[BRARY THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SANTA BARBARA GIFT OF MRS. WILBUR JACOBS COLLECTION OF HER MOTHER, MRS. AUGUSTA G. STANLEY. THIS BOOK BELONGS TO THE NEW STUDENT'S REFERENCE WORK FOR TEACHERS, STUDENTS AND FAMILIES EDITED BY CHANDLER B. BEACH, A.M., LL.D. / . ASSOCIATE EDITOR FRANK MORTON M C MURRY, PH.D. VOLUME I CHICAGO . E. COMPTON AND COMPANY THE STUDENT'S CYCLOPAEDIA Copyright, 1893, by C. B. Beach THE STUDENT'S REFERENCE WORK Copyright, 1901, by C. B. Beach THE NEW STUDENT'S REFERENCE WORK Copyright, 1909, by C. B. Beach Copyright, 1911, by C. B. Beach Copyright, 1912, by C. B. Beach Copyright, 1912, by F. E. Compton and Company Copyright, 1913, by F. E. Compton and Company Copyright, 1914, by F. E. Compton and Company Copyright, 1915, by F. E. Compton and Company Copyright, 191 7,. by F. E. Compton and Company Copyright, 1918, by F. E. Compton and Company v,\ EDITORS OF DEPARTMENTS / \ BOTANY JOHN MERLE COULTER, Ph.D., LL.D;, Head Professor of Botany, University of Chicago \^_^ PHYSICS AND ASTRONOMY HENRY CREW, Ph.D., Professor of Physics, Northwestern University. GEOLOGY ROLLIN D. SALISBURY, A.M., Professor of Geology, University of Chicago ZOOLOGY WILLIAM ALBERT LOCY, Ph.D., Sc.D., Professor of Zoology, Northwestern University. CHEMISTRY HORACE LEMUEL WELLS, A.M., Professor Analytical Chemistry and Metallurgy Sheffield Scientific School, Yale University. ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING ALBERT PRUDEN CARMAN, Sc.D., Professor of Electrical Engineering, University of Illinois. CANADIAN DEPARTME HON. RICHARD HARCOURT, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Ex-Minister of Education, Ontario. BRITISH COLONIES IN AFRICA AND AUSTRALIA GRAEME MERCER ADAM, Founder of the Canadian Educational Monthly. \ PARTIAL LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS HON. F. D. COBURN, Per twenty years Secretary of Agriculture, Kan. E. N. HENDERSON, Ph.D., Professor in Philosophy of Education, Adelphi College, Brooklyn. HENRY SUZALLO, Ph.D., President, University of Washington. Formerly Professor of Education, Columbia. B. R. SIMPSON, Ph.D., Teacher of Psychology and Principles of Edu- cation, Training School for Teachers, Brooklyn. PERCIVAL R. COLE, Ph.D., Vice-principal Sidney Teachers College New South Wales, Australia. A. R. TAYLOR, Ph.D., LL.D., President James Milliken University. C. A. McMuRRY, Ph.D., Professor Elementary Education, Peabody College, Nashville, Tenn. EDWARD C. ELLIOTT, Ph.D., Chancellor, University of Montana. Formerly Professor of Education, Wisconsin. T. D. WOOD, A.M., M.D., Professor of Physical Education, Teachers College, Columbia University C. H. ROBISON, A.M., Professor of Science, State Normal School Montclair, N. J. PERCY HUGHES, Ph.D., Professor of Philosophy, Lehigh University. GEORGE WILLIAM EGGERS, Director of The Art Institute of Chicago ' .' Miss EMMA M. CHURCH, Director School of Applied and Normal Art, Chicago. MRS. A. S. HALL, Museum Instructor, the Art Institute of Chicago. CHARLES H. FARNSWORTH, Professor in Music, Teachers College, Columbia University. CALVIN BRAINARD CADY, Lecturer in Music, Teachers' College, Columbia University. H. E. BARD, A.M., El Ministerio de Justicia, Instruccion y Culto Lima, Peru. MRS. ELEANOR ATKINSON, Author of The Boyhood of Lincoln, Greyfriar's Bobby, etc. E. E. GlLTNER, Head of Department of History, New York Training School for Teachers, New York City. Miss ALICE WESSA, B. S., Head Department of Geography, State Normal School, Buffalo; formerly Instructor Hebrew Training School for Girls, New York City. CLYDE FURST, A.M., Secretary Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, New York City. B. B. BURRITT, A.M., Director Department of Social Welfare, New York Association for Improving the Con- dition of the Poor; formerly of the Teachers College, Columbia University. CHARLES D. HINE, Secretary State Board of Education, Connecticut. EDWARD HYATT, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, California. JAMES H. FUQUA, SR., A.M., LL.D., Formerly State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Kentucky. FRANK EVANS, Superintendent City Schools, Spartanburg, S. C. KATHERINE L. CRAIG, Author of Craig's Primary Geography, and Ex-State Superintendent Public Instruc- tion, Colorado. CHARLES H. ALBERT, A.B., State Normal School, Bloomsburg, Pa. THOMAS C. MILLER, Principal Shepherd College, State Normal School , and Ex-State Superintendent of Schools, West Virginia. KATHERINE POPE, Research Specialist. W. H. AlTKEN, Manager Monotype Department, The Franklin Company, Chicago. HON. W. W. STETSON, Former State Superintendent of Schools, Maine. CHARLES G. WETHERBEE, Prince School, Boston. J. J. DOYNE, President State Normal School, Conway, Ark., and Ex-State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Arkansas. WARREN UPHAM, Archaeologist Minnesota Historical Society. MALCOLM MCDOWELL, Director of Publicity, Southern Settlement and Development Company, Baltimore. Formerly Secretary Central Trust Company of Illinois, Chicago. FREDERIC PERRY NOBLE, Ph.D., Author The Redemption of Africa. ROBERT W. WOOD, A.B., Professor of Experimental Physics Johns Hopkins University. WILLIAM PAXTON BURRIS, A. M., Dean of Teachers College, University of Cincinnati. SIR HARRY HAMILTON JOHNSTON, G. C. M. G.; K. C. B., British Administrator, Explorer and Author. REVISIONS BY EMINENT MEN AND WOMEN Absolut accuracy, as well as simplicity and charm of style, have been kept in mind in the preparation of this work, as illustrated by the following examples of revisions of our articles by eminent men and women in this country and in Europe on vital topics, current movements and great achievements with which their names are identified. THE INCOME TAX LAW AND HOW TO APPLY IT. Revised by THOMAS B. PATON, General Counsel of the American Bankers Association. An analysis of the law which will enable the layman to answer for himself the great majority of questions arising out of its application to his income. THE FLYING MACHINE AND ITS "MECHANICAL BRAIN." Revised by ORVILLE WRIGHT, joint inventor with his brother of the first practical air ship and of the wonderful "mechanical brain" called the Stabilizer, patented in 1913. It is believed by experts that the Stabilizer may prove fully as important as the aeroplane itself. THE TRUTH ABOUT RADIUM. An 'article specially prepared for The Student's by DR. WORTHINGTON SEATON RUSSELL, Research Fellow and Chief X-Ray Department, New York Skin and Cancer Hospital. Great harm is done by misunderstanding as to its virtues in the treatment of cancer and kindred diseases; so that Dr. Russell's article is one which, for the public good, should be given the widest possible publicity. THE TARIFF OF 1913. Revised under the direction of HON. OSCAR W. UNDERWOOD, Chairman of the Committee on Ways and Means of the House of Representatives. Under its proper heading will be found a character sketch of the man under whose leadership this vital measure was enacted, revised by Mr. Underwood, MEXICO, CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE. Revised under the direction of JOHN BARRETT, Director General of the Pan American Union. "Our Southern neighbors in this Hemisphere," says Mr. Barrett, "will enjoy, because of the opening of the Panama Canal, the greatest material, commercial and economic development which any group of nations has ever experienced in the history of the world." THE DOMINION OF CANADA AND ITS RESOURCES. Revised under the direction of HON. GEORGE E. FOSTER, Minister of Trade and Commerce of the Dominion. Our articles on the various Provinces have been revised by or under the direction of the Lieutenant Governor of each Province. STORY OF NELSON, ENGLAND'S GREATEST SEAMAN. Revised by ADMIRAL SIR CYPRIAN BRIDGE, G.C.B., K.C.B., retired; formerly member of the Committee on Heavy Guns, Explosives, Armor Plate and Projectiles, Commander-in-Chief of the Chinese Station, etc. THE NEW FEDERATED BANKING SYSTEM. Revised by THOMAS B. PATON, General Counsel of the American Bankers Association. A clear and concise description of the Currency Law and its operation ; the most important change in the Banking System of the United States since Alexander Hamilton, and a subject of vital interest to every business man and every student of American Institutions. THE ENGLISH WORKINGMEN'S INSURANCE LAW. Revised by the Rx. HON. DAVID LLOYD-GEORGE, Prime Minister of England, formerly Chancellor of the Exchequer, Minister of War and Munitions, etc. ARBITRATION AND INDUSTRIAL PEACE. Revised by FRANK P. WALSH, Chairman of the Committee on Industrial Relations. THE POST OFFICE, POSTAL SAVINGS BANKS AND THE PARCEL POST. Revised under the direction of HON. ALBERT S. BURLESON, Postmaster General. THE CULTURE AND MARKETING OF COTTON Contributed by G. S. MELOY, Office of the Chief of the Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. WORK OF THE WOMEN'S CLUBS. Revised by MRS. MARY I. WOOD, Manager Information Bureau, General Federation of Women's Clubs, Vice-President New Hampshire Woman's Suffrage Association and Member Executive Committee State Conference of Charities and Corrections. THE PROGRESS OP WOMAN'S SUFFRAGE. Revised by FRANCES MAULE BJORKMAN, Secretary National American Woman's Suffrage Association. WORK OF FRANCES WILLARD AND THE WOMAN'S CHRISTIAN TEMPERANCE UNION. Revised by MRS. LILLIAN M. N. STEVENS, President of the Women's Christian Temperance Union. THE PARENT-TEACHER ASSOCIATIONS AND THEIR WORK. Revised by MRS. FREDERICK K. SCHOFF, President of the National Congress of Mothers and Parent-Teacher Associations. THE PANAMA CANAL. Revised by MAJOR-GENERAL G. W. GOETHALS, Chief Engineer Panama Canal, Chairman Isthmian Commission and First Civil Governor of the Canal Zone. THE CHILDREN OF TOPSY TURVY LAND. (Child Life in Japan) Revised by His Excellency VISCOUNT CHINDA, Formerly Japanese Ambassador to the U. S. THE BOY SCOUTS OF AMERICA. With Illustrations by the Chief Scout, Ernest Thompson-Seton, showing how to build a fire without matches, etc. Revised by GEORGE H. MERRITT, Secretary to the Editorial Board, Boy Scouts of America. STORY OF THOMAS EDISON, THE WIZARD INVENTOR. Revised by WILLIAM H. MEADOWCROFT, of the Edison Laboratories, Author of "The Boy- hood of Edison." STORY OF LUTHER BURBANK AND HIS WORK. Revised by MR. BURBANK, the Plant Wizard who has given us the "White Blackberry," the "Thornless