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EliEMEXTS 
 
 OF 
 
 DOGMATIC HISTORY, 
 
 BY WILLI A»I MUENSCHER.S.T.DNrojs^TV' 
 
 AND ORDINART PROFESSOR OF THEOLOGY AT UABBXma. 
 
 TKANSLAT£I> FROM THE SECOND EDITION OF THE OKieiHAK 
 GXRMAN. 
 
 BY JAMES MURDOCK, D.D. 
 
 NEW-HAVEN, 
 
 PUBLISHED BY A. H. MALTBT. 
 
 1830. 
 
STJiJ 
 
 DISTRICT OF CONNECTICUT, SS. 
 
 «<v*^k/v%,%.»/x^ Be it remembered, That on the second da/ 
 \ \^ S. 5 of Juiy, in the fifty-fourth year of the Inde- 
 ^v^/wvx-x^sg pendence of the United States of America, James 
 MuRDOCK, of the said District, hath depos:ted in this office, 
 the title of a book, the right whereof he claims as Author, 
 in the words following, to wit : — 
 
 ^'Elements of Dogmatic History. By William Muenscher, 
 S. T. D. and ordinary Professor of Theology al Marburg. 
 Translated from the second edition of the Original German, 
 by James Murdock, D. D." 
 
 In conformity to the Act of Congress of the United States, 
 entitled, ^^ An act for the encouragement of learning, by secu- 
 ring the copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the authors and 
 proprietors of such copies, during the times therein mention- 
 ed." And also to the Act, entitled, ^^ An Act supplementary 
 to an Act, entitled, ^ An Act for the encouragement of learn- 
 ing, by securing the copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to th« 
 Authors and Proprietors of such copies during the times there- 
 in mentioned,' and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of 
 designing, engraving, and etching historical and other prints." 
 CHA'S A. INGERSOLL, 
 Clerk of the District of Connecticut. 
 
 A true copy of Record, examined and sealed by me, 
 CHA S A. INGERSOLL, 
 Clerk of the District of Connecting. 
 
 BALDWIN AND TREADWAY, PRINT. 
 
AUTHOR S PREFACE. 
 
 This elementary work was primarily intended for use 
 in the author's lectures ; and was calculated especially to 
 aid his hearers. Yet it may perhaps be serviceable to 
 others, by presenting to them a rapid glance over the 
 whole field of dogmatic history. The principles on which 
 it is drawn up, are the same as those followed by the au- 
 thor, in his Elements of Church History ; and as he has 
 there explained those principles, in the preface, he will 
 not repeat them here. Yet some few observations will be 
 added. 
 
 It was his great object, to give a plain, simple and 
 dense statement. Therefore only three periods of time 
 are assumed ; and the facts are recapitulated in so uncon- 
 strained a manner, that uniformity in the mode of treating 
 the several periods was intentionally disregarded. The 
 facts also, are rather indicated, than fully displayed. The 
 author flatters himself however, that the discerning will 
 perceive a fixed plan, running through the work ; and will 
 understand, that a different mode of treating the succes- 
 sive periods, arose from the effort, to give the exact mode 
 of thinking and reasoning, in each. If his aim to be very 
 concise, should here and there produce obscurity, or in- 
 definiteness, the oral instructions of the teacher must re- 
 move the former, and give precision to the latter. 
 
 In the first period, ihe passages from the fathers, which 
 might serve as vouchers, are with few exceptions omitted ; 
 and the reader is referred to the author's Manual for 
 
4 PREFACE. 
 
 them.* In the second period also, the passages in the 
 scholastic writers, are but seldom pointed out ; because 
 they could be of little service to beginners ; and because, 
 those who are acquainted with these writers, can easily 
 find the passages; their systems having generally the same 
 arrangement. Yet wherever the experienced would be 
 at a loss, to determine on what authority an assertion rests, 
 the passage is expressly named. In the third period, a 
 greater number of citations was necessary : and the au- 
 thor confesses, that he has often doubted, whether too 
 many, or too few, were introduced. It has always been 
 his rule, however, in making the selection of authorities, 
 to regard the historical value, and not the doctrinal impor- 
 tance of the passages. 
 
 The author wishes that intelligent judges, if they deem 
 this work worth their examining, would acquaint him 
 with its defects, and thus facilitate its improvement. 
 
 To this second edition, the literary notices are subjoin- 
 ed, which the venerated author had written in the margin 
 of his copy; and likewise, such as the editor deemed ne- 
 cessary, in order to bring down the literature to the tim^ 
 of the publication. 
 
 * On the most important sections, the translator has introduced 
 the principal references of the Manual into this compendium. They 
 are distinguished, by being connected with the text by means of th* 
 common numerals. 
 
TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE, 
 
 The work here offered to American theologians, is sup- 
 posed, to be unlike any thing, that has ever appeared be- 
 fore the English public. It is an outline of a general 
 history of the christian faith, with copious references to 
 authorities and a'lthors who have treated on the subjects, 
 
 1. It is an outline merely; not a full history. For it 
 mentions only the goneral facts ; and states them, in the 
 most concise manner. It was designed to be the text 
 merely, on which a lecturer might expatiate. 
 
 2. It is a general history ; that is, one that covers the 
 whole subject of dogmatic theology, or systematic divinity; 
 and not the history of one, or of a few, particular doc- 
 trines only . 
 
 3. It is purely a history. For the author did not de- 
 sign, to discriminate between true and false doctrines ; to 
 elucidate, confirm, and recommend the former, and to 
 confute and set a mark upon the latter. He aims to be 
 the mere historian of facts ; or to narrate, truly and can- 
 didly, what doctrines were discussed, and how they were 
 stated, defended and attacked, and by whom ; without 
 laboring to prepossess the reader, either for, or against, any 
 doctrine. In other words, he professes to assume the at- 
 titude of a witness in a court, whose duty it is, to state the 
 whole truth, and nothing but the truth, without regarding 
 the interests of either of the litigating parties; and not tha 
 part of an advocate, whose office it is, to defend the caus9 
 
 1* 
 
of his client, in the best manner the case will admit. This 
 mode of composing dogmatic histories, it is believed, will 
 be altogether new, to most theologians in this country j 
 for, all the histories written previously to the middle of the 
 last century, and all written since, in the English language, 
 whether they were histories of particular doctrines, as 
 those of the trinity, infant baptism, the Lord's supper, 
 predestination, free grace, &,c. or histories of all the doc- 
 trines in a system of theology, were manifestly written for 
 the express purpose, either of confirming, or confuting, a 
 particular creed : and of course, the writers, not only 
 collect all the testimonies they can, on one side of the 
 subject, and make the most of them, and enumerate 
 some on the opposite side, placing them in the most un- 
 favorable light; but they resort to all the arts of rhetoric 
 and logic, to persuade their readers to adopt the opinions 
 they defend, and to reject those which they condemn. 
 Such historians are, as Uu\y polemic writers, as if they had 
 chosen other than historical arguments, with which to ac- 
 complish their party purposes. Of this character is Dr. 
 Priestley's History of the Corruptions of Christianity ; 
 and also the histories of the Trinity, by Christopher Sau- 
 dis, Dr. Alex, Bishop Bull, and others ; the histories of 
 infant baptism, by Wall, Gale, Robertson &£c. and nu- 
 merous other dogmatic histories. 
 
 4. This work is a history of the faith of such as have 
 borne the christian name, or of their speculative belief, 
 their dogmatic theology ; and not of their practical theo- 
 logy, their conduct, their piety, their rites of worship, their 
 ecclesiastical polity, he. And 
 
 5. It contains references to the principal sources of evi- 
 
TRANSLATOR S PREFACE, T 
 
 dence for the facts stated, and lists of modern writers of 
 different communities, who may be consulted on the seve- 
 ral subjects. 
 
 In the selection of the facts to be narrated, and in his 
 references to authors, the writer of this work, had in view 
 the young theologians of Germany; for whose use the 
 book was intended. An American student would be 
 better pleased with the work, had the author been more 
 full and particular, on the doctrines most controverted in 
 this country ; and if he had developed farther the doc- 
 trinal views and arguments of the English, Scotch, and 
 American divines; and made more references to their wri- 
 tings. Yet the translator has not deemed it expedient, 
 to enlarge the work, by additions of this nature, except 
 by a very few references. Nor has he curtailed the nu- 
 merous references to German writers ; for to those who 
 make no use of them, they can do no harm ; and to others, 
 they may at least serve to show, what subjects have enga- 
 ged most attention in Germany, and how the theologians 
 of that country, range themselves on the different sides of 
 most questions there discussed. By pursuing this course, 
 and giving a plain translation of the original, he has pre- 
 sented the English reader, with the entire work of Dr. 
 Miinscher, as near as possible in its original form. 
 
 The author of this work. Dr. William Muenscher, 
 was born at Hersfeld, on the 11th of March 1766; be- 
 came a stated preacher, in the cathedral church in his 
 native place, till the age of 26, when he was made Pro- 
 fessor in ordinary, in the university of Marburg in Hesse- 
 Cassel, and consistorial councillor there, for 22 years, or 
 till his death, 28th of July, 1814. He composed the 
 preface to a popular edition of Luther's bible ; and a 
 
volume of printed sermons, which are said to be char- 
 acterized by their religious fervor, and by the constant 
 and happy use made of the holy scriptures. He was 
 also the principal conductor of a journal, devoted to the 
 interests of schools and religion : but his greatest and 
 most noted work, was his Manual of Dogmatic Histo- 
 ry, in IV. volumes 8vo. extending over the first six cen- 
 turies. Beside these, he composed an Elementary Church 
 History, and the work here presented to the public. Of 
 his large work, C. F. L. Simon, in his Continuation of 
 Noesselt's Guide to the Literature of Theology, says, 
 (Sec. 299.) " the author has hnppily combined the chro- 
 nological order, with that of the relations of things ; and 
 the whole work is distinguished, alike, for the persevering, 
 learned, and critical industry, manifested in collecting 
 the materials; and for the solidity and independence of 
 judgment, with which they are methodically arranged, 
 and agreeably expressed.'" And he adds : " the same 
 commendation is due to the author's Elements of Dog- 
 matic history." Brettschneider, in his Entwickelung 
 der Dogmatik, p. 99, ed. 2d, says of the Manual : " It is 
 to be regarded as (haupiwerk) the best work on the sub- 
 ject." The Elements, notwithstanding it had to contend 
 with several rival works, has, since its first appearance in 
 1811, gone through three editions in Germany, without 
 alteration, — two of them since the author's death; and it is 
 still in high reputation, in that country. 
 
 The theological sentiments of Dr. Muenscber, the 
 translator regrets, that he is not able definitely to state ; 
 since a knowledge of them, might serve to show, where, 
 and how, the author's prepossessions were most likely to 
 mislead him. In several passages of this work, as well 
 
I 
 
 as of the Manual, the translator thought he discovered 
 indications of much laxer views in theology, than his own. 
 Yet he supposes. Dr. Miinscher was classed, by his coun- 
 trymen, with Michaelis, Doederlein, Planck, and others; 
 who stood on middle ground, between the ancient, pure 
 Lutheranism, and the modern neology of Germany. Af- 
 ter all, the private opinions, or the commendations and 
 censures of the writer, which occasionally escape from 
 him unconsciously, ought not to influence the reader. It 
 is his facts, and his arguments only, that deserve regard. 
 And these, he is supposed to state, with as much fidelity, 
 and impartiality, as reasonably can be expected, from an 
 able and honest man, who felt his reputation to be staked 
 on the correctness of his narration. 
 New-Haven, June 1, 1830. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Preface, *..... 
 
 3 
 
 Translator's Preface, . . 4 * 
 
 . 5 
 
 Introduction, p. 17 — 23. 
 
 
 k'ec. 1. Doctrines, ..... 
 
 17 
 
 2. Changes in doctrines, 
 
 . 17 
 
 3. Dogmatic History, . . . « 
 
 18 
 
 4. Its use, ..... 
 
 . 18 
 
 5. Its sources, . . . , * 
 
 19 
 
 6. Its laws, 
 
 . 19 
 
 7. Its literature, .... 
 
 20 
 
 8. Its form or method, . . 
 
 . 22 
 
 First Period. The early ages. A. D. 1-600. p. 2A 
 
 1-87. 
 
 Part I. The general history, p. 24-33. 
 
 
 9. Jesus Christ, .... 
 
 24 
 
 10. The Apostles, . . . 
 
 25 
 
 n. The early Christians, . 
 
 2S 
 
 12. The church and its creed, . 
 
 26 
 
 13. The received theology, 4 
 
 '2Q 
 
 14. Estimation of the Bible, 
 
 27 
 
 15. Use of the Bible, 
 
 27 
 
 16. Tradition, ..... 
 
 28 
 
 17. Philosophy, .... 
 
 29 
 
 18. Theologians, .... 
 
 SO 
 
 19. Origen, . . . . . 
 
 30 
 
 20. Establishment of Christianity, 
 
 31 
 
 21. Religious controversies. 
 
 31 
 
 22. Systems of theology, 
 
 32 
 
 23. Decline of theological learning, 
 
 32 
 
 Part II. History of particular doctrines, p. 33- 
 
 87. 
 
 Chap. I. The kingdom of Christ, p. 33-41. 
 
 
 J4. Origin of the idea of it, 
 
 33 
 
 25. Chiliasm, .... 
 
 34 
 
 26. Last struggles of chiliasm, 
 
 34 
 
 27. Resurrection connected with chiliasm, 
 
 35 
 
 28. This gross theory opposed, 
 
 36 
 
 29. Subsequent history of the doctrine, 
 
 36 
 
12 CONTENTS. 
 
 Page, 
 
 SO. Intormediate state, .... 37 
 
 31. Moditications of the doctrine, . . 38 
 
 32. Purgatory fully established, . . 38 
 
 33. Hell and the damned, . . . 3» 
 
 34. The church, .... 40 
 
 35. Its unity, . . . . .41 
 
 36. Marks of the true church, . . 41 
 
 Chap. II. Doctrine of Angels and Devils, p. 42-45. 
 
 37. Existence of Angels, . . .45 
 
 38. Their offices, .... 42 
 
 39. Their condition, . . . .43 
 
 40. Invocation of them, ... 43 
 
 41. Apostacy of Angels, . . . . 44 
 
 42. Power of evil spirits, ... 44 
 
 43. Their prospects, . . . .44 
 
 Chap. III. The truth of Christianity, p. 45-48. 
 
 44. Introduction, . . . . 45 
 
 45. Attacks on Pagans, . . . .46 
 
 46. Evidences of Christianity, . . 46 
 
 47. Prophecy and Miracles, . . .46 
 
 48. Other external proofs, ... 47 
 
 49. Objections to Christianity, . . .47 
 
 50. Objections to its nature and its sacred books, 48 
 
 61. Objections to the conduct and influence of Christ- 
 
 ians, ..... 48 
 
 62. Neglect of Apologetics, . . .48 
 
 Chap. IV. Being and character of God. p. 47-52. 
 
 63. Occasion for attending to the subject, . 49 
 
 54. Proof of the existence of a God, . . 49 
 
 55. The unity of God, ... 60 
 
 56. The nature of God, . . . .50 
 
 67. The attributes of God, ... 51 
 
 68. Creation, . . . . .61 
 
 59. The design of creation, ... 51 
 
 60. Providence, ..... 62 
 
 61. Theodicee, or origin of evil, i . 52 
 
 Chap. V. The Trinity, p. 53-63. 
 
 62. General belief of Christians, . . 64 
 
 63. The Unitarians, .... 64 
 
 64. The Trinitarians, . . . .66 
 
 65. Source of their theory, . . .56 
 
 66. Irenaeus and Tertullian, . . .56 
 
 67. Clement and Origen, . . . 66 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 15 
 
 68. Dionysius Alex, and Dionysius Rom. 
 
 69. Rise of the Arian controversy, 
 
 70. The Council of Nice, 
 
 71. Consequences of the Council, 
 
 72. Arian parties, 
 
 73. Marcellus and Photinus, 
 
 74. Athanasian system, 
 
 75. Triumph of this doctrine, 
 
 76. Fuller statement of the doctrine, 
 
 77. Subsequent statements. 
 
 Chap. VI. The person of Christ, p. 63-67. 
 
 78. First germs of the doctrine, 
 
 79. Its developement, 
 
 80. The natures of Christ, 
 
 81. Nestorius and Cyril, 
 
 82. Council of Ephesus, 
 
 83. Councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon, 
 
 84. Subsequent contests. 
 Chap. VII. Redemption by Jesus Christ, p. 68- 
 
 85. General doctrine of the church, 
 
 86. The nature of man, 
 
 87. Endowments of man, 
 
 88. Origin and propagation of sin, Greek Fathers 
 
 89. Do. Latin Fathers, before Augustine, 
 
 90. Early doctrine concerning grace, 
 
 91. Controversy of Augustine with Pelagius, 
 
 92. The first point; Sin, 
 
 93. Second point; Grace and free will, 
 
 94. Third point; Election, 
 
 95. History of the doctrine, after Augustine, 
 
 96. What Chsist has done for men, 
 
 97. Effects of Christ's death, 
 
 98. Forgiveness of sin. 
 
 Chap. VIII. The Sacraments, p. 82-87. 
 
 99. Baptism, .... 
 
 100. Infant Baptism, .... 
 
 101. Baptism of heretics, 
 
 102. Lord's Supper, .... 
 
 103. Lord's Supper as a sacrifice, 
 
 104. Presence of Christ in the Eucharist, 
 
 105. On the Sacraments in general, 
 
 Second Period. Middle ages. A. D. 600—1517. p. 
 Part I. The general history, p. 88-96. 
 
 Page, 
 bl 
 58 
 58 
 59 
 59 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 61 
 62 
 
 82. 
 
 82 
 83 
 84 
 84 
 85 
 86 
 86 
 
 88-128. 
 
14 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 106. Theology of the Greeks, at the beginning of the 
 
 period, ,_ . 
 
 107. John Damascenus, 
 
 108. Greek Theology, subsequently, 
 105. State of theology among the Latins, 
 
 110. Age of Charlemagne, 
 
 111. Preparatory steps to scholastic theology, 
 
 112. Anselm and Hildebert, 
 
 113. Contest respecting philosophic theology, 
 
 114. Further advances of scholastic theology, 
 
 115. Influence of the Monastic Orders on scholastic 
 
 theology, 
 
 116. The later Scholastics, 
 
 117. Causes of the downfall of scholastic theology, 
 Part II. History of particular doctrines, p. 97-128, 
 Chap. I. CuUivation of doctrines previously defined. 
 
 p. 97-104. 
 
 118. The being of God, 
 
 119. The nature of God, 
 
 120. The Trinity, 
 
 121. Creation and Angels, 
 
 122. Doctrine of Providence, 
 
 123. Person of Christ, 
 
 124. Man, particularly his soul, 
 
 125. Resurrection and general judgment, 
 
 126. Truth of Christianity, 
 
 127. The holy Scriptures, 
 
 Chap. II. Developement of doctrines not before 
 defined, p. 104-128. 
 
 128. Procession of the Holy Spirit, 
 
 129. Doctrine of sin and grace, jmd the kindred doc- 
 
 trines; in the Greek church, 
 
 130. In the Latin church, 
 
 131. Doctrine of the Scholastics, concerning sin, 
 
 132. Sinless conception of Mary, 
 
 133. Doctrine concerning grace, 
 
 134. Predestination, 
 
 135. Redemption by Christ, 
 
 136. Faith and good works, 
 
 137. Adoration of saints and of Mary, 
 
 138. The Sacraments, in general , 
 
 139. Baptism, 
 
 140. Confirmation, 
 
 141. Lord's Supper, 
 
 142. Transmutation in the Lord's Supper, 
 
 143. Contet with Berengarius, 
 
 Page, 
 
 88 
 88 
 89 
 89 
 90 
 90 
 92 
 92 
 93 
 
 94 
 96 
 96 
 
 97 
 
 98 
 
 98 
 
 99 
 
 99 
 
 100 
 
 101 
 
 102 
 
 102 
 
 103 
 
 104 
 
 105 
 105 
 106 
 107 
 108 
 109 
 110 
 111 
 111 
 112 
 114 
 115 
 116 
 116 
 
 lis 
 
CONTENTS. 15 
 
 Page, 
 
 144. Scholastics and Canonists, . . 119 
 
 145. Further determinations, . . 120 
 
 146. Consequences ofthe doctrine of transubstantiation, 121 
 
 147. The Mass, . . . 121 
 
 148. Sacrament of Penance, . . 122 
 
 149. Remission of satisfaction. Indulgences, 124 
 
 150. Sacrament of extreme unction, . 125 
 
 151. Sacrament of ordination, . . 126 
 
 152. Sacrament of marriage, . . 126 
 
 153. State of departed souls, . . 127 
 
 154. Doctrine concerning the church, . 128 
 
 Third Period. Modern times, A. D. 1517—1800. 
 p. 129-203. 
 
 Part I. General view of the changes in doctrinal 
 theology, p. 129-151. 
 
 155. Causes of new modifications in theology, 12^ 
 
 156. Introduction of the refoimation, . 130 
 
 157. Protestant systems of theology, . 131 
 
 158. Reaction upon the Catholic church, . 132 
 
 159. Completion ofthe Lutheran system of faith, 133 
 
 160. Variation^ of doctrine in the Reformed church, 135 
 
 161. Attempts of the Reformed to improve their the- 
 
 ology, . . . 135 
 
 162. Achievements of Spener, in regard to the Luther- 
 
 an theology, . . . 137 
 
 163. Influence of the Wolfian philosophy, 138 
 
 164. Protestant theology, out of Germany, . 140 
 
 165. New formation of the Protestant theology, 141 
 
 166. Influence of the Kantean philosophy, . 145 
 
 167. The theology of other churches, . 149 
 
 Part II. History of particular doctrines, p. 1 SI- 
 SOS. 
 
 Chap. I. The foundations of all religion, and of the 
 Christian religion in particular. 151-166. 
 
 168. Doctrine concerning God, . . 15I 
 
 169. More recent history of this doctrine, . . 153 
 
 170. Doctrine of Providence, . . 154 
 
 171. Immortality of the soul, . . 156 
 
 172. Belief in revelation, . . 157 
 
 173. Most recent history of belief in Revelation, 160 
 
 174. Miracles and prophecy, . . 161 
 
 175. Views concerning the holy Scriptures, 164 
 
 176. Recent views in Germany, . . , 165 
 
16 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Page. 
 Chap. II. Views and explanations of diverse Christ- 
 ian doctrines, p. 166-203. 
 
 177. Various first principles of Christianity, 166 
 
 178. Opinions on the importance of religious doctrines, 168 
 
 179. Doctrine of the Trinity, . . 169 
 
 180. Views of modern German divines, . 171 
 
 181. Doctrine of creation, . . 172 
 
 182. Doctrine concerning Angels, . 173 
 
 183. Of the person of Christ, . .174 
 
 184. Doctrine concerning the first men, , 175 
 
 185. Hereditary sin, . . . 176 
 
 186. Grace and predestination, . 178 
 
 187. Continuation, . . .179 
 
 188. Further disagreement in the Reformed churches, 
 
 respecting these doctrines, . 180 
 
 189. History of these doctrines in the Catholic church, 181 
 
 190. Influences of the word of God, . .183 
 
 191. Most recent form of the doctrine of grace, 184 
 
 192. Redemption by Christ, . . 184 
 
 193. Continuation, . . . 185 
 
 194. Justification, . . . 187 
 
 195. Continuation, . . . 188 
 
 196. Faith and works, . . .189 
 
 197. Penance, . . .190 
 
 198. The Sacraments, . . 191 
 
 199. Baptism, . . . 192 
 
 200. Common doctrine of the Protestants, respecting 
 
 the Lord's supper, . . 194 
 
 20 1 . Dissension among Protestants d uring Luther's life, 1 95 
 
 202. Progress of the controversy after Luther's death, 196 
 
 203. Later history of this doctrine, . . 197 
 
 204. The church, ... 198 
 
 205. State of departed souls, . . 199 
 
 206. Resurrection and general judgment, . 201 
 
 207. Salvation and damnation, . . 202 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Writers, Christian Fr, Walch, Thoughts on the histo- 
 ry of rehgious opinions; (in German) 2d edition. <jot- 
 tingen, 1764, 8vo. 
 
 Ckr. Fried. Roesleri Diss, de Theoria Historias Dogma- 
 turn. Tubing. P. I. 1796. P. II. 1798. 4to. 
 
 Ideas on the extent and mode of treating Dogmatical Histo- 
 ry, (in German) by W, K* L. Ziegler — in Gabler^s 
 Neuesten Theol. Journal. AD. 1798, vol. II. p. 325 — 58. 
 
 Sec. I. Doctrines, 
 By the word doctrines^ the ancient writers understood 
 sometimes, religious truths in general, and sometimes, the 
 theoretical principles of the christian religion, in opposi- 
 tion to its practical precepts. The word has also been us- 
 ed to denote explanations and opinions respecting reli- 
 gious truths. The modern use of the term, makes it 
 equivalent to articles of faith. Received doctrines (kir- 
 chliche Dogmen) are those which are admitted by some 
 entire christian community. 
 
 References, Suicer, Thesaur. Eccles. torn. I. p. 932. 
 Cyrilli Hieros, Catech. IV. Sec. 2. p. 52. Gregorii 
 Nyss, Ep.Vl. in Gallandi Bibliotheca Patrum, torn. VI. 
 p. 631. A peculiar use of the word occurs in Basil, 
 0pp. torn. III. p. 54—56. 
 
 Sec. 2. Changes in regard to Doctrines, 
 The christian doctrines have undergone innumerable 
 changes, since their first appearance ; in regard to the 
 matter of them, the manner of stating and defending 
 them, the degree of importance attached to them, and 
 the arrangement and exhibition of them. The causes of 
 3 
 
18 muenscher's elements 
 
 these changes are to be traced to the diversities of ge- 
 nius and education among christians, especially among 
 the teachers, and to the peculiar circumstances and ne- 
 cessities of the church in different ages. The constitu- 
 tion of the church, the freedom of opinion, and the state 
 of learning, have ever had great influence in shaping arti- 
 cles of faith. 
 
 Sec. 3. Dogmatic History. 
 The christian faith, like every other branch of know- 
 ledge, has both its external and its internal history. The 
 former, which respects the mode of arranging and ex- 
 hibiting articles of faith, is called the History of Uog- 
 matics ; the latter, which states the revolutions in the va- 
 rious articles of faith, is called Dogmatic History, Both, 
 however, so run into each other, that it may be expedient 
 to combine them. A dogmatic history may either em- 
 brace all ages and all articles of faith, or may be limited 
 in one or both respects. Strict impartiality and truth, 
 and a judicious selection and instructive development of 
 facts, must ever be its first and most imperious laws. 
 
 Note. It is a question, whether dogmatic histor}^ should 
 detail the doctrines inctdcated by Christ and the Apos- 
 tles, or confine itself to the received doctrines of the 
 church. 
 
 Sec. 4. Value of dogmatic history. 
 The uses of dogmatic history are, that it is indispensa- 
 ble, to the attainment of a thorough knowledge and cor- 
 rect judgment of systematic theology; that it teaches us 
 to distinguish the original Christianity, from the subsequent 
 spurious additions and corruptions; that it serves to awa- 
 ken and animate a spirit of inquiry ; that it promotes libe- 
 rality, moderation, and independence ; and that it warns 
 us against the perversions of Christianity in the past ages. 
 It likewise affords the mind high intellectual pleasure, to 
 contemplate in the mirror of history, the efforts and strug- 
 gles of men after clearness and solidity of views on reli- 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 
 
 19 
 
 gious subjects; in which both the dependence and the 
 the independence of the mind are clearly seen. 
 
 References. J, A, Ernesti Prolusio de Theologise histo- 
 rica3 et dogmatic 36 conjungendae necessitate. Lips. 1759. 
 j., 8vo. and in hisOpuscul. Theol. ed. Lips. 1792. 8vo. 
 f- Lud. Wachleri, Prolusio de theologia et historia dogma- 
 tum emendanda. Rintel, 1794. 4to. 
 Ckr. Fried, lllgen, The value of christian dogmatic histo- 
 ry, (in German.) Lips. 1817. 8vo. 
 
 Sec. 5. Sources. 
 The sources, from which dogmatic history must be 
 drawn, are not indeed equally copious and lucid in every 
 period, yet they are considerably numerous and rich in 
 all the periods. Among them, the public confessions of 
 faith, the decrees and acts of ecclesiastical councils, the 
 writings of persons in high authority in the church, and 
 the public liturgies, hold the first rank ; because they are 
 public documents. Next to them, must be ranked the 
 writings of the christian teachers in general, yet with dis- 
 crimination, for all are not of equal authority ; likewise 
 the accounts of the credible historians, are important and 
 useful. 
 
 Reference. C. W.Fr.WalcK's critical Account of the Sour- 
 ces of church history ; (in German,) Lips. 1770. 8vo. 
 is applicable to dogmatic history. 
 
 Sec. 6. Use to he made of these sources. 
 
 To deduce history from these sources, requires exten- 
 sive knowledge and great care. A discerning criticism 
 must discriminate the spurious works from the genuine ; 
 and must correct the falsified and incorrect passages, 
 which occur in works that are for the most part genuine. 
 A good knowledge of languages, and dexterity in in- 
 % terpreting, must disclose the true meaning of different ac- 
 counts. A sound judgment must, without partiality, es- 
 timate the value of all statements ; exclude fables and 
 groundless conjectures ; and induce caution, not to infer 
 
20 muenscher's elements 
 
 the opinions of a writer from insolated passages of his 
 works, nor to bend his words to a conformity with our 
 own system of belief; nor to confound the opinions of a 
 particular writer, with the general creed of the church. 
 Civil and ecclesiastical history, and the history of the 
 sciences, particularly of philosophy, and even scientific 
 theology itself, are necessary auodliaries to the study of 
 dogmatic history. 
 
 References. J. DailU^ de usu Patrum ad definienda reli- 
 gionis capita quae hodic sunt controversa. I. II. Ge- 
 neva, 1686. 4to. Matth, Scrivener, Apologia pro S. 
 ecclesiae Patribus adversus J. Dallaeum. Lond, 1672. 
 
 Sec. 7. Literature of dogmatic history. 
 In former times dogmatic history was either neglected, 
 or occasionally touched upon, in treatises on theology and 
 in ecclesiastical histories ; but was used almost exclusively 
 for polemical purposes. John Solomon Semler was the 
 man, who especially awakened attention to its importance ; 
 and he wrote on some parts of it, with accumen and inde- 
 pendence. Afterwards others labored to advance this 
 branch of history. 
 
 MST OF WORKS ON THE SUBJECT. 
 
 I. Works embracing the whole compass of dogmatic histo- 
 ry ; or commenced with that design. 
 
 A. Works by Catholics. 
 
 Dion. Petavii, Opus de theologicis dogmatibus. Paris, 
 1644—1660. V. tomi, Fol. with notes by Theophilus Ale- 
 thinus (John le Clerc) Antw. (Amstel.) 1700. VI. 
 tomi, Fol. 
 
 Dogmata theologica, authore Ludov. Thomassino. Paris, 
 1684-^89.111. vol. Fol. 
 
 Doctrina et Disciplina ecclesise ex ipsis verbis sacrorum 
 codicum, conciliorum, Patrum et veterum genuinorum 
 monumentorum secundum seriem temporis digesta et ex- 
 posita, studio et opera R. P. Ludovid Dumesnil. Tom. I. 
 —IV. Colon. 1730, Fol. 
 
 B. Works by Protestants. 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 21 
 
 lo Forbesii a Corse, Instructiones historico-theologica de 
 doctrina Christiana. Amstel. 1702. Arnoldi Montanh 
 Forbesius contractus, sive compendium Instructionum 
 historico-theolcgicum — Forbesii. Amstel. 8vo. 
 
 Manual of christian dogmatic history, (in German,) by W. 
 Milnscher, Vol. 1. and II. ed. 3d. Marpurg, 1817— IS.vol. 
 III. ed. 2d. ibid. 1818. vol. IV. ibid. 1809. 
 
 Elements of christian dogmatic history, (in German,) by John 
 Chr. Wil. Augusti. Lips. 1805. 8vo. 
 
 Manual of christian dogmatic history, (Danish,) by F, Mun- 
 Ur ; (German,) by J. P. G, Ewers. II. vol. 8vo. Got- 
 tingen, 1802—04. 
 C. Works by Unitarians. 
 
 History of the corruptions of Christianity, by Joseph Priest- 
 ley, LL. D. 3d ed. Boston, 1797. 11. vols. 12mo. 
 
 II. Works on the history of Dogmatics. 
 
 /. S. Semler\9 historical Introduction to theology ; (in Ger- 
 man,) prefixed to S. J. Baumgarten's evangelischer Glau- 
 benslehre. Halle, 1759—60. III. vol. 4to. 
 
 Essay of a History of the various methods of teaching the 
 articles of the christian faith, and of the most noticeable 
 systems and compendiums of theology ; (in German,) 
 by Ch. Gottl. Heinrich. Lips. 1790. 
 
 Full instructions in the christian faith; (in German,) by Ck. 
 Fr. Ammon. I. vol. in 2 parts. Nuremb. and Altorf. 
 1808. 
 
 III. Ecclesiastical Histories, which are most valuable for 
 dogmatic history. 
 
 Ecclesiastica Historia per aliquot pios et studiosos viros 
 
 in m-be Magdeburgica, Bas. 1569 — 74. XIII. Tomi. FoL 
 Caes. Baronii, Annales Ecclesiastici. Romae 1588 — 1607. 
 
 XII. vol. Fol. Odorici Raynaldi, Annales Eccles. 
 
 Rom. 1646—76. X. vol. Fol. Both together, Lucca, 
 
 1738—1759. XXXVIII. vol. Fol. 
 Natalis Alexandri, Historia Ecclesiastica ; Paris 1776 — 86. 
 
 XXVI. vol. 8vo. Venet, 1778. XL vol. Fol. 
 
 James Basnage, History of the Church ; (in French,) 1699. 
 XL Vol. Fol. 
 
 3* 
 
22 
 
 Jo. MattL Schroeckk, Christian church History ; (in Ger- 
 man,) 1768—1810. XLV. vol. 8vo. 
 
 J. E, Ch, ScJiimdt, Manual of christian church History ; 
 (in German; to the Reformation,) VI. vol. 8vo. Gies- I 
 sen and Darmst. 1801—20. ' 
 
 A, Neander, General history of the christian religion and 
 church ; (in German,) 1825. IV. vol. 8vo. to be con- 
 tinued. 
 
 IV. Systems of Theology, which contain something of dog- 
 matic history. 
 
 J Gerhardi, Loci theologici — denuo edidit J. Fried. Cotta. 
 Tubing. 1762—89. XXII. vol. 4to. 
 
 G, F, Seileri, Theologia dogmatico-polemica, cum com- 
 pendio histor. dogmat. 3d. ed. Erl. 1789. 8vo. 
 
 /. F, Gruner, Institutionum theologiae dogmatic®, I — III. 
 Hallae, 1777. 8vo. 
 
 J. Christopher Doederlein, Institutio theologi christiani in 
 capitibus religionis theoreticis ; ed. 6, Altorf. 1799. II. 
 vols. 8vo. 
 
 Elements of theology and of dogmatical history ; (in Ger- 
 man,) by C. Fr. Stdudlin, 3d ed. 1809. 8vo. 
 
 Commentarii historici decretorum religionis christianse et 
 formulae Lutheriae, scripsit Christ. Dan. 5^cA:. Lips. 1801, 
 8vo. 
 
 J. A. L. Wegscheider, Institutiones theol. christ. dogmata- 
 ticae, addita singulorUm dogmatum historia et censura ; 
 ed. 2, Hallae, 1817. 8vo. 
 
 Sec. 8. Method in dogmatic history. 
 Since it has been admitted, that dogmatic history is 
 not to be regarded as a mere appendage to church history 
 or to dogmatic theology, but that it deserves to be treat- 
 ed independently ; different methods for its execution 
 have been proposed, and some of them have been put in 
 practice. Some writers prefer a mere chronological ar- 
 rangement; others a classification of the materials; and 
 others again would combine both. The objects of an 
 elementaiy history may perhaps be best secured, by as- 
 
OP DOGMATIC HISTORY, 23 
 
 suming certain long periods of time ; and by giving, first 
 a general view of the state of theology, and then a his- 
 torical account of the principal doctrines held in each pe- 
 riod. It appears not unsuitable, to make three periods : 
 I. The early ages, A. D. 1—600. II. The middle ages, 
 A. D. 600—1517. III. Modern times, A. D. 1517— 
 down to the present day. 
 
 Remark. On method in dogmatic history, see J. Chr, W. 
 Augusti neuen theol. Blattern, vol. II. P. II. p. 11 — 22. 
 W, M. L, de Wette uber Religion und Theologie. Bar- 
 hn, 1815, 8vo. P. II. cap. iv. von der Christlichen Dog- 
 mengeschichte, p. 167 — 193, 
 
FIRST PERIOD. 
 
 THE EARLY AGES. A. D. 1 600. 
 
 Works, J, S, Semler^s historical Introduction, (in German,) 
 prefixed to S.J. Baumgarten's Untersuchungen theologis- 
 Cher Streitigkeiten. Halle, 1762-64. III. vol. 4to. 
 
 Doctrinal belief of the christian church in the three first cen- 
 turies; (in German, by Ch. Fr. Rosier,) Frankf. 1775. 
 8vo. Rosier^ s Library of the Fathers, in translations and 
 abridgments; (in German,) Lips, 1776-86. X. vol. Bvo. 
 G. D. Fuch''s Library of the ecclesiastical Councils; (in 
 German,) Lips, 1780-84. IV. vol. 8vo. 
 
 Essays on the dogmatic history of the ancient Greek church, 
 to the time of Clemens Alexandrinus; (in German, by J. 
 Fr, Gaab,) Jena, 1790. 8vo. 
 
 A full history of doctrines, as held by the Fathers; (in Ger- 
 man,) by Sam, Gottl. Lange, 1 vol. Lips, 1796. 
 
 History of the faith of Christians, from the age of Athana- 
 sius, to Gregory the Great; (in German,) by J. Chr, Fr. 
 Wundemann. Lips, 1798-99. II. vol. 8vo. 
 
 Antiquity of ecclesiastical doctrines; (in German,) by J, 
 Ullr. Roder. Coburg, 1812. 8vo. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 GENERAL VIEW OF THE STATE OF THEOLOGY. 
 
 Sec. 9. Jesus Christ. 
 The Jewish nation was distinguished from the surround- 
 ing nations, by giving homage to the one God, in accord- 
 ance with their sacred books ; with a splendid worship and 
 numerous ceremonies. As the original character of the 
 Mosaic religion was disfigured by speculations, by narrow 
 conceptions, and immoral practices, Jesus Christ ap- 
 peared, as one sent from God, for the purpose of estab- 
 
muenscher's elements, etc. 25 
 
 lishing a kingdom of God on the earth. His doctrine was 
 simple and practical, and was exhibited as occasions drew 
 it forth. Yet in compass and extent, it far surpassed the 
 Jewish ; and it embraced the superlative germs of truth, 
 for the profounder reflection and investigations of the suc- 
 ceeding ages. 
 
 Reference, Fr. V, Reinhard on the plan which the foun- 
 der of the christian religion devised, for the benefit of 
 mankind ; (in German,) 4th ed. 1798. 
 
 Sec. 10. The Apostles. 
 The apostles, who continued to propagate and spread 
 the doctrines of Christ, and who were led by their circum- 
 stances to explain those doctrines more fully, compensa- 
 ted for their lack of a learned education by their deep 
 feeling, their noble spirit, and their devout sense of reli- 
 gion. Notwithstanding it has been questioned,- whether 
 they all, with equal success, penetrated into the whole 
 system of their master's doctrine, yet it is certain that the 
 Spirit of Jesus animated them all. Paul, who was one 
 of them, and the most active among them, employed his 
 Jewish learning in explaining and enforcing Christianity.* 
 
 Sec. 11. Opinions of the early Christians. 
 
 The views and the convictions of such as united with 
 the christians, in the earliest times, could not but be ex- 
 ceedingly various and unlike ; for they had differed ex- 
 tremely in religion, in education, in habits, and other cir- 
 cumstances; and it must have been a considerable time, 
 before the community could annihilate, or even diminish 
 greatly, the peculiarities of individuals. JHere, labored 
 zealous teachers, (the apostolic fathers,) in the true spirit 
 
 * Had the translator felt himself at liberty to express his own 
 views, he would in this section have given far more distinctness 
 and prominence to those miraculous gifl*^ or that divine inspiration^ 
 which Christ promised to his disciples, to qualify them for their of- 
 fice. But such liberty was not allowable in a translation : and the 
 translator begs leave to remind the reader, that the privale opinions 
 and theological hypotheses, occasionally appearing among the his- 
 torical facts in different parts of the work, are always those of the 
 author^ who alone is responsible for them. 
 
26 
 
 of the apostles, though with diminished power. TAere, 
 other christians formed a closer union with Judaism, 
 And a third class, (the Gnostics,) wishing to separate 
 Christianity altogether from Judaism, shaped it according 
 to their own speculations. 
 
 Sec. 12. The Church and its Creed. 
 
 The disorders arising from this diversity of views, and 
 which tended to the prostration of the christian cause, 
 might contribute, at least, to induce various churches to 
 unite together, and to acknowledge none as true chris- 
 tians, who did not embrace a definite but simple creed. 
 A belief in the Father, as the Creator of the world ; in 
 the Son, who became a man and died for the salvation of 
 men ; in the Holy Ghost, who guided the ancient pro- 
 phets, as well as the aposdes ; joined with the expectation 
 of a future judgment and divine retribution ; were the 
 chief articles of this creed, which was propagated by oral 
 instruction. Yet with it, the holy scriptures of the Old 
 Testament, were used ; and gradually also, the writings of 
 the apostles and the apostohcal Fathers. 
 Note. A Creed is given by Ireneus, adv. Haeres. L. I. c. 
 
 10. by Tertulliarit deYe\3.nd\sY'\rgin, c. l.de Praescript. 
 
 Haeres. c. 13. contra Prax. c.2. and by Origin, de Prin- 
 
 cip. Prefatio. {Schiitz) Progr. de]Regula fidei apud Ter- 
 
 tullianum ; Jenae, 1781. 4to. 
 
 Sec. 13. The received Theology, 
 About the middle of the second century, various per- 
 sons joined the christian community, who were no stran- 
 gers to Grecian learning and science. They needed and 
 employed this knowledge and their intellectual \ngor, in 
 the various conflicts in which the church was involved. 
 Pagans and Jews slandered Christianity; and writers ap- 
 peared against it. These were answered by apologies. 
 The sects which were excluded from the churches, 
 sought revenge; and they framed bold systems of belief. 
 Within the church, the seeds of new controversies sprung 
 up. Thus occasion was afforded for apologies, and for 
 controversial writings; and new statements and expositions 
 
 I 
 
1^ OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 27 
 
 of the christian doctrines were introduced, in which the 
 Bible and tradition were used as the sources of know- 
 ledge, and philosophy employed as an auxiliary. 
 
 Reference, Jno. G, Rosenmiiller, de christianae theologiae 
 origine liber. Lips, 1786. 8vo. 
 
 Sec. 14. Estimation of the Bible, 
 The Old Testament was received, as a divine revela- 
 tion, by the general church, but not by the Gnostics and 
 Manichaeans, Yet some esteemed only the books writ- 
 ten in Hebrew as divine, while others included those also 
 which were found in Greek. By the Manichaeans, the 
 books of the New Testament were not regarded as the 
 genuine productions of the apostles; and previously, 
 Marcion had denied the authority of all the apostles ex- 
 cept Paul, and had used only one gospel and two epistles 
 of Paul. The Catholics, from the middle of the second 
 century, received with one voice the four gospels, the 
 book of Acts, the Pauline epistles, and the first epistles of 
 Peter and John ; but they held different opinions respect- 
 ing the other books. Divine inspiration was predicated, 
 equally, of the Old and New Testaments, and no person 
 was prohibited from reading either. 
 References, (Corodi^) Essay for elucidating the History of 
 the Jewish and Christian biblical Canons ; (in German,) 
 Halle, 1792. n. vol. 8vo. Contributions to the History 
 of the New Testament Canon ; (in German,) by Chr. 
 Fried, Weber; Tubing. 1791. Critical History of the 
 New Testament Scriptures ; (in German,) by J. E. Chr. 
 Schmidt; Giessen, 1804. II. vol.8vo. Chr,W,Fr. Walchy 
 Critical investigation of the use made of the Holy Scrip- 
 tures in the four first centuries ; (in German,) Lips. J 779. 
 8vo. Compare G. E. Lessing's Theological Remains ; 
 (in German,) Berlin, 1784. 8vo. 
 
 Sec. 15. Use of the Bible. 
 The teachers, with the exception only of Origen and 
 Jerome, depended entirely on the Greek and Latin trans- 
 lations of the Old Testament. And, in the New Tesr 
 tament, many Latins followed solely their version. The 
 
28 muenscher's elements 
 
 interpretation of the Bible was not based on sound princi- 
 ples, and run much into allegorical meanings. The theory 
 of interpretation proposed by Origen, was not indeed 
 embraced in all its parts by the succeeding fathers, yet 
 was often partially adopted. The pure grammatical ex- 
 positions, attempted in the East, by Theodorus of Mop- 
 suestia, after the fourth century, met with little encourage- 
 ment. John Chrysostom, following the laxer principles 
 of the Antiochean school, met with more approbation. 
 The occasional disagreements, between the received doc- 
 trines and the Bible, were adjusted by recurrence to the 
 principle of accommodation, supposed to be adopted by 
 the writers of the Bible ; yet Irenaeus and Augustine de- 
 clared against it. 
 
 Reference, J, G. Rosenmulleri, Historia interpretationis 
 
 Jibrorum sacrorum in ecclesia Christiana ; in V. Parts. 
 
 Hildburgh. 1795—1807. Lips, 1813-14. 8vo. 
 Fr.A.Carus, Historia antiquior sententiarum ecclsiae grae- 
 
 cae, de accommodatione Christo imprimis et Apostolis 
 
 tributa. Lips, 1793. 4to. 
 
 Sec. 16. Tradition, 
 
 Tradition was at first the primary, and afterwards con- 
 tinued to be the secondary, source of a knowledge of Chris- 
 tianity. On tradition was founded the decision respect- 
 ing the Canon of the Bible. It was resorted to, as a rule 
 for interpreting the scriptures, and as a means of ascer- 
 taining the doctrines of Christianity, and for the confuta- 
 tion of opposers. The decisions of ecclesiastical councils, 
 and the writings of eminent divines, continually widened 
 the compass and extent of traditional knowledge. A way 
 was also devised, for removing or concealing the difficul- 
 ties, which attended the use of tradition, arising from the 
 contradictory opinions advanced by the older fathers. 
 Vincentius of Lirins gave a system of rules, to be used in 
 appealing to tradition. Besides the public traditions of 
 the church, the Gnostics, and likewise some Catholic fa- 
 thers, as Clemens Alexandrinus, made pretensions to pri- 
 vate traditions, which were preserved by the apostles and 
 their confidential disciples. 
 
OF DOGEATIC HISTORY. 29 
 
 Reference, H. P. Marheinecke, on the meaning of Tra- 
 dition in the Catholic System ; (in German,) in Daub u. 
 Creutzer's Studien. vol. IV. 2. p. 320. «Sz^c. 
 
 Sec. 17. Philosophy. 
 
 Some Gnostics had previously mixed up philosophical 
 speculations with Christianity 5 but it was past the middle 
 of the second century, when the catholic fathers began to 
 make use of philosophy. However hazardous it was, in 
 the view oi Irenams and TertuUian, to combine philoso- 
 phy with Christianity ; in the view of the Alexandrian fa- 
 thers, it was deemed necessary and salutary. They were, 
 indeed, far from preferring Grecian philosophy to the de- 
 clarations of Jesus Christ ; and likewisejfrom paying abso- 
 lute homage to any philosophical sect whatever, though 
 they valued Plato above all the other philosophers ; but 
 they used philosophy as an auxiliary, to elucidate and 
 confirm the christian doctrines, and to impress their truth 
 upon the educated Pagans. And there continued to be, 
 afterwards, different opinions respecting the utility of phi- 
 losophy ; which, however, had less and less influence on 
 the articles of christian faith, as the tenets of the general 
 church became more definitely fixed. 
 
 References. J. A, G. Neander, de fidei gnoseosque idea, 
 et ea, qua ad se invicim et ad philosophiam referantur, 
 ratione secundum Clementem Alexand. Heidelb, 1811. 
 8vo. 
 
 Le Platonisme "de voile (par Souverain,) a Cologne 1700, 
 Bvo. — and in German, by J. F, Ldffler, ed. 2. Ziillich. 
 1792. Bvo. 
 
 {Baltus^) Defense de Saints Peres accuses du Platonisme. 
 Paris, 1711. 4to. 
 
 Laur Mosheim, Diss, de turbata per recentiores Platonicos 
 ecclesia ; in his Dissertt. ad Historiam eccles. vol. 1. ed. 
 1743. 
 
 Histoire critique de 1' electicisme, ou des nouveaux Platoni- 
 ciens. Paris, 1766. 2 vols. 12mo. 
 
 C. A. Theoph, Keil, de doctoribus ecclesiae culpa corruptae 
 
 4 
 
30 MUENSCHER S ELEMENTS. 
 
 per Platonicas sententias Theologiae liberandis ; Com- 
 mentatt. I— XIV. Lips. 1793, &,c. 
 History of Philosophy ; (in German,) by W. Gottl. Tenne- 
 mann. 7th vol. Lips. 1809. 
 
 Sec. 18. Character of the Theologians. 
 From the sources and auxiliaries now described, the- 
 ological systems were framed. The Asiatic teachers, as 
 Irenaeus, kept nearer to the apostolical simplicity. The 
 African, Tertullian, distinguished himself by a more 
 gloomy strictness, and by a glowing imagination. The 
 Alexandrians, among whom Clement was prominent^ 
 shewed more freedom of thought, and a more metaphys- 
 ical disposition, and made a distinction between the popu- 
 lar belief and scientific investigations, (*»5<? and ^vwCtg.) 
 
 [References. A. Neander, General History of the Christian 
 religion and church : (in German.) vol. L P. HI. p. 861 
 — 957, ed. Hamb. 1827.] 
 
 Idea of the perfectability of Christianity, entertained by the 
 Gnostics and the Manichaeans, by the Montanists, by 
 Origen and Vincent of Lirins. 
 
 Sol, Deyling, Irenaeus evangelicae veritatis confessor et tes- 
 tis : — in his Observatt. miscellaneis. p. 3. — J, G, Walchy 
 de Clemente Alexandrino et ejus erroribus ; in his Mis- 
 cell, sacris. p. 510. 
 
 Sec. 19. Origen. 
 In the Alexandrian school arose Origen, who excel- 
 led all the other teachers in learning and untiring activity. 
 He not only defended Christianity against Celsus, but, in 
 his work de Principiis {'^^spi ap;)^wv,) made the first at- 
 tempt to philosophise on christian doctrines in their con- 
 nections. His chief object was, to shew that the wisdom 
 and goodness of the divine govenment were in harmony 
 with the freedom of man's will. The many peculiar 
 ideas and hypotheses which he advanced, are worthy ol 
 attention, although not received into the prevailing sys- 
 tem of belief. Even in his life time, and still more after 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 31 
 
 his death, he was held in very different estimation. Far 
 less was the influence of the Latin fathers, Cyprian^ No* 
 vatian, Arnobius, and Latantius, in perfecting system- 
 atic theology. 
 
 Reference. P. Dan, Huet, Origeniana : — in Origen's 
 Works, ed. de la Rue. torn. IV. 
 
 Sec 20. Christianity, as the prevailing Religion. 
 
 Soon after the commencement of the fourth century, 
 a great change took place, when the Roman Emperors 
 professed themselves Christians ; and the consequences 
 in regard to theology, were extensive and important. 
 Now, the court concerned itself with points of faith 
 among christians. Now, theological controversies were 
 decided and creeds established, by general councils. 
 Now, certain distinguished bishops in the principal sees, 
 had the chief concern in defining the articles of faith. 
 The rapid spread of monkery, infused its spirit into the 
 theologians. The prevailing belief was still defended by 
 arguments from the Bible and from tradition ; but strict 
 orthodoxy was esteemed of higher importance ; and a 
 mysterious efficacy was more and more ascribed to reli- 
 gious rites and usages. Freedom of inquiry was cramp- 
 ed ; and deceptive reasoning was sometimes allowed of 
 in theology. 
 
 Sec. 21. Religious controversies. 
 
 The religious controversies, which were carried on 
 with the greatest vehemence, contributed very much, to 
 shape the system of theology. There was controversy 
 with the Manichaeans, respecting the origin of evil, and 
 respecting divine providence ; and with the Donatists, 
 respecting the true notion of a church. The Arian con- 
 test procured for Athanasius, the reputation of being the 
 father of orthodoxy, and afforded Basil of Cesarea, Hi- 
 lary of Poictiers, and the two Gregorys, an opportunity 
 to display their talents. The Pelagian contest put in 
 jrequisition the unceasing activity of Augustine. The 
 
protracted quarrel respecting the person of Christ, the 
 seeds of which were sowed in the fourth century, but 
 attained maturity in the fifth, attracted general attention ; 
 though Cyril of Alexandria, Theodoret and Leo the 
 Great, were the most prominent in it ; as Facundus, Bp» 
 of Hermiane, was in the dispute concerning the Three 
 Chapters. The Romish Bishop, Gregory the great, clo- 
 ses the list of distinguished fathers in this period. 
 
 Sec. 22. System of Theology. 
 While some controverted points of doctrine were ex- 
 amined with diligence, very little was done for advan- 
 cing the general system of theology. Some efforts for a 
 popular exhibition of it, were made by Cyril of Jerusa- 
 lem, Rvfinus, Theodoret, and Gennadius, The more 
 full religious instruction by Gregory of Nyssa, was in- 
 tended for the use of the learned. An abundance of 
 materials for an occidental system of theology, was pre- 
 pared by Augustine ; who brought into circulation many 
 new views, to which his influence gave currency. 
 
 References, Sol. Deyling, Cy rill us Hierosol. a corrupte- 
 lis Pontificiorum purgatus ; in his Observatt. Miscell. p. 
 116. — [Engelstofft^) Hieronymus Stridoniensis, interpres, 
 criticus, exegeta, &c. Hafniae, 1797. 8vo. 
 
