Philology also, in several important representatives, illumined 
 ancient classic heathenism and its religion with the Christian spirit, 
 and endeavored to interpret it in the sense of the apostle (Acts 14 : 16 ; 
 17 : 27 ; Rom. 1 : 19, fi".) Creuzer prepared the way thereto by a deeper 
 apprehension of ancient heathen mythology. Görres walked in his 
 footsteps, whose pupil Sepp (das Heidenth. u. dessen Bedeutung für 
 d. Christth. 1853, 3 Bde.) exposes without reserve the deep internal 
 connection of Roman Catholicism with heathenism by proving that 
 ancient heathen mythology and mysteriosophy are only a latent Catho- 
 licism. On the other hand, the Protestants Nägelsbach (Homerische 
 und nachhomerische Theologie) and Lilbker (Sophokleische Theologie) 
 fathomed, with like depth and discretion, the religious life of the an- 
 cient world in its relation to Christian truth. 
 
 3. National Literature. (Cf. /. V. Eichendorff (Roman Catholic), 
 liber die ethische u. rel. Bedent. der neuern romant. Poesie in Deutschi. 
 Lpz. 1847. — Ä'. Barthel, d. deutsche Nationallit. d. Neuzeit. 4. A. 
 Braunschw. 1855. — /. Ä. Mar. Brühl (Roman Catholic), Gesch. d. 
 kath. Lit. Deutschl. vom 17. Jahrh. biz zur Gegenw. Lpz. 1854.) — As 
 already Schiller's poetry introduced Kantian philosophy, clothed in 
 ooetic garb, into the national life, so did also the other phases of phi- 
 losophical development find their poetical representatives. It is true, 
 Goethe was too rich and independent a genius to be led captive by a 
 philosophical school ; nevertheless his views of life, and especially his 
 views of nature, were related in many ways with Scheliing's jihiloso- 
 phy. His religion was a Spinozian Pantheism. The Romantic School 
 connected itself more decidedly and unreservedly with Schelling. His 
 Natural Philosophy is the ground out of which it grew, and out of 
 which it received as well its proclivity to Pantheism as to Roman Ca- 
 tholicism (for the philosophy of identity is related, in principle, to 
 Roman Catholicism, in so far as the latter also, only in a different
 
 GENERAL BASIS OF CULTURE. 301 
 
 way [§ 20] likes to identify or confound the divine and the huiuan). 
 The antithesis between ronianiic and clasaic ■ytas in itself considered 
 not that between Christian and heathen, and referred generally less to 
 the religious contents than to the poetic form. Romanticism desired 
 to liberate art and poetry from the bondage of strict, antique classic 
 form, and to lead it back, to genuine (Jerman forms. It was thereby 
 directed to the rich fulness of the middle ages, whose contents it then 
 sought to naturalize loith the form in modern times. But since the 
 media3val view of the world was decidedly Christian, and the repre- 
 sentatives of the classic school had in great part lapsed into the hea- 
 thenism of illumination, the above-named antithesis had a certain 
 justification. Romanticism, it is true, manifested a great religious 
 inwardness (especially in Novalis and La Motte Fouqu6), and became 
 the sworn enemy of rationalistic Illumination, which it pursued in all 
 Its hiding-places, exposed and made ridiculous ( Tieck's Zerbino) ; ne- 
 vertheless, in its contest with the prudery of Rationalism, it ran intc 
 frivolity {Fr. Schlegel' s Lucinde), — and the direct repristination of the 
 mediaeval forms and views, which had fallen behind the progress of the 
 world, was ever an unnatural thing, which could not be atoned for by 
 the superabundance of imagination, and which avenged itself on many, 
 even the better and nobler ones (ex. gr. Fr. Schlegel, — to say nothino 
 of the starved form of a Zach. Werner), by apostacy from Protestantism 
 to Roman Catholicism. The twilight of Romanticism was fundamen- 
 tally opposed to Hegelian philosopliy, and its disciples of the left wing 
 almost succeeded in stamping even the expression "romantic" as a 
 term of abuse for Jesuitism and obscurantism of all kinds. On the 
 other hand, the dissolute and destructive tendency which, after Hegel's 
 death, mastered his school, contributed its part towards creating a 
 later anti-Christian and revolutionary poetry. Closely connected with 
 the Romantic School, for which the way was broken in Schleger» 
 Lucinde, was the School of young Germany, with its gospel of the 
 rehabilitation of the flesh. Its leader was the gifted poet //. Heine. 
 The pantheistic deification of Schelling's and the self-deification of 
 Hegel's school received their expression in Leop. Schefer's " Laienbre- 
 vier" and Weltpriester, as also in SaUet's "Laienevangelium ;" whilst tho 
 sympathies of the ytmng Hegelians for the communistic spirit of the age 
 were heralded by Herwegh's and later also by Freiligrath's poems. 
 
 Purer and clearer than in the Romantic School was the Christian 
 element in the noble national poets Mar. Arndt and Max. v. Schenken- 
 dorf, who, being led to ftvith in the living God of the Bible by tlie dis- 
 tressed state of the fatherland and the entliusiasm of the war for 
 liberty, sought to sing this same faith witli fresh and inspired notes 
 into the hearts of the German people, ühland's sweet lyric poetry 
 connected itself, through the enthusiasm for national interests of the 
 present with the patriotic poets, and through the longing with which 
 he penetrated into the rich mine of the German past, with the Roman- 
 69
 
 302 SECTION III. FOURTH PERIOD (c E N T. 19 A.D.) 
 
 tists, but excelled them far in clearness and sterling worth. Withoui 
 being or claiming to be a specifically Christian poet, his rich and clear 
 tenderness of heart, nevertheless, made the soil of German national 
 life receptive for the Christian religion. The same is true also of 
 RilcheH's poems, v^^iich transplanted the fragrant flowers of Oriental 
 poesy into the German garden. The Christian conseci-ation of poetic 
 genius appears still more decidedly in the noble and lovely lyi'ic poet 
 Emanuel Geibel, the greatest and most Christian of the secular poets 
 of the present age. — Connected vrith those named was a long series of 
 specifically Christian poets. The most important of these are : Alb 
 Knapp, C. A. Döring, Ph. Spitta, K. B. Garve, J. Frieclr. v. Meyer, 
 J. Pet. Lange, Henry Mowes, Gust. KnacTc, Gust. Jahn, P. F. Engstfeld, 
 Jul. Sturm, Vict. Strauss, H. A. Seidel, Louisa Hensel, and many others, 
 who are worthily collected together in Knapp' s Christoterpe (1833-53). 
 Those named belong to the Evangelical Church. With all the Chris- 
 tian depth, inwardness, freshness, and enthusiasm which they revealed 
 in their sacred poetry, still no one of them was able to elevate himself 
 to the sublime simplicity, power, popularity, and churchly objectivity 
 which characterized the old evangelical hymn; they all, in this regard, 
 bore too much the signature of this age, the subjective temper of its 
 struggles, conflicts, and excitements. Only one poet of modern times, 
 Fred. Rückert, struck the key of the old hymns in one hymn (the advent 
 hymn: "Dein König kommt in niedern Hüllen"). Roman Catholic 
 Germany has no ywet of the first degree, but many of the second ^and 
 third, possessing great religious depth and feeling, ex. gr. B. Clemens 
 Brentano, Ed. v. Schenk, Guido Görres, Melchoir v. Diepenbrock, Fred. 
 Beck, Annette v. Droste-HUlshof, the excellent juvenile and popular poeta 
 Franz v. Pocci, William Smets, etc. The highly praised poet, Oscar v. 
 Redwitz, dug an early grave for his poetic fome by the " Siegelinde," 
 when, by a shallow Roman Catholic drama, " Thomas Morus," he kin 
 died new hope among his ultramontane friends, that they would be 
 able at some time to honor in him a "Roman Catholic" poet of the 
 first. Another son of the Roman Catholic Church, the talented Nicho- 
 las V. Lenav (Niembsch v. Strehlenan), became insane {ob. 1850) 
 through the distracted state of his inner life. He stood once, with his 
 great master-work, " Savonarola," in the stronghold of the evangeli- 
 cal faith. 
 
 In France, Lamartine, soon after the Restoration, manifested a ro 
 mantic. Christian tendency. The poetical sublimity and enthusiastic 
 Spirit of his poems made a deep impression upon the excitable 
 Frenchmen, but it was not lasting. His poetry gradually declined 
 through his subsequent participation in the debates of the Chambers, 
 and his Christian tendency degenerated into a vague cosmopolitanism. 
 For the rest, the French romantic school since the Revolution of July 
 {Vict. Hugo, Balsac, George Sand, Fug. Sue, etc.) continued to assume 
 a more anti-Christian character, and promoted the communistic and
 
 GENERAL BASIS OF CULTURE. 303 
 
 libertine spirit of the ageP— England had a highly gifted and Chris- 
 tianly disposed poet in W. Wordsworth {ob. 1850). In Lord Bi/ron, on 
 the other hand, appeared a poet of the first rank, who experienced in 
 himself, more deeply than any other poet, the great chasm which rnns 
 through the consciousness of our age, and which he has delineated 
 more faithfully in its awful greatness than any other. lie permits the 
 dishariuony of nature and of human life to rush along in powerful 
 and captivating notes. Incurable pain, despair, weariness of life, and 
 misanthropy without hope, even without a desire for reconciliation, 
 glowing enthusiasm for the glory of the past, burning passion for 
 liberty and gigantic defiance of human power, surge through each 
 other in scenes of woe. Whilst in England a ban still rests upon 
 Byron's poems, which banishes them from social and family circles, 
 their influence has only acquired the greater sway on the continent. 
 His colossal spirit, however, also begat here a pigmy race of imitators, 
 who strut so largely in continental literature. 
 
 4. Nalionul Culture. — Whilst the poetical national literature exerted 
 an influence chiefly onlj"^ on the higher and educated classes, an immense 
 num)>er of jjupulur and juvenile works were published, which were de- 
 signed for the lower classes and the youth. But onl}' a few succeeded 
 in striking the true popular and juvenile key, and still fewer is the 
 number of those who ofi'ered the people and the youth that which was 
 beneficial. Pestalozzi' s " Lienhard and Gertrude," Ilebel's '" Sehatz- 
 kastlein," and Zschokke' s "Goldmachendorf," spared at least the Chris- 
 tian consciousness of the people, even though they were not designed 
 to strengthen and nourish it. Berth. Averbach, a Jew, also delineates 
 the Christian life of the people with admirable abnegation of his Spi- 
 nozian unljelief, in his masterly village histories ; although his subse- 
 quent authorship was devoted to democmitic revolutionary movements 
 and pantheistic propagandism. On the other hand, however, modern 
 times have also produced a number of authors as genuinely national 
 as Christian, who, writing and narrating out oj' the spirit of the people, 
 became true apostles of Christian views, manners, and discipline Jbr 
 the people. The most important among these are: Jeremiah Golthelf, 
 (Albert Bitzius, ob. 1854), W. 0. (Will. Oertel) Yon Horn, Carl Stöber, 
 Otto Glaubrecht (llud. Ludw. Oeser), Gvst. Jahn, Aug. Wildcnhahn, 
 Marl/ Naihnsius, Will. Itedensbacher, Karl Wild, et al. In tli^ Ki>inan 
 Catholic Church Albamts Stolz displayed an admirable popular talent 
 (Kalender für Zeit und Ewigkeit, since 1843). Comparatively few of 
 the immense number of /Hre/i(7e tvor/cs correspond with their object and 
 aim. The chief of the authors in this department of Christian narra- 
 tion is G. H. V. Schubert. Next to him are Barth, the author of 
 "armen Heinrich," and Stöber, as also the Roman Catholic Christo- 
 pher Schmidt, the author of "Ostereier." (Cf. A'. Bernhard i,yV eg- 
 weiser durch die deutsclien Volks- und Jugendschriften, Lpz. 1SÖ2, and 
 H. Frbhle. llansblichlcin für das Yolk u. s. Freunde. Lpz. 1852. Bd.
 
 304 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A. D.),; 
 
 I. Einl.) The common schools became, especially through Dinter's [oh 
 1831) successful efforts, nui'suries of the tame, shallow, and self-sufEcieut 
 Rationalism of the ancient regime, whilst they owe especially to Dies 
 terweg's labors during the last thirty years their transformation into 
 propaganda of naturalistic democi-acy. Next to the army of literary 
 Bohemians, the teachers of the common schools of this period labored 
 most successfully in poisoning the German nation. The General 
 Teachers' Convention of Germany formed a centre for this tendency. 
 Not less than 6000 radical teachers were present at the meeting in 
 Vienna, in 1870. At Hamburg, in 1872, where some 5100 teachers 
 were present, individual voices ventured to speak of the Christian 
 character of the common schools, and were answered with hisses. 
 Thereafter no place could be found to entertain the convention. And 
 yet, during the last forty years, both State and Church have made 
 earnest efforts, and not without success, to reorganize the common 
 schools upon a Christian basis. And in 1872, an Evangelical 
 Teachers' Conference was arrayed against radicalism. The Chris- 
 tian spirit has also begun to take a position by the side of reign- 
 ing heathenism in the German gymnasia. At least, religious in- 
 struction in many of the higher institutions of learning has again 
 passed into the hands of Christian teachers ; and only a few have 
 been able to maintain a height of Illumination such as is occupied by 
 the Homburg academical gymnasium, where Niemeyer's " Lehrbuch 
 der Religion" is still the text-book. Nevertheless, but little is accom- 
 plished by religious Christian instruction in these institutions, if the 
 other instructions given do not correspond with it, which, alas ! is too 
 much the case yet. From this jvant arose the Christian gymnasium at 
 Gütersloh (since 1849), and lately (1855) a Lutheran gymnasium at 
 Rogasen in Posen. In the Protestant Church Eyth (Classiker u. Bebel. 
 1838) took up arms against the heathen classics as the basis of culture, 
 but the most influential voices defended them. This question was also 
 largely discussed in the Roman Catholic Church. The Paris Univers 
 (editor, Veuillot) de_^sired, in order to cut off the nourishment of modern 
 heathenism, to substitute the Church Fathers for the classics; the 
 Archbishop Sibour of Paris and several other bishops protested ener- 
 getically against it. The Pope brought the passionate controversy tc 
 an end (1853) by a compromising decree, which takes the side of the 
 Univers, but with great forbearance towards the archbishop. 
 
 5. Art.^* — The general mental agitation which was called forth by 
 the new century also introduced new spirit and life into art. Winckel- 
 mann (ob. 176ft) interpreted heathen classic art, and Romanticism 
 awakened a sense and enthusiasm for mediaeval Christian art. The 
 greatest masters of Architechire were Schinlcel [ob. 1841), Klenze, and 
 Hciddoff. A Protestant king (Frederick William IV.) began the com- 
 pletion of the catjedral at Cologne (1842), and a Protestant architect
 
 GENERAL BASIS OF CULTURE 305 
 
 {Ernst Zwirner) bupcrintended it. — Sculpiurc has three great niarter« 
 to point to, who impressed profound Christian views upon brass and 
 marble. The Italian Cavova [ob. 1822) was the renewer of this art. 
 The German Dannecker (ob. 1841), inspired by him, excelled his mas- 
 ter. His Christ represents the Divine Mediator in a sublime marble 
 statue, as he beheld him in vision; his John embodies the image of 
 the disciple meditating on the mystery of the holy Trinity. But 
 greater than both of these is the Dane Thorumldsen [oh. 1844), who 
 sculptured Christ and his apostles, together with other groups, for the 
 Church of our Lady in Copenhagen. — A new epoch in Painiing also 
 began. In 1810 a number of young German painters met together in 
 Rome, who, enthusiastic for the mediieval ideals of art, formed a Ger- 
 man painter's league, from which proceeded the Romantic school. 
 Overheck, the founder of the league, remained in Rome and went over 
 to the Roman Catholic Church, because he could and would only paint 
 that which he could also worship. The most profound inwardness and 
 tenderness of religious feeling are revealed in all his works ; but his 
 contempt for that which was classic avenged itself in striking defects 
 of form. His friends gradually emancipated themselves from this one- 
 sideilness. Cornelius, the most distinguished of them, left Rome, and 
 in 1819 took the control of the academy at Düsseldorf; in 1825 that 
 of Munich ; and in 1841 went to Berlin. He is the founder of the 
 Mtinich school [Schnorr, Vcith, Kavlbach, etc.), wjiich combines reli- 
 gious inwardness with beautiful and sublime forms, and strives to 
 spiritualize nature to ideal beauty; whilst the Düsseldorf school, under 
 the control of Karl Frederick Lessing, restricted itself to a faithful 
 copying of nature. Lessing's Protestant consciousness expressed itself, 
 in contrast with the ultramontane zeal of his rigidly Roman Catholic 
 art-companions, in his two great master-pieces, " IIuss before the 
 Council" and the "Imprisonment of Pope Paschalis by the Emperor 
 Henry V.," and completed the long-prepai-ed-for rupture of the schools 
 (1842). Between these two German schools stood the Romantic French 
 school, with H. Vernet at its head. — Music also made great progress, 
 through the three great masters in Vienna.^ They devoted their best 
 powers to secular music, but they also treated biblical and churchly 
 subjects with imperishable success. Mozart [ob. 1791) wrote when 
 dying his glorious requeim ; Ilai/dn {ob. 1809) set to music the seven 
 words of Christ on the cross, and produced in his "Creation" a grand 
 work of art, which, however, is almost more an opera than an oratorio. 
 Beethoven (ob. 1827), having lost his hearing, withdrew into the magic 
 world of his imagination, from which proceeded a Ciirist on the Mount 
 of Olives and the second mass, " also a creation, which, however, did 
 not reach the seventh day" (Hase), because tlie lofty spirit of tiie mas- 
 ter was not the spirit of the church. The Berlin singing academy 
 under the control of Mendelssohn-Bartholdy (a nephew of t!)e well 
 Vnown Jewish popular philosopher), has gained great credit in re 
 69*
 
 306 SECTION III. FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A. D ) 
 
 awakening the taste for the old churchly art music, by again perform 
 ing the oratorios of Handel, Bach, etc. — an example which has been 
 extensively imitated in other parts of Germany. Mendelssohn's own 
 oratorios " Paulus" and " Elias," in which he permits the simple word 
 of God to rule in its power and truth, as also his psalms, are the most 
 glorious productions which have appeared in this department in modern 
 times. lie was removed by an early death (1847), before he was able 
 to translate his ideal Christ into notes.^* 
 
 II. PROTESTANTISM, 
 
 Cf. /. Cr. Jörg, Gesch. d. Protestantism, in sr. neuesten Entwickel. 
 2 Bde. Regensb. 1858. 
 
 I 54. THE PROTESTANT CHURCH IN GENERAL, ESPE- 
 CIALLY IN GERMANY. 
 
 The betijinning of this century found Rationalism in its fullest 
 bloom and dominion. But a new spirit began to stir already in 
 philosophy and national literature, and the heart and mind of 
 the noblest of the German nation became again receptive for the 
 faith of the fathers, through the enthusiasm of the wars of liberty. 
 A strong and energetic Pietism, which also was not deficietit in 
 martyr-joyfulness, entered the arena and fought Rationalism to 
 the death, although appearing to yield in the single combats. 
 The year 1830, with the Hallean controversy, constitutes a turn- 
 ing-point. From this time Rationalism began to decline ; it was 
 compelled to withdraw from the high places of science and cul- 
 ture, and to try its chances in the agitation of the popular masses. 
 Meanwhile a new factor of churchly development had appeared 
 in the Union. A division in the camp of Pietism was produced 
 amid the actions and reactions of the agitation occasioned by it. 
 On the one side Pietism rose to Confessionalismj, and contended 
 as such as decidedly and as powerfully for the palladium of what 
 was specifically churchly, as it had formerly for the treasure of 
 the general Christian confession. On the other side, it entered 
 most heartily into the Union, and glorified in \i the most blessed 
 acquisition of the century. All theological tendencies flowed 
 together gradually into these two antitheses, and the present
 
 THE PROTESTANT CHURCH IN GENERAL. 307 
 
 finds itself in the midst of a yet undecided conflict of the one 
 against the other, which is carried on both in the sphere of 
 science and of practical life with spiritual and carnal weapons. 
 
 1. Protestant Rationalism preserved itself with its peculiar self- 
 sufficiency and unimprovableness also through the religious elevation 
 ■which the mental life of the nations reached since the wars for free- 
 dom. Innumerable preachers and teachers in common and higher 
 schools still adhered to it, and subsequent to 1830 it was also still 
 represented in many theological professors' chairs. In the Stun- 
 den der Andacht, by Zaclutlcke, further in Tiedge's Urania, and en- 
 tirely caricatured in Witschel's Morgen und Abendopfern, etc., ap- 
 peared a sentimental Rationalism, which, even though it became a 
 bridge for many to true Christianity, nevertheless inflicted incalculable 
 injury upon the religious development of the German nation, inasmuch 
 as it drew the religious want, caused by the wars for freedom, away 
 from its true spiritual nourishment. — Nevertheless, Rationalism lost 
 respect and influence more and more, especially among the higher 
 educated classes. Schelling's natural philosophy and Hegel's philo- 
 sophy of conception, Romanticism and cosmopolitan literature, in 
 which the spirit of modern times continually advanced forward in the 
 most heterogeneous way, were equally opposed to it. It had to draw 
 in its sails before Schleiermacher's theological science, and the then 
 generalissimo and Patriarch of Rationalism, Röhr of Weimar, found 
 in his own diocese in the person of Hase of Jena a not less pietistic 
 than orthodox opponent, whose crushing polemics struck him (1834) 
 as once Lessing's struck the chief pastor Giitze. Claus Harms [ob. 
 1855) on the part of the church, opened the contest against the apos- 
 tacy from the faith of the fathers on the occasion of the Reformation- 
 jubilee (1817), with 95 new theses, which contrast Luther's almost 
 forgotten doctrine with the unchurchly spirit of the age ; and Atig. Hahn 
 (1827) defended in an academical disputaticm at Loipsic the position, 
 that the Rationalists ought to be dismiijsed from the church. Since 
 1827 the "Evangelische Kirchenzeitung," by Hengstenberg of Berlin, 
 began an opposition as fearless as energetic against Rationalism in all 
 its forms. It created the greatest excitement by publishing an anony- 
 mous article (by the jurist E. L. v. Gerlach), which openly charged 
 the professors Gesenius and Wegscheider of Halle with infidelity, even 
 with the scoffing of what was holy, and advocated the interposition of 
 the civil power (1830). But although the ex-minister Stein (to Gagern) 
 expressed the hope that the state would not hesitate to place a dozen 
 Rationalists extra statum nocendi, still the government only was con- 
 cerned al)out silencing the controversy that had arisen, wdthout ex- 
 amining the charges of the complainant. Pietism also vigorously 
 opposed Rationalism in almost all the other German Protestant coun- 
 tries, and provoked many lively controversies. The scientific theolo
 
 308 SECTION III. FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A. D.) 
 
 gians disavowed it; the philosophers despised and ridiculed it; it even 
 came so far, that men of scientific culture regarded it as an insult tc 
 be reckoned among the Rationalists. It was already believed that the 
 time had come to perform its obsequies, — but it was too soon. Its 
 power at this time lay in the masses of the people, who had been 
 trained in unbelief, and it oifered this to them. When the preacher 
 Sintenis of Magdeburg declared in a newspaper that the worship of 
 Christ was blasphemous superstition (1840), and the consistory insti- 
 tuted proceedings against him, the neighboring preachers Uhlich und 
 König organized a union of so-called Friends of Light, which soon 
 called thousands of laymen and clergymen to a public meeting at 
 Kuthen. In such a meeting (1844), Wislicenus of Halle destroyed the 
 self-deception of Rationalism, that it still occupied the ground of Scrip- 
 tures and the Church, by the question whether the Scriptures or the 
 Spirit was to be the norm of faith. Guericke, who was present as 
 " Church historian," made a note of it, and the evang. Kircheuzeitung 
 contained numberless protests and excommunications. The left wing 
 of Schleiermacher's school took offence at this, and issued, Aug. 15, 
 1846, from Beidin, a declai'ation with 88 signatures against the paper 
 pope of the antiquated reformation confession and the inquisitorial 
 conduct of the " Kirchenzeitung's" party, which disregarded ail free- 
 dom of faith and of conscience, wishing to hold fast only to one thing 
 — that Jesus Christ, the same yesterday, to-day and forever, was the 
 only ground of our salvation. The popular wit of Berlin called them 
 fri&nds of twiligld ov bats, because they neither wished to be friends 
 of light nor of darkness; and the aged Claus Harms, " Einer gegen 
 Achtundachtzig," attacked them with the bold defiance of a youth, 
 and with the self-consciousness of an aged confessor, who labored and 
 suffered more than they all, in crushing philippics. The friends of 
 light, however, fraternizing with the German Catholics and Young- 
 Hegelians, founded free congregations at Halle ( Wislicenus), Königs- 
 burg [Rvpp), Magdeburg [Uhlich) and at many other places. Saxony 
 prohibited the assemblies already in 1845, as directed against churchly 
 confession ; — Prussia at least forbade the participation of the laity in 
 the same ; but by an edict of toleratiim (1847) guaranteed tolerance 
 and free exercise of religion to their congregations. The religious 
 emptiness of their assemblies and sermons filled the revolutionary 
 movement of 1848 with politico-democratic agitation. This furnished 
 the State with the welcome occasion to place them under strict police 
 control, and to dissolve them one after the other. 
 
 2. Pietism did not entirely die out even during the years of spiritual 
 famine, but, being purged of many eccentricities, found a refuge and 
 nourishment chiefly in connection with the Moravians. It also devel- 
 oped itself in Wiirtemberg in an independent and peculiarly theoso- 
 phical, cbiliastic way (to which was added later a species of ghost- 
 feeing with all kinds of revelations from Hades, practised especially
 
 THE PROTESTANT CHURCH IN GENERAL. 305 
 
 by Justimis Kerne?-). It was also strengthened to make a more decided 
 impression by the religious agitations of the new century. In contrast 
 with the clergy, who had almost entirely fallen under the baneful in- 
 fluence of Rationalism, it laid hold of the religious kernel of the na- 
 tional life, and as the weak rationalistic moral sermons could not 
 satisfy its religious wants, it sought to do this by conventicles and 
 meetings, which were led by gifted men, mostl}- mechanics, but well 
 read in the Bible and ascetic works. As Pietism did not shun martyr- 
 dom of any kind, neither the ridicule and abuse of the infidel masses, 
 nor the hatred of rationalistic pastors, nor yet the interposition of the 
 civil power, were able to retard its progress. It also gradually pene- 
 trated the younger generation of the clergy, and even theologians at 
 the universities. The energetic vigor of modern Pietism is manifested 
 in its great labors for missions, foreign as well as home, in which it 
 accomplished the most extraordinary results with the fewest means. 
 A fresh and hearty religious poetry was again produced by it ; the old 
 choice hymns of the evangelical church were again used, and the 
 ascetic treasures of the churchly past were again rescued from the 
 dust. This modern Pietism was evangelical and Protestant from the 
 beginning. As it did not, like the Pietism of the previous century, 
 start from the antithesis against dead churchliness and orthodoxy, but 
 rather from the antithesis against unchurchliness and Rationalism, it 
 consequently was also distinguished from it advantageously by a more 
 decided tendency towards what was generally churchly, — although the 
 proper characteristics of Pietism, overrating the invisible above the 
 visible church, sanctification above justification, the pain of repentance 
 above the joy of faith, inclination towards Chiliasm, indifference to- 
 wards the ciiurchly apprehension of doctrines, etc., belonged more or 
 loss to it. But as the Pietism of the previous century indicated in its 
 degeneracy the transition to Rationalism, so did that of the present in 
 its elevation form the transition to the revival of churchly conscious- 
 ness and life. — Of some significance for the revival of religious life in 
 several sections of Germany, but especially in SAvitzerland, were the 
 missionary labors of Lady von Krüdcner (by birth Baroness Vieting- 
 hofi" of Riga, 1706). This lady, after " having been brought up in the 
 dwellings of vanity," and wasting many years in a worldly life, but 
 then "humbled by her sins and errors," was seized by a glowing, 
 fanatical love for the Saviour. She now (since 1814) travelled through 
 the greatest portion of Europe, preached repentance, proclaimed sal- 
 vation and condemnation, carried the consolation of the Gospel to the 
 criminals in the prisons, preached the foolishness of the cross to the 
 wise of this world, to kings and princes the majesty of Christ as the 
 King of kings. Wherever she went, she disturbed secure sinners, 
 melted the stony hearts of the hardened to tears of repentance, at- 
 tracted great crowds of spiritually miserable ones of all kinds and of 
 all classes, etc. By some she was honored as an elect saint, as a pre
 
 310 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A.D.} 
 
 phetess and a performer of miracles ; by others she was ridiculed as a 
 fool, and persecuted as a dangerous fanatic or deceiver. Banished 
 from country to country, she finally died (1824) in the Crimea.*® 
 
 3.- The Protestant Union. (Cf. /. G. Scheibel, actenmäsz. Gesch. d. 
 neuest. Union. Lpz. 1834, 2Bde. — ^. G. Binlelbach, Ref., Lutherth. 
 u. Union. Lpz. 1839. — 0. Krabbe, d. ev. Landeskirche Preuszens. 
 Berl. 1849. — C. W. Hering, Ge.sch. d. kirchl. Unionsversuche. Lpz. 
 1836-38, 2 Bde.) — Since Prussia became one of the great powers 
 of Europe, it became the centre of intelligence and the champion of 
 Protestantism. This position, not less than the opposition to the 
 Reformed confession among by far the greater portion of the popula- 
 tion, made it highly desirable on the part of the Prussion government 
 to bring to pass a union of both Protestant Churches. The circum- 
 stances were very favorable to it ; the Lutheran separate consciousness 
 had almost entirely vanished both in science and in practical life ; 
 Lutheran Supranaturalism had formally passed over into Reformed 
 apprehension of principles, and willingly abandoned Luther's doctrine 
 concerning the Lord's Supper ; Calvinism had sunk into Zwinglianism, 
 and rejoiced to see the doctrine of predestination set aside; Rationalism 
 hoped that the peculiar and characteristic doctrines of Christianity 
 would fall with those of Lutheranism, and Pietism with its enthusiasm 
 and its indiflPerence towards the theology of the creeds willingly gave its 
 consent. Thus Frederick William III.'s summons (at the jubilee of the 
 Reformation, 1817) to a Lutheran-Calvinistic Union in behalf of a re- 
 generation of the Protestant Church, met with much sympathy. *The 
 introduction of a new liturgy (1822), in the formation of which the 
 pious king himself participated, awakened, it is true, manifold oppo- 
 sition ; its forms were considered too churchly, even Romanizing. A 
 second edition of it (1829) conciliated by a large selection of its formu- 
 laries, and soon the liturgy had the authority of a law, and the Union 
 was a fait accompli. Under a common church government and a com- 
 mon liturgy there existed now in Prussia an evangelical national 
 church with three sections, — a Lutheran and a Reformed, which held 
 fast to their characteristic doctrines, but did not wish to regard them 
 as separative, — and a real united section, which entirely abandoned the 
 characteristic doctrines. But since these three sections did not remain 
 separated, their commingling being rather designedly promoted, — since 
 besides, Indifferentism, Rationalism, and infidelity, boasted of the 
 Union as being a practical indilFerentizing, even abolition of the con- 
 fessions of faith, — since finally the continually increasing churchly 
 consciousness opposed the Union more and more decidedly, the confu- 
 sion in the Prussian united church became greater every year. The 
 attempt to give it a firm basis in a confession of faith and in a consti- 
 tution by a general synod, failed entirely, and only increased the 
 difiiculties (cf. ^ 55, 1). The largest ecclesiastical conferences, of 
 which that of Gnadauer was the most important, also attempted in
 
 THE PROTESTANT CHURCH IN GENERAL. 31 i 
 
 Tain to overcome and to remove the evil from within.— Prussia's exam< 
 pie in the union of both churches was at once followed in Baden, 
 Nassau, Rhenish Bavaria, Anhalt, Hesse, etc., and also provoked 
 here similar evils and conflicts. (Cf. § 55.) 
 
 4. Lutheran Opposition to the union. — The Prussian union expressly 
 declared that it did not wish a change from one church to the other, 
 but only a union in brotherly love upon the basis of a common faith. 
 But it declared practically that the characteristic doctrines were non- 
 essential, and thereby placed itself upon the stand-point of the Re- 
 formed Church, which at all times desired and strove after the union 
 on this condition. Thus it was easily intelligible that, if it should 
 meet with opposition from any particular church, it was not to be ex- 
 pected from the Reformed, but rather from the Lutheran. This was 
 the case also. The contest for the continuance of ancient Luther- 
 anism proceeded from Breslau, where Dr. ScJieibel was dismissed from 
 his offices as preacher and professor (1832) for his opposition [ob. in 
 exile, 1843). H. Steffens also, who again attained to the consciousness 
 of his native noi-thern Lutheranism through friendly and confidential 
 intercourse with Scheibel, connected himself with the reaction ("Wie 
 ich wieder Lutheraner wurde," 1831). Outside of Breslau also Schei- 
 bel's example was imitated, especially in Silesia. The remonstrant 
 clergy were punished with deposition, and, if they continued their 
 opposition, with imprisonment, and the congregations were threatened 
 Trith sharp police measures. In the village of Hönigern, under the 
 preacher Kdlner, the church was even opened for the use of the liturgy 
 against the passive resistance of the congregation, by military foreo 
 (1834). The suspended clergy held a synod at Breslau in 1835, and 
 resolved to use every lawful means to save the Lutheran Church. The 
 police measures were, on this account, made more severe against the 
 resistant«, and a large number of Lutherans emigrated to Australia 
 and North America. Guericke of Halle, who, having been secretly 
 ordained as a minister, served a small congregation of Lutherans in 
 his house, was, after manifold police punishments, dismissed from his 
 professorship (1835), and was only restored (1840) after making some 
 concessions. Since 1838 the coercive measures have been generally 
 modified. Frederick William IV. released the arrested clergy from 
 prison (1840), and in 1841 a Lutheran Church entirely independent of 
 the established church Avas formed at Breslau by a General Synod, 
 which received a general concession in 1845 through royal favor. It 
 was governed by a church college residing in Breslau, of which the 
 excellent jurist Iluschke was president. Meanwhile, the Lutheran 
 consciousness was awakened also in many other congregations (espe- 
 cially in Pomerania, etc.), which, however, were still kept in the esta- 
 blished church by ready concessions in regard to worship and the 
 liturgy. Nevertheless, the Lutheran protestations and secessions of 
 singl-i clergymen (often with a large portion of their congregations)
 
 312 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (C E N T. 19 A.D.) 
 
 multiplied, the latter connecting with the church college of Breslau. 
 These were designated as "the churchly constituted Lutherans in 
 Prussia," in distinction from those Lutherans who remained in the 
 united established church. In the other German countries also, where 
 the Union had been accomplished, especially in Baden, Nassau, Rhe- 
 uish Bavaria, the Lutheran consciousness has been awakened here and 
 there within the last few years, and is striving after emancipation from 
 the embrace of the union police of the established churches. (Cf.|55.) 
 
 5. Protestant Confederation. — The Union endeavored to unite, 
 strengthen, and rejuvenate the Protestant Church by fusion. But 
 almost the very opposite was the result. Another way to preserve the 
 collective interests of Protestantism, was that of the Confedei'ation, by 
 which the peculiarity and independence of the confessions could be 
 protected, and their common interests be represented with united 
 strength. This way has been largely followed in modern times. The 
 Gusiave-Adolphus Union, occasioned by the bi-centennial anniversary 
 of the Swedish saviour of the Protestant Church (1832), was formed 
 Oct. 31, 1841, to aid feeble Protestant churches, especially in Roman 
 Catholic countries. All the German States, except Bavaria and Aus- 
 tria, took part in it. The want of a positive creed on the part of the 
 Union, which had a bond of union only in the negation of Roman 
 Catholicism, aroused sUvSpicion from the start in the minds of many 
 churchly persons. But it was just this want of a positive creed which 
 secured for it the sympathies of the masses. The infidel, demagogic 
 element soon gained the ascendency. It is true, a general convention 
 of the Union at Berlin (Sept., 1846) was yet able to exclude the Kö- 
 nigsberg delegate Rupp, because he with his congregation had aposta- 
 tized from the Protestant principle ; but numberless protestations from 
 branch unions opposed this act in the most decided terms. Those of a 
 churchly spirit now went out of the Union, and in 1847 made the 
 attempt to form a separate churchly one (Berlin, Königsberg). The 
 whole movement fell into stagnation amid the complications of the 
 revolution of 1848 ; nevertheless in 1849 another general convention 
 (the seventh) was held at Breslau, at which an important decrease of 
 co-operation and of income, but also of unchurchly infidel agitation, 
 was revealed. Since that time, however, the Union has again greatly 
 increased under the superintendence of the prelate K. Zimmermann 
 of Darmstadt. Its income has increased from year to year. In 1853 
 it was $67.244; in the following year $77,218; and in 1858 it was 
 $107,666. The Union, possessing such large means, under careful and 
 well-considered management, has already accomplished great and 
 praiseworthy results ; and it will accomplish still more in the future 
 with increasing co-operation and support. Nevertheless, the rigid 
 Lutherans still refuse to have anything to do with it, from confessional 
 interests; and a specifically Lutheran miniature union has been formed 
 At Leipsic under the name of Gotteskasten, which seeks to supplement
 
 THE PROTESTANT CHURCH IN GENERAL. 313 
 
 the Gust. Ad. Union in so far as it proposes chiefly to aiä where the 
 latter cannot from fundamental antipathies (ex. gr. the independent 
 Lutherans of Prussia). (Cf. K. Zimmermann, d. Gust.-Ad.-Ver. 4. A. 
 Darmst. 1858.) 
 
 An attempt to form a still grander and more comprehensive Confe- 
 deration of all Protestant churches and sects of all countries, chiefly 
 to oppose the progress of the Papacy and of Puseyism, and generally 
 all high-church movements, was made by Dr. Chalmers (cf. §55, 8) in 
 England. After several preliminary meetings, the first great one of 
 the Evangelical Alliance, composed of delegates from all lands, was 
 held in London in August, 1846. The object of the Alliance was to 
 unite more closely all evangelical Christians on the basis of the great 
 common doctrines of salvation ; to defend and extend this common 
 basis of faith with united powers, especially as against the Papacy; 
 and to contend for the freedom of conscience and the religious tolera- 
 tion of all churches and sects, excepting the Papacy. Faith in the 
 inspirati<m of the Scriptures, the Trinity, original sin, the divinity of 
 Christ, justification by faith alone, the obligation of both the sacra- 
 ments, the resurrection of the body, the final judgment, the eternal 
 blessedness of the righteous and the eternal misery of the wicked, was 
 made to be the condition of membership of the Alliance: accordingly, 
 the Baptists were included but the Quakers excluded. In 1855 the 
 Alliance combined its ninth annual meeting with the great industrial 
 exhibition at Paris, and took the form of a church exhibition; inas- 
 much as the representatives of the single national churches endeavored 
 to present to those present a view cf the ecclesiastical condition of the 
 churches. The tenth meeting was held at Berlin in 1857. The com- 
 mittee of the Alliance, with Sir Culling Bardlet/ at its head, made 
 every effort to make this meeting the largest and most brilliant. A 
 deputation presented an address to the King of Prussia, in which it 
 was openly declared that the Alliance not only waged war against the 
 Sadducaism, but also against the Pharisaism in the German evangeli- 
 cal church. The confessional Li/theran« wno from the first opposed the 
 principle and tendency of the Alliance, believed that the latter clause 
 of this declaration was a declaration of war against them. The king, 
 hoAvever, received the deputation most graciously ; and soon expressed 
 his displeasure concerning the suspicions about the Alliance in a decree, 
 in which he at the same time declared that he connected the highest 
 hopes for the future of the Church with its efforts, and beheld in it a 
 sign of Christian fraternal feeling such as had never yet been realized. 
 Although many distinguished representatives of confessional Lutlieran- 
 ism had also been specially and personally invited to take part in this 
 meeting, not one of them was present. Likewise, the men of the 
 Protest. Kirchenzeitung (cf. §50, 5) excluded themselves from partici- 
 pating in it, because the nine articles were too orthodox for them. On 
 the other hand, representatives of Pietism, Unionism, and Melancb 
 10
 
 314 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A.D.) 
 
 thonianism, as also of Methodism, Moravianism, and the Baptists, from 
 all parts of the world, were present in large numbers, and constituted 
 the heads of the ecclesiastical and political liberals. After a great deal 
 had been said about the unity and diversity of the children of God ; 
 about the universal priesthood ; about the superiority of the present 
 meeting to the oecumenical councils of the early church ; about the 
 want of spiritual life in the churches, in spite of the return of theology 
 to the churchly confessions, etc., with laudation of the efforts of the 
 Alliance and indirect thrusts at half Roman Catholic Lutheranism and 
 its deification of the sacraments and the ministry, whereby the theo- 
 logy uf rhetoric was able to expatiate, — in addition also to many excel- 
 lent and appropriate words (ex. gr. by Nitsch, Merle d'Aubigne, et al.), 
 the ominous kiss with which Merle d'Auhigii^, although resisting, 
 greeted Ghe-vaYieT Btinsen, or rather the excited feeling with which Lie. 
 Krununacher made a report concerning it to the meeting, introduced a 
 harsh discord into the concert. Court-preacher ßeyscMag, besides, 
 combated the churchly doctrine of inspiration, with the acknowledg- 
 ment of which, however, the nine articles connected the privilege of 
 membership; and Prof. SchloUmann proposed rather to cast aside the 
 whole of the nine articles, as to the present form of which, at all 
 events, only the least number of those present were agreed. The gra- 
 cious royal teception of the members of the Alliance, at which Lie. 
 Krummacher gave expression to his overflowing feelings in the words : 
 " Your majesty, we all ought not to fall at your feet, but upon your 
 neck!" was glorified by his brother, Dr. F. W. Krummacher, as a sug- 
 gestive prelude of the great scene of greeting at the day of judgment. 
 Bir Culliny decreed: "There is no longer a German Ocean!" Lord 
 Shafteshimj announced in London that a new epoch in the world's 
 history had begun with the meeting at Berlin ; and others returning 
 home spoke of it as a second Whitsuntide. Dr. Krummacher, however, 
 exclaimed prophetically, at the beginning of the meeting, in his address 
 of welcome: "0 heart-stirring mirage!" Since then the German 
 branch of the Alliance in Berlin has established in its service a "■Neue 
 evangelische Kirchenzeitung" (1859), of which Hengstenberg has 
 complained as an unwarrantable theft of title. 
 
 A kindred institution is the Evangelical Church Diet in Germany. 
 When in 1848 the State was compelled to abandon its Christian charac- 
 ter and the sovereign episcopacy of the Protestant princes was called 
 into question by the revolution in Germany, a number of the most dis- 
 tino-uished churchly-minded theologians, clergymen, and laymen, met 
 too-ether in September, 1848, in the first church diet at Wittenberg, to 
 form an Evangelical Church Alliance for Germany, which had for its 
 object the support and independent organization of the evangelical 
 churches in an orderly and legal way, not by means of a union which 
 obliterated all confessional differences, but by means of a churchly 
 tonfederation. The Lutheran, Reformed, United, and Moravian Churchea
 
 THE PROTESTANT CHURCH IN GENERAL. 315 
 
 were first of all embraced within it. The second general church diet 
 was again held at Witten]>erg in September, 1849. The strict Lutherans 
 for the most part had withdrawn ; the churchly Lutherans of Silesia 
 were not at all repi-esented. The Lutheran conference, which had 
 been held a short time before at Leipsic under the presidency of Har- 
 less, declared expressly that the Wittenberg confederation of churches 
 of different confessions was impracticable and irreconcilable with the 
 principles of the Lutheran Church. The formation of a church alli- 
 ance, such as was originally contemplated, has been entirely abandoned 
 by the church diet, since the political reaction has also restored the 
 ecclesiastical power of the princes. It has since then held its annual 
 meetings in the chief German cities in turn, and has succeeded in pre- 
 serving a tolerably active co-operation. The presidency has been re- 
 gularly conferred on the jurist Betlimann-Hollweg. Vital church 
 questions and the means by which to revive a churchly feeling and 
 life have been thoroughly discussed by it. Such discussions have, doubt- 
 less, exerted a wholesome influence on many who were present ; but 
 the attempts to influence, by deputations and letters to evangelical and 
 Roman Catholic pi-inces, the principles of government in States having 
 established churches, have been for the most part coolly or ironi- 
 cally frustrated. At the church diet at Berlin (1853) the propcäition 
 was made, openly to declare that the Augustana of 1530 was the oldest 
 and simplest common record of publicly acknowledged evangelical 
 doctrines in Germany, — without prejudice, however, to the Reformed 
 interpretation of the tenth article, — and that it was still the common 
 creed of all present. After some opposition and necessary protestation, 
 even the Reformed present agreed ; but not only the Schleienuacherans 
 of the left wing protested against this demonstration, which they re- 
 garded as hostile to the Union, but also " some teachers of theology 
 and canon law" of the universities of Erlangen, Leipsic, and Rostock, 
 entered publicly a protest in the name of the Lutheran Church against 
 this sham confession of the church diet as being an offence against the 
 treasure of the evangelical church and an undermining of its legal 
 status. At Siutgart (1857) there were violent debates concerning 
 heathen missions and evangelical catholicity, between those represen- 
 tatives of confessional Lutheranism, who till now had remained faith- 
 ful to the Diet, and the Unionist majority. Hamburg received the 
 church diet of 1858 very unwillingly into its midst. Hamburg news- 
 papers opposed it with such effect, that the police regarded it as ne- 
 cessary to adopt extraordinary measures to prevent street-scandals. 
 The transactions were of less importance than ever before. Stahl and 
 Hengstenherg were brilliant for the first time by their absence. Beth- 
 mann-Hollweg, then already designated for the ministry of Prussia, 
 also presided probably for the last time over the church diet in Ham- 
 burg. 
 
 The Protestant governments of Germany, following the exan.ple of
 
 816 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A.D.) 
 
 Prussia and Wlirtemberg, also seized the idea of confederative unity. 
 Already in 1846 a so-called Evangelical Conference met at Berlin, at 
 which most of the governments were represented. It endeavored in 
 vain to establish a common basis of doctrines, and w aS' sunk into obli- 
 vion by the events of following years. But in 1852 the project waa 
 again agitated and carried through with great perseverance. The 
 Eisenach Conference met at first annually, then every two years 
 (1852-53-55 ....), to confer officially concerning the manner in which 
 the German Protestant governments acted with regard to questions of 
 worship, government, and discipline. It established an official organ 
 for publishing all German church-boards ("Allg. Kirchenblatt f. d. ev. 
 Dtschl. herausg. v. C. G. Moser, Stuttg. 1852, fif.), and accomplished 
 much important preparatory labor, but it has also had its difficulties 
 to contend with. (Of. below, | 8.) 
 
 6. Lntheranism. — The organization of those Prussian Lutherans, 
 who had separated from the established church into the church college 
 in Breslau, was at first also disapproved of by otherwise rigidly churchly 
 Lutherans in and beyond Prussia, in so far as by them (in opposition 
 to the principle of the Lutheran Church) great importance seemed to 
 be attached to the form of church government and to institutions such 
 as could only belong to the confession. It is true, that during the first 
 period of conflict and sifting, here and there phenomena may have 
 appeared, Avhich approached near to Donatism and Novatianism. 
 These, however, were more and more overcome and removed in the 
 course of progress, and with them the disinclination from that quarter 
 was gradually removed. Since the persecutions and oppressions to 
 which they were subjected have been brought to an end, their church 
 affairs have assumed a more decided and prosperous form. And even 
 though Guericke thought it necessary to separate from them on account 
 of supposed violence done to his conscience to preserve his theological 
 freedom, still foreign Lutherans (in Bavaria and Saxony, etc.) had no 
 hesitation in maintaining fraternal fellowship with them. Their com- 
 munion embraces about 40,000 to 50,000 souls, who are ministered to 
 by 40 preachers under seven superintendents. 
 
 As the revolution of 1848 undermined the form which the Prussian' 
 established church had hitherto assumed, and had made its continuance 
 more than doubtful, the Lutherans who had remained within the 
 established church also took fresh hope, that through the new organi- 
 zation of church government they would also be able to again assert 
 the rights of the Lutheran Church of their country. To accomplish 
 this end, Lvtheran provincial Unions were formed in Silesia, Posen, 
 Pomerania, Saxony, etc. ; and on the evening preceding the second 
 "Wittenberg church diet, they, through their deputies, formed them- 
 Belves into a Collective Union, under the presidency of Goschel. In a 
 pviblic proclamation to the Lutheran congregations, t declared that it 
 desired earnestly and zealously to agitate the restoi.ition of the Pru»
 
 THE PROTESTANT CHURcH IN GENERAL. 317 
 
 Bian Lutheran Church to all its well-earned and legally guaranteed 
 rights, and to insist upon the preservation or renewal of Lutheran 
 confession, worship, and church government, together witli Lutheran 
 congregational order, but to disapprove of secession from the esta- 
 blished church, because it involved a voluntary and premature aban- 
 donment of rights. AVith the full knowledge and the unconcealed 
 Btatemont of this separatistic tendency the Union then became a mem- 
 ber of the general church diet, from which, however, its adherents 
 have since then gradually withdrawn. 
 
 Among the Lutheran established churches, which would have no- 
 thing to do with the Union, are especially those of Bavaria, Saxony, 
 and Mecklenburg; and Hanover also in part, where Lutheran ism has 
 most strongly developed itself. To them may be added yet the church 
 of Livonia, which, though externally isolated, is nevertheless rooted 
 with all the fibres of its being in the Lutheran Church, in which also 
 within a decade a synodal life has unfolded itself, which many a foreign 
 established church on closer acquaintance with it might envy. — The 
 Lutheran Conference at Leipsic, first brought about by Rudelbach, was 
 also of significance for the awakening and vivifying of Lutheran 
 churchly consciousness. The thesis maintained by Lohe, Delitzsch, 
 and Kahnis, that adhesion to the Lutheran symbols unconditionally 
 excluded fi'om partaking of the Lord's vSupper with the Reformed as 
 such, gave great offence to the Unionists and Reformed. Nevertheless, 
 others, ex. gr. Höfling and Thomasius, have expressed more moderate 
 views on this subject. A wide difTerence has arisen among German 
 Lutherans about the spiritual office, which the one party [Lohe, KKe- 
 foth, Krabbe, Petii, Münchmeyer, Vilmar, etc.) regard as an institution 
 of direct divine appointment, although without any Romanizing or 
 Anglicanizing succession tendency; the other [Höfling, Philippi, Hof- 
 mann, Harnack, Thomasius, Huschke, Harless, Kahnis, etc.) only as 
 being conditioned by the word and sacraments, necessary to their pro- 
 per administration, and rooted in the spiritual priesthood. The Con- 
 ference of JReichenbach, to which the most important theologians of 
 both theories assembled in order to come to an understanding about 
 . this difference (1856), was only perfectly unanimous in the negation 
 of the Catholic doctrine and Romanizing one-sidedness. Great offence 
 was occasioned by the meeting of Lutheran friends at Rothenmoor in 
 Mecklenburg (1858), where, in discussing the passage: "A man that 
 is a heretic, reject," remarks such as this were made, a true Lutheran 
 could not pray with a Reformed ; but they were also deservedly repelled 
 and repudiated (especially by Prof. Dieckhof of Gottingen). Still the 
 responsibility of that remark is to be measured hereby, that the treats 
 ment of this subject was only incidental, and the remark itself was 
 only applicable to those cases where fellowship in prayer could be re- 
 garded as being at the same time fellowship in faith ; and, uttered in 
 70*
 
 318 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (c E N T. 1 9 A.D.). 
 
 the private circle of friends, it had been made public thruugh unfore 
 seen abuse of confidence. 
 
 7. Melanchthonianism and Calvinism. — This intensification of the 
 Lutheran consciousness within and without the Union also aroused here 
 and there the Reformed consciousness, to strengthen which Ebrard 
 established in 1851 the " Reformirte Kirchenzeitung." He conducted 
 it for several years, when, having been placed at the head of a Union 
 established church (Rhenish Bavaria) by changed official position, he 
 transferred it to Charles Go^el of Erlangen. The Reformed Church 
 of Germany occupied from the beginning a middle position between 
 Lutheranism and Calvinism, which certainly was closely related to 
 later Melanchthonianism. Such a diluted Calvinism is also the banner 
 of this Kirchenzeitung, Ebrai'd even undertakes to prove that the 
 rigid doctrine of predestination is only a spoi-adic extreme of the Re- 
 formed system of doctrines, against which Al. Schweizer, from purely 
 scientific interest (" Reformirte Dogmatik ; " " Die protest. Centraldog- 
 men in ihrer Entwickel. in d. ref. K."), has shown, that the doctrine 
 of predestination is rather the all-ruling, all-conditioning soul of the 
 same, and that its admirable power, fulness, depth, and consistency, 
 is directly grounded in it. But Heppe of Marburg went even fur- 
 ther tlian Ehrard by the discovery of a 3felancthoniau church {" Die 
 confessionelle Entwickel. d. altprot. K. Deutschlands," 1854). Hero 
 we learn that synergistic, and, on the doctrine of the Lord's Supper, 
 Calviuistic Melanchthonianism (which only appeared since L540 !), con- 
 stituted the original evangelical, Protestant church of Germany ; that 
 only after Luther's death, fanatics, who would be more Lutheran than 
 Luther himself, established the so-called Lutheran Church, and per- 
 fected it by the formula of Concord ; that the Calvinizing of the Pala- 
 tinate, Ilessia, Brandenburg, and Anhalt, was only a reaction against 
 hyper- and pseudo-Lutheranism, a restoration of the original Melanch 
 thonian church, and the modern Consensus-Union was only the com 
 pletion of this Restitution, (Cf. § 21, 1.) 
 
 But genuine and rigid Calvinism had also, in this century, its zeal- 
 ous adherents, not only in Scotland and the Netherlands "(^ 55), but 
 also in Germany, especially in Wupperthal. The excellent Goitfr. 
 Dan. Krummacher, since 1816 preacher in Elberfeld [ob. 18.37), and for 
 a time his nephew i^re^Z, W. Kruminacher in Barmen (then Unionist 
 court-preacher at Potsdam), were here its enthusiastic apostles. "When 
 in 1835 the Prussian government made every preparation to force the 
 introduction of the Union also in Wupperthal, and threatened the re- 
 sistant Reformed preachers with deposition, there arose an excitement 
 here among the Reformed scarcely less violent than that among the 
 Lutherans in Silesia, The clergy, with the majority of their church- 
 members, finally accepted the liturgy of the Union, adding the clause, 
 however, so far as it agreed with the nature of the Reformed ritual. 
 But a portion of the congregations, and of them many of their most
 
 THE PROTESTANT CHURCH IN GENERAL. 319 
 
 excellent members, separated, and persistently rejected all oveiturea 
 of reunion. The royal act of tolerance of 1847 (| 55, 1) gave them 
 finally the privilege of organizing an independent congregation at 
 Elberfeld, which called Dr. Kohlbrügge to be their pastor (he was 
 formally preacher of the restored Lutheran church at Amsterdam 
 [^ 51, 4], then forced from this position through a contest with a 
 rationalizing colleague, and since then became one of the most enthu- 
 siastic adherents of the dtjctrines of the council of Dort, by the study 
 of Calvin's writings), and represents, under the name of the Dutch 
 ReJ'orined Church, the only anti-unionistic, rigidly Reformed congre- 
 gation in Germany. (Cf. F. W. Krug, krit. Geschichte d. Schwärmerei, 
 etc. Elbf. p. 257', ff.) 
 
 8. Complications with regard to Worship. — The hymn-boohs of the 
 established churches almost everywhere were brought into a condition 
 which bordered on the miserable and insipid, both as regards their 
 religious and asthetic character, by the vandalism of Illumination. 
 Although there existed more than 80,000 sacred hymns, there never- 
 theless existed a complete famine in regard to sacred musi«. Only 
 among the old fathers and mothers of the people did there still live 
 reminiscences and echoes of the richness and blessedness of the hymns 
 of the evangelical church. These made themselves again felt through 
 the revived religious life, and demanded the repossession of the stolen 
 or squandered inheritance of the fathers. The noble poet Moritz Arndt 
 was the first who entered the lists in its behalf (Vom Wort u. v. Kirch- 
 enlied. Bonn, 1819). The want, which became daily more felt, called 
 forth at first a series of private attempts to reintroduce the old hymns 
 (the Berlin Liederschatz by Eisner, the Collections by C. v. Raumer, 
 Bunsen, Stier, A. Knapp, Daniel, Lai/ritz, Slip, etc.) These were only 
 here and there introduced into use in public worship, but bestowed 
 only the greater blessing upon family worship, and are also of import- 
 ance as preliminary labors for churchly official reform. The WUrtem- 
 berg established church published as early as 1842 a new hymn-book, 
 which, being prepared according to Gr'dneisen's mediating principles, 
 met the chui-chly demands, in spite of its defects, in a measure that 
 could scarcely be hoped for amid the destructive tendencies of the 
 times. In other Protestant countries, provinces, and cities, better 
 hymn-books have already been introduced, or at least are being pre- 
 pared. But in not a few countries and towns the despotism of ration- 
 alistic church authorities adheres firmly to the hymnological acquisitions 
 of Illumination even to the present day. The conference of Eisenach 
 published (1853) a collection of 150 classic hymns (accompanied with 
 the old rhythmic melodies), designed to serve as an appendix to all 
 existing hymn-books, and as a basis for all new ones. It required great 
 labor to establish the principle that the year 1750 should be the terminus 
 ad quem of selection. W. Wackernagd desired the unchanged original 
 text, and as he was not able to accomplish this, he withrew from the
 
 320 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (c E N T. 1 9 A.D.) 
 
 sommisaion ; Geffken of Hamburg did the same for the. contrary reason, 
 and produced a selection of his own, which, however, was hiid to one 
 side. Meanwhile, only a few established churches have to this time 
 adopted the Eisenach collection, among which is the Bavarian, which 
 has taken it up in its new hymn-book, which is now indisputably the 
 best of all used by the established churches. 
 
 The toant of a choral-book was not less than that of a hymn-book. 
 The first occasion for discussion on this subject was given in 1814 by 
 a proclamation of the Prussian king, Frederick William, III., concern- 
 ing a preparatory reform of Protestant worship, by which the liturgy 
 should again become prominent. Katorp of Münster expressed him- 
 self strongly in 1817 concerning the necessity of restoring the choral 
 to its ancient honor and simplicity ; among his numerous successors 
 the distinguished jurist Thibaut of Heidelberg ("Ueber Reinheit dei 
 Tonkunst") still deserves special mention. The reform of the choral 
 was carried on the most vigorously in Wlirtemberg. The attempt to 
 revive church music through the introduction of quartette tunes alone 
 (according to the choral-book by Kocher), without taking up again the 
 old rhythm and the original form of the melodies, failed entirely (1828). 
 A new choral-book, prepared under Cräne/sen'« auspices (1843), admitted 
 the unanimous singing of the congregation, with rich organ accompani- 
 ments, introduced a much greater number of the older choice melodies, 
 but had not the courage also to restore the original rhythm, urgently 
 as Hauber contended for it (in d. deutsch Viertaljahrsschr. 1841, IV.) 
 Able preliminary contributions towards a reform of church music were 
 made by the excellent work by Winterfeld (der ev. Kirchenges. Lpz. 
 1843, 2 Bde.) and by the collections of G. v. Tücher (Schatz des ev. 
 Kirchenges. Lpz. 1848, 2 Bde.) and of Fr. Layritz, the Gütersloher 
 Hauschoralbuch, the eisenacher Kernlieder, etc. 
 
 During the period of Illumination all love for the Liturgy in worship 
 had been entirely lost, and the new liturgies were, if possible, for the 
 most part more insipid than the new hymn-books. The Prussian Union 
 liturgy, therefore, marks a decided progress towards something better, 
 in spite of its defects. The representatives of the Lutheran Church 
 returned to the old Lutheran liturgies, in their movements of reform. 
 The Reformed overcame more and more their old antipathy for what 
 was liturgical. Purely liturgical worship, accompanied, where it was 
 possible, with artistic music, spread abroad from Berlin. The Eise- 
 nach Conference declared itself to be unfit to undertake joint Lutheran 
 preliminary labors ; and the representatives of purely Lutheran' esta- 
 blished churches held liturgical conferences at Dresden (1852, 1854, 
 1856), for which Kliefoth of Schwerin contributed the preliminaries. 
 
 9. Home Missions. (Cf. Wichern, die innere Mission der deutsch ev. 
 K. Eine Deukschr. etc. Hamb. 1840. — The same, Fliegende Blatter des 
 rauhen Hauses. Hamb. 1849 ff.) — The Pi-otestant Church was for a 
 hng time behind the Roman Catholic Church in regard to Home Mis-
 
 THE PROTESTANT CHURCH IN GENERAL. 321 
 
 eious, but since the beginning of this period it has begun to cancel this 
 debt with interest. England, with its stirring activity in promoting the 
 kingdom of God, leads the way. Here it is the Dissenters especially 
 who have distinguished themselves in this work. Germany has con- 
 tributed something of importance, considering the humble means which 
 Pietism and churchliness here have afforded. In the other countries 
 of the continent, but especially in North America, much has been done 
 for Home Missicms. The result is, that to-day the entire Protestant 
 world is embraced in a net of benevolent and philanthropic institutions, 
 which have proceeded from specifically Christian motives, and which 
 regard temporal aid and relief as being the basis of spiritual help. A 
 quite special earnestness and zeal for Home Missions resulted from the 
 revolutionary complications of modern times, which were well adapted 
 to place in the clearest light the insulficiency of the efforts thus far 
 made, and the crying necessity for increased activity. The restlessly 
 active Wiehern travelled through Protestant Germany in 1849, for the 
 8ole purpose of awakening an interest in this work; and in the autumn 
 of the sartie year a Congress for Home Missions, which was to reas- 
 semble annually, met in Wittenberg in connection with the second 
 Church Diet. The object of this congress was to combine the indivi- 
 dual efforts made for Home Missions into one organization. Here also 
 objections were made by the Lutherans, viz. that the organization of 
 such unions under the direction of a central board, connected with dis- 
 regard of creeds and of congregational boundaries, was to be decidedly 
 condemned, — and that from the point of view that then Home Missions 
 would place themselves by the side of the church and undermine its foun- 
 dation. Further, it was said that what Home Missions had in view 
 was, it is true, a work of necessity, but that it should be done upon 
 the basis of the churchly confession within each and every congrega- 
 tion. To these were added many other objections, ex. gr. that Home 
 Missions had become to many interested in them a matter of pious 
 fashion, an opus operatum; that a methodistic spirit, a stiff mechanism, 
 and a restless spirit of work, which were not born of the spirit of the 
 gospel, had crept in ; that the ostentatious display of figures and num- 
 bers was in bold contrast with Matt. 6:3; that working upon the 
 masses accomplished nothing, but rather that each single erring sheep 
 must be followed into the wilderness with unwearying faithfulness, etc. ; 
 although, meanwhile, it was declared most emphatically that all these 
 objections did not hold against the thing itself, but only against the 
 form it had assumed. — A review of only the most important institutions 
 for the advancement of Home Missions would fill pages. We can here 
 only mention a few of the most important, especially German institu- 
 tions, which became at the same time mother and model institutions 
 for numberless others of a like character. The oldest is the House of 
 Refuge of Count Recke -Volmarstein at DiisseUhal since 1816; next the 
 Institution for Teachers of Charity- Schools and the Juvenile A-sylum at
 
 322 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A.D.) 
 
 Beugcien (since 1820), conducted by the excellent ZeZ/e?-. From it have 
 gone forth hundreds of teachers for charity-schools and houses of refuge. 
 Since 1826 the Martin's foundation in Erfurt has existed under Eliein' 
 thaler's direction, which also has stimulated to the establishment of 
 many similar institutions. The Rough House in Hamljurg, under 
 Wichern's direction (since 1833) has distinguished itself above all 
 others by "its compass and far-reaching labors. In 1836 pastor Flied- 
 ner estaVjlished the Institution of deaconesses at Kaisersioerth for the 
 care of the sick. This institution was enlarged from year to year, and 
 led to the establishment of many similar ones in Germany, England, 
 and France. By the side of these unions there exi«ted several societies 
 for the care of released criminals, with numerous similar societies. 
 There are asylums for infants and sunday-schools almost in every town 
 and city. In France the Ecangelical Society labored with great and 
 beneficent success, and De Valenti established the Evangelists' School 
 near Berne. In many places pastoral aid societies were formed. The 
 unemployed abilities of candidates were called into requisition, prison 
 and itinerant preachers were appointed, and religious agencies were 
 brought to bear upon the numerous emigrants, laborers in manufacto- 
 ries, on railroads, etc. ; Magdalene asylums. Christian associations for 
 journeymen and youths, Christian hotels, popular libraries, temperance 
 societies, saving funds, numberless asylums for vagrant children, etc., 
 were established. Tract Societies in London, Hamburg, Berlin, etc., 
 sent forth millions of tracts of an awakening and instructive character. 
 The Union for Northern Germany published larger works of the same 
 character. The Colter Publication Union published Christian text and 
 school-books with wood-cuts, at the lowest price. In Berlin an evan- 
 gelical Book- Union was formed to spread the orthodox treasures of the 
 older ascetic literature. Christian women and maidens, following the 
 bright example of the English Quakeress, Elizabeth Fry, the noble 
 Amelia Sieveking of Hamburg, etc., rendered invaluable services every- 
 where, in behalf of Home Missions, among the needy and suffering of 
 their race. A Society for Home Missions in the sense of the Lutheran 
 Church was established by Lohe in Bavaria, in connection with an 
 institution of deaconesses at Neudettalsau. 
 
 The Bible Societies constituted an independent branch of Home Mis- 
 sions. Modern Bible societies (cf. g46, 6) originated in England. The 
 great British and Foreign Bible Society, in which all Protestant deno- 
 minations and sects participated, even the Quakers, was formed in 
 London in 1804, as a necessary supplement of the missionary societies. 
 It distributed, from principle, only Bibles without human addition, 
 consequently without the Apocrypha, without remarks and explana- 
 tions, mostly also without heads of chapters and parallel passages. In 
 regard to the Apocrypha, concerning the non-admission of which 
 the statutes say nothing expressly, there was a violent controversy 
 (1825-27), which ended with the complete victory of the enemies of
 
 THE PROTESTANT CHURCH IN GENERAL. 323 
 
 tne Apocrypha. It was decided that all pecuniary support should be 
 tefused to all societies and persons who circulated Bibles with the 
 Apocrypha, the Bibles already bound Ije delivered up, and the proceeds 
 from the same be handed over to the chief London society. More than 
 fifty societies on the continent separated from the northern society in 
 consequence of this action. The great North American society fully 
 agrees with the principles of the London society. The Baden Mission- 
 ary Union renewed the controversy in G&rmany, by making the oppo- 
 sition to the Apocrypha the subject of a prize essay (1852). The 
 learned essay by Ph. Fr. Keerl received the first prize ; the popular 
 one by E. Khige received the second. Decided Lutherans (Krausshold, 
 Wild) also approved the condemnation. Stier and Heiir/sfenherg, on 
 the other hand, defended the introduction of it ; and most of the con- 
 sistories advised to adhere to the old practice, because every abuse and 
 misunderstanding was prevented by the Lutheran title, as also by the 
 prohibition to select texts for sermons from it. All the Protestant 
 Bible societies have distributed, within the last fifty years, about 
 50,000,000 of Bibles and New Testaments, in almost 200 languages. 
 
 The series o^ annotated Bibles of this century was opened hy Dinter's 
 rationalistic "Schullehrerbibel" ("1826 if.) In opposition to it is Phil. 
 H.Brandt's evangelical "Schullehrerbibel" (only the N. T. 1829 S.) 
 Eichter's "Erklärte Hausbibel" and Lisco's "Bibelwerk" have been 
 far excelled by Gerlach's work (continued by Schmieder); all three, 
 however, have been pitched too high for the middle and lower 
 classes. i?e.s-ser's " Erklärungen N. Tl, Bücher" ("Bibelstunden") 
 have furnished an unsurpassed model for the churchly prayer-meetings, 
 which have been established everywhere Avithin several decades. In 
 regard to devotional literature, modern times have done the most and 
 best by republishing the treasures of the 16th and 17th centuries. 
 