Cactus" and other wonders of the plant world. STORY OF THE LIFE OF GRANT. Revised by U. S. GRANT, JR. NEW YORK CITY, THE METROPOLIS OF THE NATION. Revised by FREDERICK B. DE BERARD, Statistician of the Merchants Association of New York City. CHICAGO, THE METROPOLIS OF THE WEST.' Revised under the direction of HUBERT F. MILLER, Business Manager, Chicago Association of Commerce. THE STORY OF FRANCE. Revised by His Excellency J. J. JUSSERAND, French Ambassador to the United States. STORY OF ROBERT PEARY, DISCOVERER OF THE NORTH POLE. Revised by ADMIRAL PEARY. A thrilling "true story" of daring, persistence and scientific skill. STORY OF ROALD AMUNDSEN, DISCOVERER OF THE SOUTH POLE. Revised by CAPTAIN AMUNDSEN, the (intrepid, modern Norseman with "sea-blue eyes" who finished the work begun by Sebastian Cabot four centuries ago. CHINA AN ANCIENT PEOPLE AND THEIR NEW REPUBLIC. Revised by HON. W. J. CALHOUN, Ex-Minister to China. STORY OF HILL, "COLOSSUS OF ROADS." Revised by PRESIDENT HILL, the Scotch-Irish Lad from Canada, who dreamed a great dream and made it come true. THE COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES. Revised by A. H. BALDWIN, Ex-Chief of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, United States Department of Commerce. Now U. S. Commercial Attache, London. TRADE UNIONS AND TRADE UNIONISM THROUGHOUT THE WORLD. Revised by SAMUEL GOMPERS, President American Federation of Labor. THE RISE OF MODERN JAPAN. Revised by His Excellency VISCOUNT CHINDA, Formerly Japanese Ambassador to the U. S. A. R. TAYLOR, PH.D., LL.D. HON. R. HARCOURT, M.A., K.C., LL.D. JOHN M. COULTER, PH.D., LL.D. H. E. BARD, A.M. CHANDLER B. BEACH, A.M. E. N. HENDERSON, PH.D. ROLLIN D. SALISBURY, A.M. B. R. SIMPSON, PH.D. HON. F. D. COBURN EDITORS A:;D CONTRIBUTORS, THE NEW STUDENTS REFERENCE WORK GRAEME MERCER ADAM C. H. ROBISON, A.M. JAMES E. CLARK, M.PD. WM. B. MERRITT FRANK MORTON MCMURRY, PH.D. CHARLES H. ALBERT, A.B. JAS. H. FUQUA, S., LL.D. HON. W. W. STETSON FREDBRIC P. NOBLE. Pa.D. EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS, THE NEW STUDENT'S REFERENCE WORK J. J. BURNS J. G. BENNETT PERCIVAL R. COLE, PH.D. CALVIN BRAINARD CAOY WILLIAM A. LOCY, PH.D., Sc.D. FRANK EVANS ALBERT P. CARMAN, Sc.D. E. E. GILTNER. A.M. T. D. WOOD, A.M., M.D. EDI-TORS AND CONTRIBUTORS. THE NEW STUDENT'S REFERENCE WORK GEORGE WILLIAM EGGERS KATHERINE L. CRAIG HORACE LEMUEL WELLS, A.M. KATHERIXE POPE HENRY CREW, PH.D. C. A. McMuRRY, PH.D. CHARLES H. PARNSWORT ELEANOR ATKINSON PERCY HUGHES, Pa.D. EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS. THE NEW STUDENT'S REFERENCE WORK PREFACE THE STUDENT'S REFERENCE WORK has long been known and valued as supplying just that reference material which is needed by teachers and pupils in elementary and secondary schools. While partial revisions have been made from year to year, yet in order to keep fully abreast of the times a radical revision and the introduction of much new material have become necessary. Accordingly we now present THE NEW STUDENT'S REFERENCE WORK, which practically is a new work. New material has added more than one third to its volume, while the articles which appeared in the former work have been largely rewritten and entirely reset. In its preparation we were able to secure the cooperation of specialists and educators whose standing will be recognized upon inspection of our list of editors and contributors. Advantage has been taken of suggestions which have come to us from many teachers during years of experience in the use of the former work, and it is believed that the present work will be found adequate and satisfactory. C. B. B. KEY TO PRONUNCIATION a as in ale 1 as in eve 3 as in did ft as in Sp a sen'ate $ *vnt' $ at*/ a Arn a care I end o orb y pit'y a 2m e fern 5 5dd 00 food a arm $ re'c^nt u use <3o foot a ask T Tc ft unite* out a fi'nal t tdc'a U r^ide oi oil a ftll 1 ill u full FOREIGN CONSONANTS are represented by the nearest English equivalents. THE PRINCIPAL ACCENT is indicated by a heavy mark ', the secondary accent by a lighter mark ', at the end of the syllable. SYLLABIC DIVISION is indicated by a light hyphen. COMPOUND WORDS have their members joined by a heavy hyphen. (Q. V.) is Latin for quod vide or qua vide. In articles, after names, it means see this, that is, the subject named. THE NEW STUDENT'S REFERENCE WORK A ABBOTT AARDVARK A, the first letter in trie English alphabet and in many others. In English the letter has several different sounds, as in ah, at, all, ask, ale, fan, private, penal. In the French and other languages of Continental Europe it has but one sound; the broad a as in ah. This is the simplest vowel sound, given with the open mouth and throat. Aachen (a' then). See AIX-LA-CHAPELLE. Aardvark (drd'vark : earth pig) , an animal of South Africa, called also ant-bear. It is a strongly built ani- mal, about five feet long to tip of tail; has a long snout and s t r o n g claws with which it roots and tears apart the ant hills, and with its tongue licks up the ants and other insects which are its chief food. It lives in a shallow burrow and is nocturnal in its habits. Aaron, the first high priest of the Israel- ites. He was the elder brother of Moses, his spokesman at the court of Pharaoh and his assistant in leading the Jewish nation out from Egypt. During the absence of Moses on Mount Sinai he yielded to the cry of the people and made a golden calf for them to worship. Mount Hor, whereon he died, at the age of 123 years, is still called the "Mount of Aaron." Abacus (ab'a-ctis), is the classic name for what is now often called in schools the bead frame, a device for counting by means of beads or discs which have been strung upon parallel wires. Such a machine was in usa among tha Greeks and ABACUS Romans. The Chinese and the Persians employ it to this day. In architecture, an abacus is the flat tablet above the capital of a column. Abalone (ab'a-lo'ne), a shelled sea fish of the Haliotidae species, popularly known as ear-shells or sea-ears, found on the rocks of the California coast feeding on seaweed. The shell is a flattened spiral, with a lining of bright mother-of-pearl, used consider- ably in the arts; while the animal itself is used as food by Orientals on the coast, and, gathered and dried, is exported in quanti- ties both to Japan and to China. Abbey, Edwin Austin, an American artist, was born April 3, 1852, at Philadelphia. In 1883 he removed to England. He was an illustrator of a high order and a painter of watercolors that reveal ability as a colorist. His chief characteristic was love for English country life and scenery and for old poets and dramatists. His most famous painting is The Quest for the Holy Grail, in the Boston Library, and his illustrations of Shakspere and Goldsmith are notable. King Edward VII commissioned him to paint the coronation at Westminster. Died Aug. 1,1911. Ab'bott, Hon. John J. J. C., born in 1821 at St. Andrews (Quebec), educated at McGill University. Called to the Bar in 1847. F r * en years Dean of the Faculty of Law at McGill. At one time a Director of the Bank of Montreal. Counsel for the Canadian Pacific Railway. Elected to the House of Commons 1867. Selected by th Government in 1888 for a mission to Aus- tralia to further trade relations and cable communication. Called to the Senate in 1887. Leader for the Government in the Senate from 1887 to 1891. Became Premier of Canada in 1891. Author of the Insolv- ency Act which he carried through Parlia- ment, Was Mayor of Montreal in 1887 and again in 1888. An authority in Parliament on matters of banking and commerce. He died in 1893. Ab'bott, Lyman, American preacher, edi- tor and author, WAS born in 1835, tha son ABBOTSFORD ABBREVIATIONS of Jacob Abbott. After graduating from the University of the City of New York he studied law, but entered the ministry and became pastor of a Congregational church in Terre Haute, Ind. Later he be- came editor of The Christian Union, New York, now The Outlook, and succeeded Henry Ward Beecher as pastor of Plymouth Church, Brooklyn. Here he became widely known both as preacher and editor, and as the author of several commentaries and other books. Among his works are The Evolu- tion of Christianity; Christianity and Social Problems; An Evolutionist's Theory; The Rights of Man; The Life and Literature of the Hebrews. Ab'botsford, celebrated as the home of Sir Walter Scott, is situated on the Tweed river, near Melrose Abbey, Scotland. It was named from a ford where the abbots of Melrose Abbey crossed the Tweed. The house is an irregular, picturesque mansion, built by Sir Walter Scott in 1811, in the style of the old English manor houses. Carved stones taken from old castles and abbeys are placed at intervals in the walls of the house and garden. The lavish use of money in adorning Abbotsford was one of the chief causes of Scott's financial failure. Abattoir (db'dftwdr'), originally merely a slaughter-house, but now inclusive of a number of industries connected with the disposal of the parts of animals unfit for food. The term is sometimes made to in- clude also the market at which the products are sold. What to do with the waste parts of slain animals has always been a problem where population was dense enough to necessitate much butchering. In the time of the Roman Empire the killing was restricted to one section of the city, and here there was a public market, and sometimes, as in Rome, a splendid market building. Previous to 1810 in Paris killing of animals was allowed even along the principal streets, and^ con- ditions had become so bad that a commis- sion was appointed in that year to do away with the nuisance. Under the direction of this commission five great abattoirs were opened in September, 1818, and these have to a great extent been models for the world. London did not take up the matter in a serious way until 1852, and then in 1855 opened a great establishment at a suburb called Islington. But it has re- mained for America, in very recent times, to perfect the greatest of these institutions. Machinery has been so much brought into use that an almost marvelous speed and economy is attained. Perhaps an even more wonderful advance has been made in the matter of using the various parts of the animals which were once a nuisance. Such products as special foods, medicines, build- ing materials, chemicals, manures, etc., utilize practically every particle of an animal