 Sec. 23. Decline of theologicalleaming. 
 After the middle of the fifth century, theological 
 learning depreciated. There were no seminaries, for the 
 education of religious teachers. A disposition to make 
 investigation, gave place to a servile repetition of what 
 had been said by others ; and compilations appeared, in- 
 stead of original works. Ignorance and superstition got 
 the upper hand ; and a tenacious adherence to the decis- 
 ions of ecclesiastical councils and of the eminent fathers, 
 characterized the theologians. Junilius sketched the 
 plan of a system ; and the spurious writings of Dyoni^ 
 sius the Areopagite, encouraged the inclination to su-* 
 perstitious creations of the imagination. 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 33 
 
 Meferences, Junilius, de Parti bus legis divinae Lib. 11. — 
 Jo, Dalle, de Scriptis, quae sub Dyonisii Areopagitae et 
 Ignatii Antioch. nomine circuiriferunler. Genev. 1666. 
 4to. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 HISTORY OF PARTICULAR DOCTRINES. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 DOCTRINE OF THE KINGDOM OF CHRIST. 
 
 Sec. 24. Origin of the Idea, 
 The Jewish nation expected a kingdom, to be estab- 
 lished by the Messiah ; and this idea Jesus did not reject, 
 but only elevated and improved it. The christians were 
 distinguished from the Jews, by considering the Mes- 
 siah as already come, and by their anticipation of his 
 second coming in glory. The approaching kingdom of 
 the Messiah was, by most christians, described with sensi- 
 ble imagery, after the Jewish manner. Thus was form- 
 ed the doctrine of Chiliasm ; which was embraced by the 
 heretic Cerinthus,{l) as well as by the Bp. Papias,{2,) 
 
 (1) Buseh H. E. III. c. 28. Theodoret, Haeret. II. c. 3. 
 
 (2) Irenaeus, adv. Haeres. V. c. 33, and Euseb. H. E. III. 
 c. 39. 
 
 Reference. De regno Christi in N. T. formulis ^cudiksioLZ 
 0SX, &c. expresso ; Excursus II. in the Koppian N. Test, 
 on E p. to the Thess. — C. A. TL Keil, Historia dogmatis 
 de regno Messiae, Christi et Apostolorum aetate ; Lips. 
 1781, 4to. — I. C Rud. Eckermann^s Theological con- 
 tributions : (in German,) vol. II. P. I. p. 67. — C. CJir. 
 Flatt, Diss, de notione vocis ^oLdiKsioL <rwv oupav6jv. Tubing. 
 1794, 4to. 
 
 W. Miinscher, Historical account of the doctrine of a thou- 
 sand years reign, as held in the three first centuries : (in 
 4* 
 
34 
 
 German,) in Henke's Magazin fiir Religionsphiloso- 
 phie, u. s. w. vol. VI. P. II. p. 233 &c.— (Corodi.) 
 Critical history of Chiliasm; (in German,) ed. 2. 1794, IV. 
 vol. 8vo. 
 
 Sec. 25. Friends and opposers of Chiliasm. 
 The Gnostics (1) were decided opposers of the thou- 
 ^isend years reign : yet in the second century, the doc- 
 trine came near to being accounted a part of the ortho- 
 dox faith, and was defended by the most reputable fa- 
 thers, as Justin Martyr (2), Irenaeus (3), and Tertulli" 
 an (4). The Montaiiists, appear to have been much 
 attached to this doctrine. On the contrary, it met with 
 opposition from some Catholics, particularly those of Al- 
 exandria; and Origen[b) labored with great zeal, to banish 
 from the church an opinion, which he deemed to be Jew- 
 ish and degrading to Christianity. 
 
 (1) Miinscher^s Manual of dogmatic history, vol. II. Sec. 
 272, Walck's History of Heresies, vol. I. p. 515. 
 
 (2) Dial, cum Tryph. p. 177, 178, 202, 203. 
 
 (3) adv. Haeres. V. 25—36. 
 
 (4) contra Marcion. III. c. 24. 
 
 (5) Proleg. in Cantic. 0pp. T. III. p. 26. de Princip. 
 L. II. ell. Opp. T. I. p. 104— in Psalm. Opp. II. p. 
 570— in Matth. Opp. III. p. 827. contra Gels. IV. Opp. 
 L p. 516. 
 
 Sec. 26. Last struggles of Chiliasm. 
 Notwithstanding the efforts of Origen, Chiliasm contin- 
 ued to find advocates. Methodius ( 1 ) and Hippolytus (2) 
 were its patrons ; and the Egyptian Bishop, Jfepos, (3) 
 undertook to confute the arguments of Origen. But JDi- 
 onysius of Alexandria (4) espoused the side of Origen, 
 and he brought the Chiliasts, and their champion Cora- 
 don, to renounce it. From that time, the reigning pro- 
 pensity to this doctrine declined ; especially, as the rela- 
 tions of the church to the Roman government became 
 changed. Yet the doctrine was held by individuals, so 
 late as the fourth century ; among whom were Lactan- 
 tius (5) Apollinaris, (6) and vaiious western chris- 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. *^$ 
 
 tians (7.) Even Augustine^ (8) at first, admitted a 
 thousand years reign of Christ, though a spiritual one : 
 but he afterwards gave up that idea. 
 
 (1) Sympos. X, Virgin, p. 129. 
 
 (2) SeeP/io^m5,Bibloth. cod. 202. p. 525. 
 
 (3) Euseh. H. E. VII. c. 24. 
 
 (4) Euseh. 1. c. 
 f5J Institt. divin. L. VII. c. 14—26. 
 
 (6) Epiphan. Haeres. LXXVII. Sec. 26. j'O 
 
 (7) Jerome, Prooem. in Lib. XVII. Jesaiae, 0pp. Toni.{¥. ^/>. 
 p. 203 <S^c. \t\ "^6 
 
 (8) Sermo CLTX. Opp. Tom. V. p. 1060. de CivitVwSj* 
 Dei. XX. c. 7. Retract. I. c. 17. ^^^lI: 
 
 Sec. 27. Doctrine oj the Resurrection. 
 Sources of the history of it. — Besides occasional notices; 
 see Justin Martyr, Airoki^is resurrectioniscnrnis. — Athe- 
 nagoras^ de Resurrectione Liber. — Tertullian,de Resur- 
 rectione carnis. — Origen, de Principiis L. II. c. 10. — 
 Cyril of Jerusalem, Calech. XVIII. — Gregory Nyssen^ 
 de Anima et Resurrectione. — Ambrose, de Fide resur- 
 rectionis.— Aw^M^/iwe, de Civitate Dei, L. XXII. 
 
 Histories of the doctrine. Fides dogmatis de Resurrectione 
 carnis per IV. priora secula. Enarratio historico-criti- 
 ca; by W. Alb. Teller, Halle and Helmst, 1766. 8vo. 
 History of opinions, concerning the state of man after 
 death, in the christian church ; (in German,) by Ch. W, 
 FUgge, Lips. 1799—1800. II. vols. 8vo. 
 
 This doctrine was closely connected with that of Chil- 
 iasm ; and with it, passed from the Jews to the Chris- 
 tians. Those who suffered death under persecution, 
 before the full establishment of the Messiah's kingdom, 
 were not to be excluded from its blessedness. The Mes- 
 siah, it was supposed, would recall them to life again. 
 Jesus himself taught a resurrection of the dead; and 
 Paul advanced a beautiful theory concerning it. But 
 the Chiliasts maintained the restoration of the former 
 bodies of men, with all their parts and members ; and 
 endeavored to make this to be conceivable. Justin Mar- 
 
36 muenscher's elements 
 
 tyr and TertulUan composed their treatises on the re- 
 surrection, with these views. 
 
 Sec. 28. Opposition to this grosser theory. 
 The Gnostics could not admit, at all, the doctrine of 
 a resurrection ; because it contravened one of their funda- 
 mental principles, that of the incurable malignancy of 
 matter. They, of course, anticipated rewards and pu- 
 nishments only for the soul. The Alexandrians, Ch- 
 mens{l) and Origen, (2) adhered indeed to the prevailing 
 doctrine of a resurrection of the body ; but they discard- 
 ded the idea, that the entire human body, with all its 
 parts and members, would be restored to its former con- 
 dition ; and maintained, that God would bestow on men 
 more refined bodies, better suited to their elevated state. 
 In this they were influenced by the Platonic notions, that 
 the body is a shackle to the soul,(3) and that human souls 
 existed before the creation of this material world. 
 
 (1) Paedag. 11. c. 10. and III. c. 1,4. 
 
 (2) de Princip. Prooem. Sec. 5. p. 48. — contra Cels. V. 690 
 594 &c. and Lib. VIII. p. 777 &c. and Lib. II. c. 2, 3, 10. 
 
 (3) Clemens Alex. Strom. IV. p. 5G9. 
 
 Sec 29. Subsequent history of the doctrine. 
 The opinions of the Gnostics was again advanced 
 by the Manicheans -,[!) but was absolutely rejected by 
 the church. On the other hand, the grosser theory, 
 (which however was detached from its connexion with 
 Chiliasm,) and the more refined theory of Origen, both 
 held their place in the church, for a long time ;(2) until, 
 Epiphanius{3) and Jerome,[4) in their controversy with 
 John bishop of Jerusalem and Rujinus, pressed closely 
 the letter of the creed, that the same bodies with all their 
 former parts and members, would be raised again. Even 
 Jlugustine{b) finally declared himself of this opinion; 
 and the opposite opinion sunk more and more into dis- 
 repute, till at length the Emperor Jw5^imaw(6) proscribed 
 it. Yet subsequently, all disagreements in the explana- 
 tion of the doctrine were not entirely at an end.(7) 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 37 
 
 (t) TheodoreU Epit. Haer. Lib. I. c. 26. 
 
 (2) Miinscher^s Handbu. vol. IV. p. 438 &.c. 
 
 (3) Ancor. § 89—102. Haeres LIV. § 63 &c. 
 
 (4) Adv. errores Joannis Hieros.ad Pammach.Opp.Tom.IL 
 p. 118, &c. Epitaph. Paulae, ad Eustoch. Opp. Tom* 
 
 I. p. 117. Apol. contra Rufin. L. II. 0pp. II. p. 145. 
 
 (5) Enchirid. ad Laurent, c. 86, 87,89—91. deCivitate 
 Dei. XXIL C.13— 21. 
 
 (6) Mansi, Concil. Tom. IX. p. 400, 616. 
 
 (7) Miinscher, 1. c. p. 449 &c. 
 
 Sec. 30. The intermediate state. 
 
 The inquiries respecting the resurrection, and thecom* 
 mencement of the future retributions, unavoidably brought 
 up the question, What is the state of the soul, when it is 
 separate from the body .'' In answering it, the early fathers 
 combined the old notion of a region of shades, with the 
 doctrine of recompense after death. All souls, said they, 
 pass immediately, after death, into the lower world ; where 
 the good, severed from the others, enjoy a foretaste of 
 blessedness, and the bad have a foretaste of punishment; 
 until the time of full retribution, after the resurrection. 
 Yet the souls of martyrs, have the privilege of going, im- 
 mediately after death, to heavenly bliss. The place of 
 residence for good souls, that died after Christ's day, was 
 different from AhraharrCs bosom, or the residence of the 
 souls that died before Christ, — out of which, however, 
 Christ had removed them. 
 
 Reference. Irenaeus, adv. Haeres. II. c. 34. V. c. 6, 31. 
 Justin Martyr, Dial. p. 107, 178, 200. TertuUian, de 
 Anima. c. 7, 43, 65,68. de Resurrect, c. 17, 43. Apolo- 
 get. c. 47. de Monog. c. 10, contra Marcion, IV. c. 34. 
 Origen, 0pp. Tom. I. p. 36, 106, 213,434, 696 &c. Tom. 
 
 II. p. 222, 372, 496 &c. Hippolytus, 0pp. ed Fabric. 
 Tom I. p. 220. 
 
 Treatise on the belief of the Fathers respecting the state of 
 souls after the present life : (in French,) by Dav, Blon- 
 deh Charenton, 1661, 4to. 
 
38 muenscher's elements 
 
 S, L Baumgarten, Historia doctrinae de statu animarum 
 separatarum ; Halle, 1754. 4to. 
 
 Jo, Aug. Dietelmair, Historia dogmatis de descensu Christi 
 ad inferos, ed. 2. 1768. 8vo. 
 
 J, S. Semler, Observatio historico-dogmatica, de vario fet im- 
 parl studio veterum in recolenda Historia descensus Christi 
 ad inferos; Hal. 1776. 4to. 
 
 Dogmatis de descensu I. C. ad inferos Historiam biblicam 
 atque ecclesiasticam, composuitJ. CZaw56n.Hafn.1801.8vo 
 
 Sec. 31. Subsequent modifications. 
 As martyrdoms became less frequent, the privilege of 
 immediate admission to the world of glory, was extended 
 beyond the class of martyrs, to persons of distinguished 
 piety, particularly to]ascetics and monks. And now, Au- 
 gustine{l) fell upon the idea, that the place of other souls, 
 which were destined to glory, but were not quite fit for it 
 at leaving the body, was a place oi purgation. As pre- 
 paring the way for this idea, it had been customary, from 
 the earliest times, to pray for the souls of the dead ;(2) 
 and various early fathers had mentioned a purifying fire; 
 which, however, they placed in the process of the gene- 
 ral judgment, or subsequent to it. (3) 
 
 (1) de Civitate Dei. XXI. c. 13, 24, 26. contra Julian. VI. 
 c. 15. § 46, and 0pp. Tom VI. p. 127, 128, 180, 181. 
 
 (2) Tertull. de Monog. c, 10. contra Marcion. III. c. 24. 
 Epipkan, Haeres. LXXV. § 3, 7. Cyril. Hieros. Ca- 
 tech. XXIII. § 9, 10. Chrysost. in Ep. ad Philip. Ho- 
 mil. III.— in Ep. I. ad Cor. Homil. XLI. 
 
 (3) Methodius-, in Photius, Biblioth. Cod. 234, p. 923. 
 Lactantius. Instit. div. VII. c. 21. 
 
 Sec. 32. Purgatory fully established. 
 The theory advanced without assurance by Augustine, 
 was held up as certain, by Caesarius[l) of Aries, and 
 Gregory(2) the Great. According to them, the souls which 
 had been guilty ot venial sins, but had not done ade- 
 quate penance for them in this life, would suffer, according 
 to the degree of their guilt, a longer or shorter time, after 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY* 59 
 
 deathjin a fire of purgation; and then would pass into the place 
 of the blessed. The anguish of these souls, moreover, 
 may be mitigated, or curtailed, by the prayers and the good 
 works of tlie living. 
 
 (1) Homil. VIII. extant in the Biblioth. max. Patr. Tom. 
 VIII. p. 826-28. and in 0pp. Augustini, Tom. V. Ap- 
 pend. Serm. CIV. p. 185. 
 
 (2) Dialog. Lib. IV. c. 39, 40, 65. 
 
 Sec. 33. Hell 
 
 Hell, (Gehenna,) or the place of the damned, was totally 
 distinct from the fire of purgatory. On the duration of hell- 
 torments, there was not perfect uniformity of sentiment. 
 Some, as Arnobius,[l) and perhaps Justin Martyr, sup- 
 posed the punishment would end, in the annihilation of 
 those who sufiered it. Origen[2) allowed to the damned 
 a hope of their reformation and salvation ; and this idea is 
 seen to glimmer, even in the corrupt translation of his 
 writings by Rujinus. The similar views of Gregory{S) 
 of Nyssa, in many of his declarations, cannot be construed 
 away. Also the Antiochian fathers, Diodorus{4) of Tar- 
 sus, and Theodore{p) of Mopsuestia, believed in the ter- 
 mination of future punishment. Jerome insisted, indeed, 
 on the eternal punishment of all who rejected Christianity ; 
 but he allowed wicked christians to hope for a release. By 
 far the greater part of the fathers, however, declared them- 
 selves believers in the eternity of the torments of all the wick- 
 ed ;(6) and the zeal of the Emperor Jw^^ma/i caused the 
 ideas of Origen on this subject, to be anathematized. (7) 
 
 ( 1 ) adv. Gentes. Lib. II. p. 52, 86. 
 
 (2) de Princip. L.II. c. 3, 5, 6,10. Lib. IIL c. 6, 8, and 0pp. 
 Tom. L p. 23L Tom. IL p. 113, 115, 230. Tom. IIL p. 
 667. Yet he would conceal this doctrine from the peo- 
 ple, as being corrupting: contra Gels. L.III. pA99^ L.VI. 
 p. 650. L.V. p. 598, 599, and 0pp. Tom. II. p. 688, 889. 
 Tom. III. p. 267. 
 
 ( 3 ) Orat. catech. c. 8, 26, 85. 
 
40 muencher's elements 
 
 (4 and 6) See Assemann, Biblioth. Orient. T. III. P. I. p. 
 323, 324. 
 
 (6) Justin Martyr, Apol. II. p. 48, 60, 74. Dial. p. 141,223. 
 Tatian, Orat. ad Graec. p. 264 &c. Theoph. ad Autol. 
 p. 346. Irenaeus, adv. Haer. V. c. 27. Tertullian, 
 Apologet. c. 48. de Resurr. carnis c. 36. de Testimonio 
 Anim. c. 4. Mxnudus Felix, Octav. c. 36. Cyprian, 
 ad Demetr. p. 196. Lactantius, Instit. div. VII. c. 21, 
 26. Basilihe Great, 0pp. Tom. II. p. 607. torn. III. 
 p. 663. CynZ of Jerus. Cat. IV. § 30. XVIII. § 19. Hilary 
 of Poictiers, Comment, in Matth. c. V. § 12. p. 636. 
 Chrysostom, ad Theodor. lapsum. I. c. 6. 0pp. T. IV. p. 
 659. Augustine^ in many places ; e. g. Enchir. ad Laur. 
 c. Ill, 112. de Civiiate Dei. XXI. passim. Pelagius, 
 Symbol, in Walchii Bibl. symbol, p. 196. Cyril of A\- 
 exand. de Exitu animae &c. Opp, Tom. V. P. II. p, 
 409. Theodoret, in Isai. Opp. T. II. p. 396. Genna- 
 dius, de dogmat. eccles. c. 9. Fulgentius of Ruspe, de 
 Remiss, peccat. L. II. c. 13 &c. Cassiodorus, de Ani- 
 ma. c. 12. Gregory the Gr. Moral. IX. c. 38, Dialog. 
 IV. c. 44. 
 
 (7) Mansi Concil. IX. p. 399, 618. 
 
 References, J. A. Dietelmaier, Commenti fanatici a-roxa- 
 rag'atfscAig cravrwv Historia antiquior. Altorf. 1769, 8vo. 
 
 J.Fr,Cotta, Historia succincta dogmatis de poenarum infer- 
 nalium duratione. Tubing. 1774. 
 
 Hos. Ballou. (History of the doctrine of universal salvation :) 
 Boston, 1827. 12mo. 
 
 Sec. 34. Doctrine concerning the Church, 
 With the doctrine of the glorious kingdom of Christ, 
 and the rewards and punishments there to be expected, 
 the early christians connected the doctrine of the 
 church, as being the present kingdom of Christ, and the 
 institution which was preparatory to the future state of 
 glory. Though the society of christians was spoken 
 of by Jesus, as being one ; yet this unity had reference 
 solely to a moral oneness. Moreover, the first christ- 
 ian communities were bound together, only by their feel- 
 ings of brotherly love, and by their acts of kindness. 
 Ignatius, however, pressed upon christians, to adhere close- 
 ly to their respective Bishops. 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 41 
 
 Sec. 35. Unity of the general Church. 
 Before the end of the second century, the idea of 
 one churchy as an establishment of the apostles, spread 
 over the whole world, and harmonizing in doctrine, was 
 formed. Irenaeus, the first that expressed this idea, con- 
 nected with it the thoughts, that only in this catholic church 
 can the truth be found, and that all separations from 
 it are reprehensible. • By the African doctors, Tertullian 
 and Cyprian^ these thoughts were widely propagated; 
 and in the fourth century, the belief in one, holy, catholic, 
 and apostolic church, was made an article of the public 
 creed. 
 
 Reference, Cyprian, de Unitate ecclesiae Liber* 
 
 Sec. 36. Controversies respecting the marks of a true 
 church. 
 
 The Novatians declared their community to be, the on- 
 ly true church ; because all others had become corrupt, 
 by receiving the lapsed to fellowship. The same assump- 
 tion was made by the Donatists ; yet with this difference, 
 in the ground of it, that the other churches were con- 
 taminated, by their communing with Traditors. And 
 hence, Augustine took occasion, to represent Catholicism 
 as the sign of a true church ; so that purity in all its mem- 
 bers, was not requisite. His views were generally em- 
 braced. The Romish bishops began early, to seize upon 
 the idea, that it belonged to them to be the head of the 
 general church. 
 
 References. Optatus Milevit. de Schismate Donatistarum, 
 L. Vm. ed. L. E. Du Pin. Paris, 1701. Augustine, 
 contra Parmenianum Donatist.L.III. — contra Lileras Pe- 
 tiliani, L. iii. — de Unitate ecclesiae, L. I. — contra Cres- 
 conium Doiiat. L. IV. — contra Gaudentium Donat. L. IL 
 5 
 
42 muenschek's ei.ements 
 
 CHAPTER IL 
 
 doctrine concerning angels, and devils. 
 
 Histories of it. Jac Ode, Tractatus de Angelis ; Traj. acl 
 Rhen. 1739. 4to. J. Ft. Cotta, Diss. II, sucrinctam 
 , doctrinae de Angelis historiam exhihentes: Tubing. 1765. 
 4to, 
 
 Sec. 37. Existence of Angels, 
 With the belief of an approaching glorious kingdom ol 
 the Messiah, the Christians had also a belief of a power- 
 ful, but invisible kingdom of spirits, which had a constant 
 influence on the earth and on the state of men ; and this 
 belief, which they derived from the Jewish theology, was 
 to them of great importance, and very efficient in kindling 
 religious feelings. The angels were considered as be- 
 ings, who derived their origin from God, (though the 
 time and manner of their origin were differently repre* 
 sented,) who ranked above men, yet were not absolutely 
 uncorporeal ; and who were divided into two classes, 
 good and bad angels. 
 
 Reference, Justin Martyr^ Apol. maj. Sec. 6, p. 47. *E- 
 
 xSivov <rs (rov dXyj^sgarov ©sov xaj -rrarspa) x«i tov ^ap' aurs 
 Ciov sX^ovToc xat (5i5a|avTa >;//«a^ raura, xat «rGv twv ctXXwv 
 §«jrojxevwv xai ggofjLoiij|xgvwv a^a^wv d ^ ^ 5 X w v crparov, flrvsufJUJt 
 rs TO •rpo(pr]<rixov tfs^ofJt-FS^a xat 'jrp6a'xuvs|JL5v Xo^w xai ctXrj^sia 
 «r»|*wv<rs?. This passage is capable, indeed, of different 
 interpretations ; yet in any way, it shows the high import- 
 ance then attached to the doctrine concerning angels. 
 
 Sec. 38. Offices of the Angels, 
 
 The Crnostics ascribed to angels, the creation of the 
 material world, the enactment of the Jewish law, and the 
 inspiration of the ancient prophets. And the other christ- 
 tians were persuaded that God, in governing the world, 
 used the instrumentality of angels. An angel was as- 
 
Of DOGMATIC HISTORY. 48 
 
 Signed to each nation, as its overseer ; and to each per- 
 son, one or two guardian angels were appointed. This 
 last hypothesis was first published by Hermas, in his 
 Shepherd.(l) 
 
 (U Herman, Pastor, Mandat. VI. 
 
 Reference, F, Schmidt^ Historia dogmatis de Angelis tu- 
 telaribus, P. L in the memoirs of the Historico-theolo- 
 gical Society of Leipsic, edited by Illgen, Lips. 1818. 
 p. 24—71. 
 
 Sec. 39. Condition of the Angels. 
 The opinion of Origen^ that even the good angels 
 were not faultless, and beyond the danger of sinning, 
 was cried down by the later fathers ; who maintained, 
 that the angels had, through the grace of God, become 
 confirmed in holiness. That they were divided into 
 various classes, was frequently asserted; even before 
 the j)seudo'Dionysius Areopagita published a formal 
 theory on the subject. 
 
 Reference. Dionys, Areop. de Hierarchia coelesti. 
 
 Sec. 40. Invocation of angels. 
 However much the ancient churches might respect 
 the angels, the proofs of their praying to them are, at 
 least, not certain. The first intimation of it, is to be 
 found, in Ambrose :(1) and yet in his age, and even after- 
 wards, opinions against it are to be met with. Grego- 
 ry[2) the Great believed, that the angels were worship- 
 ped in the times of the Old Testament; but not, that 
 christians should worship them. 
 
 (\j de Viduis ; Opp. T. I. p. 146. 
 
 (2) Expos, in Cant. Cant. c. 8. Opp. T. II. p. 56. 
 
 See Euseb. Praep. Evan. VII. c. 15. Athanas. contra 
 Arian. Orat. IV. Council of Laodocea, Can. 35. in 
 Mansi Concil. T. U. p. 570. Epiphan. Haeret. 
 LXXIX. n. 5 and 7. 
 
44 
 
 Sec. 41. Apostacy of Angels. 
 That there were certain spirits, wicked by nature, and 
 of whom God was not the creator ; was maintained by 
 some Gnostic sects, by the Manichaens, and by the Pria- 
 cilianists. But in opposition to these sects, the catholic 
 church maintained, that the devil and his angels were 
 creatures, whom God created holy, and who had plunged 
 themselves into sin and wretchedness, by their own vol- 
 untary act. Respecting the first transgression of the 
 devil, there were different opinions ; yet the belief, that 
 many of the angels sinned, by having intercourse with 
 the daughters of men, was very general, in the early 
 ages(l) ; and was first controverted hy John ChrysostorUj 
 Augustine^ Cyril of Alexandria, and Theodoret. 
 
 (1) So thdught Eusebius, Praep. Evan. V. c. 4. Ambrose,. 
 de Noe et area. c. 4, and Sulpicius Severus, Hist. Sa- 
 cra I. c. 3. 
 
 Sec. 42. Power and influenee of evil spirits. 
 The early christians had terrific conceptions of the 
 power of demons ; yet they did not suppose it to be un- 
 limited, but regarded it as controled by God. The whole 
 worship of the pagans, they considered as paid to de- 
 mons, and as instituted by them. The persecutions of 
 the christians, the establishment of heresies, and innu- 
 merable temptations to sin, were attributed to their in- 
 fluence. Such as were not christians, were supposed to 
 be all under the dominion of the devil; who had no 
 power over christians, without their consent, and who took 
 to flight whenever they prayed or made the sign of the 
 cross. 
 
 Sec 43. The prospects of evil spirits. 
 
 That punishment and misery would be the lot of the 
 
 devil and the demons, was not doubted at all. That 
 
 they might one day be reclaimed and become happy, 
 
 was admitted by Origen ; but, though some respectable 
 
OP DOGMATIC HISTORY. 45 
 
 fathers, &s Didymus and Gregory of Nyssa, embraced 
 the same opinion, it was rejected by most of the fathers, 
 was violently assailed by Theophilus^ Jerome, and Au- 
 gustine, and was proscribed by the Emperor Justinian.(l) 
 
 (!) See the references, above, Sec. 33. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 'i'HE TRUTH OF THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION. 
 
 Sources of our information. The Gr. Apologists ; namely, 
 Justin Martyr^ ^PP« Tatian, Orat. Athenagoras, Le- 
 gatio ; Theophilus, ad Aotolyc. Libri IJL Hermias, 
 Irrisio gentil. Philosoph. ed, Benedict, (by Prudentius 
 Maran.) Hagae Com. 1742. Also Clemens Alex. Ex- 
 hort, ad Graec. Tertullian, Apologet. Minucius Fe- 
 lix, Octavius ; Cyprian, de Idolor. vanitate ; Arnohius, 
 adv. Gentes, Libri VII. Lactantius, Instit. divin. Li- 
 bri VII. and Epitome; Athanasius, Oiat. contra Gent. 
 Eusehius Caesar, Praeparatio Evan. Libri XV. and De- 
 monstratio Evan. Libri X. Jul. Firm. Maternus, de 
 Errore profanor. gentium. Ambrose in Symmach. Epp. 
 II. Augustine, dc Civitate Dei, Libri XXII. Tkeodo^ 
 ret, Graecanicor, morbor. curatio. Origen, adv. Celsuni, 
 Libri VII ; and Cyril, contra Jul. Libri X. 
 
 Histories written. Ck. F. Eisenlohr, Argumenta ab 
 Apologetis Secul. II. ad confirmandam religionis Christ, 
 veritatem ac praestantiam, contra Gentiles usurpata : 
 Tubing, 1797. 4to. 
 
 History of apologetics ; (in German,) by H, G. Tzschir- 
 ner, I. vol. L^ps. 1805. 
 
 Sec. 44. 
 All the preceding doctrines were received by the 
 christians, though with some modifications, entirely from 
 the Jews. But new fields of investigation opened, in the 
 <:ontests with the pagans, as the rapid spread of Christian- 
 ity called forth their opposition. A series of apologists 
 
46 muenscher's elements 
 
 attempted, to evince the absurdity of the pagan religions, 
 and the vast superiority of Christianity ; and likewise to re- 
 pel the attacks of the pagans. The controversy with 
 the Jews, was less important; being nearly confined to the 
 interpretation of the ancient predictions, respecting the 
 Messiah. 
 
 Sec. 45. Attacks on Paganism, 
 The christian Apologists assailed the popular idolatry, 
 with great force ; exposed its absurdities ; and explained 
 the prodigies and oracles, by which it was supported, to 
 to be works of evil spirits. Nor did they spare the doc- 
 trines of the philosophers; but represented them, as 
 partly borrowed from the holy scriptures of the Jews, 
 and partly, as unsuccessful attempts to explain, in some 
 tolerable manner, the popular religions. The philoso- 
 phers were held up to distrust ; on account of their dis- 
 agreement in sentiments, and their hypocrisy, in taking 
 part in that idolatry which they secretly despised and ri- 
 diculed. 
 
 Sec. 46. The e vidences of Christianity. 
 Besides the remark occasionally made, that it w'as 
 safer, to embrace Christianity than to reject it; the ancient 
 divines considered the internal excellence, and the ef- 
 fects of Christianity, as the principal grounds for believ- 
 ing in it. They accordingly compared the christian 
 doctrines with the sayings of the most distinguished pa- 
 gan sages ; sometimes, to show their striking coincidence, 
 and sometimes, to make the visible superiority of the for- 
 mer more glaring. They appealed to what Christianity 
 had done, and was able to do, for elevating the minds of 
 men; and they adduced, as decisive proofs of this, the 
 constancy of the martyrs, and the strict morality of the 
 ascetics. 
 
 Sec 47. Prophecy and Miracles, 
 On the prophecies, particularly those of the Old Tes- 
 tament, the christian divines, (with the exception of the 
 Gnostics and Manichaeans) laid great stress. The Sibyl- 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 47 
 
 line Oracles also, and other similar spurious works, were 
 sometimes cited for confirmation. Some of them at- 
 tempted to describe the points of disagreement, between 
 the divine predictions and those of Demons. The proof 
 from miracles was likewise often brought forward ; and it 
 was vindicated, against the objection that Demons could 
 also work miracles, and that ApoUonius of Tyanea per- 
 formed as great wonders as Jesus Christ did. The con- 
 tinuance of miraculous powers in the christian churches, 
 was generally believed. Augustine was the first that at- 
 tempted to define, accurately, a miracle. 
 
 Sec. 48. Other external proofs. 
 The christians urged the antiquity of their faith, as 
 proof of its truth. For this purpose, they sometimes ap- 
 pealed to the testimony of ancient pagan writers, who had 
 taught the unity of God ; and many of them did not hesi- 
 tate to make use of supposititious books. At other times, 
 they alleged, that the substance of their religion was 
 taught, in the Old Testament, long before the pagan wri- 
 ters lived. Likewise the elevated character of Jesus, 
 which excluded all suspicion of imposture, and the credi- 
 bility of the Aposdes, were adduced as arguments. Last- 
 ly, it was maintained that the extraordinary success, with 
 which their doctrine was propagated^ by indigent fisher- 
 men, was inexplicable, if this doctrine was not the truth 
 of God, and attended with the power of God. 
 
 Sec. 49. Objections to Christianity. 
 Not only were there widely extended popular prejudi- 
 ces against Christianity, which the Apologists endeavored 
 to do away; hut di Celsus, a Porphyry^ an Hierocles, and 
 the Emperor Julian, composed written attacks on Chris- 
 tianity. A part of these objections to the christian doc- 
 trine, respected its origination. It was urged against it, 
 that it was derived from the barbarians ; that it was set 
 up by insignificant and ignorant men ; and that it was 
 strange, God should not have communicated to mankind, 
 at an earlier period, a doctrine of so much pretended 
 value. 
 
48 MUENSCHEll's ELEMENTS 
 
 Sec. 50. Objections to the nature of the christian rt" 
 ligion, and to its sacred books. 
 Christianity was sometimes assailed, on the grounds, 
 of its requiring of men a blind faith, of advancing fabulous 
 and absurd notions, and of being prejudicial to the state, 
 and making bad citizens. To the sacred books, it was 
 objected, that the style of them was inelegant ; and that 
 they contained contradictions ; as well as other things un- 
 worthy of God, which the christians were unable to con- 
 ceal, except by forced interpretations. 
 
 Sec. 51. Objections to the conduct and the influence 
 of Christians, 
 The christians themselves were sometimes charged, 
 with receiving all sorts of characters into their societies ; 
 with being disunited among themselves ; with separating 
 from all other men, in the insolence of their pride ; and 
 with bidding welcome to death, in the obstinacy of their 
 fanaticism. Still more frequently was it asserted, that 
 the superior excellence of paganism was apparent, in the 
 success, which had attended the Romans ; and that the 
 worthlessness of Christianity was visible, in the misfortunes 
 of its professors ; and in the continual and manifest de- 
 cline of the Roman empire, since the introduction of 
 Christianity. This last objection, Augustine and Orosius 
 deemed worthy of an extended examination. 
 
 Sec. 52. JVeglect of Apologetics. 
 After the middle of the fifth century, little attention 
 was given to the evidences of Christianity ; because, it had 
 no longer dangerous opposers ; and because learning de- 
 clined, and a blind faith became more and more prevalent. 
 Yet against the Jews, polemics were sometimes resorted 
 to, without effect. 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 4^ 
 
 CHAPTER lY. 
 
 THE BEING AND CHARACTER OF GOD. 
 
 Historian, Chr. Fr. Rosier, D. Fhilosopliia veteris eccle- 
 siae de Deo ; Tubing. 1782. 4lo. 
 
 Sec. 53. Occasions for attention to the subject. 
 The efforts made, to establish the truth and divinity of 
 the christian religion, necessarily led to a careful investi- 
 gation of the doctrine of a God. For the christians 
 wished, on the one hand, to free themselves from the sus^ 
 picion of atheism ; and on the other, to establish the ex- 
 cellence of their religion, by showing, that it inculcated 
 more worthy conceptions of God, than the heathen poly- 
 theism. Moreover, some heretical sects advanced notions, 
 concerning God, creation and providence, which contra- 
 vened the general creed ; and which called for a confuta- 
 tion from the catholics. 
 
 Sec 54. Evidences for the existence of Ood, 
 Although the fathers considered all true knowledge of 
 God, as derived from a divine revelation ; yet they admit- 
 ted, that reason also affords satisfactory evidence of the 
 existence of God. They most frequently appealed to the 
 order and manifest design, discoverable throughout nature, 
 as the ground of belief in the existence of a wise Crea- 
 tor and Governor. They moreover appealed, frequently, 
 to the innate idea of a God, in the soul, and to the consent 
 of all nations. The former, or cosmological proof, was 
 advanced by Diodorus(\) of Tarsus; and the latter, or 
 proof from the general idea of an existing Deity, engaged 
 the attention of Augustine(2) and Boethius,[2) 
 
 (1) SeePkotius, Biblioth. Cod. 223. p. 662. 
 
 (2) de Libero Arbitrio L. II. c. 5 — 16, 
 
 (S) de Consolat. Philos. L, III. prosa 10. p. 164, 166, 
 
oO i/uenscher's elements 
 
 Seg. 55. Unity of God. 
 
 The christians had to defend the doctrine of one God, 
 Jirsty in opposition to the Pagan polytheism : and for this 
 purpose, they urged, that the idea of a supreme Being, 
 excluded 3\\ participaters with him ; they also urged, that 
 the unity of the world, indicated to us one sole author of 
 it ; and they likewise argued, from the consent of the most 
 respectable Pagan philosophers. They had, secondly, 
 to contend against the dualism of the Gnostics and Mani- 
 chaeans; and therefore labored to evince the absurdity of 
 supposing two Gods, an evil and a good one.(l) And, 
 thirdly, they did not neglect to vindicate their doctrine of 
 a Trinity, from the charge of being inconsistent with pure 
 monotheism. 
 
 (1) TitffS, f)f Bostrn, rnntra Manichaeos, L, f, in Basnagii 
 Monum. T. I. p. 63 &c. 
 
 Sec. 56. The nature of God. 
 
 The ancient fathers vied, in their efforts, to describe in 
 the strongest terms, the infinite greatness and boundless 
 majesty of God. No w^ords, said they, can express the 
 greatness of God. No description is adequate to it. He 
 is above all beings; and, as the pseudo-Dyonisius asserts, 
 above all existence. Although Melito, (I) TertuU 
 Uan,(2) Audiits,(2) and numerous Monks of Egypt, as- 
 cribed something corporeal to God ; yet the others held, 
 tliat he was uncorporeal ; and at times, that he was the 
 only uncorporeal being. And after all, it often appears, 
 tliat it was very difficult, for the fathers, to exclude all no- 
 tions of extension from their ideas of God. 
 
 (1) See Origen, in Genes. 0pp. T. II. p. 25. 
 
 (2) de Carne Christi, c. 11. adv. Prax. c. 7. 
 
 (3) See Epiphanius, Haer. LXX. and Theodorety Haeret. 
 fab. L. IV. c. 10. 
 
OF DOGxMATIC HISTORT, 51 
 
 Sec. 57. Investigations of the attributes of God, 
 The notion of Origen, that God's knowledge and power 
 are not absolutely boundless, was universally rejected, by 
 the succeeding lathers. The eternity of God, was sup- 
 posed to exclude all ideas of succession. Efforts were 
 made, to show how the freedom of human actions, can 
 consist with the foreknowledge of God. Investigations 
 were also entered into, respecting the will, and the recti- 
 tude, of God. 
 
 Sec, 58. Creation of the world. 
 
 Sources of information. Basil, in Hexaemeron :—-Am6ro5e* 
 in Hexaem. — Gregory o^ Nyssdi, in Hexaem. — Augustine, 
 de Genesi contra Manich. and de Genesi ad literam ;• — 
 Zacharias, de Mundi creatione, contra Philosophos ; — 
 Joannes Philoponus, de Creatione mundi. 
 
 The belief, that God was the Creator of the world, was 
 of vast importance, in the view of christians ; and the dis- 
 sent of the Grecian philosophers, and of the Gnostics, from 
 this tenet, was the occasion of their carefully investigating 
 the doctrine. The first proposition they advanced, was, 
 that not any subordinate being or Demiurge, but the su- 
 preme God, the Father of Jesus Christ, created the world, 
 by his Son. To this proposition, they added a second, 
 that not only the/o?'m, but the matter of the world, origi- 
 nated from God. Both these were maintained by Ter* 
 tullian, against Hermogenes, The peculiar idea of Ori- 
 gen, that there was a series of worlds, either created, 
 or without beginning ; was contested by Methodius, and 
 rejected by the subsequent fathers. 
 
 Sec. 59. The design of Creation. 
 A third proposition, advanced respecting creation, was, 
 that God was not merely the author, but the voluntary 
 author, of the world. He gave existence to the world, 
 it was stated, being moved by his goodness, or on our ac- 
 count. The creation of the world of spirits, was some- 
 
52 muenscher's elements 
 
 times, distinguished from the creation of this material 
 world. And Origen regarded the latter, as designed for 
 the residence of the spirits, which once were equal with 
 the others, but now were to be punished for sins they had 
 committed. The idea was attacked by Methodius, be- 
 came more and more regarded as erroneous, and in the 
 sixth century was pronounced heresy. The Mosaic ac- 
 count of the creation, was sometimes, explained allegor- 
 ically; but more frequently, was regarded as explicit his- 
 tory. 
 
 Sec 60. Divine Providence. 
 
 Sources of our information. John Chrysostom, de Provi- 
 dentia Lihri 111; — Theodoret, Or diixones X. de Providen- 
 tia ; — Salvian, de Gubernatione Dei Liber. 
 
 The doctrine of God's providence, was likewise of very 
 great importance, in the view of christians. They vindi- 
 cated it, against the Epicurean notions ; against the notion 
 of an irresistible fate; and against the supposed influence 
 of the stars. Much the same arguments were used, in 
 support of tliis doctrine, as for the existence of God. 
 The peculiar sentiments were, that several of the fathers 
 conceived the angels to be the instruments, by which God's 
 providence over particular individuals and countries was 
 executed; and that Jerome{l) did not extend God's pro- 
 vidence to individual brutes, but only to the species of 
 tliem. 
 
 (!) Comraenlin Abac. c. 1. Opp. T. VI. p. 148. 
 
 Sec. 6J. Theodicee, or, origin of evil. 
 To explain the origin of sin in the world, the Gnostics 
 and the Manichaeans brought forward their peculiar no- 
 tion, of two original Beings ; and toward this idea, Lac- 
 tantius{l) made some approaches. The other catholic 
 fathers took the ground, that God could not be the author 
 of evil ; and they maintained, that evil proceeded from 
 the will of free agents, with God's permission ; and that 
 
OP DOGMATIC HISTORY* 53 
 
 physical evils are not to be accounted evil, being suspended 
 over us for our best good. Origen{2), in particular, con- 
 sidered all evils as punishments, which human souls had 
 merited while in their previous state. 
 
 (1) Instit. div. II. 8, and de Ira Dei c. 13. 
 
 (2) de Princip. II. c. 9. and III. c. 6 &c. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 DOCTRINE OF THE TRINITY. 
 
 Historians of it. George Bull, Defensio fidei Nicaenae ; 
 and Judicium ecclesiae catholicae de necessitate cre- 
 dendi, quod Dominus noster J. C. sit verus Deus ; — in 
 Bp. Bull's Works, edited by I. E. Grabe ; Lend. 1703. 
 Fol. — Lucae MelUer, {Sam. Crell.) Fides primorum 
 Christianorum ; Lond. 1697. 8vo. Tractatus III; quo- 
 rum primus Antinicaenismus dicitur ; in secundo — Re- 
 sponsio — ad Bulli defensionem; authore Gilherto ClerJce, 
 Argumentum postremi, vera et antiqua fides dedivinitate 
 Christi, asserta contra Bulli judicium ; (Lond.)1695. 8vo. 
 Disquisiliones modestae in Bulli defensionem fidei Nicae- 
 nae; authore Daniele Withhy, ed 2. Lond. 1720. 
 
 La Platonisme devoile, ou Essai touchant le Verbe Platoni- 
 cien ; a Colone, 1700. 8vo. Also in a Gei^man transla* 
 tion, with an Appendix ; by J. Fr. Chr. Laffler, 2d ed. 
 1792. Svo. 
 
 (J. A. Stark,) Essay of a History of Arianism ; (in Ger- 
 man,) Berlin. 1783. 2 vol. 8vo. 
 
 Ch. Dan. Ant. Martini, Essay of a philosophical history of 
 the doctrine of the Divinity of Christ, in the IV. first cen- 
 turies from the christian era ; (in German,) 1st vol. Ros- 
 tock and Lips. 1801. 8vo. 
 
 Historical account of the doctrine of the Holy Spirit ; (Ger- 
 man,) in W. C. L. Ziegler's theolog* Abhandlungen, 
 vol. L Goting* 1791. 
 
 6 
 
54 muenscher's elements 
 
 Sec. 62. The general doctrine of Christians, 
 According to the instructions of Christ, (Matt, xxviir. 
 19,) the christians professed faith in the Father, the Son, 
 and the Holy Ghost. The Catholic christians rejected, 
 alike, the opinions of the Ebionites, that Jesus was a mere 
 man ; and the opinion of the Gnostics, that he was an 
 Aeon, who descended from the Pleroma and became visi- 
 ble to mortals. Respecting the consummate perfection 
 and majesty of the Father, there was no disagreement 
 among them ; but the more they labored to define the na- 
 ture of the Son and the Holy Ghost, and the mode of their 
 relation to the Father, the more they disagreed. Yet all 
 their differences may be traced to the influence of one or 
 the other of two fundamental ideas ; the one, that of a 
 Unity, the other, that of a Trinity, 
 
 Reference. Some remarks on the most early history of the 
 doctrine ofthe Trinity ; (in German,) by J. B. C.Schmidt: 
 in his Bibliothek fiir Krstick and Exeorese, vol. II. P. II. 
 Herborn &c. 1798. 
 
 Sec. 63. Unitarians, 
 
 Various christians made it their great object, so to ex- 
 plain the relations of Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, as not 
 to endanger the unity, and the sole supremacy of God* 
 They believed, this danger would be best avoided, by con- 
 sidering the Son and the Spirit, not as disiinct persons, 
 but as the powers and energies of the Father. So thought 
 Praxeas[l) ; and after him, JVo'etus and SabelKus ; with 
 whom also, Paul of Samosata agreed, in substance. 
 The adherents to this idea, were called Patripassians; and 
 were subsequently more regarded as errorists. 
 
 (I) Tertull. adv. Prax. c. 1, 2. 
 
 Note. The earliest traces of this mode of viewinsr the sub- 
 ject, are in Justin M. Dial, cum Try ph. p. 221. Whether 
 Athenagoras was one of this class, deserves inquiry. See 
 his Legatio, p. 802 ; comp. p. 286, 287. 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 55 
 
 Sec. 64. The early Trinitarians. 
 The Other fathers, as Justin Martyr(l), Theophi- 
 lus(2) of Antioch, and Tatian(S), believed that, the dis- 
 tinctness of the Son from the Father, was too clearly 
 taught in the scriptures, to be denied. They therefore 
 maintained, that the Son, or as St. John called him, the 
 divine Logos, was from eternity, in God, as an attribute 
 or property ; but that, before the creation, he proceeded 
 forth from God, according to his good pleasure ; and 
 thenceforth began to have a separate existence : and they 
 elucidated the subject, by the examples of words enunci- 
 ated, and oi fires kindled. According to them, the Son 
 was of the essence of the Father; yet inferior to hira, 
 and a visible being. Concerning the Holy Ghost, these 
 fathers expressed themselves less distinctly; yet they 
 seem to have regarded him, as a distinct subject or 
 person. 
 
 (1) Apol. maj. § 6. p. 47. ^ed. Col. p. 66.) and § 13. p. 61, 
 
 63^92. Dial. 151, 152, 157, 158, 195, 222. 
 (2> ad Autol. Lib. II. p. 356, 360, 365. 
 (3) Orat. p. 247, 248. (ed. Col. p. 145.) 
 
 Reference, C, A, G. KeiL A patristic inquiry, whether the 
 earliest fathers distinguished between the Son and the H. 
 Spirit ; and what views they had of the subject ; (in Ger- 
 
 ^ man,) in /. F. Flatt's Magazin fiir christl. Dogmatik und 
 Moral. Pt. IV. p. 34 &,c. 
 
 Sec. 65. Source of this theory. 
 To this theory the way was led, by the explanation of the 
 Logos of John, by means of passages in the Old Testament; 
 in which there was mention of the creative Power of God, 
 (Gen.i.) and of the divine Wisdom, (Prov. viii. Ecclus.xxiv. 
 Wisdom, vii.) Theophilus(l) now discriminated be- 
 tween theXo/o^ ivdiaklos and the Xo/o^ 'rpo(pop»xoj (the Word 
 inherent and the Word sent forth :) and was also the first, 
 who used the word rpia^ (Trinity.) The Platonic phi- 
 losophy, (not however the pure Platonism, but that which 
 
56 
 
 was combined with the emination system, as it was 
 taught at Alexandria, and as Philo had before exhibited 
 it,) led them to discover all this, m the Old Testament. 
 
 (1) ad Autol. p. 266, 355, 360. 
 
 Sec. ^Q, Irenaeusand Tertullian, 
 With those early fathers, Irenaeus(i) agreed, in se- 
 parating the Son and the Spirit from the Father, and in 
 considering the two former, as inferior to the latter; but 
 he differed from them, in making the Son co-eternal with 
 the Father, and rejecting all further inquiries respecting 
 his origin. Tertultian{2) agreed more closely with those 
 fathers; yet was led by his confutation of Praxeas, to car- 
 ry out their system more perfectly. He taught a Trinity, 
 in which the members or persons, were indeed equal, in 
 substance, yet so subsecutive to each other, that the se- 
 cond depended on the first, and the third on the second. 
 Against the objection, that the unity of God was thus im- 
 paired, he believed that he guarded sufficiently, by repre- 
 senting the Father, to be the sole original source of all 
 things, and even of the Son and the Holy Ghost. The 
 subsequent Latin Fathers, Cypr{an(3) and JVovatian(4), 
 have nothing peculiar, on this doctrine: and Lactantius[b) 
 explains the origination of the Son, in a very sensual 
 manner, 
 
 (1) adv. Haeres. I. c.lO, 26. II. 13,25, 28, 30. III. 6, 18, 
 19, IV. 6, 7,20. V. 1, 18. 
 
 (2) adv. Praxeam. 
 
 (3) Testim. adv. Jud. II. c. 1—8. Ep. 73, ad Jubai. p.202, 
 203. Ep. 74. ad Pompei. p. 213. 
 
 (4) de Trinitate. 
 
 (5) Instit. divin. II. 8. and IV. 6, 8, 29. 
 
 Sec. 67. Clement and Origen. 
 
 Clement(i) of Alexandria, describes the Son as a being 
 who, in perfection, comes near the Father, and is the very 
 image of him ; aad who is not confined to place, but oni-- 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 57 
 
 nipresent. Origen(2) defended the pre-existenee of the 
 Son, against Beryllus of Bostra ; and he subjoined to 
 the views of his preceptor, the idea of an eternal genera- 
 tion. Yet he did not reject the subordination of the Son 
 to the Father ; which he indicated, by applying to them 
 the titles, 6 kog and 6sos ( God and a God;) by discriminating 
 the part of each in creation, in the use of viro and ^la (by 
 and through ;) and by directing to pray unto (•rpo^) the 
 one, by or through (^la) the other. The Holy Spirit, he 
 held to be a distinct person^ produced by the Son, and 
 inferior to him. 
 
 (1) Cohort, ad Gr. p. 78, 82, 86. Paedag. I. c. 6. p. 123. 
 Strom. IV. p. 635. V. p. 654, 699, 710. VI. p. 769. VII. 
 p. 831, 832. 
 
 (2) Opp. ed. de la Rue. Tom.I. p. 47, 48, 53, 55, 59, 62, 
 579, 750. 11. p. 1. Ill, 50 &c. 60,235. 
 
 Sec. 68. Dionysius Alex, and Dionys. Rom, 
 
 The disciples of Origen, appear to have adhered to Aw 
 views respecting the Logos, except only in regard to the 
 eternal generation. One o( them, Dionysius{l) Bishop 
 of Alexandria, wished to express strongly, that the Son 
 was distinct from the Father, in opposition to Sabellius ; 
 and without intending to introduce any new doctrine, he 
 stated the Son, to be a creature^ and not to possess the 
 same essence with the Father, and to have had a begin- 
 ning of existence. But such assertions now awakened 
 attention, and gave offence. Dionysius(2) Bishop of 
 Rome, thought it his duty, to oppose these opinions; and 
 he insisted, that the Son was not created, but begotten ; 
 that his existence had no commencement ; and that he 
 was one with the Father. This induced the Bishop of 
 Alexandria, to explain himself. He said that he wished 
 to discriminate the Son from the Father, but not to sun- 
 der them ; that the Son did always exist ; that he de- 
 clined using the word o/xooutfioj, because it did not occur in 
 the scriptures, but the meaning of it he did not reject. 
 
 6* 
 
58 
 
 (1) See AthanasiuSi de Senlentia Dionys. contra Ariancs ; 
 in Athanas. Opp. T. I. p. 551 &:c. ed. Col. 
 
 (2) See Athanas ius, de Decret. Syn. Nicaenae, p. 275, 
 276. 
 
 Sec. 69. Rise of the Avian controversy. 
 The discussions at Alexandria, respecting the nature 
 of the Son of God, produced in the beginning of the 
 fourth century a violent contest. Arius was dissatisfied 
 with the old views, that the Son was from eternity, in the 
 Father ; and that before the creation he proceeded forth 
 from the Father ; because such an emanation implied 
 that, God was corporeal and divisible into parts. He 
 therefore taught, that the Son had a beginning of his ex- 
 istence, and was created by the Father, out of nothing, 
 according to his free choice. His Bishop, Alexander, op- 
 posed him ; in order to maintain the eternal generation of 
 the Son from the Father, and divest him of the appel- 
 lation of a creature. 
 
 Sec. 70. The council of JVice. 
 The contest between the two men, in its progress, be- 
 came obstinate ; and as each of them found adherents, it 
 spread over the whole Roman empire. In vain the 
 Emperor Constantine attempted to calm the storm ; 
 and therefore, he at last called the general council, 
 which met at Nice, A.D. 325. There the doctrine of 
 Arius was rejected ; and a Confession of Faith was drawn 
 up, which asserted that the Son was oiJ.oov(fiog (of the same 
 essence) with the Father, and begotten of the essence of 
 the Father. By the emperor's command, all Bishops 
 were obliged to subscribe to this creed. 
 
 The Nicene Creed. nir^iJOM^^v ^'^ ^^^ ®^ov ifarspu nravro- 
 xparopot, <avrwv opa^wv ts xa» dopaTWv iroiriTriv. Kat hg Iva 
 xupiov lYi<fo\jv Xpig'ov, tov ujov tov 6so'j, YSvvr,&svTa sx rov -^arpo^ 
 jXovoysvT), tout' g5"jv, ix Tvig outfia^ tou crarpoj:, Gsov ex Gsou, 
 4>w^ sx <I>a)7og, ©sov dX7]5jvov sx ©sou ccXtj^jvou, ysvvri'^svTCL 
 Im cfoirj^^vra, ojuioouo'iov tw -TTaTpi, 61 ou ra cravra sysvsro, 
 roL TS £v <w oupavw xai <ra sv rrj yji^ rov dl Tiixag Tt\jg: 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTOKY.* 59 
 
 ttv^pw-rou^, xaj 8ia ttjv Tj/j^srspav (fwri^pjav xarsX^ovra, xai 
 (fapxw^cVTot, £vav^pw'7rr](j'av7-a, ';ra^ovTa ycai avatfravra tt] 
 rpjr/j 'JjfXspa, avsX^^v^a Si^ tou^ oupavou^, xaj £p;)^o|xsvov 
 xpjvai ^wv^ra^ xocj vsxpou^. Ken sig to a^iov "Tr-veu/xa. Tou^ 
 Sb Xsyovrag, o<ri yjv ij^otS ots o'ux tjv, xai ^piv ^svvv]Siy)vaj 
 oux ^v, xai on s^ oux ovtwv j^svsto '^ gf STSpa^ u'n'o^atfswg 
 ^ outfiag cpoL'^Kovroig sivai, r) xtjo'tov TpS'ff'T'ov 73 aXXoiwrov 
 «rov ujov Tou ©sou, ava^s^Jt-arj^sj tj xa^oXtXTj exxX-yjcfja. 
 