 10. Foreign Missions.^'' (Cf. /. Wiggers, Gesch. d. ev. Mission. Ilamb. 
 1845. 2 Bde. — J. H. Brauer, d. Missionswes. d. ev. K. in. s. Bestände. 
 Hamb. 1847-51. 2 Bde. — i?. Wild, Umschau auf. d. Arbeitsfelde d. ev. 
 Mission. Nördl. 1854. — A. Ostertag, übersichtl. Gesch. der protest. 
 Missionen von d. Ref. bis zur Gegenw. Stuttg. 1858.) — The zeal of 
 Protestant Christendom for missions among the heathen, which received 
 such a mighty impulse towards the end of the previous century (cf. 
 §51, 5), has continued to increase to the present day. The missionary 
 societies (trunk and branch) have increased from year to year. - There 
 exist now in the Protestant world thirty-four great chief societies with 
 numberless branches, which yearly expend about $8,000,000 on mis- 
 sions, and support at IGOO mission stations 4000 European and Amer- 
 ican missionaries and an equal number of native helpers. England 
 still holds the first place in this work; next to it are North America 
 and Germany. The Moravians also maintain their old reputation in 
 this department of Christian labor. Distinguished among the modern 
 chief societies (with more or less branches) within the Ref-^rmed Church
 
 324 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A.D.) 
 
 are the American Board of Foreign Missions (since 1810) and the Ame- 
 rican Baptist Missionary Union (since 1814). Besides these, North 
 America has a Methodist and an Episcopal missionary society of im- 
 portance. The most of the modern societies in Germany are connected, 
 in principle, with the United church. The most important are the Basle 
 (since 181G), the Berlin (since 1823), the Rhenish, with the missionary 
 seminary at Barmen (since 1829), (which has more of a confederate 
 character with predominant Lutheran elements) — and the North Ger- 
 man Society (since 1836), binding its missionaries to the Augsburg 
 Confession, with the exclusion, however, of the other Lutheran confes- 
 sional works. The missionary school, established in 1800 by Jänicke 
 at Berlin, has a modified Lutheran character ; it has been followed in 
 this respect by the Gosnerish Missionary Society. The Dresden Mis- 
 sionary Society (since 1836) has assumed a decidedly Lutheran charac- 
 ter. Its seminary was removed in 1848 to Leipsic, so that its pupils 
 might derive advantage from the university. It has resumed the old 
 Lutheran missionary work in East India (§ 57, 7). The question of 
 caste caused a threatening disagreement for a time, but the danger is 
 now over. In Sweden, Denmark, Norway, the Baltic provinces, in 
 Bavaria, Hanover, Mecklenburg, Hesse, and North America, exclu- 
 sively Lutheran societies, partly independent, partly in connection 
 with Dresden-Leipsic, have been formed ; Cassel directs its efforts 
 especially to China. Worthy of special mention yet is the Hermanns- 
 burg institution under the direction of pastor L. Harms, which sent 
 out its own missionary-ship in 1853, to establish a mission among the 
 Gallas in Africa. Altogether, 15 chief societies have now 1581 mis- 
 sionaries, with 1311 native helpers, at 862 stations. The number of 
 converts amounts to about 700,000. A distinguished service also ren- 
 dered by evangelical missions is the abolition of the slave-trade by the 
 great powers of Europe (1830), and the emancipation of all slaves in 
 the English colonies (since 1834), for which the English nation sacri- 
 ficed $120,000,000. The noble Wilherforce [ob. 1833) devoted his 
 life to the accomplishment of this object. New societies were also 
 formed in England, Germany, and France, to sustain missions among 
 the Jews ; and though much labor has been performed, but little has 
 resulted from them. 
 
 If we begin a review of Protestant missions with Northern Europe, 
 the Swedish mission in Lapland first comes into view, which, having 
 been "resumed by the excellent Stockflcih since 1825 (§ 39, 6), has 
 greatly flourished. In North America we meet the highly favored 
 mission of the Moravians in Greenland and Labrador. Moravian, 
 Methodist, Baptist, and Protestant Episcopal missionaries, have 
 labored with success among the aborigines and slaves of North America 
 and the West Indies. The Moravians have also established missions 
 on the Mosquito coasts and in Paramaribo in South America. On the 
 Ä^est coast of Africa, the Sierre-Leone colony was established by Eng-
 
 THE PROTESTANT CHURCH IN GENERAL. 325 
 
 land ta colonize and Christianize emancipated negro slaves. For the 
 same purpose the colony of Liberia, further south, was established 
 from the United States. Both are in a flourishing condition through 
 the labors of Methodist, Baptist, and Protestant Episcopal missionaries. 
 On the Gold Coast the Gospel has been introduced by the Basle, in 
 old Calabar by the Baptist, on Gaboon river by the American and the 
 North German Society. Cape-town is the point of departure of Chris- 
 tian civilization for South Africa. The missionary labors of the Mora- 
 vians were here specially successful among the Hottentots ; the Berlin 
 missionaries labored among the Corannas, and the evangelical French 
 society among the Betschuans. The pupils of the Barmen seminary 
 penetrated deeper into the interior of the west coast than had ever 
 been trod by a European, amid unspeakable hardships. They labored 
 among the Hottentots, Namaquas, Damaras, and Hereros. The mis- 
 sionary Hahn of Livland is worthy of special mention as the apostle 
 of the Hereros. On the east coast the London society gained a wide 
 field of labor among the Caffres. Further towards the north on the 
 east coast the Anglicans labored, and the Hermannsburg society sought 
 a field among the Gallas. On the island of Madagascar the London 
 mission (since 1818) converted the King Radama to Christianity. Hia 
 successor, the Queen Ranavalona, inaugurated in 1835 a bloody perse- 
 cution against the Christians, by which also the apostle of the Mada- 
 gascars, David Jones, received the martyr's crown (1843). The perse- 
 cution continues to the present day, and it has not yet been able en- 
 tirely to exterminate Christianity. But since the successor to the 
 throne is a Christian, better times are in prospect. An Anglican 
 bishopric exists on the island of Mauritius, whither also many Chris- 
 tians of Madagascar fled. In Abyssinia the missionaries Gobat, Isenhurg, 
 and Krapf, have labored (1835-43) to revive the dead national church, 
 but they were compelled to withdraw on account of the enmity of the 
 native priests and the machinations of papist missionaries. In Algi-'rs 
 the missionary Ewald labored among the Jews until 1842. If we gc 
 to Asia, we find American missionaries specially active in the Turkish 
 provinces, striving to revive the old churches by the establishment of 
 common schools. An evangelical bishopric, hovering between Union 
 and Confederation, and uniting home with foreign missions, has been 
 established vit Jerusalem (1841) by the English and Prussian crowns, 
 as the centre of ecclesiastical labors in behalf of the dispersed Pro- 
 testants in the Orient, and of evangelical missions among the oriental 
 Jews. The choice of bishops alternates between the two crowns, but 
 ordination and rites have been yielded to the Anglican Church. The 
 first bishop Alexander, a Jewish proselyte, died in 1845. His successor 
 was the excellent missionary Gobat. A missionary field, which haa 
 again in the 19th century been diligently cultivated, is East India, 
 where :(uite peculiar difiiculties stand in the way of missionary labors: 
 the strict castes, the proud self-sufficiency of the pantheistic Brahmins,. 
 
 71
 
 326 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD ^CENT. 19 A.D.) 
 
 even the politico-commercial interests of the East India company, etc. 
 The old Lutheran missionary harvest (§ 47, 7) was for the most part 
 gathered by the Anglican Church. The Lord-bishop Heher [ob. 1826) 
 gained great renovrn in connection with this mission. The missionary 
 Rhenius of AVest Prussia also labored here in the service of the Angli- 
 can Church with great success. But as he was not able to accept un- 
 conditionally the principles of the Anglican Church, a rupture occurred, 
 and he labored from this time forward to his death (1838) on his own 
 responsibility in the Lutheran spirit. His successor Müller again sub- 
 mitted to the Anglican Church (1841). The missionaries of the Dres- 
 den (Leipsic) society have again collected the remnants of the East 
 Indian Lutheran Church, which has now six chief stations there with 
 a Avide field of labor. In addition to it, American, English, and Ger- 
 man missionaries, of almost all creeds, labor in India and the Indian 
 archipelago. The military insurrection in the northern part of East 
 India (1857) suspended the mission there for almost two years. It is 
 to be hoped that when it is suppressed, they will only flourish the more. 
 In China, G'dtzlajf of Pomerania, succeeding Morrison, labored with 
 unparalleled boldness and unwearied patience on his own responsi- 
 bility, in spite of all difficulties. Since China has been in a measure 
 opened to Europeans by the English war (1842), the institutions of 
 evangelical missions have assumed a more grand and S3\stematic cha- 
 racter under Giitzlaff's direction, to conquer the heavenly kingdom by 
 the Gospel. Since the rebellion of the new son of heaven ( Tien-ti) in 
 1852 (a descendant of the old king dynasty, which has been banished 
 for 200 years, who received instructions froru an evangelical missionary 
 at Canton, and acknowledges the revelations of God made through 
 Moses and Christ, but declares that he is the younger brother of Christ) 
 fresh hopes for the success of missions were kindled, and missionaries 
 from ail countries were sent thither. But the rebellious son of heaven 
 only manifested the disposition to become a second Mohammed. The 
 conflict of the governor of Canton with the English, French, and Ame- 
 ricans, and the punishment which was therefor inflicted in part (1857), 
 made the emperor finally (1858) willing to make a treaty with these 
 three powers, as also with Russia, according to which the whole coun- 
 try was to be thrown open to trade, and missions and the free exercise 
 of religion was granted to Christians. About the same time also, after 
 300 years' seclusion, Japan was opened to European and American 
 trade, and, it is to be hoped, also to Christian missions. The»Protestant 
 missions in Polynesia have been the most successful of all through the 
 labors of English and American missionaries. The apostle of the South 
 Sea Islands, John Williams, died a martyr (1839). The flourishing 
 evangelical church at Tahiti was, however, severely afilicted by the 
 unprecedented violence of French ships in 1837, the Queen Pomart, 
 was abused, the country was placed under French protectorate, and 
 not only Roman Catholic missionaries, but also French dissoluteness,
 
 PROTESTANT ESTABLISHED CHURCHES. 327 
 
 were forced upon the country. In 1851, missionary labor on the Sand- 
 wich Islands may he regarded as havinjt been completed, and the 
 church there as a Protestant established church. The results of mis- 
 pions among the Cannilials of New Zealand (of whom Sam. Marsden 
 •was the apostle) were small, as also among the stupid aborigines of 
 Avsiralia, where even the labors of the Moravians have been almost 
 fruitless. 
 
 ?55. THE PROTESTANT ESTABLISHED CHURCHES.» 
 
 The year 1814, with its new order of things, carried out 
 by the Congress of Vienna (1817), with its movements towards 
 union, which produced the large body of full-armored men, who 
 are battling even to the present time, — and finally, the political 
 revolutionary years 1830 and 1848, with their liberal conquest 
 even in the sphere of the church, constituted epochs for the de- 
 velopment of most of the Protestant established churches. In 
 1848 the idea of established churches seemed to have been rooted 
 out almost everywhere and forever. But the democratic experi- 
 ments of church government of this year demonstrated, that if 
 the separation of the Church from the State was to be generally 
 beneficial for Europe, it was not so yet at this time, and the 
 restoration of the following years preserved the church from 
 boundless confusion and unavoidable dissolution into numberless 
 atoms. 
 
 1. Prussia. (Cf. 0. Krabbe, d. ev. Landeskirche Preussens u. ihre 
 offentl. Rechtsverhältnisse. Berl. 1849.) — With reference to the evan- 
 gelical established church of Prussia (cf. | 54), Frederick William IV. 
 declared that he only desired to hold the superior direction of the 
 church, in order that it might progress in an orderly and legal way to 
 independence. The realization of this royal declaration and wish was 
 inaugurated after an ecclesiastical conference at Berlin, composed of 
 delegates from almost all German countries, accomplished nothing, by 
 a Prussian General Synod, which was opened at Berlin on Wliitsunday, 
 184G. The synod at its 18th session proceeded to the consideration of 
 the difficult question of doctrine and confession. The result of the 
 eame was the adoption of a formula of ordination proposed by Dr. 
 Nitzsch, whereby the ordinandus was required to believe in tlie prin- 
 cipal fundamental truths of salvation instead of the hitherto ecclesias- 
 tical confession. But as the doctrines of creation, original sin, the 
 supernatural conception, the descent of Christ into hell, and Hia 
 ascension to heaven, the resurrection of the dead, the final judgjnent, 
 eternal life and eternal destruction, were not expressly embraced in
 
 328 »ACTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A. 1».). 
 
 these fundamental truths, and consequently were not regarded as obli- 
 gatory, and further, since the Lutheran and Reformed peculiar doc 
 trinal position was practically abolished by this formula of ordination, 
 and with it the existence of a Lutheran as well as of a Reformed 
 Church within the Union, a small minority of Lutherans already pro- 
 tested against it at the synod ; numerous still more decided and power- 
 ful protests were made outside of the synod, to which the columns of 
 the evang. Kirchenzeitung were opened. The government gave no 
 authority to the proceedings of the synod, and profane mockers dis- 
 played their wit on the unfortunate Nicaenum of the 19th century. On 
 the other hand, however, the king issued a paie«^ of tolerance, March 
 1847, by which sovereign protection was anew guaranteed to the exist- 
 ing churches ; but all who did not find in them the expression of their 
 faith, were allowed to form new religious societies. But when the 
 storm of revolution broke in 1848, no State was more threatened with 
 unchristianization than Prussia. The minister of worship. Count 
 Schwerin, was ready to grant a reorganization of the Church according 
 to the wishes of the popular majority, expressed by a synod. But be- 
 fore this synod could assemble the reaction had already commenced. 
 The transition minister Ladenherg obtained the opinion of consistories 
 and faculties, who collectively made prominent the danger of such a 
 synod. Instead of the synod, therefore, a High-consistory was formed 
 in Berlin, which was independent of the ministry, and placed only 
 under the king as prascipuum membrum ecclesiae, and which was to 
 represent the demanded freedom of the Church from the State as 
 already realized in it. At the same time a Church-order was recom- 
 mended and largely introduced, which constituted a consistory in 
 every congregation, which was bound by the three cecumenical and the 
 Reformed symbols agreeing with them. On the 6th of March, 1852, 
 the king issued a government order, according to which the High-con- 
 sistory should not only govern the evangelical established church in 
 its collective character, but also guard the interests of the Lutheran 
 and of the Reformed Church ; and to this end it was to be composed 
 of members of both these churches, each of which were only to decide 
 questions touching their own church. Dr. Nitzsch alone remained after 
 the itio in partes occasioned in this board on this account, and declared 
 that he was able to find the expression of his religious convictions in 
 neither of the confessions, but only in the consensus of both. The 
 difficulty was obviated by regarding him as the representative of con- 
 gregations holding the same views. Encouraged to entertain bolder 
 hopes by such connivance in high places, the Lutheran Union pre- 
 sented a petition to the king, subscribed by 161 clergymen, in which 
 the restoration of Lutheran faculties and of Lutheran church property 
 was demanded. This demand was answered by an unfavorable govern- 
 ment order, July 12, 1853, in which the king expressed his just dis- 
 pleasure at such misinterpretation of the order of the previous year,
 
 PROTESTANT ESTABLISHED CHURCHES. 329 
 
 and made the solemn declaration that it was never his intention to 
 disturb, much less to destroy, the Union founded by his father, now 
 resting in God ; he only desired to secure for confession within the 
 Union the protection to which it had unquestionable claim. Since 
 then, the special interests of the Lutheran Church, which for a time 
 seemed to be favored, have been in visible and increasing disfavor. — 
 The Iligh-consistory, meanwhile, continued to manifest great activity, 
 and to adopt many wholesome regulations. To these belong the general 
 church and school visitations of 1852, though carried out with too 
 much noisy and theatrical display. The ostensible favor with which 
 the king regarded the efl'orts of the evangelical alliance (1857, ^ 54, 5), 
 was the last evidence of decided aversion to confessional churchly 
 eflbrts which Frederick AVilliam IV. was able to manifest. A tedious 
 and, as it appeared, hopeless disease compelled him to transfer the 
 government into the hands of his brother Will. I. When the prince- 
 regent (Oct. 1858) began to reign in his own name, he declared, in an 
 address to his newly-chosen ministry, that it was his firm determina- 
 tion to maintain and promote the evangelical Union, whose beneficent 
 progress was impeded and almost destroyed by an orthodoxy which was 
 incompatible with the very essence of the evangelical church. But in 
 order to accomplish this task it was necessary that the organs used 
 should be carefully chosen and partly changed. All hypocrisy and 
 sham-piety, however, were to be unmasked wherever they appeared. 
 Hengstenherg' s and Erhkam's (in Königsberg) withdrawal from the 
 examining commission for situations in the higher schools, Stahl's 
 formal, but long-sought-for, withdrawal from the High-consistory, and 
 the relaxation of the strict procedure against the free congregations 
 which hitherto prevailed, as also the greater connivance of the govern- 
 ment at the demands of the liberals in regard to the question of divorce 
 (by conceding a facultative civil marriage), are at present the only 
 evidences of a changed policy in the government with regard to eccle- 
 eiastical afi"airs. 
 
 2. The present Kingdom of Saxony has had Roman Catholic princes 
 since 1697, but the Roman Catholic Church has only been able to ac- 
 quire ten-itory in the immediate vicinity of the court. The govern- 
 ment of the evangelical church resides, by a treaty, in the ministers 
 commissioned in evangelicis, so long as the king is Roman Catholic. 
 Although several of these have been special protectors of the orthodox 
 church, nevertheless rationalistic illumination has not only taken deep 
 root among the clergy, but also among the people. Meanwhile, a 
 pietistic reaction has also gained a footing, especially powerful in 
 Muldenthal, where i??/(ZeZ6ac7t's blessed labors have given it a decidedly 
 churchly character. On the other hand, the religious movement, unvler 
 the leadership of the pastor of the Bohemian congregation in Dresden, 
 Mart. Stephan, cam-e to a shameful end. As the representative and 
 renovator of a strict Lutheranism, he labor d very successfully in 
 71*
 
 830 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A.D.) 
 
 Dresden since 1810, but he lapsed deeper and deeper into hierarchica 
 usurpation and neglect of watchfulness over himself, through the sub- 
 missiveness of his adherents, which almost amounted to deification. 
 "When in 1837 the police interfered with his night meetings, without, 
 however, having discovered anything immoral, and suspended him 
 from his ofiicial labors, he called upon his adherents to emigrate to 
 America. Many of them (clergymen and laymen) blindly obeyed 
 him, and founded (1838) a Lutheran church in Missouri. Stephan'a 
 despotic and hierarchical usurpation reached its height here ; he also 
 gave loose reins to his lusts. Women, who had been violated or abused 
 by him, finally exposed his shame, and the congregation excommuni- 
 cated him, whereupon he went over to the Roman Catholic Church 
 (1846). Taught by such experiences, and entirely purified of the 
 separatistic and Donatistic elements, the Lutheran reaction in Saxony 
 is now in the most flourishing condition. Since 1850 Earless has stood 
 at its head as chief court-preacher at Dresden, but in 1852 already he 
 abandoned this position to become the head of the Lutheran Church 
 of his native country, Bavaria. The emigration led by Stephan also 
 took with it a number of the inhabitants of Saxony- Alte nhurg. The 
 consistory, in a rescript to the council of Ronneburg (1838) traced this 
 separation to the fact that the religious wants of the congregations 
 were not satisfied by the rationalistic sermons, and admonished that 
 the fundamental doctrines of evangelical Christianity should be more 
 diligently preached. This rescript received the most hateful interpre- 
 tations, and became the subject of the most passionate attacks from 
 within and without the country. The government obtained the opinions 
 of four theological faculties concerning the conduct of the consistory 
 and its opponents, which it simply published with the praise and blame 
 they expressed, and then discouraged all investigation. The revolu- 
 tionary storm of 1848 also raged through the church of Altenburg. 
 But since the storm has subsided, the government of the State and 
 church has been directed with prudence and zeal towards promoting 
 churchly feeling and life. It has, however, not yet succeeded in placing 
 a decidedly Lutheran teacher of theology in the common university of 
 the Saxon dukedoms (Jena). In Weimar and Gotha also the Ration- 
 alism of Röhr and Bretschneider, which a few decades ago ruled almost 
 all the pulpits, has begun to disappear. Nevertheless, the Duke of 
 Gotha called in 1856 Dr. Charles Schwarz of Halle, who could only 
 see hopes of a better time for the Protestant Church in the school of 
 Baur and the Protestant "Kirchenzeitung" (§ 56, 4, 5), to Gotha as 
 court-preacher and high consistorial councillor. Gotha has since then 
 become the Gretna-Green for Prussian divorced persons, whom the 
 native pastors supposed they were required to deny re-marriage. The 
 civil marriage now legalized there will make a change in this matter. 
 
 3. In Hanover the Union met with no favor, although Union theol'^gy 
 ruled in the national university after Rationalism had disajpeared
 
 PROTESTANT ESTABLISHED CHURCHES, 331 
 
 Nevertl eless, the most of the clergy of the country have been tho- 
 roughly penetrated by confessional Lutheranism. The preachers' con- 
 ference at Stade (1854) called the attention of the government to the 
 "crying incongruity" which existed between the Union theology of 
 the national university and the legal as well as actual Lutheran con- 
 fession of the established church, and urged the appointment of Lu- 
 theran teachers. The faculty, on the other hand, published a circular 
 to preserve "liberty in teaching," and the curatorium again filled the 
 vacancies which had occurred with Union theologians. Dr. Petri now 
 declai-ed the rupture to be complete. — Oldenburg, that in 1849 was 
 really favored with a democratic church government separate from the 
 State, permitted a new government to be chartered without any oppo- 
 sition in 1853, which restored the chief episcopacy to the ruler of the 
 country, and transferred the government of the church to a Iligh- 
 oonsistory and ecclesiastical legislation to a national synod (composed 
 of 12 clerical and 17 temporal members who were elected by the dis- 
 trict synods, and 5 members appointed by the grand-duke). — Mecklen- 
 burg possesses a strict Lutheran church government under Kliefoth's 
 direction, and its national university decidedly Lutheran professors. The 
 withdrawal of Prof. M. Baumgarten of Rostock from his professorship, 
 in Jan. 1858, caused a great excitement. A trial theme written by him 
 on 2 Kings 11, in which he "aimed at procuring a Scriptural doctrine 
 to authorize violent revolution," gave the government an opportunity 
 already in 1856 to remove him from the theological examination com- 
 mission. At the same time his provoking polemics against the doc- 
 trines of the Mecklenburg Catechism, especially with reference to the 
 sanctification of the Sabbath, at a pastoral conference at Parchim, in- 
 ci eased the distrust with which the Lutheran clergy of the country 
 regarded his theological position. The government finally (Jan. 6, 
 1858) dismissed him from his theological professorship at the univer- 
 sity, though allowing him his full salary, on the basis and through 
 the publication of a consistorial decision, prepared by Krabbe and 
 subscribed by Wiggers and Meyer, which charged him with heretical 
 alteration of all the fundamental doctrines of the Christian faith and 
 of the Lutheran confession, and established this charge from his wri- 
 tings. As was expected, this step was followed by a loud cry of pas- 
 sion in all the newspapers, and even Lutherans (v. Hofmann, v. Scheurl, 
 Luthardt) emphatically disapproved of the conduct of the government 
 as departing from the way prescribed by the church-order, and the 
 consistorial decision as being based on misinterpretation, arbitrary 
 supposition and inference; whilst the apologists justified the conduct 
 of the government as a mere administrative measure, and endeavored 
 to prove that the argument of the decision was well groundo'l in the 
 principal points. — In the Electorate of Hessia the high ecclesiastical 
 authority reduced in 1838 the obligation of the clergy at ordination to 
 conscientiously regarding the confessions of faith. The distinguished
 
 622 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A.D.) 
 
 professor of law, Bickell of Marburg, saw in this a violation of eccle« 
 siasiical right, even an endangering of the evangelical church, against 
 which the advocate Henkel in Cassel as popular agitator protested, and 
 demanded from the government a national synod, which should for- 
 mally abolish all symbolical books. The government ignored both 
 demands, and the violent controversy gradually subsided. Within 
 a few years the question of confessions entered upon a new stage. It 
 was violently disputed as to which confession the country belonged. 
 The Landgrave Moritz, it is true, forced a diluted Calvinism upon the 
 province (§34, 1); but still a Lutheran basis, with Lutheran views, 
 arrangements, and lavs's, remained, and the Lutheran reaction has 
 never been entirely subdued. Only the province Hanau accepted the 
 Union (1818). Since then the government has appointed preachers 
 and professors without asking about their creed. The ministry of Has- 
 senvlvg (since 1850) regarded the country as of right Lutheran, and 
 organized ecclesiastical affairs in this sense. The consistorial coun- 
 cillor. Dr. Vilmar, was the right hand of the minister in this matter. 
 The elector, however, was not very friendly to this movement from the 
 beginning. In 1855 the ministry was overthrown, and Vilmar was 
 transferred to Marburg as professor of theology. — The Grand-duchy 
 of Hessia is the only country in Germany that yet possesses a rational- 
 istic faculty of the purest water, for even Jena is evidently behind 
 Giessen in this respect. But a decidedly Lutheran reaction has com- 
 menced among the younger clergy, which is growing in strength and 
 extent. The High-consistory is active in promoting peace by media- 
 tion. In Reformed Lippe Detmold, as late as in 1844, five preachers, 
 who, becoming tired of the Illumination Catechism of the established 
 church, again used the Heidelberg Catechism, and protested against 
 the abolition of swearing adhesion to the symbols, were punished as 
 disturbers of the peace of the church. The democratic form of church 
 government of 1851 was already abolished in 1854, and the old Re- 
 formed church-order of 1684 took its place. At the same time reli- 
 gious freedom and equality were guaranteed to the Roman Catholics 
 ?ind Lutherans. 
 
 4. There existed in Protestant W'drtemberg an activity of the religious 
 spirit in the national life, as nowhere else. Pietism, Chiliasm, Sepa- 
 ratism, the conventicle system, etc., assumed powerful forms ; solid 
 scientific knowledge, philosophical culture, and lately also philosophical 
 and critically destructive tendencies, forced themselves upon the clergy 
 of the country from Tübingen. The dissatisfaction with many of the 
 innovations in the liturgy, hymn-book, etc., drove many from the esta- 
 blished church. After the adoption of forcible measures had proven 
 fruitless, the government allowed those dissatisfied to establish the 
 congregation at Kornthal with a peculiar (ecclesiastical and civil) Con- 
 stitution after apostolic example (1818). Others emigrated to Southern 
 Russia or to North America (cf. | 60, concerning the Harmonites)
 
 PROTESTANT ESTABLISHED CHURCHES. 333 
 
 Lately a society for the gathcriivj of the people of God in Palestine ha? 
 been formed on the Salon near Ludwigsburg. Its object is to »rather an 
 emigration of believers from all nations (about 10,000 families) for the 
 Holy Land, to constitute there anew a people of God, which, upon the 
 foundation of the prophets and apostles, of which Christ is the corner- 
 stone, will bring into full authority the divine law of the old covenant 
 in all the relations of life. A general meeting in 185-i in order to 
 realize this plan, appointed a committee, published a programme (in 
 its organ : der süddeutschen AV arte), and requested the German diet 
 to obtain for it, from the Sultan, permission to settle in the Holy Land 
 with self-government and religious freedom. Christopher Hoffmann, 
 brother of the Prussian general superintendent and inspector of the 
 institution for Home Missions at St. Chrisona near Basle, was the head 
 of this movement. (He wrote: Gesch. d. Volkes Gottes als Antwort 
 auf die sociale Frage. Stuttg. 1855). The educational institute upon 
 the Salon was conducted by his brother-in-law Paulus, nephew of 
 Paulus at Heidelberg. The committee, instructed to wait patiently, 
 purchased in April 1856 the estate of Kirschenhardthof near Marbach, 
 in order to found here on a small scale a preparatory social state in 
 strict accordance with the Mosaic law. At the beginning of 1858 a 
 commission with Chr. Hoffmann at its head, went to Jerusalem, to re- 
 connoitre the country for the speedy colonization of the people of God. 
 But the results were so unsatisfactory that they were compelled for 
 the present to abandon the idea of emigrating to the Holy Land. — The 
 gift of healing the sick by absolution and the laying on of hands in 
 connection with believing prayer, was developed out of the pietistic 
 and earnest pastoral care of preacher Blumhardt of Möttlingen, in 
 connection with the healing of a demoniac, which was followed by a 
 great revival in the congregation. Blumhardt, in order to give free 
 scope to this gift, lately purchased the bathing establishment at Boll 
 near Göppingen, where he now officiates as pastor and miraculous phy- 
 sician. — In the Grand-duchy of Baden the union of the Lutheran and 
 Reformed Church was accomplished in 1821. It grants normative au- 
 thority to the Augustana (as also to the Lutheran and Heidelberg 
 Catechism), in so far as by it the free investigation of the Scriptures, 
 as the only source of Christian faith, is openly demanded, affirmed, 
 and applied. A synod of 1834 provided the established church with 
 union rationalistic principles in the litui-gy, hymn-book, and catechism. 
 When at the beginning of 1850 a confessional Lutheranism began 
 again tc manifest itself here also, the united church combated it with 
 geus-d'armes, imprisonment, and fines. The preacher Eichhorn, and 
 later also the preacher Ludwig, seceded from the established church 
 with a part of their congregations, and connected with the church 
 college of Breslau, but were only able to serve their people as clergymen 
 amid unspeakable vexations on the part of the police. After repeated 
 rufusals, the grand-duke finally, in 1854, granted to the seceders the
 
 334 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19A I).). 
 
 permission to elect a Lutheran pastor, but perseveringly refused U 
 acknowledge Eichhorn as such. Preacher Haag, who would not aban- 
 don the Lutheran formula of distribution at the Lord's Supper, was 
 deposed (18Ö5) after earnest warning. On the other hand, the positive 
 churchly movemen also grew stronger in the established church. In 
 1854 the old rationalistic members of the Iligh-consistory were silenced, 
 and Ullmunn of Heidelberg became its head. Under his auspices a 
 general synod (1855) adopted resolutions to introduce new church and 
 school-books in the sense of the Consensus-Union, endeavoring, at the 
 same time, to accommodate them in a measure to Lutheran views. 
 The grand-duke confirmed the resolutions, and the country remained 
 silent. But when in 1858 the Iligh-consistory, on the basis of the 
 synodal resolutions of 1855, promulgated a new "Kirchenbuch" for 
 general introduction, the new liturgical innovations which it contained 
 (enlargement of the liturgy by the confession of sin and of faith, col- 
 lects, responses, lessons, kneeling at the Lord's Supper, assent to the 
 confession of faith by sponsors), aroused a violent opposition in the 
 country, at the head of which was the faculty of Heidelberg, with Dr. 
 Schenkel as leader. The grand-duke decided that the new liturgy 
 should not be forced upon any congregation in the country ; on the 
 other hand, the shorter and simpler form of the same was to be intro- 
 duced when it could be done then or later without force, whilst the 
 larger form was only to be used by congregations which expressly de- 
 sired it. — In Nassau also, -which also accepted the Union, a Lutheran 
 movement of emancipation has manifested itself within the last few 
 years, but it has been repressed by police measures. 
 
 5. In Protestant Switzerland there existed, in addition to the luxu- 
 riant growth of rationalistic Illumination and radical Liberalism, a 
 soil receptive for Separatism and religious fanaticism, whose first 
 cultivation has been attributed, perhaps not unjustly, to Ladt/ von 
 Kriidener. The French philosophy of the 18th century gave the Be- 
 formed Church of Geneva a rationalistic tendency, and the venerable 
 Compagnie of the Genevan clergy could venture in 1817 to impose 
 upon candidates at ordination the obligation not to preach on the 
 natures in Christ, original sin, predestination, etc. But this state of 
 things was opposed by a Methodism (in Geneva, especially also in 
 Lausanne) transported from England, whose adherents, nicknamed 
 the Marnier^, rebuked the apostacy from the church by word and deed. 
 In Waadtland the Helvetic Confession was abolished in 1839 by a reso- 
 lution of the chief council, and in 1845, when a radical revolutionary 
 «•overnment got possession of the helm of State, the refusal of many 
 clergymen to read a political proclamation of the government furnished 
 occasion for a schism, inasmuch as all the offending clergymen were 
 dismissed from the established church. Since then, in addition to the 
 established church, &free Waadtlandish Church has existed under the 
 oppression and persecution if the radical government. In the chief
 
 PROTESTANT ESTABLISHED CHURCHES. 33Ä 
 
 council of Geneva the resolution was offered in 1855, to separate the 
 church entirely from the State, for which ÄI. Vinet {oh. 1847 as pro- 
 fessor at Geneva) contended with glowing eloquence during his whole 
 life. The resolution is still favored by many earnest Christians, but 
 it has finally been rejected by a majority. — Among the German Re- 
 formed cantons only Basle has been able to resist the introduction of 
 Rationalism ; but that the people also in other cantons are not willing 
 to give up the faith of the fathers so easily, was shown in 1839, when 
 the chief council of Zurich called Dr. David Strauss as professor of 
 theology. The people rose as one man against this measure ; the ap- 
 pointment failed ; the chief council was overthrown, and Zurich even 
 yet pays a pension to Strauss. A similar occurrence took place in 
 Berne, upon the calling of Dr. Zeller to the theological professorship 
 there in 184:7. The opponents of this movement only gained insult 
 and persecution. But as Zeller even was not radical enough for the 
 Radicals, he accepted in 1849 a professorship of philosophy at Mar- 
 burg. In Basle the exclusion of the radically infidel candidate Rumpf 
 from the list of the candidates for the ministry in 1858, caused a great 
 noise. Ilis endeavor to be restored has, meanwhile, failed in the chief 
 council. 
 
 6. Only the name of a protector of the papal chair and of the Roman 
 Catholic Church remained to the Emperor of Austria from the Roman 
 empire. The remnants of the church government of Josephine have 
 since her time been gradually removed, and Roman Catholicism has 
 been retained as the State religion ; nevertheless, the government of 
 the State preserves, in opposition to all hierarchical claims, its inde- 
 pendence, and grants toleration, though of a very limited kind, to 
 Protestantism. The storm of 1848 first removed the hated name of the 
 non-Catholics, obtained permission to place bells and steeples upon 
 Protestant houses of worship, and the compliant guarantee of many 
 rights, the realization of which, meantime, has been greatly hindered 
 by the opposition of Roman Catholic magistrates and priests. After 
 that the government, by its concordat with the Pope (1855), granted 
 to the Roman Catholic clergy almost unlimited power to protect and 
 uphold the Roman Catholic established churcli, it appeared for a time 
 as if it was honestly disposed to protect Protestantism in its rights of 
 existence, and to promote its progress. In fact also much Avas done to 
 promote and support evangelical churches and schools. Even the 
 iostival of the Reformation on Oct. 31 was allowed to be publicly 
 celebrated in Vienna. But the repeated refusal to permit the forma- 
 tion of branch unions of the Gustave-Adolphus Society (altliodgh the 
 acceptance of support from the same is now granted) — the mainte- 
 nance of the law, that Roman Catholic priests, even after they have 
 formally become Protestants, dare not marry, because the character 
 indelebilis of consecration to the priesthood still adheres even to apos- 
 tates — and many other things, show that the government is yet far from
 
 336 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A. D.). 
 
 placing Protestants on an equality with the Roman Catholics. In the 
 Tyrolese ZiUerthal evangelical truth has found its way into many 
 families through Protestant books and Bibles. When the Roman 
 Catholics drew the reins tighter (1826), these, appealing to Joseph's 
 edict of tolerance, petitioned for permission to join the evangelical 
 church. The Emperor Francis I. promised them tolerance. But the 
 Tyrolese deputies protested, and the official decree which finally fol- 
 lowed (1834) commanded them to emigrate to Transylvania or return 
 to the Catholic Church. The petitioners now sought aid through 
 a deputation to the King of Prussia, who directed them to colonize 
 on his domain of Erdmannsdorf in Silesia. Thither 399 of the exiles 
 emigrated in 1837 and founded a new ZiUerthal, richly aided by royal 
 munificence. In Bohemia there was aAvakened, with the enthusiasm 
 for the national institutions, also patriotic religious sympathies for the 
 old Hussiteism, connected with many transitions to the Protestant 
 Church. In Hungary the Diet had obtained since 1833 full equality 
 for the Protestants with the Roman Catholics, when, in consequence 
 of the military rule of the Protestant Haynau, all independent life 
 and action of both Protestant churches was fettered again in 1850. 
 Haynau's decree, it is true, was abolished in 1854, but still the com- 
 plete return to the former autonomy of the churches has not been 
 secured in spite of all petitions and deputations ; and the difficulty in 
 the way has been increased by the Hungarians refusing in a rough 
 way to accept the plan of a constitution proposed by the government 
 in 1856. In IVan-v/lvania, on the other hand, at least the evangelicals 
 of the Augsburg Confession rejoice in the possession of perfect eccle- 
 siastical equality and independence — a favor which has but lately 
 been conferred on the Reformed living there. 
 
 7. Baiiaria under King Lords was the shield of Roman Catholicism 
 in its extreme ultramontane form. The constitutionally guaranteed 
 religious freedom of the Protestants was in many ways embarrassed 
 and limited ; and great as were the necessities of the Protestants in 
 Southern Bavaria, the government most strictly prohibited them from 
 receiving any aid from the Gustave-Adolphus Society. King Louis 
 saw even in the name of this society a reproach of the German name, 
 and, besides, he was offended at its vague, negative confessional posi- 
 tion. Nevertheless, he did not hesitate to give a peaceful asylum in 
 Roman Catholic Bavaria to Scheibel, who was driven out of Lutheran 
 Saxony by Prussian diplomacy, — and permitted the university of 
 Erlangen (after its dead spiritual life had been reawakened by the 
 excellent Reformed preacher Kraft [ob. 1845] ) to become the centre 
 of a strict Lutheranism both in practical life and in science for all 
 Germany. The kneeling order of 1838, which also imposed kneeling 
 before the sanctissimum upon the Protestant soldiery as a military 
 salutation, caused great dissatisfaction among the Protestant popula- 
 tion, and provoked many controversial treatises from both sides. When
 
 PROTESTANT ESTABLISHED CHURCHES. 337 
 
 finally the Diet made the grievance of the Protestant delegates its own 
 (1845), a royal declai'atlon was issued, by which the previously exist- 
 ing purely military salutation was restored. After that the ultramon- 
 tane party had fallen into disfavor by its honorable course in the Lola 
 Mo)ites scandal of 1847, and the revolution of the following year com- 
 pelled King Louis to abdicate, the Protestant Church of Bavaria, at 
 the head of which Harless stands since 1852, attained to the full, un- 
 limited, and undisturbed enjoyment of its rights, under the reign of 
 the noble and just King Maximilian. The general synod of 1853 (at 
 Baireuth) manifested, under Ilarless' presidency, a thorough earnest- 
 ness in the work of reorganizing the established church. On the basis 
 v)f its transactions the Iligh-consistory ordered the introduction of a 
 new and excellent hymn-book. This already caused great dissatisfac- 
 tion among the unchurchly Liberals, but was at length carried out. 
 But when in 1856 the High-consistory published a series of ordinances: 
 1. An instruction concerning the order of worship with a provisional 
 liturgy; 2. A direction concerning the restoration of church discipline; 
 3. A decree concerning the regulation of the confessional, with a view 
 to the reintroduction of private confession ; 4. A decree to guarantee 
 the clergy against improper demands in reference to baptismal 
 sponsors, marriages, funerals, etc. ; and, 5. finally a regulation, 
 according to which the parties to be married were required to appear 
 personally before the preacher for proclamation of the bans, — then a 
 terrible storm, starting at Nürnberg, broke loose, which raged through 
 the entire country. The king was ovei'whelmed with petitions, and 
 the High-consistory went so far in almost timorous compliance as to 
 make the acceptance or non-acceptance of its regulations optional to 
 the congregations. Meanwhile the time for holding a new general 
 synod approached (1857). A decree of the royal high-episcopate abo- 
 lished the union of the two national synods into one general synod, 
 and prohibited all discussion concerning church discipline. Conse- 
 quently, instead of one synod two assembled, the one in October at 
 Anspach, the other in November at Baireuth. Both, composed of an 
 equal number of temporal and spiritual delegates, took a very honor- 
 able and moderate course, by which they neither prejudiced the rights 
 of the church nor the honor of the High-consistory. The storm has 
 since then subsided very rapidly, and the hopes of a prosperous pro- 
 gress in church affairs have brightened. — An imminent division of the 
 Lutheran estalilished church by the hyper-Lutheran party of Lohe in 
 Neudettelsau was fortunately averted by the action of the general 
 synod of 1853. Lohe and his party, although somewhat sulky, yet 
 hoping the best from a development begun so vigorously, retraced 
 their steps, and the High-consistory continued its indulgence towards 
 Lohe. Finally, however, in 1858 it quite unexpectedly set bounds to 
 him by inflicting on him a sharp reprimand in a threefold form : first, 
 that he administered the annointing with oil, although not as a sucra- 
 72
 
 338 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 a D.) 
 
 Dient, to a sick young lady staying with him, yielding to her appeals 
 to James 5 and Mark 16; — secondly, on account of introducing aurl' 
 cular confession and absolution among non-confirmed youth; — and, 
 finally, on account of an instruction concerning the exercise of church 
 discipline, which he himself devised and carried out in his congrega- 
 tion on his own authority. Whether the rupture which has long been 
 impending will finally be consummated in consequence of this, is yet 
 to be seen. 
 
 The government has also acted justly towards the Reformed and 
 united churches of the country by appointing a Reformed professor 
 of theology in the Protestant national university. The Union was 
 accomplished in 1818 in the Bavarian Palatinate of the Rhine, with 
 the agi'eement to hold the symbolical books of both churches in proper 
 esteem, but to acknowledge no other doctrinal rule than the Scriptures. 
 Hereby, it is evident, the door was opened to the most boundless Ra- 
 tionalism. The general synod of Anspach in 1849 favored the country 
 with a new democratic church organization ; but a reaction took place 
 here also. Since 1853, the consistory of Spire, under Ebrard's leader- 
 ship, brought to pass the meeting of a general synod in the autumn 
 of this year, which raised the Augustana Variata of 1540, as embodying 
 the consensus between the Augustana of 1530 and the Heidelberg, as 
 also the Lutheran Catechism, as the banner of the Palatinate church. 
 Since then the consistory has proceeded with police force against all 
 those preachers who preach and teach the Lutheran doctrine of the 
 Lord's Supper ; and when Dr. Hengstenberg of Berlin opened the 
 columns of his K-Zeitung to the indignant assaults of the Lutherans 
 on this despotic union, the court of assizes in Zweibrücken condemned 
 him in contumaciam (1854) to an imprisonment of 3 months or a fine 
 of 50 fl. ; — but even in Zweibrücken they do not hang a culprit until 
 they catch him. When the consistory, in pursuance of the action of 
 the general synod of 1853, laid the plan of a new hymn-book before 
 the diocesan synods (1856), the universal indignation of the liberal 
 inhabitants of the Palatinate broke out in a terrible storm, on account 
 of the doctrines imputed to them in it. The diocesan synods, however, 
 acknowledged the necessity of a new hymn-book and the appositeness 
 of the plan in general, but they recommended another revision of the 
 same and the addition of 150 new hymns. The radical agitation con- 
 tinues to thp present time: the petition to the king to annul the syno 
 dal resolutions with regard to it has been denied (1858). 
 
 8. Great Britain and Ireland. (Cf. H. F. ühden, d. Zustände d. 
 anglik. K. Lpz. 1843. — M. Petri, Beitr. zur. Wüi-dig. d. Puseyismus. 
 Göttg. 1843. — H. R. Weaver, d. Puseyism, aus d. Engl. v. C. Anthor. 
 Lpz. 1844. — A. F. Gemberg, die schott. Nationalk. Hamb. 1828. — 
 JT. H. Sack, d. K. v. Schottl. Heidlb. 1844-48, 2 Bde. — /. Köstli7i, d. 
 Bchott. K. Ilamb. 1852. — Ph. Schaf, Zustände u. Parteien d. engl. 
 Staatskirche. In d. deutsch. Ztschr. für ehr. Wsch. u. ehr. Leben,
 
 PROTESTANT ESTABLISHED CHU1.CHEB. 33i« 
 
 1855-53.) — A Reformed Protestant and a Roman Catholic element 
 have been combined in the established Church of England. The forme»- 
 appears especially in the doctrines of the church, the latter in the doc- 
 trine concerning the church, and from this also in the form of govern- 
 ment (episcopal succession and hierarchical organization), as also in 
 the worship (liturgy abundant in ceremonies). Where both elementa 
 have been really united and reconciled, i. e., where the one has pene- 
 trated the other, an internal aflBnity with the Lutheran Church has 
 been manifested. But because this union has not been actualized 
 fully and harmoniously in every part, the two elements having been 
 rather kept asunder, an exclusive, extreme divei'gence on both sides 
 was unavoidable, as was also the result very soon, on the one side re- 
 presented in the Dissenters, on the other in the Romanizing tendency 
 of the Stuarts. Since the political parties of the Tories and Whigs 
 have been formed, two corresponding parties have also appeared in 
 the established church. The hif/h-church party, which has its infiuen- 
 tial representatives among the aristocracy, detests the tendency of the 
 Dissenters, seeks to preserve the most intimate connection between 
 State and Church, and carefully watches over the preservation of all 
 churchly forms and institutions in government, woi-ship, and doctrine. 
 On the other hand, the evangelical (or low-church) party, which is 
 more or less Methodistic, sustains the most active intercourse with the 
 Dissenters (co-M'orking in Home and Foreign Missions, etc.), and re- 
 presents in various degrees (even to the extreme of Dissenters) the 
 claims of progress against those of stability; the independence and 
 self-dependence of the Church against identification with the State ; 
 evangelical freedom, antl the universal priesthood of Christians, against 
 orthodoxy and hierarchy. The active life of the Dissenters and the 
 increasingly close connection of the episcopal evangelical party with 
 them, incited also in modern times the high-church party to a more 
 powerful protection of its interests, and impelled it to a one-sided 
 intensification of the Roman Catholic element. The centre of this 
 Romanizing tendency since 1833 is the university of Oxford. The 
 heads of this movement were the Professors Pusey, Newman, etc. ; its 
 literary organ were the Tracts for the Times (whence the party is also 
 called Tractarians), a series of treatises in defence of Anglo-Catholi- 
 cism, which, in adhesion to the 39 articles, as decidedly defends genuine 
 Protestantism against the Roman papacy, as it defends genuine Catho- 
 licism against every kind of ultra Protestantism in the weight which 
 it attaches to the apostolical succession of the bishopric and priesthood, 
 and to apostolical tradition in behalf of exegesis. In this way also 
 jvery doctrine was approximated to those of the Roman Catholic sys- 
 tem, so far as the 39 articles would possibly allow it. This tendency, 
 called Pmeyism, met with much sympathy, especially among the higher 
 clergy. But the "No popery" principle is too deeply rooted in the 
 English nation, not tl meet Puseyism with great indignation and
 
 340 SECTION III. FOURTH PERIOD (C E N T. 1 » A.D.). 
 
 Strong opposition. The most of the English bishops opposed it in 
 pastoral letters ; Pusey and Newman were dismissed from their posi- 
 tions, but the university still adheres to its tendency. In 1845 JVeM'- 
 man went over to the Romish Church, and crowds of Puseyites, espe- 
 cially from the higher aristocracy and clergy, have since then followed 
 his example. But this apostacy only served to increase the aversion 
 of the English people to Puseyism and Popery. When the Vicar Gor- 
 ham was promoted in 1847 to a better position by the crown, the 
 Puseyite Bishop of Exeter protested against it, because Gorham dis- 
 puted the doctrine that regeneration takes place in baptism. The 
 privy-council, however, as the highest ecclesiastical court, declared 
 him to be orthodox, and appointed him in spite of all opposition. This 
 gave the episcopal clergy an opportunity to urge the restoration of the 
 Convocation, a kind of spiritual parliament. This object was gainei 
 in 1854; but the convocation has as yet been able to accomplish but 
 little. In addition to the pressure to obtain the recognition of baptism 
 as the vehicle of regeneration, the zeal of the high-church clergy for 
 the introduction of private confession, or as its opponents say, of 
 auricular confession, has also given occasion for offence and contro- 
 versy. A London clergyman named Poole was deposed on this account 
 in 1858 by his bishop ; a Vicar West, on the other hand, of the diocese 
 of Oxford, was acquitted for the same offence. — Besides the high- and 
 the low-church party, a third one, the so-called broad-church party, 
 has made itself felt within a few decades. It traces its origin to the 
 celebrated philosopher and poet Coleridge (ob. 1834), and numbers in 
 its ranks many of the most resjjectable and learned of the present 
 clergy, who are also specially distinguished by their intimate acquaint- 
 ance with German theology and philosophy. They do not form an 
 organized church party, as the evangelicals and high-churchmen, and 
 do not propose anything of the kind ; nevertheless, their tendency is 
 directed towards removing the narrow-mindedness and exaggeration 
 of the other parties, and furnishing a broader basis and clearer horizon 
 both for theology and the church, without prejudicing in any Avay 
 either the authority of the vScriptures or the doctrines of the Church. 
 Lord Russell's university bill (1854) opened also the university of Ox- 
 ford to Dissenters by restricting the obligation of the 39 articles to the 
 students of theology. In 1857 the introduction of a new divorce bill, 
 which established a new court for divorces, granted the wife the right 
 to apply for divorce in case of incestuous adultery, bigamy, and mali- 
 cious abandonment, and unconditionally allowed the re-marriage of 
 those divorced, created great excitement among, and called foi'th much 
 opposition from the high-church party, but, nevertheless, passed both 
 Houses Avithout amendment. The admission of Jews to parliament was 
 also accomplished in 1858, after a contest extending through 12 years, 
 by granting to both Houses the right to admit a member who took the 
 oath " on the true faith of a Christian." In opposition to high-church
 
 PROTESTANT ESTABLISHED CHURCHES. 341 
 
 Oxford Rationalism gained ascendency more and more in Cambridge, 
 and even the labors of the Tiibingen-Baur School {| 56, 4) find enthu- 
 siastic eulogists in the Westminster lieview. 
 
 The Church of Scotland, from the beginning strictly Calvinistic in 
 customs, government, and doctrines, has also preserved this character 
 unimpaired to the present time. The difference between the moderates 
 and the evangelical party does not refer to doctrine, but only to govern- 
 ment. The latter are strict Presbyterians, and opponents of the right 
 of patronage. Besides the Presbyterian form of government, there 
 existed, namely, of old a right of election by the land proprietor, which 
 was often exercised to intrude obnoxious clergymen upon the congre- 
 gations. The General Assembly of 1834 granted the veto-power to the 
 congregations, but the civil courts protected the patrons in their here- 
 ditary rights. At a meeting of the General Assembly in 1843 about 
 200 members withdrew on this account from the Edablislied Church 
 of Scotland as Non-intrusionists , and laid the foundations of the Free 
 Cliurch of Scotland, which, with Dr. Chalmers [ob. 1847) at its head, 
 has exhibited great zeal and self-denial in establishing parishes, etc., 
 and is now in a prosperous condition. The large mass of the people 
 belong to it, whilst the established church is mainly composed of the 
 rich landed proprietors. In addition to these two, there exists also a 
 United Presbyterian Church, which is supported by the wealthy middle 
 class, and insists upon the separation of the Church from the State. A 
 controversy concerning the introduction of organs into the churches 
 has been carried on in this church since 1856. Three churches in 
 Glasgow have received permission from the synod to introduce organs 
 under certain limitations. More important is the controversy concern- 
 ing the Lord's Supjier, which broke out in the established church of 
 Scotland in 1857. Bishop Forbes of Brechin, in an address to his 
 clergy, which was published later, insisted upon the necessity not only 
 of acknowledging the real presence of the true body and blood of 
 Christ in the Holy Supper, but also of the participation of the same 
 by the unbelieving. The other bishops, however, at a synod at Edin- 
 burgh, pronounced this doctrine of their colleague to be anti-Scriptural 
 and anti-Anglican, against which 55 presbyters protested. One of 
 these, Patrick Chei/ne of Aberdeen, who was charged with holding the 
 doctrine of transubstantiation, has been deposed by the episcopal 
 General Synod, because he would not retract. — In Ireland, whose Ro- 
 man Cathidic population has been greatly decreased by constant emi- 
 gration, the work of evangelization prospers without interruption. In 
 England and Scotland not less than 16 societies exist, which labor in 
 this work by missionaries, itinerant preachers, colporteurs, and school- 
 teachers, and expend yearly $500,000 upon it. 
 
 9. In the Netherlands (cf. A. Köhler, die niederlUndisch-reform. K. 
 Erlg. 1856), Rationalism and latitudinarian Supranaturalism have so 
 far moderated the hostilities existing between Reformed, Remonstrants^ 
 72*
 
 S42 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A.D.) 
 
 MennonitriS, and Lutherans, that the clergy of one party were allowed 
 to preach in the churches of the other. There the poet William Bit- 
 derdijk, driven from political to religious patriotism, arose in glowing 
 anger against the general apostacy from Dort orthodoxy. Two Jews 
 converted by him, 7s. da Costa and the physician Cappadose, power- 
 fully supported him. A young, fiery clergyman, Henry de Cock, be- 
 came the theological spokesman of the party. Because he violated 
 ecclesiastical order by ministering in congregations belonging to other 
 clergymen, he was suspended and finally deposed (1834). The largest 
 portion of his congregation, and with him four other preachers, now 
 solemnly declared, that their secession from the apostatized church was 
 a return to the orthodox Reformed Church. They were punished by 
 fines and imprisonment as Separatists and disturbers, and were finally 
 Batisfied with being recognized, by royal favor, as a separate Christian 
 church (1839). It was composed at this time of 30 congregations. The 
 established church, on the other hand, perseveres in its latitudinariau 
 tendency. There exists since 1850 a free synodal system, by which 
 the church is governed. The general synod is held yearly at Hague. 
 The one of 1853 declared that the Netherland Reformed Church did 
 not demand from its teachers agreement with all the doctrines of the 
 eymbolical books, but only with their spirit and essence. The so-called 
 Gröiiinger (humanistic) school, with Schleiermacher's fundamental 
 tendency, reigns at the universities. Its chief representative is Hof- 
 stede de Groot. The largest portion of the clergy still belong to the 
 old moderate rationalistic tendency. Theological learning, especially 
 that of a philologico-historical character, still flourishes in Holland. 
 
 Subsequent to 1790 Rationalism has also prevailed in Den- 
 mark. In 1828 Professor Clavseii, a moderate disciple of Neology, 
 identified Rationalism and Protestantism, in a learned work (" Katho- 
 licism u. Protestsm." Translated from the Danish by Fries. Latest 
 edition 1828, 3 Bde.) On the other hand. Pastor Grundtvig, "a man 
 of poetical talents, and learned in the ancient history of the country,'* 
 entered the lists, equally enthusiastic for the Lutheranism of the fathers 
 and for patriotic Daneism, with powerful eloquence and with the charge 
 of apostacy from Christianity and the Church. He was condemned 
 by the courts as an injurer, having resigned his pastoral oiEce while 
 the trial was in progress. The same fate befel the orientalist Lindberg, 
 who charged Clausen with breaking the oath of his ofiice. Grundtvig's 
 adherents worshipped in conventicles until he obtained permission in 
 1832 again to hold public worship. The Dano-mania, which increased 
 beyond measure in 1848 and 1849 (during the warlike conflicts with 
 Crermany), reconciled enemies and alienated friends. Grundtvig espe- 
 cially raged senselessly against everything German, and of the two 
 factors, which he at one time regarded as the poles of the world's his- 
 tory ("Weltchronik," transl. by Volkmar, Nlirnb. 1837), namely 
 Daneism and Lutheranism, he lately abandoned the latter as being of
 
 PROTESTANT ESTABLISHED CHURCHES. 343 
 
 German origin, in that he desired to remove the German Lutheran 
 special confession of faith, phiced the Apostle's creed before and above 
 the Scriptures, and wished to introduce Scandinavian mythology into 
 the schools as Christian propaedeutics. The Schleswig- Holstein rebel- 
 lion of 1848 was followed by a boundless distraction and destruction 
 of ecclesiastical affairs there. More than 100 German pastors were 
 dismissed, and 46 Schleswig parishes were deprived of the use of the 
 German language in church and school. All efforts of the states to 
 remove the prescription, served only to call forth new brutality. In 
 1864 the long misused provinces were released from Danish authority 
 by the allied Austrians and Prussians, and, in consequence of the 
 German war of 1866, fell to the domain of Prussia. The Bapiistic 
 movement, which is continually gaining strength in Denmark, was 
 greatly promoted (1857) by a law which abolished the compulsion to 
 baptism in the established church, and only requires that all children 
 be registered in the church register within a year. 
 
 In Sweden since 1803 a quiet and useful religious communion has 
 existed, in opposition to the stiff and dead orthodoxy of the established 
 church, which, if characterized by pietistic one-sidedness, is not guilty 
 of a heretical departure from orthodox doctrines. Because its mem- 
 bers diligently read the Bible and the works of Luther, thej- have re- 
 ceived the name Readers, and have been persecuted by the established 
 church, by virtue of the old law against conventicles (1726), with im- 
 prisonment and fines, and by the mob with insult and abuse. Although 
 the constitution of 1809 guarantees freedom of worship, nevertheless 
 the old rigid laws still exist in full authority and power, according to 
 which the secession of subjects from the Lutheran established church 
 is punished with imprisonment and exile, with the loss of civil reputa- 
 tion and of the right of inheriting. Nevertheless, within several years 
 the transitions to Roman Catholicism, to the Baptists, and even to 
 Mormonism, have greatly increased. Even in 1858 six women, who 
 were converted to Roman Catholicism, were mercilessly banished from 
 the country. In 1857 the king laid a tolerance-act before the Diet, 
 which, although intolerant enough (excluding all converts from all 
 civil offices and reserving their children for the established church), 
 was, nevertheless, rejected by the states. Religious freedom was 
 proclaimed by law in 1869, and in 1870 admission to all offices 
 of state was granted to Dissenters, even the Jews included. — 
 In Norway, where the State is much less identified with the Church 
 than in Sweden, the movement among the people started by the fiirmer 
 Niels Hange (| 51, 4), has by no means died out. But with Scandina- 
 vian hatred of everything German, Grundfvig's bran-new theology has 
 also been imported from Denmark, and has met with great favor. The
 
 344 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT 19 A.D.) 
 
 theological faculty at Christiana, however, which represents in scienc« 
 and practical life a rigid and living Lutheranism of the German stamp, 
 is opposing it with energy and effect. 
 
 10. France and Belgium. (Cf. H. EeucMin, d. Christth. in Fr. Hamb. 
 1837.—^. Mader, d. prot. K. Frankreichs, published by Gieseler. Lpz 
 1848. 2 Bde. — Ag6nor de Gasparin, Les interets generaux du Protes- 
 tantisme fran^. Par. 1843. Transl. by Runkel, Essen, 1843. — ^. 
 Damman, d. prot. K. in Fr. ; in the Ztschr. für hist. Theol. 1850. I. 
 E. S. die rel. Zustände in Fr. ; in Gelzer's Monatsblätt. 1853.) — The 
 constitution of the Restoration in France (1814) guaranteed to Roman 
 Catholicism the authority of the established religion, and to the other 
 confessions the protection and toleration of the State. But Ultramon- 
 tanism of the most violent kind began, with the favor of the govern- 
 ment, to oppress Protestantism in every way. In South France the 
 hatred of the Roman Catholic mob broke out against the Reformed 
 already (1815) in bloody persecution. The government was silent 
 about it until the indignation of all Europe compelled it to check the 
 evil ; but the perpetrators of it were unpunished. By the revolution 
 of July, 1830, the Roman Catholic Church again lost the privileges 
 of the established church, and the Protestants obtained the same rights 
 with the Roman Catholics. But also under the new constitutional 
 government Ultramontanism again made itself felt with effect; the 
 Protestants complained of many injuries and violations of rights by 
 Roman Catholic prefects ; and under the Protestant minister Guizot 
 France assumed the protectorate of Roman Catholicism throughout 
 the whole world. Meanwhile, the Reformed French Chrirch flourished, 
 even though placed between methodistic one-sidedness and rationalis- 
 tic superficiality, and the scattered Lutheran congregivtions (in Paris, 
 etc.) out^iide of Alsace, also prospered. After the revolution of February, 
 1848, the Lutherans deliberated on a new organization of church 
 affairs at a general synod at Strasburg, and the Reformed also at a 
 council at Paris. But when the latter, in order to preserve unity of 
 government amid diversity of doctrine, resolved to disregard symbol 
 and doctrine in the matter, Fr. Monod and Count Gasparin, the noble 
 representative of French Protestantism, protested against such a course, 
 and formed, with about 30 congregations of stricter views, at a new 
 council in Paris (1849), a union of evangelical congregations with 
 biennial synods. Louis Napoleon, by the decree of March 26, 1852, 
 granted to the Reformed Church a central council at Paris, with con- 
 sistories and presbyteries; and to the Lutheran a yearly High-consistory 
 as legislative, and a standing directory as executive council. The Lu- 
 theran theological faculty at Strasburg represents the western section 
 of Schleiermacher's school. The academy at Montauban, with Adolf 
 Monad at its head, represents Reformed orthodoxy — nevertheless, with- 
 out strict confessionalism and with a piety of a methodistic type; and 
 Coqverel in Paris is the head of the rationalistic party in the Reformed
 
 PROTESTANT ESTABLISHED CHURCHES. 345 
 
 established church. The reaction against Rationalism was led since 
 1830 by the "Society Evangelique" in Paris, which in addition haa 
 assumed the work of protestantizing France, and has labored quietly 
 and very successfully in this direction by colportage, circulation of 
 tracts, sending forth evangelists, school instruction, etc. It has been 
 powerfully su.pported in this work by the evangelical society of Geneva. 
 The number of Protestant clergymen in France has increased, within 
 50 years, from 200 to 800 ; and every year new evangelical congregar 
 tions are established, jn spite of the endless difficulties which Roman 
 Catholic authorities place in the way. Manifold violations of right 
 and oppressions are still practised. In Strasburg (1854) the Jesuit? 
 prevailed upon the Roman Catholic prefect to reclaim and take pos- 
 session of the revenues of the former Thomas foundation, which had 
 been appropriated since the Reformation to the support of the Protes- 
 tant gymnasium. However, the prefect was directed from Paris to 
 desist from his claims. In his address from the throne in 1858, the 
 emperor declared that the government guaranteed full freedom of 
 worship to the Protestants, without, however, forgetting that Roman 
 Catholicism was the religion of the majority; and the Moniteur ex- 
 plained this declaration so plainly in the sense of the Univers, that the 
 prefects could not be in doubt how to understand it. Through General 
 Espinasse, — who, after the unsuccessful attempt on the life of the em- 
 peror (Jan. 14, 1858), officiated for a time as Minister of the Interior, 
 — the prefects v.-ere expressly directed to extend their watchfulness 
 over the press also to the labors of the evangelical societies, and to 
 prohibit the colportage of Protestant Bibles. However, the latter was 
 recalled by a change of ministry, and permission was only denied to 
 the agents of foreign Bible societies. — In Belgium the work of evan- 
 gelization advanced rapidly, not only among the Walloons, but also 
 among the Flemish population, so that from year to year new evange- 
 lical congregations are established, in spite of all agitation and popular 
 instigation on the part of the Ultramontane clergy. 
 
 11. In Italy immigrant Protestants have formed evangelical congre- 
 gations at Milan and Florence, without restriction on the part of the 
 government. ' From regard to diplomatic intercourse with Prussia, 
 England, and North America, Rome and Naples have also permitted 
 Protestant embassy chapels to be built. When in 1848 the hopes of 
 young Italy, which were built on Pius IX. 's national sympathies, were 
 dissipated, Protestant sympathies, nourished by English travellers, 
 Bibles, and tracts, began to be manifested far and wide in Italy, 
 which, although repressed by penalties of imprisonment, are still in- 
 creasing and strengthening. — In the valleys of Piedmont lived the 
 remnants of the Waldenses (§33, 2), about 20,000 souls, under con- 
 stant oppressions and persecutions, which were only restrained by 
 Prussian and English intervention. They regarded themselves as 
 being a branch of the Reformed Church; and having been er-iched
 
 346 SECTION III. — FOURTH PKUIOD (C E N T. 1 9 A.D.) 
 
 since the Reformation by tlie spirit of the- Genevan Church, they de- 
 signated themselves as 6glJse evangelique Vaudoise at a synod (1839). 
 "When in 1848 the crown of Sardinia phxeed itself at the head of Ita- 
 lian Liberalism, religious freedom was also granted to them with all 
 civil rights. Now a large Waldensian congregation was formed in 
 the midst of the city of Turin, which grew rapidly by the addition of 
 numerous fugitives from the rest of Italy. But in 1854 already a 
 division took place between the elements of which it was composed. 
 Waldensian orthodoxy was too narrow-minded for the liberalistic Ita- 
 lians. A former Romish priest, Dr. de Sanctis, took the lead of the 
 discontents, was deposed from his office by the Waldenses, and formed 
 an independent evangelical Italian congregation with a rationalizing 
 confession of faith. But in spite of this division the evangelization 
 of the country went forward, and now evangelical congregations exist 
 in all the principal cities, from whence also a number of rural congre- 
 gations have already been established.— In Tuscany, where in a liberal 
 spirit the legislature even allowed transition to Protestantism, in 1852 
 Francesco and liosa Madiai were compelled to atone for the crime of 
 having read the Bible by severe punishment in a house of correction. 
 The intervention of evangelical unions was in vain ; equally so even 
 the intercession of the King of Prussia. Finally, the English premier, 
 Lord Palraerston, stimulated by the public opinion of England, spoke 
 an earnest word, which even promised in the worst case to place seve- 
 ral ships-of-war at the disposal of the demands of Christian humanity. 
 The grand-duke now rid himself of the two martyrs by banishing 
 them from the country in 1853 ; and Lord Shaftesbury organized a 
 society at Edinburgh, the object of which is to prevent the occurrence 
 of similar cases by all means allowed by the Gospel. — In Spain also, 
 where a large number of Bibles, tracts, and a religious paper in the 
 Spanish language ("El Alba"), have been distributed from Gibraltar, 
 Protestant sympathies are not wanting. — The Lutheran Church of 
 Russia, embracing about 2,500,000 souls, received a common church- 
 order and liturgy : the latter on the basis of the old Swedish liturgy ; 
 the former with the requisition that all teachers of religion in church 
 and school adhere to the Formula of Concord. — In Poland the Re- 
 formed and Lutheran Churches were united since 1828 under a com- 
 bined consistory. The independent existence of both churches was 
 restored by an imperial ukase of 1849. Protestants as well as Roman 
 Catholic? rejoice in the full enjoyment of all civil rights, and in thei 
 unlimited freedom of worship, although they deny themselves bells on 
 their churches in inner Russia; and children of mixed marriages, in 
 which one party belongs to the orthodox church, are adjudged to the 
 latter Vjy the law. The Lutheran Church in Livonia (with the island 
 of Oesel) sustained an important and, according to the laws, irrevoca- 
 ble loss in 1845 and 1846 by the large transition (60,000 to 70,000 souls) 
 of the Lettonian and Esthonian natives to the orthodox established
 
 PROTESTANT ESTABLISHED CHURCHES. 347 
 
 church. The movement did not extend to the neighboring provinces 
 of Courland and Esthonia. In order to remove the pressing want of 
 churches and schools, of preachers and teachers, existing in the evan- 
 gelical Lutheran congregations in Russia, an Aid-society, modelled 
 after the Gustave- Adolphus Society, has lately been formed (1858) 
 with imperial approbation, under the direction of the general consis- 
 tory at St. Petersburg; which, it is to be hoped, will not fail to receive 
 the willing and hearty co-operation of congregations more favorably 
 circumstanced. The theological faculty of Dorpat has been allowed 
 (1858) to publish a journal for theology and the church, which is 
 exempt from spiritual and temporal censorship. — In Turkey, English 
 and North American missionaries labor among the Armenians, Maro- 
 nites, Greeks, and Jews. Among the Armenians in Asia Minor there 
 are already 12 Protestant congregations ; 3 in the chief city. In Con- 
 stantinople there are 10 Protestant preachers and 14 Protestant schools, 
 and in the whole empire about 50 Protestant congregations. 
 