and so solve the problem of their disposal. Abbre'via'tions are used to save time in writing. In letter writing they should on the whole be avoided. Before printing was invented, however, the labor of copy- ing and the cost and scarcity of parchment caused abbreviations to be used so freely that they are apt to be very difficult to follow. Signs, like $ or are not, prop- erly speaking, abbreviations, but symbols. An abbreviation generally consists of the first part of a word, or else of the first letters of the words of a well-known phrase. Those which follow still occur frequently : A. B Bachelor of Arts. A. C Ante Christum, before Christ. A. D Anno Domini, in the year of our Lord. A. D. C Aide-de-camp. A. H. Anno Hegirse. in the year of the Hegira. or since 622 A. D. Ad lib Ad libitum, at pleasure. set setatis, aged. A. M Ante Meridiem, before noon. A. M Master of Arts. Anon Anonymous. A. U. C Ab urbe condita, from the founding of the city of Rome. A. V Authorized Version. b Born. B. A. Bachelor of Arts. Same as A. B. Bart. Baronet. B. C Before Christ. B. C. L Bachelor of Civil Law. B. D Bachelor of Divinity. Bp Bishop. B. S. or B.Sc. Bachelor of Science. C Centum, one hundred. C Centigrade. Cantab Cantabrigiensis, of Cambridge. C. B Companion of the Order of the Bath. c. c Cubic centimeter. C. E Civil Engineer. C. M. Cy. . . .Companion of the Order of St. Michael and St. George. Co Company. Co County. C/O Care of. C. O. D Cash on Delivery. Cr Creditor. Cresc Crescendo, growing louder. Cwt Hundredweight. d Died. d penny. D. C District of Columbia. D. C Da capo, from the beginning. D. C. L Doctor of Civil Law. D. D Doctor of Divinity. D. D. S Doctor of Dental Surgery. D. G Dei gratia, by the grace of God. Dim Diminuendo, less loudly. D. Lit Doctor of Literature. Do Ditto, the same. Dr Debtor. Dr Doctor. D. Sc Doctor of Science. D. S. O Companion of the Distinguished Service Order. D. V Deo volente, God willing. dwt Pennyweight. e. g Exempli gratia, for example. etc Et cetera, and so on. et seq Et sequentia, and the following. F Fahrenheit. f Porte, loudly. f . O. b Free on board. ff Fortissimo, very loud. F. R. C. P. . Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians. P. R. C. S. .Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons. F. R. G. S. .Fellow of the Royal Geographical Soci- ety. P. R. S. . . .Fellow of the Royal Society. G. C. B Grand Cross of the Order of St. Micnaei and St. Georgo ABD-EL-KADER ABELARD H. M. S His Majesty's Ship, or Service. ibid ibidem, in the same place. i. e Id est, that is. I. H. S.. . . . .Jesus hominum Salvator, Jesus the Saviour of men. Incog Incognito, unknown. Inst Instante mense, in the current month. J. P Justice of the Peace. Jr Junior. K. C King's counsel. K. C. B Knight Commander of the Bath. K. C. M. G.. Knight Commander of St. Michael and St. George. Libra, pound (British money). Ib Pound weight. Litt. D Doctor of Letters. LL. B Bachelor of Laws. LL. D Doctor of Laws. M Monsieur. MM Messieurs. M. B Bachelor of Medicine. M. C Member of Congress. M. D Doctor of Medicine. M. E Mining, or Mechanical, Engineer. Mile Mademoiselle. Mme Madame. M. P Member of Parliament. MS Manuscript; plural, MSS. N. B Nota bene, mark well. Nem. con Nemine contradicente, no one opposing. Ob Obiit, died. Oxon Oxoniensis, of Oxford. p. Piano, softly. Ph. B Bachelor of Philosophy. Ph. D Doctor of Philosophy. P. M Post Meridiem, afternoon. pp Pianissimo, very softly. P. P. C Pour prendre conge, to take leave. p Page; plural pp. pro tern Pro tempore, for the time. prox Proximo mense, in the next month. P. S Post scriptum, postscript. 0- E. D Quod erat demonstrandum, which was to be proved. Q. E. P Quod erat factendum, which was to be done. q. V Quod vide, which see. R. A Royal Academician. R. I. P Requiescat in Pace, may he rest in peace. R. M Royal Marines. R. N Royal Navy. R. S. V. P. . . R6pondez s'il vous plait, please reply. R. V Revised Version. S South, shilling, or saint. S. P. Q. R. . . Senatus populusque Romanus, the Senate and Roman People. sq Sequens, the following; plural sqq. Sr Senior. S. S Steamship. ult Ultimo mense. last month. U. S United States; U. S. A. U. S. N United States Navy. V. C Victoria Cross. v. or vs Versus, against. Abd-el-Kader (abd'el-kd'dir) (born 1806, died 1883), was emir or prince of the Arab tribes in Algeria. He is famous for his stubborn resistance to the French, who, in 1830, had driven out the Turks, the former rulers of the country. For eighteen years he fought with bravery and high general- ship against the larger forces of the French. Five successive generals were sent against him, some of the tribes were bribed to desert, and the Moors were made to attack him. Yet he utterly defeated the French twice, and kept up a successful resistance till 1848, when he was defeated, and soon after captured and imprisoned for four years at Paris. In 1860 Abd-el-Kader was in Damascus, and, at great risk to himself, aided the Christians during the Moham- medan riots. In the later years of his life he was a pensioner of the French govern- ment. Abdul-Hamid II (ab'dZSl-ha'mid), Sultan of Turkey and tributary states, from 1876 to 1909, was the second son of Sultan Abdul- Medjid, of the House of Othman. He was born Sept. 22, 1842, and succeeded to the throne on the deposition of his elder brother, Murad V, on Aug. 31, 1876. He was a Turk and Mussulman of the old school and consequently showed little inclina- tion towards reform within the Ottoman Empire, which was stipulated by the Treaty of Berlin, in 1878, following on the war with Russia of the previous year, which proved disastrous to the Porte. In later years he lived under the dread of assas- sination and showed distrust even of his own ministers. He looked askant at Eng- land's operations in Egypt, and was believed to have secretly stimulated the rebellion of Arabi Pasha in 1882. The same malign influence was also known to be at work in Armenia, where the Christian world was horrified at the atrocities com- mitted there by the Turkish soldiery. Resistance to the outrage and rapine there has been greatly handicapped by jealousies among the European Powers. In 1908, following a revolt led by the Young Turks' party and involving the army, Abdul was forced to grant a Constitution, and an assembly, but in April 1909, a revolt against the new order was instigated by the Sultan. This was quickly put down. Abdul Hamid was dethroned and his brother Reshed Effendi was placed on the throne as Mehmed V. Abdul Hamid died "in dig- nified captivity" at Salonica, Feb. 10, 1918. A Becket. See BECKET. A'bel, the second son of Adam, was a shepherd and offered a sacrifice of the "first- lings of his flock." His offering was pre- ferred to that of his brother Cain, who in anger killed him. This violent death gave him the title of the "first martyr." Ab'elard (tib'e-lard), Pierre, a brilliant French scholar, was born in Brittany in 1079. Moved by a thirst for knowledge he gave his family inheritance up to his brothers and went to Paris, where he devoted him- self to study. His fearless independence intellectually, and his success in public debates, led him to establish a school of his own, which became so famous that other teachers were almost deserted. He fell in love with HeloTse, a beautiful and accom- plished girl, one of his pupils. As marriage would interfere with his rising in the church, Abelard and Helolse were secretly united. Their union soon became known, and they separated, Abelard becoming a monk and Helcflse a nun. Devoting himself to theol- ogy he was tried and convicted of heresy, and driven to found a hermitage, which he called the Paraclete. He gave up this ABERCROMBIE ABRAHAM rtret to Heloise, and when he died, in 1142, she had him buried there. At her death she was interred by his side. In 1800 their remains were removed to Paris, where they now rest in the cemetery of Pere-la-Chaise, A figure of Abelard reclines on the tomb, and by its side stands a statue of He"lolse. Abercrombie (ab'er-krtim-b?), James (born 1706, died 1781), a British general who took part in the French and Indian war. In 1758 he was appointed comrnander- in-chief of the forces m America. He at- tacked Ticonderoga at the head of 15,000 men, but was defeated by Montcalm (July 8, 1758). He returned to England, where he became a member of parliament and governor of Stirling Castle. Aberdeen (Sb-er-den 1 ) , the principal city of northern Scotland, receives its name from two Gaelic words meaning "at the mouth of the Dee," where it is situated, about 100 miles northeast of Edinburgh. Its charter dates from 1179. It was burned by the English in 1336, and after its restoration called New Aberdeen. It has large factories of cotton, woolen and linen fabrics, exports granite extensively, and is engaged in whale fisheries and in shipbuilding. It is the seat of the University of Aberdeen. Popula- tion (1911) 163,084. Aberdeen, Earl of (Rt. Hon. J. C. Hamilton-Gordon, P.C., G.C.M.G.), a Scot- tish Liberal peer, was born Aug. 3, 1847, and educated at St. Andrews and at Oxford. He succeeded to the title in 1870. In 1886 he was appointed by Mr. Gladstone Lord- lieutenant of Ireland, with the mission of carrying out the Home Rule policy of the then Liberal government. This office he held but a few months, though he was very acceptable to the Irish people; but with the fall of the Gladstone administration he resigned the post, and subsequently made a tour of the world, visiting the chief British colonies. From 1893 to 1898 he acted as Governor-General of Canada, and later he was Viceroy of Ireland. Abitibi (a'bt-tib'e). Two important lakes and a river of the same name in north- eastern Ontario (Canada). The upper Abitibi Lake (connected with the lower by a "Narrows" about two miles in length) covers an area of about 190 square miles, one-third of this area being in the Province of Quebec. One-half of the shore line is rocky. Innumerable islands of all shapes and sizes dot the lake, giving it a natural beauty equal to that of the St. Lawrence River. The lower lake has an area of 145 square miles. The Abitibi River discharges the waters of these two lakes, emptying with other streams into the Moose River, which a short distance further on empties into James' Bay. Abolition of Slavery. See SLAVERY. Aborigines. See INDIANS. Aboukir, See NILS, BATTLE OP. Abraham, the head of the Hebrew nation, was born at Ur, in Chaldaea, about 