 Reference. W. iWiin-sci^er'^ Examination of the sense of 
 the Nicene Creed ; (in German,) in Henke's neuem Ma- 
 gazin fur Reliurionsphilosophie, Exegese und Kirchenges- 
 chichte,vol.Vn. P. 11. 
 
 Sec. 71. Consequences of the council. 
 Most of the Asiatic bishops were dissatisfied with the 
 Nicene decisions, and particularly with the likeness 
 of essence (of^-oouCio^) there established. Even Consian- 
 tine, the emperor, in the later years of his life, would not 
 insist upon those decisions ; and his son Constantius, 
 openly favored the opposers. Council after council was 
 held, and one creed after another drawn up. The im- 
 moveable firmness of Athanasius only, could prevent the 
 Nicene doctrine from sinking, under its overpowering ene- 
 mies and their reiterated assaults. 
 
 Notices, The Antoichean confession was formed A.D. 
 341. The long {^axpog-ixog) formula, A. D. 343. The 
 Council of Sardica and Philippopolis, A. D. 347. The 
 two Creeds of Slrmium, A. D. 351, 357. The Coud- 
 cil of Ancyra, A.D. 358. The third Sirmian Creed, and 
 the Councils of Rimini and Seleucia, A. D. 359. 
 
 Sec. 72. Arian parties. 
 
 The opposers of the Nicene creed, were themselves 
 divided in opinion. The pure Arians, at the head of 
 whom were A'etius and Eunomius, considered the Son, as 
 the most exalted creature of God ; and in essence, unlike 
 to the Father. The Semi-Arians, as they were de- 
 nominated, acknowledged the Son to be, of like essence 
 (o/xojsCio^) with the Father. Others, as Cyril of Jerusa- 
 
60 muenscher's elements 
 
 lem — either rejected the word o^osiTio^ ; or explained it, 
 as Eusebius of Caesarea, according to their own views. 
 
 Sec. 73. Marcellus and Photinus, 
 A very different course was taken by Marcellus, bish- 
 op of Ancyra, and his disciple Photinus, bishop of Sir- 
 mium ; for they, like Paul of Samosata, distinguished 
 the Logos from the Son of God; and explained the gen- 
 eration of the latter, as being nothing but his assumption 
 of human nature. Marcellus hereby incurred a doubt- 
 ful reputation ; and Photinus drew on himself the united 
 condemnation of both Arians and Catholics. 
 
 References. Eusebius, contra Marcel lum, Lib. U. and de 
 Theologia ecclesiastica Lib. III. Marcelliana ; edidit et 
 ani mad vers, instruxit, Chr. Hen. G. Rettberg^ Getting. 
 1794. 8vo. 
 
 Sec. 74. Athanasian system. 
 Athanasius not only held firmly to the Nicene creed, 
 as the foundation of orthodoxy, but he attributed to it 
 more, than it properly contained. Ho described the ge- 
 neration* oiihe Son, as being an eternal, mysterious, opera- 
 tion of the Father ; proceeding, not from the will, but 
 from the nature of the Father ; and whereby, the son 
 possessed the same essence with the Father. He it was 
 also, that felt the necessity of maintaining the equality of 
 the Holy Ghost with the Father and the Son, (concern- 
 ing which, the church had hitherto defined nothing,) and 
 of requiring the profession of it, as a mark of orthodoxy ; 
 after the year 362, when the controversy with Macedo- 
 nius directed attention to the subject. 
 
 Sec 75. Triumph of this doctrine. 
 By the activity and prudence of Athanasius, and the 
 zeal and influence of his co-workers, {Basil, the two 
 Gregories, Hilary, and Ambrose,) and the disagreement 
 among the Arians, and the powerful support of some of 
 the emperors ; this doctrine acquired an increasing pre- 
 
I 
 
 OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 6Jl 
 
 ponderancy. The council of Constantinople A. D. 381, 
 condemned the Arians and Macedonians, confirmed the 
 Nicene creed, and made some additions to it, the most 
 important of which respected the doctrine concerning 
 the Holy Spirit. 
 
 [nj^SuofJt/Sv hs TO -cyvsufz-a <ro a^tov] to xupiov, <ro ^ow;roiov, to ix tou 
 
 •JfaTpO^ SX'TT'OpSUOfXSvoV, TO tfUV fTOLTpl XUl IJIW (J'U^'7r'potfJCUVJJ|llOVOV, 
 
 xa» (fuvSo^a^^o^s^oVy to XaXyjtfav (5ja twv '7r'po(pTi<rwv. 
 
 TAg principal writers concerning the Son : Atlianas, 
 Expos, fidei, contra Arianos Oratt. IV. Hilary of Poic- 
 tiers, de Trinit. Lib. X. Basil the Great, contra Euno- 
 niium, Lib. III. Gregory of Nyssa, contra Eunom. Lib. 
 Xn. Gregory of Nazianz. Orationes V. de Theologia. 
 Ambrose, de Fide, ad Gratianum, Lib. V. 
 
 Concerning the Holy Ghost, Athanas. IV, E{)p. ad Serapio- 
 nem. Basil, de Spiiitu Sancto, ad Amphilochium Li- 
 ber. Didymus, de. Sp. S. Ambrose, de Sp. S. 
 
 Sec. 76. Fuller statement of the doctrine of the Trinity. 
 In accordance with the Athanasian doctrine, the unity 
 of essence, and the trinity of persons, in the Godhead,, 
 were maintained ; and in relation to which, the words oxxiioL 
 and v'Ko^adig were sometimes used as synonymous, and 
 sometimes as differing in import. Appropriate attributes 
 {l6mv\Tzg) were ascribed to each Person ; to the Father, 
 his being unbegotten (a/swyjCia) ; to the Son, a being be- 
 gotten (/svvTjCia) ; to the Holy Ghost, procession (^hifopsv- 
 (fig, §x'7r'gf/.-Xi^). Respecting the procession of the Holy 
 Ghost from the Father, or from the Father and the Son. 
 there was a difference of opinion, between the Greeks 
 and the Latins : and in the Council of Toledo, A.D. 589, 
 the words et filio were added to the Constantinopoli- 
 tan Creed. 
 
 Reference, J. G. Walch, Historia controversiae Graeco- 
 rum et Latinorum de proccssiorie Spiritus S. Jenae, 
 1751. 8vo. Historia succincta controversiae de proces- 
 sione Spir. Sancti ; authore Christ. Matth. Pfaff, Tub, 
 1749. 4to, 
 
\ 
 
 62 muenscher's elements 
 
 Sec. 77. Subsequent statements. 
 The subsequent writers held strongly, to this system of 
 doctrine. Yet Augustine had something peculiar ; for 
 he effaced the traces of unlikeness and subordination, 
 which had existed from before the times of the Nicene 
 Council ; and he insisted on the numerical unity of the 
 three Persons. In accordance with his views, the rela- i 
 tions of the three Persons were more distinctly set forth, j 
 in what is called, the Athanasian Creed, The charge j 
 of tritheism, brought against certain Monophysites, as 1 
 John Askuanages and John Philiponus^ arose from 1 
 philosophical speculations, and rested on mere inferences. 
 
 Reference. Augustine, de Trinitate Libri XV. 
 
 Athanasian Creed. Quicunque vult salvus esse, ante omnia 
 opus habet, ut leneat catholicam fidem, Quam nisi quis- 
 que integram inviolatamque servaverit, absque dubio in 
 aeternum peribit. Fides autem catholica haec est, ut 
 unum Deum in trinitate et trinitatem in unitate vene- 
 remur, neque confundentes personas, neque substantiam 
 geparantes. Alia enim est persona patris, alia filii, alia 
 spiritus sancti ; sed patris et filii et spiritus sancti 
 una est divinitns, aequalis gloria et aequalis majestas. 
 Qualis pater, talis filius, talis et spiritus sanctus. In- 
 creatus pater, increatus filius, increatus spiritus sanctus. 
 Immeusus pater, immensus filius, immensus et spiritus 
 sanctus. Aelernus pater, aeternus filius, aeternus et 
 spiritus sanctus; ettamen non tres aeterni sed unus aeter- 
 nus, sicut non tres increati, nee tres immensi, sed unus in- 
 creatus et unus immensus. Similiter oranipotens pater, om- 
 nipotens filius, omnipotens et spiritus sanctus; et tamen 
 non tres omnipotentes, sed unus omnipotens. Ita Deus 
 pater, Deus filius, deus et spiritus sanctus; et tamen non 
 ires dii, sed unus est Deus. Ita dominus pater, dominus 
 filius, dominus et spiritus sanctus; et tamen non tres 
 sunt domini, sed unus dominus. Quia sicut singillatim 
 unamquamque personam et deum et dominum confiteri 
 Christiana veritate conipellimiir, ita tres deosaut dominos 
 dicere catholica religione prohibemur. Pater a nullo est 
 factus nee ereatus nee genitus. Filius a patre solo est, 
 j}on faetus, non ereatus sed genitus. Spiritus sanctus a 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 63 
 
 patre et filio, non factus nee creatus nee genitus est, sed pro- 
 cedens. Unus ergo pater, nee tres patres, unus filius, non 
 tres filii, unus spiritus sanctus,non tres spiritus sancti. Et in 
 hac trinitate nihil prius aut posterius, nihil majus aut minus, 
 sed totae tres personae coaeternae sibi sunt et coaequa- 
 les. Ita ut per omnia, sicut jam supra dictum est, et uni- 
 tas in trinitate et trinitas in unitate veneranda sit. Qui 
 vult ergo salvus esse, ita de trinitate sentiat. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 DOCTRINE CONCERNING THE PERSON OF CHRIST* 
 
 Sec. 78. First germs of it. 
 
 The early catholic fathers had to contend, against the 
 Ebionites, and against the Onostics, The former held 
 Christ, to be a mere man ; the latter regarded him, as 
 having no part in humanity, but as being an exalted Spi- 
 rit^ who either assumed the mere appearance of a bo- 
 dy, or brought with him from heaven a more refined 
 body. According to the catholic doctrine, both these 
 opinions were to be rejected ; and yet the Alexandrians 
 so far leaned towards Gnosticism, as to deny that Christ's 
 body was homogeneous with ours. As to the manner, 
 in which the divine nature was united with the human 
 in Christ, very indistinct ideas preva led. The earliest 
 fathers(l) maintained only, that the divine Logos assu- 
 med a human body, A human soul of Christ, was first 
 obscurely mentioned, by TertuUian(2) ; afterwards, a 
 rational soul was expressly maintained, by Origen(^) : 
 and he first attempted, to set forth a theory respecting the 
 incarnation ; namely, that the Logos united himself with 
 a rational soul, selected on account of its pre-eminent puri- 
 ty ; and then, by means of this soul, joined himself to a 
 human body. 
 
 (1) Munscher^s Manual of dogm. history, vol. II. p. 
 167, &c. 
 
64 muenscher's elements 
 
 (2) de carne Christi. c. 11, 13, and adv. Prax. c. 16. 
 
 (3) contra Cels. II. Sec. 9. and IV. Sec. 15—19, &c. pas- 
 sim. dePrincip. IL c. 6. 
 
 Reference. G. J. Planck, Observationes quaedam in pri- 
 mam doctrinaede naturis Christi historian). Got. 1787 — 
 89. also, in the Comrnentatt, theol. pul:>lished by Vel- 
 thusen, Kuinol and Rupert, vol. 1. p. 141 &c. 
 
 Sec. 79. " Developement of it. 
 Such indefinite conceptions continued, down to the 
 fourth century, when the Arian controversy directed at- 
 tention to the subject; for the Arians, who attributed no 
 human soul to Christ, drew arguments from the incarna- 
 tion of Jesus, against the doctrine of the catholics. The 
 cathohc fathers, at first, were fluctuating in their explana- 
 tions. Appollinaris bishop of Laodicea, taught that, 
 the Logos assumed only two of the three parts of man, 
 namely a body, and a sensitive soul ; while the Logos 
 supplied the place of the third part, or human reason. 
 Athanasius maintained, at least in his later writings, and 
 at the Council of Alexandria A. D. 362, that Christ pos- 
 sessed a rational, human soul. The opinion of Apolli- 
 naris, was combatted by Gregory of Nazianzum, and 
 Gregory o{ Nyssa; and was condemned by Damasus, 
 bishop of Rome, and by the general council at Constanti- 
 nople, A. D. 381. 
 
 Itcferences. Atkanasius, Ep. ad Epictetum. Gregory of Nys- 
 sa, Antirrheticiis contra Apollinarem. Gregory of Naz. 
 Epp. ad Cledoniuin. sive Oratt. LI. LII. 
 
 Sec. 80. The natures of Christ. 
 
 It was generally acknowledged, that there was but one 
 Christ, to whom belonged both divine and human pro- 
 perties. Their care to maintain the unity of Christ, in- 
 duced some fathers, to ascribe to him, a divine nature 
 which became man ; and this phraseology, which was used - 
 by Athanasius and Apollinaris, became prevalent in m 
 Egypt. Other fathers, following the example of the two 
 GregorieSy of Nazianzum and Nyssa, spoke of two natures 
 
or DOGMATIC HISTORY. 66 
 
 in Christ ; and the Antiochlan divines, Diodorus of Tar- 
 sus, and Theodorus of Mopsuestia, made the distinction 
 of the two natures very prominent, in order to avoid the 
 idea of their being mixed and confounded. 
 
 Sec. 81. JVestorius and Cyril. 
 
 After a contest on this subject, had been terminated in 
 the West, by the recall of Leporius ; a more fearful con- 
 test broke out, between the Patriarch of Constantinople, 
 and the Patriarch of Alexandria. JVestorius of Constan- 
 tinople, having given offence by asserting, that Mary ought 
 not to be called (^soroxog) the mother of God', Cyril took 
 occasion, to charge him with dividing Christ, into two 
 persons; and incurred the accusation against himself, of 
 confounding or of changing the natures of Christ. The 
 Roman Bishop, Coelestine, took the side of Cyril ; the 
 Eastern Bishops were for Nestorius. Reciprocated ex- 
 ecrations produced the highest degree of bitterness. 
 
 References. Cyriili Anathematismi, cum reprehensionibus 
 Aiidreae et 'I iieodoreti, et Apoloj^ia Cyriili : — in Mansi 
 Collect. iJcncil, 'V. V. p. 1. and JVe'^^om Anathematismi ; 
 il>id. T. IV. p. 1099. 'i'. V. p. 703, 748. 
 
 Sec 82. Council of Ephesus. 
 The Emperor Theodosius, attempted to end the strife, 
 by a general council, which he assembled at Ephesus, 
 A. D. 431 ; but it only exasperated the parties, and se- 
 parated the Oriental Bishops from the Egyptian party. 
 At last, Cyril resolved, to purchase the assent of the An- 
 tiochian party to the condemnation of Nestorius, by sub- 
 scribing a formula, in which he admitted two natures in 
 Christ. On these terms, the peace of the church was re- 
 stored ; yet the Persian christians became a separate 
 community ; and dissatisfaction remained on both sides. 
 
 Sec. 83. The Councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon. 
 In the attempt to force the Egyptian form of the doc- 
 trine upon the whole church, Dioscurus labored, in the 
 
 7 
 
66 muenscher's elements 
 
 spirit of Cyril, but with better success. A controversy which 
 arose at Constantinople, respecting Eutyches, afforded hira 
 an opportunity, in a new general council at Ephesus, A. D. 
 449, to put down the opposing party, although the Ro- 
 man Bishop, Leo the Great, warmly remonstrated. Yet, 
 soon after, his hard gained victory was again wrested from 
 him, by the Council of Chalcedon, A. D. 461 ; and a 
 precise formula, in regard to the contested points, was 
 established. 
 
 References. Leo Magn, Ep. ad Flavianum : ed. Ilenke, 
 Helmst. 1781, also in his Opusc. Arademica, Helinst. 
 1802. 8vo. 
 
 The formula of Chalcedon : *E'ff'ofX£voi toivuv toi^ aymg ira- 
 cpatfiv, 5va xai <rov olutov ofz-oXo^sov uiov rov xupiov -/jjulcjv 
 I>l(J'ouv p^pj^Tov, o'ufXipwvwc: k'jfavTeg fxc^i^aCxoim-sv, tsXsiqv rov 
 auTov iv ^£0T7]T{ xai tsXsiov «rov aurov iv dv^pcj'ff'OTr/<ri, 6sov 
 dXr)^<vov, xai dv^pwTTov oIXtj^co^ tov duTov §x -^^v/rig Xoyixrig xai 
 tfwjxaTo^, ofjLoouCiov <rcj 'raTpi xara tyjv ^sorrira, xai ojuloouCiov 
 TOV duTov 7j/x»v xaTU TTjv dv^pw'ff'oTTjTa, xa<ra cravra of/.ojov 
 rjfjLiv, X^p'? aiiapTias. «rpo diwvwv fjLSv sx <rou 'Tarpon yswri- 
 ^Svia xoLTU Tr)v ^£0T7)<ra, gV ecf^acwv (^s <rwv '/jjxepwv tov du«rov 
 5i -^laa^ xai ^la <r>]v ^jjxsrspav tfajTi^piav gx Mapiac: r>)g ^so- 
 roxou xara ttjv dv^pw'n'0T7]Ta, sva xai tov duTov ^^pitfTOv, 
 UIOV, xupiov, fjbovo^svr], £x Juo (putfswv (^v (^uo (puCso'iv) dtfu^- 
 X^TUig, dTpso'Tw^, d^iaipfcTwg dp^wpitTTW^ yvwpi^ofjLfvov, ou(5a- 
 fji-ou Trjj Twv (puCswv Jia(popag dv^jpi^fjifVigj ^la Trjv svcjffiv, 
 tfCAj^o|XSvy]g (Js fj.dXXov T7)j i^ioTrjTo^ §xaT£paj (puCsw^ xai 1^ 
 sv flTpotfwn'ov xai juiiav u'ToO'Tatfiv tfuvrps^outfy)^, oux £i^ 5uo 
 TpoCcAJ-ra fjispi^ojixovov 7) ^laipoufJLSvov, ctXX' Iva xai tov duTov 
 uiov xai fjLovo^gvT), ^cov Xo^'iv, xupiov 'It^o'ouv )(pi^ov xa^acr^p 
 dvw^sv CI 'TTpoqjT^Tai •Ji'spi duTou, xai duTo^ >jfJLag 6 xupioc ^I-yj- 
 tfoug ggsflrai^sutfs xai to twv «ra7gp&jv tj/xiv «7rapa^g(5ojxg tfu/x^oXov. 
 
 Sec. 84. Subsequent Contests, 
 The formula of Chalcedon, did not meet universal ap- 
 probation ; and a numerous body of Monophy sites, sepa- 
 rated themselves from the other churches. The attempt 
 of the Emperor Zeno, to win them back, by means of his 
 Henoticon, produced no lasting effect. In the entire La- 
 
or DOGMATIC HISTORY. 67 
 
 tin church, and in a large part of the Greek church, the 
 formula of Chalcedon was received ; and it was annexed 
 to the, so called, Athanasian Creed. The Monophysite 
 contests were followed, by that of the Theopaschites, and 
 that concerning the three chapters, (de tribus capitulis,) 
 which were decided in the fifth general Council. There 
 was also, dissension among the Monophysites, respecting 
 the incorruptibility of Chrisfsbody; in which the Empe- 
 ror Justinian took part. 
 
 Reference, Second Part of the Athanasian Creed : Sed 
 nccessarium est ad aeternam salutem, ut incarnationem 
 quoque domini noslri Jesu Chrisli fideliter credat. Est 
 ergo fides recta, ut credamus et confitearnuT, qnia do- 
 minus noster Jesus Christus, dei filius, deus pariter et 
 homo est. Deus est ex substantia patris ante saecula 
 genitus : homo ex substantia matris in saeculo natus. 
 Perfectus deus, perfectus homo, ex aninia rationah et 
 humana carne subsistens, aequahs patri secundum divi- 
 nitatem, minor patre secundum humanitatem. Qui li- 
 cet deus sit et homo, non duo tamen sed unus est 
 Christus ; unus autem non conversione divinitatis in 
 carnem, sed assumtione humanitatis in Deum. Unus 
 omnio non confusione substantiarum sed unitate per- 
 sonae. Nam sicut anima rationalis et caro unus est 
 homo, ita et deus et homo unus est christus, qui pas- 
 Bus est pro salute nostra, descendit ad inferos, tertia 
 die resurrexit a mortuis, ascendit in coelos, sedet ad 
 dexteram patris, inde venturus judicare vivos et mortuos. 
 Ad cuius adventum omnes homines resurgere debent cum 
 corporibus suis, et reddituri sunt de factis propriis rationem, 
 et qui bona egerunt, ibunt in vitam aeternam, qui vero 
 mala, in ignem aeternuin. Haec est fides catholica, quam 
 nisi quisquam fideliter firmiterquc crediderit, salvus esse 
 non poterit. 
 
08 muenscher's elements 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 DOCTRINE OF REDEMPTION BY JESUS CHRIST. 
 
 Sec. 85. The general and constant doctrine of the 
 Church. 
 That men need to be redeemed, because they are in- 
 volved in ignorance, error, and sin ; that Jesas Christ has 
 promulged God's plan, for the redemption of men; that 
 it is through him, they obtain forgiveness of sins, power 
 and help to become virtuous, and the hope of blessedness ; 
 and that faith in Jesus Christ, forsaking sin, and practis- 
 ing goodness, are means for the attainment of the bless- 
 ings of Christianity ; all christians, unitedly, and constantly, 
 believed. But these simple propositions were capable of 
 diversified explanations, and they gave rise to various ques- 
 tions and investigations ; so that the teachers found abund- 
 ant matter, to exercise and employ their powers of reflec- 
 tion and discrimination. 
 
 Sec 86. JVature of man. 
 
 To explain the nature of redemption, we must keep 
 in view the degeneracy of mankind ; and not to cast the 
 blame of this on God, we must go back to the nature and 
 the original character of mankind. The universal doc- 
 trine of the church, was that God created mankind, and 
 with ability to good ; and especially, that he endued them 
 with freedom. Yet it remained undetermined, whether 
 man consists of two(l) parts, [body and soul,] or of 
 three{2) [body, soul, and spirit ;] whether the soul is to 
 be considered as corporeal, as Tertullian(S), and after 
 him many others supposed ; and what origin is to be as- 
 cribed to the soul. In regard to the last point, the opin- 
 ions of the Gnostics[A) and Manichaeans[b) were reject- 
 ed ; the early opinion, that the soul is a part or a breath 
 from God(6), was gradually discarded; and Origen^s{l) 
 hypothesis, of the pre-existence of souls, sunk into dis- 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. (59 
 
 repute, and was at last condemned. On the contrary, 
 the two theories, — of the creation, and of the derivation, 
 of the soul, — both prevailed, without cither's gaining a 
 complete ascendency. 
 
 (1) So Tertullian, and probably Lactaniius. 
 
 (2) So Clemens Alex, and Or'igen, 
 
 (3) de Anirna. c. 61. 
 
 (4) They held the spirit of man to be a ray, or sjparh of 
 light, from the Pleroma ; but the sensitive soul, to be the 
 creation of the Demiurge. 
 
 (6) They held the rational soul, to be a particle from the 
 world of light, stolen by the Prince of darkness; but the 
 sensitive soul, to be the creation of the devil. 
 
 (6) So thought Justin M. (Dial. p. 106.) Tatian, (Orat.p. 
 253 &c.) and Tertullian, (de Anim. c. 3, 11.) 
 
 (7) da Piincip. passim. 
 
 Sec. 87. Endowments of men. 
 
 The fathers speak most frequently, of two endowments 
 of rtien ; namely, the immortality of the soul, and the 
 image of God. Some of the earlier fathers, as Jus- 
 tin(i), Tatian(2), Theophilus(S), and after them, Ar- 
 nobius(4) and Lactantim(5), believed the soul to be, 
 naturally, mortal ; but that God rewards it with immor- 
 tality. Tertullian(6), on the contrary, and Origen, who 
 were followed by the subsequent fathers, supposed the 
 soul to be immortal, in its nature ; and they supported 
 this opinion by various arguments(7). The image of 
 God in men, some of the earlier fathers indeed referred 
 to the body{8) ; but the Alexandrians(9) took pains, to 
 suppress an opinion so gross. They (10) discriminated 
 between the image of God, and likeness to him ; under- 
 standing by the former, rational endowments ; and by the 
 latter, virtuous sensibilities. Most of the succeeding fa- 
 thers(ll) coincided with them; yet some of them ex- 
 plained the image of God, to denote dominion over the 
 creatures. The Mosaic account of the state and the 
 apostacy of the first human pair, was generally understood 
 
 7* 
 
TO muencher's elements 
 
 to be proper history; but Origen(l2), viewing the 
 literal sense of it, to be absurd, interpreted it allegor- 
 ically. 
 
 (1) Dial. p. 107 &c, 
 
 (2) Orat. p. 249, 254. 
 
 (3) ad Autol. Lib. II. p, 368. 
 
 (4) adv. Gentes Lib. II. p. 52 &c. 
 
 (5) Instit. div. VIL c. 5, 9, 10, 11 &c. 
 
 (6) de Aninia c. 51. — Also Irenaeus adv. Ilaer. V. c. 4, 7. 
 and II. c. 34. 
 
 (7) Origen argued from the nature of the soul, it being a 
 spirit, like God and the angels, (de Princip. IV. § 36 :) 
 also from the longing of the soul after immortality. Exhort, 
 ad Martyros. 
 
 (8) Justin M, Fragm. de Resurrect. Irenaeus adv. Haerea. 
 V. c. 6. Clementina^ Homil. III. c. 8. Lactant^ Instit. 
 div.H. c.lO. 
 
 (9) Clemens, Strom. Lib. II. p. 483. Origen^ contra Cels. 
 in Opp. T. I. p. 680. and T. II. p. 57. 
 
 (10) Clemens, Strom. Lib. II. p. 499. Origen, Opp. T. I. 
 p.522. 
 
 (11) Irenaeus, adv. Haeres. IV. c. 4,38. and V. c. 16.7Vr- 
 tullian, contra Marciori. Lib. II. c. 5, de Baptismo, c. 5. 
 
 (12) adv. Cels. Lib. IV. Opp. T.I. p. 530 &c. de. Princip. 
 Lib. IV. p. 175. 
 
 Sec. 88. Origin and propagation of sin, according to 
 the Greek fathers. 
 
 Historians: J. G. Walcli, Historia doctrinae de Peccato 
 originis ; — m his Miscell. sacra. A. D. 1744. 4to. 
 
 Jo, Horn, Commentatio de sententiis eorum patrum, quorum 
 auctoritas ante Augustinum phirimum valuit, de peccato 
 originali. Getting. 1801. 4to. 
 
 According to the Gnostics, and the Manichaeans, the 
 sinfulness of mankind, arose from their souls being con- 
 nected with material bodies. The Greek fathers(l) be- 
 lieved that, in consequence of Adam's sin, not only he, 
 but his posterity also, became mortal. But all sin, they 
 traced to the free choice of men : yet they allowed, that 
 
 J 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 71 
 
 the temptations of evil spirits, and their own sensual incli- 
 nations, contributed thereto. Although they admitted, that 
 since Adam's transgression, men were more easily led in-- 
 to sin ; yet they ascribed to mankind, a power to resist 
 all incitements to evil. Methodius(2), in particular, as- 
 sumed that, by Adam's apostacy, the souls of mankind 
 became full of wicked propensities ; yet that it depended 
 on their own wills, whether they would gratify those pro- 
 pensities or not. The same ideas continued to be the 
 prevailing ones, among the Greek fathers; and they were 
 developed by no one, more clearly, than by JohnChrysos^ 
 torn. The Alexandrians, Clement and Origen, never 
 once traced the mortality of mankind, back to Adam's 
 sin ; but attributed it to the nature of the body. They re- 
 jected, in the most express terms, all propagation of sin 
 and guilt ; although Origen believed in an existing sinful- 
 ness of men, as they came into the world. With them, 
 substantially, Gregory of Naz. and Gregory of Nyssa, 
 appear to have agreed. 
 
 (1) Justin Martyr, Dial. p. \7^, 206, 231. Apol. major, § 
 
 10. p. 49. § 61. p. 80. Apol. minor, p. 93. 
 Athenagoras, Legat. pro Christiariis. p. 202 — 205. 
 Tatiimy Orat. p. 146, 160, 152, 153,249, 255, 261. 
 Theophilus Antioclu ad Autol, Lib. II. p. 368. 
 Clemens Alex. Strom. Lib. I. p.368.II. p. 461, 463. III. 
 
 p. 556, 557. IV. p. 633. VII. p. 894. 
 Origen, de Princip. Prooem. p. 48. Lib. III. c. t. 2. 
 
 and 0pp. T. I. p. 260. T. 11. p. 4. T. III. p. 947, 948, 
 Athanasius, 0pp. T. L p. 150,638. (ed. Montf. T. L 
 
 p. 104. T. I. P. II. p. 944.) 
 Chrysostom, in Psal. L. Hoin. II. Opp. T. III. p. 874, 
 
 875. in Ep, ad Rom. Horn. X. Tom. X. p. 125. Horn, 
 
 XI. p. 137. Horn. XIL p. 153. Horn. XIIL p. 365. 
 Cyril of Jerus, Catech. 11. § 1—3. p. 22. Catecb. IV. c.l9- 
 
 p. 61. 
 Titus of Bostra, contra Manichaeos, Lib, II. in Bas- 
 
 nage, Monumenta, Tom. I. p. 97- 
 Basil the Great, Houiil. Quod Deus nan sit auctor 
 
 peccatiy^, 74,76. 
 
72 muenscher's elements 
 
 Gregory, Naz.de Orat.Dom.Orat.V.Opp.T. I. p. 755,756. 
 Gregory, Nyss. Opp. T. I. p. 149—151. T. III. p. 329. 
 Nemesius, de Natura Hominis, c. 29 — 40. 
 Epiphanius, Haeres. XVI. § 4. 
 
 (2) in Photius, Biblioth. Cod. 234. p. 915, Cod. 236. 
 p. 949. 
 
 Sec. 89. Latin Jathers, before Augustine, 
 TertuUian{l), who believed in the propagation of 
 souls, conceived the idea, that not only mortality, but 
 likewise sinfulness, was propagated from Adam to his pos- 
 terity. But though he maintained the propagated vitiosi- 
 ty of man, yet he was far from accounting mankind, in- 
 capable of good actions. He was followed by Cyj7- 
 nan(2) Hilary (3) of Poictiers, and Ambrose[4) ; and 
 even Augustine[5) in his earlier writings, was of the 
 same opinion. Arnobius[6) and Lactantius{l) dissent- 
 ed ; but their views were not received, by the catholic 
 churches. 
 
 (1) de Anima, c. 16,40. contra Marcion, Lib. II. c. 6, 1. 
 
 (2) Ep. LXIV. ad Fidnm. p. 161. de Opere et Eleem. p. 
 196. de Gratia, ad Donat. p. 2. de Idolor. vanita- 
 te, p. 13. 
 
 (3) in Ps. cxviii. Lit. 22. Sec. 4. p, 366. 
 l\) in Ps. cxviii. c. 7. 
 
 (5) de Lib. Arbitr. I. c. 13. II. c. 1. contra Faustum 
 Manich. XXII. c. 78. de vera Relig. c. 14. (Opp. T. 
 I. p. 756.) But otherwise, in his Retract. Lib. I. c. 14. 
 
 (6) adv. Gentes Lib. I. p. 15. (He believed the soul to be, 
 not from God, but the workmanship of some inferior 
 power or spirit ; and therefore defective.) 
 
 (7) Instit. divin. IL c. 12. VL c. 13. VII. c. 5. de Ira 
 Dei, c. 15. (He supposed tlie body, to contaminate 
 the soul.) 
 
 Sec. 90. Early doctrine of divine aid to goodness. 
 Historians, Gerk, Jo, Vossins, Historiae de controver- 
 
 siis quas Pelaiifius et ejus reliquiae moverunt, Lib. VII. 
 
 ed. 2, Amstei. 1655. and in his Opp, Tom. VI. 
 Veritable tradition de V Eglise sur la Predestination et la 
 
 Grace ; in Jo. Launoii Opp. T. L P. II. p. 1065. 
 
 i 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 73 
 
 Christ. Mattk. Pfoff^ Specimen historiae doofmaticae de 
 
 Giatia et PraeJestinatione, in his Primitia Tubingens. 
 
 Tub. 1718. 4to. 
 Jo, Ja, Hottinger, Fata doctrinae de praedestinatione et 
 
 Gratia Dei salutari. Tiguri 1747. 4to. 
 Jo. Geo. Vialch, Diss, de Peiagianismo ante Pelagium ; in 
 
 his Miscell. sacra. 1744. 
 Theological history of the doctrine and opinions of the 
 
 church, in the five first centuries, respecting divine Grace, 
 
 free Will, and Predestination ; (in Italian,) Trent. 1742. 
 
 Fol. (by Scipio Maffei). Also in Latin, by Fr, Reifen- 
 
 berg, Francf. 1 756. Fol. 
 
 Jesus and his apostles, represent faith and reformation, 
 sometimes as the work of man, and sometimes as being 
 the gift of God. Hence efforts were made, to reconcile 
 these opposite representations. The Greek church(l) 
 took the ground of the perfect freedom of man's will ; 
 and therefore taught, that it depends on the purpose and 
 exertions of man, to attain to faith and virtue ; yet that 
 die grace of God, comes in aid of man's exertions, by im- 
 parting to him strength, assistance, and excitements. Of 
 course, man must render himself a fit subject of divine 
 grace ; which he has power to use properly, and also to 
 abuse. These ideas, which were fully stated by Cfe* 
 ment{2) and Origen{^), were also advanced by the fa* 
 thers of the fourth century; by Cyril{^) of Jerusalem, 
 Gregory[b) of Nazianzum, Oregory{6) of Nyssa, and 
 clearest of all, by Chrysostom{l), The Latin fathers(8) 
 did not deviate essentially. For, ahhough they painted, 
 in glowing colors, the excellence of divine grace, yet 
 they left room, for the spontaneous activity of man to have 
 a part in his reformation. An irresistable work of grace, 
 and an unconditional election, were not thought of; and 
 the divine purposes were always traced back to God's 
 foreknowledge. 
 
 (l) See Justin Martyr, Apol. maj. Sec. 10. p. 48. and 
 p, 61, 
 
74 
 
 (3) 
 (4) 
 
 (2) Strom. Lib. If. p. 434, 462. IV. p. 633, 443. V. p. 
 645, 647. VI. p. 788. 832. VII. p. 860. 
 ' de Pfinclp. L. III. c. 1, 2. also 0pp. T. I. p. 108 &c. 
 Procateches. c. 1. Catech. I. Sec. 3. XIII. Sec. 
 1—4. XIV. Sec. 19, 22. 
 
 (5) Orat> XXXI, p. 504, 505. 
 
 (6) Oral. I. Opp. T. I. p. 150. 
 
 (7) in Genes. Homil. 22, 23, in Ep. ad Rom. Homil. 16. 
 in Ep. ad Hebr. Homil. 12. (Opp. T, XII. p. 805—07.) 
 inPs. L. Homil. 2. de Ferendis reprehens. Homil. 13. 
 
 (8) Irenaeus, adv. Haeres. II. c. 37 — 39. Tertullian, 
 de Anima, c. 21. adv. Marcion II. c. 5 — 8. Minutius 
 FeliXi Octav. c. 36. Ci/prian, de Gratia Dei, ad Donat. 
 p. 3, 4. Testim. adv. Judaeos, L. III. c.52. Arnobiusj 
 
 .adv. Gentes. L. H. p. 88, 89. Laciantius, Instit. divia. 
 IV. c. 16. VI. c. 24. VII. c. 5. Hilary of Poict. in Psal. 
 cxviii. Lit. V.§ 14. Lit. VI. § 4. Lit. XVII. § 8. Optatus 
 Milecvt, de Schismate Donatist. II. c. 20. Ambrose, in 
 Evang. Luc. L. II. c. 14. de Fuga Saeculi, c 1. de Fide, 
 ad Grat. L. V. c. 2. 
 
 Sec 91. Conflict of Augustine with Pelagius, 
 
 Historians of it. Cornelius Jansenius, Augustinus. Lout. 
 
 1640. Fol. 
 Dionys, Petavius, de Pelagianorum et Semipelagianorum 
 
 dogmatum Historia ; in his work, de Dogmatibus theo- 
 
 log. T. III. p. 304—335. de Prgedestinatione et Re- 
 
 probatione L. II. ibid. T. I. p. 343, 475. 
 Henry Noris, Historia Pelagianaj in his Opp. Veron. 
 
 1729. Tom. I. 
 Ch, Fr. W. Walch, History of Heresies ; (in German,) 
 
 vols. IV. and V. 
 
 Augustine, the renowned Bishop of Hippo, by his aims 
 to glorify the grace of God, and by some passages of 
 scripture, was led to a mode of thinking, which deviated 
 from the earlier system of belief, and which attributed 
 all goodness in men, exclusively, to divine operation. On 
 this subject, he fell into a contest with Pelagius and 
 Coelestine, And through the influence of his reputation, 
 and the cooperation of the African churches, and of the 
 
or DOGMATIC HISTORY. 75 
 
 Bishop of Rome, the Pelagians were condemned, as here- 
 tics ; notwithstanding the Council of Diospolis was favor- 
 able to them. This controversy related to the subjects 
 of sin, grace and free will, and election ; with which were 
 connected, those of infant baptism, redemption, and per- 
 severance in holiness. 
 
 Notices. The earlier writings of Augustine were: de Li- 
 bero Arbitrio, Lib. III. A. D. 388. de Diversis Ques- 
 tionibus LXXXlil. A. D. 348—395. de Diversis Qiies- 
 tionibus ad Simpliciarium, A. D. 397- His later wri- 
 tings were : de Peccatorum meritis et remissione, Lib. 
 I[L A. D. 412. de Natura et gratia, contra Pelagium, 
 A. D. 415. de Gestis Pelagii, A. D. 416. de Gratia 
 Christi, et de peccato originali, Lib. IL A. D. 418. de 
 Nuptiis et concupiscentia,Lib. I, IL A.D. 419, 420. con- 
 tra IL Epistolas Pelagianorum, ad Bonafacium, Lib. IV. 
 and contra Julianum. Lib. VI. A. D. 421. de Correp- 
 tione et gratia ; de Gratia et libero Arbitrio, A. D. 427. 
 de Praedestinatione sanctorum ; de Dono perseveran- 
 tiae, A. D. 428, or 429. Operis imperfecti conira Jylia- 
 niuii, Lib. VL A. D. 430. 
 
 From Pelagins, we have, besides a commentary on the 
 Epistles of Paul, an Epistle to Demetrias, (edited by J. 
 S. Semler, Halle, 1775.) and a confession of faith. From 
 Coelestius, also a confession of faith. And from Julian^ 
 many fragments, cited by Augustine. 
 
 Sec. 92. The first point, sin. 
 The Pelagians believed, that Adam's sin had no bad ef- 
 fects, upon the character and condition of his posterity ; 
 that sin arose, merely, from imitation ; that all men are, 
 from their nature, mortal ; and are born, undepraved. 
 According to Augustine's doctrine, all men, in conse- 
 quence of their descent from Adam, are mortal ; are 
 chargeable with hereditary sin ; and are obnoxious to 
 damnation. These doctrines he endeavored to prove, 
 from infant baptism, from the practice of exorcisms, and 
 from Rom, v. 12. Against him it was objected, that hig 
 doctrine of hereditary sin and its propagation, was ab- 
 
7G 
 
 surd ; that it would lead to the disapproval of matrimo- 
 ny ; and that, affirming the corruption of human nature, 
 and a connate worthiness of punishment, was making 
 God the author of evil, and an unrighteous judge. 
 
 Sec. 93. Second point, grace and free will. 
 Desirous of explaining, precisely, the activity of 
 man, and the influences of God, Pelagius discriminated 
 between the power, the will, and the act ; and he at- 
 tributed the first to God, the second to man, and the 
 lliird to both united. [When a man wills to do good, 
 God gives him the power, and so both have a part in 
 the act^ By the ambiguous term grace, he understood, 
 sometimes, divine instructions, and sometimes, other 
 means of moral improvement ; but never, any divine ener- 
 gy that impaired the free operations of the will. Au- 
 gustine, on the contrary, subverted, substantially at least, 
 the freedom of the will ; and derived all that was good 
 in man, solely from divine grace; by which he under- 
 stood an internal operation upon the soul, whereby it re- 
 ceived, not only the power, but also the will, to do good. 
 This grace, he maintained to be indispensable to man, 
 at all times, and for all duties : without it, no man can 
 do a good act; and even with it, no man is entirely free 
 from sin. All this he inferred either from his idea of he- 
 reditary sin, or from such passages of Scripture as John 
 viii. 31, 32. Phil. ii. J 3. 2 Cor. iii. 6, 6. But he ex- 
 posed himself to the objection, that, like the Manichaeans, 
 he annihilated the freedom of the will, and must look 
 upon all precepts and exhortations to virtue as nugatory. 
 
 Sec. 94. Third point, election. 
 From his conviction, that all men are totally depraved-, 
 and incapable of good deeds, there was no way lelt, lor 
 Augustine to answer the question, Why are some con- 
 verted and saved, and others not, — but to ascribe it to 
 the sovereign will of God. And thus was formed, his 
 doctrine of unconditional predestination; according lo 
 which, God destined some men to blessedness, without 
 
OF DOGMATIC KISTORT. 7T 
 
 regard to their merits and conduct, from his mere good 
 pleasure ; while he leaves others in their sins, and sen- 
 tences them to punishment, in order to exhihit his justice. 
 These doctrines not only forced themselves upon him, as 
 consequences of the other parts of his system; but. he 
 believed, they could be established by the scripture, Rom. 
 ix : and he took great pains to soften down their harsh 
 features, and to meet the objections to their injurious 
 practical tendency. From them flowed, spontaneously, 
 the ideas of irresistible divine influences, of special grace, 
 and particular redemption, and of the infallible perse- 
 verance of the elect. 
 
 Sec. 95. Progress of the doctrine^ after Augustine. 
 
 Great as the influence of Augustine was, his principles 
 gained no currency, among the Eastern christians ; and 
 even in the West, opposition was raised; especially by the 
 Galilean divines, who believed that, men still have some 
 ability to do good, by means of which, though they can- 
 not merit divine grace, ye^ they can prepare themselves 
 to receive it; and that God's purpose to save, depends on 
 the foreseen use made of this power. John Cassianus 
 was the most noted divine of this party ; and Famtus, 
 Bishop of RieZjbrought Lucidus an Augustinian, to change 
 his sentiments, A. D. 475. The controversv between the 
 Massilians, (Semi-Pelagians,) and those called Predes- 
 tinarians, continued for some time; but in the year 529, 
 the opinions of the former were condenmed, in the Coun- 
 cils of Arausio (Orange) and Valentia (Valence ;) and 
 tlie decision was confirmed by the Romish Bishops. 
 
 References. Jo. Ca^^tcrnw*, CollationespatrumSceticorum, 
 
 Collat*. XIII. 0pp. |>. 691—627. 
 Prosper of Aquitain, de Gratia et Arhitrio Liber, contra 
 
 Collatorem ; in 0pp. Cassian, p. 887. 
 Faustus, Ep. ad Lucidum : and, de Gratia et libero Arbi- 
 
 trio Lib. II.— in Biblioth Pair. 
 
 Praedestinatus ; in 0pp. J. Sirmondi, Tom. L 
 
 8 
 
78 muenscher's elements 
 
 Sec. 96. What Christ has done for mankind. 
 Historians. J. Fr. Cotta, Dissertatio, historiam doctrinae 
 
 de Redemptioneecclesiae sanguine J. C. facta exhibens; 
 
 in Jo.Gerhardi Locas theolog. ed. Cofta, Tom. IV. p. 105. 
 Wern. Car. Lud. Ziegler^ Historia doomatis de Redemp- 
 
 tione, seude modis, quihus redernptio Christi cxplicaba- 
 
 tur; Getting. 1791. — also in Velfhuscn,KiiindletRupcrti^ 
 
 Commentat't. Theolog. vol. V. p. 227 &c. 
 
 The doctrines concerning sin and grace, stand closely 
 connected with those concerning Christ; for it is through 
 him, that sins are blotted out, and the grace of God im- 
 parted. Jesus Christ was described, as being, in va- 
 rious respects, the greatest benefactor of mankind; 
 and for proof, mention was made of his excellent in- 
 structions, his noble example, the communication of 
 powers for holiness, his overthrowing the dominion 
 of evil spirits, and procuring immortality. At the 
 same time, as Irenaeus(l), and even Gregory of Na- 
 zianzum, assert, the theologians were left free, to form 
 their own conceptions of the design and effects of the in- 
 carnation and sufferings of Christ : and it is not strange, 
 therefore, that we should find them to have entertained 
 different views. 
 
 (1) adv. Haeres. I. c. 10. 
 
 Sec. 97. Effects of Chrisfs death. 
 Both Irenaeus(\) and Origen(2) had, in their day, 
 represented the death of Christ, sometimes, as a ransom 
 given to the devil, and sometimes, as a debt paid to God. 
 In accordance with the first of these hypotheses, most of 
 the fathers spoke of the death of Christ, as being the 
 means of the rescue of mankind from the dominion of the 
 devil, under which sin had brought them : and they some- 
 times go upon the assumption, that on the principle of 
 distributive justice, the power of the devil was taken from 
 him, because he misused it upon Jesus Christ(3) ; at other 
 times, they represent redemption as being, either a com- 
 bat (4), or a bargain(^), with the devil. Gregory of 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 7^ 
 
 Nazianzum, however, rejects the idea, that Jesus Christ 
 paid a ransom to the devil(6). Others of the fathers, — 
 as Athanasius(l ) and Cyril(S), — go upon the principle 
 of a debt paid to God ; and they consider the death of 
 Christ, as the stipulated condition, on which God can, 
 without injury to his veracity, release men from the death 
 threatened to them. Soaie of them also assert, that Je- 
 sus Christ paid more, than was necessary for the redemp- 
 tion of the human race(9). Lastly, there were some, who 
 supposed, that the whole mass of human nature, was ele- 
 vated and ennobled, by the Son of God's participating in 
 it(lO). It remained undetermined, whether the death 
 of Christ was indispensable, in order to the salvation of 
 men(ll). Respecting the extent of redemption, Ori- 
 gen( 12) advanced the idea, that Christ died, not merely 
 for men, but for all intelligent creatures : but this idea 
 was, by all the other fathers, except perhaps Grego- 
 ry(i3) of Nyssa and Didymus( 14), either silently re- 
 jected, or expressly disapproved. 
 
 (1) adv. Haeres. Lib. V. c. 1, 16, 21. 
 
 (2) Comment, in Mntth. Opp. T. III. p. 726, and p. 321, 
 and T. IV. p. 495. Homil. VI. in Exod. Lib. II. contra. 
 Gels. Lib. I. § 31. 
 
 (3) Augustine^ de. Lib. Arbitrio. Lib. III. c. 10. (Opp. 
 T. I. p. 622 &c.) also de Trinit. Lib. XIII. c. 10—15. 
 Chrysostom, Homil. LXVI. (T. Vlll. p. 432, 433.) 
 Homil. XXIV. in 1 Ep. ad Cor. (T. XI. p. 262,)— Hi- 
 lary of Poict. Tract, in Ps. Ixviii. § 8. p. 218. — Leoihe 
 Gr. Serm. LIX. c.4. (Tom. I. p. 132, e(l. Quesn.) Serm. 
 LXVH. C.3. i^M5.— Gregory the Gr. Moral. Lib.XVH. 
 
 (4) Irejiaeus, adv. Haer. V. c. 21, § 3. — Origen, contra 
 Cels. Lib. I. § 31. — Theodoret, de Provident. Oral. X. 
 (Opp. T. IV. p. 660.) — Hilary Pictav. Comment, in 
 Matth. c. 3. § 1, 5. p. 6 18, 620.— L^o the Gr. Orat.XXlI. 
 (Opp. I. p. 12.)— Gregory the (ir. Moral. Lib. XXVL 
 c. 18. 
 
 (5) Irenaeus, adv. Haeres. V. c. 1. — Origen, Comment, in 
 Matth. (Opp. T. III. p. 126.)— BaHl the Gr. Homil. ia 
 
80 muenschek's elements 
 
 Ps. xlviii. (0pp. T. p. 179 &c.) — Jerome in Ep. ad. 
 Ephes. cap. I. (0pp. JX. p. "iQ^.)-^ Ambrose Epp. Lib. 
 IX. Ep. 77. — Rufinus^ Exf)os. Syrnb. Apostol. (sub Opp. ^ 
 Cypr. p.21, 22. ed. Brem.) That the devil was over- ■ 
 reached, say : Cyril of Jems. Catechct. XII. p. 170. ^ 
 and Gregory Nyss. Orat. catechet. c. 22 — 26. 
 
 (6) Gregory Nazianz. Orat. XLII. (Opp. T. I. p. 691,692.) 
 and the author of the Dialogue, de Recta fide, sec. 1. in- 
 ter Opp. Orlgenisy T. I. p. 820. 
 
 (7) de Incarnat. (Opp. T. I. p. 60-62, or p. 52 &,c. ed, 
 Montf.) Orat. Ill (II.) in Arianos, (T. I. p. 439, 440, or 
 p. 535 &c. ed. Montf.) 
 
 (8) Catech. XIII. §33. 
 
 (9) C/yWZof Jerus. Catech. XIII. § 33. 
 
 (10) Gregory NWss. Orat. Catech. c. 16,32,37. and Opp. 
 Tom. 11. p. 17,* 588. Tom. III. p. 72,73,92, 102.—//*- 
 lary Pictav. do Trinitit. Lib. IL § 24, 25. and in Ps. li. 
 § 15. 
 
 (11) Affirmed by : Basil the Gr. Ilomil. in Ps. xlviii. (Opp. 
 L 179, 180.) — Cyril Alex. Dial, de incarnatione uni- 
 geniti, (Opp. V. p. 684.) — Leo the Gr. Serm. L. c. 1, 2. 
 Denied by : Athanasivs, Oiat. III. (11.) in Arian. (Opp. 
 L p. 438, ^^^.)— Gregory Naz. Orat. IX. p. 157.— 
 Gregory Nyss. Orat. catechet, c. 17. — Theodorety de 
 graecar. affectt. Curatione, Lib. VI. (Opp. IV. p. 875, 
 876.)— CyWZ Alex, contra Jul. Lib. VIII. p. 284, 285. 
 Augustine,, de Agone Christi. c. 11. and de Trinit. Lib. 
 XIIL c. 10. 
 
 (12) Comment, in Job. (Opp. T. IV. p. 41, 42.) contra 
 Cels. Lib. II. p. 409. Lib. VII. p. 706. 
 
 ns) Orat. Catechet. c. 26. 
 
 (14) Enarrat. in I.Ep. Pelri;in G allandi BMioih. Patr.VI. 
 p. 293. — That Christ suffered in our steady was taught by .- 
 Euseblus, Demor)strat. Evang. Lib. X. p. 467, and Lib. 
 Lp. 3Q.-— Gregory Nizmz. Orat. XXXVI. p. 580, and 
 Cyril Alexand. de recta fide ad Reginas, Opp. Tom. 
 V. p. 131. 
 
 Sec. 98. Forgiveness of sin. 
 
 It was universally admitted, that men obtain forgive- 
 ness of sin, through Jesus Christ. But a distinction 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 8J 
 
 was carefully made, between sins before baptism, and 
 sins committed afterwards. The former, it was believed, 
 were wholly removed, by Christ, in baptism. But for 
 subsequent sins, the man himself must make satisfac- 
 tion(l). This satisfaction consisted in Penance^ or vol- 
 untary self-inflictions; (which were considered as punish- 
 ments, that the person laid upon himself, in order to es- 
 cape divine punishment;) and in good works^ among 
 
 which, fasting, prayer, and alms-giving, were especially ^ ^ 
 
 recommended. Also the intercessions o( Wmg christi^nn^' '- ^ ^ 
 and of glorified saints, were supposed to contribute 
 very efficiently, to the forgiveness of these sins. Whe- >>, 
 ther, after one penance, a second penance could be^^ ^ 
 admitted, and whether it was possible, to do petiance >, 
 in the last moments of life, there was not entire agree- 
 ment ; but the majority answered affirmatively. Faith,' r,> ^ .. 
 was considered, as the general requisite, to a partici-"- ' "^ 
 pation of the blessings of Christianity. ' By faith, was 
 understood, embracing the christian religion, or rather, 
 orthodoxy. But the necessity of uniting good works 
 with faith, was strongly urged ; and the nature of good 
 works, — which must originate from faith, and derive all 
 their value froni it, — was the most precisely explained 
 by Augustine. At the same time, the opinion was 
 more and more distinctly held, that a man could per- 
 form more, than he was properly required to do, (works 
 of superogation,) and thereby attain to higher perfec- 
 tion and recompense(2). The word justification, (jus- 
 tificatio,) was oftener used for sanctification(3), than for 
 the pardon of sin. 
 
 Reference. Ilistoria antiquior dogmatis de modo salutis 
 
 tenendae, et justificationis seu veniae peccatorum a Deo 
 
 impetrandae instrumentis ; — auctore Henr\ Lconh, Heu- 
 
 . hner. Part I. and II. Wittemb. 1805. 4to, 
 
 (1) Clemens Alex. Strom. Lib. IV. p. t)34. Origen, in Ep, 
 
 ad Rom. Lib. III. p. 516, 617. Cyprian, de opere et 
 
 eleem. p. 197. Cyril Jerus. Catech. XVIII. sec. 20. 
 
 , Chrysostoniy in Evan. Joan. Homil LXXII. (Tom. VIIL 
 
 8* 
 
89 muenscher's elements 
 
 p. 466.) Augustine, Enchirid. ad Laurent, c. 70, 71. de 
 
 Fide et opp. c. 19. 
 ^2) Hermasy Similit. V. c. 2, 3. 
 (3) Augustine, Ep. CXL.sec. 63. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 CHRISTIAN SACRAMENTS. 
 