 12. North America* The united States of North America, which 
 demands no other religious guarantee from its citizens than faith 
 in a God, embraces the most heterogeneous religious tendencies, 
 churches, and sects ; as could not be otherwise from the peculiar 
 origin of the population. As the settlers frequently left tlieir native 
 countries from religious motives, the most diverse religious parties 
 were gathered here, which, especially on account of the existing de- 
 fective theological culture and the sense for the practical, made the 
 country the theatre of religious excitements of all kinds ; among 
 which the Revivals, which are systematically carried on by many 
 denominations, play so prominent a part. The State does not con- 
 cern itself at all about religious affairs, and permits every congre- 
 gation to care for itself. Consequently the preachers are entirely de- 
 pendent on the congregations, and are frequently employed by the 
 year. Still they constitute a most highh' respected order, and churchly 
 feeling and churchly piety are nowhere in the world so highly and 
 universally valued as here. About 800 new Protestant churches are 
 formed on an average every year. The support of the same is for the 
 most part provided for by annual fiee contributions; the foundation 
 of a permanent church property is pretty generally regarded as inex- 
 pedient. Educational affairs, likewise dependent on voluntary co-ope- 
 ration, are in general still very defective and unsatisfactory. The 
 future preachers received their education at the colleges (higher edu- 
 cational institutions of a more general tendency) and the numerous 
 theological seminaries. To check the spread of intemperance, which 
 has become so great an evil through immigrant Irishmen and Germans, 
 
 » It will be noticed that Dr. Kurtz is hardly correct in ssme statements 
 regarding America, e. g., the first sentence in this paragraph. No religioui 
 faith is required for citizenship.
 
 348 SECTION III. — FOURTH P E RI D (C E N T. 1 9 A. D.) 
 
 several States have prohibited the sale of intoxicating liquors, even of 
 beer. To prevent the spread of Popery, as also the flooding of the 
 country by Irishmen and wild German demagogues, the widely rami- 
 fied and powerful order of Know-Nothings [now entirely defunct in 
 1861 — Tr.] has been formed among the native Anglo-Americans, which 
 proposes to deprive Papists and foreigners of all participation in the 
 affairs of the government. Meanwhile, the party has divided on the 
 Slavery Question. The Southern States made every effort to preserve 
 slavery, which is so indispensable to them, and succeeded in gaining a 
 brilliant victory through the Nebraska hill (1854). Within the last 
 ten years a crazy belief in spirits and wonders connected with table- 
 turnings, spiritual-knockings, citation of spirits and miraculous cures 
 by means of Magnetism and Somnambulism, has spread in an epidemic 
 way under the name of Spiritualism. A multitude of journals and 
 books serve to propagate this Spiritualism, which, with its three mil- 
 lions of believers, has almost assumed the character of a new religion, 
 with new revelations far exceeding those of the Prophets and Apostles. 
 On the other hand, the monetary and mercantile crisis towards the 
 close of 1857 produced a religious excitement such as had never before 
 been experienced even in America. It was the golden age of Revivals, 
 in which certainly not everything that glittered was gold. 
 
 The numerous Protestant denominations may be divided into two 
 chief groups, the one English, the other German. The most important 
 of the first group are: 1. The Congregationalists (Puritans, Inde- 
 pendents, cf. I 19, 4). Founded by the Pilgrim Fathers, who emigi-ated 
 from England (1620), they now number about 2,000,000.* They adhere 
 to the Westminster Confession of 1642, with the Calvinistic doctrine 
 of predestination, and the Zwinglian doctrine of the Lord's Supper 
 German orthodox theology, which is regarded by them as poorly dis- 
 guised Rationalism, on account of its lax principles concerning inspira- 
 tion and the canon, has, nevertheless, exerted a not insignificant influ- 
 ence in its most celebrated seminary at Andover through Prof. Moses 
 Stuart. 2. The Presbyter ians, of Scotch origin, numbering about 
 .2,500,000 souls, agree with the Congregationalists in doctrine and con- 
 fession, but are distinguished from them by a common church govern- 
 ment of a synodal and presbyterial character. Since 1837 they have 
 been divided into an Old and New school ; the latter of which, charged 
 with apostacy from strict Calvinistic orthodoxy, does not hesitate to 
 co-operate with other denominations in promoting Christian objects, 
 whilst the former is more exclusive. The principal seminary of the 
 latter is in New York, that of the former at Princeton. Here Dr. Alex- 
 ander taught, a man well acquainted with German theology. 3. 
 The Dutch lieformed Church, estaljlished by colonists from Hol- 
 land, who settled on the Hudson in 1609, and fi)unded New York. 
 It is closely allied Avith the Presbyterians. It has long since per- 
 mitted the Dutch language and Dutch customs to fall into disuse; on 
 
 » These and other figures are incorrect, unless including the families of the 
 church members.
 
 PROTESTANT ESTABLISHED CHURCHES. 349 
 
 the other hand, it adheres with great tenacity to the articles of :he 
 Synod of Dort. It numbers 130,000 members. 4. The Frofextani 
 Episcopal Churrh (1,000,000 souls) is distinguished in general by a 
 prudent and solid churchliness. Puseyism has also crept in here, and 
 contributed a number of proselytes to the Romish Church. 5. The 
 Methodists (about 2,000,000) stood also here in a connection of corres- 
 pondence with the episcopal mother-church. But when the country 
 was distracted by the war of the Revolution, Wesley (1784) himself 
 ordained a bishop for his Methodist societies in North America, which 
 since then have been organized as the Methodist Episcopal Church into 
 an independent denomination. Their influence on the religious life of 
 America has been very great. They, above all others, have displayed 
 the greatest skill in Revivals, but the excess connected with them from 
 the beginning has here increased to an almost incredible degree through 
 the so-called New Measures (protracted meetings, enquiry meetings, 
 camp-meetings, etc.) It reached its height in the so-called camp-meet- 
 ings, which are frequently held by itinerant Methodist preachers in 
 forests under the free heavens, to awaken the masses of the people who 
 flock to them. Day and night, without interruption, they pray, sing, 
 preach, and exhort ; all the terrors of hell are evoked, the excitement 
 increases with every moment ; conflicts of repentance, connected with 
 eighs, sobs, groans, convulsions and spasms, make their appearance ; 
 divine grace finally is experienced ; loud rejoicings, embracings, and 
 benedictions of the converts, mingle with the groanings of those still 
 wrestling for grace at the anxious bench. The Methodists themselves 
 have come to see that more can be accomplished by the old measures 
 than by the new. Since 1847 the Methodist Church has been divided 
 into two hostile camps, a Southern and a Northern one. The first- 
 named tolerates slavery, whilst the latter are decided abolitionists, 
 and excommunicate every slaveholder as an unlieliever. Another 
 party, the Protestant Metliodists, have separated on account of the 
 hierarchy of the mother-church, and have exchanged the episcopal 
 form of government for a congregationalistic one. 6. The Baptists* 
 which have been much divided among themselves by sects, number in 
 all about 4,000,000 of souls. Tlie most numerous by far are the Cal- 
 viiiisiic Baptists. Their proselytisiii is as great as their zeal in heathen 
 missions. In opposition to them the Free-will Baptists represent Ar- 
 minian principles, and the Christian Baptists or Campbellifes have 
 emljraced unitarian doctrines. 
 
 The German emigration to North America began even in Penn's 
 time. In 1742 there were already 100,000 Germans in Pennsylvania. 
 In addition to Zinzendorf and the Moravian missionaries, the Lutheran 
 preacher Dr. Melchior Mühleiiher;! {ob. 1787), a pupil of A. H. Francke, 
 and the Ref )rmed preacher Michael Schlatter of St. Gallen (the fi)rmer 
 sent out by the Orphan's House at Halle, the latter by the Church of 
 
 * There is not and never has been anymore connection between the Jiegular 
 Haptists and those here associated with them, than with the Methodists or 
 Lutherans. The first are the most numerous of all Christian denominations 
 in America, save the Methodists.
 
 350 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A.D.) • 
 
 Holland), labored with great success in organizing churches among these 
 Germans. The Orphan's House sent out many other zealous preachers, 
 until the prevalence of Rationalism also broke this bond. As at the same 
 time also the stream of German emigration was interrupted in its flow, 
 and in consequence all influence from the mother country was suspended, 
 crowds of Germans, carried away with the Revivals, connected themselves 
 with the Anglo-American denominations; and, besides, with the introduc- 
 tion of the English language, Englisli Puritanic or jMethodistic doctrines 
 aiid customs were also introduced into the German denominations. Since 
 1815 German emigration again commenced and increased from year to year. 
 The Lutheran Church in the United States numbers (1876) about 5000 
 churches, 2500 preachers, 600 000 communicants, and 55 synods. A 
 great diversity of sentiment exists, particularly regarding the authority 
 of the Augsburg Confession, in all its details. During the last ten years 
 the church has been divided into four general organizations, representing, 
 to a large degree, the difference of doctrinal views. Some ten district 
 synods still remain unconnected with either of these. 
 
 1. The General Synod (mainly English), organized 1820, is the oldest 
 general organization of the American Lutheran Church. It comprises 
 twenty-three synods, in New York, New .Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, 
 Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, and Nebraska; with 1200 churciies, 
 800 preachers, and 112,000 communicants. As to doctrine, the General 
 Synod adheres, in the main, to the Augsburg Confession, permitting, how- 
 ever, diversion in what are considered points of minor importance. The 
 so-called " New Measures " are in general practice. The tendency is to hold 
 in light esteem any sacramental efficacy of the ordinances. A divinely ap- 
 pointed ministry is recognized, which is regarded, however, in no sense a 
 hierarchy. Members of Non-Lutheran Churches are invited to the com- 
 munion table, and Non-Lutheran pastors are not excluded from their pulpits. 
 
 2. The General Council, (English, German, and Scandinavian) was, 
 formally organized at Fort Wayne, Ind., 1867. As early as 18-10 an ener- 
 getic movement appeared against New and in favor of Old Lutheranism. 
 This movement culminated in the withdrawal of the Old Lutherans from 
 the General Synod, who, in 1867, constituted The General Council, com- 
 prising (1876) some ten synods in New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, 
 Michigan, Texas, Tennessee, and Canada; with 1000 churches, 500 
 preachers, and 150,000 communicants. As to doctrine, the members of 
 this branch of the Lutheran Church in America cling to the "unadulterated 
 Augsburg Confession in its original meaning," recognizing its complete 
 harmony with the Word of God. They reject unionism and the "New 
 Measures" in every form. 
 
 3. The General Synod in North America [South), (English,) was organized 
 in 1863, shortly after the outbreak of the civil war. It comprises (1876) 
 five synods in Virginia, South Carolina, Georgia, and Mississippi ; with 
 200 churches, 100 preachers, and 12,000 communicants. It accepts the 
 Augsburg Confession, and is confessionally somewhat in advance of the 
 General Synod, from which it separated.
 
 PROTESTANT THEOLOGY IN GERMANY. 351 
 
 4. The Synodical Conference was organized iu 1872, and comprises six 
 synods in Missouri, Ohio, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Minnesota; with 1500 
 churches, 900 preachers, and 2-ft),000 coniniuuicauts. It accepts all the 
 Symbolical Books of the Lutheran Church. 
 
 5. The Unorganized Synods are ten in number, viz. : German Synod of 
 Iowa, Tennessee Synod, Synod of North Carolina, Hauge's Norw. 
 Synod in America, Buffalo Synods (two), Concordia Synod, Va., Confer- 
 ence for Nor. Dan. Lutheran Church in. America, Swedish Evangelical 
 Lutheran Mission Synod (North-West), Norwegian Danish Aug'stana 
 Synod (North-West). 
 
 The German Reformed Church, embracing about 1,000.000* souls, has its 
 principal seminary at Mercersburg in Pennsylvania. Its confession of faith 
 is the Heidelberg Catechism ; its theology at this time a sprout of German 
 evangelical Union theology, but of a positive character. Mercersburg theology 
 has lately been charged by Anglo-Americans with being of a Romanizing 
 tendency, because one of its most able teachers. Dr. John \V. Nevin, a 
 born Anglo-American and Presbyterian, defended the Calvinistic doctrine 
 concerning the Lord's Supper, and since then he has certainly fallen 
 into a Puseyistic current through patristic studies, and regards North 
 American sectarianism as the Protestant Antichrist. Having been several 
 times complained of before the synod, he resigned his office in 1851, and 
 there is great anxiety to see whether he will follow Newman's example. 
 Although accordingly the Union theology is predominant as well among 
 the Pieformed as among the Lutherans, still a " German Evangelical Utiion 
 of the West" was formed at St. Louis in 1841, which would dispense 
 with the names Reformed and Lutheran. It has established a seminary 
 at Marthasville in Missouri. — Besides these, there are represented in 
 North America of the older German sects, the Moravians, the Mennonites, 
 the Dunkers, and the Swedenhorgians. Of more modern date are several 
 German Methodist sects; 1. The " United Brethren in Christ" with 500 
 preachers, originated by a Reformed preacher, W. Otterbein [ob. 1813). 
 2. The ^'■Evangelical Society," commonly called Albrights, originated by 
 Jacob Albright, originally a Lutheran layman, who was ordained (1803) 
 by his own adherents, with 200 or 300 Methodistic preachers. 3. The 
 German Methodists, an integral member of the Episcopal Methodist Church. 
 At its head stands Dr. Nast of Cincinnati ; they possess an active mis- 
 sionary for Germany in L. S. Jacoby in Bremen. 4. The Winebrennarians, 
 or the Church of God, established by an excommunicated Gernuin Reformed 
 preacher of this name (18:^9). They run the Methodistic per force method 
 of conversion into the wildest extravagances, and are besides fanatical 
 opponents of infant baptism. *See note p. 348. 
 
 I 56. PROTESTANT THEOLOGY IN GERMANY. 
 Cf. Kahnis u. Ficker, 11. cc. at § 50. K. Schwarz, zur Gesch. d. neuest. 
 Theol. Lpz. 185<i. 
 
 The proper foinuler of nioderu Protestant tlieology, an Orii^eu 
 of the 19th century, was Schleiermacher. His iutlueuce was so 
 manifold, far-reaching, and lasting, that it not only extended
 
 352 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CE NT. 9 A.D.) 
 
 over his own school, which even yet gives character to theological 
 science, but also over all other tendencies and schools even into 
 the Roman Catholic Church ; and that in him, as once in Origen, 
 almost all distinctive and constructive tendencies which have 
 since then been unfolded, were originally comprehended. By the 
 side of the old unbelief, which is now characterized as vulgar 
 Bationalism, which still possesses its renowned representatives, 
 De Weite established the new school of historico-critical Ra- 
 tionalism, and A. Neander i\\Q pietiatic supranaluralidic school, 
 which soon surpassed both of the older schools of rational and 
 of suprarational supranaturalism. This modern pietistic school 
 received a theosophic complexion through the senator John. Fred, 
 von Meyer of Frankfort. But the Union became for it a rock 
 of offence, against which it railed, and upon which it broke to 
 pieces. K. Hase represented a philosophico-cesthefical nation- 
 alism, which, it is true, did not establish a school of its own, but 
 nevertheless exerted a great influence in ennobling, deepening, 
 and quickening the religious consciousness of the German nation. 
 K. Daub established on the basis of Schelling's and Hegel's 
 philosophy a flourishing school of speculative theology of an 
 orthodox tendency. But soon after Hegel's death it was divided 
 into a right and left wing.^' The former was not able to maintain 
 itself, and its disciples connected themselves with other schools; 
 the latter, laying aside speculation and dogmatics for a time, 
 applied itself to the critical investigation of the early history of 
 Christianity, and established the new Tübingen-Baur school. 
 Schleie rmacher^s school was also divided into a right and left 
 wing. Both took the Union for tlieir banner ; the right wing, 
 however, which claim the exclusive right of being "German" 
 and " modern" theology, wished to have a Consensus Union with 
 a Consensus symbol ; the left, on the other hand, a Union with- 
 out a confession. Finally, within the last thirty years, a sttnct 
 Lutheran tendency, incited by Pietism to piety, forced by the 
 Union to the consciousness of the high significance of the speci- 
 fically Lutheran confession, and qualified by scientific culture for 
 the coTiflict, also made itself felt in theological science. The 
 task which was proposed to this tendency, was nothing less than 
 again to connect the development of Lutheran theology where 
 after Bengel and Crusius it had been broken off by Rational- 
 ism, and to improve it further in the spirit of Luther, J. Ger- 
 hard and Bengel, with the abundant means of modern science.
 
 PROTESTANT THEOLOGY IN GERMANY. 35S 
 
 The centre of this tendency is the university of Erlangen. — 
 Outside of Germany theological science is in a far lower con- 
 dition. All able theological contributions have received their 
 nourishment from German science. 
 
 1. The Foiinders of the Theohxpj nf the Ni neteenth Centuiy. — Srhleier- 
 macher [oh. 1834), who was independent of every philosophical school 
 then existing, and thoroughly educated in philosophy, stands forth in 
 the first third of this century as the renewer and prince of theological 
 science. lie received from the Moravian Church, under whose influ- 
 ence he was educated, a deep and personal devotion to the Saviour, — 
 although he was repelled by Moravian narrow-mindedness ; — and from 
 the Roformod Church, in which he was born, a clear and sharp intel- 
 lectual tendency for science and practical life. Fred. Ernst. Dan. 
 Schleiermacher (since 1810 Prof, at the newly established university 
 of Berlin) entered upon his high career already in 1799, by the publi- 
 cation of his five " Reden über die Religion an die Gebildeten unter 
 ihrer Verächtern". It is true, he would have nothing to do with the 
 barbarous lamentations with which the fanatics of the old faith would 
 again cry up the fallen walls of their Jewish Zion ; and he made no 
 objection that his hearers rejected the doctrines and dogmas of reli- 
 gion, and would not believe in miracles, revelation, and inspiration ; 
 but he would have them to offer reverently with him an offering to the 
 manes of the rejected Holy One, who stood forth full of religion and 
 of the Holy Ghost; — in short, it is not Biblical, and much less churchly 
 Christianity, which he would preach into the heart of the Gorman 
 nation with glowing enthusiasm, but '"^pinozian Pantheism. The fun- 
 damental idea of his life, that God, " the absolute unity," could nei- 
 ther be comprehended in thought nor seized hold of by the will, but 
 could be apprehended only by feeling as direct self-consciousness, and 
 consequently that feeling was the proper seat of religion, was even 
 then the essence of his doctrines. In the following year (1800) he 
 proposed his moral stand-point in five " Monologues." Every man 
 should represent humanity in his own way, in his own blending of its 
 elements, in order that it might manifest itself in every manner, and 
 everything become real in the fulness of space and of time, that can 
 proceed as heteroojeneous out of its bosom. At the same time, but 
 anonymously, appeared also his "Vertrauten Briefe über (Schlegel's 
 notorious) Lucinde," which Gutzkow republished (18.'].')) as a prophecy 
 of the carnal religion of young (Jermany, with scoffing leers at Schlcier- 
 macher's pious, white-clothed subjects for confirmation. The study 
 and translation of Plato, in which Schleiermacher was now engaged 
 for several years, exerted a mighty influence on the form and (iontr^nts 
 of his thinking. He approached nearer and nearer to positive Chris- 
 tianity. In his "Weihnachtsfeier 1806," an imitation of the Hatonic 
 banquet, Christ is represented as the heavenly centre of all faith. In 
 13*
 
 354 SECTION III —FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A. D.; 
 
 1811 appeared the " Kurze Darstellung des theol. Studiums," in whicL 
 ne organizes theological science with a master's hand, according to his 
 fundamental religious views. When in 1817 the King of Prussia raised 
 the banner of the Union, Schleiermacher stood in the front rank of ita 
 champions. In 1821 he published finally the chief treatise of his life: 
 "Der ehr. Glaube nach den Grundsätzen der evang. K. im Zusammen- 
 hange dargestellt. 3. A. 1835. 2 Bde." That feeling is the seat of all 
 religion, is also the fundamental thought of this important treatise; 
 but religious feeling is for him not merely sense and taste for the infi- 
 nite, but the immediate consciousness of absolute dependence on God. 
 Jesus Christ, the original, pattern man, in whom the consciousness of 
 God resided in absolute power, redeemed the world by the life which 
 proceeded from him, in that he liberates the God-consciousness of his 
 believers, who are enslaved by the sensual consciousness and therefore 
 stand in need of redemption. It is consequently the work of dogma- 
 tics to explain scientifically the Christian consciousness as it exists as 
 a fact in the life of the believer ; it is not its work to prove, to esta- 
 blish, but only to unfold and to explain what exists as a fact in the 
 soul in its connection with the entire spiritual life ; wherefore dogma- 
 tics have nothing at all to do with philosophy. He demonstrated the 
 evangelical Protestant character of the doctrines of faith thus deve- 
 loped, by citations from the confessional works of both churches. But 
 notwithstanding the assurance that his dogmatics were independent 
 of every system of philosophy, his contemporaries thought they disco- 
 vered therein a large portion of Spinozian pantheistic leaven ; and it 
 can scarcely be denied that strong sympathies with the stand-point of 
 his earlier years exist in them. But by the side of his profound theo- 
 logy of feeling there resided in Schleiermacher also another mental 
 tendency, namely, that of a sharp, analyzing intellectual criticism, 
 to which he subjected not only single dogmatic tenets of the Church 
 (concerning the diiference between the Sabellian and Athanasian view 
 of the Trinity; concerning the doctrine of election, etc.), but also the 
 canon of the Scriptures, as also the evangelical accounts of the begin- 
 ning and end of Christ's life, birth, and ascension (Ueber d. s. g. 
 ersten Brief des Paulus an d. Timoth., 1807; Ueber die Schriften dea 
 Lukas, ein krit. Versuch, 1817). His lectures, which embraced almost 
 all branches of theology and philosophy (Dialectics, Ethics, Politics, 
 Esthetics, Pedagogics, etc.), and his other posthumous writings, aa 
 also his sermons, have been collected in his " Sammtlichen Werke, 
 1835 ff." 
 
 By the side of Schleiermacher in Berlin, and in various ways incited 
 and enriched by him, labored Anff. Neander since 1812 ; who exerted, 
 it is true, a much less intensive, but a much greater extensive influence 
 than he, for, since the times of Luther and Melanchthon, no theologi- 
 eal teacher had more devoted and reverent pupils than Neander. He 
 sntered into Schleiermacher's theology of feeling, and transformed it
 
 PROT EST A XT THEOLOGY IN GERMANY. 35c 
 
 into a theology of the heart ("Pectus est, quod theologum facit"). By 
 his subjective theoh)gy of the heart he became the progenitor of modern 
 scientific Pietism ; but it also incapacitated him from understan iin» 
 the pressure of the age to regain an objective and firm basis. At the 
 same time, also, the philosophy of conception, which spread so power- 
 fully immediately around him, was not less odious to him, than the 
 Confessionalism which in part proceeded from his own school ; and the 
 less he was able to retard its progress, the more his peculiar tendency 
 of mind inclined to morbid irritation and austere exclusiveness, even 
 to the "fanaticism of mildness and the intolerance of tolerance". Ho 
 was so entirely a Pectoralist, that even his criticism was only a criti- 
 cism of feeling ; and this was manifested nowhere more arbitrarily 
 than with regard to the historical books of the New Testament, where 
 he wavers continually between authenticity and non-authenticity, be- 
 tween history and myth (Gesch. d. Pflanzung u. Seitung der K. durch 
 die Apostel. 1832. i. A. 1837. 2 Bde.; most of all in the "Life of 
 Christ." 1837. 4. A. 1845). Concerning the most important Avork of 
 his life, the " History of the Church," cf §4, 4. Vol. I. He has also 
 acquired great reputation through monographic investigations in the 
 sphere of church history (Kaiser Julian a. s. Zeitalter, 1812: der h. 
 Bernhard u. s. Zeitalt. 1813. 2. A. 1848: Genetische Entwickl. d. vor- 
 nemst. gnost. Systeme, 1818 ; Der h. Chrysostomus u. d. K. sr. Zeit. 
 1821. 3. A. 1848. 2 Bde.; Antignostikus od. Geist, des TertuUian. 
 1826. 2. A. 1849 ; Denkwürdigkk. aus. d. Gesch. d. Christth. u. d. chr. 
 Lebens. 1822. 3 Bde. Kl. Gelegenheitsschriften. 3. A. 1825 ; Wissen- 
 schaftl. Abhandl. 1851). Neander died in 1850, and F.W. Krumma- 
 cher laments at his grave the " last church-father" ; whilst K. Schivarz 
 characterized him as a Protestant monk, whose cloister was the world 
 of the inner man. His lectures on the history of doctrines were pub- 
 lished by J. L. Jacobi. 2 Bde. 1857 f. (Cf. O. Krabbe, A. N. Hamb. 
 1852.) — The noble senator John Fred. i\ Meyer is worthy of a place 
 here as the originator of a theosophic current in pietistic and even 
 confessional Lutheran theology. lie repeatedly filled the office of a 
 president of the civil court, as also that of the first burgomaster of 
 Frankfurt-on-the-Maine, and Erlangen conferred upon him, in 1821, 
 the honorary title of D.D. He died in 1849. He owes his theosophio 
 tendency especially to the study of the Kabbala. He also published 
 " The Book of Jezira, in Heb. and Ger., 1830." His principal work 
 is: " Die h. Schrift in berichtiger Uebers. mit kurzen Anmerkk. 1819" 
 (3d edition, 1855, edited by R. Steir). He is pretty reserved witli his 
 theosophic views in his " Inbegrifl" der chr. Glaubenslehre, 1832"; 
 less so in his "Blättern für höhere Wahrheit. 11 Bde. 1820-32". 
 
 An important influence was exerted on the development of modern 
 theology, especially critical theology, by William Mart. Lcbr. de Wette. 
 He was called (1810), at the same time with Schleiermacher, to the 
 newly founded university of Berlin ; but a letter of consolation to
 
 ü56 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A.D.). 
 
 iS!a?id's mother, which was regarded as an apology for assassinatioix 
 aaused his removal from Berlin in 1819. Since 1822 he labored un 
 weariedly to his death, at Basle (1849). His theological views were 
 rooted in the philosophy of his friend Fries, to which he adhered uiitil 
 his death. Still, Schleiermacher's friendship also exerted an important 
 influence upon him He also placed the essence of religion in feeling, 
 which he, moreover, connected mo^e closely with knowledge and the 
 will. lie recognized in the doctrines of the Church an important sym- 
 bolical investiture of religious truth, on which account he was decried 
 for a long time by the Rationalists as a mystic. His great strength, 
 however, consisted in the sharp, analyzing criticism with which he 
 treated the biblical canon and the biVdical history of the Old and New 
 Testament; his commentaries on the whole of the New Testament, to 
 which he devoted the latter years of his life, are of permanent worth 
 (Exeget. Handbuch zum N. T. 3 Bde.) At this period also he approxi- 
 mated nearer and nearer to positive Christianity, attaining even to 
 greater prudence in the sphere of criticism. He was exceedingly fruit- 
 ful as an author, and his works are upon various subjects. He began 
 his career as an author with the " Krit. Versuche ü. d. Glaubwürdigk. 
 d. Bd. d. Chronik mit Rücksicht auf die mosaischen Bd. 1806." Then 
 followed : " Die Kritik, d. Israel. Gesch. 1807 ; Der Comment, zu d. 
 Psalmen. 1811, u. ö ; Die Bibellibersetzung (at first in connection with 
 Augusti, the 2d edition by himself alone) ; De morte Christi expiatoria, 
 1813 ; Lehrb. d. chr. Dogmatik. 1813, 2 Bde. ; Lehrb. d. hebr. jüd. 
 Archäologie, 3 A. 1842 ; Ueber Religion und Theologie, 2 A. 1821 : 
 Christi. Sittenlehre, 1819 ff. 3 Bde. ; Lehrb. d. Einl. ins A. 3 A. 1845, 
 and ins N. T. 4 A. 1848 ; Theodor, od. des Zweiflers Weihe, 2 A. 1828," 
 and many others. — The mental tendency of Charles Hase is related 
 with that of De Wette, although less critically analyzing, more aesthe- 
 tically trained, and less one-sided as regards philosophy. His connec- 
 tion with the Burschenschaft led to an imprisonment of five months in 
 the castle of Hohenasperg (1822). He labored since 1830 in Jena. He 
 was also incited by Fries' philosophy, but Fichte, Schelling, and 
 Schleiermacher, as well as Romantic national literature, exerted a 
 strong influence upon his rich spirit. He regarded Christ as the ideal 
 man, sinless, endowed with the fulness of all love and with the power 
 of pure humanity, as having truly risen from the dead, and as the be- 
 ginner of the new life in the kingdom of God, whose entire character 
 is most pui-ely, profoundly, and truly represented in the gospel of John, 
 who reclined on the Master's bosom. He unfolded his religious views 
 in the treatise : " Des alten Pfarrers Testament," 1822 ; further, in his 
 " Gnosis, 1826, 3 Bde.," calculated for the learned, in his " Lehrb. d. 
 ev. Dogmatik, 1825, 4. A. 1850," and in his " Leben Jesu, 1829, 3. A. 
 1853." His " Ilutterus redivivus, 1828, 9. A. 1858," in which he en- 
 deavors to exhibit old Protestant (Luth.) dogmatics, as Ilutterus, if he 
 now livftd, would have done it, provoked the most violent attacks from
 
 TROTESTANT THEOLOGY IN GERMANY, 357 
 
 Röhr and his clique, and led him to publish the " Theologischen 
 Sü-eitschriften, 3 Hefte, 183-1-37," by which vulgar Rationalism received 
 its death-blow. (Concerning Ilase's Church History, cf. § 4, 4, Vol. I.) 
 Equally fresh, spirited, and attractive, are his monographs from Church 
 History ("Neue Propheten: die Jungfrau v. Orleans, Savonarola, die 
 mlinsterschen Wiedertäufer, 1851; Franz von Assisi, ein Heiligenbild, 
 1855; Diebeiden Erzlnschöfe, 1839; D. geistl. Schauspiel, 1858," etc.) 
 lu his letter to Baur concerning the Tübingen School (1855) he en- 
 deavors to mediate, with a full acknowledgment of the efforts of Tubin- 
 gen, and labors to save at least the authenticity and credibility of the 
 fourth Gospel. 
 
 2. Rationalistic Theology. — Its principal organs were Bohr's Krit. 
 Predigerbibliothek since 1820, and Ernst Zimmermann's AUgem. 
 (DarmstUdter) Kirchenzeitung since 1822. The former adhered to its 
 end to the imperfectibility of the Rationalism of the ancien regime; 
 the latter became continually more orthodox within the last 40 years 
 (since Charles Zimmermann alone edited it, the ambiguous vignette 
 of the three clasped hands with the motto "We all believe in one God" 
 also received a decidedly Christian definiteness by the addition of the 
 crucifix. It is at this time, under Schenkel' s editorship, the organ of a 
 Melanchthonianism zealous for the Union). The rationalistic theology 
 of this period, however, divides into an old and a new -school. The 
 former, to which Rheinwald gave the classic name of Rationalismus 
 vulgaris, is characterized, on the one hand, by the unimprovableness, 
 with which it permitted all the currents of the new spirit in philosophy 
 and theology, in science and national literature to pass by without 
 having its povei-ty enriched the least thereby or being in the least 
 disturbed in its self-sufficiency, — and on the other hand, by the naive 
 conviction that its water of illumination was identical with the genuine 
 water of life of the holy Scriptures, on which account it continued 
 with touching perseverance to distil the spirit out of it by exegetical 
 arts, and to oifer the remaining phlegma for sale as the tincture of life. 
 Its contril)utions consequently have only worth at present for a cabinet 
 of antiquities or of curiosities. The new school, on the contrary, which 
 we may designate as historico-critical Rationalism, is characterized by 
 a more objective investigation of the Bible and of history, and does not 
 conceal from itself or from others the exclusive antithesis existing be- 
 tween Biblical and its rational theology, and it even takes pleasure ia 
 making this antithesis appear as glaring and sharp as possible. As 
 besides, its investigations are conducted in part at least with distin- 
 guished knowledge of language and of history, with great penetration 
 and thoroughness, many of its theological contributions have a perma- 
 nent worth. 
 
 The father of the Vulgar Rationalism of this period was John Fred. 
 Röhr, general superintendent at Weimar [oh. 1848). His " Briefe über 
 Rationalismus (1813) " laid down the famous doctrine, that " the wealth
 
 358 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (c E N T. 1 i) AD.) 
 
 of a farmer-general " was necessary, in order to resign an office inco» 
 eistent with one's own conviction. In the " Grund-und GUubens-sätzec 
 der ev. prot. K." he sketched a new symbol, with the sweet hope of 
 thereby supplanting the old ones, and he contended with great enthu- 
 siasm for " The good cause of German Catholicism (1846)." Eberh. 
 Gottl. Paulus {ob. 1851, aged 90 years) contended by his side to his last 
 breath for the sole supremacy of intellectual faith, which Marheineke 
 defined as a faith which believes that it thinks and thinks that it be- 
 lieves, but is equally unable to do either. His " Philol. krit Commentar 
 zum N. T." interpreted all the accounts of the miracles of the N. T. with 
 incredible ingenuity, as being merely misunderstood narrations of per- 
 fectly natural events. He also was enthusiastic for German Catholi- 
 cism. Jul. Aug. Lndw. Wegscheider of Halle [oh. 1849) dedicated his 
 " Institutionestheol. christ. dogmaticae (1815, 8. A. 1844)," which treated 
 the dogmatic proof-texts of the Bible as Dr. Paulus treated the mira- 
 cles, to the piis Manibus Lutheri. Charles Gottl. Bretschneider, general 
 superintendent of Gotha [ob. 1848) began as a moderate supranaturalist 
 (Entwickl. aller in d. Dogm. vorkommenden Begriffe 1805), but ad- 
 vanced in the various editions of his " Ilandb. d. Dogmatic (1814, 4, A. 
 1838) nearer and nearer to Vulgar Rationalism, whose perfection ia 
 already represented in his "Grundlage des ev. Pietismus, oder Lehre 
 von Adam's Fall," etc. etc. (1833). He also wrote several poor ration 
 alistic romances (Heinrich u. Antonio od. d. Proselyten ; der Freiherr 
 V. Sandan od. d. gemischten Ehen ; Clementine oder die Frommen u. 
 Alto-läubigen unsrer Tage). He also rendered important service by 
 his "Corpus Reformatorum," which thus far (Bd. 26) only embraces Me- 
 lanchthon's works. Christoph. Fred. v. Ammon, Reinhard's successor 
 at Dresden [ob. 1850), also followed in the same way from rational 
 Supranaturalism (Summa theologiae ; Bibl. Theol. ; Handb. d. chr. 
 Sittenlehre, etc. etc.) through all possible deviations to Vulgar Ration- 
 alism (Fortbildung des Christenthums zur Weltreligion, 4 Bde.) In 
 his " Leljen Jesu," however, he has finally placed himself on D. Strauss' 
 stand-point. But on the other hand also, when Harms published his 
 theses (1817), he commended them "as a bitter medicine for thoso 
 weak in faith of our time," for which he was compelled to hear hard 
 words from Schleiermacher. 
 
 Next to De Wette among the representatives of historico-critical Ra- 
 tionalism stands G. Bened. Winer of Leipsic [ob. 1858), the founder of 
 the "Grammatik des N. T. Sprachidioms" (6. A. 1856), by which phi 
 lological thoroughness and acumen were first brought to the interpre- 
 tation of the N. T. His " Handb. der theol. Literature," and especially 
 his " Real-lexicon" (3. A. 1847) are master-pieces of true German Indus 
 try combined with admirable acuteness. K. Fr. Aug. Fritzche of Giessen 
 pushed the philological acuteness of interpreting the N. T. to the most 
 extreme one-sldedness (Commentare zum Matth., Mark, u. Romerbr.). 
 K. A. Credner of Giessen {ob. 1857) contributed much that was excel-
 
 PROTESTANT THEOLOGY IN GERMANY. 359 
 
 lout to the isago<r;ics of the N. T. David Schulz of Breslau [ob. 1854), 
 a violent opponent of the evang. Kirchenzeitung and of the Silesian 
 Lutherans, to whom their persecution is in great part chargeable, de- 
 fends his superficial Rationalism in the " Christi. Lehre vom heil, 
 Abendm.," and in the " Christi. Lehre vom Glauben ; " his colleague, D. 
 G. C. V. Colin [ob. 1833) elaborated Münscher's "Dogmengeschichte," and 
 left behind a " Bibl. Theologie" (edited by D. Schulz, 1836). William 
 Öe.swuM.? of Halle [ob. 1842) acquired a high reputation in the depart- 
 ment of the philological study of the 0. T. by his Hebrew grammars 
 and lexicons. IHs commentary on Isaiah (3 Bde. 1821) contains able 
 historical studies. — From his school proceeded Fr. Tuch of Leipsic 
 (Comment, zur Genesis) and Aug. Knobel of Giessen (der Prophetismus 
 der Hebräer ; Comm. zum B. Koheleth, zur Genesis, zum Exod. u. 
 Leviticus; die Völkertafel). Herrn. Hupfeld of Marburg and Halle, 
 although contending on Bickell's side in the controversy about symbols 
 in the electorate of Hesse (1838, cf. |55, 3), nevertheless, fell into the toils 
 of Rationalism through his science of the O.T. (Kritik d. Genesis; defesto- 
 rum apud Helir. ratione ; Comm. zu d. Psalmen, 2 Bde. etc. ) Fred. Hitzig 
 of Zurich excels them all in boldnessof criticizing acuteness and conform- 
 ing with the spirit of the rationalistic interpretation (Begriff derKritik 
 am A. T. errötert. 1831; Urgesch. u. Mythologie der Philistäer, 1845; 
 Commentare zum Isaiah, d. Psalmen, d. 12 kl. Proph., Jer., Ezech., 
 Daniel, Pred. Sal.; John, Marcus u. s. Schriften, 1843, etc.). — Henry 
 Ewald of Göttingen, whose hand is against every man, and every man's 
 hand against him, is the acknowledged dictator in the sphere of Hebrew 
 grammar, practises on the Biblical books a criticism arbitrary and 
 subjective beyond description, but not on this account with the less 
 presumption of being omniscient and infallible ; holds yearly in his 
 "Jahrbüchern der bibl. Wissenschaft" an auto-da-fe oyer the collected 
 theological and biblical literature of the departed year; and issues — 
 being a prophet as well as Isaiah and Jeremiah — in every preface a 
 prophetical burden agixinst the theological, ecclesiastical, or political 
 mischief-makers of our times. He has acquired a high reputation in 
 the virtuosoship of low abuse and slander, and the old saying of the 
 Caliph Omar " either — or" is actualized annually in his "Jahrbücher", 
 It is a pity that a moral earnestness so able has evaporated in the most 
 boundless pride; that a spirit so powerful, rich, and noble, has gone 
 to ruin in the most fathomless subjectivism. His works (Composition 
 d. Genesis, 1823 ; Hebr. Grammatik, 1827, 6. A. 1856 ; Hohelied, 1826; 
 Comm. in Apocalypsin, 1828 ; Die poetischen Bb. d. A. T. 4 Bde. 2. A. 
 1840; Die Propheten d. A. Bundes, 2 Bde. 1840; Gesch. d. Volkes 
 Israel bis auf Christus, 7 Bde., 2. A. 1851 ff. ; Gesch. Christus u. sr. 
 Zeit. 2. A. 1857 ; Gesch. des apost. Zeitalter, 1858 ; Die drei ersten 
 Evangelien, 1850 ; Die Sendschreiben des Ap. Paulus, 1857 ; Das Buch 
 Henoch, 1854; Die sibyllinischen Bücher, 1859) nevertheless, contain 
 much that is worthy of notice, that is suggestive and full of spirit
 
 360 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A.D.) 
 
 More judicious are the contributions of his disciple Ernst Bertheau of 
 Göttingen (Zur Gesch. d. Israeliten, 1842; Comment, zu den Sprüchen 
 Sal., zur Chronik, zu den Richtern, etc.) Ccesar v. Lengerke of Königs- 
 berg also [ob. 1855), who experienced the pain of being compelled to 
 withdraw from the professorship of the literature of the Old Testament 
 in favor of his antipode Hävernick, and of retiring into the philoso- 
 phical faculty, connected himself in his later writings with Ewald, but 
 also did not disdain in his compilatory way to use with rare candor 
 even Ilengstenberg's writings (Comment, zum Daniel, 1835 ; Kenäan 
 oder Gesch. Israels, Bd. I. 1843 ; Comment, zu d. Psalmen, 2 Bde. 
 1846). Otto Thenius has also made himself known as an able inter- 
 preter of the Old Testament (Die Bb. Sam. u. d. Könige, 1842-49). 
 Otto Fridolin Fritzsche of Zurich has, in connection with William, 
 Orimm of Jena, rendered important service in the interpretation of 
 the Apocrypha of the 0. Test. (Exeg. Handb. 1851 ff.). Yet worthy 
 of special mention as interpreters of the O. Test, are Gtist. Baur of 
 Giessen (Amos, 1847) and Aug. Simson of Königsberg (Hosea, 1851). 
 To the Church historians in this rubric belong /. E. Chr. Schmidt of 
 Giessen [oh. 1831), Leber. Danz of Jena, and above all /. C.L. Gieseler 
 of Göttingen [ob. 1855). (Cf. § 4, Vol. I.) 
 
 3. The Supranaturalistic Schools. — So-caWed Rational Supranatu- 
 ralism is characterized by the acknowledgment of supernatural reve- 
 lation in the Scriptures, but regards reason as being a source of reli- 
 gious knowledge of equal authority with it, and consequently asserts 
 the rationality of the contents of revelation. Its chief representatives 
 are: H. Gotfl. Tzchirner of Leipsic [ob. 1828), (Briefe liber Reinhard's 
 Geständnisse ; Katholicismiis u. Protestantismus vom Standp. d. Poli- 
 tik ; Forts, von Schröckh's K. G. ; Gesch. d. chr. Apologetik, Bd. I. ; 
 Der Fall des Heidth, Bd. I., published by Niedner ; Vorless liber d. 
 Glaubensl., published by Ilase), J. Aug. Heinr. Tittmann of Leipsic 
 {ob. 1831), (Pragmat. Gesch. d. Theol. u. Rel. since 1750; Ueber Su- 
 pranaturalism.. Rationalism, u. Atheism.), E. Fred. Charles Rosen- 
 m'dller of Leipsic [ob. 1835), (Scholia in V. T. 23 Bde. ; altes u. neues 
 Morgenland; Handb. d. bibl. AUerthumsk., etc.), Chr. Fr. Illgen oi 
 Leipsic [oh. 1834), (Founder of the hist, theol. Ztschr.), L. Fr. Otto 
 Baumgarten-Crusius of Jena [ob. 1843), (Grundzlige d. bibl. Theol. ; 
 Lehrbuch u. Compendium d. Dogmengesch. ; Ueber Gewissensfreiheit, 
 Lehrfreih. u. li. d. Ratlsm. u. s. Gegner ; Theol. Comment. Zum Ev. 
 Joh., etc.) Ammon can also be classed with these. 
 
 SH2)ranaturalism proper (suprarational) was also represented by 
 Storr, Reinhard, Planck, Staiidlin (| 50, 6). Storr's school prevailed 
 in Wiirtemberg for 30 years. Its organs were : BengeVs Archiv. 1816- 
 2ß ; klaiber's Studien d. ev. Geistlk. Würtb. 1827-35, and Sieudel's 
 Tübinger Ztschr. f. Theol. 1828-35 ; its most distinguished representa- 
 tives were: /. Fr. v. Flatt [ob. 1821), (opponent of Kant's philosophy) ; 
 E. Gottl. V. Bengel [ob. 1826) ; /. Christ. Fred. Steudel [oh. 1837),
 
 PROTESTANT THEOLOGY IN GERMANY. 361 
 
 (Glaubenslehre; Bibl. Theol. d. A. T., etc.) The excellent E. Leonh. 
 Heiihner, director of the seminary at Wittenberg [ob. 1853), was Rein- 
 hard's disciple, and he was also the most able and churchly of the 
 older Supranaturalists. /. Chr. William Augusti of Bonn [ob. 1841), 
 at first a Rationalist, also declared later in favor of the old-church 
 system, and opposed, when occasion aiForded, the Prussian Union in 
 favor of unconditional territorial privilege (Kritik d. preuss. Kirchen- 
 agende, 1824) ; he acquired the greatest reputation in the sphere of 
 ecclesiastical archfeology (Denkwlirdigkk., 12 Bde. 1817, Handbuch, 3 
 Bde. 1836) ; Arig. Hahn, general superintendent of Breslau, made a 
 great stir, when he was called to Leipsic, by defending his treatise De 
 rationalism 'vera indole, and by the " Offene Erklärung an die evang. 
 K.," which followed it, by which he called upon the Rationalists to 
 leave the Church (1827). His own system (Lehrb. d. Christi. Glaubens. 
 1828), however, not only lacks the firm and sure consistency of the old 
 system, but also weakens it in not quite unessential points. The second 
 edition (2 Bde. 1857 ff.) has overcome these weak points and defects in 
 great part. George Will. Rud. Böhmer of Breslau has writfen works 
 in a difiicult and diffuse style, on almost all theological sul)jects, with 
 spirit and solid learning. His chief works are : Die Christlich-kirchl. 
 Alter-thumswissensch., 2 Bde., 1836 ff. ; Die ehr. Dogmatik u. Glau- 
 benswissensch., 2 Bde. 1840 ff. ; Theolog. Ethik. 2 Bde. 1848 ff. ; Die 
 Lehrunterschiede der katholl. u. evangell. Kk. Bd. I. 1857 ; Comment, 
 zum Colosserbr. 1835, etc. 
 
 The leaders of pietistic Supranaturalism, next to A. Neander, are 
 before all others Tholuck and Hengstenberg ; the organ of the former 
 was the "Literarischer Anzeiger" (1830-49), and that of the latter, 
 the "Evang. Kirchenzeitung." Aug. Tholuck, since 1826 Prof, at 
 Halle, at first devoted himself to oriental studies, but, being scientifi- 
 cally incited by Neander, and practically by Baron von Kottwitz of 
 Berlin (the patriarch of his "AVahren Weihe des Zweiflers"), he ap- 
 plied himself with glowing enthusiasm to theological studies. He 
 possessed a versatile and highly gifted mind, which was highly culti- 
 vated, and he led many thousands to Christ, or established them in 
 Him by writings, lectures, sermons, and intercourse, — he also trained 
 up many youths in the confessional Lutheran tendency, whilst he him- 
 self, otherwise adhering to no important tendency in science, art, and 
 practical life, and receptive for all the currents of the age of whatever 
 kind, entirely avoided this one current. His scientific theology became 
 since then more and more latitudinarian, even almost to an entire 
 rejection of the idea of miracles and of inspiration ; but he has never- 
 theless preserved the pietistic characteristic of his inner life, and with 
 it the entire warmth, depth, and freshness of a mind thoroughly pene- 
 trated by Christ. He is most important as an interpreter and apologist 
 of the New Testament, especially since violent attacks drove him to 
 greater philological acuteness. Here belong the Comment, zum Ro- 
 74
 
 362 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. i9 A.D.) 
 
 merbrief, 1824, 5 A. 1855 ; Ev. Johannis, 7 A. 1857 ; Hebräerbrief, £ 
 A. 1850; Bergpredigt, 4 A. 1856; Psalmen, 1843 ;— Wahre Weihe de.i 
 Zweiflers od. die Lehre von d. Sünde u. d. Versöhner [the counterpart 
 of De Wette's " Theodor, etc."] 1823, 7 A. 1851 ; Glaubwürdigkeit d. 
 evang. (Jesch. [against D. Strauss] 2 A. 1838. Fruits of his oriental 
 studies are : Ssufisraus s. theosophia Persarum pantheist., 1821; Blü- 
 thensamml. orient. Mystik, 1825 ; Speculative Trinitätslehre d. spät. 
 Orients. 1826. Of a historical and apologetical character are : Ver- 
 mischten Schriften, 2 Bde. 1839. In his " Vorstudien zu einer Gesch. 
 des Rationalism" (Der Geist d. Luth. Theologen Wittenb. im 17 
 Jahrb. 1852 ; Das akad. Leben des 17 Jahrb. 1853) he almost loses out 
 of view his real object through his thorough investigation of the curiosi- 
 ties and scandals of private and student life. Of a practical character 
 are his " Stunden der Andacht., 4 A. 1847," and his Sermons, 6 Bde. 
 1838 ff. Ernst William Hengstenberg, since 1826 Prof, at Berlin, passed 
 through an entirely opposite process of development. Being hardened 
 by numerous conflicts, in none of which he yielded a hair's breadth, 
 he stood'in science as also in practical life like a brazen wall and an 
 iron pillar against the whole land, and against the kings of Judah, and 
 against their priest, and against the people in the land, mistrustful of 
 the gifts of science, but also adhering with almost unparalleled obsti- 
 nacy to his views in spite of all counter-arguments, and tracing back 
 all diverging views and theories, even those of decidedly churchly 
 theologians, to Rationalism and Naturalism. Born in the Reformed 
 Church, and even yet more attached to Calvinistic Spiritualism than to 
 Lutheran Realism in his interpretation of the Scriptures, and often 
 even rationalizing in the most striking way with the scriptural accounts 
 of miracles, which do not correspond with his idea of Avhat is worthy 
 of God, he must nevertheless be reckoned among the confessional Lu- 
 therans within the Union according to his then dogmatical conviction, 
 and on account of his energetic opposition to the anti-Lutheran prac- 
 tice of the Union. Moreover, to him belongs the honor of first re- 
 awakening, reviving, and fostering the taste and zeal for the study of 
 the Old Testament, and also of having vindicated the genuineness of 
 those books of the 0. T. which were most assailed: (Christologie des 
 A. T. 3 Bde. 1829 ff., 2 A. 1854 ff. ; Beiträge zur Einl. ins A. T. 3 Bde. 
 1831 ff. ; Die Bb. Mose's u. Ägypten. 1841 ; Gesch. Bileams u. s. 
 Weissagungen. 1842 ; Comment, zu d. Psalmen, 2 A. 1849 ff. 4 Bde. ; 
 Comm. u. d. Offenb. Job. 2 Bde. 1850 ff. ; Die Opfer d. h. Sehr. 1852 ; 
 Der Tag des Herrn. 1852; Auslegung d. Hohenliedes. 1853 ; Commen- 
 tar zum Prediger Sal. 1858). Herrn. Olshauscn of Königsberg and 
 Erlangen [ob. 1839) opposed the rationalistic superficializing of exegesis 
 with "Einem Worte über tieferen Schriftsinn, 1824," and greatly pro- 
 moted the religious elevation of the last thirty years by his own spirited, 
 fresh, and suggestive, but as regards philology unsatisfactory, com- 
 mentary (Bibl. Commentar zum N. T. 1830 ff. 4 Bde. 3 A. 1837,' con-
 
 PROTESTANT THEOLOGY IN GERMANY. 368 
 
 Rinued by Wiesinger and Ebrard). He also felt himself called (lieber 
 die neuesten kirchlichen Ereignisse in Schlesien, 1835) to bear testi- 
 mony against the persecuted Lutherans in Silesia. Rud. Stier, super- 
 intendent at Schkeuditz, incited by Fr. v. Meyer, and receiving from 
 him a theosophic element, has acquired a high reputation for profound 
 and thorough interpretation of the Scriptures, which was compelled to 
 lay under the ban of undeserved neglect for a long time (Andeutungen 
 fur gläubiges SchriftverstUndniss, 4 Bde. 1824 if. ; Siebzig ausgewählte 
 Psalmen ; Jesaias, nicht Pseudsjesais ; Ilebräerbrief ; Br. Judä ; Ephe- 
 serbrief ; Die Reden Jesu, etc.) In " Unlutherischen Thesen, deutlich 
 für Jedermann," 1854, he so powerfully opposed the actions of confes- 
 sional Lutheranism, that the " beams cracked." J. Andr. Casp. Hä- 
 vernick of Königsberg [oh. 1845), a disciple of Hengstenberg and of 
 Tholuck, was torn away by death in the midst of his theological career 
 (Einl. ins A. T. 3 Bde. 183G ; Comm. zum Proph. Daniel, 1832, zum 
 Proph. Ezechiel, 1843 ; Vorless. Ü. d. bibl. Theol. d. A. T. 1848). A yet 
 briefer period of life was granted to his promising friend and former 
 co-laborer at the newly established theological school at Geneva, Wil- 
 liam Steiger [ob. 1836) (Kritik des Rationalismus in Wegscheider's 
 Dogmatik. 1830, Comment, zu I. Petri and Colosser). Bimsen (sec. 5) 
 and Güschel (sec. 6) also belong here according to their first predomi- 
 nant pietistic stadium of experience. — This school was shipwrecked on 
 the question : either Union or Confession. The chiefs themselves, who 
 survived the crisis of the forty years, advanced on the right and left 
 beyond it ; they and their disciples connected themselves partly with 
 modern "German theology," and partly crowded around the banner 
 of Lutheran Confessionalism, Stier alone scorned to connect himself 
 with either. 
 
 4. The fathei of modern speculative theology was Charles Daub, 
 Prof, at Heidelberg (since 1794), where in 1836 he was snatched 
 away by death. He did not permit all the phases of philosophy to 
 pass him by untouched, but both he and his theology were penetrated 
 by them. He wrote, from Kant's stand-point, a work on Catechetics 
 (1801) ; then he inclined to Fichte and then to Schelling (Theologu- 
 mena, 1806 ; Einleitung in die Christi. Dogmatik, 1809, and Judas 
 Ischarioth od. Betrachtungen ü. d. Böse im Verb, zum Guten, 1816). 
 In Judas, where he acknowledges Satan as his own creator, as the most 
 wonderful monster of nature, whom God tolerates from love, and finds 
 in him the original cause of evil, he reached the summit, but also the 
 "limits of his Schellingian process of thinking. In the " Dogmatischen 
 Theologie jetziger Zeit, oder die Selbstsucht in d. Theol., 1833," he 
 Stands in the atmosphere of Hegelian philosophy. He powerfully at- 
 tracted and stimulated the youth who sat at his feet; his works, 
 written in "the language of the Olympians," were, however, too little 
 understood, to enable the grand objectivity, the moral energy, the 
 power of faith, the depth and richness of thought, which thej'^ con
 
 364 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A. D ) 
 
 fcained, to be felt far and wide. His lectures were published in 8 vols. 
 by Marheineke. Nearest to him stands Phil. Marheineke of Berlin 
 [ob. 1846). The first edition of his dogmatics (1819) is based on Schel- 
 lingian principles ; in the second, Lutheran orthodoxy, in the form of 
 the Hegelian idea, predominates. Of much greater significance, and 
 truly breaking the way, is his Christi. Symbolik (1810 S. 3 Bde). The 
 most valuable of his works is the " Reformationsgeschichte" (4 Bde. 
 1816 S. 2 A. 1831 Ö'.), a genuine popular work in the noblest sense of 
 the word. — After Hegel's death (1831) the older of his disciples en- 
 deavored to assert the orthodox tendency of his philosophy. Charles 
 Rosenkranz organized according to it the " Encyklopädia der theol. 
 Wissenschaften, 1831," and Göschel continued to theologize in his 
 spirited way in Hegelian forms. The faith in the orthodoxy of the 
 system received its first blow through Fr. Richter, who in his work 
 " Die Lehre von den letzen Dingen, 1833," rejected the idea of immor- 
 tality in the sense of the continuance of personal existence ; Göschel 
 undertook its vindication with doubtful result. Billroth, himself still 
 adhering to the orthodox current, made it the task of scientific exegesis 
 to develop the ideas, which unconsciously constituted the basis of the 
 Biblical representations, and exemplified this in the " Korintherbriefen" 
 (1833). But this principle was soon seriously applied in quite a dif- 
 ferent way. David Strauss, namely, applying it, represented the 
 "Leben Jesu" (1835) as a product of purposeless poetical tradition, 
 and then attempted to prove in his "Glaubenslehre" (1840), that all 
 Christian doctrines were made null and void by modern science. But 
 openly as he also taught that Pantheism was "that which was im- 
 perishable in Christianity ; " nevertheless, his successors went far 
 beyond him. Bruno Bauer declared, after he had passed over from 
 the right wing of the Hegelian school to the extreme left, that the 
 gospels were the product of a deception as crude and spiritless as it 
 was clearly designed ; and lAidioig Feuerbach maintained, that the 
 new gospel of self-worship was " the essence of Christianity." The 
 rupture of the school was now complete. What Rosenkranz and 
 Schaller contributed from the centre, what Göschel and G. Andr. 
 Gabler (de verae philosophiae erga pietatem amore) contributed from 
 the right wing to vindicate the system, was not able to restore the 
 illusion, destroyed for ever, of its fundamentally Christian character. 
 The right wing of the Hegelian school was dissolved, its adherents 
 fleeing partly to the camp of the "German" theologians, and partly 
 under the banner of the Lutheran confession ( Göschel, Kleifoth, 
 Kahnis). 
 
 But David Strauss with his " Life of Jesus" was only the advance 
 skirmisher of a school, which was engaged in casting critical artillery 
 of the heaviest calibre under the direction of a great master. Ferd. 
 Christian Baur of Tübingen, a man who was equalled by but few of 
 ttis contemporaries in penetratinig acuteness, and by none in gigantic
 
 PROTESTANT THEOLOGY IN GERMANY. 36& 
 
 industry and astounding learning, can be called as well a disciple of 
 Schleiermacher as of Ilegel. He inherited from Schleiermacher hia 
 sharply analyzing criticism, from Hegel, the view of history, that 
 always and everywhere the imperfect, the elementary, and the rude, 
 was the point of departure of historical development. He had acquired 
 a reputation (Mythol. u. Symbolik d. Naturrel. d. Alth. 1824 f. 3 Bde.), 
 before Hegelian philosophy exerted an influence on him. But since 
 then his activity and reputation increased in a truly brilliant manner 
 (Das manich. Religionssystem, 1831 ; Die christl. Gnosis, 1835 ; Die 
 chr. Lehre v. d. Versöhnung, 1838 ; Die chr. Lehre v. d. Dreieinigk. 
 u. Menschwerdung, 1841 fl'. 3 Bde. ; Der Gegensatz des Pi-otestsm. u. 
 Katholicism, gegen Möhler, 1836 ; Lehrb. d. Dogmengesch. 2. A. 1857 ; 
 Die Epochen der kirchl. Geschichtschreibung, 1852, etc.) Ilis studies 
 were confined for the most part to the primitive history of the church, 
 and he held a view with regard to it which reversed everything that 
 was supposed to be known about it. According to this view, primitive 
 Christianity was nothing but shallow Ebionitism, and all the writings 
 of the New Testament, with the exception of tlie Epistles to the 
 Romans, Corinthians, and Galatians, as also the Apocalypse, were 
 originated late in the second century for the purpose of covering 
 and harmonizing the conflict between Petrine Jewish and Pauline 
 Gentile Christianity, which had been raging up to this time. 
 The master himself made public only the first rudiments of this 
 doctrine, which, however, scarcely permitted its comprehensive exten- 
 sion and grand articulation to be anticipated from afar, in his work : 
 "Die s. g. Pastoralbriefe d. A. Paulus," 1835. Ed. Zeller established 
 (1842) the Tübinger iheol. Jahrbücher' as the organ of this school, and 
 Baur unfolded the results of his restless investigations partly in a 
 multitude of treatises in this journal, and pai'tly in special works 
 (Paulus, d. Ap. J. Chr. 1845 ; Der Kritiker u. der Fanatiker gegen 
 Thiersch. 1846 ; Krit. Unterss. ü. d. kanon. Erv. 1847 ; Die ignatianis- 
 chen Briefe gegen Bunsen, 1848 ; Das Markus-Ev. 1849 ; Das Christlth. 
 u. d. chr. K. d. drei erst. Jahi-h. 1853). He was emulated by his dis- 
 ciples: A. Schwegler {ub. 1856) (der Montanismus u. d. K. d. 2. Jahrh, 
 1841 ; Das nachapost. Zeitalt. 1846, 2 Bde.) ; Ed. Zeller of Berne (Die 
 Apostelgesch. krit. unters. 1854 ; Das theol. System Zwingli's, 1853), 
 the talented Albr. Ritschl of Bonn (Entstehung der altkath. Kirche, 
 1850, 2. A. 1857, etc.), the indefatigably and inexhaustibly fruitful A. 
 Hil(/eiijeld of Jena, and many others. Closely united as tiie school was 
 in tlie beginning, still dissensions, retractions, and retrograde move- 
 ments were not wanting on account of the indefatigableness with which 
 always the same subjects were investigated, and always the same masses 
 of rock were tossed hither and thither. Hilgenfeld and Ritschl espe- 
 cially made concessions in favor of orthodoxy. The latter in particular 
 may be regarded as a complete apostate of the scliool, inasmuch as he 
 iias appeared as the decided opponent of aim ^st all of its peculiar doo 
 74*
 
 366 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A.D.) 
 
 trines in the second edition of his principal work. Even with th« 
 master and his disciples of the stricter class, a certain, it may be 
 weariness or resignation, seems to have found place. But the perma- 
 nent gain of new information and of clearer insight into the develop- 
 ment of the primitive Church, which was partly obtained by this school, 
 partly by its opponents, is very great and worthy c^ acknowledgment. 
 Hilgenfeld, after the " Tübinger Jahrbb." were no longer published, 
 made a new organ for himself in the " Zeitschrift für wissensch. Theo- 
 logie" (1858), which, however, seems to have a wider horizon than the 
 "Jahrbücher."*" 
 
 5. The right-wing school of Schleiermacher forms the trunk of 
 "■modern" or "German" theology. Still many adherents of the pie- 
 tistic and speculative schools also connected themselves with it, after 
 the dissolution and dismemberment of their schools. It passed beyond 
 Schleiermacher in various ways. In the first place, it became more 
 positive in its dogmatics, and more conservative in its criticism ; it 
 emancipated itself from the Spinozian elements in the view taken of 
 the world by the master, and endeavored to combine modern specula- 
 tion with Schleiermacher's theology of feeling. It shows its descent 
 from Schleiermacher especially in its affection for the Union. It, how- 
 ever, desires not merely a church-governmental, but also a confessional 
 Union on the basis of the consensus of both confessions, and strives 
 after establishing a consensus symbol, although its subjective dogmatics 
 reserves to itself the freedom of more or less material departures from 
 sino-le consensus doctrines as founded in " the liberty of teaching." It 
 cultivates systematic theology with special predilection, without, mean- 
 while, neglecting too much the other sciences. Schleiermacher's dis- 
 regard of the Old Testament, nevertheless, seems still to operate, inas- 
 much as this school has scarcely any distinguished Old Testament 
 theologians, who are to be found at this time only among the Ration- 
 alists and Lutherans. The scientific organs of this school are : the 
 " Theol. Studien und Kritiken" of ülhnajin and Umbreit since 1828 ; 
 the " deutsche Zeitschr. für ehr. Wissensch. u. ehr. Leben," established 
 by J. Müller, Nitzsch, and Neander, edited by Th. Schneider since 
 1850 (since 1858 edited by W. A. Hollenherg), and the "Jahrbb. für 
 deutsche Theologie" of Dorner and Liebner since 1856. The " Reper- 
 torium für theol. Literatur und Kirchliche Statistik," established by 
 Eheinwald (1831), now edited by Hei'in. Renter of Breslau, also belongs 
 essentially to this tendency ; although often decided representatives of 
 churchly Confessionalism also speak through it. The "neue evange- 
 lische Kirchenzeitung," edited since 1859 by H. Messner, announces 
 itself as the organ of the German branch of the Evangelical Alliance 
 [I 54, 5), and almost all of the distinguished representatives of the 
 Union are its contributors. 
 
 Although "German" theology would have all special ecclesiastical 
 differences eradicated and obliterated from principle, nevertheless, the
 
 PROTESTANT THEOLOGY IN GERMANY. 367 
 
 descent from the one or the other church has not been entirely without 
 influence upon the collective mental tendency of its adherents. Itt 
 principal representatives from the Reformed Church are: Alex. Schwei- 
 zer of Zurich, the one of all Schleiermacher's disciples vrho has pre- 
 served the nej^ative critical tendency of the master in its purest form, 
 and continued to cultivate it with the most acuteness (" Ueber die 
 Digiiität dos Religionsstifters," "Glaubenslehre der ev. reform. K, 
 1S44;" "Gesch. d. protest. Centraldogmen. 1853;" "Krit. Unters, d. 
 Ev. Joh. 1841"). Nearest to him stood Matth. Sclineckcnhcrycr of 
 Berne [oh. 1849), an acute and independent investigator (Beitr. zur 
 Einl. ins N.T. 1832; zur kirchl. Christologie, 1848 ; Vergleichende 
 Darstellung d. luth. u. ref. Lehrbegriffs, published by Glider, 1855). 
 A'. Beruh. Hundeshagen of Berne and Heidelberg, is the author of the 
 spirited treatise : " Der deutsche Protestsm., s. Vergangenh. u. s. heutige 
 Lebensfrage, von e. deutschen Theologen. 1847." Charles Henry Sack, 
 formerly Prof. in Bonn, now consistorial councillor at Magdeburg, is 
 one of the oldest and at the same time most positive disciples of 
 Schleiermacher (Christi. Apologetik. 1829, 2. A. 1841 ; Christi. Pole- 
 mik, 1838). John Feter Lange, originally a Pietist, is a man most 
 highly gifted with imaginative, poetic, and speculative talents, a 
 dilettaut in all sciences, a pyrotechnist, who lets his mental fire shine, 
 sparkle, and flash continually, in all colors and forms in his writings 
 (Vermischte Schriften, 4 Bde.; Das Land der Herrlichkeit; Leben 
 Jesu, 4 Bde. ; Dogmatik, 3 Bde. ; Gesch. d. apost. Zeitalters, 2 Bde. ; 
 Theologisch-homiletisches Bibehverk, 1858 ff.) Charles Rud. Hagen- 
 bach of Basle wrote besides his Church History (| 4, Vol. I.) " Lehrbb. 
 der Dogmengeschichte," 4. A. 1857, which is much used, and the 
 "Theolog. Encyklopadie," 5. A. 1858. Zealous Melanchthonians are: 
 Daniel Schenkel of Heidelberg (Das Wesen des Protestantismus aus 
 den Quellen des Reformations-zeitalters, 3 Bde. 1845 ff. ; Princip des 
 Protestantism, 1851 ; Gespräche über Protestantism, u. Katholicism, 
 2 Bde. 1852 f. ; Der Unionsberuf des Protestantism, 1855 ; Die Christi. 
 Dogmatik vom Standpunkt des Gewissens, Bd. 1. 1858). — Henry Heppe 
 of iNIarburg, a diligent and careful, but one-sided investigator into the 
 sources of the period of the Reformation (Gesch. des deutschen Pro- 
 testantism, 4 Bde. 1852 ff. ; Die confessionelle Entwickl. der altprotest. 
 K. Dcutsohl. 1854; Bekenntnissschriften der altprotest. K. Deutsch- 
 lands, 1855 ; Dogmatik des deutschen Protestantism, im IH, .Jahrh. 3 
 Bde. 1857 ; Gesch. des deutschen Volksschuhvosen, 3 Bde. 1858) — and 
 John Henry Atig. Ehrard, consistorial councillor at Spire, a spirited, 
 devout, and versatile theologian (Wissensch. Kritik, der evang. Gesch. 
 2. A. 1850: Christi. Dogmatik, 2 Bde. 1851 f.; Vorless. u. d. prakt 
 Theol. 1854; Commentare zur HebrUerbr. u. zur Apok., etc.) 
 