2000 B. C. He left his people, who were idol- aters, to worship the one God, and dwelt in Palestine, leading the life of an Arab chief. His original name, Abram, was changed to Abraham, meaning "father of a great nation." He died near Hebron, aged 175 years, and is noted for his faith in God, being called the "Father of the Faithful." Abraham, Plains of. A level tract of land about one mile in width immediately west of the city of Quebec, named after Abraham Martin, who at one time owned it. The scene of the memorable battle, which wrested from the French their supremacy in North America. The British troops had been besieging the city for some time without success. Autumn was approaching and the admiral in com- mand of the fleet refused to remain longer. Wolfe, the young general in command of the army, resolved on one last desperate venture. Embarking all his available troops on the vessels of the fleet he moved up the St. Lawrence some miles beyond the city. The French were bewildered by the ever-changing tactics of their opponents, and when, on the night of the i2th of Sep- tember (1759), the British army dropped down the river in boats and scaled its precipitous bank, there was only a small guard at the top to offer ineffectual opposi- tion. Daybreak found Wolfe's army drawn up in battle array on the plains. The gallant French general, Montcalm, imme- diately marched from the city with all his available troops and impetuously attacked the British forces. The thin red line of British troops held their fire until the French were within 40 paces and then shattered their ranks with two accurately delivered volleys. The French ranks broke and fled, and Wolfe lived long enough to know that his desperate attempt had been entirely successful. Montcalm died a few hours later. The British loss was some fifty killed and five hundred and ninety- seven wounded, while that of the French was about one thousand five hundred, in- cluding two hundred and fifty prisoners. On the 1 7th of the same month the city surrendered and (save Montreal) Canada was in the hands of the British. The following spring the French force marched from Montreal over well-nigh impassable roads, and a second and bloodier battle was fought on the plains, resulting in the British force being repulsed and driven within the walls. The timely arrival of some British frigates, however, caused the siege to be raised, and Quebec and all Canada then became part of the British possessions. The celebration of the coming of th great voyager Champlain to Quebec was ABRUZZI ABYDOS held in 1908, amd in this connection there i was consummated a movement to make the Plains of Abraham a National Park, and erect in its center a monument to Peace. The federal government of Canada and the governments of the various provinces as well joined in aid of this celebration which proved to be one of the most imposing ever held in Canada. The presence of the Prince of Wales, who came to Canada specially to take part in it, added to the enthusiasm of the occasion. Abruzzi (d-broot'se), Duke of, known also as Prince Amadeo of Savoy, a mem- ber of the royal house of Italy and a dis- tinguished explorer, aeronaut, sportsman and scientist, son of ex-King Amadeus of Spain, was born in 1873 in Madrid and educated in part at the Naval College in Leghorn. As a youth he travelled round the world, and in 1896 successfully ascended Mount St. Elias, in Alaska, whose ice- covered peak is over 18,000 feet in height. In 1899 the Duke set out from Christiania on an Arctic voyage in the Stella Polare, and wintered in Teplitz Bay, 81 47' N. There he organized a sledge party, to proceed toward the North Pole, but an accident to his ship prevented the Duke from accompanying it. It was, however, manned under the command of his chief officer, Captain Cagni, the expedition reach- ing the most northerly point attained up to that date, viz. : 86 34' N., or within 236 statute miles of the Pole. The nar- rative of the expedition is told in the Duke of Abruzzi's book, On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea, published in 1903. The Duke's achievement beat that of Nansen in The Fram, in years 1893-94, the Norwegian explorer having in his sledge journey only reached 86 4' N., 96 E. Ab'salom, the third son of King David, was noted for his personal beauty and win- ning manners. By these qualities he seduced the people into rebellion against his father. He was defeated in battle, caught by his beautiful hair in the branches of an oak as he fled, and slain by Joab against the orders of his father, who mourned his death in a most touching lament. Absinthe (ab-sinth'), a popular French liquor, agreeable to the taste, but one of the most dangerous stimulants ever manu- factured. It is made from oil of worm- wood and alcohol, with the addition of several volatile oils. Absorp'tion (in plants), the method by which almost all plants take materials from the outside into their bodies. Plants absorb water and a great variety of substances soluble in water. Because the protoplasm of plant cells forms about each a con- tinuous covering, the cell wall having no visible openings, and because both cell wall and protoplasm hold among their particles large amounts (50-98 per cent) of water, all substances, whether solid or gaseous, must be dissolved in water before they can enter the plant. When so dissolved the particles are free to move through the water, and tend to distribute themselves uniformly. As the water outside is continuous with that forming part of the body, the particles may migrate into the plant almost as readily as in other directions. They will enter it if of suitable size, and if the water inside contains less of that substance than the water outside. The movement of each sort of material is independent, and a sub stance will continue to enter until it be- comes equally distributed. If it is being used or stored, it may be absorbed in large amounts. Similarly water moves from the places where there are fewest particles of all the dissolved substances, .*., where there is most water, toward the places where there is relatively less water. As water is constantly evaporating from land plants large quantities of water must be absorbed to balance this loss. The absorption of all substances is subject to regulation by the living protoplasm. Not all substances soluble in water are permitted to enter, nor at all times. Abstinence. See TOTAL ABSTINENCE. Abt (apt), Franz, born at Eilenburg, in Saxony, Dec. 22, 1819. As his father, who was a clergyman, designed to educate him for his own profession he was placed in the St. Thomas school and in the University of Leipsic, where he had the advantage of good training in music as well as in the usual academic branches. He finally relin- quished his theological studies for the more congenial musical studies. In 1841 ha obtained the position of capellmeister at Zurich, and eleven years later obtained the same position at Brunswick. His death occurred at Wiesbaden, March 31, 1885. Abt is best known as a composer of part-songs for men's voices. His early residence at Zurich, where he conducted male singing societies, developed a facility in this class of composition that resulted in his great popularity. His songs for a single voice have had wide acceptance, notably the one entitled "When the Swal- lows Homeward Fly." Besides songs he has written pieces for the pianoforte, which are regarded as inferior to his vocal compo- sitions. In all, his works embrace more than four hundred numbers, none of which, however, entitles him to rank with the great German composers. Aby'do* (a-bi'dos), an ancient cttv A. Asia Minor, celebrated as the place where Xerxes crossed the Hellespont in his in- vasion of Greece, in 480 B. C. When bis bridge of boats, nearly a mile in length, wa? swept away by a storm he punished th* sea by inflicting three hundred lashes ac4 casting chains into its waves. When tbe ABYSSINIA ACHAEAN LEAGUE second double bridge was built, Xerxes poured an offering of wine on the waters and prayed to the sun; then throwing a cup and a Persian sword into the Helles- pont he ascended his throne on the heights of Abydos. Here he watched for a whole week the ceaseless march of his army, per- haps a million in number, made up of forty- six different nations, each dressed in its national costume. Abydos is famous also as the scene of the story of Hero and Leander, which see. Abyssinia (<5&'*-s*Vif-d), a country of eastern Africa, southwest of the Red Sea. It is a tableland, from which rise flat- topped mountains, intersected by deep valleys and gorges. The royal house, which reigned for centuries, traced its lineage back to the Queen of Sheba. In 1850 Theod- orus, a military adventurer, revolted and was crowned emperor. He first sent em- bassies to England and France and received a British consul at his court. It was his imprisonment of the consul and of an em- bassy sent to inquire into the matter that caused the English government to send Sir Robert Napier from Bombay with a relief expedition. The capital, Magdala, was stormed and captured, Theodorus shooting himself when told that the city gates had given way. This occurred in 1868, and for some time after the English forces with- drew lawlessness prevailed. In 1872 John II was crowned emperor. He was killed in battle in 1889 and was succeeded by his adversary, Menelek, the present king, who reigns under the title of Menelek II. In 1885 Italy occupied the port of Massowah, and sought to acquire territory inland, claiming, by treaty in 1889, a protectorate over Abyssinia. This led to a protracted war, and in 1896 the Italian army of in- vasion was beaten with great loss. As a result, Italy withdrew her claim to a pro- tectorate over Abyssinia. In 1902 the boundary between Abyssinia and the Brit- ish Sudan was adjusted by treaty. The area of Abyssinia is over 400,000 square miles, with an estimated population of five and a half millions. There are many small towns, few with a population exceeding 5,000. But little land is cultivated, the chief pursuit of the people being the herd- ing of cattle, sheep and goats. A railway line connects Dire Daw a in southeastern Abyssinia with the port of Jibuti, 186 miles distant. Telegraph and telephone systems are in use. Barley, wheat, millet, hops and tobacco are produced in consider- able quantities. The annual product of coffee is about 