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EliEMEXTS
OF
DOGMATIC HISTORY,
BY WILLI A»I MUENSCHER.S.T.DNrojs^TV'
AND ORDINART PROFESSOR OF THEOLOGY AT UABBXma.
TKANSLAT£I> FROM THE SECOND EDITION OF THE OKieiHAK
GXRMAN.
BY JAMES MURDOCK, D.D.
NEW-HAVEN,
PUBLISHED BY A. H. MALTBT.
1830.
STJiJ
DISTRICT OF CONNECTICUT, SS.
«<v*^k/v%,%.»/x^ Be it remembered, That on the second da/
\ \^ S. 5 of Juiy, in the fifty-fourth year of the Inde-
^v^/wvx-x^sg pendence of the United States of America, James
MuRDOCK, of the said District, hath depos:ted in this office,
the title of a book, the right whereof he claims as Author,
in the words following, to wit : —
^'Elements of Dogmatic History. By William Muenscher,
S. T. D. and ordinary Professor of Theology al Marburg.
Translated from the second edition of the Original German,
by James Murdock, D. D."
In conformity to the Act of Congress of the United States,
entitled, ^^ An act for the encouragement of learning, by secu-
ring the copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the authors and
proprietors of such copies, during the times therein mention-
ed." And also to the Act, entitled, ^^ An Act supplementary
to an Act, entitled, ^ An Act for the encouragement of learn-
ing, by securing the copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to th«
Authors and Proprietors of such copies during the times there-
in mentioned,' and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of
designing, engraving, and etching historical and other prints."
CHA'S A. INGERSOLL,
Clerk of the District of Connecticut.
A true copy of Record, examined and sealed by me,
CHA S A. INGERSOLL,
Clerk of the District of Connecting.
BALDWIN AND TREADWAY, PRINT.
AUTHOR S PREFACE.
This elementary work was primarily intended for use
in the author's lectures ; and was calculated especially to
aid his hearers. Yet it may perhaps be serviceable to
others, by presenting to them a rapid glance over the
whole field of dogmatic history. The principles on which
it is drawn up, are the same as those followed by the au-
thor, in his Elements of Church History ; and as he has
there explained those principles, in the preface, he will
not repeat them here. Yet some few observations will be
added.
It was his great object, to give a plain, simple and
dense statement. Therefore only three periods of time
are assumed ; and the facts are recapitulated in so uncon-
strained a manner, that uniformity in the mode of treating
the several periods was intentionally disregarded. The
facts also, are rather indicated, than fully displayed. The
author flatters himself however, that the discerning will
perceive a fixed plan, running through the work ; and will
understand, that a different mode of treating the succes-
sive periods, arose from the effort, to give the exact mode
of thinking and reasoning, in each. If his aim to be very
concise, should here and there produce obscurity, or in-
definiteness, the oral instructions of the teacher must re-
move the former, and give precision to the latter.
In the first period, ihe passages from the fathers, which
might serve as vouchers, are with few exceptions omitted ;
and the reader is referred to the author's Manual for
4 PREFACE.
them.* In the second period also, the passages in the
scholastic writers, are but seldom pointed out ; because
they could be of little service to beginners ; and because,
those who are acquainted with these writers, can easily
find the passages; their systems having generally the same
arrangement. Yet wherever the experienced would be
at a loss, to determine on what authority an assertion rests,
the passage is expressly named. In the third period, a
greater number of citations was necessary : and the au-
thor confesses, that he has often doubted, whether too
many, or too few, were introduced. It has always been
his rule, however, in making the selection of authorities,
to regard the historical value, and not the doctrinal impor-
tance of the passages.
The author wishes that intelligent judges, if they deem
this work worth their examining, would acquaint him
with its defects, and thus facilitate its improvement.
To this second edition, the literary notices are subjoin-
ed, which the venerated author had written in the margin
of his copy; and likewise, such as the editor deemed ne-
cessary, in order to bring down the literature to the tim^
of the publication.
* On the most important sections, the translator has introduced
the principal references of the Manual into this compendium. They
are distinguished, by being connected with the text by means of th*
common numerals.
TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE,
The work here offered to American theologians, is sup-
posed, to be unlike any thing, that has ever appeared be-
fore the English public. It is an outline of a general
history of the christian faith, with copious references to
authorities and a'lthors who have treated on the subjects,
1. It is an outline merely; not a full history. For it
mentions only the goneral facts ; and states them, in the
most concise manner. It was designed to be the text
merely, on which a lecturer might expatiate.
2. It is a general history ; that is, one that covers the
whole subject of dogmatic theology, or systematic divinity;
and not the history of one, or of a few, particular doc-
trines only .
3. It is purely a history. For the author did not de-
sign, to discriminate between true and false doctrines ; to
elucidate, confirm, and recommend the former, and to
confute and set a mark upon the latter. He aims to be
the mere historian of facts ; or to narrate, truly and can-
didly, what doctrines were discussed, and how they were
stated, defended and attacked, and by whom ; without
laboring to prepossess the reader, either for, or against, any
doctrine. In other words, he professes to assume the at-
titude of a witness in a court, whose duty it is, to state the
whole truth, and nothing but the truth, without regarding
the interests of either of the litigating parties; and not tha
part of an advocate, whose office it is, to defend the caus9
1*
of his client, in the best manner the case will admit. This
mode of composing dogmatic histories, it is believed, will
be altogether new, to most theologians in this country j
for, all the histories written previously to the middle of the
last century, and all written since, in the English language,
whether they were histories of particular doctrines, as
those of the trinity, infant baptism, the Lord's supper,
predestination, free grace, &,c. or histories of all the doc-
trines in a system of theology, were manifestly written for
the express purpose, either of confirming, or confuting, a
particular creed : and of course, the writers, not only
collect all the testimonies they can, on one side of the
subject, and make the most of them, and enumerate
some on the opposite side, placing them in the most un-
favorable light; but they resort to all the arts of rhetoric
and logic, to persuade their readers to adopt the opinions
they defend, and to reject those which they condemn.
Such historians are, as Uu\y polemic writers, as if they had
chosen other than historical arguments, with which to ac-
complish their party purposes. Of this character is Dr.
Priestley's History of the Corruptions of Christianity ;
and also the histories of the Trinity, by Christopher Sau-
dis, Dr. Alex, Bishop Bull, and others ; the histories of
infant baptism, by Wall, Gale, Robertson &£c. and nu-
merous other dogmatic histories.
4. This work is a history of the faith of such as have
borne the christian name, or of their speculative belief,
their dogmatic theology ; and not of their practical theo-
logy, their conduct, their piety, their rites of worship, their
ecclesiastical polity, he. And
5. It contains references to the principal sources of evi-
TRANSLATOR S PREFACE, T
dence for the facts stated, and lists of modern writers of
different communities, who may be consulted on the seve-
ral subjects.
In the selection of the facts to be narrated, and in his
references to authors, the writer of this work, had in view
the young theologians of Germany; for whose use the
book was intended. An American student would be
better pleased with the work, had the author been more
full and particular, on the doctrines most controverted in
this country ; and if he had developed farther the doc-
trinal views and arguments of the English, Scotch, and
American divines; and made more references to their wri-
tings. Yet the translator has not deemed it expedient,
to enlarge the work, by additions of this nature, except
by a very few references. Nor has he curtailed the nu-
merous references to German writers ; for to those who
make no use of them, they can do no harm ; and to others,
they may at least serve to show, what subjects have enga-
ged most attention in Germany, and how the theologians
of that country, range themselves on the different sides of
most questions there discussed. By pursuing this course,
and giving a plain translation of the original, he has pre-
sented the English reader, with the entire work of Dr.
Miinscher, as near as possible in its original form.
The author of this work. Dr. William Muenscher,
was born at Hersfeld, on the 11th of March 1766; be-
came a stated preacher, in the cathedral church in his
native place, till the age of 26, when he was made Pro-
fessor in ordinary, in the university of Marburg in Hesse-
Cassel, and consistorial councillor there, for 22 years, or
till his death, 28th of July, 1814. He composed the
preface to a popular edition of Luther's bible ; and a
volume of printed sermons, which are said to be char-
acterized by their religious fervor, and by the constant
and happy use made of the holy scriptures. He was
also the principal conductor of a journal, devoted to the
interests of schools and religion : but his greatest and
most noted work, was his Manual of Dogmatic Histo-
ry, in IV. volumes 8vo. extending over the first six cen-
turies. Beside these, he composed an Elementary Church
History, and the work here presented to the public. Of
his large work, C. F. L. Simon, in his Continuation of
Noesselt's Guide to the Literature of Theology, says,
(Sec. 299.) " the author has hnppily combined the chro-
nological order, with that of the relations of things ; and
the whole work is distinguished, alike, for the persevering,
learned, and critical industry, manifested in collecting
the materials; and for the solidity and independence of
judgment, with which they are methodically arranged,
and agreeably expressed.'" And he adds : " the same
commendation is due to the author's Elements of Dog-
matic history." Brettschneider, in his Entwickelung
der Dogmatik, p. 99, ed. 2d, says of the Manual : " It is
to be regarded as (haupiwerk) the best work on the sub-
ject." The Elements, notwithstanding it had to contend
with several rival works, has, since its first appearance in
1811, gone through three editions in Germany, without
alteration, — two of them since the author's death; and it is
still in high reputation, in that country.
The theological sentiments of Dr. Muenscber, the
translator regrets, that he is not able definitely to state ;
since a knowledge of them, might serve to show, where,
and how, the author's prepossessions were most likely to
mislead him. In several passages of this work, as well
I
as of the Manual, the translator thought he discovered
indications of much laxer views in theology, than his own.
Yet he supposes. Dr. Miinscher was classed, by his coun-
trymen, with Michaelis, Doederlein, Planck, and others;
who stood on middle ground, between the ancient, pure
Lutheranism, and the modern neology of Germany. Af-
ter all, the private opinions, or the commendations and
censures of the writer, which occasionally escape from
him unconsciously, ought not to influence the reader. It
is his facts, and his arguments only, that deserve regard.
And these, he is supposed to state, with as much fidelity,
and impartiality, as reasonably can be expected, from an
able and honest man, who felt his reputation to be staked
on the correctness of his narration.
New-Haven, June 1, 1830.
CONTENTS.
Page.
Preface, *.....
3
Translator's Preface, . . 4 *
. 5
Introduction, p. 17 — 23.
k'ec. 1. Doctrines, .....
17
2. Changes in doctrines,
. 17
3. Dogmatic History, . . . «
18
4. Its use, .....
. 18
5. Its sources, . . . , *
19
6. Its laws,
. 19
7. Its literature, ....
20
8. Its form or method, . .
. 22
First Period. The early ages. A. D. 1-600. p. 2A
1-87.
Part I. The general history, p. 24-33.
9. Jesus Christ, ....
24
10. The Apostles, . . .
25
n. The early Christians, .
2S
12. The church and its creed, .
26
13. The received theology, 4
'2Q
14. Estimation of the Bible,
27
15. Use of the Bible,
27
16. Tradition, .....
28
17. Philosophy, ....
29
18. Theologians, ....
SO
19. Origen, . . . . .
30
20. Establishment of Christianity,
31
21. Religious controversies.
31
22. Systems of theology,
32
23. Decline of theological learning,
32
Part II. History of particular doctrines, p. 33-
87.
Chap. I. The kingdom of Christ, p. 33-41.
J4. Origin of the idea of it,
33
25. Chiliasm, ....
34
26. Last struggles of chiliasm,
34
27. Resurrection connected with chiliasm,
35
28. This gross theory opposed,
36
29. Subsequent history of the doctrine,
36
12 CONTENTS.
Page,
SO. Intormediate state, .... 37
31. Moditications of the doctrine, . . 38
32. Purgatory fully established, . . 38
33. Hell and the damned, . . . 3»
34. The church, .... 40
35. Its unity, . . . . .41
36. Marks of the true church, . . 41
Chap. II. Doctrine of Angels and Devils, p. 42-45.
37. Existence of Angels, . . .45
38. Their offices, .... 42
39. Their condition, . . . .43
40. Invocation of them, ... 43
41. Apostacy of Angels, . . . . 44
42. Power of evil spirits, ... 44
43. Their prospects, . . . .44
Chap. III. The truth of Christianity, p. 45-48.
44. Introduction, . . . . 45
45. Attacks on Pagans, . . . .46
46. Evidences of Christianity, . . 46
47. Prophecy and Miracles, . . .46
48. Other external proofs, ... 47
49. Objections to Christianity, . . .47
50. Objections to its nature and its sacred books, 48
61. Objections to the conduct and influence of Christ-
ians, ..... 48
62. Neglect of Apologetics, . . .48
Chap. IV. Being and character of God. p. 47-52.
63. Occasion for attending to the subject, . 49
54. Proof of the existence of a God, . . 49
55. The unity of God, ... 60
56. The nature of God, . . . .50
67. The attributes of God, ... 51
68. Creation, . . . . .61
59. The design of creation, ... 51
60. Providence, ..... 62
61. Theodicee, or origin of evil, i . 52
Chap. V. The Trinity, p. 53-63.
62. General belief of Christians, . . 64
63. The Unitarians, .... 64
64. The Trinitarians, . . . .66
65. Source of their theory, . . .56
66. Irenaeus and Tertullian, . . .56
67. Clement and Origen, . . . 66
CONTENTS.
15
68. Dionysius Alex, and Dionysius Rom.
69. Rise of the Arian controversy,
70. The Council of Nice,
71. Consequences of the Council,
72. Arian parties,
73. Marcellus and Photinus,
74. Athanasian system,
75. Triumph of this doctrine,
76. Fuller statement of the doctrine,
77. Subsequent statements.
Chap. VI. The person of Christ, p. 63-67.
78. First germs of the doctrine,
79. Its developement,
80. The natures of Christ,
81. Nestorius and Cyril,
82. Council of Ephesus,
83. Councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon,
84. Subsequent contests.
Chap. VII. Redemption by Jesus Christ, p. 68-
85. General doctrine of the church,
86. The nature of man,
87. Endowments of man,
88. Origin and propagation of sin, Greek Fathers
89. Do. Latin Fathers, before Augustine,
90. Early doctrine concerning grace,
91. Controversy of Augustine with Pelagius,
92. The first point; Sin,
93. Second point; Grace and free will,
94. Third point; Election,
95. History of the doctrine, after Augustine,
96. What Chsist has done for men,
97. Effects of Christ's death,
98. Forgiveness of sin.
Chap. VIII. The Sacraments, p. 82-87.
99. Baptism, ....
100. Infant Baptism, ....
101. Baptism of heretics,
102. Lord's Supper, ....
103. Lord's Supper as a sacrifice,
104. Presence of Christ in the Eucharist,
105. On the Sacraments in general,
Second Period. Middle ages. A. D. 600—1517. p.
Part I. The general history, p. 88-96.
Page,
bl
58
58
59
59
60
60
60
61
62
82.
82
83
84
84
85
86
86
88-128.
14
CONTENTS.
106. Theology of the Greeks, at the beginning of the
period, ,_ .
107. John Damascenus,
108. Greek Theology, subsequently,
105. State of theology among the Latins,
110. Age of Charlemagne,
111. Preparatory steps to scholastic theology,
112. Anselm and Hildebert,
113. Contest respecting philosophic theology,
114. Further advances of scholastic theology,
115. Influence of the Monastic Orders on scholastic
theology,
116. The later Scholastics,
117. Causes of the downfall of scholastic theology,
Part II. History of particular doctrines, p. 97-128,
Chap. I. CuUivation of doctrines previously defined.
p. 97-104.
118. The being of God,
119. The nature of God,
120. The Trinity,
121. Creation and Angels,
122. Doctrine of Providence,
123. Person of Christ,
124. Man, particularly his soul,
125. Resurrection and general judgment,
126. Truth of Christianity,
127. The holy Scriptures,
Chap. II. Developement of doctrines not before
defined, p. 104-128.
128. Procession of the Holy Spirit,
129. Doctrine of sin and grace, jmd the kindred doc-
trines; in the Greek church,
130. In the Latin church,
131. Doctrine of the Scholastics, concerning sin,
132. Sinless conception of Mary,
133. Doctrine concerning grace,
134. Predestination,
135. Redemption by Christ,
136. Faith and good works,
137. Adoration of saints and of Mary,
138. The Sacraments, in general ,
139. Baptism,
140. Confirmation,
141. Lord's Supper,
142. Transmutation in the Lord's Supper,
143. Contet with Berengarius,
Page,
88
88
89
89
90
90
92
92
93
94
96
96
97
98
98
99
99
100
101
102
102
103
104
105
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
111
112
114
115
116
116
lis
CONTENTS. 15
Page,
144. Scholastics and Canonists, . . 119
145. Further determinations, . . 120
146. Consequences ofthe doctrine of transubstantiation, 121
147. The Mass, . . . 121
148. Sacrament of Penance, . . 122
149. Remission of satisfaction. Indulgences, 124
150. Sacrament of extreme unction, . 125
151. Sacrament of ordination, . . 126
152. Sacrament of marriage, . . 126
153. State of departed souls, . . 127
154. Doctrine concerning the church, . 128
Third Period. Modern times, A. D. 1517—1800.
p. 129-203.
Part I. General view of the changes in doctrinal
theology, p. 129-151.
155. Causes of new modifications in theology, 12^
156. Introduction of the refoimation, . 130
157. Protestant systems of theology, . 131
158. Reaction upon the Catholic church, . 132
159. Completion ofthe Lutheran system of faith, 133
160. Variation^ of doctrine in the Reformed church, 135
161. Attempts of the Reformed to improve their the-
ology, . . . 135
162. Achievements of Spener, in regard to the Luther-
an theology, . . . 137
163. Influence of the Wolfian philosophy, 138
164. Protestant theology, out of Germany, . 140
165. New formation of the Protestant theology, 141
166. Influence of the Kantean philosophy, . 145
167. The theology of other churches, . 149
Part II. History of particular doctrines, p. 1 SI-
SOS.
Chap. I. The foundations of all religion, and of the
Christian religion in particular. 151-166.
168. Doctrine concerning God, . . 15I
169. More recent history of this doctrine, . . 153
170. Doctrine of Providence, . . 154
171. Immortality of the soul, . . 156
172. Belief in revelation, . . 157
173. Most recent history of belief in Revelation, 160
174. Miracles and prophecy, . . 161
175. Views concerning the holy Scriptures, 164
176. Recent views in Germany, . . , 165
16
CONTENTS.
Page.
Chap. II. Views and explanations of diverse Christ-
ian doctrines, p. 166-203.
177. Various first principles of Christianity, 166
178. Opinions on the importance of religious doctrines, 168
179. Doctrine of the Trinity, . . 169
180. Views of modern German divines, . 171
181. Doctrine of creation, . . 172
182. Doctrine concerning Angels, . 173
183. Of the person of Christ, . .174
184. Doctrine concerning the first men, , 175
185. Hereditary sin, . . . 176
186. Grace and predestination, . 178
187. Continuation, . . .179
188. Further disagreement in the Reformed churches,
respecting these doctrines, . 180
189. History of these doctrines in the Catholic church, 181
190. Influences of the word of God, . .183
191. Most recent form of the doctrine of grace, 184
192. Redemption by Christ, . . 184
193. Continuation, . . . 185
194. Justification, . . . 187
195. Continuation, . . . 188
196. Faith and works, . . .189
197. Penance, . . .190
198. The Sacraments, . . 191
199. Baptism, . . . 192
200. Common doctrine of the Protestants, respecting
the Lord's supper, . . 194
20 1 . Dissension among Protestants d uring Luther's life, 1 95
202. Progress of the controversy after Luther's death, 196
203. Later history of this doctrine, . . 197
204. The church, ... 198
205. State of departed souls, . . 199
206. Resurrection and general judgment, . 201
207. Salvation and damnation, . . 202
INTRODUCTION.
Writers, Christian Fr, Walch, Thoughts on the histo-
ry of rehgious opinions; (in German) 2d edition. <jot-
tingen, 1764, 8vo.
Ckr. Fried. Roesleri Diss, de Theoria Historias Dogma-
turn. Tubing. P. I. 1796. P. II. 1798. 4to.
Ideas on the extent and mode of treating Dogmatical Histo-
ry, (in German) by W, K* L. Ziegler — in Gabler^s
Neuesten Theol. Journal. AD. 1798, vol. II. p. 325 — 58.
Sec. I. Doctrines,
By the word doctrines^ the ancient writers understood
sometimes, religious truths in general, and sometimes, the
theoretical principles of the christian religion, in opposi-
tion to its practical precepts. The word has also been us-
ed to denote explanations and opinions respecting reli-
gious truths. The modern use of the term, makes it
equivalent to articles of faith. Received doctrines (kir-
chliche Dogmen) are those which are admitted by some
entire christian community.
References, Suicer, Thesaur. Eccles. torn. I. p. 932.
Cyrilli Hieros, Catech. IV. Sec. 2. p. 52. Gregorii
Nyss, Ep.Vl. in Gallandi Bibliotheca Patrum, torn. VI.
p. 631. A peculiar use of the word occurs in Basil,
0pp. torn. III. p. 54—56.
Sec. 2. Changes in regard to Doctrines,
The christian doctrines have undergone innumerable
changes, since their first appearance ; in regard to the
matter of them, the manner of stating and defending
them, the degree of importance attached to them, and
the arrangement and exhibition of them. The causes of
3
18 muenscher's elements
these changes are to be traced to the diversities of ge-
nius and education among christians, especially among
the teachers, and to the peculiar circumstances and ne-
cessities of the church in different ages. The constitu-
tion of the church, the freedom of opinion, and the state
of learning, have ever had great influence in shaping arti-
cles of faith.
Sec. 3. Dogmatic History.
The christian faith, like every other branch of know-
ledge, has both its external and its internal history. The
former, which respects the mode of arranging and ex-
hibiting articles of faith, is called the History of Uog-
matics ; the latter, which states the revolutions in the va-
rious articles of faith, is called Dogmatic History, Both,
however, so run into each other, that it may be expedient
to combine them. A dogmatic history may either em-
brace all ages and all articles of faith, or may be limited
in one or both respects. Strict impartiality and truth,
and a judicious selection and instructive development of
facts, must ever be its first and most imperious laws.
Note. It is a question, whether dogmatic histor}^ should
detail the doctrines inctdcated by Christ and the Apos-
tles, or confine itself to the received doctrines of the
church.
Sec. 4. Value of dogmatic history.
The uses of dogmatic history are, that it is indispensa-
ble, to the attainment of a thorough knowledge and cor-
rect judgment of systematic theology; that it teaches us
to distinguish the original Christianity, from the subsequent
spurious additions and corruptions; that it serves to awa-
ken and animate a spirit of inquiry ; that it promotes libe-
rality, moderation, and independence ; and that it warns
us against the perversions of Christianity in the past ages.
It likewise affords the mind high intellectual pleasure, to
contemplate in the mirror of history, the efforts and strug-
gles of men after clearness and solidity of views on reli-
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY.
19
gious subjects; in which both the dependence and the
the independence of the mind are clearly seen.
References. J, A, Ernesti Prolusio de Theologise histo-
rica3 et dogmatic 36 conjungendae necessitate. Lips. 1759.
j., 8vo. and in hisOpuscul. Theol. ed. Lips. 1792. 8vo.
f- Lud. Wachleri, Prolusio de theologia et historia dogma-
tum emendanda. Rintel, 1794. 4to.
Ckr. Fried, lllgen, The value of christian dogmatic histo-
ry, (in German.) Lips. 1817. 8vo.
Sec. 5. Sources.
The sources, from which dogmatic history must be
drawn, are not indeed equally copious and lucid in every
period, yet they are considerably numerous and rich in
all the periods. Among them, the public confessions of
faith, the decrees and acts of ecclesiastical councils, the
writings of persons in high authority in the church, and
the public liturgies, hold the first rank ; because they are
public documents. Next to them, must be ranked the
writings of the christian teachers in general, yet with dis-
crimination, for all are not of equal authority ; likewise
the accounts of the credible historians, are important and
useful.
Reference. C. W.Fr.WalcK's critical Account of the Sour-
ces of church history ; (in German,) Lips. 1770. 8vo.
is applicable to dogmatic history.
Sec. 6. Use to he made of these sources.
To deduce history from these sources, requires exten-
sive knowledge and great care. A discerning criticism
must discriminate the spurious works from the genuine ;
and must correct the falsified and incorrect passages,
which occur in works that are for the most part genuine.
A good knowledge of languages, and dexterity in in-
% terpreting, must disclose the true meaning of different ac-
counts. A sound judgment must, without partiality, es-
timate the value of all statements ; exclude fables and
groundless conjectures ; and induce caution, not to infer
20 muenscher's elements
the opinions of a writer from insolated passages of his
works, nor to bend his words to a conformity with our
own system of belief; nor to confound the opinions of a
particular writer, with the general creed of the church.
Civil and ecclesiastical history, and the history of the
sciences, particularly of philosophy, and even scientific
theology itself, are necessary auodliaries to the study of
dogmatic history.
References. J. DailU^ de usu Patrum ad definienda reli-
gionis capita quae hodic sunt controversa. I. II. Ge-
neva, 1686. 4to. Matth, Scrivener, Apologia pro S.
ecclesiae Patribus adversus J. Dallaeum. Lond, 1672.
Sec. 7. Literature of dogmatic history.
In former times dogmatic history was either neglected,
or occasionally touched upon, in treatises on theology and
in ecclesiastical histories ; but was used almost exclusively
for polemical purposes. John Solomon Semler was the
man, who especially awakened attention to its importance ;
and he wrote on some parts of it, with accumen and inde-
pendence. Afterwards others labored to advance this
branch of history.
MST OF WORKS ON THE SUBJECT.
I. Works embracing the whole compass of dogmatic histo-
ry ; or commenced with that design.
A. Works by Catholics.
Dion. Petavii, Opus de theologicis dogmatibus. Paris,
1644—1660. V. tomi, Fol. with notes by Theophilus Ale-
thinus (John le Clerc) Antw. (Amstel.) 1700. VI.
tomi, Fol.
Dogmata theologica, authore Ludov. Thomassino. Paris,
1684-^89.111. vol. Fol.
Doctrina et Disciplina ecclesise ex ipsis verbis sacrorum
codicum, conciliorum, Patrum et veterum genuinorum
monumentorum secundum seriem temporis digesta et ex-
posita, studio et opera R. P. Ludovid Dumesnil. Tom. I.
—IV. Colon. 1730, Fol.
B. Works by Protestants.
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 21
lo Forbesii a Corse, Instructiones historico-theologica de
doctrina Christiana. Amstel. 1702. Arnoldi Montanh
Forbesius contractus, sive compendium Instructionum
historico-theolcgicum — Forbesii. Amstel. 8vo.
Manual of christian dogmatic history, (in German,) by W.
Milnscher, Vol. 1. and II. ed. 3d. Marpurg, 1817— IS.vol.
III. ed. 2d. ibid. 1818. vol. IV. ibid. 1809.
Elements of christian dogmatic history, (in German,) by John
Chr. Wil. Augusti. Lips. 1805. 8vo.
Manual of christian dogmatic history, (Danish,) by F, Mun-
Ur ; (German,) by J. P. G, Ewers. II. vol. 8vo. Got-
tingen, 1802—04.
C. Works by Unitarians.
History of the corruptions of Christianity, by Joseph Priest-
ley, LL. D. 3d ed. Boston, 1797. 11. vols. 12mo.
II. Works on the history of Dogmatics.
/. S. Semler\9 historical Introduction to theology ; (in Ger-
man,) prefixed to S. J. Baumgarten's evangelischer Glau-
benslehre. Halle, 1759—60. III. vol. 4to.
Essay of a History of the various methods of teaching the
articles of the christian faith, and of the most noticeable
systems and compendiums of theology ; (in German,)
by Ch. Gottl. Heinrich. Lips. 1790.
Full instructions in the christian faith; (in German,) by Ck.
Fr. Ammon. I. vol. in 2 parts. Nuremb. and Altorf.
1808.
III. Ecclesiastical Histories, which are most valuable for
dogmatic history.
Ecclesiastica Historia per aliquot pios et studiosos viros
in m-be Magdeburgica, Bas. 1569 — 74. XIII. Tomi. FoL
Caes. Baronii, Annales Ecclesiastici. Romae 1588 — 1607.
XII. vol. Fol. Odorici Raynaldi, Annales Eccles.
Rom. 1646—76. X. vol. Fol. Both together, Lucca,
1738—1759. XXXVIII. vol. Fol.
Natalis Alexandri, Historia Ecclesiastica ; Paris 1776 — 86.
XXVI. vol. 8vo. Venet, 1778. XL vol. Fol.
James Basnage, History of the Church ; (in French,) 1699.
XL Vol. Fol.
3*
22
Jo. MattL Schroeckk, Christian church History ; (in Ger-
man,) 1768—1810. XLV. vol. 8vo.
J. E, Ch, ScJiimdt, Manual of christian church History ;
(in German; to the Reformation,) VI. vol. 8vo. Gies- I
sen and Darmst. 1801—20. '
A, Neander, General history of the christian religion and
church ; (in German,) 1825. IV. vol. 8vo. to be con-
tinued.
IV. Systems of Theology, which contain something of dog-
matic history.
J Gerhardi, Loci theologici — denuo edidit J. Fried. Cotta.
Tubing. 1762—89. XXII. vol. 4to.
G, F, Seileri, Theologia dogmatico-polemica, cum com-
pendio histor. dogmat. 3d. ed. Erl. 1789. 8vo.
/. F, Gruner, Institutionum theologiae dogmatic®, I — III.
Hallae, 1777. 8vo.
J. Christopher Doederlein, Institutio theologi christiani in
capitibus religionis theoreticis ; ed. 6, Altorf. 1799. II.
vols. 8vo.
Elements of theology and of dogmatical history ; (in Ger-
man,) by C. Fr. Stdudlin, 3d ed. 1809. 8vo.
Commentarii historici decretorum religionis christianse et
formulae Lutheriae, scripsit Christ. Dan. 5^cA:. Lips. 1801,
8vo.
J. A. L. Wegscheider, Institutiones theol. christ. dogmata-
ticae, addita singulorUm dogmatum historia et censura ;
ed. 2, Hallae, 1817. 8vo.
Sec. 8. Method in dogmatic history.
Since it has been admitted, that dogmatic history is
not to be regarded as a mere appendage to church history
or to dogmatic theology, but that it deserves to be treat-
ed independently ; different methods for its execution
have been proposed, and some of them have been put in
practice. Some writers prefer a mere chronological ar-
rangement; others a classification of the materials; and
others again would combine both. The objects of an
elementaiy history may perhaps be best secured, by as-
OP DOGMATIC HISTORY, 23
suming certain long periods of time ; and by giving, first
a general view of the state of theology, and then a his-
torical account of the principal doctrines held in each pe-
riod. It appears not unsuitable, to make three periods :
I. The early ages, A. D. 1—600. II. The middle ages,
A. D. 600—1517. III. Modern times, A. D. 1517—
down to the present day.
Remark. On method in dogmatic history, see J. Chr, W.
Augusti neuen theol. Blattern, vol. II. P. II. p. 11 — 22.
W, M. L, de Wette uber Religion und Theologie. Bar-
hn, 1815, 8vo. P. II. cap. iv. von der Christlichen Dog-
mengeschichte, p. 167 — 193,
FIRST PERIOD.
THE EARLY AGES. A. D. 1 600.
Works, J, S, Semler^s historical Introduction, (in German,)
prefixed to S.J. Baumgarten's Untersuchungen theologis-
Cher Streitigkeiten. Halle, 1762-64. III. vol. 4to.
Doctrinal belief of the christian church in the three first cen-
turies; (in German, by Ch. Fr. Rosier,) Frankf. 1775.
8vo. Rosier^ s Library of the Fathers, in translations and
abridgments; (in German,) Lips, 1776-86. X. vol. Bvo.
G. D. Fuch''s Library of the ecclesiastical Councils; (in
German,) Lips, 1780-84. IV. vol. 8vo.
Essays on the dogmatic history of the ancient Greek church,
to the time of Clemens Alexandrinus; (in German, by J.
Fr, Gaab,) Jena, 1790. 8vo.
A full history of doctrines, as held by the Fathers; (in Ger-
man,) by Sam, Gottl. Lange, 1 vol. Lips, 1796.
History of the faith of Christians, from the age of Athana-
sius, to Gregory the Great; (in German,) by J. Chr, Fr.
Wundemann. Lips, 1798-99. II. vol. 8vo.
Antiquity of ecclesiastical doctrines; (in German,) by J,
Ullr. Roder. Coburg, 1812. 8vo.
PART I.
GENERAL VIEW OF THE STATE OF THEOLOGY.
Sec. 9. Jesus Christ.
The Jewish nation was distinguished from the surround-
ing nations, by giving homage to the one God, in accord-
ance with their sacred books ; with a splendid worship and
numerous ceremonies. As the original character of the
Mosaic religion was disfigured by speculations, by narrow
conceptions, and immoral practices, Jesus Christ ap-
peared, as one sent from God, for the purpose of estab-
muenscher's elements, etc. 25
lishing a kingdom of God on the earth. His doctrine was
simple and practical, and was exhibited as occasions drew
it forth. Yet in compass and extent, it far surpassed the
Jewish ; and it embraced the superlative germs of truth,
for the profounder reflection and investigations of the suc-
ceeding ages.
Reference, Fr. V, Reinhard on the plan which the foun-
der of the christian religion devised, for the benefit of
mankind ; (in German,) 4th ed. 1798.
Sec. 10. The Apostles.
The apostles, who continued to propagate and spread
the doctrines of Christ, and who were led by their circum-
stances to explain those doctrines more fully, compensa-
ted for their lack of a learned education by their deep
feeling, their noble spirit, and their devout sense of reli-
gion. Notwithstanding it has been questioned,- whether
they all, with equal success, penetrated into the whole
system of their master's doctrine, yet it is certain that the
Spirit of Jesus animated them all. Paul, who was one
of them, and the most active among them, employed his
Jewish learning in explaining and enforcing Christianity.*
Sec. 11. Opinions of the early Christians.
The views and the convictions of such as united with
the christians, in the earliest times, could not but be ex-
ceedingly various and unlike ; for they had differed ex-
tremely in religion, in education, in habits, and other cir-
cumstances; and it must have been a considerable time,
before the community could annihilate, or even diminish
greatly, the peculiarities of individuals. JHere, labored
zealous teachers, (the apostolic fathers,) in the true spirit
* Had the translator felt himself at liberty to express his own
views, he would in this section have given far more distinctness
and prominence to those miraculous gifl*^ or that divine inspiration^
which Christ promised to his disciples, to qualify them for their of-
fice. But such liberty was not allowable in a translation : and the
translator begs leave to remind the reader, that the privale opinions
and theological hypotheses, occasionally appearing among the his-
torical facts in different parts of the work, are always those of the
author^ who alone is responsible for them.
26
of the apostles, though with diminished power. TAere,
other christians formed a closer union with Judaism,
And a third class, (the Gnostics,) wishing to separate
Christianity altogether from Judaism, shaped it according
to their own speculations.
Sec. 12. The Church and its Creed.
The disorders arising from this diversity of views, and
which tended to the prostration of the christian cause,
might contribute, at least, to induce various churches to
unite together, and to acknowledge none as true chris-
tians, who did not embrace a definite but simple creed.
A belief in the Father, as the Creator of the world ; in
the Son, who became a man and died for the salvation of
men ; in the Holy Ghost, who guided the ancient pro-
phets, as well as the aposdes ; joined with the expectation
of a future judgment and divine retribution ; were the
chief articles of this creed, which was propagated by oral
instruction. Yet with it, the holy scriptures of the Old
Testament, were used ; and gradually also, the writings of
the apostles and the apostohcal Fathers.
Note. A Creed is given by Ireneus, adv. Haeres. L. I. c.
10. by Tertulliarit deYe\3.nd\sY'\rgin, c. l.de Praescript.
Haeres. c. 13. contra Prax. c.2. and by Origin, de Prin-
cip. Prefatio. {Schiitz) Progr. de]Regula fidei apud Ter-
tullianum ; Jenae, 1781. 4to.
Sec. 13. The received Theology,
About the middle of the second century, various per-
sons joined the christian community, who were no stran-
gers to Grecian learning and science. They needed and
employed this knowledge and their intellectual \ngor, in
the various conflicts in which the church was involved.
Pagans and Jews slandered Christianity; and writers ap-
peared against it. These were answered by apologies.
The sects which were excluded from the churches,
sought revenge; and they framed bold systems of belief.
Within the church, the seeds of new controversies sprung
up. Thus occasion was afforded for apologies, and for
controversial writings; and new statements and expositions
I
1^ OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 27
of the christian doctrines were introduced, in which the
Bible and tradition were used as the sources of know-
ledge, and philosophy employed as an auxiliary.
Reference, Jno. G, Rosenmiiller, de christianae theologiae
origine liber. Lips, 1786. 8vo.
Sec. 14. Estimation of the Bible,
The Old Testament was received, as a divine revela-
tion, by the general church, but not by the Gnostics and
Manichaeans, Yet some esteemed only the books writ-
ten in Hebrew as divine, while others included those also
which were found in Greek. By the Manichaeans, the
books of the New Testament were not regarded as the
genuine productions of the apostles; and previously,
Marcion had denied the authority of all the apostles ex-
cept Paul, and had used only one gospel and two epistles
of Paul. The Catholics, from the middle of the second
century, received with one voice the four gospels, the
book of Acts, the Pauline epistles, and the first epistles of
Peter and John ; but they held different opinions respect-
ing the other books. Divine inspiration was predicated,
equally, of the Old and New Testaments, and no person
was prohibited from reading either.
References, (Corodi^) Essay for elucidating the History of
the Jewish and Christian biblical Canons ; (in German,)
Halle, 1792. n. vol. 8vo. Contributions to the History
of the New Testament Canon ; (in German,) by Chr.
Fried, Weber; Tubing. 1791. Critical History of the
New Testament Scriptures ; (in German,) by J. E. Chr.
Schmidt; Giessen, 1804. II. vol.8vo. Chr,W,Fr. Walchy
Critical investigation of the use made of the Holy Scrip-
tures in the four first centuries ; (in German,) Lips. J 779.
8vo. Compare G. E. Lessing's Theological Remains ;
(in German,) Berlin, 1784. 8vo.
Sec. 15. Use of the Bible.
The teachers, with the exception only of Origen and
Jerome, depended entirely on the Greek and Latin trans-
lations of the Old Testament. And, in the New Tesr
tament, many Latins followed solely their version. The
28 muenscher's elements
interpretation of the Bible was not based on sound princi-
ples, and run much into allegorical meanings. The theory
of interpretation proposed by Origen, was not indeed
embraced in all its parts by the succeeding fathers, yet
was often partially adopted. The pure grammatical ex-
positions, attempted in the East, by Theodorus of Mop-
suestia, after the fourth century, met with little encourage-
ment. John Chrysostom, following the laxer principles
of the Antiochean school, met with more approbation.
The occasional disagreements, between the received doc-
trines and the Bible, were adjusted by recurrence to the
principle of accommodation, supposed to be adopted by
the writers of the Bible ; yet Irenaeus and Augustine de-
clared against it.
Reference, J, G. Rosenmulleri, Historia interpretationis
Jibrorum sacrorum in ecclesia Christiana ; in V. Parts.
Hildburgh. 1795—1807. Lips, 1813-14. 8vo.
Fr.A.Carus, Historia antiquior sententiarum ecclsiae grae-
cae, de accommodatione Christo imprimis et Apostolis
tributa. Lips, 1793. 4to.
Sec. 16. Tradition,
Tradition was at first the primary, and afterwards con-
tinued to be the secondary, source of a knowledge of Chris-
tianity. On tradition was founded the decision respect-
ing the Canon of the Bible. It was resorted to, as a rule
for interpreting the scriptures, and as a means of ascer-
taining the doctrines of Christianity, and for the confuta-
tion of opposers. The decisions of ecclesiastical councils,
and the writings of eminent divines, continually widened
the compass and extent of traditional knowledge. A way
was also devised, for removing or concealing the difficul-
ties, which attended the use of tradition, arising from the
contradictory opinions advanced by the older fathers.
Vincentius of Lirins gave a system of rules, to be used in
appealing to tradition. Besides the public traditions of
the church, the Gnostics, and likewise some Catholic fa-
thers, as Clemens Alexandrinus, made pretensions to pri-
vate traditions, which were preserved by the apostles and
their confidential disciples.
OF DOGEATIC HISTORY. 29
Reference, H. P. Marheinecke, on the meaning of Tra-
dition in the Catholic System ; (in German,) in Daub u.
Creutzer's Studien. vol. IV. 2. p. 320. «Sz^c.
Sec. 17. Philosophy.
Some Gnostics had previously mixed up philosophical
speculations with Christianity 5 but it was past the middle
of the second century, when the catholic fathers began to
make use of philosophy. However hazardous it was, in
the view oi Irenams and TertuUian, to combine philoso-
phy with Christianity ; in the view of the Alexandrian fa-
thers, it was deemed necessary and salutary. They were,
indeed, far from preferring Grecian philosophy to the de-
clarations of Jesus Christ ; and likewisejfrom paying abso-
lute homage to any philosophical sect whatever, though
they valued Plato above all the other philosophers ; but
they used philosophy as an auxiliary, to elucidate and
confirm the christian doctrines, and to impress their truth
upon the educated Pagans. And there continued to be,
afterwards, different opinions respecting the utility of phi-
losophy ; which, however, had less and less influence on
the articles of christian faith, as the tenets of the general
church became more definitely fixed.
References. J. A, G. Neander, de fidei gnoseosque idea,
et ea, qua ad se invicim et ad philosophiam referantur,
ratione secundum Clementem Alexand. Heidelb, 1811.
8vo.
Le Platonisme "de voile (par Souverain,) a Cologne 1700,
Bvo. — and in German, by J. F, Ldffler, ed. 2. Ziillich.
1792. Bvo.
{Baltus^) Defense de Saints Peres accuses du Platonisme.
Paris, 1711. 4to.
Laur Mosheim, Diss, de turbata per recentiores Platonicos
ecclesia ; in his Dissertt. ad Historiam eccles. vol. 1. ed.
1743.
Histoire critique de 1' electicisme, ou des nouveaux Platoni-
ciens. Paris, 1766. 2 vols. 12mo.
C. A. Theoph, Keil, de doctoribus ecclesiae culpa corruptae
4
30 MUENSCHER S ELEMENTS.
per Platonicas sententias Theologiae liberandis ; Com-
mentatt. I— XIV. Lips. 1793, &,c.
History of Philosophy ; (in German,) by W. Gottl. Tenne-
mann. 7th vol. Lips. 1809.
Sec. 18. Character of the Theologians.
From the sources and auxiliaries now described, the-
ological systems were framed. The Asiatic teachers, as
Irenaeus, kept nearer to the apostolical simplicity. The
African, Tertullian, distinguished himself by a more
gloomy strictness, and by a glowing imagination. The
Alexandrians, among whom Clement was prominent^
shewed more freedom of thought, and a more metaphys-
ical disposition, and made a distinction between the popu-
lar belief and scientific investigations, (*»5<? and ^vwCtg.)
[References. A. Neander, General History of the Christian
religion and church : (in German.) vol. L P. HI. p. 861
— 957, ed. Hamb. 1827.]
Idea of the perfectability of Christianity, entertained by the
Gnostics and the Manichaeans, by the Montanists, by
Origen and Vincent of Lirins.
Sol, Deyling, Irenaeus evangelicae veritatis confessor et tes-
tis : — in his Observatt. miscellaneis. p. 3. — J, G, Walchy
de Clemente Alexandrino et ejus erroribus ; in his Mis-
cell, sacris. p. 510.
Sec. 19. Origen.
In the Alexandrian school arose Origen, who excel-
led all the other teachers in learning and untiring activity.
He not only defended Christianity against Celsus, but, in
his work de Principiis {'^^spi ap;)^wv,) made the first at-
tempt to philosophise on christian doctrines in their con-
nections. His chief object was, to shew that the wisdom
and goodness of the divine govenment were in harmony
with the freedom of man's will. The many peculiar
ideas and hypotheses which he advanced, are worthy ol
attention, although not received into the prevailing sys-
tem of belief. Even in his life time, and still more after
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 31
his death, he was held in very different estimation. Far
less was the influence of the Latin fathers, Cyprian^ No*
vatian, Arnobius, and Latantius, in perfecting system-
atic theology.
Reference. P. Dan, Huet, Origeniana : — in Origen's
Works, ed. de la Rue. torn. IV.
Sec 20. Christianity, as the prevailing Religion.
Soon after the commencement of the fourth century,
a great change took place, when the Roman Emperors
professed themselves Christians ; and the consequences
in regard to theology, were extensive and important.
Now, the court concerned itself with points of faith
among christians. Now, theological controversies were
decided and creeds established, by general councils.
Now, certain distinguished bishops in the principal sees,
had the chief concern in defining the articles of faith.
The rapid spread of monkery, infused its spirit into the
theologians. The prevailing belief was still defended by
arguments from the Bible and from tradition ; but strict
orthodoxy was esteemed of higher importance ; and a
mysterious efficacy was more and more ascribed to reli-
gious rites and usages. Freedom of inquiry was cramp-
ed ; and deceptive reasoning was sometimes allowed of
in theology.
Sec. 21. Religious controversies.
The religious controversies, which were carried on
with the greatest vehemence, contributed very much, to
shape the system of theology. There was controversy
with the Manichaeans, respecting the origin of evil, and
respecting divine providence ; and with the Donatists,
respecting the true notion of a church. The Arian con-
test procured for Athanasius, the reputation of being the
father of orthodoxy, and afforded Basil of Cesarea, Hi-
lary of Poictiers, and the two Gregorys, an opportunity
to display their talents. The Pelagian contest put in
jrequisition the unceasing activity of Augustine. The
protracted quarrel respecting the person of Christ, the
seeds of which were sowed in the fourth century, but
attained maturity in the fifth, attracted general attention ;
though Cyril of Alexandria, Theodoret and Leo the
Great, were the most prominent in it ; as Facundus, Bp»
of Hermiane, was in the dispute concerning the Three
Chapters. The Romish Bishop, Gregory the great, clo-
ses the list of distinguished fathers in this period.
Sec. 22. System of Theology.
While some controverted points of doctrine were ex-
amined with diligence, very little was done for advan-
cing the general system of theology. Some efforts for a
popular exhibition of it, were made by Cyril of Jerusa-
lem, Rvfinus, Theodoret, and Gennadius, The more
full religious instruction by Gregory of Nyssa, was in-
tended for the use of the learned. An abundance of
materials for an occidental system of theology, was pre-
pared by Augustine ; who brought into circulation many
new views, to which his influence gave currency.
References, Sol. Deyling, Cy rill us Hierosol. a corrupte-
lis Pontificiorum purgatus ; in his Observatt. Miscell. p.
116. — [Engelstofft^) Hieronymus Stridoniensis, interpres,
criticus, exegeta, &c. Hafniae, 1797. 8vo.
Sec. 23. Decline of theologicalleaming.
After the middle of the fifth century, theological
learning depreciated. There were no seminaries, for the
education of religious teachers. A disposition to make
investigation, gave place to a servile repetition of what
had been said by others ; and compilations appeared, in-
stead of original works. Ignorance and superstition got
the upper hand ; and a tenacious adherence to the decis-
ions of ecclesiastical councils and of the eminent fathers,
characterized the theologians. Junilius sketched the
plan of a system ; and the spurious writings of Dyoni^
sius the Areopagite, encouraged the inclination to su-*
perstitious creations of the imagination.
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 33
Meferences, Junilius, de Parti bus legis divinae Lib. 11. —
Jo, Dalle, de Scriptis, quae sub Dyonisii Areopagitae et
Ignatii Antioch. nomine circuiriferunler. Genev. 1666.
4to.
PART II.
HISTORY OF PARTICULAR DOCTRINES.
CHAPTER I.
DOCTRINE OF THE KINGDOM OF CHRIST.
Sec. 24. Origin of the Idea,
The Jewish nation expected a kingdom, to be estab-
lished by the Messiah ; and this idea Jesus did not reject,
but only elevated and improved it. The christians were
distinguished from the Jews, by considering the Mes-
siah as already come, and by their anticipation of his
second coming in glory. The approaching kingdom of
the Messiah was, by most christians, described with sensi-
ble imagery, after the Jewish manner. Thus was form-
ed the doctrine of Chiliasm ; which was embraced by the
heretic Cerinthus,{l) as well as by the Bp. Papias,{2,)
(1) Buseh H. E. III. c. 28. Theodoret, Haeret. II. c. 3.
(2) Irenaeus, adv. Haeres. V. c. 33, and Euseb. H. E. III.
c. 39.
Reference. De regno Christi in N. T. formulis ^cudiksioLZ
0SX, &c. expresso ; Excursus II. in the Koppian N. Test,
on E p. to the Thess. — C. A. TL Keil, Historia dogmatis
de regno Messiae, Christi et Apostolorum aetate ; Lips.
1781, 4to. — I. C Rud. Eckermann^s Theological con-
tributions : (in German,) vol. II. P. I. p. 67. — C. CJir.
Flatt, Diss, de notione vocis ^oLdiKsioL <rwv oupav6jv. Tubing.
1794, 4to.
W. Miinscher, Historical account of the doctrine of a thou-
sand years reign, as held in the three first centuries : (in
4*
34
German,) in Henke's Magazin fiir Religionsphiloso-
phie, u. s. w. vol. VI. P. II. p. 233 &c.— (Corodi.)