 Sec. 99. Baptism, 
 
 Historian, History of Baptism and the Anabapti.sts, (in 
 German,) by J. A. .SVar^p, Lips. 1785. 8vo. 
 
 The earliest description of baptism among Christians, 
 is given by Justin Martyr[\), The fathers, very early, 
 ascribed to this act a peculiar efficacy, in the forgiveness 
 of sins, and in the sanctification of the soul : and there was 
 a continued advance in the degree of efficacy ascribed to 
 it. Ordinarily, baptism was administered by immersion(2), 
 and only to the sick, by sprinkling ; and it was regarded, 
 as necessary to salvation(4), unless it was compensated 
 by a bloody baptism i. e. martyrdom(5). With baptism, it 
 was corpmon to join exorcism and unction. 
 
 Note. Singular idea of some fathers, concerning baptism 
 
 performed in the lower world. (6) 
 n) Apol. maj. p. 79,80. 
 
 (2) Barnabas^ Ep. c. 3. Theoph, ad Autol. Lib. IL p. 361. 
 Clemens Alex. Strom. I. c. 6 &c. l^erfullian, de Bap- 
 tismo. c 4, 5, 6, 16. Basil the Gr. Homil. de Baptismo. 
 (0pp. T. II.) Gregory Nyss. de Baptismo Christi. 
 (0pp. T. III.) Cyril Jerus. Catech. T. c. 3. MI. c. 11, 
 16. XVIL C.37. XX. c. 6. Gregory Naz. Orat. XL. 
 Augustine^^nc\nr\(\, ad Laurent, c. 43, 64. 
 
 (3) Turiullian, adv. Prax. c. 26. Irenaeus, adv. Haer. !. 
 c. 18. Basil the Gr. de Spir.S, c. 27. — Sprinkling used: 
 Cyprian, Ep. 69, ad Masrntim, p. 186 &c. 
 
 (4) Irenaeus, adv. Haer. III. c. 17. Origen, Exhort, ad 
 Martyr, sec. 30. Tertullian de Baptismo, c. 12, 13. 
 
OV DOGMATIC HISTORT. 83 
 
 Augustine de Peccator. mentis et remiss. Lib. III. c. 
 3 — 5, and c. 12, 13. Enchirid. ad Laurent, c. 43. 
 
 (5) Origen, Exhort, ad Martyr, sec. 30. Tertull. de Bapt 
 c. 16. Cyprian, Ep. 73. 
 
 (6) Clemens Alex. Strom. Lib. IL p. 452, and VL p. 762, 
 763. 
 
 Sec. 100. Infant Baptism. 
 
 All the earlier traces of infant baptism, are very unde-r 
 dsive ; and Tertullian{\) is the first who mentions it, 
 to disapprove of it. On the contrary, Origen (2) and 
 Cyprian (3) patronize it. In the fourth century, its le- 
 gality was univ^ersally admitted (4), notwithstanding the 
 fatliers often found occasion, to warn christians against 
 delaying it; and even Peloigius (5) did not dare to 
 question its correctness. Augustine (6) assigned to it 
 the distinct object, to take away the innate sin, and guilt 
 of the child : and by his views of it, the general practice 
 of it was promoted. 
 
 Historians. Wm. Wall, History of Infant Baptism ; Lend. 
 
 1705. 2 vol. 8vo. 
 /. G. Walch, Hisioria Paedobaptismi IV. priorum saecu- 
 
 lor ; — in his Miscell. Sacra. 1744. 
 David Rees, Infant Baptism no institution of Christ;' and 
 
 the rejection of it, justified from Scripture and antiquity ; 
 
 Lond. 1734. 8vo. 
 Robert Robinson, The history of Baptism : — abridged by D. 
 
 Benedict. Boston 1817. 8vo. • 
 
 (1) de Baptismo. c. 18. 
 
 (2) in Levit. Homil. VIII. (0pp. T. II. p. 230.) in Ev. 
 Lti. Homil. XV. Comment, in Ep. ad Rom. Lib. v. (0pp. 
 T. iv. p. 565.) 
 
 (3) Ep. adFidum. p. 158. 
 
 (4) Gregory Naz. Orat. xl. Gregory Nyss. do Inflintibus, 
 qui pracmnture abripiuntur. (Opp. T. III.) Augustine, de 
 Genesi ad Literam. Lib. x. c. 23. &c. A^^c. 
 
 (5) Professio Fidei. 
 
84 muenscher's elements 
 
 (6) Ep. CLVII. sec 11. Ep. XCVIIL Ep. CLXXXVII. 
 
 sec. 22 &-C. de Genesi ad Lit. Lib. x. c. 23. de Peccator. 
 meritis et remiss. Lib. 1. c. 26. 
 
 Sec. 101. Heretical baptisms. 
 
 Much longer, continued the doubt, whether those who 
 were baptized by heretics, had received valid baptism. 
 The African churches were convinced, that true baptism 
 existed only in the Catholic church. In this, they dif- 
 fered from the Komish church ; and the bishops, Ste- 
 phen and Cyprian, had a controversy on the subject. 
 Even the decrees of the Councils of Nice and Constanti- 
 nople, did not produce uniformity of sentiment. The 
 Catholics of Africa, were led by the Donatist controversy, 
 to depart from their former principles. Aus^ustine de- 
 vised the doctrine, that the validity of baptism depends, 
 not on the orthodoxy of the church in which, or of the 
 person by whom, it is administered, but solely on the 
 invocation of the Trinity ; yet that baptism can conduct 
 to salvation, only those that belong to the true church. 
 This doctrine, he labired to establish, yet with the great- 
 est tenderness for the reputation of Cyprian. 
 
 References, Cyprian, Epistolae LXIX — LXXV. — Au- 
 gustine, de baptismo, contra Donatistas, Libri VL 
 
 Sec. 102. The Lord^s Supper. 
 
 Historians. De Eucharistiae sacramento, Lib. Ill ; authore 
 
 Edm. Albertin ; Daventr. 1654. Fol. 
 Histoire de I'Eucharistie ; par Matth. de Larroque, Arnst. 
 
 1671. 8vo. 
 Rudolph Hospinian, Historia Sacramentaria ; Genev. 1681. 
 
 II. vol. Fol. 
 J. Aug. Emes% Antimuratorius ; Lips. 1755. and in his 
 
 Opusc. Theol. Lips. 1792. 
 History of the doctrine of the Lord's Supper : (in German,) 
 
 in Cramer's Continuation of Bonnet's Introduction to the 
 
 History of the world and of religion, vol. V. P. II. 
 La perpetuite de 1' eglise catholique touchant V Eucharistie ; 
 
 Paris 1670— 74. ILL vol. with volumes IV. and V. (by 
 
OF DOGMATIC liISTORY* 85 
 
 Euseb, Reinaudot,) Paris 1711, 1713. 4to. and the wri- 
 tings in reply, by J. Claude, 
 
 .The Lord's supper (r^x^p^ia, (fwa^ig ivXoyta, missa) was 
 solemnized by christians, after the example of Christ, 
 and as a memorial of him. After the second century, 
 it was likened to the pagan mysteries, and was kept from 
 the sight of all unbaptized persons. In it, common bread 
 was used, and tlie wine was mixed with water. The 
 custom of some heretical sects, of witholding the cup, 
 or of presenting water instead of wine, was disapproved. 
 Baptized children(l) were allowed to partake of the 
 Lord's supper. The zeal of the- fathers led them to ex- 
 hibit, under the strongest imagery, this transaction as very 
 holy, very efficacious, and very awful. 
 
 (1) Cyprian, de Lapsis, p. 132. 
 
 Sec. 103. The hordes Supper as a sacrifice. 
 According to the concordant decisions of the ancient 
 fathers, the Lord's supper is to be considered, as a ^a- 
 crifioe (^uo'ia, ^potf^popa, oblatio, sacriliciinn.) Yet Jus- 
 tin(l) and Irenaeus(2) make it to be only k thank-offer^ 
 ing. The African fathers, TertuHian(3) and Cyprian(4), 
 speak of offerings /or the dead; and the latter represents 
 the Lord's supper, as being an act of the priest, in which 
 he, in Christ's stead, presents bread and wine to God, in 
 imitation of the sacrifice of Christ. Jn the fourth centu- 
 ry, the Lord's supper was universally considered, as an 
 unbloody sacrifice; whereby the accompanying prayers of 
 the living and the dead, obtained peculiar efficacy, and 
 were potent to the averting of all sorts of evils. The 
 idea, that the Lord's supper was a memorial of the sacri- 
 fice of Christ, was gradually supplanted by another, that 
 it was a repeiition of that sacrifice ; and the doctrine of 
 purgatory being introduced, the idea of the sacrifice cj 
 the Mass, grew up in the Latin church. 
 
 (1) Apolo<r. maj. p, 82, 83. (p. 98. ed. Col.) Dial, p. 
 
66 iiuenscher's elements 
 
 (2) adv. Haeres. Lib. IV. c. 17, 18. 
 
 (3) de Corona, c. 3. de Monogam. c. 10. 
 {4) Epist. LXllI. p. 149, 155. 
 
 Reference, Essay of a History of the doctrine of a sacri- 
 fice in the Lord's supper; (German,) in the Got'.ingen- 
 chen Bihliothek der neuesten theol. Literatur, vol. 11. p. 
 159, and 317. 
 
 Sec. 104. Presence of Christ in the Eucharist, 
 
 As all christians considered the Lord's supper, to be 
 a means of communion with Christ, two modes of ex- 
 plaining this communion early appeared. Some, as Ter- 
 tuUian{i) Origen[2) &nd Cyprian{2), regarded the 
 bread and wine, as mere symbols of the body and blood 
 of Jesus. Others, as Justin{4) diwd Irenaeus[d) (though 
 with very indistinct conceptions,) supposed that, the Logos, 
 united himself with the bread and wine, and thus trans- 
 formed them into his body and blood, and into food, that 
 imparted immortality to the body of the partaker of it. 
 Ahhough this diversity of sentiment, did not afterwards 
 disappear, yet subsequent to the fourth century, the lat- 
 ter hypothesis acquired an ascendency, more and more 
 manifest ; and it became common, to speak of the trans- 
 formation of the elements, although the church had not 
 yet an established belief on the subject. 
 
 (1) Tertullian, contra Marcion, Lib. IV. c. 40. 
 
 (2) Comment, in Maith. 0pp. T. III. p. 498—500 
 (3)Ep. LXIII. p. 148 &c. 153 &c. 
 
 (4) Apolojr. mnj. p. 82, 83, 
 
 (5) adv. Haer. V. c. 2. 
 
 Jleference. Phil, Marheineke, Sane. Patrum de praesen- 
 tia Christi in coena Domini sententia triplex ; s. saqrae 
 Eucharistiae historia tripartita ; Heidelb, 1811. 4to. 
 
 Sec. 105. Of the sacraments in general. 
 
 The word sacrament (sacramentum, in Gr. i^^vgripm) 
 
 was sometimes used for religious doctrines, that transcend 
 
 the comprehension of men, and sometimes for religious 
 
 rites. Among these rites, baptism and the Lord's sup- 
 
OF DOGMATI-C HISTORY. 87 
 
 per held the first rank ; and they were described as meansy 
 by which God imparts his grace to men. Unction, how- 
 ever, was distinguished from baptism; 2ind Augustine^l) 
 added the two institutions of ordination and marriage. 
 The pseudo-Dionosius Areopagita(2) enumerates six 
 sacraments ; namely baptism, the Lord's supper, unc- 
 tion, ordination, monastic vows, and religious rites on the 
 dead. 
 
 (1) contra Ep. Parmeniani Lib. II. c. 12. Sec. 28. de Bo- 
 no conjucrali, c. 7. et 15. 
 
 (2) Dlonys. Areop. de Ecclesiastica Ilierarchia, 0pp. T. 
 I. p. 229. ■ 
 
SECOSTD PERIOD. 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGES, A. D. 600 1517. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 GENERAL VIEW OF THE STATE OF THEOLOGY. 
 
 Sec. 106. State cf theology among the Greeks, at the 
 beginning of the period. 
 The state of the Greek empire, which, in consequence 
 of enemies without and bad management within, was 
 threatened with dissohuion, raised obstructions to the 
 progress of theology. But still greater obstacles lay in 
 the theological disposition of the age ; which was govern- 
 ed by authority, looked at the bible through the glass of 
 the earlier expositors, compiled systems of faith from 
 the works of preceding times, and was violently passion- 
 ate against heretics. The contests concerning the luilh 
 of Christ, and concerning pictures in churches, called 
 forth indeed the activity of theologians, but gave no fa- 
 vorable direction to their minds. 
 
 Sec. 107. John Damascenes. 
 From the materials, which the various controversies 
 of the preceding ages and the industry of the fathers had 
 accumulated, John of Damascus formed an orthodox 
 system of divinity (^xi^stfi^ ax^i^.r^g tt.c: cp^o(5ogou tj^sw^) ; 
 which was received with great applause, on account of 
 the uncommon learning of the author, and his reputa- 
 tion earned in the field of orthodox warfare. Ahhough 
 we are not to look there, for natural interpretations of 
 scripture, and candid investigations of subjects; yet the 
 work commends itself, by a happy selection of thought* 
 
muenscher's elements, etc. 89 
 
 fl'om approved writers, by clearness of expression, and 
 by the attempt to give, with the aid of the Aristotelian 
 philosophy, new confirmations and greater unity to the 
 received theology. 
 
 References. lo. Damasceni 0pp. cura Mich. Le Quien, 
 Paris, 1712. 11. vol. Fol. Epitome universae theolo- 
 giae ; s. Explicatio IV. libror. Damasceni Chrysorrhoae, 
 de orlhodoxa fide ; auctore Christoph Pelargo ; Francf. 
 1605. 4to. Rd.sler^s Bibliothek der Kirchenvater, vol. 
 VIII. p- 248—532. 
 
 Sec. 108. Greek theology subsequently. 
 After John Damascen, the cultivation of theology, 
 among the Greeks, still declined : and, was directed sole- 
 ly, to the prosecution of the contest respecdng image- 
 worship; to the attacking of manichaeism, as revived by 
 the Paulicians ; and to the points of doctrine, contested 
 between the Greeks and the Latins. Those inclined to 
 attempt something more, as Euthymius Zigabenus (d. 
 circ. A. D. 1116) and JVicetas Choniates, compiled 
 collections of sentences from the fathers, against the he- 
 retics. The detached parties, the Nestorians (Chaldaic 
 christians,) and the Monophy sites, (Jacobites,) had for 
 dogmatic writers — the former, Ebed Jesu (d. 1318) 
 and the latter, Jacobus of Tagrit (d. 1231) and Abulfa- 
 radsch (d. 1286.) 
 
 Notices. Euthymii Zigaheni, cravocrXia Ooyiiarixr] rr\g op^o- 
 Solou ifig-TSiA^S published, Lat. in the Biblioth. maxima Pa- 
 trum, T. XIX. and Gr. Targov. 1710. Fol. Nicetae 
 Choniatis ^ricfavpog op^o^o^ia^. See Bandini Eccles. 
 Graecae Monum. T- II. p.l & c. Ebed Jesu Margarita ; 
 s. de vera Fide. See Assejnanni BihWoih. Orient. Tona. 
 III. P. I. Jacobus Tagrit. Liber Thesaurorum. See 
 Asseman !. c. T. II. p. 237. Abulfaragii candela- 
 brum sanctorum de fundamentis ecclesiae. Ibid. p. 284. 
 
 Sec 109. State of theology among the Latins, 
 In the newly erected western kingdoms, learning sunk 
 faster and deeper, than it did in the East ; yet here also, 
 9 
 
90 biuenscher's elements 
 
 the like firm adherence to the earlier systems of belief, 
 prevailed. The Romish Bishops distinguished them- 
 selves, by their zeal against the Monothelites, and the op- 
 posers of image vvorsliip. Uidore of Seville, is little more 
 than an undiscriminating compiler of sentences from the 
 works of Augustine and Gregory. Tajo of Saragossa, 
 and Ildefonsus of Toledo, made similar compilations. 
 
 Notices. Isidori Hispalensis 0pp. Madrid, 1778. II. vol. 
 Fol. andhyF. Arm/Zo, Rornae, 1797—1803. VII. vol. 
 4to. In which are, Sententiarum Lihri IJI. Also his 
 Etymoloiries. Lib. VIL and VIII. contain explanations of 
 many points in iheoloiry. 
 
 Tajonis Caesaravgustani Sententiarum Lib. V. 
 
 lldefonsi Toletani Annotatt. de ctigiiitione haptismi, Li- 
 ber ; in StepL Baluzii Miscellanea, T. VI. p. 1. Pa- 
 ris, 1713. 
 
 Sec. 110. Age of Charlemagne, 
 In the empire of the Franks, Charlemagne aw^akened 
 the slumbering love of science. He and his assistants — 
 among whom Alcuin was prominent — exercised their 
 ingenuity, in applying the theology of the fathers to the 
 controversies respecting image worship, and with the 
 Adoptionists. In the schools established by Charlemagne, 
 various learned men were trained, who became con- 
 spicuous, by their investigations concerning the Lord's 
 Supper, and the doctrine of election. Yet one individual, 
 John Scotus, distinguished himself among his contempo- 
 raries, by his uncommon boldness of thought. He also 
 transplanted the writings of the supposed Dionysius Ar- 
 eopagita, into the soil of the Latin churches. 
 
 Notices, Flaccus Alcuinus, 0pp. — cura J. Frobenii ; Ra- 
 
 tisbon. 1777. H. Tom. IV. vol. Fol. 
 Jo Scotus, de Divisione naturae. Lib. V. Oxon. 1609. 
 
 Hincmarus RhemensiSf 0pp. — cura Ja. Slrmondi; Paris 
 
 1645.il Vol. Fol. 
 
 Sec. 111. Preparatory steps to Scholastic theology. 
 Historians, Important materials, for a history of scholastic 
 
OF DOGMA.TIC HISTORY. 91 
 
 theology, are contained in the Histoire literaire de la 
 France, (yet reachinsr only to the 12th century,) and in 
 the Historia universitatis Parisiensis, authore Caes. Egas» 
 Bulaeo. Pans 1665—73. VI. vol. Fol.— The history 
 itself is best given by, 
 
 Ad. Tribbechovius, de Doctoribus scholasticis, cum Praef, 
 Libro. C. A, Heumonn, Jena. 1719. 
 
 /, A. Cramer, Continuation o^ Bos suet's General History ; 
 (in German,) vol. V. VI. VII. 
 
 J. M. Schroeckh, History of the Christian Church ; (in 
 German,) vol. XXV— XXXIV. 
 
 Its history, philosophically considered, is best giv* 
 en by, 
 
 Brucker, Historia critica Philosophiae ; Tom. HI. 
 
 Tiedemann, The Spiritof speculative Philosophy ; (in Ger- 
 man,) Vol. IV. and V. 
 
 Eberstein, Natural Theology of the Scholastics ; (in Ger- 
 man,) Lips. 1803. 
 
 Tennemanuy History of Philosophy ,* (in German,) vol. 
 Vlll. 
 
 The activity, which Charlemagne had imparted to tha 
 study of theology, disappeared, so early as the ninth 
 century ; and w^as seen no more, till the last half of the 
 eleventh century, when dialectics was again prosecuted, 
 with impassioned ardour, and Roscelin shewed himself 
 at the head of the Nominalists. The schools in France, 
 then flourished again ; and the cathedral school of 
 Tours, awakened emulation in the monastic school of Le 
 Bee. The controversy respecting the Lord's Supper, 
 carried on by Lanfrank (d. 1088), against Berengarius 
 (d. 1080), in which philosophical argumentation was 
 employed, called forth close thinking, and gave new 
 activity to the speculative powers. 
 
 Notices, Berengarius Turonensis, or Announcement of 
 one of his important works ; (in German,) by Gott» Eph. 
 Lessing; Brunsw. 177v). — Beienijarins Turonensis ; by 
 C' F' Sfdudlin ; in his and if, G. Tzschirner's Archiv 
 
92 
 
 fiir alte und neue Kirchengeschichte, vol. II. P. I. p. 
 1 &c. 
 Lanfranci Cantuariensis Opera ; evulgavit Lucas Dacheri- 
 us. Paris 1648. Fol. 
 
 Sec. 1 12. Anselm and Hildebert, 
 The proper commencement of scholastic theology, or 
 of attempts to establish the received doctrines of faith on 
 philosophic principles, is to be ascribed to Anselm of 
 Canterbury (d. 1109); who attempted to raise many- 
 articles of the received faith, to the rank of demonstra- 
 tive truths. Hildebert (a Lavardino, Ep. Cenomanen- 
 sis, and then) Archbishop of Tours (d. 1132), in his 
 Tractatus Theologicus, embraced most of the theolo- 
 gical tenets then discussed, in one connected discourse. 
 About this time, in addition to the existing schools, larger 
 seminaries of learning began to be erected, which spread 
 wider this philosophizing theology ; in which, the uni- 
 versity of Paris took the lead, through the whole of the 
 middle ages. 
 
 Notices. Anselmi Cantuariensis Opera ; — cura Gahr. 
 
 Gerberon. ed. 2, Paris 1721. Fol. 
 Hildeberti Opera ^ cura Ant. Beaugendre ; Paris 1708. 
 
 Fol. 
 
 Sec. 113. Contest respecting philosophic theology. 
 
 This new shape of theology would, in various respects, 
 naturally appear suspicious, in the eyes of those habitua- 
 ted to the old mode of teaching, or the Theologi Positivi. 
 Also the ecclesiastical hierarchy, over which the Popes 
 had elevated themselves to unlimited power, could not 
 be indifferent to this freedom of thought; and especially, 
 as even at that very time, they saw their rights assailed, 
 by the new sects that were rising up. Anselm and 
 Hildebert, indeed, in consequence of their high respecta- 
 bility, and their prudence, had no collision with the 
 church. But the higher daring of their successors, met 
 with restraints. The open hearted Peter Abelard (d. 
 1142J was subdued, by the great influence of St. Ber-^ 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 93 
 
 nard of Clairvaux (d. 1 153) ; and Gilbert of Porretta (d. 
 1 J 54) met with — not indeed the same— but a similar fate. 
 
 Notices, Collectio judiciorum de novis erroribus, qni ab 
 initio seculi XII. — in ecclesia proscripti sunt ; — opera 
 Car, du Plessis d' Argeutre ; Paris 1728 — 36. III. 
 Vol. Fol. 
 
 Pet. Abaelardi Opera ;— cura Andr Quercetani; Paris 
 1616. 4to. — Theologiae ciiristianae Lib. V. in Edm. 
 Martene^s Thesaur. Anecdotoiuni. Tom. V. p. il39. — 
 F, C. Schlosser, Abaelard und Dulcinj (in German,) 
 Gotha 1807. 8vo. 
 
 Sec. 114. Further advances of scholastic theology. 
 
 Warned by the example of Abelard, some of his con- 
 temporaries carefully avoided offending the church. 
 Robert Pulleyn (d. about 1153) even became a Cardi- 
 nal; and Hugo of S. Victor (d. 1164) enjoyed the 
 friendship of St. Bernard. Richard of St. Victor (d. 
 1173) labored to explain and confirm mystic theology, 
 by metaphysical philosophy. Robert of Melun (d. 
 1173) and Alan of Ryssel (ab Insulis, d. 1203) w^rote 
 compilations of philosophical views in theology ; and the 
 latter distinguished himself, by attempting to supj)ort all 
 doctrines of faith, with mathematical demonstrations. 
 But Peter Lombard (d. 1164) eclipsed all his predeces- 
 sors. His work, which is a compilation and comparison 
 of the opinions of all the earlier theologians, obtained 
 universal respect. He was indeed, together with his 
 pupil Peter of Polctiers (d. 1206), accused of many 
 errors; and Walter of St. Victor represented him as 
 one of the corrupters of France : yet his book triumphed 
 over all its enemies, so as even to claim to be free from 
 plagiarism. 
 
 Notices, Roberti PuUi Sententiarum Lib. VIII. et Petri 
 Petaviensis Sententiarum Lib. V. — studio Hugonis Ma- 
 thoud; Paris 1655. Fol. 
 
 Hugonis a St, Victorcyde Sacramentis ecclesiae, Lib. 11. — 
 in his Opp. Rothomagi 1648. Fol. 
 9^ 
 
94 
 
 Richardi a St, Victore Opp. Rothom. 1660. Fol. 
 
 Extracts from the unpublished writings of Robert ofMeluns, 
 are in Bulaei Hist. Univer. Paris. Tom. II. p. 585 — 
 626. 
 
 Alani ah Insulis, Libri V. de Arte ; s. de articulis catholi- 
 cae fidei ; — in Pezii Thesaurus Anecdot. T. I. P. II. p. 
 475, &c. 
 
 Petri Lomhardi Sententiarum Lib. IV. — often published ; 
 e. g. Louv. 1553. Fol. Colon. 1576. 8vo. — (^Lamberti 
 Danaei Prolegomena in Librum primym Sententiarum 
 Lombardi ; — in his Opuscula'I'heol.Genev. 1583. Fol.) — 
 Bandini Sententiarum theologicarum Lib. IV. Viennae 
 1519. Fol. 
 
 Sec. 115. Influence of the monastic orders on the scho- 
 lastic theology. 
 Since the time of Innocent III. (A. D. 1198,) the 
 Popes assumed the freer use of legislative power in mat- 
 ters of faith, and were more active in suppressing all 
 opinions that displeased them. The then recent orders 
 of Dominicans and Franciscans, forced their way into the 
 theological chairs, outshone the other doctors, and impart- 
 ed to theology something of the spirit of their orders. 
 To them it belonged, to combine the Aristotelian philo- 
 sophy with strict orthodoxy, and thus reconcile the church 
 to that philosophy. Alexander of Hales (d. 1245) and 
 Albert the Great, the most learned of all the scholastics, 
 led the way. Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274) excelled all 
 that preceded him, in acuteness, and in the multitude of 
 theological questions, w^hich he discussed. His contem- 
 porary, John Bonaventure (d. 1274), was not so pene- 
 trating ; but he endeavored to give nutriment, not only to 
 the understanding, but to the imagination and the heart 
 of the reader. John Duns Scotus (d. 1308), the most 
 subtle and the most obscure of all the doctors of that age, 
 differed from Thomas Aquinas on many points, and form- 
 ed a distinct school. The Thomists and the Scotists lived 
 in continual warfare with each other. 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY, 95 
 
 Notices, Alexandri Halesii Summa universae theologiae ; 
 Colon. 1576. Fol. 
 
 Alberti Magni Opera; cura Petri Jammi ; Lugd. 1651. 
 XXI Vol. Fol. — or which ; Cornmentarii in Libros IV. 
 Sententiarum, Bas. 1506. IV vol. — Summa theologica, 
 P. I. et II. Bas. 1507. II vol. Fol. 
 
 Thomae Aquinatis Opera ; Rom. 1572. XVII vol. Fol. — 
 Venet 1745 &c. XX vol. Fol.— Of which ; Commen- 
 tarii in Libros Sententiarum ; (often printed e. g.) Pa- 
 
 - ris 1659. IV vol. Fol. — Siimmae totius theologiae Lib. 
 in. Antw. 1624. Fol. (The genuineness of this Summa, 
 was contested by Jo. Launoy ; but defended by Natalis 
 Alexander, in an appropriate Essay ; Historia Eccles. 
 
 ' Saecul. XIIL et XIV. Tom. VII. p. 391.) 
 
 Joannis Bonaventurae Opera; Romae 1588 — 96. VlII. 
 Vol. Fol. — Of which : Commentarii in Libros IV. Sen- 
 tentiarum, Centiloquium Lib. IV. Priviloquiiim Lib. Vll. 
 
 Jo, Duns Scoii Opera ; curante Luc. Wadding; Lugd. 
 1639. XII. Vol. Fol. Of whioh: Qnodlibeta, et Com- 
 mentarii in IV. Sententiarum Libros. Venet. 1616. IV. 
 Vol. Fol. — OpusParisiense ; Antw. 1620. — Qnaestiones 
 quodlibetariae ; Antw. 1620. Fol. 
 
 Sec. 116. The later scholastics. 
 After these men, the study of philosophic theology was 
 indeed pursued with industry and eagerness, but it de- 
 generated into servile imitation, or useless puzzling. Yet 
 there were some, who rose above their contemporaries. 
 Durand of St. Poursain (d. 1333), although a Domin- 
 ican, dared to contradict St. Thomas. William Occam, 
 (d. 1347) boldly deviated from Scotus; and even with- 
 stood, spiritedly, the Pope. Raymund de Sabunde (d. 
 about 1526) was the first, who treated of natural theo- 
 logy, in an appropriate work. Gabriel Bid (d. 1496) 
 was the last of the distinguished scholastics of this period. 
 
 Notices. Gulielmi Durandi de Sancto Porciano, Com- 
 mentaria in IV. Libros Sententiarum ; Paris 1615. 
 Fol. 
 
 Gulielmi Occam, Quaestiones in Libros IV. Sententiarum ; 
 
96 muenscher's elements 
 
 Luorcl. 1495. Fol. — Ejusdern, Centiloquium Iheologicum; 
 
 Lugd. 1496. Fol, 
 Theolo^^ia naturalus, s. Liber creaturarum ; authore Ray- 
 
 mundo de Sahunde; Fraiicf. 1635. 
 Gabrielis Blel^ Collectorium in Libros IV. Sententiarum ; 
 
 Tubing. 1502. II, vol. Fol. 
 
 Sec. 1 1 7. Causes of the downfall of scholastic theology . 
 The foundations of this theology were tottering; and 
 the modes of proceeding in it, broughtgthe germ of its dis- 
 solution along with them. They sought to exercise their 
 own powers of investigation, and yet to leave the influence 
 of the fatliers untouched, and to construe the Bible only 
 as they did. Unlike, as the theology of the fathers and 
 the Aristoletian philosophy were, both in spirit and in first 
 principles; an attempt was made, to unite them. This 
 constitutional debility of the scholastic system, was the 
 sooner shaken, in consequence of other causes. Many 
 christians were disgusted with precepts, which merely ex- 
 ercised, or rather puzzled the understanding, with super- 
 fine speculations, and gave no nutriment to the soul ; and 
 this disgust was increased, by the disagreeable contests 
 between the Thomists and the Scotists. John Charlier 
 Gerson (d. 1320), JVicholas de Clemangis, and other 
 discerning men, animadverted with earnestness upon the 
 unprofitableness of such instructions. The revival of 
 better taste, and a better knowledge of language, intro- 
 duced contempt for the coarse style and the barbarous 
 technicals of the scholastics. Confidence in the autho- 
 ity of Aristotle was shaken, by the rise of new Platonists ; 
 and a more independent spirit, was anxious to break the 
 fetters, in which the human mind had moved with so heavy 
 a gait. Towards the end of this period, all the more 
 discerning, looked upon scholasticism, as the relic of a 
 more barbarous age, and an armory of rusty weapons. 
 
 Notice, Jo. Gersonis Opera ; studio Lud. HI. Du Pin ; 
 Antw. 1705. V. vol. Fol. 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 97 
 
 PART II. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF PARTICULAR DOCTRINES. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE CULTIVATION OF THE DOCTRINES PREVIOUSLT 
 DEFINED. 
 
 Sec. 118. The existence of God, 
 
 John Damascenus founded belief of the existence of 
 God, on the necessity of a first cause of all things, and 
 on the marks of wisdom and desiji;n in the created uni- 
 verse. Anselm of Canterbury, with new and acute rea- 
 soning, inferred the existence of God, fjfom the concep- 
 tion of an all-perfect being. But he met with an intelli- 
 gent opponent, in Gavnilo a French Monk. His views 
 were not adopted by Peter J.ombard ; but were so, by 
 Thomas ; who likewise bestowed attention on the proof 
 from design, by Richard of St. Victor. Duns Scotus 
 viewed the proof, from the mere conceptions of the mind, 
 as unsatisfactory ; and attributed entire adequacy, to the 
 arguments from experience. TViUiam Occam represents 
 all demonstration of the existence of God, as impossible ; 
 and Raymund of Sabunde, following the footsteps of 
 Abelard, (Theol.christ.p.l349,)inferred ourbelief of God, 
 very much in the manner of Kant, from the necessity, of 
 supposing a Siipreiiie Judge and Rewarder. (Theol. nat. 
 Tract. 82, 83.) 
 
 Notices. Anschn Canferh. Proslo^iunri et Monolojiinm. — - 
 {Gaunilonis) Liber pro insipiente, contra Anselrni in prcs- 
 logio ratiocinationem. Anselrni Liber apologetiriis, ron- 
 tra Gaunilonem respondentem pro insipiente. {W.C. Xr^ 
 Zieglers Contiabntlon to tlie history of belief of a Godj 
 
 (German,) Getting. 1792.) 
 
98 muenscher's elements 
 
 Sec. 1 1 9. Nature of God. 
 Pantheism, founded on the new Platonic notions, wag 
 brouglit forward, by John Scoius Erigena, and defended 
 hy Jlmalricli of Bene (A.D. 1204), and his pupil David 
 JDinant ; but it was rejected by the church, and confuted 
 by Albert and Thomas, Tiie incomprehensibleness of 
 God, was maintained with great strenuousness ; and three 
 ways for attaining to a knowledge of God, were re- 
 commended ; namely via eminentiae, via negationis, and 
 via causalilatis. The divine attributes were inferred, from 
 the idea of a supreme and necessarily existing Being. 
 The omni|)otence and omnipresence of God, in particular, 
 were the subject of many questions and investigations. 
 Also the unity of God, was evinced by numerous argu- 
 guments, by John Damascenns^ Abelard, and Richard of 
 St. Victor. On all these subjects, William Occam mani- 
 fested the sceptical turn of a Bay le. , 
 
 Sec. 120. Trinity. 
 
 The theologians employed the greatest art, to make 
 the doctrine of the Trinity more comprehensible, and to 
 exhibit it as consonant with reason ; but they came near 
 to marring the received doctrines of the church. Rosce- 
 lin was accused, by his opposers, of tritheism ; and he was 
 condemned in the council of Soissons, A. D. 1093. 
 Abelard was taxed, sometimes with tritheism, and some- 
 times with Sabellian errors ; the latter, with the most 1 
 plausibility. Anselm and Richard of St. Victor, in 
 their proofs of a Trinity, grazed lightly on Sabellianism; 
 yet they met with no opposition ; and the views of the 
 latter, were again brought forward, by Alexander Hales 
 and others. Even to Peter Lombard, great errors on 
 this subject, were imputed, by Joachim, Abbot of Flora : 
 but Innocent 111. acquitted him, in the Lateran Council 
 A. D. 1215. The nice distinction, which Gilbert of 
 Porretta made, between God himself nnd the attributes 
 of God, drew on him the attacks of St. Bernard, and 
 
OF DOGSIATIC HISTORY. 19 
 
 the animadvers'ons of the Councils of Paris and Rheims, 
 A. D. 1 147 and 1248. In general, the scholastics found, 
 in the doctrine of the Trinity, copious matter for the 
 most acute speculations concerning the three Persons, 
 and their relations to each other. 
 
 Sec. 121. Creation, and Angels. 
 
 The Aristotelian hypothesis, of the eter^iity of the 
 world, was confuted by the scholastics ; and yet several 
 of them, e. g. Thomas Aquinas, maintained that it could 
 not be disprov^ed, by the ]iH;ht of nature, but only by the 
 testimony of revelation. Tlie design of God in creation, 
 was, according to Damascenus and Lombard, to make 
 manifest to rational beings his goodness ; or according to 
 Thomas, to communicate himself, as the highest good, 
 to other beings. On the doctrine concerning Angels, 
 John Damascenus adopted the views of the pseudo-Dio- 
 nysius Areopagita, in regard to the classification of the 
 angels ; and these views were received by the scholas- 
 tics. In the I^ateran Council, A. D. 1215, Pope Inno- 
 cent IIL established the positions, that the angels are 
 spirits, and that God created them holy. The questions 
 raised, concerning the nature and the creation of angels, 
 and concerning the apostacy and influences of evil spirits, 
 were almost innumerable. Lombard deemed it probable, 
 that every soul is attended by a good and a bad angel ; and 
 this hypothesis was afterwards repeatedly brought forward. 
 Sec. 122. Doctrine of Providence, 
 
 Damascenus collected the most important ideas of the 
 Greek fathers, respecting divine providence. The ear- 
 lier scholastics touched on this subject, only occasionally, 
 when they were treating of the wisdom, or of the will 
 of God. Thomas Aquinas first gave it a full investiga- 
 tion. Thatj this world is the best possible one, was held 
 by Anselm and Abelard ; Thomas and Durand believed, 
 that God could have made a better. \n regard to the 
 divine cooperation, in the acts of his creatures, Du-- 
 rand contradicted the sentiments of Ihomas, Upon 
 
100 muenscher's elements 
 
 occasion of the rise of some Cathari, who leaned towards 
 Manichaen sentiments; the righteousness of God in re- 
 spect to the origination of evil, was further investigated 
 by the scholastics, in accordance with the principles sug- 
 gested by Augustine. In regard to moral evil, (that which 
 merits punishment,) they discriminated between the ante- 
 cedent will of God, and the consequent ; and Thomas 
 labored to prove, that, to the perfection of the world, 
 beings were necessary, who were capable of sinning. 
 Physical evil was considered as the inseparable, and in 
 its ejSects, beneficial, consequence of sin. 
 
 Sec. 123. The person of Christ. 
 Although the Council of Chalcedon had published a 
 determinate creed on this subject, yet the theologians in- 
 volved themselves in new speculations and perplexities. 
 The question, whether there should be attributed to 
 Christ, only one simple will, or a twofold will, produced 
 commotion in the East, and gave occasion to investigate 
 more fully the theandric operations in Christ. But at 
 length, the opinion of the Monothelites was put down, by 
 the resistance made by the Popes, and. by the decision 
 of the sixth ecumenical council, A. D. 680. The discus- 
 sions, respecting the connexion of the two natures in 
 Christ, were actively renewed, in the eighth century, in ' 
 consequence of the Adoptionist contests ; and the tenet 
 of the Adoptionists, [that Christ was the Son of God, 
 only by adoption,'] was condemned, by the French 
 churches, and by the Popes. In the ninth century, Pas- 
 chasius Radbert and Ratram of Corbie, involved them- 
 selves in a useless contest, respecting the manner in 
 which Christ was born. Lombard, by his solicitude to 
 evince the unity of the person of Christ, made such nice 
 distinctions, as brought on him the charge of a new here- 
 sy, Nihilianism, [that the human nature of Christ, sepa- 
 ate from the divine, was nothing.'] In general, the theo- 
 logians of the scholastic age, were not satisfied, with re- 
 tailing the nice distinctions of the fathers, on this doc- 
 trine, but tliey added a great number of new questions 
 and subtilties. 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 101 
 
 Notices, C. W. Fr. Walck, Historia controversiae Se- 
 oul. IX. de Partu beatae Virginis. Getting. 1758. 4to. 
 
 On the heresy of Nihihanism, of which Peter Lombard and 
 Peter of Poictiers were accused ; (in German,) in Cra- 
 wler'* Continuation of Bossuet. vol. VII. p. 1 &c. 
 
 » 
 
 Sec. 124. Man, particularly his soul. 
 
 Respecting man, and especially the soul, after the ex- 
 ample set by John Damascenus, much foreign matter, 
 derived from Aristotle's writings, was introduced into 
 theology. As to the origin of the soul, it was not yet 
 decided, whether its immediate creation, or its propaga- 
 tion, ought to be believed : Anselm, however, Hugo of 
 St. Victor, Robert Pulleyn, and Lombard, declared for 
 its creation ; and they were followed by the majority of 
 divines. The adoption of Aristotelian principles, might be 
 supposed hazardous to the doctrine of the immortality of 
 the soul ; yet from that very source, Thomas derived 
 arguments for the doctrine; and of course, Scotus on 
 the contrary, declared the doctrine not provable by the 
 light of nature, and rested its evidence solely on revela- 
 tion. Various proofs in support of it, were adduced by Mo- 
 neta of Cremona,RaymundMartini,RaymundoiSabunde, 
 and Martin Ficinus, Jn the Council of the Lateran, held 
 A.D. 151 Sjby Leo X. it was deemed necessary, to condemn 
 explicitly, the doctrine that the soul is in its nature mor- 
 tal ; and at the same time^ it was forbidden, to make a 
 distinction between philosophical and theological truth. — 
 The Mosaic account of the state of the first human pair, 
 was explained, by John Damascenus and Lombard, in 
 both a literal and a spiritual sense ; and all the Scholas- 
 tics were content to allegorize copiously on the subject. 
 The image of God, was distinguished from his likeness, 
 by the Scholastics, just as by the fathers; and the image 
 of God, was traced in the rational nature and free agency 
 of man, while likeness to him was understood to mean 
 conformity with the divine wilL 
 10 
 
102 muenscher's elements 
 
 Sec. 125. Resurrection and judgment. 
 The received doctrine of the church respecting the 
 resurrection, remained unahered. Moneta defended it, 
 at full length, against the Cathari. (Adv. Catharos et 
 Waldenses p. 344.) The restoration of the identical 
 body, with all its parts, and with the distinction of the sex- 
 es, was maintained. On this subject, and respecting the 
 general judgment, a multitude of curious questions were 
 proposed. That the blessed will no more sin, and lose 
 their bliss ; and that the damned can never repent and 
 become happy, all admitted. Their descriptions of 
 heaven, were most alluring; of hell, the most terrific. 
 According to the more general opinion, hell-punishment 
 consisted in actual fire ; yet some, as Guido of JVogent, 
 conceived of it, as only mental suffering, or anguish ari- 
 sing from the consciousness of sin. 
 
 Notice. Gmbcrtij de Pignoribus Sanctorum. Lib. IV. c. 
 4. Opp. p. 363. 
 
 Sec. 126. Truth of Christianity. 
 
 While the christian doctrines were explained, critically, 
 and hypercritically, a thought was rarely bestowed on 
 the evidence of the tenableness of Christianity itself. 
 This arose from there being no learned opposers; from the 
 persuasion, that any doubt respecting the doctrines held 
 by the church, would be sinful; and from the facility of 
 putting down any opposition, by coercion instead of ar- 
 gument. To the enemies of Christianity, were now 
 added the Muhammedans; who taxed the christians 
 with being polytheists and idolaters. The common wri- 
 tings, in opposition to them and the Jews, contained 
 little that was of importance ; and only Raymund Mar- 
 tini (d. 1286) appeared to advantage in the controversy. 
 Yet while the power of the hierarchy, could easily sup- 
 press all attacks on the established faith, there were visi- 
 ble indications, that the enthusiastic reverence for Aristo- 
 tle, and tlie close adherence to his writings, had misled 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 103 
 
 many a thinking man to undervalue Christianity. This 
 induced Thomas Aquinas^ to write an Apology for Chris- 
 tianity ; in which he showed, that some christian doctrines 
 are discoverable by reason, and that the others are ac- 
 cordant with reason. Towards the end of this period, 
 the two contemporaries, Hieronymus Savanarola (d. 
 1498) and Marsilius Ficinus (d. 1499,) evinced the 
 reasonableness of Christianity, and also its divine origin : 
 the latter they argued, from its sublime contents, from its 
 excellent effects, from the credibility of the Apostles, 
 from miracles and prophecies. 
 
 Notices, llaymundi Martini Pugio ficlei, contra Mauros 
 et Judaeos ; cum observationihus Josephi de Voisin, et 
 introductione Jo. Ben. Carpzovii. Lips. 1687. Fol. 
 
 S. Thomae Summa catholica, contra Gentiles, Lib. IV. 
 Lugd. 1687. Fol. 
 
 Marsilii Flcini de Religione Christiana et fidei pietate ; 
 0pp. Tom. I. Paris 1641. 
 
 Hieronymi Savanarolae Triumphus crucis ; s. de veritate 
 • fidei; Bas. 1640. Fol. 
 
 Sec. 127. The Holy Scriptures, 
 The Bible was uniformly held up as a most holy book, 
 and a source of religious instruction. The divinity ojf 
 its origin, however, was often rather assumed than shown, 
 and was only touched upon by Damascenus ) — a defect, 
 which Duns Scotus endeavored to supply. (Comment, 
 in Lib. Sentent. p. 5.) Their ideas of inspiration were 
 fluctuating and indistinct ; and were expressed, some- 
 times more moderately, as by Agobard and Euthymius, 
 and sometimes more strongly, as by Thomas Aquinas; 
 but always only incidentally. Next to the Bible, tradi- 
 tion, as serving to explain and extend the instructions of 
 the holy Scriptures, held as high, or rather a higher au- 
 thority, than it did in the preceding period. To the 
 canon of the Bible, among the Latins, (but not among 
 the Greeks,) the same extent was given, as formerly by 
 Augustine. The use made of the Bible by the WaU 
 
104 m^enscher's elements 
 
 densians, was an occasion of the Popes and the Coun- 
 cil's setting bounds to its unrestrained influence. 
 
 Notices. For the opinion of the later Syrian churches, 
 respecting tlie Apocalypse, see Eickhorn's Introduction 
 to the N. T. (in German,) vol. II. p. 433. 
 
 Jac, Usserii Historia doumatira controversiae inter Ortho- 
 doxos et Pontificios, de Scripturis et Sacris vernaculis ; — 
 locupletavit Henr, Wharton; Lond. 1690. 4to. — Toh, 
 Godof. H^gelmaier, de Libero Sac. Script, usu, plebi 
 christiano diu denegato, tandem hie ibi restituto ; Tub. 
 1783. 4to. — History of the prohibition of the Bible ; (^by 
 the same author; in German.) Ulm. 1783. 8vo. A, 
 I. Onyrnus, Essay of a History of the prohibition of the 
 Bible; (in German,) Wiirzb. 1786. 8vo. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 DEVELOPEMENT OF DOCTRINES NOT BEFORE DEFINED. 
 
 Sec. 128. Procession of the Holy Spirit, 
 
 The disagreement, which existed in the former period, 
 but was there scarcely noticed, between the Latin and 
 the Greek churches, in regard to the question, whether 
 the Holy Spirit proceeded from both the Father and the 
 Son, or only from the Father; now produced strong 
 sensation. The addition [et filio] to the Niceno-Con- 
 stantinopolitan Creed, which first appeared in Spain, was 
 continually more and more generally received, in the 
 Latin churches, notwithstanding Pope Leo III. refused 
 it his sanction. Afterwards, when Photius [Abp. of 
 Constantinople] charged the Latins with error and for- 
 gery, various western writers rose up against him. The 
 accusations of Photius were renewed, in the eleventh 
 century, by the Greeks ; and were retorted with vehe- 
 mence by the Latins. Thenceforth, this subject was 
 one of the principal points of contention between the 
 
OP DOGMATIC HISTORY. 105 
 
 two churches, occupied the writers on both sides, and in 
 every attempt at compromise, was an insurmountable ob- 
 stacle. The Greeks were, indeed, persuaded to accede 
 to the Latin notion, at the Councils of Lyons (A. D. 
 1274) and of Florence (A. D. 1439); but they soon 
 returned to their old opinion. 
 
 Notices. In adaition to the writings mentioned, sec. 76, 
 see Petri Pitlwei Historia controversiae de piocessione 
 Spiritus S. Paris 1590. 8vo.— -De processione Spir. S. 
 Dissertalio prima Damascenica ; in the Opera Joannis 
 Damasceni, ed. M. Le Quien. Tom. I. — Theophanis 
 Procopowitz, tractatus de process. Sp. S. Gothae 1772. 
 8vo. 
 
 Sec. 129. Doctrine of sin and grace and the kindred 
 subjects, in the Greek church. 
 
 The Greeks continued to hold the system of doctrines, 
 which had been inculcated by their earlier doctors, par- 
 ticularly Chrysostom; and without giving attention to the 
 modifications, which, through the influence of Augustine, 
 had become prevalent among the Latins. In John Da- 
 mascenus, we still' find it represented, that Adam's sin 
 brought death and dissolution on his posterity ; but not a 
 trace of any propagated incapacity for goodness, or of 
 any connate guilt. He acknowledges that it is impossi- 
 ble, without the help of God, to will and to do what is 
 good; but represents it as depending on us, whether to 
 follow God, or the evil One ; and he insists, that God al- 
 lots the destiny of men, according to their voluntary ac- 
 tions, (de Fide orthodoxa Lib. II. c. 30. compare Lib. 
 lY. c. 20.) The later Greek writers, as Theodorus Stu- 
 dita, Thophylact, and Euthymius Zigahenus, repeat simi- 
 lar ideas. 
 
 Sec 130. Latin churches 
 
 These doctrines gave to the Latin theologians, more co- 
 pious matter for investigation. Augustine, who was 
 reverenced as a Saint, had indeed set forth a determin- 
 ate system of belief respecting sin and grace ; but, with 
 his writings,, those of John Cassian were also much 
 10^ 
 
106 muenscher's elements 
 
 read ; and even St. Benedict had prescribed the reading of 
 Cassians's Collations in the monasteries. Hence, with- 
 out being sensible of it, men might easily swerve from 
 pure Augustinism ; and this was the more likely to take 
 place, because more moderate sentiments were to be 
 found, in abundance, in the writings of Augustine him- 
 self. Isidore of Seville held strictly with Augustine ; — 
 the twofold predestination not excepted. So also did 
 Beda and Alcuin. But when Gottschalk advanced the 
 same twofold predestination, he was oppressed, through 
 the influence of Rabanus Maurus, and Hincmar of 
 Rheims. As Prudeniius of Troyes, Servatus Lupus, 
 Ratramnus and Remigius, appeared in defence of Gotts- 
 chalk, and as the treatise of John Scotus was confuted by 
 Prudeniius and by Florus ; Hincmar caused the four 
 following propositions, to be established, in the Council of 
 Chiersy A. D. 853. I. God hath predestinated some 
 men unto salvation ; but not others to perdition. H. We 
 lost free will, by Adam ; and recover it by Christ. III. 
 God wills the salvation of all men. IV. Christ died 
 for all men. But a great part of the French churches 
 deemed these propositions inconsistent with the pure — 
 that is, with the Augustinian doctrine ; and the decisions 
 of Chiersy, were contravened by others, made in the 
 councils of Valence (A. D. 855.) and Langres (A. D. 
 859.) Although Hincmar was not able fully to over- 
 come such opposition, yet from this time onward, there 
 was less hesitation, to soften down some points of the 
 Augustinian system. 
 
 Notices. Yeterum anctorum, qui saeculo IX. de praedes- 
 tinatione et gratia scripserunt, Opera ; cura et studio 
 Guilberti Mauguin. Paris 1650. II. vol. 4to. Ludov. 
 Celloti, Historia Godeschaici ; Paris 1653. Fol. 
 The most noticeable things in the life and writings of 
 Hincmar, Abp, of Rheims ; (in German,) by WoJfg, 
 Fried. Gess ; Getting. 1806. p. 15—95. 
 
 Sec. 131. Doctrine of the Scholastics concerning sin. 
 
 The scholastics received the Augustinian doctrine, that, 
 
 by Adam's transgression, mortality, sin, and guilt passed 
 
 \ 
 
 1 
 
OP DOGMATIC HISTORY. 107 
 
 upon his posterity ; but they introduced various new ex- 
 plications and definitions. Jiugustine considered heredi- 
 tary sin, to be sensuality (concupiscentia). Anselm, the 
 better to explain, how Christ was born without sin, look- 
 ed upon it, as being the want of original righteousness 
 (defectus justitiae originalis) ; which is imputed to all 
 Adam's posterity, though not in the same degree, as if 
 they had sinned personally. Peter Lombard followed 
 Augustine; Bonaventura Rnd Thomas Aquinas endeR\ or ei 
 to combine the ideas of both ; Duns Scotus held with 
 Anselm. The earlier doctors, including Anselm and 
 PuUeyn, adopted Augustbe's opinion, that unbaptized 
 infants are damned, on account of hereditary sin. Peter 
 Lombard softened this doctrine, by discriminating be- 
 tween a deprivation of the vision of God, and punish- 
 ments by remorse of conscience and other pains ; and by 
 holding that, only the former impended over these infants. 
 This solution met so general approbation, that Gregory 
 of Rimini (d. 1378,) by adhering to the harsher opinion, 
 incurred the appellation of the Infant- lormenter. To 
 explain the manner, in which hereditary sin is propagated, 
 concerning which Augustine made no decision, cost the 
 scholastics much trouble. Some supposed a propaga- 
 tion of the soul itself; others, the contamination of the 
 soul by the corrupt body ; and others, as Anselm and 
 Thomas, an imputation of ,sin, to all participaters in hu-^ 
 man nature. Finally, the Thomists dillered from the 
 Scotists in this, that the former adhered more strongly to 
 the Augustinian opinion, of a complete, incapacity for 
 goodness; while the latter conceded to men, a capacity 
 for, at least some imperfect goodness. 
 
 Sec. 132. Sinless conception of Mary. 
 
 The fathers had, in former times, exempted Christ 
 from the contamination of hereditary sin ; and had con- 
 sidered this as the reason of his miraculous conception ; 
 but the idea had not yet occurred, that this privilege was 
 also extended, to Mary the mother of Jesus. The ever 
 
108 
 
 increasing veneration, for the mother of God, however, 
 made no distinction appear too great, to be ascribed to 
 her. Paschasius Radbert was, perhaps, the first that ex- 
 pressed the thought, that Mary w^as conceived without 
 hereditary sin. In the twelfth century, this opinion was 
 spread in France ; and a festival devoted to it, began to 
 be observed. Yet both the opinion and the festival, were 
 expressly disapproved, by St, Bernard; and rejected, by 
 Albert the Great, and Thomas Aquinas ; and were not 
 received, even by the Franciscan John Bonaventur a, who 
 was so great an admirer of Mary. But, after Duns Sco- 
 tus came forth as a warm defender of the immaculate 
 conception, the Franciscans made it a point of honor 
 with their order, to maintain this opinion against the 
 Dominicians; and when John de Montesono, (A. D. 
 1387,) declared it an error, the whole university of Paris 
 rose up against him. The Council of Basle declared 
 in favor of the Franciscans. The Popes ventured not, 
 to decide the contest between these two powerful orders ; 
 yet Sixtus IV. favored the Franciscans, by approving a 
 ritual for their festival, (A. D. 1476,) and by threatening 
 with excommunication, (A. D. 1483,) whoever should 
 represent belief in the immaculate conception, to be a 
 heresy. 
 
 Notices. Kistoire du Concilo de Trent, par Fra Paolo 
 Sarpl ; traduite par P. Fr. de Couraj/er, T. I. p. 322 — 
 325. Fried. IJlr. Calixti Historia iinmaculatae concep- 
 tionis beatae virginis ; Helrnst. 1696. 4to. 
 