 Among the disciples of Schleiermacher from the Lutheran Church, 
 Fred. Lücke of Gottingen [oh. 1855) is to be mentioned first. He was 
 the first who, even before Tholuck, manifested a spirited, fresh, and
 
 368 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A.D.). 
 
 devout exegesis; but, like Tholuck, he became more and more fre»- 
 thinking and latitudinarian in his relation to the Scriptures and to the 
 faith of the Church (Grundriss d. neutest. Hermeneutik, 1822 ; Comm. 
 Ü. d. Schriften d. Johannes, 1820 ff., 4 Bde. 3. A. 1843 ff.). Charles 
 Imm. Nitzsch of Bonn and Berlin, a profound thinker, is next to Jul. 
 Müller the most influential and respected of the Consensus theolo- 
 gians (System d. chr. Lehre, 6. A. 1852 ; Protest. Beantw. d. Symbolik 
 Möhler's, 1834 ; Prakt. Theol. 1847 ff., 3 Bde. ; Urkundenbuch d. ev. 
 Union, 1853, etc.) Jul. Müller of Göttingen and Halle is, apart from 
 the strange reception of an antemundaue fall, and notwithstanding h'w 
 inflexibility in favor of an actual, not merely church governmental, 
 but also confessional Union ("Die ev. Union, ihr Wesen u. ihre göttl. 
 Rechte, 1854"), the most deeply and firmly grounded of all the Con- 
 sensus theologians in the Lutheran faith. His principal vroi'k ("Die 
 Christi. Lehre von der Sünde." 4. A. 1858, 2 Bde.) is an unsurpassed 
 model of careful, profound, and thorough investigation. Charles Vll- 
 7nann [oh. 1864), prelate of Karlsruhe, a noble, lovely, ireuical and mild 
 person, laveers between all the rocks and sand-bars with his equiji- 
 brium-theology, and has also distinguished himself by thorough histo- 
 rical investigations (Gregor von Nazianz. 1825 ; Reformatoren vor der 
 Reformation, 1841 ff., 2 Bde. ; Ueber die Sündlosigkeit Jesu, 6. A. 
 1853 ; Wesen des Christi. 4. A. 1855 ; Historisch oder mythisch? gegen 
 D. Strauss, 1838 ; Ueber d. Cultus des Genius, 1840, etc.). Aug. Detlev 
 Christ. Twesten, Schleiermacher's successor at Berlin, did not carry 
 his lectures on the dogmatics of the evangelical Lutheran Church be- 
 yond the doctrine of God (Bd. I. II. 1826, 4. A. 1838). lie holds theo- 
 logy and philosophy apart more decidedly than the other disciples of 
 Schleiermacher, and has placed himself upon the extreme right wing 
 of the school towards the Lutheran Church. So much the more deci- 
 dedly, however, has /. A. Bonier of Berlin permitted philosophical 
 speculation to influence his dogmatics. His investigations and specu- 
 lations have been applied especially to the christological dogma, and 
 in his principal work (Die Lehre von d. Person Christi. 2 A. 1845 ff., 2 
 Bde. in 6 Abtheill.) he has contributed a dogmatico-historical master- 
 piece, whose dogmatic conclusion is still wanting. The fundamental 
 thoughts of his Christology are the so generally popular doctrines 
 among the "German" theologians, concerning the necessity of the in- 
 carnation of Christ even apart from the fall (which, however, .Jul. 
 Müller has decidedly opposed), and concerning the prototypal character 
 of Christ, the God-man, as the totality of humanity, in which "all the 
 «ingle individualities gather prototypes." Nearest to him is Th. Alb. 
 Liebiier, Harless' successor at Leipsic and Dresden, holding kindred 
 christological views (Hugo v. St. Victor u. d. theol. Richtungen sr. 
 Zeit. 1832 ; Der ehr. Dogmatik aes dun christolog. Princip dargestellt. 
 Bd. I. 1849). An eminently speculative potency, with decided ap- 
 proximation to Lutheran churchly doctrines, and not entirely withmt
 
 PROTESTANT THEOLOGY IN GERMANY. 369 
 
 theosophic coloring, is unfolded in H. Martensen, bishop of Copenhagen 
 ("Die Autonomie dos Sclbsthewusstseins, 1837;" Meistor Ekkart 
 1842 ; Die ehr. Taufe u. die baptistisohe Frage, 1843 ; Christi. Dugma- 
 tik, 185Ü). 
 
 Although he likewise passed through Schloiermacher's and Ilegel's 
 school, nevertheless Rich, liothe of Heidelberg, a thinker equalled by 
 none of his contemporaries in power, depth, richness, and originality 
 of speculation, withdrew himself like an anchorite from the loud tur- 
 moil of the theological and philosophical market-place, and assigned 
 himself a place in the closet of the theosophists, quite near to Oetinger. 
 He possesses in common with the latter an aversion to Spiritualism, 
 an energetic striving after massive ideas, and the Christian Realism, 
 which recognizes the end of the ways of God in corporeity. This 
 Realism already shows itself in his first important treatise (Die Au- 
 fUnge dor chr. Kirche, 1837, Bd. I.) in the proposition, that the Church 
 must in the future, in the state of perfection, be al)sorbed in the State ; 
 — more comprehensively in his "Theolog. Ethik. 3 Bde. 1845 if." a 
 work with which no other of the present time is comparable in depth, 
 originality, and logical connection of thought, and which is full of the 
 profmndest Christian views, in spite of its numerous heterodoxies. 
 Equally isolated, but, nevertheless, ranking among the greatest of the 
 theologians of the present day, is /. Tob. Beck. He did not proceed 
 from Schleiermacher's or from any other school of theologians or phi- 
 losophers, but, a Würtemberger by birth, constitution, and education, 
 he represents in his spirited, theosopliico-realistic, biblico-puristic 
 theology, which also ignores church and dogma history, together with 
 the confession, a blooming-period of specifically Würtemberger Chris- 
 tianity in scientific form (Einl. in d. System d. chr. Lehre, od. propä- 
 deut. Entw. d. chr. Lehrwissensch. 1838 ; Christi. Lehrwissensch. nach 
 den bibl. Urkunden. Bd. I. 1841 ; Umriss d. bibl. Seelenlehre. 1843). 
 lie is also characterized by his openly expressed indiff"orence to and 
 miderralnation of all the efforts and "institutions" of this present 
 restless age in favor of Home and Foreign Missions, Union, Confedera- 
 tion, and Alliance; in favor of liturgy, constitution, church discipline, 
 and confession ; in all of which he sees only a movement mistaken in 
 form and contents, forsaken by the Spirit of God, and therefore entirely 
 fruitless. The improvement of the desolate state of aff'airs can only 
 be hoped for through the direct interposition of God. Reck has also 
 ceased for many years from publishing anything. But his influence 
 from the rostrum is only so much the greater and more far-reaching, 
 and already a large number of his disciples are working in the minis- 
 try according to his principles and views. On this account Liebefnd 
 opened a warm contest in 1857 from North Germany against his de- 
 structive tendency. — Charles Auf/. Artherlen of Basle is a disciple of 
 Beck's. He shared his teacher's limitation to Bildical theology, but 
 not his undervaluation of all churchly practical movements, whereby
 
 S70 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (c E N T. 1 9 A.D.) 
 
 he approximated to R. Rothe, without, however, giving himself up to 
 his heterodox speculation. The history of salvation and of the king- 
 dom of God (especially its eschatological development) is the favorite 
 object of his biblico-theological investigation, whereby he comes into 
 contact with the modern Erlangen (v. Hoffman) school (Die Theosophie 
 Oettinger's, 1848. Der Proph. Daniel u. d. Otfb. Joh. 2. A. 1856).— 
 The three last named do not properly belong to the soi-disant German 
 theology ; they lack the Schleiermacherian coloring, the peculiar spe- 
 culation, and the character of the equilibrium or Consensus theology, 
 inasmuch as they ignore more than level the churchly confession. Yet 
 it is more difficult to classify them elsewhere. In Fr. W. Charles TJm- 
 hreifs writings (since 1823 at Heidelberg) Herder's spirit manifests 
 itself more than Schleiermacher's. In the course of time his merely 
 aesthetical enthusiasm for the Old Testament was changed more and 
 more into an acknowledgment of the supernatural, and especially of 
 the Messianic contents of Kevelation (Lied der Liede, das älteste und 
 schönste aus dem Morgenlande, 1820 ; Commt. zum Hiob. 2. A. 1831, 
 and to the Sprüchen Salomo's, 1826 ; Christi. Erbauung aus dem 
 Psalter, 1835, Grundtöne d. A. T. 1843 ; Prakt. Comment, ü. die Proph. 
 d. A. T. 4 Bde. 1841 ff. ; Die Sünde, ein Beitr. zur Theol. d. A. T., 
 1853 ; Ausleg. d. Römerbr. auf d. Grund d. A. T. 1855).— On the other 
 hand, Fred. Bleck o^ V>or\n, a sharp critic and distinguished interpreter 
 (Ilebräerbrief, 2 Bde. 1828-40), who never expressed himself concern- 
 ing his dogmatic position, but betrays a strong rationalistic tendency 
 in his works on the Bible, is a direct disciple of Schleiermacher. Ed. 
 Reuss of Strasburg, the acute and spirited reformer of biblical isago- 
 gics, occupies a somewhat similar position (Gesch. d. h. Schriften des 
 N. T. 2. A. 1853. Hist, de la theol. chrit. au sifecle apost., against 
 Baur, 1852, 2 Bde., etc.). To be added here yet is Henry Aug. Will. 
 Jlfe/yer, superintendent of Hanover, who occupies one of the first places 
 among the interpreters of our day. Starting from Rationalism, he 
 advanced to the stand-point of a solid, biblical Supranaturalisni (Krit. 
 exeg. Commentar zur N. T. 1832 ff.). John Ed. Huther is also an able 
 interpreter and co-laborer on Meyer's Commentai'y. His first produc- 
 tion was a commentary on the Epistle to the Colossians, 1841. Charles 
 Wieselcr of Kiel has acquired a high reputation in the department of 
 the Chronology and History of the N. T. (Chronol. Synopse der 4 Evv. 
 1843 ; Chronologie d. apost. Zeitalt. 1848 ; Die 70' Wochen Daniels, 
 1830). The most able investigator in the sphere of the criticism of the 
 biblical text is L. Fr. Konstantin Tischendorf of Leipsic, who has 
 searched through Europe and the Orient with unwearied zeal in this 
 work. The publication of several old codices of the Bible, a number 
 of excellent editions of the New Testament, a new edition of theLXX., 
 the most complete collection of the apocryphas and pseudepigrapha 
 of the New Testament, are the rich fruits of his investigations. 
 
 Essentially distinguished from "German" theology, as the Schleier
 
 PROTESTANT THEOLOGY IN GERMANY. 371 
 
 macherian right wing, was the theology of the Schleiermacherian lej\ 
 Willi/, as it is especially represented by the protest-theologians of 184S 
 (§ 54, 1) : Pischon, Jonas, .Si/dow, Eltester, Schiocder, Krause. They 
 are the fanatics of the absorbtivc Union, who hate and oppose Con- 
 sensus theology and the confcderative Union not less than union-hostile 
 Lutheranism. With the Dissensus they would also cast overboard the Con- 
 sensus of the symbolical books, and only retain the naked Shibboleth, 
 " Christ, the same yesterday, to-day, and forever," with which Ra- 
 tionalism of all shades is compatible. No theological contributions of 
 importance have proceeded from this school. Nevertheless, they also 
 established in 1854 a " Protest. Kirchenzeitung," edited by II. Krause, 
 •with which everything that is not Tübingish-critical, German-theolo- 
 gical, and Lutheran-confessional, especially the scattered and indivi- 
 dual representatives of historico-critical, oesthetical, and philosophical 
 Rationalism (Crcdner, Knobel, Hitzig, Gieseler, Gass, Redepenning, 
 Ewald, Riickert, Ilase, Weisse, Gervinus), has connected itself. 
 
 Of congenial spirit, and possessing the same hatred towards churchly 
 confession, especially the "Lutheran," is the modern "Japhetic" 
 theology of the Chevalier Christ. Charles Josias v. Bansen, by royal 
 friendship also a baron, as also a doctor of theology through the Göt- 
 tingen faculty, formerly Prussian ambassador at Rome, then at Lon- 
 don, then resident at Heidelberg [oh. 186Ü). There was a time when 
 Bunsen stood in the front rank of those who cultivated and promoted 
 the newly awakened Christian feeling and life. From this period pro- 
 ceed his excellent "Allg. Gesang-und Gebetbuch, 1833," and bis litur- 
 gico-eritical work " Die heil. Leidensgeschichte u. d. stille Woche, 2 
 Bde. 1841." Since then, however, the salt " has lost its savor," inas- 
 much as his theology declined rapidly and steeply to its present 
 Japhetic perfection, which, with its transposition of the contents of 
 biblical revelation from the "Semitic" to the "Japhetic" mode of 
 thinking and of expression, with its destructive criticism, its pantheis- 
 tic view of the world, and its democratic ideals of church government, 
 with its glowing hatred towards churchly confession and churchly 
 dogmatics, and with its fierce wrath against the " old-granny preju- 
 dices of Christian Rabbis," is not far removed from common critical 
 Rationalism, tliough it professes to be Christian, pious, and believing. 
 The downward way began with the treatise: Die Verfassung der 
 Kirclie der Zukunft. 1845. Then followed, to eradicate especially 
 churchly Christology and the doctrine of the Trinity, the works: Igna- 
 tius V. Antiochien u. s. Zeit. 1847 : Die drei echten u. d. vier unechten 
 Briefe des Ignatius, 1847 ; Ilippolyt. u. s. Zeit. 2 Bde. 1852 ff. His 
 destructive tendency in the sphere of the 0. Test, is exhibited in his 
 work : /Egyptens Stelle in der Weltgesch. 5 Bde. 1847-57, in which 
 be assures us, quackishly enough, that he for the first time placed the 
 ancient history of the Jews in its proper position in the history of the 
 world, by his restoration of Egyptian chronology ; but, iu fact, has di»
 
 372 SECTION III, FOURTH PERIOD (c E N T. 1 9 A.D.) 
 
 located all the members of history with the crudest arbitrariness, and 
 has cut out chronology with the wildest phantastery. The " Zeichen 
 der Zeit. 3 A. 1856," are a raging phillippic against the hierarchical 
 .ispirations of the Papists, and of the almost more dangerous "Lu- 
 therans." His "Gott in der Geschichte, Bd. I. 1857," discloses to 
 adepts his pantheistic view of the world and of history ; but his 
 " Bibelwerk für die Gemeinde," began in 1858, is the self-made grave 
 of his theological fame. 
 
 6. Lutheran Confessional Theology. — Its original, powerful, and 
 spirited patriarch was Claus Harms [ob. 1855), as high-consistorial 
 councillor at Kiel, cf. | 54, 1 (95 Theses, 1817 ; Dass es mit der Ver- 
 nunftrel. nichts ist. 1819; Winter- und Sommerpostille, 1808, 5. A. 
 1836 ; Pastoral theologie in Reden an Theologie-Studirende, 3 Bde. 
 1830 ff., etc.) — J. Gotifr. Sclieibel (since 1811 Prof, and preacher in 
 Breslau, deposed from both offices in 1832, died at Nuremberg, 1843), 
 also from the beginning adhered to Lutheran orthodoxy (" Das Abend- 
 mahl des Herrn. 1821;" Actenmässige Gesch. der Union in Preussen, 
 2 Bde. 1833, etc.) — Ernst W. Christ. Sartorius, general superintendent 
 in Königsberg, fought himself through Rationalism in fresh and bold 
 attacks (Die Religion ausserh. d. Grenzer, der blossen Vernunft. 1822; 
 Beiträge zur Vertheid. d. ev. Rechtgläubigk. 1825 f. etc.) to Lutheran 
 orthodoxy ; but he also defended the Prussian Union with enthusiasm, 
 because Lutheranism was in itself already the " true medium," in the 
 assurance, that on this account all Union must issue in it (Vertheid. d. 
 luth. Abendmahlslehre, u. Die luth. Lehre v. d. Communicatio idioma- 
 tum ; in the Dörpt'schen Beiträgen, 1832 ; Die Lehre von Christi Per- 
 son u. Werk, 1831, 5. A. 1845 ; Die Lehre v. d. heil. Liebe. 3 Bde. 
 1840 ff. ; Apologie der Augsb. Confession, 2. A. 1853 ; Ueber alt>-u. 
 neutest. Cultus, 1852 ; Meditationen d. heil. Liebe, 1840 ff. ; Medita- 
 tionen ü. d. Offenb. d. Ilerrlichk. Gottes in d. K. u. im Abendm. 1855, 
 etc.) On the other hand, Aadr. Gottl. Rudelhach (born and educated 
 in Denmark, from 1829-45 superintendent in Glauchau, then provost 
 in Copenhagen) was led in the same way to become the most decided 
 opponent of the Union. Next to Fred. Baur, Rudelbach is perhaps 
 the most learned theologian of the present time ("Hier. Savunarola 
 u. s. Zeit." 1835 ; Die Sacramentsworte, hist. krit. dargest. 1837 ; Re- 
 formation, Lutherth. und Union, 1839 ; Hist. krit. Einl. in d. Augsb. 
 Oonf. 1841; Ueber d. Bedent. d. apost. Symb. 1844; Christliche Bio- 
 graphie, Bd. I. 1850, etc.) — Henry Ernst Fred. Guericke, Prof, at Halle 
 since 1829, at first a Pietist, then changed by the Union to a confessor 
 of Lutheranism, wrote: De schola, quse Alexandriae floruit, cateche- 
 tica, 1824 f. ; Aug. Herm. Francke, 1827 ; Beiträge zur hist. krit. Einl. 
 ins N. T. 1828 ff. ; Handb. d. K. G. 1833, 8. A. 1855 ; Allg. chr. Sym- 
 bolik. 2. A. 1846 ; Lehrb. d. kirchl. Archäologie, 1847 ; Gesammtgesch. 
 d. N. Test. 2. A. 1854. He established in connection with Rudelbach, 
 1840, the "Zeitschrift fur luth. Theol. und Kirche." Beside these
 
 PROTESTANT THEOLOGY IN GERMANY. 373 
 
 older representatives of Lutheran orthodoxy, a second generation was 
 furiued into several groups betvs'een 1840 and 1850. At the head 
 of the ßrst which adhered to the old Protestant idea of the ministry 
 and of the Church, and defended the old Protestant doctrines with all 
 the means of modern science, stood Goltl. Christoph. Adolf, v. Heirless, 
 Prof, in Erlangen and Leipsie, then high-church officer in Dresden, 
 now in Munich. He established his theological calling by his superior 
 Commentary on the Epistle to the Ephesians, 1835, his "Theologische 
 Encyklopadie," and especially by his " Christi. Ethik. 5. A. 1853." 
 In 1838 he established the " Zeitschr. für Protestantsm. u. Kirche," at 
 first in opposition to Bavarian Ultramontanisni. By his side in Erlan- 
 gen labored J. Will. Fred. Höfling [ob. 1853), (De Symbolorum natura, 
 1853 ; Die Composition des ehr. Gemeindegottesdienstes, 1837 ; Das 
 Sacrament der Taufe, 2 Bde. 184G f. ; Grundsätze ev. luth. Kirchen- 
 verfassung, 3. A. 1853 ; Die Lehre d. ältest. K. vom Opfer im Leben u. 
 Cultus d. Christen. 1851), and Gottfr. Thomasim (Origenes. 1837; 
 Das Bekenutniss J. luth. K. in der ConseqÄ. ss. Princips. 1848 ; Christi 
 Person u. Werk. od. ev. luth. Dogmatik. Bd. I. IL 2. A. 1856 ff.)— 
 Fred. Adolf. Phihppi of Dorpat, then of Rostock, wrote " Ueber den 
 thätigen Gehorsam Christi," 1841, a concise Commentary on the Epis- 
 tle to the Romans, 2. A. 1856, and a " Kirchliche Dogmatik." Bd. I. II. 
 1854-57. From IVieodosins Haniack of Erlangen we have: "Jesus 
 der Christ, d. Erfiiller d. Gesetzes und die Prophetic," 1842 ; Der ehr. 
 Gemeindegottesdienst im apost. u. altkath. Zeitalt. 1854. — K. Fred. 
 Aug. Kalmis of Leipsic, wrote a Gesch. d. Lehre vom h. Geiste, Bd. I. 
 1847 ; Die Lehre vom Abendmahl. 1851, and Der innere Gang des 
 deutschen Protestsm. since 1750 ; a.n& Aug. William Dieckhof of Göt- 
 tingen ; Die Waldenser im M. A. 1851, and Die ev. Abendmahlslehre 
 im Ref. Zeitalt. Bd. I. 1854. — At the head of the second group, which 
 is characterized by a Romanizing tendency with regard to the idea of 
 the Church and of the ministry, stands William Lohe, preacher in 
 Neudettelsau in Bavaria ("Drei Bd. v. d. Kirche," 2. A. 1852; Apho- 
 rismen Ü. d. N. Th. Aemter ; Kirche u. Amt. ; Agende ; Der ev. Geist- 
 liche). Next to him stands Aug. Fred. Christ. Vilmar, who began, 
 1856, his academical labors in Marburg with "Theologie der Thatsa- 
 chen gegen die Theol. der Rhetorick ; " Otto Krabbe of Rostock ("Die 
 Lehre v.m d. Sünde u. d. Tode," 1838 ; Vorless. Ü. d. Leb. Jesu. 1839 ; 
 Die ev. Landeskirche Preussens, 1849) ; and Theod. Klicfoth, member 
 of the high-consistory in Schwerin (" Einl. in die Dogmengesch, 1839 ;" 
 Die ursprüngl. Gottesdienstordnung d. luth. K. 1847 ; Acht. Bd. v. d. 
 Kirche, Bd. I. 1854; Liturgische Abhandll. 3 Bde. 1854 ff.) He 
 founded (1854) the "Kirchliche Zeitschrift" in connection with the 
 jurist Otto Mcjer'm Rostock ("Die Propaganda u. ihre Provinzen, 2 
 Bde. 1853"). — At the head of a third group, which harmonized with 
 the first in the idea of the ministry, but was peculiarly characterised 
 by the historical tendency of its theology, constituting a pcwerful. 
 75
 
 374 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (c E N T. 19 A. D.). 
 
 biblical chiliasm in most emphatic antithesis to Hengstenberg's Spirit- 
 ualism, and connecting itself again on this side with Chr. A. Crusius 
 and A. Bengal, stands /. Chr. K. v. Hofmann of Errungen, a theologian 
 of great significance, possessing a dialectic talent, an acuteness, a con- 
 sistency of system and logical development of the same, such as has 
 not been possessed by any other since Schleiermacher. In his "Weis- 
 sagung und Erfüllung (1841)" he appeared first as the antipode of 
 Hengstenberg's apprehension of the Old Testaiiient. in that he places 
 history and prophecy in the most vital and mutually conditioning rela- 
 tion to each other, interprets both, as against the usual Spiritualism, 
 in a literally realistic sense with regardless energy, and especially 
 seeks to understand prophecy out of its historical basis. In his 
 "Schriftbeweise" (3 Bde. 2. A. 1857 fi".) he attempted to produce a 
 scientific regeneration of the contents of the faith of the Church and 
 of Christianity out of the Scriptures, but he gave the same a form, 
 which widely departed from the established view of the most important 
 fundamental doctrines, especially the doctrine of the atonement, and 
 defended it as a " Neue Weise, alte Wahrheit zu lehi-en" (1856) against 
 the attempt made by Philippi to prove its unchurchliness. Thomasius 
 and Harnack also testified against his alteration of the churchly doc- 
 trine of the atonement. Hofmann's theology, without its dogmatic 
 singularities, found an enthusiastic adherent and co-laborer in Franz 
 Delitzch of Erlangen, the most thorough connoisseur of rabbinical 
 literature of all the Christian literati, as rich in spirit as in many-sided, 
 exquisite learning, who, in opposition to Hofmann's sober intellectual 
 tendency, opened his theology to theosophic influences, and also com- 
 bated his unchurchly doctrine of the atonement (Die bibl. proph. 
 Theologie, 1845 ; Vier Bd. von der Kirche, 1847 ; Auslegungen des 
 Propheten Habakuk, des Hohenliedes, der Genesis, des Hebräerbriefes ; 
 System d. bibl. Psychologie, 1855 ; a commentary on the Psalms is in 
 view) — further in Michael Baumgarten of Rostock (unwillingly silenced 
 in'1858, § 55, 3), who certainly pushed Hofmann's historical views of 
 redemption, especially in reference to the future position of Israel, 
 even to caricature, and supplanted them with politico-liberalistic and 
 mystico-fanatical elements. He wrote : Theol. Comment, zum Pentat. 
 2 Bde. 1843 f. ; Die Apostelgesch. od. Entwicklungsgung der K. von 
 Jerusalem bis Rom. 2 Bde. 2. A. 1859 ; Die Nachtgesichte Sacharja's, 
 
 2 Bde. 1854, and a large number of controversial writings. Chr. Ernst 
 Luthardt of Leipsic applied and developed Hofmann's views in the 
 province of the New Testament, with much spirit (Das johanneische 
 Evang. nach sr. Eigenthlimlichk. geschild, u. erkl. 2 Bde. 1853). 
 
 Allied to this tendency, but much more conservative and more 
 closely touching the first group, are : Moritz Drechsler of Erlangen 
 [oh. 1849), (Einheit u. Echtheit der Genesis, 1838; Der Prophet Jesaia, 
 
 3 Bde. 1845); — Paul Caspari of Christiauia (Der Proph. Obadja, 
 1842; Beitr. zur Einl. in das Buch Jesaia, 1848; lieber den Proph.
 
 PROTESTANT THEOLOOY IN GERMANY. 375 
 
 Micha u. 8. proph. Schrift, 1852); — Gant. Friedr. Oelder of Tubingen. 
 in spirit, learning, and independence, one of the first among the theo- 
 logians of the Old Testament, on which account it cannot be sufficiently 
 regretted that he did not complete before his death (1872) his " Prolego- 
 nienen zur Theol. des A. T. 1845," to an exposition of the science itself. — 
 The theologians of Durpat establish(d in 1859 a "Dorpatcr Zeitschrift 
 für Theol. u. Kirche," conducted in this spirit. From tJieir midst has 
 gone forth Karl Friedr. Keil (now private resident at Leipsic), who of 
 all Ilengstenberg's disciples has remained most faithful to the tendency 
 and to the results of the master in general. He wrote : Apolog. Ver- 
 such Ü. d. Bd. d. Chronik. 1833; Der Tempel Salomo's, 1839; Com- 
 ment, zu d. Bd. d. Könige, 1846, u. z. B. Josua, 1847 ; Lehrb. d. hist, 
 krit. Einl. ins A. T. 2. A. 1859 ; Fortsetzung u. Neubearbeitung der 
 Häverneck'schen Einleit, ins A. T. 1855 f. ; Bibl. Archäologie, Bd. I. 
 1858. (A condensed e-xegetical Handbook to the entire Old Testament 
 is awaited from him). — Still another important theologian may also be 
 mentioned here, who was at first a Lutheran, but then, resigning his 
 professorship at Marburg, embi'aced Irvingianism, viz. H. Wilh. Josias 
 Thicr.ich (Vorless. ii. Protestsm. u. Katholicism, 2. A. 1848; Versuch 
 zur Herstellung des hist. Staudpunktes für die Kritik d. N. Th. Schrif- 
 ten, gegen Baur, 1845 ; Die Kirche im apost. Zeitalter, 2. A. 1858). 
 As Irviugite he was invested with the office of an angel ; but when it 
 was endeavored to promote him to the office of an apostle, he was not 
 able to decide to accept this honor. 
 
 The Lutheran confession and Lutheran theology also found important 
 representatives in distinguished jurists possessing theological author- 
 ship. Here belongs first of all: Karl Friedr. Goseliel (§ 53, 1, 2 ; 54, 
 6; 56, 3, 4), privy councillor at Berlin, then consistorial president at 
 Magdeburg, from which position he was forced by the revolution of 
 March 1848. His oldest work, published anon3'mously by Tholuck: 
 "Cäcilius u. Octavius, 181^8," is of an apologetical character. He 
 appears as a disciple of Hegel in: Aphorismen über Nichtwissen u. 
 absol. Wissen, 1829 ; Der Monismus des Glaubens, 1832 ; Hegel u. 8. 
 Zeit mit Rücksicht auf Göthe, 1832. After Hegel's death he defended 
 the Christian character of his philosophy in several treatises. Directed 
 against Dav. Strauss is: Beiträge zur specul. Theol. v. Gott, d. Men- 
 schen u. d. Gottmenschen, 1838. His Christian juristic stand-point 
 is e.xpressed in the " Zerstreuten Blättern as den Hand-ut Hülfs-actcn 
 eines Juristen, 3 Bde. 1832 ff." and " Der Eid nach s. Princip, Begirff 
 u. Gel)rauche, 1837." lie also endeavors to develop deep Christiaa 
 views outofGüthc's writings in his "Unterhaltungen zur Schilderung 
 Göthescher Dicht-und Denkweise, 3 Bde. 1834." He devoted the same 
 talent with more objective truth to Dante's poems : " Ans Dante Aligh. 
 göttl. Kom. 1834; Dante's Unterweisung über Weltschöppung u. 
 Weltordnung, 1842," etc. To his specifically Lutheran period belong : 
 ' Ueber die Bedentuag der luth. K. u. ihr Verhältn. zur allg. K. u.
 
 576 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A D.) 
 
 üum Staate, 1849 ; Zur Lehre von d. letzen Dingen, 1850 ; Der Dualis 
 mus evang. Kirchenverfass, 1852 ; Der Mensch nach Leib, Seele u. 
 Geist, 1856 ; Der Concordienformel nach Gesch., Lehre u. Bedeut, 
 1858." — Friedr. Jul. Stahl, born of Jewish parents at Munich, Prof, 
 of law at Erlangen and Berlin, since 1852 member of the Berlin high- 
 consistory, from whose transactions, however, he voluntarily withdrew 
 in 1857 ; since 1849, in connection with Ernst Ludiv. v. Gerlach, leader 
 of the high-church, aristocratic reaction party in the Prussian cham- 
 bers, and its eloquent orator ; also permanent vice-president of the 
 evangelical church diet. His chief work: "Philosophie des Rechts, 
 3 Bde. 1830 ff. 3. A. 1854 ff." endeavors to build a system of law and 
 of the State upon the basis of the Christian revelation. Schelling's 
 philosophy exerted a great influence upon the form of the first edition, 
 but none at all upon the later ones. In his treatise: "Die Kirchen- 
 verfassung nach Lehre und Recht der Protest. 1840," he declares the 
 episcopal system to be the only authorized one. Distinguished among 
 his later church-political wi-itings are : " Ueber den christl. Staat u. s. 
 Verhaltn. zum Deismus und Judenth, 1847 ; Der Protestantism, ala 
 politisches Princip. 4. A. 1854 ; Wid^" Bunsen, 1.— 3. A. 1856," 
 
 III, ROMAN CATHOLICISM. 
 
 ^57. ROMAN CATHOLICISM IN GENERAL.« 
 
 The Papacy, which was trampled into the dust but not hum- 
 bled by Napoleon I., was restored (1814) by the allied princes 
 of all confessions, and since then the popes have maintained the 
 hierarchical principle for the most part with power and dignity. 
 Many deep wounds, it is true, have been inflicted upon the 
 papacy, but new hopes and new prospects have been opened to 
 it. But while on the north side of the Alps Utramontanism 
 won victory after victory, the papacy suffered in Italy one de- 
 feat after another. And during the sessions of the Vatican 
 Council which completed its deification, the entire glory of its 
 worldly power fell. The States of the Church were stricken from 
 the roll of the European nations, and Rome became the capital 
 of the Kingdom of Italy, now united under the Sardinian 
 sceptre. Home Missions developed an activity rich in efforts 
 and results under the revival of the orders devoted to this ser- 
 vice and through the establishment of new unions to this end. 
 The zeal for Heathen Missions was also rekindled. The only
 
 ROMAN CATHOLICISM IJf GENERA "j. 377 
 
 thing to be lamented in this is the ultramontane narrow-hearted- 
 ness, which preferred to force itself with its missions in a dis- 
 turbing^ way just where Protestant missions had already put in 
 the sickle to cut the harvest. Roman Catholicism made the 
 greatest and most successful efforts to establish itself in Protestant 
 territory in England, North America, and in the South Sea. 
 Roman Catholic theology made great advances in France, and 
 especially in Germany (where Protestant science exerted an in- 
 fluence on its development). 
 
 1. The Papacy. — Napoleon concluded, as first consul of the French 
 republic, a concordat (1801) with Pius VII. (1800-23), who had been 
 elected pope at Venice under Austrian protection, according to which 
 the church property reverted to the State, the sworn priests (although 
 again eligible) resigned, the pope again resumed his ecclesiastical and 
 temporal rights, but no papal bull could be published without the con- 
 sent of the government in France, and the bishops were to be nomi- 
 nated by the government. The pope crowned the consul as emperor 
 of France (1804), but as he still continued to adhere to his hierarchical 
 principles, the emperor again (1808) took possession of the papal terri- 
 tory, and declared that the donation of his predecessor Charles was 
 taken back (1809). The pope rejected the proffered annuity of two 
 millions francs as an insult, placed the emperor under the bann, and 
 was taken as a prisoner to Fontainebleau. A National Council at 
 Paris (1811) was wrecked on the obstinacy of the pope. He made, it 
 is true, concessions in a new concordat (1813), but he immediately re- 
 gretted them and took them back. He was, finally, in 1814, restored 
 by the allied princes to the full possession of his spiritual and temporal 
 rights, and in May of the same year he returned to Rome. One of the 
 first of his official acts was the restoration of the Jesuits by the bull 
 SoUicitudo omnium, as occasioned by the almost unanimous request 
 of entire Christendom. In 1815 he formally protested against the acta 
 of the congress of Vienna, especially against the dissolution of the 
 German empire, which had been determined on there, because it 
 abolished the previously existing spiritual principalities. His protest 
 against the refusal of Ferdinand IV. (I.) of Naples, to continue to pay 
 tlie usual tribute, was equally without effect, because generally all 
 relations of tribute had ceased to exist (1810). In the same year fol- 
 lowed a condemnation of the Bible societies as a pest of Christendom, 
 and a prohibition of translations of the Bible. He was succeeded by 
 Leo XII. (1823-29). Being more rigid in his administration of the 
 government than his predecessor, he also condemned the Bible socie- 
 ties, re-established the prisons of the inquisition, and celebrated the 
 year of jubilee (1825) with a much larger indulgence, because the 
 eelebration of the year 1800 had been neglected. After I '.us VIII.'s 
 75*
 
 378 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD CEJT. 19 A.D.) 
 
 reign of eight montlis, Gregoi-y XVI. (1831-46) ascended the papal 
 throne, and endeavored to maintain the hierarchical idea with earnest- 
 ness and honor amid the disorders at home and the distractions abroad. 
 The spreading Liberalism of the Carbonari revolt vras suppressed by 
 Austrian military intervention, but the liberalistic fermentation of 
 young Italy continued. Fms IX. ascended the papal chair in 1846, 
 the 259th pope according to Roman reckoning. Whilst he seemed to 
 ■wish that in church affairs everything should remain as it had been, 
 and also as occasion offered pronounced against the Bible societies, he 
 began a thorough reformation of the affairs of the government in a 
 liberal sense, and nourished the hope of young Italy, that by his me- 
 diation the national independence and political unity of Italy would 
 be restored. Thus, however, he only increased the storm that soon 
 burst upon his own head. The endless huzzah " Erviva Pio nono ! " 
 ended with the flight of the pope, which was soon followed (1849) by 
 the proclamation of a Roman republic, in spite of bann and interdict. 
 The arms of the young French republic disturbed the short dream by 
 the conquest of Rome in behalf of the restoration of the temporal 
 power of the pope, and the Austrians occupied the legations. But on 
 account of the inextricable distractions of Italy, the pope was not able 
 to return to the eternal city until April, 1850. Since then the papacy, 
 although it has been supported at its own hearth only by French 
 and Austrian bayonets, and has suffered new defeats in old Catholic 
 countries, like Sardinia and Spain, has, nevertheless, gained a signifi- 
 cance and influence, especially in Germany, such as it had not had for 
 centuries. * Already, during the time of his exile at Gaeta, Pius pub- 
 lished a solemn declaration concerning the immaculate conception of 
 ihe virgin Mary, to whose mighty protection he attributed his deliver- 
 ance, and after his return the realization of this declaration lay nearest 
 to his heart. To convene a general council, to which would have 
 worthily belonged the honor and task of determining and establishing 
 a dogma emphatically rejected by St. Bernhard and St. Thomas, 
 seemed, it is true, even to the romantic Pius, as too hazardous. It was 
 supplied by a conference of bishops especially invited for the purpose, 
 and on the 8th December, 1854, the pope proclaimed, after the solemn 
 celebration of the mass in the Sixtine chapel, with a loud voice, the 
 great joy which was bestowed upon Christendom, and placed a costly 
 brilliant diadem upon the head of the image of the queen of heaven. 
 The disciples of St. Thomas remained silent at this practical imputa- 
 tion of heresy cast upon their master, a few single voices, which pro- 
 tested, were not heard, the bishops of all Roman Catholic countries 
 proclaimed the new dogma, the theologians defended it, and. the fond- 
 ness of the people for spectacles rejoiced in pompous festivals in honor 
 of Mary.*-^ 
 
 2. The Society of Jesus, after its abolition by Clemens XIV., con- 
 tinued to exist partly in secret, partly finding a refuge in the order of
 
 ROMAN CATHOLICISM IN GENERAL. 379 
 
 the Litjuarians or Rcdemptionists. This order (§ 44, 2) obtain» d thereby 
 an importance, which it was not able formerly to acquire, but which 
 it has since known how to preserve, especially through zealous instruc- 
 tion of the young. The restored order of the Jesuits, however, carried 
 with it the inheritance of bitter hatred and suspicion from the past 
 into the present. Besides, it was not able to regain the scientific im- 
 portance of former ages, and it also was deficient in eminent men. 
 But these deficiencies were compensated by an indestructible perse- 
 verance and elasticity, comljined with unwearying activity. Neverthe- 
 less, it seemed not to be a match for the storm of Liberalism, which 
 broke upon it from all sides, in spite of all the praise of ultramontane 
 theologians, bishops, and statesmen. The revolution of July 1830 
 forced the Jesuits first out of France, and when they still continued to 
 exist there under the protection of the bishops, the chambers and the 
 government united against them, and Gregory XVI. was compelled to 
 influence their general voluntarily to abolish all their colleges in 
 France. The chief seat of the order was in Roman Catholic Switzer- 
 land, but the unfortunate issue of the war of 1847 drove them also out 
 of this fastness, and Pius IX. was compelled even to approve of their 
 banishment from the States of the Church. The revolutionary year of 
 1848 threatened the order with entire extinction, forced it out of Ba- 
 varia and Austria, and only allowed it to be undisturbed in Belgium. 
 But the restoration of 1850 secured for it the return into all the Roman 
 Catholic countries excepting Sardinia. Since then the disciples of St. 
 Loyola have been renewed " as eagles," and they now travel through 
 the countries, laboring by preaching to Roman Catholic Ultramontan- 
 ists their faith, and to convert Protestants. Pius IX. also, under whose 
 auspices Auf/nsiine Theiner (Gesch. d. Pontificates Clemens XIV. 2 
 Bde. Par. 18.53) directed the heavy artillery of history taken "from 
 the secret archives of the Vatican" against them, surrendered public 
 instruction to them again. 
 
 The other orders also succumbed, at least for a time, in most of the 
 States, to the storms of the revolution. Joseph II. made the beginning 
 by secularizing more than 500 monasteries, and by condemning the 
 remainder to a slow extinction. France decreed, Nov. 2, 1789, the 
 abolition of all orders and monasteries, and in 1802 almost all monas- 
 teries were dissolved under Napoleon's auspices also in the German 
 empire. However, Napoleon restored, from motives of expediency, the 
 institute of the merciful sisters, whose scattered remnants he collected 
 under the superintendence of the empress-mother into a general chap- 
 ter in Paris (1807). In Portugal and Spain also, as lately in Sardinia, 
 the death-penalty has been pronounced upon all monasteries (cf. ^. 58, 
 1, 2). New monasteries arose only in France, Bavaria, as also in Eng- 
 land and North America. 
 
 Worthy yet of special mention is the restoration of the Order of 
 Trappists. When the brothers were driven from La I'l »ppe in 1791,
 
 380 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOT (CENT. 19 A.D.; 
 
 the canton Freiburg offered them an asylum. The then master of 
 novices, Aiigustine [Henry de Lestrange), established now a new monas« 
 tery at Valsainte (which Pius VI. raised to an abbey in 1794), and in 
 Wallis even a nunnery, into which, among others also, the princess 
 Louise de Coiide was received. The order flourished again here, and 
 had several colonies also outside of Switzerland. But through the in- 
 vasion of the French in 1798 it was also driven out of Valsainte. Au- 
 gustine now obtained permission from the Russian emperor Paul I. for 
 his brethren to emigrate to West Russia, Poland, and Litthauen. But 
 they were compelled already in 1800 to leave Russia. Augustine tra- 
 velled through Europe and even America, enduring unspeakable hard- 
 ships, in order that he might provide for his associates. After the fall 
 of Napoleon he purchased again the nunnery of La Trappe, and or- 
 ganized it as the mother-monastery of a multitude of new settlements 
 in and outside of France, so that the order spread through him as it had 
 never before [ob. 1827). The Trappists have even colonized in Algiers. 
 Very numerous, even numberless, are the Brotherhoods and Sistei'- 
 hoods, which have been formed since the restoration of 1814. France 
 especially has exhibited in this sphere an unparalleled fruitfulness 
 and a wonderful inventive faculty in abstruse names for the same. 
 Wortliy of special distinction is the Congregation of the poor School- 
 sisters in Bavaria, which was formed (1834) through the efforts of 
 Bishop Mich. Wittmann of Regensburg, a pupil and friend of Sailer. 
 This congregation has not only founded, during the brief time of its 
 existence, about 40 settlements with numerous female schools in Bava- 
 ria, but it has also already established itself in other German Roman 
 Catholic countries (Wlirtemberg, Silesia, Bohemia), and even in North 
 America (Baltimore). 
 
 3. Proselytism. (Cf. Hceninghaus, chronol. A'^erzeichniss d. denkw. 
 Bekehrungen zur kath.'K. Aschaffb. 1837. — Nitzsch, Ursachen, etc., in 
 the deutsch. Ztschr. 1851, Nr. 29.) — In the twilight of Romanticism 
 the Roman Catholic Church appeared as the crystallized middle ages 
 clothed with fresh_ glory, whilst the unpretentious character of the 
 Protestant Church, especially in its then prevailing rationalistic garb, 
 was offensive to imaginative minds. Transition to the Roman Catholic 
 Church lay, therefore, in the current of the spirit of the age, which 
 3arried away many of the noblest contemporaries. The most distin- 
 guished converts of this century are, besides Stolberg (| 44, 5), Fr. 
 Schlegel, who was influenced by romantic poetry as unfolded in the 
 Roman Catholic Church (1808) ; Adam Müller, who was led to take 
 the same step by romantic poetry in connection with romantic views 
 of the State (1805) ; further, K. L. v. Haller, the restorer of the science 
 of politics accoi'ding to mediasval-feudalistic and territorialistic princi- 
 ples (1820) ; Jarcke and Phillips, who walked in his footsteps (1S24) ; 
 Fritdr. Hurler, the biographer of Innocent III., formerly superin- 
 leudent at Zurich (] 844) ; the biased novelist Ida, Countess Hahn-Hahn ;
 
 ROMAN CATHOLICISM IN GENERAL. 381 
 
 the publicist Frans von Florencourt; the Church historian Gfrörer 
 (1853) ; the radical Hegelian Daumer (1858) ; and the Berlin licentiate 
 Hugo Lämmer. — On the other hand, concern for the salvation of the 
 soul, which found no satisfaction in Roman Catholic self-righteousness, 
 led a number of pious men [Martin Boas, Gossner, Henlwfer, etc.) to 
 embrace the Protestant doctrine concerning the Bible and justification, 
 and from here in part into the Protestant Church. Still greater was 
 the number of proselytes, who were led into the Protestant Church by 
 Rationalism : their names have already passed into forgetfulness. In 
 later times the proselytism of the Roman Catholic Church has been 
 most successful in North America and in England. On the other hand, 
 she has continually sustained the greatest losses in France, Ireland, 
 Bohemia, and Sardinia, and is only able to suppress Protestant sym- 
 pathies in Italy by the use of the prison, house of correction, and 
 police. 
 
 The decision of the Church in the Mortara affair (1858) created a 
 great excitement. The eight year old son of the Jew Mortara of Bo- 
 logne was forcibly torn from his parents by the bailiffs of St. Uflicio, 
 and taken to Rome, because his Christian nurse had said that she had 
 baptized him two years before, when he was dangerously sick. In 
 vain were the prayers and tears of the parents ; in vain the cry of in- 
 dignation, which was raised in all Europe ; in vain all intercession ; 
 the Roman Cathulic Church gives baptism the character indelebilis, 
 and the pope declared that he could not change the laws of the Church. 
 The pious nurse, however, who knew so well how to proselytize, was 
 not censured by the laws of the Church. 
 
 4. TJlframontanism. — The mild, irenical, and profound mysticism 
 of the noble Bishop Sailer (ob. 1832) met with a warm reception at 
 the beginning of this period in the Roman Catholic Church of Ger- 
 many. But the indifference of this school towai'ds ecclesiastical works, 
 its deep affinity with Protestant Pietism, and the undisguised procli- 
 vity of some of its adherents to the Protestant principle of the Bible 
 and of justification, brought it into discredit with the hierarchy and 
 its representatives, and called forth the antithesis of an Ultramontanism 
 ever becoming more sharp. The master humbled himself like F^nelon; 
 the disciples withdrew into the quiet closet, and gradually became ex- 
 tinct. Greater favor was shown by the Ultramontanes to another form 
 of mysticism, which expressed itself in the miraculous cures of the 
 Prince Huhenlohe (since 1820) and in the scars of the nun Anna 
 Catharine Emmerich in the monastery at Dülmen in Westphalia [ob. 
 1824). In her latter years the poet Clemens Brentano sat at her feet, 
 reverencing her as a saint, listening to her revelations concerning the 
 life and sufferings of the Saviour and his mother, about which she was 
 able to give the most exai-t information as to time and place, day «and 
 hour, as also the most unessential particulars (ex. gr. the fashion and 
 color of the clothes of the co-workers). Brentano published from hi»
 
 882 SECTION III. FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A. D.^ 
 
 notes of these visions taken down with great care, " Das; bittere Leideu 
 unseres Herrn J. Chr. 1833, 6. A. 1842." The whole of the remainder 
 is now being published under the supervision of a " pious and learned 
 monk." — In the third decade of this century the opposition of the 
 Ultramontane party was directed especially against the liberal and 
 noble, but certainly latitudinarian, Baron v. Wessenherg, the friend 
 and successor of the celebrated K. v. Dalberg, in the bishopric of Con- 
 stance. Pius VII. decidedly refused to give his sanction. The govern- 
 ment of Baden, however, protected him in the exercise •'.i his office, until 
 1827, when, in consequence of a concordat with the pope, the bishopric 
 of Constance was abolished. Since then Wessenberg has lived as a 
 private citizen in Baden, and has offended the Ultramontanes by pub- 
 lishing a profound " Geschichte der groszen Kirchenversammlungen 
 des 15. u. 16. Jahrh. Konst. 1840, 4 Bde." Ultramontauism also at- 
 tempted to crush the excellent Hirscher in Freiburg, but the noble and 
 also churchly conduct of the man put their efforts to shame. Within 
 the last decades Ultramontanism has gained in power, and possesses 
 also able scientific representatives. Its chief seat was Bavaria, its 
 chief champion the always armed Jos. von Görres of Munich, who 
 once apotheosized the revolution, then mediaeval feudalism, hierarch- 
 ism, and mysticism, and bewailed the Reformation as a second fall 
 {ob. 1848). He established (1838) the " Historisch-politischen Blätter," 
 at whose command (especially under Edin. Jong's present direction) 
 stands an unsurpassed versatility sparkling with spirit, wit, and ridi- 
 cule. The most celebrated organs of Ultraraoutanism next to it, are 
 tlie Paris Univers by Veuillot, and the Civiltä, Cattolica, edited by the 
 Jesuits at Naples, then at Rome. The talented Count Jos. de Maistre, 
 Sardinian ambassador at St. Petersburg [oh. 1821), recognized in the 
 infallibility of the pope the life-principle of all history (Du Papa ,' De 
 r^glise Gallicane ; Soirees de St. Petersb.). The gigantic lie, that 
 Protestantism is, in its inmost essence, not only ecclesiastically, but 
 also politically revolutionary, whilst, on the other hand, Roman Catho- 
 licism is the only defence of States against revolution and democracy, 
 is still dished up anew with unblushing audacity, in spite of the thou- 
 sand-fold testimony of history against it, and (so true is the old pro 
 verb: Calumniare audacter, etc.) it is also believed. 
 
 5. National Religious Liberalism. — Whilst in the Roman Catholic 
 Church, on the one hand, Ultramontauism was continually intensified 
 and spread, on the other, anti-hierarchical Liberalism mad" itself felt 
 more and more. Uniona of clergymen were formed in Silesia (since 
 1826) and in South Germany (1830), which agitated the abolition of 
 celibacy without result. The priest Lamennais in Paris, formerly a 
 zealous adherent of the restoration and of absolutism, became in July 
 1830 the enthusiastic apostle of Liberalism. A preacher of universal 
 numan rights, he would have transplanted political radicalism into the 
 heart of Christianity, and surrounded it with the halo of Roman Ca-
 
 ROMAN CATHOLICISM IN GENERAL. 383 
 
 tholioism. Tbc journal l'Avenir became the orgai if a school formed 
 arouud bim, and bis Paroles d'uu croyaut (1834), according to the judg- 
 ment of the pope a book "small in compass, but enormous in wicked- 
 ness," written in the most exalted prophetic style, created a great 
 excitement. But the unnatural union of that which was absolutely 
 irreconcilable, could not continue. Ilis school gradually became ex- 
 tinct, and Lamennais himself continually approached the principles 
 of modern Socialism [oh. 1854). Likewise as a result of the revolution 
 of July (1830) the Abbe Chatel of Paris established a so-called French 
 Catholic Church, whose rationalistic poverty only survived to 1842. 
 Nobler and more earnest, but equally without result, was the anti- 
 hierarchical efforts of the Abbe Helsen in Brussels. His apostolic 
 Catholic Church was dissolved (1837) ; its remnants embraced Pro- 
 testantism. Of a more threatening character were the founding of a 
 German Catholic Church in 1844. In August of this year Bishop Ar- 
 noldi of Treves exhibited the holy seamless coat of Christ preserved 
 there (cf. J. Gildemeister u. H. v. Sijhel; Der h. Rock zu Trier und die 
 20 audern h. ungenahten Röcke. Düsseld. 2. A. 1844) for the adoration 
 of the faithful, and thereby attracted hundreds of thousands of pilgrims 
 to Treves. A suspended priest, John Ronge, at that time family tutor 
 at Laurahütte in Silesia, published in October a letter to Arnoldi in 
 the Saxon journals, in which, under sparkling and empty phrases, he 
 denounced the trade in relics like a Luther of the 19th century. 
 Earlier already, preacher John Czerski of Schneidemlihl in Poland had 
 renounced the Roman Catholic Church (1844), and now, still indepen- 
 dent of the Rongean movement, he, with his congregation, published 
 a " Cbristian-apostolic-Catholic" confession of faith, which agrees in 
 its negations with the principles of the evangelical Church, without, 
 however, acknowledging its affirmation (the doctrine of justification), 
 but, nevertheless, for the rest, wishing to hold fast to the fundamental 
 truths of Christianity. Meanwhile, Ronge's letter was discussed in 
 all the journals, and since the beginning of 1845 German Catholic 
 congregations were formed throughout Germany (except in Bavaria and 
 Austria), which became the rendezvous of all kinds of religious Liber- 
 alism (in part also from the Protestant Church). A so-called general 
 convocation at Leipsic in March 1845, which was to give a constitution 
 and confession to the new church, brought to light its lamentable reli- 
 gious Nihilism. Czerski, who at least would not reject the divinity of 
 Christ, repudiated the Leipsic resolutions. Ronge, however, marched 
 in triumph through Germany, whereby his hollowness and communis- 
 tic tendency was revealed more and more. The better portion of his 
 adherents began to be ashamed of their enthusiasm for the now re- 
 former. His congregations in great part divided among themselves, 
 many were dissolved, many of the leaders cast off the religious mask, 
 and endeavored to regain their lost respect amid the revolutionary dis- 
 orders of 1848 as communistic and republican reformers. T le restorit
 
 384 SECTION III. FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A. D.) 
 
 tion which followed put an end to its needy remnants. (Cf. Edwin 
 Bauer, Gjsch. d. deutsch-kath. K. Meiss. 1845. — W. Ä. Lampadius, d. 
 deutsch-kath. Bewegung. Lpz. 1846.) 
 
 6. The Unions. — The stormy years of 1848 and 1849 brought great 
 hopes and great dangers to the Roman Catholic Church of Germany, 
 especially the hope of entire emancipation from the State and the 
 danger of enslavement to the despotism of a Liberalism hostile to the 
 Church. But its representatives knew how to steer skilfully between 
 Scylla and Charybdis. To secure the first, they negotiated with the 
 democracy ; to avoid the last, with the reaction ; and they were sue 
 cessful in gaining advantages from both. In Nov. 1848 the German 
 hisliops assembled at Wurzburg to consult together concerning the best 
 way to proceed in this critical period, unchangeable faithfulness to 
 Rome was the first point settled; voluntary co-operation with the 
 "political regeneration" of the fatherland, the second; thankful ac- 
 ceptance of the promise of unconditional freedom of conscience (in 
 the fundamental rights of the Frankfurt parliament) in order to ac- 
 complish the most complete independence of the Church and absolute 
 control of national education from the elementary to the high-schools, 
 the third. They recognized the restoration of diocesan synods as an 
 important means to elevate the clergy and to restore church discipline ; 
 but the holy Father considered the means as at that time doubtful. 
 Shortly before this, however, an institute of far-reaching significance 
 had been founded, in which also, — and prominently, — the laity were to 
 co-operate, viz. the Pius-union, a Roman Catholic counterpart of the 
 Protestant Church Diet. Soon after the days of March, unions were 
 formed at several places in Germany, having for their object the pro- 
 tection and advancement of Roman Catholic interests. At the next 
 anniversary of the building of the Cathedral at Cologne (Aug. 1848), 
 the members of several of these unions met together and resolved 
 upon a general convocation in Oct. 1848 at Mayence, where the first 
 union of this kind was formed under the name of Pius-union. Here 
 all the single unions were formed into a great collective union under 
 the name of " Catholic Union of Germawj ;" although in practice the 
 shorter name of Pnis-union has been preferred. To direct the business 
 of the collective union, one of the single unions was to be chosen every 
 time from the annual general convocation, which was called " Voi-art." 
 The object of the union was: the obtaining and maintaining of the 
 freedom of the Church and control of the same over the schools ; na- 
 tional culture in the Roman Catholic spirit and practice of Christian 
 mercy ; as fundamental law obedience to the pope and to the episco- 
 pate ; pacific posture towards the State and towards every existing 
 form of government, so far as the rights of the Church were not thereby 
 prejudiced ; and defensive, not aggressive posture towards the non- 
 Catholic confessions. The mother of God was chosen to be the patroness 
 *f the unior. Every member bound himself to repeat a daily Patei>
 
 ROMAN CATHOLICISM IN GENERAL. 385 
 
 noster and Ave Maria to further the objects of the union. At the se- 
 cond meeting at Breslau a letter was received from the pope, in which 
 he gave his approbation and blessing. The meeting at Vienna (1853), 
 however, had to acknowledge, that it had not succeeded in attracting 
 the masses, for only the same faces were present. The meeting at 
 Cologne (1854) became discordant, because the Comity refused to give 
 the Prussian government a guarantee of abstinence from political 
 utterances and confessional polemics. The ninth general meeting at 
 Salzburg (1857) was a living testimonium paupertatis, which the Ro- 
 man Catholic world exhibited to the union. Little was felt here of 
 important men, deeds, and speeches. The cathedral capitular Himio- 
 hen of Mayence, the "real miles gloriosus of the meeting," uttered 
 hectoring fiinfaronades about the glorious victories of Roman Catholi- 
 cism in Germany, and expressed the confident hope, in regard to the 
 40 new Protestant churches built by the Gustave-Adolphus union, 
 that these would shortly again be cast out into the garden of 
 rejected stones. Harlequinades were also not wanting: Prof. Kreu- 
 zer of Cologne ex. gr. comforted those present, in regard to the charge 
 of Ultramontanism, with the proverb : " There stands the ox at the 
 mountain," from which it follows incontestably, that the oxen are the 
 real Cismontanes, because they are not able to pass over the mountain ; 
 and as regards the papacj', it is evident, that Christ himself, who called 
 upon his father on the cross, was a papist ; indeed, every man is a bora 
 papist, because the child lisps " Papa" already in the cradle, and other 
 such comical things. As a change, it was also greatly lamented, that 
 207 large and 1234 small journals were in the service of the Protestants 
 of Germany, whilst, on the other hand, the Roman Catholics had only 
 6 large and 81 small ones. The tenth meeting (1858) was held at 
 Cologne. Its deportment was in general more dignified, the contents 
 of its speeches more important, than those of the previous year. Still 
 the jester Himioben was not wanting this time also. He exhorted the 
 women to form Parament-unions, and informed them, that the first 
 union of this kind was formed in the year 33 after Christ, in conse- 
 quence of the first secularization, when the soldiers cast lots for the 
 garment of the Saviour, which he had worn the evening previous" as a 
 chasuble at the first celebration of the mass. Indeed, we can even go 
 further back than this: Mary, who made swaddling-bands for the child 
 Jesus, was the proper originator of the uni(in. After being edified with 
 such trifles, but also hearing many important truths.especially concerning 
 the study of history and the musical culture of the young, the meeting 
 was cliised by consecrating the pillar of Mary, built at Cologne in 
 honor of the immaculate conception. — The individual unions pursued 
 various objects. The Bonifacins-imiona ex. gr. supported needy Ro- 
 man Catholic congregations in Protestant Germany (also an imuation 
 of the Gustave-Adolphus union) ; the Charles Boromeo-unions spread 
 good Roman Catholic writings; the Vincent ins and Elizabeth-unimu 
 16
 
 386 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A.D.) 
 
 had for its object the visiting of the sick and the care of the poor; the 
 Journey men-unions (already founded by J&Zpm^ of Elberfeld, 1846) the 
 spiritual and temporal sustenance of journeymen ; the Unions of the 
 holy childhood of Jesus is composed chiefly of children, who contribute 
 monthly five pennies for the salvation of exposed heathen children 
 (especially in China), and daily pray an Ave Maria for them. The 
 Union has also got control of the political daily press, and established 
 (1855) a "Katholische Literaturezeitung," edited by Dr. 5risc7iar of 
 Vienna. Besides, the founding of a Roman Catholic university in 
 Germany (at Salzburg) by art-unions, etc., is discussed. 
 
 To advance Boman Catholic Missions among heathens and unbe- 
 lievers, there exist at Rome, in addition to the Propaganda, fourteen 
 other educational institutions (the (jrerman-Hungarian, English, Scotch, 
 Irish, .Greek, etc. college) ; in Paris three ; in the whole of Roman 
 Catholic Christendom, thirty. The Picpus-association in Paris (so 
 called after its central establishment in Picpus street in Paris), serving 
 the same end, has acquired a wide reputation. The founder of this 
 union was the deacon Peter Coudrin, a pupil of the priest's seminary 
 at Poitiers. Amid the cruelties of the revolution against the church 
 and the priests, he received in concealment, through divine inspiration, 
 the call to found a society, having for its object " to atone for the ex- 
 travagances, crimes, and desecrations of all kinds, by devoting one. 
 day and night to the adoration of the most holy sacrament of the altar," 
 to instruct the youth in Roman Catholicism, to educate priests, and to 
 carry the gospel to the heathen. He actually founded such a union in 
 1805, and Pius VII. confirmed it in 1817. The founder died in 1837, 
 after the association had already spread over all the five parts of the 
 globe. Its chief object now is heathen missions. — Whilst the Picpus- 
 union, as also the other seminaries and monastic orders, furnished an 
 inexhaustible supply of missionaries, other unions were formed to pro- 
 cure the necessary supplies of money and of prayer, among which the 
 Lyons-nnion for the spread of the faith is by far the most important 
 since 1822. The weekly pecuniary contribution of each member is one 
 sou, the daily contribution of prayer a Paternoster, and English salu- 
 tation and a " Holy Francis Xavier, pray for us." Its fanatically 
 ultramontane "Jahrbücher zur Verbreitung des Glaubens in beiden 
 Welten" is spread yearly in almost 200,000 copies (in almost every 
 European language) among the people. Its yearly income amounts 
 to almost four million francs. The popes have overwhelmed the mem- 
 bers of the union with rich indulgences. Roman Catholic missions are 
 most active in China, Japan, North America, and the Levant. They 
 have also acquired greater importance since 1837, through a measure 
 of violence on the part of the French marine in the South Sea, and 
 through French colonization in Algiers in North Africa. A bloody 
 persecution raged against Roman Catholic Christians (1837-39) in 
 Tonkin and Cochin China, by which many priests and Christians imf- 
 fered martyrdom.
 
 ROMAN CATHOLICISM IN GENERAL. 387 
 
 7. Raman Catholic Theology. — A biblically orthodox, but cliurchly 
 latitudinarian school, which had its chief representative in Jalin, was 
 transplanted from the former to this period. To it i)elong also the 
 excellent Leonh. Hug of Freiburg, ob. 1846, (Einl. in die Schriften d. 
 N. T. 1808, 3. A. 182G, 2 Bde. : Gutachten ü. d. Leben Jesu v. Strauss). 
 Sailer's mystico-pietistic school (g 44, 11) gradually died out without 
 having contributed anything of importance to theology. The Arch- 
 bishop Wessenherg, of importance also as a Christian poet and con- 
 noisseur, represents practically and scientifically a liberal Roman 
 Catholicism, certainly not without rationalizing elements (Die Christi. 
 Bilder, 2 Bde. 1826 ; Die gr. Kirchenversamll. d. 15. 16 Jahrh. 1840, 
 4 Bde.) Baron Reichlin-Meldegg , the friend and hiograplier of Dr. 
 Paulus of Heidelberg (K. G. I. 1830), taught a superficial Rationalism, 
 and in 1832 he joined the Protestant church. The learned Movers of 
 Breslau [ob. 1856), a Richard Simon of this age, practised a boldness 
 of destructive criticism on the canon and history of the 0. T. that 
 amazed even the father of Protestant hyper-criticism. De Wette (De 
 utriusque recensionis Vaticiniarum Jercmi.ie indole et origine, 1837 ; 
 Die Phönizier, 1841 ff. 4 Bde.) — The noble John Bapt. von Hirscher 
 of Freiburg, whom the Liberals too willingly reckoned among them- 
 selves, and the ultramontane fanatics condemn as a heretic, contri- 
 buted towards an irenical and genial Roman Catholicism, which was 
 as free from ultramontane as from rationalistic tendencies, and preju- 
 diced Roman Catholic doctrines in nothing that was essential (Christi. 
 Moral. 5. A. 1850, 3 Bde.; Katechetik. 4. A. 1845; Die kath. Lehre 
 vom Ablass. 5. A. 1844, etc.) George Hermes, Prof, at Bonn, whose 
 youth was not uninjux-ed by critical philosophy, permitted the Roman 
 Catholic dogmas of the Council of Trent to pass through the fire of 
 doubt and rational investigation, with the confidence that they would 
 endure the trial, because (mly what survived this trial was scientifically 
 right and true. He died (1831) and left behind a scjiool named after 
 him, which has established itself especially in Treves, Bonn [Braun u. 
 Achterfeld) and Breslau [Elvenich and Balzer), and has created a 
 scientific organ in the "Bonner Zeitschrift fur Philosophie u. kath. 
 Theologie, 1833." Gregory XVI. condemned his writings (1835) (Einl. 
 in d. Christkath. Theologie, 1819, 2. A. 1831 ; Christkath. Dogmatik, 
 herausg. v. Achterfeld, 1824, 3 Bde.) ; and the new Archbishop of 
 Cologne, Droste-Vischering, prohibited the students of Bonn from at- 
 tending the lectures of the Ilermesians. These made every effort to 
 obtain the recall of the papal censure. Braun and Elvenich went to 
 Rome for this purpose ; but their assertion that Hermes had not taught 
 that which the pope condemned was as little regarded as it had been 
 previously in the case of the Jansenists. A controversy now arose, 
 which was carried on by both sides with great passion, and which re- 
 ceived new fuel through the Prussian-Cologne church controversy 
 [^ 58, 7). Finally, in 1844, the professors Braun and Achterfeld of
 
 388 SECTION III, — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A. D.) 
 
 Bonn were deposed from their professorships by the Arch-episcopai 
 coadjutor Geissel. The professors of the Treves seminary, as also 
 Balzer of Breslau (Beitr. zur Vermittelung eines richtigen Urtheila 
 liber Katholicism, u. Protestsm. 1840) retracted. (Cf. Elvenich, Acta 
 Hermesiana, Gottg. 1836, and Acta Romana, Hann, 1838. J. Perrone 
 (Jesuit at Rome), Gesch. d. Hermesianismus. From the Italian, Re- 
 gensb. 1839; on the other side: Perronius, theologus Romanus vapu- 
 laus. Col. 1840 ; Chr. Chi. Niedner, philosophise llermesii explicatio 
 et existimatio. Lpz. 1838 ; Elvenich, der Hermensianismus u. Perrone. 
 Berl. 1844.) — A year before Hermes' condemnation, the same pope 
 condemned the doctrine directly contrary to the Hermesian, taught by 
 the Abbe Bautain of Strasburg, that the Christian dogmas cannot be 
 proven, but must be believed, and therefore every application of the 
 reason in the appropriation of saving truth is entirely excluded. 
 Bautain immediatelj'^ recanted as an obedient son of the Church. 
 
 Roman Catholic theology disregarded the development of German 
 philosophy for a long time. Only since Schelling, whose philosophy 
 had more points of contact with Roman Catholic views than any pre- 
 vious system, was a general and active interest awakened for philoso- 
 phical studies and speculative confirmation and development of Roman 
 Catholicism. Franz v. Baader, Prof, of speculative dogmatics in Mu- 
 nich (although not a theologian by profession, but rather a physician 
 and metallurgist, oh. 1841), embraced the theosophy of the shoemaker 
 of Görlitz. The most important among his numerous writings are: 
 Vorlesungen über die specul. Dogmatik, 1828 ff. 5 Hefte, and Fermenta 
 Cognitionis, 1822 if. 6 Hefte. In his last years he broke entirely with 
 Ultramontanism (" Ueber die Thunlichkeit od. Unthunlichkeit einer 
 Emancipation von der röm. Dictatur, 1839;" — "Der morgenländische 
 und abendländische Katholicismus, 1841.") A collective edition of 
 his writings (1851 ff.) was published in connection with other friends 
 by the late Franz Hoffmann of Wlirtemburg, whose " Vorhalle zur 
 specul. Lehre Fr. Baaber's, 1836," was declared by the latter to be 
 the purest and clearest exhibition of his doctrines. His doctrines 
 were accepted by the Roman Catholic theological faculty of Giessen, 
 whose destruction was certainly thereby hastened (| 58, 6), — espe- 
 cially by Leap. Schmid (Geist des Katholicismus od. Grundlegung 
 der ehr. Irenik. 4 Bd. 1848 ff.) and G. Ä. Liäterbeck (die aeutest. 
 Lehrbegriffe, 2 Bde. 1853 ff.) A tendency closely related to that of 
 Baader, although more closely allied with the Kabbala, was ^lursued 
 by the talented Molitor of Frankfurt (Philos. d. Gesch. od. ü. d. Tra- 
 dition, 4 Bile. 1827 ff.) — Reconcilableness towards Protestantism cha- 
 racterizes all the Roman Catholic adherents of this tendency. 
 