Critical history of Chiliasm; (in German,) ed. 2. 1794, IV.
vol. 8vo.
Sec. 25. Friends and opposers of Chiliasm.
The Gnostics (1) were decided opposers of the thou-
^isend years reign : yet in the second century, the doc-
trine came near to being accounted a part of the ortho-
dox faith, and was defended by the most reputable fa-
thers, as Justin Martyr (2), Irenaeus (3), and Tertulli"
an (4). The Montaiiists, appear to have been much
attached to this doctrine. On the contrary, it met with
opposition from some Catholics, particularly those of Al-
exandria; and Origen[b) labored with great zeal, to banish
from the church an opinion, which he deemed to be Jew-
ish and degrading to Christianity.
(1) Miinscher^s Manual of dogmatic history, vol. II. Sec.
272, Walck's History of Heresies, vol. I. p. 515.
(2) Dial, cum Tryph. p. 177, 178, 202, 203.
(3) adv. Haeres. V. 25—36.
(4) contra Marcion. III. c. 24.
(5) Proleg. in Cantic. 0pp. T. III. p. 26. de Princip.
L. II. ell. Opp. T. I. p. 104— in Psalm. Opp. II. p.
570— in Matth. Opp. III. p. 827. contra Gels. IV. Opp.
L p. 516.
Sec. 26. Last struggles of Chiliasm.
Notwithstanding the efforts of Origen, Chiliasm contin-
ued to find advocates. Methodius ( 1 ) and Hippolytus (2)
were its patrons ; and the Egyptian Bishop, Jfepos, (3)
undertook to confute the arguments of Origen. But JDi-
onysius of Alexandria (4) espoused the side of Origen,
and he brought the Chiliasts, and their champion Cora-
don, to renounce it. From that time, the reigning pro-
pensity to this doctrine declined ; especially, as the rela-
tions of the church to the Roman government became
changed. Yet the doctrine was held by individuals, so
late as the fourth century ; among whom were Lactan-
tius (5) Apollinaris, (6) and vaiious western chris-
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. *^$
tians (7.) Even Augustine^ (8) at first, admitted a
thousand years reign of Christ, though a spiritual one :
but he afterwards gave up that idea.
(1) Sympos. X, Virgin, p. 129.
(2) SeeP/io^m5,Bibloth. cod. 202. p. 525.
(3) Euseh. H. E. VII. c. 24.
(4) Euseh. 1. c.
f5J Institt. divin. L. VII. c. 14—26.
(6) Epiphan. Haeres. LXXVII. Sec. 26. j'O
(7) Jerome, Prooem. in Lib. XVII. Jesaiae, 0pp. Toni.{¥. ^/>.
p. 203 <S^c. \t\ "^6
(8) Sermo CLTX. Opp. Tom. V. p. 1060. de CivitVwSj*
Dei. XX. c. 7. Retract. I. c. 17. ^^^lI:
Sec. 27. Doctrine oj the Resurrection.
Sources of the history of it. — Besides occasional notices;
see Justin Martyr, Airoki^is resurrectioniscnrnis. — Athe-
nagoras^ de Resurrectione Liber. — Tertullian,de Resur-
rectione carnis. — Origen, de Principiis L. II. c. 10. —
Cyril of Jerusalem, Calech. XVIII. — Gregory Nyssen^
de Anima et Resurrectione. — Ambrose, de Fide resur-
rectionis.— Aw^M^/iwe, de Civitate Dei, L. XXII.
Histories of the doctrine. Fides dogmatis de Resurrectione
carnis per IV. priora secula. Enarratio historico-criti-
ca; by W. Alb. Teller, Halle and Helmst, 1766. 8vo.
History of opinions, concerning the state of man after
death, in the christian church ; (in German,) by Ch. W,
FUgge, Lips. 1799—1800. II. vols. 8vo.
This doctrine was closely connected with that of Chil-
iasm ; and with it, passed from the Jews to the Chris-
tians. Those who suffered death under persecution,
before the full establishment of the Messiah's kingdom,
were not to be excluded from its blessedness. The Mes-
siah, it was supposed, would recall them to life again.
Jesus himself taught a resurrection of the dead; and
Paul advanced a beautiful theory concerning it. But
the Chiliasts maintained the restoration of the former
bodies of men, with all their parts and members ; and
endeavored to make this to be conceivable. Justin Mar-
36 muenscher's elements
tyr and TertulUan composed their treatises on the re-
surrection, with these views.
Sec. 28. Opposition to this grosser theory.
The Gnostics could not admit, at all, the doctrine of
a resurrection ; because it contravened one of their funda-
mental principles, that of the incurable malignancy of
matter. They, of course, anticipated rewards and pu-
nishments only for the soul. The Alexandrians, Ch-
mens{l) and Origen, (2) adhered indeed to the prevailing
doctrine of a resurrection of the body ; but they discard-
ded the idea, that the entire human body, with all its
parts and members, would be restored to its former con-
dition ; and maintained, that God would bestow on men
more refined bodies, better suited to their elevated state.
In this they were influenced by the Platonic notions, that
the body is a shackle to the soul,(3) and that human souls
existed before the creation of this material world.
(1) Paedag. 11. c. 10. and III. c. 1,4.
(2) de Princip. Prooem. Sec. 5. p. 48. — contra Cels. V. 690
594 &c. and Lib. VIII. p. 777 &c. and Lib. II. c. 2, 3, 10.
(3) Clemens Alex. Strom. IV. p. 5G9.
Sec 29. Subsequent history of the doctrine.
The opinions of the Gnostics was again advanced
by the Manicheans -,[!) but was absolutely rejected by
the church. On the other hand, the grosser theory,
(which however was detached from its connexion with
Chiliasm,) and the more refined theory of Origen, both
held their place in the church, for a long time ;(2) until,
Epiphanius{3) and Jerome,[4) in their controversy with
John bishop of Jerusalem and Rujinus, pressed closely
the letter of the creed, that the same bodies with all their
former parts and members, would be raised again. Even
Jlugustine{b) finally declared himself of this opinion;
and the opposite opinion sunk more and more into dis-
repute, till at length the Emperor Jw5^imaw(6) proscribed
it. Yet subsequently, all disagreements in the explana-
tion of the doctrine were not entirely at an end.(7)
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 37
(t) TheodoreU Epit. Haer. Lib. I. c. 26.
(2) Miinscher^s Handbu. vol. IV. p. 438 &.c.
(3) Ancor. § 89—102. Haeres LIV. § 63 &c.
(4) Adv. errores Joannis Hieros.ad Pammach.Opp.Tom.IL
p. 118, &c. Epitaph. Paulae, ad Eustoch. Opp. Tom*
I. p. 117. Apol. contra Rufin. L. II. 0pp. II. p. 145.
(5) Enchirid. ad Laurent, c. 86, 87,89—91. deCivitate
Dei. XXIL C.13— 21.
(6) Mansi, Concil. Tom. IX. p. 400, 616.
(7) Miinscher, 1. c. p. 449 &c.
Sec. 30. The intermediate state.
The inquiries respecting the resurrection, and thecom*
mencement of the future retributions, unavoidably brought
up the question, What is the state of the soul, when it is
separate from the body .'' In answering it, the early fathers
combined the old notion of a region of shades, with the
doctrine of recompense after death. All souls, said they,
pass immediately, after death, into the lower world ; where
the good, severed from the others, enjoy a foretaste of
blessedness, and the bad have a foretaste of punishment;
until the time of full retribution, after the resurrection.
Yet the souls of martyrs, have the privilege of going, im-
mediately after death, to heavenly bliss. The place of
residence for good souls, that died after Christ's day, was
different from AhraharrCs bosom, or the residence of the
souls that died before Christ, — out of which, however,
Christ had removed them.
Reference. Irenaeus, adv. Haeres. II. c. 34. V. c. 6, 31.
Justin Martyr, Dial. p. 107, 178, 200. TertuUian, de
Anima. c. 7, 43, 65,68. de Resurrect, c. 17, 43. Apolo-
get. c. 47. de Monog. c. 10, contra Marcion, IV. c. 34.
Origen, 0pp. Tom. I. p. 36, 106, 213,434, 696 &c. Tom.
II. p. 222, 372, 496 &c. Hippolytus, 0pp. ed Fabric.
Tom I. p. 220.
Treatise on the belief of the Fathers respecting the state of
souls after the present life : (in French,) by Dav, Blon-
deh Charenton, 1661, 4to.
38 muenscher's elements
S, L Baumgarten, Historia doctrinae de statu animarum
separatarum ; Halle, 1754. 4to.
Jo, Aug. Dietelmair, Historia dogmatis de descensu Christi
ad inferos, ed. 2. 1768. 8vo.
J, S. Semler, Observatio historico-dogmatica, de vario fet im-
parl studio veterum in recolenda Historia descensus Christi
ad inferos; Hal. 1776. 4to.
Dogmatis de descensu I. C. ad inferos Historiam biblicam
atque ecclesiasticam, composuitJ. CZaw56n.Hafn.1801.8vo
Sec. 31. Subsequent modifications.
As martyrdoms became less frequent, the privilege of
immediate admission to the world of glory, was extended
beyond the class of martyrs, to persons of distinguished
piety, particularly to]ascetics and monks. And now, Au-
gustine{l) fell upon the idea, that the place of other souls,
which were destined to glory, but were not quite fit for it
at leaving the body, was a place oi purgation. As pre-
paring the way for this idea, it had been customary, from
the earliest times, to pray for the souls of the dead ;(2)
and various early fathers had mentioned a purifying fire;
which, however, they placed in the process of the gene-
ral judgment, or subsequent to it. (3)
(1) de Civitate Dei. XXI. c. 13, 24, 26. contra Julian. VI.
c. 15. § 46, and 0pp. Tom VI. p. 127, 128, 180, 181.
(2) Tertull. de Monog. c, 10. contra Marcion. III. c. 24.
Epipkan, Haeres. LXXV. § 3, 7. Cyril. Hieros. Ca-
tech. XXIII. § 9, 10. Chrysost. in Ep. ad Philip. Ho-
mil. III.— in Ep. I. ad Cor. Homil. XLI.
(3) Methodius-, in Photius, Biblioth. Cod. 234, p. 923.
Lactantius. Instit. div. VII. c. 21.
Sec. 32. Purgatory fully established.
The theory advanced without assurance by Augustine,
was held up as certain, by Caesarius[l) of Aries, and
Gregory(2) the Great. According to them, the souls which
had been guilty ot venial sins, but had not done ade-
quate penance for them in this life, would suffer, according
to the degree of their guilt, a longer or shorter time, after
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY* 59
deathjin a fire of purgation; and then would pass into the place
of the blessed. The anguish of these souls, moreover,
may be mitigated, or curtailed, by the prayers and the good
works of tlie living.
(1) Homil. VIII. extant in the Biblioth. max. Patr. Tom.
VIII. p. 826-28. and in 0pp. Augustini, Tom. V. Ap-
pend. Serm. CIV. p. 185.
(2) Dialog. Lib. IV. c. 39, 40, 65.
Sec. 33. Hell
Hell, (Gehenna,) or the place of the damned, was totally
distinct from the fire of purgatory. On the duration of hell-
torments, there was not perfect uniformity of sentiment.
Some, as Arnobius,[l) and perhaps Justin Martyr, sup-
posed the punishment would end, in the annihilation of
those who sufiered it. Origen[2) allowed to the damned
a hope of their reformation and salvation ; and this idea is
seen to glimmer, even in the corrupt translation of his
writings by Rujinus. The similar views of Gregory{S)
of Nyssa, in many of his declarations, cannot be construed
away. Also the Antiochian fathers, Diodorus{4) of Tar-
sus, and Theodore{p) of Mopsuestia, believed in the ter-
mination of future punishment. Jerome insisted, indeed,
on the eternal punishment of all who rejected Christianity ;
but he allowed wicked christians to hope for a release. By
far the greater part of the fathers, however, declared them-
selves believers in the eternity of the torments of all the wick-
ed ;(6) and the zeal of the Emperor Jw^^ma/i caused the
ideas of Origen on this subject, to be anathematized. (7)
( 1 ) adv. Gentes. Lib. II. p. 52, 86.
(2) de Princip. L.II. c. 3, 5, 6,10. Lib. IIL c. 6, 8, and 0pp.
Tom. L p. 23L Tom. IL p. 113, 115, 230. Tom. IIL p.
667. Yet he would conceal this doctrine from the peo-
ple, as being corrupting: contra Gels. L.III. pA99^ L.VI.
p. 650. L.V. p. 598, 599, and 0pp. Tom. II. p. 688, 889.
Tom. III. p. 267.
( 3 ) Orat. catech. c. 8, 26, 85.
40 muencher's elements
(4 and 6) See Assemann, Biblioth. Orient. T. III. P. I. p.
323, 324.
(6) Justin Martyr, Apol. II. p. 48, 60, 74. Dial. p. 141,223.
Tatian, Orat. ad Graec. p. 264 &c. Theoph. ad Autol.
p. 346. Irenaeus, adv. Haer. V. c. 27. Tertullian,
Apologet. c. 48. de Resurr. carnis c. 36. de Testimonio
Anim. c. 4. Mxnudus Felix, Octav. c. 36. Cyprian,
ad Demetr. p. 196. Lactantius, Instit. div. VII. c. 21,
26. Basilihe Great, 0pp. Tom. II. p. 607. torn. III.
p. 663. CynZ of Jerus. Cat. IV. § 30. XVIII. § 19. Hilary
of Poictiers, Comment, in Matth. c. V. § 12. p. 636.
Chrysostom, ad Theodor. lapsum. I. c. 6. 0pp. T. IV. p.
659. Augustine^ in many places ; e. g. Enchir. ad Laur.
c. Ill, 112. de Civiiate Dei. XXI. passim. Pelagius,
Symbol, in Walchii Bibl. symbol, p. 196. Cyril of A\-
exand. de Exitu animae &c. Opp, Tom. V. P. II. p,
409. Theodoret, in Isai. Opp. T. II. p. 396. Genna-
dius, de dogmat. eccles. c. 9. Fulgentius of Ruspe, de
Remiss, peccat. L. II. c. 13 &c. Cassiodorus, de Ani-
ma. c. 12. Gregory the Gr. Moral. IX. c. 38, Dialog.
IV. c. 44.
(7) Mansi Concil. IX. p. 399, 618.
References, J. A. Dietelmaier, Commenti fanatici a-roxa-
rag'atfscAig cravrwv Historia antiquior. Altorf. 1769, 8vo.
J.Fr,Cotta, Historia succincta dogmatis de poenarum infer-
nalium duratione. Tubing. 1774.
Hos. Ballou. (History of the doctrine of universal salvation :)
Boston, 1827. 12mo.
Sec. 34. Doctrine concerning the Church,
With the doctrine of the glorious kingdom of Christ,
and the rewards and punishments there to be expected,
the early christians connected the doctrine of the
church, as being the present kingdom of Christ, and the
institution which was preparatory to the future state of
glory. Though the society of christians was spoken
of by Jesus, as being one ; yet this unity had reference
solely to a moral oneness. Moreover, the first christ-
ian communities were bound together, only by their feel-
ings of brotherly love, and by their acts of kindness.
Ignatius, however, pressed upon christians, to adhere close-
ly to their respective Bishops.
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 41
Sec. 35. Unity of the general Church.
Before the end of the second century, the idea of
one churchy as an establishment of the apostles, spread
over the whole world, and harmonizing in doctrine, was
formed. Irenaeus, the first that expressed this idea, con-
nected with it the thoughts, that only in this catholic church
can the truth be found, and that all separations from
it are reprehensible. • By the African doctors, Tertullian
and Cyprian^ these thoughts were widely propagated;
and in the fourth century, the belief in one, holy, catholic,
and apostolic church, was made an article of the public
creed.
Reference, Cyprian, de Unitate ecclesiae Liber*
Sec. 36. Controversies respecting the marks of a true
church.
The Novatians declared their community to be, the on-
ly true church ; because all others had become corrupt,
by receiving the lapsed to fellowship. The same assump-
tion was made by the Donatists ; yet with this difference,
in the ground of it, that the other churches were con-
taminated, by their communing with Traditors. And
hence, Augustine took occasion, to represent Catholicism
as the sign of a true church ; so that purity in all its mem-
bers, was not requisite. His views were generally em-
braced. The Romish bishops began early, to seize upon
the idea, that it belonged to them to be the head of the
general church.
References. Optatus Milevit. de Schismate Donatistarum,
L. Vm. ed. L. E. Du Pin. Paris, 1701. Augustine,
contra Parmenianum Donatist.L.III. — contra Lileras Pe-
tiliani, L. iii. — de Unitate ecclesiae, L. I. — contra Cres-
conium Doiiat. L. IV. — contra Gaudentium Donat. L. IL
5
42 muenschek's ei.ements
CHAPTER IL
doctrine concerning angels, and devils.
Histories of it. Jac Ode, Tractatus de Angelis ; Traj. acl
Rhen. 1739. 4to. J. Ft. Cotta, Diss. II, sucrinctam
, doctrinae de Angelis historiam exhihentes: Tubing. 1765.
4to,
Sec. 37. Existence of Angels,
With the belief of an approaching glorious kingdom ol
the Messiah, the Christians had also a belief of a power-
ful, but invisible kingdom of spirits, which had a constant
influence on the earth and on the state of men ; and this
belief, which they derived from the Jewish theology, was
to them of great importance, and very efficient in kindling
religious feelings. The angels were considered as be-
ings, who derived their origin from God, (though the
time and manner of their origin were differently repre*
sented,) who ranked above men, yet were not absolutely
uncorporeal ; and who were divided into two classes,
good and bad angels.
Reference, Justin Martyr^ Apol. maj. Sec. 6, p. 47. *E-
xSivov <rs (rov dXyj^sgarov ©sov xaj -rrarspa) x«i tov ^ap' aurs
Ciov sX^ovToc xat (5i5a|avTa >;//«a^ raura, xat «rGv twv ctXXwv
§«jrojxevwv xai ggofjLoiij|xgvwv a^a^wv d ^ ^ 5 X w v crparov, flrvsufJUJt
rs TO •rpo(pr]<rixov tfs^ofJt-FS^a xat 'jrp6a'xuvs|JL5v Xo^w xai ctXrj^sia
«r»|*wv<rs?. This passage is capable, indeed, of different
interpretations ; yet in any way, it shows the high import-
ance then attached to the doctrine concerning angels.
Sec. 38. Offices of the Angels,
The Crnostics ascribed to angels, the creation of the
material world, the enactment of the Jewish law, and the
inspiration of the ancient prophets. And the other christ-
tians were persuaded that God, in governing the world,
used the instrumentality of angels. An angel was as-
Of DOGMATIC HISTORY. 48
Signed to each nation, as its overseer ; and to each per-
son, one or two guardian angels were appointed. This
last hypothesis was first published by Hermas, in his
Shepherd.(l)
(U Herman, Pastor, Mandat. VI.
Reference, F, Schmidt^ Historia dogmatis de Angelis tu-
telaribus, P. L in the memoirs of the Historico-theolo-
gical Society of Leipsic, edited by Illgen, Lips. 1818.
p. 24—71.
Sec. 39. Condition of the Angels.
The opinion of Origen^ that even the good angels
were not faultless, and beyond the danger of sinning,
was cried down by the later fathers ; who maintained,
that the angels had, through the grace of God, become
confirmed in holiness. That they were divided into
various classes, was frequently asserted; even before
the j)seudo'Dionysius Areopagita published a formal
theory on the subject.
Reference. Dionys, Areop. de Hierarchia coelesti.
Sec. 40. Invocation of angels.
However much the ancient churches might respect
the angels, the proofs of their praying to them are, at
least, not certain. The first intimation of it, is to be
found, in Ambrose :(1) and yet in his age, and even after-
wards, opinions against it are to be met with. Grego-
ry[2) the Great believed, that the angels were worship-
ped in the times of the Old Testament; but not, that
christians should worship them.
(\j de Viduis ; Opp. T. I. p. 146.
(2) Expos, in Cant. Cant. c. 8. Opp. T. II. p. 56.
See Euseb. Praep. Evan. VII. c. 15. Athanas. contra
Arian. Orat. IV. Council of Laodocea, Can. 35. in
Mansi Concil. T. U. p. 570. Epiphan. Haeret.
LXXIX. n. 5 and 7.
44
Sec. 41. Apostacy of Angels.
That there were certain spirits, wicked by nature, and
of whom God was not the creator ; was maintained by
some Gnostic sects, by the Manichaens, and by the Pria-
cilianists. But in opposition to these sects, the catholic
church maintained, that the devil and his angels were
creatures, whom God created holy, and who had plunged
themselves into sin and wretchedness, by their own vol-
untary act. Respecting the first transgression of the
devil, there were different opinions ; yet the belief, that
many of the angels sinned, by having intercourse with
the daughters of men, was very general, in the early
ages(l) ; and was first controverted hy John ChrysostorUj
Augustine^ Cyril of Alexandria, and Theodoret.
(1) So thdught Eusebius, Praep. Evan. V. c. 4. Ambrose,.
de Noe et area. c. 4, and Sulpicius Severus, Hist. Sa-
cra I. c. 3.
Sec. 42. Power and influenee of evil spirits.
The early christians had terrific conceptions of the
power of demons ; yet they did not suppose it to be un-
limited, but regarded it as controled by God. The whole
worship of the pagans, they considered as paid to de-
mons, and as instituted by them. The persecutions of
the christians, the establishment of heresies, and innu-
merable temptations to sin, were attributed to their in-
fluence. Such as were not christians, were supposed to
be all under the dominion of the devil; who had no
power over christians, without their consent, and who took
to flight whenever they prayed or made the sign of the
cross.
Sec 43. The prospects of evil spirits.
That punishment and misery would be the lot of the
devil and the demons, was not doubted at all. That
they might one day be reclaimed and become happy,
was admitted by Origen ; but, though some respectable
OP DOGMATIC HISTORY. 45
fathers, &s Didymus and Gregory of Nyssa, embraced
the same opinion, it was rejected by most of the fathers,
was violently assailed by Theophilus^ Jerome, and Au-
gustine, and was proscribed by the Emperor Justinian.(l)
(!) See the references, above, Sec. 33.
CHAPTER III.
'i'HE TRUTH OF THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION.
Sources of our information. The Gr. Apologists ; namely,
Justin Martyr^ ^PP« Tatian, Orat. Athenagoras, Le-
gatio ; Theophilus, ad Aotolyc. Libri IJL Hermias,
Irrisio gentil. Philosoph. ed, Benedict, (by Prudentius
Maran.) Hagae Com. 1742. Also Clemens Alex. Ex-
hort, ad Graec. Tertullian, Apologet. Minucius Fe-
lix, Octavius ; Cyprian, de Idolor. vanitate ; Arnohius,
adv. Gentes, Libri VII. Lactantius, Instit. divin. Li-
bri VII. and Epitome; Athanasius, Oiat. contra Gent.
Eusehius Caesar, Praeparatio Evan. Libri XV. and De-
monstratio Evan. Libri X. Jul. Firm. Maternus, de
Errore profanor. gentium. Ambrose in Symmach. Epp.
II. Augustine, dc Civitate Dei, Libri XXII. Tkeodo^
ret, Graecanicor, morbor. curatio. Origen, adv. Celsuni,
Libri VII ; and Cyril, contra Jul. Libri X.
Histories written. Ck. F. Eisenlohr, Argumenta ab
Apologetis Secul. II. ad confirmandam religionis Christ,
veritatem ac praestantiam, contra Gentiles usurpata :
Tubing, 1797. 4to.
History of apologetics ; (in German,) by H, G. Tzschir-
ner, I. vol. L^ps. 1805.
Sec. 44.
All the preceding doctrines were received by the
christians, though with some modifications, entirely from
the Jews. But new fields of investigation opened, in the
<:ontests with the pagans, as the rapid spread of Christian-
ity called forth their opposition. A series of apologists
46 muenscher's elements
attempted, to evince the absurdity of the pagan religions,
and the vast superiority of Christianity ; and likewise to re-
pel the attacks of the pagans. The controversy with
the Jews, was less important; being nearly confined to the
interpretation of the ancient predictions, respecting the
Messiah.
Sec. 45. Attacks on Paganism,
The christian Apologists assailed the popular idolatry,
with great force ; exposed its absurdities ; and explained
the prodigies and oracles, by which it was supported, to
to be works of evil spirits. Nor did they spare the doc-
trines of the philosophers; but represented them, as
partly borrowed from the holy scriptures of the Jews,
and partly, as unsuccessful attempts to explain, in some
tolerable manner, the popular religions. The philoso-
phers were held up to distrust ; on account of their dis-
agreement in sentiments, and their hypocrisy, in taking
part in that idolatry which they secretly despised and ri-
diculed.
Sec. 46. The e vidences of Christianity.
Besides the remark occasionally made, that it w'as
safer, to embrace Christianity than to reject it; the ancient
divines considered the internal excellence, and the ef-
fects of Christianity, as the principal grounds for believ-
ing in it. They accordingly compared the christian
doctrines with the sayings of the most distinguished pa-
gan sages ; sometimes, to show their striking coincidence,
and sometimes, to make the visible superiority of the for-
mer more glaring. They appealed to what Christianity
had done, and was able to do, for elevating the minds of
men; and they adduced, as decisive proofs of this, the
constancy of the martyrs, and the strict morality of the
ascetics.
Sec 47. Prophecy and Miracles,
On the prophecies, particularly those of the Old Tes-
tament, the christian divines, (with the exception of the
Gnostics and Manichaeans) laid great stress. The Sibyl-
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 47
line Oracles also, and other similar spurious works, were
sometimes cited for confirmation. Some of them at-
tempted to describe the points of disagreement, between
the divine predictions and those of Demons. The proof
from miracles was likewise often brought forward ; and it
was vindicated, against the objection that Demons could
also work miracles, and that ApoUonius of Tyanea per-
formed as great wonders as Jesus Christ did. The con-
tinuance of miraculous powers in the christian churches,
was generally believed. Augustine was the first that at-
tempted to define, accurately, a miracle.
Sec. 48. Other external proofs.
The christians urged the antiquity of their faith, as
proof of its truth. For this purpose, they sometimes ap-
pealed to the testimony of ancient pagan writers, who had
taught the unity of God ; and many of them did not hesi-
tate to make use of supposititious books. At other times,
they alleged, that the substance of their religion was
taught, in the Old Testament, long before the pagan wri-
ters lived. Likewise the elevated character of Jesus,
which excluded all suspicion of imposture, and the credi-
bility of the Aposdes, were adduced as arguments. Last-
ly, it was maintained that the extraordinary success, with
which their doctrine was propagated^ by indigent fisher-
men, was inexplicable, if this doctrine was not the truth
of God, and attended with the power of God.
Sec. 49. Objections to Christianity.
Not only were there widely extended popular prejudi-
ces against Christianity, which the Apologists endeavored
to do away; hut di Celsus, a Porphyry^ an Hierocles, and
the Emperor Julian, composed written attacks on Chris-
tianity. A part of these objections to the christian doc-
trine, respected its origination. It was urged against it,
that it was derived from the barbarians ; that it was set
up by insignificant and ignorant men ; and that it was
strange, God should not have communicated to mankind,
at an earlier period, a doctrine of so much pretended
value.
48 MUENSCHEll's ELEMENTS
Sec. 50. Objections to the nature of the christian rt"
ligion, and to its sacred books.
Christianity was sometimes assailed, on the grounds,
of its requiring of men a blind faith, of advancing fabulous
and absurd notions, and of being prejudicial to the state,
and making bad citizens. To the sacred books, it was
objected, that the style of them was inelegant ; and that
they contained contradictions ; as well as other things un-
worthy of God, which the christians were unable to con-
ceal, except by forced interpretations.
Sec. 51. Objections to the conduct and the influence
of Christians,
The christians themselves were sometimes charged,
with receiving all sorts of characters into their societies ;
with being disunited among themselves ; with separating
from all other men, in the insolence of their pride ; and
with bidding welcome to death, in the obstinacy of their
fanaticism. Still more frequently was it asserted, that
the superior excellence of paganism was apparent, in the
success, which had attended the Romans ; and that the
worthlessness of Christianity was visible, in the misfortunes
of its professors ; and in the continual and manifest de-
cline of the Roman empire, since the introduction of
Christianity. This last objection, Augustine and Orosius
deemed worthy of an extended examination.
Sec. 52. JVeglect of Apologetics.
After the middle of the fifth century, little attention
was given to the evidences of Christianity ; because, it had
no longer dangerous opposers ; and because learning de-
clined, and a blind faith became more and more prevalent.
Yet against the Jews, polemics were sometimes resorted
to, without effect.
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 4^
CHAPTER lY.
THE BEING AND CHARACTER OF GOD.
Historian, Chr. Fr. Rosier, D. Fhilosopliia veteris eccle-
siae de Deo ; Tubing. 1782. 4lo.
Sec. 53. Occasions for attention to the subject.
The efforts made, to establish the truth and divinity of
the christian religion, necessarily led to a careful investi-
gation of the doctrine of a God. For the christians
wished, on the one hand, to free themselves from the sus^
picion of atheism ; and on the other, to establish the ex-
cellence of their religion, by showing, that it inculcated
more worthy conceptions of God, than the heathen poly-
theism. Moreover, some heretical sects advanced notions,
concerning God, creation and providence, which contra-
vened the general creed ; and which called for a confuta-
tion from the catholics.
Sec 54. Evidences for the existence of Ood,
Although the fathers considered all true knowledge of
God, as derived from a divine revelation ; yet they admit-
ted, that reason also affords satisfactory evidence of the
existence of God. They most frequently appealed to the
order and manifest design, discoverable throughout nature,
as the ground of belief in the existence of a wise Crea-
tor and Governor. They moreover appealed, frequently,
to the innate idea of a God, in the soul, and to the consent
of all nations. The former, or cosmological proof, was
advanced by Diodorus(\) of Tarsus; and the latter, or
proof from the general idea of an existing Deity, engaged
the attention of Augustine(2) and Boethius,[2)
(1) SeePkotius, Biblioth. Cod. 223. p. 662.
(2) de Libero Arbitrio L. II. c. 5 — 16,
(S) de Consolat. Philos. L, III. prosa 10. p. 164, 166,
oO i/uenscher's elements
Seg. 55. Unity of God.
The christians had to defend the doctrine of one God,
Jirsty in opposition to the Pagan polytheism : and for this
purpose, they urged, that the idea of a supreme Being,
excluded 3\\ participaters with him ; they also urged, that
the unity of the world, indicated to us one sole author of
it ; and they likewise argued, from the consent of the most
respectable Pagan philosophers. They had, secondly,
to contend against the dualism of the Gnostics and Mani-
chaeans; and therefore labored to evince the absurdity of
supposing two Gods, an evil and a good one.(l) And,
thirdly, they did not neglect to vindicate their doctrine of
a Trinity, from the charge of being inconsistent with pure
monotheism.
(1) TitffS, f)f Bostrn, rnntra Manichaeos, L, f, in Basnagii
Monum. T. I. p. 63 &c.
Sec. 56. The nature of God.
The ancient fathers vied, in their efforts, to describe in
the strongest terms, the infinite greatness and boundless
majesty of God. No w^ords, said they, can express the
greatness of God. No description is adequate to it. He
is above all beings; and, as the pseudo-Dyonisius asserts,
above all existence. Although Melito, (I) TertuU
Uan,(2) Audiits,(2) and numerous Monks of Egypt, as-
cribed something corporeal to God ; yet the others held,
tliat he was uncorporeal ; and at times, that he was the
only uncorporeal being. And after all, it often appears,
tliat it was very difficult, for the fathers, to exclude all no-
tions of extension from their ideas of God.
(1) See Origen, in Genes. 0pp. T. II. p. 25.
(2) de Carne Christi, c. 11. adv. Prax. c. 7.
(3) See Epiphanius, Haer. LXX. and Theodorety Haeret.
fab. L. IV. c. 10.
OF DOGxMATIC HISTORT, 51
Sec. 57. Investigations of the attributes of God,
The notion of Origen, that God's knowledge and power
are not absolutely boundless, was universally rejected, by
the succeeding lathers. The eternity of God, was sup-
posed to exclude all ideas of succession. Efforts were
made, to show how the freedom of human actions, can
consist with the foreknowledge of God. Investigations
were also entered into, respecting the will, and the recti-
tude, of God.
Sec, 58. Creation of the world.
Sources of information. Basil, in Hexaemeron :—-Am6ro5e*
in Hexaem. — Gregory o^ Nyssdi, in Hexaem. — Augustine,
de Genesi contra Manich. and de Genesi ad literam ;• —
Zacharias, de Mundi creatione, contra Philosophos ; —
Joannes Philoponus, de Creatione mundi.
The belief, that God was the Creator of the world, was
of vast importance, in the view of christians ; and the dis-
sent of the Grecian philosophers, and of the Gnostics, from
this tenet, was the occasion of their carefully investigating
the doctrine. The first proposition they advanced, was,
that not any subordinate being or Demiurge, but the su-
preme God, the Father of Jesus Christ, created the world,
by his Son. To this proposition, they added a second,
that not only the/o?'m, but the matter of the world, origi-
nated from God. Both these were maintained by Ter*
tullian, against Hermogenes, The peculiar idea of Ori-
gen, that there was a series of worlds, either created,
or without beginning ; was contested by Methodius, and
rejected by the subsequent fathers.
Sec. 59. The design of Creation.
A third proposition, advanced respecting creation, was,
that God was not merely the author, but the voluntary
author, of the world. He gave existence to the world,
it was stated, being moved by his goodness, or on our ac-
count. The creation of the world of spirits, was some-
52 muenscher's elements
times, distinguished from the creation of this material
world. And Origen regarded the latter, as designed for
the residence of the spirits, which once were equal with
the others, but now were to be punished for sins they had
committed. The idea was attacked by Methodius, be-
came more and more regarded as erroneous, and in the
sixth century was pronounced heresy. The Mosaic ac-
count of the creation, was sometimes, explained allegor-
ically; but more frequently, was regarded as explicit his-
tory.
Sec 60. Divine Providence.
Sources of our information. John Chrysostom, de Provi-
dentia Lihri 111; — Theodoret, Or diixones X. de Providen-
tia ; — Salvian, de Gubernatione Dei Liber.
The doctrine of God's providence, was likewise of very
great importance, in the view of christians. They vindi-
cated it, against the Epicurean notions ; against the notion
of an irresistible fate; and against the supposed influence
of the stars. Much the same arguments were used, in
support of tliis doctrine, as for the existence of God.
The peculiar sentiments were, that several of the fathers
conceived the angels to be the instruments, by which God's
providence over particular individuals and countries was
executed; and that Jerome{l) did not extend God's pro-
vidence to individual brutes, but only to the species of
tliem.
(!) Comraenlin Abac. c. 1. Opp. T. VI. p. 148.
Sec. 6J. Theodicee, or, origin of evil.
To explain the origin of sin in the world, the Gnostics
and the Manichaeans brought forward their peculiar no-
tion, of two original Beings ; and toward this idea, Lac-
tantius{l) made some approaches. The other catholic
fathers took the ground, that God could not be the author
of evil ; and they maintained, that evil proceeded from
the will of free agents, with God's permission ; and that
OP DOGMATIC HISTORY* 53
physical evils are not to be accounted evil, being suspended
over us for our best good. Origen{2), in particular, con-
sidered all evils as punishments, which human souls had
merited while in their previous state.
(1) Instit. div. II. 8, and de Ira Dei c. 13.
(2) de Princip. II. c. 9. and III. c. 6 &c.
CHAPTER V.
DOCTRINE OF THE TRINITY.
Historians of it. George Bull, Defensio fidei Nicaenae ;
and Judicium ecclesiae catholicae de necessitate cre-
dendi, quod Dominus noster J. C. sit verus Deus ; — in
Bp. Bull's Works, edited by I. E. Grabe ; Lend. 1703.
Fol. — Lucae MelUer, {Sam. Crell.) Fides primorum
Christianorum ; Lond. 1697. 8vo. Tractatus III; quo-
rum primus Antinicaenismus dicitur ; in secundo — Re-
sponsio — ad Bulli defensionem; authore Gilherto ClerJce,
Argumentum postremi, vera et antiqua fides dedivinitate
Christi, asserta contra Bulli judicium ; (Lond.)1695. 8vo.
Disquisiliones modestae in Bulli defensionem fidei Nicae-
nae; authore Daniele Withhy, ed 2. Lond. 1720.
La Platonisme devoile, ou Essai touchant le Verbe Platoni-
cien ; a Colone, 1700. 8vo. Also in a Gei^man transla*
tion, with an Appendix ; by J. Fr. Chr. Laffler, 2d ed.
1792. Svo.
(J. A. Stark,) Essay of a History of Arianism ; (in Ger-
man,) Berlin. 1783. 2 vol. 8vo.
Ch. Dan. Ant. Martini, Essay of a philosophical history of
the doctrine of the Divinity of Christ, in the IV. first cen-
turies from the christian era ; (in German,) 1st vol. Ros-
tock and Lips. 1801. 8vo.
Historical account of the doctrine of the Holy Spirit ; (Ger-
man,) in W. C. L. Ziegler's theolog* Abhandlungen,
vol. L Goting* 1791.
6
54 muenscher's elements
Sec. 62. The general doctrine of Christians,
According to the instructions of Christ, (Matt, xxviir.
19,) the christians professed faith in the Father, the Son,
and the Holy Ghost. The Catholic christians rejected,
alike, the opinions of the Ebionites, that Jesus was a mere
man ; and the opinion of the Gnostics, that he was an
Aeon, who descended from the Pleroma and became visi-
ble to mortals. Respecting the consummate perfection
and majesty of the Father, there was no disagreement
among them ; but the more they labored to define the na-
ture of the Son and the Holy Ghost, and the mode of their
relation to the Father, the more they disagreed. Yet all
their differences may be traced to the influence of one or
the other of two fundamental ideas ; the one, that of a
Unity, the other, that of a Trinity,
Reference. Some remarks on the most early history of the
doctrine ofthe Trinity ; (in German,) by J. B. C.Schmidt:
in his Bibliothek fiir Krstick and Exeorese, vol. II. P. II.
Herborn &c. 1798.
Sec. 63. Unitarians,
Various christians made it their great object, so to ex-
plain the relations of Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, as not
to endanger the unity, and the sole supremacy of God*
They believed, this danger would be best avoided, by con-
sidering the Son and the Spirit, not as disiinct persons,
but as the powers and energies of the Father. So thought
Praxeas[l) ; and after him, JVo'etus and SabelKus ; with
whom also, Paul of Samosata agreed, in substance.
The adherents to this idea, were called Patripassians; and
were subsequently more regarded as errorists.
(I) Tertull. adv. Prax. c. 1, 2.
Note. The earliest traces of this mode of viewinsr the sub-
ject, are in Justin M. Dial, cum Try ph. p. 221. Whether
Athenagoras was one of this class, deserves inquiry. See
his Legatio, p. 802 ; comp. p. 286, 287.
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 55
Sec. 64. The early Trinitarians.
The Other fathers, as Justin Martyr(l), Theophi-
lus(2) of Antioch, and Tatian(S), believed that, the dis-
tinctness of the Son from the Father, was too clearly
taught in the scriptures, to be denied. They therefore
maintained, that the Son, or as St. John called him, the
divine Logos, was from eternity, in God, as an attribute
or property ; but that, before the creation, he proceeded
forth from God, according to his good pleasure ; and
thenceforth began to have a separate existence : and they
elucidated the subject, by the examples of words enunci-
ated, and oi fires kindled. According to them, the Son
was of the essence of the Father; yet inferior to hira,
and a visible being. Concerning the Holy Ghost, these
fathers expressed themselves less distinctly; yet they
seem to have regarded him, as a distinct subject or
person.
(1) Apol. maj. § 6. p. 47. ^ed. Col. p. 66.) and § 13. p. 61,
63^92. Dial. 151, 152, 157, 158, 195, 222.
(2> ad Autol. Lib. II. p. 356, 360, 365.
(3) Orat. p. 247, 248. (ed. Col. p. 145.)
Reference, C, A, G. KeiL A patristic inquiry, whether the
earliest fathers distinguished between the Son and the H.
Spirit ; and what views they had of the subject ; (in Ger-
^ man,) in /. F. Flatt's Magazin fiir christl. Dogmatik und
Moral. Pt. IV. p. 34 &,c.
Sec. 65. Source of this theory.
To this theory the way was led, by the explanation of the
Logos of John, by means of passages in the Old Testament;
in which there was mention of the creative Power of God,
(Gen.i.) and of the divine Wisdom, (Prov. viii. Ecclus.xxiv.
Wisdom, vii.) Theophilus(l) now discriminated be-
tween theXo/o^ ivdiaklos and the Xo/o^ 'rpo(pop»xoj (the Word
inherent and the Word sent forth :) and was also the first,
who used the word rpia^ (Trinity.) The Platonic phi-
losophy, (not however the pure Platonism, but that which
56
was combined with the emination system, as it was
taught at Alexandria, and as Philo had before exhibited
it,) led them to discover all this, m the Old Testament.
(1) ad Autol. p. 266, 355, 360.
Sec. ^Q, Irenaeusand Tertullian,
With those early fathers, Irenaeus(i) agreed, in se-
parating the Son and the Spirit from the Father, and in
considering the two former, as inferior to the latter; but
he differed from them, in making the Son co-eternal with
the Father, and rejecting all further inquiries respecting
his origin. Tertultian{2) agreed more closely with those
fathers; yet was led by his confutation of Praxeas, to car-
ry out their system more perfectly. He taught a Trinity,
in which the members or persons, were indeed equal, in
substance, yet so subsecutive to each other, that the se-
cond depended on the first, and the third on the second.
Against the objection, that the unity of God was thus im-
paired, he believed that he guarded sufficiently, by repre-
senting the Father, to be the sole original source of all
things, and even of the Son and the Holy Ghost. The
subsequent Latin Fathers, Cypr{an(3) and JVovatian(4),
have nothing peculiar, on this doctrine: and Lactantius[b)
explains the origination of the Son, in a very sensual
manner,
(1) adv. Haeres. I. c.lO, 26. II. 13,25, 28, 30. III. 6, 18,
19, IV. 6, 7,20. V. 1, 18.
(2) adv. Praxeam.
(3) Testim. adv. Jud. II. c. 1—8. Ep. 73, ad Jubai. p.202,
203. Ep. 74. ad Pompei. p. 213.
(4) de Trinitate.
(5) Instit. divin. II. 8. and IV. 6, 8, 29.
Sec. 67. Clement and Origen.
Clement(i) of Alexandria, describes the Son as a being
who, in perfection, comes near the Father, and is the very
image of him ; aad who is not confined to place, but oni--
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 57
nipresent. Origen(2) defended the pre-existenee of the
Son, against Beryllus of Bostra ; and he subjoined to
the views of his preceptor, the idea of an eternal genera-
tion. Yet he did not reject the subordination of the Son
to the Father ; which he indicated, by applying to them
the titles, 6 kog and 6sos ( God and a God;) by discriminating
the part of each in creation, in the use of viro and ^la (by
and through ;) and by directing to pray unto (•rpo^) the
one, by or through (^la) the other. The Holy Spirit, he
held to be a distinct person^ produced by the Son, and
inferior to him.
(1) Cohort, ad Gr. p. 78, 82, 86. Paedag. I. c. 6. p. 123.
Strom. IV. p. 635. V. p. 654, 699, 710. VI. p. 769. VII.
p. 831, 832.
(2) Opp. ed. de la Rue. Tom.I. p. 47, 48, 53, 55, 59, 62,
579, 750. 11. p. 1. Ill, 50 &c. 60,235.
Sec. 68. Dionysius Alex, and Dionys. Rom,
The disciples of Origen, appear to have adhered to Aw
views respecting the Logos, except only in regard to the
eternal generation. One o( them, Dionysius{l) Bishop
of Alexandria, wished to express strongly, that the Son
was distinct from the Father, in opposition to Sabellius ;
and without intending to introduce any new doctrine, he
stated the Son, to be a creature^ and not to possess the
same essence with the Father, and to have had a begin-
ning of existence. But such assertions now awakened
attention, and gave offence. Dionysius(2) Bishop of
Rome, thought it his duty, to oppose these opinions; and
he insisted, that the Son was not created, but begotten ;
that his existence had no commencement ; and that he
was one with the Father. This induced the Bishop of
Alexandria, to explain himself. He said that he wished
to discriminate the Son from the Father, but not to sun-
der them ; that the Son did always exist ; that he de-
clined using the word o/xooutfioj, because it did not occur in
the scriptures, but the meaning of it he did not reject.
6*
58
(1) See AthanasiuSi de Senlentia Dionys. contra Ariancs ;
in Athanas. Opp. T. I. p. 551 &:c. ed. Col.
(2) See Athanas ius, de Decret. Syn. Nicaenae, p. 275,
276.
Sec. 69. Rise of the Avian controversy.
The discussions at Alexandria, respecting the nature
of the Son of God, produced in the beginning of the
fourth century a violent contest. Arius was dissatisfied
with the old views, that the Son was from eternity, in the
Father ; and that before the creation he proceeded forth
from the Father ; because such an emanation implied
that, God was corporeal and divisible into parts. He
therefore taught, that the Son had a beginning of his ex-
istence, and was created by the Father, out of nothing,
according to his free choice. His Bishop, Alexander, op-
posed him ; in order to maintain the eternal generation of
the Son from the Father, and divest him of the appel-
lation of a creature.
Sec. 70. The council of JVice.
The contest between the two men, in its progress, be-
came obstinate ; and as each of them found adherents, it
spread over the whole Roman empire. In vain the
Emperor Constantine attempted to calm the storm ;
and therefore, he at last called the general council,
which met at Nice, A.D. 325. There the doctrine of
Arius was rejected ; and a Confession of Faith was drawn
up, which asserted that the Son was oiJ.oov(fiog (of the same
essence) with the Father, and begotten of the essence of
the Father. By the emperor's command, all Bishops
were obliged to subscribe to this creed.
The Nicene Creed. nir^iJOM^^v ^'^ ^^^ ®^ov ifarspu nravro-
xparopot, <avrwv opa^wv ts xa» dopaTWv iroiriTriv. Kat hg Iva
xupiov lYi<fo\jv Xpig'ov, tov ujov tov 6so'j, YSvvr,&svTa sx rov -^arpo^
jXovoysvT), tout' g5"jv, ix Tvig outfia^ tou crarpoj:, Gsov ex Gsou,
4>w^ sx <I>a)7og, ©sov dX7]5jvov sx ©sou ccXtj^jvou, ysvvri'^svTCL
Im cfoirj^^vra, ojuioouo'iov tw -TTaTpi, 61 ou ra cravra sysvsro,
roL TS £v <w oupavw xai <ra sv rrj yji^ rov dl Tiixag Tt\jg:
OF DOGMATIC HISTOKY.* 59
ttv^pw-rou^, xaj 8ia ttjv Tj/j^srspav (fwri^pjav xarsX^ovra, xai
(fapxw^cVTot, £vav^pw'7rr](j'av7-a, ';ra^ovTa ycai avatfravra tt]
rpjr/j 'JjfXspa, avsX^^v^a Si^ tou^ oupavou^, xaj £p;)^o|xsvov
xpjvai ^wv^ra^ xocj vsxpou^. Ken sig to a^iov "Tr-veu/xa. Tou^
Sb Xsyovrag, o<ri yjv ij^otS ots o'ux tjv, xai ^piv ^svvv]Siy)vaj
oux ^v, xai on s^ oux ovtwv j^svsto '^ gf STSpa^ u'n'o^atfswg
^ outfiag cpoL'^Kovroig sivai, r) xtjo'tov TpS'ff'T'ov 73 aXXoiwrov
«rov ujov Tou ©sou, ava^s^Jt-arj^sj tj xa^oXtXTj exxX-yjcfja.
Reference. W. iWiin-sci^er'^ Examination of the sense of
the Nicene Creed ; (in German,) in Henke's neuem Ma-
gazin fur Reliurionsphilosophie, Exegese und Kirchenges-
chichte,vol.Vn. P. 11.
Sec. 71. Consequences of the council.
Most of the Asiatic bishops were dissatisfied with the
Nicene decisions, and particularly with the likeness
of essence (of^-oouCio^) there established. Even Consian-
tine, the emperor, in the later years of his life, would not
insist upon those decisions ; and his son Constantius,
openly favored the opposers. Council after council was
held, and one creed after another drawn up. The im-
moveable firmness of Athanasius only, could prevent the
Nicene doctrine from sinking, under its overpowering ene-
mies and their reiterated assaults.
Notices, The Antoichean confession was formed A.D.
341. The long {^axpog-ixog) formula, A. D. 343. The
Council of Sardica and Philippopolis, A. D. 347. The
two Creeds of Slrmium, A. D. 351, 357. The Coud-
cil of Ancyra, A.D. 358. The third Sirmian Creed, and
the Councils of Rimini and Seleucia, A. D. 359.
Sec. 72. Arian parties.
The opposers of the Nicene creed, were themselves
divided in opinion. The pure Arians, at the head of
whom were A'etius and Eunomius, considered the Son, as
the most exalted creature of God ; and in essence, unlike
to the Father. The Semi-Arians, as they were de-
nominated, acknowledged the Son to be, of like essence
(o/xojsCio^) with the Father. Others, as Cyril of Jerusa-
60 muenscher's elements
lem — either rejected the word o^osiTio^ ; or explained it,
as Eusebius of Caesarea, according to their own views.