 Sec. 133. Doctrine of grace. 
 Attempts were made, to fix the import of the ambiguous 
 term grace, by discriminating gratia gratis dans, gratis data, 
 gratum faciens, praeveniens s. operans, comitans s. co- 
 operans. But the chief difficulty was^ to reconcile the 
 sentiments expressed by Augustine, with the idea of free- 
 dom : and the doctors seemed more and more to incline 
 towards Pelagianism ; against which, Anselm and Ber- 
 nard of Clairveaux made resistance. Peter Lombard 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 109 
 
 held, for the most part, to the Augustlnian principles ; but 
 without being able, to solve all the difficulties. Thomas 
 Aquinas likewise admitted, that withont regenerating 
 grace, a man can perform nothing well pleasing to God \ 
 but, that being awaked by preventing grace, a man can 
 prepare himself for regenerating grace. He ascribed to 
 all good works, so far as they are the product of grace, 
 the merit of congruity (meritum ex congruo) ; and so 
 far as the man himself is active, the merit of fitness 
 (meritum ex condigno). Duns Scotus on the contrary, 
 believed, that without grace, a man may acquire the 
 merit of fitness, but not that of congruity ; and that 
 he can, in some measure, make himself fit to become 
 a subject of grace ; while yet, it is impossible to re- 
 move from God the charge of partiality. Peter Abe- 
 lard asserted, in very strong terms, that the heathen 
 are capable of virtue, and of salvation ; but people did 
 not venture to follow him : and at most they only ad- 
 mitted, that Gregory the Great, had rescued the Em- 
 peror Trajan from hell, by his intercessions. Justifi- 
 cation (justificatio) was considered, as an effect of 
 grace, and was viewed, as the infusing of righteous- 
 ness, with which the forgiveness of sin was connected. 
 But of the fact, whether a person has grace or not, 
 according to Thomas Aquinas, there may be probable, 
 but not certain evidence. 
 
 Sec. 134. Predestination. 
 In substance, the earlier Scholastics, as Peter Lom^ 
 hard and Thomas, adhered to the Augustinian doc- 
 trine of unconditional decrees ; for they held, that the 
 ground for reprobation, was the sinfulness of men ; but 
 that the only ground of election, is the good pleasure of 
 God. Yet John Bonaventura asserted, that the suscep- 
 tibility or unsusceptibility of men, was a reason, though 
 not the sole basis of the divine decrees. This idea was 
 eagerly seized by the later Scholastics, and was extended 
 still farther. The Scotists referred election directly to the 
 foreknowledge of God ; and ttie Thomists also, sought to 
 
no muenscher's elements 
 
 introduce some palliations. Merc displeasure, at seeing 
 almost the whole world verging towards the errors of 
 Pelagius, induced Thomas oiBradwardina (d. 1349), to 
 defend unconditional election, in its strictest form; and 
 John ^zcM^ held similar views. " 
 
 Notices. Thomae Bradwardini (\e eausa Dei, contra Pela- 
 gium ; studio Henr, Savilii ; Lend. 1618. Fol. 
 
 Joan, Wiclefi Dialogorum Libri IV. Francf. et Lips. 1753. 
 4to. 
 
 Sec. 135. Redemption by Christ. 
 
 John Damascenus borrowed from Gregory JVizianzen, 
 a renunciation of the opinion, that Christ paid his life a 
 ransom to the devil ; and in this, Robert Pulleyn agreed 
 with him. Jlnselm of Canterbury, in his work. Cur Deus 
 homo, endeavored to explain more fully, the object of 
 redemption ; and he represented the sufferings of Christ, 
 as a satisfaction offered to divine justice, for the sins of 
 men; and which no one, unless he were both God and 
 man, could have accomplished. Abelard doubted, whe- 
 ther mankind w^ere under the power of the devil, from 
 which they needed to be rescued ; but he was strenuously 
 opposed by St. Bernard. Peter Lombard made no use 
 of Anselm's theory, but stopped short with the position, 
 that men are delivered from sin and the dominion of the 
 devil, and are brought to love God, by Jesus Christ. 
 Albert the Great, and Alexander Hales, made use of An- 
 selm's ideas; but Thomas Aquinas discussed the sub- 
 ject the most fully. He is the first, that treated exten- 
 sively of the high-priestly office of Christ. He showed, 
 that the death of Christ, is to be considered as a satisfac- 
 tion and an offering; and that its efficacy, is not only 
 adequate, but more than adequate, (superabundans meri- 
 tum,) to redeem men. from the guilt and punishment of 
 sin, and from the power of the devil, and to open to them 
 the gates of heaven. Duns Scotus contradicted Thomas ; 
 and would not allow the sufferings of Christ, to be a full 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. Ill 
 
 equivalent for the sins of men, though he admitted, that 
 God accepted them as equivalent. 
 
 Sec. 136. Of faith and good works. 
 Faith and good works were generally considered, as the 
 means of obtaining a participation in divine blessings. 
 John Damascenus discriminates two kinds of faith, the 
 reception of the christian doctrines, and a firm reliance on 
 the promises of God ; of which, the former depends on 
 ourselves, and the latter is the gift of God. The Scho- 
 lastics adopted the ideas of Augustine. They understood 
 by faith, approbation given to the divine doctrines ; con- 
 sidered it as a gift of God ; and brought forward many 
 divisions of it (Fides quae et qua creditur, informis et 
 formata, explicita, implicita). Value was ascribed to 
 faith, only when connected with love and hope, and fol- 
 lowed by good works ; nay, it was itself regarded as the 
 first of virtues. Good works originate, partly from grace, 
 and partly from free-will, when it is made sound by 
 grace : and such works are meritorious. Lombard pro- 
 nounced all works, done without faith, to be bad. The 
 hypothesis, formed in the preceding period, respecting 
 w^orks of supererogation, was held and enlar2;ed in this. 
 Thomas describes unbelief, as the greatest of all sins : and 
 he held it to be right, to compel heretics and apostates, 
 though not also Jews and Pagans, to believe. In treating 
 on these subjects, the Scholastic doctors interwove exten- 
 sively, statements in moral or practical theology. 
 
 Sec 137. Adoration of saints and of Mary. 
 
 Praying to the saints, had become customary, in the pre- 
 ceding period ; and the mother of God, was looked upon 
 as the queen of heaven ; yet it was deemed necessary, to 
 guard against the danger and the reproach of idolairv. 
 Hence, the distinction of worship, among the Greeks, into 
 Xarpsia and «7rpo(j'xuvy)tfig, (Mansi^ XII. 377. Theodorus 
 tStud. 0pp. p. 521,) and among the Latins, into latriay 
 iduliay and hyperdulia {Lombard III. 9. Thorn. P. IIL 
 
112 
 
 qu. 25). The worship of images, which commenced at an 
 earlier period, produced in the eighth century, most violent 
 contests. It was zealously defended by John Damasce- 
 nus; forbidden by a Council, A. D. 754 ; again estab- 
 lished by another, at Nice (A. D. 787) ; disapproved by 
 Charlemagne^ and the French Bishops ; yet taken under 
 protection by the Romish Popes ; and at last, it became fully 
 established in the Greek and Romish churches. Reli- 
 gious veneration was also paid to the cross, and to relics ; 
 and Thomas assigns to the former even latria. 
 
 Notice. Jo. Dallaei adversus Latinorum de cultus religiosi 
 objecto traditionem disputntio ; Geiiev. 1665. 4to. Nat, 
 Alexandri Hist. Eccles. N. T. Secul. V. Diss. XXV. 
 
 Sec. 138. The Sacraments in general. 
 The definitions given of the sacraments, were diverse 
 and ambiguous. Among the Greeks, John Damascenus 
 makes mention of only baptism and the Lord's supper ; 
 and Thtodorus Studita, after the example of the pseudo- 
 Dionysius Areopagita, enumerates six sacraments. The 
 Latins took Augustine's idea for their first principle: 
 Sacramentum est signura rei sacrae, s. invisibilis gratiae 
 visibilis forma (a sacrament is a sign of a holy thing, or, 
 the visible form of invisible grace). Yet respecting 
 the number of the sacraments, they were not agreed.' 
 Rabanus Maurus, and Paschasius Radhert, name 
 four of them; St, Bernard adds the washing of 
 feet ; Hugo of St, Victor^ includes among them holy 
 water, and the consecration of clocks, &;c. Peter 
 Damian, (0pp. T. II. p. 167 — 169,) even makes twelve 
 sacraments of the church. Otto Bishop of Bamberg, 
 was the first that, A. D. 1124, enumerated seven sacra- 
 ments; baptism, confirmation, anointing the sick, the 
 Lord's supper, penance, marriage, and ordination; and 
 through the influence of Peter Lombard, and of Oratian, 
 who introduced the same sentiments into his Decretum, 
 the admission of this number became general among the 
 doctors, and received the approbation of Pope Eugene IV. 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 113 
 
 at the Council of Florence, A. D. 1439. (Mansi Concil. 
 T. XXXI. p. 1054.) Various reasons likewise were 
 assigned, why just this number of sacraments should be 
 admitted : and yet it should be noticed, that equal sanc- 
 tity, and equal importance, were, by no means, attributed 
 to all the sacraments. According to Thomas Aquinas, 
 who is the most full on the nature of them, a sacrament 
 is an institution, in which God, by visible signs, imparts 
 his invisible grace, and applies the effects of Christ's mer- 
 its to men. For, ahhough God is not confined to the 
 use of such means, yet it is necessary for men, to be re- 
 covered by means of sensible objects, since it w^as by- 
 such objects they were led to the apostacy. Sacraments 
 were not necessary, in the state of innocence, but only 
 since the fall of man. All the sacraments of the New 
 Testament, were instituted by Christ, as God ; and they 
 derive their efficacy from the sufferings of Christ : they 
 produce the graces, which the sacraments of the Old 
 Testament only prefigured. The efficacy of a sacrament, 
 does not depend on the faith and the uprightness of the 
 clergymen, w^ho administer it; and yet it is necessary, that 
 he should have the intention of administering that sacra- 
 ment. From some of the positions of Thomas, other 
 doctors departed. Alexander Hales believed, that only 
 two sacraments were instituted by Christ himself, the 
 others being introduced by his ministers ; and in particu- 
 lar, that the sacrament of confirmation, was not instituted 
 by either Christ or the apostles, but by the Council of 
 Meaux. Hugo of St, Victor, Scotus, and Occam, dif- 
 fered from Thomas, in their explanation of the sacra- 
 ments. The Thomists also contended with the Scotists, 
 whether the gracious operative power (virtus instrumen- 
 tahs et effectiva) were in the sacraments themselves, by 
 divine establishment ; or whether it rested on the promise 
 of God, that he would impart his grace, so often as a sa- 
 crament was administered. The opinion of Thomas, 
 that the sacraments of the Old Testament, only prefigur- 
 ed grace, but did not impart it, was rejected by John 
 
 11 
 
114 muenscher's elements 
 
 Bonaventura and Scotus; and previously, Beda had 
 taught the contrary ; but it was established, by Eugene 
 IV, at the Council o( Florence, A.D. 1439. {MansiCou- 
 cil. XXXI. p. 1054.) The Scholastics, moreover, be- 
 lieved in a two-fold operation of the sacraments, ex opere 
 operantis, et ex opere operato. The dissenting parties 
 from the general church, that arose during this period, 
 either attached little value to the sacraments, as the 
 Brethren of the jree Spirit ; or they rejected some of *■ 
 them* or at least, the views the church entertained of ' 
 them, as the Waldensians, the Wicklijiites and the 
 Hussites. 
 
 Sec. 139. Of Baptism. 
 The doctrine of baptism, was perfected by St. The- 
 mas, according to the principles of Peter Lombard. The 
 effect of baptism is (justificatio) justification. A person 
 obtains, by baptism, forgiveness of the debt of sin, and 
 sanctification. An infant receives remission of the guilt 
 of hereditary sin ; the adult, forgiveness not only of he- 
 reditary sin, but also of his preceding actual sins. Al- 
 though there was difference of opinion, whether, in bap- 
 tism, only forgiveness of sin, or also the grace that sanc- 
 tifies, were imparted ; yet Clement V. at the Council of 
 Vienne, A.D. 1311, declared the latter supposition most 
 probable. (Mansi, Concil. XXV. 411.) Yet the in- 
 nate evil lust, (concupiscentia,) remained, after baptism ; 
 though not as guilt or sin, but only an incentive to 
 sin; against which a person has occasion for conflict. 
 When a person receives merely the semblance of bap- 
 tism, or baptism only in appearance, this will have 
 no beneficial effects. Every baptism is valid, which 
 is performed in the name of the Trinity; and, as 
 it impresses an indelible character, it must not be repeated. 
 When any person desires to be baptized, but is prevented, 
 without his fault, it is as good as if he were actually bap- 
 tized ; and the Spirit of God sanctifies him : — so taught 
 Lombard and Thomas and St. Bernard, in opposition to 
 some other doctors, as e. g. Rabanus Maurus. The 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. llS 
 
 right to baptize, belongs to the priests; yet in cases of 
 necessity, it is lawful for the deacons, and even for the 
 laity, to baptize. Baptism produces a spiritual rela- 
 tion ; and it is to be preceded by an exorcism, and 
 in the case of adults, by catechetical instruction. The 
 faith which is lacking in infant baptism, is supplied by 
 the faith of the sponsors, or of the church. Immer- 
 sion in the water, was customary, until the thirteenth 
 century ; when it was exchanged by the Latins for 
 sprinkling, though still retained by the Greeks. The 
 church moreover, had to contend with the Cathari, and 
 particularly the Petrobrusians, who denied the efficacy 
 of baptism generally, and rejected infant baptism ; these, 
 it was, Moneta (adv. Cath. et Waldenses, p. 277.) under- 
 took to confute. 
 
 Notice, Petitorium exhortatorium pro resolutiono super 
 grossis quihusdam dubietatibus — circa Sacrainentum — 
 baptissni ; — per fra(reir) Wilhelmvm de Sfvftgardia (Gu- 
 liel. Hol(leriirri) ; Tul)infr. 1594. See, New Getting, 
 historical Maizazine (in German) by Meiners and Spittler^ 
 veil. III. p. 228—272. 
 
 Sec. 140. Of confirmation. 
 The Latin church gradually adopted the principle, de- 
 rived from the Greek church, that the anointing of bap- 
 tized persons with consecrated oil, w^as to be performed 
 only by a bishop. A consequence of this was, that this 
 transaction was separated from baptism. Lombard and 
 Thomas declared themselves at full length, on this sub- 
 ject. By this unction, they supposed that, power was 
 imparted to the spiritual life, which commenced at bap- 
 tism, to increase its strength, and to contend against 
 spiritual foes ; and that the person became a partaker of 
 the gifts of the Holy Spirit. This sacrament imparts 
 an indelible character; and therefore must not be re- 
 peated : nor can any baptized person refuse it. And 
 finally, there must be present at it, some witnesses, by 
 whom the confirmed child is to be brought up. Nearly all 
 
116 muenscher's elements 
 
 these principles were stated by Eugene IV. But John 
 WicklifAouhiQdi^ whether confirmation had an adequate 
 foundation. 
 
 Notices, Jo, DallaeU de duobus Latinorum ex Unctione 
 Sacramentis, Confirmatione et exlrema unctione, Disser- 
 tatio ; Genev. 1669. £;m.?c?. de cultibus reli^iosis Lati- 
 norum, Libri IX. Genev. 1671. Lib. II. p. 94. Conip. 
 Natal. Alexandri Historiaecles. N. T. saecul. II. Dis. X. 
 
 Sec. 141. Of the Lord's Supper. 
 The Lord's supper was looked upon, as spiritual nour- 
 ishment for the soul ; and as that which produced the unity 
 of the church. On the use of leavened bread, from the 
 eleventh century, the Latins had controversy with the 
 Greeks ; but at length, they brought the Greeks to hold 
 with them. The hosts were introduced ; and mixing 
 the wine with water, was considered as necessary, yet 
 not absolutely essential. Eating the Lord's supper, is 
 not so indispensable, as baptism ; yet no christian should 
 neglect it ; and though Christ instituted it after a supper, 
 yet it is proper for christians to receive it, in the morning, 
 and fasting. [The ancient custom of presenting the 
 Lord's supper to children, was laid aside in the western 
 churches, after the twelfth century. 
 
 Notices. Godofr. Hermanni Historia concertationum de 
 
 pane azymo et fermentato in coena Domini ; Lips. 1737. 
 
 8vo. 
 Jac. Slrmondi Diss, de azymo ; 0pp. T. IV. p. 513. ed. 
 
 Paris, p. 35L ed. Venice. 
 Mich, le Quicn, de azyniis Diss. — the sixth of his Diss. Da- 
 
 masceniea ; in 0pp. Damasceni. Tom. L p. LXXI. 
 Petri Zornii li\siorh eucharistiae infantum ; Berol. 1736. 
 
 8vo. 
 
 Sec, 142. Transmutation in the Lords Supper, 
 Historians. In addition to the works mentioned Sec. 102> 
 
 see the follovvino-. 
 Simplicii Verini (Claudii Salmasii) de transubstantiatione 
 
 Liber; ed. 2. Lugd. Bat. 1660. 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. lit 
 
 Historia transubstantititionis papalis ; — excudi permisit Joan- 
 ne* (Cosiri) Ep. Dunelmens. Lond. 1675. Brem. 1678. 
 
 8vo. Jo. G. Walchii, Historia transubst. pontificiae ; in 
 his Miscell. sacra ; Amslel. 1744. 
 
 Insigniores Romanae ecclesiae varialiones circa Eucha- 
 ristiam ; in S. Deyling, Observatt. sacris et miscellaneis; 
 P. IV. p. 178. 
 
 Novitas errorum Pontificiorum circa Eucharistiam ; ibid. 
 P. V. p. 246. 
 
 Natalis Alexandria de reali praesentia corporis et sanguinis 
 Christi in Eucharistia, el de transubstanliatione panis et 
 vini in corpus "et sanguinenn Christi : Diss. XII. ad Sae- 
 cul. XI. et Xfl. Histor. ecclesia N. T. 
 
 Historia concert ationis Graecornm Latinorumqiie de tran- 
 substantiatione in sacro Eucharistiae sacramento ; aucto- 
 re i. Uad, KiesUng. Lips. 1764. 8vo. 
 
 In the Greek church, John Damascenus collected the 
 strongest passages of the fathers, concerning the transfor- 
 mation ; and also denied, that after consecration the supper 
 was to be called a sign or representation of the body of 
 Christ ; and this principle was maintained, in the second 
 Nicene Council, A. D, 787, in opposition to the decision 
 of the Council of Constantinople^ of the year 754. The 
 later Greeks, as Theophylact and Euthymius ZigabenuSy 
 follow John Damascenus ; but though they speak of 
 the transformation, they do not agree perfectly with 
 the doctrine of the Romish church. The western doc- 
 tors expressed themselves differently, and ambiguously ; 
 and yet, in the days of Charlemagne, it was admitted, 
 that, the bread was not to be regarded as a mere represen- 
 tadve of the body of Christ. In the ninth century, Pcw- 
 chasius Radbert stated the transiTiutation of the bread in- 
 to the body of Christ, and of the wine into his blood, with a 
 clearness and precision, never before used on the subject; 
 and he insisted, that every orthodox man must so believe. 
 He was contradicted by Raban Mauras, Ratram, and 
 John Scotus ; yet he also found adherents. 
 
 Notices, Paschasii Radberti, de corpore et sanguine Do- 
 mini, Liber; in his 0pp. (cura lac. Sirmondi;) Lutet. 
 11* 
 
118 muenscheb's elements 
 
 1618 &c. and in Martene et Durandi Collect, ampliss, 
 veter. monumentorum ; T. IX. p. 373, 
 Ratramni (Bertram) de corpore et sanguine Domini ; 
 a Quevilly 1673. 8vo. Amstel. 1718. 12mo. 
 
 Sec. 143. Contest with Berengarius. 
 The contest concerning the Eucharist, occasioned by 
 Paschasius Radbert, remained indeed undeternnined, but 
 Radbert's views continued to spread in the church. They 
 were advocated by the famous Gerhert ; who taxed the 
 opposers of them, with odious consequences : and mira- 
 cles also were resorted to, in defence of them. Thus, 
 after the middle of the eleventh century, it had come to 
 this, that a man was accounted an errorist, who deviated 
 from those views. Berengarius of Tours was accused 
 by Lanfrank, because, in conformity with John Scotus, 
 he denied the transmutation of the bread ; while yet he 
 admitted the real presence of Christ's body in the supper. 
 Pope Leo XI. in the Council of T^ercelli, A. D. 1050, 
 condemned Berengarius, and the writings of Scotus, as 
 heretical ; and JVicolaus II. at the Council of Rome, 
 A. D. 1059, pressed Berengarius to a recantation, and 
 to assent to a formula of faith. Yet, even after a se- 
 cond recantation, to which he was sentenced by Gregory 
 VII. Berengarius returned back to his former opinions. 
 It was now become manifest, that the church would 
 tolerate no other sentiment, than that of the transforma- 
 tion of the bread. 
 
 Notices. Gerherti de corpore et sanguine Domini Liber : 
 in Bern. Fez. Thesau. Anecdot. Nov. T. I. P. II. Christ. 
 Matth. Pfoff, Tractatus de stercoranistis medii aevi ; 
 Tubing. 1750. 4to. Lanfranci, de corpore et sang. 
 Domini Liber ; in his Opp. ed. L. d'Archery ; Lutet. 
 1618. Guitmundi de corp. et sang. Cliristi veritate in 
 Eucharistia Lib. III. in Biblioth. max. Patr. T. XVIII. 
 Adelmanni, de veritate corp. et sang. Domini, ad Beren- 
 gar. Ep. ed. C. A. Schmid; Brun. 1770. 8vo. Be- 
 rengarius, or Announcement of an important work by 
 him; by 6r. E. Lessing ; (Germ.) 1770. Berengarius 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 119 
 
 Turonensis ; by C. F. Stdudlin, (Germ.) in his and 
 
 Tzschirner'' s Archiv. Vol. II. P. 1. Jo. Mahillon, de 
 
 multiplici Berengarii tlamnatione; in J. Fa^^, Biblioth. 
 haeresiol. T. I. 
 
 Sec. 144. Scholastics and Canonists, 
 In this state came the doctrine of the Eucharist into 
 the hands of the scholastics, to whom it afforded abun- 
 dant matter for examination. Yet the form of the 
 doctrine, was not yet unchangeably fixed. Hildebert of 
 Tours, taught distinctly, the transmutation of the bread ; 
 and he used for it the new term (transubstantiatio) tran- 
 substantiation. Rupert oi Duys, on the contrary^ taught 
 that, the substance of the bread and wine were not de- 
 stroyed, nor changed. Lombard acknowledges, that the 
 substance of the bread and wine are changed, at the 
 consecration, by the words of Christ, into the substance 
 of the body and blood of Christ; and that in each ele- 
 ment, there is a whole Christ. But he knew not how to 
 extricate himself from the various difficulties, which pres- 
 sed themselves upon him. His contemporary Gratian, 
 introduced the idea of transubstantiation into his code of 
 Canon Law ; and thus procured it higher respect, and 
 a more extensive diffusion. At last. Innocent III. upon 
 occasion of the opposition to it by the Waldensians and 
 other sects, solemnly established this doctrine, in the La- 
 teran Council of A. D. 1215. 
 
 Notice, Concil. Lateran. Cap. I. Una est fidelinm uni- 
 versalis ecclesia, extra quam nuUus omnino salvatur. 
 In qua idem ipse sacerdos et sacrificium Jesus Christus, 
 cujus corpus et sanguis in sacramento altaris sub specie- 
 bus panis et vini veraciter continentur ; transubstan- 
 tiatis, pane in corpus, et vino in sanguinem potestate di- 
 vina, ut ad perficiendum mysterium unitatis accipiamus 
 ipsi de sue quod accepit ipse de nostro. Et hoc utique 
 sacramentum nemo potest conficere nisi sacerdos, qui fu- 
 ^^ erit rite ordinatus secundum claves ecclesiae, quas 
 m^^ ipse concessit Apostolis et eorum successoribus Jesus 
 
120 muenscher's elements 
 
 Sec. 145. Further determinations. 
 
 The now received doctrine of the church, was further 
 developed by Alexander Hales, Albert the Great, and 
 especially, by Thomas Aquinas, It was determined, 
 that, through the power of God, only the external acci- 
 dents of bread remained, without the substance ; and 
 that merely the outward form was broken, while the 
 body of Christ remained entire. The question was 
 raised, whedier a beast, that should devour the host, 
 would receive the body of Christ. Thomas affirmed, 
 and Bonaventura denied. The festival of the Holy 
 Body, was regulated by Urban IV, A. D. 1264, on 
 occasion of a revelation to Juliana of Liittich, as a me- 
 morial of transubstantiation ; and was finally established, 
 by Clement V. A. D. 1311. Notwithstanding the vari- 
 ous confirmations of the doctrine of transubstantiation, 
 John of Paris (d. 1306) ventured to teach, that the re- 
 ception of this doctrine, was not absolutely necessary ; 
 and that the real presence of Christ, might be explained 
 to be an impanation. According to the views of Will- 
 iam Occam, transubstantiation is not expressly taught in 
 the holy scrptures; but it was supposed that, God revealed 
 it to the holy fathers, or that it became manifest to them, 
 while carefully studying passages of the bible. John 
 Wicklif rejected transubstantiation ; but John Huss ad- 
 mitted it. 
 
 Notices, Joannis Parisiensis determinatio de modo exis- 
 tendi corporis Christi in Sacramento altaris ; (ed. Petr, 
 Alix,) Lend. 1686. 8vo. 
 
 Mus extenteratus ; hoc est, Tractatus valde magistralis 
 super quaestione quadam theologicali, spinosa et multum 
 subtili, ut intus. Scriptus — per fratrern Wilhelmum de 
 Stuttgardia, ordinis Minorum (Gulielm. Holderum) ; 
 Tubing. 1593. 4to. — See New Getting. Magazin, by 
 Miners and Splttler, vol. II. p. 716—734. 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. Wi 
 
 Sec. 146. Consequences of the doctrine of transulstan- 
 tiation. 
 The belief that, by the transmutation, Christ was 
 present in the Eucharist, gave rise to the custom of wor- 
 shipping the elevated host, by prostration ; concerning 
 which, Honorius HI. published an ordinance A. D. 1217. 
 It being admitted that, entire Christ was contained under 
 each form, that of bread as well as that of wine, would 
 naturally lead to the thought that, either of them was suf- 
 ficient, without the other. It therefore became customa- 
 ry, after the host had been for some time immersed in 
 the wine, to withhold the cup from the laity. This prac- 
 tice, which was approved by Robert Pulleyn, and de- 
 fended by Alexander Hales, Bonaventura and Thomas 
 Aquinas, in a litde time obtained general currency in 
 the church. And when James of Misa, in the fifteenth 
 century, restored the use of the cup, at Prague, the 
 Council of Constance, A. D. 1415, rejected this innova- 
 tion ; and ordained, that the priests should receive the 
 Eucharist under both forms, but the laity under one 
 form only. The Council of Basle, however, found it 
 necessary, A. D. 1436, to allow the restless Hussites 
 the use of the cup ; yet with this explanation, that the 
 church has power, to prescribe the manner in which the 
 Eucharist shall be received. 
 
 Notices. De Adoratione Eucharistiae Libri 11 ; auctore 
 Petro Boileau] Lutet. 1686. 8vo. 
 
 Joan. Guil. de Lith, Disquisitio theologica et histor. de ado- 
 ratione panis consecrati et interdictione calicis in Eucha- 
 ristia ; edita a Joan. Car, de Lifh; Suobaci 1753. Bvo. 
 
 Jo. And. Schmidj Comrnentt. de fatis calicis eucharistici in 
 ecclesia Romana ; Helmst. 1708. 
 
 Spittler's History of the eucharistical cup ; (in German,) 
 Lemgo 1780. 8vo. 
 
 Sec. 147. Of the Mass. 
 The hypothesis, that the Eucharist is a sacrifice, by- 
 
122 ^ muenscher's elements 
 
 which the sacrifice of Christ is renewed, and that it im- 
 parts peculiar efficacy to the prayers, that are offered in 
 connexion with it ; came down from the preceding peri- 
 od. The Romish Canon of the Mass, though differently 
 modified^ was introduced into various Latin churches. 
 Silent Masses, and Masses for the dead, began to appear, 
 at the commencement of this period ; and although they 
 at first met with opposition, they became very general ; 
 being favored especially by the increasing prevalence of 
 a belief in Purgatory. Thus was formed the belief, 
 that the Mass averts evils of all sorts, and procures vari- 
 ous divine blessings; and that the Eucharist, whether 
 participated by the person, or not, is efficacious in his 
 behalf: and these Masses became a prolific source of 
 income to the clergy. The scholastic doctors, as Lom- 
 bard and Thomas^ touch upon this subject but slightly. 
 Innocent III. established the Canon of the Mass, in the 
 Lateran Council of A. D. 1215. All those sects, which 
 opposed the prevailing church, and particularly John 
 Wicklif, rejected the doctrine of the Mass. 
 
 Notices, Ge, Calixti Diss, de pontificio Missae sacraficio ; 
 Francf. 1644. — Ejusd, Exercitalio de Missis solitariis ; 
 Helmst. 1647. 
 
 J. Fr. Buddei Diss, de oriofine missae pontificiae; — in his 
 Miscell. Sacra. Jenae 1727. T. I. p. 1. 
 
 Sec. 148. The sacrament of Penance. 
 The doctrine concerning Penance, grew out of the 
 ideas of the ancient church, and especially oi Augustine, 
 respecting sins before and after baptism ; and out of the 
 modifications, which the original church discipline had 
 undergone. Hildebert of Tours, (0pp. p. 324,) men- 
 tions three parts of penance ; namely, contrition of heart, 
 confession with the lips, and satisfaction in deeds; all 
 which have been traced back to certain passages in the 
 writings of John Chrysostom and Augustine, These 
 penitential acts, prescribed appropriately for the excom- 
 municated, were transferred, by the Scholastics and the 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY* 123 
 
 Canonists, to sinning christians in general. They con- 
 sidered Penance as the medium, by which the remission 
 of the guilt and eternal punishment — but not the tempo- 
 ral punishment — of sins committed subsequently to bap- 
 tism, was to be sought for and obtained; and this idea 
 gave both the matter and the form of the sacrament. It 
 was required, that persons should confess their sins, not 
 only to God, but also to a priest ; and that they should 
 make the satisfaction, prescribed to them; in which a 
 distinction was made, between attrition and contrition. 
 Satisfaction was made to consist, in fasting, prayer, and 
 alms ; to which pilgrimages and flagellations were sub- 
 joined. The absolution of the priest, was considered as 
 a judicial act. Gratian and Lombard^ however, leave 
 it undecided, whether confession to a priest were neces- 
 sary. Innocent the Thirds procured for this doctrine a 
 full establishment in the church. 
 
 Notices. Concil. Lateran ; Canon XXI. Omnis utrius- 
 que sexus fidelis, postqnam ad annos discretionis perve- 
 nerit, omnia sua solus peccata confiteator fideliter, saltern 
 somel in anno, proprio sacerdoti et iniunctam sibi poeni- 
 tentiam studeat pro viribus implere, suscipiens reveren- 
 ter ad minus in Pascha eucharistiae sacramentum ; nisi 
 forte de consilio proprii sacerdotis oh aliquam rationabi- 
 lem caiisam ad tempus ab ejus perceptione duxerit absti- 
 nendum ; alioquin et vivens ab ingressu ecclesiae arceatur 
 et moriens Christiana careat sepultura. — Si quis autem 
 alieno sacerdoti voluerit iusta de causa sua confiteri pec- 
 cata, licentiam priuspostulet et obtineat a proprio sacer- 
 dote, cum aliter ille ipse non possit solvere vel ligare. 
 Sacerdos autem sit discretus et caiitus — diligenter inqui- 
 rens et peccatoris circumstantiam et peccati, per quas 
 prudenter intelligat, quale illi consilium debeat exhibere 
 et cuiusmodi remedium adhibere, diversis expenmentis 
 utendo ad sanandum aecrrotum. Caveat autem omnino, 
 ne verbo vel signo vel alio quovis modo prodat aliquate- 
 nus peccatorem, sed si prudentioii consilio indiguerit, 
 illud absque ulla expressione personae caute requirat ; 
 quoniam qui peccatum in poenitentiali indicio sibi detec- 
 turn praesumserit revelare, non solum a sacerdotali officio 
 
124 muenscher's elements 
 
 deponendum decernimus, vernm etiam ad agendam poe- 
 nitentiam perpetuam in arctum monasterium detruden- 
 dum. 
 
 Jo, Lavnoih explicata ecclesiae traditio circa canonem 
 Concilii Lateranensis : Omnis utriusque sexus — in his 
 0pp. T. I. P. I. p. 244. 
 
 Jo. Dallaei, de poenis et salisfactionibus humanis, Libri 
 VII; Amst. 1649. 4to. 
 
 Ejusd. de sacramentali s. auriculari confessioneLalinorum, 
 Disputatio ; Genev. 1661. 4to. Comp. 
 
 Natalis Alexandri Disputatio polemica de Confess, sacra- 
 ment.— in his Hist. Eccles. T. VIL 
 
 De la frequente communion, ou les sentimens des peres, 
 des papes et des conciles touchant I'usage des sacramens 
 de penitence et de Teucharistie ; — exposes par Antoine 
 Arnaud, lOme ed. a Lyon 1703, 8vo. 
 
 De la penitence puhlique et de la preparation a la commun- 
 ion : — par D. PetaUy 3d ed. Paris 1645. 4to. 
 
 La tradition de rEs^hse sur le sujet de la penitence et de 
 la communion ; — par Ant, Arnaud. Par. 1634. 5th ed. 
 1700, 8vo. 
 
 Historia confessionisauricularis ; autore Jac. Boileau, Paris 
 1684. Compare. 
 
 Jo, Guil. Jani, Animadv. ad Historiam confess, auric. — 
 Diss. n. Vitenb. 1716. 
 
 Jac, Hottlnger, Biga exercitatt. histor. thcoL de Poenitentia 
 turn antiquioris tiim Romanae ecclesiae; Tig. 1706. 
 
 Commentarius historicus, de disciplina ecclesiae in admin - 
 istralione sacramenti poenitentiae ; autliore Jo, Morin, 
 Antvv. 1682. Fol. 
 
 Sec. 149. Remission of satisfaction. Indulgences, 
 
 It had before been practiced, to curtail, and under 
 special circumstances wholly to remit, the penance en- 
 joined by the church. Afterwards, a commutation was 
 admitted, in regard to the various kinds of penance. 
 But it was not until the commencement of the Crusades, 
 that the Popes conferred plenary indulgences. These 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. ISkb 
 
 were again resorted to, in the wars against heretics ; and 
 by Boniface VII. they were conferred, at the Romish 
 Jubilee A. D. 1300 ; and at length, they were published 
 in various countries by the Papal envoys. To justify 
 this species of indulgences, Alexander Hales invented 
 the theory of a treasure of good w^orks, embracing both 
 the merits of the saints, and the infinite merit of Christ, 
 the efficacy of which, extended not only to the temporal 
 punishments of the present life, but likewise to those of 
 Purgatory ; and the disposal of this accumulated treas- 
 ure, he supposed, was intrusted by Christ to the church. 
 Albert the Great and Thomas Aquinas perfected this 
 theory ; and it was solemnly confirmed by the Pope, 
 Clement VI. A. D. 1349. And yet, in the bosOm of 
 the Romish church, there w^ere voices raised against the 
 mischief of indulgences. 
 
 Notices. De remission© peccatorurn et indulrrentiarum 
 oritjine ; — in L. A. Maratori, Antiquitatt. Jtaliae medii 
 aevi ; T. V. p. 709. 
 
 Lettres historiques et dojTinatiqucs, sur les Jubiles et les in- 
 dulgences ; par Charles Chais ; a la Haye 1751. 3 voL 
 8vo. 
 
 Em. Aug. Bertling, Instruction conrerninGf the Papal Ju- 
 bilee and Indulgences ; (Germ.) Helmst. 1749. 4to. 
 
 Fr. RofJifischers Indulgences and Jubilee; (German,) 
 Regensb. and VVolfenbutle 1751 — 54. 111. Vol. 4to. 
 
 Sec. 150. Sacrament of Extreme Uunction, 
 The ancient custom, introduced by the very Apostles, 
 of anointing the sick, with accompanying prayers, con- 
 tinued among christians, although in the earlier ages few 
 traces of it are to be found ; but no definite form of the 
 transaction, w^as introduced. Subsequent to the ninth 
 century, this anointment was called a sacrament ; and it 
 was assumed, that it ought not to be repeated ; which, 
 Ivo of Chartres, in particular, zealously maintained. But 
 Peter Lombard defended the repetition of it; and the 
 whole church afterwards followed him. The effect of 
 
 12 
 
126 muenscher's elements 
 
 anointing the sick, was supposed to be, that it soothed 
 the soul, and so far as was profitable, the body also, of 
 the sick person, and imparted to him forgiveness of sin 
 and an increase of* holiness. 
 
 Notices. Jo. Dallaei de duobus Latinorum ex unctione 
 sacramenlis ; Genev. 1659. 4to. 
 
 Jo. LaunoiU de sacra mcnto unctionis infirmorum, Liber ; — 
 in his Opp. T. I. P. I. p. 442, &,c. 
 
 Sec. 151. The Sacrament of Ordination. 
 The consecration of prrests, was declared to be a token 
 of the church, by which ecclesiastical power was confer- 
 red ; and it was supposed, to impress an indelible cha- 
 racter. The question, whether heretics could give valid 
 ordination, was left undecided by Lombard^ and was af- 
 firmed by Thomas, The other inquiries made by the 
 Scholastics, respecting the seven gradations, and the at- 
 tributes of the clergy, belong rather to ecclesiastical law, 
 than to dogmatics. 
 
 Notice. Joan. 3Iorini Commentarius historicus at dogmati- 
 cus, de sacris ecclesiae ordinationibus ; edit. nov. Anist. 
 1695. Fol. 
 
 Sec. 152. Sacrament of Marriage. 
 Marriage was held to be inferior to celibacy, and was 
 forbidden to the clergy; and yet it was accounted a 
 sacrament. Three good things in marriage, were stated; 
 namely, fidelity to the vow, raising up children, and re- 
 presenting the union between Christ and the church. 
 From the idea of its being a sacrament, it was inferred 
 that, marriage being validly performed, becomes indisso- 
 luble. Here also a multitude of questions, respecting 
 betrothments, hindrances to tlie union, and the relations 
 which arise from marriage, were brought into theology, 
 though belonging to ecclesiastical law. 
 
 Notice. The most solid examination of the views entertain- 
 ed of marriage in this period, is to be found in Just. 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 127 
 
 Henn. Bokmeri Jus ecclesiasticum Protestantium, Lib. 
 IV. T. Ill et IV. 
 
 Sec. 153. State of departed souls. 
 
 The idea, formed in the preceding period, of a puri- 
 fying fire, became established ; in consequence of the re- 
 ports of apparitions, which were spread abroad, and to 
 which Beda and Boniface gave credit. There were sup- 
 posed to be, five places of residence for souls. The souls 
 that left the world, under mortal sin, and without doing 
 penance, were thrust into hell. The souls of infants, that 
 died without baptism, occupied a separate place, called 
 hmbus infantum. Diverse from both, was the hmbus pa- 
 trum, or Abraham's bosom, in which the souls of the vir- 
 tuous under the Old Testament, were kept. Good souls, 
 which needed no purgation, went immediately to heaven. 
 The caution of Hugo of St. Victor^ to leave it undecided, 
 whether glorified saints know what transpires on the earth, 
 and have perception of the prayers offered to them, was 
 not imitated by the subsequent doctors. Pope John XXII. 
 revived the ancient opinion, that saints are not admitted 
 to the vision of God, immediately after death ; but only 
 at the resurrection ; but the opposition of the Franciscans 
 and the Parisian divines, obliged him to recal that opin- 
 ion; and his successor, Benedict XII. in the year 1336, 
 pronounced it heresy. Purgatory was appointed for those 
 souls, which had not done penance for their minor sins. 
 The Greeks continued, to place the commencement of this 
 fire, at the time of the general judgment, and not in the in- 
 termediate state, ''or immediately after death ; and it was 
 with reluctance, and after warm opposition, that, the Council 
 oi Florence, A. D. 1439, they acceeded to the views of 
 the Latins. Not only the Waldenses and TVicklifites, but 
 also John fVessel, rejected the doctrine of purgatory. 
 Notices. Leonis Allatii, de ulriusque ecclesiae orientalis et 
 
 occidentalis perpetua in dogmate de purgatorio consen- 
 
 sione Liber. Romae. 1655. 4to, 
 ' Mich. Le Quien, Diss. Damascenica V ; in his.ed. of 0pp. 
 
 Damasceni, T. I. LXIIL 
 
128 
 
 /. G, Chr. Hoepfner, de Origine dogmatis Roman. Pontif. 
 de purgatorio ; Halae. 1792, 
 
 Sec. 154. Doctrine concerning the church. 
 In the prevailing system of faith, the doctrine concern- 
 ing the church, formed as it were the key stone. The 
 only church, in which there is salvation, is that, which be- 
 ing above all danger of erring, has a right to prescribe 
 articles of faith, and rules of life, to decide all religious 
 . controversies, and to put down heresies by coercion. 
 Independent of every temporal power, it is competent, 
 and is in duty bound, to resist all misuse of authority in 
 civil governments. The Popes were acknowledged, as 
 heads of this church ; and they did not neglect, to make it 
 an article of faith, that their decrees were to be received, 
 unconditionally ; yet without suppressing all doubts of 
 their infallibility, and without being able, to prevent the 
 Councils of Constance and Basil from assuming the power 
 of judging over them. 
 
 Notices. De la primauld de TEglise ; par D, Blondcl;. 
 Genev. 1641. Fol. 
 
 Mar. Anton. De Dominisy de republica ecclesiastica ; P. I 
 —III. 1618—22. 
 
 Petri de Marco, de concordia sacerdotii et imperii, Libri 
 Vril; Francf. 1708. . 
 
 (F. A, BlaUy) Critical history of ecclesiastical infallibility; 
 ^in German,) Francf. 1791. 8vo. 
 
THIRD PERIOD. 
 
 MODERN TIMES, A. D. 1517 1800. 
 
 PART 1. ^ 
 
 GENERAL VIEW OF THE CHANGES IN DOCTRINAL 
 THEOLOGY. 
 
 Sec. 155. Causes leading to new modifications of 
 theology, • 
 
 The new direction, which the minds of the learned 
 had taken since the beginning of the fifteenth century, at 
 first, showed itself in classical literature ; but in that very 
 way, it had influence indirectly upon theology ; for it gave 
 rise to a wider and freer range of thought, and produced 
 a contempt for idle speculations and scholastic barbarisms. 
 And the effect became still greater, when men of classical 
 learning, came to apply themselves to the science of the- 
 ology ; when Laurentius Thalia began to expound the 
 New Testament, according to a better taste, and John 
 Reuchlin (Capnio) revived the study of Greek and He- 
 brew. But all others were outdone by Desiderius Eras- 
 mus, who with ridicule and sound argument, made war 
 upon ignorance and superstition, laid open the purer foun- 
 tains of religious knowledge, and brought forward more 
 liberal views, counsels and decisions. By these means, 
 Erasmus laid the foundation for a better theology, though 
 he neither formed nor attempted to form a system of 
 divinity. 
 
 Notices. Desid. Erasmi Opera.; cms. J. Clerii; Amstel. 
 1703. X. vol. Fol. 
 
 12* 
 
130 muenscher's elements 
 
 (V. Brenlus) Theology of Erasmus, or outlines of ihe doc- 
 trines of Christianity, from the writings of Erasmus ; (in 
 German.) Ziillichau. 1794. 8vo. 
 
 Sec. 156. Introduction of the reformation. 
 
 Martin Luther^ well read in mystic theology, and in 
 the writings of Augustine, by his dislike of the traffic in 
 indulgences, was led on, to a decisive attack upon the m 
 prevailing theology of the age ; and through his influence, I 
 a new Christian party was established, whose opinions are 
 expressed in the Augsburg Confession and in their Apo- 
 logy, Nearly at the sanne time, Ulrich Zunngle com- 
 menced and accomplished, with true Swiss independence, 
 nearly the same thing, at Zurich. Both Protestant 
 churches went upon the ground, of acknowledging no 
 otjier authoritative source of religious instruction, but the 
 Bible. This broad principle, swept away, at a stroke, 
 many doctrines founded only upon tradition ; and it ex- 
 cited to new ardor, in the study of the scriptures. Free- 
 dom from the restraining power of the hierarchy, facilita- 
 ted the spread of new and better views. Zwingle, and 
 still more Luther, gave a new aspect to many points in 
 theology; and they had numerous pupils and assistants, 
 who were formed upon their pattern, and after their ex- 
 ample. 
 
 Notices. Luther a collected Works ; (in German and La- 
 tin,) edited by J. G, Walch. Halle. 1740—62. XXIV. 
 vol. 4to. 
 
 LutJieri Theologia pura sincera, ex viri divini scriptis uni- 
 versis maxime tamen Latinis, per omnes fidei divini arti- 
 cnlosdigesta etconcinnata, per Henricum Malum. Francf. 
 adMoen. 1709. Fol. 
 
 ZwingliOpervi ; Tiguri 1544-45. IV. vol. Fol. — and abridg- 
 ed, by Uster and Vogelin ; 1819—20. If. vol. 8vo. 
 Commentarius de vera et falsa religione ; Tig. 1625. 
 8vo. 
 
 I 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 181 
 
 Sec. 157. First Protestant systems of Theology, 
 
 Philip Melanchthon, commendable alike for his learn- 
 ing and his wise moderation, was the first, that supplied 
 the want of a connected system of religious doctrines, in' 
 his Loci Communes, which he brought nearer and nearer 
 to perfection by repeated revisions. This work was re- 
 ceived with general approbation, and served for a guide 
 to learned instruction, in the Lutheran church. Martin 
 Chemnitz and Victorinus Striegel composed commenta- 
 ries on it. In the Reformed church, the Institutes of 
 John Calvin, were of similar merits, and obtained similar 
 influence. Andrew Hyperius and Wolfgang Musculus 
 were emulous followers of the example of Calvin ; and 
 from the writings of the famous biblical expositor, Peter 
 Martyr Ve^-mili, a system of theology was compiled. 
 Besides the Protestants, other ecclesiastical parties were 
 formed ; among whom the Unitarians or Socinians, and 
 the Baptists, had most influence upon systematic the- 
 ology. 
 
 Notices. Phil. Melanchthonis Loci Theolog, sivo'Hypoty- 
 poses theolog. Vileb. 1 521. and in Herman, von derHardt, 
 Hist, reformationis : Francf. 1717. Kespecting the va- 
 rious editions of it : Essay of a literary histoiy of the 
 Loci Theologici of Phil. Melancfithon ; (in German,) 
 hy Ge, Theod. Strobel ; Altd. and Nuremb. 1776. 8vo. 
 U'he other writings of Melanchthon, are his Opera The- 
 log. Vitenb. 1562 — 64. IV. vol. Fol. Martini Qhemni- 
 tii Loci theolog ; editi studio Polyc. LeyserU Francf. 
 1591. 4to. and Viteb. 1590. Fol. Viciorini Strigelii 
 Loci theolosr. studio Christoph, Pczelii ; Neapoli Neme- 
 turn. 1582-85. IV. vol. 4to 
 
 Jo. Calvini Institutio christianae religionis ; Basil. 1535. 
 Genev. 1559. Fol. and in his Opera ;' Amstel. 1667. IX. 
 vol. Fol. (Gerdesii Scrinium liteiar. T. II. p. 451.) 
 Andreae Hyperii Meihodus Theologiae,sivepraecipnorurn 
 christianae religionis locorum communinm, Libri III. Ba- 
 sil. 1568, 1574. 8vo. Wolfg, Musculi Loci communes 
 
132 
 
 theolog. Bern. 1573. Fol. Petri Martyrishociiheolog, 
 Basil. 1570. Fol. 
 
 Catechesis ecclesiarum Polonicarura, unum Deum patrem, 
 illiusque filium unigenitum J. C. una cum Spiritu S. 
 profitentiuoi ; ed. noviss. Stauropoli (Amstel.) 1684. 
 8vo. — recensuit, Socinianam irnpietam profligavit, Ge, 
 Lud. Oeder ; Francf. et Lips. 1739. 8vo. — Bibliotheca 
 fratrum Polonorum ; Irenopoli (Amstel,) post annum 
 1656. VI. vol. Fol. 
 
 Concise statement of the peculiar doctrines of F. Soci- 
 nus ; (in German,) by W, C. L. Ziegler ; in Henke's 
 New Magazine, Vol. IV. p. 201. Thoughts on a his- 
 torical and analytical exposition of the Socinian theology; 
 iiri German,) by Dr, Bengel ; in Sijskind's Magazin. 
 •t. XIX. p. 133. 
 
 Sec. 158. Reaction upon the Catholic church. 
 The bold attacks of the reformers, upon the received 
 doctrines of the church, roused the Catholics to a vigo- 
 rous resistance. The Council of Trent condemned all 
 innovations, and gave that statement of the Catholic faith, 
 which has ever since been retained. The Jesuits came 
 forth, as the most disputatious defenders of that system 
 of theology ; but they soon fell into contentions, with other 
 theologians of their church. Many of these divines, ad- 
 hered to the old method of teaching ; and wrote comments 
 upon Thomas Aquinas or Duns Scotus. Others en- 
 deavored to improve the method of teaching. John 
 Eck attempted, to put down Melanchthon's Loci theolo- 
 gici, by a work of his own ; and Melchior Canus distin- 
 guished himself, by avoiding useless subtilties, and by a 
 purer style of waiting. The Jesuits, Robert Bellarmin 
 and Martin Becan, became famous in the conflict with 
 the Protestants. 
 
 Notices, Concilii Tridentini canones et decreta ; Rom. 
 1564. — (Histoire du Concile de Trent; par Fra Paolo 
 Sarpi, traduite par P. F, de Courayer ; Amst. 1736. 
 III. vol. 4to. [Also in English, fiom the Italian; by 
 Brent, Lond. 1620. Fol.] Istoria del concilio di Trento 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 133 
 
 — dal Sforza Pallaviceno ; Rom. 1656 — 57. II. YoL 
 Fol. [and Latin, by Jo. Bapt, Giattino; Antw. 1673* 
 Fq].] 
 
 Monumentoriim ad Hist, concil. Trid. illustrandum ani« 
 plissima collectio ; — studio Jodoci le Plat; Lovan. 1781 
 — 87. VHl Tomi 4to.) Professio fidei Tridentinae. — 
 Catechismus ex decreto Concil. Tiidentini, Fii V jussii 
 editus; Rom. 1566. Fol. 
 
 Jo, Eck, Enchiridion locorum coiTimuninm, adversus Lu- 
 theranos ; Landshuti 1525. Doederlein's Tlieol. Jour- 
 nal; vol. I. P. VI. p. 458— 491 )— i»ieW. Canu de 
 Locis theologicis, LIbri XII ; Salamancae 1563. ed. no- 
 viss. a Hyac. Scrry ; A^enet. 1759.4to. — Roberti Bellar- 
 mini de controversiis ehristianae fidei, adversus hujus 
 temporis haereticos ; e. g. Ingolst. 1601; IV. Vol. Fol. 
 — Martini Becani Manuale controversiarum ; Herbipol. 
 1623; and in his Opera; Mogunt. 1649. II. Tomi 
 Fol. 
 
 Sec. 159. Completion of the Lutheran system of faith. 
 
 The numerous controversies, which arose among the 
 followers of Luther, after his decease, threatened the 
 whole church with confusion. To suppress these dis- 
 cords, and particularly to guard against the dangers, 
 which were supposed to threaten pure Lutheranism, 
 from Melanchthon's school, the Formula of Concord 
 was drawn up ; and the Book of Concord was set forth> 
 containing, in addition to the Formula of Concord, 
 (which determined the existing controversies with greater^ 
 •precision,) the Augsburgh Confession, the Apology, the 
 Articles of Smalcald, and the two Catechisms of Luther; 
 all which were to be the rule and measure of the genu- 
 ine Lutheran creed. According to these formulas, the- 
 ology was to be investigated and modelled ; so that 
 henceforth, it breathed a narrow sectarian spirit, and ap- 
 peared under the guise of an intricate scholastic system,, 
 in which much use was made of the philosophy of Ra- 
 mus or Aristotle. The attempts of George Calixtus^ to 
 introduce more freedom of discussion, and more candor 
 
154 muenscher's elements 
 
 towards those of different views, met with strong opposi- 
 tion. 
 
 Notices. Concordia ; The Christian, revised, unanimous 
 Confession of the hereafter named, Electoral Princes, 
 Princes, and Orders, of the Augsburg Confession ; (in 
 German,) Dresden 1580. Fol. and Latin, Lips. 1580, and 
 1584. 8vo. Also edited by Ad. Rechenberg, Lips. 1678. 
 Svo. — by Chr, Reineccius, Lips. 1735. 4to. — by Ch, M^ 
 Pfaff, Tubing. 1730. 8vo. — by S. J. Baumgarten, Halle 
 1747. 8vo.— by J. G. Walch, Jena. 1750. 8vo.— and 
 by J. A. H. Tittmann, Lips. 1817. 8vo. — History of the 
 origin, variations, and formation of our Protestant system 
 of Theology, until the Formula of Concord ; (in German,) 
 by Jac. Gottl Planck; Lips. 1791—1800. VL Vol. 8vo. 
 — Jo. Gail. Feuerlini, Bibliotheca symbol ica eccles. Lu- 
 theranae ; ed. J» B . Riederer ; 1768. 8vo. 
 