 A speculative theology of at least equally important speculative 
 power, and in any case of purer Christian and more decided Roman 
 Catholic contents, was developed by the secular priest Anton Günther 
 of Vienna, in connection with his friend Henry Pabst and the beloved
 
 ROMAN CATHOLIC IS M IN GENERAL. 389 
 
 preacher Emmanuel Feiih of \ienna. Günther, iv deep, original 
 thinker, with combative humor, sparkling wit, and withal a roughness 
 of expression bordering on bui-lesque, recognized the necessity of going 
 back again, with philosophical and theological speculation, to Carte- 
 sius, who in his Cogito ergo sum yet held fast to the dualism of God 
 and creature, absolute and finite, spirit and nature, whilst all philoso- 
 phy after him has fallen into pantheistic monism. Proceeding from 
 self-consciousness, the human spirit, it is true, recognizes itself as free, 
 but yet limited, which must, therefore, of necessity have an absolute 
 substance before and besides itself, whilst it at the same time knows 
 itself as in unity with and yet different from nature. For in it the 
 union of nahire and spirit is completed ; both principles are combined 
 in it as in a Communicatio idiomatum. Accordingly man has two 
 souls, one rational, the spirit, — and another sensuous, the psyche, 
 which is one substance with the body, and has as the plastic principle 
 of the body its own will and consciousness, but is connected with the 
 spirit in a formal unity. From this fundamental view he endeavored 
 to solve the two problems of Christian speculation : Creation and in- 
 carnation, and undertook a war of annihilation against all monism 
 and semimonism, idealistic and realistic Pantheism, humpbacked and 
 non-humpbacked Semipantheism among Protestants and Roman Ca- 
 tholics. His first great work was the " Vorschule zu specul. Theol." 
 (Bd. I.: Creationslehre, 1828, Bd. II. Incarnationstheorie, 1829, 2. A. 
 1816). Then followed: Peregrin's Gastmahl. 1830; Siid-u. Nordlich- 
 ter am Horizonte specul. Theologie, 1832; Januskopfe, 1832 (in con- 
 nection with Pabst) ; Der letzte Symboliker, 1834 (participation in the 
 controversy between Möhler and Baur) ; Thomas a Scrupulis, zur 
 Transfiguration der Persönlichkeits-Pantheismen neuester. Zeit, 1835 ; 
 Die Juste-melieu's in d. deutsch. Philos. 1838 ; Eurystheus und Hera- 
 kles, 1842; Lydia, ein philos. Taschenbuch since 1849 (in connection 
 with Veith). Although Günther never ascended a rostrum, he never- 
 theless soon gathered around him a great crowd of enthusiastic disci- 
 ples ; /. //. Pabst, doctor of medicine in Vienna [ob. 1838), translated 
 the master's dark, aphoristic, almost dithyrambic effusions of mind 
 and heart into luminous and spirited philosophical prose ("Der 
 Mensch u. s. Geschichte, 1830 ; Giebt es eine Philos. des positiven 
 Christenthums ? 1832 ; Adam u. Christus, zur Theorie der Eiie, 1835,") 
 and John Eman. Veith popularized them in sermons and devotional 
 works (Das Vaterunser, 1831 ; Der heil. Berge, 1833, etc., 2 Bde.) 
 Many of the former adherents of the condemned Hermes also, among 
 others also Baltzer, became his disciples. On the other hand, the 
 "Hist, polit. Blätter" charged him with annihilating all mystery in 
 Christianity, with contradicting traditional churchly theology, etc., 
 and a private docent of Philosopiiy at Bonn, F.J. Clemens (Die specul. 
 Theol. A. Günther's u. die. kat'h. Kirchenlohre, 1853) became the 
 spokesman of this party Thus a violent controversy arose, of which. 
 76*
 
 390 SECTION III. FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A.D.}. 
 
 notice must also be taken at Rome. The disposition here was from 
 the beginning to doom Günther to the same fate that befell Hermes 20 
 years before ; yet it was a matter of long deliberation, for intercession 
 from those high in authority at Vienna was made in his behalf. Finally 
 in 1857 the formal reprobation of Glinther's philosophy was announced, 
 and all his works were placed in the Index prohibitorum. Günther 
 submitted most humbly as an obedient son of the Church ; likewise 
 Baltzer, who had earlier experience in such matters. 
 
 But the Roman Catholic Church of Germany also possessed specula- 
 tive powers of great importance outside of these two schools, so that, 
 when necessary, it was able boldly to measure its strength with Pro- 
 testant theology. The most important of these is Francis Anthony 
 Staudenmeier of Freiburg [oh. 1856), (Joh. Scot. Erigena u. die. Wsch. 
 sr. Zeit, Bd. I. 1840 ; Encykl. d. theol. Wsch, 2. A. 1840, 2 Bde. : Der 
 Geist d. göttl. Offenb. od. Wsch. d. Geschichts-principien d. Christth. 
 1837 ; Die Philosophie des Christth. od. Metaphysik d. h. Sehr. Bd. I. ; 
 Geist d. Christth. 3. A. 1842, 2 Bde. ; Krit. d. Hegel'schen Systems 
 vom Standp. d. chr. Philos. 1844 ; Die chr. Dogmatik, 1844 fif. 4 Bde. ; 
 Der Protestsm. in s. Wesen u. sr. Entw. 1845 fiF. 3 Bde. Bd. III. ; Die 
 Grundfragen der Gegenwart, 1850). Next to him were distinguished: 
 J. Kuhn of Tübingen (Das Leben Jesu, wissensch. bearb. 1838 ; Ueber 
 Glauben u. Wissen, 1839 ; Ueber Princip u. Methode d. specul. Theol. 
 1841; Kathol. Dogmatik, Bd. I. II. 1846-57), Karl. Werner (System 
 d. chr. Ethik. 3 Bde. 1850 ; Grundlinien d. Phil. 1855 ; Der h. Thomas 
 V. Aquin, 3 Bde. 1858), Mart. Deutinger (Princip d. Philos. u. chr. 
 Wsch. 1857), H. Denzinger (4 Bb. v. d. rel. Erkenntn. 2 Bde. 1857), 
 /. N. Oischinger (Philos. u. Relig. 1849 ; System d. chr. Glaubenslehre, 
 Bd. I. 1858, etc.) ; J. Sengler (Ueber d. Wesen u. die Bedeutung d. 
 specul. Philos. u. Theol. 1837 ; Die Idee Gottes. 1845 ff. 3 Bde.), Seb. 
 V. Drey of Tübingen (Die Apologetik als Wsch. Nachweis v. d. Gött- 
 lichk.'des Christth. 1838 ff. 3 Bde.), and others.— Zf. Klee of Munich 
 (Die Beichte, 1827 ; Kath. Dogm. 3. A. 1839, 2 Bde. ; Dogmengesch, 
 1837, 2 Bde. ; Kath. Moral. 1843, etc.), and Xav. Dieringer of Bonn 
 (Lehrb. d. kath. Dogmatik, 3. A. 1853 ; System d. göttl. Thaten d. 
 Christenthums, 2. A. 1857) belong more to the Positivists of the old 
 school. 
 
 None of all the Roman Catholic theologians of modern times has 
 reached the importance and influence which John Adam Mahler 
 attained in a llfp i>f but 40 years. Having been brought to a 
 high scientific culture especially by the study of Schleiermacher'a 
 writings and of other Protestants, and devoting all the rich gifts of his 
 heart and mind to the service of his Church, he won for it as great and 
 even greater significance, than Schleiermacher before him did for the 
 Protestant Church. His first treatise already : " Die Einheit der Kirche 
 od. das Princip des Katholicismus, 1825," attested and guaranteed 
 this. It was followed by his "Athanasius d. Gr. u. die K. sr. Zeit.
 
 ROMAN CATHOLICISM IN GENERAL. 391 
 
 1827," and this by Lis princiiuil work, '-Symbolik, 1832, 5. A. 1838," 
 which combats Protestant doctrines witli the weapons of Protestant 
 science, and silently ennobles and exalts those of the Roman Ca- 
 tholic Church. Did the Protestants up to this time generally despise 
 or ignore the contributions of Roman Catholic theologians, here a 
 scientiiic power of the highest significance approached them, to despise 
 which would have been a sign of weakness. And in fact, long as was 
 the opposition which existed between both churches, no M'ork from the 
 camp of the Roman Catholics produced as much agitation and excite- 
 ment in the camp of the Protestants as this, at least none with more 
 reason. Of the Protestant rejoinders, those by Niisch and Bauer were 
 the most important. IMöhler replied to that of the latter, who labored 
 with him at the same university, in his " Neuen Unters, d. Lelirgegen- 
 sUtze zw. d. Kath. u. Prot. 1834, 2. A. 1835." The lukewarmness oc- 
 casioned thereby rendered his residence at Tübingen unpleasant, and 
 led him to accept a call to Munich. But increasing illness interfered 
 with his scientific labors, and did not permit him to execute the great 
 scientific works which he had made the task of his life. For already 
 in 1838, in the vigor of his manhood, he was torn by death from his 
 church and from science generally, which was justified in expecting 
 from him still something great. But he sent rays of his spirit deep 
 into the hearts and minds of hundreds of his enthusiastic pupils by 
 his wi'itings. addresses, and by his intercourse with them ; and what . 
 the Roman Catholic Church of the present possesses of living scientific 
 impulse and feeling was implanted, or at least revived and excited by 
 him. His posthumous smaller works were collected by Dollinger 
 (1839 f. 2 Bde.), and Ilheitmayr published from his papers the first 
 volume of a Patrology in 1839. His lectures on Church History con- 
 stitute the basis of Aknr/'s text-book. Staiidenmaier and Kuhn are 
 the most important of his disciples in the sphere of dogmatics, — Ign. 
 Dollinger of Munich (Die Reformation, ihre Entwickl. und Wirkung 
 im Umfange des luth. Bekenntnisses, 1846 fF. 3 Bde. ; Ilippolyt. u. 
 Kallistus od. d. röm K. im 3 Jahrh. 1853 ; Heidenth. u. Judenth., als. 
 Vorhalle zur Gesch. d. Christenth. 1857), Ä". Jos. HefeJe of Tübingen 
 (P^infiihr. d. Christth. im südwestl. Deutschi. 1837 ; Der Kardinal 
 Ximenez u. d. kirchl. Zustände Spaniens, 2. A. 1851 ; Concilienges- 
 chichte, Bd. I. III. 1855 ff.) in the sphere of Church History. Roman 
 Catholic learning (so far as ultramontane virulence, or historical 
 concealment and bungling did not exert a baneful influence) has con- 
 tributed many important works in the sphere of Church-historical 
 monographs. Relatively weak and unimportant, on the other hand, 
 are its lnbUpo-cr'\i\c^\, -historical and -exegotical contributions, most of 
 all in the sphere of the Old Testament. The contributions of Benj. 
 Write of Tül)ingen (Nachmosaisches im Pentat. 1841 ; Buch Job. 1849 ; 
 Herausgabe u. Fortsetz. d. Einl. ins A. T. v. J. H. Herbst. 3 Bde. 
 1840 ff.) ; o{ Pet. Schegg (Die kl. Proph. 2 Bde 1854; Die Evangelien.
 
 392 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A.D.) 
 
 2 Bde. 1856; Die Psalmen, 3 Bde. 1857) ; Ädalb. Mater (Einl. ins N 
 T. 1852; Korintherbr. 1857), are relatively of the most importance. 
 A compilatory copious author is Lor. Reiiike (Beitr. zur Erkl. des alt. 
 Test. 4 Bde. 1851 ff. ; Malachi, 1856 ; Messianische Psalmen, 1857, etc.) 
 
 § 58. THE ROMAN CATHOLIC NATIONAL CHURCHES. 
 
 The restoration of 1814 again introduced a rigid ultramon- 
 tanism into most of the purely Roman Catholic States. But the 
 overbent bow broke now here, now there. The Papacy expe- 
 rienced the deepest humiliations and the greatest dangers just in 
 the original Roman Catholic States of Romanic descent : in 
 Spain, Portugal, France, and Sardinia. In consequence of the 
 first French revolution the imperial rights and privileges of the 
 G-erman clergy were annihilated, its possessions were secularized, 
 and the prelates were salaried as servants of the State, by the 
 chief decree of the imperial deputation (1803). Only the prince- 
 primas of the Rhine league and archbishop of Mayence, Baron 
 von Dalberg, retained for a time his spiritual principality, whose 
 seat was transferred to Regensburg, and received as indemnifica- 
 tion the temporal principality of Frankfurt, which he resigned 
 in 1813. A large number of Roman Catholic countries came 
 under the rule of Protestant princes through the new division 
 of territory made by the Congress of Vienna (1814). But as, 
 besides, most of the bishoprics became vacant during the politi- 
 cal complications of the previous decade, the governments now 
 were active in bringing to pass an orderly state of ecclesiastical 
 affairs through alliance with the papal chair, whereby many mis- 
 takes were made, and many vital questions concei'ning the rela- 
 tion of Church and State yet remain unsolved. 
 
 1. In Ball/ the old state of things returned after the restoration of 
 1814. But Liberalism with its strivings after the freedom and unity 
 of Italy increased mightily, and, because mental bondage and Papism 
 were identical, it worked to effect an uncatholization which was only 
 too frequently also an unchristianization of the land. Where Liberalism 
 was for a time victorious, there the Jesuits were driven out, and the 
 power of the clergy restricted ; where it was defeated, there both re- 
 turned in increased strength. The arms of Austria, and later also of 
 France, suppressed the revolutionary movements everywhere. Pius 
 IX., who at first was not averse to placing himself at the head of the 
 national movement, opposed as it was to all the traditions of the papacy, 
 was cQupelled bitterly to atone for this connection with Liberaliem
 
 ROMAN CATHOLIC NATIOx\AL CHURCHES 395 
 
 (§ 57, 1). Sardinia, Modena, and Parma, drew tlie bow of restoration 
 most tightly, whilst Parma and Tuscany were distinguished for a rela- 
 tive kind of liberality. But when in 1848 Lombardy, in consequence 
 of the French revolution of February, rose against Austrian dominion, 
 King Charles Albert of Sardinia placed himself as the sword of Italy 
 at the head of the liberal national movement. He, however, was de- 
 feated, and was compeHed to abdicate (1849). Victor Emmanuel has 
 permitted the liberal constitution of his father to exist, and even first 
 gave it its full validity. The minister of justice, Siccardi, proposed a 
 new act of legislation, according to which all spiritual jurisdiction in 
 civil and criminal matters, as well as the privilege of asylum and of 
 tithes (the latter with partial indemnification), was to be abolished. 
 The parliament approved, and the king signed it (1850). But the 
 clergy, with the Archbishop Fransoni of Turin at their head, protested 
 most vehemently against this sacrilegious attack on the rights of the 
 chui'cli. Fransoni was compelled to atone therefor by one month's 
 imprisonment, and, because he refused the last sacrament to a dying 
 minister, he was condemned by a regular sentence to deposition and 
 exile. The pope, Pius IX., declined every overture for a new concordat. 
 The government, nevertheless, went forward only the more regardlessly. 
 As Fransoni kept up a continual agitation from his exile in France, 
 all the possessions of the archepiscopal foundation were sequestered 
 in 1854, and a number of monasteries were confiscated. Soon there- 
 upon all penalties in the statute-books concerning the spread of anti- 
 Catholic doctrines were erased, and the non-Catholic military were 
 exempted from compulsory presence at the mass on Sundays and holy- 
 days. The heaviest blow followed, March 2, 1855, in the form of the 
 monastery-law, according to which all the orders and monasteries not 
 devoted to preaching, to instruction, and to the care of the sick, were 
 abolished (of 605 monasteries, 331 fell under this law). As this act 
 of the chamber of deputies was in danger of failing in the Senate, the 
 people rose in its favor in several cities. The pope did not omit to 
 condemn all these sacrilegi.ous measures, and, as bis threats were di»- 
 regardcil, he pronounced in July. 1855, the great bann upon all origin- 
 ators, favorers, and executors of the same. This, it is true, caused 
 Bome agitation among the common people, which, however, exploded 
 nowhere. The government has been victorious up to this time, and 
 goes boldly forward in carrying out its measures. 
 
 2. Into Spain also the restoration of 1814 again introduced Ultra- 
 montanism, but the triumph of the Liberals overthrew the hierarchical 
 clergy after the death of Ferdinand VII. (1833). The revolution esta- 
 blished its inquisition against monks and priests, and also celebrated 
 its auto-da-f6's. All monastic orders were atnlished, all nionasteriefi 
 were confiscated, the possessions of the Church were declared (1835-37) 
 to be national property, and the papal nuncio was led across the b -r- 
 iers. Since the accession to the throne of the pres-mt Queen Isabella
 
 394 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. Id A.D.) 
 
 (1844) a beginning has been made in re-establishing a Roman Catholic 
 Church in Spain. After many negotiations and fluctuations, amidst 
 constant change of ministers, a Concordat was finally agreed upon 
 (1851), according to which the church and monastery property not yel 
 sold was restored, an indemnification given for that already sold, the 
 number of former bishoprics reduced about six, instruction and censor- 
 ship of books committed to the supervision of the bishops, and the 
 Roman Catholic religion declared to be the only one to be tolerated. 
 These terms were enlarged in the year following by an anti-Protestant 
 alien-law. But although in March 23, 1854, the holy Virgin was chosen 
 to be the generalissimo of the valiant army, and her image at Atocha 
 decorated by the queen with a ribbon of the order of the Golden Fleece, 
 nevertheless, a revolution broke out soon after from the ranks of the 
 army, which threatened to destroy ultramontane Roman Catholism. 
 Meanwhile, the repuljlican party was not entirely successful. The 
 motion in favor of the unconditional freedom of all religions failed by 
 a small minority, and the new constitution of March 1, 1855, obligates 
 the Spanish nation to preserve and to protect the Roman Catholic re- 
 ligion, to which the Spaniards belong; nevertheless, no Spaniard was 
 to be persecuted on account of his faith, so long as he abstained from 
 acts contrary to religion. A new law of May 3, 1855, ordained the sale 
 of all church and monastery property, and compensation for the same 
 by yearly rents according to the measure of the existing concordat. 
 Several bishops were banished for obstinate opposition ; the pope pro- 
 tested, and recalled his legates. Meanwhile, the clerical party soon 
 regained influence with the queen. The sale of church and monastery 
 property was arrested, — that already sold was compensated for by the 
 restoration of former possessions. The matter was not brought to a 
 definite conclusion, on account of the frequent change of ministers. 
 The sale of church property already commenced was suspended, until 
 the Cortes had determined upon a proper indemnification. 
 
 In Portugal the experience of the Roman Catholic Church was not 
 better. After the overthrow of the Cathedral of Miguel by the liberal 
 Cortes, all the monastic orders were abolished, the property of the 
 monasteries was appropriated by the State, and the spiritual rights of 
 patronage were assumed by the civil government. However, since 
 1841 a union with Rome has again been brought about under Donna 
 Maria. The government negotiated with regard to a concordat, but it 
 has not up to this time been obtained. All papal decrees need royal 
 confirmation. But the Codigo penal of 1852 also menaced every sub- 
 ject, who went over to one of the non-Catholic confessions, with the 
 loss of civil rights. 
 
 The liberal movements extended also to South and Central America, 
 and also called forth there similar revolutionary attempts in the sphere 
 of the church, but the popular faith was more closely attached to the 
 chair of Peter here than even in the mother-countries.
 
 ROMAN CATHOLIC NATIONAL CnURCHES. 305 
 
 S. The Charte of restoration in France (1814) secured fur Roman 
 Catholicism the character of the established religion, for the other 
 confcssious only tolerance and protection. But Ultraniontanism in its 
 worst form soon prevailed among the clergy to such a degree, that 
 every mention of Gallican church-freedom was regarded as heresy. 
 The support of this tendency bj' the State led to its overthrow in the 
 second French revolution of 1830. The Roman Catholic Church thereby 
 again lost the privileges of an established or State religion, and the 
 Protestants, who had been persecuted and oppressed up to this time, 
 obtained equal rights with the Roman Catholics. But Ultraniontanism 
 again became ascendant even under the new constitutional govern- 
 ment, and France assumed the protectorate of Roman Catholicism 
 throughout the world. In the revolution of February the Roman Ca- 
 tholic clergy willingly permitted themselves to be absolved from obe- 
 dience to the citizen-King Louis Philippe, and they did not hesitate, 
 because the Roman Catholic Church is compatible with every form of 
 civil government which only allows freedom of the Church, to bless 
 the trees of liberty, together with the sovereign people on the barri- 
 cades. Napoleon III. seemed at first disposed to regard the concordat 
 of 1801 as existing by law, and jealously to guard the liberties of the 
 Gallican Church, And although his bayonets made it possible for the 
 pope to return to Rome and still uphold his temporal authority there, 
 the latter has not yet fulfilled the chief desire of his heart, by placing 
 the imperial crown upon his head. Still the ültramontanes have grown 
 in favor with him, at least in appearance. On a journey through Roman 
 Catholic Bretagne (1858) he most emphatically declared the necessity 
 of a strong, monarchical, and Roman Catholic government. And 
 Veuillot, the editor of the Univers, had an audience, at which he laid 
 before the emperor a memorial concerning strict measures that ought 
 to be adopted against books hostile to religion, among which the 
 minister. General Espinasse, reckoned in the sense of the Univers, 
 especially Protestant bibles (§ 55, 10). But notwithstanding all the 
 manifestations of favor, which the leaders of the Ultramontane party 
 receive at the pi-esent time, it is evident that the advancement of their 
 interest is not an object, but only a means, which can be cast aside 
 and supplied by its opposite at any moment, when it becomes useless 
 or hindering. — The attempt (1858) to sequester the property of the 
 hospitals and benevolent institutions, and to compensate for it by go- 
 vernment rents, called forth so great an opposition tlirough the whole 
 country, that the plan had to be abandoned.— For the rest, there is no 
 country in the whole Roman Catholic world that is at tlie present day 
 80 highly favored with visions and miracles, as Roman Catholic 
 France. — In Belt/iiun, Ultramontanism connected itself with pitlitioal 
 Liberalism against the Protestant government, but after the separa- 
 tion from Holland became a fait accompli (1830), the two parties 
 separated and opposed each other, and are represented esjiecially in
 
 396 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (C E N T. 1 9 A.D.) 
 
 the Liberal university at Brussels, and the Ultramontane one at Lou- 
 vain. The latter, for the prize of the complete and unconditional in- 
 dependence of the Church of the State, submitted to the election of 
 another Protestant king. — In Holland, the organic law of 1848 guaran- 
 teed complete freedom of religion. Taking advantage of this, the 
 pope, in 1853, organized a Roman Catholic hierarchy in the country, 
 with four bishops and an archbishop, at Utrecht. The Protestant 
 population was greatly agitated by this action. The liberal ministry 
 was compelled to resign, but the chambers nevertheless finally per- 
 mitted the papal arrangement to continue, securing the Protestant 
 established Church only against abuses and encroachments from it. 
 The Holland Jansenists (| 44, 6) have been again excommunicated by 
 the pope on account of their protestation against the doctrine of the 
 immaculate conception of the virgin Mary. 
 
 4. The Roman Catholic population of Ireland, under Protestant 
 land-proprietors, and with the obligation to pay tithes to the Protestant 
 clergy, is still destitute of civil rights. Since 1809, O'Connell, an 
 agitator of captivating eloquence, placed himself at the head of the 
 oppressed people, in order to obtain for them religious and political 
 equality in a legal way. Finally, in 1829, the Emancipation-bill, 
 which granted to Roman Catliolics admission to parliament and to all 
 civil offices, was passed, being supported by Peel and Wellington. But 
 tlie odious tithes remained, and were collected wherever resisted by 
 military power. After many contests in both houses of parliament, 
 the tithe-hill, which laid the tithes as ground-rent of the tenant on the 
 land-proprietor, was passed (1838), whereby the question was only 
 postponed. O'Connell so regarded it. He declared that justice and 
 deliverance for Ireland was only to be obtained by abolishing the 
 legislative union with Great Britain, which existed since 1800, and 
 by re-establishing an independent parliament ; and he organized the 
 Repeal Association to this end. Since 1840 another not less powerful 
 popular agitator, the Irish capuchin Matthew, the apostle of temper- 
 ance, labored with unparalleled success, leading many thousands of 
 drunkards to sign the pledge of total abstinence from all spirituous 
 liquors (tee-totallers). He abstained from all political agitation, but 
 the fruits of his labors nevertheless contributed towards it. O ' Connell 
 began his monster-meetings in 1843, to which hundreds of thousands 
 crowded. The government impeached him, the jury pronounced him 
 guilty, but the court of peers declared the proceedings null and void, 
 and released him from prison (1844). Peel's ministry, to conciliate, 
 carried the legacy-hill, which permitted the Roman Catholic Church to 
 receive property in its own name, and the Mayiiooth-hill, by Avhich the 
 theological seminary at Mainooth was richly endowed by, the State 
 (1845). Long-continued famine, and, as a consequence, the emigra- 
 tion of many hundred thousands to America and Australia, almost 
 depopulated Ireland within the last few years, whilst Protestant mis-
 
 ROMAN CATHOLIC NATIONAL CHURCHES, 397 
 
 sions have labored successfully at the evangelization of t!ie remainder 
 through Bibles, tracts, and schools. On the other hand, on tlie 5th 
 Nov. 1855, on the anniversary of the Gunpowder plot, the Redenip- 
 tionists of Kingston near Dublin collected a large number of Biblea 
 and burned them on the public street, and the Primate of Ire- 
 land referred, in a pastoral letter on the occasion, to the example of 
 believers at Ephesus (Acts 19 : 19). Collections for the founding of 
 a Roman Catholic university in Ireland, independent of the State, are 
 still taken. — Encouraged to entertain the strongest hopes by the numer- 
 ous transitions of Puseyites in England (^ 55, 8), the pope issued in 
 September, 1850, a bull, by which the Roman Catholic hierarchy in 
 England was re-established in twelve suffragan bishoprics under an 
 archbishop of Westminster (Cardinal Wiseman). The bull created the 
 greatest excitement among the Protestant population (anti-papal aggres- 
 sion), and the ecclesiastical title-hill forbade the use of ecclesiastical 
 titles, not conferred by the laws of the land. But these measures by 
 no means cut oif the roots of the Romish aggression ; conversions espe- 
 cially from the higher classes are still reported. The Roman Catholic 
 prelates soon again used their repudiated titles without suffering 
 punishment. Within six years not less than 5-1 splendid Roman Ca- 
 tholic churches in Gothic style have been erected. In North America 
 the Roman Catholic Church has increased with like rapidity, although 
 less by conversions than by the emigration of Irish and German Ro- 
 man Catholics. Their number here is reckoned at present as being 
 two millions souls. So much the greater is the violent excitement of 
 the Natives, and especially of the Know-nothings (| 55, 12). In any 
 case, however, both in North America and in England, the accounts 
 of the progress of the Roman Catholic Church are greatly exaggerated 
 by both parties. 
 
 5. The Emperor of Austria retained from the Roman empire only 
 the name of an advowee of the papal chair and of the Roman Catholic 
 Church. The remnants of the church-constitution of Joseph have 
 been since then gradually destroyed, and Roman Catholicism has been 
 retained as the established religion, although the government preserves 
 its independence over against all hierarchical claims. The government, 
 since the restoration from the revolutionary disorders of 1848, has been 
 much more compliant to the demands of the hierarchy. Already in 
 April, 1850, an imperial patent exempted the papal and episcopal de- 
 crees from the necessity of imperial approbation, and on Aug. 18th, 
 1855, a concordat with the pope was signed, by which the hierarchy 
 in Austria obtained unprecedented power and independence. The first 
 article guarantees to the Roman Catholic religicm in the whole empire 
 all the rights and privileges to which it had claim according to divine 
 institution and canon law. In the other articles, the intercourse of the 
 bishops with Rome is granted unconditionally ; no papal decree re- 
 quired in future the placet of the emperor ; the prelates are uure- 
 11
 
 398 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A. D.). 
 
 stricted in the exercise of their hierarchical duties; the religious 
 instruction of all the schools is placed under their supervision; no one 
 is permitted to teach religion or theology without their approbation ; 
 none but Roman Catholic teachers need be in Roman Catholic schools; 
 they have the right to prohibit all books that might be injurious 
 to the faithful; all ecclesiastical cases at law belong to their forum, 
 although the apostolic chair did consent that the purely temporal legal 
 afiairs of the clergy be decided before the civil courts ; the right of 
 nomination to vacant episcopal chairs is granted to the emperor, etc. 
 The lower orders of the clergy, which are wdthout any rights over 
 against the prelates according to the concordat, have shown themselves 
 to be not especially pleased with it, and the joy over it has also not 
 been very great among the Roman Catholic laity. Even the govern- 
 ngient seems to entertain well-grounded apprehensions concerning its 
 unlimited operation. — Bavaria-was the first German State which, after 
 the Congress of Vienna, concluded (1817) a concordat with Rome, by 
 which all the prerogatives demanded by canonical law were guaranteed 
 to the Roman Catholic Church ; besides, two archbishoprics with six 
 bishoprics were organized, the re-establishment of several monasteries 
 permitted, the right of prohibiting books granted to the bishops, the 
 annates restored, the election of bishops transferred to the king, their 
 confirmation to the pope, etc. The excitement of the Protestant popu- 
 lation concerning this concordat was allayed by a new organic law 
 (1818), by which perfect freedom of conscience to all subjects, and 
 equal civil rights to the three Christian confessions, was most solemnly 
 guaranteed. The inconsistency of this law with the concordat waa 
 apparent, but the government permitted the forme" to prevail over the 
 latter, even under the Ultramontane rule of King Louis (§ 55, 7). In 
 1850, it is true, the assembled bishops at Freising demanded the final 
 and full realization of the existing concordat, but they obtained only 
 email concessions through a rescript of 1852, which were somewhat 
 enlarged on renewed complaints in 1854. The Ultramontane party 
 took special oifence at the circumstance that King Maximilian called 
 so many distinguished learned Protestants to Munich. Dr. Ringseis 
 gave public expression to this indignation in a university address, 
 which represents Protestant science as a confused chaos (1855). — 
 Hanover concluded .a concordat with the papal chair in 1824, by which 
 the bishoprics of Ilildesheim and Osnabrück were re-established. 
 
 6. The Protestant governments of the South German States having 
 Roman Catholic subjects assembled at Frankfurt in 1818, to form in 
 common a concordat with Rome. But on account of the great contra- 
 riety of claims, nothing other was attained than a new circumscription 
 of the bishoprics in the so-called Upper Rhine Church province (1821) 
 (tHe archbishopric of Freiburg for Baden and the two Hohenzollern 
 vrincipalitiss, the bishopric of Mayence for Hesse-Darmstadt, of Fulda 
 for Hesse-Cassel, of Roitenberg for Würtemberg, of Limburg for Nassau
 
 E4>MAN CATHOLIC NATIONAL CHURCUES. 399 
 
 and Frankfurt) ; and this also was only realized in 1827 after many 
 mistakes, with the understanding that the election of bisliops was to 
 proceed from the chapters, but that the sovereign could strike ofi" the 
 obnoxious names from the list of candidates which was to be submitted 
 to him bef(n-e the election. What the pope would not admit into the 
 concordat was proclaimed in 1830 by the princes, in behalf of the real 
 equalization of Protestants and Roman Catholics, ti) be tlie law of the 
 land ; papal and episcopal decrees require approbation before their 
 publication ; taxes dare not be levied by any ecclesiastical court ; ap- 
 peal from the abuse of spiritual power to the civil courts ; the future 
 priests to receive their scientific education at universities ; their prac- 
 tical training at the theological seminaries, etc. The pope issued a 
 breve, in which he designates these arrangements as a scandal of in- 
 novations, and reminds the bishops of what is said (Acts 5 : 29.) But 
 only the Bishop of Fulda heeded this admonition, and succeeded in 
 abolishing the Roman Catholic theological faculty at Marburg after a 
 brief existence, and in committing the education of priests alone to 
 the seminary at Fulda. Hesse-Darmstadt founded a theological faculty 
 at Giessen (1830) ; Baden had a Roman Catholic university already at 
 Freiburg ; and Wiirtemburg had also already in 1817 connected the 
 faculty at EUwangen with the university of Tübingen, and richly en- 
 dowed it with a refectory. There reigned in all these faculties, in 
 addition to a scientific spirit, a noble liberality without perversion of 
 the Roman Catholic basis of faith. Some priests, who refused in 
 Würtemberg to pei-form mixed marriages, were punished by the State ; 
 and when the aged Bishop Keller of Rottenburg, hithei-to peaceable 
 and submissive to the government, complained before the chambers 
 about the violations of the rights of the Roman Catholic Church, and 
 demanded the release of the same from the guardianship of the State, 
 his motion failed in both chambers (18-11). The revolutionary year of 
 1848 first gave the bishops prospect of the success of a contest for the 
 unconditional freedom of the church. When in 18-49 the bishopric of 
 Mayence became vacant, Rome rejected Prof. Leojjold Schmid of Gies- 
 sen (I 57, 7), who had been desired by Darmstadt and regularly elected 
 by the chapter. The government permitted itself to be satisfied with 
 the induction of the Ultramontane Baron von Ketteler, who did not 
 rest until he had entirely desolated the Roman Catholic faculty of 
 Giessen, and until the last student had removed from here to the newly 
 established seminary at Mayence (1851). At the same time the five 
 bishops (Feb. 1851) published a joint memorial, in which they de- 
 manded free intercourse with Rome, abolition of the sovereign placet, 
 independent administration of church-property, abi'Ogation of the exa- 
 mination of young priests by the State, unhindered exercise of episco- 
 pal power of punishment, abrogation of appeal to the State, change 
 of academical studies, establishment of episcopal seminaries, supervi- 
 «ion of ««»hools, investiture of all spiritual offices alo; e by the bishops.
 
 400 SECTION III. — fOURTH PERIOD ({ENT. 19 A. D) 
 
 etc. As the government delayed its answer, they declared, in 1852^ 
 that they would from this time forward proceed as if everything haa 
 been conceded to them ; and when the answer finally came, refusin» 
 what they demanded in most things, that, obeying God rather than 
 man, they would proceed quite according to canonical law (1853). 
 Baden, where the revolution shook the foundations of the State most 
 of all, and where besides a young regent just at this time took hold 
 of the reins of government, seemed best adapted to a dictatorial at- 
 tempt. The eighty years old Archbishop of Freiburg, Hermann von 
 Vicari, began it by prohibiting the mourning for the deceased (hereti- 
 cal) grand-duke, which had been appointed by the Roman Catholic 
 high-consistory of Karlsruhe according to an old custom, and by con- 
 demning more than a hundred priests, who nevertheless observed it, 
 to penances (1852). In the following year he publicly declared that 
 he would for the future proceed according to the demands of the epis- 
 copal memorial, and he did it at once by appointing priests on his own 
 authority, and by delaying the examination of seminaries without con- 
 sulting the commissioner of the government. As a warning was dis- 
 regarded, the government issued an order that all episcopal decrees 
 until further notice must be subscribed by a grand-ducal speciiil com- 
 missioner thereto appointed before their publication. The archbishop 
 at once pronounced the bann upon him, as well as upon the entire 
 high-consistory, published a fulminating pastoral letter, which was to 
 be read with excommunication in all the churches, and commanded 
 that the priests should preach for four weeks to instruct the people 
 concerning this matter. He at the same time solemnly protested against 
 all rights of sovereignty on the part of the State. The government 
 banished the Jesuits, prohibited the reading of the pastoral letter, and 
 punished the disobedient clergy with fines and imprisonment. Enthu- 
 siastic letters from foreign bishops and large collections of money were 
 received ; on the other hand, in 1854, both cham})ers gave the govern- 
 ment a vote of confidence in regard to this matter. The archbishop, 
 meanwhile, proceeded still more boldly and regardless of consequences. 
 In May, 1854, the government began a criminal prosecution against 
 him, during which he was guarded in his own house as a prisoner. 
 The efforts of his party to excite the Roman Catholic population by 
 demonstrations, were fruitless. After the close of the investigation, 
 the archbishop was released from durance, and he proceeded again in 
 his former way. But the government was also firm, and proceeded 
 against all refractoriness with punishment and reprisals. In June, 
 1855, finally, a provisional agreement was arrived at in Rome. "It 
 consists in this, that all prosecutions be abandoned, and the archbishop 
 fill all vacant benefices provisionally with vicars, until a concordat is 
 obtained, — which has not yet happened. — On the other hand, Würtem- 
 6er(7 concluded a concordat with the pope in 1857, by which the Roman 
 Catholic Church has also become the established church of this country".
 
 ROMAN CATHOLIC NATIONAL CHURCHES. 401 
 
 The bishop alone disposes of all vacant benefices ; he has further the 
 right to introduce religious orders and congregations without inter- 
 ference. The government renounced the right of having a commis- 
 sioner at the examination of seminaries, and the bishop can establicih 
 seminaries where he pleases, and as many as he pleases. The sove- 
 reign placet is entirely given up. On the contrary, the pope permits, 
 for a time, that the purely temporal legal matters of the clergy be 
 transacted before the civil courts. 
 
 7. Prussia concluded a concordat with Rome already in 1821, ac- 
 cording to which six bishoprics and two archbishoprics were established 
 in the land. The free election of bishop was granted to the chapters, 
 but in a secret appendix-article Rome promised, instructing the chap- 
 ters, that only gratse personas were to be chosen. A rupture took place 
 in spite of all the connivance of the government concerning the con- 
 tradiction between canonical and civil law in regard to the mixed 
 marriages existing between Protestants and Roman Catholics. The 
 Council of Trent absolutely forbade such marriages. A subsequent 
 papal bull of 1741, however, permitted them under the condition of a 
 merely passive assistance of the Roman Catholic clergy at the marriage, 
 and of an obligation on the part of those thus marrying to educate 
 their children in a Roman Catholic way. The Prussian law of 1803 
 enacted, on the contrary, that in doubtful cases all the children should 
 adopt the religion of the father. But as this law also became valid 
 since 1825 for the Rhine provinces, and the bishops here on this ac- 
 count made inquiry of the pope, Fius VIII. issued a breve (1830), 
 which allowed the priest to solemnize marriages only in those cases 
 where the instruction of- the children in Roman Catholicism was 
 guaranteed ; in all other cases only a passive assistance was declared 
 permissible. The government, however, received from the priests con- 
 cerned, at a secret private convention (1834), the promise that they 
 would not refuse to officiate in other cases ; and the Archbishop of 
 Cologne, Count Spiegel, who was both a friend and patron of Herme- 
 ijian theology, gave ecclesiastical legislative authority to this conven- 
 tion. Spiegel's successor was Clemens Droste of Visclieriag (1836), 
 after that he had given his adhesion formally to the convention, be- 
 cause he, as he later excused himself, had not called into question the 
 ao-reement affirmed by the government with the breve. So soon, how- 
 ever, as he obtained a clearer insight into their contradictory charac- 
 ter, he strictly forbade his clergy to solemnize any marriage without 
 the guarantee required by the breve. At the same time he endeavored 
 to give force to the papal condemnation of Hermesian theology by for- 
 bidding the stud'jnts of Bonn in the confessional from attending the 
 lectures of the Ilermesians. As the archbishop could not be influenced 
 to yield his position, he was arrested in 1837 as faithless to his word 
 and exciting rebellion, and was taken to the castle of Minden. Both 
 of the powers interested justified their conduct in public memorials. 
 77*
 
 402 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A. DJ 
 
 with which was connected an immense number of controversial tre* 
 tises from both parties. Görres called the archbishop the "Athanaslus " 
 of the 19th century. The example of the Archbishop of Cologne also 
 emboldened the Archbishop Dunin of Gnesen and Posen to i.ssue a 
 secret pastoral letter, in which every priest of his diocese was threat- 
 ened with suspension who did not unconditionally obey the papal 
 breve (1838). He was legally deposed therefor, and condemned to a 
 half year's imprisonment, but the king prevented the execu+.ion of the 
 penalty. Dunin, however, fled from Berlin to Posen, and was now 
 taken to the castle of Colberg (1839). Amid such complications Frede- 
 rick William IV. ascended the throne (1840). Dunin was restored to 
 his office in magnanimous confidence. Droste also was released from 
 his imprisonment with public apology, and received, with his approba- 
 tion and that of the pope, a coadjutor in the hitherto Bishop of Spire, 
 Geissel, who administered the archbishopric in his name and with the 
 right of succession (1842). The government let the Hermesians fall ; 
 the law in regard to mixed marriages remained in force, although so 
 that the conscience of the Roman Catholic clergy was to be spared 
 under all circumstances (cf. K. Hase, die beiden Erzsbischöfe. Lpz. 
 1839). After the year of revolution the Prussian bishops also presented 
 a memorial containing the well-known Ultramontane demands. The 
 organic law of Jan. 31. 1850, guaranteed free intercourse with Rome, 
 and a Roman Catholic faction was formed in the chambers which voted 
 at one time with the right wing, then with the left, as Ultramontane 
 interests demanded. The government granted many things, although 
 it in a measure forbade the studying in foreign Jesuit institutions and 
 limited Jesuit missions (1852). When in March, 1853, the Bishop 
 Ärnoldi of Treves commanded his clergy only then to allow mixed 
 marriages, when by an oath the education of the children in the Ro- 
 man Catholic faith was granted by both parties, ar-d even then also to 
 refuse them ecclesiastical solemnization, the king declared that he 
 would immediately dismiss any officer from his army who would sub- 
 mit to so shameful a condition. The prince-regent, at his accession to 
 the throne (1858) declared, that the utmost parity must exist between 
 both confessions. For the rest, how just the complaints of the Ultra- 
 montanes concerning slights are, appears from the fact that the State 
 has only appropriated §400,000 annually to the ecclesiastical affairs of 
 its ten millions of Protestants, whilst it permits the worship of six 
 millions of Roman Catholics to cost it three times as much. To this 
 must be added yet for extraordinary objects $10,000 for the former, 
 but $50,000 for the latter. — In Mecklenburg- Schwerin the Chamberlain 
 mn KettOihurg went over to the Roman Catholic Church, and appointed 
 a Roman Catholic priest on his estate. The government, however, 
 banished this priest, because the laws of the country did not permit 
 any Roman Catholic worship which went beyond simple family wor- 
 Bhip. A compliant on this account brought before the federal diet, 
 then ])efore the German diet, was disregarded by both.
 
 THE ORTHODOX GREEK CHURCH. 403 
 
 S. The ecclesiastical chief administration of Roman Catholic Swit- 
 zerland belonged formerly to the bishoprics of Constance, of Milan, 
 and of Besanqon. But soon after the Reformation already the Roman 
 court established a nunciature (at Lucei'ne) for the direct maintenance 
 of the papal interests in Switzerland. When now in 181-1 the liberal 
 Wessenherg, for a long time already suspected of heresy (^ 57, 4), was 
 called as coadjutor to Constance (without papal confirmation), the 
 nuncio of Lucerne intrigued among the confederates until these peti- 
 tioned the pope for the establishment of an independent and national 
 bishopric. Pius VII. hastily tore the bond hitherto existing. But as 
 every canton laid claim to the episcopal seat, a papal grand-vicar was 
 appointed at Lucerne instead of a national bishopric. At the same 
 time the Jesuits made their appearance. Thereby Roman Catholic 
 Switzerland, and Lucerne at the head, became a chief home of Ultra- 
 montanism. The Jesuistic party, however, was also opposed by a 
 radical liberal one, which attempted to overthrow the ultramontane 
 government in 1845, but was suppressed. As, meanwhile, the diet 
 meddled in these internal affairs of the Roman Catholic cantons, the 
 latter formed a separate league to maintain and protect their faith and 
 their rights of sovereignty. This led to the civil war. The special 
 league was defeated ; the Jesuits and the Ultramontane government 
 must disappear (1847). In the new federal constitution, which Swit- 
 zerland made in 1848, the unconditional freed<mi of conscience and the 
 civil equality of all Christian confessions is guaranteed, and the banish- 
 ment of the Jesuits is renewed. A law of 1850 places the religious 
 education of children of mixed marriages absolutely under the will of 
 the father. Since this time, however, both Ultramontanism and Je- 
 suitism have again celebrated great triumphs in the Roman Catholic 
 cantons. 
 
 I 59. THE ORTHODOX GREEK CHURCH. 
 
 The orthodox Church of Russia has elevated itself more and 
 more, especially since Alexander I. Theological learning was 
 not rare among the higher clergy, and the government also pro- 
 vided for the better intellectual culture of the lower clergy. The 
 Greeks in the West Russian provinces, who have been united 
 with Rome since 1594, expressed the wish at the Synod of Polozk 
 to return to the bosom of the orthodox church, and they were 
 accordingly again received at the command of the Emperor. — 
 The orthodox church in the Turkish provinces stood under the 
 patriarch of Constantinople and its holy synod. Disappointed 
 in their expectations from the Congress of Vienna, the Greeks 
 arose in their own strength against Turkish tyranny. In 1814 a 
 new Hetairia was formed, which soon spread over the wholo
 
 404 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A.D.) 
 
 country, and nurtured thoughts of freedom among the people 
 The war of freedom broke out in 1821. The first consequence 
 of it was a fearful massacre, especially in Constantinople. The 
 patriarch Gregorius, together with his entire synod and about 
 30,000 Christians, were murdered within three months with terri- 
 ble cruelty by the Turks. Finally, in 1830, the London Confer- 
 ence declared Greece to be an independent State, and a meeting 
 of bishops at Nauplia in 1833 emancipated the Greek Church 
 from the patriarch, who stood under Turkish arbitrariness. The 
 chief supervision of the church was committed to a permanent 
 holy synod at Athens, wliich was established by the king, but 
 was entirely independent in all internal affairs. — But in 1840, 
 Christian princes of all confessions reconquered the holy land for 
 the Turks from the hands of a rebellious vassal, and the political 
 interests of the Christian States of Europe are so complicated 
 in regard to the Orient, that in 1854 it could be affirmed in the 
 English Parliament, that Turkey, even with its putrefaction and 
 weakness, if it were not in existence would have to be. The 
 Turco-Russian war, which was closed at the beginning of 1856, 
 therefore, made no material change in the condition of the 
 Christians. For even though the Hatli Humayun of Feb. 18, 
 1856, granted them equal civil rights with the Moslems, espe- 
 cially also ability to bear arms and equality before the courts, 
 still, well-meant as it may be by the Sultan, it is scarcely any 
 longer regarded in practice, as formerly the also well-meant 
 Hatti-scheriff of Giilhane (1839). 
 
 Whilst Protestant (especially North American) missionaries are 
 unweariedy active in evangelizing the schismatic churches of the 
 Orient (Neatorians, Armenians, Maronites) through distributio-n of 
 Bibles and school-instruction, Rome also does not spare any kxbor in 
 endeavoring to bring back these as well as the orthodox church itself 
 into the bosom of the only saving church, but certainly without any 
 apparent success. Only a short time ago (1855) the converted Greek 
 Pitzipios of Scio founded an oriental Christian society at Rome, which 
 has this object alone in view. Its leading thought, which Pitzipios hag 
 developed in a special treatise (L'eglise Orientale, Rome, 1855, in Ger- 
 man, by H. Skid, Vienna, 1857), is this, that the oriental church ia 
 Ron.'an Catholic of right and of God since the council of Florence, and 
 it is only the lust of power and selfishness of the clergy which will not 
 permit the historically grounded and lawfully ex-'sting unity to come 
 to a manifestation.
 
 SECTS AND FANATICS. 405 
 
 IV. ANTI-CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 § 60. SECTS AND FANATICS. 
 
 The proper home for the formation and gathering of sects in 
 this period is North America. Here unitarians from England 
 found entrance, whilst in return the Methodists and Baptists 
 from America sent missionaries back to Europe. But in Eu- 
 rope also fanatical phenomena made their appearance here and 
 there, which were in part guilty of frantic outrages. Even 
 Gnosticism, with intellectual and moral errors, showed itself 
 again in several societies. The Harmonites in North America 
 represented a combination of communism with religious fanati- 
 cism. The Darhyites constituted the saints of the last times 
 upon independent foundation, whilst on the other hand, the 
 Irvingitcs and their caricature, the Mormons, represented the 
 revival of the apostolic offices and charisma, — the latter with 
 the addition of socialistic and gnostic tendencies. 
 
 1. The Propagation of the Older Sects. — Baptistic doctrines and 
 practice proceeded often spontaneously in Germany from unchurchly 
 Pietism and Mysticism. Besides, tiie English missionary Oncken of 
 Hamburg worked towards the same end since 1834. Thus gradually 
 from 30 to 40 small baptistic congregations arose, especially in East 
 Prussia (where Memel is their chief seat), in Westphalia and the 
 Rhine Provinces, in Wiirtemberg and Hesse, etc. Prussia granted 
 them limited tolerance in 1843 ; also Wiirtemberg and Hesse. Meck- 
 lenburg warded them off by fines and imprisonments. But Denmark, 
 which proceeded against them even more sharply, Avas finally com- 
 pelled to permit tiie organization of a congregation at Fredericia(I842). 
 Since then the number of their adherents has increased on the conti- 
 nent from year to year. Hamburg granted them full recognition in 
 1858, with the prohibition, however, not to baptize in the open air. — 
 The North American missionary Jakoby proselyted for Methodism from 
 Bremen. — The Unitarians possess yet in Transylvania of old a priv- 
 ileged and organized church establishment. In England the law still 
 threatens them with the deatii-penalty, which, however, has not been 
 inflicted for a long time. But they were not the less an object of in- 
 sult and indignation to the people. A popular storm broke loose in 
 1791, upon Jos. Priestley, the celebrated chemist and natural philosu-
 
 406 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A.D.) 
 
 pher, wQO presided over a Unitarian congregation at Birmingham 
 His house, together with his scientific collection and apparatus, was 
 burned ; he only saved his own life with difiiculty, and soon after 
 emigrated to North America. But it was only after his death (1804) 
 that the tendency represented by him met with favor there, and now 
 hundreds of Unitarian congregations were formed in a short time. Itr 
 most celebrated apostle was Ellery Channing of Boston [oh. 1842) 
 The blooming period of American Socinianism, however, has passed 
 away already. Its latest most important representative was Theodore 
 Parker of Boston [ob. 18G0), who, advancing to the most notorious 
 Rationalism, also emancipated himself entirely from the authority of 
 the Bible. — Unitarian congregations have also greatly increased in 
 England since they obtained formal tolerance in 1813. 
 
 2. Fanatical Phenomena. — Johanna Southcote of England imagined 
 that she was the woman clothed with the sun spoken of in Rev. 12, or 
 the bride of the Lamb. She appeared in 1801 with her prophecies. 
 Her adherents, the New ^Israelites, built a chapel in London for their 
 worship. A splendid cradle was prepared to receive the long promised 
 Messiah, but Johanna died in 1814, without giving birth to him. — 
 Thomas Pöschl, Roman Catholic priest at Ampfelwang near Linz, ex- 
 cited by Sailer's mysticism, labored to awaken and nourish a more 
 living Christianity, which certainly was not altogether free from fana- 
 tical excitement (expectation of the approaching end of the world) in 
 his congregation by devotional meetings and distribution of pietistic 
 tracts. When this district was again joined to Austria in 1814, he was 
 imprisoned, and his adherents connected themselves with a farmer 
 named Jos. Haas, who led them only deeper into fanaticism. Indeed, 
 their fanaticism went finally so far, that on Good Friday 1817 they 
 permitted a young maiden of their number to die a sacrificial death 
 for her brothers and sisters after the example of Christ. Pöschl was 
 filled with horror at this awful deed, which was charged upon him. 
 Ho died (1837) in prison. — A very similar deed of horror was perpe- 
 trated a few years later in the village of Wildenspuch, in the canton 
 of Zurich. Margaret Peter, the daughter of a peasant, gathered around 
 herself a little crowd of adherents, who revered her as a saint. In her 
 fanaticism she ha.d her younger sister killed and herself nailed to the 
 cross with incredible courage " for the salvation of many thousand 
 souls" (1823). — The Jumping sect in Ingermannland (concerning which 
 C. TJllmann has given information in the " Mittheilungen u. Nach- 
 richten für die evang. Geistlichk. Russl. 1857. III.") traces its origin 
 to 1813. Proceeding from a religious excitement independent of the 
 church, they came to the conviction that every individual required the 
 direct illumination of the Holy Spirit in order to his salvation ; they 
 also soon believed that they enjoyed this illumination, and ecstatic 
 praying, singing, and crying, connected with clapping of hands and 
 jumping at their meetings, gave evidence of being possessed by the
 
 SECTS AND FANATICS. 407 
 
 Holy Spirit. The special illumination required as correlative also a 
 special holiness, and this was sought not only in despising marriajre, 
 but also in abstaining from meat, beer, brandy, and tobacco. He who 
 applied for admission into the sect was required to prove nudus super 
 nuda before the' eyes of the meeting, that the old Adam with his sexual 
 susceptibility was dead in him. The "holy love," which they placed 
 in the stead of marriage, also led here, as ever, to fleshly errors, and 
 this was the reason why many of tliem, after the example of Skopzi 
 (§ 42, 5), with whom they probably were connected, choose the much 
 more certain means of castration. Authors and chiefs of the sect were 
 named, and were said to have been present here and there at the meet- 
 ings, but the civil authorities were not able to get hold of them. At 
 all events, the sect is now near its end. — A peculiar phenomenon ap- 
 peared among the Swedish peasants since 1842 in the so-called calliit^ 
 voices. Uneducated laymen, especially women and even children, 
 broke out, after preceding convulsions, into deeply moving sermons of 
 repentance and prophecies concerning the approaching judgment of 
 God. The contents of their sermons did not conflict with the doctrines 
 of the church. 
 
 3. The Harmonites. (Cf. /. Wagner, Gesch. d. Ilarmoniegesellsch. 
 Vaihingen, 1833.) — The dissatisfaction of the AVurtemljerg Pietists, 
 which was increased by liturgical innovations, caused many emigra- 
 tions at the beginning of this century. The farmer George Bapp, who 
 believed himself to be favored with divine inspiration, emigrated to 
 America with his adherents in 1803, and founded near Pittsburg the 
 colony of Harmony with communistic basis, which he ruled autocrati- 
 cally as patriarch, high-priest, and judge. He sold the establishment 
 in 1823 to the Scotchman Robert Oiven, on account of its unhealthy 
 location, and went with 700 Harmonites to Indiana, where he founded 
 the new colony of Economg. Prosperity and peace reigned in the 
 society until in 1831, when an adventurer named Bernhard Müller en- 
 tered it as a troubler. He had before this played a brilliant j)art at 
 OflFenbach under the name of Froli as a prophet called to found a 
 spiritual world-monarchj^ but only escaped legal prosecution by flight. 
 He appeared in the same character at Economy, claiming to be of 
 princely descent, and calling himself Count Maxim, v. Leon. Rapp 
 recognized him as a prophet. Proli caused a great part of Rapp's ad- 
 herents to apostatize. Rapp had to pay them a large sum out of the 
 common treasury, and Proli founded with them the Society of New 
 Jerusalem at Philippsburg. When he had squandered the property of 
 his adherents he abandoned them (1833), leaving them behind in 
 great misery, and soon thereafter he was drowned in the Missouri 
 river. Rapp's successor was a merchant named Becker. 
 
 4. The New Templars. (Cf. Carove, der Messianismus d. neuen 
 Templar. Lpz. 1834.— IF. F. WUcke, die Tempelerei. Lpz. 1835.)— 
 After the revolution of July there appeared publicly in Paris (1831) a
 
 408 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A.D.) 
 
 Beeret order, professing to have an unbroken series of grand-m&sters 
 from the Old Templars, of whose existence mention is already made in 
 the middle of the previous century. The religion of these New Tem- 
 plars, which has propagated itself as the primitive revelation through 
 the Greek and Egyptian mysteries, and from which Moses also drew 
 materials, then was further advanced by Christ and given to the grand- 
 masters of the Templars by John and his successor in esoteric tradition, 
 teaches a divine trinity of being, deed, and consciousness, an eternity 
 of the world apart from God, and an indwelling of God in man. As the 
 only true Christianity (^glise chretienne primitive) it seeks to over- 
 throw the Romish Church. The curious Parisians enjoyed themselves 
 for a time with the striking worship and costume of the Templars, and 
 then forgot them. 
 
 5. The so-called Hypocrites [Mucker] in Königsberg. (Cf. H. Olshau- 
 sen, Lehre u. Leben des Königsb. Theosophen J. H. Schöonherr. Kö- 
 nigsb. 1834, v. Wegnern, Zuverläss. Mittheill. liber Schonherr's Leben 
 u. Lehre, in Illgen's hist, theol. Zeitschr. 1838. II. — G. H. Diestel, ein 
 Zeugenverhör im Criminalprocesse gegen Ebel u. Diestel. Lpz. 1838. 
 — G. V. Halinenfeld, die rel Bewegung zu Königsb. Braunsb. 1858.) — 
 There lived, at the beginning of this century [oh. 1826), at Königs- 
 bei'g, a pious but peculiar theosophist, named John Hem^ Schönherr, 
 who, starting from the reception of two primitive beings (Elohim), 
 namely, primitive fire and primitive water (fire-Eloah and water- 
 Eloah, Gen. 1 : 2), from the conjunction and co-operation of which 
 creation proceeded, — formed a guostic-theosophic system, by which, on 
 the basis of the Scriptures, he imagined that he had solved the pro- 
 blems of theogony and cosmogony, of hamartigeny and soteriology. 
 Of the small circle of his disciples, two preachers, Ebel and Diestel, 
 distinguished themselves, of whom especially the former laK ued with 
 as much zeal as success as author, teacher, pastor, and preacher, for 
 the awakening and revival of Christian feeling in the congregation. 
 Their theosophy, which they inherited from Schönherr, exerted little 
 or no influence on their official labors in the congregation ; but they 
 thought they must not withhold their deeper knowledge of revealed 
 truth from a smaller circle of anxious souls of both sexes. Prof. 01- 
 shausen also, and v. Tippelshirch (then yet a student), who became 
 better known later as Romish chaplain to an embassy, as also a Count 
 Finkenstein, belonged for a time to this circle, but they soon withdrew 
 and publicly combated this theosophy. Soon, however, rumors of 
 mystico-religious practice of sensuality, which was based upon a gnostic 
 dualistic view of religion and of nature, also became public. Those 
 belonging to this circle were nicknamed the hypocrites (Mucker). 
 Already a garden in Königsberg was spoken of as the " Seraphim 
 grove," where they practised their orgies. Upon the complaint of a 
 man of rank, who believed that the morality of his wife was endangered 
 V)y this circle, the consistory instituted a preparatory investigation and
 
 SECTS AND FANATICS. 400 
 
 suspended Ebel and Diestel. In consequence of a thorough ;riminal 
 investigation in 1839, both were formally deposed from office, and 
 Diestel was besides condemned to imprisonment. Both appealed, and 
 after a lengthy investigation they vrere finally in 1849 found guilty by 
 the supreme court of Berlin, which confirmed the deposition of both, 
 but released them from any other punishment, and granted them the 
 privilege of being appointed to non-spiritual offices elsewhere. This 
 sentence charges them with spreading a doctrine that contradicts and 
 nullities the fundamental doctrines of the Christian religion, to which, 
 moreover, was given an application in regard to sexual relations, 
 "which, even though designed by its author to promote holiness, must 
 be regarded in truth as being very pernicious in its consequences, and 
 could be nothing other in its nature than injurious to bodily health 
 and provocative of the worst vices." Ebel was acquitted of the charge 
 of sectarianism, because he neither formally renounced the church nor 
 established a special worship, although it is true that an exclusive and 
 closely united circle of adherents was formed around him. 
 
 6. The " Catholic Apostolic Church" of the Irvingites. (Cf. M. Hohl, 
 Bruchstücke aus d. Leb. u. d. Schriften Irving's. St. Gallen, 1839. — 
 The article by Reich in the Studd. u. Kritt. 1849, I., by Schulze, in 
 Renter's Repert. 1849, H. 7. — L. J. Jacobi, die Lehre d. Irvingiten. 
 Berl. 1853.— J^. F. Schulze, der Irvingismus. Berl. 185G.— J. E. Jörg, 
 ier Irvingianism. Munch. 1856. — A. G. Rtidelbach, der Irvingism. 
 In the luth. Zeitschrift. 1858, II.-IV.) — Ed. Irving, a powerful and 
 popular preacher of the Scotch Presbyterian Church in London, ac- 
 cepted the doctrine that original sin dwelt in the human nature of 
 Christ just as in ours, but that it was conquered and destroyed by the 
 power of his divine nature. lie at the same time came to the convic- 
 tion that the spiritual gifts of the apostolic church could and must b« 
 renewed and revived by prayer and foith, and in fact the presumed 
 gift of speaking in unknown tongues, exalted exclamations and pro- 
 phesyings, soon manifested themselves in some members of his congre- 
 gation. The presbytery of his church deposed him in 1832, and the 
 Scotch general synod excommunicated him in 1833. Rich and respect- 
 able friends of the Episcopal Church (among them especially a rich 
 banker, the subsequent Apostle Drummond) took up the outcast, and 
 gave him the means to build a new church, but they also introduced 
 into it, in spite of Irving's opposition (he died in 1835) a high-church 
 Puseyite tendency, v(;hich soon dislodged the heretical as well as the 
 puritanic element, and forced in the enthusiastic at least in hierarchi- 
 cal and liturgical formalism. The revival of the apostolic office became 
 the centre of the movement. After various unfortunate attempts, tlie 
 calling of twelve Apostles through the divinely illumined Prophets was 
 accomplished. From the apostles as the chief rulers and guardians 
 of the church Erangelisi and Sliepherds (or angels — Rev. 2 : 1, 8, etc.) 
 were now consecrated according to Eph. 4:11 to each of the latter 
 78
 
 410 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A.D.) 
 
 of which was subordinated six elders and six deacons, so that the 
 clergy of each congregation consisted of thirteen persons (a copy of 
 Christ and his twelve disciples). Seven congregations were formed in 
 London as copies of the seven apocalyptic congregations (Rev. 1 : 20), 
 which together in their seven-fold perfection were to be the model and 
 representative of the universal church. The promise of the near re- 
 turn of the Lord stood in the fore-ground of their new revelation. The 
 Lord, who was to come again during the lifetime of the first apostles, 
 and who was, therefore, expected very confidently by them, was com- 
 pelled by increasing corruption and depravity to defer his return inde- 
 finitely, and even to arrest the full development of the second apostolate, 
 which was appointed for the heathen, and for a time represented by Paul, 
 because the church was no longer worthy of it. But now finally, after 
 eighteen centuries of dishonor, during which the church unfolded itself 
 as the ^a%Zo?jof theApocalypse(the Reformation of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury also included), and has become ripe for judgment, the time has 
 come, when the apostolate has been restored, to prepare the way for 
 the end of all things. It was asserted at the beginning with. great 
 confidence, that none belonging to them would die, but that all would 
 survive the end of the world. But since that death has torn so many, 
 even several apostles from the midst of them, it is said that those are 
 already born who shall survive the dawn of the consummation. It 
 may break every day, every hour. It is to begin with the first re- 
 surrection (Rev. 20 : 5) and with the simultaneous transformation of 
 the living saints (the wise virgins, i. e. the Irvingites), who will be 
 borne up to the Lord in the clouds, and be united with him in a higher 
 place by the marriage-supper of the Lamb. They are concealed in 
 security, whilst Antichrist persecutes the other Christians (the foolish 
 virgins), who can only be saved by severe martyrdom, and executes 
 judgment on Babylon, The Gentile church is now at an end ; on the 
 other hand, the conversion of the Jews has commenced, who, being 
 pressed by want and the persecution of the man of sin, seek and find 
 a refuge in Palestine. After a complete, although only a brief victory 
 of Antichrist, the Lord appears visibly in the midst of those who have 
 risen from the dead and of the transformed. The kingdom of Anti- 
 christ is destroyed, Satan is bound, the saints live and rule with Christ 
 a thousand years upon the earth delivered from the curse. After this 
 Satan will be again let loose for a short time, and will cause a great 
 apostacy. Finally Satan's overthrow follows, together with the second 
 resurrection and the last judgment. — In regard to the worship of the 
 Irvingites, their liturgy, professing to have been formed by the apos- 
 tles, is only a compilation of Anglican and Roman Catholic elements. 
 The idea of a priesthood and of sacrifice is very prominent, and splen- 
 did priestly garments are an essential requisite. Nevertheless, they 
 rejected the Romish doctrine of a bloodless repetition of the bloody 
 sacrifice, as also the doctrine of transubstantiation. They, however,
 
 SECTS AND FANATICS. 411 
 
 insisted strictly upon the payment of tithes as made a Christian duty 
 by Heb. 7 : 4. Their typical interpretation of the history and legisla- 
 tion of the Old Testament, especially of the tabernacle, is the most 
 abitrary and absurd that was ever given. — The first sending forth 
 of the Apostles, only to reconnoitre and prepare the ground for future 
 eflforts, took place in 1835. The first public demonstration was made 
 in 1836 by an apostolic " epistle to the patriarchs, bishops, and over- 
 seers of the Church of Christ in all lands, as also to the emperors, 
 kings, and princes of all nations of the baptized," which was sent to 
 the most distinguished of those addressed (also to the pope), but was 
 altogether disregarded (printed in Rheinwald's Acta ecclst. 1837, p. 
 793 fi".) Since then tiiey have carried on their missionary work more 
 publicly. But they from principle only direct their eö"orts towards 
 those who already believe and take no part at all in heathen missions, 
 because they say that they are sent forth neither to the heathen, nor 
 yet to unbelievers, but only to collect and save believers. In England, 
 where they at first met with great favor, their time seems already to 
 have come to an end. They only succeeded in establishing a few con- 
 gregations in North America. Their efibrts in Germany and Switzer- 
 land seem to promise better success. They gained here several respect- 
 able theologians [Karl Rothe, Albert Koppen, and especially Henry W. 
 J. Thiersch, the proper TertuUian of this modern Montanism), which 
 was so much the more important for them, as they lacked influential, 
 at least scientifically and theologically educated, adherents. Frank- 
 furt-on-the-Main became a chief point of their labors, especially through 
 the agency of the book-trade (bookseller Zimmer). Besides, they esta- 
 blished congregations at Berlin, Stettin, Königsberg, Marburg, and 
 Basle. They even found favor among the Roman Catholic clergy, 
 especially in Bavaria. But a series of depositions and excommunica- 
 tions during 1857 suppressed this movement. There have been pub- 
 lished of their theopneustic (apostolic) writings, in addition to the 
 *' Zuschrift an die Patriarchen," etc. ; " Die Ordnung der Feier der h. 
 Euchariste und der h. Communion " (but only printed as manuscript) ; 
 " Die mosaische StiftsLatte als Vorbild für die Christi. K. Frankf. 
 1847;" "Die Kirche in unserer Zeit. Düsselth. 1843;" "Die En- 
 trückung od. die Verwandlung der lebendigen Heiligen von John 
 Hooper. Berl. 1847 ; " " Erzählung von Thatsachen in Verbindung 
 mit der jetzigen Lage u. der Zukunft der Kirche;" "Die sieben 
 Sendschreiben der Off. Joh. ; " " Schatten u. Licht in dem gegenwär- 
 tigen Zustande der K. von Charles Böhm, bevorwortct von Thiersch. 
 Berl. 1855." Irving himself wrote the little book: "Die Kirche mit 
 ihrer Ausstattung von Macht und Heiligkeit, aus d. Engl. Stuttg. 
 1841." — Their missionary representatives in Germany are distin- 
 guished by a religious and moral earnestness joined with dignity, 
 mildness, and amiableness of character. Likewise, it cannot be denied 
 that, apart from their groundless apostolate and what is connected
 
 412 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A.D.) 
 
 therewith, a sound, clear, moderate, and genuine churchly feeling, ex 
 presses itself in th«ir views, in their judgments, and in their efforts. 
 
 7. The Darby ites or Plymouth Brethren. (Cf. /. /. Herzog, les Frferea 
 de Plymouth. Laus. 1855.) — The Plymouth Brethren, related on the 
 one hand with Irvingianism by their expectation of the near approach- 
 ing advent of Christ, and likewise regarding themselves as the latter- 
 day saints, formed, on the other hand, the most decided antithesis to 
 Irvingian hierarehism by their absolute Independentism. John Darby, 
 at first advocate, then a clergyman in the Anglican church, established 
 a sectarian, apocalyptico-independent society at Plymouth, but he soon 
 emigrated to Paris, and from thence to Vaud (1840), where Lausanne 
 became the chief seat of the sect. They held, that all spiritual offices, 
 all ecclesiastical forms, are of evil, and a witness of the secularization 
 of the church. There is only one office, the spiritual priesthood of all 
 believers, and every believer has the right to preach and to a'lminister 
 the sacraments. Not only the Roman Catholic, but also the Protestant 
 church is a Babylon. They are rigidly Calvinistic in doctrine. 
 