Sec. 73. Marcellus and Photinus,
A very different course was taken by Marcellus, bish-
op of Ancyra, and his disciple Photinus, bishop of Sir-
mium ; for they, like Paul of Samosata, distinguished
the Logos from the Son of God; and explained the gen-
eration of the latter, as being nothing but his assumption
of human nature. Marcellus hereby incurred a doubt-
ful reputation ; and Photinus drew on himself the united
condemnation of both Arians and Catholics.
References. Eusebius, contra Marcel lum, Lib. U. and de
Theologia ecclesiastica Lib. III. Marcelliana ; edidit et
ani mad vers, instruxit, Chr. Hen. G. Rettberg^ Getting.
1794. 8vo.
Sec. 74. Athanasian system.
Athanasius not only held firmly to the Nicene creed,
as the foundation of orthodoxy, but he attributed to it
more, than it properly contained. Ho described the ge-
neration* oiihe Son, as being an eternal, mysterious, opera-
tion of the Father ; proceeding, not from the will, but
from the nature of the Father ; and whereby, the son
possessed the same essence with the Father. He it was
also, that felt the necessity of maintaining the equality of
the Holy Ghost with the Father and the Son, (concern-
ing which, the church had hitherto defined nothing,) and
of requiring the profession of it, as a mark of orthodoxy ;
after the year 362, when the controversy with Macedo-
nius directed attention to the subject.
Sec 75. Triumph of this doctrine.
By the activity and prudence of Athanasius, and the
zeal and influence of his co-workers, {Basil, the two
Gregories, Hilary, and Ambrose,) and the disagreement
among the Arians, and the powerful support of some of
the emperors ; this doctrine acquired an increasing pre-
I
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 6Jl
ponderancy. The council of Constantinople A. D. 381,
condemned the Arians and Macedonians, confirmed the
Nicene creed, and made some additions to it, the most
important of which respected the doctrine concerning
the Holy Spirit.
[nj^SuofJt/Sv hs TO -cyvsufz-a <ro a^tov] to xupiov, <ro ^ow;roiov, to ix tou
•JfaTpO^ SX'TT'OpSUOfXSvoV, TO tfUV fTOLTpl XUl IJIW (J'U^'7r'potfJCUVJJ|llOVOV,
xa» (fuvSo^a^^o^s^oVy to XaXyjtfav (5ja twv '7r'po(pTi<rwv.
TAg principal writers concerning the Son : Atlianas,
Expos, fidei, contra Arianos Oratt. IV. Hilary of Poic-
tiers, de Trinit. Lib. X. Basil the Great, contra Euno-
niium, Lib. III. Gregory of Nyssa, contra Eunom. Lib.
Xn. Gregory of Nazianz. Orationes V. de Theologia.
Ambrose, de Fide, ad Gratianum, Lib. V.
Concerning the Holy Ghost, Athanas. IV, E{)p. ad Serapio-
nem. Basil, de Spiiitu Sancto, ad Amphilochium Li-
ber. Didymus, de. Sp. S. Ambrose, de Sp. S.
Sec. 76. Fuller statement of the doctrine of the Trinity.
In accordance with the Athanasian doctrine, the unity
of essence, and the trinity of persons, in the Godhead,,
were maintained ; and in relation to which, the words oxxiioL
and v'Ko^adig were sometimes used as synonymous, and
sometimes as differing in import. Appropriate attributes
{l6mv\Tzg) were ascribed to each Person ; to the Father,
his being unbegotten (a/swyjCia) ; to the Son, a being be-
gotten (/svvTjCia) ; to the Holy Ghost, procession (^hifopsv-
(fig, §x'7r'gf/.-Xi^). Respecting the procession of the Holy
Ghost from the Father, or from the Father and the Son.
there was a difference of opinion, between the Greeks
and the Latins : and in the Council of Toledo, A.D. 589,
the words et filio were added to the Constantinopoli-
tan Creed.
Reference, J. G. Walch, Historia controversiae Graeco-
rum et Latinorum de proccssiorie Spiritus S. Jenae,
1751. 8vo. Historia succincta controversiae de proces-
sione Spir. Sancti ; authore Christ. Matth. Pfaff, Tub,
1749. 4to,
\
62 muenscher's elements
Sec. 77. Subsequent statements.
The subsequent writers held strongly, to this system of
doctrine. Yet Augustine had something peculiar ; for
he effaced the traces of unlikeness and subordination,
which had existed from before the times of the Nicene
Council ; and he insisted on the numerical unity of the
three Persons. In accordance with his views, the rela- i
tions of the three Persons were more distinctly set forth, j
in what is called, the Athanasian Creed, The charge j
of tritheism, brought against certain Monophysites, as 1
John Askuanages and John Philiponus^ arose from 1
philosophical speculations, and rested on mere inferences.
Reference. Augustine, de Trinitate Libri XV.
Athanasian Creed. Quicunque vult salvus esse, ante omnia
opus habet, ut leneat catholicam fidem, Quam nisi quis-
que integram inviolatamque servaverit, absque dubio in
aeternum peribit. Fides autem catholica haec est, ut
unum Deum in trinitate et trinitatem in unitate vene-
remur, neque confundentes personas, neque substantiam
geparantes. Alia enim est persona patris, alia filii, alia
spiritus sancti ; sed patris et filii et spiritus sancti
una est divinitns, aequalis gloria et aequalis majestas.
Qualis pater, talis filius, talis et spiritus sanctus. In-
creatus pater, increatus filius, increatus spiritus sanctus.
Immeusus pater, immensus filius, immensus et spiritus
sanctus. Aelernus pater, aeternus filius, aeternus et
spiritus sanctus; ettamen non tres aeterni sed unus aeter-
nus, sicut non tres increati, nee tres immensi, sed unus in-
creatus et unus immensus. Similiter oranipotens pater, om-
nipotens filius, omnipotens et spiritus sanctus; et tamen
non tres omnipotentes, sed unus omnipotens. Ita Deus
pater, Deus filius, deus et spiritus sanctus; et tamen non
ires dii, sed unus est Deus. Ita dominus pater, dominus
filius, dominus et spiritus sanctus; et tamen non tres
sunt domini, sed unus dominus. Quia sicut singillatim
unamquamque personam et deum et dominum confiteri
Christiana veritate conipellimiir, ita tres deosaut dominos
dicere catholica religione prohibemur. Pater a nullo est
factus nee ereatus nee genitus. Filius a patre solo est,
j}on faetus, non ereatus sed genitus. Spiritus sanctus a
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 63
patre et filio, non factus nee creatus nee genitus est, sed pro-
cedens. Unus ergo pater, nee tres patres, unus filius, non
tres filii, unus spiritus sanctus,non tres spiritus sancti. Et in
hac trinitate nihil prius aut posterius, nihil majus aut minus,
sed totae tres personae coaeternae sibi sunt et coaequa-
les. Ita ut per omnia, sicut jam supra dictum est, et uni-
tas in trinitate et trinitas in unitate veneranda sit. Qui
vult ergo salvus esse, ita de trinitate sentiat.
CHAPTER VI.
DOCTRINE CONCERNING THE PERSON OF CHRIST*
Sec. 78. First germs of it.
The early catholic fathers had to contend, against the
Ebionites, and against the Onostics, The former held
Christ, to be a mere man ; the latter regarded him, as
having no part in humanity, but as being an exalted Spi-
rit^ who either assumed the mere appearance of a bo-
dy, or brought with him from heaven a more refined
body. According to the catholic doctrine, both these
opinions were to be rejected ; and yet the Alexandrians
so far leaned towards Gnosticism, as to deny that Christ's
body was homogeneous with ours. As to the manner,
in which the divine nature was united with the human
in Christ, very indistinct ideas preva led. The earliest
fathers(l) maintained only, that the divine Logos assu-
med a human body, A human soul of Christ, was first
obscurely mentioned, by TertuUian(2) ; afterwards, a
rational soul was expressly maintained, by Origen(^) :
and he first attempted, to set forth a theory respecting the
incarnation ; namely, that the Logos united himself with
a rational soul, selected on account of its pre-eminent puri-
ty ; and then, by means of this soul, joined himself to a
human body.
(1) Munscher^s Manual of dogm. history, vol. II. p.
167, &c.
64 muenscher's elements
(2) de carne Christi. c. 11, 13, and adv. Prax. c. 16.
(3) contra Cels. II. Sec. 9. and IV. Sec. 15—19, &c. pas-
sim. dePrincip. IL c. 6.
Reference. G. J. Planck, Observationes quaedam in pri-
mam doctrinaede naturis Christi historian). Got. 1787 —
89. also, in the Comrnentatt, theol. pul:>lished by Vel-
thusen, Kuinol and Rupert, vol. 1. p. 141 &c.
Sec. 79. " Developement of it.
Such indefinite conceptions continued, down to the
fourth century, when the Arian controversy directed at-
tention to the subject; for the Arians, who attributed no
human soul to Christ, drew arguments from the incarna-
tion of Jesus, against the doctrine of the catholics. The
cathohc fathers, at first, were fluctuating in their explana-
tions. Appollinaris bishop of Laodicea, taught that,
the Logos assumed only two of the three parts of man,
namely a body, and a sensitive soul ; while the Logos
supplied the place of the third part, or human reason.
Athanasius maintained, at least in his later writings, and
at the Council of Alexandria A. D. 362, that Christ pos-
sessed a rational, human soul. The opinion of Apolli-
naris, was combatted by Gregory of Nazianzum, and
Gregory o{ Nyssa; and was condemned by Damasus,
bishop of Rome, and by the general council at Constanti-
nople, A. D. 381.
Itcferences. Atkanasius, Ep. ad Epictetum. Gregory of Nys-
sa, Antirrheticiis contra Apollinarem. Gregory of Naz.
Epp. ad Cledoniuin. sive Oratt. LI. LII.
Sec. 80. The natures of Christ.
It was generally acknowledged, that there was but one
Christ, to whom belonged both divine and human pro-
perties. Their care to maintain the unity of Christ, in-
duced some fathers, to ascribe to him, a divine nature
which became man ; and this phraseology, which was used -
by Athanasius and Apollinaris, became prevalent in m
Egypt. Other fathers, following the example of the two
GregorieSy of Nazianzum and Nyssa, spoke of two natures
or DOGMATIC HISTORY. 66
in Christ ; and the Antiochlan divines, Diodorus of Tar-
sus, and Theodorus of Mopsuestia, made the distinction
of the two natures very prominent, in order to avoid the
idea of their being mixed and confounded.
Sec. 81. JVestorius and Cyril.
After a contest on this subject, had been terminated in
the West, by the recall of Leporius ; a more fearful con-
test broke out, between the Patriarch of Constantinople,
and the Patriarch of Alexandria. JVestorius of Constan-
tinople, having given offence by asserting, that Mary ought
not to be called (^soroxog) the mother of God', Cyril took
occasion, to charge him with dividing Christ, into two
persons; and incurred the accusation against himself, of
confounding or of changing the natures of Christ. The
Roman Bishop, Coelestine, took the side of Cyril ; the
Eastern Bishops were for Nestorius. Reciprocated ex-
ecrations produced the highest degree of bitterness.
References. Cyriili Anathematismi, cum reprehensionibus
Aiidreae et 'I iieodoreti, et Apoloj^ia Cyriili : — in Mansi
Collect. iJcncil, 'V. V. p. 1. and JVe'^^om Anathematismi ;
il>id. T. IV. p. 1099. 'i'. V. p. 703, 748.
Sec 82. Council of Ephesus.
The Emperor Theodosius, attempted to end the strife,
by a general council, which he assembled at Ephesus,
A. D. 431 ; but it only exasperated the parties, and se-
parated the Oriental Bishops from the Egyptian party.
At last, Cyril resolved, to purchase the assent of the An-
tiochian party to the condemnation of Nestorius, by sub-
scribing a formula, in which he admitted two natures in
Christ. On these terms, the peace of the church was re-
stored ; yet the Persian christians became a separate
community ; and dissatisfaction remained on both sides.
Sec. 83. The Councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon.
In the attempt to force the Egyptian form of the doc-
trine upon the whole church, Dioscurus labored, in the
7
66 muenscher's elements
spirit of Cyril, but with better success. A controversy which
arose at Constantinople, respecting Eutyches, afforded hira
an opportunity, in a new general council at Ephesus, A. D.
449, to put down the opposing party, although the Ro-
man Bishop, Leo the Great, warmly remonstrated. Yet,
soon after, his hard gained victory was again wrested from
him, by the Council of Chalcedon, A. D. 461 ; and a
precise formula, in regard to the contested points, was
established.
References. Leo Magn, Ep. ad Flavianum : ed. Ilenke,
Helmst. 1781, also in his Opusc. Arademica, Helinst.
1802. 8vo.
The formula of Chalcedon : *E'ff'ofX£voi toivuv toi^ aymg ira-
cpatfiv, 5va xai <rov olutov ofz-oXo^sov uiov rov xupiov -/jjulcjv
I>l(J'ouv p^pj^Tov, o'ufXipwvwc: k'jfavTeg fxc^i^aCxoim-sv, tsXsiqv rov
auTov iv ^£0T7]T{ xai tsXsiov «rov aurov iv dv^pcj'ff'OTr/<ri, 6sov
dXr)^<vov, xai dv^pwTTov oIXtj^co^ tov duTov §x -^^v/rig Xoyixrig xai
tfwjxaTo^, ofjLoouCiov <rcj 'raTpi xara tyjv ^sorrira, xai ojuloouCiov
TOV duTov 7j/x»v xaTU TTjv dv^pw'ff'oTTjTa, xa<ra cravra of/.ojov
rjfjLiv, X^p'? aiiapTias. «rpo diwvwv fjLSv sx <rou 'Tarpon yswri-
^Svia xoLTU Tr)v ^£0T7)<ra, gV ecf^acwv (^s <rwv '/jjxepwv tov du«rov
5i -^laa^ xai ^la <r>]v ^jjxsrspav tfajTi^piav gx Mapiac: r>)g ^so-
roxou xara ttjv dv^pw'n'0T7]Ta, sva xai tov duTov ^^pitfTOv,
UIOV, xupiov, fjbovo^svr], £x Juo (putfswv (^v (^uo (puCso'iv) dtfu^-
X^TUig, dTpso'Tw^, d^iaipfcTwg dp^wpitTTW^ yvwpi^ofjLfvov, ou(5a-
fji-ou Trjj Twv (puCswv Jia(popag dv^jpi^fjifVigj ^la Trjv svcjffiv,
tfCAj^o|XSvy]g (Js fj.dXXov T7)j i^ioTrjTo^ §xaT£paj (puCsw^ xai 1^
sv flTpotfwn'ov xai juiiav u'ToO'Tatfiv tfuvrps^outfy)^, oux £i^ 5uo
TpoCcAJ-ra fjispi^ojixovov 7) ^laipoufJLSvov, ctXX' Iva xai tov duTov
uiov xai fjLovo^gvT), ^cov Xo^'iv, xupiov 'It^o'ouv )(pi^ov xa^acr^p
dvw^sv CI 'TTpoqjT^Tai •Ji'spi duTou, xai duTo^ >jfJLag 6 xupioc ^I-yj-
tfoug ggsflrai^sutfs xai to twv «ra7gp&jv tj/xiv «7rapa^g(5ojxg tfu/x^oXov.
Sec. 84. Subsequent Contests,
The formula of Chalcedon, did not meet universal ap-
probation ; and a numerous body of Monophy sites, sepa-
rated themselves from the other churches. The attempt
of the Emperor Zeno, to win them back, by means of his
Henoticon, produced no lasting effect. In the entire La-
or DOGMATIC HISTORY. 67
tin church, and in a large part of the Greek church, the
formula of Chalcedon was received ; and it was annexed
to the, so called, Athanasian Creed. The Monophysite
contests were followed, by that of the Theopaschites, and
that concerning the three chapters, (de tribus capitulis,)
which were decided in the fifth general Council. There
was also, dissension among the Monophysites, respecting
the incorruptibility of Chrisfsbody; in which the Empe-
ror Justinian took part.
Reference, Second Part of the Athanasian Creed : Sed
nccessarium est ad aeternam salutem, ut incarnationem
quoque domini noslri Jesu Chrisli fideliter credat. Est
ergo fides recta, ut credamus et confitearnuT, qnia do-
minus noster Jesus Christus, dei filius, deus pariter et
homo est. Deus est ex substantia patris ante saecula
genitus : homo ex substantia matris in saeculo natus.
Perfectus deus, perfectus homo, ex aninia rationah et
humana carne subsistens, aequahs patri secundum divi-
nitatem, minor patre secundum humanitatem. Qui li-
cet deus sit et homo, non duo tamen sed unus est
Christus ; unus autem non conversione divinitatis in
carnem, sed assumtione humanitatis in Deum. Unus
omnio non confusione substantiarum sed unitate per-
sonae. Nam sicut anima rationalis et caro unus est
homo, ita et deus et homo unus est christus, qui pas-
Bus est pro salute nostra, descendit ad inferos, tertia
die resurrexit a mortuis, ascendit in coelos, sedet ad
dexteram patris, inde venturus judicare vivos et mortuos.
Ad cuius adventum omnes homines resurgere debent cum
corporibus suis, et reddituri sunt de factis propriis rationem,
et qui bona egerunt, ibunt in vitam aeternam, qui vero
mala, in ignem aeternuin. Haec est fides catholica, quam
nisi quisquam fideliter firmiterquc crediderit, salvus esse
non poterit.
08 muenscher's elements
CHAPTER VII.
DOCTRINE OF REDEMPTION BY JESUS CHRIST.
Sec. 85. The general and constant doctrine of the
Church.
That men need to be redeemed, because they are in-
volved in ignorance, error, and sin ; that Jesas Christ has
promulged God's plan, for the redemption of men; that
it is through him, they obtain forgiveness of sins, power
and help to become virtuous, and the hope of blessedness ;
and that faith in Jesus Christ, forsaking sin, and practis-
ing goodness, are means for the attainment of the bless-
ings of Christianity ; all christians, unitedly, and constantly,
believed. But these simple propositions were capable of
diversified explanations, and they gave rise to various ques-
tions and investigations ; so that the teachers found abund-
ant matter, to exercise and employ their powers of reflec-
tion and discrimination.
Sec 86. JVature of man.
To explain the nature of redemption, we must keep
in view the degeneracy of mankind ; and not to cast the
blame of this on God, we must go back to the nature and
the original character of mankind. The universal doc-
trine of the church, was that God created mankind, and
with ability to good ; and especially, that he endued them
with freedom. Yet it remained undetermined, whether
man consists of two(l) parts, [body and soul,] or of
three{2) [body, soul, and spirit ;] whether the soul is to
be considered as corporeal, as Tertullian(S), and after
him many others supposed ; and what origin is to be as-
cribed to the soul. In regard to the last point, the opin-
ions of the Gnostics[A) and Manichaeans[b) were reject-
ed ; the early opinion, that the soul is a part or a breath
from God(6), was gradually discarded; and Origen^s{l)
hypothesis, of the pre-existence of souls, sunk into dis-
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. (59
repute, and was at last condemned. On the contrary,
the two theories, — of the creation, and of the derivation,
of the soul, — both prevailed, without cither's gaining a
complete ascendency.
(1) So Tertullian, and probably Lactaniius.
(2) So Clemens Alex, and Or'igen,
(3) de Anirna. c. 61.
(4) They held the spirit of man to be a ray, or sjparh of
light, from the Pleroma ; but the sensitive soul, to be the
creation of the Demiurge.
(6) They held the rational soul, to be a particle from the
world of light, stolen by the Prince of darkness; but the
sensitive soul, to be the creation of the devil.
(6) So thought Justin M. (Dial. p. 106.) Tatian, (Orat.p.
253 &c.) and Tertullian, (de Anim. c. 3, 11.)
(7) da Piincip. passim.
Sec. 87. Endowments of men.
The fathers speak most frequently, of two endowments
of rtien ; namely, the immortality of the soul, and the
image of God. Some of the earlier fathers, as Jus-
tin(i), Tatian(2), Theophilus(S), and after them, Ar-
nobius(4) and Lactantim(5), believed the soul to be,
naturally, mortal ; but that God rewards it with immor-
tality. Tertullian(6), on the contrary, and Origen, who
were followed by the subsequent fathers, supposed the
soul to be immortal, in its nature ; and they supported
this opinion by various arguments(7). The image of
God in men, some of the earlier fathers indeed referred
to the body{8) ; but the Alexandrians(9) took pains, to
suppress an opinion so gross. They (10) discriminated
between the image of God, and likeness to him ; under-
standing by the former, rational endowments ; and by the
latter, virtuous sensibilities. Most of the succeeding fa-
thers(ll) coincided with them; yet some of them ex-
plained the image of God, to denote dominion over the
creatures. The Mosaic account of the state and the
apostacy of the first human pair, was generally understood
7*
TO muencher's elements
to be proper history; but Origen(l2), viewing the
literal sense of it, to be absurd, interpreted it allegor-
ically.
(1) Dial. p. 107 &c,
(2) Orat. p. 249, 254.
(3) ad Autol. Lib. II. p, 368.
(4) adv. Gentes Lib. II. p. 52 &c.
(5) Instit. div. VIL c. 5, 9, 10, 11 &c.
(6) de Aninia c. 51. — Also Irenaeus adv. Ilaer. V. c. 4, 7.
and II. c. 34.
(7) Origen argued from the nature of the soul, it being a
spirit, like God and the angels, (de Princip. IV. § 36 :)
also from the longing of the soul after immortality. Exhort,
ad Martyros.
(8) Justin M, Fragm. de Resurrect. Irenaeus adv. Haerea.
V. c. 6. Clementina^ Homil. III. c. 8. Lactant^ Instit.
div.H. c.lO.
(9) Clemens, Strom. Lib. II. p. 483. Origen^ contra Cels.
in Opp. T. I. p. 680. and T. II. p. 57.
(10) Clemens, Strom. Lib. II. p. 499. Origen, Opp. T. I.
p.522.
(11) Irenaeus, adv. Haeres. IV. c. 4,38. and V. c. 16.7Vr-
tullian, contra Marciori. Lib. II. c. 5, de Baptismo, c. 5.
(12) adv. Cels. Lib. IV. Opp. T.I. p. 530 &c. de. Princip.
Lib. IV. p. 175.
Sec. 88. Origin and propagation of sin, according to
the Greek fathers.
Historians: J. G. Walcli, Historia doctrinae de Peccato
originis ; — m his Miscell. sacra. A. D. 1744. 4to.
Jo, Horn, Commentatio de sententiis eorum patrum, quorum
auctoritas ante Augustinum phirimum valuit, de peccato
originali. Getting. 1801. 4to.
According to the Gnostics, and the Manichaeans, the
sinfulness of mankind, arose from their souls being con-
nected with material bodies. The Greek fathers(l) be-
lieved that, in consequence of Adam's sin, not only he,
but his posterity also, became mortal. But all sin, they
traced to the free choice of men : yet they allowed, that
J
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 71
the temptations of evil spirits, and their own sensual incli-
nations, contributed thereto. Although they admitted, that
since Adam's transgression, men were more easily led in--
to sin ; yet they ascribed to mankind, a power to resist
all incitements to evil. Methodius(2), in particular, as-
sumed that, by Adam's apostacy, the souls of mankind
became full of wicked propensities ; yet that it depended
on their own wills, whether they would gratify those pro-
pensities or not. The same ideas continued to be the
prevailing ones, among the Greek fathers; and they were
developed by no one, more clearly, than by JohnChrysos^
torn. The Alexandrians, Clement and Origen, never
once traced the mortality of mankind, back to Adam's
sin ; but attributed it to the nature of the body. They re-
jected, in the most express terms, all propagation of sin
and guilt ; although Origen believed in an existing sinful-
ness of men, as they came into the world. With them,
substantially, Gregory of Naz. and Gregory of Nyssa,
appear to have agreed.
(1) Justin Martyr, Dial. p. \7^, 206, 231. Apol. major, §
10. p. 49. § 61. p. 80. Apol. minor, p. 93.
Athenagoras, Legat. pro Christiariis. p. 202 — 205.
Tatiimy Orat. p. 146, 160, 152, 153,249, 255, 261.
Theophilus Antioclu ad Autol, Lib. II. p. 368.
Clemens Alex. Strom. Lib. I. p.368.II. p. 461, 463. III.
p. 556, 557. IV. p. 633. VII. p. 894.
Origen, de Princip. Prooem. p. 48. Lib. III. c. t. 2.
and 0pp. T. I. p. 260. T. 11. p. 4. T. III. p. 947, 948,
Athanasius, 0pp. T. L p. 150,638. (ed. Montf. T. L
p. 104. T. I. P. II. p. 944.)
Chrysostom, in Psal. L. Hoin. II. Opp. T. III. p. 874,
875. in Ep, ad Rom. Horn. X. Tom. X. p. 125. Horn,
XI. p. 137. Horn. XIL p. 153. Horn. XIIL p. 365.
Cyril of Jerus, Catech. 11. § 1—3. p. 22. Catecb. IV. c.l9-
p. 61.
Titus of Bostra, contra Manichaeos, Lib, II. in Bas-
nage, Monumenta, Tom. I. p. 97-
Basil the Great, Houiil. Quod Deus nan sit auctor
peccatiy^, 74,76.
72 muenscher's elements
Gregory, Naz.de Orat.Dom.Orat.V.Opp.T. I. p. 755,756.
Gregory, Nyss. Opp. T. I. p. 149—151. T. III. p. 329.
Nemesius, de Natura Hominis, c. 29 — 40.
Epiphanius, Haeres. XVI. § 4.
(2) in Photius, Biblioth. Cod. 234. p. 915, Cod. 236.
p. 949.
Sec. 89. Latin Jathers, before Augustine,
TertuUian{l), who believed in the propagation of
souls, conceived the idea, that not only mortality, but
likewise sinfulness, was propagated from Adam to his pos-
terity. But though he maintained the propagated vitiosi-
ty of man, yet he was far from accounting mankind, in-
capable of good actions. He was followed by Cyj7-
nan(2) Hilary (3) of Poictiers, and Ambrose[4) ; and
even Augustine[5) in his earlier writings, was of the
same opinion. Arnobius[6) and Lactantius{l) dissent-
ed ; but their views were not received, by the catholic
churches.
(1) de Anima, c. 16,40. contra Marcion, Lib. II. c. 6, 1.
(2) Ep. LXIV. ad Fidnm. p. 161. de Opere et Eleem. p.
196. de Gratia, ad Donat. p. 2. de Idolor. vanita-
te, p. 13.
(3) in Ps. cxviii. Lit. 22. Sec. 4. p, 366.
l\) in Ps. cxviii. c. 7.
(5) de Lib. Arbitr. I. c. 13. II. c. 1. contra Faustum
Manich. XXII. c. 78. de vera Relig. c. 14. (Opp. T.
I. p. 756.) But otherwise, in his Retract. Lib. I. c. 14.
(6) adv. Gentes Lib. I. p. 15. (He believed the soul to be,
not from God, but the workmanship of some inferior
power or spirit ; and therefore defective.)
(7) Instit. divin. IL c. 12. VL c. 13. VII. c. 5. de Ira
Dei, c. 15. (He supposed tlie body, to contaminate
the soul.)
Sec. 90. Early doctrine of divine aid to goodness.
Historians, Gerk, Jo, Vossins, Historiae de controver-
siis quas Pelaiifius et ejus reliquiae moverunt, Lib. VII.
ed. 2, Amstei. 1655. and in his Opp, Tom. VI.
Veritable tradition de V Eglise sur la Predestination et la
Grace ; in Jo. Launoii Opp. T. L P. II. p. 1065.
i
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 73
Christ. Mattk. Pfoff^ Specimen historiae doofmaticae de
Giatia et PraeJestinatione, in his Primitia Tubingens.
Tub. 1718. 4to.
Jo, Ja, Hottinger, Fata doctrinae de praedestinatione et
Gratia Dei salutari. Tiguri 1747. 4to.
Jo. Geo. Vialch, Diss, de Peiagianismo ante Pelagium ; in
his Miscell. sacra. 1744.
Theological history of the doctrine and opinions of the
church, in the five first centuries, respecting divine Grace,
free Will, and Predestination ; (in Italian,) Trent. 1742.
Fol. (by Scipio Maffei). Also in Latin, by Fr, Reifen-
berg, Francf. 1 756. Fol.
Jesus and his apostles, represent faith and reformation,
sometimes as the work of man, and sometimes as being
the gift of God. Hence efforts were made, to reconcile
these opposite representations. The Greek church(l)
took the ground of the perfect freedom of man's will ;
and therefore taught, that it depends on the purpose and
exertions of man, to attain to faith and virtue ; yet that
die grace of God, comes in aid of man's exertions, by im-
parting to him strength, assistance, and excitements. Of
course, man must render himself a fit subject of divine
grace ; which he has power to use properly, and also to
abuse. These ideas, which were fully stated by Cfe*
ment{2) and Origen{^), were also advanced by the fa*
thers of the fourth century; by Cyril{^) of Jerusalem,
Gregory[b) of Nazianzum, Oregory{6) of Nyssa, and
clearest of all, by Chrysostom{l), The Latin fathers(8)
did not deviate essentially. For, ahhough they painted,
in glowing colors, the excellence of divine grace, yet
they left room, for the spontaneous activity of man to have
a part in his reformation. An irresistable work of grace,
and an unconditional election, were not thought of; and
the divine purposes were always traced back to God's
foreknowledge.
(l) See Justin Martyr, Apol. maj. Sec. 10. p. 48. and
p, 61,
74
(3)
(4)
(2) Strom. Lib. If. p. 434, 462. IV. p. 633, 443. V. p.
645, 647. VI. p. 788. 832. VII. p. 860.
' de Pfinclp. L. III. c. 1, 2. also 0pp. T. I. p. 108 &c.
Procateches. c. 1. Catech. I. Sec. 3. XIII. Sec.
1—4. XIV. Sec. 19, 22.
(5) Orat> XXXI, p. 504, 505.
(6) Oral. I. Opp. T. I. p. 150.
(7) in Genes. Homil. 22, 23, in Ep. ad Rom. Homil. 16.
in Ep. ad Hebr. Homil. 12. (Opp. T, XII. p. 805—07.)
inPs. L. Homil. 2. de Ferendis reprehens. Homil. 13.
(8) Irenaeus, adv. Haeres. II. c. 37 — 39. Tertullian,
de Anima, c. 21. adv. Marcion II. c. 5 — 8. Minutius
FeliXi Octav. c. 36. Ci/prian, de Gratia Dei, ad Donat.
p. 3, 4. Testim. adv. Judaeos, L. III. c.52. Arnobiusj
.adv. Gentes. L. H. p. 88, 89. Laciantius, Instit. divia.
IV. c. 16. VI. c. 24. VII. c. 5. Hilary of Poict. in Psal.
cxviii. Lit. V.§ 14. Lit. VI. § 4. Lit. XVII. § 8. Optatus
Milecvt, de Schismate Donatist. II. c. 20. Ambrose, in
Evang. Luc. L. II. c. 14. de Fuga Saeculi, c 1. de Fide,
ad Grat. L. V. c. 2.
Sec 91. Conflict of Augustine with Pelagius,
Historians of it. Cornelius Jansenius, Augustinus. Lout.
1640. Fol.
Dionys, Petavius, de Pelagianorum et Semipelagianorum
dogmatum Historia ; in his work, de Dogmatibus theo-
log. T. III. p. 304—335. de Prgedestinatione et Re-
probatione L. II. ibid. T. I. p. 343, 475.
Henry Noris, Historia Pelagianaj in his Opp. Veron.
1729. Tom. I.
Ch, Fr. W. Walch, History of Heresies ; (in German,)
vols. IV. and V.
Augustine, the renowned Bishop of Hippo, by his aims
to glorify the grace of God, and by some passages of
scripture, was led to a mode of thinking, which deviated
from the earlier system of belief, and which attributed
all goodness in men, exclusively, to divine operation. On
this subject, he fell into a contest with Pelagius and
Coelestine, And through the influence of his reputation,
and the cooperation of the African churches, and of the
or DOGMATIC HISTORY. 75
Bishop of Rome, the Pelagians were condemned, as here-
tics ; notwithstanding the Council of Diospolis was favor-
able to them. This controversy related to the subjects
of sin, grace and free will, and election ; with which were
connected, those of infant baptism, redemption, and per-
severance in holiness.
Notices. The earlier writings of Augustine were: de Li-
bero Arbitrio, Lib. III. A. D. 388. de Diversis Ques-
tionibus LXXXlil. A. D. 348—395. de Diversis Qiies-
tionibus ad Simpliciarium, A. D. 397- His later wri-
tings were : de Peccatorum meritis et remissione, Lib.
I[L A. D. 412. de Natura et gratia, contra Pelagium,
A. D. 415. de Gestis Pelagii, A. D. 416. de Gratia
Christi, et de peccato originali, Lib. IL A. D. 418. de
Nuptiis et concupiscentia,Lib. I, IL A.D. 419, 420. con-
tra IL Epistolas Pelagianorum, ad Bonafacium, Lib. IV.
and contra Julianum. Lib. VI. A. D. 421. de Correp-
tione et gratia ; de Gratia et libero Arbitrio, A. D. 427.
de Praedestinatione sanctorum ; de Dono perseveran-
tiae, A. D. 428, or 429. Operis imperfecti conira Jylia-
niuii, Lib. VL A. D. 430.
From Pelagins, we have, besides a commentary on the
Epistles of Paul, an Epistle to Demetrias, (edited by J.
S. Semler, Halle, 1775.) and a confession of faith. From
Coelestius, also a confession of faith. And from Julian^
many fragments, cited by Augustine.
Sec. 92. The first point, sin.
The Pelagians believed, that Adam's sin had no bad ef-
fects, upon the character and condition of his posterity ;
that sin arose, merely, from imitation ; that all men are,
from their nature, mortal ; and are born, undepraved.
According to Augustine's doctrine, all men, in conse-
quence of their descent from Adam, are mortal ; are
chargeable with hereditary sin ; and are obnoxious to
damnation. These doctrines he endeavored to prove,
from infant baptism, from the practice of exorcisms, and
from Rom, v. 12. Against him it was objected, that hig
doctrine of hereditary sin and its propagation, was ab-
7G
surd ; that it would lead to the disapproval of matrimo-
ny ; and that, affirming the corruption of human nature,
and a connate worthiness of punishment, was making
God the author of evil, and an unrighteous judge.
Sec. 93. Second point, grace and free will.
Desirous of explaining, precisely, the activity of
man, and the influences of God, Pelagius discriminated
between the power, the will, and the act ; and he at-
tributed the first to God, the second to man, and the
lliird to both united. [When a man wills to do good,
God gives him the power, and so both have a part in
the act^ By the ambiguous term grace, he understood,
sometimes, divine instructions, and sometimes, other
means of moral improvement ; but never, any divine ener-
gy that impaired the free operations of the will. Au-
gustine, on the contrary, subverted, substantially at least,
the freedom of the will ; and derived all that was good
in man, solely from divine grace; by which he under-
stood an internal operation upon the soul, whereby it re-
ceived, not only the power, but also the will, to do good.
This grace, he maintained to be indispensable to man,
at all times, and for all duties : without it, no man can
do a good act; and even with it, no man is entirely free
from sin. All this he inferred either from his idea of he-
reditary sin, or from such passages of Scripture as John
viii. 31, 32. Phil. ii. J 3. 2 Cor. iii. 6, 6. But he ex-
posed himself to the objection, that, like the Manichaeans,
he annihilated the freedom of the will, and must look
upon all precepts and exhortations to virtue as nugatory.
Sec. 94. Third point, election.
From his conviction, that all men are totally depraved-,
and incapable of good deeds, there was no way lelt, lor
Augustine to answer the question, Why are some con-
verted and saved, and others not, — but to ascribe it to
the sovereign will of God. And thus was formed, his
doctrine of unconditional predestination; according lo
which, God destined some men to blessedness, without
OF DOGMATIC KISTORT. 7T
regard to their merits and conduct, from his mere good
pleasure ; while he leaves others in their sins, and sen-
tences them to punishment, in order to exhihit his justice.
These doctrines not only forced themselves upon him, as
consequences of the other parts of his system; but. he
believed, they could be established by the scripture, Rom.
ix : and he took great pains to soften down their harsh
features, and to meet the objections to their injurious
practical tendency. From them flowed, spontaneously,
the ideas of irresistible divine influences, of special grace,
and particular redemption, and of the infallible perse-
verance of the elect.
Sec. 95. Progress of the doctrine^ after Augustine.
Great as the influence of Augustine was, his principles
gained no currency, among the Eastern christians ; and
even in the West, opposition was raised; especially by the
Galilean divines, who believed that, men still have some
ability to do good, by means of which, though they can-
not merit divine grace, ye^ they can prepare themselves
to receive it; and that God's purpose to save, depends on
the foreseen use made of this power. John Cassianus
was the most noted divine of this party ; and Famtus,
Bishop of RieZjbrought Lucidus an Augustinian, to change
his sentiments, A. D. 475. The controversv between the
Massilians, (Semi-Pelagians,) and those called Predes-
tinarians, continued for some time; but in the year 529,
the opinions of the former were condenmed, in the Coun-
cils of Arausio (Orange) and Valentia (Valence ;) and
tlie decision was confirmed by the Romish Bishops.
References. Jo. Ca^^tcrnw*, CollationespatrumSceticorum,
Collat*. XIII. 0pp. |>. 691—627.
Prosper of Aquitain, de Gratia et Arhitrio Liber, contra
Collatorem ; in 0pp. Cassian, p. 887.
Faustus, Ep. ad Lucidum : and, de Gratia et libero Arbi-
trio Lib. II.— in Biblioth Pair.
Praedestinatus ; in 0pp. J. Sirmondi, Tom. L
8
78 muenscher's elements
Sec. 96. What Christ has done for mankind.
Historians. J. Fr. Cotta, Dissertatio, historiam doctrinae
de Redemptioneecclesiae sanguine J. C. facta exhibens;
in Jo.Gerhardi Locas theolog. ed. Cofta, Tom. IV. p. 105.
Wern. Car. Lud. Ziegler^ Historia doomatis de Redemp-
tione, seude modis, quihus redernptio Christi cxplicaba-
tur; Getting. 1791. — also in Velfhuscn,KiiindletRupcrti^
Commentat't. Theolog. vol. V. p. 227 &c.
The doctrines concerning sin and grace, stand closely
connected with those concerning Christ; for it is through
him, that sins are blotted out, and the grace of God im-
parted. Jesus Christ was described, as being, in va-
rious respects, the greatest benefactor of mankind;
and for proof, mention was made of his excellent in-
structions, his noble example, the communication of
powers for holiness, his overthrowing the dominion
of evil spirits, and procuring immortality. At the
same time, as Irenaeus(l), and even Gregory of Na-
zianzum, assert, the theologians were left free, to form
their own conceptions of the design and effects of the in-
carnation and sufferings of Christ : and it is not strange,
therefore, that we should find them to have entertained
different views.
(1) adv. Haeres. I. c. 10.
Sec. 97. Effects of Chrisfs death.
Both Irenaeus(\) and Origen(2) had, in their day,
represented the death of Christ, sometimes, as a ransom
given to the devil, and sometimes, as a debt paid to God.
In accordance with the first of these hypotheses, most of
the fathers spoke of the death of Christ, as being the
means of the rescue of mankind from the dominion of the
devil, under which sin had brought them : and they some-
times go upon the assumption, that on the principle of
distributive justice, the power of the devil was taken from
him, because he misused it upon Jesus Christ(3) ; at other
times, they represent redemption as being, either a com-
bat (4), or a bargain(^), with the devil. Gregory of
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 7^
Nazianzum, however, rejects the idea, that Jesus Christ
paid a ransom to the devil(6). Others of the fathers, —
as Athanasius(l ) and Cyril(S), — go upon the principle
of a debt paid to God ; and they consider the death of
Christ, as the stipulated condition, on which God can,
without injury to his veracity, release men from the death
threatened to them. Soaie of them also assert, that Je-
sus Christ paid more, than was necessary for the redemp-
tion of the human race(9). Lastly, there were some, who
supposed, that the whole mass of human nature, was ele-
vated and ennobled, by the Son of God's participating in
it(lO). It remained undetermined, whether the death
of Christ was indispensable, in order to the salvation of
men(ll). Respecting the extent of redemption, Ori-
gen( 12) advanced the idea, that Christ died, not merely
for men, but for all intelligent creatures : but this idea
was, by all the other fathers, except perhaps Grego-
ry(i3) of Nyssa and Didymus( 14), either silently re-
jected, or expressly disapproved.
(1) adv. Haeres. Lib. V. c. 1, 16, 21.
(2) Comment, in Mntth. Opp. T. III. p. 726, and p. 321,
and T. IV. p. 495. Homil. VI. in Exod. Lib. II. contra.
Gels. Lib. I. § 31.
(3) Augustine^ de. Lib. Arbitrio. Lib. III. c. 10. (Opp.
T. I. p. 622 &c.) also de Trinit. Lib. XIII. c. 10—15.
Chrysostom, Homil. LXVI. (T. Vlll. p. 432, 433.)
Homil. XXIV. in 1 Ep. ad Cor. (T. XI. p. 262,)— Hi-
lary of Poict. Tract, in Ps. Ixviii. § 8. p. 218. — Leoihe
Gr. Serm. LIX. c.4. (Tom. I. p. 132, e(l. Quesn.) Serm.
LXVH. C.3. i^M5.— Gregory the Gr. Moral. Lib.XVH.
(4) Irejiaeus, adv. Haer. V. c. 21, § 3. — Origen, contra
Cels. Lib. I. § 31. — Theodoret, de Provident. Oral. X.
(Opp. T. IV. p. 660.) — Hilary Pictav. Comment, in
Matth. c. 3. § 1, 5. p. 6 18, 620.— L^o the Gr. Orat.XXlI.
(Opp. I. p. 12.)— Gregory the (ir. Moral. Lib. XXVL
c. 18.
(5) Irenaeus, adv. Haeres. V. c. 1. — Origen, Comment, in
Matth. (Opp. T. III. p. 126.)— BaHl the Gr. Homil. ia
80 muenschek's elements
Ps. xlviii. (0pp. T. p. 179 &c.) — Jerome in Ep. ad.
Ephes. cap. I. (0pp. JX. p. "iQ^.)-^ Ambrose Epp. Lib.
IX. Ep. 77. — Rufinus^ Exf)os. Syrnb. Apostol. (sub Opp. ^
Cypr. p.21, 22. ed. Brem.) That the devil was over- ■
reached, say : Cyril of Jems. Catechct. XII. p. 170. ^
and Gregory Nyss. Orat. catechet. c. 22 — 26.
(6) Gregory Nazianz. Orat. XLII. (Opp. T. I. p. 691,692.)
and the author of the Dialogue, de Recta fide, sec. 1. in-
ter Opp. Orlgenisy T. I. p. 820.
(7) de Incarnat. (Opp. T. I. p. 60-62, or p. 52 &,c. ed,
Montf.) Orat. Ill (II.) in Arianos, (T. I. p. 439, 440, or
p. 535 &c. ed. Montf.)
(8) Catech. XIII. §33.
(9) C/yWZof Jerus. Catech. XIII. § 33.
(10) Gregory NWss. Orat. Catech. c. 16,32,37. and Opp.
Tom. 11. p. 17,* 588. Tom. III. p. 72,73,92, 102.—//*-
lary Pictav. do Trinitit. Lib. IL § 24, 25. and in Ps. li.
§ 15.
(11) Affirmed by : Basil the Gr. Ilomil. in Ps. xlviii. (Opp.
L 179, 180.) — Cyril Alex. Dial, de incarnatione uni-
geniti, (Opp. V. p. 684.) — Leo the Gr. Serm. L. c. 1, 2.
Denied by : Athanasivs, Oiat. III. (11.) in Arian. (Opp.
L p. 438, ^^^.)— Gregory Naz. Orat. IX. p. 157.—
Gregory Nyss. Orat. catechet, c. 17. — Theodorety de
graecar. affectt. Curatione, Lib. VI. (Opp. IV. p. 875,
876.)— CyWZ Alex, contra Jul. Lib. VIII. p. 284, 285.
Augustine,, de Agone Christi. c. 11. and de Trinit. Lib.
XIIL c. 10.
(12) Comment, in Job. (Opp. T. IV. p. 41, 42.) contra
Cels. Lib. II. p. 409. Lib. VII. p. 706.
ns) Orat. Catechet. c. 26.
(14) Enarrat. in I.Ep. Pelri;in G allandi BMioih. Patr.VI.
p. 293. — That Christ suffered in our steady was taught by .-
Euseblus, Demor)strat. Evang. Lib. X. p. 467, and Lib.
Lp. 3Q.-— Gregory Nizmz. Orat. XXXVI. p. 580, and
Cyril Alexand. de recta fide ad Reginas, Opp. Tom.
V. p. 131.
Sec. 98. Forgiveness of sin.
It was universally admitted, that men obtain forgive-
ness of sin, through Jesus Christ. But a distinction
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 8J
was carefully made, between sins before baptism, and
sins committed afterwards. The former, it was believed,
were wholly removed, by Christ, in baptism. But for
subsequent sins, the man himself must make satisfac-
tion(l). This satisfaction consisted in Penance^ or vol-
untary self-inflictions; (which were considered as punish-
ments, that the person laid upon himself, in order to es-
cape divine punishment;) and in good works^ among
which, fasting, prayer, and alms-giving, were especially ^ ^
recommended. Also the intercessions o( Wmg christi^nn^' '- ^ ^
and of glorified saints, were supposed to contribute
very efficiently, to the forgiveness of these sins. Whe- >>,
ther, after one penance, a second penance could be^^ ^
admitted, and whether it was possible, to do petiance >,
in the last moments of life, there was not entire agree-
ment ; but the majority answered affirmatively. Faith,' r,> ^ ..
was considered, as the general requisite, to a partici-"- ' "^
pation of the blessings of Christianity. ' By faith, was
understood, embracing the christian religion, or rather,
orthodoxy. But the necessity of uniting good works
with faith, was strongly urged ; and the nature of good
works, — which must originate from faith, and derive all
their value froni it, — was the most precisely explained
by Augustine. At the same time, the opinion was
more and more distinctly held, that a man could per-
form more, than he was properly required to do, (works
of superogation,) and thereby attain to higher perfec-
tion and recompense(2). The word justification, (jus-
tificatio,) was oftener used for sanctification(3), than for
the pardon of sin.
Reference. Ilistoria antiquior dogmatis de modo salutis
tenendae, et justificationis seu veniae peccatorum a Deo
impetrandae instrumentis ; — auctore Henr\ Lconh, Heu-
. hner. Part I. and II. Wittemb. 1805. 4to,
(1) Clemens Alex. Strom. Lib. IV. p. t)34. Origen, in Ep,
ad Rom. Lib. III. p. 516, 617. Cyprian, de opere et
eleem. p. 197. Cyril Jerus. Catech. XVIII. sec. 20.
, Chrysostoniy in Evan. Joan. Homil LXXII. (Tom. VIIL
8*
89 muenscher's elements
p. 466.) Augustine, Enchirid. ad Laurent, c. 70, 71. de
Fide et opp. c. 19.
^2) Hermasy Similit. V. c. 2, 3.
(3) Augustine, Ep. CXL.sec. 63.
CHAPTER VIII.
CHRISTIAN SACRAMENTS.
Sec. 99. Baptism,
Historian, History of Baptism and the Anabapti.sts, (in
German,) by J. A. .SVar^p, Lips. 1785. 8vo.
The earliest description of baptism among Christians,
is given by Justin Martyr[\), The fathers, very early,
ascribed to this act a peculiar efficacy, in the forgiveness
of sins, and in the sanctification of the soul : and there was
a continued advance in the degree of efficacy ascribed to
it. Ordinarily, baptism was administered by immersion(2),
and only to the sick, by sprinkling ; and it was regarded,
as necessary to salvation(4), unless it was compensated
by a bloody baptism i. e. martyrdom(5). With baptism, it
was corpmon to join exorcism and unction.
Note. Singular idea of some fathers, concerning baptism
performed in the lower world. (6)
n) Apol. maj. p. 79,80.
(2) Barnabas^ Ep. c. 3. Theoph, ad Autol. Lib. IL p. 361.
Clemens Alex. Strom. I. c. 6 &c. l^erfullian, de Bap-
tismo. c 4, 5, 6, 16. Basil the Gr. Homil. de Baptismo.
(0pp. T. II.) Gregory Nyss. de Baptismo Christi.
(0pp. T. III.) Cyril Jerus. Catech. T. c. 3. MI. c. 11,
16. XVIL C.37. XX. c. 6. Gregory Naz. Orat. XL.
Augustine^^nc\nr\(\, ad Laurent, c. 43, 64.
(3) Turiullian, adv. Prax. c. 26. Irenaeus, adv. Haer. !.
c. 18. Basil the Gr. de Spir.S, c. 27. — Sprinkling used:
Cyprian, Ep. 69, ad Masrntim, p. 186 &c.
(4) Irenaeus, adv. Haer. III. c. 17. Origen, Exhort, ad
Martyr, sec. 30. Tertullian de Baptismo, c. 12, 13.
OV DOGMATIC HISTORT. 83
Augustine de Peccator. mentis et remiss. Lib. III. c.