50,000 bags. Academy, The French, founded in 1635 by Cardinal Richelieu, was the great author- ity in France in all matters of scholarship until it was disbanded during the French Revolution in 1793. Its members were forty of the first scholars of the country, who met three times a week. Its greatest work was the publication of its dictionary of the French language after fifty years of labor. The Academy was reconstructed in 1795, and in its original form it was restored by Louis XVIII in 1816. Aca'dia (a-ka'di-a) or Acadie. It was in _I497, or thereabouts, that the Cabots visited, if they were not the discoverers of, Nova Scotia. French Colonists came here in 1604. They were driven put by settlers from Virginia who rested their claim on the right of discovery. The French gave the land the name of Acadie. In 1621 it was changed to Nova Scotia. In 1621 James I granted the peninsula to Sir William Alex- ander. In 1654 the French again estab- lished themselves in the colony. The country was ceded to them in 1667, but the English regained it in 1713. The French Acadians now make one- tenth of the population of Nova Scotia. In only one county (Richmond) have they a majority. They are as one to four of the population of New Brunswick. Their settle- ments in New Brunswick are compact. One- seventh of the population of Prince Edward Island is Acadian. Their chief center in Prince Edward is at Tignish, on the west coast. There are 140,000 Acadians in the maritime provinces. Accordion (&k-kor'cK-iiri), a musical in- strument invented by Damian, at Vie&na, about 1829. It is made on the principle of a bellows, the sound being produced by the action of wind on metallic reeds. Keys are ranged on each side, which are touched by the fingers as the instrument moves back- ward and forward. It is manufactured chiefly in Paris. Acetylene (a-sert-Uri) (C 8 H 2 ), a gas, slightly lighter than air, which is extensively used for illumination. It burns with a brilliant, white flame, which is smoky, ex- cept when specially constructed burners are used. It is usually prepared by the action of water upon a calcium carbide, a material made by exposing a mixture of limestone and coke to a very high heat in the electric furnace. With air, acetylene gives ex- plosive mixtures, and when under pressures of two or three atmospheres, or more, it is powerfully explosive by itself. The pure gas is said to be odorless and non-poisonous, but, as usually made, it contains small quantities of strong-smelling and somewhat poisonous gases. Acetylene gas is widely used in villages and country houses not served by ordinary gas systems, consumers installing necessary apparatus and gen- erating their own gas. Achaean League (d-ke f an leg), originally a confederacy of ten cities of Achaia, which grew into power after the fall of the greater Greek powers. Later it included nearly all the Greek cities, and for fifty years resisted the attacks of Rome. ACHAIA ACOUSTICS Achata (d-kd'-yd), one of the ancient divisions of the Peloponnesus, extending along the Gulf of Corinth. Its inhabitants were the most powerful of the-Greeks at the time of the Trojan war. Under the Romans Achaia included the whole Peloponnesus as well as the country across the gulf as far as Thessaly. In modern Greece it is a small province. Acheron (ak'er-on), in ancient mythol- ogy, a river of the lower world around which hovered the shades of the departed, and across whose waters the ferryman, Charon (ka'ron), piloted those who were permitted to enter the realm of the dead. Acheron was also a general name for Hades. Achilles (a-kil'lez) was the bravest of the Greeks in the Trojan war, and the hero of the Iliad. His father, Peleus, was a descendant of Zeus, the king of the gods, and the ruler of the Myrmidons, the war- like people of Phthia, in Thessaly. His mother, Thetis, a sea goddess, is said to have dipped him by the heel into the river Styx to make him invulnerable, as she had been forewarned that he was doomed to an early death. For the same reason, after he had been trained in the arts of war and eloquence by Phcenix, and in the heal- ing art by the centaur, Chiron (ki'ron), his mother had him brought up secretly as one of the daughters of the King of Scyros (si'ros). At the outbreak of the Trojan war an oracle declared that Troy could not be taken unless Achilles were present. So Ulysses, the wisest of the Greeks, came to Scyros disguised as a peddler, and spread out his wares before the daughters of the king. Ulysses sounded an alarm, and while the girls ran away the disguised Achilles betrayed himself by seizing a sword and spear from the peddler's stock. Achilles went to war with fifty-seven ships, and during the first nine years he sacked twenty- three cities around Troy. He quarreled with Agamemnon over a maid, Briseis, whom he loved. When she was taken from him he sulked in his tent, while his country- men were hard pressed because their bravest warrior, whom the Trojans dreaded, was not there. At last his friend Patro- clus, wearing the armor of Achilles, drove the enemy before him, but was slain by Hector, the leader of the Trojans. Achilles, enraged at the death of his friend, went against the Trojans and drove them within their walls. In single combat he killed Hector, whom he dragged three times around the city at his chariot wheels. Here the Iliad ends, but the story is taken up by the dEthiopis, a poem by Arctinus, which tells of the combat of Achilles, first with the Amazon Penthesilea, and next with Memnon. When Memnon fell, Achilles drove back the Trojans to the Scaean gate, where he was killed by an arrow from the bow of Paris, which pierced his vulnerable heel. Ac' id, a term used in chemistry to denote a class of substances whose union with an alkali, or other base, forms salts. Strictly speaking, all acids contain hydrogen, and are, in fact, salts of hydrogen. Most of them have the following properties: they can be dissolved in water; they have a sour taste; they turn vegetable blues to red. The most common and useful inorganic or "mineral" acids are sulphuric, nitric and hydrochloric acids, which are manufactured on a very large scale. Among the organic acids are acetic acid, which gives vinegar its sour taste; citric acid, which produces the sourness in lemons; oxalic acid, which is found in sorrel and some other plants, and which in large quantities acts as a poison; malic acid, found in apples and also currants and gooseberries; tartaric acid, found in grapes and used in the manu- facture of baking powder; prussic or hydro- cyanic acid, a deadly poison, a small quantity of which is found in bitter al- monds and in the leaves and stones of peaches. Many hundred acids are known to chemists, the greater part of which are artificial. Aconcagua (d-kon-kd'gwa), a central province of the Republic of Chile, bounded on the north by the province of Coquimbo, on the south by Santiago and on the south- west by Valparaiso, flanked on the east by the Andes and the Argentine Republic, and on the west by the South Pacific Ocean. Its area is 5,485 square miles, with a population (1910) of 131,331. Its capital is Felipe. On the range of the Andes, within the Argentine boundary, is the extinct volcano of Aconcagua, deemed the loftiest elevation in the New World, with an estimated height of 23,000 feet. The Aconcagua River flows seaward through the province and gives the latter its chief fertility in grain, hemp and a variety of fruits. Copper deposits are found in the province. A'corn, fruit of the oak, a nut once considered an important article of food. The ancients thought eating "oaken mast" gave length of years and strength to man. The Indians of New England and farther south ate the acorns of white oaks of several species. The sweet acorn of the California white oak, Indians of the Pacific Coast bake, shell and grind into a coarse meal from which they make bread. Chinese and Japanese use certain acorns for food. Today in some English villages the people hold to the old "right of pannage, and in autumn turn their hogs into the royal forests to fatten on the fallen acorns. Acoustics (a-kffis'tiks'). Those phe- nomena which one detects by the ear are generally studied together under the head of acoustics. But whenever any sound is heard we find that somewhere in the neighborhood there is what we call a sound- ACOUSTICS 8 ACOUSTICS ing body, and this is always found to be a body in rapid vibration. Besides this we find that if the sounding body be supported on a bit of cotton wool, placed under the receiver of an air pump, and the air ex- hausted, the sound is almost entirely ex- tinguished. We are thus led to believe that two things are always essential to the production of sound, viz., a rapidly vi- brating body and an elastic medium, gen- erally air, between that body and the ear. Accordingly the subject of acoustics is made to include a study of vibrating bodies, such as a piano wire, a violin string, an organ pipe, etc., and also of the bodies which transmit vibrations to the ear, such as air, wooden rods and other elastic media. The structure of the ear and the sensa- tion of sound are generally studied under physiology, and are seldom included under acoustics. A VIBRATING STRING One of the most typical of vibrating bodies is a stretched string, such as is em- ployed in the guitar or the harp. When a string of this kind is plucked by the finger a series of waves is started in the string, and these waves are reflected from the fixed ends of the string in such a way that the string -"ibrates as a whole, to and fro, in a manner familiar to every one. It has been found by experiment that the number of vibrations which a string will make in one second, i.e., the pitch of the string, depends upon three things only, namely, the length of the string, the force with which it is stretched, and the mass of unit length of the string. This may be described more definitely as follows* If we denote by the pitch of the string, whose length is I, by T the stretching force, and by m the mass of unit length, then OBSERVER. SPBED OP SOUND IN METERS PER SEC. TEMP. = oc. METHOD. Moll and Van Beck . Regnault 333-77 330. 71 Eye and ear Szathmari. . . ..... 