 Leonhardi Hutteri, Compendium locorum theolog. Vitenb. 
 1610. 8vo. and Lips. 1705. — Ejusd. Loci communes 
 Theolog. Vitenb. 1619, 1653, 1661. Fol.— Jac. Heere- 
 brandi, Compendium Theologiae ; Tubing. 1573. 8vo. — 
 Matth. Hafenrefferif Loci theolog. Tub. 1601. — Joannis 
 Gerhardi Loci theolog. Francf. et Hamb. 1657. HL 
 Vol. Fol. — denuo edidit, variique generis observationes 
 adjecit, Jo. Fr. Cotta; Tub. 1762— 89.XXH. Vol. 4to. 
 Gasp. Er. Brochmund, Systema universae theologiae ; 
 Hafn. 1633. K. Vol. 4to. ed. 6 ta, Ulmae 1664. Fol.— 
 
 . 6^e. CaZ/x/i, Epitome theologiae ; Goslarl619- — Systema 
 locorum theolog. — auctore Abr. Calor>io ; W ittenb. 1 655 
 — 77. XIL Tomi 4to. — Jo. Fr. Koenigii, Theologia 
 positiva acroamatica ; Rosloch 1664. 8vo. — Jo. Andr. 
 Quenstedt, Theologia didactico-polemica ; Wittenb. 1685. 
 Fol. — Jo. Adami Scherzeri, Systema Theologiae XXIX 
 definitionibus absolutum ; Lips. 1680. ed. 4ta 1704. 4to. 
 Jo. Guil. Baieri, Compendium theologiae positivae ; 
 Jenae 1686. 8vo. et 1750. — Dav, Hollazj Examen theo^ 
 log. acroamaticum, universam Theol. thetico-polemicam 
 complectens ; Holm, et Lips. 1707 ; auxit jK. Tellerua \ 
 Holm. 1750, 4to, 
 
OF DOGMATIC IiISTORT. 135^ 
 
 Sec. 160. Variations in doctrine, in the Reformed 
 church. 
 No general and uniform system of faith, was introdu- 
 ced into the Reformed church. Yet Calvin*s system, 
 prevailed in Switzerland ; and in the Low Countries, it 
 triumphed over Jac, Arminius and his adherents, at the 
 Synod of Dort, A. D. 1618, 1619. The vanquished 
 Arrainian party, embraced some valuable theologians. 
 The decisions at Dort, became the rule of faith for the 
 churches of Holland ; and they met with approbation, in 
 the Swiss churches. Henceforth the form of their theo- 
 logy, was scholastic and polemic ; and a strict adherence 
 to the views of Calvin, and of the Synod of Dort, was 
 the highest recommendation of any treatise written on 
 theology. 
 
 Notices. Corpus et syntagma Confessionum fidei ; ed. 
 nova, Genev. 1654. 4to. — Acta Synod! nationalis Dor- 
 drechti habitae ; Dordr. 1620. Fol. Hanov. 1620. 4to. 
 
 Slmonis Episcopii', Instil utionum theologicar. Libri IV ; in 
 his Opp. T. ]. ed. 2, Lond. 1678. Fol. Staph. Curcellad, 
 Institutio religionis christianae ; in his Opp. Theol. Amst. 
 1675. Fol. Philippi a Limborch, Theologia Christiana ; 
 Amst. 1686. 4to. 1730. Fol. Basil. 1735. Fol. Adn- 
 ani a Cattenburg, Spicilegium theologiae christ. Philippi 
 aLimborch; 1726. Fol. 
 
 Jo. Maccovii, IjOc\ communes theolog. Franeq. 1639. 8vo. 
 1 650. 4to. — Amandi Polani a Polansdorf, Syntagma The- 
 ol. christianae; Hanov. 1610. H. vol. 4to. Genev. 1699. 
 Fol. — Samuelis Maresii, Systema theoloaicum ; Gronov. 
 1649. 12mo. 1673. 4to. — Marci Fr, Wendelini, chris- 
 tianae. Theol. systema majiis ; Cassel 1656. 4to. — Fjusd. 
 christianae Theol. Libri II ; Hanov. 1634. 12mo. 
 
 Sec 161. Attempts of the Reformed, to improve their 
 
 theology. 
 
 Many theologians were not insensible to the defects of 
 
 the symbolic, scholastic, theological works. John Coc- 
 
 ceius, a man of eminence, but a better linguist than in- 
 
136 muenscher's elements 
 
 terpreter of scripture, wished to divest theology of all itd 
 scholastic niceties, and to exhibit it in its plain biblical 
 form ; and he assumed as the basis, the idea of two dis- 
 pensations. This innovation involved him with the 
 friends to the old system, at the head of whom was Gis- 
 bert Voetius; and the theologians of Holland became 
 divided into Cocceians and Voetians, About the same 
 time, the Cartesian philosophy excited attention, in the 
 low countries; and, as the Voetians assailed it, the Coc- 
 ceians went over to the side of the Cartesians, and be- 
 came amalgamated with them. Among them, Herman 
 Witsius, Christopher TVittich, and Alexander Roel, and 
 among their opposers, Peter van Mastricht, deserve the 
 highest place. The Cocceian theology was spread in 
 Germany, by Frederick Adolphus Lampe especially; 
 and the Cartesian, by John Clauherg (d. 1669). The 
 French reformed divines, as Lewis le Blanc, and Moses 
 Amyraudy endeavored to soften some points of Calvin- 
 ism ; but the Swiss theologians were dissatisfied, and 
 attempted to shut out these innovations, by the Formula 
 consensus Helvetic! A. D. 1675. 
 
 Notices, Jo Coccm Sum ma doctrinae de foedere et testa* 
 menlo Dei ; Ludo. 1648 ; and in his 0pp. Torn. Vll. ed. 
 Amstel. 1710. Tomi X. Gull, Momviae^ Oeconomia 
 testa;nentana triplex ; ed. auotior, Amstel. 1683. 4to. 
 Francisci BurmannU Synopsis tiseolojiiae, et speciatim' 
 oeconomiae foederum Dei; Ultraj. 1671 Franeq. 1699. 
 4to. Abr, Heidaniy Corpus? theoloaine rhrislianae ; 
 Lugd. Bat. 1646. 4to. Jo, Bravnii, Doctrina foede- 
 rum ; Avnst. 1688. Francf. 1711. 4t{). HermanniWU' . 
 *«, Oeconomiae foederum Dei cum honiiiiihus, Lihri 
 IV. Leov. 1677. Basd 1739. II. vol. 4to. Fred. Adol. 
 Lampe, Mysteries of the Covenant of Grace in tiie econo- 
 iny of salvation; (in German.) Bremen 1712. Yl. vol. 
 8vo. Gisbert Voetii Selectarmu disputationum theolog. 
 Pars I — V. Ultraj. 1648 — 69. Melchioris Leydeckeri 
 Synopsis theologiae christ. Traj. ad Rhen. 1696. Ejusd, 
 Oeconomia trium personarum in negotiis salutis hunia- 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORT. 137 
 
 nae; 1682. Petri van Mastricht, Theologm iheoretico* 
 practica ; Amstel. 1682—84. Ultraj. 1669 II. vol. 4to. 
 
 Christoph, Wiitichii, Theologia pacifica ; ed. 3. Lugd, 
 Bat. 1683. 4to. Ejusd. Theologia pacifica defensa ; 
 1689. 4to. Jo. C/aw&ero-if, Exercitationes de cognitione 
 Dei et nostri. Harling. 1685. 8vo. Novitatum Carte- 
 sianarum gangraena detecta ; auctore Petro van Ma-' 
 tricht. Amstel. 1677. 
 
 Syntagma thesium theologicarum in academia Saimiiriensi 
 disputatarum snb praes. Lud. Capelli, Mos, Amyraldi, 
 Jos.piacei; Salmari, ed 2. 1665. IV. vol. 4to. Bened, 
 Pictet, Theologie chretienne ; a Geneve, 1721. III. 
 vol. 4to. 
 
 J. Henr. Heideggeri, Medulla theologiae. Tiguri 1696. 
 4to. Medulla medullae ; 1697. 8vo. Corpus theolo- 
 giae Christ. Tiguri 1700. II. vol. Fol. Institutiones 
 theologiae elenchticae; authore Franc. Turretin. Ge- 
 nev. 1688. III. Partes 4to. ed. nova recognita etaucta; 
 Lugd. Bnt. 1695. III. vol. 4to. 
 
 Sec. 162. Achievements oj Spener, in regard to the Im-- 
 theran theology, 
 
 Philip James Spener, a disciple of John Conrad Dan- 
 hauer, was penetrated with a conviction, that the theology 
 of that age, did not satisfy a religious mind, and that it 
 was not suited, to form good teachers of religion. He 
 therefore recommended banishing the multifarious sub- 
 tle inquiries, the multiplied technics, and the polemic 
 mode of treatment ; and urged, in place of them, a purer 
 biblical and practical statement of the doctrines of faith. 
 Although sincerely devoted to the creed of the Lutheran 
 church, he labored to abate the excessive value put upon 
 ecclesiastical orthodoxy and symbols of faith. Violent 
 as the opposition, he had to encounter, was, his designs 
 were not without effect ; and in the university of Halle 
 especially, theology was taught after his manner. This 
 was simple, and directed primarily to form a pious char- 
 acter ; but it was deficient in distinctness of ideas, in the 
 use of learned helps, and in philosophical discrimantion 
 IS 
 
138 muenscher's elements 
 
 and judgment. Yet John Francis Buddeus at Jena, 
 knew how to combine the excellences of the HaJlean 
 mode of teaching, with a richness of learned acquisitions ; 
 and some Wiirtemburg divines also, as Christopher Mat- 
 thew Pf off, Siud Christian Eber hard fFewmaww, endeavor- 
 ed to simplify dieological doctrines, and to teach them in 
 a more biblical manner. 
 
 Notices, Jo, Conradi Danhaueri, Hodosophia Christiana, s. 
 Theologia positiva in certam, plenum, et cohaeren- 
 tem methodum redacta ; Argentor. 1649. 8vo. Lips. 
 1713. 4to. 
 
 Phil, Jac, Spener, Pia desideria ; (1675.) Francf. 1712. jM 
 12mo. Ejusd, General theology, for all faithful chris- |J 
 tiar)s, and upright theologians ; (in German,) Francf. 
 1680. 1705. Ejusd, Evangelical system of iaith ; (in 
 German,) Francf, 1668. Ejusd. Sciagra|)hia doctrinae 
 fidei evangelicae ; Francf. 1688. 8vo. Joach. Just. Breit- 
 hauptf Institutionum theologiae Libri 11 ; Halae 1695. 
 8vo, Ejusd, Institutiones theolooiae de credendis et 
 agendis ; Halae 1716 — 32. III. vol. 4to. Jo, Anastas, 
 Freylingshausen, The foundation of theology ; (in Ger- 
 man,) Halle 1703. last ed. 1767. 8vo. Jo. Joach. Lan- 
 gii, Oeconomia salutis evangelica ; Halae 1728. 1730. 
 8vo. Jo. Jac. Rambach^ Dogmatic theology ; (in Ger- 
 man,) edited by Em. Fred, Neuhauer ; Francf. 1744. 
 H. vol. 4to, 
 
 Jo, Fr. Buddei, Instilutiones theologiae dogmaticae ; Lips. 
 1723. lasted. 1741. 4to. Christoph. Maith. Pfajii, In- 
 stitutiones theologiae dogmaticae et morahs ; Tub. 1720. 
 Francf. 1721. 8vo. Christ. Eherh. Weismanni, Institu- 
 tiones theologiae exegetico-dogmaticae ; Tub. 1739. 4to. 
 Henr, Wil. Clemin, Complete introduction to theology; 
 (in German,) Tubing. 1764-73. VII Vol. 4to. 
 
 Sec. 163. Influence of the Wolfian Philosopy. 
 From the chief seat of the unphilosophical Spenerian 
 school, proceeded a new system of philosophy, derived by 
 Christian Wolf, from the abstruse ideas of Godfrey Wil- 
 liam von Leibnitz, The pietistic rmd the anti-pietistic 
 theologians, apprehending the overthrow of all religion 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. Ill 
 
 from it, rose in opposition against it ; but they were unable 
 to put it down, or to prevent its being applied to theology. 
 From the Wolfian philosophy, theology derived a mathe- 
 matical form, little suited to its nature ; yet it was improv- 
 ed by a more solid arrangement, and by clearer definitions. 
 The doctrines of faith, were treated according to Wolfian 
 principles, not only in the Lutheran, but likewise in the 
 Reformed churches : and James Siegmund Baumgarien 
 caused this mode of teaching, to be admitted into Halle. 
 Still there were theologians, who, without taking sides 
 either for or against the Wolfian party, endeavored to pro- 
 fit by what was good in both. 
 
 Notices. {Isra, Gottl. Canzii, Usus philosophiae Leibni- 
 tianae et Wolfianae in Tiieologia ; Francf. 1733. II Tomi, 
 8vo. Ejusd. Consensus philosophiae Wolfianae cum 
 Theologia ; Francf. 1737. 8vo.) Jac. Carpovii, Oeco* 
 nomia salutis N. T. s. Theologia revelata dogmatica 
 methodo scientifica adornata ; 1737-65. IV vol. 4to. 
 Joh. Gusfav, Reinheck's Reflections on the Augsburg 
 Confession ; (in German,) Berlin. 1731-41. [V vol. 4to. 
 continued hy Isr, Gottl Cam; A^ol. V— X. Berlin 1743- 
 47. and by J. Pet. Ahlward ; 1742-48. VII Parts, or II 
 Vol. 4to. Geo. Henr. Ribovii, Institutiones theolog. dog- 
 mat. Gotting. 1741. 8vo. Pet. Reusch, Introductio in 
 theologiam revelatain; Jenae. 1744. 8vo. Isr, GottL 
 Canzii^ Compendium theoloaiae purioris ; Tub. 1762. 
 8vo. Jo. Ern. Schubert, Introductio in theologiam re- 
 velatam ; Jenae 1749. Ejusd. Institutiones theologiae 
 dogmat. Jenae 1753. Ejusd. Compendium theol.dogmat. 
 Helmst. et Halae 1760. 8vo. Ejusd. Institutiones theo- 
 logiae polemicae ; Jen. et Lips. 1760-61. IV vol. 8vo. 
 Siegm. Jac. Baumgarferij Theses theologicae ; Halae 
 1746, 1767. 8vo. Ejusd. Evangelical Svstem of faith j 
 (in German,) edited by J. S. Sender ; Halle 1759-60. 
 Ill vol. 4to. Ejusd. Examination of theological contro- 
 versies ; (in German,) edited by J. S. Sender ; Halle 
 1762-64. IIIvol. 4to. 
 
 Pan.Wyttenbach, Tentamen theologiae dogmaticae methodo 
 scientifica pertractatae ; Bern. 1741-42. IIIvol. 8vo. 
 Ejusd, Compendium theologiae dogmat. et moralis ; 
 
140 
 
 Francf. 1 754. 8vo. Henr. Guil. Bernsau, Theologia dog-- 
 mat. meihodo scientifica pertractata; Lips. 1755. II vol. 
 8vo. Joh. Fred. Stopfer.^ The foundation of true religion ; 
 (in German,) Zurich 1746-53. XII Vol. 8vo. Hersfeld. 
 1756. Ill Vol. 4to. Ejusd. Institutiones theologiae po- 
 lemicae ; Tuguri 1745-47. V vol. Bvo. 
 Jo.Laur,Mosliemii, Elenienta theologiae; ed.2.Norimb.l764. 
 II vol. 8vo. 
 
 Sec. 164. Protestant theology in countries beyond 
 Germany. 
 
 In England, theological controversies were carried on, 
 with uncommon vehemence, and being connected with 
 political discords, produced dreadful ferments in the pub- 
 lic mind. The effects of this excitement, were threefold. 
 Some — (the Deists) rejected Christianity in general, and 
 confined themselves to mere natural religion. Others 
 were disposed, to regard Christianity as a mere matter of 
 feeling, and assumed as their directory an internal light — 
 (the Quakers). Others again, had the conviction, that 
 the creed of the church and symbols of faith, were of little 
 consequence, and that men ought to hold fast only the 
 essential and the practical doctrines of Christianity — (the 
 Latitudinarians). The toleration, granted towards the 
 close of the seventeeth century, gave these parties room 
 for freer action, and the friction of their collisions pro- 
 duced clearer views, and a more active spirit of investi- 
 gation. Yet the spirit of the English theologians, finding 
 less satisfaction in elaborating systems of theology, 
 employed itself, for the most part, in the discussion 
 of particular points, or in ranging at large on theo- 
 logical subjects, with at least, freedom of thought. In 
 Switzerland also, the former rigorous orthodoxy was 
 relaxed ; and at Geneva in particular, the ancient seat of 
 Calvinism, James Vernet preached, not the Calvinistic 
 system, but only the simple truths of Christianity. These 
 writings of foreign divines, were read in Germany, and 
 were there translated. The works also of Socinian and 
 Arminian writers, were read with less aversion, than for- 
 merly. 
 
 ( 
 
OF iDOGMATIC HISTORY. 141 
 
 Notices. Anthony Collins, Discourse on free-thinking ; oc- 
 casioned by the rise and growth of a sect, called Free- 
 Thinkers; Lond. 1713. 8vo. Phileleufheri Lipsiensis 
 (Richard Bentley), Remarks upon a late discourse of free- 
 thinking ; 1713. (also in French, ed. 8. Amst. 1736.8vo.) 
 Theologiae verae christianae Apologia ; a Roberto Bar- 
 claio; Roterod. 1676. 4to. (also German, 1740. 8vo.) 
 The principles and practices of certain moderate divines 
 abusively called Latitudinarians ; III Parts; Lond. 1671. 
 8vo. (^Arthur Bury) Latitudinarius orlhodoxus ; Lond. 
 1697. 12mo. 
 
 Thomae Burnet, de fide et officiis christianorum, Liber pos- 
 thumus ; Lond. 1727. revised and enlarged, by W, A, 
 Teller; Halle 1786. 8vo. A complete body of divinity, 
 by Thorn. Stackhouse ; Lond. 1729. (also in German ; by 
 Fried, EherL Rambach; Rostt)ck. 1755-64. VII vol. 
 8vo. The far more important works on particular topics, 
 belong to the history of particular doctrines. 
 
 Instruction chretienne ; p^r Jaques Vernet, a Geneve. 1754. 
 V tomes. 8vo. (also in German,) Berlin, 1 754-55. V Parts, 
 or II vol. 8vo. 
 
 Sec. 165. JVew formation of the Protestant theology. 
 
 Historians of it. Prize question of the Directors of the 
 Universal Literary Journal, A. D. 1788. {GebL Ulr. 
 Brastberger^ s) Narrative and examination of the princi- 
 pal changes, made in the learned statements of dogmatic 
 theology, among the Protestants of Germany, especially 
 in the second half of the present century ; (in German,) 
 Halle, 1790. 8vo. Essay of a historical developement of 
 the causes and occasions, which have produced a new 
 state of protestant dogmatics ; (German,) in Stdudlin^s 
 Contributions to the philosophy and history of religion. 
 Vol. IV. p. 1—50. Lubeck, 1798. Practical history of 
 theology and religion,m the Protestant church, during the 
 second half of the 1 8th century ; (in German,) by J. Aug. 
 Tittmann. Vol. I. Breslau 1805. 8vo. The illumination 
 of modern divines, in christian theology, from A.D. 1760, 
 to A. D. 1805; (in German; by Fuhrinann,) Yo). L 
 Lips. 1807. 8vo. 
 
 13* 
 
142 
 
 The progress of human science, of biblical criticism 
 and hermeneutics, and of historical theology, and the in- 
 creased philosophical industry of divines, who cast off the 
 shackles of the church creed, being favored by the in- 
 creased freedom of the pulpit and the press ; led on to 
 a very considerable change in dogmatic theology, which 
 at first, under /. Aug, Ernesti, Dav. Heilmann, and J, 
 Dav. Michaelis, extended only to its form and unessen- 
 tial definitions(A), but soon after, affected the substance 
 itself. W. Abr, Teller. GotthilfSam. Steinbart, J, Aug. 
 Eberhard, and /. S. Semler, were especially active, in 
 producing this change(B). They were aided, by the less 
 learned and discreet, Jo/BernLBasedow, and Charles Fr. 
 Bahrdi[C) ; and the German Universal Library (Allge- 
 meine deutsche Bibliothek) cooperated powerfully, to 
 bring the old system under ridicule, and open the way 
 for the new views. Against these assauhs, however, tlie 
 established theology found many defenders(D). Without 
 joining either party, altogether, Jo. Christ. Doederlein, 
 and Sam. Fred. JVath. Morus, found their theological 
 treatises receiving much approbation(E). Biblical the- 
 ology, likewise had its writers(F) ; and in the popular 
 statement of religious doctrines, Fred, Wilh. Jerusalem 
 stood conspicuous(G). 
 
 Notices. A. Jo. Dav. Michaelis, Compendium tlieologiae 
 doomat. Gottmg. 1760: and in German, Gott. 1784. 
 Jo. Dav. Heiimanni, Compendium tlieol. dojimat. Gott. 
 1761, 1774. Em. Jac. Danovii, Theolo^iae dograat. In- 
 stitutio; Jenae 1772, 1776. Jo. Gottl Tollner, Mis- 
 cellaneous papers ; (in German,) Francf. on Oder, 1767- 
 70. II. vol. Ejusd, Theolos^ical Inquiries ; (in German,) 
 Vol. I. and Vol.11. P. I. Riga 1772-74. {Ejnsd. Sys- 
 tem of Dogmatic theology ; (in German,) II. Vol. Nu- 
 renb. 1775.) 
 B. W. A. Teller's Elements of the Christian faith ; (in 
 German,) 1764. 8vo. Jo, Fred Gruneri, Institutt. theol. 
 dogmat. Libri III.; Halae 1777. Ejusd. Practical In- 
 troduction to the religion of the H. Script, (in German,) 
 Halle 1773. Jo. Aug. Eberhard, New apology of So- 
 crates, and on the salvation of the Heathen ; (German,) 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY, 14S 
 
 Berlin 1772. new ed. 1778. II. vol. 8vo. Godfr. Sam. 
 SteinharVs System of pure philosophy, or the christian 
 doctrine of salvation ; (German,) Ziillich. 1778. ed. 3. 
 1786. (J. A. Sixt, Examination of the so called System 
 of pure Philosophy ; (German,) Altd. and Nurenb. 1779 
 ~80. II Parts. The philosophical Christianity of Coun- 
 sellor Steinbart, freely investigated, by a practical theolo- 
 gian ; (German,) Lips. 1792.) Ejusd. Philosophical 
 conversations, for a fuller elucidation of the doctrine of 
 salvation ; (German,) Ziill. 1781-86. Ill Parts. J, S. 
 Semleri, Institutio ad doctrinam christ. liberaliter discen- 
 dam ; Halae 1774. Ejusd. Essay of a more liberal 
 manner of teaching theology ; for the elucidation and con- 
 firmation of his Latin work ; (German,) Halle 1777, 8vo. 
 (J. A. Starck,) Free remarks on Christianity ; (Germ.) 
 ed. 2. Berl. 1782. (The Free remarks on Christianity, 
 examined: by Tob, Gottf. Hegel maier ; Tub. 1781-82. 
 in Vol. 8vo.) Sam. Mursinna^ Compendium theologiae 
 dogmat. Halae 1777. 
 
 C. C F. Bahrdtf Essay of a biblical System of dogmat- 
 ics ; (Germ.) Gotha and Lips. 1769 — 70. IL Vol. 8vo. 
 — Ejusd. Letters on systematic theology ; (Germ.) Erf 
 1770. II. vol. 8vo. — Ejusd. Systema theologiae Luthe- 
 ranae orthodoxum, cum brevi notatione dissentientium. 
 Halae 1785. 8vo. — J. Bernh. Basedow^ Philalethia. 
 New views taken of the truths and the religion of reason, 
 as far as the boundaries of credible revelation ; (Ger- 
 man,) Altona 1764, II. vol. 8vo. — !i]ssay of a caridid sys- 
 tem of theology, according to private judgments ; (Ger- 
 man,) Berlin 1766. — Bei'nherd of Nordalbingden, Legacy 
 for some persons ; (German,) Dessau 1774. 
 
 D. Jo, Benj. Corpzov, Liber doctrinalis theologiae purio- 
 ris ; Brunsw. 1767. — Chr, W. Fr, Walchii. Breviarum 
 theologiae dogmat. Got. 1775. — Ge. Fred. Seller, Theo- 
 logia dogmat. polemica ; Erlang. 1774. ed. 3. 1789. — Jo. 
 Pet. Miller, Theol. dogmat. Compendium ; Lips. 1786, 
 Eberh. Dan. Stosch, introductio in theol. dogmat. Francf. 
 ad Viadr. 1778. Ejusd. Institutiones theol. dogmat. ibid. 
 1779. Sam, Endemanni, Institutiones theol. dogmat. 
 Hanov. 1777. II. Vol. 8vo. Ejusd. Compendium theol. 
 dogmat. Francf. 1782. ed. 2. cura J. A. Arnoldi; Han. 
 1790. 
 
144 
 
 E. Jo Christoph. Doederlein, Institutio theologi christian! 
 in capitibus reliorjonis theorelicis, temporibus nostris ac- 
 comrnodata; xiltorf. 1780. ed. 6ta 1799. II.Vol. 8vo.— 
 Ejusd. Summa instilutionis &c. Norirnb. 1782. — Ejusd. 
 Religious Instruction ; (German,) Vol. I — IV. and con- 
 tinuation, by G. Ch. Junge, Vol. V — XII. Altorf. and 
 Nurenb. 1783—1803. 8vo.— S?. F, N, Mori, Epitome 
 theologiae christianae ; Lips. 1789. ed. 4. 1799. — Ejusd. 
 Commentarius exeget. histor. in snara theol. christ. 
 Epitomen ; ed. C. A. Hempel, Lips. 1797 — 98. II.Vol. 
 8vo. 
 
 F. Gottk. Traugott Zachariae, Biblical Theology ; (in 
 German,) Gott. and Kiel. 1771 — 75. IV Vol. continued 
 by Vollhroth, ed. 3. 1786. V. Vol. 8vo.— T^. Fred. Huf- 
 nageVs Manual of biblical theology ; (in German,) vol. 
 
 1. and vol. II. P. I. Erlang. 1785— 89.— CAr. F. Am- 
 moji's Bibliral Theology; (German,) Erlang. 1792. ed. 
 
 2. 1801—2. in. Vol. 8vo.— The spirit of original Christ- 
 ianity ; (in German,) by J. A, Eberhard ; Halle 1807 — 
 8. ill. Vol. 8vo. 
 
 G. Jo. ISred. W. JerusalerrCs Reflections on the princi- 
 pal truths of religion ; (in German,) vol. I. Brunsw. 
 1768. vol. II. P. I— IV. 1772—79. The Parts of con- 
 tinuation, in his posthumous writings ; Brunsw. 1692 — 
 93. IV. Vol. 8vo. — Godfr. Less, Theory of the christian 
 religion, or Essay of a practical dogmatic ; (in German,) 
 Getting. 1779. also, under the title of Manual, of the the- 
 ory of Christianity, for people of education; ed. 3. 1789. 
 — /. A. Hermes, Manual of religion ; (in German,) 5th 
 ed. improved ; Berlin 1797. 8vo. — To quiet my soul, 
 what must I believe ? what can I expect, among the 
 complicated opinions of the learned ? — answered by a 
 feeble old man, on the borders of the grave (J. Fr. Ja- 
 cohi) ; (in German,) Hanov. 1790. — Result of my more 
 than 50 year's reflection on the doctrine of Christ ; (in 
 German, by Dan. Hen. Purgold,) ed. 2. Lips. 1788. — 
 Jo. Jac. GrieshacWs Introduction to the study of popular 
 dogmatics; (in German,) Jena 1779. ed. 4. 1789. — 
 A. H. Niemeier^s Popular and practical theology ; (in 
 German,) Ilalle 1792. ed. 5. \^m.— Ejusd. Letters to 
 christian Ministers ; (in German,) ed. 2. 1803. 
 
or DOGMATIC HISTORY. 14^ 
 
 Sec. 166. Influence of the Kantean philosophy. 
 
 History of it. [Fliigge,) Essay of a historic and critical 
 representation of the effects of the Kantean philosophy, 
 thus far, on all the branches of scientific and practical 
 theology ; (in German,) Hanov. 1796-98. II vol. 8vo. 
 The state of dogmatics, in the Lutheran church, since the 
 time of Morus ; (in German,) by Aug. Bas, Manitius ; 
 Witemb. 1806. 8vo. 
 
 The Kantean philosphy, which shook the foundations 
 of the previous religious systems, and aimed to establish 
 faith in supersensible things, directly on practical reason; 
 was commended, by many divines, as the surest means of 
 securing the christian doctrines, against the assaults of 
 unbelief, and the mazes of superstition. But it was soon 
 felt, that its union with Christianity, was compulsory. Bib- 
 lical theology, however, was not neglected ; and greater 
 attention than ever, was paid to the history and literature 
 of theology. The great dissimilarity in the first princi- 
 ples, assumed by the theologians, became more and more 
 visible. Some divines endeavored, to defend the leading 
 points of the old theology. Others followed an eclectic 
 rationalism ; to which they either accommodated the 
 doctrines of the bible, or they exhibited the latter, along 
 with the principles of the former, without concealing the 
 discordance between them. The philosophy of Schel- 
 ling also, which identified the creation with the Creator, 
 was applied to the erection of new systems of dogmatics. 
 The changes in the German theology, likewise, produced 
 some influence on the churches of Holland. 
 
 Notices. Religion within the boundaries of pure rea- 
 son ; (in German,) by Imman. Kant; Konigsb. 1794. — 
 C Fr. Stdudlin^s Thoughts for a critique upon the sys^ 
 tem of the christian religion ; (German,) Got. 1791, 
 8vo.' — On the value of the critical philosophy, especially 
 in a religious and moral view, and the use and abuse of 
 it, in the theological sciences ; (German,) in Stdudlin^s 
 Contributions to the history and philosophy of religion ; 
 Tol III, IV. v.--/. Henr. Tieftrunky Estimate of the.- 
 
146 mdenscher's elements 
 
 Protestant system of Christianity, according to the prin- 
 ciples of religious criticism ; (German,) Berlin 1791-96. 
 HI vol, 8vo. — Eju^d, Dilucidationes ad theoreticam re- 
 ligionis christ. partem; Berlin 1793. II vol. — Chr, Fred, 
 Amnion's Sketch of a scientific work on practical theol- 
 ogy : (in German,) vol. I. P. I, II. Gotting. 1798. — J. 
 W, Schmid, On the nature of the christian religion, and 
 the proper mode of treating it, both as instruction for 
 mankind, and as a science ; (in German,) Jena 1797. 
 Bvo. 
 
 On the inconsistency of the dogmatic system, to which 
 the high court-preacher Reinhard gives assent; and the 
 consistency of the rationalism, that admits a revelation ; 
 (in German,) 1811. 8vo. 
 
 JLenchte (/. G. S,) Critique of the latest inquiries re- 
 specting rationalism and belief in revelation ; (in Germ.) 
 Lips. 1812. 8vo. 
 
 Letters on rationalism : Designed to correct the fluc- 
 tuating and dubious decisions, passed on that subject, in 
 the recent disputes about consistency ; (in German,) 
 Aachen (Rastatt). 1813. 8vo. 
 
 Tiitmann (J. A.) On Supranaturalism, Rationalism, 
 and Atheism ; (in German,) Lips. 1816. Bvo. — L. A. 
 Kaehler, Supernaturalism and Rationalism, in their com- 
 mon origin, their disagreement, and ultimate unity, A 
 word for satisfying all those, who are undecided, whether 
 they should believe in order to know, or know in order 
 to believe ; (in German,) Lips. 1818. Bvo. 
 
 (^Ge. Lor» Bauer's) Theology of the Old Testament, or 
 Summary of the religious ideas of the Hebrews ; (in 
 German.) Lips. 1796. \80\.~Ejusd. Biblical theology 
 of the New Testament; (in German,) Lips. 1800, 1802. 
 IV vol. — Ejusd. Breviarium theologiae biblicae ; Lips. 
 \S03.-^Kaiser, {G. P. C.) Biblical theology, or Juda- 
 ism and Christianity ; (in German,) Erlang. 1813-14. II 
 vol. Bvo.T— Commentarii histor. decretorum religionis 
 christiane et formulae Lutheriae ; scripsit Ch. Dan. Beck; 
 Lips. 1801. Bvo. — C. G, Breftschneiders Essay of a sys- 
 tematic developement of all the opinions advanced in 
 dogmatics, according to the symbolical books of the 
 
 1 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 147 
 
 evangelical Lutheran church ; (in Gernnan,) Lips. 1805. 
 improved ed. 1819. 8vo. 
 Gottl. Chr. Storr, Doctrinae christian a e pars theore- 
 tica; Stutti^. 1793. — Ejusd. Elements of christian theo- 
 logy; in German from the Latin, with additions, by C,C. 
 Flatt. Stuttg. 1803. 2d improved and enlarged ed. vol. 
 I. 18l3. 8vo. (Also made English, by S, S. Schmucker ; 
 Andover 1826. II vol. 8vo.) — Fr. V, Reinhard, Lec- 
 tures on dogmatics, with liteiary additions ; (in German,) 
 published by Imm. Berger \ Amberg and Sulzb. 1801. 
 ed. 2. 1806; and with new literary additions, by jff. A, 
 Schott ; 4th improved ed. 1818. 8vo. — Epitome theolo- 
 giae Christ, e Reinhardi acroasibus descripta ; a P. Ge. 
 Chr. Hopfner ; Lips. 1805. — Magazine for christian 
 dogmatics and moral theology ; (in German,) published 
 by J. Fr. Flatt, and contmued (since Pt. 9,) by Fred. 
 Gottl. Silskind; Tub. 1796 &c. XIV Parts. 8vo.--Sys- 
 tem of christian dogmatics, laid down according to the 
 theolo^v of the Lutheran church ; (in German,) by Jo. 
 Chr. iV. Augusti; Lips. 1809. 
 
 H. A. Schott, Epitome theologiae christianae dogmati- 
 
 cae ; Lips. 18 i I. 8vo. 
 The religious instructions of the Bible, considered with ^ 
 
 reference to our spiritual wants ; (in German,) by J. L. 
 
 Ewald; Stuttg. and Tub. 1812. II vol. 8vo. 
 Manual of the theology of the evang. Lutheran church ; 
 
 (in German,) by Dr. C G. Breitschneider ; Lips. 1814- 
 
 18. II vol. 8vo. 
 
 Jo. Chr. Rud. Eckermann, Compendium theologiae 
 chrivSt. theoret. biblico-historicae ; ed. 2. Altonae 1792. 
 — Ejusd. Manual for the systematic study of the chris- 
 tian faith ; (in German,) Altona 1801--3. lY vol. 8vo. — 
 JGJw^cZ. Theological contributions; (Germ.) Altona 1791- 
 97. VI vol. — Hen. Ph. Con. Henke, Linearnenta institutt. 
 fidei Christ, historico-criticarum; Helmst. 1793. ed.2. 1795. 
 Ejusd. Mag. for religious philosophy, exegesis, and church 
 hivStory ; (in German,) Helmst. 1794 &c. VI vol. — 
 Ejusd. New Magazin ; (German). Helmst. 1797 &.c. 
 VI vol. — Ejusd. Museum for religious science, in all its 
 extent; (in German,) Magd. 1803-07. Ill vol. 8vo.— 
 
148 
 
 Critique of the ancient and modern doctrines of the 
 christian church; (in German,) by G. C. Cannabich ; 
 Zerbst and Lips. 1798 ed. 3. 1805,— Go^^Z. Denker 
 (Sintenis), Last revision of the faith of the church ; (in 
 German,) 1799. 8vOt — Char. Lud. Nitzsch, De revela- 
 tione rehgionis externa eademque pubHca ; Lips. 1808. 
 — The foundation of theology ; (in German,) by Gotil, 
 Schlegel; vol.1. Riga 1806. 
 Dogmatics and dogmatic history ; (in Geiman,) by C 
 , Fred. Stdudling ; Gott. 1799.11 vol. — Ejusd. Elements 
 of dogmatics and dogmatic history ; (in German,) ed. 2. 
 < lotting. 1809. — 1. Ern. Christ, Schmid's Elements of 
 christian dogmatics; (in German,) Giess. 1800. — Ejusd. 
 Christian theology ; (in German,) Giess. and Darmst. 
 1808. — Chr. Fr. Ammon, Summa theol. christ. Gotting. 
 1803, ed. 2, 1808, ed. 3, Lips. 1816, 'also in German, 
 1805. — Ejusd. Full instruction in the christian faith, de- 
 signed for the friends of evangelical truth ; (in German,) 
 vol. I. P. I, 11. Erlang. 1807, 1808.—/. G. Herder, 
 Dogmatics ; collected from his writings, with literary and 
 critical notes ; (in German,) Jena 1805. 
 Elements of christian dogmatics, presented in a histori- 
 cal developement of the same ; (in German,) by Dr. W. 
 . M. L. De Wefte ; Berl lQ\3-\6. II vol. Qvo.-Ejusd. 
 On religion and theology : Elucidations to his elements 
 of dogmatics ; (in German,) Berl. 1815. 8vo. 
 Institutiones theologiae christ. dogmaticae. Scholis suia 
 scripsit, addita singulorora dogmatum historia et censura, 
 J. A. L. WegscJieider ; ed. 2. Halae, 1817. 8vo. 
 Thologumena, s. Doctrinae de religione christ. ex natu- 
 ra Dei perspecta capita potiora, scholis dicavit Car. Daub; 
 Heidelb. 1806. — Ejusd. Introduction to the study of 
 christian dogmatics ; (in German.) Heidelb. 1810. — 
 Fred. Henr. Christ. Schwarz, Sciagraphia theologiae 
 dogmaticae; Heidelb. 1808. — Ejusd. Christianity con- 
 sidered in its truth and divinity ; (in German,) vol. I. 
 Heidelb. 1808. — Ejusd. Outline of Protestant ecclesi- 
 astical dogmatics ; ed. 2. altered and done into German ; 
 Heidelb. 1816, large 8vo. 
 Pars theoretica religionis christianae — in compendium 
 redegit; Herm. Muntinghe; 1800-1, 8 vo. 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 149 
 
 Compendii theologiae clirist. ordo et argnmentum : Pars 
 tlieoretica. Ad usum discipulorum ; edidit Jo, van 
 Voorst; Lugd. 1808. 8vo. 
 
 Christian theology, according to the wants of the pre- 
 sent time ; (in Dutch,) hy J. H, Regenhogen ; Workum, 
 1811. 8vo, (very lax I) 
 
 J, A. Lotze. Monograrnmata theologiae theoreticae, in 
 scholae suae usum; Harderov. J817. 8vo. 
 
 Sec. 167. The theology of other churches. 
 The eptablished doctrines of the Catholic church, 
 are professedly unchangable ; and can therefore admit 
 of no essential aherations. And yet theology was taught 
 with some peculiarities, by each order of Monks ; and 
 the contest between the Jansenists and Jesuits, in particu- 
 lar, gave the Catholic divines much employment. For 
 the most part, the old scholastic form of doctrine con- 
 tinued ; yet in France, from about the seventeenth cen- 
 century, attempts were made, to purge away many of the 
 useless subtilties ; and Bossuet endeavored, to make its 
 deviations from the Protestant views, less striking. The 
 free remarks of Francis de Courayer, on improving theo-. 
 logy, were not attended to. With better success, the 
 Catholic divines of Germany, in modern times, have be- 
 gun to treat the theology of their church, more lucidly 
 and practically ; and in this, they have condescended to 
 make use of the writings of Protestants(A). The Greek 
 church has had no dogmatic writers, except Theophanes 
 Procopowitsch and Platon(B). Among the Unitarians 
 or Socinians also, a few works on dogmatics have ap- 
 peared(C). 
 
 Notices^ A. Fran. Suarez, Commentatt. et dij?putatt. in 
 Summam theologiae Sti Thomae ; Mogunt. 1619-29. 
 XIX vol. Fol. Jo. Bapt. du Hameh Theolocna specu- 
 lative et practica, juxta SS. Patrum dogmata pertracUata ; 
 Par. 1691. Vll vol. 8vo. Exposition de la foi cathohque; 
 par Jaque Ben, Bossuet ; Par. 1672. 15mo. Theolo- 
 gia dogmal. et moralis, auctore Natal AUxandro ; Paris 
 
 ^ 1703. II. vol. Fol. Antonii Tournellh Praelectiones 
 
 I 14 
 
150 muenscher's elements 
 
 theologicae ; Paris 1725-30. XVI vol. 8vo. Examen 
 des defauts theologiques ; (par F. de Courayer,) Amst. 
 1744. I[ vol. 8vo. Jo. Laur. Bertie Theologia histor. 
 dogmat. scholastica ; Vene^t. 1760, &,c. X vol. Fol. And, 
 abridged, Bamb. 1773. V vol. 8vo. Renati Billuart, 
 Summa Sti Thornae hodiernis academiarurn moribus ac- 
 commodata ; Leod. 1746-51. XIX Tomi. Bvo. and VVir- 
 ceb. 1758. Ill vol. Fol. Ejusd, Summa summae Sti 
 Thornae ; s. Compendium iheologiae ; Leod. 1746. VI 
 vol. 8vo. Petri Mariae Gazzaniga, Praelectiones theo- 
 log. ed. 3. Viennae 1775. IV vol. 8vo. Slmpert Sch- 
 warzhiiber, Catholic christian manual ; (in German,) ed. 
 3. Salzb. 1791. IV vol. 8vo. Steph. Wiest, Institutiones 
 theologicae ; ed. 2. Ingolst. 1788-89. VI vol. 8vo. 
 Ejusd. Institt. theol. dogmat. ib. 1791. II vol. ed. 2. 
 Landshut 1817. 8vo. Bened. Stattler, Theologiae iheo- 
 ret. tractatus ; Eustad. 1776-79. IV Tomi. Petri Tam- 
 hurini, Praelectiones in acad. Ticinensi ; Ticini 1787. 
 8vo. Manual of the christian religion ; (in German,) 
 by Udcfons ScJncarz ; ed. 2. Bamb. and Wiirzb. 1797. 
 Ill vol. 8vo. Engelberti Kliipfel, Instilutt. theologiae 
 dogmaticae,; ed. 2. Viennae 1802-3. II vol. Bernh. 
 Galura, Latest theology of Christianity ; (in German,) 
 Augsb. 1800-3. V vol.^ 8vo. ed. 2, Augsb. 1818. VI vol. 
 8vo. Dobmayer^ (C. D. M.) Systema theol. catholicae; 
 Solisbaci 1813. IV Tomi 8vo. cum append. Candid re- 
 presentation of theology, under the idea of the King- 
 dom of heaven ; or latest catholic dogmatics, according 
 to the wants of the present ajje ; (in German,) by Dr. 
 Fred. Brenner; Bamb. and Wiirzb. 1815-18. III. vol. 
 8vo. 
 
 B. Theophanis Procopoimtz, Christiana orthodoxa theolo- 
 gia ;^Regiomonti 1773--75. V vol. 8vo. Platon's Or- 
 thodox doctrine, or short summary of christian theology ; 
 (in German,) Riga 1770 ; (also, English, in The present 
 stale of the Greek church ; by Rob. Pinkerton ; New- 
 York 1815. l2mo.) See also, Reflections on the doc- 
 trine and the spirit of the orthodox churches ; (in French,) 
 by Alexander de Stoundza; and thence German, by 
 August, von Kotzebue ; Lips. 1817. 8 vo. 
 
 G. Jo, Volkelii, de vera religione, Libri V ; quibus praefixus 
 
 i 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 181 
 
 est Jo. Crellii Tractatus de Deo et ejus attributis ; Ra- 
 cov. 163Q. 4to. Sam. Crelli, Gogitationes de primo et 
 secundo Adamo ; s. de ratione salutis per ilium amissae, 
 per hunc recuperata ; Ainsl. 1700. 8vo. (^Georgii MaV' 
 kos,) Summa universac theologiae, secundum Uuitarios ; 
 Claudiop. 1777. 8vo, See Archive for ancient and mo- 
 dern church history ; (in German,) edited by C. F. Stdu- 
 dlin 3im\ H. C. Tzschirner; vol. [. P.I. No. 3. The 
 author of this piece, was supposed to be George Marhos ; 
 but it was published from a manuscript work of Michael 
 Lombardsz Abrahami, who was superintendent of the Uni- 
 tarians in Transylvania, from A. D. 1737? to A. D. 1758, 
 See the above named Archive, vol. IV. P. I. 
 
 PART 11. 
 
 HISTORY OF PARTICULAR DOCTRINES. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF RELIGION GENERALLY, AND ES- 
 PECIALLY OF THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION. 
 
 Historians. J. Alb. Fabricii, Delectus argumentorum et 
 syllabus scriptorum, qui veritatem religionis christ. adver- 
 sus Atheos, Epicureos, Deistas s. Naturalistas, Idolola- 
 tras, Judaeos et Muhammedanos, asseiuerunt ; Hamb. 
 1725. 4to. An appendix thereto, annexed to Jo» Ant, 
 Trinius, Dictionary of Free-thinkers ; (in German,) 
 Lips. &c. 1758. 8vo. The history and spirit of scepti- 
 cism, especially in regard to morals and religion ; (in 
 German,) by CL Fr. Stdudlin ; Lips. 1794. II vol. 8vo. 
 
 Sec. 168. Doctrine concerning God. 
 The belief of a God was commonly, either assumed, or 
 supported on the old and well known grounds, when des 
 Cartes attempted to establish it with new arguments. 
 Moreover the theologians were roused from their inacti- 
 vity, and made sensible of the danger in which the foun- 
 
\ 
 
 152 muenscher's elements 
 
 dation of their system stood, by the efforts of two persons, 
 Thomas Hobbes (d. 1679) seemed, in general, to under- 
 mine religion ; and to rank the Creator among sensalive 
 beings. Benedict Spinoza (d. 1677), in a more system- 
 atic manner, brought forward a connected and self-con- 
 sistent pantheism. Among the numerous writers, who 
 appeared against these two men, the most distinguished 
 were UenryMorus (d. 1687), Ralph Cudworth (d.l688), 
 and Samael Clarke (d. 1729). The philosophy of John 
 Locke, which deduced all knowledge from experience, 
 and which met great approbation in England, and was 
 received also in France ; contrary to the designs of its 
 author, was so appUied, as to render all belief of super- 
 sensible truths, uncertain. Christian Wolf, endeavored 
 to resist infidelity, by a more acute statement of the ar- 
 gument derived from the principle of causation ; and 
 Hermann Sam, Rtimarus presented the argument in a 
 more intelligible form, and defended it against the objec- 
 tions of Maupertuis. Also Moses Mendelsohn obtained . 
 high commendation, by the clearness with which he sta- 1 
 ted the evidence of the being of a God ; and during the 
 same time, essays proving the being of God, from the 
 necessity of a first cause, became more numerous than 
 ever. 
 
 Notices, Thomas Hobbes, Elementa philosopliica, de cive; 
 Amstel. 1669. 12mo. JEJw^rf.Levialhan ; London 1661. 
 Bened. Spinoza, Tractatus iheologico-pollticus ; Hamb. 
 1670. Bened. Spinoza, O pp. \)os{humii \ Amst. 1677. 4to. 
 Ejusd. Opera; cnravit H E. G. Paidus ; Jenae 1802-3. 
 
 II vol. 8vo. Ralph CwcZwor/A, Intellectual system of the 
 universe ; ex Anglico vertit et illustravit J. Law, Mo- 
 shemius ; ed. 2. Lugd. Bat. 1773. II vol. 4to. Sam, 
 Clarke, On the existence and attributes of God, the 
 duties of natural religion, and the truth of the chris- 
 tian religion ; (French, from the English,) Amst. 1766. 
 
 III vol. 8vo. Herm. Sam, Beimarus, Treatises on the 
 principal truths of natural rehgion ; with notes by J, A, 
 H. Reimarus ; (in German,) ed. 6. Hamb. 1791. Mo- 
 ses Mendelsohn's Morning hours ; (in German,) vol. I. 
 
OF dogmatk: history. 16S 
 
 Berlin 1785. (Examination of Mendelsohn's Morning 
 ho<irs ; (in German,) hy Lud. Hen. JaJwb ; Lips. 1786.) 
 W. Der^am'tsPhysico-Theology ; German from the Eng- 
 lish. Hamb. 1764. Ejusd. Astro-Theology ; Hamb. 
 1765. B ernhar d Nlemoetyt, ConiemphUoDS on the uni- 
 verse ; (Enghsh from the Latin, ill vol. Bvo.) German 
 from the Latin, by /. A. Segner; Jena 1747- 4to. Charles 
 Bonnet, Contemplations of nature ; (English from the 
 French.) German from the French, by J. Dan. Titius ; 
 ed. 4. Lips. 1783. 
 
 Sec. 169. More recent history of this doctrine. 
 The spread of a superficial French philosophy, which 
 would admit nothing for true, beyond the reach of the 
 senses ; appeared to be even more dangerous to religious 
 faith, than the artful scepticism, with which David Hume 
 assailed it. Yet the last occasioned Immanuel Kant, to 
 subject the whole subject of our knowledge of supersen- 
 sible objects to a severer criticism ; the result of which 
 was, that he pronounced all theoretical proof of the be- 
 ing of God, inadequate ; and allowed the practical evi- 
 dence, to be the only valid evidence. Respecting this 
 decision of Kant, the suspicion was early expressed, that 
 it led, or might lead, to atheism ; and the utterance of 
 this suspicion became still louder, when G, Fichte would 
 not admit a moral government of the world, and deni- 
 ed the existence and substance of God. The recent 
 philosophy of Schelling, extols pantheism, though with 
 some modifications, as the summit of all divine wisdom, 
 and looks down with pity, on all who think otherwise. 
 
 Notices, Systeme de la nature, ou des loix du monde phy- 
 sique et du monde moral; par. M. Mirahaud; a Lon- 
 dres 1770. U vol. 8vo. also in German, 1783. (Obser- 
 vations sur le livre intitule ; Systeme de la nature, "&c. 
 par. M.Jean deCastillon; Berlin 1771. Reflexions 
 philosophiques sur le Systeme &c. par M. Holland; a 
 Neufchatel. ed. 2. 1773.) David Hume, Dialogues con- 
 cerning natural religion; Lond. 1779. in German, with 
 a Dialogue on Atheism, by Em, Plainer j Lips, 178K 
 14* 
 
154 
 
 8vo. Immanuel Kant, Critique on pure reason ; (in Ger- 
 man,) ed. S.Riga 1790. E;«.sd. Critique on the judg- 
 ing power; (in German,) Berlin 1793. Ejusd. Religion 
 within the boundaries of mere reason ; (m German,) 
 ed. 2. Konigsb. 1794. G. Ch. Sforr's Remarks on the 
 religious doctrines of Kant ; a German translation by 
 Silskind ; Tub. 1794. (^Sckulze'* s) Some remarks on 
 Kant's philosophichal religious doctrines ; (in German.) 
 Kiel. 1795. 'J'heological contributions; (in German,) 
 by J. Ch, Rud. Eckermann; vol. III. P. HI. and vol. IV. 
 (C F. StdudUn,) Prolusio, qua auctor ipse Philosophiae 
 criticae a suspicione Atheismi vindicatur; Gott. 1799. 
 4to. On the ground of our belief of a divine government 
 of the world ; by Flchte ; and Developement of the idea 
 of religi :)n ; by Forberg ; (both in German,) and both in 
 Fichte's and Niethammer's Philosoph. Journal. A.*D. 
 1799. vol. IF. p. 249 &c. Fr, W. I. Schclling's Bruno ; 
 or on the divine, and the natural, first principle of things; 
 (in German,") Berl. 1802. Ejusd. Philosophy and reli- 
 gion; (in German,) Tub. 1B04. i^J/i/^d. Philosophical 
 writings ; (Germ.) vol. I. l.andslmt 1809. p. 399 — 611. 
 Fr, Henr, Jacobi, On divine things, and the revelation of 
 them ; (in German,) Lips. 1811. 8vo. Fr. TF. J. Schcl- 
 lingt Monument of the Scripture concerning divine things, 
 &,c (in German,) Tubing. 1812. 8vo. — Against Schel- 
 ling : Fr, Gottl, Silskind, Examination of Sclielling's doc- 
 trine, concerning God, creation of the world, freedom, 
 moral good and evil ; (in German,) Tubing. 1812. 8vo. 
 
 The more ancient proofs of the being of God, were 
 also brought forward again, in this period ; in the follow- 
 ing works : 
 
 (L. von Crell,) Pyrrho and Philalethes ; or, does Scepti- 
 cism lead to truth and calm decision ? (in German, edited 
 by Reinhard ; ed. 3. Sulzbach 1813. 8vo. J. F. AbeVs 
 Detailed statement respecting the evidence of the being: 
 of God; (in German,) Heilbron 1817. 8vo. J.F.Dah- 
 lenhurg^ Philosophy and rehsion of nature ; (in German,) 
 Berlin 1797-98. HI. Vol. 8vo. 
 
 Sec. 170. Doctrine of Providence, - 
 The opposers of religion have always appealed to the 
 
OP DOGMATIC HISTORY. 165 
 
 existence of evil and misery in the world, as a ground 
 for questioning the wisdom, goodness, hoHness, and rec- 
 titude of the government of the world. These doubts, 
 the acute Pete?- Bayle strengthened, and declared to be 
 not solvable by reason ; and he found himself not satisfied 
 with the arguments for the contrary, adduced by Jaque- 
 lot, William King, and John le Clerc. Hence Godfrey 
 Wm, von Leibnitz was induced to write his Theodicee ; 
 which was received with peculiar satisfaction, and used 
 abundantly by the theologians and philosophers of the 
 Wolfian school. The later investigations on this subject, 
 appear to aim less at justifying the existence of evil in 
 the world, than at denying the fact that evil exists. At 
 length Kant endeavored to show, that no attempt to 
 evince the justice of God in the adiuission of evil, could 
 succeed. 
 
 Notices. P. Bayle^ Dictionaire historique critique ; Art. 
 Paulliciens, Manicheens. Reponse aux questions d'un 
 Provincial. Jean le Clerc^ Defense de la Providence, 
 contre les Manicheens ; in his Parrhesiana ; T. I. p. 303. 
 Wm, King, Deorigine mali ; Dubl. 1702. Bremae 1704. 
 also in English, about 1730. Is, Jaqvelot, Conformitd 
 de la foi avec la raison ; Arnst. 1705. 12mo. Essais de 
 Theodicee sur la bonte de Dieu, la liberte de Thomrne, et 
 Torigine du mal; par ilf. Leibnitz ;Amst. 1710.8vo. 1734. 
 
 II vol, ovo. in German, by Gottsciied, 1744. 8vo. Ge. 
 Bernh. BiJfinger, de oiigine et permissione mali ; Tub 
 1724. On the Origin and design of evil ; (in German, by 
 Villaume,) Lips. 1784-87. Ill Vol. Adam Weishaupi, 
 Apology for disagreeables and evils ; (in German,) 
 Francf. and Lips. 1790. II vol. J. G, C. Werdermann, 
 New attempt of a Theodicee ; (in German,) Lips. 1784. 
 
 III vol. Essay of a history of opinions respecting fate 
 and human freedom ; Lips. 1793. On the permission of 
 evil ; in (Junge's) Philosoph. and theological papers ; 
 Vol. I. p. 35 —152, On the failure of all philosophical 
 attempts in Theodicee ; (in German,) hy Imm, Kant; in 
 his Miscell. writings, vol. III. p.* 145 &c. 
 
156 muenscher's elements 
 
 Sec. 171. Immortality of the soul. 
 