 8. The Amen Society. — It owes its origin to the Jewish-Christian 
 Israel Pick of Bohemia, who, being converted by Scotch missionaries, 
 was baptized Jan. 1, 1854. In the conviction that he did not thereby 
 renounce his Judaism, but rather only first then became in truth a Jew, 
 he came, through a one-sided apprehension of the promises given to 
 his nation in the Old Testament, to thoughts and plans similar to those 
 entertained by Christ. Hoffmann of Wlirtemberg (^ 55, 4), only that 
 the latter would accomplish the gathering of the people of God in the 
 promised land through heathen-Christians, but Pick through Jewish- 
 Christians. The entire Mosaic law, including the observance of tlie 
 Sabbath and circumcision, was to be (together with baptism and the 
 Lord's Supper) there the foundation of the ecclesiastical and civil or- 
 ganization, and because the idea of salvation was first to be fully 
 manifested in this true Israel, heathen Christianity would also through 
 it first attain to the full possession of the blessings of grace appointed 
 for it. Every effort, therefore, is made in the interest of all heathen- 
 Christians to prepare the way for this colonization of Palestine through 
 converted Israelites. But as Pick met with little favor among his 
 countrymen with such ideas, he turned to the Christians converted 
 from the heathens, and he succeeded in here and there gaining a few 
 adherents, to whoifl he gave the name of the Amen Society, because 
 all the promises of the old covenant are yea and amen in Christ. The 
 centre of the society is in Munich-Gladbach. 
 
 9. The Mormons or Latter-day Saints. (Cf. Mor. Busch, Die Mor- 
 monen. Lpz. 1855 ; Theod. Olshausen, Gesch. der Mormonen. Göttg. 
 1855.) — Joseph {Joe) Smith, a bankrupt farmer of the State of Vermont, 
 who was engaged in knavish hunting for hidden treasure, declared in 
 1825, that, directed by iivine revelations and visions, he dug out of the 
 hill of Comara in Nev» York a stone chest containing golden tables in-
 
 iECTS AND FANATICS. 413 
 
 scribed with holy records. A pair of prophetical spectacles (Urim and 
 Thummin) which were also in the chest, enabled him to read, to un- 
 derstand, and to translate the records. He published the translation 
 in the Book of Mormon. According to this book, the Israelites emigrated 
 to America under their captain Lelii, after the destruction of the king- 
 dom of the ten tribes. The nation, however, perished after many 
 changes on account of its sins. Its last prophet Mormon wrote his 
 revelation on the above-mentioned brazen tables, which he hid in the 
 earth as a future testimony for the latter-day saints. Smith now de- 
 clared that he was called of God to establish the church of the Latter- 
 day Saints on the basis of these records and the revelations that were 
 made to himself. The leading tendency of this sect is the religious 
 socialistic establishment of a theocratic community under the direction 
 of apostles and prophets. Crowds of believers soon flocked around the 
 new prophet. It is true, the widow of a preacher in New York affirmed, 
 that the Book of Mormon was an almost literal plagiarism from a his- 
 torico-didactic romance, written by her deceased husband, Solomon 
 Spaulding. The manuscript came into the hands of the printer, 
 Sidney Rigdon, who was Smith's right-hand, and after that it 
 disappeared. But this did not disturb the faithful ; just as little also 
 the circumstance, that, besides Smith and his associates, no one could 
 testify to the existence of the tables. In 1830 Smith and his adherents 
 emigrated to the State of Missouri. To escape from the daily increasing 
 hatred of the people they went to Illinois, and founded here the city 
 of Nauvoo, together with a splendid and majestic temple. The wealth, 
 power, and extent of the community increased rapidly through dili- 
 gence, industry, and good discipline ; but in the same degree also the 
 envy, hatred, and wrath of the people, who accused them of the worst 
 crimes. To avoid the shedding of blood, the Governor summoned the 
 two chiefs, Joseph Smith and his brother Hiram, to submit to volun- 
 tary imprisonment for the purpose of a judicial investigation. They 
 obeyed. But an armed raging mob attacked the prison, and shot both 
 of them (1844). The mob then grew into a great army, which destroyed 
 the city of Nauvoo, burned the temple, and expelled the inhabitants. 
 These now numbering 15,000, travelled in several successive companiea 
 "through the wilderness" towards the AVest over the mountains, to 
 establish beyond them a Zion. Smith's successor, as prophet and 
 hierarch, was Brigham Young. The journey occupied two full j'cars. 
 In the great salt sea basin of the territory of Utah or Deseret they laid 
 the foundations of Salt Lake City, or New Jerusalem, as the capitol of 
 a new State. The gold mines of California did not entice them away, 
 for their prophets taught them that it was better to pave streets, tc 
 build houses, and to cultivate fields, than to seek for gold. In this 
 way they also here soon became a flourishing community. The ambi- 
 guous book of Mormon receded, as it appears, more and more into the 
 back-ground ; on the other hand, the doctrines and prophecies of their 
 78*
 
 414 SECTION III. — FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 A.D.) 
 
 apostles and proj hets became more prominent. The most talented 
 among these is ■son Pratt. To him chiefly belongs the credit of de- 
 veloping a most fantastic system of religion, which, compiled from 
 neo-platonic, gnostic, and theosophico-mystical elements, reveals all 
 the mysteries of time and eternity. They have, in common vrith the 
 Irvingites, who recognize in the Mormons their own demoniac carica- 
 ture, the revival of the apostolic and prophetic offices, the gift of 
 speaking in tongues and of mii-acles, the expectation of the near second 
 advent of the Lord, the paying of tithes, etc. But that which distin- 
 guishes them from all other Christian sects is the practice of polygamy 
 as a religious duty, inasmuch as only those women who are "sealed" 
 to a latter-day saint can participate in the blessedness of eternal life. 
 The book of Mormon prohibited polygamy. A later revelation made 
 to Smith allowed it at least to the overseers ; nevertheless, it was at 
 this time still concealed from and denied to the "heathen." It was 
 only openly acknowledged in 1852, and made the duty of all " saints." 
 That polygamy is allowable they would prove from the Old, and 
 also from the New Testament (Matth. 19 : 29). On thie other hand, 
 the saints would punish adultery and prostitution with death. — Their 
 missionaries have also been active within the last decade in spreading 
 the sect in Europe. It is said that 50,000 converts have been baptized 
 in England and Scotland, of whom about 20,000 have already emigrated 
 to Utah. In Denmark, Schleswig, in Western Germany, and in Swit 
 zerland, their missionaries have also met with great success. They 
 have endeavored to draw all their converts to Utah, in order soon to 
 reach their first great object, — to be recognized by the United States 
 as an independent State, and to be freed from the burdensome obliga- 
 tion of being ruled by a governor appointed by the central government. 
 From connivance with the odd saints the office of governor was at first 
 entrusted to the prophet Brigham Young. But his administration was 
 80 arbitrarily absolute, that the other government officers were com- 
 pelled to leave Utah to save their lives. The newly elected president v 
 of the Union, Buchanan, fully resolved to restore the authority of the 
 government, appointed a new governor in Young's place, named Cum- 
 ininys (1857), and sent troops to Utah, who were to enforce his recogni- 
 tion and authority. Young prepared to resist even unto death. How- 
 ever, a compromise was finally made. A full amnesty was granted to 
 the saints, the government troops entered peaceably in June 1858 into 
 Salt Lake City, and Young now lives on pretty friendly terms with the 
 governor. 
 
 I 61. PRACTICAL ANTICHRISTIANITY. 
 
 Whilst Antichristianity (1 Thess. 2:11), especially in the philo- 
 Bophy of self-deification, prepared a way for itself theoretically; 
 eflorts were also put forth to introduce it practically into the world.
 
 PRACTICAL ANTICHRISTIANITY. 415 
 
 In Germamj the poet H. Heine proclaimed the j^ospel of the 
 rehabilitation of the flesh ; around him was gathered in 1834 and 
 1835 the literature of Young Germany {K. Gutzkow, Th. Mundt, 
 etc.), whose pantheistic and immoral principles called forth pretty 
 general indignation, in spite of their poetic garb. In France, 
 St. Simonism flourished only for a short time. But of a much 
 more threatening character was Socialism in England and Com- 
 munism in France, Germany, and Switzerland. That the revo- 
 lution of 1848 broke out so suddenly and almost at the same 
 time in so many different places, that it was of a character 
 radically destructive of all order and all right, — this was chiefly 
 the result of Communism. Nevertheless, it has not been able up 
 to this time to attain its proper object even in a temporary way. 
 Amid all the disorders of the present, the promise stands still 
 secure, that the gates of hell shall not prevail against the Church 
 of Christ. 
 
 1. St. Simonis7n. (Cf. Carovd, d. St. Simonism, u. die neuere franz. 
 Philos. Lpz. 1831. — M. Veit, St. Simon, u. d. St. Simonisten. L.pz. 
 1834.) — The Count St. Simon of Paris, impoverished by many wild 
 undertakings, thought of establishing a new blessed order of the world, 
 with pure enjoyment without any poverty and deprivation, by means 
 of a thorough organization of industry. An unfortunate attempt at 
 suicide, from the consequences of which he died (1825), made him a 
 saviour of the world in the eyes of his disciples. The revolution of July 
 1830 gave the new-world religion, which would give the flesh its long 
 denied rights, and to each individual that position in the community 
 which his capacities and talents deserved, a new impulse. The Father 
 Enfantin, whom his adherents honored as the highest revelation of 
 Deity, contended with pompous phrases and in fantastic costume for 
 the emancipation of woman and against the unnature of marriage. 
 But St. Simonism was soon condemned (1832) by the public as ridicu- 
 lous, by the courts as immoral, and the remnants of its adherents fled 
 from the ridicule of the people and the vengeance of the courts to 
 Egypt, where they soon disappeared. 
 
 2. Socialism and Communism. (Cf. C. B. HimrlcsJiar/en, der Com- 
 munismus im Laufe der Jahrhh. ; in the Studd. und Kritt. 1845. III. — 
 L. lieybaud, Etudes sur les r^formateurs contemporains ou socialistea 
 modernes. Brux. 1841.-5. Geher, Zur. Gesch. d. modernen Radi- 
 calism, u. Comn-unismus. Basel. 1847.)— The Scotchman Eobert Owen, 
 after he had made practical experiments on a small scale with his 
 manufactories, addressed himself through lectures and tracts to the 
 working classes of England, to win them to the idea of Socialism. A 
 noble brotherhood, having f:^r its object mutual advancement and en-
 
 416 SECTION III FOURTH PERIOD (CENT. 19 AD.) 
 
 ioyment of the common possessions of the fraternity, was to make an 
 end of all the misery of the earth. Religion, marriage, family, and 
 private property, were to be abolished, as being the source of all evil ; 
 the training of children was to be public, etc. To promote this object 
 a socialistic union, with nearly a half million members, with a central 
 residence and a yearly congress at Birmingham, was organized in 
 1836 in Great Britain and Ireland, especially in the great manufac- 
 turing cities. However, the danger with which this union threatened 
 Church and State has already been avoided by the sound sense of the 
 English people. — On the other hand, the same reformatory ideas, only 
 in a more bold and radical form, appeared on the continent as Com- 
 munism. Already during the first French revolution a certain Baboeuf 
 issued a communistic manifesto (1797). His ideas were embraced by 
 Charles Fourier, later by Proudhon, Cahet, and others in France, and 
 by W. Weitliiif/, Max Siirner, etc., in Germany. A secret communistic 
 propaganda spread over the whole of Western Europe. Its mission- 
 aries were especially travelling journeymen. All altars were to be 
 cast down, all religion was to be exterminated, as being a pest to 
 humanity, family and marriage were to be abolished, as being the 
 roots of all selfishness, all goods and pleasures of the world were to be 
 equally 3nioyed; "war on the rich" was the battle-cry. The revolu- 
 tion of 1848, for which they prepared the way, compelled them, by its 
 results to flee to England or N)rth America.
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 FIRST CENTURY. 
 
 A. B. Vol. and Paragraph. 
 
 14-37. Tiberius, Emperor, I. 23, 1. 
 
 40. Conversion of Paul, I. 16. 
 
 41-54. Claudius, Empkror, I. 23, 1. 
 
 44. Martyrdom of James the Elder, I. 17. 
 
 45. First Missionary Tour of Paul, I. 16. 
 50. Apostolic Council at Jerusalem, I. 19, 1. 
 
 50-54. Second Missionary Tour of Paul, I. 16. 
 
 54-5e. Third Missionary Tour of Paul, I. 16. 
 
 54-68. Nero, Emperor, I. 23, 1. 
 
 64. Persecution of Christians in Rome. Paul, ob., I. 23, 1. Jamea 
 the Just, ob. 
 
 66-70. Jewish War. I. 21. 
 
 70-100. John in Ephesus, I. 17. 
 
 81-96. DoMiTiAN, Emperor, I. 23, 1. 
 
 SECOND CENTURY. 
 
 98-117. Trajan, Emperor, I. 23, 2. 
 
 107. Simeon of Jerusalem, Martyr, T. 23, 2. 
 
 115. Ignatius of Antioch, Martyr, I. 23, 2. 
 
 117-38. Hadrian, Emperor, I. 23, 2, Basilides, Valentine, T 28, 2, 8. 
 
 132-35. The Insurrection of Barcochba, I. 21. 
 
 150. Celsus, I. 24, 4. Marcion, I. 28, 10. 
 
 160. Easter-controversy between Polycarp and Anicetus, I. 31, 1 
 Moiitanus, I. 37, 1. 
 
 161-80. Marcus Aurelius, Emperor, I. 23, 3. 
 
 166. Justin Martyr, ob., I. 39, 2. 
 
 167. Persecution of Christians in Smyrna, I. 23, 3. 
 
 168. Martyrdom of Polycarp, I. 23, 3. 
 
 177. Persecution of Christians at Lugdunum and Vienna. I. 23, 8. 
 180-93. Commodus, Emperor. I. 23, 3. 
 
 196. Easter-controversy between Polycrates and Victor, I. 31, 1. 
 193-211. Septimus Severu.s, Emperor, I. 23, 4. 
 
 (417)
 
 418 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 •THIRD CENTURY. 
 A. T). Vol. and Paragraph. 
 
 201. Tertullian becomes a Montanist, I. 37, 2. 
 
 202. Pantffinus, ob., I. 39, 4. Irenaeus, ob., I. 39, 3. 
 
 220. Clement of Alexandria, ob., I. 39, 4. Tertullian, ob. I. 39, 5. 
 
 235. Settlement of the schism of Hippolytus, I. 38, 1. 
 
 235-38. Maximinus the Thracian, Emperor, I. 23, 4. 
 
 243. Ammonius Saccas, ob., I. 24, 2. 
 
 244. Arabian Synod in opposition to Beryllue, I. 40, 5. 
 249-51. Decius, Emperor, I. 23, 5. 
 
 250. The Schism of Felicissimus, I. 38, 2. 
 
 251. The Schism of Novatian, I. 38, 3. 
 
 253-56. Controversy about the Baptism of Heretics, I. 32, 2. 
 353-00. Valerianus, Emperor, I. 23, 5. 
 
 254. Origen, ob., I. 39, 4. 
 
 258. Cyprian, ob., I. 39, 5. 
 260-68. Gallienus, Emperor, Edict of Toleration, I. 23, 5. 
 
 262. Synod of Rome in opposition to Sabellius and Dionysius of Alex 
 andria, I. 40, 6. 
 
 269. Third Syrian Synod in opposition to Paul of Samosata, I. 40, "* 
 
 277. Mani, ob., I. 29, 1. 
 284-305. Djocletian, Emperor, I. 23, 6. 
 
 FOURTH CENTURY. 
 
 308. Commencement of the Diocletian Persecution, I. 23, 6. 
 805. Synod of Elvira, I. 35, 1. 
 306. The Schism of Melitus in Egypt, I. 38, 4. 
 Constantius Chlorus, ob., I. 23, 7. 
 
 311. Galerius, ob., I. 23, 6. Mensurius, ob., I. 63, 2. 
 
 312. Constantine's Campaign against Maxentius, I. 23, 7. 
 
 313. Edict of Milan, I. 23, 7. 
 318. Arius accused, I. 50, 1. 
 
 323-37. Constantine the Great, sole Monarch, I. 42, 1. 
 
 325. First Oicumenical Council at Nice, I. 50, 1. 
 
 335. Synod of Tyre, I. 50, 2. 
 
 336. Afhanasius deposed. Arius, ob., I. 50, 2. 
 341. Council of Antioch, I; 50, 2. 
 
 343. Synod of Sardica, I. 50, 2. Persecution of Christians under Sha« 
 
 pur II., I. 64, 2. 
 346. Council of Milan in opposition to Photinus, I. 50, 2. 
 348. Ulfilas, Bishop of the Goths, I. 76, 1. 
 350-61. Constantius, sole Monarch, I. 42, 1. 
 
 351. First Council of Sirmium in opposition to Marcellus, I. 50, 2. 
 
 357. Second Council of Sirmium. Ilomoiites, I. 50, 3. 
 
 358. Third Council of Sirmium, I. 50, 3. 
 
 359. Synods of Seleucia and Rimini, I. 50. 3.
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 410 
 
 A. D. Vol. and Paragraph. 
 
 301-63. Julian the Apostate, Emperor, I. 42, 2. 
 
 861-413. The Meletian Schism at Antioch, I. 63, 1. 
 
 *362. Synod of Alexatulria under Athanasius, I. 50, 4. 
 
 ^66. Schism of Damasus and Ursinus, I. 63, 1. 
 
 368. Hilary of Poictiers, ob., I. 47, 6. 
 
 373. Athanasius, ob.. I. 47, 4. 
 
 379-95. Theodosius I., Max., I. 42, 3. 
 
 . 380. Synod of Saragossa, I. 54, 2. 
 
 381. Second (Ecumenical Council at Constantinople, I. 50, 4. 
 
 385. Priscillian beheaded at Treves, I. 54, 2. 
 
 390. Gregory of Nazianzus, ob., I. 47, 4. 
 
 391. Destruction of the Serapeion at Alexandria, I. 42, 3. 
 393. Council of Hippo, I. 59, 1. 
 
 395. Division of the East and West Roman Empire. 
 
 397. Ambrose, ob., I. 47, 5. 
 
 '■99. Rufinus condemned at Rome as an Origenist, I. 51, 2. 
 
 400. Martin of Tours, ob., I. 54, 2. 
 
 FIFTH CENTURY. 
 
 402-17. Innocent I. of Rome, I. 46, 2, etc. 
 
 403. Synodus ad Quercium, I. 51, 3. Epiphanias, ob., I. 47, 4. 
 
 407. Chrysostoni, ob., I. 51, 3. 
 
 408-50. Theodosius II. in the East, I. 52, 8. 
 
 411. Collatio cum Donatistis, I. 63, 2. 
 
 412. Synod of Carthage in opposition to Coelestius, I. 53, 4. 
 
 415. Synods of Jerusalem andDiospolisin opposition to Pelagius, I. 53, 4. 
 
 416. Synods of Milene and Carthage in opposition to Pelagius, I. 53, 4. 
 418. General Synod of Carthage, I. 53, 4. 
 
 420. Jerome, ob., I. 47,5. Persecution of Christians under Behram V., 
 I. 64, 2. 
 
 428. Nestorius chosen Patriarch of Constantinople, I. 52, 3. 
 
 429. Theodorus of Mops., ob., I. 47, 1. Vandals in North Africa, I. 76, 3. 
 430.^ Cyril's Anathemas, I. 52, 3. Augustin, ob., I. 47, 5. 
 
 431. Third (Ecumenical Council at Ephesus, I. 52, 3. 
 
 432. Patricius in Ireland, I. 77, 2. John Cassianus, ob., I. 53, 5. 
 440-61. Leo I., Max., I. 46, 2, etc. 
 
 444. Cyril of Alexandria, ob. Dioscurus his successor, I. 52, 4. 
 
 445. Valentinian III.'s Rescript, I. 46, 2. 
 
 448. Eutyches excommunicated at Constantinople, I. 52, 4. 
 
 449. "Robber-Synod" of Ephesus, I. 52, 4. Invasion of Britain by 
 
 the Angles and Saxons, I. 77, 4. 
 451. Fourth (Ecumenical Council at Chalcedon, I. 52, 4. 
 457. Theodoret, ob.. I. 47, 1. 
 
 475. Semi-pelagian Synods of Aries and Lugdunum, I. 53, 5. 
 
 476. Downfall of the West Roman Empire, I. 76, 6. The Monophy 
 
 site Encyclion of Basiliscus, I. 52, 5.
 
 jt20 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 A. T). Vol. and Paragraph. 
 
 482. Henoticon of the Emperor Zeno, I. 52, 5. Severinus, ob. 
 
 484-519. Thirty-five years' Schism between the East aud West, I. 52, 5. 
 
 496. The Battle of Tolbiac. Clovis baptized, I. 76, 9. 
 
 498. The Persian Church adopts Nestorianism, I. 52, 3. 
 
 SIXTH CENTURY. 
 
 503. Synodus Palmaris, I. 46, 2. 
 517. Council of Epaon, I. 76, 5. 
 527-65. Justinian I., Emperor, I. 52, 6. 
 
 529. Synods of Arausis and Valence, I. 53, 5. 
 
 The Rule of Monk Benedict of Nursia, I. 85. 
 533. Theopaschite Controversy, I. 52, 6. Downfall of the Empire of 
 
 the Vandals, I. 76, 3. 
 541. Renewed Condemnation of Origen at Constantinople, I. 52, 6. 
 544. Condemnation of the three Chapters, I. 52, 6. 
 558. Fifth Qücumenical Council at Constantinople, I. 52, 6. 
 554. Downfall of the East-Gothic Empire in Italy, I. 76, 7. 
 563. Synod of Braga, I. 54, 2. Columba among the Plots and Scote, 
 
 I. 77, 3. 
 568. The Lombards under Alboin in Italy, I. 76, 8. 
 589. Synod of Toledo under Recared, I. 76, 2. Columban and GalluB 
 
 among the Vosges, I. 78, 1. 
 590-604. Gregory I., Max., I. 46, 2, etc. 
 
 595. Gregory of Tours, ob., I. 90, 2. 
 
 596. Augustine sent among the Anglo-Saxons, I. 77, 4. 
 
 597. Columba, ob., I. 77, 3. Ethelbert baptized, I. 77, 4. 
 
 SEVENTH CENTURY. 
 
 (506. Emperor Phocas acknowledged the Primacy of Rome, I. 46, 2 
 611-41. Heraclius, Emperor, 52, 8. 
 622. Hejirah, I. 65. 
 
 636. Isidore of Seville, ob., I. 90, 2. 
 
 637. Omar conquered Jerusalem, I. 65. 
 
 638. Monothelete Ecthesis of Heraclius, I. 52, 8. 
 640. Omar conquered Egypt, I. 65. 
 
 642-68. CoNSTANS II., Emperor, I. 52, 8. 
 
 646. St. Gallus, ob., I. 78, 1. 
 
 648. Constans II.'s Typos, I. 52, 8. 
 
 649. The first Lateran Synod under Martin L, I. 52, 8. 
 652. Emmeran in Regensburg, I. 78, 2. 
 
 657. Constantine of Mananalis, I. 71, 1. 
 
 662. Masimus, Confessor, ob., I. 52, 8. 
 
 664. Synod of Streaneshalch (Syn. Pharensis), L 77, 6. 
 
 668-85 Constantine Pogonnatus, I. 52, 8; 71, 1. 
 
 677. Wilfrid among the Frisians, I. 78, 8.
 
 OHRONOLOGIOAL TABLE. 421 
 
 A. V. Vol. and Paragraoh. 
 
 68Q Sixth (Ecumenical Council at Constantinople (TruUanum I.), I 
 
 52, 8. 
 690. Willibrord among the Frisians, I. 78, 3. 
 692. Concilium Quinisextum (Trullanum II.), I. 63, 3. 
 696. Rupert in Bavaria (Salzburg), I. 78, 2. 
 
 EIGHTH CENTURY. 
 
 711. The Saracens conquered Spain, I. 81. 
 715-31. Gregory IL, Pope, I. 66, 1 ; 78, 4. 
 
 716. Winfrid went to Frisia, I. 78, 4. 
 
 717. Corbinian in Freisingen, I. 78, 2. 
 717-41. Leo the Isaurian, Emperor, I. 66, 1. 
 
 718. Winfrid in Rome, I. 78, 4. 
 
 722. Winfrid in Thuringia and Hesse, I. 78, 4. 
 
 723. Winfrid the second time in Rome. His consecration as Bishop 
 
 (Boniface) and oath of allegiance, I. 78, 4. 
 
 724. The fall of the ancient oak at Geismar, I. 78, 4. 
 726. Leo's first edict against image-worship, I. 66, 1. 
 730. Leo's second edict against image-worship, I. 66, 1. 
 
 731-41. Gregory III., Pope, L 66, 1 ; 78, 4; S2, 1. 
 
 732. Boniface, Archbishop and Apost. Vicar, I. 78, 4. Battle of Poic- 
 
 tiers, I. 81. 
 
 735. The Venerable Bede, ob., 1. 90, 2. 
 
 739. Willibrord, ob., I. 78, 3. 
 
 741. Charles Martel, ob., I. 78, 4. Gregory III. ob.; Leo the Isaurian, ob 
 741-52. Zacharias, Pope, I., 78, 4. 
 
 741-75. CoNSTANTiNE CoPRONTMUs, Emperor, I. 66, 2. 
 
 742. Concilium Germanicum. Sturm founded Fulda, I, 78, 4. 
 
 743. Synod at Liptiuae. 
 
 744. Synod of Soissons, L 78, 4. 
 
 745. Boniface, Archbishop at Mayence, I. 78, 4. 
 760. John Damascenus, ob., I. 68, 4, 5. 
 
 752. Childeric 111. dethroned. Pepin the Short, King, I. 82, 1. 
 
 754. Iconoclastic Synod at Const., I. 66, 2. 
 
 755. Boniface, ob., I. 78, 4. The establishment of the Papal dominion 
 
 through Pepin's donation, I. 82, 1. 
 760. Canonic Rule of Chrodegang of Metz, I. 84, 4. 
 767. Synod of Gentilly, I. 91, 2; 92, 1. 
 V 68-81 4. Charlemagne, I. 82, 1. 
 772-95. Hadrian L, Pope, L 82, 1, 
 
 772. Destruction of Eresburg, I. 78, 5. 
 
 774. Charlemagne's donation to the Papal See, I. 82, 1. 
 
 785. Widukind and Albion were baptized, I. 78, 5. 
 
 787. Seventh OScumeuical Council of Nice, I. 66, 3. Establishment of 
 
 Monastery and Cathedral Schools, I. 90. 
 790. Libri Carolini, I. 92, 1. 
 
 19
 
 422 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 A. D. Vol. and Para);ra|h. 
 
 792. Synod of Ratisbon, I. 91, 1. 
 
 794. General Synod of Frankfurt, I. 91, 1 ; 92, 1. 
 
 795-816. Leo III., Pope, I. 82, 2. 
 
 799. Alcuin's Controversy with Felix at Aix-la-Chapelle, I. 91, 1. 
 
 800. Leo III. crowns Charlemagne, I. 82, 2. 
 
 NINTH CENTURY. 
 
 804. Close of the Saxon W.ar, I. 78, 5. Alcuin, ob., I. 90, 2. 
 
 809. Council at Aijs-la-Chapelle on filiogue, I. 91, 2. 
 813-20. Leo the Armenian, Emperor, I. 66, 4. 
 814-40. Louis the Pious, I. 82, 2. 
 
 817. Reformation of Monasticism through Benedict of Aniane, I. 85, 2. 
 820-29. Michael Balbüs, Emperor, I. 66, 4. 
 
 825. Synod of Paris against image-worship, I. 91, 1. 
 
 826. Theodorus Studita, ob., I. 66, 4. Ansgar goes to Denmark, I. 80. 1 
 
 827. Establishment of Saracenic dominion in Sicily, I. 81, 
 829-42. Theophilus, Emperor, I. 66, 4. 
 
 833. Formation of the See of Hamburg, I. 80, 1. 
 835. Synod of Thionville, I. 82, 2. Pseudo-Isidore, L 87, 2. 
 840. Claudius of Turin, ob. ; Agobard of Lyons, ob., I. 92, 2. 
 840-74. Charles the Bald, I. 82, 2, 5. 
 
 842. Feast of Orthodoxy, I. 66, 4. Theodora ordered the extermina- 
 
 tion of the Paulicians, I. 71, 1. 
 
 843. The Treaty of Verdun, I. 82, 2. 
 
 844. Eucharistie Controversy of Paschasius Radbertus, I. 91, S. 
 845-82. Hincmar of Rheims, I. 83, 1. 
 
 847. See of Hamburg-Bremen, I. 80, 1. 
 
 848. Synod of Mayence against Gottschalk, I. 91, 4. 
 850-859. Persecution of Christians in Spain, I. 81, 1. 
 
 853. Synod of Chiersy. Capitula Carisiaca, I. 91. 4. 
 
 855. Synod of Valence for Gottschalk, I. 91, 4. 
 
 856. Rabanus Maurus, ob., I. 90, 5. 
 858-67. Nicholas I., Pope, I. 82, 4. 
 
 858. Photius, Patriarch of Const., I. 67, 1. 
 
 859. Synod at Savonniferes, I. 91, 4. 
 
 861. Methodius among the Bulgarians, I. 72, 3. 
 
 863. Cyrill and Methodius in Moravia, I. 79, 1. 
 
 865. Ansgar, ob., I. 80, 1. 
 
 867. Encyclical Letter of Photius, I. 67, 1. f 
 
 867-86. Basil the Macedonian, Emperor, I. 67, 1. 
 867-72. Hadrian II., Pope, I. 82, 4. 
 
 869. Eighth (Ecumenical Council (Latin) at Const., I. 67, 1. 
 
 870. Treaty of Mersen, I. 82, 2. 
 
 871. Basil the Macedonian conquered the Paulicians, I. 71, 1. 
 Borzivoi and Ludmilla baptized, I. 79, 2. 
 
 871-901. Alired the Great, I. 90.
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, 423 
 
 A- D. Vol. and Paragraph. 
 
 875. John VIII. crowned Charles the Bald, Emperor, I. 82, 5. 
 
 879. Eighth {Ecumenical Council (Greek) at Const., I. G7, 1. 
 
 886-911. Leo the Philosopher, EiMperok, I. 67, 2. 
 
 891. Photius, ob., I. 67, 1. 
 
 TENTH CENTURY. 
 
 910. Abbot Berno founded Clugny, I. 98, I. 
 
 911. The German Carolingians die out, I. 82, 5. 
 911-18. Conrad I., German King, I. 96, 1. 
 914-28. John X., Pope, I. 96, 1. 
 
 919-36. Henry I., German King, I. 96, 1. 
 
 934. Henry I. exacted toleration of Christianity in Denmark, I. 93, 1. 
 936-73. Otto I., Empekor, I. 96, 1. 
 
 942. Odo of Clugny founded the Cluniacum-congregation, I. 98, 1. 
 
 950. Gylas of Hungary baptized, I. 93, 2. 
 
 955. Olga baptized in Const., I. 72, 4. 
 
 960. Atto of Vercelli, ob., I. 101, 1. 
 
 962. Establishment of the holy Roman German Empire, I. 96, 1. 
 
 963. John XII. deposed at a Synod in Rome, I. 96, 1. 
 966. Miecislav of Poland baptized, I. 93, 2. 
 
 968. Establishment of the See of Magdeburg, I. 93, 2. 
 970. Transportation of Paulicians to Thracia, I. 71, 1. 
 973-83. Otto II., Emperor, I. 96, 1. 
 
 974. Ratherius of Verona, ob., I. 101, 1. 
 983-1002. Otto III., Emperor, I. 96, 1. 
 
 983. Mistevoi overthrew all Christian Institutions among the Wenda, 
 I. 93, 2. 
 
 987. Hugo Capet assumes the French crown, I. 96, 1. 
 
 988. Vladimir christianized Russia, I. 72, 4. 
 991. Synod at Rheims, Gerbert., I. 96, 1. 
 
 992-1025. Boleslav Chrobry of Poland, I. 93, 2. 
 996-999. Gregory V., Pope, I. 96, 1. 
 997-1038. St. Stephen, I. 93, 2. 
 
 997. Adalbert of Prague, Ap. among Prussians, ob., I. 93, 3. 
 999-1003. Sylvester II., Pope, I. 96, 1. 
 
 1000. Olaf Tryggvason, ob., I. 93, 1. Christianity in Greenland, I 
 93, 1. Stephen of Hungary obtained the crown, I. 93, 2. 
 
 ELEVENTH CENTURY. 
 
 1002-24. Henry II., Emperor, I. 96, 2. 
 
 1005. Monk Nilus, obi 
 
 1008. Olaf Skautkonung of Sweden, ob., I. 93, 1. 
 
 1009. Bruno martyred, I. 93, 3. 
 1012-24 Benedict VIIL, Pope, L 96, 2. 
 1014-36 Canute the Mighty, I. 93, 1.
 
 424 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 A. D. Vol. and Paragraph, 
 
 1018. Romuald founded the Camaldolite Order, I. 98, 1. 
 
 i024-39. Conrad XL, Emperor, I. 96, 2. 
 
 1030. Olaf the Fat of Norway, ob., I. 93, 1. 
 
 1031. Downfall of the Ommiyah in Spain, I. 96, 2. 
 1039-56. Henry III., Emperor, I. 96, 2. 
 
 1046. Synod of Sutri, I. 96, 2. 
 
 1048. Bruno of Cologne founded the Carthusians, I. 98, 3. 
 1048-54. Leo IX., Pope, I. 96, 3. 
 
 1050. Synod of Rome. Vercelli against Berengar, I. 102, 2. 
 
 1053. Synodal Letter of Michael Cerularius, I. 67, 3. 
 
 1054. Excommunication of the Greek Church through the Papal Legates, 
 
 L 67, 3. 
 1056-1106. Henry IV., Emperor. I. 96, 3. 
 
 1059. Nicholas II., Pope, conferred the election of Pope on the College 
 
 of Cardinals, I. 96, 3. 
 
 1060. Robert Guiscard established the Norman rule in Italy, I. 95, 1. 
 1066. Assassination of Gottschalk, King of the Wends, I. 93, 2. 
 
 1073-85. Gregory VIL, Pope, I. 96, 4. 
 
 1077. Henry IV., a penitent at Canossa, I. 96, 4. 
 
 1079. Berengar at Rome avers Transubstantiation, I. 102, 2. 
 1081-1118. Alexius Comnenus, Emperor, I. 71, 1, 3. 
 
 1088-99. Urban II., Pope, I. 96, 5. 
 
 1095. Councils of Piacenza and Clermont, I. 94. 
 
 1096. First Crusade. Godfrey of Bouillon, I. 94, 1. 
 
 1098. Synod at Bari. Anselm of Canterbury, I. 67, 4. 
 Robert of Citeaux founded the Cistercian Order, I. 98, 2. 
 
 1099. Conquest of Jerusalem, I. 94, 1. 
 1099-1118. Pasohal II., Pope, I. 96, 5. 
 
 TWELFTH CENTURY. 
 
 1106-25. Henry V., Emperor, L 96, 5. 
 1106. Michael Psellus, ob., L 68, 3. 
 1109. Anselm- of Canterbury, ob., I. 102, 1, 3. 
 1115. Bernard, Abbot of Clairvaux, L 103, 1; 98, 2. 
 
 1118. Founding of the Order of Templars. Knights of St. John 
 
 I. 98, 6. 
 1119-24. Calixtüs IL, Pope, I. 96, 5. 
 
 1119. Basil, Head of the Bogomiles, died at the stake, I. 71, 3. 
 
 1121. Norbert founds the Order of Remonstrants, I. 98, 3. 
 
 1122. The Concordat of Worms, I. 96, 5. 
 
 1123. Ninth (Ecumenical Council (I. Lateran) II. 6, 3. 
 
 1124. Peter de Bruys burned, I. 108, 3. 
 Tanchelm killed, I. 108, 4. 
 
 First Missionary Tour of Otto v. Bamberg, L 93, 2. 
 1128. Second Missionary Tour of Otto v. Bamberg, L 93, 2. 
 1130-43. Innocent II., Pope, L 96, 6.
 
 OHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 425 
 
 A. D. « Vol. and Paragraph. 
 
 ;i35. Rupert of Deutz, ob., I. 103, 3. 
 
 1139. Tenth (Ecumenical Council (II. Lateran), I. 96, 6. 
 
 1140. The Synod of Sens condemns Abelard's writings, I. 103, 1. 
 
 1141. Hugo St. Victor, ob., I. 103, 2. 
 
 1142. Abelard, ob., I. 103, 1. 
 
 1143. Arnold of Brescia effects the expulsion of the Pope from Borne, 
 
 I. 96, 6. 
 1145-53. Eugene III., Pope, I. 96, 6. 
 1146. Fall of Edessa, I. 94, 2. 
 
 Second Crusade, Conrad III. ; Louis VIII., I. 94, 2, 
 
 1149. Henry of Lausanne, ob., I. 108, 3. 
 
 1150. Decretum Gratiani, I. 99. 
 1152-90. Frederick I., Barbarossa, I. 96, 6. 
 
 1153. Bernard of Clairvaux, ob., I. 103, 1. 
 
 1154. Vicelin, ob., I. 93, 2. 
 1154-59. Hadrian IV., Pope, I. 96, 6. 
 
 1155. Arnold of Brescia condemned to death, I. 108, 8. 
 
 1156. Peter the Venerable, ob., I. 98, 1. 
 
 The Order of Carmelites founded, L 98, 3, 
 
 1157. Christianity introduced into Finland, I. 93, 3. 
 1159-81. Alexander IIL, Pope, I. 96, 6. 
 
 1164. Peter Lombard, ob., I. 104, 2. 
 
 Meeting of the Estates at Clarendon, I. 96, 6. 
 .1165. Catharian Council at Toulouse, I. 108, 1. 
 1168. The Island of Rügen christianized, I. 93, 3. 
 1170. Thomas ä Becket murdered, I. 96, 6. 
 1176. Battle of Legnano, I. 96, 6. 
 
 1179. Eleventh (Ecumenical Council (IIL Lateran), L 96, 6. 
 
 1180. John of Salisbury, ob., I. 103, 3. 
 
 1182. The Maronites unite with Rome, L 73, 3. 
 
 1186. Meinhart in Livonia, I. 93, 3. 
 
 1187. Saladin takes .Jerusalem, I. 94, 3. 
 
 1189. Third Crusade (Fred. Barb.), L 94, 3. 
 1190-97. Henry VI., Emperor, L 96, 6. 
 
 1190. Establishment of the Teutonic Knights, I. 98, 6. 
 1194. Eustathius of Thessalonica, ob., I. 68, 3. 
 
 1198-1216. Innocent IIL, Pope, I. 96, 7. 
 
 THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 1202. Joachim v. Floris, ob., L 108, 4. The Order of the Brethren of 
 the Sword founded, I. 93, 3. Genghis Khan overthrows the 
 kingdom of the Presb. John, I. 93, 4. 
 120'4. Amalric of Bena, ob., I. 108, 2. 
 1204-61. The Latin Empire in Constantinople, I. 94, 4. 
 
 1207. Stephen Langten, Archbishop of Canterbury, I. 96, 7. 
 
 1208. Peter of Castlenau slain, I. 109, 1. 
 79*
 
 426 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 A. D. Vol. and Paragraph. 
 
 1209-29. Crusade against the Albigenses, I. 109, 1. 
 
 1209. "The Council of Paris against the sect of the Holy Ghost. Erigena 
 condemned, I. 108, 2. Christian commences his mission among 
 the Prussians, I. 93, 3. 
 
 1212. Battle of Tolosa, I. 95, 2. 
 
 1213. John of England receives his kingdom as a papal fief, I. 96, 7. 
 1215-50. Frederick II., Emperor, I. 96, 7, 8 
 
 1215. Twelfth (Ecumenical Council (IV. Lateran), I. 96, 2. 
 
 1216. The Dominicau Order confirmed, I. 98, 4. 
 1216-27. HoNORius III., Pope, I. 96, 8. 
 
 1217. Fourth Crusade. Andrew II. of Hungary, I. 94, 4. 
 1223. The Franciscan Order confirmed, I. 98, 4. 
 
 1225. Francis of Assisi, ob., I. 98, 4. 
 1226-70. Louis IX., St., I. 96, 6 ; 94, 6. 
 1277-41. Gregory IX., Pope, I. 96, 8. 
 
 1228. Fifth Crusade (Fred. II.), I. 94, 5. Settlement of the Teutonio 
 
 Knights in Prussia, I. 93, 3. 
 
 1229. The Synod of Toulouse, L 109, 2. 
 
 1231. St. Elisabeth, ob. 
 
 1232. The Inquisition, L 109, 2. 
 
 1233. Conrad of Marburg slain, I. 109, 2. 
 
 1234. Crusade against the Stedingers, I. 109, 2. Decretum Gregorii, 
 
 L 99. 
 1237. The Union of the Order of the Sword with the Teutonic Knights, 
 I. 98, 6. 
 1243-54. Innocent IV., Pope, I. 96, 8. 
 
 1245. Thirteenth GEcumenical Council (L Lyons), I. 96, 8. 
 
 Alexander of Hales, ob., 104, 1. 
 1248. The corner-stone of the Cologne Cathedral laid, I. 106, 6. 
 Sixth Crusade (Louis IX.), I. 94, 6. 
 
 1253. William Ruysbroek (de Rubruquis) among the Mongols, I. 93, 4. 
 Robert Grosstete, ob., 104, ?,. 
 
 1254. Condemnation of "The Everlasting Gospel," I. 108, 4. 
 1260. The first march of the Flagellants at Perugia, I. 114, 1. 
 
 1260-82. Michael Pal/eologus, Emperor, I. 67, 4. 
 
 1261-64. Urban IV., Pope, I. 96, 8. 
 
 1262. Arsenian Schism, I. 70, 1. 
 
 1268. Conradin on the scaS"old, I. 96, 8. 
 
 1269. Pragmatic Sanction of Louis IX., L 96, 8. 
 
 1270. Seventh Crusade (Louis IX.), I. 94, 6. 
 1271-76. Gregory X., I. 96, 8. 
 
 1272. Italian Mission to the Mongols. Marco Polo, I. 93, 4. 
 1273-91. Rudolph of Hapsburg, Emperor. 
 
 1274. Fourteenth (Ecumenical Council (TI. Lyons), I. 67, 4. 
 Bonaventura, ob., I. 104, 1. Thos. Aquinas, ob., I. 104, 1. 
 Robert of Sorbonne, ob., I. 104, 3. 
 
 1275. The Strassburg minster, I. 105, 6.
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 427 
 
 A. D. Vol. and Paragraph. 
 
 1280. Albertus Magnus, ob., I. 104, 1. 
 
 1282. The Sicilian Vespers, I. 96, 8. 
 
 1283. Prussia subjugated, I. 93, 3. 
 
 1286. Barhebrseus, ob., I. 73, 2. Raymund Martini, ob. 
 
 1291. Fall of Acre, I. 94, 8. John de Monte-Corvino goes to the Mon- 
 gols, I. 93, 4. 
 
 1294. Roger Bacon, ob., I. 104, 3. 
 1294-1303. Boniface VIII., Pope, I. 110, 1. 
 
 1296. The Bull Clericus laicos, I. 110, 1. 
 
 1300. The First Roman Jubilee, I. 115. The Lollards in Antwerp, L 
 114, 1. Gerhard Segarelli burned, I. 108, 4. 
 
 FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 1302. The bull Unam sanctam, I. 110, 1. 
 
 1305-14. Clement V., Pope, I. 110, 2. 
 
 1307. Dolcino burned, I. 108, 2. 
 
 1309-77. The Popes in Avignon, I. 110, 2. 
 
 1311-12. Fifteenth (Ecumenical Council in Vienne, L 110, 2. The Order 
 of Templars dissolved, I. 112, 3. 
 
 1315. Raymund Lullus, ob., I. 93, 5. 
 
 1316-34. John XXII., Pope, I. 110, 2. 
 
 1321. Dante, ob., I. 114, 4. 
 
 1322. The Franciscan Order split, I. 112, 2. 
 1322-47. Louis THE Bavarian, Emperor, I. 112, 2. 
 
 1329. Master Ekkart, ob., I. 117, 1. 
 
 1332. William Durandus, ob., I. 116, 1. John de Monte-Corvino, ob., 
 I. 93, 4. 
 
 1334-42. Benedict XII., Pope, I. 110, 2. 
 
 1335. Bishop Hemming in Lapland, I. 93, 3. 
 
 1338. Electoral Union in Rhense, L 110, 2. 
 
 1339. Union Negotiations at Avignon. Barlaam, I. 67, 5. 
 
 1340. Nicholas v. Lyra, ob., I. 116, 2. 
 
 1341-51. Hesychast Controversy in Constant., I. 69, 5. 
 
 1342-52. Clement VI., Pope, I. 110, 2. 
 
 1347-78. Charles IV., Emperor, I. 110, 2. 
 
 1347. Cola di Rienzi, I. 110, 2, Emperor Louis, ob., I. 110, 2, Wil- 
 
 liam Occam, ob., I. 116, 1. 
 
 1348. University of Prague founded, I. 119, 2. 
 1348-50. The Black Death. Flagellant processions, L 114, 1. 
 
 1349. Thomas Bradwardine, ob., I. 116, 2. 
 
 1355. Charles IV. renounces all imperial supremacy over the territory 
 of the Church, I. 110, 2. 
 
 1360. WyclilFe opposes the mendicant Friars, I. 119, 1. 
 
 1361. John Tauler, ob., I. 117, 2. 
 1305. Henry Suso, ob., I. 117, 2. 
 
 1369. John Palaeologus enters the Latin Church, T. 67, 5.
 
 428 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 A. D. VoL and Paragraph. 
 
 1374. The Dancers, I. 114, 1. 
 1378-1409. The Papal Schism, I. 110, 3. 
 1380. Catharine of Siena, ob., I. 112, 2. 
 
 1384. Wycliffe, ob., 1. 119, 1. Gerhard Groot, ob., I. 112, 6. 
 1386. Introduction of Christianity into Lithuania, I. 93, 8. 
 1400. Florentius Radewin, ob., I. 112, 6. 
 
 FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 1402. Hus appointed preacher of Bethlehem Chapel, I. 119, 8. 
 
 1409. General Council at Pisa, I. 110, 3. Emigratioa of the German! 
 from Prague, I. 119, 3. 
 1410-15. John XXIII., Pope, I. 110, 2. 
 1410-37. SiGiSMUND, Empkror, I. 110, 3. 
 
 1412. Indulgence traffic in Bohemia, I. 119, 3. 
 
 1413. Papal ban against Hus, I. 119, 3. 
 1414-18. General Council of Constance, I. 110, 3. 
 
 1415. Martyrdom of Hus, I. 119, 3. 
 
 1416. Martyrdom of Jerome of Prague, 1. 119, 3. 
 
 1417. Vincentius Ferreri, leader of the Flagellants, I. 114, 1. 
 1417-31. Martin V., Pope, I. 110, 3. 
 
 1420. Calixtines and Taborites, I. 119, 4. 
 
 1423. General Council of Paria and Siena, I. 110, 3. 
 
 1424. Ziska, ob., I. 119, 4. 
 
 1425. Peter d'Ailly, ob., I. 118, 1. 
 1429. Gerson, ob., I. 118, L 
 
 1431-43. General Council at Basel, I. 110, 3. 
 
 1433. Basel Compacts, I. 119, 4, 
 
 1434. Defeat of the Hussites at Böhmischbrod, I. 119, 4. 
 
 1438. Papal Council at Ferrara, I. 110, 3. Pragmatic Sanction of Boui» 
 
 ges, I. 110, 3. 
 
 1439. Union Council at Florence, I. 67, 6. 
 1453. Fall of Constantinople, I. 67, 6. 
 
 1456. Laurentius Valla, ob., I. 120, 1. 
 
 1457. Francis of Paula founded the Order of the Minimi, I. 112, 4. 
 1458-64. Pius II., Pope, I. 110, 4. 
 
 1459. General Council of Mantua, I. 110, 4. 
 1464-71. Paul II., Pope, I. 110, 4. 
 
 1467. Convention of the Bohemian Brethren at Lhota, I. 119, 5. 
 
 1471. Thomas ä Kempis, ob., I. 118, 1. 
 1471-84. SiXTUs IV., Pope, I. 110, 4. 
 
 1482. Rudolph Agricola, ob., I. 120, 2. 
 
 1483. Luther born Nov. 10, IL 2, 1. Spanish Inquisition, I. 115, 1. 
 1484-92. Innocent VIIL, Pope, L 110, 4. 
 
 1484. Malleus Maleficarum, I. 115, 2. Zwingli born, Jan. 1, IL 10, 1 
 1489. John Wessel, ob., I. 119, 6. 
 
 1492-1503. Alexander VL, Pope, L 110, 4.
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 429 
 
 A, V. Vol. and Paragraph. 
 
 1492. Fall of Granada, I. 95, 2. 
 1493-1519. Maximilian I., Emperor, I. 110, 4. 
 1495. Gabriel Bid, ob., I. 116, 1. 
 
 1497. Melanchthon, b., II. 2, 5. 
 
 1498. Savonarola at the stake, I. 119, 7. 
 
 SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 1502. University of Wittenberg founded, II. 2, 1. 
 
 1503-13. Julius II., Pope, I. 110, 4. 
 
 1508. Luther appointed Professor in Wittenberg, II. 2, 1. 
 
 1509. Calvin, b., II. 8, 1. 
 
 1509-47. Henry VIII. of England, II. 9, 4. 
 
 1510. Luther visits Rome, II. 2, 1. 
 
 1511. Council of Pisa, L 110, 4. 
 
 1512. Luther made a doctor and appointed preacher, II. 2, 1. The Fiffli 
 
 General Lateran Council, I. 110, 4. 
 1613-21. Leo X., Pope, L 110, 4. 
 
 1514. Reuchlin's Controversy with the Dominicans, I. 120, 2. 
 1515-47. Francis I. of France, II. 19, 7. 
 
 1516. Epistolae obsc. virorum, I. 120, 2. Erasmus' N. T., L 120, 3. 
 
 Zwingli, preacher at St. Mary's Church in Einsiedelm, II. 10, 1. 
 
 1517. The Lateran Council, I. 110, 4. Luther's theses, Oct. 31, II. 2, 2. 
 
 1518. Luther in Heidelberg, and before Cajetan in Augsburg, Miltiz, II, 
 
 2, 3. Melanchthon Prof, in Wittenberg, II. 2, 5. 
 
 1519. Disputation in Leipsic, II. 2, 4. Zwingli in Zurich, II. 10, 1. 
 
 Olav and Lorenzo Peterson in Sweden, II. 19, 1. 
 1519-56. Charles V., Emperor, II. 3, 3. 
 
 1520. Papal bull against Luther, II. 3, 1. Preaching free in Zurich, II. 
 
 10, 2. Christian II. in Denmark, II. 19, 2. 
 
 1521. Luther at Worms, II. 3, 4. Melanchthon's Loci, II. 4, 1. Igna- 
 
 tius Loyola wounded, II. 29, 2. Reformation in Riga. 
 1521-2. Luther at the Wartburg, II. 3, 5. 
 
 1522. The Zwickau prophets in Wittenberg, II. 4, 1. Reuchlin, ob., I. 
 
 120, 2. 
 1522-23. Hadrian VI., Pope, II. 6, 1. 
 
 1523. Thomas Münzer in Allstädt, II. 4, 4. Luther's controversy with 
 
 Henry VIIL, IL 5. Reformation in Livonia, IL 19, 3. The 
 first martyrs, H. Voes and J. Esch, II. 8, 1. Fall of Sickingen, 
 IL 4, 2. 
 1623-34. Clement VII., Pope, II. 6, 3. 
 
 1524. Staupitz, ob., I. 117, 2. Carlstadt in Orlamunde, IL 4, 3. Eras- 
 
 mus opposes Luther, II. 5, 1. Diet of Nuremberg, and over- 
 throw of the regency of the Empire, II. 6, 3. Regensburg 
 league, II. 6, 4. Hans Tausen in Denmark, II. 19, 2. The 
 Order of Theatines founded, IL 29, 3.
 
 43Ü CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 A. D. Vol. and Paragraph 
 
 1525. Controversy about the Lord's Supper, II. 11, 1. Luther's mar- 
 
 riage, II. 9. Albert of Prussia, hereditary duke, II. 4, 5. The 
 Order of Capuchins founded, II. 29, 4. 
 1525-32. John the Constant, Elector of Saxony, II. 5, 5. 
 
 1526. Synod of Homburg, IL 7, 2. The Torgau Confederacy, II. 6, 6. 
 
 Diet of Spires, II. 6, 7. Disputation at Baden, II. 10, 6. 
 
 1527. Diet of Odense, II. 19, 2; of Westeräs, IL 19, 1, 
 
 1528. The fraud of Pack, IL 12, 1. Disputation in Berne, II. 10, 6. 
 
 1529. Church visitation in Saxony, II. 7, 1. Diet of Spires, II. 12, 3. 
 
 Marburg colloquy, II. 12, 4. First peace of Cappel, II. 10, 9. 
 
 1530. Diet of Augsburg. Confessio Augustana, II. 12, 2. 
 
 1531. The Smalcaldic league, II. 18, 1. Zwingli, ob. Second Cappel 
 
 peace, II. 10, 9. 
 1632. John Frederick the Magnan., Elector, II. 13, 2. Religious peace 
 of Nuremberg, II. 13, 2. Farel in Geneva, II. 18, 1. Henry 
 yill. renounces allegiance to the Pope, II. 19, 4. 
 
 1534. Luther's complete translation of the Bible, II. 9, 1. The Refor- 
 
 mation in Wiirtemberg, II. 13, 2. Jacob Horter in Transylva- 
 nia, IL 19, 11. 
 
 1534-35. Anabaptist disorders in Münster, II. 13, 6. 
 
 1634-49. Paul IV., Pope, II. 14. 
 
 1535. Vergerius in AVittenberg, II. 14, 1. Calvin's Institutes, TL 18, 5. 
 
 1536. Erasmus, ob., I. 120, 3. Wittenberg Concord, IL 13, 8. Calvin 
 
 in Geneva, IL 18, 2. Diet of Copenhagen, II. 19, 2. Menno 
 Simons baptized, II. 27, 2. 
 
 1537. Articles of Smalcald, II. 14, 1. Antinomian Controversy, II. 21, 2. 
 1638. The Nuremberg league, II. 14, 2. Calvin driven from Geneva, 
 
 IL 18, 3. 
 
 1539. The Frankfort suspension, II. 14, 3. Reformation in Albertinian 
 
 Saxony, II. 14, 4. Joachim II. reforms Brandenburg, II. 14, 6. 
 Diet of Odense, IL 19, 2. 
 
 1540. The Society of Jesus, II. 29, 2. The Landgrave's bigamy, IL 
 
 15, 1. Religious conferences at Spires, Hagenau, and Worms, 
 IL 15, 2. 
 
 1541. Carlstadt, oi.,IL 4, 3. The Regensburg Interim, IL 15, 3. The 
 
 Naumburg See, II. 15, 5. Calvin recalled to Geneva, II. 18, 3. 
 
 1542. Reformation in Brunswick, II. 15, 6. States' convention in Bonn, 
 
 II. 15, 7. Francis Xavier in the East Indies, II. 30, 1. 
 1544. Diet at Spires; Peace of Crespy; Wittenberg Reformation, IJ. 
 15, 9. Diet at Westeras, II. 19, 1. 
 1545-47. Council of Trent, II. 16, 4. 
 
 1544. Regensburg Colloquy; murder of John Diaz, IL 15, 10. Synod 
 
 at Erdöd, IL 19, 10. 
 1546 Luther, ob., Feb. 18, II. 15, 11. Reformation of the Electoral 
 Palatinate, II. 15, 6. Herman of Cologne under the ban ; h« 
 resigns, II. 15, 2. 
 1546-47. Smalcaldic war, II. 16. 
 1647-49. Council of Bologne.
 
 CHRONOLOaiCAL TABLE. 431 
 
 iL. D. Vol. and Paragraph. 
 
 1547-53. Edward VI. of England, II. 19, 4. 
 
 1548-72. Sigismurid Augustus of Poland, II. 19, 8. 
 
 1548. The Augsburg Interim, II. 16, 5. The Leipsic Interim, II. 16, 7 
 
 Adiaphoristic Controversy, II. 21, 4. Priests of the Oratory, 
 II. 29, 3. 
 
 1549. Consensus Tigurinus, II. 18, 7. Andr. Osiander in Königsberg, 
 
 II. 21, 3. Jesuit mission in Brazil, II. 30, 3. 
 1550-55. Julius III., Pope, II. 16, 8. 
 
 1550. Brothers of Mercy, II. 29, 3. 
 
 1551-52. Resumption of the Council of Trent, II. 16, 8. 
 
 1551. Majorist Controversy, II. 21, 5. The first Jesuits in Germany, 
 
 II. 31, 2. 
 
 1552. Treaty of Passau, II. 17, 3. The Crypto-Calvinistic Controver.sy 
 
 begun, II. 21, 7. Francis Xavier, ob., II. 30, 1. 
 1653-58. The Catholic Maky of England, II. 19, 4. 
 
 1553. The Elector Maurice, ob., II. 17, 1. Servetus burned, II. 28, 2. 
 
 1554. Consensus pastorum Genevensium, II. 18, 7. John Frederick the 
 
 Magnanimous, ob. 
 
 1555. Religious peace of Augsburg, II. 17, 5. Commencement of the 
 
 Synergistic Controversies, II. 21, 6. 
 1555-98. Philip H. of Spain, II. 19, 12. 
 1556-64. Ferdinand I., E.mperor, II. 31, 1. 
 
 1557. States' diet at Clausenburg, II. 19, 11. Confessio Hungarica, 
 
 II. 19, 10. 
 1558-1603. Elizabeth of England, II. 19, 4. 
 1559-65. Pius IV., Pope, II. 29, 1. 
 
 1559. Gustavus Vasa's mission in Lapland, II. 22, 6. Confessio Galli- 
 
 cana, II. 19, 7. 
 
 1560. Confessio Scotica, II. 19, 5. John ä Lasco, ob., II. 19, 8. Cal- 
 
 vinism in the Palatinate, II. 24, 1. Melanchthon, ob., II. 21, 7. 
 
 1561. Gotthard Kettler, Duke of Courland, II. 19, 3. Religious confer- 
 
 ences at Poissy, II. 19, 7. 
 1562-63. Resumption and close of the Council of Trent, II. 29, 1. 
 
 1562. Confessio Belgica, II. 19, 6. Edict of St. Germain, II. 19, 7. 
 
 The 39 Articles of the Anglican Church, II. 19, 4. Calvinizing 
 of Bremen, II. 24, 2. The Heidelberg Catechism, II. 24, 1. 
 Laelius Socinus, ob., II. 28, 4. 
 
 1563. Act of Uniformity, II. 19, 4. 
 
 1564. Calvin, ob., II. 18, 4. Michael Angelo, ob., II. 29, 7. Professio 
 
 fide! Tridentina, II. 29, 6. Cassander's union-project, II. 31, 1. 
 1564-76. Maximilian II., Empebok, II. 31, 1. 
 
 15G6. Corpus doctr. Pruthenicum, II. 21, 3. Catechismus Romanus, 
 
 II. 29, 6. Confessio Helvetica posterior, II. 18, 7. The league 
 
 of the Guises, II. 19, 6. 
 1567. The writings of Mich. Baius condemned, II. 29, 5. 
 1570. General Synod at Sendomir, II. 19, 8. Third peace of St. Oer 
 
 main, II. 19, 7.
 
 432 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 A. D. Vol. and Paragraph. 
 
 1572-85. Gregory XIII., Pope, II. 29, 1. 
 
 1572. John Knox, ob., II. 19, 5. St. Barthol. massacre, Aug. 24, H 
 
 19, 7. 
 
 1573. Pax dissidentium in Poland, II. 19, 8. 
 
 1574. Maulbroun convention, II. 21, 9. Restoration of Catholicism in 
 
 Eichsfelde, IL 31, 2. 
 
 1576. The Torgau Book, II. 21, 9. Pacification of Ghent, II. 19, 6. 
 1576-1612. Rudolph IL, Emperor, IL 31, 1. 
 
 1577. The Form of Concord, II. 21, 9. Restoration of Catholicism in 
 
 Fulda, IL 31, 2. 
 
 1578. Passewin, the Jesuit, in Sweden, II. 31, 3. 
 
 1579. The union of Utrecht, IL 19, 6. 
 
 1580. The Book of Concord, II. 21, 9. Possewin in Russia, IL 31, 3. 
 1582. Second attempt to reform Cologne, II. 17, 6. Matthew Ricci in 
 
 China, II. 30, 2. The calendar changed, IL 29, 1. 
 1585-90. SiXTUS v.. Pope, II. 29, 1. 
 
 1586. The Feuillants, II. 29, 4. 
 
 1587. Mary Stuart beheaded, IL 19, 5. 
 
 1588. Louis Molina, II. 29, 5. 
 1589-1610. Hexrt IV., of France, IL 19, 7. 
 
 1589. Patriarchate of Moscow, II. 72, 4. 
 
 1590. Margrave Jacob of Baden embraces Catholicism, II. 33, 4. 
 
 1592. xA.rticles of the Saxon Visitation, II. 21, 10. 
 
 1593. Meeting of the Estates in Upsala, II. 19, 8. 
 
 1594. Synod of Brzesc, I. 72, 4. 
 
 1595. Synod of Thorn, II. 19, 8. 
 
 1597. The principalities of Anhalt adopt Calvinism, II. 24, 3. Congre- 
 
 gatio de auxiliis, II. 29, 5. 
 
 1598. The Edict of Nantes, IL 19, 7. 
 
 1600. Giordano Bruno burned, II. 26, 3. The Society of the Piarista 
 founded, II. 35, 2. 
 
 SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 1604. Maurice makes Hesse - Cassel Calvinistic, 11.34,1. Faustus 8o- 
 
 cinus, ob., IL 28, 2. 
 
 1605. The Gunpowder plot, IL 33, 3. 
 
 1606. The peace of Vienna, II. 19, 10. 
 
 1608. The Jesuits found the State of Paraguay, IL 35, 3. 
 
 1609. The letter of Majesty, II. 19, 9. 
 UilO-43 Louis XIIL, of Frakce, II. 33, 2. 
 
 1610 Remonstrants and Contra-remonstrants, II. 40, 1. 
 1611. Pferes de I'Oratoire, IL 35, 2. 
 
 1613. Transition of the Elector John Sigismund of Brandenb., II. 34, 8. 
 
 George Calixtus in Helmstädt, IL 38, 2. 
 
 1614. Confessio ^larchica, II. Si, 3. 
 1616. Leonhard Hutter, ob., II. 39, 2.
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 433 
 
 iL D Vol. and Paragraph. 
 
 1618. The Maurines in France, II. 35, 2. 
 1618-48. The Thirty Years' War, II. 33, 1. 
 1618-19. The Synod of Dort, II. 40, 1. 
 1619-37. Ferdin.\.vo II., Emperor, II. 33, 1. 
 
 1620. The Valteline massacre, II. 33, 1. 
 
 1621. John Arndt, ob., II. 39, 1. 
 
 1622. Francis of Sales, ob., II. 36, 1. Congregatio de propnganda fide, 
 
 II. 35, 3. 
 
 1624. End of the controversy concerning the xhuxris and xpi'4'ii, II. 38, 1. 
 
 Jacob Böhme, ob., II. 39, 2. 
 
 1625. Th» Jesuits in Abyssinia, II. 32, 1. 
 
 1628. Adam Schall in China, II. 35, 3. 
 
 1629. The edict of Restoration by Ferdinand II. ; 11. 33, 1. 
 
 1631. Religious conference at Leipsic, II. 34, 4. 
 
 1632. Gustavus Adolphus slain at Liitzen, II. 33, 1. 
 
 1637. John Gerhard, ob., 11. 38, 4. 
 
 1638. The school of Rakov broken up, II. 28, 4. Cyrillus Lucaris stran« 
 
 gled, II. 32, 2. Scottish Covenant. II. 34, 4. 
 
 1641. Irish massacre, II. 33, 3. 
 
 1642. Condemnation of the Jansenist Augustine, II. 36, 2. 
 1643-1715. Louis XIV. of France, II. 33, 2. 
 
 1G43. The Orthodox Confession of Peter Mogila, II. 32, 3. Westmins- 
 ter Con. 
 
 1645. Hugo Grotius, ob., II. 40, 4. Religious conference at Thorn, XL 
 33, 5. 
 
 1-649. Charles I. of England beheaded, II. 33, 3. The Quakers, • XL 
 42, 3. 
 
 1650. Descartes, ob., II. 43, 1. 
 
 1052. Liturgical reform of the patr. Nikon, II. 42, 5. 
 
 1653. Innocent X. condemned the five Jansenist theses, II. 36, 2. 
 
 1654. Christian of Sweden embraced Catholicism, II. 33, 4. John VaL 
 
 Andrea, ob., II. 39, 1. 
 
 1655. Consensus repetitus fidei vere Lntheranie, II. 38, 2. 
 
 *1656. George Calixtus, ob., II. 38, 2. Pascal's Lettres provinc, II. 36,2. 
 1G60. Vincent de Paula, ob., II. 35, 2. 
 1661. Religious Conference at Cassel, II. 34, 4. 
 1664. The Order of Trappists founded, II. 35, 2. 
 1666. Spener in Frankfort, IL 38, 3. 
 1669. J. Cocceius, ob., II. 40, 3. 
 1673. The Test-act, II. 33, 3. 
 
 1675. Formula Consensus Helvetic!, II. 40, 2. 
 
 1676. Paul Gerhardt, ob., II. 34, 4. Gisb. Voetius, ob., II. 40, 3. 
 
 1677. Spinoza, ob., IL 43, 1. 
 
 1682'. Quartuor propositiones Cleri G.allicani, II. 35, 1. Penn. settled. 
 
 1685. Abrogation of the Edict of Nantes and expulsion of the Waldenset 
 
 from Piedmont, II. 33, 2. 
 
 1686. Spener in Dresden and the Collegia philobiblica in Leipsic, II. 38, 3. 
 
 Abr. Calov, ob., IL 38, 4. 
 80
 
 434 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 A. D. Vol. and Paragraph. 
 
 1687. Michael Molinus compelled to abjure, II. 36, 1. 
 
 1689. Toleration Act, England, II. 34, 5. 
 
 1690. The Pietists driven from Leipsic, II. 38, 3. John Eliot, ob., U 
 
 41, 2. 
 
 1691. Spener in Berlin, II. 38, 3. 
 
 1693. Quesnel's New Testament, II. 44, 9. 
 
 1694. The University of Halle founded, II. 38, 3. 
 
 1697. Frederick Augustus the Strong, of Saxony, embraces Catholicism, 
 
 II. 33, 4. 
 1699. F6n61on's propositions condemned, II. 36, 1. 
 
 EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 1701. Thomas of Tournon in the East Indies, II. 35, 3. 
 
 1702. Löscher's Unschuldige Nachrichten, II. 46, 1. Eva Buttlar's sect, 
 
 II. 49, 4. 
 
 1703. Collegium caritativum in Berlin, II. 48,2. Peter Codde deposed, 
 
 II. 44, 6. 
 
 1704. Bossuet, ob., II. 33, 5. 
 
 1705. Spener, ob., II. 38, 3. 
 
 1706. Lutheran Mission founded in Tranquebar, II. 46, 7. 
 
 1707. The praying children in Silesia, II. 46, 1. 
 1709. Port Royal .abolished, II. 36, 2. 
 
 1712. Richard Simon, ob., II. 37, 1. The Mechithartist congr., II. 44, 2. 
 
 1713. The Constitution Unigenitus, II. 44, 6. 
 
 1714. Godfr. Arnold, ob., II. 39, 2. The Inspiration congregatioM 
 
 founded in Wetteraw, II. 49, 2. 
 1716-74. Louis XV. of France, II. 44, 4. 
 