331.57 m Evidently, therefore, we can raise the pitch of a string in two ways, either by increasing the stretching force, i.e., by increasingT, or by shortening its length, i.e., by diminishing I. SOUND A WAVE MOTION The evidence for thinking that the dis- turbance which we call sound is a wave motion in the air is as follows: 1. Sound is reflected from buildings or hillsides just as water waves are reflected from a wharf. This is the familiar phe- nomenon of the echo. 2. Two sounds can be added together to produce silenqe. The simplest method of doing this is to hold a tuning fork near to one ear, front of you, and while it is still vibrating rotate it slowly about its stem as an axis. It is found that there are cer- tain positions in which the disturbance from one prong of the fork will just annul the disturbance from the other prong of the fork, thus adding two sounds together to produce silence. 3. Sound waves can actually be seen by properly illuminating the air with an electric spark. This was first done by Toepler of Dresden. More recently Professor R. W. Wood has succeeded by this method in making instantaneous photographs of sound waves, showing just what portions of the air are condensed and what portions are rarefied at the instant. SPEED OF SOUND IN AIR It has been found by experiment that sounoT waves of all lengths travel in air with the same speed. This is evident, indeed, from the fact that the "time" of an orchestra is just as perfect at long dis- tances as at short distances. Among the best measures of this speed are the following: As a mean we may take 332 meters per second, which is equivalent to 1,089 f ee * per second, at a temperature of o C. New- ton and Laplace first showed how the speed of sound may be computed in any gas as soon as its pressure and its density are known. For they proved that if V denotes the speed of sound in a gas in which the density is D and the pressure P, then V = where k is a constant, which for most gases has the approximate value of 1.4. But it has been found that the value of this constant, k, depends upon the number of atoms in one molecule of the gas. If there is but one atom in the molecule then k 1.6. Accordingly when chemists wish to determine how many atoms there are in a molecule of any given gas they measure the speed of sound in that gas, then measure the pressure and density, and afterward compute k by the use of the expression given above. MUSICAL TONES The sound which is produced by a regular and rapid vibration is called a "musical tone," while the sound which is produced by irregular vibrations is called a "noise." Every musical tone possesses three features by which it may be distinguished from all other musical tones. These are loudness, pitch and quality. i. It has been shown that the loudness or intensity of a sound depends simply upon the amplitude of the vibrating air particles at the ear. The loudness of a sound will. ACOUSTICS ADAM therefore, vary mot only with the distam of the sounding body, but also with the amount of vibration in the sounding body. 2. The pitch of a note depends simply upon the number of vibrations per second, that is, the frequency of the body which produces it. 3. But even when notes have the same loudness and the same pitch they may be quite different, as, for instance, the differ- ence between middle C on the guitar and on the piano. Two notes of this kind are said to differ in quality. And quality has been shown to depend upon the presence of other notes, calkd overtones, along with the note under consideration. THE MUSICAL SCALE When we consider one tone in relation to other tones we are led to a study of the musical scale. Two definitions are neces- sary to any understanding of the musical scale, viz.: 1. A musical interval between any two notes is defined as the ratio of their fre- quencies. Two notes which have the same frequency are said to be in unison. But if the ratio be 2:1 then the interval is said to be an octave. , 2. The Major Triad. It is a very remark- able fact that the ears of all western nations consider any three notes whose frequencies are in the ratio 4:5:6 as harmonious. Such a combination is called the major triad, and is always pleasing to the ear. The interval between any note and its octave is divided by musicians into a series of seven smaller intervals, called tones and semitones. These tones are called by letters of the alphabet, and together form what is known as the musical scale. o o o +o Hn PQ a - f. < A > O Egean (e-je'&ri) Sea, an arm of the Med- iterranean between Greece and Asia Minor, is now called the Grecian Archipelago. One fable traces its name to JEgeas, king of Athens, who threw himself into its waters. It is over 400 miles in length, with an aver- age breadth of 200 miles. It is studded with islands, many of which have played an important part in Grecian history. /Eneas (e-ne f Us) , a Trojan warrior and hero of the JEneid, the great epic poem of ^OLIAN 8 AERONAUTICS Vergil; the son of Anchises and the goddess Venus he married Creusa, the daughter of King Priam. After the sack of Troy he left the city, carrying his father on his shoulders and leading his son Ascanius. Building a fleet, he set sail with a few chosen companions, but was shipwrecked on the coast of Africa, near Carthage. He was received kindly bv Queen Dido, whom he would have married had he not been warned by the gods to seek Italy. On setting out thither, his ship, as it left port, was lighted by the funeral pyre of Dido, who had killed herself in grief at his de- parture. After celebrating the national games on the coast of Sicily in honor of Anchises, who had died there, and paying a visit to the lower world, where the future was unfolded to him, JEneas reached the Tiber. He was received by King Latinus, whose daughter he married. He fell in battle with the Etruscans, and after his death received the honors of a god. His son Ascanius or lulus founded Alba Longa, one of whose kings, Numitor, was the grand- father of Romulus, who founded Rome. Hence the Romans claimed to derive their origin from JEneas. /4Eolian (e-o'tt-ari) Harp, a musical instrument named from ^Eolus, god of the winds. It is made by stretching catgut strings or wires over a thin sounding box. The strings are tuned as in a violin. When placed in a partially closed window, where there is a draught, the passing of the wind over its strings produces strange and mel- ancholy musical sounds, varying with the force of the wind. /Eolus (e'o-lus), the mythical god of the winds. He is said to have ruled over the ^Eolian islands, now the Lipari group in the Tyrrhenian sea. Here he kept the winds shut up in a cave, loosing them and calling them back at the command of Neptune. A'era'tion (d'er-a'shun) (in plants). Plants, like animals, respire (see RESPIRA- TION); therefore, air (oxygen) must reach all the living cells, and carbon dioxid must be got rid of. Green plants also need to absorb carbon dioxid and to get rid of oxygen in the process of food-making (see PHOTOSYNTHESIS). To permit these gaseous exchanges in the larger plants the cells partly separate as they mature, leaving irregular passages, which usually open to the outside by numerous slits, each bounded by two guard cells and called stomata. The air does not flow in mass through these orifices and passages, but the insensible movements of diffusion suffice. This aerat- ing system also permits the evaporation of water by land plants (see TRANSPIRA- TION). Naturally the aerating system is best developed in the larger water-plants, where the great canals can be seen with the naked eye. Aeronautics (a-er-o-naw'-iiks) or Aerial Navigation. It seems to be a fixed principle of nature that every kind of animal as well as every individual animal must work out its problems in an individual way. As man learned to navigate the water, not by building an artificial fish although he borrowed valuable ideas from the fish so he finally learned to navigate the air, not by building an artificial bird as he originally tried to do, but by devices suited to the machinery of his body and the adaptation of some of the machinery and methods of both the bird and the fish. While the "bird man" uses wings biplanes and monoplanes he does not use them to drive himself forward as the hawk does, for example, when flying, but to keep himself in the air as the hawk does when he hovers over the chicken lot. For the tail of his flying machine the "bird man" has used, as we shall see, the tail feathers of the bird in the horizon- tal rudder and the tail fin of the fish for his vertical rudder. At the same time that he was borrowing ideas of the bird and the fish he carried these ideas out with machinery bor- rowed from his fellow travelers on land and water. Look at the picture of the Bleriot monoplane and see if you cannot find the ideas borrowed from the sled, bicycle and auto- mobile the horizontal rudder, like the tail of a bird, the upright rudder (marked 22) like the fin of a fish, and the gas engine in the heart of the machine, surrounded by its radiator, like the radiator of an automobile; and, finally, the propeller borrowed from the screw propeller of the steamshipitself probably first bor- rowed from some little boy with a whirligig, in Egypt or Assyria centuries upon centuries ago ! Just as little boys do, men usually learn to do things right by beginning to do them wrong. The story of Daedalus (q. v.) simply expresses the fact that man's original idea about flying was to make himself wings like a bird. Next he tried and succeeded in floating through the air by means of a balloon a big ball filled with gas, just like a child's toy balloon, with the difference that it had a net over it and a basket hanging from this net in which men could ride and carry scientific instruments for measuring the temperature and moisture of the air and learning other things of interest and importance to science. It was on June 5, 1783, that Stephen and Joseph Montgolfier, paper makers of Annonay, France, launched the first balloon, of which ' they were the inventors. Balloons anchored to the ground by ropes are still used for military observation, but the most important form of the balloon flying machine is what is known as the dirigible, in which the gas which holds it up is contained in a series of separate bags in a cigar-shaped frame like the water-tight compartments of a ship. It is propelled and guided by machinery similar to that of an aeroplane. THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF AIRSHIPS Airships are divided into two classes the AERONAUTICS AERONAUTICS aeroplanes, or machines