3 — 5, and c. 12, 13. Enchirid. ad Laurent, c. 43.
(5) Origen, Exhort, ad Martyr, sec. 30. Tertull. de Bapt
c. 16. Cyprian, Ep. 73.
(6) Clemens Alex. Strom. Lib. IL p. 452, and VL p. 762,
763.
Sec. 100. Infant Baptism.
All the earlier traces of infant baptism, are very unde-r
dsive ; and Tertullian{\) is the first who mentions it,
to disapprove of it. On the contrary, Origen (2) and
Cyprian (3) patronize it. In the fourth century, its le-
gality was univ^ersally admitted (4), notwithstanding the
fatliers often found occasion, to warn christians against
delaying it; and even Peloigius (5) did not dare to
question its correctness. Augustine (6) assigned to it
the distinct object, to take away the innate sin, and guilt
of the child : and by his views of it, the general practice
of it was promoted.
Historians. Wm. Wall, History of Infant Baptism ; Lend.
1705. 2 vol. 8vo.
/. G. Walch, Hisioria Paedobaptismi IV. priorum saecu-
lor ; — in his Miscell. Sacra. 1744.
David Rees, Infant Baptism no institution of Christ;' and
the rejection of it, justified from Scripture and antiquity ;
Lond. 1734. 8vo.
Robert Robinson, The history of Baptism : — abridged by D.
Benedict. Boston 1817. 8vo. •
(1) de Baptismo. c. 18.
(2) in Levit. Homil. VIII. (0pp. T. II. p. 230.) in Ev.
Lti. Homil. XV. Comment, in Ep. ad Rom. Lib. v. (0pp.
T. iv. p. 565.)
(3) Ep. adFidum. p. 158.
(4) Gregory Naz. Orat. xl. Gregory Nyss. do Inflintibus,
qui pracmnture abripiuntur. (Opp. T. III.) Augustine, de
Genesi ad Literam. Lib. x. c. 23. &c. A^^c.
(5) Professio Fidei.
84 muenscher's elements
(6) Ep. CLVII. sec 11. Ep. XCVIIL Ep. CLXXXVII.
sec. 22 &-C. de Genesi ad Lit. Lib. x. c. 23. de Peccator.
meritis et remiss. Lib. 1. c. 26.
Sec. 101. Heretical baptisms.
Much longer, continued the doubt, whether those who
were baptized by heretics, had received valid baptism.
The African churches were convinced, that true baptism
existed only in the Catholic church. In this, they dif-
fered from the Komish church ; and the bishops, Ste-
phen and Cyprian, had a controversy on the subject.
Even the decrees of the Councils of Nice and Constanti-
nople, did not produce uniformity of sentiment. The
Catholics of Africa, were led by the Donatist controversy,
to depart from their former principles. Aus^ustine de-
vised the doctrine, that the validity of baptism depends,
not on the orthodoxy of the church in which, or of the
person by whom, it is administered, but solely on the
invocation of the Trinity ; yet that baptism can conduct
to salvation, only those that belong to the true church.
This doctrine, he labired to establish, yet with the great-
est tenderness for the reputation of Cyprian.
References, Cyprian, Epistolae LXIX — LXXV. — Au-
gustine, de baptismo, contra Donatistas, Libri VL
Sec. 102. The Lord^s Supper.
Historians. De Eucharistiae sacramento, Lib. Ill ; authore
Edm. Albertin ; Daventr. 1654. Fol.
Histoire de I'Eucharistie ; par Matth. de Larroque, Arnst.
1671. 8vo.
Rudolph Hospinian, Historia Sacramentaria ; Genev. 1681.
II. vol. Fol.
J. Aug. Emes% Antimuratorius ; Lips. 1755. and in his
Opusc. Theol. Lips. 1792.
History of the doctrine of the Lord's Supper : (in German,)
in Cramer's Continuation of Bonnet's Introduction to the
History of the world and of religion, vol. V. P. II.
La perpetuite de 1' eglise catholique touchant V Eucharistie ;
Paris 1670— 74. ILL vol. with volumes IV. and V. (by
OF DOGMATIC liISTORY* 85
Euseb, Reinaudot,) Paris 1711, 1713. 4to. and the wri-
tings in reply, by J. Claude,
.The Lord's supper (r^x^p^ia, (fwa^ig ivXoyta, missa) was
solemnized by christians, after the example of Christ,
and as a memorial of him. After the second century,
it was likened to the pagan mysteries, and was kept from
the sight of all unbaptized persons. In it, common bread
was used, and tlie wine was mixed with water. The
custom of some heretical sects, of witholding the cup,
or of presenting water instead of wine, was disapproved.
Baptized children(l) were allowed to partake of the
Lord's supper. The zeal of the- fathers led them to ex-
hibit, under the strongest imagery, this transaction as very
holy, very efficacious, and very awful.
(1) Cyprian, de Lapsis, p. 132.
Sec. 103. The hordes Supper as a sacrifice.
According to the concordant decisions of the ancient
fathers, the Lord's supper is to be considered, as a ^a-
crifioe (^uo'ia, ^potf^popa, oblatio, sacriliciinn.) Yet Jus-
tin(l) and Irenaeus(2) make it to be only k thank-offer^
ing. The African fathers, TertuHian(3) and Cyprian(4),
speak of offerings /or the dead; and the latter represents
the Lord's supper, as being an act of the priest, in which
he, in Christ's stead, presents bread and wine to God, in
imitation of the sacrifice of Christ. Jn the fourth centu-
ry, the Lord's supper was universally considered, as an
unbloody sacrifice; whereby the accompanying prayers of
the living and the dead, obtained peculiar efficacy, and
were potent to the averting of all sorts of evils. The
idea, that the Lord's supper was a memorial of the sacri-
fice of Christ, was gradually supplanted by another, that
it was a repeiition of that sacrifice ; and the doctrine of
purgatory being introduced, the idea of the sacrifice cj
the Mass, grew up in the Latin church.
(1) Apolo<r. maj. p, 82, 83. (p. 98. ed. Col.) Dial, p.
66 iiuenscher's elements
(2) adv. Haeres. Lib. IV. c. 17, 18.
(3) de Corona, c. 3. de Monogam. c. 10.
{4) Epist. LXllI. p. 149, 155.
Reference, Essay of a History of the doctrine of a sacri-
fice in the Lord's supper; (German,) in the Got'.ingen-
chen Bihliothek der neuesten theol. Literatur, vol. 11. p.
159, and 317.
Sec. 104. Presence of Christ in the Eucharist,
As all christians considered the Lord's supper, to be
a means of communion with Christ, two modes of ex-
plaining this communion early appeared. Some, as Ter-
tuUian{i) Origen[2) &nd Cyprian{2), regarded the
bread and wine, as mere symbols of the body and blood
of Jesus. Others, as Justin{4) diwd Irenaeus[d) (though
with very indistinct conceptions,) supposed that, the Logos,
united himself with the bread and wine, and thus trans-
formed them into his body and blood, and into food, that
imparted immortality to the body of the partaker of it.
Ahhough this diversity of sentiment, did not afterwards
disappear, yet subsequent to the fourth century, the lat-
ter hypothesis acquired an ascendency, more and more
manifest ; and it became common, to speak of the trans-
formation of the elements, although the church had not
yet an established belief on the subject.
(1) Tertullian, contra Marcion, Lib. IV. c. 40.
(2) Comment, in Maith. 0pp. T. III. p. 498—500
(3)Ep. LXIII. p. 148 &c. 153 &c.
(4) Apolojr. mnj. p. 82, 83,
(5) adv. Haer. V. c. 2.
Jleference. Phil, Marheineke, Sane. Patrum de praesen-
tia Christi in coena Domini sententia triplex ; s. saqrae
Eucharistiae historia tripartita ; Heidelb, 1811. 4to.
Sec. 105. Of the sacraments in general.
The word sacrament (sacramentum, in Gr. i^^vgripm)
was sometimes used for religious doctrines, that transcend
the comprehension of men, and sometimes for religious
rites. Among these rites, baptism and the Lord's sup-
OF DOGMATI-C HISTORY. 87
per held the first rank ; and they were described as meansy
by which God imparts his grace to men. Unction, how-
ever, was distinguished from baptism; 2ind Augustine^l)
added the two institutions of ordination and marriage.
The pseudo-Dionosius Areopagita(2) enumerates six
sacraments ; namely baptism, the Lord's supper, unc-
tion, ordination, monastic vows, and religious rites on the
dead.
(1) contra Ep. Parmeniani Lib. II. c. 12. Sec. 28. de Bo-
no conjucrali, c. 7. et 15.
(2) Dlonys. Areop. de Ecclesiastica Ilierarchia, 0pp. T.
I. p. 229. ■
SECOSTD PERIOD.
THE MIDDLE AGES, A. D. 600 1517.
PART I.
GENERAL VIEW OF THE STATE OF THEOLOGY.
Sec. 106. State cf theology among the Greeks, at the
beginning of the period.
The state of the Greek empire, which, in consequence
of enemies without and bad management within, was
threatened with dissohuion, raised obstructions to the
progress of theology. But still greater obstacles lay in
the theological disposition of the age ; which was govern-
ed by authority, looked at the bible through the glass of
the earlier expositors, compiled systems of faith from
the works of preceding times, and was violently passion-
ate against heretics. The contests concerning the luilh
of Christ, and concerning pictures in churches, called
forth indeed the activity of theologians, but gave no fa-
vorable direction to their minds.
Sec. 107. John Damascenes.
From the materials, which the various controversies
of the preceding ages and the industry of the fathers had
accumulated, John of Damascus formed an orthodox
system of divinity (^xi^stfi^ ax^i^.r^g tt.c: cp^o(5ogou tj^sw^) ;
which was received with great applause, on account of
the uncommon learning of the author, and his reputa-
tion earned in the field of orthodox warfare. Ahhough
we are not to look there, for natural interpretations of
scripture, and candid investigations of subjects; yet the
work commends itself, by a happy selection of thought*
muenscher's elements, etc. 89
fl'om approved writers, by clearness of expression, and
by the attempt to give, with the aid of the Aristotelian
philosophy, new confirmations and greater unity to the
received theology.
References. lo. Damasceni 0pp. cura Mich. Le Quien,
Paris, 1712. 11. vol. Fol. Epitome universae theolo-
giae ; s. Explicatio IV. libror. Damasceni Chrysorrhoae,
de orlhodoxa fide ; auctore Christoph Pelargo ; Francf.
1605. 4to. Rd.sler^s Bibliothek der Kirchenvater, vol.
VIII. p- 248—532.
Sec. 108. Greek theology subsequently.
After John Damascen, the cultivation of theology,
among the Greeks, still declined : and, was directed sole-
ly, to the prosecution of the contest respecdng image-
worship; to the attacking of manichaeism, as revived by
the Paulicians ; and to the points of doctrine, contested
between the Greeks and the Latins. Those inclined to
attempt something more, as Euthymius Zigabenus (d.
circ. A. D. 1116) and JVicetas Choniates, compiled
collections of sentences from the fathers, against the he-
retics. The detached parties, the Nestorians (Chaldaic
christians,) and the Monophy sites, (Jacobites,) had for
dogmatic writers — the former, Ebed Jesu (d. 1318)
and the latter, Jacobus of Tagrit (d. 1231) and Abulfa-
radsch (d. 1286.)
Notices. Euthymii Zigaheni, cravocrXia Ooyiiarixr] rr\g op^o-
Solou ifig-TSiA^S published, Lat. in the Biblioth. maxima Pa-
trum, T. XIX. and Gr. Targov. 1710. Fol. Nicetae
Choniatis ^ricfavpog op^o^o^ia^. See Bandini Eccles.
Graecae Monum. T- II. p.l & c. Ebed Jesu Margarita ;
s. de vera Fide. See Assejnanni BihWoih. Orient. Tona.
III. P. I. Jacobus Tagrit. Liber Thesaurorum. See
Asseman !. c. T. II. p. 237. Abulfaragii candela-
brum sanctorum de fundamentis ecclesiae. Ibid. p. 284.
Sec 109. State of theology among the Latins,
In the newly erected western kingdoms, learning sunk
faster and deeper, than it did in the East ; yet here also,
9
90 biuenscher's elements
the like firm adherence to the earlier systems of belief,
prevailed. The Romish Bishops distinguished them-
selves, by their zeal against the Monothelites, and the op-
posers of image vvorsliip. Uidore of Seville, is little more
than an undiscriminating compiler of sentences from the
works of Augustine and Gregory. Tajo of Saragossa,
and Ildefonsus of Toledo, made similar compilations.
Notices. Isidori Hispalensis 0pp. Madrid, 1778. II. vol.
Fol. andhyF. Arm/Zo, Rornae, 1797—1803. VII. vol.
4to. In which are, Sententiarum Lihri IJI. Also his
Etymoloiries. Lib. VIL and VIII. contain explanations of
many points in iheoloiry.
Tajonis Caesaravgustani Sententiarum Lib. V.
lldefonsi Toletani Annotatt. de ctigiiitione haptismi, Li-
ber ; in StepL Baluzii Miscellanea, T. VI. p. 1. Pa-
ris, 1713.
Sec. 110. Age of Charlemagne,
In the empire of the Franks, Charlemagne aw^akened
the slumbering love of science. He and his assistants —
among whom Alcuin was prominent — exercised their
ingenuity, in applying the theology of the fathers to the
controversies respecting image worship, and with the
Adoptionists. In the schools established by Charlemagne,
various learned men were trained, who became con-
spicuous, by their investigations concerning the Lord's
Supper, and the doctrine of election. Yet one individual,
John Scotus, distinguished himself among his contempo-
raries, by his uncommon boldness of thought. He also
transplanted the writings of the supposed Dionysius Ar-
eopagita, into the soil of the Latin churches.
Notices, Flaccus Alcuinus, 0pp. — cura J. Frobenii ; Ra-
tisbon. 1777. H. Tom. IV. vol. Fol.
Jo Scotus, de Divisione naturae. Lib. V. Oxon. 1609.
Hincmarus RhemensiSf 0pp. — cura Ja. Slrmondi; Paris
1645.il Vol. Fol.
Sec. 111. Preparatory steps to Scholastic theology.
Historians, Important materials, for a history of scholastic
OF DOGMA.TIC HISTORY. 91
theology, are contained in the Histoire literaire de la
France, (yet reachinsr only to the 12th century,) and in
the Historia universitatis Parisiensis, authore Caes. Egas»
Bulaeo. Pans 1665—73. VI. vol. Fol.— The history
itself is best given by,
Ad. Tribbechovius, de Doctoribus scholasticis, cum Praef,
Libro. C. A, Heumonn, Jena. 1719.
/, A. Cramer, Continuation o^ Bos suet's General History ;
(in German,) vol. V. VI. VII.
J. M. Schroeckh, History of the Christian Church ; (in
German,) vol. XXV— XXXIV.
Its history, philosophically considered, is best giv*
en by,
Brucker, Historia critica Philosophiae ; Tom. HI.
Tiedemann, The Spiritof speculative Philosophy ; (in Ger-
man,) Vol. IV. and V.
Eberstein, Natural Theology of the Scholastics ; (in Ger-
man,) Lips. 1803.
Tennemanuy History of Philosophy ,* (in German,) vol.
Vlll.
The activity, which Charlemagne had imparted to tha
study of theology, disappeared, so early as the ninth
century ; and w^as seen no more, till the last half of the
eleventh century, when dialectics was again prosecuted,
with impassioned ardour, and Roscelin shewed himself
at the head of the Nominalists. The schools in France,
then flourished again ; and the cathedral school of
Tours, awakened emulation in the monastic school of Le
Bee. The controversy respecting the Lord's Supper,
carried on by Lanfrank (d. 1088), against Berengarius
(d. 1080), in which philosophical argumentation was
employed, called forth close thinking, and gave new
activity to the speculative powers.
Notices, Berengarius Turonensis, or Announcement of
one of his important works ; (in German,) by Gott» Eph.
Lessing; Brunsw. 177v). — Beienijarins Turonensis ; by
C' F' Sfdudlin ; in his and if, G. Tzschirner's Archiv
92
fiir alte und neue Kirchengeschichte, vol. II. P. I. p.
1 &c.
Lanfranci Cantuariensis Opera ; evulgavit Lucas Dacheri-
us. Paris 1648. Fol.
Sec. 1 12. Anselm and Hildebert,
The proper commencement of scholastic theology, or
of attempts to establish the received doctrines of faith on
philosophic principles, is to be ascribed to Anselm of
Canterbury (d. 1109); who attempted to raise many-
articles of the received faith, to the rank of demonstra-
tive truths. Hildebert (a Lavardino, Ep. Cenomanen-
sis, and then) Archbishop of Tours (d. 1132), in his
Tractatus Theologicus, embraced most of the theolo-
gical tenets then discussed, in one connected discourse.
About this time, in addition to the existing schools, larger
seminaries of learning began to be erected, which spread
wider this philosophizing theology ; in which, the uni-
versity of Paris took the lead, through the whole of the
middle ages.
Notices. Anselmi Cantuariensis Opera ; — cura Gahr.
Gerberon. ed. 2, Paris 1721. Fol.
Hildeberti Opera ^ cura Ant. Beaugendre ; Paris 1708.
Fol.
Sec. 113. Contest respecting philosophic theology.
This new shape of theology would, in various respects,
naturally appear suspicious, in the eyes of those habitua-
ted to the old mode of teaching, or the Theologi Positivi.
Also the ecclesiastical hierarchy, over which the Popes
had elevated themselves to unlimited power, could not
be indifferent to this freedom of thought; and especially,
as even at that very time, they saw their rights assailed,
by the new sects that were rising up. Anselm and
Hildebert, indeed, in consequence of their high respecta-
bility, and their prudence, had no collision with the
church. But the higher daring of their successors, met
with restraints. The open hearted Peter Abelard (d.
1142J was subdued, by the great influence of St. Ber-^
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 93
nard of Clairvaux (d. 1 153) ; and Gilbert of Porretta (d.
1 J 54) met with — not indeed the same— but a similar fate.
Notices, Collectio judiciorum de novis erroribus, qni ab
initio seculi XII. — in ecclesia proscripti sunt ; — opera
Car, du Plessis d' Argeutre ; Paris 1728 — 36. III.
Vol. Fol.
Pet. Abaelardi Opera ;— cura Andr Quercetani; Paris
1616. 4to. — Theologiae ciiristianae Lib. V. in Edm.
Martene^s Thesaur. Anecdotoiuni. Tom. V. p. il39. —
F, C. Schlosser, Abaelard und Dulcinj (in German,)
Gotha 1807. 8vo.
Sec. 114. Further advances of scholastic theology.
Warned by the example of Abelard, some of his con-
temporaries carefully avoided offending the church.
Robert Pulleyn (d. about 1153) even became a Cardi-
nal; and Hugo of S. Victor (d. 1164) enjoyed the
friendship of St. Bernard. Richard of St. Victor (d.
1173) labored to explain and confirm mystic theology,
by metaphysical philosophy. Robert of Melun (d.
1173) and Alan of Ryssel (ab Insulis, d. 1203) w^rote
compilations of philosophical views in theology ; and the
latter distinguished himself, by attempting to supj)ort all
doctrines of faith, with mathematical demonstrations.
But Peter Lombard (d. 1164) eclipsed all his predeces-
sors. His work, which is a compilation and comparison
of the opinions of all the earlier theologians, obtained
universal respect. He was indeed, together with his
pupil Peter of Polctiers (d. 1206), accused of many
errors; and Walter of St. Victor represented him as
one of the corrupters of France : yet his book triumphed
over all its enemies, so as even to claim to be free from
plagiarism.
Notices, Roberti PuUi Sententiarum Lib. VIII. et Petri
Petaviensis Sententiarum Lib. V. — studio Hugonis Ma-
thoud; Paris 1655. Fol.
Hugonis a St, Victorcyde Sacramentis ecclesiae, Lib. 11. —
in his Opp. Rothomagi 1648. Fol.
9^
94
Richardi a St, Victore Opp. Rothom. 1660. Fol.
Extracts from the unpublished writings of Robert ofMeluns,
are in Bulaei Hist. Univer. Paris. Tom. II. p. 585 —
626.
Alani ah Insulis, Libri V. de Arte ; s. de articulis catholi-
cae fidei ; — in Pezii Thesaurus Anecdot. T. I. P. II. p.
475, &c.
Petri Lomhardi Sententiarum Lib. IV. — often published ;
e. g. Louv. 1553. Fol. Colon. 1576. 8vo. — (^Lamberti
Danaei Prolegomena in Librum primym Sententiarum
Lombardi ; — in his Opuscula'I'heol.Genev. 1583. Fol.) —
Bandini Sententiarum theologicarum Lib. IV. Viennae
1519. Fol.
Sec. 115. Influence of the monastic orders on the scho-
lastic theology.
Since the time of Innocent III. (A. D. 1198,) the
Popes assumed the freer use of legislative power in mat-
ters of faith, and were more active in suppressing all
opinions that displeased them. The then recent orders
of Dominicans and Franciscans, forced their way into the
theological chairs, outshone the other doctors, and impart-
ed to theology something of the spirit of their orders.
To them it belonged, to combine the Aristotelian philo-
sophy with strict orthodoxy, and thus reconcile the church
to that philosophy. Alexander of Hales (d. 1245) and
Albert the Great, the most learned of all the scholastics,
led the way. Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274) excelled all
that preceded him, in acuteness, and in the multitude of
theological questions, w^hich he discussed. His contem-
porary, John Bonaventure (d. 1274), was not so pene-
trating ; but he endeavored to give nutriment, not only to
the understanding, but to the imagination and the heart
of the reader. John Duns Scotus (d. 1308), the most
subtle and the most obscure of all the doctors of that age,
differed from Thomas Aquinas on many points, and form-
ed a distinct school. The Thomists and the Scotists lived
in continual warfare with each other.
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY, 95
Notices, Alexandri Halesii Summa universae theologiae ;
Colon. 1576. Fol.
Alberti Magni Opera; cura Petri Jammi ; Lugd. 1651.
XXI Vol. Fol. — or which ; Cornmentarii in Libros IV.
Sententiarum, Bas. 1506. IV vol. — Summa theologica,
P. I. et II. Bas. 1507. II vol. Fol.
Thomae Aquinatis Opera ; Rom. 1572. XVII vol. Fol. —
Venet 1745 &c. XX vol. Fol.— Of which ; Commen-
tarii in Libros Sententiarum ; (often printed e. g.) Pa-
- ris 1659. IV vol. Fol. — Siimmae totius theologiae Lib.
in. Antw. 1624. Fol. (The genuineness of this Summa,
was contested by Jo. Launoy ; but defended by Natalis
Alexander, in an appropriate Essay ; Historia Eccles.
' Saecul. XIIL et XIV. Tom. VII. p. 391.)
Joannis Bonaventurae Opera; Romae 1588 — 96. VlII.
Vol. Fol. — Of which : Commentarii in Libros IV. Sen-
tentiarum, Centiloquium Lib. IV. Priviloquiiim Lib. Vll.
Jo, Duns Scoii Opera ; curante Luc. Wadding; Lugd.
1639. XII. Vol. Fol. Of whioh: Qnodlibeta, et Com-
mentarii in IV. Sententiarum Libros. Venet. 1616. IV.
Vol. Fol. — OpusParisiense ; Antw. 1620. — Qnaestiones
quodlibetariae ; Antw. 1620. Fol.
Sec. 116. The later scholastics.
After these men, the study of philosophic theology was
indeed pursued with industry and eagerness, but it de-
generated into servile imitation, or useless puzzling. Yet
there were some, who rose above their contemporaries.
Durand of St. Poursain (d. 1333), although a Domin-
ican, dared to contradict St. Thomas. William Occam,
(d. 1347) boldly deviated from Scotus; and even with-
stood, spiritedly, the Pope. Raymund de Sabunde (d.
about 1526) was the first, who treated of natural theo-
logy, in an appropriate work. Gabriel Bid (d. 1496)
was the last of the distinguished scholastics of this period.
Notices. Gulielmi Durandi de Sancto Porciano, Com-
mentaria in IV. Libros Sententiarum ; Paris 1615.
Fol.
Gulielmi Occam, Quaestiones in Libros IV. Sententiarum ;
96 muenscher's elements
Luorcl. 1495. Fol. — Ejusdern, Centiloquium Iheologicum;
Lugd. 1496. Fol,
Theolo^^ia naturalus, s. Liber creaturarum ; authore Ray-
mundo de Sahunde; Fraiicf. 1635.
Gabrielis Blel^ Collectorium in Libros IV. Sententiarum ;
Tubing. 1502. II, vol. Fol.
Sec. 1 1 7. Causes of the downfall of scholastic theology .
The foundations of this theology were tottering; and
the modes of proceeding in it, broughtgthe germ of its dis-
solution along with them. They sought to exercise their
own powers of investigation, and yet to leave the influence
of the fatliers untouched, and to construe the Bible only
as they did. Unlike, as the theology of the fathers and
the Aristoletian philosophy were, both in spirit and in first
principles; an attempt was made, to unite them. This
constitutional debility of the scholastic system, was the
sooner shaken, in consequence of other causes. Many
christians were disgusted with precepts, which merely ex-
ercised, or rather puzzled the understanding, with super-
fine speculations, and gave no nutriment to the soul ; and
this disgust was increased, by the disagreeable contests
between the Thomists and the Scotists. John Charlier
Gerson (d. 1320), JVicholas de Clemangis, and other
discerning men, animadverted with earnestness upon the
unprofitableness of such instructions. The revival of
better taste, and a better knowledge of language, intro-
duced contempt for the coarse style and the barbarous
technicals of the scholastics. Confidence in the autho-
ity of Aristotle was shaken, by the rise of new Platonists ;
and a more independent spirit, was anxious to break the
fetters, in which the human mind had moved with so heavy
a gait. Towards the end of this period, all the more
discerning, looked upon scholasticism, as the relic of a
more barbarous age, and an armory of rusty weapons.
Notice, Jo. Gersonis Opera ; studio Lud. HI. Du Pin ;
Antw. 1705. V. vol. Fol.
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 97
PART II.
THE HISTORY OF PARTICULAR DOCTRINES.
CHAPTER I.
THE CULTIVATION OF THE DOCTRINES PREVIOUSLT
DEFINED.
Sec. 118. The existence of God,
John Damascenus founded belief of the existence of
God, on the necessity of a first cause of all things, and
on the marks of wisdom and desiji;n in the created uni-
verse. Anselm of Canterbury, with new and acute rea-
soning, inferred the existence of God, fjfom the concep-
tion of an all-perfect being. But he met with an intelli-
gent opponent, in Gavnilo a French Monk. His views
were not adopted by Peter J.ombard ; but were so, by
Thomas ; who likewise bestowed attention on the proof
from design, by Richard of St. Victor. Duns Scotus
viewed the proof, from the mere conceptions of the mind,
as unsatisfactory ; and attributed entire adequacy, to the
arguments from experience. TViUiam Occam represents
all demonstration of the existence of God, as impossible ;
and Raymund of Sabunde, following the footsteps of
Abelard, (Theol.christ.p.l349,)inferred ourbelief of God,
very much in the manner of Kant, from the necessity, of
supposing a Siipreiiie Judge and Rewarder. (Theol. nat.
Tract. 82, 83.)
Notices. Anschn Canferh. Proslo^iunri et Monolojiinm. — -
{Gaunilonis) Liber pro insipiente, contra Anselrni in prcs-
logio ratiocinationem. Anselrni Liber apologetiriis, ron-
tra Gaunilonem respondentem pro insipiente. {W.C. Xr^
Zieglers Contiabntlon to tlie history of belief of a Godj
(German,) Getting. 1792.)
98 muenscher's elements
Sec. 1 1 9. Nature of God.
Pantheism, founded on the new Platonic notions, wag
brouglit forward, by John Scoius Erigena, and defended
hy Jlmalricli of Bene (A.D. 1204), and his pupil David
JDinant ; but it was rejected by the church, and confuted
by Albert and Thomas, Tiie incomprehensibleness of
God, was maintained with great strenuousness ; and three
ways for attaining to a knowledge of God, were re-
commended ; namely via eminentiae, via negationis, and
via causalilatis. The divine attributes were inferred, from
the idea of a supreme and necessarily existing Being.
The omni|)otence and omnipresence of God, in particular,
were the subject of many questions and investigations.
Also the unity of God, was evinced by numerous argu-
guments, by John Damascenns^ Abelard, and Richard of
St. Victor. On all these subjects, William Occam mani-
fested the sceptical turn of a Bay le. ,
Sec. 120. Trinity.
The theologians employed the greatest art, to make
the doctrine of the Trinity more comprehensible, and to
exhibit it as consonant with reason ; but they came near
to marring the received doctrines of the church. Rosce-
lin was accused, by his opposers, of tritheism ; and he was
condemned in the council of Soissons, A. D. 1093.
Abelard was taxed, sometimes with tritheism, and some-
times with Sabellian errors ; the latter, with the most 1
plausibility. Anselm and Richard of St. Victor, in
their proofs of a Trinity, grazed lightly on Sabellianism;
yet they met with no opposition ; and the views of the
latter, were again brought forward, by Alexander Hales
and others. Even to Peter Lombard, great errors on
this subject, were imputed, by Joachim, Abbot of Flora :
but Innocent 111. acquitted him, in the Lateran Council
A. D. 1215. The nice distinction, which Gilbert of
Porretta made, between God himself nnd the attributes
of God, drew on him the attacks of St. Bernard, and
OF DOGSIATIC HISTORY. 19
the animadvers'ons of the Councils of Paris and Rheims,
A. D. 1 147 and 1248. In general, the scholastics found,
in the doctrine of the Trinity, copious matter for the
most acute speculations concerning the three Persons,
and their relations to each other.
Sec. 121. Creation, and Angels.
The Aristotelian hypothesis, of the eter^iity of the
world, was confuted by the scholastics ; and yet several
of them, e. g. Thomas Aquinas, maintained that it could
not be disprov^ed, by the ]iH;ht of nature, but only by the
testimony of revelation. Tlie design of God in creation,
was, according to Damascenus and Lombard, to make
manifest to rational beings his goodness ; or according to
Thomas, to communicate himself, as the highest good,
to other beings. On the doctrine concerning Angels,
John Damascenus adopted the views of the pseudo-Dio-
nysius Areopagita, in regard to the classification of the
angels ; and these views were received by the scholas-
tics. In the I^ateran Council, A. D. 1215, Pope Inno-
cent IIL established the positions, that the angels are
spirits, and that God created them holy. The questions
raised, concerning the nature and the creation of angels,
and concerning the apostacy and influences of evil spirits,
were almost innumerable. Lombard deemed it probable,
that every soul is attended by a good and a bad angel ; and
this hypothesis was afterwards repeatedly brought forward.
Sec. 122. Doctrine of Providence,
Damascenus collected the most important ideas of the
Greek fathers, respecting divine providence. The ear-
lier scholastics touched on this subject, only occasionally,
when they were treating of the wisdom, or of the will
of God. Thomas Aquinas first gave it a full investiga-
tion. Thatj this world is the best possible one, was held
by Anselm and Abelard ; Thomas and Durand believed,
that God could have made a better. \n regard to the
divine cooperation, in the acts of his creatures, Du--
rand contradicted the sentiments of Ihomas, Upon
100 muenscher's elements
occasion of the rise of some Cathari, who leaned towards
Manichaen sentiments; the righteousness of God in re-
spect to the origination of evil, was further investigated
by the scholastics, in accordance with the principles sug-
gested by Augustine. In regard to moral evil, (that which
merits punishment,) they discriminated between the ante-
cedent will of God, and the consequent ; and Thomas
labored to prove, that, to the perfection of the world,
beings were necessary, who were capable of sinning.
Physical evil was considered as the inseparable, and in
its ejSects, beneficial, consequence of sin.
Sec. 123. The person of Christ.
Although the Council of Chalcedon had published a
determinate creed on this subject, yet the theologians in-
volved themselves in new speculations and perplexities.
The question, whether there should be attributed to
Christ, only one simple will, or a twofold will, produced
commotion in the East, and gave occasion to investigate
more fully the theandric operations in Christ. But at
length, the opinion of the Monothelites was put down, by
the resistance made by the Popes, and. by the decision
of the sixth ecumenical council, A. D. 680. The discus-
sions, respecting the connexion of the two natures in
Christ, were actively renewed, in the eighth century, in '
consequence of the Adoptionist contests ; and the tenet
of the Adoptionists, [that Christ was the Son of God,
only by adoption,'] was condemned, by the French
churches, and by the Popes. In the ninth century, Pas-
chasius Radbert and Ratram of Corbie, involved them-
selves in a useless contest, respecting the manner in
which Christ was born. Lombard, by his solicitude to
evince the unity of the person of Christ, made such nice
distinctions, as brought on him the charge of a new here-
sy, Nihilianism, [that the human nature of Christ, sepa-
ate from the divine, was nothing.'] In general, the theo-
logians of the scholastic age, were not satisfied, with re-
tailing the nice distinctions of the fathers, on this doc-
trine, but tliey added a great number of new questions
and subtilties.
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 101
Notices, C. W. Fr. Walck, Historia controversiae Se-
oul. IX. de Partu beatae Virginis. Getting. 1758. 4to.
On the heresy of Nihihanism, of which Peter Lombard and
Peter of Poictiers were accused ; (in German,) in Cra-
wler'* Continuation of Bossuet. vol. VII. p. 1 &c.
»
Sec. 124. Man, particularly his soul.
Respecting man, and especially the soul, after the ex-
ample set by John Damascenus, much foreign matter,
derived from Aristotle's writings, was introduced into
theology. As to the origin of the soul, it was not yet
decided, whether its immediate creation, or its propaga-
tion, ought to be believed : Anselm, however, Hugo of
St. Victor, Robert Pulleyn, and Lombard, declared for
its creation ; and they were followed by the majority of
divines. The adoption of Aristotelian principles, might be
supposed hazardous to the doctrine of the immortality of
the soul ; yet from that very source, Thomas derived
arguments for the doctrine; and of course, Scotus on
the contrary, declared the doctrine not provable by the
light of nature, and rested its evidence solely on revela-
tion. Various proofs in support of it, were adduced by Mo-
neta of Cremona,RaymundMartini,RaymundoiSabunde,
and Martin Ficinus, Jn the Council of the Lateran, held
A.D. 151 Sjby Leo X. it was deemed necessary, to condemn
explicitly, the doctrine that the soul is in its nature mor-
tal ; and at the same time^ it was forbidden, to make a
distinction between philosophical and theological truth. —
The Mosaic account of the state of the first human pair,
was explained, by John Damascenus and Lombard, in
both a literal and a spiritual sense ; and all the Scholas-
tics were content to allegorize copiously on the subject.
The image of God, was distinguished from his likeness,
by the Scholastics, just as by the fathers; and the image
of God, was traced in the rational nature and free agency
of man, while likeness to him was understood to mean
conformity with the divine wilL
10
102 muenscher's elements
Sec. 125. Resurrection and judgment.
The received doctrine of the church respecting the
resurrection, remained unahered. Moneta defended it,
at full length, against the Cathari. (Adv. Catharos et
Waldenses p. 344.) The restoration of the identical
body, with all its parts, and with the distinction of the sex-
es, was maintained. On this subject, and respecting the
general judgment, a multitude of curious questions were
proposed. That the blessed will no more sin, and lose
their bliss ; and that the damned can never repent and
become happy, all admitted. Their descriptions of
heaven, were most alluring; of hell, the most terrific.
According to the more general opinion, hell-punishment
consisted in actual fire ; yet some, as Guido of JVogent,
conceived of it, as only mental suffering, or anguish ari-
sing from the consciousness of sin.
Notice. Gmbcrtij de Pignoribus Sanctorum. Lib. IV. c.
4. Opp. p. 363.
Sec. 126. Truth of Christianity.
While the christian doctrines were explained, critically,
and hypercritically, a thought was rarely bestowed on
the evidence of the tenableness of Christianity itself.
This arose from there being no learned opposers; from the
persuasion, that any doubt respecting the doctrines held
by the church, would be sinful; and from the facility of
putting down any opposition, by coercion instead of ar-
gument. To the enemies of Christianity, were now
added the Muhammedans; who taxed the christians
with being polytheists and idolaters. The common wri-
tings, in opposition to them and the Jews, contained
little that was of importance ; and only Raymund Mar-
tini (d. 1286) appeared to advantage in the controversy.
Yet while the power of the hierarchy, could easily sup-
press all attacks on the established faith, there were visi-
ble indications, that the enthusiastic reverence for Aristo-
tle, and tlie close adherence to his writings, had misled
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 103
many a thinking man to undervalue Christianity. This
induced Thomas Aquinas^ to write an Apology for Chris-
tianity ; in which he showed, that some christian doctrines
are discoverable by reason, and that the others are ac-
cordant with reason. Towards the end of this period,
the two contemporaries, Hieronymus Savanarola (d.
1498) and Marsilius Ficinus (d. 1499,) evinced the
reasonableness of Christianity, and also its divine origin :
the latter they argued, from its sublime contents, from its
excellent effects, from the credibility of the Apostles,
from miracles and prophecies.
Notices, llaymundi Martini Pugio ficlei, contra Mauros
et Judaeos ; cum observationihus Josephi de Voisin, et
introductione Jo. Ben. Carpzovii. Lips. 1687. Fol.
S. Thomae Summa catholica, contra Gentiles, Lib. IV.
Lugd. 1687. Fol.
Marsilii Flcini de Religione Christiana et fidei pietate ;
0pp. Tom. I. Paris 1641.
Hieronymi Savanarolae Triumphus crucis ; s. de veritate
• fidei; Bas. 1640. Fol.
Sec. 127. The Holy Scriptures,
The Bible was uniformly held up as a most holy book,
and a source of religious instruction. The divinity ojf
its origin, however, was often rather assumed than shown,
and was only touched upon by Damascenus ) — a defect,
which Duns Scotus endeavored to supply. (Comment,
in Lib. Sentent. p. 5.) Their ideas of inspiration were
fluctuating and indistinct ; and were expressed, some-
times more moderately, as by Agobard and Euthymius,
and sometimes more strongly, as by Thomas Aquinas;
but always only incidentally. Next to the Bible, tradi-
tion, as serving to explain and extend the instructions of
the holy Scriptures, held as high, or rather a higher au-
thority, than it did in the preceding period. To the
canon of the Bible, among the Latins, (but not among
the Greeks,) the same extent was given, as formerly by
Augustine. The use made of the Bible by the WaU
104 m^enscher's elements
densians, was an occasion of the Popes and the Coun-
cil's setting bounds to its unrestrained influence.
Notices. For the opinion of the later Syrian churches,
respecting tlie Apocalypse, see Eickhorn's Introduction
to the N. T. (in German,) vol. II. p. 433.
Jac, Usserii Historia doumatira controversiae inter Ortho-
doxos et Pontificios, de Scripturis et Sacris vernaculis ; —
locupletavit Henr, Wharton; Lond. 1690. 4to. — Toh,
Godof. H^gelmaier, de Libero Sac. Script, usu, plebi
christiano diu denegato, tandem hie ibi restituto ; Tub.
1783. 4to. — History of the prohibition of the Bible ; (^by
the same author; in German.) Ulm. 1783. 8vo. A,
I. Onyrnus, Essay of a History of the prohibition of the
Bible; (in German,) Wiirzb. 1786. 8vo.
CHAPTER II.
DEVELOPEMENT OF DOCTRINES NOT BEFORE DEFINED.
Sec. 128. Procession of the Holy Spirit,
The disagreement, which existed in the former period,
but was there scarcely noticed, between the Latin and
the Greek churches, in regard to the question, whether
the Holy Spirit proceeded from both the Father and the
Son, or only from the Father; now produced strong
sensation. The addition [et filio] to the Niceno-Con-
stantinopolitan Creed, which first appeared in Spain, was
continually more and more generally received, in the
Latin churches, notwithstanding Pope Leo III. refused
it his sanction. Afterwards, when Photius [Abp. of
Constantinople] charged the Latins with error and for-
gery, various western writers rose up against him. The
accusations of Photius were renewed, in the eleventh
century, by the Greeks ; and were retorted with vehe-
mence by the Latins. Thenceforth, this subject was
one of the principal points of contention between the
OP DOGMATIC HISTORY. 105
two churches, occupied the writers on both sides, and in
every attempt at compromise, was an insurmountable ob-
stacle. The Greeks were, indeed, persuaded to accede
to the Latin notion, at the Councils of Lyons (A. D.
1274) and of Florence (A. D. 1439); but they soon
returned to their old opinion.
Notices. In adaition to the writings mentioned, sec. 76,
see Petri Pitlwei Historia controversiae de piocessione
Spiritus S. Paris 1590. 8vo.— -De processione Spir. S.
Dissertalio prima Damascenica ; in the Opera Joannis
Damasceni, ed. M. Le Quien. Tom. I. — Theophanis
Procopowitz, tractatus de process. Sp. S. Gothae 1772.
8vo.
Sec. 129. Doctrine of sin and grace and the kindred
subjects, in the Greek church.
The Greeks continued to hold the system of doctrines,
which had been inculcated by their earlier doctors, par-
ticularly Chrysostom; and without giving attention to the
modifications, which, through the influence of Augustine,
had become prevalent among the Latins. In John Da-
mascenus, we still' find it represented, that Adam's sin
brought death and dissolution on his posterity ; but not a
trace of any propagated incapacity for goodness, or of
any connate guilt. He acknowledges that it is impossi-
ble, without the help of God, to will and to do what is
good; but represents it as depending on us, whether to
follow God, or the evil One ; and he insists, that God al-
lots the destiny of men, according to their voluntary ac-
tions, (de Fide orthodoxa Lib. II. c. 30. compare Lib.
lY. c. 20.) The later Greek writers, as Theodorus Stu-
dita, Thophylact, and Euthymius Zigahenus, repeat simi-
lar ideas.
Sec 130. Latin churches
These doctrines gave to the Latin theologians, more co-
pious matter for investigation. Augustine, who was
reverenced as a Saint, had indeed set forth a determin-
ate system of belief respecting sin and grace ; but, with
his writings,, those of John Cassian were also much
10^
106 muenscher's elements
read ; and even St. Benedict had prescribed the reading of
Cassians's Collations in the monasteries. Hence, with-
out being sensible of it, men might easily swerve from
pure Augustinism ; and this was the more likely to take
place, because more moderate sentiments were to be
found, in abundance, in the writings of Augustine him-
self. Isidore of Seville held strictly with Augustine ; —
the twofold predestination not excepted. So also did
Beda and Alcuin. But when Gottschalk advanced the
same twofold predestination, he was oppressed, through
the influence of Rabanus Maurus, and Hincmar of
Rheims. As Prudeniius of Troyes, Servatus Lupus,
Ratramnus and Remigius, appeared in defence of Gotts-
chalk, and as the treatise of John Scotus was confuted by
Prudeniius and by Florus ; Hincmar caused the four
following propositions, to be established, in the Council of
Chiersy A. D. 853. I. God hath predestinated some
men unto salvation ; but not others to perdition. H. We
lost free will, by Adam ; and recover it by Christ. III.
God wills the salvation of all men. IV. Christ died
for all men. But a great part of the French churches
deemed these propositions inconsistent with the pure —
that is, with the Augustinian doctrine ; and the decisions
of Chiersy, were contravened by others, made in the
councils of Valence (A. D. 855.) and Langres (A. D.
859.) Although Hincmar was not able fully to over-
come such opposition, yet from this time onward, there
was less hesitation, to soften down some points of the
Augustinian system.
Notices. Yeterum anctorum, qui saeculo IX. de praedes-
tinatione et gratia scripserunt, Opera ; cura et studio
Guilberti Mauguin. Paris 1650. II. vol. 4to. Ludov.
Celloti, Historia Godeschaici ; Paris 1653. Fol.
The most noticeable things in the life and writings of
Hincmar, Abp, of Rheims ; (in German,) by WoJfg,
Fried. Gess ; Getting. 1806. p. 15—95.
Sec. 131. Doctrine of the Scholastics concerning sin.
The scholastics received the Augustinian doctrine, that,
by Adam's transgression, mortality, sin, and guilt passed
\
1
OP DOGMATIC HISTORY. 107
upon his posterity ; but they introduced various new ex-
plications and definitions. Jiugustine considered heredi-
tary sin, to be sensuality (concupiscentia). Anselm, the
better to explain, how Christ was born without sin, look-
ed upon it, as being the want of original righteousness
(defectus justitiae originalis) ; which is imputed to all
Adam's posterity, though not in the same degree, as if
they had sinned personally. Peter Lombard followed
Augustine; Bonaventura Rnd Thomas Aquinas endeR\ or ei
to combine the ideas of both ; Duns Scotus held with
Anselm. The earlier doctors, including Anselm and
PuUeyn, adopted Augustbe's opinion, that unbaptized
infants are damned, on account of hereditary sin. Peter
Lombard softened this doctrine, by discriminating be-
tween a deprivation of the vision of God, and punish-
ments by remorse of conscience and other pains ; and by
holding that, only the former impended over these infants.
This solution met so general approbation, that Gregory
of Rimini (d. 1378,) by adhering to the harsher opinion,
incurred the appellation of the Infant- lormenter. To
explain the manner, in which hereditary sin is propagated,
concerning which Augustine made no decision, cost the
scholastics much trouble. Some supposed a propaga-
tion of the soul itself; others, the contamination of the
soul by the corrupt body ; and others, as Anselm and
Thomas, an imputation of ,sin, to all participaters in hu-^
man nature. Finally, the Thomists dillered from the
Scotists in this, that the former adhered more strongly to
the Augustinian opinion, of a complete, incapacity for
goodness; while the latter conceded to men, a capacity
for, at least some imperfect goodness.
Sec. 132. Sinless conception of Mary.
The fathers had, in former times, exempted Christ
from the contamination of hereditary sin ; and had con-
sidered this as the reason of his miraculous conception ;
but the idea had not yet occurred, that this privilege was
also extended, to Mary the mother of Jesus. The ever
108
increasing veneration, for the mother of God, however,
made no distinction appear too great, to be ascribed to
her. Paschasius Radbert was, perhaps, the first that ex-
pressed the thought, that Mary w^as conceived without
hereditary sin. In the twelfth century, this opinion was
spread in France ; and a festival devoted to it, began to
be observed. Yet both the opinion and the festival, were
expressly disapproved, by St, Bernard; and rejected, by
Albert the Great, and Thomas Aquinas ; and were not
received, even by the Franciscan John Bonaventur a, who
was so great an admirer of Mary. But, after Duns Sco-
tus came forth as a warm defender of the immaculate
conception, the Franciscans made it a point of honor
with their order, to maintain this opinion against the
Dominicians; and when John de Montesono, (A. D.
1387,) declared it an error, the whole university of Paris
rose up against him. The Council of Basle declared
in favor of the Franciscans. The Popes ventured not,
to decide the contest between these two powerful orders ;
yet Sixtus IV. favored the Franciscans, by approving a
ritual for their festival, (A. D. 1476,) and by threatening
with excommunication, (A. D. 1483,) whoever should
represent belief in the immaculate conception, to be a
heresy.
Notices. Kistoire du Concilo de Trent, par Fra Paolo
Sarpl ; traduite par P. Fr. de Couraj/er, T. I. p. 322 —
325. Fried. IJlr. Calixti Historia iinmaculatae concep-
tionis beatae virginis ; Helrnst. 1696. 4to.
Sec. 133. Doctrine of grace.
Attempts were made, to fix the import of the ambiguous
term grace, by discriminating gratia gratis dans, gratis data,
gratum faciens, praeveniens s. operans, comitans s. co-
operans. But the chief difficulty was^ to reconcile the
sentiments expressed by Augustine, with the idea of free-
dom : and the doctors seemed more and more to incline
towards Pelagianism ; against which, Anselm and Ber-
nard of Clairveaux made resistance. Peter Lombard
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 109
held, for the most part, to the Augustlnian principles ; but
without being able, to solve all the difficulties. Thomas
Aquinas likewise admitted, that withont regenerating
grace, a man can perform nothing well pleasing to God \
but, that being awaked by preventing grace, a man can
prepare himself for regenerating grace. He ascribed to
all good works, so far as they are the product of grace,
the merit of congruity (meritum ex congruo) ; and so
far as the man himself is active, the merit of fitness
(meritum ex condigno). Duns Scotus on the contrary,
believed, that without grace, a man may acquire the
merit of fitness, but not that of congruity ; and that
he can, in some measure, make himself fit to become
a subject of grace ; while yet, it is impossible to re-
move from God the charge of partiality. Peter Abe-
lard asserted, in very strong terms, that the heathen
are capable of virtue, and of salvation ; but people did
not venture to follow him : and at most they only ad-
mitted, that Gregory the Great, had rescued the Em-
peror Trajan from hell, by his intercessions. Justifi-
cation (justificatio) was considered, as an effect of
grace, and was viewed, as the infusing of righteous-
ness, with which the forgiveness of sin was connected.
But of the fact, whether a person has grace or not,
according to Thomas Aquinas, there may be probable,
but not certain evidence.
Sec. 134. Predestination.