 1715. F6n61on, ob., IL 36, 1. 
 
 1716. Leibnitz, ob., IL 43, 1. 
 
 1717. Mad. Guyon, ob., IL 36, 1. Gottfr. Arnold, ob. 
 
 1721. The holy Synod at St. Petersburg, II. 45. Hans Egede's mission 
 
 to Greenland, II. 46, 7. 
 
 1722. Herrnhut founded, IL 47, 2. 
 
 1727. A. H. Franke, ob., IL 46, 6. Thomas of Westen, ob., IL 39, 6. 
 
 Formation of the Brethren's (Moravian) Church, II. 47, 2. 
 
 1728. Callenberg's Institution for the conversion of the Jews, II. 46, 7. 
 
 1729. Fr. Buddeus, ob., IL 46, 2. The Methodist society, II. 48, 1, 
 
 1731. Emigration of the Evang. Salzburgers, II. 44, 4. 
 
 1732. Moravian Mission to St. Thomas, II. 47, 6. 
 
 1733. Moravian Mission to Greenland, II. 46, 7. 
 
 1736. John Clericus, ob., II. 40, 4. Zinzendorf banished, II. 47, 3. 
 '.740-86. Feederick II. of Prussia, II. 40, 3. .^ 
 
 1741. Special Covenant of the Brethren with the Lord Jesus, II. 47, 4. 
 
 1749. The Moravians (Brethren) recognized in Saxony, II. 47, 3. 
 
 1750. Seb. Bach, ob., II. 46, 5. The Jesuit government of Paraguay 
 
 terminated, II. 44, 3.
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 43d 
 
 A. D. Vol. and Paragraph. 
 
 1751. Semler prof, in Halle, II. 50, 4. 
 
 1752. J. A. Bengel, ob., II. 46, 2. 
 
 1754. Chr. v. Wolf, ob., II. 46, 2. Winckelmann a convert, II. 44, 5. 
 
 1755. J. L. Mosheim, ob., II. 46, 2. 
 1758-69. Clement XIII., Pope, II. 44, 2. 
 
 1759. The Jesuits banished from Portugal, II. 44, 7. 
 
 1760. Zinzendorf, ob., II. 47, 3. 
 
 1762. Judicial murder of Jean Galas, II. 44, 4. 
 
 1765. Universal German library, II. 50, 8. 
 
 1765-90. Joseph II., Emperor, II. 44, 8. 
 
 1769-74. Clement XIV., Pope, II. 44, 7 
 
 1772. Swedenborg, ob., IL 49, 5. 
 
 1773. The Order of Jesuits abolished, II. 44, 7. 
 1775-99. Pius VI., Pope, II. 44. 8. 
 
 1774. Wolfenbüttel Fragments, II. 50, 4. 
 
 1775. Chr. A. Crusius, ob., II. 46, 2. 
 
 1776. Order of Illuminati founded, II. 44, 10. 
 1778. Voltaire, ob. Rousseau, ob., II. 44, 10. 
 
 1780. Joseph II., Monarch, II. 44, 8. 
 
 1781. Joseph II., edict of toleration, II. 44, 8. 
 
 1782. Pius VI. in Vienna, II. 44, 8. 
 
 1786. Ems punctuation and Synod of Pistoja, II. 44, 8. 
 
 1787. Edict of Versailles, II. 44, 4. 
 
 1788. Religious edict of Wöllner, II. 50, 2. 
 
 1789. The French Revolution, II. 44, 9. 
 
 1791. Wesley, ob., II. 48, 1. Semler, ob., II. 50, 4. 
 
 1792. Spangenberg, ob., II. 47, 5. 
 
 1793. The Christian Religion abolished in France. Temple de la Raison, 
 
 II. 44, 10. 
 
 1794. Le peuple Fran9ais re9onnait I'fitre supreme et I'immortalit^ di 
 
 l'äme, II. 44, 10. 
 
 1795. The London Miss. Society founded, II. 51, 5. 
 
 1799. Pins VI. a prisoner in France, II. 44, 9. Schleiermacher's dis- 
 
 courses on Religion, II. 50, 1. 
 
 1800. Stolberg, a convert, IL 44, 5. 
 
 NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 1800-23. Pius VIL, Pope, II. 57, 1. 
 
 1801. French concordat, IL 57, 1. 
 
 1804. The British and Foreign Bible Soc. founded, IL 54, 9. 
 
 Kant, ob., II. 50, 7. The pope crowns Napoleon, II. 57, 1. 
 1806. End of the German Empire. 
 
 1809. Napoleon banished; the pope captured, IL 57, 1. 
 
 1810. The American For. Miss. Soc. established at Boston, II. lA, lO 
 
 Schleiermacher prof in Berlin, II. 56, 1. 
 
 1811. French National Council in Paris, II. 57, 1.
 
 436 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, 
 
 A. D. Vol. and Paragjaph. 
 
 1812. Neander the historian called to Berlin, II. 56, 1. 
 
 1813. Second French concordat, II. 57, 1. 
 
 1814. Congress of Vienna. The pope restored. The Jesuits reinstated 
 
 II. 57, 1. 
 
 1815. The Holy Alliance, II. 52. 
 
 1816. The Mission School at Basel, II. 54, 10. The House of Refuge i| 
 
 Düsselthal, II. 54, 9. 
 
 1817. Harmes' Theses, IL 54, 1. Frederick William III. and the Union, 
 
 II. 54, 3. The venerable Compagnie in Geneva prohibits preach« 
 ing upon the divinity of Christ, original sin, and predestination, 
 etc., II. 55, 5. 
 
 1818. The Congregation of Dissenters founded at Kornthal, II. 55, 4. 
 1822. The Prussian Liturgy introduced, II. 54, 3. Society of Lyons for 
 
 the spread of the Gospel, II. 57, 6. 
 1823-29. Leo XII., Pope, II. 57, 1. 
 
 1825. The Book of Mormon, II. 60, 7. 
 
 1826. Tholuck goes to Halle, II. 55, 3. 
 
 1827. Hengstenberg's Evang. Kirchenzeitung, II. 54, 1. 
 
 1829. Emancipation bill, England, II. 58, 4. Mission institution at Bar- 
 
 men, IL 54, 10. 
 1829-30. Pius VIIL, Pope, IL 57, 1. 
 
 1830. The July Revolution, France, II. 55, 10. London Conference, II. 
 
 59. The Halle controversy, II. 54, 1. Abb6 Chatel in Paris, 
 II. 57, 5. The slave-trade abolished, IL 54, 10. 
 1831-46. Gregory XVL, Pope, II. 57, 1. 
 
 1831. Hegel, ob., II. 53, 1. 
 
 1832. Dr. Scheibel driven from Breslau, II. 54, 4. J. M. Sailer, ob., IL 57, 4. 
 
 1833. Commencement of the Puseyite agitation, II. 55, 8. The Synod 
 
 of Nauplia, IL 59. 
 
 1834. Schleiermacher, ob., IL 56, 1. Boutain recalled to Strassburg, 
 
 IL 57, 7. 
 
 1835. Strauss' Life of Christ, IL 56, 4. Hermesianism condemned, II. 
 
 57, 7. Edward Irving, ob., II. 60, 6. Persecution of Chris- 
 tians in Madagascar, IL 54, 10. 
 
 1836. The Dresden Mission institution founded, II. 54, 10. Society of 
 
 deaconesses at Kaiserwerth, II. 54, 9. 
 
 1837. The Zillerthal emigrants, II. 55, 6. Commencement of the Co- 
 
 logne disturbances, II. 58, 7. 
 
 1838. Archb. Durim of Posen, IL 58, 7. Emigration of the Stephanites, 
 
 II. 55, 2. The Altenburg rescript, IL 55, 2. J. A. Möhler, 
 ob., IL 57, 7. -The English Tithe-bill, II. 58, 4. 
 
 1839. Dr. Strauss called to Zurich, II. 55, 5. The Synod of Polozk, 
 
 II. 59. 
 
 1840. Freueriok William IV. of Prussia, IL 58, 7. 
 
 1841. Schelling goes to Berlin, II. 53, 1. Organization of the Lutheran« 
 
 vyho separated from the Prussian State Church, II. 54, 4. 
 Establishment of the Evangelical See in Jerusalem, II. 54, io. 
 The Gustavus Adolphus Society founded, II. 54, 5.
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 431 
 
 A. D. Vol. and Paragraph. 
 
 1843. The Free Church of Scotland establised, II. 55, 8. 
 
 1844. German Catholic Church, II. 57, 5. Wislicenus, ob., Schrift, ob., 
 
 Geist, II. 53, 1. Nauvoo destroyed, IL 60, 9. 
 
 1845. Free Church of Vaud, II. 55, 5. Assembly of the German Catho- 
 
 lic Church in Leipsic, II. 57, 5. The Maynooth bill, II. 58, 4 
 1845—46. Conversions in Livonia, IL 55, 11. 
 
 1846. Pius IX., Pope, II. 57, 1. The Evangelical Alliance established 
 
 in London, II. 54, 5. The "Evangelical Conference in Berlin, 
 II. 54, 5. Prussian General Synod in Berlin, II. 55, 1. 
 
 1847. .Toleration patent of Prussia, IL 55, 1. The Swiss "Sonder- 
 
 bund" war, II. 58, 8. The Lola-Montez scandal, IL 55, 7. 
 
 1848. The March Revolution, II. 53. Establishment of the Evangelical 
 
 Church Diet in Wittenberg, II. 54, 5. The Missionary institu- 
 tion of Dresden removed to Leipsic, II. 54, 10. Pius societies 
 formed by the Catholics, II. 57, 6. 
 
 1849. Rome Republican, II. 57, 1. Formation of Lutheran provincial 
 
 societies in Prussia, II. 54, 6. First convention for Home Mis- 
 sions, II. 54, 9. 
 
 1850. Installation of the Supreme Consistory in Berlin, II. 55, 1. Re- 
 
 turn of the pope to Rome, II. 57, 1. Church title-bill of Eng- 
 land, IL 58, 4. 
 
 1851. Memorial letter of the bishops of the Upper Rhine, II. 58, 6. 
 
 1852. Eisenach Conference, II. 54, 5. Division of the Prussian Supreme 
 
 Consistory according to their confessions, II. 55, 1. Commence- 
 ment of the Catholic disturbance in Baden, II. 58, 6. 
 1852-70. Napoleon III. Emp. of the French. 
 
 1853. The Church diet in Berlin adopts the Augustana, II. 54, 5. Un- 
 
 favorable decision of the king of Prussia regarding the Luther- 
 ans, II. 55, 1. Founding of the Ilermansburg Miss, institution, 
 II. 54, 10. 
 
 1854. Founding of the Melanchthonian Church, II. 54, 7. Sanction of 
 
 the Immaculate Conception, II. 57, 1. 
 
 1855. Monastery law of Sardinia, II. 58, 1. Austrian Concordat, IL 
 
 58. 5. Alexander II. of Russia assumes the Empire, II. 52, 
 
 1856. The Turkish Hatti-Humayun, II. 59. 
 
 1857. Giinther's philosophy condemned, II. 57, 7. The Evangelical Al- 
 
 liance in Berlin, II. 54, 5. The Church agitation in Bavaria, XL 
 55, 7. 
 
 1858. Prince Regent William of Prussia assumes the government, IL 
 
 55, 1. Liturgical agitation in Baden, II. 55, 4. 
 
 1859. The Franco-Austrian war in Italy. 
 
 1860. Christians persecuted in Syria. Concordat with Baden abro- 
 
 gated. 
 
 1861. The Austrian Patent. Ecclesiastical Constitution of Baden 
 
 Radama II. in Madagascar. Lutheran Schism in Prussia. 
 
 1862. The Catecheiic Scandal of Hanover. Reuan's Life of Jesus. 
 
 1863. Catholic Congress at Munich. 
 80*
 
 438 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 A. D. Vol. and Paragrapli. 
 
 1864. Encyclica and Syllabus. Strauss and Schenkel's Life of Jesus. 
 
 1865. The First Protestant Diet at Eisenach. 
 
 1866. The North German Confederation. 
 
 1867. St. Peter's Centenary at Rome. 
 
 1869. Irish Church Bill. 
 
 1870. Proclamation of Papal Infallibility. Austrian Concordat abrogated 
 
 Fall of the Papal States. 
 
 1871. The New German Empire ft)unded. First Old Catholic Congress at 
 
 Munich. The Pulpit Paragraph. 
 
 1872. The Prussian School Law. The Roman Disputation. The German 
 
 Law against the Jesuits. 
 
 1873. The Four Prussian Ecclesiastical Laws. Removal of Mermillod and 
 
 Lachat. The Old Catholic Church constituted in the German 
 Empire. The Swiss Old Catholic Congress. 
 1874 The Austrian Ecclesiastical Law. The London Sympathy Meetings 
 Ledochowski's removal from OfiBce.
 
 ADDENDA. 
 
 1. (Vol. I., p. 65.) Was Peter in Home f 
 
 Galatians II. shows that, as late as A. D. 50, Peter was still in Jeru- 
 salem. Irenaeus, Eusebius, Rufinus, and the Apostolic Constitutions 
 agree that Linus, not Peter, was the first Bishop of Rome. It has not 
 been proved that Peter was even a successor to Linus. It is quite 
 likely that Peter's first Epistle was written (66) in Babylon (1 Pet. v. 
 23). Clement, of Rome, states the fact, but not the place of Peter's 
 martyrdom. And while Dionysius, of Corinth, Caius, of Rome, Ire- 
 naeus, and TertuUiau, assert that Peter died at Rome, their testimony 
 is rendered almost valueless by the many false dates mingled with it. 
 This much, however, is proved, that Peter was, in the second century, 
 supposed to have been put to death with Paul at Rome. 
 
 2. (Vol. I., p. 91.) Maximian and the Legio Thebaica. 
 
 The Martyrologies assert that by Maximian's command, a legion of 
 6,600 men, composed entirely of Christian soldiers, was put to death 
 with their leader, St. Mauritius. The story first appeared in the fifth 
 or sixth century, and its credibility is disputed. 
 
 3. (Vol. I., p. 109.) Maui. 
 
 We have recent inforiuation in regard to Mani, through the labors 
 of Chwolsohn and Flügel, from Arabic sources, of which that from 
 the learned historian of the tenth century, Mohammed-en-Nedim, 
 •who had access to the writings of Mani himself, is of special interest. 
 These authorities agree with the Persian as to the history of Mani 
 and his sect, but confirm the Western writers in the statements of his 
 doctrinal system. Mani was taught the tenets of the Elkesaites by 
 his father Fonnak, who belonged to that sect. Through divine visions, 
 he was called to proclaim a new revelation. En-Nedim supposes 
 that Mani drew his system from Scythianus. 
 
 4. (Vol. I., p. 128.) We find even in the Shepherd of Hermas 
 the beginnings of the later distinctions between divine coninuinds 
 and evangelical counsel. 
 
 5. (Vol. I., p. 130.) The Shepherd of Hermas has lately been 
 ascribed by Zahn to a Roman of the same name (a. d. 97), otherwise 
 unknown. That the Greek copy recently brought from Gieece is the 
 
 439
 
 440 ADDENDA. 
 
 original, has lately been proved by Tischendorf, who found in a 
 Sinaitic MS. of the Bible of tlie fourth century a fragment of the 
 original Greek of Hermas. It contains, however, many Latin i.sm.s. 
 
 6. (Vol. I., p. 152.) Constant uie. 
 
 Constantine's tolerance toward heathenism seems more like political 
 craft. He forbade only such worship as was immoral, and granted 
 the Christians but few temples. 
 
 7. (Vol. I., p. 173.) Cyril, of Jerusalem, avd Jerome. 
 
 Cyril, of Jerusalem, though first an Arian, became orthodox. He 
 was deposed by his Arian Metropolitan, because he had sold, during 
 a famine, certain unneeded church furniture for the relief uf the poor. 
 He was present at the General Council of Constantinople 381, and 
 died 386, in possession of his diocese. Jerome learned Hebrew 
 from Bar Hanina, and was the only scholar in this language of 
 Christian antiquity. 
 
 8. (Vol. I., p. 261.) Mohammed II. invested the Patriarch (Gen- 
 nadius, of. I. § 68, 5) with both spiritual and secular jurisdiction over 
 all the orthodox Rajah of the Turkish Empire. Jerusalem and 
 Antioch were made coordinate in religious affairs, but politically sub- 
 ordinate to Constantinople. A synod of twelve Archbishops, four of 
 whom resided in Constantinople, chose the Patriarch, subject to the 
 Sultan's approval. Talk of union was now over. The scattered 
 Grecian fugitives in the West either entered tlie Catholic church, or 
 constituted churches of their own (United Greek), securing their old 
 ecclesiastical constitution and liturgy by recognizing the Romish 
 dogma and the Papal" suj^remacy. 
 
 9. (Vol. I., p. 266.) Barlaam and Josophat. 
 
 The romance of Barlaam and Josophat was groundlessly ascribed 
 during the Middle Ages to John Damascenus. An Indian Princess, 
 Josophat, was converted through the labors of Barlaam, an Asiatic 
 hermit. The story aims to show the power of Christianity over the 
 temptations of sin, and its superiority over other religions. In un- 
 critical times it Avas received as historical, and its heroes were revered 
 as saints. But Liebrecht has lately discovered that the honored tale 
 was but a partially christianized reproduction of the legendary his- 
 tory of the founder of Buddhism. 
 
 10. (Vol. I., p. 266.) Saracens, equivalent to Orientals, were called 
 A rabs early in the Middle Ages. The name came ai'terward to desig- 
 nate all Mohammedans, including, too, at times, heathen nations. 
 
 11. (Vol. I., p. 337.) St. Meinrad. 
 
 St. Meinrad, in Switzerland, was such a hermit. He was murdered 
 by robbers (861), and his cell became changed into a Benedictine 
 cloister of the hermits of Mary. 
 
 12. (Vol. I., p. 340.) The Spurious Decretals.
 
 AUDENBA. 441 
 
 While the Spurious Decretals are all from one mould, they are not 
 pure fiction. The materials were gathered from the entire range of 
 theological and eccle!iia>;tical literature of the day. These were changed 
 as required, and grouped into a whole. 
 
 13. (Vol. I., p. 873.) The Greenland Mission prospered four hun- 
 drefl years. About 1408 its fall was brought about through the in- 
 cursions of the Esquimaux, and the severity of the winters. 
 
 14. (Vol. I., p. 384.) The descendants of the Crusaders, born in 
 the Holy Land, the so-called PuUani, were, in particular, a cowardly 
 and treacherous race. 
 
 15. (Vol. I., p. 387.) Judaism, on the other hand, could not be 
 suppressed, either by constant persecution from the state, and repeated 
 massacres by the rabble, or by the zealous efforts of the Theologians 
 to instruct and convert the nation of the covenant, 
 
 16. (Vol. I., p. 890.) There was nothing of Papal Infallibility in 
 the systems of Gregory VII. or Innocent III. But Thomas Aquinaa 
 ascribed to the Pope alone the right to develop the confession of 
 faith. John XV. (998) was the first to claim the exclusive right of 
 canonization. Alexander III. secured it as permanently belonging 
 to the Pope. Innocent IV. invested the Cardinals with the red hat. 
 
 17. (Vol. I., p. 407.) The union, with the Greek church, was 
 meaningless, and the Pope strove in vain to revive zeal for the Cru- 
 sades. On the other hand, the new German Emperor, Rudolph of 
 Habsburg (1273-91), in order to suppress the political disorders at 
 home, offered to surrender, in favor of the papacy, the important 
 points in the long controversy between the two thrones. Nicholas 
 III. (1277-80), accordingly, brought about a concordat, in which the 
 Emperor formally renounced all imperial rights over the states of the 
 church. 
 
 18. (Vol. I., p. 428.) On leaving his chair, William retired to St. 
 Victor's chapel, in Paris, where he founded a cloister, under the rule 
 of St. Augustine. 
 
 19. (Vol. I., p. 431.) Abelard, trusting to his dialectic skill, became 
 zealous to undertake, without further preparation, the difficult task 
 of expounding the prophecy of Ezekiel. He succeeded to the satis- 
 faction of his pupils, but was forbidden by Anselm to complete his 
 lectures. 
 
 20. (Vol. I., p. 435.) Philosophy and Theology became almost 
 identical. There sprang up in Paris a reaction against this coalition, 
 in the doctrine of twofold truth, viz., that a proposition could be at the 
 same time philosophically true and theologically fiilse, and conversely. 
 
 21. (Vol. I., p. 440.) But Alexander of Hales recognized baptism 
 and communion as the only sacraments instituted by Christ, though 
 he admits other sacraments not instituted by Christ.
 
 442 ADDENDA. 
 
 22. (Vol. I., p. 479.) It is not known when or how that legend 
 arose according to which the " scala santa " at Rome were the marble 
 steps of Pilate's praetorium. There were before Luther fourteen trans- 
 lations of the Bible in High German, and six in Low German. They 
 are really, however, but slightly varied forms of a single translation 
 from the Vulgate. The translators, one or many, are unknown. The 
 language is generally clumsy, and the sense often obscure. Many 
 passages, however, are better, and Luther seems to have intentionally 
 retained them. There were also translations in English by Wicliffe; 
 in Bohemian by Huss; in Spanish by Bonif Ferrer; in Italian by the 
 Benedictine, Nie. Malherbi ; and in French by Faber Stapulensis. 
 
 23. (Vol. I., p. 483.) The Maid of Orleans. 
 
 Born of peasant parents, even as a child she was led, by what she 
 supposed to be a heavenly voice, to vow eternal chastity. • More fre- 
 quent visions, in which the saints appeared to her and other voices 
 were heard, called her to be the deliverer of her oppressed father- 
 land. France had been torn asunder, under the erratic King Charles 
 VI., and still more after his death (1422), by the ambitious parties of 
 the Armignacs and Burguudians. The first fought for the rights of 
 the Dauphin, Charles VII. The others allied themselves to the Queen 
 Mother Isabella, and the English King Henry V. Joan of Arc ad- 
 hered zealously to the Dauphin. When Charles was driven by the Eng- 
 lish into Orleans, his last stronghold, and closely pressed (1428), Joan 
 heard the voice, directing her to rescue Orleans, and to lead the Dauphin 
 to Rheims for coronation. She now made public her mission, hitherto 
 concealed. Breaking through every difficulty, and recognized as a 
 heavenly messenger, she placed herself, clad in armor and bearing 
 the standard of the lilies, at the head of the enthusiastic troops, and 
 gloriously realized her twofold mission. In the later course of the 
 war she was captured by the Duke of Burgundy, who delivered her up 
 to the English. At Rouen, after a four months' trial by a clerical court, 
 she was condemned to death as a heretic. Her courage failed her in 
 face of the stake, and she recanted, whereupon her sentence was com- 
 muted to imprisonment for life. But a week later she was never- 
 theless executed at the stake. She died bravely, and resigned to her 
 fate, 1431. At the solicitation of her family, afterwards elevated to 
 nobility, a revision of her trial was secured, 1450, and she was de- 
 clared to be innocent. 
 
 24. (Vol. I., p. 498.) Among the friends of reform in Germany 
 was Jacob von Jiiterbogk, of 1465. He had been a Cistercian in 
 Poland, and a theological instructor at Krakau, and was afterwards 
 Carthusian Friar at Erfurt. Throughout his life he was an earnest 
 defender of the decrees of the Council of Basle, at which he was 
 present, 1441. His reformatory writings leave the ecclesiastical
 
 ADDENDA. 443 
 
 dogmas untouched, but are all the more earnest and powerful against 
 the political and moral corruptions of the papacy and monasticism. 
 He opposed the covetous misuse of indulgences, favored placing the 
 Pope under the General Councils, to be deposed by them when neces- 
 sary. And he said, that to dispute tliis was to teach that Christ had 
 committed the church to a sinful man as a bridegroon, who should 
 deliver his bride to the absolute will of a soldier. 
 
 25. (Vol. IL, p. 60.) DülUnger's Tribute to Luther. 
 
 The celebrated Catholic Historian Ign. DöUingcr, who, in his " ßes. 
 Gesch.," had with ultramontane animosity defamed Luther, could not 
 refrain, in a public speech twenty years later, from eulogizing him as 
 the mightiest man of the people Germany ever produced. And in 
 1871, he said of him, " Luther's overpowering greatness and wonderful 
 versatility made him the man of his time. No German understood 
 so profoundly the German people, and in return none was ever so 
 laid hold of by them as this Augustine monk of Wittenberg. The 
 German taste and the .German spirit his hand touched as an artist 
 sweeps the lyre. No other in Christian times gave to his people such 
 gifts — language, Bible, sacred song. Each attack and each defence of 
 adversaries became weak and Hut beside his passing eloquence. They 
 stammered; he spoke. Only he could indelibly stamp the German 
 mind, as he had done the German tongue. Even those Germans, 
 who in their heart of hearts despised him as the mighty teacher of 
 error and corrupter of religion, were compelled to speak with his 
 words and to think with his thoughts." 
 
 26. (Vol. IL, p. 162.) Clement VIII. (1592-1605.) 
 
 He took an active part in the political movements of his time, and 
 succeeded in bringing about a reconciliation between France and 
 Spain. The Jesuits have been charged with his death, but on insuf- 
 ficient grounds. Clement had incurred their displeasure through 
 favoring the Dominicans in the strife " de auxiliis gratiae," and by 
 refusing to canonize Loyala. 
 
 27. (Vol. IL, p. 165.) 77ie Jesuits held Pelagian views of sin and 
 grace. They defended the doctrine of Immaculate Conception, and 
 were zealous supporters of Papal Infallibility. They were exceedingly 
 active in securing chairs of instruction at the Gymnasia and Uni- 
 versities, as well aa in founding schools of their own. They thus 
 sought to fill the ranks of their own order, and to train up for it friends 
 and patrons. 
 
 28. (Vol. IL, p. 169.) In regard to Papal Infallibility, Pope Had- 
 rian VI. wrote that it was quite possible for a Pope to err, even in 
 matters of faith. Cardinal Cajetan, however, zealously contended 
 that the entire Church, without the Pope, could more easily err than 
 the Pope without the Church. And the Jesuit general, Lainez, strove
 
 444 ADDENDA. 
 
 at Trent, earnestly, but in vain, to secure for Papal Infallibility eccle- 
 siastical recognition. 
 
 29. (Vol. II., p. 185.) Galileo and the Inquisition. 
 
 Galileo Galilei (ob. 1642) was Professor of Mathematics at Pisa and 
 Padua. He rendered numerous and brilliant services in mathematics, 
 astronomy, and physics, and was the pioneer defender of the Coper- 
 nican system. On this account, charged by the Jesuits with heresy, 
 Paul V. threatened him with the Inquisition, if he_ should continue to 
 defend his heresy. Afterwards he was compelled to recant, and for a 
 short time was imprisoned. The stories that he was driven to recan- 
 tation by the rack, and that after the torture was over, gritting his 
 teeth, and stamping his feet, he said, " E pur si muove" are doubt- 
 less false. Not so, however, that the Index Lib. Prohib. declared the 
 Copernican doctrine false, preposterous, and throughout contradictory 
 of the Bible, and that in 16G0 Pope Alexander VII. formally con- 
 firmed this decree, and not until 1820 was it abrogated by the Papal 
 Court, and in a new edition of the Index, 1835, the works of Galileo 
 and Copernicus were left out. 
 
 30. (Vol. II., p. 211.) Hugo Grotius, while standing firmly with 
 the Remonstrants, strove earnestly, but without success, for a recon- 
 ciliation between the Arminians and Calvinists, as well as with all 
 the Protestant parties. For a long time he cherished decided aversion 
 to the Catholics, but intimate intercourse with prominent Catholics, 
 especially during his voluntary exile in France, induced him to change 
 his attitude toward them. He spoke with ever growing favor of their 
 faith and their institutions, and in his "vottim pro pace" he recom- 
 mends, as the only possible way of restoring ecclesiastical unity, a 
 return to the Catholic church, though demanding, of course, certain 
 concessions from the Catholics. 
 
 31. (Vol. II., p. 232.) The old Catholic Church of the Netherlands. 
 The first Jesuits came to Holland in 1592. The peculiar piety of 
 
 the clergy, handed down from the Brethren of the Common Life, as 
 well as the comparatively independent position of the Archbishopric 
 of Utrecht, were to them alike fundamentally distasteful. They were 
 soon brought into conflict with the clergy, through their political 
 and religious machinations. Vosmeer, the Archbishop, i. p., and 
 after his deposition, his successors, strenuously opposed the attempt 
 to abolish the see of Utrecht, and to place the church of Holland 
 under the jurisdiction of the papal Nuncio at Cologne. Meanwhile 
 the Jansenist controversy in France had completed its first stage. 
 The Dutch officials had received with favor the accused book of their 
 pious and learned countryman, though in the further course of the 
 controversy they had submitted without' opposition to the papal bann 
 against the five sections, and yet not agreeing that Jansen had taught
 
 ADDENDA. 445 
 
 these in the sense supposed. The Jesuits, accordingly, charged them 
 with Jansenistic heresy, and insinuated in an anonymous memorial, 
 1697, that Jansenism had taken its rise in Holland. They traced its 
 beginnings to a visit of Arnauld in Holland, 1681. It was fostered, 
 they said, by Bible reading ; by the general contempt for the worship 
 of Mary, for indulgences. Tor the holy pictures, relics, etc. Codde, 
 the Archbishop, was allured to Rome, to be blinded by dissembling 
 favors and demonstrations, while behind his back his deposition was 
 determined on. But the chapter refused to recognize his successor, 
 and the estates of Holland demanded, on pain of the expulsion of all 
 Jesuits, the immediate return of their Archbishop. Codde was, in- 
 deed, sent back with a papal blessing, but was followed with a formal 
 decree of deposition, 1708. His rival. De Cock, was obliged to flee 
 from a charge of high treason. But, because of conscientious scruples, 
 Codde refused, to his death, 1710, to exercise again the functions of 
 his ofBce. For thirteen years the see remained vacant. The vacant 
 pulpits were filled with emissaries of the Jesuits, at the nomination of 
 the Nuncio in Cologne. Thousands of the people were caught in the 
 uets of the Jesuits, and fell over to Ultramontanism. At last, 1723, 
 the chapter took courage, and chose Cornelius Steenhowen to be 
 Archbishop. After waiting a year and a half without receiving an 
 answer to their request for papal confirmation, he was ordained by 
 the French missionary. Bishop Varlet. The same was done with his 
 next three successors. In order to secure legitimate ordination for 
 future Archbishops, after Varlet's death, 1742, a Bishop was conse- 
 crated by the Haarlem chapter, which had left their right of choice 
 unexercised, and in 1758 the new bishopric of Deventer was provided 
 with an occupant. Meanwhile the second and last act of the Jansen- 
 istic tragedy in France had been played. Many persecuted appel- 
 lants sought refuge in free Holland, and the friendly reception they 
 received seemed to justify the long loved charge of Jansenistic heresy 
 against Utrecht. The accused continued to repel the charge with all 
 energy, but refused expressly to recognize the bull of Alexander VII., 
 and the acceptance there demanded of Papal Infallibility. And thus 
 were thwarted all efforts at reconciliation, which had been set on foot. 
 The church of Utrecht prospered, and at a Council, 1765, declared 
 itself to be the Old Roman Catholic Church of the Netherlands. The 
 Pope was acknowledged, in spite of his ban against Utrecht, as the 
 visible head of the Christian Church. A confession was produced 
 corresponding in detail to the decrees of Trent, and sent with all the 
 acts of the Council to Rome, as evidence of orthodoxy. The Jesuits 
 succeeded in counteracting the good impression which this transaction 
 had at first created at Rome. Clement XIII. declared the Council 
 void, and its participants stiff-necked children of iniquity. But the 
 81
 
 446 ADDENDA. 
 
 church still lives, with five or six thousand souls, nineteen parishes 
 under two Bishops, and an Archbishop. 
 
 32. (Vol. II., p. 299.) The English Naturalist, Darwin, threw intc 
 the arena of natural science the magic formula, " Natural Selection," 
 according to which it is supposed that the present variety of animal 
 life has arisen through a process of development, continued through 
 millions, perhaps milliards of years, from some primary marine 
 animal springing from a minute cell. 
 
 33. (Vol. II., p. 303.) In Italy the amiable Akss. Manzoni (ob. 
 1873), though himself more of a Christian than a Catholic, gave to 
 Catholic Christianity, in his "//i/w Sacri," and "Promessi Sposi" the no- 
 blest expression. The celebrated poet, Silvio Pellico (ob. 1854), in "Z« 
 mie Prigioni," offered noble testimony of the power of Christianity. 
 
 34. (Vol. II., p. 304.) Among the pupils of the Munich school, 
 Julius Schnorr {oh. 1872) devoted himself chiefly to religious material. 
 His "Bible in Pictures" is a masterpiece of biblical illustration. — 
 Phil. Veith left an immortal monument to his memory in numerous 
 frescoes and altar-paintings in Germany and Italy. From Will v. 
 Kaulbach we have The Battle of the Huns, The Destruction of Jerusa- 
 lem,2ind the staircase paintings of the Museum at Berlin. — Lessing has 
 won the honor of being the painter of reformatory ideas in his Burn- 
 ing of the Papal Bull by Luther, and in The Leipsic Disputation. 
 
 35. (Vol. II., p. 306.) Interconfessional Relations. 
 
 The Evangelical and the Catholic churches were both of them 
 enriched during the present century, each at the cost of the other, by 
 numerous conversions. The Protestants, on the one hand, freely 
 recognized their opponents, cherishing sometimes such admiration 
 for individual Catholic institutions as to throw into the shade the 
 dignity of their own church. Even in Germany many Romanizing 
 tendencies appeared. The sometimes absurd suspicions of lurking 
 Jesuitism were not, it would seem, without some justification in the 
 case of the Court Preacher Stark, of Darmstadt. And there were not 
 wanting those who formally went over to the Catholics, and, too, from 
 the best of men, e. g. Fr. Schlegel, Adam Müller, H. L. von Haller, 
 and others. But the Catholics did not return the liberal recognition 
 they received. The Ultramontanes were, on the other hand, un- 
 wearied in heaping abuse and slander upon even the noblest of Prot- 
 estant labors and Protestant men. Ketteler, in a pastoral letter, 1855, 
 compared the Germans to the Jews, who, by crucifying their Lord, 
 lost their high calling in the kingdom of God, because in the Ref- 
 ormation they had torn asunder the unity of faith grounded by St. 
 Boniface. Cardinal Riccabona asserted that Luther gathered round 
 his standard the most depraved reprobates of Europe, treading under 
 foot the blood of the Redeemer. Prof. Michelis, in Münster, com- 
 pared Protestantism to Antichrist. Nevertheless, many truly pioua
 
 ADDENDA. 447 
 
 men were led, in their longing after salvation, to examine the Protest- 
 ant doctrines, and sometimes to enter the fold of the Protestant 
 Church. Such were Martin Boos, Goossner, Henhöfer, Duke Leop. 
 von Seldnitzky, and others. The Vatican sanction of infallibility 
 moreover drove many sober-minded men into the evangelical church. 
 • Pius IX. invited both Greek and Protestant Bishops to the Vatican 
 Council, but not, as at Trent, to participate in the proceedings, but to 
 return like the prodigal son to his father's house. In a letter to the 
 German Emperor, 1873, he said that all who had been baptized, 
 Catholic or not, even the Emperor himself, "belonged to the Pope." 
 
 Thoughts of union appeared at times among the Old Catholics as 
 hopeless as ever, indeed, but looking only to the long future for any 
 material result. Of like character were similar propositions between 
 the Oriental Orthodox Church on the one side, and the Roman Catho- 
 lic and Anglican on the other. 
 
 36. (Vol. II., p. 310.) The Revival Period of 1857—61. 
 Following in the footsteps of a financial crisis, there appeared in 
 
 North America, toward the close of the year 1857, a religious move- 
 ment of so great dimensions, of such continuance and energy, and 
 such remarkable results in repentance and conversion, as to surpass 
 all that had been seen before even in America, the land of revivals. 
 Along with that which was merely ecstatic, there appeared much of 
 genuine and healthy repentance. The movement spread to the West 
 Indies, West and South Africa, and the East Indies. And in Europe, 
 especially Ireland, it was almost as fruitful as in America. 
 
 37. (Vol. IL, p. 323.) Foreign Missions. 
 
 Among the Protestant sects, the Methodists and Baptists have been 
 most zealous in the missionary cause, though the Moravians have lost 
 nothing of their former activity. The results of evangelical missions 
 for the last eighty years are estimated at 800,000 or 900,000 converts 
 from heathendom. That these results are so much less than might 
 have been looked for in return for the zeal and labor put forth, is 
 owing in part doubtless to the rigidity of the Protestant methods of 
 labor. Only such heathen were admitted to baptism as had been fully 
 enlightened and converted, and the efficacy of baptismal grace was 
 lightly esteemed. Guiana, in South America, was a field too difficult 
 and dangerous for anything but the patience of the Moravian mis- 
 sionaries, though in the British parts the London Missionary Society 
 labored not without result. In Madagascar (p. 325), Radama IL, the 
 Christian son of the bloody Ranavalona, ascended the throne in 1861, 
 and recalled the Christians and missionaries driven out by his mother. 
 Ranavalona II. abjured heathenism, and was baptized in 1869, when 
 she became queen. The next year she burned the national idols. 
 
 After the complete suppression of the military insurrection of East 
 India, 1857 (p. 325), the mission there flourished even more than before^
 
 448 ADDENDA. 
 
 The Island of Ceylon was in large part christianized, but only nomi- 
 nally under the Portuguese and Dutch. The American Baptists sent 
 numerous missionaries to India, among whom Judson and his heroic 
 wife were specially distinguished. Their labors among the Burmans 
 and Garens belong to the noblest of Protestant missions. 
 
 In Java, also, the Baptists have been quite active, and with good 
 results. In spite of the treaty of 1858, in China (p. 326) the Regent 
 Prince Kung could not prevent further bloody persecutions. In 1865 
 he was himself deposed. A new treaty, 1868, similar to the other, 
 included North Germany among the favored powers. In Japan, all 
 edicts against Christianity and Christians were formally revoked in 
 1873. In 1809 was formed the London Society for the Spread of the 
 Gospel among the Jews, which labored with varying results in London, 
 Poland, Germany, Holland, France, and Turkey. 
 
 38. (Vol. II., p. 327.) The Conflict with Ultramontanism in the 
 New German Empire. 
 
 The glorious day of Sedan, September 2, 1870, resulted in the over- 
 throw of the civil power of the Pope, and in the establishment of a 
 new hereditary German Empire in the Protestant dynasty of the 
 Prussian HohenzoUerns, January 18, 1871. German Ultramontanism, 
 displeased alike with both of these results, demanded of the German 
 Emperor the restoration of civil power to the Pope. This demand 
 was not complied with, and formal war was declared against the 
 Empire through the press at the command of the Ultramontanes, 
 but only to be met with defeat after defeat at the energetic hands of 
 the attacked. The Chancellor Prince Bismark said in regard to these 
 demands, " We go not to Canossa." And the Emperor, in his letter to 
 Lord Kussell, February, 1874, thanking him for the sympathies ex- 
 pressed by the English people, announced his firm and royal deter- 
 mination to fight out to the end the thousand years war between the 
 Pope and the German Empire. 
 
 While in South Germany the Ultramontanes, at the outbreak of 
 the war, expressed their symi^athies with France, and at its close 
 strove to prevent the alliance of Bavaria to the Empire, in North 
 Germany different tactics were employed. There the Ultramontanes 
 hoped to use the Empire to advance their own ends. Even the Pope 
 congratulated the new Emj^eror, expressing the hope that he would 
 labor for the good of all Europe, including the protection of the 
 rights and liberties of the Catholic religion. The conflict resulted, 
 among other things, in the enactment by the Imperial Diet of the cele- 
 brated Jesuit Law, and of the so-called Pulpit Paragraph. The latter 
 (18f-l) threatened with two years' imprisonment every misuse of the 
 pulpit or clerical office for jiolitical agitation. The former (1872) 
 dissolved the Jesuits and kindred orders, banishing all foreign mem- 
 bers from the Empire, and prescribing the others to a limited resi-
 
 ADDENDA. 449 
 
 dence. Hut other measures being required, Ultrainontanism was laid 
 hold of in its schools and seminaries. In order to put an end to the 
 despotic power of the Bishops in matters of ecclesiastical discipline 
 and church appointment, they were placed under civil oversight and 
 jurisdiction through the four Prussian Ecclesiastical Laws. 
 
 39. (Vol. II., p. 352.) The left wing of Schleiermacher's school 
 became of greater importance to theology after its union, in 1854, 
 with the older representatives of the historico-critical, aesthetic, and 
 philosophic rationalism, as well as with the younger generation of the 
 Bauer school, and a number of capable men, who had at first belonged 
 to the moderate theology, but in the course of their theological devel- 
 opment had become more and more estranged from it. From this 
 union there came forth the Free Protestant Thenlogy of the latest date. 
 
 40. (Vol. II., p. 366.) Strauss' second "Life of Jesus, 1864, for the 
 German people," was too full of clumsy criticism for the people for 
 whom it was designed, not excepting the more educated classes among 
 them ; and for science it could not win the importance granted to the 
 first, published twenty-five years before. He published, in 1872, 
 the most radical of all his books, " The Old Faith and the New," 
 in which he makes Christianity a mere reproduction of Judaism. 
 Strauss died 1874. 
 
 41. (Vol. II., p. 376.) The Vatican Council and the Old 
 Catholics. 
 
 After the announcement of Pius IX., at the centenary of 
 St. Peter, 1867, in regard to an Ecumenical Council at no distant 
 future, the statements of the Romish Civilta Cattolica soon left 
 no room for doubt that the first work of the Council was to con- 
 firm the Syllabus of 1864, to sanction the absolute fulness of 
 the Papal power in the sense claimed by Boniface VIII. , in his 
 bull Unura Sanctum (Vol. I. § 110, 1), and to proclaim Papal 
 Infallibility. When the Council actually assembled, December 
 8, 1869, all imaginable means were brought to bear on the Oppo- 
 sition — the cunning and intrigue of the Jesuits, the persuasives 
 and threats of the Pope, aiming, in case it should prove im- 
 possible to win them over, at least to suppress their opposition 
 by force. In numbers, the members of the Opposition were not 
 inconsiderable, and they far outweighed the other side, both 
 in theological attainments, moral character, and ecclesiastical 
 position ; but the schemes of the Pope and his counsellors were 
 mightier than they. But fifty out of the one hundred and fifty 
 in the Opposition continued in their protest to "the close of the 
 81*
 
 450 ADDENDA. 
 
 Council, and even these cowardly withdrew from the deciding 
 battle, and afterwards declared, from their bishoprics at home, 
 their most devoted agreement to the dogma. 
 
 On the other hand, in Germany (Prussia, Bavaria, Baden, and 
 Hesse), and in Switzerland, a reaction arose against the Council 
 and its decisions, from the liberal circles of the Catholics, in the 
 so-called Old Catholic movement. The movement was set on 
 foot by highly-respected and distinguished scientific men, and 
 has advanced with ever-growing favor. In Germany it has 
 already resulted in an independent and well-organized church, 
 and in Switzerland hastens towards the same goal on compara- 
 tively a wider scale. 
 
 1. The Council before its Assembly. 
 
 Pius IX. announced to the Bishops assembled at the centenary of 
 St. Peter that he purposed, in the near future, to call an Ecumenical 
 Council. The Bishops, in reply, expressed the hope that such a Coun- 
 cil might prove, through the intercession of the Immaculate Virgin, a 
 wondrous source of unity, peace, and holiness. The formal procla- 
 mation followed the next year, 1868, on Peter-Paul's day, June 29th. 
 The purpose in view was stated in general to save the Church 
 from all threatening evils ; to uproot all modern errors, and to over- 
 throw all godless enemies of the Church and the Apostolic See. The 
 General Council of Catholics, at Bamberg, assembling soon after this 
 proclamation, recorded their opinion, that a new era in the world's 
 history would begin with the Council of the Vatican, for " Either sal- 
 vation would be brought to the world through this Council, or there 
 is no salvation for the world." But this hope was far from being 
 general throughout the Catholic world. The learned Bishop in parti- 
 bus, Maret, Dean of the Theological Faculty at Paris, appeared in the 
 arena with an eloquent defence of the Galilean liberties. And even 
 Count Montalembert, hitherto a strict Catholic, astounded the world 
 with his hostility to the Council. Six days before he died, March 7, 
 1870, he earnestly protested against the intrigues of the Jesuits, and 
 the proposed dogma of Infallibility. But the greatest stir was created 
 by the pseudonymous work, entitled, " Der Papst und das Council von 
 Janus, Leipzig, 1869." It was probably written by Döllinger, Fried- 
 rich, and Huber, and brought to bear against the plans of the Papal 
 Court the heavy artillery of a far-reaching acquaintance with eccle- 
 siastical history. The Papal Secretary, Cardinal Antonelli, quieted 
 the foreign ambassadors at Rome, with the assurance that neither 
 the confirmation of the Syllabus nor the definition of the dogma of 
 Infallibility was purposed by the Pope. Prince Hohenlohe, of Bavaria, 
 urged the other Powers of Europe to unite in preventive measures
 
 ADDENDA. 451 
 
 against every encroachment of the coming Council upon the rights of 
 the states. But he urged in vain. The Powers tliouglit best to wait, 
 and, not until it was too late, uttered their protests and their threats. ' 
 
 2. Tlie Organization of the Council. 
 
 Seven hundred and sixty-seven of the ten hundred and forty-four 
 invited prelates made their appearance at the Council. Of these, 
 one hundred and nineteen Bishops in partibus were sworn satellites 
 of the Papal Court. A still greater number were Missionary Bishops, 
 who had come to Rome at the expense of the Holy Father, and 
 were quartered with attendants at the Propaganda. The sixty-two 
 Bishops of the States of the Church were doubly dependent on the 
 Pope, and it was said in Rome, of the eighty Spanish and South 
 American Bishops, that at the demand of the Pope they would 
 define the Trinity as consisting of four persons. Then there were 
 forty Italian Cardinals, and thirty Generals of Orders. The Romans 
 were represented with more than six hundred votes, and all Germany 
 had some fourteen. For the first time since ecumenical councils 
 were held, the laity were entirely shut out from the proceedings 
 of the Council. The regulations imposed by the Pope aimed 
 throughout at laming the Opposition. The right of making motions 
 was, indeed, granted to all the Fathers of the Council, but a Deputa- 
 tion chosen by the Pope decided as to what motions might be admit- 
 ted. Drafts of the decrees came from the Special Commissions, whose 
 chairmen the Pope nominated, to the General Congregation, where the 
 president could at will interrupt any speaker, and deprive him of the 
 floor. Instead of the unanimity demanded by the canonical laws in 
 decrees relating to faith, voting by simple majority was introduced. 
 A solemn protest, by the minority, against this and similar acts of 
 violence, received no attention. The proceedings were stenographi- 
 cally recorded, but even the members of the Council were not allowed 
 access to these records. The resolutions of the General Congregations 
 were returned to the Special Commissions for final revision, and at last 
 came to vote without discussion at the Public Sessions, by the simple 
 Placet or Non-Placet. The right transept of St. Peter's Church, where 
 the acoustic properties were as poor as possible, was used as the hall of 
 assembly, and the Pope steadfastly refused to change to a better 
 location. Added to this, was the great variety of pronunciation, and 
 in many cases a scanty knowledge of Latin. In spite of the obliga- 
 tions imposed of strict secrecy, a tolerably complete insight into the 
 daily proceedings of the Council was obtained in certain circles at 
 Rome, by carefully gathering up all that was told here and there. 
 Out of these sources came the " Roman Letters," written probably by 
 Lord Acton, a friend and pupil of DöUinger. They were sent by 
 trusted messengers beyond the bounds of the Papal territory, and 
 then forwarded to Munich, where they were revised by Döllinger and
 
 452 ADDENDA. 
 
 his friends, and then made public in the columns of the Augsburgei 
 Allg. Zeitung. Professor Friedrich, who had accompanied Cardinal 
 Hohenlohe to Rome, as Theological Adviser, jjublished in his 'Tage- 
 buch Während d. Vat. Cone," second edition, Nördl., 1873, what 
 information he had received from the Bishops and Theologians. 
 
 3. The Proceedings of the Council. 
 
 The first Public Session occurred December 8, 1869, and the second 
 on January 6, 1870, when the Confession of Faith was presented. The 
 first proposition was the Scheme of Faith, the second the Scheme of 
 Ecclesiastical Discipline. Then followed the Scheme of the Church and 
 the Primacy of the Pope. Three articles presented the supremacy of 
 the Church over the State; the absolute power of the Pope over the 
 whole Church according to Pseudo Isidore (Vol. I., § 87, 2), and the 
 claims of Gregory VII., Innocent III., and Boniface VIII ; the 
 principal points of the Syllabus of 1864; and the sketch of a cate- 
 chism for the instruction of the youth throughout the Church. On 
 March 6th, as a fourth article to the Scheme of the Church, the sketch 
 of the decree of Infallibility was presented. An agitation on this 
 point had commenced shortly after the opening of the Council. 
 An address to the Pope, originating in the Jesuit College, in behalf 
 of Infallibility, received four hundred signatures. An address 
 on the other side was signed by one hundred and thirty-seven 
 names. Leading the agitation for the Infallibility were Archbishops 
 Manning, of Westminster ; Deschamps, of Mechlin ; Spalding, of Bal- 
 timore; and Bishops Fessler, Secretary of the Council; Senestry, of 
 Eegensburg; Martin, of Paderborn; and Mermillod, of Geneva. 
 Among the leaders of the opposition were Cardinals Rauscher, of 
 Vienna; Schwarzenberg, of Prague; Mattieu, of BesanQon; and 
 Foster, of Breslau; Archbishops Scherr, of Munich; Melchers, of 
 Cologne; Darboy, of Paris; and Kenrick, of St. Louis; and Bishops 
 Ketteler, of Mayence; Dinkle, of Augsburg; Hefele, of Rottenburg; 
 Strossmayer, of Sirmium; Dupanloup, of Orleans, etc. 
 
 The Scheme of Faith was carried unanimously at the third Public 
 Session, April 24th. Discussion over the Scheme of the Church was 
 commenced May 10th, and was almost entirely confined to the ques- 
 tion of Infallibility. While attempts were made to find some basis 
 in the Scripture and in tradition for the dogma, the great argu- 
 ment was built upon its necessity arising from the office of the Pope 
 as vicar of Christ. The Opposition did not so much attack the 
 doctrine of Infallibility on its own merits, as question the expediency 
 of its formal declaration. They thus greatly weakened their cause, 
 some of them not wishing to offend the Pope, and others anxious to leave 
 open a way of retreat, which was sure to be needed. The longer 
 the debate continued, the more decided ground in favor of the dogma 
 was taken by the Pope. He coaxed and threatened as he thought
 
 ADDENDA. 453 
 
 best. He upbraided the opponents as enemies to the Church and the 
 Apostolic See, and placed over against the fears of schism his confi- 
 dence in the assistance of the Holy Virgin. To the question whether he 
 looked upon the definition as expedient, he replied,"No, but necessary." 
 It was notorious, he said, that the whole Church through all times had 
 taught the Infallibility of the Pope. Long ago be had believed in 
 Infallibility, and as Pope he felt it. July 13th, the final vote was 
 reached in the General Congregation, with three hundred and seventy- 
 one votes simply Placet, sixty- one Placet Juxte Modiim, and eighty- 
 eight Non-Placet. After a final and hopeless attempt to secure 
 agreement to a milder form of the decree, the fifty members of the 
 minority, who had continued steadfast, left Rome, leaving behind 
 them a written declaration that, while they were obliged to maintain 
 their former objections to the dogma, out of respect for the Pope they 
 would not protest at the Public Session. On the following day, July 
 18th, the fourth and last Public Session occurred. Five hundred and 
 forty-seven Fathers voted Placet, and only two (Riccio, of Cajazzo, 
 and Fitzgerald, of Little Rock), Non-Placet. A fearful storm break- 
 ing out during the session, Pius IX. announced, amidst thunder and 
 lightning, as "second Moses" (Ex.19: 16), the absolute power and 
 Infallibility of himself, and of all his predecessors and followers. It 
 was the same day on which Napoleon III. declared war against 
 Prussia, in consequence of which the Pope lost the last vestige of 
 secular power, and every hope of regaining it. 
 
 4. The Recognition of the Decrees of the Council. 
 
 All protests which had been made became legally worthless, be- 
 cause they were not maintained. And nothing remained for the 
 dissenting Bishops, but to accept at last what they had so long 
 refused. And this they did. As for the Civil Powers, not one of them 
 has so far recognized the Council. 
 
 5. The Constitution of an Old Catholic Church in Germany. 
 
 So early as August, 1870, Prof Michelis, in Braunsberg, openly 
 charged Pius IX. with heresy, and by the end of the month he was 
 joined by several prominent theologians, among whom were Döllin- 
 ger, Friedrich, Reinkens, Weber, and others, who declared at Nurem- 
 berg that the Vatican Council could not be looked upon as ecumenical, 
 nor the new dogma as Catholic. Forty- four instructors at the University 
 of Munich responded to this declaration, as also others from Breslau, 
 Freiburg, Würzburg, and Bonn. April 14, 1871, Döllinger was ex- 
 communicated. September, 1871, the first General Congress of the Old 
 Catholics met at Munich, with five hundred deputies present, gathered 
 from all Germany. They agreed to retain the faith, worship, and 
 constitution of the Old Catholic Church. They declared the decrees 
 of the Vatican Council invalid, and recognized the Old Catholic 
 Church of Utrecht. They expressed the hope of a union with the
 
 454 ADDENDA. 
 
 Greek Church, and of agreement with the Protestants. In spite of 
 Döllinger's opposition, they determined to institute independent 
 worship, and an episcopal jurisdiction of their own, as early as pos- 
 sible. At the second General Congress, 1872, at Cologne, representa- 
 tives were present from the Anglican Church in England and America, 
 from the Orthodox Church of Russia, from France, Italy and Spain, 
 either to express their sympathies or to jiarticipate in the j^roceedings 
 as deputies. It was the uniform opinion that a thorough reform was 
 demanded, both in constitution, discipline, and worship. Prof. Fried- 
 rich said: "In the dogma of Infallibility, we wrestle not against one 
 single error, but against the whole Papal system, whose false develop- 
 ment, through a thousand years, had reached its climax in this 
 dogma." It was agreed, however, that the first duty was the selec- 
 tion of a Bishop. The synodal and ecclesiastic arrangements provided 
 for a yearly synod, to be called by the Bishop, in which all the 
 clergy should participate, and to which the churches should send 
 deputies, one representative for every two hundred. A permanent 
 synodal representation, consisting of five clergymen and seven laymen, 
 was to stand at the right hand of the Bishop. The churches were to 
 choose their own clergyman, subject to the approval of the Bishop. 
 Prof Eeinkens was chosen Bishop the next year, 1873. 
 
 42. (Vol. II., p. 378.) Doivnfall of the States of the Church. By 
 a popular vote, Romagna was annexed to Sardinia, 1860, and in Sep- 
 tember of the same year a revolution broke out in Umbria and the 
 Marches, in consequence of which Victor Immanuel took possession 
 of these Papal provinces also. So that only two of the five, Rome and 
 the Campagna, were left to the Pope, and the possession of these de- 
 pended entirely on the uncertain continuance of the French troops 
 in Italy. When, in December, 1866, these troops had departed, aa 
 unsuccessful attempt was made to liberate Italy from the Papal rule. 
 Garibaldi appeared at the head of the movement, but, through the 
 interposition of Napoleon, it failed. A French garrison continued 
 to protect Rome until, in August, 1870, it was compelled to with- 
 draw to the helpless defence of France itself. An Italian army occu- 
 pied the Papal territory, in order to protect it against fresh outbreaks. 
 But, after the battle of Sedan, all Italy, to a man, demanded Rome 
 for their capital, and Victor Immanuel had to concede. The Pope 
 sought help near and far, from Catholic and non-Catholic powers, but 
 in answer from all sides came the echo of the Pope's own stereotyped 
 expression, '^Non possumus." After a four hours' cannonade, breaches 
 were made in the walls of the Eternal City. The white flag was raised, 
 and amidst the shouts of the populace the Italian troops entered. 
 A popular vote in the remaining Papal territory resulted in 133,681 
 votes for, and 1507 against, the annexation. In Rome the vote was 
 40,785 to 46, in favor of annexation.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 ( The Figures refer to the Page.) 
 
 Abolitionists, 348 
 Abraham St. Clara, 194 
 Abyssinia, 171, 175 
 Acceptants, 232 
 DAchery, 194 
 Adiapboristic contr., 135 
 ^pinus, John, lö8 
 Agenda, Prussian, 310 
 Agricoia, John, 100, 133 
 
 Martin, 145 
 
 Agrippa V. Nettesh., 155 
 
 Aguirre, 194 
 
 Ahle, 208 
 
 Alba, duke, 99, 121 
 
 Alberti, 205 
 
 Alberus, 144 
 
 Albinus, 206 
 
 Albert of Bavaria, 173 
 
 Brandenburg, 105 
 
 Mayence, 33 
 
 Prussia, 52, 56 
 
 Albrights, the, 351 
 D'Albret, 123 
 Aleander, 39 
 D'Alembert. 236 
 Alexander I. II. 293, 294 
 
 of Jerusalem, 325 
 
 Dr. J. Addison, 348 
 
 Allatius, Leo, 194 
 Allegri, Greg., 194 
 Allendorf, 248 
 Alliance, Holy, 294 
 Evangelical, 313 
 
 Torgau, 52 
 
 Alombrados, 189 
 Alzog, 391 
 
 Amen Society, 412 
 American Catholic Miss,, 
 
 170-71 
 Ame^^ius, 216 
 Amling, 153 
 Ammon. v., 358 
 Amsdorf, 91, 135 
 
 Amyrault, 211, 216 
 Anabaptists, 42, 65, 157- 
 
 GO 
 Anderson, 116 
 Andrea, Jacob, 138 
 
 Val., 203 
 
 Angela of Brescia, 166 
 Angelo, Michael, 169 
 Angelas, Silesius, 189, 
 
 207 
 Anhalt, 79, 152 
 Anna of Prussia, 183 
 Antinomian controversy, 
 
 133 
 Anti-hierarchical move- 
 ment in Germany, 234 
 Anti-papal aggression, 
 
 396 
 Anti-Trinitarians, 158 
 Anthony of Navarre, 122 
 
 Paul, 199 
 
 Apocryphal controversy. 
 
 Apology for the Augsb. 
 Conf., 74 
 
 Apostoolians, 218 
 
 Appellants, 232 
 
 Appenfeller, 273 
 
 Arcanum regium, 268 
 
 Armenians, 210 
 
 Arnold, 191 
 
 Arnold, Gottf., 201, 204 
 
 Arnoldi, 38?. 402 
 
 Articles, the XXXIX, 
 120 
 
 Asseburg, 270 
 
 Auberleon, 369 
 
 Augsburg Qonf., 74 
 
 Augustus of Saxony,137, 
 139 
 
 Augusti, 361 
 
 Augustine, Trappist ab- 
 bot, 380 
 
 Augustinianism, oppoB* 
 
 ed, 167 
 Avenarius, 146 
 
 Baader, Fr., 388 
 Baboef, 416 
 Bach, Seb., 250 
 Bacon of Verulam, 
 
 223 
 Baden, 333, 399 
 Baden-Baden, 173 
 Bahrdt, 280, 282 
 Baier, Dr., 75, 201 
 Baius, 1G7 
 Bälde, 195 
 Ballenstedt, 298 
 Balsac, 302 
 
 Balthasar of Fulda, 178 
 Baltzer, 389 
 Baluze, 194 
 Bampfield, 219 
 Banez, Dom., 167 
 Baptists, 219, 349, 278 
 Barclay, 219 
 Barkers, 276 
 Barnabites, 165 
 Barnim of Pomerania, 
 
 (13, 4), 79 
 Baronius, 169 
 Barriere, 167 
 Barth, 303 
 
 Bartholomew's Eve, 123 
 Basedow Basel, 63, 324, 
 
 280 
 Basuage, 216 
 Bassi, 166 
 Bathori, St., 125 
 Bauer, Bruno, 296, 364 
 
 Lorenzo, 283 
 
 Baumgarten, Crusius, 
 
 360 
 
 Michael, 331, ?7 4 
 
 Bauer, F. C, 364 
 
 (455)
 
 456 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Bauer, Gustavus, 364 
 Bautain, 888 
 Bavaria, 336, 397 
 Baxter, 226 
 Bayle, 226 
 
 Beaulieu, Peace of, 123 
 Beaumont, 232 
 Becanus, 193 
 Beck, Fr., 302 
 
 J. Tob., 369 
 
 Beethoven, 305 
 Becker, Balth., 213 
 Belgium, 344, 395 
 Bellarmine, 165, 168 
 Benedict XIII., XIV., 
 
 popes, 228 
 Bengel, Alb., 245 
 
 E. G. v., 360 
 
 Benno v. Meissen, 60 
 Berg, John, 180 
 Bergic Book, 138 
 Berleberg Bible, 271 
 Berlin, General Synod, 
 
 327 
 Berne, Reformation in, 
 
 64 
 Bermudez, Cath. patri- 
 arch, 171 
 Bertbeau, 360 
 Berthold of Chiem-see, 
 
 47, 168 
 
 Leonard, 283 
 
 Berylla, Peter, 186 
 Beschi, 230 
 Bespopowtscbini, 222 
 Besser, 323, 373 
 Betbmann-Holweg, 299, 
 
 315 
 Beuggen, 322 
 Bey schlag, 314 
 Beza. 112, 149, 150 
 Bibles, annotated, 323 
 Bible Societies, 322 
 Biblical Theol., Roman 
 
 Cath., 238 
 Bickell, 299. 332 
 Bienemaiin, Caspar, 144 
 Bilderdijk, 342 
 Billik, 95 
 Billroth, 364 
 Birken, v.. 206 
 Bitzius, 303 
 Blandrata, 159 
 Blaurer, 49, 79, 149 
 Bleek, 370 
 Bloudel, 212, 216 
 
 Blount, 226 
 Blumhart, 333 
 Bobadilla, 163 
 Bochart, Samuel, 215 
 Bockelson, 81 
 Bodin, Jean, 159 
 Bogatzky, 248, 251 
 Böhm, Charics, 411 
 Böhme, Jacob, 203-4 
 Böhme, Martin, 144 
 Bohemia, 125, 177, 336 
 Böhmer, Justus Hen- 
 ning, 247 
 Bohemian Brethren, 125 
 Boleyn, Anna, 119 
 Boliiigbroke, 278 
 Bolland, 194 
 Bollandists, 194 
 Bolsec, Jerome, 112 
 Bona, Card., 194 
 Bonfrere, 193 
 Boniface Society, 385 
 Book of Common Prayer, 
 
 120 
 Book Society of Berlin, 
 
 322 
 Boos, Martin, 381 
 Bora, Catharine, v., 59 
 Börner, 238 
 Bordelum sect, 273 
 Borgia, Francis, 164 
 Borromeo, Charles, 169 
 Borromeo Society, 385 
 Bossuet, 181, 185, 190, 
 
 193, 231 
 Botskai, Stephen, 126 
 Bouidaloue, 194 
 Bourignon, 190 
 Bouthillier de Ranc^,187 
 Boyle, Robert, 226 
 Brandenburg, 86, 182 
 Brandt, 823 
 Braniss, 297 
 Brazil, 171 
 Braun. John, 216 
 
 Josiah, 387 
 
 Breckling, 221 
 Breithaupt, 200 
 Bremen, 56, 152 
 Brendel, Dan., 108, 173 
 Brentano. 302. 380 
 Brenz, John, 69, 72, 142, 
 
 146 
 Brest, Synod of, 174 
 Brethren, Christ, school, 
 187 
 
 Bretschneider, 298, 358 
 Breviarum Romanum, 
 
 167 
 Bridaine, 194 
 Briegel, 209 
 Brischar. 386 
 Broad Church party, 333 
 Brochmand, 201 
 Brown, Thomns, 226 
 Browne, Robert, 120 
 Bruccioli, 127 
 Brück, Dr., 75 
 Brücker, 251 
 Bruder, 200 
 Brüggeler's sect, 273 
 Bruno, Giordano, 156 
 Brunsfeld, Otto, 50 
 Brunswick, 56, 91 
 Bucer, 44, 69, 72, 82, 88^ 
 
 89, 92, 119 
 Buchanan. 414 
 Buchel, 274 
 
 Buchführer, George, 58 
 Buddeus, 245 
 Buffalo, Synod Lutheran, 
 
 351 
 Bugenhagen, 50, 56, 79, 
 
 118, 142 
 Bülau, St., 118 
 Bullinger, 83, 113 
 Bundschuh, the, 45 
 Bunsen, 314, 319, 371 
 Büren, 152 
 Bunnann, 216 
 Burnet, Gilbert, 211 
 Buscher, Statins, 198 
 Busenbaum, Hermann, 
 
 165 
 Buttlar, the sect, 273 
 Bustorf, 212, 214 
 Byron, 303 
 
 Cabkt, 416 
 Cajetan, Cardinal, 34 
 Calas, Jean, 230 
 Calazanze, 186 
 Calderon, 199 
 Calender, Reform of, 162 
 Calixtus, Geo., 180, 201 
 
 Ulrich, 198 
 
 Callenberg, 252 
 Calmet, 238 
 
 Calov, 198,200,201,204 
 Calw. publicatioD eoc, 
 
 322 
 Calvin, 109, etc.
 
 INDEX 
 
 457 
 
 Calvinism, 318 
 Camerarius, 146 
 Camisards, 178 
 Campanella, 222 
 Campanus, 158 
 Campe, 280 
 Campeggio, 50, 51, 74 
 Camp-meetings, 349 
 Canisius, 1G8 
 Canova, 305 
 Canstein, 250 
 Canticles, 206 
 Canus, 168 
 Canz. 246 
 Capellus. 212, 214 
 Capito, 44, 63, 69, 150 
 Cappadose, 342 
 Cappel, peace of, 67 
 Capuchins, 166 
 Caraffa, 165 
 Cardley, 314 
 Carl, Dr., 271 
 Carlstadt, 35, 42, 43, 69, 
 
 117 
 Carmelites, barefooted, 
 
 166 
 Carpentarius, 58 
 Carpzov, J. B., 199, 246 
 
 J. G., 245 
 
 Casas, I-as, 171 
 Casimir of Brandenburg, 
 
 52 
 
 Berleburg, 270 
 
 Caspare, 374 
 Cassandcr. 172 
 Cassel Colloquy, 183 
 Castellio, Sebastian, 112, 
 
 150 
 Castellus, 214 
 Catharine of Arragon, 
 
 119 
 
 de Medici, 122 
 
 II. of Russia, 234 
 
 Catechism, Heidelberg, 
 
 151 
 
 Lutheran, 55 
 
 Roman, 167 
 
 Chaise, la. 189 
 Chalmers, 341 
 Chalybaus, 296 
 Chamier. 216 
 Chandler, 278 
 Channing, of Boston, 406 
 Chantal, 186 
 Charle.« V., Emperor, 
 82 
 
 Charles I., II., of Eng- 
 land. 179, 184 
 
 — IX. of France, 123 
 IX. of Sweden, 116 
 
 — XX. " 230 
 Albert of Sardinia, 
 
 393 
 Alexander of Wiir- 
 
 tem.. 231 
 Chateaubriand, 238 
 Chatel, Abb6. 383 
 Chemnitz, 133, 134, 138, 
 
 142, 146 
 Cherbury, 225 
 Chier^gati, 49 
 Children, Praying, 461 
 China, 170. 172, 188.326 
 Chinese mission, 188 
 Chlistowtschini, 222 
 Choral music, 145, 320 
 Christian II. III., 117 
 Cliristiau Germ. Society, 
 
 292 
 Christians, 275 
 Christiern II. of Den- 
 mark, 115 
 Christopher of Würtem., 
 
 78 
 Chubb, 278 
 Chytrteus, 146 
 Cistercians, 166 
 Clara, Abr. de St., 194 
 Clarenbach, 58 
 Clarke, 225 
 Claude, 212 
 Claudius, Matthew, 288 
 
 of Savoy, 159 
 
 Clausen, Prof, 342 
 Clausenberg, diet of, 126 
 Clausnitzer, 205 
 Clement VIII., 167, 192 
 XIII., XIV., 233, 
 
 324 
 
 F. J., 389 
 
 Clericus (le Clerc), John, 
 
 215 
 Cluniacensians (Clugny), 
 
 229 
 Cocceius, 213, 214 
 Cochlseus. 60, 75 
 Cock, Henry de, 342 
 Codde, 232 
 
 Coena domini, bull, 234 
 Coleridge, 340 
 Coligny, 122 
 Collegia pbiIobiblica,l 99 
 
 Collegia pietatis, 199 
 Collegiate system, 247 
 Collegiants, 219 
 Collegium caritativum, 
 
 268 
 Collenbusch, 291 
 Collins, 278 
 Coin, von, 359 
 Cologne, 92, 98, 173 
 Columbus, 170 
 Comenius, John Amo8, 
 
 255 
 Communists, 415 
 Compactates, Basel, 63 
 Compromise, 121 
 Conception, immaculate, 
 
 378 
 Concord, Wittenberg, 83 
 
 Form of, 138 
 
 Condö, 122 
 
 Louisa de, 380 
 
 Confessio Augustana, 
 
 (Augsburg), 74 
 
 Belsica, 121 
 
 GaUicana, 122 
 
 Hafnica, 117 
 
 Helvetica, I., 88 
 
 " IL, 113 
 
 Hungarica, 126 
 
 Marchica, 188 
 
 Saxonica, 103 
 
 Scotica, 121 
 
 Sigismundi, 183 
 
 Tetrapolitana, 75 
 
 ofWiirtemburg, 103 
 
 Conference of Eisenach, 
 
 316, 319 
 
 Evangelical, 316 
 
 of Rcichenbach,3l7 
 
 Confederation, 314 
 Confutation of the Augs- 
 burg Conf., 75 
 Congregatiode auxil.167 
 
 de propag. fidei, 
 
 187 
 
 Congregationalists, 120, 
 
 348 
 Conscientiarii, 226 
 Consensus Genev. et Ti- 
 
 gurin, 113 
 Sendomir, 124 
 
 repetitus, 198 
 
 Consistories, 141 
 Constance, 107 
 Contarini, 89, 128 
 Contraremonstranf?-, 211
 
 458 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Converts to Eomanism, 
 177, 231, 880 
 
 Convocation, London, 120 
 
 Cop, Nicholas, 111 
 
 Copenhagen, diet of, 117 
 
 Copernicus, 299 
 
 Coquerel, 344 
 
 Cornelius a Lapide, 198 
 
 tlie painter, 305 
 
 Corpus Catli. et Evang., 
 109 
 
 doctr. Pruthen.,134 
 
 Corviuus, 142 
 
 Cossart, 194 
 
 Costa, 342 
 
 Coster, 168 
 
 Coudrin, 386 
 
 Cour, Didier de la, 186 
 
 Courland, 118 
 
 Covenant, 184 
 
 Cowper, 292 
 
 Cramer, 289 
 
 Cranach, Louis, 142 
 
 Cranmer, 119 
 
 Crasselius, 248 
 
 Credner, K. A., 358, 371 
 
 Crell, J., KiO 
 
 Nicholas, 139 
 
 Creuger, 300 
 
 Critici, sacra, 214 
 
 Cromwell, 184 
 
 Cruciger, 102 
 
 Criiger, Crusius William, 
 359 
 
 Crusius, Martin, 129 
 
 Chr. Augustus, 281 
 
 Culling, Eardley, 314 
 
 Cunseus, 215 
 
 Cuvier, 298 
 
 Cyprian, Solomon Er- 
 nest, 245, 268 
 
 Czetiger, council at, 126 
 
 Czersky, 383 
 
 Dach, Simon, 193, 205 
 Daill6, 212, 216 
 Daniel, 319 
 Dannecker, 305 
 Dannenniayer. 237 
 Dannliauer, 201 
 Dantzic, 124 
 Danz, 360 
 Darby, 412 
 Daub, 363 
 Daumer, 381 
 ;>avid, Christian, 252 
 
 David, Sultan, 171 
 
 Davy, 298 
 
 Deaconess Institute of 
 Kaisersw., 322 
 
 Decius, Nicholas, 143 
 
 Decker, 145 
 
 Deism. 225, 278 
 
 Delitsch, 317, 374 
 
 Demetrius, Pseudo, 175 
 
 Deuck, 158 
 
 Denecke, 202 
 
 Denicke, 205 
 
 Denmark, 116, 117, 342 
 
 Dentzinger, 390 
 
 Dernbach,Baltb.v.,173 
 
 Descartes, 212, 223 
 
 Deseret, (Territory of), 
 413 
 
 Dessau Conference, 52 
 
 Dessler, 248 
 
 Deutinger, 390 
 
 Deutschmann, 241 
 
 De Valenti, 299, 322 
 
 Devay, 126 
 
 De Wette, 858 
 
 Deyling, 245 
 
 Diaz, 95 
 
 Diderot, 236 
 
 Didier de la Cour, 186 
 
 Didymus, Gabriel, 42 
 
 Dieckhoff, 317, 373 
 
 Diepenbrock, 302 
 
 Dieriiiger, 390 
 
 Diestel, 408 
 
 Diesterweg, 304 
 
 Dietenberger, 168 
 
 Dietrich, 145 
 
 Veit, 142 
 
 Dinter, 304 
 
 Dippel, 272 
 
 Disputation at Baden, 65 
 
 Basel, 63 
 
 Berne, 65 
 
 Leipsic, 35 
 
 Zurich, 62 
 
 Dissenters, 120 
 
 Dober, Leonard, 247, 
 260, 266 
 
 Döderlein of Jena, 284 
 
 Dodwell, 216 
 
 Döllinger, 300, 891 
 
 Donienichius (the pain- 
 ter), 169 
 
 Dominicans, 49, 188 
 
 Dominus uc red., 233 
 
 Döring, 302 
 
 Dorner, 368 
 Dornum, Ulric v., 56 
 Dorpat, 374 
 Dort, Synod of, 211 
 Drechsler, 374 
 Dreckmeyer, Henry, 182 
 Dresden Miss. Society, 
 
 324 
 Drese, Adam, 207, 249 
 Drey, 390 
 
 Droste-Hülshof, 302 
 Vischering, 387, 
 
 401 
 Drummond, 409 
 Drusius, 214 
 Dubois, 232 
 Duchoborzens, 239 
 Dumpier, 315 
 Dunin, Archbishop, 402 
 Dürer, A., 142 
 Düsseldorf school of 
 
 painting, 805 
 Düsselthal, 304 
 Duvergier, 191 
 
 East India Missions, 
 170,230,251,266,825 
 
 Ebel. 408 
 
 Ebeling, 208 
 
 Eber, Paul, 102, 142 
 
 Eberhard, 280, 283 
 
 Eberlin, of Günzb., 49 
 
 Ebrard, 318, 338. 367 
 
 Eck, 34, 35, 38, 65, 75, 
 89, 168. 
 