 History, Essay of a historical and critical survey of the 
 doctrines and opinions of our principal modern piiiloso- 
 phers, concerning the immortality of the soul ; (in Ger- 
 man,) Lips. 1796. 8vo. 
 
 In opposition to the materialism, which Hobbes and 
 others set up, des Cartes conceived more distinctly the 
 idea, that the soul was a simple and purely spiritual sub- 
 stance. John Locke, had let drop the thought, that God 
 was able, to impart the power of thinking, to a material 
 body. This thought was eagerly seized, by some Eng- 
 lish and French writers, in order to declare man a mere 
 machine, who at death would be completely destroyed. 
 Julius Offrey de la Mettrie advanced these views, the 
 most boldly. The Wolfian philosophy furnished argu- 
 ments, both for the immateriality and immortality of the 
 soul ; but the Kantean philosophy, left the first problema- 
 tical, and rested the last solely on moral grounds. Also 
 the doctrine of immortality, in a comfortless form, as a 
 protracted existence, without consciousness and person- 
 ality ; met with friends and advocates. 
 
 Notices. La Mettrie, L'homme machine; a Leiden 1748. 
 12mo. L'homme plante ; a Potsdam 1748. 12mo. Jo, 
 Gust. Rcinbeck, Philosophical thoughts on the rational 
 soul and its immortality; (in German,) Berlin 1739. 
 GottL Is. Canz, Convincing proof of the immoitality of 
 the sou! ; (in Germ.) Tub. 1744. [Geo. Fred. Meiers, 
 Thoughts on the state of the soul afler death ; (in Geim.) 
 Halle 1746. 8vo.) Mos. Mendelsohn' sV\mii(\on ; (Ger- 
 man,) ed. 4. Berl. 1776. (C. Spazier, Antiphaedon, or 
 examination of some principal arguments for the simpli- 
 city and immoitality of the soul ; (German,) Lips. 1785.) 
 Ahr. Gotth. Kastner, Elucidation of an argument for the 
 immortality of the soul ; (German,) Gotting. 1767. 
 Isaac von Pinto, Pith of the argument against the mate- 
 rialists ; with notes by J. C. E. Miimler ; (in German,) 
 Helmst. 1778. Joh. Fred. Hdseler^ Julius, or, on the 
 immortality of the soul ; (in Germ.) ed. 2. Brunsw. 1794.. 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 15*T 
 
 L. H. JaJcohf Evidence of immortality, from the idea of 
 duty ^ (German,) ed. 2. Ziillich. 1794. (Examination 
 of the proof proposed by Professor Jacob ; (in German.) 
 Lips. 1793.) Elpizon, or, on my continuing to be, after 
 death; (in German; by C. F. Slntenis ;) ed. 2. Lips. 
 1804-5. Ill vol. 8vo. Euthanasia; three dialogues on 
 the life after death ; (in German,) by C. M. Wieland^ 
 Lips. 1805. 8vo. 
 
 Sec. 172. Belief in Revelation, 
 
 After Ludovicus Vives and Philip de Mornay, Hugo 
 Grotius holds a distinguished place, among the defend- 
 ers of christianity(A). The distinction between natural 
 and revealed religion, was contested by the Socinians ; 
 who maintained, that all religious doctrines must be com- 
 prehensible, by reason, but that all become known to us, 
 only by revelation. In these principles, they were fol- 
 lowed by Gruner and Basedow. The earlier theologians 
 placed the use of reason very low ; and in this, they were 
 preceded by Lutherh severe opinion. On the contrary, 
 the English deists(B) took opposite ground; exalted the 
 value of the religion of reason, and thence inferred, either 
 that Christianity was not needed, and w^as superfluous; or 
 that, being contrary to reason, it was to be rejected. To 
 meet these arguments(C), the English apologists asserted 
 the coincidence of the christian doctrines with the re- 
 ligion of reason ; and thence inferred the truth of the for- 
 mer. Others, however, chose to found this truth, on the 
 weakness and insufficiency of reason. Leibnitz endea- 
 vored to defend the coincidence of faith and reason, 
 against BayWs objections ; and in accordance with the 
 Wolfian principles, the necessity of a revelation, and the 
 marks of a real one, were unfolded. Some theologians, 
 however, treading in Vernefs steps, avowed only the 
 desirableness and usefulness of a revelation. In con- 
 futation of the Jews and the Mohammedans, numerous 
 pieces were written ; among which, only Limhorchh Con- 
 ference with Orobio, deserves to be noticed(D). For a 
 controversy with Pagans, occasion did not occur ; yet 
 
158 MnENSCHER's ELEMENTS 
 
 learned inquiries respecting their religion, were under- 
 taken(E). 
 
 Notices. A. Jo. Franc. Pici MirandulL Examen vanitatis 
 doctrinae gentium et veritatis christianae disciplinae, Lib. 
 VI; Mirand. 1520. J, Lud. Vives, de veritate fidei 
 christianae, Libri V ; Basil 1544. 8vo. and in his 0pp. 
 Basil 1555. T. II. p. 284 &c. Philippi Mornaei, de 
 veritate religionis Christ. Liber ; Antw. 1580. Hvgonis 
 Grotii, de veritate rehgionis christ. Libri IV ; Paris 1640. 
 et ahbi ; exed. Koecheri, Halae 1734. II. vol. 8vo. 
 
 B. Edwardi Herbert de Cherbvry, de veritate prout distin- 
 guitur a revelatione, a verisimili, a possibili et falso ; 
 Lond. 1645, {Charles Blount,) Religio Laici ; 1683. 
 Oracles of reason ; 1693. John Toland, Christianity 
 not mysterious ; Lond. 1696. Adeisidaemon ; s. Titus 
 Livius a superstitione vindicatus; Hagae Com. 1709. 
 Nazarenus ; Lond. 1718. Patheisticon Cosmop. 1720. 
 Matthew Tindal, Christianity as old as the creation ; 
 Lond. 1733. and German, with Jac. JPo^^er'^ Confuta- 
 tion ; Francf. 1741. II vol. 8vo. The moral philoso- 
 pher; hy Thomas Morgan ; Lond. 1737-40. Ill vol.8vo. 
 Christianity not founded on argument, and the true prin- 
 ciple of the gospel evidence assigned ; Lond. 1742. 
 TAoTmi* CAi/ftft, Posthumous works ; Lond. 1748. The 
 philosophical works of Henry St. John, Lord Viscount 
 Bolinghroke ; Lond. 1754. V vol. 4to. John Lelandy 
 View of the principal deistic writers; (in German,) Ha- 
 nov. 1755-56. Ill vol. La vie de Mahomed ; par Henri 
 de Boulainvilliers ; A Londres 1730. Letters sur la re- 
 ligion essenlielle a I'homme distingu^e de ce, qui n'en 
 qu'accessoire; {pv.r 31arie Huber ;) Amst. 1738. II vol. 
 Svo. 3Iarie Arouet de Voltaire, L'evangile du jour; la 
 philosophic de I'histoire ; dictionare pjjilosophique porta- 
 tif, &c. in his Works; Gotha 1784. LXXF vol. The 
 Encyclopaedists &c. 
 
 C Ja. Abbadie, Traite de la verity de la religion chre- 
 tienne ; Roterod. 1692. II vol. 8vo. a la Haye 1763. Ill 
 vol. 8vo. and in English, I vol. 12mo. J. Locke, The 
 reasonableness of Christianity; Lon. 1693, 1703. French; 
 Amst. 1731. II vol. 8vo. A defense of revealed religion; 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY, 159 
 
 by J. Conyheare; Lond. 1732. and German; Berlin 
 1759. The strength and weakness of human reason ; by 
 Isaac Watts; Lond. 1736, and German; ed. 2. Halle 
 1755. The advantages and necessity of the christian re- 
 ligion, shown from the state of religion in the ancient hea- 
 heathen world; by John Leland ; Lond. 1764. II voL 
 4to. and in German, abridged, vol. 1. Gotha 1769. 8vo, 
 Eusebius ; or, the true Christian's defense ; by /. Chap- 
 man ; Lond. 1739. II. vol, 8vo. and German; by Stef- 
 fens; Hamb. 1759.11vol. 8vo. George Benson^ Rea- 
 sonableness of the christian religion ; Lond, 1743. and 
 German; by /. Pet. Bamberger', Halle 1763. The 
 analogy of rehgion natural and revealed, to the constitu- 
 tion and course of nature; by Joseph Butler; ed 4» 
 Lond. 1750. and German ; ed. 2. Tub. 1779. 8vo. A 
 view of the internal evidences of the Christian religion ; 
 by Soame Jenyns ; Lond. 1776. German ; by Vollhroth\ 
 Gott. 1776. 8vo. A view of the evidences of Christian- 
 ity, in three Parts ; hy William Paley; Lond. 1795. II 
 vol. 8vo. and German ; Lips. 1797. 11 vol. 8vo. 
 
 Blaise Pascal, Pensees sur la religion ; Paris 1669. 
 12mo. Petri Dan. Huetii, Demonstratio evangelica ; 
 Paris 1690. Fol. Amst. 1694. 4to. Ejusd. Quaestiones 
 Alnetanae de concordia rationis et fidei — cum ejusdem 
 Commentariisde rebus ad eum pertinentibus ; Lips. 17 19. 
 4to. Traite de la verite de la religion chretienne tire en 
 partie du Latin de M. Jean Alfonse Turretin; par Jaques 
 Vernet, a Geneve 1730-46. Vll vol. 8vo. La religion 
 chretienne prouvee par des faits par I'Abbe Houiteville ; 
 a Amst. 1743. IV. vol. 12mo. Lettres de quelques Juifs 
 Portiigflis et Allemands a M. de Voltaire ; (par Ant, 
 Guen^e;) Paris 1769. and German ; 1773. also English. 
 Ahrecht von Haller, Letters on some objections of certain 
 living Free-thinkers, against revelation ; (in German,) ed. 
 2. Bern 1778. llf. vol. 8vo. Genie du christianisme, ou 
 beautes de la religion chretienne ; par Francois Auguste 
 Chateaubriand; Paris 1802. V vol. 
 
 D. Tela ignea Satanae ; — in lucem protrusit Jo, Ch. Wa- 
 genseilius; Altorfi 1681. 4to. PhiUppi a Limborch, de 
 veritate religionis christianae arnica collatio cum erudito 
 Judaeo ; Goudae 1687. Basil 1740. 8vo. 
 
160 muenscher's elements 
 
 E. Edwardde Cherhury, de religione gentilium errorumque 
 apnd eoscausis ; Amst.1708. 8vo. GerhardiJo, Vossii, 
 de theoloiria gentili et phisiloiogia christiaiia, Libri IX. 
 ed. 3. Francf. ad Moen. 1G75. 4to. Tohiae Pfanneri, 
 Systerna Iheologiae gentilis purioris; Basil 1679. 
 
 Sec. 173. Most recent history of belief in revelation. 
 The infidelity propagated from England and France 
 into Germany, called forth many writings in confirmation 
 of the truth and divine origin of Christianity. The 
 Wolfenbuttle Fragments^ and the controversies re- 
 specting them, appear to have had a decided in- 
 fluence in shaping men's viev^s of the nature of re- 
 velation. For, from this time onward, it became 
 more manifest, that most theologians either wrapt up the 
 idea of a revelation in equivocal obscurity, or had recourse 
 to a distinction between mediate and immediate revela- 
 tion. The Kantean philosophy was applied, in various 
 ways, in order to sustain faith and a revelation ; but with 
 as little success, as may be expected to attend the more 
 recent attempts, to trace all religion back to a divine re- 
 velation. The Tubingen school, however, stands alone, 
 in holding fast the old and pure idea of revelation, unal- 
 tered. 
 
 Notices, Goith. Ephr. Lessing'^s Contributions to historT 
 and literature, derived from tlie treasures in the library at 
 Wolfenbuttle ; (in German,) 3d and 4lh Contribiit. 1777. 
 On the aim of Jesus and his disciples; (in Germ.) 1778. 
 The remaining and unprinted works of the Wolfenbuttle 
 Fragmentists; (inGerman,) published by Schmid (Andr. 
 Riem.) 1787. J. Gottl. Flchte, Criticism on all Reve- 
 lations; (in German,) ed. 2. Konigsb. 1793. Critical 
 theory of revelation ; (inGerman.) Halle 1793. Imm. 
 Fred. Niethammers Essay to establ sh a rational belief of 
 revelation ; (in German.) Lips, 1798 &c. 
 
 C.L. Nietzsch, de revelatione religionis externa eaque pub- 
 lica; Lips. 1808. 8vo. 
 
 F. Steudel, On the tenableness of faith in a historical reve- 
 lation from God ; (in German,) Stutg. 18l4.8vo. 
 
OF DOGMATIC liISTORT. 161 
 
 Recent Apologies: Theod. Ck, Lilienthal, Revelation a good 
 thingj proved and vindicated against the enemies of it ; 
 (in German,) Konigsb. 1750-78. XVI vol.8 vo. Charles 
 Bonnet's philosophical examination of the evidences of 
 Christianity ; (in German,) translated, and notes added, 
 by /: C. Lavater, Zurich 1769. Aug. Fred. W, Sack, 
 The faith of a christian vindicated ; (la German,) Berlin 
 1773. VIII Parts. J. A. Noesselt, Defense of the truth 
 and divinity of the christian religion ; (in German,) ed,5. 
 Halle 1783. 8vo. G. G. Less, On the christian religion, 
 its history, choice and confirmation ; (in German,) ed. 2. 
 Getting. 1786. K vol. 8vo. also in English. J. Fred. 
 Kleucker^s New examination and elucidation of the prin- 
 cipal arguments for the truth and divinity of Christianity ; 
 (in German,) Halle 1787-94. HI vol. The truth and 
 divinity of Christianity briefly stated ; (in German,) Hanib. 
 1803. 8vo. J. S. Franke, Attempt of an Apology for the 
 christian religion ; (in German,) Altona 1817. 8vo. 
 
 Sec. 174. Miracles and prophecies. 
 Miracles were ever viewed, as one principal evidence 
 of Christianity ; and it therefore excited great attention, 
 when Thomas Woolston (d. 1733) attempted to explain 
 the miracles of Christ allegorically. Concerning the ob- 
 ject and the idea of a miracle, two eminent philosophers, 
 Isaac JYewton and Leibnitz, entertained different views } 
 yet both admitted the possibility of miracles. On the con- 
 trary, the Scotchman, David Hume, and the Genevan 
 citizen, John James Rousseau, came forth subtle opposers 
 of miracles. After the Englishman, Conyers Mid- 
 diet on, had confined miracles to the apostolic age, J. Cas- 
 per Lavater maintained the uninterrupted continuance 
 of miraculous powers in the christian church. In the 
 most recent times, the voice of those who reject miracles, 
 generally, has been raised both often and loud. Many 
 theologians have attempted to explain the miracles, on 
 natural principles ; others, following Spinoza and Locke, 
 define a miracle, so indistinctly, and with such latitude, 
 tliat a miracle may easily be conceived of, but would be 
 an insignificant thing. The question has also been dis- 
 
 16 
 
162 
 
 cussed, whether Jesus aimed to establish his doctrine, by- 
 miracles; and, whether miracles can be made to prove 
 any doctrine whatever. Among all miracles, that of the 
 resurrection of Jesus, has been most dwelt upon, and 
 vindicated against the objections of opposers. — The proof 
 from the prophecies of the Old Testament, was treated 
 as holding a high rank, till the time that Anthony Collins 
 assailed it. Notwithstanding various answers to him 
 were published, this argument has been more and more 
 laid aside; especially, in consequence of the estimation, 
 which the new theology puts on the predictions concern- 
 ing the Messiah. In general, it has become more com- 
 mon, since the time of J, S. Semler, to rest the truth of 
 Christianity, upon the internal, rather than the external 
 evidences ; — yet J. Fr, Kleuker and others, have de- 
 clared against this. 
 
 Notices. Bernard Connor, Evangelium medici ; Lend. 
 J 697. — Thomas Woolston, Six discourses on the mira- 
 cles of our Saviour ; Lond. 1727-29. — Conyers Middle- 
 ton, Free enquiry into the miraculous powers ; Lond. 
 1749. (in German,) with critical remarks, by C JG. von 
 Windheim ; Hanov. 1751. — A vindication of the Free 
 enquiry; Lond. 1751. — Dan. Hume, Essay on miracles ; 
 Lond. 1764. — (Dissertation concerning miracles ; by 
 George Campbell; — also in French, by J. de Castillon ; 
 1765.) — J. J. Rousseau^heiive de la montagne, &c. 
 Amst. 1764. — (Remarks on the miracles c^fihe Gospel, 
 in answer to the objections which J. J. Rousseau has 
 raised against them ; Gorman, from the French, of M, 
 Claparede ; Francf 1774.) — Free remarks on the doc- 
 trines of miracles and a revelation, in Letters to a friend ; 
 (German,) 1792. — Review of the decision respecting 
 miracles and a revelation ; (in German,) by Sam. Rifter ; 
 in Henke's New Magazine, vol. I. p. 206. — Apology for 
 faith in miracles and revelation ; (in German,) by Hiiner- 
 wadel ; in Flatt's Magazine for christian dogmatics and 
 morals, Pt. VIIL p. 140 &c.— Jo. Ch, Eck^'^An attempt 
 to explain the history of the N. Test, miracles, from natu- 
 ral causes; (in German,) Berlin 1795. — Geo. Laur, 
 Bauery Hebrew mythology of the Old and New Test, (in 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 163 
 
 Germ.) Lips. 1802-03. II vol. 8 vo.— Would Jesus have 
 miracles and signs, to be considered as proofs of his divine 
 mission ; (German,) in Eckermann' s theol. Contribu- 
 tions, vol. V. P. II. — Did Jesus declare his mil acles, to be 
 a proof of his divine mission ; (German,) by Stoir ; in 
 Flatt's magazine. Pt. IV. 
 
 J. F, C, Grdffe, Philosophical defence of the miracles of 
 Christ and his Apostles ; (Germ.) Gott. 1812. 8vo, 
 
 Muzel, On belief in the miracles stated in theN. Test. (Ger- 
 man,) Elberf. 1815. 8vo. 
 
 Reinhold: in Schuderof's new Journal &c. (German,) vol. 
 II. P. 2. 
 
 Humphrey Diiton, The truth of the christian religion de- 
 monstrated, from the resurrection of Jesus Christ ; Ger- 
 man from the English. Brunsw. 1749. — Gilbert West, 
 Remarks on the resurrection of Jesus ; German from the 
 Engl. Berlin, 1748. — William Sherlock, Trial of the wit- 
 nesses of Christ's resurrection : German from the Eng- 
 lish. Lips. 1751. — G, Less, History of the resurrection 
 of Jesus ; (German,) Gott. 1779. — J. B. Michaelis, Ex- 
 planation of the history of Christ's burial and resurrec- 
 tion ; (in German,) Halle 1783. — The fifth fragment, 
 from G. E. Lessing's fourth Contribution to history and 
 literature ; with notes by J, D. Michaelis; (Germ.) Halle 
 1785. — (J. C. Doederleiii's) Fragments and antifrag- 
 ments ; (German,) new ed. Nurnb. 1788, II vol. — J. 
 Fred. Plessing^s History of the resurrection of Christ, 
 reconsidered; (German,) Halle 1788. 
 
 Anthony Collins, Discourse on the grounds and reasons of 
 the christian religion ; Lond. 1724. — Defence of Christi- 
 anity from the prophecies of the O. Test, by Edicard 
 Chandler ; Lond. 1725. 8vo. — An essay on the truth of 
 the christian religion, wherein its real foundation upon 
 the O. Test, is shown ; by Arthur Ashley Sykes; Lond. 
 17^5. — The use and intent of prophecy, in the several 
 ages of the church ; by Tho. Sherlock; Lond. 1725. 8vo. 
 and German ; by Fr. Eberh. Rambach, Lemgo 1749, 
 8vo. — Eckermann's Theolog. Contributions ; (Germ.) 
 vol. I and II. — G, Fr. Seiler, Prophecy and its fulfilment 5 
 (German,) 1794. 8vo. 
 
164 muenscher's elements 
 
 W. C. L, Ziegler's Conclusion, that the evidence of the 
 truth and divinity of the christian religion, is to be deri- 
 ved rather from the internal excellence of its instructions, 
 than from miracles and prophecies ; (German,) in 
 Henke's Magazine, vol. I. P. I. 
 
 Sec. 175. Views concerning the Holy Scriptures. 
 
 That the holy Scriptures were divine, and contained 
 divine instruction, was admitted unanimously, by all 
 christians. In respect to tlie Canon, the Protestants 
 differed from the Catholics, by discarding as Apocryphal 
 the books of the Old Testament found only in Greek and 
 Latin, which the Council of Trent again adjudged to be 
 canonical. In regard to the Canon of the New Testa- 
 ment, the Protestants followed, for the most part, the old 
 views ; yet some, among whom was Luther, allowed 
 themselves in very free remarks respecting several books 
 accounted canonical. The divine inspiration of the Bi- - 
 ble, was admitted as certain ; and yet the nature of in- | 
 spiration was never determined by the church. Hence 
 the Protestant and Catholic theologians fluctuated be- 
 tween more strict and more lax views, between an inspi- 
 ration of both the words and the matter, and an inspira- 
 tion of the matter only. Yet the former idea was the 
 prevailing one, among the Protestants ; and especially, as 
 it seemed to promise them some advantages in their 
 contests with the Catholics ; — but George Calixtus and 
 others departed from it. On the contrary the Socinians, 
 and likewise the Arminians, limited inspiration to a much 
 narrower compass. Richard Simon, on account of his 
 critical investigations, was considered by most theologi- 
 ans, as hostile to the holy Scriptures ; and yet he did not 
 advance ideas so uncommon, respecting inspiration, as 
 Benedict Spinoza, and one of Simon's opposers, John le 
 Clerc, brought forward. In Holland it was debated, 
 whether the divinity of the holy Scriptures, could be 
 proved from reason alone. 
 
 Notices, Acgidii Hunnil, Tractatus de sacrosancta majes- 
 tate, fide et certitudine Sacr. Script. Francf. 1694. 6vo, 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 165 
 
 — Henr. Bullingeri, de Script, sacrae auctoritate, certi- 
 tudine, firmitate, et absoluta perfectione, Libri II ; Tiguri 
 1538. — Sam. Bockarti, Epislola ad Tapinum, qua Scr. 
 sacr. divinitas demontratur ; — in his 0pp. T. I. p. 923.— 
 Ben. Spinozae, Tractatus theologicus ; Hamb. (Amst.) 
 1670. 4to. — Histoire critique du vieux Testament ; par 
 R. Simon; a Roterod. 1685. Sentimens de quelques 
 theologiens de Hollande sur 1' Histoire critique du vieux 
 Testam. (par J. le Clerc) ; Amst. 1685. 12mo. in Ger- 
 man ; Zurich 1779, il vol. 8vo. — Reponse au livre inti- 
 tule : Sentimens &c. par le Prieur de Bollemlle (R. Si- 
 mon) ; Roterod. 1686. 4to. — Defense des sentimens de 
 quelques theologiens; Amst. 1686. 12mo. — Del' inspi- 
 ration des livres sacres ; par le Prieur de Bolleville ; Ro- 
 terod. 1699. 4to. — Jo. Hen. Mail, Dissertt. IV. de Scrip- 
 tura sacra; Francf. 1708. 4to. 
 
 Sec. 176. Recent views in Germany. 
 In Germany, about the middle of the eighteenth centu- 
 ry, the criticism of the Bible had made considerable ad- 
 vances, when investigations were renewed, respecting its 
 Canon. John Sol, Semler commenced them, and also as- 
 sailed the common ideas of inspiration; by which he 
 would understand, the practical effect of the biblical doc- 
 trines. With more calmness and distinctness, John 
 Gottlieb Toellner endeavored to explain the nature of 
 inspiration, and to establish the different gradations of it. 
 The consequences of these investigations were, that the 
 more recent theologians distinguished, more accurately, 
 the christian doctrine (the word of God) from the Bible ; 
 that they considered the latter, not so much as one entire 
 revealed record, as a collection of writings, in which 
 every man must perceive the peculiar characteristics and 
 modes of thinking of the respective writers ; that they 
 endeavored, by means of the higher criticism, to ascer- 
 tain the origin and compilation of the scriptures ; and 
 that they considered them, as containing (fxu^ou^) fic- 
 tions or allegories. The most recent theology, on the 
 part of Semler and Steinhart, seems visibly inclined, to 
 undervalue the Old Testament; and likewise to feel, 
 15* 
 
166 muenscher's elements 
 
 that the application of the higher criticism, unless guided 
 by fixed principles, will easily degenerate into a capri- 
 cious play with mere possibilities. 
 
 Notices. Jo. Sol. Semler, Treatise on a freer investigation 
 of the Canon; (in German,) Halle 1771-75. IV vol. 
 8vo. — Chr. Fred. Schmidii, Historia antiqua et vindica- 
 tio canonis Vet. et Nov. Test. Lips. 1775. 8vo. — Ac- 
 count of the latest controversies respecting the Canon ;— +- 
 in the most recent history of religion ; (in German,) pub- 
 lished by CL Fr. W. Walch; vol. VII. p. 241-344.— 
 The divine inspiration of the holy Scripture ; (in Ger- 
 man,) by Jo. Gottl. loellner; Mietau and Lips. 1772. — 
 Jo. KiddeVs Treatise on the inspiration of the holy Scr. 
 with many free remarks added hy Jo. S. Semler ; Halle 
 1783. — The VVolfenbuttle Fragments, and the controver- 
 sy respecting them, between Lessing and J. M. Goetze; 
 (in German). — J. Jac, Grieshacli,) Stricturarum in lo- 
 cum de theopneustia libror. sacrorum. Partes I — V ; 
 Jenae 1784-88, Henr. Gottl. Paulus, An primitivi 
 christian! inspirationem quam vocant et infallibilitatem 
 pro synonymis habere soliti sint ; Jenae 1802. rec. in J. 
 D. Pott, Sylloge commentatt. theol. vol. HI.— (?. F. N. 
 Sonntagy Doctrina inspirationis, ej usque ratio, historia, et 
 usus popularis ; Heidelb. 18lO. 8vo. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 BIVERSE VIEWS AND EXPLANATIONS OF THE CHRISTIAN 
 DOCTRINES. 
 
 Sec. 177. Various first principles of Christianity. 
 
 The representation given of the christian doctrine, 
 must necessarily be very different, according to the 
 sources from which men derive it, and the manner in 
 which they deduce it. The protestant churches set up 
 the rule, diat the substance of Christianity must be learn- 
 ed, directly from the holy scripture. In opposition to 
 
or DOGMATIC HISTORY. 167 
 
 the Catholics, they therefore rejected the use of tradition, 
 as a guide in explaining the bible, and as one of the pro- 
 per sources of religious knowledge ; and they urged, 
 that the perusal of the bible, should be left free to all 
 christians, without distinction. They moreover rejected 
 the opinion, of certain sects and persons called fanatics, 
 that men must be guided by an internal light, in order to 
 have a knowledge of religion, and a right understanding 
 of the bible. And lastly, they rejected the principle of 
 the Socinians, that the doctrines of Christianity must be 
 admitted always, in the sense, in which reason can com- 
 prehend them ; and that, therefore, no real mystery can 
 have place in it. The modern theology of the rational- 
 ists, holds to the principle, that the christian doctrine is 
 to be derived from the bible ; but it recognizes in Christ- 
 ianity, nothing but natural religion ; and reconciles the 
 contradictions of these two principles, by adopting moral 
 interpretations of the bible, after the manner of Kant ; or 
 by applying the theory of doctrinal accommodation to 
 the christian instructions ; or lastly, by recurrence to the 
 idea, that Christianity is a perfectable religion. 
 
 Notices. Des traditions et de la perfection de V ecriture 
 sainte; par Pierre du Moulin; a Sedan 1631. 8vo. — 
 Ch Matth. Pfaffii, Diss, de traditionum non scriptanmi 
 speciebus, vaiore, certitudine ; Tub. 1720. 4to. — PhiL 
 Marheineke, On the true sense of Tradition, in the Cath- 
 olic theology ; (German,) in Daub and Creuzer^s Studi- 
 en, vol. IV. P. II. p. 320 ^Lc—Ejusd. System of the 
 Catholic religion ; (in German,) vol. II. p. 184 &c. es- 
 pecially p. 199 &c. — Gust. Ge. Zeltneri, Breviarium 
 controversiarum cum enthusiastis et fanaticis adhuc 2l%\- 
 tatarum ; Lips. 1724. 8vo. — Jo. Musaei, de usu princi- 
 piorum rationis et philosophiae in controversiis theologi- 
 cis; Jen. 1644. 8vo. — On reason and its use ; (German,) 
 in (Junge's) Philos. undtheologischen Aufsatzen ; Numb, 
 und Altd. 1779. P. I. p. 1-72.— Observationes ad mo- 
 ralem sive practicam librorum sacror. interpretationem 
 pertinentes ; scripsit (pikcikrihYig Epi^aivwv (C/e. W. He- 
 hensfreit,) Lips. 1796. 8vo. — Paul von Hemert, On ac- 
 
168 muenschkr's elements 
 
 commodationsin the New Test. German from the Dutch ; 
 Dortm. and Lips. 1797. — W. A, Tellers Religion of 
 the more advanced ; (in German,) Berl. 1792. — \Krug) 
 Letters on the perfectibility of revealed religion ; (in 
 German,) Jena 1795. 8vo. — Programma paschale : Ex- 
 ponuntur quaedam de fundamento theologiae recentioris, 
 ejusque cum doctrina Christiana consensu ; P. L Gott. 
 1812. 4to. 
 
 Sec, 178. Opinions concerning the importance of reli- 
 gious doctrines. 
 
 The violent ferment of feeling, which existed among 
 the theologians of the sixteenth century, led each sect to 
 attach the highest importance to the doctrinal principles 
 it maintained. The Council of Trent laid all dissentients 
 under an anathema ; and the authors of the Formula of 
 Concord, and the theologians of Dort, did not hesitate to 
 condemn their opposers. The discrimination of funda- 
 mental doctrines (articuli fundamentales), was developed, 
 in the controversy between the Lutherans and the Re- 
 formed churches, and also in those between the Remon- 
 strants and the Contra-remonstrants : the number of such 
 doctrines was greatly enlarged, and the reception of them 
 considered necessary to salvation. Those who enter- 
 tained more moderate views, — as the Arminians, George 
 Calixius, and various English divines, were denominated 
 Indifferentists, Syncretists, and Latitudinarians, The 
 later modifications of theology, have been accompanied 
 with milder decisions, respecting the pagans, and those 
 of a different belief. To the differences between the two 
 Protestant confessions, less and less importance has been 
 attached ; the idea of fundamental articles has been re- 
 viewed, and modified variously, and the number of such 
 articles greatly diminished. The close adherence to the 
 symbolical books, which was once required from every 
 protestant divine, was first softened by Spener, and since 
 the middle of the eighteenth century, has been visibly on 
 the decline. The obligatory nature of these writings, 
 was disputed by Germanus Liidke, Busching and others y 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 169 
 
 and subsequently, the religious edict of the Prusian 
 government, A. D. 1788, brought this subject under 
 warm discussion. Previously to this, many of the Eng- 
 lish divines had written against the xxxix Articles. 
 
 Notices, Nicol. Hunnii, dia(fxt-^ig theologica, de funda- 
 mental! dissensu doctrinae Lutheranae et Calvinianae ; 
 Wittemb. 1626. ed. 2. 1663.— C/t. Mat. Pfaffii, Diss, de 
 fidei christianae articulis fundamentalibus ejusque analo- 
 gia; Tub. 1718. 4to. — J. A, Eberhard, New apology of 
 Socrates; (in German,) ed. 2. Berlin 1778. II vol. 8vo. 
 -—W, Ft. Hvfnagel, Programm. de vera articulorum 
 fidei finitione; Erlang. 1783. 4to. — J, W, Schmid, On 
 the christian religion ; (German,) Jena 1797. p. 127 
 &z,c, — Ckr. G. Kujjfer, Diss, de ratione constituendi ar- 
 ticulos fundamentales religionis christianae ; Viteb. 1802. 
 4to. 
 
 Account of the commotions and contests respecting the 
 symbolical books, in Germany ; (German,) in Walch's 
 Latest history of religion, vol. II. p. 305-382. — Account 
 of the commotions in England ; (in German,) Ibid. vol. 
 III. p. 405-302. Vol. IV. p, 491-572.— Examination of 
 all the writings occasioned by the royal Prusian edict 
 concerning religion ; (in German,) by Henr, 'Phil. 
 Henke; Kiel 1793. 8vo. 
 
 Sec. 179. Doctrine of the Trinity. 
 The reformers declared themselves disposed, in no 
 respect whatever, to depart from the views of the Trinity, 
 laid down in the ancient Creeds; and they instituted no 
 new investigations of this doctrine, because they had no 
 contests about it with the Catholics. But when opposers 
 of this doctrine rose up, the Protestants supposed, they 
 should secure themselves against suspicion of being con- 
 nected with these opposers, by expressing the strongest 
 abhorrence of them. The execution of Miguel Servcdo 
 (Michael Servetus) by Calvin^s instigation, which Me- 
 tanchthon also approved, is proof, to what a fearful height 
 this hostility had risen. The new sect of Unitarians, set 
 up by Famto Sozzino (Faustus Socinus), was assailed 
 
170 muenscher's elements 
 
 by both Protestants and Catholics ; because it recognized 
 only one God, the Father ; and accounted Christ a mere 
 man, though endowed with extraordinary abilities, and 
 constituted the Governor of the world; and held the 
 Holy Ghost, to be a mere attribute, or operation of God. 
 George Calixtus was accused of favoring the Socinians ; 
 because he denied, that the doctrine of the Trinity could 
 be proved from the Old Testament, and that it was a 
 doctrine known to the ancient Jews. After the Socini- 
 ans were driven from Poland, and had dispersed them- 
 selves in England and Holland, deviations from the com- 
 mon faith on this doctrine, became more frequent. 
 Samuel Crell followed the views of the Socinians, re- 
 specting the Trinity. William Whist on revived Arian- 
 ism ; which he supposed he could prove, both from the 
 bible, and from history. Samuel Clarke searched for a 
 middle way, between the Arian and the received doc- 
 trine : but his system of subordination, dexterous as he 
 was to defend it, gave satisfaction to neither party. 
 Souverain pronounced the whole doctrine of the Trinity, 
 to be a corruption of Christianity, derived from the Pla- 
 tonic philosophy. Against these and other opposers of 
 the Trinity, arguments were employed, which were de- 
 rived from the Bible, from philosophy, and from history ; 
 and in the controversy, some who attempted to explain 
 the Trinity, fell under the suspicion, either of Tritheism, 
 as William Sherlock; or of Sabellianism, as Hermann 
 Deusing^ John Wallis, and John le Clerc ; though the 
 last of these, afterwards, inclined towards Socinianism. 
 The peculiar views of Paul Maty, excited more atten- 
 tion than they merited. During these various contro- 
 versies, several English divines began to attach less im- 
 portance to this doctrine, — in which, they were preceded 
 by the Remonstrants; and the Genevan theologians 
 were loudly accused, for having abandoned the Creed 
 once so strenuously defended by John Calvin. 
 
 Notices. Mich, Serveti) De Trinitatis erroribus, Libri 
 VII; X531. 8yo. — Ejusd, Dialogorum de Trinitate Li- 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 171 
 
 bh II; 1532. 8vo. — Ejusd. Christianismi restitutio; 
 1553. 8vo. — Socius, and other works, in the Bibliotheca 
 Fratr. Polonor. — Geo, Calixti Diss, de rnysterio Trinita- 
 tis ; an ex solius Vet. Test, libris demonstrari queat ; 
 Helmst. 1646. — Will, Whiston's Primitive christianty 
 revived ; Lond. 1711, 12. V vol. 8vo. — Sam. Clarke/The 
 scripture doctrine of the Trinity; Lond. 1712. in Ger- 
 man, with a preface, by J, S. Sender ; Francf. and Lips. 
 1776. Bvo. — {Dan, Waterland's Vindication of Christ's 
 divinity; Cambr. 1719. 8vo.) — Hermanni Deusingii, 
 Revelatio mystcrii sacrosanctae Tiiados ; Franeq. 1701. 
 4to. — Will, Sherlock, Vindication of the doctrine of the 
 holy Trinity ; Lond. 1690. 4tof — Jo, Wallis^ Epistolae 
 et Orationes sacrae de Trinitate ; — Liberii de S, Amore 
 {le Clerc), Epistolae Theologicae ; Irenop. 1679. 8vo. — 
 Hiptoria critica novae explicationis dogmatis de tribus in 
 Deo personis, quam vir clariss. Paulus Maty excogita- 
 vit, (SLc. in J . L. Mosheim's Dissertt. ad hist, eccles. per- 
 tinent ; vol.11, p. 399 &c. 
 
 Sec. 180. Views of the modern German divines. 
 Various theologians, who followed the principles of the 
 Wolfian philosophy, attempted to denionstrate the doc- 
 . trine of the Trinity, or at least to make it conceivable to 
 reason ; but they did not escape the charge of approxi^ 
 mating to Sabellianism. From the time that Christ, 
 Toh. Damm openly maintained the Socinian views, in 
 opposition to the doctrine of the church, a great diversity 
 in opinion showed itself. /. B. Basedow defended the 
 Arian doctrine ; but afterwards he went over to the So- 
 cinians. Some respectable theologians, as G, Schlegel 
 and Loeffler, gave the preference to the modal concep- 
 tion of it. The new theories of Urlsperger and Bucerus, 
 met with no approbation. Although the prize question 
 by the King of England, respecting the divinity of Christ, 
 led to no decision of the subject ; yet the doctrine of the 
 church, has not been without learned defenders, as Ge. 
 Fr. Seiler, and J. JP. Flatt. Amidst all the dissimilarity 
 of opinion on this subject, the modern theologians seem 
 to have become agreed, after the example of Toellmr^ 
 
172 muenscher's elements 
 
 in ascribing to no one of the different theories, so high im- 
 portance, as was formerly ascribed to them. 
 
 Notices. G. SchlegcVs Renewed consideration of the doc- 
 trine of the Trinity ; (in German,) Riga 1791-93. Ill 
 vol. — Ejusd, Sin)plified exhibition of the doctrine of the 
 Father, Jesus the Son of God, and the Holy Spirit ; (in 
 German,) Berlin and Stralsund 1796. — Christology, or 
 Results of the latest exegetical explanations concerning 
 the divmity of Christ ; (in German,) by Fred. Euchar. 
 Oertel ; 1792. — (Contrit)utions for answering the ques- 
 tion, Wiiether fiith in Christ as the supreme God, accords 
 with scripture ? in sonle remarks on Oertel's Christology; 
 (^hy Roth; in German;) 1793.) — Joh. Aug. Vrlsper- 
 ger's Concise system of his statement of the Trinity ; (in 
 German.) Augsb. 1777. — The mystery of the Trinity in 
 its dangerous situation. A new idea of the Trinity ; (in 
 Germ.) by Christ. Fred. Bucerus ; Lips. 1792. — J. S, 
 Seinlers Preparation for tlie royal Briltish prize question, 
 respecting the divinity of Christ; (in German.) Halle 
 1787. Ovo. — G. F. Seiler, On the divinity of Christ ; (in 
 German,) Lips. 177o. 8vo. — J. Fr. Flatt, Commenta- 
 tio, in qua symbolica ecclesiae nostiae de deitate Christi 
 sententia probatur et vindicatur ; Getting. 1788. 8vo. — 
 Besenheck, On the trinity of God; an attempt to bring 
 this doctrine back to its biblical simplicity and purity ; (in 
 German,) 1814. 8vo. — Is the doctrine of the Trinity a 
 fundamental doctrine of the christian faith / (in German,) 
 in J. G. Toelhier's Short miscellaneous papers ; vol. 11. 
 P. L 
 
 Sec. 181. Djictrine of c^^eation. 
 
 Besides the old question, whether the existence of the 
 world from eternity, or its creation in time, was to be ad- 
 mitted ; the account contained in the first chapters of the 
 book of Genesis, called forth new investigations. Ac- 
 cording to Astruc's example, divines began to consider the 
 book of Genesis, as a compilation from the productions 
 of several writers of an earlier age ; and also to indulge 
 freer opinions respecting it. At first, attempts were made 
 to defend the account, as being, at least in part, true his- 
 
OF BOGMAtlC HISTORY. 173 
 
 tory ; next, the allegorical, and at last the mythic inter- 
 pretation, gained tiie ascendency. That from the Mo- 
 saic account, it is impossible to gather the age of this earth, 
 and much more that of the created universe, was admit- 
 ted almost universally. Yet John de Luc, finding this ac- 
 count to agree with the results of the deepest researches 
 into nature, would infer that, it must have been commu- 
 nicated in a revelation from God. 
 
 Notices. Critique on the doctrine of creation in the received 
 theology ; (in German,) by TF. C. L. Ziegler; in Henke's 
 Magazine, Vol. II. P. I. and Vol. VI. P. ll. {Astruc,) 
 Conjectures sur les memoires originaiix, dont il paroit, 
 que Moise s^est servi pour composer le livre de Genese : 
 a Bruxelles 1753. 8vo.; and German; Francf. 1783. 
 J. G' RosenmullerU Antiquissima telluris historia ; Ulm 
 1776 ; and in German, with enlargements ; Niirnb. 1782, 
 J. G; Herder^ s Most ancient records of the human race ; 
 (in German,) vol. I. 1790. Gahler's New essay on the 
 Mosaic history of the creation ; (in German,) 1795. The 
 most ancient Theodicee, or Explanation of the three first 
 chapters of (jenesis; (in German,) by W. A. Teller \ 
 Jena 1803. Joh, Esai\ Silberscldag, Geogony ; (in 
 German,) Berlin 1780-83. Ill vol. 4to. J. deLuCfhet" 
 tres physiques et morales sur Thistoire de la terre et de 
 I'homme ; a la Have 1779.11vol. Lettre aux auteurs 
 Juifs d'un memoire addresse a M. Teller ; par J. de Luc; 
 Berlin 1799. Moses and David no geologists; (in Ger- 
 man,) by Dav. Jul. Pott; Berl. 1799. 
 
 Sec. 182. Doctrine concerning Angels. 
 The Protestants rejected the long prevalent opinion^ 
 introduced by the pseudo-DIonysius, of a celestial hierar- 
 chy, and of a guardian angel assigned to every man ; but 
 especiallyj the worshipping of angels. The earlier the- 
 ology often went into inquiries, whether the angels have 
 bodies, when they were created, and how they became 
 confirmed in goodness by the Deity. The modern the- 
 ology, on the contrary, leaves the existence of angels pro- 
 blematical ; and gives other interpretations to the biblical 
 
 16 
 
174 muenscher's elements 
 
 narrations of the appearance of angels. The belief in 
 evil angels, and in their powerful influences, was long 
 common with Protestants and Catholics ; till Balihasar 
 Becker, though amidst great contradiction, denied the in- 
 fluence of evil spirits upon mankind, and Christian Tho- 
 masius disproved the reality of magic. Following in the 
 steps of the Englishmen Arthur Ashly Sykes and Hugh 
 Farmer, J. S. Semler was the first in Germany, who de- 
 clared the demoniacs of the New^ Testament, to be per- 
 sons laboring under natural disease. In the controversy 
 that ensued, most of the divines inclined to the idea, that 
 the whole doctrine concerning the devil, was merely an 
 accommodation, derived from Judaism. 
 
 Notices, Ciitique on the doctrine of anorels ; (in German,) 
 in Henkes Magazine, vol. III. P. II. vol. Vi. P. I. Com- 
 pare the New Mairazine, vol. I. P. III. Balfh. Becker, 
 The world bewitched ; (in Dutch,) Leuw. 1690. Anist. 
 1693. 4to. (in German,) by J. M. Schwager ; Lips. 1781. 
 Ill vol. 8vo. Hugh Farmer^ Essay on the demoniacs ; 
 (German, from the English,) Berlin 1776. J. S. Semler, 
 j)iss. de dacmoniacis, quorum in evanireliis fit mentio ; 
 Halle 1760. 4to. ed. 4. 1779. {G.MdUer's Well ground- 
 ed narrative of a woman possessed ; (in German) Wit- 
 lenb. 1759.) Account of John Joseph Gasncr's league 
 with the devil, and the movements, thence occasoned ; 
 (in German,") in Watches Most recent history of religion ; 
 vol. VI. p. 369 iS^c. 
 
 Sec. 183. Of the person of Christ. 
 In regard to the doctrine concerning the person of 
 Christ, the Catholics, Lutherans, and Reformed, all re- 
 mained true to the ancient belief, as defined by the de- 
 crees of Councils ; but the Socinians, in consequence of 
 their ideas of the Trinity, wholly rejected it. The two 
 Protestant churches fell into a warm contest, respecting 
 the connexion of the two natures of Christ. In order to 
 vindicate his views of the Lord's Supper, Luther threw 
 out the idea, that the body of Christ, in consequence of 
 its umon with the divine nature, could be omnipresent 
 
 I 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 176 
 
 Whether he was led to this conclusion, by some asser- 
 tions of a sinnilar nature, made by John Charlier Gerson 
 and James le Fevre d'^ Staples, is uncertain. This hypo- 
 thesis, which Luther himself seems afterwards to have 
 given up, was eagerly laid hold of by some of his 
 zealous followers, and by John Brentius was prescribed 
 to the Wiirtemburg church. The communication of 
 divine properties to the human nature of Christ, not- 
 withstanding the opposition of the Reformed and of 
 Melanchthon's school, was made an article of faith, by 
 the Formula of Concord. And in later times, there 
 has not ceased to be opposition to the doctrine, disa- 
 greement in the explanation of it, and contests about 
 its application. In more recent times, contention on 
 this subject has subsided ; and the collective decisions 
 of the church, concerning the person of Christ, have 
 been treated rather historically, than dogmatically. 
 
 Notices, Planck, History of the Protestant theology ; 
 (in German,) A catalogue of the writinors, in Pfaff''» 
 Historia Literar. T. II. p. 412 &c. 441-— 43. 
 
 Sec. 184. Doctrine concerning the first men. 
 
 On all the doctrines relating to the nature of man, 
 sin, grace, redemption, and the divine decrees, the 
 first reformers aimed to restore the pure tenets of Au- 
 gustine ; and to divest them of the adulterations and 
 modifications, introduced by the Schoolmen. The Pro- 
 testants therefore believed, that God created man af- 
 ter his own image, which consisted in original right- 
 eousness ; but that this image was utterly lost, by the 
 fall. The Socinians, on the contrary, placed the im- 
 age of God, in dominion over the creatures ; and main- 
 tained, the continuance of it after the apostasy. Of 
 late, the high ideas heretofore prevailing, respecting the 
 perfection of the first human iDcings, have been great- 
 ly lowered ; and the Mosaic account of the creation, 
 and of the transgression of the first men, has been re- 
 
176 
 
 garded, as either partially or wholly a fignrative repre- 
 sentation, or as being an ancient fable or fiction. 
 
 Notices, Fred, TJlr. Calixti^ Tiactatus theolog. de vario 
 hominis statu. Helmst. 1695. 4to. (/s. Peyrerii, Prae- 
 adamitae ; 1655. 8vo.) Fausti Socini, Disput, de statu 
 primi hominis ante lapsum ; Racov. 1609. 4to. and in 
 the Biblioth. fratr. Polon. On the perfection of the first 
 men ; (German,) in (Junge's) Philosoph. and Theolog. 
 papers, vol. 1. p. 207. On the propagation of the divine 
 image, and on the apostasy, and its consequences; (in 
 German,) J hid vol. II. p. 1 and 153. Eichhorn's History 
 of the creation ; (in German,) published by J, PA. Gab- 
 Ur, II vol. 8vo. 1792-93. (Hadriani Beverland, Pecca- 
 tum originale xar' s^op^iiv sic dictum ; Eleutherop. 1678. 
 8vo. Eden : that is, Contemplations on Paradise, and 
 the events that transpired there ; (m German,) with a 
 preface, by C. F. Bahrdt ; Francf. 1772. 8vo. 
 
 J. Kant, Supposed commencement of the history of man : 
 (German ;) in the Berlin Monthly Journal, vol. VII. 
 P. I. 
 
 The allegorical exposition of the three first chapters of Ge- 
 nesis, and particularly of the apostasy, represented in their 
 falsehood ; (in German,) by J. Balth Ldderwald; Helmst. 
 1781. 
 
 /. G, Rosenmiluller, Explanation of the history of the apos- 
 tasy; (German,) in the Repertory for biblical and orient, 
 literature; vol. V. p. 158 &-c. 
 
 The most ancient Theodicc^e ; or explanation of the three 
 first chapters of the Ante-Mosaic history; (in German,) 
 by W. A. Teller; Jena 1805. 8vo. 
 
 Sec. 185. Hereditary sin. 
 The doctrine of the Protestant churches respecting he-, 
 reditary sin, was as strong, as Augustine ever advanced; 
 for, the milder statements of Zwingle, were not regarded. 
 It did not indeed deprive men avowedly of liberty ; but 
 it made them absolutely unfitted to perform any thing 
 morally good, and deserving of damnation. It was de- 
 cided, however, in the Formula of Concord, in opposi-* 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 177 
 
 tion to Matthias Flacius, that hereditary sin is not a part 
 of the substance of man. The Council of Trent, on ac- 
 count of the prevailing differences in the bosom of the Catho- 
 lic church, did not venture to establish a definition of he- 
 reditary sin ; so that dillerent explanations of it, continued 
 to be given ; for the Dominicans and Augustinians held 
 more closely with Augustine and Thomas Aquinas, while 
 the Franciscans and Jesuits departed farther from them. 
 The Socinians rejected hereditary sin, altogether : and 
 the Arminians would not allow of a connate desert of 
 punishment, and an unfitness for what is good. Attempts 
 were made, in the Protestant churches, to render the im- 
 putation of Adam's sin more comprehensible. Joshua 
 de la Place rejected the immediate imputation of it 5 but 
 his idea was not embraced, by his own church, or that of 
 Switzerland. At last, several voices were raised in Eng- 
 land, against hereditary sin ; as those of John Locke^ 
 Thomas Burnet, and John Taylor, Daniel Whitby 
 would derive the universal prevalence of sin, from man's 
 mortality ; which Adam's transgression had brought 
 upon all his posterity. In Germany, the foundation for 
 a change of sentiments, was laid by the Leibnitzian- 
 Wolfian philosophy ; and subsequently, Toellner and 
 Eberhard directly assailed the doctrine of hereditary 
 sin, and its imputation : and notwithstanding Seiler, and 
 others, advocated the other side ; it became more and 
 more common, to trace the sinfulness of mankind, not 
 from the apostasy of Adam, but as Jerusalem does, 
 from the influence of the senses. Even those theolo- 
 gians, who, like Reinhard and Storr, continue to main-^ 
 tain the existence of hereditary sin, have abandoned 
 the old doctrine of the church, in some very impor- 
 tant particulars. The Kantean hypothesis, of a radi- 
 cal evil in human nature, continued no longer, than the 
 charm of its novelty endured : yet it has contributed 
 to establish the principle, that every sin originates from 
 a man's own fault. 
 
 Notices. Jos, Placaeir Theses de statu hominis lapsi ante 
 
 16* 
 
178 
 
 gratiam; Salm. 1640. Ejusd. Disp. de imputatione 
 primi peccati Adami ; 1655. Dan. Whithhy, Tracta- 
 lus de imputatione divina pecati Adaini posteris ejus 
 in reatum ; Lond. 1711. and revised by J. S. Sem- 
 ler; Plalae 1775. 8vo. . John Taijlor, The Scriptural 
 doctrine of original sin ; in German, from the 3d Eng. 
 ed. Francf and Lips. 1769. J. G. Tocllner, On he- 
 reditary sin, and the jroodness of human nature ; (in 
 German.) in his Theological Inquiries, Vol. I. P. II. 
 Judas Iscariot, oi Evil considered in its connexion 
 with Good; (in German,) by C. Davh ; Heidelb. 18l6 
 -18. 8vo. P. I. and P. II. sec. 1 and 2. 
 
 Sec. 186. Grace and predestination. 
 On the doctrine concerning grace, Luther followed 
 the views of Augustine, in all their extent ; and he de- 
 fended them, with great earnestness, against Erasmus, 
 Melanchthon, at first, expressed similar sentiments ; but 
 he gradually drew back, and would not exclude the per- 
 sonal activity of men. This change in Melanchthon, 
 seems to have reacted upon Luther, who at last, did not 
 disapprove of the idea of his friend ; and in his later 
 writings, he speaks of universal grace. The theory of 
 Melanchthon, (that of co-operation,) when advanced by 
 Victorinus Strigel, at Jena, was violently assailed by Mat- 
 thias Flacius, and his coadjutors. In the mean time, 
 John Calvin, though not without strong opposition, had 
 introduced into the Genevan church, the doctrines of un- 
 conditional decrees, and of special grace; which were 
 either discarded, or esteemed unimportant, by the first 
 Swiss reformers; and he was able to gain over the other 
 Swiss divines, to these doctrines. Between one of his 
 adherents, Jerome Zanchius, and John Marhach, a Lu- 
 theran divine of Strasburg, a contest ensued, on this sub- 
 ject ; but it was soon dropped. The Formula of Con- 
 cord excluded the personal activity of man, in his conver- 
 sion, and rejected the doctrine of co-operation. But, as 
 the authors of this creed, maintained the universality of 
 divine grace, and disapproved of unconditional decrees, 
 tbey found themselves under an embarrassment ;. frona. 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 179 
 
 which they knew not how to free themselves, though 
 
 they understood how to conceal it. 
 
 Notices. ^Des. Erasmiy Diatribe de lihero aibitrio ; s. Col- 
 latio cum M. Luthero; Basil. 1624. — Mart. Lutheri^ de 
 jservo arbitrio Liber, contra Erasmum ; Vitenb. 1525. 
 (cum annotatt. editus a Seh, Schmidio ; ed. 2. cum prae- 
 fatione a pologet. Jo. Joar/i. Zentgravii ; Aigentor. 1707. 
 4to.) — Erasmh Hyperaspislcs, diatribe adv. Servum ar- 
 bitr. Lutheri ; Bas. 1626,— On the doctrinal views of the 
 first Reformed divines ; (German,) in J. Conr. FiissliiCs 
 Preface to the 3d and 4th volumes of his Contributions 
 to the history of the Swiss churches and their reforma- 
 tion. — Consensus pastorum ecclesiae Genevensis de 
 aeterna Dei praedestinatione ; in Calvini 0pp. T.VII. p.. 
 683. 
 