In substance, the earlier Scholastics, as Peter Lom^
hard and Thomas, adhered to the Augustinian doc-
trine of unconditional decrees ; for they held, that the
ground for reprobation, was the sinfulness of men ; but
that the only ground of election, is the good pleasure of
God. Yet John Bonaventura asserted, that the suscep-
tibility or unsusceptibility of men, was a reason, though
not the sole basis of the divine decrees. This idea was
eagerly seized by the later Scholastics, and was extended
still farther. The Scotists referred election directly to the
foreknowledge of God ; and ttie Thomists also, sought to
no muenscher's elements
introduce some palliations. Merc displeasure, at seeing
almost the whole world verging towards the errors of
Pelagius, induced Thomas oiBradwardina (d. 1349), to
defend unconditional election, in its strictest form; and
John ^zcM^ held similar views. "
Notices. Thomae Bradwardini (\e eausa Dei, contra Pela-
gium ; studio Henr, Savilii ; Lend. 1618. Fol.
Joan, Wiclefi Dialogorum Libri IV. Francf. et Lips. 1753.
4to.
Sec. 135. Redemption by Christ.
John Damascenus borrowed from Gregory JVizianzen,
a renunciation of the opinion, that Christ paid his life a
ransom to the devil ; and in this, Robert Pulleyn agreed
with him. Jlnselm of Canterbury, in his work. Cur Deus
homo, endeavored to explain more fully, the object of
redemption ; and he represented the sufferings of Christ,
as a satisfaction offered to divine justice, for the sins of
men; and which no one, unless he were both God and
man, could have accomplished. Abelard doubted, whe-
ther mankind w^ere under the power of the devil, from
which they needed to be rescued ; but he was strenuously
opposed by St. Bernard. Peter Lombard made no use
of Anselm's theory, but stopped short with the position,
that men are delivered from sin and the dominion of the
devil, and are brought to love God, by Jesus Christ.
Albert the Great, and Alexander Hales, made use of An-
selm's ideas; but Thomas Aquinas discussed the sub-
ject the most fully. He is the first, that treated exten-
sively of the high-priestly office of Christ. He showed,
that the death of Christ, is to be considered as a satisfac-
tion and an offering; and that its efficacy, is not only
adequate, but more than adequate, (superabundans meri-
tum,) to redeem men. from the guilt and punishment of
sin, and from the power of the devil, and to open to them
the gates of heaven. Duns Scotus contradicted Thomas ;
and would not allow the sufferings of Christ, to be a full
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. Ill
equivalent for the sins of men, though he admitted, that
God accepted them as equivalent.
Sec. 136. Of faith and good works.
Faith and good works were generally considered, as the
means of obtaining a participation in divine blessings.
John Damascenus discriminates two kinds of faith, the
reception of the christian doctrines, and a firm reliance on
the promises of God ; of which, the former depends on
ourselves, and the latter is the gift of God. The Scho-
lastics adopted the ideas of Augustine. They understood
by faith, approbation given to the divine doctrines ; con-
sidered it as a gift of God ; and brought forward many
divisions of it (Fides quae et qua creditur, informis et
formata, explicita, implicita). Value was ascribed to
faith, only when connected with love and hope, and fol-
lowed by good works ; nay, it was itself regarded as the
first of virtues. Good works originate, partly from grace,
and partly from free-will, when it is made sound by
grace : and such works are meritorious. Lombard pro-
nounced all works, done without faith, to be bad. The
hypothesis, formed in the preceding period, respecting
w^orks of supererogation, was held and enlar2;ed in this.
Thomas describes unbelief, as the greatest of all sins : and
he held it to be right, to compel heretics and apostates,
though not also Jews and Pagans, to believe. In treating
on these subjects, the Scholastic doctors interwove exten-
sively, statements in moral or practical theology.
Sec 137. Adoration of saints and of Mary.
Praying to the saints, had become customary, in the pre-
ceding period ; and the mother of God, was looked upon
as the queen of heaven ; yet it was deemed necessary, to
guard against the danger and the reproach of idolairv.
Hence, the distinction of worship, among the Greeks, into
Xarpsia and «7rpo(j'xuvy)tfig, (Mansi^ XII. 377. Theodorus
tStud. 0pp. p. 521,) and among the Latins, into latriay
iduliay and hyperdulia {Lombard III. 9. Thorn. P. IIL
112
qu. 25). The worship of images, which commenced at an
earlier period, produced in the eighth century, most violent
contests. It was zealously defended by John Damasce-
nus; forbidden by a Council, A. D. 754 ; again estab-
lished by another, at Nice (A. D. 787) ; disapproved by
Charlemagne^ and the French Bishops ; yet taken under
protection by the Romish Popes ; and at last, it became fully
established in the Greek and Romish churches. Reli-
gious veneration was also paid to the cross, and to relics ;
and Thomas assigns to the former even latria.
Notice. Jo. Dallaei adversus Latinorum de cultus religiosi
objecto traditionem disputntio ; Geiiev. 1665. 4to. Nat,
Alexandri Hist. Eccles. N. T. Secul. V. Diss. XXV.
Sec. 138. The Sacraments in general.
The definitions given of the sacraments, were diverse
and ambiguous. Among the Greeks, John Damascenus
makes mention of only baptism and the Lord's supper ;
and Thtodorus Studita, after the example of the pseudo-
Dionysius Areopagita, enumerates six sacraments. The
Latins took Augustine's idea for their first principle:
Sacramentum est signura rei sacrae, s. invisibilis gratiae
visibilis forma (a sacrament is a sign of a holy thing, or,
the visible form of invisible grace). Yet respecting
the number of the sacraments, they were not agreed.'
Rabanus Maurus, and Paschasius Radhert, name
four of them; St, Bernard adds the washing of
feet ; Hugo of St, Victor^ includes among them holy
water, and the consecration of clocks, &;c. Peter
Damian, (0pp. T. II. p. 167 — 169,) even makes twelve
sacraments of the church. Otto Bishop of Bamberg,
was the first that, A. D. 1124, enumerated seven sacra-
ments; baptism, confirmation, anointing the sick, the
Lord's supper, penance, marriage, and ordination; and
through the influence of Peter Lombard, and of Oratian,
who introduced the same sentiments into his Decretum,
the admission of this number became general among the
doctors, and received the approbation of Pope Eugene IV.
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 113
at the Council of Florence, A. D. 1439. (Mansi Concil.
T. XXXI. p. 1054.) Various reasons likewise were
assigned, why just this number of sacraments should be
admitted : and yet it should be noticed, that equal sanc-
tity, and equal importance, were, by no means, attributed
to all the sacraments. According to Thomas Aquinas,
who is the most full on the nature of them, a sacrament
is an institution, in which God, by visible signs, imparts
his invisible grace, and applies the effects of Christ's mer-
its to men. For, ahhough God is not confined to the
use of such means, yet it is necessary for men, to be re-
covered by means of sensible objects, since it w^as by-
such objects they were led to the apostacy. Sacraments
were not necessary, in the state of innocence, but only
since the fall of man. All the sacraments of the New
Testament, were instituted by Christ, as God ; and they
derive their efficacy from the sufferings of Christ : they
produce the graces, which the sacraments of the Old
Testament only prefigured. The efficacy of a sacrament,
does not depend on the faith and the uprightness of the
clergymen, w^ho administer it; and yet it is necessary, that
he should have the intention of administering that sacra-
ment. From some of the positions of Thomas, other
doctors departed. Alexander Hales believed, that only
two sacraments were instituted by Christ himself, the
others being introduced by his ministers ; and in particu-
lar, that the sacrament of confirmation, was not instituted
by either Christ or the apostles, but by the Council of
Meaux. Hugo of St, Victor, Scotus, and Occam, dif-
fered from Thomas, in their explanation of the sacra-
ments. The Thomists also contended with the Scotists,
whether the gracious operative power (virtus instrumen-
tahs et effectiva) were in the sacraments themselves, by
divine establishment ; or whether it rested on the promise
of God, that he would impart his grace, so often as a sa-
crament was administered. The opinion of Thomas,
that the sacraments of the Old Testament, only prefigur-
ed grace, but did not impart it, was rejected by John
11
114 muenscher's elements
Bonaventura and Scotus; and previously, Beda had
taught the contrary ; but it was established, by Eugene
IV, at the Council o( Florence, A.D. 1439. {MansiCou-
cil. XXXI. p. 1054.) The Scholastics, moreover, be-
lieved in a two-fold operation of the sacraments, ex opere
operantis, et ex opere operato. The dissenting parties
from the general church, that arose during this period,
either attached little value to the sacraments, as the
Brethren of the jree Spirit ; or they rejected some of *■
them* or at least, the views the church entertained of '
them, as the Waldensians, the Wicklijiites and the
Hussites.
Sec. 139. Of Baptism.
The doctrine of baptism, was perfected by St. The-
mas, according to the principles of Peter Lombard. The
effect of baptism is (justificatio) justification. A person
obtains, by baptism, forgiveness of the debt of sin, and
sanctification. An infant receives remission of the guilt
of hereditary sin ; the adult, forgiveness not only of he-
reditary sin, but also of his preceding actual sins. Al-
though there was difference of opinion, whether, in bap-
tism, only forgiveness of sin, or also the grace that sanc-
tifies, were imparted ; yet Clement V. at the Council of
Vienne, A.D. 1311, declared the latter supposition most
probable. (Mansi, Concil. XXV. 411.) Yet the in-
nate evil lust, (concupiscentia,) remained, after baptism ;
though not as guilt or sin, but only an incentive to
sin; against which a person has occasion for conflict.
When a person receives merely the semblance of bap-
tism, or baptism only in appearance, this will have
no beneficial effects. Every baptism is valid, which
is performed in the name of the Trinity; and, as
it impresses an indelible character, it must not be repeated.
When any person desires to be baptized, but is prevented,
without his fault, it is as good as if he were actually bap-
tized ; and the Spirit of God sanctifies him : — so taught
Lombard and Thomas and St. Bernard, in opposition to
some other doctors, as e. g. Rabanus Maurus. The
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. llS
right to baptize, belongs to the priests; yet in cases of
necessity, it is lawful for the deacons, and even for the
laity, to baptize. Baptism produces a spiritual rela-
tion ; and it is to be preceded by an exorcism, and
in the case of adults, by catechetical instruction. The
faith which is lacking in infant baptism, is supplied by
the faith of the sponsors, or of the church. Immer-
sion in the water, was customary, until the thirteenth
century ; when it was exchanged by the Latins for
sprinkling, though still retained by the Greeks. The
church moreover, had to contend with the Cathari, and
particularly the Petrobrusians, who denied the efficacy
of baptism generally, and rejected infant baptism ; these,
it was, Moneta (adv. Cath. et Waldenses, p. 277.) under-
took to confute.
Notice, Petitorium exhortatorium pro resolutiono super
grossis quihusdam dubietatibus — circa Sacrainentum —
baptissni ; — per fra(reir) Wilhelmvm de Sfvftgardia (Gu-
liel. Hol(leriirri) ; Tul)infr. 1594. See, New Getting,
historical Maizazine (in German) by Meiners and Spittler^
veil. III. p. 228—272.
Sec. 140. Of confirmation.
The Latin church gradually adopted the principle, de-
rived from the Greek church, that the anointing of bap-
tized persons with consecrated oil, w^as to be performed
only by a bishop. A consequence of this was, that this
transaction was separated from baptism. Lombard and
Thomas declared themselves at full length, on this sub-
ject. By this unction, they supposed that, power was
imparted to the spiritual life, which commenced at bap-
tism, to increase its strength, and to contend against
spiritual foes ; and that the person became a partaker of
the gifts of the Holy Spirit. This sacrament imparts
an indelible character; and therefore must not be re-
peated : nor can any baptized person refuse it. And
finally, there must be present at it, some witnesses, by
whom the confirmed child is to be brought up. Nearly all
116 muenscher's elements
these principles were stated by Eugene IV. But John
WicklifAouhiQdi^ whether confirmation had an adequate
foundation.
Notices, Jo, DallaeU de duobus Latinorum ex Unctione
Sacramentis, Confirmatione et exlrema unctione, Disser-
tatio ; Genev. 1669. £;m.?c?. de cultibus reli^iosis Lati-
norum, Libri IX. Genev. 1671. Lib. II. p. 94. Conip.
Natal. Alexandri Historiaecles. N. T. saecul. II. Dis. X.
Sec. 141. Of the Lord's Supper.
The Lord's supper was looked upon, as spiritual nour-
ishment for the soul ; and as that which produced the unity
of the church. On the use of leavened bread, from the
eleventh century, the Latins had controversy with the
Greeks ; but at length, they brought the Greeks to hold
with them. The hosts were introduced ; and mixing
the wine with water, was considered as necessary, yet
not absolutely essential. Eating the Lord's supper, is
not so indispensable, as baptism ; yet no christian should
neglect it ; and though Christ instituted it after a supper,
yet it is proper for christians to receive it, in the morning,
and fasting. [The ancient custom of presenting the
Lord's supper to children, was laid aside in the western
churches, after the twelfth century.
Notices. Godofr. Hermanni Historia concertationum de
pane azymo et fermentato in coena Domini ; Lips. 1737.
8vo.
Jac. Slrmondi Diss, de azymo ; 0pp. T. IV. p. 513. ed.
Paris, p. 35L ed. Venice.
Mich, le Quicn, de azyniis Diss. — the sixth of his Diss. Da-
masceniea ; in 0pp. Damasceni. Tom. L p. LXXI.
Petri Zornii li\siorh eucharistiae infantum ; Berol. 1736.
8vo.
Sec, 142. Transmutation in the Lords Supper,
Historians. In addition to the works mentioned Sec. 102>
see the follovvino-.
Simplicii Verini (Claudii Salmasii) de transubstantiatione
Liber; ed. 2. Lugd. Bat. 1660.
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. lit
Historia transubstantititionis papalis ; — excudi permisit Joan-
ne* (Cosiri) Ep. Dunelmens. Lond. 1675. Brem. 1678.
8vo. Jo. G. Walchii, Historia transubst. pontificiae ; in
his Miscell. sacra ; Amslel. 1744.
Insigniores Romanae ecclesiae varialiones circa Eucha-
ristiam ; in S. Deyling, Observatt. sacris et miscellaneis;
P. IV. p. 178.
Novitas errorum Pontificiorum circa Eucharistiam ; ibid.
P. V. p. 246.
Natalis Alexandria de reali praesentia corporis et sanguinis
Christi in Eucharistia, el de transubstanliatione panis et
vini in corpus "et sanguinenn Christi : Diss. XII. ad Sae-
cul. XI. et Xfl. Histor. ecclesia N. T.
Historia concert ationis Graecornm Latinorumqiie de tran-
substantiatione in sacro Eucharistiae sacramento ; aucto-
re i. Uad, KiesUng. Lips. 1764. 8vo.
In the Greek church, John Damascenus collected the
strongest passages of the fathers, concerning the transfor-
mation ; and also denied, that after consecration the supper
was to be called a sign or representation of the body of
Christ ; and this principle was maintained, in the second
Nicene Council, A. D, 787, in opposition to the decision
of the Council of Constantinople^ of the year 754. The
later Greeks, as Theophylact and Euthymius ZigabenuSy
follow John Damascenus ; but though they speak of
the transformation, they do not agree perfectly with
the doctrine of the Romish church. The western doc-
tors expressed themselves differently, and ambiguously ;
and yet, in the days of Charlemagne, it was admitted,
that, the bread was not to be regarded as a mere represen-
tadve of the body of Christ. In the ninth century, Pcw-
chasius Radbert stated the transiTiutation of the bread in-
to the body of Christ, and of the wine into his blood, with a
clearness and precision, never before used on the subject;
and he insisted, that every orthodox man must so believe.
He was contradicted by Raban Mauras, Ratram, and
John Scotus ; yet he also found adherents.
Notices, Paschasii Radberti, de corpore et sanguine Do-
mini, Liber; in his 0pp. (cura lac. Sirmondi;) Lutet.
11*
118 muenscheb's elements
1618 &c. and in Martene et Durandi Collect, ampliss,
veter. monumentorum ; T. IX. p. 373,
Ratramni (Bertram) de corpore et sanguine Domini ;
a Quevilly 1673. 8vo. Amstel. 1718. 12mo.
Sec. 143. Contest with Berengarius.
The contest concerning the Eucharist, occasioned by
Paschasius Radbert, remained indeed undeternnined, but
Radbert's views continued to spread in the church. They
were advocated by the famous Gerhert ; who taxed the
opposers of them, with odious consequences : and mira-
cles also were resorted to, in defence of them. Thus,
after the middle of the eleventh century, it had come to
this, that a man was accounted an errorist, who deviated
from those views. Berengarius of Tours was accused
by Lanfrank, because, in conformity with John Scotus,
he denied the transmutation of the bread ; while yet he
admitted the real presence of Christ's body in the supper.
Pope Leo XI. in the Council of T^ercelli, A. D. 1050,
condemned Berengarius, and the writings of Scotus, as
heretical ; and JVicolaus II. at the Council of Rome,
A. D. 1059, pressed Berengarius to a recantation, and
to assent to a formula of faith. Yet, even after a se-
cond recantation, to which he was sentenced by Gregory
VII. Berengarius returned back to his former opinions.
It was now become manifest, that the church would
tolerate no other sentiment, than that of the transforma-
tion of the bread.
Notices. Gerherti de corpore et sanguine Domini Liber :
in Bern. Fez. Thesau. Anecdot. Nov. T. I. P. II. Christ.
Matth. Pfoff, Tractatus de stercoranistis medii aevi ;
Tubing. 1750. 4to. Lanfranci, de corpore et sang.
Domini Liber ; in his Opp. ed. L. d'Archery ; Lutet.
1618. Guitmundi de corp. et sang. Cliristi veritate in
Eucharistia Lib. III. in Biblioth. max. Patr. T. XVIII.
Adelmanni, de veritate corp. et sang. Domini, ad Beren-
gar. Ep. ed. C. A. Schmid; Brun. 1770. 8vo. Be-
rengarius, or Announcement of an important work by
him; by 6r. E. Lessing ; (Germ.) 1770. Berengarius
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 119
Turonensis ; by C. F. Stdudlin, (Germ.) in his and
Tzschirner'' s Archiv. Vol. II. P. 1. Jo. Mahillon, de
multiplici Berengarii tlamnatione; in J. Fa^^, Biblioth.
haeresiol. T. I.
Sec. 144. Scholastics and Canonists,
In this state came the doctrine of the Eucharist into
the hands of the scholastics, to whom it afforded abun-
dant matter for examination. Yet the form of the
doctrine, was not yet unchangeably fixed. Hildebert of
Tours, taught distinctly, the transmutation of the bread ;
and he used for it the new term (transubstantiatio) tran-
substantiation. Rupert oi Duys, on the contrary^ taught
that, the substance of the bread and wine were not de-
stroyed, nor changed. Lombard acknowledges, that the
substance of the bread and wine are changed, at the
consecration, by the words of Christ, into the substance
of the body and blood of Christ; and that in each ele-
ment, there is a whole Christ. But he knew not how to
extricate himself from the various difficulties, which pres-
sed themselves upon him. His contemporary Gratian,
introduced the idea of transubstantiation into his code of
Canon Law ; and thus procured it higher respect, and
a more extensive diffusion. At last. Innocent III. upon
occasion of the opposition to it by the Waldensians and
other sects, solemnly established this doctrine, in the La-
teran Council of A. D. 1215.
Notice, Concil. Lateran. Cap. I. Una est fidelinm uni-
versalis ecclesia, extra quam nuUus omnino salvatur.
In qua idem ipse sacerdos et sacrificium Jesus Christus,
cujus corpus et sanguis in sacramento altaris sub specie-
bus panis et vini veraciter continentur ; transubstan-
tiatis, pane in corpus, et vino in sanguinem potestate di-
vina, ut ad perficiendum mysterium unitatis accipiamus
ipsi de sue quod accepit ipse de nostro. Et hoc utique
sacramentum nemo potest conficere nisi sacerdos, qui fu-
^^ erit rite ordinatus secundum claves ecclesiae, quas
m^^ ipse concessit Apostolis et eorum successoribus Jesus
120 muenscher's elements
Sec. 145. Further determinations.
The now received doctrine of the church, was further
developed by Alexander Hales, Albert the Great, and
especially, by Thomas Aquinas, It was determined,
that, through the power of God, only the external acci-
dents of bread remained, without the substance ; and
that merely the outward form was broken, while the
body of Christ remained entire. The question was
raised, whedier a beast, that should devour the host,
would receive the body of Christ. Thomas affirmed,
and Bonaventura denied. The festival of the Holy
Body, was regulated by Urban IV, A. D. 1264, on
occasion of a revelation to Juliana of Liittich, as a me-
morial of transubstantiation ; and was finally established,
by Clement V. A. D. 1311. Notwithstanding the vari-
ous confirmations of the doctrine of transubstantiation,
John of Paris (d. 1306) ventured to teach, that the re-
ception of this doctrine, was not absolutely necessary ;
and that the real presence of Christ, might be explained
to be an impanation. According to the views of Will-
iam Occam, transubstantiation is not expressly taught in
the holy scrptures; but it was supposed that, God revealed
it to the holy fathers, or that it became manifest to them,
while carefully studying passages of the bible. John
Wicklif rejected transubstantiation ; but John Huss ad-
mitted it.
Notices, Joannis Parisiensis determinatio de modo exis-
tendi corporis Christi in Sacramento altaris ; (ed. Petr,
Alix,) Lend. 1686. 8vo.
Mus extenteratus ; hoc est, Tractatus valde magistralis
super quaestione quadam theologicali, spinosa et multum
subtili, ut intus. Scriptus — per fratrern Wilhelmum de
Stuttgardia, ordinis Minorum (Gulielm. Holderum) ;
Tubing. 1593. 4to. — See New Getting. Magazin, by
Miners and Splttler, vol. II. p. 716—734.
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. Wi
Sec. 146. Consequences of the doctrine of transulstan-
tiation.
The belief that, by the transmutation, Christ was
present in the Eucharist, gave rise to the custom of wor-
shipping the elevated host, by prostration ; concerning
which, Honorius HI. published an ordinance A. D. 1217.
It being admitted that, entire Christ was contained under
each form, that of bread as well as that of wine, would
naturally lead to the thought that, either of them was suf-
ficient, without the other. It therefore became customa-
ry, after the host had been for some time immersed in
the wine, to withhold the cup from the laity. This prac-
tice, which was approved by Robert Pulleyn, and de-
fended by Alexander Hales, Bonaventura and Thomas
Aquinas, in a litde time obtained general currency in
the church. And when James of Misa, in the fifteenth
century, restored the use of the cup, at Prague, the
Council of Constance, A. D. 1415, rejected this innova-
tion ; and ordained, that the priests should receive the
Eucharist under both forms, but the laity under one
form only. The Council of Basle, however, found it
necessary, A. D. 1436, to allow the restless Hussites
the use of the cup ; yet with this explanation, that the
church has power, to prescribe the manner in which the
Eucharist shall be received.
Notices. De Adoratione Eucharistiae Libri 11 ; auctore
Petro Boileau] Lutet. 1686. 8vo.
Joan. Guil. de Lith, Disquisitio theologica et histor. de ado-
ratione panis consecrati et interdictione calicis in Eucha-
ristia ; edita a Joan. Car, de Lifh; Suobaci 1753. Bvo.
Jo. And. Schmidj Comrnentt. de fatis calicis eucharistici in
ecclesia Romana ; Helmst. 1708.
Spittler's History of the eucharistical cup ; (in German,)
Lemgo 1780. 8vo.
Sec. 147. Of the Mass.
The hypothesis, that the Eucharist is a sacrifice, by-
122 ^ muenscher's elements
which the sacrifice of Christ is renewed, and that it im-
parts peculiar efficacy to the prayers, that are offered in
connexion with it ; came down from the preceding peri-
od. The Romish Canon of the Mass, though differently
modified^ was introduced into various Latin churches.
Silent Masses, and Masses for the dead, began to appear,
at the commencement of this period ; and although they
at first met with opposition, they became very general ;
being favored especially by the increasing prevalence of
a belief in Purgatory. Thus was formed the belief,
that the Mass averts evils of all sorts, and procures vari-
ous divine blessings; and that the Eucharist, whether
participated by the person, or not, is efficacious in his
behalf: and these Masses became a prolific source of
income to the clergy. The scholastic doctors, as Lom-
bard and Thomas^ touch upon this subject but slightly.
Innocent III. established the Canon of the Mass, in the
Lateran Council of A. D. 1215. All those sects, which
opposed the prevailing church, and particularly John
Wicklif, rejected the doctrine of the Mass.
Notices, Ge, Calixti Diss, de pontificio Missae sacraficio ;
Francf. 1644. — Ejusd, Exercitalio de Missis solitariis ;
Helmst. 1647.
J. Fr. Buddei Diss, de oriofine missae pontificiae; — in his
Miscell. Sacra. Jenae 1727. T. I. p. 1.
Sec. 148. The sacrament of Penance.
The doctrine concerning Penance, grew out of the
ideas of the ancient church, and especially oi Augustine,
respecting sins before and after baptism ; and out of the
modifications, which the original church discipline had
undergone. Hildebert of Tours, (0pp. p. 324,) men-
tions three parts of penance ; namely, contrition of heart,
confession with the lips, and satisfaction in deeds; all
which have been traced back to certain passages in the
writings of John Chrysostom and Augustine, These
penitential acts, prescribed appropriately for the excom-
municated, were transferred, by the Scholastics and the
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY* 123
Canonists, to sinning christians in general. They con-
sidered Penance as the medium, by which the remission
of the guilt and eternal punishment — but not the tempo-
ral punishment — of sins committed subsequently to bap-
tism, was to be sought for and obtained; and this idea
gave both the matter and the form of the sacrament. It
was required, that persons should confess their sins, not
only to God, but also to a priest ; and that they should
make the satisfaction, prescribed to them; in which a
distinction was made, between attrition and contrition.
Satisfaction was made to consist, in fasting, prayer, and
alms ; to which pilgrimages and flagellations were sub-
joined. The absolution of the priest, was considered as
a judicial act. Gratian and Lombard^ however, leave
it undecided, whether confession to a priest were neces-
sary. Innocent the Thirds procured for this doctrine a
full establishment in the church.
Notices. Concil. Lateran ; Canon XXI. Omnis utrius-
que sexus fidelis, postqnam ad annos discretionis perve-
nerit, omnia sua solus peccata confiteator fideliter, saltern
somel in anno, proprio sacerdoti et iniunctam sibi poeni-
tentiam studeat pro viribus implere, suscipiens reveren-
ter ad minus in Pascha eucharistiae sacramentum ; nisi
forte de consilio proprii sacerdotis oh aliquam rationabi-
lem caiisam ad tempus ab ejus perceptione duxerit absti-
nendum ; alioquin et vivens ab ingressu ecclesiae arceatur
et moriens Christiana careat sepultura. — Si quis autem
alieno sacerdoti voluerit iusta de causa sua confiteri pec-
cata, licentiam priuspostulet et obtineat a proprio sacer-
dote, cum aliter ille ipse non possit solvere vel ligare.
Sacerdos autem sit discretus et caiitus — diligenter inqui-
rens et peccatoris circumstantiam et peccati, per quas
prudenter intelligat, quale illi consilium debeat exhibere
et cuiusmodi remedium adhibere, diversis expenmentis
utendo ad sanandum aecrrotum. Caveat autem omnino,
ne verbo vel signo vel alio quovis modo prodat aliquate-
nus peccatorem, sed si prudentioii consilio indiguerit,
illud absque ulla expressione personae caute requirat ;
quoniam qui peccatum in poenitentiali indicio sibi detec-
turn praesumserit revelare, non solum a sacerdotali officio
124 muenscher's elements
deponendum decernimus, vernm etiam ad agendam poe-
nitentiam perpetuam in arctum monasterium detruden-
dum.
Jo, Lavnoih explicata ecclesiae traditio circa canonem
Concilii Lateranensis : Omnis utriusque sexus — in his
0pp. T. I. P. I. p. 244.
Jo. Dallaei, de poenis et salisfactionibus humanis, Libri
VII; Amst. 1649. 4to.
Ejusd. de sacramentali s. auriculari confessioneLalinorum,
Disputatio ; Genev. 1661. 4to. Comp.
Natalis Alexandri Disputatio polemica de Confess, sacra-
ment.— in his Hist. Eccles. T. VIL
De la frequente communion, ou les sentimens des peres,
des papes et des conciles touchant I'usage des sacramens
de penitence et de Teucharistie ; — exposes par Antoine
Arnaud, lOme ed. a Lyon 1703, 8vo.
De la penitence puhlique et de la preparation a la commun-
ion : — par D. PetaUy 3d ed. Paris 1645. 4to.
La tradition de rEs^hse sur le sujet de la penitence et de
la communion ; — par Ant, Arnaud. Par. 1634. 5th ed.
1700, 8vo.
Historia confessionisauricularis ; autore Jac. Boileau, Paris
1684. Compare.
Jo, Guil. Jani, Animadv. ad Historiam confess, auric. —
Diss. n. Vitenb. 1716.
Jac, Hottlnger, Biga exercitatt. histor. thcoL de Poenitentia
turn antiquioris tiim Romanae ecclesiae; Tig. 1706.
Commentarius historicus, de disciplina ecclesiae in admin -
istralione sacramenti poenitentiae ; autliore Jo, Morin,
Antvv. 1682. Fol.
Sec. 149. Remission of satisfaction. Indulgences,
It had before been practiced, to curtail, and under
special circumstances wholly to remit, the penance en-
joined by the church. Afterwards, a commutation was
admitted, in regard to the various kinds of penance.
But it was not until the commencement of the Crusades,
that the Popes conferred plenary indulgences. These
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. ISkb
were again resorted to, in the wars against heretics ; and
by Boniface VII. they were conferred, at the Romish
Jubilee A. D. 1300 ; and at length, they were published
in various countries by the Papal envoys. To justify
this species of indulgences, Alexander Hales invented
the theory of a treasure of good w^orks, embracing both
the merits of the saints, and the infinite merit of Christ,
the efficacy of which, extended not only to the temporal
punishments of the present life, but likewise to those of
Purgatory ; and the disposal of this accumulated treas-
ure, he supposed, was intrusted by Christ to the church.
Albert the Great and Thomas Aquinas perfected this
theory ; and it was solemnly confirmed by the Pope,
Clement VI. A. D. 1349. And yet, in the bosOm of
the Romish church, there w^ere voices raised against the
mischief of indulgences.
Notices. De remission© peccatorurn et indulrrentiarum
oritjine ; — in L. A. Maratori, Antiquitatt. Jtaliae medii
aevi ; T. V. p. 709.
Lettres historiques et dojTinatiqucs, sur les Jubiles et les in-
dulgences ; par Charles Chais ; a la Haye 1751. 3 voL
8vo.
Em. Aug. Bertling, Instruction conrerninGf the Papal Ju-
bilee and Indulgences ; (Germ.) Helmst. 1749. 4to.
Fr. RofJifischers Indulgences and Jubilee; (German,)
Regensb. and VVolfenbutle 1751 — 54. 111. Vol. 4to.
Sec. 150. Sacrament of Extreme Uunction,
The ancient custom, introduced by the very Apostles,
of anointing the sick, with accompanying prayers, con-
tinued among christians, although in the earlier ages few
traces of it are to be found ; but no definite form of the
transaction, w^as introduced. Subsequent to the ninth
century, this anointment was called a sacrament ; and it
was assumed, that it ought not to be repeated ; which,
Ivo of Chartres, in particular, zealously maintained. But
Peter Lombard defended the repetition of it; and the
whole church afterwards followed him. The effect of
12
126 muenscher's elements
anointing the sick, was supposed to be, that it soothed
the soul, and so far as was profitable, the body also, of
the sick person, and imparted to him forgiveness of sin
and an increase of* holiness.
Notices. Jo. Dallaei de duobus Latinorum ex unctione
sacramenlis ; Genev. 1659. 4to.
Jo. LaunoiU de sacra mcnto unctionis infirmorum, Liber ; —
in his Opp. T. I. P. I. p. 442, &,c.
Sec. 151. The Sacrament of Ordination.
The consecration of prrests, was declared to be a token
of the church, by which ecclesiastical power was confer-
red ; and it was supposed, to impress an indelible cha-
racter. The question, whether heretics could give valid
ordination, was left undecided by Lombard^ and was af-
firmed by Thomas, The other inquiries made by the
Scholastics, respecting the seven gradations, and the at-
tributes of the clergy, belong rather to ecclesiastical law,
than to dogmatics.
Notice. Joan. 3Iorini Commentarius historicus at dogmati-
cus, de sacris ecclesiae ordinationibus ; edit. nov. Anist.
1695. Fol.
Sec. 152. Sacrament of Marriage.
Marriage was held to be inferior to celibacy, and was
forbidden to the clergy; and yet it was accounted a
sacrament. Three good things in marriage, were stated;
namely, fidelity to the vow, raising up children, and re-
presenting the union between Christ and the church.
From the idea of its being a sacrament, it was inferred
that, marriage being validly performed, becomes indisso-
luble. Here also a multitude of questions, respecting
betrothments, hindrances to tlie union, and the relations
which arise from marriage, were brought into theology,
though belonging to ecclesiastical law.
Notice. The most solid examination of the views entertain-
ed of marriage in this period, is to be found in Just.
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 127
Henn. Bokmeri Jus ecclesiasticum Protestantium, Lib.
IV. T. Ill et IV.
Sec. 153. State of departed souls.
The idea, formed in the preceding period, of a puri-
fying fire, became established ; in consequence of the re-
ports of apparitions, which were spread abroad, and to
which Beda and Boniface gave credit. There were sup-
posed to be, five places of residence for souls. The souls
that left the world, under mortal sin, and without doing
penance, were thrust into hell. The souls of infants, that
died without baptism, occupied a separate place, called
hmbus infantum. Diverse from both, was the hmbus pa-
trum, or Abraham's bosom, in which the souls of the vir-
tuous under the Old Testament, were kept. Good souls,
which needed no purgation, went immediately to heaven.
The caution of Hugo of St. Victor^ to leave it undecided,
whether glorified saints know what transpires on the earth,
and have perception of the prayers offered to them, was
not imitated by the subsequent doctors. Pope John XXII.
revived the ancient opinion, that saints are not admitted
to the vision of God, immediately after death ; but only
at the resurrection ; but the opposition of the Franciscans
and the Parisian divines, obliged him to recal that opin-
ion; and his successor, Benedict XII. in the year 1336,
pronounced it heresy. Purgatory was appointed for those
souls, which had not done penance for their minor sins.
The Greeks continued, to place the commencement of this
fire, at the time of the general judgment, and not in the in-
termediate state, ''or immediately after death ; and it was
with reluctance, and after warm opposition, that, the Council
oi Florence, A. D. 1439, they acceeded to the views of
the Latins. Not only the Waldenses and TVicklifites, but
also John fVessel, rejected the doctrine of purgatory.
Notices. Leonis Allatii, de ulriusque ecclesiae orientalis et
occidentalis perpetua in dogmate de purgatorio consen-
sione Liber. Romae. 1655. 4to,
' Mich. Le Quien, Diss. Damascenica V ; in his.ed. of 0pp.
Damasceni, T. I. LXIIL
128
/. G, Chr. Hoepfner, de Origine dogmatis Roman. Pontif.
de purgatorio ; Halae. 1792,
Sec. 154. Doctrine concerning the church.
In the prevailing system of faith, the doctrine concern-
ing the church, formed as it were the key stone. The
only church, in which there is salvation, is that, which be-
ing above all danger of erring, has a right to prescribe
articles of faith, and rules of life, to decide all religious
. controversies, and to put down heresies by coercion.
Independent of every temporal power, it is competent,
and is in duty bound, to resist all misuse of authority in
civil governments. The Popes were acknowledged, as
heads of this church ; and they did not neglect, to make it
an article of faith, that their decrees were to be received,
unconditionally ; yet without suppressing all doubts of
their infallibility, and without being able, to prevent the
Councils of Constance and Basil from assuming the power
of judging over them.
Notices. De la primauld de TEglise ; par D, Blondcl;.
Genev. 1641. Fol.
Mar. Anton. De Dominisy de republica ecclesiastica ; P. I
—III. 1618—22.
Petri de Marco, de concordia sacerdotii et imperii, Libri
Vril; Francf. 1708. .
(F. A, BlaUy) Critical history of ecclesiastical infallibility;
^in German,) Francf. 1791. 8vo.
THIRD PERIOD.
MODERN TIMES, A. D. 1517 1800.
PART 1. ^
GENERAL VIEW OF THE CHANGES IN DOCTRINAL
THEOLOGY.
Sec. 155. Causes leading to new modifications of
theology, •
The new direction, which the minds of the learned
had taken since the beginning of the fifteenth century, at
first, showed itself in classical literature ; but in that very
way, it had influence indirectly upon theology ; for it gave
rise to a wider and freer range of thought, and produced
a contempt for idle speculations and scholastic barbarisms.
And the effect became still greater, when men of classical
learning, came to apply themselves to the science of the-
ology ; when Laurentius Thalia began to expound the
New Testament, according to a better taste, and John
Reuchlin (Capnio) revived the study of Greek and He-
brew. But all others were outdone by Desiderius Eras-
mus, who with ridicule and sound argument, made war
upon ignorance and superstition, laid open the purer foun-
tains of religious knowledge, and brought forward more
liberal views, counsels and decisions. By these means,
Erasmus laid the foundation for a better theology, though
he neither formed nor attempted to form a system of
divinity.
Notices. Desid. Erasmi Opera.; cms. J. Clerii; Amstel.
1703. X. vol. Fol.
12*
130 muenscher's elements
(V. Brenlus) Theology of Erasmus, or outlines of ihe doc-
trines of Christianity, from the writings of Erasmus ; (in
German.) Ziillichau. 1794. 8vo.
Sec. 156. Introduction of the reformation.
Martin Luther^ well read in mystic theology, and in
the writings of Augustine, by his dislike of the traffic in
indulgences, was led on, to a decisive attack upon the m
prevailing theology of the age ; and through his influence, I
a new Christian party was established, whose opinions are
expressed in the Augsburg Confession and in their Apo-
logy, Nearly at the sanne time, Ulrich Zunngle com-
menced and accomplished, with true Swiss independence,
nearly the same thing, at Zurich. Both Protestant
churches went upon the ground, of acknowledging no
otjier authoritative source of religious instruction, but the
Bible. This broad principle, swept away, at a stroke,
many doctrines founded only upon tradition ; and it ex-
cited to new ardor, in the study of the scriptures. Free-
dom from the restraining power of the hierarchy, facilita-
ted the spread of new and better views. Zwingle, and
still more Luther, gave a new aspect to many points in
theology; and they had numerous pupils and assistants,
who were formed upon their pattern, and after their ex-
ample.
Notices. Luther a collected Works ; (in German and La-
tin,) edited by J. G, Walch. Halle. 1740—62. XXIV.
vol. 4to.
LutJieri Theologia pura sincera, ex viri divini scriptis uni-
versis maxime tamen Latinis, per omnes fidei divini arti-
cnlosdigesta etconcinnata, per Henricum Malum. Francf.
adMoen. 1709. Fol.
ZwingliOpervi ; Tiguri 1544-45. IV. vol. Fol. — and abridg-
ed, by Uster and Vogelin ; 1819—20. If. vol. 8vo.
Commentarius de vera et falsa religione ; Tig. 1625.
8vo.
I
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 181
Sec. 157. First Protestant systems of Theology,
Philip Melanchthon, commendable alike for his learn-
ing and his wise moderation, was the first, that supplied
the want of a connected system of religious doctrines, in'
his Loci Communes, which he brought nearer and nearer
to perfection by repeated revisions. This work was re-
ceived with general approbation, and served for a guide
to learned instruction, in the Lutheran church. Martin
Chemnitz and Victorinus Striegel composed commenta-
ries on it. In the Reformed church, the Institutes of
John Calvin, were of similar merits, and obtained similar
influence. Andrew Hyperius and Wolfgang Musculus
were emulous followers of the example of Calvin ; and
from the writings of the famous biblical expositor, Peter
Martyr Ve^-mili, a system of theology was compiled.
Besides the Protestants, other ecclesiastical parties were
formed ; among whom the Unitarians or Socinians, and
the Baptists, had most influence upon systematic the-
ology.
Notices. Phil. Melanchthonis Loci Theolog, sivo'Hypoty-
poses theolog. Vileb. 1 521. and in Herman, von derHardt,
Hist, reformationis : Francf. 1717. Kespecting the va-
rious editions of it : Essay of a literary histoiy of the
Loci Theologici of Phil. Melancfithon ; (in German,)
hy Ge, Theod. Strobel ; Altd. and Nuremb. 1776. 8vo.
U'he other writings of Melanchthon, are his Opera The-
log. Vitenb. 1562 — 64. IV. vol. Fol. Martini Qhemni-
tii Loci theolog ; editi studio Polyc. LeyserU Francf.
1591. 4to. and Viteb. 1590. Fol. Viciorini Strigelii
Loci theolosr. studio Christoph, Pczelii ; Neapoli Neme-
turn. 1582-85. IV. vol. 4to
Jo. Calvini Institutio christianae religionis ; Basil. 1535.
Genev. 1559. Fol. and in his Opera ;' Amstel. 1667. IX.
vol. Fol. (Gerdesii Scrinium liteiar. T. II. p. 451.)
Andreae Hyperii Meihodus Theologiae,sivepraecipnorurn
christianae religionis locorum communinm, Libri III. Ba-
sil. 1568, 1574. 8vo. Wolfg, Musculi Loci communes
132
theolog. Bern. 1573. Fol. Petri Martyrishociiheolog,
Basil. 1570. Fol.
Catechesis ecclesiarum Polonicarura, unum Deum patrem,
illiusque filium unigenitum J. C. una cum Spiritu S.
profitentiuoi ; ed. noviss. Stauropoli (Amstel.) 1684.
8vo. — recensuit, Socinianam irnpietam profligavit, Ge,
Lud. Oeder ; Francf. et Lips. 1739. 8vo. — Bibliotheca
fratrum Polonorum ; Irenopoli (Amstel,) post annum
1656. VI. vol. Fol.
Concise statement of the peculiar doctrines of F. Soci-
nus ; (in German,) by W, C. L. Ziegler ; in Henke's
New Magazine, Vol. IV. p. 201. Thoughts on a his-
torical and analytical exposition of the Socinian theology;
iiri German,) by Dr, Bengel ; in Sijskind's Magazin.
•t. XIX. p. 133.
Sec. 158. Reaction upon the Catholic church.
The bold attacks of the reformers, upon the received
doctrines of the church, roused the Catholics to a vigo-
rous resistance. The Council of Trent condemned all
innovations, and gave that statement of the Catholic faith,
which has ever since been retained. The Jesuits came
forth, as the most disputatious defenders of that system
of theology ; but they soon fell into contentions, with other
theologians of their church. Many of these divines, ad-
hered to the old method of teaching ; and wrote comments
upon Thomas Aquinas or Duns Scotus. Others en-
deavored to improve the method of teaching. John
Eck attempted, to put down Melanchthon's Loci theolo-
gici, by a work of his own ; and Melchior Canus distin-
guished himself, by avoiding useless subtilties, and by a
purer style of waiting. The Jesuits, Robert Bellarmin
and Martin Becan, became famous in the conflict with
the Protestants.
Notices, Concilii Tridentini canones et decreta ; Rom.
1564. — (Histoire du Concile de Trent; par Fra Paolo
Sarpi, traduite par P. F, de Courayer ; Amst. 1736.
III. vol. 4to. [Also in English, fiom the Italian; by
Brent, Lond. 1620. Fol.] Istoria del concilio di Trento
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 133
— dal Sforza Pallaviceno ; Rom. 1656 — 57. II. YoL
Fol. [and Latin, by Jo. Bapt, Giattino; Antw. 1673*
Fq].]
Monumentoriim ad Hist, concil. Trid. illustrandum ani«
plissima collectio ; — studio Jodoci le Plat; Lovan. 1781
— 87. VHl Tomi 4to.) Professio fidei Tridentinae. —
Catechismus ex decreto Concil. Tiidentini, Fii V jussii
editus; Rom. 1566. Fol.
Jo, Eck, Enchiridion locorum coiTimuninm, adversus Lu-
theranos ; Landshuti 1525. Doederlein's Tlieol. Jour-
nal; vol. I. P. VI. p. 458— 491 )— i»ieW. Canu de
Locis theologicis, LIbri XII ; Salamancae 1563. ed. no-
viss. a Hyac. Scrry ; A^enet. 1759.4to. — Roberti Bellar-
mini de controversiis ehristianae fidei, adversus hujus
temporis haereticos ; e. g. Ingolst. 1601; IV. Vol. Fol.
— Martini Becani Manuale controversiarum ; Herbipol.
1623; and in his Opera; Mogunt. 1649. II. Tomi
Fol.
Sec. 159. Completion of the Lutheran system of faith.
The numerous controversies, which arose among the
followers of Luther, after his decease, threatened the
whole church with confusion. To suppress these dis-
cords, and particularly to guard against the dangers,
which were supposed to threaten pure Lutheranism,
from Melanchthon's school, the Formula of Concord
was drawn up ; and the Book of Concord was set forth>
containing, in addition to the Formula of Concord,
(which determined the existing controversies with greater^
•precision,) the Augsburgh Confession, the Apology, the
Articles of Smalcald, and the two Catechisms of Luther;
all which were to be the rule and measure of the genu-
ine Lutheran creed. According to these formulas, the-
ology was to be investigated and modelled ; so that
henceforth, it breathed a narrow sectarian spirit, and ap-
peared under the guise of an intricate scholastic system,,
in which much use was made of the philosophy of Ra-
mus or Aristotle. The attempts of George Calixtus^ to
introduce more freedom of discussion, and more candor
154 muenscher's elements
towards those of different views, met with strong opposi-
tion.
Notices. Concordia ; The Christian, revised, unanimous
Confession of the hereafter named, Electoral Princes,
Princes, and Orders, of the Augsburg Confession ; (in
German,) Dresden 1580. Fol. and Latin, Lips. 1580, and
1584. 8vo. Also edited by Ad. Rechenberg, Lips. 1678.
Svo. — by Chr, Reineccius, Lips. 1735. 4to. — by Ch, M^
Pfaff, Tubing. 1730. 8vo. — by S. J. Baumgarten, Halle
1747. 8vo.— by J. G. Walch, Jena. 1750. 8vo.— and
by J. A. H. Tittmann, Lips. 1817. 8vo. — History of the
origin, variations, and formation of our Protestant system
of Theology, until the Formula of Concord ; (in German,)
by Jac. Gottl Planck; Lips. 1791—1800. VL Vol. 8vo.
— Jo. Gail. Feuerlini, Bibliotheca symbol ica eccles. Lu-
theranae ; ed. J» B . Riederer ; 1768. 8vo.
Leonhardi Hutteri, Compendium locorum theolog. Vitenb.
1610. 8vo. and Lips. 1705. — Ejusd. Loci communes
Theolog. Vitenb. 1619, 1653, 1661. Fol.— Jac. Heere-
brandi, Compendium Theologiae ; Tubing. 1573. 8vo. —
Matth. Hafenrefferif Loci theolog. Tub. 1601. — Joannis
Gerhardi Loci theolog. Francf. et Hamb. 1657. HL
Vol. Fol. — denuo edidit, variique generis observationes
adjecit, Jo. Fr. Cotta; Tub. 1762— 89.XXH. Vol. 4to.
Gasp. Er. Brochmund, Systema universae theologiae ;
Hafn. 1633. K. Vol. 4to. ed. 6 ta, Ulmae 1664. Fol.—
. 6^e. CaZ/x/i, Epitome theologiae ; Goslarl619- — Systema
locorum theolog. — auctore Abr. Calor>io ; W ittenb. 1 655
— 77. XIL Tomi 4to. — Jo. Fr. Koenigii, Theologia
positiva acroamatica ; Rosloch 1664. 8vo. — Jo. Andr.
Quenstedt, Theologia didactico-polemica ; Wittenb. 1685.
Fol. — Jo. Adami Scherzeri, Systema Theologiae XXIX
definitionibus absolutum ; Lips. 1680. ed. 4ta 1704. 4to.
Jo. Guil. Baieri, Compendium theologiae positivae ;
Jenae 1686. 8vo. et 1750. — Dav, Hollazj Examen theo^
log. acroamaticum, universam Theol. thetico-polemicam
complectens ; Holm, et Lips. 1707 ; auxit jK. Tellerua \
Holm. 1750, 4to,
OF DOGMATIC IiISTORT. 135^
Sec. 160. Variations in doctrine, in the Reformed
church.
No general and uniform system of faith, was introdu-
ced into the Reformed church. Yet Calvin*s system,
prevailed in Switzerland ; and in the Low Countries, it
triumphed over Jac, Arminius and his adherents, at the
Synod of Dort, A. D. 1618, 1619. The vanquished
Arrainian party, embraced some valuable theologians.
The decisions at Dort, became the rule of faith for the
churches of Holland ; and they met with approbation, in
the Swiss churches. Henceforth the form of their theo-
logy, was scholastic and polemic ; and a strict adherence
to the views of Calvin, and of the Synod of Dort, was
the highest recommendation of any treatise written on
theology.
Notices. Corpus et syntagma Confessionum fidei ; ed.
nova, Genev. 1654. 4to. — Acta Synod! nationalis Dor-
drechti habitae ; Dordr. 1620. Fol. Hanov. 1620. 4to.
Slmonis Episcopii', Instil utionum theologicar. Libri IV ; in
his Opp. T. ]. ed. 2, Lond. 1678. Fol. Staph. Curcellad,
Institutio religionis christianae ; in his Opp. Theol. Amst.