that are heavier than air, and the dirigibles, which are lighter than air. Aeroplanes are again divided into two classes, the monoplanes, which have one set, and the biplanes, which have two sets of wings. A hydro-aeroplane is a machine that can swim in the water as well as fly through the air. There is only one thing the bird can do a duck, for example that man has as not yet done; for the duck can fly over the water, swim on the water and dive under the water; but no machine "bird" has yet been invented that will do all these things. The submarine (q. v.) can swim on the water and dive under the water but cannot fly. Of the dirigibles the Zeppelin the invention of a German count is the best known; and, like the aeroplanes, has found its most exten- sive use in war. ^ The Zeppelins are really immense "battleships of the air," rigid in con- struction, metal covered, armed with machine guns, equipped with wireless apparatus and searchlights, are from 485 to 550 feet in length, with a horse power varying from 450 to 1,080, are capable of a speed of 40 miles against, to 94 miles an hour with the wind; can stay up from thirty-five to forty hours; carry a crew of twenty men, provision and fuel for a 3,000 mile journey, and a large quantity of explosives. HOW THE FLYING MACHINE PROBLEM WAS SOLVED Following important, though unsuccessful, experiments by Maxim in England and Langley in America, Wilbur Wright and his brother, Orville, after years of study and experiment, produced an aeroplane which was first suc- cessfully operated near Dayton, Ohio, in 1905. The power in the Wright and other aero- planes is controlled by a lever similar to that of a locomotive; but this lever has a right and left motion by which the planes, or wings, which are flexible, can be tipped at the outer end so as to counterbalance adverse air currents just as a bird tips his wing to balance himself against the wind. The vertical rudder with which the machine is guided to the right or left is controlled by a special arrangement on the power lever. The horizontal rudders with which the "bird man" steers his flight up or down and checks him- self, preparatory to lighting just as a bird does is controlled by a separate lever. The machine is mounted on two long runners which support the horizontal rudder when the machine is running along the ground. The hydro-aeroplane combines the flying machine with a little boat on wheels. With the wheels it runs along the ground when lighting on land or rising for flight. The boat, with the help of two cylinders filled with air at either end of the lower of its two planes, keeps it afloat in the water. A very important step in connection with aviation was the granting of an American patent in 1913 to the Wright Brothers for a stabilizer for maintaining automatic control a kind of mechanical brain. To prevent the tipping of the wings by a sudden puff a pen- dulum is connected with a motor; while, to prevent sudden swerving up or down, there is a horizontal rudder actuated by a small plane mounted at a different angle from the main aeroplane so that, whenever there is a sudden change in the position of the machine, the horizontal rudder restores it to its proper position. COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGES OF DIRIGIBLES AND AEROPLANES The European War gave a tremendous impetus to the construction and use of both aeroplanes and dirigibles, and demonstrated their relative advantages. While Zeppelins have the advantage over the smaller craft that they can carry a larger number of men and a larger supply of explo- sives, the value of both the biplane and the monoplane is in their use for scouting and for the direction of gun fire. War aeroplanes are broadly divided into three types, (i) those for chasing and fighting, (2) for scouting, and (3) for bombardment. The fighting machines are the fastest and quickest climbers but without much flight endurance because of the amount of fuel (petroleum) necessary to be carried. Armed biplanes are built with as high as 150 horse power, and two engines and two machine guns, one pointing forward, one backward. These guns are rigid and are aimed by maneu- vering the machine. These machines will travel from 125 to 130 miles an hour. The air scouts fly 6,000 feet high, hide as much as possible among the clouds and hang DIRIGIBLE BALLOON for hours like a hawk in one quarter of the sky. On discovering, for example, the hidden battery of an enemy the scout signals by maneuvers or by dropping tinsel that glitters in the sun or by smoke balls. Knowing the elevation the artillery observer makes calcula- tions by geometry so rapidly that cases are on record of the utter destruction of a battery within thirty seconds of the aeroplane's first signal. For scouting a half dozen aeroplanes are considered worth a division of cavalry. In three and one-half hours an airman can cover a circular area of eighty miles in radius, noting each regiment of infantry, cavalry, squadron or field battery. All cavalry screens, feigned movements and secrecy of the old days of warfare have been swept away. Biplanes for all-around purposes are considered superior to monoplanes. They are also easier to build AERONAUTICS 20 AESCHYLUS and operate and stand better the severe de- mands of military flying. Both dirigibles and aeroplanes are used for bombardment, and go in squadrons, flying in single file like a flock of wild geese. Reaching the object of attack, they swoop, each in turn, drop bombs, climb skyward in a zig-zag fashion like a vessel tacking and, making a wide circle swoop down again. At the beginning of the war there were many types of machines, but the war resulted in the development of fewer types, as the severe test of war eliminated the unfit. Of course, an army does not permit the enemy's aircraft to spy .out its position un- molested, and not only gives chase with its own aeroplanes, but types of guns are especially devised for attacking aircraft. Zeppelins were used not only in the attack on Antwerp and other cities on the Continent, but in repeated raids on London. The Hague Conference (q. v.) voted to prohibit the dis- charge of projectiles and explosives from air- craft, while leaving them free for observation purposes; but this provision was not ratified by Germany, France or Italy. HISTORY OF THE USE OF AIRCRAFT IN WAR Previous to the European War aircraft had been successfully employed in the Italian- Turco War, in the Balkan War (q. v.), and to some extent in Mexico, both by the Mexicans and by the American army of occupation. The use of both types of aircraft which, in the great European conflict was one of the three most important elements in the revolution of methods of warfare the other two being the development in heavy portable artillery and the use of submarines was itself the evolution of experiments almost as old as the invention of the balloon itself. Since the chief value of flying machines in warfare has proven to be that of scouting and the direction of gun fire, it is of special interest to know that during the Civil War, General Stoneman's direction of artillery fire from a balloon was the first instance of the use of air- craft for this purpose. Balloons were used for similar purposes in the Spanish-American, the South African and the Russo-Japanese Wars. HOW BIRDS FLY You know how you feel when you are "walking on air" when you feel very happy over something. Isn't it a beautiful thought that perhaps our little brothers of the air, the biids, feel just that way most of the time? We may easily imagine they do, for flying is really walking upon the air. A bird can fly, not because he is lighter but because he is heavier than the air. A bird lighter than air would be carried away into space by even a moderate breeze and he could never get back. A horse's legs and a bird's wings are used for the same purpose and in a similar way. Both the horse with his legs in walking and the bird with its wings in flying describe isn't it curious a figure 8; the horse in the forward and backward movement of his feet and the bird in the forward and backward motion of its wings. No less curious is the fact that the bird is driven forward like a flying machine by a "screw propeller." A distinguished English WRIGHT BROTHERS AEROPLANE R, rudder; LR, lifting and lowering rudder; P P, propellers. scientist, Prof. J. Bell Pettigrew, showed, in a paper read before the Royal Institution in 1867, that all wings, whether of insects, birds or beetles, act essentially as screws owing to the fact that they twist in opposite directions in the up and down strokes. The bird's wings are thus worked like the blades of a whirligig or the propeller of a steamship or a flying machine. And the elytra or wing cases of insects beetles, for example- are like aeroplanes, for, although the beetle flies with his wings, these wing cases spread out on either side; and as he is flying and carried forward by the motion of his body, help to hold him up like little kites. _ Some people still think that the air-sacs of birds help them in flight but scientific in- vestigation has proven that this is not true; so, although the experiments of Santos- Dumont (q. v.) helped in the invention of the Zeppelin they did not help in inventing the aeroplane. The bats and some of the best-flying birds have no air-sacs; and you know how hard it is for a light person to walk in deep water. This is because he is not heavy enough to keep his feet on the ground. A bird that has air-sacs does not require such large wings as does a bird of the same size without air-sacs, of course. Aerotropism (in plants). A form of chemotropism (which see) in which oxygen is the directive agent. /Eschines (es'ki-nez), a noted Athenian orator, the rival and opponent of Demos- thenes. After a varied career, as an actor on the stage and a public speaker of great eloquence, he was exiled and settled in Rhodes. Here he founded a school of eloquence. Three of his orations have come down to us, perhaps the most famous being that Against Ctesiphon. He died in Samos 314 B. C., at the age of 76. /Eschylus (WKt-lus) (525-456 B. C.), the earliest of the great Attic tragedians. He was born at Eleusis, of a noble family, and took an honorable part in the Persian war. His first efforts at tragedy are said to have been suggested by the god Bacchus, who appeared to him while asleep in the fields. At the age of 41 he won his