 Sec. 187. Continuation, 
 
 In the conference of Montbelliard A. D. 1586, the 
 doctrine of election was brought under warm discussion^ 
 between James Andrea and Theodore Beza; and the 
 contest with Samuel Huber, completed the separation 
 between the Calvinists and the Lutherans. During 
 these contests, the Lutheran divines discovered, and 
 Aegidius Hunnius explained, a way to reconcile the 
 total unfitness of man for what is good, and the sole effi- 
 ciency of divine grace, with the rejection of unconditional 
 decrees : and this was, to assume that, men can resist 
 preventing grace. In the mean time, warm contests had 
 arisen among the Reformed, especially in the Nether- 
 lands. The Arminians would not allow the Calvinistic 
 theory, of unconditional election, special grace, irresista- 
 ble influences of grace, and of saint's perseverance, to be 
 urged upon the whole church. But the erudition of Si- 
 mon Episcopius, and the unwearied activity of John 
 Wytenbogart, had to succumb to the power of the oppo- 
 site party, who were supported by the civil authorities; 
 and the national Synod of Dort, solemnly established 
 those Calvinistic doctrines. 
 Notices, Acta colloquii Montisbelligartensis ; Tub. 1687., 
 
 4to. — Thodori jPe^sfle, Responsio ad Acta col. Mont. Ge- 
 
180 muenscher's elements 
 
 nevae 1587. 4to. — Epitome colloquii Montisbell. Tub. 
 1588. 4to. — Aegidii Hannii, Tractatus de provideritia 
 Dei, et aeterna praedestinatione; Francf. 1597. 8vo. — 
 Acta synodi Dordrechli Iiabitae ; Ilanov. 1620. 4to. — 
 Acta et scripta synodalia Dordracena ministroiuin Re- 
 monstrant. Harderv, (1620.) 4to. 
 
 Sec. 188. Further disagreement in the Reformed 
 churches respecting these doctrines. 
 
 Notwithstanding the decisions at Dort, diversity of 
 opinions continued. Those decisions approved the sen- 
 timents of the Infralapsarians ; and also, did not reject 
 those of the Supralapsarians. The Brandenburg di- 
 vines acknowledged the universality of grace. And in 
 France^ likewise, a hypothetical universality was held 
 forth, by John Cameron and Moses Amyraud; approved, 
 by the French synods at Alen^on A. D. 1637, and 
 Charenton A. D. 1645; warmly contested, by Andrew 
 Rivet and others; and defended, hy John Daille and 
 David Blondel. The Dutch theologians looked upon 
 tills opinion, as very suspicious ; and the Swiss divines 
 endeavored, to guard against it, by the Formula Consen- 
 sus. In England, the Episcopal church, more and more, 
 went over to the doctrine of universal grace ; and even 
 tlie Swiss, after the time of Alphonsus Turretin, began 
 either to abandon the old particularism, or to consider 
 the whole subject of the controversy, as unimportant. In 
 Germany, Lange and Waldschmidt exchanged the last 
 controversial pieces, on this subject; and even Samuel 
 Endemann, strongly as he once held to the doctrinal 
 views of his church, did not hesitate, to reject the doc- 
 trine of unconditional decrees, with most of its depend- 
 ant doctrines. (The very recent attempts at union of the 
 Lutherans and Reformed in Germany, have occasioned 
 a renewed examination of these doctrines, by the holy 
 Scriptures.) 
 
 Jfotices, Jo. CameroniSy Defensio de gratia et libero arbi- 
 trio ; Salmur. 1624. 8vo. — Traite de la predestination et 
 4e ses principalis dependances ; i^nv Moyse Amyraud; 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. ISI 
 
 Salm. 1634. 8vo. — jPretZ. »Sp.aw/?6imM, de gratia uni versa- 
 li Disputatio ; Lugd. 1644. — Andreae Riveti, Synopsis 
 doctrinae Mosis Amyraldi et Paulli Testardi de nalura et 
 gratia, cum Riveti considerationibus et judiciis academi- 
 arum foederati Belgii : — in Riveti 0pp. T. III. p. 828. — 
 Jo. Dallaei, Apologia pro duabus ecclesiarum in Gallia 
 protestantium synodis nationalibus ; Amst. 1655. 8vo. — 
 Ejusd, Vindiciae Apologiae ; Amst. 1657. 8vo. — Sam^ 
 Strimesii, Charitologia sacra, seu Systema gratiae divinae, 
 id est, conciliationis gratiae Dei universalis et particula- 
 rs tentamen ; Francf. ad Viadr. 1712. 4to. — La souve- 
 raine perfection de Dieu et la parfaite integrite de 1' ecri- 
 ture prise au sens des anciens Reformes, defendue par 
 Gabriel Naud^ ; Amst. 1708. U \o\. S\o.—StepL Viti, 
 Apologia, qua synodus Dordracena et reformata fides ab 
 iniquis criminationibus — vindicator; Cass. 1726. 8vo. — - 
 JoacJi. Lange, Evangelical doctrine of universal grace ; 
 (in German,) Halle 1722. 8vo. — Ejusd. Firm ground of 
 the Evangelical doctrine of the universal grace of God ;^ 
 (in German,) Halle 1735. 8vo. — Joh.Jac. Waldschmidty, 
 Saving grace of God, with rejection of the universal grace 
 of God, shewn from the holy Script, (in German,) Mar-, 
 purg 1735. 8vo. 
 
 W, F. Rink, Contribution to an investigation of the Luther- 
 an and Reformed doctrines concerning the holy Eucha-. 
 rist and Election, according to the word of God ; with a 
 view to a union of the Protestant churches in one Evan-, 
 gelical christian church; (in German,) Heidelb. 1818. 
 8vo. — Jo. SchulthesSy Evangelical doctrine concerning 
 the free election of grace : a Contribution to the union of 
 the Evangelical churches ; (in German,) Zurich. 1818. 
 8vo. 
 
 Sec. 189. History of these doctrines in the Catholic 
 churchy 
 
 Writers. Memoires pour servir a 1' histoire descontrover- 
 ses nees dans TEglise Romaine sur la predestination et 
 sur la grace depuis le concile de Trent ; — dans la Bib- 
 liotheque universelle et historique (par ./. le Clerc,) 
 Tome XIV. p. 144-398. — Bajana, seu scripta quae con- 
 troversias spectant occasione sententiarum Baji exortas ;; 
 ^n ^q;i Operibus. Col, 1696, 4tp.— Historia Congre.-i^ 
 
182 
 
 gationnm de auxiliis jjratiae divinae Libri IV ; authore J. 
 Hyac, Serry ; Amst. 1709. Fol — Historiae controversi- 
 arum de divina gratia ; — authore Theodoro Eleutherio ; 
 (Levino de Meyer,) Libri 111; Antw. 1705. Fol. — 
 Ejusd. Historiae — ab objectionibus Hyac. Serry vindi- 
 catae. Lib. Ill; Brux. 1715. Fol — Histoire gi^neraledu 
 Jansenisme ; (par Gabr. Gerberon), a Amst. 1700. 8vo. 
 
 The movements in the Catholic church, respecting 
 the doctrines of grace and the divine decrees, were no 
 less considerable. The Dominicans and Franciscans 
 retained their different opinions, and continued to contend 
 for them, with the zeal which the reputation of their re- 
 spective orders called forth. To avoid offending either 
 of these orders, the decisions of the Council of Trent 
 were shaped so equivocally, that each party explained 
 them in its own favor. But the conflict became much 
 warmer, when the Jesuits entered into it, and endeavored 
 wholly to suppress pure Augustanism. It had operated 
 to impair their popularity, that they had procured the 
 Papal condemnation of the tenets of Michael Bajus. But 
 when the Jesuit, Ludovicus Molina, came forward with a 
 new essay for reconciling divine grace and election, the 
 Augustinians and Dominicans stormed the Papal chair, 
 with complaints against the Jesuits, as corrupters of the 
 true doctrines of the church. The investigations institu- 
 ted hereupon, by Clement VIII, from the year 1598, in 
 the Congregatio de Auxiliis, led to no decision. Cor^ 
 nelius Jansen endeavored to vindicate the true doctrine 
 of Augustine, against the assaults of the Jesuits ; and thus 
 gave rise to the Jansenist party, which opposed the most 
 determined resistance to the Jesuits, and could not be 
 extinguished by them, either by means of Papal bulls, or 
 by the aid of the civil arm. — While all the christian 
 churches were contending about divine grace, certain 
 Mystics rose up, who attributed the conversion of men 
 solely to an internal operation of God, which had no con- 
 nexion with the external word, and by which the soul is 
 ipnlightened, purified, and united with God, 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. IB^ 
 
 Notices, Dominici SotOy de natura et gratia Libri III } 
 1548. — Andreae de Vega^ Cornmentarii in aliquot conci- 
 lii Tridentini decreta ; Compliit. 1548. — Ludovici Mo- 
 linae, Liberi arbitrii cum gratiae donis, divina praescien- 
 tia, providentia, praedestinatione et reprobatione Concor- 
 dia ; Olyssipone 1588. 4to. Antvv. 1595. 4to. — Cornelii 
 Jansenih Angustinus ; Lov. 1640. Fol. — Traits de la 
 nature et de la grace ; par Nlcol. Malebranche ; Roterod, 
 1684. — Eeflexions philo?ophiques et theologiques sur 
 le nouveau systeme (le la nature et de la grace ; par A. 
 Amauld; 1685. — Nodus praedestinatlonis dissolutus ; a 
 Coelestino Sfondratl; Rornae 1696. 4to — Acta consti- 
 tntionis Unigenitus ; — edidit Christ, Matth, Pfaffius ; 
 Tub. 1721. 
 
 Sec. 190. Of the influences of the word of God. 
 With the doctrine concerning grace, enquiries respect- 
 ing the word of God, were intimately connected. Both 
 the Protestant churches were agreed, that God effects 
 the conversion of men, by means of his word. The 
 word of God, was divided into the Law and the Gospel ; 
 and the relations of these two, occasioned what was call- 
 ed the Antiriomian controversy. That the external word 
 was not to be undervalued, or to be accounted void of 
 power, was decided in the contests with SchwenJcfeld and 
 Herm, Rathman; and those were called fanatics, who 
 thought otherwise, or seemed to do so, on this subject. 
 The assertions of the Frencht heologian, Claude Pajon^ 
 that it is of no importance, to determine the manner in 
 which God produces conversion; and that no immediate 
 operation of divine grace, is to be supposed; were rejected 
 by the Dutch and French churches. In the Lutheran 
 church, the similar views of Ernest Schubert, that the 
 power of God's word is only logical and moral, and not 
 supernatural, were warmly resisted, by Ernest Augustus 
 Bertling, and others. 
 
 Notices. The oithodox, correct, and incontrovertible doc- 
 trine of the theologians belonging to the pure, genuine, 
 evangelical church, and to the unaltered Augsburg Con- 
 fession, respecting the holy Scriptures, or the holy, re- 
 
184 muenscher's elements 
 
 vealed word of God, again stated ; (in German,) Lips* 
 1619. 4to. — Censures and reflexions of the theological 
 faculty, lespecting Thorn. Rathmann's books ; (German,) 
 Jena 1626. 4to. — (Respecting Pajon, see Chaufepiedt 
 Dictionaire, Tome II. Art. Gene). — J. Ernest Schubert, 
 Instruction concerning the power of the holy Scripture ; 
 (in German,) Helmst. 1753. — Em. Aug. ^er^Zmo^, State- 
 ment, of what the Lutheran church teaches, and does not 
 teacii, respecting the power of the holy Scripture ; (in 
 German,) Dantzig 1756. 8vo. 
 
 Sec. 1^1. Most recent form of the doctrine of grace. 
 In the new state of dognaatics, various attacks have 
 been made, upon the constituent parts of Augustine's the- 
 ory respecting grace ; in which, both philosophy and 
 history have been put in requisition. /. Aug, Eberhard, 
 especially, called in the aid of the former ; and Semler, 
 that of the latter. After Michaelis had questioned the 
 supernatural operations of Grace, Junckheim^s calm and 
 deliberate investigations produced a very great effect. 
 Storr defended the immediate operations of grace. One 
 consequence of the recent investigations, was, that the 
 distinction between the word of God and the bible, was 
 more clearly made. Against the excessive value, which 
 some attach to religious feelings, Spaulding has published 
 a work.. * '; /" ^ • "^^ 
 
 Notices. {Junckheim,) Oil the supernatural in the opera- 
 tions of grace ; (in German,) Eilan<r. 1775. 8vo. — G.C, 
 Storrli; Diss, de Spiritus S. in animis hominum efficien- 
 tia ; Tub. 1777. — Ejusd. Treatise on the operations of 
 grace ; (in German,) Tubing. 1779. — [Joh.Joach, Spauld- 
 ing.) On the value of the feelings in Christianity ; (in 
 Germ.) ed. 4. Lips. 1773. 8vo. ^ 
 
 Sec. 192. Redemption by Christ. 
 The Protestants embraced in their creed, the old idea, 
 of a satisfaction, which Christ made to God, by means of 
 his sufferings and obedience. In this doctrine, they be- 
 came fixed, in consequence of the opposition of the 
 
 1 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 185 
 
 Unitarians, who considered the death of Christ, as merely 
 an example, and a means of confirming the truth of his 
 doctrines. Yet George Karg, Zachanas Ursinus, and 
 John Piscator, receded from the common opinion, that 
 the active obedience of Christ was vicarious; and the 
 French Protestant church finally concluded, to tolerate 
 this deviation of Piscator, while the Swiss churches reject- 
 ed it. Grotius defended some parts of the received doc- 
 trine, against Socinus, yet giving it a different modification ; 
 and he was attacked, not only by John Crell, but also by 
 the Reformed divine, Hermann Ravensperger. The at- 
 tack of the latter, was parried by Gerhard John Vossius, 
 The Arminians, and afterwards some English theologians, 
 as John Tillotson, Edward Stilling fleet, and John Leland, 
 advanced the opinion, that the merits of Christ were a 
 full equivalent, for the guilt of men. Some mystics, as 
 the (Quakers, who were in this followed by Conrad Dip- 
 pel, looked upon the sufferings of Christ, as an emblem 
 of the change, which the human soul must undergo, in or- 
 der to become pure and pleasing to God. 
 
 Notices. Fausti Socini, Dispulatio de Jesu Christo serva- 
 tore ; hoc est, cur et qua ratione J. C. noster servs^pr sit ; 
 ' 1694. 4to. Hugonis Grotii, Deferisio fulei catholicae de 
 satisfactione, adv. Faustum Socinum ; Lug. Bat. 1617. 
 8vo. and cura Joach. Lani^ii ; Halae 1730. 4to. Herm. 
 Ravenspcrgeri^ Judicium de libro Grotii de satisfactione 
 Chi, Gronmg. 1617. 4to. 6?. J. Fo^^u. Responsio ad Ju- 
 dicium Herm. Ravenspergeri. ; Lugd. 1618. 4to. and in 
 his Opp. T. VI. p. 883. Jo. Crellii, Responsio ad librum 
 H. Grotii, quem de satisAictione scripsit ; Racov. 1623. 
 4to. 
 
 Sec. 193. Continuation. 
 While some English divines, as John Taylor and Anth. 
 Ashley Sykes, were advancing new theories respecting 
 the atonement, the Germans remained true to the earlier 
 belief, and endeavored to support it by philosophical ar- 
 guments. Yet /. Aug, Ernesti rejected the representa- 
 tion of a three-fold office of Christ. By his critical in- 
 17 
 
186 
 
 quiries respecting the active obedience of Christ, John 
 Gottl. Toellner caused the idea of it, to be almost uni- 
 versally given up. S. Steinbart, Joh, Avg, Eberhard, 
 and others, ascribed the forgiveness of sin to the death 
 of Christ, only in so far, as this death contributed to re- 
 form sinners, and thus, indirectly, procured them forgive- 
 ness of their sins. George Fred, Seiler, and G, Christ, 
 iS^orr,*^ defended the earlier opinion. Jos. Fred, Loeffler 
 declared the doctrine of satisfaction for sin, to be untena- 
 ble; and he considered the biblical doctrine of the sin- 
 ofiering made by Christ, to be the mere dress of the idea, 
 that the first christians had no reason to fear punishment, 
 for the sins they had committed in their former state of 
 Paganism and Judaism. Others perceived in the death 
 of Christ, an emblematic representation, and a sensible 
 confirmation, of the fact, that God is ready to forgive sin- 
 ners. But, in general, theologians have ceased to regard 
 any particular explication of this doctrine, as essential to 
 Christianity. 
 
 Notices, The scripture doctrine of atonement examined ; 
 by John Taylor; Lend. 1761. 8vo. and in German, Francf. 
 1773. Anthony Ashley SyJccs, The doctrine of the Ho- 
 ly Scripture concerning the redemption of men by Jesus 
 Christ; German, from the Enirlish ; Francf. 1777. Jo, 
 Aug, Ernesti, Programm. de officio Christi triplici : in his 
 Opuscul. ed. 2. Lips. 1792. The active obedience of 
 Christ, investigated ; (in German,) by Joh. Gottl. Toell- 
 ner ; Brcslau 1768. — Additions thereto; (in German,) 
 Berlin 1770. 8 vo. Most recent history of the doctrine «>f, 
 what IS called the active obedience of Christ ; (German,) 
 in Walch^s Latest history of religion, vol. ill. p. 309 
 —372. 
 
 Geo. Fr. Seller, On the atoning death of Christ ; (in Germ.) 
 ed. 2. Erlang. 1781. II vol. 8vo. (Apologies of reason, 
 supported by rational arguments, in reference to the chris- 
 tian doctrine of atonement; (in German,) Basil 1781.) 
 /. D. Michaelis, Thoughts on sin and satisfaction ; (in 
 German,) Gott. 1779. Sforr, On the object of Christ's 
 death ; (German.) in his Explanation of the Epistle to the 
 Hebrews; Tub. 1789. 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 187 
 
 Jos, Fr. Chr, Loeffler, Two essays on the received doctrine 
 of satisfaction ; (in German.) Ziillich 1796. 8vo. F. 
 Wunder, De justificationis moiti Christi tributae univer- 
 salitale ; Viterib, 1790. Sldudlin, On the object and the 
 effects of Christ's death ; (German,) in the Gotting. Li- 
 brary of the latest theolog. literature ; vol. I. Philosophic 
 and exegetical inquiries respecting the doctrine of recon- 
 ciling men with God ; (in German,) by Charles Christ. 
 Flatt; Gott. 1797. II vol. Bvo. Philosophic and critical 
 sketch of the doctrine of atonement ; (in German,) by 
 J, Gottf. Aug. Kroll; together with some thoughts on 
 the same subject, by J. H. Tieftrnnck; Halle 1799. 
 The conflict of reason with herself in the doctrine of 
 atonement, stated and solved ; (in German,) by W. Tr, 
 Krug ; Ziilich. and Freist. 1802. 
 
 €r. M. L. ie Wette, De morte J. C. expiatoria commenta- 
 tio; Berol. 1813. 4to. (Jesus, at first, expected his doc- 
 trinf^ of a heavenly divine kingdom, would meet the appro- 
 bation of his countrymen. But the result showed, that 
 he expected too much, from his disciples and the people at 
 large. Therefore he, at last, voluntarily died, in order to 
 procure a triumph of this doctrine.) 
 
 Is a distinct idea of the work of redemption, necessary? 
 (in German,) in TocZZ/icr'^ Theological Inquiries, vol.1 
 P.I. p. 199. 
 
 Sec. 194. Justification, 
 One grand point, to which the Reformers attached 
 special importance, and on which they deviated from the 
 ancient church, was the doctrine of justification. In the 
 first place, they attached a new idea to it ; making it to 
 consist, not in the communication of righteousness, but in 
 freeing a person from the guilt and punishment of sin. 
 Secondly, they placed the meritorious ground (causa me- 
 ritoria) of justification, solely in the merits of Christ; and 
 excluded all human satisfactions for sin, as unnecessary 
 and worthless. And thirdly, they considered faith as the only 
 means (instrumentum,) whereby a man can partake of 
 the merits of Christ, and so obtain forgiveness of sin. 
 The Council of Trent rejected the Protestant tenets ; 
 
188 muenscher's elements 
 
 and in the contests, which ensued on all these points, there 
 were frequent misapprehensions, and bitter mutual re- 
 proaches ; which were met in vain, by full confessions of 
 faith,and extended explanations,set forth by the theologians. 
 It was also contested, whether a person can be conscious 
 of his own justification : and, whether he can prepare 
 himself to become justified. 
 
 Notice, On the formation of our orthodox symbolical doc- 
 trine conctning justification : (German,) in J. Fr. FlatVs 
 Magazine for christian Dogmatics and Moral. P. I. 
 p. 219. 
 
 Sec. 195. Continuation. 
 
 Luther's theory was embraced and maintained, by the 
 Protestants, with such firmness, that Andreas Osiander, 
 — who understood justification, to be making a person 
 actually righteous, although he deviated from others, 
 more in the use of terms, than in substance, — stirred up 
 universal opposition, from the Lutheran divines. His 
 statement of this doctrine, together with his position, that 
 Christ was the Redeemer of men, only in his divine nature; 
 as well as the opposite position of Francis Stancarus, that 
 the work of redemption was predicable only of the human 
 nature of Christ ; were rejected, in the Formula of Con- 
 ' cord. Afterwards, the Protestant theologians continued, 
 to defend the ideas of justification contained in their sym- 
 bols ; not only against the Catholics, but also against the 
 Bocinians, the Arntinians, and certain English divines. 
 In the Cocceian controversy, the question came up, whe- 
 ther the pious under the Old Testament, obtained the 
 same remission of sin, with the christians : and in the 
 Pietistic debates, inquiry was instituted, whether the be- 
 stowment of grace, is limited to any certain period [of a 
 man's life], after which it has no place (controversia ter- 
 ministica). Since the last controversy, between G. Fr. 
 Seiler and E. L Danov, respecting the diffei-ence between 
 justification and predestination ; the modern German 
 divines have, for the most part, forsaken Luther's form of 
 
OF DOGMATIC III STORY. 189 
 
 the doctrine"; and either defined, in various ways, the bibli- 
 cal idea of justification, or gone into the general inquiries 
 whether, and how, the forgiveness of sin is possible. 
 
 Notices. Theoph, Coelest. Piper, Programm. quo Socinia- 
 norum de justificatione placita strictim exponit ; Gryphsw. 
 1795. 4to. Controversy between Danov and Seller ^ re- 
 specting the doctrines of justification and predestination ; 
 (in German,) in the Latest religious events, vol. I. Gies- 
 sen 1778. p. 265—300. F. G. Siiskind, On the possi- 
 biliiy of remitting punishment, or forgiving sin ; (German,) 
 in Flatt's Magazine. P. I. p. 1. comp. P. IX. p. 71. Is 
 the forgiveness of sin, a postulate of reason? answered by 
 J. H. Tlef trunk ; (in German,) in Staudlin's Contribu- 
 tions to the philosophy and history of religion, vol. III. p. 
 1 12. The question of hesitating reason ; Is forgiveness 
 of sin possible? Is a gracious remission of sin to be ex- 
 pected from God ? answered by G. Fr. Seller ; (in Ger- 
 man,) Eriang. 1798. 8vo. /. Aug, Noessclt, Programm. 
 de eo quid sit condonare pecxata ; Ilalae 1792. 4to. Is 
 the removal of punishment, to be understood as being that 
 forgiveness of sins, which the New Testament promises ? 
 an exeixetical inquiry: (in German,) by Sushind ; in 
 Flatt's Magazine. P. III. p. 190, P. IV. p. 7Q. Attempt 
 to vindicate the doctrine of justification ; (in German,) 
 by Leivis Wackier ; in Gabler^s Journal for select theol. 
 Literature, vol. IV. p. 229—265. 
 
 Sec. 196. Faith and good works. 
 The established creed of the Protestant church, makes 
 the conviction which leads the christian to apply the merits 
 of Christ to his own case, to be the chief part of faith : 
 on the contrary, the Catholic creed makes faith to be the 
 cordial reception of the christian doctrine. While the 
 former acknowledges, that faith mill produce good works, 
 it denies to those works all merit (meritum ex condigno 
 et congruo); and rejects absolutely, all works of superero- 
 gation ; and in particular, the value of monastic vows. 
 The tenet, that good works are necessary to salvation, 
 was objected to, as a fault in Melanchthon's school, and 
 particularly in George Major : and JVicholaus von Ams" 
 17* 
 
190 
 
 rfo^opposed it, with the opposite position, that good works 
 are prejudicial to salvation. Both positions were rejected, 
 in the Formula of Concord ; yet, in the Syncretistic and 
 Pietistic controversies, the question of the necessity of 
 good works, again came up. In France, Lewis le Blanc 
 fell under suspicion of inclining to Catholicism, because 
 he declared the various conclusions formed, respecting 
 the necessity of good works, to be a mere contest about 
 words. In the Socinian theology, the relations of 
 faith and good works, must, necessarily, be differently 
 viewed. Also the Arminians, and many English theo- 
 logians, considered faith, to be embracing and obeying 
 the christian doctrine ; and in this, they are followed 
 by most of the modern German divines. 
 
 Notices, That the proposition ; Good works are prejudi- 
 cial to salvation, — is a correct, true, and christian propo- 
 sition, and was preached by St. Paul and by Luther ; as- 
 serted ; (ill German,) hy Nicolas von Amsdorf. 1559. 4to. 
 — Fred. Will. Dresde, Fidei in causa salutis humanae 
 ratio ct necessitas denuo nsserta et ah adversariorum 
 criminationibus viridicata ; Dissertatt. II. Vitenb. 1790. 
 4to. — Discourse on the festival commemorative of the le- 
 formation ; (in German,) Octob. 31, 1800. by F. 7. 
 Reinhard. 1800. 
 
 Sec. 197. Penance. 
 L/uiher, at first, would have penance retained, as a 
 sacrament ; and even in the Apology for the Augsburg 
 Confession, it is represented as such ; and made to con- 
 sist in sorrow for sin, and faith. So much the more 
 earnestly, did the Reformers contend against the old ideas 
 of penance. They rejected auricular confession ; al- 
 though the Lutheran church retained a private confession, 
 of a different form. They moreover declared them- 
 selves, opposed to all satisfactions for sins ; and in particu- 
 lar, against fasting, pilgrimages, and flagellations. And 
 lastly, they denied the judicial power of priests, in God's 
 stead, to declare menVsins forgiven. Indulgences, they 
 regarded as a shocking incongruity; which the love oi 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 191 
 
 power, and the avarice of the Popes, had introduced and 
 kept up. In the Catholic church, the old doctrine of 
 penance, was minutely explained, by the Council of Trent, 
 and the departures from it laid under anathema. Among 
 the Catholics, there was afterwards controversy, respect- 
 ing the nature of penance, and oi attritio and contritio. 
 In the Lutheran church, the question was brought up, 
 and decided in the Formula of Concord, whether pe- 
 nance was a les;al transaction, or also an evangelical one. 
 The United Brethren retained the chief features of the 
 Protestant theology, respecting penance, and the whole 
 dispensation of divine grace ; yet they annexed some 
 peculiarities of their own. The more recent Protestant 
 divines have endeavored, to examine more accurately 
 the sources of repentance, or of a change of mind ; 
 and the characteristics of that sorrow for sin, which is 
 connected with it ; and they have also greatly lowered 
 down, those high views of the power of the keys. 
 
 Notices. Petri MoUnaei, De poenitentia el clavibus, Li- 
 ber ; Sedan 1652. 8vo. — Jo. Mw6*aei, Tractatus theolo- 
 gicus de conversione hominis peccatoris ad Deurn ; Je- 
 nae 1661. 4to. — Jo. Launoii, Liber de mente conciiii 
 Tridentini circa coniritionem et attritionein in Sacramen- 
 to poeriitentiae ; Paris 1653. 8vo — J. F. Coffa, Eccle- 
 siae Romanae de attritione et contritione contentio, ex 
 historia dogmatum delineata; Gottinjr. 1739. 4to. and, 
 in Gerhardi Locis Theoloir. T. VI. — Penance and faith ; 
 (German,) in J. G. Toellner^s Theolog. Inquiries, vol. 
 I. P. II. 
 
 Sec. 198. The sacraments. 
 After the year 1519, Luther directed his attention to 
 reforming the doctrine of the sacraments ; and he would 
 allow nothing to be a sacrament, to which there was not 
 an express promise annexed, for faith to rest upon. In 
 the subsequent years, he declared himself more fully on 
 this subject. He contested the idea, that the adminis- 
 tration of the sacraments, in itself, and without the exer- 
 cise of faith, produced salutary effects j and he rejected 
 
192 muenscher's elements 
 
 the sacraments of Confirmation, Marriage, priestly Or- 
 ders, and extreme Unction. In regard to marriage, in 
 particular, he censured the numerous impediments to 
 it, introduced by the church ; and also the prohibition 
 of marriage to priests. Afterwards, the Protestants ad- 
 mitted but two sacraments. Baptism and the Lord's Sup- 
 per; while the Council of Tren^ established the seven 
 sacraments. The Catholic doctrine concerning the pow- 
 er of the sacraments, ex opere operato, was explained 
 by the Protestants, in a worse sense, than the Catholic 
 church understood it. In the sacraments, the Lutheran 
 divines discovered the medium by which grace operates ; 
 the Reformed, the sign and pledge of grace ; and the 
 Socinians, an external rite, by which a man professed 
 himself a member of the christian church ; and here 
 the modern theologians of Germany follow the Socinians. 
 Concerning the sacraments of the Old Testament, vari- 
 ous investigations w^ere occasionally made, and especially 
 by the Cocceian school. The Mystics and Fanatics at- 
 tributed little or no value to the sacraments. 
 
 Notices. Martini Lutheri, Liber de captivitate Babylonica ; 
 Wittenb. 1520. — Aegld, Hunnius^ De sacramentls Vet. 
 et Novi Test, praecipue de baptismo et coena Domini ; 
 Francf. 1595. 8vo. — Jo. Maldonafus, De septem sacra- 
 mentis ecclesiae Romanae ; Ludg. IG14. 4to. — J. Dav. 
 IleUmanni, Diss, finiendae justae sacraiuenti notioni ; in 
 his Opusc. Tom. I. p. 4. 
 
 Sec. 199. Baptism. 
 Luther w-as of opinion, that the doctrine concerning 
 Baptism, had been preserved in the church, more free 
 from corruption, than those of the other sacraments ; and 
 he censured, only the limitation of its efficacy, by the 
 many satisfactions devised for sins after baptism ; and 
 that its efficacy should be ascribed to the external actj 
 and not be placed solely in faith on the divine promises. 
 After the commencement of the reformation, the Pro- 
 testants had occasion, to evince the correctness q£ infant 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 193 
 
 baptism, against the Baptists, who spread themselves in 
 several countries. The Socinians would not discard infant 
 baptism ; yet they denied its Apostolic origin ; and they 
 doubted, whether baptism was required of all christians. 
 The Quakers rejected water-baptism, altogether ; on the 
 ground, that Christ instituted only spiritual baptism. Be- 
 tween the Lutherans and the Reformed, various points 
 were debated ; relative to the efficacy of baptism, — 
 whether it imparted regeneration and forgiveness of sin, 
 or only exhibited and assured us of them ; — also relative 
 to the necessity of baptism, and the state of unbaptized 
 infants; and likewise, the faith of children, and the ex- 
 orcism, which was long retained in the Lutheran church. 
 — Of late, many Lutheran divines have either given up 
 the decisions of their forefathers, or interpreted them in 
 a milder manner. The theologians of both confessions, 
 have begun to limit themselves, by holding, that infant 
 baptism is not clearly founded in the New Testament, 
 yet, that it is not inconsistent with the christian religion ; 
 and some have uttered the opinion, that baptism is no in- 
 stitution of Christ ; or at least, that it was intended, only 
 for the Jews and Pagans of former times, who embraced 
 Christianity. 
 
 Notices. In addition to the works mentioned sec. 99 and 
 100 : see GerL J. Vossius, Dissertatl. xx. de Baptismo ;. 
 in his 0pp. T. VI. — Fausti Socini, Disp. de Baptismo 
 aquae ; Racov. 1613. and in his Opp. T. I. p. 707. — - 
 Antonii van Dale. Historia baptisrnorum, cum Judaico- 
 rum turn Christianorum : annexed to l>i& Diss, super 
 Aristea de LXX. interpretibus ; Amsl. 1705.— Christian 
 Baptism an estimable rite, but no divine institution ; (in 
 German ; — by Relche,) Berl. 1774. 8va. — Joh. El. 
 Troschel, The water-baptism of Christians, an institution 
 of Christ, and not an arbitrary rite ; (in German,) Berl. 
 1774. 8vo. — On baptism ; a candid investigation, occa- 
 sioned by the progress of the age ; (in German.) Lips. 
 1802. 8vo.--C. F. Eisenlohry Historical observations on 
 BaptisT) ; (in German,") Tub. 1804. 8vo. — Relche, Dft 
 baptismi origine et necessitate ; Gotting. 1816^ 
 
194 muenscher's elements 
 
 Sec. 200. Common doctrine of the Protestant churches^ 
 respecting the LorcPs Supper. 
 The reformers declared, with one voice, that it was 
 precisely in the doctrine of the Eucharist, that the great- 
 est and most corrupt falsification had been introduced ; 
 and from which, that institution must be purged. Hence, 
 they contested the doctrine of transubstantiation, as un- 
 scriptural, and unknown to christian antiquity ; and they 
 rejected all the consequences derived from it, especially 
 the adoration of the elements. They looked, with abhor- 
 rence, on the Mass, the private Masses, and the Masses 
 for the dead ; considered as religious consecrations. They 
 introduced the use of the vernacular languages, in the 
 celebration of the Eucharist ; and they discarded, some 
 more, and some fewer of the ceremonies, which before 
 accompanied it. They moreover, declared it an unsuf- 
 ferable abuse, that the cup should be withheld from the 
 laity ; contrary to the ordinance of Christ, and the usage 
 of the whole ancient church.. On the other hand, the 
 Council of Trent established the old doctrines ; and con- 
 demned the dissenting views of the Protestants. They 
 asserted, that the church has a right, according as it shall 
 see fit, to concede or to deny, the use of the cup to the 
 laity ; maintained, that it is not necessary, for children, to 
 partake of the communion; and disapproved and forbid 
 some abuses, which had crept into the Mass. On all 
 these points, the contest between the theologians of the 
 two communities, was carried on with the greatest bit- 
 terness; and with arguments which they derived from 
 the Bible, from history, and from philosophy. 
 
 Notices, PhiUppi Moimaei, de sacra Eucharistia, Libri IV ; 
 Francf. et lianov. 1605. Fol. — Claud. Espencaei, de 
 Eucharistia et ejus adoratione, Libri V; Paris 1573. 8vo. 
 '■ — Jac. Dav. du Perron, Traitd du saint sacrament de 
 r eucharistie ; Paris 1622.— Jo. la Placeite, Traite de 
 r autorile des sens contre la transubstantiation ; Amst. 
 1700. — See also the polemic works, mentioned sec. 102, 
 and 142, 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 195 
 
 Sec. 201. Dissension among Protestants, during Lu" 
 therms life. 
 While Luther rejected the Catholic doctrine of tran- 
 substantiation, he believed, that the real presence of the 
 body and blood of Christ, in the eucharist, was not to be 
 given 'jp. As he was assailed on this point, by Andreas 
 Carlstadt ; so Zwingle also found occasion, first in a pri- 
 vate letter, and then in his Commentarius de vera et falsa 
 religione, to state his views; which were, that the bread 
 and wine are symbols of Christ's body. John Oecolam- 
 padius coincided with him, except in one unimportant 
 particular ; and became involved in controversy, on the 
 subject, with some Siiabian preachers. Soon after, Lu- 
 ther and Zwingle, themselves got into controversy ; which 
 was waged with considerable warmth, and which involved 
 an enquiry into the omnipresence of Christ's body. The 
 Landgrave Philip of Hesse, in vain, attempted to effect 
 a union of the two reformers, by means of the Confer- 
 ence of Marpurg A. D. 1529. In the Augsburg Con- 
 fession, the" real presence of the body of Clirist, was as- 
 serted ; dissent was disapproved ; and the cities of upper 
 Germany, which believed with Zwingle, were excluded 
 from subscribing. Yet, at length, the Wittenberg Con- 
 cord, of 1536, was concluded, between the theologians 
 of upper Germany and those of Saxony ; and so much 
 was effected, that the sacramental contest was, for along 
 time, at rest. It was indeed renewed by Luther, not 
 long before his death ; but the other Lutheran divines 
 took no part in it. During the controversy between the 
 Swiss and the Saxon reformers, John Caspar Schwenck- 
 feld of Ossingk, deviated from the tenets of the latter. 
 
 Notices. Andr. Carlstadt, Exposition oft he words of Christ : 
 This is my body ; (in German.) Basil 1525. 4 to. — Lu- 
 ther, Ajrainst the heavenly Propjiels ; (in German,) 1525. 
 4to. — Zicinglii, Ep. ad Matth. Alberum ; 1524. — Ejusd. 
 Commentarius de vera et falsa religione ; Tiixmi 1525. — 
 Ejusd. Suhsidium de Eucharistia ; 1525. — Jo. Oecolam- 
 padii, De genuina verborum Domini, Hoc est corpus xne- 
 
196 
 
 urn, juxta vetustissimos auctores expositione ; (Basil 
 1525 ) — Syngramma clarissimorum, qui Halae Suevorum 
 convenenint, virorum super verbis coenae Domini; Halae 
 Suevor. 1525. 4to. — Jo. OecoZcrmpacZii, A ntisyngram ma; 
 1526. 8vo. — Luther^s Sermon on the sacrament of the 
 body and blood of Christ, against the enthusiasts ; (in 
 German,) 1522. — Zwlnglii Amica exegesis, sen exposi- 
 tio eucharistiae negotii ; 1527. — Z/?^<^er'5, That the words 
 of Christ ; This is my body ; still stand fast, against the 
 enthusiastic spirits ; (in German,) 1527, — Zwingle's Re- 
 ply ; That the words : This is my body, will eternally 
 have their ancient and only meaning ; (in German,) 1527. 
 — Luther^ s Confession respecting the Lord's Supper ; 
 (in German,) 1528, &c. 
 The Auosburg Confession, Art. X. de coena Domini do- 
 cent, quod corpus et sanguis Christi vere adsint et dis- 
 tribuantur vescentibus in coena Domini, et improbant 
 secus docentes (quod cum pane et vino vere exhibeantur 
 corpus et sanguis Christi vescentibus in coena Domini). 
 
 Sec. 202. Progress of the controversy after Luther^s 
 death. 
 
 In the opinion of very many Protestant divines, at the 
 head of whom was Melanchthon, the question in debate, 
 continually sunk in importance. — John Calvin approxi- 
 mated towards the Lutheran tenet ; by allowing, that 
 there was a participation of the real body of Christ, in 
 the eucharist ; though not with the lips, yet by faith ; and 
 he gained over the assent of the divines of Zurich, (A. 
 D. 1549). Yet Joachim Westphal renewed the con- 
 test; and gradually, others took part in it; so that the 
 bitterness waxed greater and greater. Calvin's opinion 
 prevailed, in the Palatinate ; but Melancthon's school, at 
 Wittenberg, which more and more openly inclined to 
 Calvin's views, was destroyed ; and thus the real doctrine 
 of Luther, was set forth in the Formula of Concord, in 
 connexion with the doctrine of the ubiquity of Christ's 
 body, and a condemnation of Calvinism. 
 
 Notices, Consensio mutua in re sacramentaria ministrorum 
 Tigurinae ecclesiae et Jo. Calvini ; in Calvini 0pp. T» 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 197 
 
 VIII. — Petri Martyris Vermillii, de sacra mento eucha- 
 ristiae in schola Oxoniensa tiactatio ; Tiguri 1552. — Jo, 
 ,Westphal, Farrago confiisanearum et inter se dissidenti- 
 um opinionunf], ex Sacramentariorum libris congestaf 
 Magd.. 1552. — Ejusd, Recta fides de coena Domini; 
 1553. — Ejusd. Collectanea sententiarum Augustini de 
 coena Domini; Ratisb. 1555. — Jo. Calvini, Defensio 
 sanae et orthodoxae doctrinae de sacramentis ; Genev. 
 1555 &c. — Exegesis perspicua controversiae de coena 
 Domini ; Wittenb. 1574. 
 
 Sec. 203. Later history of this doctrine. 
 The disagreement of the two Protestant churches, as to 
 this doctrine, continued on ; and was generally regarded, 
 as very important ; arid the contests about it, were kept 
 up. In England, Bp. Benjamin Hoadley met with op- 
 position, Decause he seemed to depreciate the importance 
 of the Lord's supper. The Lutheran doctrine was re- 
 peatedly attacked, by members of the Lutheran church: 
 among these, the posthumous work of Heumann excited • 
 most notice, and called forth many confutations. Yet the 
 dexterity with which Ernesti defended the Lutheran 
 views, could not prevent many theologians, of his church, 
 from either abandoning those views, altogether ; or so 
 modifying them, as to desti*oy their essential character ; 
 nor could he dissuade all, from estimating the importance 
 of those views, far lower. The Reformed divines, of 
 late, have held more to Zwingle's ideas, than to those of 
 Calvin. Some projects for union, by taking a middle 
 course, have received little attention. 
 
 Notices. J. Fr. Buddaei^ Recentissimarum de coena Do- 
 mini controversiarum sylloge ; — in his Miscell. Sacr. T. 
 II. p. 61-88. — Benj. Hoadley'' s Plain account of the na- 
 ture and end of the sacrament of the Lord's supper; 
 Lond. 1735. — Chr. Aug. Heumann' s Proof, that the 
 doctrine of the Reformed church, respecting the Lord's 
 supper, is the true doctiine ; (in Germ.) Eisleben and 
 Wittenb. 1764. 8vo. — J. Aug. Erncsti, Brevis repetitio 
 ■ et assertio sententiae Lutheranae de praesentia corporis 
 €t sanquinis J. C. in coena sacra ; Lips. 1766. 4to. and 
 18 
 
19i8 muenscher's elements 
 
 in his Opusc. Theol. — Sketch of a new proof of the inter- 
 pretation, given to the words of consecration by the Lu- 
 theran theologians; (in Germ.) in J. G. Toellners Mis- 
 cellaneous papers, Collect. II. p. 173-256. — The behef 
 of St. Paul respecting the Eucharist ; (in German — by 
 Holzapfel,) Francf. 1779 — [Ejusd.) Confirmation and 
 elucidation of PauFs belief concerning the Eucharist ; (in 
 Germ.) Francf. 1780. — J. C. Erhsiein, Three tracts on 
 the Eucharist ; (in Germ.) Berlin 1780. — Some Theses 
 on the doctrine of the holy supper; (in Germ.) Berlin 
 1781. — Remarks and elucidations on certain theses con- 
 cerning thfe holy supper ; (in Germ.) by J. Balth. Lii- 
 derwaid ; Ilelmst. 1783. — The holy supper of Christians ; 
 (in Germ.) by Dr. Henr. Stephani ; Lanshut 1811. 8vo. 
 — (That is my Paschal body, which is distiihuted among 
 you ; or the meat of the covenant. That is my blood of 
 the covenant, which I pour out to you (sx^uvofj-svov). 
 
 Sec. 204. The church. 
 The doctrine concerning the church, was a grand sub- 
 ject of controversy, between the Catholics and the Pro- 
 testants. The latter rejected the positions, that there is 
 but one church of Christ ; from the visible communion of 
 which, no one can separate, without forfeiture of salvation; 
 and that the church is an infallible lawgiver, and judge, in 
 matters of faith and conduct; and that even the belief of 
 Christianity, must .rest on the authority of the church. 
 They traced the distinction, between the visible church 
 and the invisible ; and conceded to the former, merely the 
 right, to regulate the forms of worship and to execute 
 church discipline. They also declared Christ, to be the 
 only sovereign of the church ; and the pretensions of the 
 Bishops of Rome, to the primacy, to be mere arrogance. 
 And even in the Catholic church, there was disagree- 
 ment, as to the extent of the Papal power ; and two op- 
 posite systems were formed, on the subject, called tlie 
 ultramontane and the episcopal. The latter was, espe- 
 cially, defended by the French divines ; was propagated in 
 Germany, by Justin Febronius; and in later times, has 
 gained a decided ascendency. — Catholics and Protes- 
 
OF DOGMATIC kiSTORT. 199 
 
 tants, moreover, have unitedly maintained, agdnst the fa- 
 natical sects, that perfect purity, in its members, is not 
 the sign of a true church ; and that the administration of 
 religious ordinances, does not lose its validity, and its effi- 
 cacy, when performed by a sinful minister. The Kante- 
 an philosophy led to a philosophical examination of the 
 idea of a church ; and some Catholic literati have at- 
 tempted, by means of it, to evince the infallibility of the 
 church. 
 
 JVotices. De potestate et primatn Papae, tractatus; sub- 
 joined to the Articles of Smalcald ; 1537. — Jo. Musaei, 
 Tractatus de ecclesia ; Jenae 1671. 4to. — Edmundi Ri- 
 •cherii, De ecclesiastica et poUtica potestate ; Col. 1701. 
 4to. — Jo. Launoii, Epistolae : — in his 0pp. ed. Colon. 
 1731. V Tomi, Tomo V. — Defensio declarationis, quam 
 de potestate ecclesiastica sanxit Clerus Gallicanus ; 1682. 
 a Jac. Benig. Bossuet ; Luxernb. 1730. 4to. — Justini 
 Febronii, De statu ecclesiae et legitima potestate Pontifi- 
 cis Romani, Liber sins^ularis ; BuilHoni (Francf.) 1763- 
 74. IV Tomi, 4to. — Ejusd. Commentarius in suam re- 
 tractationem ; Francf. ad. Moen. 1781. — Petri Balleri- 
 ni, De vi et ratione primatus Roman. Ponlificum, Liber ; 
 Veronae 1776. 4to. — C. F. Stdudlin, On the idea of a 
 church, and church history ; (in German,) in the Gotting. 
 theol. Biblioth. vol. L p. 600. — A Stapfer, De natura, 
 conditore, etincrementis reipublicaeethicae ; Bern 1797. 
 — Religion, revelation, and a. church, investigated by 
 pure reason; (in German,) by Ulr. Peutinger ; Salzb. 
 1795. 8vo.- — Idea biblica ecclesiae Dei ; delineavit Fr. 
 Oberthiir, vol. I-IV. 1790-1817. 8vo.— J. F. Kleucker, 
 de J. C. Servatoris hominum, ecclesia et ecclesiisj Kiliae 
 1817. 4to. 
 
 Sec. 205. State of departed souls. 
 The practical misuses, to which the doctrine of purga- 
 tory had been carried, made the Reformers too decided, 
 in their opposition to it; while, on the contrary, the coun- 
 cil of Trent confirmed it ; together with that of the effi- 
 cacy of prayers for the dead ; though with some warn- 
 ings against fabulous tales and avaricious views. To the 
 
200 
 
 idea, of the insensibility of the soul, from death till the 
 resurrection, Luther appeared to be not opposed ; but 
 when some Anabaptists brought forward that idea, it was 
 contested by John Calvin; and it was rejected, in the 
 English Confession, under Edward VI, in the Swiss Con- 
 fession of 1566, and in that of Scotland. The Protest- 
 ants believed, that immediately after death, the soul pass- 
 es, either into heavenly bliss, or into the torments of hell. 
 Many Socinians were of opinion, that the soul does not 
 recover its consciousness, and its activity, till its reunion 
 with the body; and various others, English writers, accord- 
 ed with this sentiment. " The learned Henry Dodwell, 
 from his ideas of the natural mortality of the soul, of the 
 indispensable necessity of Baptism, and of the exalted 
 privileges enjoyed by the Episcopal church, composed a 
 very singular theory. William Coward taught, that the 
 soul dies with the body, and will first awake along with 
 it. Thomas Burnet revived the notion of the ancient 
 fathers, concerning a middle state ; where the righteous 
 and the wicked have some foretastes of their future con- 
 ditions, until the general judgment, when they receive 
 fully their punishments and rewards. In Germany, the 
 hypothesis of the soul's insensibility, had some abettors ; 
 and even the transmigration of souls, found advocates in 
 G, E. Lessing and /. G. Schlosser ; who were able to 
 give, a refined statement of the doctrine. 
 
 Notices, An liistorical view of the controversy concerning 
 an intermediate state, and the separate existence of the 
 soul, between death and the general resurrection, dedu- 
 ced from the beginning of the Protestant reformation to 
 the present times ; (by Blackburn^) ed. 2. Lond. 1772. 
 8vo.- — J. Fr. Cotta, Recentiores quaedam controversiae 
 de statu animi post mortem ; Tub. 1758. — Jo. Calvini, 
 Psychopannychia ; Aureliae 1534. — William Coward^ 
 Second thoughts concerning the human soul ; demonstra- 
 ting the notion of the human soul, as believed to be a 
 spiritual and immortal substance, to be a plain heathenish 
 invention; Lond. 1702.-^De statu mortuorum et resur^ 
 gentium tractatus ; auctore Thoma Burnet ; Roterd, 
 
or DOGMATIC HISTORY. 201 
 
 1729. 8vo. — (^Lud, Ant, Muratpri, de paradise regnique 
 coelestis gloria, rion expectata corporum resurrectione, 
 justisaDeo collata; ed. 2. Venet. 1755.) — Gotth, Ephr, 
 Lessing's Education of the human race ; (in German,) 
 1780. 8vo. — J. G. Sclilosser^s Conversations on the 
 transmigration of souls ; (in German,) Lips. 1781-82. 8vo. 
 
 Sec. 206. Resurrection and general judgment. 
 All the principal christian sects, acknowledged a resur- 
 rection, and rejected chiliasm. Yet this last doctrine 
 had many friends; among whom were Amos Comenius, 
 Peter Jurieu, Thomas Burnet, William Whiston, and 
 others. Philip James Sjpener, and his adherents, taught 
 a refined chiliasm ; or the expectation of better times. 
 The characteristics of the resuscitated bodies, gave oc- 
 casion, for many investigations. According to the most 
 common opinion, men will again possess the same bodies, 
 or at least, the substance of the same bodies, which they 
 had in this life. On the contrary, the Socinians, Johnle 
 Clerc, aud Godfrey Less, believed in the formation of 
 entirely new bodies. Joseph Priestly placed the resur- 
 rection of men, immediately after their death.* Most of 
 the modern German divines, consider the resurrection, a^; 
 merely a figurative representation ; by which the immorr- 
 tality of the soul, is so pictured forth, as to be intelligible 
 to persons unaccustomed to reflection. On the general 
 judgment, likewise, many questions have been raised;, 
 and attempts have been made, to ascertain the time when 
 it will take place ; but the most recent theology finds in 
 it, only the drapery of the doctrine, that- God will render to 
 toth good and bad men, a perfect recompense. 
 
 Notices. Henr. Corodi, Critical history of Chiliasm ; (in 
 German,) vol. III. and IV. Zurich 1794. The resurrec- 
 tion of the dead, according to the instructions of the New 
 Testament. An extended essay ; (in German,) by Fred, 
 des Cotes ; Kirchheim Bolanden 1791. The palingene- 
 sia of men, according to reason and scripture; (in Germ.) 
 hy Ern. Fred. Ockel ; Mietau and Konigsb. 1791. 4to.. 
 
 * No : he believed the soul to be material ; and to die and rise 
 again, with tfea body. Translator. 
 
202 muenscher's elements 
 
 Sec. 207. Salvation and damnation. 
 The various speculations concerning the place, and the 
 condition, of the blessed and the damned, scarcely deserve 
 to be desbribed. Of more importance is the inquiry, re- 
 specting the duration of future punishment; on which 
 subject, ail the variety of opinions, that existed in former 
 times among christians, still .continued. Yet the prevail- 
 ing sentiment, and that which was expressed in the Augs- 
 burg Confession, and in other Creeds, was in favor of ^e 
 eternity of future punishment. This was evinced, not 
 only by proofs from the holy scriptures, but also on rational 
 grounds. The Socinians, however, held to a punishment, 
 which would terminate, with the annihilation of the dam- 
 ned. Besides, there were always some, who advocated a 
 full restitution, of all men, to virtue and blessedness; 
 .among whom, John William Petersen, Thomas Burnet, 
 William Whiston, Maria Huber, and Petitpierre, were 
 the most distinguished. Many theologians have begun, 
 to soften down the common representation. John Til- 
 lotson and Godfrey Less, admitted, that God had threat- 
 ened everlasting punishment to the wicked; but they 
 doubted, whether he would execute his threatenings, in 
 their full extent. James Vernet believed, that the good- 
 ness of God, in remitting punishment, ought not to be cir- 
 cumscribed. The Woljian philosophy was, at first, em- 
 ployed to evince the eternity of hell torments ; but it af- 
 terwards, led to a confutation of this doctrine; by advancing 
 the principles, that the^w^^ice of God, is merely \i\s good- 
 ness, directed by wisdom ; and that the grand object of 
 divine punishments, is the reformation offenders. And 
 hence, J, A, Eherhard, B. Basedow, and /. F, Gruner, 
 held forth the reformation and salvation of the damned. 
 Others, have either left the question wholly undecided, or 
 have referred the eternity, mentioned in the scripture , 
 only to the place of punishment ; or have stopped at the 
 never ending disadvantages, which the neglect of repent- 
 ance in the present life, will bring along with it in the life 
 to come. 
 
OF DOGMATIC HISTORY. 203 
 
 Notices, (^William Petersen,) Mvg'ripiov aflroxotra^atfsw^ tfav- 
 <rwv, i. e. the mystery of the restoration of all things ; (in 
 German,) Offenbach 1701-10. Ill vol. Fol. Lewis Ger- 
 hard, Systema a-roxara^ao'sw^, i. e. the complete idea of 
 the everlasting gospel, concerning the restoration of all 
 things; (in German,) 1727. 4to. The eternity of hell 
 torments, inquired into and considered ; by T^. Whiston; 
 Lond. 1740. 8vo. Les systemes des Theologiens an- 
 ciens et modernes concilies, par Texposition des differens 
 sentiments sur Fetat des ames separees des corps ; (par 
 3Iar. Huber,) a Lond res 1729. Three Tracts on hell 
 punishments, with a short account of what happened to 
 M. Petitpierre, in the county of Neufchatel ; (in Germ.) 
 Francf. and Lips. 1763. 8vo. 
 
 Joh. L. Mosheim, Thoughts on the doctrine of the termina- 
 tion of hell torments; (in German,) Coburg 1728. 8vo. 
 S. I. Baumgarten, Vindiciae poenarum aeternarum ; 
 Halae 1742. /. B. Schubert, Rational thoughts on the 
 eternity of hell torments ; (in German,) Jena 1753. 4to. 
 (/. R. G, Beyer,) On the punishments of the damned, and 
 their duration ; (in German,) Lips. 1782. 
 
 THE END. 
 
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