1675. Fol. Philippi a Limborch, Theologia Christiana ;
Amst. 1686. 4to. 1730. Fol. Basil. 1735. Fol. Adn-
ani a Cattenburg, Spicilegium theologiae christ. Philippi
aLimborch; 1726. Fol.
Jo. Maccovii, IjOc\ communes theolog. Franeq. 1639. 8vo.
1 650. 4to. — Amandi Polani a Polansdorf, Syntagma The-
ol. christianae; Hanov. 1610. H. vol. 4to. Genev. 1699.
Fol. — Samuelis Maresii, Systema theoloaicum ; Gronov.
1649. 12mo. 1673. 4to. — Marci Fr, Wendelini, chris-
tianae. Theol. systema majiis ; Cassel 1656. 4to. — Fjusd.
christianae Theol. Libri II ; Hanov. 1634. 12mo.
Sec 161. Attempts of the Reformed, to improve their
theology.
Many theologians were not insensible to the defects of
the symbolic, scholastic, theological works. John Coc-
ceius, a man of eminence, but a better linguist than in-
136 muenscher's elements
terpreter of scripture, wished to divest theology of all itd
scholastic niceties, and to exhibit it in its plain biblical
form ; and he assumed as the basis, the idea of two dis-
pensations. This innovation involved him with the
friends to the old system, at the head of whom was Gis-
bert Voetius; and the theologians of Holland became
divided into Cocceians and Voetians, About the same
time, the Cartesian philosophy excited attention, in the
low countries; and, as the Voetians assailed it, the Coc-
ceians went over to the side of the Cartesians, and be-
came amalgamated with them. Among them, Herman
Witsius, Christopher TVittich, and Alexander Roel, and
among their opposers, Peter van Mastricht, deserve the
highest place. The Cocceian theology was spread in
Germany, by Frederick Adolphus Lampe especially;
and the Cartesian, by John Clauherg (d. 1669). The
French reformed divines, as Lewis le Blanc, and Moses
Amyraudy endeavored to soften some points of Calvin-
ism ; but the Swiss theologians were dissatisfied, and
attempted to shut out these innovations, by the Formula
consensus Helvetic! A. D. 1675.
Notices, Jo Coccm Sum ma doctrinae de foedere et testa*
menlo Dei ; Ludo. 1648 ; and in his 0pp. Torn. Vll. ed.
Amstel. 1710. Tomi X. Gull, Momviae^ Oeconomia
testa;nentana triplex ; ed. auotior, Amstel. 1683. 4to.
Francisci BurmannU Synopsis tiseolojiiae, et speciatim'
oeconomiae foederum Dei; Ultraj. 1671 Franeq. 1699.
4to. Abr, Heidaniy Corpus? theoloaine rhrislianae ;
Lugd. Bat. 1646. 4to. Jo, Bravnii, Doctrina foede-
rum ; Avnst. 1688. Francf. 1711. 4t{). HermanniWU' .
*«, Oeconomiae foederum Dei cum honiiiiihus, Lihri
IV. Leov. 1677. Basd 1739. II. vol. 4to. Fred. Adol.
Lampe, Mysteries of the Covenant of Grace in tiie econo-
iny of salvation; (in German.) Bremen 1712. Yl. vol.
8vo. Gisbert Voetii Selectarmu disputationum theolog.
Pars I — V. Ultraj. 1648 — 69. Melchioris Leydeckeri
Synopsis theologiae christ. Traj. ad Rhen. 1696. Ejusd,
Oeconomia trium personarum in negotiis salutis hunia-
OF DOGMATIC HISTORT. 137
nae; 1682. Petri van Mastricht, Theologm iheoretico*
practica ; Amstel. 1682—84. Ultraj. 1669 II. vol. 4to.
Christoph, Wiitichii, Theologia pacifica ; ed. 3. Lugd,
Bat. 1683. 4to. Ejusd. Theologia pacifica defensa ;
1689. 4to. Jo. C/aw&ero-if, Exercitationes de cognitione
Dei et nostri. Harling. 1685. 8vo. Novitatum Carte-
sianarum gangraena detecta ; auctore Petro van Ma-'
tricht. Amstel. 1677.
Syntagma thesium theologicarum in academia Saimiiriensi
disputatarum snb praes. Lud. Capelli, Mos, Amyraldi,
Jos.piacei; Salmari, ed 2. 1665. IV. vol. 4to. Bened,
Pictet, Theologie chretienne ; a Geneve, 1721. III.
vol. 4to.
J. Henr. Heideggeri, Medulla theologiae. Tiguri 1696.
4to. Medulla medullae ; 1697. 8vo. Corpus theolo-
giae Christ. Tiguri 1700. II. vol. Fol. Institutiones
theologiae elenchticae; authore Franc. Turretin. Ge-
nev. 1688. III. Partes 4to. ed. nova recognita etaucta;
Lugd. Bnt. 1695. III. vol. 4to.
Sec. 162. Achievements oj Spener, in regard to the Im--
theran theology,
Philip James Spener, a disciple of John Conrad Dan-
hauer, was penetrated with a conviction, that the theology
of that age, did not satisfy a religious mind, and that it
was not suited, to form good teachers of religion. He
therefore recommended banishing the multifarious sub-
tle inquiries, the multiplied technics, and the polemic
mode of treatment ; and urged, in place of them, a purer
biblical and practical statement of the doctrines of faith.
Although sincerely devoted to the creed of the Lutheran
church, he labored to abate the excessive value put upon
ecclesiastical orthodoxy and symbols of faith. Violent
as the opposition, he had to encounter, was, his designs
were not without effect ; and in the university of Halle
especially, theology was taught after his manner. This
was simple, and directed primarily to form a pious char-
acter ; but it was deficient in distinctness of ideas, in the
use of learned helps, and in philosophical discrimantion
IS
138 muenscher's elements
and judgment. Yet John Francis Buddeus at Jena,
knew how to combine the excellences of the HaJlean
mode of teaching, with a richness of learned acquisitions ;
and some Wiirtemburg divines also, as Christopher Mat-
thew Pf off, Siud Christian Eber hard fFewmaww, endeavor-
ed to simplify dieological doctrines, and to teach them in
a more biblical manner.
Notices, Jo, Conradi Danhaueri, Hodosophia Christiana, s.
Theologia positiva in certam, plenum, et cohaeren-
tem methodum redacta ; Argentor. 1649. 8vo. Lips.
1713. 4to.
Phil, Jac, Spener, Pia desideria ; (1675.) Francf. 1712. jM
12mo. Ejusd, General theology, for all faithful chris- |J
tiar)s, and upright theologians ; (in German,) Francf.
1680. 1705. Ejusd, Evangelical system of iaith ; (in
German,) Francf, 1668. Ejusd. Sciagra|)hia doctrinae
fidei evangelicae ; Francf. 1688. 8vo. Joach. Just. Breit-
hauptf Institutionum theologiae Libri 11 ; Halae 1695.
8vo, Ejusd, Institutiones theolooiae de credendis et
agendis ; Halae 1716 — 32. III. vol. 4to. Jo, Anastas,
Freylingshausen, The foundation of theology ; (in Ger-
man,) Halle 1703. last ed. 1767. 8vo. Jo. Joach. Lan-
gii, Oeconomia salutis evangelica ; Halae 1728. 1730.
8vo. Jo. Jac. Rambach^ Dogmatic theology ; (in Ger-
man,) edited by Em. Fred, Neuhauer ; Francf. 1744.
H. vol. 4to,
Jo, Fr. Buddei, Instilutiones theologiae dogmaticae ; Lips.
1723. lasted. 1741. 4to. Christoph. Maith. Pfajii, In-
stitutiones theologiae dogmaticae et morahs ; Tub. 1720.
Francf. 1721. 8vo. Christ. Eherh. Weismanni, Institu-
tiones theologiae exegetico-dogmaticae ; Tub. 1739. 4to.
Henr, Wil. Clemin, Complete introduction to theology;
(in German,) Tubing. 1764-73. VII Vol. 4to.
Sec. 163. Influence of the Wolfian Philosopy.
From the chief seat of the unphilosophical Spenerian
school, proceeded a new system of philosophy, derived by
Christian Wolf, from the abstruse ideas of Godfrey Wil-
liam von Leibnitz, The pietistic rmd the anti-pietistic
theologians, apprehending the overthrow of all religion
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. Ill
from it, rose in opposition against it ; but they were unable
to put it down, or to prevent its being applied to theology.
From the Wolfian philosophy, theology derived a mathe-
matical form, little suited to its nature ; yet it was improv-
ed by a more solid arrangement, and by clearer definitions.
The doctrines of faith, were treated according to Wolfian
principles, not only in the Lutheran, but likewise in the
Reformed churches : and James Siegmund Baumgarien
caused this mode of teaching, to be admitted into Halle.
Still there were theologians, who, without taking sides
either for or against the Wolfian party, endeavored to pro-
fit by what was good in both.
Notices. {Isra, Gottl. Canzii, Usus philosophiae Leibni-
tianae et Wolfianae in Tiieologia ; Francf. 1733. II Tomi,
8vo. Ejusd. Consensus philosophiae Wolfianae cum
Theologia ; Francf. 1737. 8vo.) Jac. Carpovii, Oeco*
nomia salutis N. T. s. Theologia revelata dogmatica
methodo scientifica adornata ; 1737-65. IV vol. 4to.
Joh. Gusfav, Reinheck's Reflections on the Augsburg
Confession ; (in German,) Berlin. 1731-41. [V vol. 4to.
continued hy Isr, Gottl Cam; A^ol. V— X. Berlin 1743-
47. and by J. Pet. Ahlward ; 1742-48. VII Parts, or II
Vol. 4to. Geo. Henr. Ribovii, Institutiones theolog. dog-
mat. Gotting. 1741. 8vo. Pet. Reusch, Introductio in
theologiam revelatain; Jenae. 1744. 8vo. Isr, GottL
Canzii^ Compendium theoloaiae purioris ; Tub. 1762.
8vo. Jo. Ern. Schubert, Introductio in theologiam re-
velatam ; Jenae 1749. Ejusd. Institutiones theologiae
dogmat. Jenae 1753. Ejusd. Compendium theol.dogmat.
Helmst. et Halae 1760. 8vo. Ejusd. Institutiones theo-
logiae polemicae ; Jen. et Lips. 1760-61. IV vol. 8vo.
Siegm. Jac. Baumgarferij Theses theologicae ; Halae
1746, 1767. 8vo. Ejusd. Evangelical Svstem of faith j
(in German,) edited by J. S. Sender ; Halle 1759-60.
Ill vol. 4to. Ejusd. Examination of theological contro-
versies ; (in German,) edited by J. S. Sender ; Halle
1762-64. IIIvol. 4to.
Pan.Wyttenbach, Tentamen theologiae dogmaticae methodo
scientifica pertractatae ; Bern. 1741-42. IIIvol. 8vo.
Ejusd, Compendium theologiae dogmat. et moralis ;
140
Francf. 1 754. 8vo. Henr. Guil. Bernsau, Theologia dog--
mat. meihodo scientifica pertractata; Lips. 1755. II vol.
8vo. Joh. Fred. Stopfer.^ The foundation of true religion ;
(in German,) Zurich 1746-53. XII Vol. 8vo. Hersfeld.
1756. Ill Vol. 4to. Ejusd. Institutiones theologiae po-
lemicae ; Tuguri 1745-47. V vol. Bvo.
Jo.Laur,Mosliemii, Elenienta theologiae; ed.2.Norimb.l764.
II vol. 8vo.
Sec. 164. Protestant theology in countries beyond
Germany.
In England, theological controversies were carried on,
with uncommon vehemence, and being connected with
political discords, produced dreadful ferments in the pub-
lic mind. The effects of this excitement, were threefold.
Some — (the Deists) rejected Christianity in general, and
confined themselves to mere natural religion. Others
were disposed, to regard Christianity as a mere matter of
feeling, and assumed as their directory an internal light —
(the Quakers). Others again, had the conviction, that
the creed of the church and symbols of faith, were of little
consequence, and that men ought to hold fast only the
essential and the practical doctrines of Christianity — (the
Latitudinarians). The toleration, granted towards the
close of the seventeeth century, gave these parties room
for freer action, and the friction of their collisions pro-
duced clearer views, and a more active spirit of investi-
gation. Yet the spirit of the English theologians, finding
less satisfaction in elaborating systems of theology,
employed itself, for the most part, in the discussion
of particular points, or in ranging at large on theo-
logical subjects, with at least, freedom of thought. In
Switzerland also, the former rigorous orthodoxy was
relaxed ; and at Geneva in particular, the ancient seat of
Calvinism, James Vernet preached, not the Calvinistic
system, but only the simple truths of Christianity. These
writings of foreign divines, were read in Germany, and
were there translated. The works also of Socinian and
Arminian writers, were read with less aversion, than for-
merly.
(
OF iDOGMATIC HISTORY. 141
Notices. Anthony Collins, Discourse on free-thinking ; oc-
casioned by the rise and growth of a sect, called Free-
Thinkers; Lond. 1713. 8vo. Phileleufheri Lipsiensis
(Richard Bentley), Remarks upon a late discourse of free-
thinking ; 1713. (also in French, ed. 8. Amst. 1736.8vo.)
Theologiae verae christianae Apologia ; a Roberto Bar-
claio; Roterod. 1676. 4to. (also German, 1740. 8vo.)
The principles and practices of certain moderate divines
abusively called Latitudinarians ; III Parts; Lond. 1671.
8vo. (^Arthur Bury) Latitudinarius orlhodoxus ; Lond.
1697. 12mo.
Thomae Burnet, de fide et officiis christianorum, Liber pos-
thumus ; Lond. 1727. revised and enlarged, by W, A,
Teller; Halle 1786. 8vo. A complete body of divinity,
by Thorn. Stackhouse ; Lond. 1729. (also in German ; by
Fried, EherL Rambach; Rostt)ck. 1755-64. VII vol.
8vo. The far more important works on particular topics,
belong to the history of particular doctrines.
Instruction chretienne ; p^r Jaques Vernet, a Geneve. 1754.
V tomes. 8vo. (also in German,) Berlin, 1 754-55. V Parts,
or II vol. 8vo.
Sec. 165. JVew formation of the Protestant theology.
Historians of it. Prize question of the Directors of the
Universal Literary Journal, A. D. 1788. {GebL Ulr.
Brastberger^ s) Narrative and examination of the princi-
pal changes, made in the learned statements of dogmatic
theology, among the Protestants of Germany, especially
in the second half of the present century ; (in German,)
Halle, 1790. 8vo. Essay of a historical developement of
the causes and occasions, which have produced a new
state of protestant dogmatics ; (German,) in Stdudlin^s
Contributions to the philosophy and history of religion.
Vol. IV. p. 1—50. Lubeck, 1798. Practical history of
theology and religion,m the Protestant church, during the
second half of the 1 8th century ; (in German,) by J. Aug.
Tittmann. Vol. I. Breslau 1805. 8vo. The illumination
of modern divines, in christian theology, from A.D. 1760,
to A. D. 1805; (in German; by Fuhrinann,) Yo). L
Lips. 1807. 8vo.
13*
142
The progress of human science, of biblical criticism
and hermeneutics, and of historical theology, and the in-
creased philosophical industry of divines, who cast off the
shackles of the church creed, being favored by the in-
creased freedom of the pulpit and the press ; led on to
a very considerable change in dogmatic theology, which
at first, under /. Aug, Ernesti, Dav. Heilmann, and J,
Dav. Michaelis, extended only to its form and unessen-
tial definitions(A), but soon after, affected the substance
itself. W. Abr, Teller. GotthilfSam. Steinbart, J, Aug.
Eberhard, and /. S. Semler, were especially active, in
producing this change(B). They were aided, by the less
learned and discreet, Jo/BernLBasedow, and Charles Fr.
Bahrdi[C) ; and the German Universal Library (Allge-
meine deutsche Bibliothek) cooperated powerfully, to
bring the old system under ridicule, and open the way
for the new views. Against these assauhs, however, tlie
established theology found many defenders(D). Without
joining either party, altogether, Jo. Christ. Doederlein,
and Sam. Fred. JVath. Morus, found their theological
treatises receiving much approbation(E). Biblical the-
ology, likewise had its writers(F) ; and in the popular
statement of religious doctrines, Fred, Wilh. Jerusalem
stood conspicuous(G).
Notices. A. Jo. Dav. Michaelis, Compendium tlieologiae
doomat. Gottmg. 1760: and in German, Gott. 1784.
Jo. Dav. Heiimanni, Compendium tlieol. dojimat. Gott.
1761, 1774. Em. Jac. Danovii, Theolo^iae dograat. In-
stitutio; Jenae 1772, 1776. Jo. Gottl Tollner, Mis-
cellaneous papers ; (in German,) Francf. on Oder, 1767-
70. II. vol. Ejusd, Theolos^ical Inquiries ; (in German,)
Vol. I. and Vol.11. P. I. Riga 1772-74. {Ejnsd. Sys-
tem of Dogmatic theology ; (in German,) II. Vol. Nu-
renb. 1775.)
B. W. A. Teller's Elements of the Christian faith ; (in
German,) 1764. 8vo. Jo, Fred Gruneri, Institutt. theol.
dogmat. Libri III.; Halae 1777. Ejusd. Practical In-
troduction to the religion of the H. Script, (in German,)
Halle 1773. Jo. Aug. Eberhard, New apology of So-
crates, and on the salvation of the Heathen ; (German,)
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY, 14S
Berlin 1772. new ed. 1778. II. vol. 8vo. Godfr. Sam.
SteinharVs System of pure philosophy, or the christian
doctrine of salvation ; (German,) Ziillich. 1778. ed. 3.
1786. (J. A. Sixt, Examination of the so called System
of pure Philosophy ; (German,) Altd. and Nurenb. 1779
~80. II Parts. The philosophical Christianity of Coun-
sellor Steinbart, freely investigated, by a practical theolo-
gian ; (German,) Lips. 1792.) Ejusd. Philosophical
conversations, for a fuller elucidation of the doctrine of
salvation ; (German,) Ziill. 1781-86. Ill Parts. J, S.
Semleri, Institutio ad doctrinam christ. liberaliter discen-
dam ; Halae 1774. Ejusd. Essay of a more liberal
manner of teaching theology ; for the elucidation and con-
firmation of his Latin work ; (German,) Halle 1777, 8vo.
(J. A. Starck,) Free remarks on Christianity ; (Germ.)
ed. 2. Berl. 1782. (The Free remarks on Christianity,
examined: by Tob, Gottf. Hegel maier ; Tub. 1781-82.
in Vol. 8vo.) Sam. Mursinna^ Compendium theologiae
dogmat. Halae 1777.
C. C F. Bahrdtf Essay of a biblical System of dogmat-
ics ; (Germ.) Gotha and Lips. 1769 — 70. IL Vol. 8vo.
— Ejusd. Letters on systematic theology ; (Germ.) Erf
1770. II. vol. 8vo. — Ejusd. Systema theologiae Luthe-
ranae orthodoxum, cum brevi notatione dissentientium.
Halae 1785. 8vo. — J. Bernh. Basedow^ Philalethia.
New views taken of the truths and the religion of reason,
as far as the boundaries of credible revelation ; (Ger-
man,) Altona 1764, II. vol. 8vo. — !i]ssay of a caridid sys-
tem of theology, according to private judgments ; (Ger-
man,) Berlin 1766. — Bei'nherd of Nordalbingden, Legacy
for some persons ; (German,) Dessau 1774.
D. Jo, Benj. Corpzov, Liber doctrinalis theologiae purio-
ris ; Brunsw. 1767. — Chr, W. Fr, Walchii. Breviarum
theologiae dogmat. Got. 1775. — Ge. Fred. Seller, Theo-
logia dogmat. polemica ; Erlang. 1774. ed. 3. 1789. — Jo.
Pet. Miller, Theol. dogmat. Compendium ; Lips. 1786,
Eberh. Dan. Stosch, introductio in theol. dogmat. Francf.
ad Viadr. 1778. Ejusd. Institutiones theol. dogmat. ibid.
1779. Sam, Endemanni, Institutiones theol. dogmat.
Hanov. 1777. II. Vol. 8vo. Ejusd. Compendium theol.
dogmat. Francf. 1782. ed. 2. cura J. A. Arnoldi; Han.
1790.
144
E. Jo Christoph. Doederlein, Institutio theologi christian!
in capitibus reliorjonis theorelicis, temporibus nostris ac-
comrnodata; xiltorf. 1780. ed. 6ta 1799. II.Vol. 8vo.—
Ejusd. Summa instilutionis &c. Norirnb. 1782. — Ejusd.
Religious Instruction ; (German,) Vol. I — IV. and con-
tinuation, by G. Ch. Junge, Vol. V — XII. Altorf. and
Nurenb. 1783—1803. 8vo.— S?. F, N, Mori, Epitome
theologiae christianae ; Lips. 1789. ed. 4. 1799. — Ejusd.
Commentarius exeget. histor. in snara theol. christ.
Epitomen ; ed. C. A. Hempel, Lips. 1797 — 98. II.Vol.
8vo.
F. Gottk. Traugott Zachariae, Biblical Theology ; (in
German,) Gott. and Kiel. 1771 — 75. IV Vol. continued
by Vollhroth, ed. 3. 1786. V. Vol. 8vo.— T^. Fred. Huf-
nageVs Manual of biblical theology ; (in German,) vol.
1. and vol. II. P. I. Erlang. 1785— 89.— CAr. F. Am-
moji's Bibliral Theology; (German,) Erlang. 1792. ed.
2. 1801—2. in. Vol. 8vo.— The spirit of original Christ-
ianity ; (in German,) by J. A, Eberhard ; Halle 1807 —
8. ill. Vol. 8vo.
G. Jo. ISred. W. JerusalerrCs Reflections on the princi-
pal truths of religion ; (in German,) vol. I. Brunsw.
1768. vol. II. P. I— IV. 1772—79. The Parts of con-
tinuation, in his posthumous writings ; Brunsw. 1692 —
93. IV. Vol. 8vo. — Godfr. Less, Theory of the christian
religion, or Essay of a practical dogmatic ; (in German,)
Getting. 1779. also, under the title of Manual, of the the-
ory of Christianity, for people of education; ed. 3. 1789.
— /. A. Hermes, Manual of religion ; (in German,) 5th
ed. improved ; Berlin 1797. 8vo. — To quiet my soul,
what must I believe ? what can I expect, among the
complicated opinions of the learned ? — answered by a
feeble old man, on the borders of the grave (J. Fr. Ja-
cohi) ; (in German,) Hanov. 1790. — Result of my more
than 50 year's reflection on the doctrine of Christ ; (in
German, by Dan. Hen. Purgold,) ed. 2. Lips. 1788. —
Jo. Jac. GrieshacWs Introduction to the study of popular
dogmatics; (in German,) Jena 1779. ed. 4. 1789. —
A. H. Niemeier^s Popular and practical theology ; (in
German,) Ilalle 1792. ed. 5. \^m.— Ejusd. Letters to
christian Ministers ; (in German,) ed. 2. 1803.
or DOGMATIC HISTORY. 14^
Sec. 166. Influence of the Kantean philosophy.
History of it. [Fliigge,) Essay of a historic and critical
representation of the effects of the Kantean philosophy,
thus far, on all the branches of scientific and practical
theology ; (in German,) Hanov. 1796-98. II vol. 8vo.
The state of dogmatics, in the Lutheran church, since the
time of Morus ; (in German,) by Aug. Bas, Manitius ;
Witemb. 1806. 8vo.
The Kantean philosphy, which shook the foundations
of the previous religious systems, and aimed to establish
faith in supersensible things, directly on practical reason;
was commended, by many divines, as the surest means of
securing the christian doctrines, against the assaults of
unbelief, and the mazes of superstition. But it was soon
felt, that its union with Christianity, was compulsory. Bib-
lical theology, however, was not neglected ; and greater
attention than ever, was paid to the history and literature
of theology. The great dissimilarity in the first princi-
ples, assumed by the theologians, became more and more
visible. Some divines endeavored, to defend the leading
points of the old theology. Others followed an eclectic
rationalism ; to which they either accommodated the
doctrines of the bible, or they exhibited the latter, along
with the principles of the former, without concealing the
discordance between them. The philosophy of Schel-
ling also, which identified the creation with the Creator,
was applied to the erection of new systems of dogmatics.
The changes in the German theology, likewise, produced
some influence on the churches of Holland.
Notices. Religion within the boundaries of pure rea-
son ; (in German,) by Imman. Kant; Konigsb. 1794. —
C Fr. Stdudlin^s Thoughts for a critique upon the sys^
tem of the christian religion ; (German,) Got. 1791,
8vo.' — On the value of the critical philosophy, especially
in a religious and moral view, and the use and abuse of
it, in the theological sciences ; (German,) in Stdudlin^s
Contributions to the history and philosophy of religion ;
Tol III, IV. v.--/. Henr. Tieftrunky Estimate of the.-
146 mdenscher's elements
Protestant system of Christianity, according to the prin-
ciples of religious criticism ; (German,) Berlin 1791-96.
HI vol, 8vo. — Eju^d, Dilucidationes ad theoreticam re-
ligionis christ. partem; Berlin 1793. II vol. — Chr, Fred,
Amnion's Sketch of a scientific work on practical theol-
ogy : (in German,) vol. I. P. I, II. Gotting. 1798. — J.
W, Schmid, On the nature of the christian religion, and
the proper mode of treating it, both as instruction for
mankind, and as a science ; (in German,) Jena 1797.
Bvo.
On the inconsistency of the dogmatic system, to which
the high court-preacher Reinhard gives assent; and the
consistency of the rationalism, that admits a revelation ;
(in German,) 1811. 8vo.
JLenchte (/. G. S,) Critique of the latest inquiries re-
specting rationalism and belief in revelation ; (in Germ.)
Lips. 1812. 8vo.
Letters on rationalism : Designed to correct the fluc-
tuating and dubious decisions, passed on that subject, in
the recent disputes about consistency ; (in German,)
Aachen (Rastatt). 1813. 8vo.
Tiitmann (J. A.) On Supranaturalism, Rationalism,
and Atheism ; (in German,) Lips. 1816. Bvo. — L. A.
Kaehler, Supernaturalism and Rationalism, in their com-
mon origin, their disagreement, and ultimate unity, A
word for satisfying all those, who are undecided, whether
they should believe in order to know, or know in order
to believe ; (in German,) Lips. 1818. Bvo.
(^Ge. Lor» Bauer's) Theology of the Old Testament, or
Summary of the religious ideas of the Hebrews ; (in
German.) Lips. 1796. \80\.~Ejusd. Biblical theology
of the New Testament; (in German,) Lips. 1800, 1802.
IV vol. — Ejusd. Breviarium theologiae biblicae ; Lips.
\S03.-^Kaiser, {G. P. C.) Biblical theology, or Juda-
ism and Christianity ; (in German,) Erlang. 1813-14. II
vol. Bvo.T— Commentarii histor. decretorum religionis
christiane et formulae Lutheriae ; scripsit Ch. Dan. Beck;
Lips. 1801. Bvo. — C. G, Breftschneiders Essay of a sys-
tematic developement of all the opinions advanced in
dogmatics, according to the symbolical books of the
1
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 147
evangelical Lutheran church ; (in Gernnan,) Lips. 1805.
improved ed. 1819. 8vo.
Gottl. Chr. Storr, Doctrinae christian a e pars theore-
tica; Stutti^. 1793. — Ejusd. Elements of christian theo-
logy; in German from the Latin, with additions, by C,C.
Flatt. Stuttg. 1803. 2d improved and enlarged ed. vol.
I. 18l3. 8vo. (Also made English, by S, S. Schmucker ;
Andover 1826. II vol. 8vo.) — Fr. V, Reinhard, Lec-
tures on dogmatics, with liteiary additions ; (in German,)
published by Imm. Berger \ Amberg and Sulzb. 1801.
ed. 2. 1806; and with new literary additions, by jff. A,
Schott ; 4th improved ed. 1818. 8vo. — Epitome theolo-
giae Christ, e Reinhardi acroasibus descripta ; a P. Ge.
Chr. Hopfner ; Lips. 1805. — Magazine for christian
dogmatics and moral theology ; (in German,) published
by J. Fr. Flatt, and contmued (since Pt. 9,) by Fred.
Gottl. Silskind; Tub. 1796 &c. XIV Parts. 8vo.--Sys-
tem of christian dogmatics, laid down according to the
theolo^v of the Lutheran church ; (in German,) by Jo.
Chr. iV. Augusti; Lips. 1809.
H. A. Schott, Epitome theologiae christianae dogmati-
cae ; Lips. 18 i I. 8vo.
The religious instructions of the Bible, considered with ^
reference to our spiritual wants ; (in German,) by J. L.
Ewald; Stuttg. and Tub. 1812. II vol. 8vo.
Manual of the theology of the evang. Lutheran church ;
(in German,) by Dr. C G. Breitschneider ; Lips. 1814-
18. II vol. 8vo.
Jo. Chr. Rud. Eckermann, Compendium theologiae
chrivSt. theoret. biblico-historicae ; ed. 2. Altonae 1792.
— Ejusd. Manual for the systematic study of the chris-
tian faith ; (in German,) Altona 1801--3. lY vol. 8vo. —
JGJw^cZ. Theological contributions; (Germ.) Altona 1791-
97. VI vol. — Hen. Ph. Con. Henke, Linearnenta institutt.
fidei Christ, historico-criticarum; Helmst. 1793. ed.2. 1795.
Ejusd. Mag. for religious philosophy, exegesis, and church
hivStory ; (in German,) Helmst. 1794 &c. VI vol. —
Ejusd. New Magazin ; (German). Helmst. 1797 &.c.
VI vol. — Ejusd. Museum for religious science, in all its
extent; (in German,) Magd. 1803-07. Ill vol. 8vo.—
148
Critique of the ancient and modern doctrines of the
christian church; (in German,) by G. C. Cannabich ;
Zerbst and Lips. 1798 ed. 3. 1805,— Go^^Z. Denker
(Sintenis), Last revision of the faith of the church ; (in
German,) 1799. 8vOt — Char. Lud. Nitzsch, De revela-
tione rehgionis externa eademque pubHca ; Lips. 1808.
— The foundation of theology ; (in German,) by Gotil,
Schlegel; vol.1. Riga 1806.
Dogmatics and dogmatic history ; (in Geiman,) by C
, Fred. Stdudling ; Gott. 1799.11 vol. — Ejusd. Elements
of dogmatics and dogmatic history ; (in German,) ed. 2.
< lotting. 1809. — 1. Ern. Christ, Schmid's Elements of
christian dogmatics; (in German,) Giess. 1800. — Ejusd.
Christian theology ; (in German,) Giess. and Darmst.
1808. — Chr. Fr. Ammon, Summa theol. christ. Gotting.
1803, ed. 2, 1808, ed. 3, Lips. 1816, 'also in German,
1805. — Ejusd. Full instruction in the christian faith, de-
signed for the friends of evangelical truth ; (in German,)
vol. I. P. I, 11. Erlang. 1807, 1808.—/. G. Herder,
Dogmatics ; collected from his writings, with literary and
critical notes ; (in German,) Jena 1805.
Elements of christian dogmatics, presented in a histori-
cal developement of the same ; (in German,) by Dr. W.
. M. L. De Wefte ; Berl lQ\3-\6. II vol. Qvo.-Ejusd.
On religion and theology : Elucidations to his elements
of dogmatics ; (in German,) Berl. 1815. 8vo.
Institutiones theologiae christ. dogmaticae. Scholis suia
scripsit, addita singulorora dogmatum historia et censura,
J. A. L. WegscJieider ; ed. 2. Halae, 1817. 8vo.
Thologumena, s. Doctrinae de religione christ. ex natu-
ra Dei perspecta capita potiora, scholis dicavit Car. Daub;
Heidelb. 1806. — Ejusd. Introduction to the study of
christian dogmatics ; (in German.) Heidelb. 1810. —
Fred. Henr. Christ. Schwarz, Sciagraphia theologiae
dogmaticae; Heidelb. 1808. — Ejusd. Christianity con-
sidered in its truth and divinity ; (in German,) vol. I.
Heidelb. 1808. — Ejusd. Outline of Protestant ecclesi-
astical dogmatics ; ed. 2. altered and done into German ;
Heidelb. 1816, large 8vo.
Pars theoretica religionis christianae — in compendium
redegit; Herm. Muntinghe; 1800-1, 8 vo.
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 149
Compendii theologiae clirist. ordo et argnmentum : Pars
tlieoretica. Ad usum discipulorum ; edidit Jo, van
Voorst; Lugd. 1808. 8vo.
Christian theology, according to the wants of the pre-
sent time ; (in Dutch,) hy J. H, Regenhogen ; Workum,
1811. 8vo, (very lax I)
J, A. Lotze. Monograrnmata theologiae theoreticae, in
scholae suae usum; Harderov. J817. 8vo.
Sec. 167. The theology of other churches.
The eptablished doctrines of the Catholic church,
are professedly unchangable ; and can therefore admit
of no essential aherations. And yet theology was taught
with some peculiarities, by each order of Monks ; and
the contest between the Jansenists and Jesuits, in particu-
lar, gave the Catholic divines much employment. For
the most part, the old scholastic form of doctrine con-
tinued ; yet in France, from about the seventeenth cen-
century, attempts were made, to purge away many of the
useless subtilties ; and Bossuet endeavored, to make its
deviations from the Protestant views, less striking. The
free remarks of Francis de Courayer, on improving theo-.
logy, were not attended to. With better success, the
Catholic divines of Germany, in modern times, have be-
gun to treat the theology of their church, more lucidly
and practically ; and in this, they have condescended to
make use of the writings of Protestants(A). The Greek
church has had no dogmatic writers, except Theophanes
Procopowitsch and Platon(B). Among the Unitarians
or Socinians also, a few works on dogmatics have ap-
peared(C).
Notices^ A. Fran. Suarez, Commentatt. et dij?putatt. in
Summam theologiae Sti Thomae ; Mogunt. 1619-29.
XIX vol. Fol. Jo. Bapt. du Hameh Theolocna specu-
lative et practica, juxta SS. Patrum dogmata pertracUata ;
Par. 1691. Vll vol. 8vo. Exposition de la foi cathohque;
par Jaque Ben, Bossuet ; Par. 1672. 15mo. Theolo-
gia dogmal. et moralis, auctore Natal AUxandro ; Paris
^ 1703. II. vol. Fol. Antonii Tournellh Praelectiones
I 14
150 muenscher's elements
theologicae ; Paris 1725-30. XVI vol. 8vo. Examen
des defauts theologiques ; (par F. de Courayer,) Amst.
1744. I[ vol. 8vo. Jo. Laur. Bertie Theologia histor.
dogmat. scholastica ; Vene^t. 1760, &,c. X vol. Fol. And,
abridged, Bamb. 1773. V vol. 8vo. Renati Billuart,
Summa Sti Thornae hodiernis academiarurn moribus ac-
commodata ; Leod. 1746-51. XIX Tomi. Bvo. and VVir-
ceb. 1758. Ill vol. Fol. Ejusd, Summa summae Sti
Thornae ; s. Compendium iheologiae ; Leod. 1746. VI
vol. 8vo. Petri Mariae Gazzaniga, Praelectiones theo-
log. ed. 3. Viennae 1775. IV vol. 8vo. Slmpert Sch-
warzhiiber, Catholic christian manual ; (in German,) ed.
3. Salzb. 1791. IV vol. 8vo. Steph. Wiest, Institutiones
theologicae ; ed. 2. Ingolst. 1788-89. VI vol. 8vo.
Ejusd. Institt. theol. dogmat. ib. 1791. II vol. ed. 2.
Landshut 1817. 8vo. Bened. Stattler, Theologiae iheo-
ret. tractatus ; Eustad. 1776-79. IV Tomi. Petri Tam-
hurini, Praelectiones in acad. Ticinensi ; Ticini 1787.
8vo. Manual of the christian religion ; (in German,)
by Udcfons ScJncarz ; ed. 2. Bamb. and Wiirzb. 1797.
Ill vol. 8vo. Engelberti Kliipfel, Instilutt. theologiae
dogmaticae,; ed. 2. Viennae 1802-3. II vol. Bernh.
Galura, Latest theology of Christianity ; (in German,)
Augsb. 1800-3. V vol.^ 8vo. ed. 2, Augsb. 1818. VI vol.
8vo. Dobmayer^ (C. D. M.) Systema theol. catholicae;
Solisbaci 1813. IV Tomi 8vo. cum append. Candid re-
presentation of theology, under the idea of the King-
dom of heaven ; or latest catholic dogmatics, according
to the wants of the present ajje ; (in German,) by Dr.
Fred. Brenner; Bamb. and Wiirzb. 1815-18. III. vol.
8vo.
B. Theophanis Procopoimtz, Christiana orthodoxa theolo-
gia ;^Regiomonti 1773--75. V vol. 8vo. Platon's Or-
thodox doctrine, or short summary of christian theology ;
(in German,) Riga 1770 ; (also, English, in The present
stale of the Greek church ; by Rob. Pinkerton ; New-
York 1815. l2mo.) See also, Reflections on the doc-
trine and the spirit of the orthodox churches ; (in French,)
by Alexander de Stoundza; and thence German, by
August, von Kotzebue ; Lips. 1817. 8 vo.
G. Jo, Volkelii, de vera religione, Libri V ; quibus praefixus
i
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 181
est Jo. Crellii Tractatus de Deo et ejus attributis ; Ra-
cov. 163Q. 4to. Sam. Crelli, Gogitationes de primo et
secundo Adamo ; s. de ratione salutis per ilium amissae,
per hunc recuperata ; Ainsl. 1700. 8vo. (^Georgii MaV'
kos,) Summa universac theologiae, secundum Uuitarios ;
Claudiop. 1777. 8vo, See Archive for ancient and mo-
dern church history ; (in German,) edited by C. F. Stdu-
dlin 3im\ H. C. Tzschirner; vol. [. P.I. No. 3. The
author of this piece, was supposed to be George Marhos ;
but it was published from a manuscript work of Michael
Lombardsz Abrahami, who was superintendent of the Uni-
tarians in Transylvania, from A. D. 1737? to A. D. 1758,
See the above named Archive, vol. IV. P. I.
PART 11.
HISTORY OF PARTICULAR DOCTRINES.
CHAPTER I.
THE FOUNDATION OF RELIGION GENERALLY, AND ES-
PECIALLY OF THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION.
Historians. J. Alb. Fabricii, Delectus argumentorum et
syllabus scriptorum, qui veritatem religionis christ. adver-
sus Atheos, Epicureos, Deistas s. Naturalistas, Idolola-
tras, Judaeos et Muhammedanos, asseiuerunt ; Hamb.
1725. 4to. An appendix thereto, annexed to Jo» Ant,
Trinius, Dictionary of Free-thinkers ; (in German,)
Lips. &c. 1758. 8vo. The history and spirit of scepti-
cism, especially in regard to morals and religion ; (in
German,) by CL Fr. Stdudlin ; Lips. 1794. II vol. 8vo.
Sec. 168. Doctrine concerning God.
The belief of a God was commonly, either assumed, or
supported on the old and well known grounds, when des
Cartes attempted to establish it with new arguments.
Moreover the theologians were roused from their inacti-
vity, and made sensible of the danger in which the foun-
\
152 muenscher's elements
dation of their system stood, by the efforts of two persons,
Thomas Hobbes (d. 1679) seemed, in general, to under-
mine religion ; and to rank the Creator among sensalive
beings. Benedict Spinoza (d. 1677), in a more system-
atic manner, brought forward a connected and self-con-
sistent pantheism. Among the numerous writers, who
appeared against these two men, the most distinguished
were UenryMorus (d. 1687), Ralph Cudworth (d.l688),
and Samael Clarke (d. 1729). The philosophy of John
Locke, which deduced all knowledge from experience,
and which met great approbation in England, and was
received also in France ; contrary to the designs of its
author, was so appUied, as to render all belief of super-
sensible truths, uncertain. Christian Wolf, endeavored
to resist infidelity, by a more acute statement of the ar-
gument derived from the principle of causation ; and
Hermann Sam, Rtimarus presented the argument in a
more intelligible form, and defended it against the objec-
tions of Maupertuis. Also Moses Mendelsohn obtained .
high commendation, by the clearness with which he sta- 1
ted the evidence of the being of a God ; and during the
same time, essays proving the being of God, from the
necessity of a first cause, became more numerous than
ever.
Notices, Thomas Hobbes, Elementa philosopliica, de cive;
Amstel. 1669. 12mo. JEJw^rf.Levialhan ; London 1661.
Bened. Spinoza, Tractatus iheologico-pollticus ; Hamb.
1670. Bened. Spinoza, O pp. \)os{humii \ Amst. 1677. 4to.
Ejusd. Opera; cnravit H E. G. Paidus ; Jenae 1802-3.
II vol. 8vo. Ralph CwcZwor/A, Intellectual system of the
universe ; ex Anglico vertit et illustravit J. Law, Mo-
shemius ; ed. 2. Lugd. Bat. 1773. II vol. 4to. Sam,
Clarke, On the existence and attributes of God, the
duties of natural religion, and the truth of the chris-
tian religion ; (French, from the English,) Amst. 1766.
III vol. 8vo. Herm. Sam, Beimarus, Treatises on the
principal truths of natural rehgion ; with notes by J, A,
H. Reimarus ; (in German,) ed. 6. Hamb. 1791. Mo-
ses Mendelsohn's Morning hours ; (in German,) vol. I.
OF dogmatk: history. 16S
Berlin 1785. (Examination of Mendelsohn's Morning
ho<irs ; (in German,) hy Lud. Hen. JaJwb ; Lips. 1786.)
W. Der^am'tsPhysico-Theology ; German from the Eng-
lish. Hamb. 1764. Ejusd. Astro-Theology ; Hamb.
1765. B ernhar d Nlemoetyt, ConiemphUoDS on the uni-
verse ; (Enghsh from the Latin, ill vol. Bvo.) German
from the Latin, by /. A. Segner; Jena 1747- 4to. Charles
Bonnet, Contemplations of nature ; (English from the
French.) German from the French, by J. Dan. Titius ;
ed. 4. Lips. 1783.
Sec. 169. More recent history of this doctrine.
The spread of a superficial French philosophy, which
would admit nothing for true, beyond the reach of the
senses ; appeared to be even more dangerous to religious
faith, than the artful scepticism, with which David Hume
assailed it. Yet the last occasioned Immanuel Kant, to
subject the whole subject of our knowledge of supersen-
sible objects to a severer criticism ; the result of which
was, that he pronounced all theoretical proof of the be-
ing of God, inadequate ; and allowed the practical evi-
dence, to be the only valid evidence. Respecting this
decision of Kant, the suspicion was early expressed, that
it led, or might lead, to atheism ; and the utterance of
this suspicion became still louder, when G, Fichte would
not admit a moral government of the world, and deni-
ed the existence and substance of God. The recent
philosophy of Schelling, extols pantheism, though with
some modifications, as the summit of all divine wisdom,
and looks down with pity, on all who think otherwise.
Notices, Systeme de la nature, ou des loix du monde phy-
sique et du monde moral; par. M. Mirahaud; a Lon-
dres 1770. U vol. 8vo. also in German, 1783. (Obser-
vations sur le livre intitule ; Systeme de la nature, "&c.
par. M.Jean deCastillon; Berlin 1771. Reflexions
philosophiques sur le Systeme &c. par M. Holland; a
Neufchatel. ed. 2. 1773.) David Hume, Dialogues con-
cerning natural religion; Lond. 1779. in German, with
a Dialogue on Atheism, by Em, Plainer j Lips, 178K
14*
154
8vo. Immanuel Kant, Critique on pure reason ; (in Ger-
man,) ed. S.Riga 1790. E;«.sd. Critique on the judg-
ing power; (in German,) Berlin 1793. Ejusd. Religion
within the boundaries of mere reason ; (m German,)
ed. 2. Konigsb. 1794. G. Ch. Sforr's Remarks on the
religious doctrines of Kant ; a German translation by
Silskind ; Tub. 1794. (^Sckulze'* s) Some remarks on
Kant's philosophichal religious doctrines ; (in German.)
Kiel. 1795. 'J'heological contributions; (in German,)
by J. Ch, Rud. Eckermann; vol. III. P. HI. and vol. IV.
(C F. StdudUn,) Prolusio, qua auctor ipse Philosophiae
criticae a suspicione Atheismi vindicatur; Gott. 1799.
4to. On the ground of our belief of a divine government
of the world ; by Flchte ; and Developement of the idea
of religi :)n ; by Forberg ; (both in German,) and both in
Fichte's and Niethammer's Philosoph. Journal. A.*D.
1799. vol. IF. p. 249 &c. Fr, W. I. Schclling's Bruno ;
or on the divine, and the natural, first principle of things;
(in German,") Berl. 1802. Ejusd. Philosophy and reli-
gion; (in German,) Tub. 1B04. i^J/i/^d. Philosophical
writings ; (Germ.) vol. I. l.andslmt 1809. p. 399 — 611.
Fr, Henr, Jacobi, On divine things, and the revelation of
them ; (in German,) Lips. 1811. 8vo. Fr. TF. J. Schcl-
lingt Monument of the Scripture concerning divine things,
&,c (in German,) Tubing. 1812. 8vo. — Against Schel-
ling : Fr, Gottl, Silskind, Examination of Sclielling's doc-
trine, concerning God, creation of the world, freedom,
moral good and evil ; (in German,) Tubing. 1812. 8vo.
The more ancient proofs of the being of God, were
also brought forward again, in this period ; in the follow-
ing works :
(L. von Crell,) Pyrrho and Philalethes ; or, does Scepti-
cism lead to truth and calm decision ? (in German, edited
by Reinhard ; ed. 3. Sulzbach 1813. 8vo. J. F. AbeVs
Detailed statement respecting the evidence of the being:
of God; (in German,) Heilbron 1817. 8vo. J.F.Dah-
lenhurg^ Philosophy and rehsion of nature ; (in German,)
Berlin 1797-98. HI. Vol. 8vo.
Sec. 170. Doctrine of Providence, -
The opposers of religion have always appealed to the
OP DOGMATIC HISTORY. 165
existence of evil and misery in the world, as a ground
for questioning the wisdom, goodness, hoHness, and rec-
titude of the government of the world. These doubts,
the acute Pete?- Bayle strengthened, and declared to be
not solvable by reason ; and he found himself not satisfied
with the arguments for the contrary, adduced by Jaque-
lot, William King, and John le Clerc. Hence Godfrey
Wm, von Leibnitz was induced to write his Theodicee ;
which was received with peculiar satisfaction, and used
abundantly by the theologians and philosophers of the
Wolfian school. The later investigations on this subject,
appear to aim less at justifying the existence of evil in
the world, than at denying the fact that evil exists. At
length Kant endeavored to show, that no attempt to
evince the justice of God in the adiuission of evil, could
succeed.
Notices. P. Bayle^ Dictionaire historique critique ; Art.
Paulliciens, Manicheens. Reponse aux questions d'un
Provincial. Jean le Clerc^ Defense de la Providence,
contre les Manicheens ; in his Parrhesiana ; T. I. p. 303.
Wm, King, Deorigine mali ; Dubl. 1702. Bremae 1704.
also in English, about 1730. Is, Jaqvelot, Conformitd
de la foi avec la raison ; Arnst. 1705. 12mo. Essais de
Theodicee sur la bonte de Dieu, la liberte de Thomrne, et
Torigine du mal; par ilf. Leibnitz ;Amst. 1710.8vo. 1734.
II vol, ovo. in German, by Gottsciied, 1744. 8vo. Ge.
Bernh. BiJfinger, de oiigine et permissione mali ; Tub
1724. On the Origin and design of evil ; (in German, by
Villaume,) Lips. 1784-87. Ill Vol. Adam Weishaupi,
Apology for disagreeables and evils ; (in German,)
Francf. and Lips. 1790. II vol. J. G, C. Werdermann,
New attempt of a Theodicee ; (in German,) Lips. 1784.
III vol. Essay of a history of opinions respecting fate
and human freedom ; Lips. 1793. On the permission of
evil ; in (Junge's) Philosoph. and theological papers ;
Vol. I. p. 35 —152, On the failure of all philosophical
attempts in Theodicee ; (in German,) hy Imm, Kant; in
his Miscell. writings, vol. III. p.* 145 &c.
156 muenscher's elements
Sec. 171. Immortality of the soul.
History, Essay of a historical and critical survey of the
doctrines and opinions of our principal modern piiiloso-
phers, concerning the immortality of the soul ; (in Ger-
man,) Lips. 1796. 8vo.
In opposition to the materialism, which Hobbes and
others set up, des Cartes conceived more distinctly the
idea, that the soul was a simple and purely spiritual sub-
stance. John Locke, had let drop the thought, that God
was able, to impart the power of thinking, to a material
body. This thought was eagerly seized, by some Eng-
lish and French writers, in order to declare man a mere
machine, who at death would be completely destroyed.
Julius Offrey de la Mettrie advanced these views, the
most boldly. The Wolfian philosophy furnished argu-
ments, both for the immateriality and immortality of the
soul ; but the Kantean philosophy, left the first problema-
tical, and rested the last solely on moral grounds. Also
the doctrine of immortality, in a comfortless form, as a
protracted existence, without consciousness and person-
ality ; met with friends and advocates.
Notices. La Mettrie, L'homme machine; a Leiden 1748.