 Eccart, 145 
 
 Edelmann, 278 
 
 Edward VI., 119 
 
 Egede, Hans, 252 
 
 Egidius, Juan, 127 
 
 Egypt, 171 
 
 Eichhorn, J. G., 283 
 
 preacher, 333 
 
 Eichsfeld, 173 
 
 Eisenach Conference, 316 
 
 Eisenmeyer, 215 
 
 Elia, Paul, 119 
 
 Elizabeth of Branden- 
 burg, 58 
 
 of Calenberg, 87 
 
 Eller, Elias, 274 
 
 Eliot, John, 217 
 
 Eltester, 371 
 
 Elvenich, 387, 388 
 
 Elzevir, 214 
 
 Emancipation bill, S96
 
 INDEX. 
 
 459 
 
 Emilie, Julianna, 248 
 Emmerich, Catharine, 
 
 381 
 Ems Punctuation, 234 
 Emser, Jerome, 40, 168 
 Encyclopedists, 236 
 Enfantin, 415 
 Engelbrechtsen, 118 
 England, 119, 338, 396 
 English ladies, the, 187 
 Engstfeld, 302 
 Ennemoser, 299 
 Enzina, 127 
 Episcopal system, 246 
 Episcopius, 210 
 Erasmus, 38, 46 
 Erbkam, 329 
 Erich of Calenberg, 96 
 Ernesti, 281 
 Ernestine Bible, 209 
 Ernest the Pious, 209 
 Ernest of Lüneberg, 52 
 Esch, John, 58 
 Eschatology, 244 
 Espinasse, 345 
 Esthonia, 118 
 Estius, 168 
 Euler, 284 
 Evangelical Alliance, 31 3 
 
 for Germany, 314 
 
 Church diet, 314 
 
 Church party, Eng- 
 land. 339 
 Evi\ngelist schools, 322 
 Ewald, H., 350, 371 
 
 Miss, among «the 
 
 Jew.s, 325 
 Eyth, 304 
 
 Fabkr, John, 65, 75 
 
 ■ Peter, 163 
 
 Fagius, 119 
 Faniilists, 156 
 Fanatics in Germany, 
 
 270 
 Fare), 64, 109-10 
 Fathers of the oratory 
 
 of Jesus, 186 
 Febronius, 137 
 Fecht, 241 
 
 Federal theology, 213 
 Feine, 252 
 F^n^lon, 190 
 Ferdinand I., 50,51,82, 
 
 89, 125, 126, 172 
 II., 173, 177 
 
 Ferdinand IV. (I.) of 
 
 Naples, 377 
 Ferrara, Renata de, 
 
 127 
 Feuerbach, 296, 364 
 Feuillants, 166 
 Fichte, 286, 295 
 Fink, Solomon, 182 
 Finkenstein, 408 
 Finidand, 117 
 Firmiau, Count, Archb., 
 
 230 
 Fischart, 147 
 Fischer, 297 
 Fisher, Bishop, 119 
 Flacius, M., 132, 136, 
 
 146 
 Flatt, J. Fr. v., 360 
 Flechier, 194 
 Flemming. Paul, 205 
 Flemingians. 218 
 Fletcher, .267 
 Fleury, 193, 232 
 Fliedner, 232, 322 
 Florencourt, F. v., 881 
 Flvsteden, 58 
 Forbes, Bishop, 341 
 Formula Concordise, 138 
 
 Consens. Helv.,212 
 
 Förster, 146 
 Fouque, M. de la, 300 
 Fourier, 416 
 Fox, George, 219 
 France, 122, 178, 233, 
 
 344, 395 
 Francis I. II. of France, 
 
 82 
 Francis of Paris, 232 
 Franciscans, 49 
 Franck, John, 206 
 
 Sebastian, 156 
 
 Francke, Aug. Hermann, 
 
 199, 244, 250, 279 
 
 Henry, 251 
 
 Frankfort suspension, 85 
 Fransoni, 393 
 Frederick I. of Prussia, 
 
 215 
 II., 234, 279, 280 
 
 III., 280. 310 
 
 William IV., 311, 
 
 327, 402 
 
 IL, III., IV. of the 
 
 Palatinate, 89, 95,151, 
 152 
 
 I. of Denmark, 117 
 
 Frederick Ansustus the 
 
 Strong, 18Ö' 
 the Magnanimous, 
 
 78 
 
 the Wise, 35 
 
 William of Bran- 
 
 denb., 183 
 Free Congregations, 308 
 
 Church of Sco* 
 
 land, 341 
 
 Ch. of Vaud, 334 
 
 Freemasons, 277 
 Freethinkers, 225, 279 
 Freiligrath, 301 
 Freilinsbausen, 248,249, 
 
 250 ^' 
 French Convention, 235, 
 
 236 
 
 Directory, 235 
 
 Evangel. Soc, 322 
 
 National Ass., 235 
 
 Reformed Ch., 344 
 
 Revolution, 235 
 
 Fresne, du, 194 
 Freundsberg, 71 
 Freybufg, 64' 
 Friedenstein, convention 
 
 at, 52 
 Friends (Quakers), 220 
 
 of Light, 308 
 
 Fries, 295, 342, 356 
 
 Friesland, 124 
 
 Frith, 119 
 
 Fritsch, Ahasuerus, 203 
 
 Fritsche, K. Fr. A., 858 
 
 0. F., 360 
 
 Froment, Antl^pny, 110 
 Fröreisen, 257 
 Fry, Elizabeth, 322 
 Fulda, 173 
 Funk, John, 134 
 
 Gabler, Tti. A., 288 
 
 Andrew, 364 
 
 Gabriel, Didymus, 42 
 Gsetano de Thifene, 165 
 Galenists, 218 
 Galenus de Ha3n, 218 
 Gall, St., 64, 65, 66 
 Galle, 117 
 
 Gallican Church, libertj 
 
 of, 185 
 Gallitzin, 289 
 Garve, Ciirist., 280 
 
 K. B., 302 
 
 Gass, 371
 
 460 
 
 INDEX, 
 
 Grassner, 236 
 
 Gebhard of Coloäue,109, 
 174 
 
 Geffken, 320 
 
 Geibel, 302 
 
 Geier. 200 
 
 Geissei, 388 
 
 Geliert, 287, 290 
 
 General Synod, Prus- 
 sian, 327 
 
 Baptists, 219 
 
 Geneva, (Consensus of, 
 
 110, 112, 113 
 
 Evang. Society of, 
 
 345 
 
 Reformed Church, 
 
 334 
 
 Gentilis, Val., 159 
 George of Anhalt, 79 
 
 of Brandbg., 58, 74 
 
 of Saxony, 36, 57, 
 
 85 
 Gerhard, John, 200, 203 
 Gerhardt, Paul, 183. 206 
 Gerike. John, 183 
 
 Paul, 125 
 
 Gerlach, Ludwig, 307, 
 
 376 
 Otto, v., 323 
 
 Stephen, 129 
 
 St. Germain, Peace of, 
 
 122 
 German Philosophy, 286 
 
 Catholic Church, 
 
 384 
 
 Gervinns, 371 
 Gesenius, Justin, 205 
 Gfrörer,'300, 381 
 Gichtel, John, 204, 221 
 Gieseler, 360, 371 
 Giessen, 182, 332 
 Gil (Egidius), Juan, 127 
 Gildermeister, 383 
 Glapio, 39 
 Glarus, 64 
 Glassius, 200 
 Glaubrecht, 0,, 303 
 Gobat, 325 
 Göbel, 318 
 Gobet, 236 
 Godeau, 193 
 Gomarus, 210 
 Goodwin, 215 
 Gorham, 340 
 Görres, Guido, 300, 302 
 
 Joseph, 382 
 
 Göschel, 296, 298, 316, 
 
 363, 364. 375 
 Göschen, 299 
 Gossner, 324, 326, 381 
 Goethe, 287, 300 
 Gotter, A., 248 
 Gotteskasten, 312 
 Gotthelf, Jeremiah, 303 
 
 Gottingen, 56 
 
 Götze, 285 
 Grabau, pastor, 351 
 Granvella, 89 
 Gi'as, Louisa le, 186 
 Gratias, Ort, 35 
 Graumaun, 143 
 Grebel, Conrad, 65 
 Greece, 403, 404 
 Greeks, United, 174, 404 
 Greenland, 252, 324 
 Gregory XIII., 123, 162, 
 
 174 
 
 XV., 185, 188 
 
 XVI., 378 
 
 Christian, 264 
 
 Grimm, William, 360 
 Griesbach, 282 
 Gröiiinger, 342 
 Groot, Hofstede de, 342 
 Gropper, 89, 92 
 Grotius, 200, 215 
 Gruber, E. L , 271 
 Grubetdiagen, 53 
 Grumbach, A. v., 50 
 Gruntvig, pastor, 342 
 Grüneisen, 319, 320 
 Grynaeus, Simon, 82 
 Guantalla, Countess de, 
 
 166 
 Guericke, 308, 316, 372 
 Guido, Reni, 169 
 Guise, 121, 122 
 Guizot, 344 
 Günther, Anthony, 388 
 
 Cyriacus, 2Ö7 
 
 Günzburg, Eberlin of, 49 
 Gustavus Adolph us slain, 
 
 177 
 
 Society, 312 
 
 Güterslok, 304 
 Gützlaif. 326 
 Gutzkow, 353 
 Guyon, Mad., 190, 270 
 Gymnasia, 304 
 
 Haag, 334 
 
 Haas, Joseph, 406 
 
 Hadrian IL, 49 
 Hagenau, 88, 89 
 Hagenbach, C. R., 367 
 Hahn, Aug., 307, 361 
 
 Michael, 290 
 
 Missionary, 325 
 
 Hahnenfeld, G. v., 408 
 Hahn-Hahn, Ida, 380 
 Hakspan, 200 
 Haidane, 275 
 Haldanites, 275 
 
 Orphan House, 250 
 
 University of, 190, 
 
 191 
 
 Haller, Berthold, 64, 65 
 
 Albert, 284, 298 
 
 Lewis, 298, 380 
 
 Halt, 284 
 Hamann, 288 
 Hamburg, 56, 137 
 Hamilton, Patrick, 120 
 Hammerschmidt, 208 
 Hanau, 332 
 
 Händel, 250 
 Hänlein, 283 
 Hanover, 330 
 Hardenberg, 137, 152 
 Harless, 317, 330, 337, 
 
 373 
 Harms, Claus, 317, 372 
 Harnack, Theodosius, 
 
 317, 373 
 Hase, Charles, 307, 356, 
 
 371 
 Hasenkamp, 291 
 Hivsenptiug, 33z 
 Hassler, Leo, 145 
 Hattemisten, 276 
 Hauber, 320 
 Haug, 271 
 
 Hauge, Niels. 292, 343 
 Hausmann, Nicholas, 79 
 Iläveruick, 363 
 Haydn, 305 
 Ihiynau, 336 
 Heart of Jesus, "worship 
 
 of, 229 
 Hebel, 288, 303 
 Heber, Bishop, 326 
 Hedinger, 271 
 Hedio, Caspar, 63 
 Heermann, J., 205 
 Hefele, 391 
 Hegel. 296, 298 
 Hezelians, Young, 297 
 Heidanus, 216
 
 INDEX. 
 
 461 
 
 Heidegger, 212, 216 
 Heidelberg Catechism, 
 
 151, 152 
 Hejdeloif, 304 
 Heim, J., 64 
 Heine, Henry, 301, 415 
 Heinrichs, 283 
 Held, H,, 205 
 
 Vice-Chancellor,84 
 
 Heldins. Miciiael, 100 
 Helmbold, 144 
 Helmstädt, 198 
 Helsen, 383 
 Helvetic Confession, I., 
 
 83 
 Helvetius, 236 
 Hengstenberg, 307, 315, 
 
 323, 329, 3iJ0 
 Henhöfer, 381 
 Henke, 283 
 Henkel, 332 
 Henry VIII. of England, 
 46, 60, 119 
 
 III. (of Anjou) of 
 
 France, 124, 125 
 
 IV. of France, 123, 
 
 124 
 
 of Brunswick, 52, 
 
 92, 95 
 
 of Ketterback, 49 
 
 of Saxony, 86 
 
 Henschen, 194 
 Hensel, Louisa, 302 
 Heppe (of Marburg), 
 
 318, 309 
 Herbart (of Königsberg). 
 
 297 
 Herberger, 144, 203 
 Herbert, E'lward, 225 
 Herbst, 186 
 Herder, 285 
 Hermann, Nicholas, 144 
 
 of Wied, Elector, 
 
 80, 92 
 Hermannsberg, 325 
 Hermes, 387 
 Hermits of the Min. Br., 
 
 166 
 Herrnschmidt, 248 
 Herweah, 301 
 Hess, John Jacob, 285 
 Hessen, 182, 285, 332, 
 
 399 
 Hesseis, 167 
 Hesshus, 151, 152 
 Hetairia, the Greek, 402 
 
 82* 
 
 Hetzer, 65. 158 
 Heubner, 360 
 Heusenstaur, Sebastian 
 
 of, 95 
 Heyling, Peter (Mission- 
 ary), 209 
 Hezel, J. W. F. (of Dor- 
 pat), 282 
 Hicks. Elias, 220 
 High-Churchmen, 339 
 Hildesheim, 174 
 Hilgenfeld, 365, 366 
 HiUe, J. G., 249 
 Hiller, 249 
 Himioben, 385 
 Hintze, Jacob, 208 
 Hippel, 289 
 
 Hirschberger Bible, 251 
 Hirscher. 382, 387 
 Hitzig, 359, 374 
 Hobbes, 225 
 Hochmann. 270 
 Hoe V. Hoenegg, 183 
 Hofacker, 275 
 Hoifmau, Älelchior, 118 
 
 in Riesen, 333 
 
 Fr., 388 
 
 Hof mann, 317, 374 
 Hofmeister, 64 
 Höfling, 317, 373 
 Hofstede de Groot, 342 
 Hohenlope, 381 
 Hnlbach, 236 
 Holbein, 142 
 Holland s. Netherlands. 
 Holleaz, 245 
 Hollenberg, 366 
 Holstensius, 194 
 Holy League, 83 
 Homburg, 55 
 
 Christ., 206 
 
 Home Missions, 320, 322 
 
 Congress for, 321 
 
 Honter, Jacob, 126 
 Hontlieim, 234 
 Hoogstraten, 14 
 Hooper, John, 411 
 Hoornbeck, 215, 216 
 Höpfner, 183 
 Horch, G., 276 
 Horneius, 201 
 Hospital, L', 122 
 Hottinger, 214 
 Houbigant, 238 
 Huber, Samuel, 140 
 Hübmeiei*, 64, 65 
 
 Huetius, 193 
 Hufnagel, 283 
 Hug, L., 387 
 Huguenots, 122 
 .Hüglin. 58 
 Hugo, Victor, 302 
 Hülsemann, 180, 196 
 Hulsius, 216 
 Humanists, 35, 127 
 Humboldt, Alex, v., 299 
 Hume, 278 
 Hundeshagen, 367 
 Hunnius, Algid., 140 
 
 Nicholas, 201 
 
 Ulric. 193 
 
 Hurter, 299, 300, 380 
 
 Huschke, 317 
 
 Husites, Bohemian, 36, 
 
 125 
 Huther, 370 
 Hütten, Ulric V., 35, 36, 
 
 37, 64 
 Hutter, L., 183, 200 
 Hymnology, 142, 289 
 Hyperius, 150, 182, 225 
 Hypocrites (sect of), 408 
 
 Iceland, 118 
 Illgen, 360 
 lUuminati, 236, 91 
 Illumination, 235, 277 
 Immaculate Conception, 
 
 378 
 Impostores, tres, 159 
 Independent, 120, 348 
 Index Prohibitarum,162 
 Indulgences, 32 
 Infants, Asylum for, 332 
 Infralapsarians, 210 
 Ingolstadt, 173 
 Innocent X. XI. XH. 185 
 Inspired, the, 271 
 Interim, 100, 101 
 Ireland, 128, 339, 396 
 Irving. Edward, 409 
 Isabella of Spain, 393-4 
 
 Zapovla, 126 
 
 Isenbiehl, 237 
 Isenburg, 325 
 Israelites, New, 406 
 Italy, 127-8, 345, 392 
 Itinerants, French, 322 
 Ittig, 201 
 
 J.\BLONSKY, 256 
 
 Jacob III. of Baden, 180
 
 462 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Jacobi, Fr. H., 288 
 Jacoby, 350 
 Jacobson, 299 
 Jahn, Gustavus, 302,303 
 
 John. 238 
 
 James I. II. of England, 
 
 156, 179, 184, 238 
 Janike, 32'4 
 Janow, Matthias of, 86 
 Jansen, Cornelius. 191 
 Jauseuists, 191, 231 
 Japan, 326 
 Jarcke, 380 
 Jay, Le, 192 
 Jean, Paul, 288 
 Jedinowerzen, 221 
 Jena, University of, 133, 
 
 198, 332 
 Jeremiah II., Patriarch, 
 
 129 
 Jerusalem, F. W., 283 
 
 Evang., spe of, 325 
 
 New, Church, 407 
 
 Jesuits, 168, 172, 379 
 
 Order abolished, 
 
 233 
 
 restored, 377 
 
 Jews in England, 340 
 Joachim I. of Brandb., 
 58 
 
 II., 90, 100 
 
 John III. of Portugal, 
 228 
 
 v., of Port., 90, 100 
 
 . George of Anhalt- 
 Dessau, 152 
 
 Casimir, 152 
 
 de Die, 166 
 
 Elector, 78 
 
 Ernest, 152 
 
 Frederick of Sax- 
 ony, 78 
 
 of the Cross, 166 
 
 of Leyden, 157 
 
 Presbyter, 77 
 
 Sigismund, 182 
 
 Jonas of Berlin, 371 
 
 Justus, 40, 72, 74, 
 
 76, 142 
 Jones, David, 325 
 Jörg, E., 299, 382 
 Joris, D., 156, 157 
 Joseph I. of Austria, 228, 
 379 
 
 II. of Aust. 234.238 
 
 Juda, Leo, 63, 83, 150 
 
 Juliana of Rudolst., 248 
 Julian de Medici, 50 
 Jüliers-Cleve-Berg, 178 
 Julius III., 162 
 Jumpers, 275 
 Jung-Stilling, 288 
 Junius, Francis, 150 
 .Jus circa sacra, 228 
 Jiiterbock, 34 
 Juvenile asylums, 321 
 
 Kadan, Peace of, 78 
 Kahnis, 317, 373 
 Kaiserswerth, 322 
 Karg Controversy, 138 
 Käser, 58 
 Kaulbach, 805 
 Keerl. 323 
 Keil, 375 
 Keith, G., 219 
 Keller, 399 
 Kellner, 311 
 Kempen, Stephen, 49 
 Kepler, 298 
 Kerner, Justin, 310 
 Kessler, 43, 64 
 Kettelar, Baron v., 399 
 Kettenbach, 49 
 Kettler, Gotth., 118 
 Keymaun, 206 
 Keyser, Jacob, 67 
 Kirschenhardhof, 388 
 Kiebitz, 137, 151 
 Klee, 390 
 Kleuze, 304 
 Kleuker, 284 
 Kliefoth, 817, 319, 320, 
 
 378 
 Klopstock, 287, 289 
 Kluge, 323 
 Knack, G., 302 
 Knapp, Alb., 195, 302, 
 
 319 
 
 G. Chr., 284 
 
 Kneeling Order, 336 
 Knipperdolling, 81 
 Knobel, 359, 371 
 Knöpken, 118 
 Knuw-Nothings, 348 
 Knox, 121 
 Knutzen, 226 
 Kocher, 320 
 Kodde, 219 
 Kohlbrügge, 319 
 Kohler, Gabr., 273 
 Kolb, Fr., 64 
 
 Kolping, 386 
 König, 201 
 Königsberg, 198 
 Knppe, 283 
 
 Koppen, Albert, 284, 41i 
 Kornthal, 332 
 Kortholt, 201 
 Kottwitz, 360 
 Krabbe, 0., 817, 373 
 Kraift, 336 
 Krapf, 325 
 Krause, 371 
 Krauth, 350 
 Krechting, 81 
 Kreuser, 385 
 Krüdener, 309, 334 
 Krummacher, Fr. Ad . 
 
 01 g 
 
 Fr. W., 314, 318 
 
 G. D., 318 
 
 Kugelmann, 145 
 Kuhlmaitfi, 221 
 Kuhn, 390 
 
 Labadie, 220 
 Labbie, 193 
 Labrador, 324 
 La Combe, 190 
 Ladenberg, 328 
 Ladies, English, 187 
 Lainez, 122, 163 
 Lamartine, 302 
 Lambert of Avignon, 49 
 
 55, 62 
 Lamennais, 382 
 Lämmer, Hugo, 381 
 Lamniists, 218 
 Lampe, Fred. Ad., 269 
 Lamy, 193 
 Lancelot, 201 
 Langbecker, 183 
 Lange. John P., 302,367 
 
 Joachim, 244, 248 
 
 Lankisch, 200 
 Lapland, 148, 824 
 Lardner, 278 
 Läsare, 342 
 
 Lasco, John ä, 119, 124 
 Latitudinarians, 211 
 Latter-day Saints, 412 
 Laufen, 78 
 L.aurentii, 207 
 Lavater, 285, 288 
 Layritz, 319, 320 
 Lazarists, 186 
 Lazaro, St., 229
 
 INDEX, 
 
 463 
 
 Leade, Jane, 220 
 League, Holy, 83, 123 
 Lee, A.. 276 
 Legacy bill, 269, 395 
 Lehmus, 248 
 Lehr, Fr., 248 
 Leibnitz, 181, 223 
 Leipsic Interim, 135 
 
 Gen. Convoc, 383 
 
 Relig. Confer., 183 
 
 Leland, J., 269, 278 
 Lemgo, 80, 182 
 Lenau, Nicholas, 302 
 Lengerke, 360 
 Leo X., 32, 38, 39 
 
 XII.. 377 
 
 Henry. 300 
 
 Leopold I., 181 
 
 of Tuscany, 235 
 
 Lepp, 300 
 
 Less, 284 
 
 Lessing. Ephr., 282 
 
 Charles Fr., 287, 
 
 305 
 Lestrange, Henry de, 380 
 Letters of Mnjesty, 125 
 Lewis V. of Hessen. 182 
 
 of Hungary, 126 
 
 VI. of the Palat., 
 
 152 
 Leydecker, 216 
 Leyden, John of, 157 
 Leyser, Polyc, 146, 183 
 Liberia, 325 
 Libertinism, 376 
 Liebig, 299 
 Liebner, 368 
 Light, Friends of, 308 
 Lightfoot, 214 
 Liguarian.s, 229, 379 
 Lilienthal, 284 
 Lindanus, William, 168 
 Lindberg, 342 
 Lippe, the principality, 
 
 182, 332 
 Lisco, 323 
 Liturgy, Prussian, 320 
 
 early Lutheran, 142 
 
 Livonia, 118, 177,263,346 
 
 Lobwasser, 149 
 
 Loci Communes, 43 
 
 Locke, 223, 278 
 
 Löffler, 283 
 
 Lohe, W., 317, 322, 337, 
 
 350, 373 
 Lohnmüller, 118 
 
 Lola Montes, 337 
 
 Long, Le, 238 
 
 Löscher, 241, 244, 248, 
 256 
 
 Louis XIII. of France, 
 178 
 
 XIV., 178, 185, 
 
 188, 232, 235 
 
 XV., XVL, 231 
 
 Louisa Henr. of Orange, 
 184, 217 
 
 Low Church party, 339 
 
 Löwenstern, 205 
 
 Loyola, 163, 185 
 
 Lubben, 184 
 
 Lübeck, 56 
 
 Lübker, 300 
 
 Lucaris, 176 
 
 Lücke, 367 
 
 Ludämilie Elisab., 206 
 
 Lüde, 273 
 
 Ludwig, 333 
 
 Luft, Hans. 60 
 
 Lüneberg, 54 
 
 Luther, 32, etc., 54, 143, 
 etc. 
 
 Lutheran theology, 224 
 
 Lutherans, sep. Prus- 
 sian, 116-17 
 
 Luthardt, 374 
 
 Lütkens, provost, 268 
 
 Lutterbeck, 388 
 
 Lucerne, 64 
 
 Lyons, 38 
 
 Union Society, 386 
 
 Mabillon, 194 
 
 Madagascar, 325 
 Madai, 346 
 Magdeburg, 53, 56 
 
 centuries, 147 
 
 Magnus of Mecklenb., 87 
 Maier, A., 391 
 Maintenon, 190 
 Maistre, J. de, 382 
 Major, G., 95, 135 
 Majorist Conti-oversy, 
 
 135 
 Makowsky, 215 
 Malacani, 239 
 Malachi's, St., prophecy, 
 
 162 
 jNIaldonatus, John, 162 
 Malvenda, 89. 95 
 Mandeville, 278 
 Mansi, 238 
 
 Mantua, Council of, 83 
 Manuel, Nicholas, 64, 
 
 147 
 Manz, Fei., 65 
 Marburg Colloquy, 72 
 
 university of, 55 
 
 Marca, P. de, 194 
 Marck, J., 159 
 Maresius, 212, 215 
 Marezoll, 283 
 Margaret of Parma. 121 
 
 of the Saal, 88 
 
 Marheineke, 296, 364 
 Mariana, John, 165, 166 
 Marloratus, 150 
 Marot, Clement, 149 
 Marsay, 271 
 Marsden, 326 
 Martham, 215 
 iMartene, 194 
 Martensen, 369 
 Martianay, 238 
 Martin, St., 238 
 Martin institut., 322 
 Martinuzzi, 126 
 Martyr, Peter, 150 
 Marx, 42 
 Mary of England, 119 
 
 Stuart, 121, 184 
 
 Masch, of Halle, 238 
 Massacre, the Irish, 179 
 
 of Stockholm, 115 
 
 of Thorn, 230 
 
 Massilon, 194 
 Matthias, Emp., 177 
 Mathys. 80, 81 
 Mathesus, 142, 144 
 Matthew, father, 396 
 Maulbroun formula, 13S 
 Maurice of Hessen, 182, 
 
 217 
 
 of Orange, 121 
 
 of Saxony, 90, 97 
 
 TNIaurines, 186 
 Mauritius, 325 
 Maximilian II., Emp., 
 
 125, 126, 172 
 
 I. of Bavaria, 174 
 
 king, 337 
 
 Mayence, 38, 173 
 Mayer, Frederick, 24? 
 Maynooth Bill, 396 
 Measures, new, 349 
 Mechitarists, 228 
 Mecklenburg, 87, 331 
 Schwerin, 402
 
 464 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Megerle, 194 
 
 Meissen, 91 
 
 Mejer, 299, 373 
 
 Mekbitar, 228 
 
 Melancbthon, 36, 72, 
 134, 136, etc. 
 
 Melaiichthouian Church, 
 318 
 
 Melaiichthon and Cal- 
 vinism, 318 
 
 Mellisander (Briene- 
 mann), 144 
 
 Mendelsohn, 280 
 
 Barthold, 305 
 
 Mendez, 175 
 
 Menken, 291 
 
 Menno, Simon, 157 
 
 Mennonites, 157, 218 
 
 Menochins, 193 
 
 Mentjer, J.. 249 
 
 Balth., 197 
 
 Menzel, Adam, 300 
 
 Mercerus, 150 
 
 Mercv, Brothers of, 186 
 
 Sisters oF, 186 
 
 Merlean, Eleanor v., 270 
 
 Merle, d'Aubigne, 314 
 
 Merseburg. 50 
 
 Mesmer, 299 
 
 Messner, 366 
 
 Methodists, 267, 349 
 
 Mettrie (La), 236 
 
 Meyer, Fr. v., 299, 302 
 
 H. A. W., 370 
 
 Sebast., 64 
 
 MeyfFart, 205 
 
 Michaelis. J. D., 281 
 
 J. H., 245 
 
 Michelians, 237 
 
 Michl, 237 
 
 Miguel, Don, 394 
 
 Miltiz, 37 
 
 Milton, 217 
 
 Minorites, 166 
 
 Missionai'y Institute of 
 Hermansb., 324 
 
 Societies, 292, 323, 
 
 324, 384 
 
 Missions, Amer. Board 
 of, 324 
 
 heathen, 187 
 
 Priests of, 186 
 
 Missouri Synod (Luthe- 
 ran), 330, 350 
 
 Moderate Party, 338 
 
 Mogila, Peter, 176 
 
 Möhler, 390 
 
 Mokacz, battle of, 126 
 
 Molanus, 181 
 
 Moleschatt, 299 
 
 Molina, 167 
 
 Molinos, 180 
 
 Molitor, 388 
 
 Mollenhök, 81 
 
 Moller, M., 144 
 
 Momiers, 334 
 
 Momma, 215 
 
 Monads, 224 
 
 Moniteur, the, 345 
 
 Monod, 344 
 
 Montalte, L. de, 191 
 
 Montalto, Cardinal, 1G2 
 
 Montanus, Arias, 168 
 
 Montesquieu, 236 
 
 Montaubon, 150 
 
 Montpelier, 150 
 
 Moravians, 253, 256, 
 etc., 323 
 
 More, Sir Thomas, 119 
 
 Morelschiki, the, 222 
 
 Morinus, 192 
 
 Morlin, 134 
 
 Mormons, 412 
 
 ^lorrison, 326 
 
 Morrone, 89, 107 
 
 Mortara, 381 
 
 Morus, 284 
 
 Moser, J. J., 249, 251 
 
 Mosheim, '238, 245 
 
 Moulin, P. du, 212 
 
 Movers, 387 
 
 Moves, 302 
 
 Mozart, 305 
 
 Mucker, 408 
 
 Mühlberg, 91 
 
 Mühlenberg, 349 
 
 Mühlhausen, 45 
 
 JMühlheisen, 64 
 
 Mühler, 299 
 
 Müller. Adam, 380 
 
 H., 203 
 
 John V., 288 
 
 Julius, 368 
 
 Missionary, 326 
 
 Münchmeyer, 317 
 
 Mundt, Th., 415 
 
 Munich school of pain- 
 ters, 305 
 
 Münscher, 359 
 
 Munster, city of, 80, 81, 
 157, 174 
 
 Sebastian, 150 
 
 Münzer, 42, 44, 45, 65 
 Muratori, 238 
 Miirner, the, 47, 65, 141 
 Musaeus, John, 201 
 
 Simon, 152 
 
 jNlusculus, Andr., 138 
 
 AVolfg., 140 
 
 Music, 169, 239, 290, 
 
 305 
 Myconius (Mecum), 49 
 
 Oswald, 83 
 
 Mysos, Demetr., 129 
 Mysticism, German, 189, 
 
 202, 203 
 
 Nagelsbach, 300 
 Nantes, Edict of, 124, 
 
 178 
 Napoleon I., 231, 344, 
 
 376-7 
 
 IIL, 395 
 
 Nassau, 334 
 
 Nast, 351 
 
 Natalis, Alex., 193 
 
 Nathusius, Mary, 303 
 
 National Assem., French, 
 
 376 
 
 Convention, 235-6 
 
 Natives, 348 
 Natorp, 320 
 Naturalization, 225 
 Naumburg see, 91 
 Nauvoo, 412 
 Neander, Aug., 354, 360 
 
 Joachim, 21 7 
 
 Nebraska Bill, 348 
 Neobulus, 88 
 Neri, 166, 194 
 Netherlands, 126, 341, 
 
 396 
 
 Anabaptists, 218 
 
 Neuenberg, 67 
 Neumann, C, 269 
 Neumann, Caspar, 269 
 Neumark, G., 206 
 Neumeister, 241, 248 
 Nevin, J. W., 351 
 New Israelites, 406 
 
 Jerus. Church, 374 
 
 Zealand, 324 
 
 Newmann, 339, 340 
 
 Newton. 298 
 
 Nicole, 193 
 
 Nicolai Book-store, 280 
 
 Henry, 156 
 
 Philip, 144, 146
 
 INDEX. 
 
 465 
 
 Nicolai, St., Church, 183 
 Nidda, 89 
 Niedner, 388 
 Nienieyer, 283, 304 
 Nikon, patriarch, 221 
 Ninipstch, 59 
 Nismes, Edict of, 178 
 Nitsch, G., 251, 328 
 Nitschmann, D., 256, 261 
 Nitzsch, 320, 326, 368 
 Noailles, 231, 232, 390 
 Nobili, 170 
 Nobreya, Eman.,-171 
 Non-conformists, 184 
 Non-intrusiouists. 341 
 North America, 347, 396 
 Norway, 118, 252, 291, 
 
 343 
 Nö.<selt, 284 
 Note-books (music), 320 
 Novalis, 301 
 Nuremberg, 56 
 
 Diet, 49, 50 
 
 League, 88, 90 
 
 Relig. Peace, 77,82 
 
 Oates, Titus, 179-80 
 Oberlin, 288 
 Ochino, 119. 128, 166 
 O'Connell, 396 
 OdeDse, Diet of, 117 
 (Ecolampadius, 64, 65, 
 
 72. 150 
 (Erebro, 116 
 (Erstedt, 299 
 OErtel, Wrn., 303 
 (Etengerl, 274 
 Oiscliinger, 390 
 Oldeiibarnveld, 211 
 Oldenburg, 831 
 Olevian, Caspar, 151 
 Olevitanus, Rob.. 110 
 Olshausen, 362, 408 
 Oucken (of Hamburg), 
 
 405 
 Opitz, 205 
 Oratories, 194 
 Oratory, Fathers of, 166, 
 
 186 
 
 Priests of the, 165 
 
 Organs, 145 
 Orlamünde, 43-4 
 Osiander, 52, 92, 134, 
 
 197 
 Osiandrian controversy, 
 
 134 
 
 82* 
 
 Otterbein, 351 
 Ottheinrich, 92 
 Overbeck, 305 
 Owen, Robert, 407, 415 
 Oxford, 339 
 
 Pabst, J. H., 388, 389 
 
 Pachelbel, 209 
 
 Pack, 0., 57, 70 
 
 Paderborn, 80, 168 
 
 Paez, 1 75 
 
 Pagi, Anthony, 193 
 
 Pagniuus Sanctus, 167 
 
 Painting, 305 
 
 Pajon, 212 
 
 Palatinate, the, 91, 1Ö1, 
 
 177-8 
 Palestrina, 167 
 Papebroch, 194 
 Paracelsus, 156 
 Paraguay, 188, 230 
 Parallel formulary, 328 
 Paris polyglott, 192 
 Parma, 233 
 Parker, Theodore, 406 
 Particular Baptists, 219 
 Pascal, 191, 193. 233 
 Passau, treaty of, 105 
 Passavant, 299 
 Paul III., 83, 162 
 
 v., 167. 185 
 
 Jean, 288 
 
 Paula, Vincent de, 186 
 Paulus, Dr., 358 
 Pax dissident., 125 
 Pearson. 214 
 Peasants' war, 65 
 Peith, 389 
 Pellicanus, 150 
 Penn, William, 220 
 Peretti, Felix (Sixtus 
 
 v.), 102 
 Perkins (of Cambi'idge), 
 
 216 
 Perrone, 388 
 Pestalozzi, 289, 303 
 Pestavius, 193 
 Peter, Marg, 406 
 
 I. of Russia, 239 
 
 Petersen, J. W., 270 
 Peterson Brothers, 115 
 Petri, Adam, 317, 331 
 
 Olaus, 116 
 
 Petrowitsch, 239 
 Peucer, 137, 153 
 Peyrerius, 216 
 
 Pfaff, M., 245, 247, 268 
 
 Bible, the, 251 
 
 Pfeiferkorn, 248 
 I'feffingor, 136 
 Pfeitter, Auoustus, 200 
 Pfeil, L. v.,'249 
 Pfenninger, 285 
 Pflugk, Julius v., 89, 91, 
 
 95, 100 
 Philadelphia Society,22fl 
 Philip II. of Spain, 121, 
 
 127 
 
 of Anhalt, 79 
 
 of Hessen, 52, 78, 
 
 87, 88, 90, 182 
 Philippi, 317, 373, 374 
 Philippists. 132 
 Philipps, 299, 380 
 Philology, oriental, 214 
 Piarists, 186 
 Pick, Israel, 412 
 Picpus association. Pa« 
 
 ris, 386 
 Pideritz, 80 
 Piedmont, 178, 345 ■ 
 Pietism, 244 
 Pietistic controversy, 
 
 199, 241 
 Pilgrim Fathers, 348 
 Pin, du, 194 
 Pirstinger. 47, 168 
 Pischon, 371 
 Pistoja, Synod of, 229 
 Pitzipios of Scio, 404 
 Pius IV., 162 
 
 VI., 234, 235, 239 
 
 VII. VIII. IX., 877 
 
 378 
 
 Societie, 384 
 
 Place, La(Placa;us), 212 
 Planck, 284, 360 
 Plater, Th., 64, 65 
 Plainer, 280 
 Platon. 239 
 Plettenberg, 118 
 Pliitschau, 251 
 Plymouth Brethren (Dar- 
 
 byites), 412 
 Pocci, 302 
 Pococke, 214 
 Podiebrad, 56. 270 
 Poirct, P., 190. 220 
 Poissy. Rel. Conf at, 122 
 Pole, Matth.. 214 
 Poliander. 144 
 Polozk, Synod of, 403
 
 466 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Poliis, Reginald, 128 
 Polyglott Bibles, 168, 
 
 191, 214 
 Poinare, 326 
 Pombal, 233 
 Pomerania, 79 
 Pontian v. Hatten, 276 
 Pordage, 220 
 Porst, J., 251 
 Port Royal, 191 
 Portugal, 233, 394 
 Pösclil, 40Ö 
 Possevin, 116, 174 
 Pott, Gebr., 271 
 
 Jul, 283 
 
 Praeceptor Germ., 36 
 Praetorius, Jacob, 146 
 
 Jerome, 145 
 
 Stephen, 203 
 
 Pratt, Orson, 413 
 Prayer-meetings, 323 
 Pregeziani, 291 
 Presbyterians, 120, 348 
 Prierias, 34 
 Priestly, 406 
 Probabilism, 165 
 Professi, l(j4 
 Professio fid. Trid., 167 
 Prokopowicz, 239 
 Proli, 407 
 Propaganda, 188 
 Protestants, 71 
 Protestant Friends, 308 
 Proudlion, 416 
 Province of the Upper 
 
 Rhine, 399 
 Prussia, 56, 327, 401 
 Prussian General Synod, 
 
 327 
 Publication Society of 
 
 Caleo, 322 
 Puchta. 299 
 Pufendorf, Samuel, 247 
 Purists, 200 
 Puritans, 120, 218 
 Pusey, 340 
 Puseyites, 339 
 
 Quakers, 218, 219 
 Quedlinburg, 80 
 Quenstedt, 201 
 Quesnel, 231 
 Quietists, 189 
 
 Radama, R., 325 
 Rahtmann, 203 
 
 Racov Catechism, 160 
 Rarabach, J. J.,248, 25» 
 Ranavalona, 325 
 Ranc6, 186 
 Rapp, G., 407 
 Rapperschwyl, 68 
 Raskolniken, 221 
 Rationalism, 277, 307, 
 
 357 
 Raumer, 298, 304, 319 
 Ravaillac, 124 
 Readers, 343 
 Rechenberg, 201 
 Recke, Volmarstein, 
 
 Count, 321 
 Redemptorists (Liqua- 
 
 rians), 229, 379 
 Redwitz, 0., 302 
 Reformed Ch. Societies, 
 
 324 
 Refugi^s, 178 
 Regensburg CoUoq., 89, 
 
 95 
 
 Confeder., 57 
 
 Convent., 51 
 
 Diet, 77, 89 
 
 Interim, 90 
 
 Reformation of, 92 
 
 Regulations, Prussian, 
 
 304 
 ReichenbachConference, 
 
 817 
 Reichlin-Meldegg, 387 
 Reimarus, 282 
 Reinbeck, 246 
 Reinhard, Martin, 117 
 Fr. Volkm., 284, 
 
 366 
 Reinke, 391 
 Reland, 269 
 Remonstrants, 211 
 Renata of Ferrara, 111, 
 
 127 
 Renatus, Chr., 265 
 Repeal association, 396 
 Reservations, eccles. 108* 
 Restitution, Edict of, 177 
 Reuchlin, 36 
 Reumann, 206 
 »Reuss, Edw., 370 
 
 G., 249 
 
 Reussner, 144 
 Reuter, 366 
 Revivals, 347 
 Reybaud, 415 
 Rhaw, G., 145 
 
 Rhegius, Urb., 50 
 Reinthal, 68 
 Rheinthaler, 322 
 Rheinwald, 357, 366 
 Rheitmayer, 391 
 
 Rhynsburger, 219 
 
 Ricci, Lor., 233 
 
 Watth., 170 
 
 Scipio, 235 
 
 Richelieu, 178 
 
 Richter, Chr. Fr., 248-8 
 
 Fr., 364 
 
 Gregory, 204 
 
 in Barmen. 323 
 
 Ludw. A., 299 
 
 Ridley, 119 
 
 Rieger, 251 
 
 Riffel, 300 
 
 Riga, 118 
 
 Rigdon, Sidney, 413 
 
 Ring, Melchior, 116 
 
 Ringwald, 144 
 
 Ringeis, 299, 398 
 
 Rinkart, 205 
 
 Rio de Janeiro, 151 
 
 Rist, J., 205 
 
 Ritter, Erasmus, 64, 66 
 
 Charles, 300 
 
 Ritschi, 365 
 
 Robespierre, 236 
 
 Rock, Saddler, 271 
 
 Rodigast, 205 
 
 Rodrigruez, Christo- 
 pher, 171 
 
 Simon, 163 
 
 Rogasden, 304 
 
 Röhr, 308, 330, 357 
 
 Roll, AI., 212 
 
 Roman Cath. theol., 237 
 
 Romance literature, 300 
 
 Romano, F. S., 127 
 
 Ronge, John, 383 
 
 Ronsdorf sect, 274 
 
 Roos, M. Fr., 285 
 
 Rosamund of Asseb., 270 
 
 Rosenbach, 271 
 
 Rosenkranz, Charles, 364 
 
 Rosenkreuger, 203 
 
 Rosenmüller, John, 208 
 
 J. G., 283 
 
 F. K., 3H0 
 
 Rosenroth, Knorr v., 
 206, 249 
 
 Rossi, de, 238 
 
 Rostock, 56 
 
 Rotach, league of, 72
 
 INDEX, 
 
 467 
 
 Rothe, J. A., 249, 255 
 
 Charles, 411 
 
 Richard, 369 
 
 Rothenmoor, 317 
 Rothweil, 64 
 Rottmann, 80, 81 
 Röublin. William, 63 
 Rough House, Hamburg, 
 
 322 
 Rousseau, 236 
 Royko, 237 
 
 Rückert, Fr., 302, 371 
 Rudelbach, 317, 329.372 
 Rudolf IL, Emperor, 
 
 125. 126, 173, 177 
 Rüge, Arnold, 296 
 Ruinart. 194 
 Rumpf, 335 
 Rupp, 308. 312 
 Rüssel, Lord John, 340 
 Russia, 346, 403 
 Russiaa sects, 221 
 
 Sabbatarians, 219 
 Sach, F. A., 283 
 Sachs, Hans, 143, 147 
 Saghed. 175 
 Sagittarius, 201 
 Sailer, M., 237, 380, 381 
 Saints. Latter-day, 412 
 Sales, Fr. v., 106, 189, 
 
 191 
 Salesianesses, 186 
 Salle, J. B. de la, 187 
 Sailer, 301 
 Salmasius, 216 
 Salmeron, Alphonso, 163 
 Salzburg, 230 
 Salzmann, 280 
 Sanchez, Thomas, 165 
 Sanctis, Dr. de. 346 
 Sand, George, 302, 356 
 Sandwich Islands, 326 
 Sardinia, 346, 393 
 Sarpi, P., 185, 194 
 Sartorius. 372 
 Saurin, 269 
 Savigny, 299 
 Saxony, Allenberg, 330 
 
 Elector of, 54, 329 
 
 Schade, Ch., 241 
 Schaff, Ph., 351 
 Schäffer, 350 
 Schaffhausen, 64—67 
 Schall, Adam, 188 
 Soha ler, 364 
 
 Schalling, 144 ] 
 
 Scharnabeck Diet, 56 
 
 Schärtlin, 97 
 
 Schefer, Leop., 301 
 
 Scheffler, 189 
 
 Schegg, 391 
 
 Scheibel, 189, 336, 372 
 
 Scheidemann, 145 
 
 Schein, 207 
 
 Schelling, 287, 297 
 
 Schelwig, 240 
 
 Schenck, 302 
 
 Schenkel, 367 
 
 Daniel. 334 
 
 Schenkendorf, 301 
 
 Scherlock, 278 
 
 Scherzer, 201 
 
 Scheurl, 299 
 
 Schiebler, K. W., 204 
 
 Schiller, 287 
 
 Schinkel, 304 
 
 Schirmer, 206 
 
 Schlachtorp, 80 
 
 Schlatter, Michael, 349 
 
 Schlegel, F., 301, 380 
 
 J. Ad., 289 
 
 Schleiermacher,274,298, 
 
 353, 367 
 Schleswig, 56, 343 
 Schlichtling, 160 
 Schlottmann, 311 
 Schmid, Leop., 388, 399 
 Schmidt, Chr., 360 
 
 Christopher, 303 
 
 Erasmus, 200 
 
 Lorenzo, 279 
 
 Sebastian, 200 
 
 Schmieder, 323 
 Schmolcke, 249, 251 
 Schmucker, 350 
 Schneckenburger, 367 
 Schneesing, 143 
 Schneider, Th., 366 
 Schnepf, 69, 78 
 Schnorr, 305 
 Scholastics, 164 
 Schönherr, 408 
 School-Brethren, Chris- 
 tian, 187 
 
 Sisters, poor, 880 
 
 Schöp, 208 
 Schröckh, 285 
 Schröder, J. H., 248 
 Schubert. G. H. v., 289, 
 
 298, 303 
 Schuderoff, 283 
 
 Schulteus, 269 
 
 Schulz of Gielsdorf, 280 
 
 David, 359 
 
 Stephen, 252 
 
 Schulze, 283 
 Schurmann, 220 
 Schütz, H., 208 
 
 Jacob, 207 
 
 Schwabach Artt., 72 
 
 convent, 72 
 
 Schwarz, Chr. Fr., 233 
 
 Charles, 330 
 
 Schwenkfeld, 155 
 Schwerin, 328 
 Scotland, 120 
 
 EstablishedChurch, 
 
 341 
 
 Free Ch., 341 
 
 Scriver, 203 
 Scultetus, Martin, 56 
 Sebastian of Heusenst., 
 
 95 
 Seckendorf, 201 
 Sects, 218 
 Seculars, 164 
 Sedan, 150 
 Segued, 175 
 Seidel, 302 
 Seiler, 285 
 Seiden, 215 
 Seile, 208 
 
 Seinecker, 138, 144, 146 
 Semler, 281 
 Sendonier consens., 124 
 
 Synod of, 124 
 
 Senfl, L., 145 
 Sengler, 390 
 Sepp, 302 
 
 Serrarius, Nich., 168 
 Servetus, 159 
 Seventh-day Baptists, 
 
 219 
 Severius, Wolfg., 173 
 Shaftesbury, 278, 314 
 Shakers, 275 
 Sherlock, 278 
 Sibour, 304 
 Siccardi, 393 
 Sickingen, 36, 43, 63 
 Sierra Leone, 324 
 Sigisraund of Brandb., 
 
 182 
 L of Poland, 116, 
 
 124 
 
 Aug., 124 
 
 Aug. IIL, 125
 
 468 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Silesia, 54, 177, 228 
 Simon, Richard, 192-3 
 
 VI., VII., of Lippe, 
 
 182 
 Simon, St., 415 
 Simons, Menno, 157 
 Sirason, 360 
 Sintenis. 308 
 Sirnioud, 194 
 Sixtina editio, 192 
 Sixtus v.. 162, 192 
 
 of Siena, 168 
 
 Slcopsi, 222 
 
 Slave-trade, 171,324.348 
 Smalcald Articles, 83, 84 
 
 League of, 81 
 
 War, 96 
 
 Smets, 302 
 Smitli, Joseph, 412 
 Socialism, 415 
 Socinians, 160, 184 
 Socinus, 160 
 Soest Reformat., 80 
 Sohr, P., 208 
 SoUicitudo Omnium, 379 
 Sollure, 68 
 Solothurn, 67 
 Somnambulism, 299 
 Sonderbuud war, 403 
 Southcote, 406 
 Sozzini, 158 
 
 Spain, 126, 223, 345, 393 
 Spalatin, 74, 142 
 Spalding, 283 
 Spangenberg, 262 
 Spauheim, 212, 216 
 Spee, Fr., 195 
 Spencer, 215 
 Spener, 198, 203 
 Spengler, Laz., 56, 142 
 Sjieratus, 143 
 Spiegel, Archb., 401 
 Spiera. Fr., 128 
 Spinola, 198 
 Spinoza, 223 
 Spires, 53, 88, 94 
 Spirit rappings, 299 
 Spiritualism, 348 
 Spitta, 302 
 Spittler, 283 
 Springer sect, 406 
 Stach, 252 
 Stackhouse, 269 
 Stahl, 299, 376 
 Stancarus, 134 
 Btapfer, 269 
 
 Staphylus. 134, 172 
 Starck, Benj., 245 
 Starke, Christopher, 251 
 Staroobradzi, 221 
 Staiowerzi, 221 
 Staudenniaver, 390 
 Stäudlin, 284, 360. 391 
 Staufen, Argul., 50 
 Staupitz, 33 
 Stegmann, 205 
 Steiger, 363 
 Stein, Freih. v., 307 
 Steinbart, 280. 283 
 Steinbühler, 237 
 Steinmetz, Abbot, 251, 
 
 257 
 Stephan, Martin, 329 
 Stephanists. 329 
 Steudel, 360 
 Stier, 319, 323, 363 
 Stilling, 288 
 Stip, 319 
 Stirner, 416 
 Stobäeus, 145 
 Stöber, 303 
 Stockfleth, 209, 324 
 Stolz, Albau., 303 
 Stöhr, Seb., 65 
 Stollberg, L. v., 231 
 
 Amette v., 87 
 
 Storch, Nich., 42 
 Storr, 284, 360 
 Strassburg, 344, 345 
 Strauch, 198 
 Strauss, 296, 335, 364, 
 
 375 
 
 Victor, 302 
 
 Strigel, Victor, 146 
 Stuart, Mary, 121, 184 
 
 Moses, 348 
 
 Stiibner, 42 
 Sture, Sten, 115 
 Sturm, Jul., 302 
 Sue, Eugene, 302 
 Suniists, 218 
 Supernaturalists, 360 
 Supralapsarians, 210 
 Swabian league, 78 
 Sweden, 115 
 Swedenborg, 270. 274 
 Switzerland, 63-68, 212 
 Sydow, 376 
 Syncretism, 198 
 Synergists, 135 
 Synod, Holy directing, 
 
 239 
 
 Table-moving, 299 
 
 Tafel, 275 
 Tahiti, 326 
 
 Tamul New Test, 251 
 Tasso, 169 
 Tauber, Casper, 58 
 Tausen, Hans, 117 
 Taute. 297 
 Teachers' Bible. 323 
 Teetotallers, 396 
 Tesetnieier, 118 
 Teller, Abr., 280, 283 
 
 Rom., 251 
 
 Tellier, Le, 231 
 Templers, New, 407 
 Tennhardt, 270 
 
 Territorial system, 246 
 
 Tersteegen, 269 
 
 Test-act, 179, 184 
 
 Tetzel, 32 
 
 Theatines, 165 
 
 Theiiier, Augustine, 379 
 
 Thenius, Otto, 360 
 
 Theophilanthropists, 236 
 
 Theophylact of Moscow, 
 239 
 
 Theosophy, 203 
 
 Theresa, 166 
 
 Thibaut, 299, 320 
 
 Thiersch, 375 
 
 Thilo, 205 
 
 Tholuck, 360 
 
 Thomas Institute, 345 
 
 Thomasius, Christian, 
 200, 244, 247 
 
 Gottfr., 317, 373 
 
 Thomassiiius, 193 
 
 Thorn, declaration of, 
 125, 180 
 
 Lampert, 58, 198 
 
 massacre of, 230 
 
 religious colloquy, 
 
 180 
 
 Thorwaldsen, 305 
 
 Thurgovia. 67, 68 
 
 Tiedge, 307 
 
 Tieftruck. 283 
 
 Tieck, 300 
 
 Tienti, 326 
 
 Tigurine consensus, 113 
 
 Till, Solomon, 216 
 
 Tillemont, 193 
 
 Tillotson, 211 
 
 Timann, 152 
 
 Tindal, Matth., 278 
 
 Tindale, William, 119
 
 INDEX 
 
 469 
 
 Tippleskirch, 408 
 Tirinus, 193 
 Tischendorf, 370 
 .Titian, 169 
 Tithe-bill, 396 
 Title-bill, 897 
 Tittman, 360 
 Tobler, 283 
 Toggenbnrg, 67 
 Toland, 278 
 
 Toleration-act, Eng and, 
 184 
 
 patent, 328 
 
 Toletus, 165 
 Töllner, 281 
 Torelli, Louisa, 166 
 Torgau articles, 74 
 
 . Book, 138 
 
 League, 52-3 
 
 Touruon, 188 
 Tract societies, 322 
 Transylvania, 126 
 Trappists, 186, 379, 380 
 Tremellius, 150 
 
 Trent, Council of, 94, 
 164 
 
 TreptoD Diet, 79 
 
 Treves, 173 
 
 TridentinfB prof, fid., 167 
 
 Trolle, Gastavus, 115 
 
 Tschirner, 360 
 
 Tübingen, 79 
 
 Jahrbücher, 365 
 
 Tuch, 359 
 
 Tue her, 320 
 
 Tuchfeldt, 270 
 
 Tunkers, 275 
 
 Turretin, Alphonso, 269 
 
 Fr., 212, 216 
 
 Tuscany, 346 
 
 Leopold of, 235 
 
 Twesten, 368 
 
 Tyndale, 119 
 
 Ubiquitism, 137 
 Uhland, 301 
 Uhlich, 308 
 ülenberg, 192, 193 
 Ulmann, 334, 366, 368 
 Ulrich of Dornum, 56 
 
 AVürtemb., 78 
 
 Ulrici, 297 
 Ultrainontism, 344, 376, 
 
 381 
 ünibreit, 366, 368, 3"0, 
 
 376 
 
 Uniformity, act of, 120 
 Uuigenitus, 231 
 Union, Form of, 138 
 
 N. German, 322 
 
 Protestant, 310 
 
 schemes, 176, 183 
 
 United Brethren, 351 
 
 Greeks, 174, 403-4 
 
 Unitarians, 158, etc., 
 
 405, etc. 
 UnitasFratrum, 253, etc. 
 Univers, the, of Paris, 
 
 345 
 Upsala, Disputat. of, 116 
 Urban VIIL, 175, 185 
 Urlsperger, John, 292 
 Ursinus, Zacharias, 151, 
 
 268 
 Ursulines, 166 
 Usher, 215 
 Utah. 413 
 Utrecht, Church of, 232 
 
 Vadian, 64, 66 
 Valais, 64 
 Valdez, 126, 128 
 Valenti, de, 299 
 Valer, Rodr., 126 
 Valette, la, 233 
 Valsanite, 380 
 Vanne, St., Congreg. of, 
 
 186 
 Variata, C. A., 133 
 Vasa, Gustavus, 114, 148 
 Vasquez, 1 65 
 Vassar, 193 
 Vaud, 334 
 Vega, Lope de, 195 
 Veeze, J. v., 85 
 Veith, 305, 389, 
 Veltline massacre,. 177 
 Venice, 185 
 Venturini, 282 
 Vergerius, 83, 128 
 Vermillio, 119 
 Vernet, 305 
 
 Versailles, Edict of, 231 
 Verschooren, 305 
 Veuillot, 304, 382 
 Veyth (the painter), 305 
 
 J. Eman, 389 
 
 Hermann v., 400 
 
 Vicari, 384 
 Victor, Eman., 393 
 Vienna conifMxct, 82 
 congress, 327 
 
 Vienna counci!, 377 
 
 peace of, 126 
 
 Vienne, 385 
 Villegagnon, 150 
 Vilmar, 317, 332, 373 
 Vincent de Paula, 186 
 Vinet, 335 
 Viret, Peter, 110 
 Virves, 126 
 
 Visitation, eccl. rules 
 for, 122 
 
 Order of, 186 
 
 Vitringa, 214, 215 
 Voes, H.. 58 
 Voetius, 213, 215 
 Vogt, Charles, 299 
 Voigt, J., 300 
 Volck, 257 
 Voltaire, 231, 236 
 Von Horn, 303 
 Vos, I\Hr., 276 
 Voss, 288 
 Vulgate, 92, 167 
 Vulpius, 145 
 
 Wackernagkl, 319 
 Wagner, Andr., 299 
 
 Rud., 299 
 
 Walch, Fr., 285 
 
 J. G., 245, 257 
 
 Waldeck, Fr. v., 80 
 Waldensians, 345 
 Waldshut, 65 
 Walter, Ferd., 299 
 Walther, F. W., 350 
 
 Hans, 145 
 
 Michael, 200 
 
 Walton, Br., 214 
 Wandsbecker, Bote, 288 
 Warburton, 278 
 Ward, Mary, 187 
 Wartburg, 40-1 
 Wasserschieben, 299 
 Waterlandians, 218 
 Wegelin, 205 
 Wea;leiter, Christopher, 
 
 207 
 Wegscheider, 358 
 Weigel, 156 ■ 
 Weishaupt, 236 
 Weismann, 245, 268 
 Weiss, M., 264 
 Weisse (in Leipsic). 297 
 
 371 
 
 Michael, 144 
 
 Weissei. 205
 
 470 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Weitliiig, 4\Q 
 Weiler, 3acob, 198 
 
 Jerome, 142 
 
 Weite, 391 
 Wendelin, 215 
 Werner, Charles, 390 
 
 Zach., 301 
 
 Wertheimer, 279 
 Wesley, 2ß7, 349 
 Wessenberg. 382, 387 
 Westen, Thomas v., 
 
 209 
 Westeiiis Diet of, 116 
 Westrili.il, Joach., 137 
 Westphalia, Peace of, 
 
 177 
 
 Ref., 79 
 
 Wet Quakers, 220 
 Wette, de, 358 
 Wetstein, 269 
 Wetterau, 256. 270, 271 
 Whitefield, 267 
 Wichern, 321 
 Wieland, 287 
 Wieseler, 370 
 Wigand, 132, 136 
 Wilberforce, 324 
 Wild, 303 
 
 Wildenhahn, 183, 203, 
 ' 303 
 Wildenspuch (village), 
 
 406 
 William of Bavaria, 93, 
 
 96, 101 
 of Brandenburg, 
 
 118 
 
 of Hessen, 182 
 
 I. of Orange, 121, 
 
 184 
 III. of Orange, 180, 
 
 184 
 Prince, regent of 
 
 Prussia, 328 
 
 William II. of Saxe Wei- 
 mar, 206 
 
 Williams, 326 
 
 Willich, M., 183 
 
 WiUmeyer, H. A., 370 
 
 Wilson, 292 
 
 Wimpina, 34 
 
 Winckelmann, 281, 304 
 
 Winckler, J. J., 248 
 
 Winebrennarians, 351 
 
 Winer, 358 
 
 Winkler, 58 
 
 Winter, 273 
 
 Winterfeld, 290, 320 
 
 Wion, 163 
 
 Wirth, 297 
 
 Wiseman, 397 
 
 Wislicenus, 308 
 
 AVissowatius, 160 
 
 Wittmann, Mich., 380 
 
 Witschel, 307 
 
 Witsius, 216 
 
 Wittenbach, 269 
 
 Wittenberg Concord, 82 
 
 Fanaticism, 42 
 
 Reformat., 94 
 
 University, 33, 183 
 
 Wittgenstein, 271 
 
 Wittig. 216 
 
 Wizel, 172 
 
 Wladislas IV. of Poland, 
 180 
 
 Wolf, Christ, v., 245 
 
 J. Chr., 245, 273 
 
 Wolff, 237 
 
 Wolfenbüttel Fragm. 282 
 
 Wolfgang of Anhalt, 79 
 
 Wöllner, 280 
 
 Wolmar, Melch., 110 
 
 Woltersdorf, 248 
 
 Wolzogen, 160 
 
 Woolston, 278 
 
 Wordsworth, 303 
 
 Worms, Diet of, 39, 40; 
 94 
 
 Edict of, 40 
 
 Relig. colloquy, 88 
 
 Wullenweber, 117 
 Würtemberg, 78, 289, 
 
 332 
 Wiirzburg Conf., 384 
 Würzen, 91 
 Wyttenbach, 269 
 
 Xavier, 168, 170 
 
 Young, Brioham, 413 
 Germany, 301 
 
 Zaccaria, Mary, 166 
 Zapoyla, 126 
 Zealand, New, 326 
 Zeisberger, 266 
 Zeller, Ed., 335, 365 
 
 in Beuggen, 322 
 
 Zenner, 145 
 Zicgenbalg, 251 
 Zillerthal, 336 
 Zimmermann, Ch., 312, 
 
 357 
 
 E.. 357 
 
 Zinzendorf, 256, 272, 
 
 273, 278 
 Zionites, 273 
 Zollikofer, 283 
 Zolticon, 65 
 Zschocke, 303, 307 
 Zurich, 61, 62, 65 
 Zütphen, H. v., 58 
 Zweibrücken, 338 
 Zurick, John, 149 
 Zwickan Prophets, 42, 
 
 65 
 Zwingli, 60, 65, 68 87j 
 
 137 
 Zwirner, 305 
 
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