12mo. L'homme plante ; a Potsdam 1748. 12mo. Jo,
Gust. Rcinbeck, Philosophical thoughts on the rational
soul and its immortality; (in German,) Berlin 1739.
GottL Is. Canz, Convincing proof of the immoitality of
the sou! ; (in Germ.) Tub. 1744. [Geo. Fred. Meiers,
Thoughts on the state of the soul afler death ; (in Geim.)
Halle 1746. 8vo.) Mos. Mendelsohn' sV\mii(\on ; (Ger-
man,) ed. 4. Berl. 1776. (C. Spazier, Antiphaedon, or
examination of some principal arguments for the simpli-
city and immoitality of the soul ; (German,) Lips. 1785.)
Ahr. Gotth. Kastner, Elucidation of an argument for the
immortality of the soul ; (German,) Gotting. 1767.
Isaac von Pinto, Pith of the argument against the mate-
rialists ; with notes by J. C. E. Miimler ; (in German,)
Helmst. 1778. Joh. Fred. Hdseler^ Julius, or, on the
immortality of the soul ; (in Germ.) ed. 2. Brunsw. 1794..
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 15*T
L. H. JaJcohf Evidence of immortality, from the idea of
duty ^ (German,) ed. 2. Ziillich. 1794. (Examination
of the proof proposed by Professor Jacob ; (in German.)
Lips. 1793.) Elpizon, or, on my continuing to be, after
death; (in German; by C. F. Slntenis ;) ed. 2. Lips.
1804-5. Ill vol. 8vo. Euthanasia; three dialogues on
the life after death ; (in German,) by C. M. Wieland^
Lips. 1805. 8vo.
Sec. 172. Belief in Revelation,
After Ludovicus Vives and Philip de Mornay, Hugo
Grotius holds a distinguished place, among the defend-
ers of christianity(A). The distinction between natural
and revealed religion, was contested by the Socinians ;
who maintained, that all religious doctrines must be com-
prehensible, by reason, but that all become known to us,
only by revelation. In these principles, they were fol-
lowed by Gruner and Basedow. The earlier theologians
placed the use of reason very low ; and in this, they were
preceded by Lutherh severe opinion. On the contrary,
the English deists(B) took opposite ground; exalted the
value of the religion of reason, and thence inferred, either
that Christianity was not needed, and w^as superfluous; or
that, being contrary to reason, it was to be rejected. To
meet these arguments(C), the English apologists asserted
the coincidence of the christian doctrines with the re-
ligion of reason ; and thence inferred the truth of the for-
mer. Others, however, chose to found this truth, on the
weakness and insufficiency of reason. Leibnitz endea-
vored to defend the coincidence of faith and reason,
against BayWs objections ; and in accordance with the
Wolfian principles, the necessity of a revelation, and the
marks of a real one, were unfolded. Some theologians,
however, treading in Vernefs steps, avowed only the
desirableness and usefulness of a revelation. In con-
futation of the Jews and the Mohammedans, numerous
pieces were written ; among which, only Limhorchh Con-
ference with Orobio, deserves to be noticed(D). For a
controversy with Pagans, occasion did not occur ; yet
158 MnENSCHER's ELEMENTS
learned inquiries respecting their religion, were under-
taken(E).
Notices. A. Jo. Franc. Pici MirandulL Examen vanitatis
doctrinae gentium et veritatis christianae disciplinae, Lib.
VI; Mirand. 1520. J, Lud. Vives, de veritate fidei
christianae, Libri V ; Basil 1544. 8vo. and in his 0pp.
Basil 1555. T. II. p. 284 &c. Philippi Mornaei, de
veritate religionis Christ. Liber ; Antw. 1580. Hvgonis
Grotii, de veritate rehgionis christ. Libri IV ; Paris 1640.
et ahbi ; exed. Koecheri, Halae 1734. II. vol. 8vo.
B. Edwardi Herbert de Cherbvry, de veritate prout distin-
guitur a revelatione, a verisimili, a possibili et falso ;
Lond. 1645, {Charles Blount,) Religio Laici ; 1683.
Oracles of reason ; 1693. John Toland, Christianity
not mysterious ; Lond. 1696. Adeisidaemon ; s. Titus
Livius a superstitione vindicatus; Hagae Com. 1709.
Nazarenus ; Lond. 1718. Patheisticon Cosmop. 1720.
Matthew Tindal, Christianity as old as the creation ;
Lond. 1733. and German, with Jac. JPo^^er'^ Confuta-
tion ; Francf. 1741. II vol. 8vo. The moral philoso-
pher; hy Thomas Morgan ; Lond. 1737-40. Ill vol.8vo.
Christianity not founded on argument, and the true prin-
ciple of the gospel evidence assigned ; Lond. 1742.
TAoTmi* CAi/ftft, Posthumous works ; Lond. 1748. The
philosophical works of Henry St. John, Lord Viscount
Bolinghroke ; Lond. 1754. V vol. 4to. John Lelandy
View of the principal deistic writers; (in German,) Ha-
nov. 1755-56. Ill vol. La vie de Mahomed ; par Henri
de Boulainvilliers ; A Londres 1730. Letters sur la re-
ligion essenlielle a I'homme distingu^e de ce, qui n'en
qu'accessoire; {pv.r 31arie Huber ;) Amst. 1738. II vol.
Svo. 3Iarie Arouet de Voltaire, L'evangile du jour; la
philosophic de I'histoire ; dictionare pjjilosophique porta-
tif, &c. in his Works; Gotha 1784. LXXF vol. The
Encyclopaedists &c.
C Ja. Abbadie, Traite de la verity de la religion chre-
tienne ; Roterod. 1692. II vol. 8vo. a la Haye 1763. Ill
vol. 8vo. and in English, I vol. 12mo. J. Locke, The
reasonableness of Christianity; Lon. 1693, 1703. French;
Amst. 1731. II vol. 8vo. A defense of revealed religion;
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY, 159
by J. Conyheare; Lond. 1732. and German; Berlin
1759. The strength and weakness of human reason ; by
Isaac Watts; Lond. 1736, and German; ed. 2. Halle
1755. The advantages and necessity of the christian re-
ligion, shown from the state of religion in the ancient hea-
heathen world; by John Leland ; Lond. 1764. II voL
4to. and in German, abridged, vol. 1. Gotha 1769. 8vo,
Eusebius ; or, the true Christian's defense ; by /. Chap-
man ; Lond. 1739. II. vol, 8vo. and German; by Stef-
fens; Hamb. 1759.11vol. 8vo. George Benson^ Rea-
sonableness of the christian religion ; Lond, 1743. and
German; by /. Pet. Bamberger', Halle 1763. The
analogy of rehgion natural and revealed, to the constitu-
tion and course of nature; by Joseph Butler; ed 4»
Lond. 1750. and German ; ed. 2. Tub. 1779. 8vo. A
view of the internal evidences of the Christian religion ;
by Soame Jenyns ; Lond. 1776. German ; by Vollhroth\
Gott. 1776. 8vo. A view of the evidences of Christian-
ity, in three Parts ; hy William Paley; Lond. 1795. II
vol. 8vo. and German ; Lips. 1797. 11 vol. 8vo.
Blaise Pascal, Pensees sur la religion ; Paris 1669.
12mo. Petri Dan. Huetii, Demonstratio evangelica ;
Paris 1690. Fol. Amst. 1694. 4to. Ejusd. Quaestiones
Alnetanae de concordia rationis et fidei — cum ejusdem
Commentariisde rebus ad eum pertinentibus ; Lips. 17 19.
4to. Traite de la verite de la religion chretienne tire en
partie du Latin de M. Jean Alfonse Turretin; par Jaques
Vernet, a Geneve 1730-46. Vll vol. 8vo. La religion
chretienne prouvee par des faits par I'Abbe Houiteville ;
a Amst. 1743. IV. vol. 12mo. Lettres de quelques Juifs
Portiigflis et Allemands a M. de Voltaire ; (par Ant,
Guen^e;) Paris 1769. and German ; 1773. also English.
Ahrecht von Haller, Letters on some objections of certain
living Free-thinkers, against revelation ; (in German,) ed.
2. Bern 1778. llf. vol. 8vo. Genie du christianisme, ou
beautes de la religion chretienne ; par Francois Auguste
Chateaubriand; Paris 1802. V vol.
D. Tela ignea Satanae ; — in lucem protrusit Jo, Ch. Wa-
genseilius; Altorfi 1681. 4to. PhiUppi a Limborch, de
veritate religionis christianae arnica collatio cum erudito
Judaeo ; Goudae 1687. Basil 1740. 8vo.
160 muenscher's elements
E. Edwardde Cherhury, de religione gentilium errorumque
apnd eoscausis ; Amst.1708. 8vo. GerhardiJo, Vossii,
de theoloiria gentili et phisiloiogia christiaiia, Libri IX.
ed. 3. Francf. ad Moen. 1G75. 4to. Tohiae Pfanneri,
Systerna Iheologiae gentilis purioris; Basil 1679.
Sec. 173. Most recent history of belief in revelation.
The infidelity propagated from England and France
into Germany, called forth many writings in confirmation
of the truth and divine origin of Christianity. The
Wolfenbuttle Fragments^ and the controversies re-
specting them, appear to have had a decided in-
fluence in shaping men's viev^s of the nature of re-
velation. For, from this time onward, it became
more manifest, that most theologians either wrapt up the
idea of a revelation in equivocal obscurity, or had recourse
to a distinction between mediate and immediate revela-
tion. The Kantean philosophy was applied, in various
ways, in order to sustain faith and a revelation ; but with
as little success, as may be expected to attend the more
recent attempts, to trace all religion back to a divine re-
velation. The Tubingen school, however, stands alone,
in holding fast the old and pure idea of revelation, unal-
tered.
Notices, Goith. Ephr. Lessing'^s Contributions to historT
and literature, derived from tlie treasures in the library at
Wolfenbuttle ; (in German,) 3d and 4lh Contribiit. 1777.
On the aim of Jesus and his disciples; (in Germ.) 1778.
The remaining and unprinted works of the Wolfenbuttle
Fragmentists; (inGerman,) published by Schmid (Andr.
Riem.) 1787. J. Gottl. Flchte, Criticism on all Reve-
lations; (in German,) ed. 2. Konigsb. 1793. Critical
theory of revelation ; (inGerman.) Halle 1793. Imm.
Fred. Niethammers Essay to establ sh a rational belief of
revelation ; (in German.) Lips, 1798 &c.
C.L. Nietzsch, de revelatione religionis externa eaque pub-
lica; Lips. 1808. 8vo.
F. Steudel, On the tenableness of faith in a historical reve-
lation from God ; (in German,) Stutg. 18l4.8vo.
OF DOGMATIC liISTORT. 161
Recent Apologies: Theod. Ck, Lilienthal, Revelation a good
thingj proved and vindicated against the enemies of it ;
(in German,) Konigsb. 1750-78. XVI vol.8 vo. Charles
Bonnet's philosophical examination of the evidences of
Christianity ; (in German,) translated, and notes added,
by /: C. Lavater, Zurich 1769. Aug. Fred. W, Sack,
The faith of a christian vindicated ; (la German,) Berlin
1773. VIII Parts. J. A. Noesselt, Defense of the truth
and divinity of the christian religion ; (in German,) ed,5.
Halle 1783. 8vo. G. G. Less, On the christian religion,
its history, choice and confirmation ; (in German,) ed. 2.
Getting. 1786. K vol. 8vo. also in English. J. Fred.
Kleucker^s New examination and elucidation of the prin-
cipal arguments for the truth and divinity of Christianity ;
(in German,) Halle 1787-94. HI vol. The truth and
divinity of Christianity briefly stated ; (in German,) Hanib.
1803. 8vo. J. S. Franke, Attempt of an Apology for the
christian religion ; (in German,) Altona 1817. 8vo.
Sec. 174. Miracles and prophecies.
Miracles were ever viewed, as one principal evidence
of Christianity ; and it therefore excited great attention,
when Thomas Woolston (d. 1733) attempted to explain
the miracles of Christ allegorically. Concerning the ob-
ject and the idea of a miracle, two eminent philosophers,
Isaac JYewton and Leibnitz, entertained different views }
yet both admitted the possibility of miracles. On the con-
trary, the Scotchman, David Hume, and the Genevan
citizen, John James Rousseau, came forth subtle opposers
of miracles. After the Englishman, Conyers Mid-
diet on, had confined miracles to the apostolic age, J. Cas-
per Lavater maintained the uninterrupted continuance
of miraculous powers in the christian church. In the
most recent times, the voice of those who reject miracles,
generally, has been raised both often and loud. Many
theologians have attempted to explain the miracles, on
natural principles ; others, following Spinoza and Locke,
define a miracle, so indistinctly, and with such latitude,
tliat a miracle may easily be conceived of, but would be
an insignificant thing. The question has also been dis-
16
162
cussed, whether Jesus aimed to establish his doctrine, by-
miracles; and, whether miracles can be made to prove
any doctrine whatever. Among all miracles, that of the
resurrection of Jesus, has been most dwelt upon, and
vindicated against the objections of opposers. — The proof
from the prophecies of the Old Testament, was treated
as holding a high rank, till the time that Anthony Collins
assailed it. Notwithstanding various answers to him
were published, this argument has been more and more
laid aside; especially, in consequence of the estimation,
which the new theology puts on the predictions concern-
ing the Messiah. In general, it has become more com-
mon, since the time of J, S. Semler, to rest the truth of
Christianity, upon the internal, rather than the external
evidences ; — yet J. Fr, Kleuker and others, have de-
clared against this.
Notices. Bernard Connor, Evangelium medici ; Lend.
J 697. — Thomas Woolston, Six discourses on the mira-
cles of our Saviour ; Lond. 1727-29. — Conyers Middle-
ton, Free enquiry into the miraculous powers ; Lond.
1749. (in German,) with critical remarks, by C JG. von
Windheim ; Hanov. 1751. — A vindication of the Free
enquiry; Lond. 1751. — Dan. Hume, Essay on miracles ;
Lond. 1764. — (Dissertation concerning miracles ; by
George Campbell; — also in French, by J. de Castillon ;
1765.) — J. J. Rousseau^heiive de la montagne, &c.
Amst. 1764. — (Remarks on the miracles c^fihe Gospel,
in answer to the objections which J. J. Rousseau has
raised against them ; Gorman, from the French, of M,
Claparede ; Francf 1774.) — Free remarks on the doc-
trines of miracles and a revelation, in Letters to a friend ;
(German,) 1792. — Review of the decision respecting
miracles and a revelation ; (in German,) by Sam. Rifter ;
in Henke's New Magazine, vol. I. p. 206. — Apology for
faith in miracles and revelation ; (in German,) by Hiiner-
wadel ; in Flatt's Magazine for christian dogmatics and
morals, Pt. VIIL p. 140 &c.— Jo. Ch, Eck^'^An attempt
to explain the history of the N. Test, miracles, from natu-
ral causes; (in German,) Berlin 1795. — Geo. Laur,
Bauery Hebrew mythology of the Old and New Test, (in
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 163
Germ.) Lips. 1802-03. II vol. 8 vo.— Would Jesus have
miracles and signs, to be considered as proofs of his divine
mission ; (German,) in Eckermann' s theol. Contribu-
tions, vol. V. P. II. — Did Jesus declare his mil acles, to be
a proof of his divine mission ; (German,) by Stoir ; in
Flatt's magazine. Pt. IV.
J. F, C, Grdffe, Philosophical defence of the miracles of
Christ and his Apostles ; (Germ.) Gott. 1812. 8vo,
Muzel, On belief in the miracles stated in theN. Test. (Ger-
man,) Elberf. 1815. 8vo.
Reinhold: in Schuderof's new Journal &c. (German,) vol.
II. P. 2.
Humphrey Diiton, The truth of the christian religion de-
monstrated, from the resurrection of Jesus Christ ; Ger-
man from the English. Brunsw. 1749. — Gilbert West,
Remarks on the resurrection of Jesus ; German from the
Engl. Berlin, 1748. — William Sherlock, Trial of the wit-
nesses of Christ's resurrection : German from the Eng-
lish. Lips. 1751. — G, Less, History of the resurrection
of Jesus ; (German,) Gott. 1779. — J. B. Michaelis, Ex-
planation of the history of Christ's burial and resurrec-
tion ; (in German,) Halle 1783. — The fifth fragment,
from G. E. Lessing's fourth Contribution to history and
literature ; with notes by J, D. Michaelis; (Germ.) Halle
1785. — (J. C. Doederleiii's) Fragments and antifrag-
ments ; (German,) new ed. Nurnb. 1788, II vol. — J.
Fred. Plessing^s History of the resurrection of Christ,
reconsidered; (German,) Halle 1788.
Anthony Collins, Discourse on the grounds and reasons of
the christian religion ; Lond. 1724. — Defence of Christi-
anity from the prophecies of the O. Test, by Edicard
Chandler ; Lond. 1725. 8vo. — An essay on the truth of
the christian religion, wherein its real foundation upon
the O. Test, is shown ; by Arthur Ashley Sykes; Lond.
17^5. — The use and intent of prophecy, in the several
ages of the church ; by Tho. Sherlock; Lond. 1725. 8vo.
and German ; by Fr. Eberh. Rambach, Lemgo 1749,
8vo. — Eckermann's Theolog. Contributions ; (Germ.)
vol. I and II. — G, Fr. Seiler, Prophecy and its fulfilment 5
(German,) 1794. 8vo.
164 muenscher's elements
W. C. L, Ziegler's Conclusion, that the evidence of the
truth and divinity of the christian religion, is to be deri-
ved rather from the internal excellence of its instructions,
than from miracles and prophecies ; (German,) in
Henke's Magazine, vol. I. P. I.
Sec. 175. Views concerning the Holy Scriptures.
That the holy Scriptures were divine, and contained
divine instruction, was admitted unanimously, by all
christians. In respect to tlie Canon, the Protestants
differed from the Catholics, by discarding as Apocryphal
the books of the Old Testament found only in Greek and
Latin, which the Council of Trent again adjudged to be
canonical. In regard to the Canon of the New Testa-
ment, the Protestants followed, for the most part, the old
views ; yet some, among whom was Luther, allowed
themselves in very free remarks respecting several books
accounted canonical. The divine inspiration of the Bi- -
ble, was admitted as certain ; and yet the nature of in- |
spiration was never determined by the church. Hence
the Protestant and Catholic theologians fluctuated be-
tween more strict and more lax views, between an inspi-
ration of both the words and the matter, and an inspira-
tion of the matter only. Yet the former idea was the
prevailing one, among the Protestants ; and especially, as
it seemed to promise them some advantages in their
contests with the Catholics ; — but George Calixtus and
others departed from it. On the contrary the Socinians,
and likewise the Arminians, limited inspiration to a much
narrower compass. Richard Simon, on account of his
critical investigations, was considered by most theologi-
ans, as hostile to the holy Scriptures ; and yet he did not
advance ideas so uncommon, respecting inspiration, as
Benedict Spinoza, and one of Simon's opposers, John le
Clerc, brought forward. In Holland it was debated,
whether the divinity of the holy Scriptures, could be
proved from reason alone.
Notices, Acgidii Hunnil, Tractatus de sacrosancta majes-
tate, fide et certitudine Sacr. Script. Francf. 1694. 6vo,
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 165
— Henr. Bullingeri, de Script, sacrae auctoritate, certi-
tudine, firmitate, et absoluta perfectione, Libri II ; Tiguri
1538. — Sam. Bockarti, Epislola ad Tapinum, qua Scr.
sacr. divinitas demontratur ; — in his 0pp. T. I. p. 923.—
Ben. Spinozae, Tractatus theologicus ; Hamb. (Amst.)
1670. 4to. — Histoire critique du vieux Testament ; par
R. Simon; a Roterod. 1685. Sentimens de quelques
theologiens de Hollande sur 1' Histoire critique du vieux
Testam. (par J. le Clerc) ; Amst. 1685. 12mo. in Ger-
man ; Zurich 1779, il vol. 8vo. — Reponse au livre inti-
tule : Sentimens &c. par le Prieur de Bollemlle (R. Si-
mon) ; Roterod. 1686. 4to. — Defense des sentimens de
quelques theologiens; Amst. 1686. 12mo. — Del' inspi-
ration des livres sacres ; par le Prieur de Bolleville ; Ro-
terod. 1699. 4to. — Jo. Hen. Mail, Dissertt. IV. de Scrip-
tura sacra; Francf. 1708. 4to.
Sec. 176. Recent views in Germany.
In Germany, about the middle of the eighteenth centu-
ry, the criticism of the Bible had made considerable ad-
vances, when investigations were renewed, respecting its
Canon. John Sol, Semler commenced them, and also as-
sailed the common ideas of inspiration; by which he
would understand, the practical effect of the biblical doc-
trines. With more calmness and distinctness, John
Gottlieb Toellner endeavored to explain the nature of
inspiration, and to establish the different gradations of it.
The consequences of these investigations were, that the
more recent theologians distinguished, more accurately,
the christian doctrine (the word of God) from the Bible ;
that they considered the latter, not so much as one entire
revealed record, as a collection of writings, in which
every man must perceive the peculiar characteristics and
modes of thinking of the respective writers ; that they
endeavored, by means of the higher criticism, to ascer-
tain the origin and compilation of the scriptures ; and
that they considered them, as containing (fxu^ou^) fic-
tions or allegories. The most recent theology, on the
part of Semler and Steinhart, seems visibly inclined, to
undervalue the Old Testament; and likewise to feel,
15*
166 muenscher's elements
that the application of the higher criticism, unless guided
by fixed principles, will easily degenerate into a capri-
cious play with mere possibilities.
Notices. Jo. Sol. Semler, Treatise on a freer investigation
of the Canon; (in German,) Halle 1771-75. IV vol.
8vo. — Chr. Fred. Schmidii, Historia antiqua et vindica-
tio canonis Vet. et Nov. Test. Lips. 1775. 8vo. — Ac-
count of the latest controversies respecting the Canon ;— +-
in the most recent history of religion ; (in German,) pub-
lished by CL Fr. W. Walch; vol. VII. p. 241-344.—
The divine inspiration of the holy Scripture ; (in Ger-
man,) by Jo. Gottl. loellner; Mietau and Lips. 1772. —
Jo. KiddeVs Treatise on the inspiration of the holy Scr.
with many free remarks added hy Jo. S. Semler ; Halle
1783. — The VVolfenbuttle Fragments, and the controver-
sy respecting them, between Lessing and J. M. Goetze;
(in German). — J. Jac, Grieshacli,) Stricturarum in lo-
cum de theopneustia libror. sacrorum. Partes I — V ;
Jenae 1784-88, Henr. Gottl. Paulus, An primitivi
christian! inspirationem quam vocant et infallibilitatem
pro synonymis habere soliti sint ; Jenae 1802. rec. in J.
D. Pott, Sylloge commentatt. theol. vol. HI.— (?. F. N.
Sonntagy Doctrina inspirationis, ej usque ratio, historia, et
usus popularis ; Heidelb. 18lO. 8vo.
CHAPTER II.
BIVERSE VIEWS AND EXPLANATIONS OF THE CHRISTIAN
DOCTRINES.
Sec. 177. Various first principles of Christianity.
The representation given of the christian doctrine,
must necessarily be very different, according to the
sources from which men derive it, and the manner in
which they deduce it. The protestant churches set up
the rule, diat the substance of Christianity must be learn-
ed, directly from the holy scripture. In opposition to
or DOGMATIC HISTORY. 167
the Catholics, they therefore rejected the use of tradition,
as a guide in explaining the bible, and as one of the pro-
per sources of religious knowledge ; and they urged,
that the perusal of the bible, should be left free to all
christians, without distinction. They moreover rejected
the opinion, of certain sects and persons called fanatics,
that men must be guided by an internal light, in order to
have a knowledge of religion, and a right understanding
of the bible. And lastly, they rejected the principle of
the Socinians, that the doctrines of Christianity must be
admitted always, in the sense, in which reason can com-
prehend them ; and that, therefore, no real mystery can
have place in it. The modern theology of the rational-
ists, holds to the principle, that the christian doctrine is
to be derived from the bible ; but it recognizes in Christ-
ianity, nothing but natural religion ; and reconciles the
contradictions of these two principles, by adopting moral
interpretations of the bible, after the manner of Kant ; or
by applying the theory of doctrinal accommodation to
the christian instructions ; or lastly, by recurrence to the
idea, that Christianity is a perfectable religion.
Notices. Des traditions et de la perfection de V ecriture
sainte; par Pierre du Moulin; a Sedan 1631. 8vo. —
Ch Matth. Pfaffii, Diss, de traditionum non scriptanmi
speciebus, vaiore, certitudine ; Tub. 1720. 4to. — PhiL
Marheineke, On the true sense of Tradition, in the Cath-
olic theology ; (German,) in Daub and Creuzer^s Studi-
en, vol. IV. P. II. p. 320 ^Lc—Ejusd. System of the
Catholic religion ; (in German,) vol. II. p. 184 &c. es-
pecially p. 199 &c. — Gust. Ge. Zeltneri, Breviarium
controversiarum cum enthusiastis et fanaticis adhuc 2l%\-
tatarum ; Lips. 1724. 8vo. — Jo. Musaei, de usu princi-
piorum rationis et philosophiae in controversiis theologi-
cis; Jen. 1644. 8vo. — On reason and its use ; (German,)
in (Junge's) Philos. undtheologischen Aufsatzen ; Numb,
und Altd. 1779. P. I. p. 1-72.— Observationes ad mo-
ralem sive practicam librorum sacror. interpretationem
pertinentes ; scripsit (pikcikrihYig Epi^aivwv (C/e. W. He-
hensfreit,) Lips. 1796. 8vo. — Paul von Hemert, On ac-
168 muenschkr's elements
commodationsin the New Test. German from the Dutch ;
Dortm. and Lips. 1797. — W. A, Tellers Religion of
the more advanced ; (in German,) Berl. 1792. — \Krug)
Letters on the perfectibility of revealed religion ; (in
German,) Jena 1795. 8vo. — Programma paschale : Ex-
ponuntur quaedam de fundamento theologiae recentioris,
ejusque cum doctrina Christiana consensu ; P. L Gott.
1812. 4to.
Sec, 178. Opinions concerning the importance of reli-
gious doctrines.
The violent ferment of feeling, which existed among
the theologians of the sixteenth century, led each sect to
attach the highest importance to the doctrinal principles
it maintained. The Council of Trent laid all dissentients
under an anathema ; and the authors of the Formula of
Concord, and the theologians of Dort, did not hesitate to
condemn their opposers. The discrimination of funda-
mental doctrines (articuli fundamentales), was developed,
in the controversy between the Lutherans and the Re-
formed churches, and also in those between the Remon-
strants and the Contra-remonstrants : the number of such
doctrines was greatly enlarged, and the reception of them
considered necessary to salvation. Those who enter-
tained more moderate views, — as the Arminians, George
Calixius, and various English divines, were denominated
Indifferentists, Syncretists, and Latitudinarians, The
later modifications of theology, have been accompanied
with milder decisions, respecting the pagans, and those
of a different belief. To the differences between the two
Protestant confessions, less and less importance has been
attached ; the idea of fundamental articles has been re-
viewed, and modified variously, and the number of such
articles greatly diminished. The close adherence to the
symbolical books, which was once required from every
protestant divine, was first softened by Spener, and since
the middle of the eighteenth century, has been visibly on
the decline. The obligatory nature of these writings,
was disputed by Germanus Liidke, Busching and others y
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 169
and subsequently, the religious edict of the Prusian
government, A. D. 1788, brought this subject under
warm discussion. Previously to this, many of the Eng-
lish divines had written against the xxxix Articles.
Notices, Nicol. Hunnii, dia(fxt-^ig theologica, de funda-
mental! dissensu doctrinae Lutheranae et Calvinianae ;
Wittemb. 1626. ed. 2. 1663.— C/t. Mat. Pfaffii, Diss, de
fidei christianae articulis fundamentalibus ejusque analo-
gia; Tub. 1718. 4to. — J. A, Eberhard, New apology of
Socrates; (in German,) ed. 2. Berlin 1778. II vol. 8vo.
-—W, Ft. Hvfnagel, Programm. de vera articulorum
fidei finitione; Erlang. 1783. 4to. — J, W, Schmid, On
the christian religion ; (German,) Jena 1797. p. 127
&z,c, — Ckr. G. Kujjfer, Diss, de ratione constituendi ar-
ticulos fundamentales religionis christianae ; Viteb. 1802.
4to.
Account of the commotions and contests respecting the
symbolical books, in Germany ; (German,) in Walch's
Latest history of religion, vol. II. p. 305-382. — Account
of the commotions in England ; (in German,) Ibid. vol.
III. p. 405-302. Vol. IV. p, 491-572.— Examination of
all the writings occasioned by the royal Prusian edict
concerning religion ; (in German,) by Henr, 'Phil.
Henke; Kiel 1793. 8vo.
Sec. 179. Doctrine of the Trinity.
The reformers declared themselves disposed, in no
respect whatever, to depart from the views of the Trinity,
laid down in the ancient Creeds; and they instituted no
new investigations of this doctrine, because they had no
contests about it with the Catholics. But when opposers
of this doctrine rose up, the Protestants supposed, they
should secure themselves against suspicion of being con-
nected with these opposers, by expressing the strongest
abhorrence of them. The execution of Miguel Servcdo
(Michael Servetus) by Calvin^s instigation, which Me-
tanchthon also approved, is proof, to what a fearful height
this hostility had risen. The new sect of Unitarians, set
up by Famto Sozzino (Faustus Socinus), was assailed
170 muenscher's elements
by both Protestants and Catholics ; because it recognized
only one God, the Father ; and accounted Christ a mere
man, though endowed with extraordinary abilities, and
constituted the Governor of the world; and held the
Holy Ghost, to be a mere attribute, or operation of God.
George Calixtus was accused of favoring the Socinians ;
because he denied, that the doctrine of the Trinity could
be proved from the Old Testament, and that it was a
doctrine known to the ancient Jews. After the Socini-
ans were driven from Poland, and had dispersed them-
selves in England and Holland, deviations from the com-
mon faith on this doctrine, became more frequent.
Samuel Crell followed the views of the Socinians, re-
specting the Trinity. William Whist on revived Arian-
ism ; which he supposed he could prove, both from the
bible, and from history. Samuel Clarke searched for a
middle way, between the Arian and the received doc-
trine : but his system of subordination, dexterous as he
was to defend it, gave satisfaction to neither party.
Souverain pronounced the whole doctrine of the Trinity,
to be a corruption of Christianity, derived from the Pla-
tonic philosophy. Against these and other opposers of
the Trinity, arguments were employed, which were de-
rived from the Bible, from philosophy, and from history ;
and in the controversy, some who attempted to explain
the Trinity, fell under the suspicion, either of Tritheism,
as William Sherlock; or of Sabellianism, as Hermann
Deusing^ John Wallis, and John le Clerc ; though the
last of these, afterwards, inclined towards Socinianism.
The peculiar views of Paul Maty, excited more atten-
tion than they merited. During these various contro-
versies, several English divines began to attach less im-
portance to this doctrine, — in which, they were preceded
by the Remonstrants; and the Genevan theologians
were loudly accused, for having abandoned the Creed
once so strenuously defended by John Calvin.
Notices. Mich, Serveti) De Trinitatis erroribus, Libri
VII; X531. 8yo. — Ejusd, Dialogorum de Trinitate Li-
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 171
bh II; 1532. 8vo. — Ejusd. Christianismi restitutio;
1553. 8vo. — Socius, and other works, in the Bibliotheca
Fratr. Polonor. — Geo, Calixti Diss, de rnysterio Trinita-
tis ; an ex solius Vet. Test, libris demonstrari queat ;
Helmst. 1646. — Will, Whiston's Primitive christianty
revived ; Lond. 1711, 12. V vol. 8vo. — Sam. Clarke/The
scripture doctrine of the Trinity; Lond. 1712. in Ger-
man, with a preface, by J, S. Sender ; Francf. and Lips.
1776. Bvo. — {Dan, Waterland's Vindication of Christ's
divinity; Cambr. 1719. 8vo.) — Hermanni Deusingii,
Revelatio mystcrii sacrosanctae Tiiados ; Franeq. 1701.
4to. — Will, Sherlock, Vindication of the doctrine of the
holy Trinity ; Lond. 1690. 4tof — Jo, Wallis^ Epistolae
et Orationes sacrae de Trinitate ; — Liberii de S, Amore
{le Clerc), Epistolae Theologicae ; Irenop. 1679. 8vo. —
Hiptoria critica novae explicationis dogmatis de tribus in
Deo personis, quam vir clariss. Paulus Maty excogita-
vit, (SLc. in J . L. Mosheim's Dissertt. ad hist, eccles. per-
tinent ; vol.11, p. 399 &c.
Sec. 180. Views of the modern German divines.
Various theologians, who followed the principles of the
Wolfian philosophy, attempted to denionstrate the doc-
. trine of the Trinity, or at least to make it conceivable to
reason ; but they did not escape the charge of approxi^
mating to Sabellianism. From the time that Christ,
Toh. Damm openly maintained the Socinian views, in
opposition to the doctrine of the church, a great diversity
in opinion showed itself. /. B. Basedow defended the
Arian doctrine ; but afterwards he went over to the So-
cinians. Some respectable theologians, as G, Schlegel
and Loeffler, gave the preference to the modal concep-
tion of it. The new theories of Urlsperger and Bucerus,
met with no approbation. Although the prize question
by the King of England, respecting the divinity of Christ,
led to no decision of the subject ; yet the doctrine of the
church, has not been without learned defenders, as Ge.
Fr. Seiler, and J. JP. Flatt. Amidst all the dissimilarity
of opinion on this subject, the modern theologians seem
to have become agreed, after the example of Toellmr^
172 muenscher's elements
in ascribing to no one of the different theories, so high im-
portance, as was formerly ascribed to them.
Notices. G. SchlegcVs Renewed consideration of the doc-
trine of the Trinity ; (in German,) Riga 1791-93. Ill
vol. — Ejusd, Sin)plified exhibition of the doctrine of the
Father, Jesus the Son of God, and the Holy Spirit ; (in
German,) Berlin and Stralsund 1796. — Christology, or
Results of the latest exegetical explanations concerning
the divmity of Christ ; (in German,) by Fred. Euchar.
Oertel ; 1792. — (Contrit)utions for answering the ques-
tion, Wiiether fiith in Christ as the supreme God, accords
with scripture ? in sonle remarks on Oertel's Christology;
(^hy Roth; in German;) 1793.) — Joh. Aug. Vrlsper-
ger's Concise system of his statement of the Trinity ; (in
German.) Augsb. 1777. — The mystery of the Trinity in
its dangerous situation. A new idea of the Trinity ; (in
Germ.) by Christ. Fred. Bucerus ; Lips. 1792. — J. S,
Seinlers Preparation for tlie royal Briltish prize question,
respecting the divinity of Christ; (in German.) Halle
1787. Ovo. — G. F. Seiler, On the divinity of Christ ; (in
German,) Lips. 177o. 8vo. — J. Fr. Flatt, Commenta-
tio, in qua symbolica ecclesiae nostiae de deitate Christi
sententia probatur et vindicatur ; Getting. 1788. 8vo. —
Besenheck, On the trinity of God; an attempt to bring
this doctrine back to its biblical simplicity and purity ; (in
German,) 1814. 8vo. — Is the doctrine of the Trinity a
fundamental doctrine of the christian faith / (in German,)
in J. G. Toelhier's Short miscellaneous papers ; vol. 11.
P. L
Sec. 181. Djictrine of c^^eation.
Besides the old question, whether the existence of the
world from eternity, or its creation in time, was to be ad-
mitted ; the account contained in the first chapters of the
book of Genesis, called forth new investigations. Ac-
cording to Astruc's example, divines began to consider the
book of Genesis, as a compilation from the productions
of several writers of an earlier age ; and also to indulge
freer opinions respecting it. At first, attempts were made
to defend the account, as being, at least in part, true his-
OF BOGMAtlC HISTORY. 173
tory ; next, the allegorical, and at last the mythic inter-
pretation, gained tiie ascendency. That from the Mo-
saic account, it is impossible to gather the age of this earth,
and much more that of the created universe, was admit-
ted almost universally. Yet John de Luc, finding this ac-
count to agree with the results of the deepest researches
into nature, would infer that, it must have been commu-
nicated in a revelation from God.
Notices. Critique on the doctrine of creation in the received
theology ; (in German,) by TF. C. L. Ziegler; in Henke's
Magazine, Vol. II. P. I. and Vol. VI. P. ll. {Astruc,)
Conjectures sur les memoires originaiix, dont il paroit,
que Moise s^est servi pour composer le livre de Genese :
a Bruxelles 1753. 8vo.; and German; Francf. 1783.
J. G' RosenmullerU Antiquissima telluris historia ; Ulm
1776 ; and in German, with enlargements ; Niirnb. 1782,
J. G; Herder^ s Most ancient records of the human race ;
(in German,) vol. I. 1790. Gahler's New essay on the
Mosaic history of the creation ; (in German,) 1795. The
most ancient Theodicee, or Explanation of the three first
chapters of (jenesis; (in German,) by W. A. Teller \
Jena 1803. Joh, Esai\ Silberscldag, Geogony ; (in
German,) Berlin 1780-83. Ill vol. 4to. J. deLuCfhet"
tres physiques et morales sur Thistoire de la terre et de
I'homme ; a la Have 1779.11vol. Lettre aux auteurs
Juifs d'un memoire addresse a M. Teller ; par J. de Luc;
Berlin 1799. Moses and David no geologists; (in Ger-
man,) by Dav. Jul. Pott; Berl. 1799.
Sec. 182. Doctrine concerning Angels.
The Protestants rejected the long prevalent opinion^
introduced by the pseudo-DIonysius, of a celestial hierar-
chy, and of a guardian angel assigned to every man ; but
especiallyj the worshipping of angels. The earlier the-
ology often went into inquiries, whether the angels have
bodies, when they were created, and how they became
confirmed in goodness by the Deity. The modern the-
ology, on the contrary, leaves the existence of angels pro-
blematical ; and gives other interpretations to the biblical
16
174 muenscher's elements
narrations of the appearance of angels. The belief in
evil angels, and in their powerful influences, was long
common with Protestants and Catholics ; till Balihasar
Becker, though amidst great contradiction, denied the in-
fluence of evil spirits upon mankind, and Christian Tho-
masius disproved the reality of magic. Following in the
steps of the Englishmen Arthur Ashly Sykes and Hugh
Farmer, J. S. Semler was the first in Germany, who de-
clared the demoniacs of the New^ Testament, to be per-
sons laboring under natural disease. In the controversy
that ensued, most of the divines inclined to the idea, that
the whole doctrine concerning the devil, was merely an
accommodation, derived from Judaism.
Notices, Ciitique on the doctrine of anorels ; (in German,)
in Henkes Magazine, vol. III. P. II. vol. Vi. P. I. Com-
pare the New Mairazine, vol. I. P. III. Balfh. Becker,
The world bewitched ; (in Dutch,) Leuw. 1690. Anist.
1693. 4to. (in German,) by J. M. Schwager ; Lips. 1781.
Ill vol. 8vo. Hugh Farmer^ Essay on the demoniacs ;
(German, from the English,) Berlin 1776. J. S. Semler,
j)iss. de dacmoniacis, quorum in evanireliis fit mentio ;
Halle 1760. 4to. ed. 4. 1779. {G.MdUer's Well ground-
ed narrative of a woman possessed ; (in German) Wit-
lenb. 1759.) Account of John Joseph Gasncr's league
with the devil, and the movements, thence occasoned ;
(in German,") in Watches Most recent history of religion ;
vol. VI. p. 369 iS^c.
Sec. 183. Of the person of Christ.
In regard to the doctrine concerning the person of
Christ, the Catholics, Lutherans, and Reformed, all re-
mained true to the ancient belief, as defined by the de-
crees of Councils ; but the Socinians, in consequence of
their ideas of the Trinity, wholly rejected it. The two
Protestant churches fell into a warm contest, respecting
the connexion of the two natures of Christ. In order to
vindicate his views of the Lord's Supper, Luther threw
out the idea, that the body of Christ, in consequence of
its umon with the divine nature, could be omnipresent
I
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 176
Whether he was led to this conclusion, by some asser-
tions of a sinnilar nature, made by John Charlier Gerson
and James le Fevre d'^ Staples, is uncertain. This hypo-
thesis, which Luther himself seems afterwards to have
given up, was eagerly laid hold of by some of his
zealous followers, and by John Brentius was prescribed
to the Wiirtemburg church. The communication of
divine properties to the human nature of Christ, not-
withstanding the opposition of the Reformed and of
Melanchthon's school, was made an article of faith, by
the Formula of Concord. And in later times, there
has not ceased to be opposition to the doctrine, disa-
greement in the explanation of it, and contests about
its application. In more recent times, contention on
this subject has subsided ; and the collective decisions
of the church, concerning the person of Christ, have
been treated rather historically, than dogmatically.
Notices, Planck, History of the Protestant theology ;
(in German,) A catalogue of the writinors, in Pfaff''»
Historia Literar. T. II. p. 412 &c. 441-— 43.
Sec. 184. Doctrine concerning the first men.
On all the doctrines relating to the nature of man,
sin, grace, redemption, and the divine decrees, the
first reformers aimed to restore the pure tenets of Au-
gustine ; and to divest them of the adulterations and
modifications, introduced by the Schoolmen. The Pro-
testants therefore believed, that God created man af-
ter his own image, which consisted in original right-
eousness ; but that this image was utterly lost, by the
fall. The Socinians, on the contrary, placed the im-
age of God, in dominion over the creatures ; and main-
tained, the continuance of it after the apostasy. Of
late, the high ideas heretofore prevailing, respecting the
perfection of the first human iDcings, have been great-
ly lowered ; and the Mosaic account of the creation,
and of the transgression of the first men, has been re-
176
garded, as either partially or wholly a fignrative repre-
sentation, or as being an ancient fable or fiction.
Notices, Fred, TJlr. Calixti^ Tiactatus theolog. de vario
hominis statu. Helmst. 1695. 4to. (/s. Peyrerii, Prae-
adamitae ; 1655. 8vo.) Fausti Socini, Disput, de statu
primi hominis ante lapsum ; Racov. 1609. 4to. and in
the Biblioth. fratr. Polon. On the perfection of the first
men ; (German,) in (Junge's) Philosoph. and Theolog.
papers, vol. 1. p. 207. On the propagation of the divine
image, and on the apostasy, and its consequences; (in
German,) J hid vol. II. p. 1 and 153. Eichhorn's History
of the creation ; (in German,) published by J, PA. Gab-
Ur, II vol. 8vo. 1792-93. (Hadriani Beverland, Pecca-
tum originale xar' s^op^iiv sic dictum ; Eleutherop. 1678.
8vo. Eden : that is, Contemplations on Paradise, and
the events that transpired there ; (m German,) with a
preface, by C. F. Bahrdt ; Francf. 1772. 8vo.
J. Kant, Supposed commencement of the history of man :
(German ;) in the Berlin Monthly Journal, vol. VII.
P. I.
The allegorical exposition of the three first chapters of Ge-
nesis, and particularly of the apostasy, represented in their
falsehood ; (in German,) by J. Balth Ldderwald; Helmst.
1781.
/. G, Rosenmiluller, Explanation of the history of the apos-
tasy; (German,) in the Repertory for biblical and orient,
literature; vol. V. p. 158 &-c.
The most ancient Theodicc^e ; or explanation of the three
first chapters of the Ante-Mosaic history; (in German,)
by W. A. Teller; Jena 1805. 8vo.
Sec. 185. Hereditary sin.
The doctrine of the Protestant churches respecting he-,
reditary sin, was as strong, as Augustine ever advanced;
for, the milder statements of Zwingle, were not regarded.
It did not indeed deprive men avowedly of liberty ; but
it made them absolutely unfitted to perform any thing
morally good, and deserving of damnation. It was de-
cided, however, in the Formula of Concord, in opposi-*
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 177
tion to Matthias Flacius, that hereditary sin is not a part
of the substance of man. The Council of Trent, on ac-
count of the prevailing differences in the bosom of the Catho-
lic church, did not venture to establish a definition of he-
reditary sin ; so that dillerent explanations of it, continued
to be given ; for the Dominicans and Augustinians held
more closely with Augustine and Thomas Aquinas, while
the Franciscans and Jesuits departed farther from them.
The Socinians rejected hereditary sin, altogether : and
the Arminians would not allow of a connate desert of
punishment, and an unfitness for what is good. Attempts
were made, in the Protestant churches, to render the im-
putation of Adam's sin more comprehensible. Joshua
de la Place rejected the immediate imputation of it 5 but
his idea was not embraced, by his own church, or that of
Switzerland. At last, several voices were raised in Eng-
land, against hereditary sin ; as those of John Locke^
Thomas Burnet, and John Taylor, Daniel Whitby
would derive the universal prevalence of sin, from man's
mortality ; which Adam's transgression had brought
upon all his posterity. In Germany, the foundation for
a change of sentiments, was laid by the Leibnitzian-
Wolfian philosophy ; and subsequently, Toellner and
Eberhard directly assailed the doctrine of hereditary
sin, and its imputation : and notwithstanding Seiler, and
others, advocated the other side ; it became more and
more common, to trace the sinfulness of mankind, not
from the apostasy of Adam, but as Jerusalem does,
from the influence of the senses. Even those theolo-
gians, who, like Reinhard and Storr, continue to main-^
tain the existence of hereditary sin, have abandoned
the old doctrine of the church, in some very impor-
tant particulars. The Kantean hypothesis, of a radi-
cal evil in human nature, continued no longer, than the
charm of its novelty endured : yet it has contributed
to establish the principle, that every sin originates from
a man's own fault.
Notices. Jos, Placaeir Theses de statu hominis lapsi ante
16*
178
gratiam; Salm. 1640. Ejusd. Disp. de imputatione
primi peccati Adami ; 1655. Dan. Whithhy, Tracta-
lus de imputatione divina pecati Adaini posteris ejus
in reatum ; Lond. 1711. and revised by J. S. Sem-
ler; Plalae 1775. 8vo. . John Taijlor, The Scriptural
doctrine of original sin ; in German, from the 3d Eng.
ed. Francf and Lips. 1769. J. G. Tocllner, On he-
reditary sin, and the jroodness of human nature ; (in
German.) in his Theological Inquiries, Vol. I. P. II.
Judas Iscariot, oi Evil considered in its connexion
with Good; (in German,) by C. Davh ; Heidelb. 18l6
-18. 8vo. P. I. and P. II. sec. 1 and 2.
Sec. 186. Grace and predestination.
On the doctrine concerning grace, Luther followed
the views of Augustine, in all their extent ; and he de-
fended them, with great earnestness, against Erasmus,
Melanchthon, at first, expressed similar sentiments ; but
he gradually drew back, and would not exclude the per-
sonal activity of men. This change in Melanchthon,
seems to have reacted upon Luther, who at last, did not
disapprove of the idea of his friend ; and in his later
writings, he speaks of universal grace. The theory of
Melanchthon, (that of co-operation,) when advanced by
Victorinus Strigel, at Jena, was violently assailed by Mat-
thias Flacius, and his coadjutors. In the mean time,
John Calvin, though not without strong opposition, had
introduced into the Genevan church, the doctrines of un-
conditional decrees, and of special grace; which were
either discarded, or esteemed unimportant, by the first
Swiss reformers; and he was able to gain over the other
Swiss divines, to these doctrines. Between one of his
adherents, Jerome Zanchius, and John Marhach, a Lu-
theran divine of Strasburg, a contest ensued, on this sub-
ject ; but it was soon dropped. The Formula of Con-
cord excluded the personal activity of man, in his conver-
sion, and rejected the doctrine of co-operation. But, as
the authors of this creed, maintained the universality of
divine grace, and disapproved of unconditional decrees,
tbey found themselves under an embarrassment ;. frona.
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 179
which they knew not how to free themselves, though
they understood how to conceal it.
Notices. ^Des. Erasmiy Diatribe de lihero aibitrio ; s. Col-
latio cum M. Luthero; Basil. 1624. — Mart. Lutheri^ de
jservo arbitrio Liber, contra Erasmum ; Vitenb. 1525.
(cum annotatt. editus a Seh, Schmidio ; ed. 2. cum prae-
fatione a pologet. Jo. Joar/i. Zentgravii ; Aigentor. 1707.
4to.) — Erasmh Hyperaspislcs, diatribe adv. Servum ar-
bitr. Lutheri ; Bas. 1626,— On the doctrinal views of the
first Reformed divines ; (German,) in J. Conr. FiissliiCs
Preface to the 3d and 4th volumes of his Contributions
to the history of the Swiss churches and their reforma-
tion. — Consensus pastorum ecclesiae Genevensis de
aeterna Dei praedestinatione ; in Calvini 0pp. T.VII. p..
683.
Sec. 187. Continuation,
In the conference of Montbelliard A. D. 1586, the
doctrine of election was brought under warm discussion^
between James Andrea and Theodore Beza; and the
contest with Samuel Huber, completed the separation
between the Calvinists and the Lutherans. During
these contests, the Lutheran divines discovered, and
Aegidius Hunnius explained, a way to reconcile the
total unfitness of man for what is good, and the sole effi-
ciency of divine grace, with the rejection of unconditional
decrees : and this was, to assume that, men can resist
preventing grace. In the mean time, warm contests had
arisen among the Reformed, especially in the Nether-
lands. The Arminians would not allow the Calvinistic
theory, of unconditional election, special grace, irresista-
ble influences of grace, and of saint's perseverance, to be
urged upon the whole church. But the erudition of Si-
mon Episcopius, and the unwearied activity of John
Wytenbogart, had to succumb to the power of the oppo-
site party, who were supported by the civil authorities;
and the national Synod of Dort, solemnly established
those Calvinistic doctrines.
Notices, Acta colloquii Montisbelligartensis ; Tub. 1687.,
4to. — Thodori jPe^sfle, Responsio ad Acta col. Mont. Ge-
180 muenscher's elements
nevae 1587. 4to. — Epitome colloquii Montisbell. Tub.
1588. 4to. — Aegidii Hannii, Tractatus de provideritia
Dei, et aeterna praedestinatione; Francf. 1597. 8vo. —
Acta synodi Dordrechli Iiabitae ; Ilanov. 1620. 4to. —
Acta et scripta synodalia Dordracena ministroiuin Re-
monstrant. Harderv, (1620.) 4to.
Sec. 188. Further disagreement in the Reformed
churches respecting these doctrines.
Notwithstanding the decisions at Dort, diversity of
opinions continued. Those decisions approved the sen-
timents of the Infralapsarians ; and also, did not reject
those of the Supralapsarians. The Brandenburg di-
vines acknowledged the universality of grace. And in
France^ likewise, a hypothetical universality was held
forth, by John Cameron and Moses Amyraud; approved,
by the French synods at Alen^on A. D. 1637, and
Charenton A. D. 1645; warmly contested, by Andrew
Rivet and others; and defended, hy John Daille and
David Blondel. The Dutch theologians looked upon
tills opinion, as very suspicious ; and the Swiss divines
endeavored, to guard against it, by the Formula Consen-
sus. In England, the Episcopal church, more and more,
went over to the doctrine of universal grace ; and even
tlie Swiss, after the time of Alphonsus Turretin, began
either to abandon the old particularism, or to consider
the whole subject of the controversy, as unimportant. In
Germany, Lange and Waldschmidt exchanged the last
controversial pieces, on this subject; and even Samuel
Endemann, strongly as he once held to the doctrinal
views of his church, did not hesitate, to reject the doc-
trine of unconditional decrees, with most of its depend-
ant doctrines. (The very recent attempts at union of the
Lutherans and Reformed in Germany, have occasioned
a renewed examination of these doctrines, by the holy
Scriptures.)
Jfotices, Jo. CameroniSy Defensio de gratia et libero arbi-
trio ; Salmur. 1624. 8vo. — Traite de la predestination et
4e ses principalis dependances ; i^nv Moyse Amyraud;
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. ISI
Salm. 1634. 8vo. — jPretZ. »Sp.aw/?6imM, de gratia uni versa-
li Disputatio ; Lugd. 1644. — Andreae Riveti, Synopsis
doctrinae Mosis Amyraldi et Paulli Testardi de nalura et
gratia, cum Riveti considerationibus et judiciis academi-
arum foederati Belgii : — in Riveti 0pp. T. III. p. 828. —
Jo. Dallaei, Apologia pro duabus ecclesiarum in Gallia
protestantium synodis nationalibus ; Amst. 1655. 8vo. —
Ejusd, Vindiciae Apologiae ; Amst. 1657. 8vo. — Sam^
Strimesii, Charitologia sacra, seu Systema gratiae divinae,
id est, conciliationis gratiae Dei universalis et particula-
rs tentamen ; Francf. ad Viadr. 1712. 4to. — La souve-
raine perfection de Dieu et la parfaite integrite de 1' ecri-
ture prise au sens des anciens Reformes, defendue par
Gabriel Naud^ ; Amst. 1708. U \o\. S\o.—StepL Viti,
Apologia, qua synodus Dordracena et reformata fides ab
iniquis criminationibus — vindicator; Cass. 1726. 8vo. — -
JoacJi. Lange, Evangelical doctrine of universal grace ;
(in German,) Halle 1722. 8vo. — Ejusd. Firm ground of
the Evangelical doctrine of the universal grace of God ;^
(in German,) Halle 1735. 8vo. — Joh.Jac. Waldschmidty,
Saving grace of God, with rejection of the universal grace
of God, shewn from the holy Script, (in German,) Mar-,
purg 1735. 8vo.
W, F. Rink, Contribution to an investigation of the Luther-
an and Reformed doctrines concerning the holy Eucha-.
rist and Election, according to the word of God ; with a
view to a union of the Protestant churches in one Evan-,
gelical christian church; (in German,) Heidelb. 1818.
8vo. — Jo. SchulthesSy Evangelical doctrine concerning
the free election of grace : a Contribution to the union of
the Evangelical churches ; (in German,) Zurich. 1818.
8vo.
Sec. 189. History of these doctrines in the Catholic
churchy
Writers. Memoires pour servir a 1' histoire descontrover-
ses nees dans TEglise Romaine sur la predestination et
sur la grace depuis le concile de Trent ; — dans la Bib-
liotheque universelle et historique (par ./. le Clerc,)
Tome XIV. p. 144-398. — Bajana, seu scripta quae con-
troversias spectant occasione sententiarum Baji exortas ;;
^n ^q;i Operibus. Col, 1696, 4tp.— Historia Congre.-i^
182
gationnm de auxiliis jjratiae divinae Libri IV ; authore J.
Hyac, Serry ; Amst. 1709. Fol — Historiae controversi-
arum de divina gratia ; — authore Theodoro Eleutherio ;
(Levino de Meyer,) Libri 111; Antw. 1705. Fol. —
Ejusd. Historiae — ab objectionibus Hyac. Serry vindi-
catae. Lib. Ill; Brux. 1715. Fol — Histoire gi^neraledu
Jansenisme ; (par Gabr. Gerberon), a Amst. 1700. 8vo.
The movements in the Catholic church, respecting
the doctrines of grace and the divine decrees, were no
less considerable. The Dominicans and Franciscans
retained their different opinions, and continued to contend
for them, with the zeal which the reputation of their re-
spective orders called forth. To avoid offending either
of these orders, the decisions of the Council of Trent
were shaped so equivocally, that each party explained
them in its own favor. But the conflict became much
warmer, when the Jesuits entered into it, and endeavored
wholly to suppress pure Augustanism. It had operated
to impair their popularity, that they had procured the
Papal condemnation of the tenets of Michael Bajus. But
when the Jesuit, Ludovicus Molina, came forward with a
new essay for reconciling divine grace and election, the
Augustinians and Dominicans stormed the Papal chair,
with complaints against the Jesuits, as corrupters of the
true doctrines of the church. The investigations institu-
ted hereupon, by Clement VIII, from the year 1598, in
the Congregatio de Auxiliis, led to no decision. Cor^
nelius Jansen endeavored to vindicate the true doctrine
of Augustine, against the assaults of the Jesuits ; and thus
gave rise to the Jansenist party, which opposed the most
determined resistance to the Jesuits, and could not be
extinguished by them, either by means of Papal bulls, or
by the aid of the civil arm. — While all the christian
churches were contending about divine grace, certain
Mystics rose up, who attributed the conversion of men
solely to an internal operation of God, which had no con-
nexion with the external word, and by which the soul is
ipnlightened, purified, and united with God,
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. IB^
Notices, Dominici SotOy de natura et gratia Libri III }
1548. — Andreae de Vega^ Cornmentarii in aliquot conci-
lii Tridentini decreta ; Compliit. 1548. — Ludovici Mo-
linae, Liberi arbitrii cum gratiae donis, divina praescien-
tia, providentia, praedestinatione et reprobatione Concor-
dia ; Olyssipone 1588. 4to. Antvv. 1595. 4to. — Cornelii
Jansenih Angustinus ; Lov. 1640. Fol. — Traits de la
nature et de la grace ; par Nlcol. Malebranche ; Roterod,
1684. — Eeflexions philo?ophiques et theologiques sur
le nouveau systeme (le la nature et de la grace ; par A.
Amauld; 1685. — Nodus praedestinatlonis dissolutus ; a
Coelestino Sfondratl; Rornae 1696. 4to — Acta consti-
tntionis Unigenitus ; — edidit Christ, Matth, Pfaffius ;
Tub. 1721.
Sec. 190. Of the influences of the word of God.
With the doctrine concerning grace, enquiries respect-
ing the word of God, were intimately connected. Both
the Protestant churches were agreed, that God effects
the conversion of men, by means of his word. The
word of God, was divided into the Law and the Gospel ;
and the relations of these two, occasioned what was call-
ed the Antiriomian controversy. That the external word
was not to be undervalued, or to be accounted void of
power, was decided in the contests with SchwenJcfeld and
Herm, Rathman; and those were called fanatics, who
thought otherwise, or seemed to do so, on this subject.
The assertions of the Frencht heologian, Claude Pajon^
that it is of no importance, to determine the manner in
which God produces conversion; and that no immediate
operation of divine grace, is to be supposed; were rejected
by the Dutch and French churches. In the Lutheran
church, the similar views of Ernest Schubert, that the
power of God's word is only logical and moral, and not
supernatural, were warmly resisted, by Ernest Augustus
Bertling, and others.
Notices. The oithodox, correct, and incontrovertible doc-
trine of the theologians belonging to the pure, genuine,
evangelical church, and to the unaltered Augsburg Con-
fession, respecting the holy Scriptures, or the holy, re-
184 muenscher's elements
vealed word of God, again stated ; (in German,) Lips*
1619. 4to. — Censures and reflexions of the theological
faculty, lespecting Thorn. Rathmann's books ; (German,)
Jena 1626. 4to. — (Respecting Pajon, see Chaufepiedt
Dictionaire, Tome II. Art. Gene). — J. Ernest Schubert,
Instruction concerning the power of the holy Scripture ;
(in German,) Helmst. 1753. — Em. Aug. ^er^Zmo^, State-
ment, of what the Lutheran church teaches, and does not
teacii, respecting the power of the holy Scripture ; (in
German,) Dantzig 1756. 8vo.
Sec. 1^1. Most recent form of the doctrine of grace.
In the new state of dognaatics, various attacks have
been made, upon the constituent parts of Augustine's the-
ory respecting grace ; in which, both philosophy and
history have been put in requisition. /. Aug, Eberhard,
especially, called in the aid of the former ; and Semler,
that of the latter. After Michaelis had questioned the
supernatural operations of Grace, Junckheim^s calm and
deliberate investigations produced a very great effect.
Storr defended the immediate operations of grace. One
consequence of the recent investigations, was, that the
distinction between the word of God and the bible, was
more clearly made. Against the excessive value, which
some attach to religious feelings, Spaulding has published
a work.. * '; /" ^ • "^^
Notices. {Junckheim,) Oil the supernatural in the opera-
tions of grace ; (in German,) Eilan<r. 1775. 8vo. — G.C,
Storrli; Diss, de Spiritus S. in animis hominum efficien-
tia ; Tub. 1777. — Ejusd. Treatise on the operations of
grace ; (in German,) Tubing. 1779. — [Joh.Joach, Spauld-
ing.) On the value of the feelings in Christianity ; (in
Germ.) ed. 4. Lips. 1773. 8vo. ^
Sec. 192. Redemption by Christ.
The Protestants embraced in their creed, the old idea,
of a satisfaction, which Christ made to God, by means of
his sufferings and obedience. In this doctrine, they be-
came fixed, in consequence of the opposition of the
1
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 185
Unitarians, who considered the death of Christ, as merely
an example, and a means of confirming the truth of his
doctrines. Yet George Karg, Zachanas Ursinus, and
John Piscator, receded from the common opinion, that
the active obedience of Christ was vicarious; and the
French Protestant church finally concluded, to tolerate
this deviation of Piscator, while the Swiss churches reject-
ed it. Grotius defended some parts of the received doc-
trine, against Socinus, yet giving it a different modification ;
and he was attacked, not only by John Crell, but also by
the Reformed divine, Hermann Ravensperger. The at-
tack of the latter, was parried by Gerhard John Vossius,
The Arminians, and afterwards some English theologians,
as John Tillotson, Edward Stilling fleet, and John Leland,
advanced the opinion, that the merits of Christ were a
full equivalent, for the guilt of men. Some mystics, as
the (Quakers, who were in this followed by Conrad Dip-
pel, looked upon the sufferings of Christ, as an emblem
of the change, which the human soul must undergo, in or-
der to become pure and pleasing to God.
Notices. Fausti Socini, Dispulatio de Jesu Christo serva-
tore ; hoc est, cur et qua ratione J. C. noster servs^pr sit ;
' 1694. 4to. Hugonis Grotii, Deferisio fulei catholicae de
satisfactione, adv. Faustum Socinum ; Lug. Bat. 1617.
8vo. and cura Joach. Lani^ii ; Halae 1730. 4to. Herm.
Ravenspcrgeri^ Judicium de libro Grotii de satisfactione
Chi, Gronmg. 1617. 4to. 6?. J. Fo^^u. Responsio ad Ju-
dicium Herm. Ravenspergeri. ; Lugd. 1618. 4to. and in
his Opp. T. VI. p. 883. Jo. Crellii, Responsio ad librum
H. Grotii, quem de satisAictione scripsit ; Racov. 1623.
4to.
Sec. 193. Continuation.
While some English divines, as John Taylor and Anth.
Ashley Sykes, were advancing new theories respecting
the atonement, the Germans remained true to the earlier
belief, and endeavored to support it by philosophical ar-
guments. Yet /. Aug, Ernesti rejected the representa-
tion of a three-fold office of Christ. By his critical in-
17
186
quiries respecting the active obedience of Christ, John
Gottl. Toellner caused the idea of it, to be almost uni-
versally given up. S. Steinbart, Joh, Avg, Eberhard,
and others, ascribed the forgiveness of sin to the death
of Christ, only in so far, as this death contributed to re-
form sinners, and thus, indirectly, procured them forgive-
ness of their sins. George Fred, Seiler, and G, Christ,
iS^orr,*^ defended the earlier opinion. Jos. Fred, Loeffler
declared the doctrine of satisfaction for sin, to be untena-
ble; and he considered the biblical doctrine of the sin-
ofiering made by Christ, to be the mere dress of the idea,
that the first christians had no reason to fear punishment,
for the sins they had committed in their former state of
Paganism and Judaism. Others perceived in the death
of Christ, an emblematic representation, and a sensible
confirmation, of the fact, that God is ready to forgive sin-
ners. But, in general, theologians have ceased to regard
any particular explication of this doctrine, as essential to
Christianity.
Notices, The scripture doctrine of atonement examined ;
by John Taylor; Lend. 1761. 8vo. and in German, Francf.
1773. Anthony Ashley SyJccs, The doctrine of the Ho-
ly Scripture concerning the redemption of men by Jesus
Christ; German, from the Enirlish ; Francf. 1777. Jo,
Aug, Ernesti, Programm. de officio Christi triplici : in his
Opuscul. ed. 2. Lips. 1792. The active obedience of
Christ, investigated ; (in German,) by Joh. Gottl. Toell-
ner ; Brcslau 1768. — Additions thereto; (in German,)
Berlin 1770. 8 vo. Most recent history of the doctrine «>f,
what IS called the active obedience of Christ ; (German,)
in Walch^s Latest history of religion, vol. ill. p. 309
—372.
Geo. Fr. Seller, On the atoning death of Christ ; (in Germ.)
ed. 2. Erlang. 1781. II vol. 8vo. (Apologies of reason,
supported by rational arguments, in reference to the chris-
tian doctrine of atonement; (in German,) Basil 1781.)
/. D. Michaelis, Thoughts on sin and satisfaction ; (in
German,) Gott. 1779. Sforr, On the object of Christ's
death ; (German.) in his Explanation of the Epistle to the
Hebrews; Tub. 1789.
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 187
Jos, Fr. Chr, Loeffler, Two essays on the received doctrine
of satisfaction ; (in German.) Ziillich 1796. 8vo. F.
Wunder, De justificationis moiti Christi tributae univer-
salitale ; Viterib, 1790. Sldudlin, On the object and the
effects of Christ's death ; (German,) in the Gotting. Li-
brary of the latest theolog. literature ; vol. I. Philosophic
and exegetical inquiries respecting the doctrine of recon-
ciling men with God ; (in German,) by Charles Christ.
Flatt; Gott. 1797. II vol. Bvo. Philosophic and critical
sketch of the doctrine of atonement ; (in German,) by
J, Gottf. Aug. Kroll; together with some thoughts on
the same subject, by J. H. Tieftrnnck; Halle 1799.
The conflict of reason with herself in the doctrine of
atonement, stated and solved ; (in German,) by W. Tr,
Krug ; Ziilich. and Freist. 1802.
€r. M. L. ie Wette, De morte J. C. expiatoria commenta-
tio; Berol. 1813. 4to. (Jesus, at first, expected his doc-
trinf^ of a heavenly divine kingdom, would meet the appro-
bation of his countrymen. But the result showed, that
he expected too much, from his disciples and the people at
large. Therefore he, at last, voluntarily died, in order to
procure a triumph of this doctrine.)
Is a distinct idea of the work of redemption, necessary?
(in German,) in TocZZ/icr'^ Theological Inquiries, vol.1
P.I. p. 199.
Sec. 194. Justification,
One grand point, to which the Reformers attached
special importance, and on which they deviated from the
ancient church, was the doctrine of justification. In the
first place, they attached a new idea to it ; making it to
consist, not in the communication of righteousness, but in
freeing a person from the guilt and punishment of sin.
Secondly, they placed the meritorious ground (causa me-
ritoria) of justification, solely in the merits of Christ; and
excluded all human satisfactions for sin, as unnecessary
and worthless. And thirdly, they considered faith as the only
means (instrumentum,) whereby a man can partake of
the merits of Christ, and so obtain forgiveness of sin.
The Council of Trent rejected the Protestant tenets ;
188 muenscher's elements
and in the contests, which ensued on all these points, there
were frequent misapprehensions, and bitter mutual re-
proaches ; which were met in vain, by full confessions of
faith,and extended explanations,set forth by the theologians.
It was also contested, whether a person can be conscious
of his own justification : and, whether he can prepare
himself to become justified.
Notice, On the formation of our orthodox symbolical doc-
trine conctning justification : (German,) in J. Fr. FlatVs
Magazine for christian Dogmatics and Moral. P. I.
p. 219.
Sec. 195. Continuation.
Luther's theory was embraced and maintained, by the
Protestants, with such firmness, that Andreas Osiander,
— who understood justification, to be making a person
actually righteous, although he deviated from others,
more in the use of terms, than in substance, — stirred up
universal opposition, from the Lutheran divines. His
statement of this doctrine, together with his position, that
Christ was the Redeemer of men, only in his divine nature;
as well as the opposite position of Francis Stancarus, that
the work of redemption was predicable only of the human
nature of Christ ; were rejected, in the Formula of Con-
' cord. Afterwards, the Protestant theologians continued,
to defend the ideas of justification contained in their sym-
bols ; not only against the Catholics, but also against the
Bocinians, the Arntinians, and certain English divines.
In the Cocceian controversy, the question came up, whe-
ther the pious under the Old Testament, obtained the
same remission of sin, with the christians : and in the
Pietistic debates, inquiry was instituted, whether the be-
stowment of grace, is limited to any certain period [of a
man's life], after which it has no place (controversia ter-
ministica). Since the last controversy, between G. Fr.
Seiler and E. L Danov, respecting the diffei-ence between
justification and predestination ; the modern German
divines have, for the most part, forsaken Luther's form of
OF DOGMATIC III STORY. 189
the doctrine"; and either defined, in various ways, the bibli-
cal idea of justification, or gone into the general inquiries
whether, and how, the forgiveness of sin is possible.
Notices. Theoph, Coelest. Piper, Programm. quo Socinia-
norum de justificatione placita strictim exponit ; Gryphsw.
1795. 4to. Controversy between Danov and Seller ^ re-
specting the doctrines of justification and predestination ;
(in German,) in the Latest religious events, vol. I. Gies-
sen 1778. p. 265—300. F. G. Siiskind, On the possi-
biliiy of remitting punishment, or forgiving sin ; (German,)
in Flatt's Magazine. P. I. p. 1. comp. P. IX. p. 71. Is
the forgiveness of sin, a postulate of reason? answered by
J. H. Tlef trunk ; (in German,) in Staudlin's Contribu-
tions to the philosophy and history of religion, vol. III. p.
1 12. The question of hesitating reason ; Is forgiveness
of sin possible? Is a gracious remission of sin to be ex-
pected from God ? answered by G. Fr. Seller ; (in Ger-
man,) Eriang. 1798. 8vo. /. Aug, Noessclt, Programm.
de eo quid sit condonare pecxata ; Ilalae 1792. 4to. Is
the removal of punishment, to be understood as being that
forgiveness of sins, which the New Testament promises ?
an exeixetical inquiry: (in German,) by Sushind ; in
Flatt's Magazine. P. III. p. 190, P. IV. p. 7Q. Attempt
to vindicate the doctrine of justification ; (in German,)
by Leivis Wackier ; in Gabler^s Journal for select theol.
Literature, vol. IV. p. 229—265.
Sec. 196. Faith and good works.
The established creed of the Protestant church, makes
the conviction which leads the christian to apply the merits
of Christ to his own case, to be the chief part of faith :
on the contrary, the Catholic creed makes faith to be the
cordial reception of the christian doctrine. While the
former acknowledges, that faith mill produce good works,
it denies to those works all merit (meritum ex condigno
et congruo); and rejects absolutely, all works of superero-
gation ; and in particular, the value of monastic vows.
The tenet, that good works are necessary to salvation,
was objected to, as a fault in Melanchthon's school, and
particularly in George Major : and JVicholaus von Ams"
17*
190
rfo^opposed it, with the opposite position, that good works
are prejudicial to salvation. Both positions were rejected,
in the Formula of Concord ; yet, in the Syncretistic and
Pietistic controversies, the question of the necessity of
good works, again came up. In France, Lewis le Blanc
fell under suspicion of inclining to Catholicism, because
he declared the various conclusions formed, respecting
the necessity of good works, to be a mere contest about
words. In the Socinian theology, the relations of
faith and good works, must, necessarily, be differently
viewed. Also the Arminians, and many English theo-
logians, considered faith, to be embracing and obeying
the christian doctrine ; and in this, they are followed
by most of the modern German divines.
Notices, That the proposition ; Good works are prejudi-
cial to salvation, — is a correct, true, and christian propo-
sition, and was preached by St. Paul and by Luther ; as-
serted ; (ill German,) hy Nicolas von Amsdorf. 1559. 4to.
— Fred. Will. Dresde, Fidei in causa salutis humanae
ratio ct necessitas denuo nsserta et ah adversariorum
criminationibus viridicata ; Dissertatt. II. Vitenb. 1790.
4to. — Discourse on the festival commemorative of the le-
formation ; (in German,) Octob. 31, 1800. by F. 7.
Reinhard. 1800.
Sec. 197. Penance.
L/uiher, at first, would have penance retained, as a
sacrament ; and even in the Apology for the Augsburg
Confession, it is represented as such ; and made to con-
sist in sorrow for sin, and faith. So much the more
earnestly, did the Reformers contend against the old ideas
of penance. They rejected auricular confession ; al-
though the Lutheran church retained a private confession,
of a different form. They moreover declared them-
selves, opposed to all satisfactions for sins ; and in particu-
lar, against fasting, pilgrimages, and flagellations. And
lastly, they denied the judicial power of priests, in God's
stead, to declare menVsins forgiven. Indulgences, they
regarded as a shocking incongruity; which the love oi
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 191
power, and the avarice of the Popes, had introduced and
kept up. In the Catholic church, the old doctrine of
penance, was minutely explained, by the Council of Trent,
and the departures from it laid under anathema. Among
the Catholics, there was afterwards controversy, respect-
ing the nature of penance, and oi attritio and contritio.
In the Lutheran church, the question was brought up,
and decided in the Formula of Concord, whether pe-
nance was a les;al transaction, or also an evangelical one.
The United Brethren retained the chief features of the
Protestant theology, respecting penance, and the whole
dispensation of divine grace ; yet they annexed some
peculiarities of their own. The more recent Protestant
divines have endeavored, to examine more accurately
the sources of repentance, or of a change of mind ;
and the characteristics of that sorrow for sin, which is
connected with it ; and they have also greatly lowered
down, those high views of the power of the keys.
Notices. Petri MoUnaei, De poenitentia el clavibus, Li-
ber ; Sedan 1652. 8vo. — Jo. Mw6*aei, Tractatus theolo-
gicus de conversione hominis peccatoris ad Deurn ; Je-
nae 1661. 4to. — Jo. Launoii, Liber de mente conciiii
Tridentini circa coniritionem et attritionein in Sacramen-
to poeriitentiae ; Paris 1653. 8vo — J. F. Coffa, Eccle-
siae Romanae de attritione et contritione contentio, ex
historia dogmatum delineata; Gottinjr. 1739. 4to. and,
in Gerhardi Locis Theoloir. T. VI. — Penance and faith ;
(German,) in J. G. Toellner^s Theolog. Inquiries, vol.
I. P. II.
Sec. 198. The sacraments.
After the year 1519, Luther directed his attention to
reforming the doctrine of the sacraments ; and he would
allow nothing to be a sacrament, to which there was not
an express promise annexed, for faith to rest upon. In
the subsequent years, he declared himself more fully on
this subject. He contested the idea, that the adminis-
tration of the sacraments, in itself, and without the exer-
cise of faith, produced salutary effects j and he rejected
192 muenscher's elements
the sacraments of Confirmation, Marriage, priestly Or-
ders, and extreme Unction. In regard to marriage, in
particular, he censured the numerous impediments to
it, introduced by the church ; and also the prohibition
of marriage to priests. Afterwards, the Protestants ad-
mitted but two sacraments. Baptism and the Lord's Sup-
per; while the Council of Tren^ established the seven
sacraments. The Catholic doctrine concerning the pow-
er of the sacraments, ex opere operato, was explained
by the Protestants, in a worse sense, than the Catholic
church understood it. In the sacraments, the Lutheran
divines discovered the medium by which grace operates ;
the Reformed, the sign and pledge of grace ; and the
Socinians, an external rite, by which a man professed
himself a member of the christian church ; and here
the modern theologians of Germany follow the Socinians.
Concerning the sacraments of the Old Testament, vari-
ous investigations w^ere occasionally made, and especially
by the Cocceian school. The Mystics and Fanatics at-
tributed little or no value to the sacraments.
Notices. Martini Lutheri, Liber de captivitate Babylonica ;
Wittenb. 1520. — Aegld, Hunnius^ De sacramentls Vet.
et Novi Test, praecipue de baptismo et coena Domini ;
Francf. 1595. 8vo. — Jo. Maldonafus, De septem sacra-
mentis ecclesiae Romanae ; Ludg. IG14. 4to. — J. Dav.
IleUmanni, Diss, finiendae justae sacraiuenti notioni ; in
his Opusc. Tom. I. p. 4.
Sec. 199. Baptism.
Luther w-as of opinion, that the doctrine concerning
Baptism, had been preserved in the church, more free
from corruption, than those of the other sacraments ; and
he censured, only the limitation of its efficacy, by the
many satisfactions devised for sins after baptism ; and
that its efficacy should be ascribed to the external actj
and not be placed solely in faith on the divine promises.
After the commencement of the reformation, the Pro-
testants had occasion, to evince the correctness q£ infant
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 193
baptism, against the Baptists, who spread themselves in
several countries. The Socinians would not discard infant
baptism ; yet they denied its Apostolic origin ; and they
doubted, whether baptism was required of all christians.
The Quakers rejected water-baptism, altogether ; on the
ground, that Christ instituted only spiritual baptism. Be-
tween the Lutherans and the Reformed, various points
were debated ; relative to the efficacy of baptism, —
whether it imparted regeneration and forgiveness of sin,
or only exhibited and assured us of them ; — also relative
to the necessity of baptism, and the state of unbaptized
infants; and likewise, the faith of children, and the ex-
orcism, which was long retained in the Lutheran church.
— Of late, many Lutheran divines have either given up
the decisions of their forefathers, or interpreted them in
a milder manner. The theologians of both confessions,
have begun to limit themselves, by holding, that infant
baptism is not clearly founded in the New Testament,
yet, that it is not inconsistent with the christian religion ;
and some have uttered the opinion, that baptism is no in-
stitution of Christ ; or at least, that it was intended, only
for the Jews and Pagans of former times, who embraced
Christianity.
Notices. In addition to the works mentioned sec. 99 and
100 : see GerL J. Vossius, Dissertatl. xx. de Baptismo ;.
in his 0pp. T. VI. — Fausti Socini, Disp. de Baptismo
aquae ; Racov. 1613. and in his Opp. T. I. p. 707. — -
Antonii van Dale. Historia baptisrnorum, cum Judaico-
rum turn Christianorum : annexed to l>i& Diss, super
Aristea de LXX. interpretibus ; Amsl. 1705.— Christian
Baptism an estimable rite, but no divine institution ; (in
German ; — by Relche,) Berl. 1774. 8va. — Joh. El.
Troschel, The water-baptism of Christians, an institution
of Christ, and not an arbitrary rite ; (in German,) Berl.
1774. 8vo. — On baptism ; a candid investigation, occa-
sioned by the progress of the age ; (in German.) Lips.
1802. 8vo.--C. F. Eisenlohry Historical observations on
BaptisT) ; (in German,") Tub. 1804. 8vo. — Relche, Dft
baptismi origine et necessitate ; Gotting. 1816^
194 muenscher's elements
Sec. 200. Common doctrine of the Protestant churches^
respecting the LorcPs Supper.
The reformers declared, with one voice, that it was
precisely in the doctrine of the Eucharist, that the great-
est and most corrupt falsification had been introduced ;
and from which, that institution must be purged. Hence,
they contested the doctrine of transubstantiation, as un-
scriptural, and unknown to christian antiquity ; and they
rejected all the consequences derived from it, especially
the adoration of the elements. They looked, with abhor-
rence, on the Mass, the private Masses, and the Masses
for the dead ; considered as religious consecrations. They
introduced the use of the vernacular languages, in the
celebration of the Eucharist ; and they discarded, some
more, and some fewer of the ceremonies, which before
accompanied it. They moreover, declared it an unsuf-
ferable abuse, that the cup should be withheld from the
laity ; contrary to the ordinance of Christ, and the usage
of the whole ancient church.. On the other hand, the
Council of Trent established the old doctrines ; and con-
demned the dissenting views of the Protestants. They
asserted, that the church has a right, according as it shall
see fit, to concede or to deny, the use of the cup to the
laity ; maintained, that it is not necessary, for children, to
partake of the communion; and disapproved and forbid
some abuses, which had crept into the Mass. On all
these points, the contest between the theologians of the
two communities, was carried on with the greatest bit-
terness; and with arguments which they derived from
the Bible, from history, and from philosophy.
Notices, PhiUppi Moimaei, de sacra Eucharistia, Libri IV ;
Francf. et lianov. 1605. Fol. — Claud. Espencaei, de
Eucharistia et ejus adoratione, Libri V; Paris 1573. 8vo.
'■ — Jac. Dav. du Perron, Traitd du saint sacrament de
r eucharistie ; Paris 1622.— Jo. la Placeite, Traite de
r autorile des sens contre la transubstantiation ; Amst.
1700. — See also the polemic works, mentioned sec. 102,
and 142,
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 195
Sec. 201. Dissension among Protestants, during Lu"
therms life.
While Luther rejected the Catholic doctrine of tran-
substantiation, he believed, that the real presence of the
body and blood of Christ, in the eucharist, was not to be
given 'jp. As he was assailed on this point, by Andreas
Carlstadt ; so Zwingle also found occasion, first in a pri-
vate letter, and then in his Commentarius de vera et falsa
religione, to state his views; which were, that the bread
and wine are symbols of Christ's body. John Oecolam-
padius coincided with him, except in one unimportant
particular ; and became involved in controversy, on the
subject, with some Siiabian preachers. Soon after, Lu-
ther and Zwingle, themselves got into controversy ; which
was waged with considerable warmth, and which involved
an enquiry into the omnipresence of Christ's body. The
Landgrave Philip of Hesse, in vain, attempted to effect
a union of the two reformers, by means of the Confer-
ence of Marpurg A. D. 1529. In the Augsburg Con-
fession, the" real presence of the body of Clirist, was as-
serted ; dissent was disapproved ; and the cities of upper
Germany, which believed with Zwingle, were excluded
from subscribing. Yet, at length, the Wittenberg Con-
cord, of 1536, was concluded, between the theologians
of upper Germany and those of Saxony ; and so much
was effected, that the sacramental contest was, for along
time, at rest. It was indeed renewed by Luther, not
long before his death ; but the other Lutheran divines
took no part in it. During the controversy between the
Swiss and the Saxon reformers, John Caspar Schwenck-
feld of Ossingk, deviated from the tenets of the latter.
Notices. Andr. Carlstadt, Exposition oft he words of Christ :
This is my body ; (in German.) Basil 1525. 4 to. — Lu-
ther, Ajrainst the heavenly Propjiels ; (in German,) 1525.
4to. — Zicinglii, Ep. ad Matth. Alberum ; 1524. — Ejusd.
Commentarius de vera et falsa religione ; Tiixmi 1525. —
Ejusd. Suhsidium de Eucharistia ; 1525. — Jo. Oecolam-
padii, De genuina verborum Domini, Hoc est corpus xne-
196
urn, juxta vetustissimos auctores expositione ; (Basil
1525 ) — Syngramma clarissimorum, qui Halae Suevorum
convenenint, virorum super verbis coenae Domini; Halae
Suevor. 1525. 4to. — Jo. OecoZcrmpacZii, A ntisyngram ma;
1526. 8vo. — Luther^s Sermon on the sacrament of the
body and blood of Christ, against the enthusiasts ; (in
German,) 1522. — Zwlnglii Amica exegesis, sen exposi-
tio eucharistiae negotii ; 1527. — Z/?^<^er'5, That the words
of Christ ; This is my body ; still stand fast, against the
enthusiastic spirits ; (in German,) 1527, — Zwingle's Re-
ply ; That the words : This is my body, will eternally
have their ancient and only meaning ; (in German,) 1527.
— Luther^ s Confession respecting the Lord's Supper ;
(in German,) 1528, &c.
The Auosburg Confession, Art. X. de coena Domini do-
cent, quod corpus et sanguis Christi vere adsint et dis-
tribuantur vescentibus in coena Domini, et improbant
secus docentes (quod cum pane et vino vere exhibeantur
corpus et sanguis Christi vescentibus in coena Domini).
Sec. 202. Progress of the controversy after Luther^s
death.
In the opinion of very many Protestant divines, at the
head of whom was Melanchthon, the question in debate,
continually sunk in importance. — John Calvin approxi-
mated towards the Lutheran tenet ; by allowing, that
there was a participation of the real body of Christ, in
the eucharist ; though not with the lips, yet by faith ; and
he gained over the assent of the divines of Zurich, (A.
D. 1549). Yet Joachim Westphal renewed the con-
test; and gradually, others took part in it; so that the
bitterness waxed greater and greater. Calvin's opinion
prevailed, in the Palatinate ; but Melancthon's school, at
Wittenberg, which more and more openly inclined to
Calvin's views, was destroyed ; and thus the real doctrine
of Luther, was set forth in the Formula of Concord, in
connexion with the doctrine of the ubiquity of Christ's
body, and a condemnation of Calvinism.
Notices, Consensio mutua in re sacramentaria ministrorum
Tigurinae ecclesiae et Jo. Calvini ; in Calvini 0pp. T»
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 197
VIII. — Petri Martyris Vermillii, de sacra mento eucha-
ristiae in schola Oxoniensa tiactatio ; Tiguri 1552. — Jo,
,Westphal, Farrago confiisanearum et inter se dissidenti-
um opinionunf], ex Sacramentariorum libris congestaf
Magd.. 1552. — Ejusd, Recta fides de coena Domini;
1553. — Ejusd. Collectanea sententiarum Augustini de
coena Domini; Ratisb. 1555. — Jo. Calvini, Defensio
sanae et orthodoxae doctrinae de sacramentis ; Genev.
1555 &c. — Exegesis perspicua controversiae de coena
Domini ; Wittenb. 1574.
Sec. 203. Later history of this doctrine.
The disagreement of the two Protestant churches, as to
this doctrine, continued on ; and was generally regarded,
as very important ; arid the contests about it, were kept
up. In England, Bp. Benjamin Hoadley met with op-
position, Decause he seemed to depreciate the importance
of the Lord's supper. The Lutheran doctrine was re-
peatedly attacked, by members of the Lutheran church:
among these, the posthumous work of Heumann excited •
most notice, and called forth many confutations. Yet the
dexterity with which Ernesti defended the Lutheran
views, could not prevent many theologians, of his church,
from either abandoning those views, altogether ; or so
modifying them, as to desti*oy their essential character ;
nor could he dissuade all, from estimating the importance
of those views, far lower. The Reformed divines, of
late, have held more to Zwingle's ideas, than to those of
Calvin. Some projects for union, by taking a middle
course, have received little attention.
Notices. J. Fr. Buddaei^ Recentissimarum de coena Do-
mini controversiarum sylloge ; — in his Miscell. Sacr. T.
II. p. 61-88. — Benj. Hoadley'' s Plain account of the na-
ture and end of the sacrament of the Lord's supper;
Lond. 1735. — Chr. Aug. Heumann' s Proof, that the
doctrine of the Reformed church, respecting the Lord's
supper, is the true doctiine ; (in Germ.) Eisleben and
Wittenb. 1764. 8vo. — J. Aug. Erncsti, Brevis repetitio
■ et assertio sententiae Lutheranae de praesentia corporis
€t sanquinis J. C. in coena sacra ; Lips. 1766. 4to. and
18
19i8 muenscher's elements
in his Opusc. Theol. — Sketch of a new proof of the inter-
pretation, given to the words of consecration by the Lu-
theran theologians; (in Germ.) in J. G. Toellners Mis-
cellaneous papers, Collect. II. p. 173-256. — The behef
of St. Paul respecting the Eucharist ; (in German — by
Holzapfel,) Francf. 1779 — [Ejusd.) Confirmation and
elucidation of PauFs belief concerning the Eucharist ; (in
Germ.) Francf. 1780. — J. C. Erhsiein, Three tracts on
the Eucharist ; (in Germ.) Berlin 1780. — Some Theses
on the doctrine of the holy supper; (in Germ.) Berlin
1781. — Remarks and elucidations on certain theses con-
cerning thfe holy supper ; (in Germ.) by J. Balth. Lii-
derwaid ; Ilelmst. 1783. — The holy supper of Christians ;
(in Germ.) by Dr. Henr. Stephani ; Lanshut 1811. 8vo.
— (That is my Paschal body, which is distiihuted among
you ; or the meat of the covenant. That is my blood of
the covenant, which I pour out to you (sx^uvofj-svov).
Sec. 204. The church.
The doctrine concerning the church, was a grand sub-
ject of controversy, between the Catholics and the Pro-
testants. The latter rejected the positions, that there is
but one church of Christ ; from the visible communion of
which, no one can separate, without forfeiture of salvation;
and that the church is an infallible lawgiver, and judge, in
matters of faith and conduct; and that even the belief of
Christianity, must .rest on the authority of the church.
They traced the distinction, between the visible church
and the invisible ; and conceded to the former, merely the
right, to regulate the forms of worship and to execute
church discipline. They also declared Christ, to be the
only sovereign of the church ; and the pretensions of the
Bishops of Rome, to the primacy, to be mere arrogance.
And even in the Catholic church, there was disagree-
ment, as to the extent of the Papal power ; and two op-
posite systems were formed, on the subject, called tlie
ultramontane and the episcopal. The latter was, espe-
cially, defended by the French divines ; was propagated in
Germany, by Justin Febronius; and in later times, has
gained a decided ascendency. — Catholics and Protes-
OF DOGMATIC kiSTORT. 199
tants, moreover, have unitedly maintained, agdnst the fa-
natical sects, that perfect purity, in its members, is not
the sign of a true church ; and that the administration of
religious ordinances, does not lose its validity, and its effi-
cacy, when performed by a sinful minister. The Kante-
an philosophy led to a philosophical examination of the
idea of a church ; and some Catholic literati have at-
tempted, by means of it, to evince the infallibility of the
church.
JVotices. De potestate et primatn Papae, tractatus; sub-
joined to the Articles of Smalcald ; 1537. — Jo. Musaei,
Tractatus de ecclesia ; Jenae 1671. 4to. — Edmundi Ri-
•cherii, De ecclesiastica et poUtica potestate ; Col. 1701.
4to. — Jo. Launoii, Epistolae : — in his 0pp. ed. Colon.
1731. V Tomi, Tomo V. — Defensio declarationis, quam
de potestate ecclesiastica sanxit Clerus Gallicanus ; 1682.
a Jac. Benig. Bossuet ; Luxernb. 1730. 4to. — Justini
Febronii, De statu ecclesiae et legitima potestate Pontifi-
cis Romani, Liber sins^ularis ; BuilHoni (Francf.) 1763-
74. IV Tomi, 4to. — Ejusd. Commentarius in suam re-
tractationem ; Francf. ad. Moen. 1781. — Petri Balleri-
ni, De vi et ratione primatus Roman. Ponlificum, Liber ;
Veronae 1776. 4to. — C. F. Stdudlin, On the idea of a
church, and church history ; (in German,) in the Gotting.
theol. Biblioth. vol. L p. 600. — A Stapfer, De natura,
conditore, etincrementis reipublicaeethicae ; Bern 1797.
— Religion, revelation, and a. church, investigated by
pure reason; (in German,) by Ulr. Peutinger ; Salzb.
1795. 8vo.- — Idea biblica ecclesiae Dei ; delineavit Fr.
Oberthiir, vol. I-IV. 1790-1817. 8vo.— J. F. Kleucker,
de J. C. Servatoris hominum, ecclesia et ecclesiisj Kiliae
1817. 4to.
Sec. 205. State of departed souls.
The practical misuses, to which the doctrine of purga-
tory had been carried, made the Reformers too decided,
in their opposition to it; while, on the contrary, the coun-
cil of Trent confirmed it ; together with that of the effi-
cacy of prayers for the dead ; though with some warn-
ings against fabulous tales and avaricious views. To the
200
idea, of the insensibility of the soul, from death till the
resurrection, Luther appeared to be not opposed ; but
when some Anabaptists brought forward that idea, it was
contested by John Calvin; and it was rejected, in the
English Confession, under Edward VI, in the Swiss Con-
fession of 1566, and in that of Scotland. The Protest-
ants believed, that immediately after death, the soul pass-
es, either into heavenly bliss, or into the torments of hell.
Many Socinians were of opinion, that the soul does not
recover its consciousness, and its activity, till its reunion
with the body; and various others, English writers, accord-
ed with this sentiment. " The learned Henry Dodwell,
from his ideas of the natural mortality of the soul, of the
indispensable necessity of Baptism, and of the exalted
privileges enjoyed by the Episcopal church, composed a
very singular theory. William Coward taught, that the
soul dies with the body, and will first awake along with
it. Thomas Burnet revived the notion of the ancient
fathers, concerning a middle state ; where the righteous
and the wicked have some foretastes of their future con-
ditions, until the general judgment, when they receive
fully their punishments and rewards. In Germany, the
hypothesis of the soul's insensibility, had some abettors ;
and even the transmigration of souls, found advocates in
G, E. Lessing and /. G. Schlosser ; who were able to
give, a refined statement of the doctrine.
Notices, An liistorical view of the controversy concerning
an intermediate state, and the separate existence of the
soul, between death and the general resurrection, dedu-
ced from the beginning of the Protestant reformation to
the present times ; (by Blackburn^) ed. 2. Lond. 1772.
8vo.- — J. Fr. Cotta, Recentiores quaedam controversiae
de statu animi post mortem ; Tub. 1758. — Jo. Calvini,
Psychopannychia ; Aureliae 1534. — William Coward^
Second thoughts concerning the human soul ; demonstra-
ting the notion of the human soul, as believed to be a
spiritual and immortal substance, to be a plain heathenish
invention; Lond. 1702.-^De statu mortuorum et resur^
gentium tractatus ; auctore Thoma Burnet ; Roterd,
or DOGMATIC HISTORY. 201
1729. 8vo. — (^Lud, Ant, Muratpri, de paradise regnique
coelestis gloria, rion expectata corporum resurrectione,
justisaDeo collata; ed. 2. Venet. 1755.) — Gotth, Ephr,
Lessing's Education of the human race ; (in German,)
1780. 8vo. — J. G. Sclilosser^s Conversations on the
transmigration of souls ; (in German,) Lips. 1781-82. 8vo.
Sec. 206. Resurrection and general judgment.
All the principal christian sects, acknowledged a resur-
rection, and rejected chiliasm. Yet this last doctrine
had many friends; among whom were Amos Comenius,
Peter Jurieu, Thomas Burnet, William Whiston, and
others. Philip James Sjpener, and his adherents, taught
a refined chiliasm ; or the expectation of better times.
The characteristics of the resuscitated bodies, gave oc-
casion, for many investigations. According to the most
common opinion, men will again possess the same bodies,
or at least, the substance of the same bodies, which they
had in this life. On the contrary, the Socinians, Johnle
Clerc, aud Godfrey Less, believed in the formation of
entirely new bodies. Joseph Priestly placed the resur-
rection of men, immediately after their death.* Most of
the modern German divines, consider the resurrection, a^;
merely a figurative representation ; by which the immorr-
tality of the soul, is so pictured forth, as to be intelligible
to persons unaccustomed to reflection. On the general
judgment, likewise, many questions have been raised;,
and attempts have been made, to ascertain the time when
it will take place ; but the most recent theology finds in
it, only the drapery of the doctrine, that- God will render to
toth good and bad men, a perfect recompense.
Notices. Henr. Corodi, Critical history of Chiliasm ; (in
German,) vol. III. and IV. Zurich 1794. The resurrec-
tion of the dead, according to the instructions of the New
Testament. An extended essay ; (in German,) by Fred,
des Cotes ; Kirchheim Bolanden 1791. The palingene-
sia of men, according to reason and scripture; (in Germ.)
hy Ern. Fred. Ockel ; Mietau and Konigsb. 1791. 4to..
* No : he believed the soul to be material ; and to die and rise
again, with tfea body. Translator.
202 muenscher's elements
Sec. 207. Salvation and damnation.
The various speculations concerning the place, and the
condition, of the blessed and the damned, scarcely deserve
to be desbribed. Of more importance is the inquiry, re-
specting the duration of future punishment; on which
subject, ail the variety of opinions, that existed in former
times among christians, still .continued. Yet the prevail-
ing sentiment, and that which was expressed in the Augs-
burg Confession, and in other Creeds, was in favor of ^e
eternity of future punishment. This was evinced, not
only by proofs from the holy scriptures, but also on rational
grounds. The Socinians, however, held to a punishment,
which would terminate, with the annihilation of the dam-
ned. Besides, there were always some, who advocated a
full restitution, of all men, to virtue and blessedness;
.among whom, John William Petersen, Thomas Burnet,
William Whiston, Maria Huber, and Petitpierre, were
the most distinguished. Many theologians have begun,
to soften down the common representation. John Til-
lotson and Godfrey Less, admitted, that God had threat-
ened everlasting punishment to the wicked; but they
doubted, whether he would execute his threatenings, in
their full extent. James Vernet believed, that the good-
ness of God, in remitting punishment, ought not to be cir-
cumscribed. The Woljian philosophy was, at first, em-
ployed to evince the eternity of hell torments ; but it af-
terwards, led to a confutation of this doctrine; by advancing
the principles, that the^w^^ice of God, is merely \i\s good-
ness, directed by wisdom ; and that the grand object of
divine punishments, is the reformation offenders. And
hence, J, A, Eherhard, B. Basedow, and /. F, Gruner,
held forth the reformation and salvation of the damned.
Others, have either left the question wholly undecided, or
have referred the eternity, mentioned in the scripture ,
only to the place of punishment ; or have stopped at the
never ending disadvantages, which the neglect of repent-
ance in the present life, will bring along with it in the life
to come.
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 203
Notices, (^William Petersen,) Mvg'ripiov aflroxotra^atfsw^ tfav-
<rwv, i. e. the mystery of the restoration of all things ; (in
German,) Offenbach 1701-10. Ill vol. Fol. Lewis Ger-
hard, Systema a-roxara^ao'sw^, i. e. the complete idea of
the everlasting gospel, concerning the restoration of all
things; (in German,) 1727. 4to. The eternity of hell
torments, inquired into and considered ; by T^. Whiston;
Lond. 1740. 8vo. Les systemes des Theologiens an-
ciens et modernes concilies, par Texposition des differens
sentiments sur Fetat des ames separees des corps ; (par
3Iar. Huber,) a Lond res 1729. Three Tracts on hell
punishments, with a short account of what happened to
M. Petitpierre, in the county of Neufchatel ; (in Germ.)
Francf. and Lips. 1763. 8vo.
Joh. L. Mosheim, Thoughts on the doctrine of the termina-
tion of hell torments; (in German,) Coburg 1728. 8vo.
S. I. Baumgarten, Vindiciae poenarum aeternarum ;
Halae 1742. /. B. Schubert, Rational thoughts on the
eternity of hell torments ; (in German,) Jena 1753. 4to.
(/. R. G, Beyer,) On the punishments of the damned, and
their duration ; (in German,) Lips. 1782.
THE END.
i*' .,;'- . . . v'w"'
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY
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