first prize in the dramatic contests popular among the Athenians, and during his life WRIGHT IN FLIGHT IN HIS AEROPLANE ZEPPELIN DIRIGIBLE III BLERIOT MONOPLANE CURTISS AND HIS BIPLANE AESCULAPIUS 21 AFGHANISTAN was thirteen times victor. He was finally defeated by Sophocles and went to Sicily, where he lived with Hiero, the tyrant of Syracuse. Tradition says his death was caused by an eagle dropping a tortoise, to break its shell, on his bald head, which the bird had mistaken for a stone. Attic tragedy owes much to ^Eschylus. He first brought in a second actor, befitting cos- tumes and scenery, and caused a regular stage to be built. He wrote 70 tragedies, of which only seven are now in existence: The Seven Against Thebes, The Suppliants, The Persians, Prometheus Bound, The Choephori, and The Eumenides. Mrs. Brown- ing's poetical version of Prometheus Bound is one of the best of the many translations of his tragedies. /Esculapius (ts-ku-la'pt-us"), in Greek fable, the god of medicine and patron of physicians, called by Homer the Blameless Physician. He was the son of Apollo. He went about healing and raising from the dead until Pluto, god of the lower world, finding his kingdom was losing its people, appealed to Jupiter, who destroyed ^Escula- pius by a thunderbolt. Various temples were built in his honor. The most famous was at Epidaurus, where a peculiar breed of snakes was believed to nave received healing power from ^Esculapius. During a pestilence the Greeks used to send for one of these serpents. The Romans also sent a solemn embassy to bring one of these healing snakes to their city, and later intro- duced the worship of ^Esculapius at Rome. The priests of the temples of this god, called ^Esclepiades, or sons of ^Esculapius, were the only regular physicians of an- tiquity. /Esop (Psop), a Greek writer of fables, born about 620 B. C. He was sold as a slave at Athens, but was freed by his master. He gained great reputation as a writer, and was invited by Croesus, king of Lydia, to live at his court. He was sent by Croesus, about 564 B.C., to the temple of Apollo at Delphi, where he angered the Delphians by his sarcasm and was thrown from a precipice. His real works have probably been destroyed, the fables which bear his name having been written by later authors. /Esthetics (es-thef-iks), a term signify- ing perceptible to the senses, and denoting the science of the beautiful in nature and the fine arts (Greek, cesthetikos). The term aesthetics, though a modern German one, is one which, in its meaning, was familiar to the ancient Greek philosophers, especially to Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. What they meant by the term was the quality in the beautiful that produces to the mind as well as to the eye a certain pleasing effect and a refined pleasure. When we speak of aesthetic ideas, studies or emotions we mean those things that appeal to our sense of the beautiful, or that treat of the expression and embodiment of beauty by art. See Schiller's Treatise on ^Esthetics; Cousin on The True, the Beautiful and the Good, and Alison's essay on The Nature and Principle of Taste. /Etna, Mount. See ETNA. Afghanistan (af-gan'is-tdn'}, is a moun- tainous country of south Central Asia governed by a hereditary monarch called an amir. The present ruler is Habibullah Khan. The gov- ernment is under the supervision of Great Britain which contributes to it an annual sub- sidy. It is frequently spoken of as the "buffer state" between British India on the east and Turkistan, the province of Russia to the north of it. Afghanistan was a part of the empire of Timur the Great and after changing masters several times became independent in 1747. In 1838 the British sent an army into Afghan- istan to place on his throne the Amir Shah Shuja who had been driven into exile in India. In 1841 the British suppressed a revolt in Afghanistan and have ever since been the real power there. In 1879 the English resident and his officers and escort were massacred by the Afghans. For this severe revenge and firmer hold were taken by the English. Under the amir there is a council with governors for the separate provinces. The army comprises about 68,000 foot sol- diery, with 7000 horses and 350 guns. The mounted levies are for the most part, the re- tainers of the great chieftains or of the latters' wealthier vassals. The population, mainly Mohammedan, is estimated at 5,900,000. It is very mixed and rather discordant in character. The majority are Persians. The Afghans are a brave race; but although apparently frank and open- hearted are cruel and treacherous. The total area (see map of ASIA) is 250,000 square miles. There are practically no naviga- ble rivers and but one railway. Travel on the few high-ways is carried on by camels and ponies. Besides these, the domestic animals are goats, dogs, horses and * few cattle and sheep. The climate varies greatly from regions where snow never falls to regions where it seldom melts. The trade is mainly with British India. Exports are largely horses, cattle, hides, tobacco, grain, pulse, fruits, vegetables, asafoetida, madder, the castor oil plant, spices, wool; imports, sugar, tea, cotton goods and dyes. There are two harvests: wheat, barley, peas and beans sown in autumn and reaped in summer; rice, millet and com sown in spring and reaped in autumn. The other principal crops are almonds, pomegra- nates, figs, grapes, peaches, quinces, cherries, apricots and plums. The minerals include copper, lead and iron with small quantities of gold and there are precious stones, including lapis lazuli. The manufactures include clothes, silks, felts, car- pets and various articles made from goat's and camel's hair and sheepskin. AFRICA 22 AFRICA Africa (dfri-kd). A hundred years ago the continent of Africa was almost unknown to the educated world of Europe and North America as regards its vast interior. WHY AFRICA SO LONG REMAINED UNEXPLORED Why was Africa the last of the great con- tinents to be effectively opened up? Partly because of the comparative abundance of its negro population, its warlike character and sturdiness of physique, which made it a very serious enemy to the pioneer before the days of machine guns; partly because of the great heat, and most of all, the moist heat of much of Negro Africa, and of the germ-diseases more prevalent there than any other part of the globe; and partly, perhaps mainly, because of the remarkable continuity of the African coastline, the striking absence of those great gulfs, those far-reaching straits or inlets of the sea, those rivers navigable from their mouths upwards for hundreds of miles, which are so prominent a feature in the geography of Asia, Europe, and the eastern side of America. Any far-reaching exploration of the African con- tinent had to be made by land, over a country more savage, less imbued even with the ele- ments of civilization than Asia or America. The navigability of rivers where it was not barred by cataracts or shallows, was choked with a growth of vegetation, the riding animals (horses, asses, oxen) were killed by the bite of the tsetse fly or by some other injected germ disease. All Africa outside the waterless deserts must have seemed to the first pioneers impassable from thickets or forest. In short, it needed tremendous resolution and bravery and all the most recent appliances of civiliza- tion before Africa could be conquered for the white man's knowledge. And this result has only been finally achieved within the memory of middle-aged people now living. In 1875 the interior of Africa was still very little known. By 1914 it had been made better known than the interior of Asia or South America. AFRICA TEN MILLION YEARS AGO Africa is a sister continent to South America, which it slightly resembles in shape. In the more ancient history of the earth (say ten million years ago), Africa was connected by a land bridge with South America on the one hand, with India, Ceylon, Malaysia, and Australia on the other; while Australia and New Zealand were probably connected with the west side of South America, and South America across Antarctica with Australia. This is virtually proved by the similarity and coincidence of geological formations and the possession of an almost uniform flora in the Mesozoic age. In fact, this great continental belt is sometimes called " Gondwanaland " (from the typical rocks of Gondwana in the Indiana Dekkan) and sometimes the Glos- sopteris Continent, because ot the predominant vegetation prevailing at the beginning of the Secondary Epoch. These regions might also be termed the "Diamond" Continent; for all the detached portions at the present day agree in possessing diamonds. Outside their areas no true diamonds are found except some doubt- ful examples in North America and Scandi- navia. It is further interesting to note that the diamonds of South Africa rather resemble in quality and composition those of Australia than those of Liberia (West Africa), which are more akin to the diamonds of India, Guiana, and Brazil. Long after Glossopteris land had been broken up, a land connection subsisted more or less between Tropical Africa and India, and still more, and still later, between West Africa and Brazil. This is the only supposition which will explain the remarkable correspond- ence in many features between the fauna and flora of Tropical Africa and Tropical America, especially the Brazil-Guiana region and the West Indies. THE AFRICA OF TODAY The Africa of today, which has been for two million years or so separated from the great island of Madagascar, extends but little either north or south into the Temperate Zones. It is perhaps the most tropical of the continents, presents the 'greatest amount of land area to the vertical sun, and is consequently the hottest of the continents. Its greatest length, 5,000 miles, is from north to south, from Latitude 372o' N. (Cap Blanc, near Bizerta, in Tunis) to 345i' S. (Cape Agulhas, Cape Colony); and its greatest breadth about 4,000 miles is from Senegal to the eastern horn of Somali- land. Its total area is about 1 1 ,500,000 square miles. The northernmost projection of the continent, Mauretania, is noteworthy, es- pecially in its western portion, for its high plateaus and ranges of lofty mountains, which culminate in the Atlas peaks of Morocco, at- taining to more than 15,000 feet in altitude and being under perpetual snow. The Tri- politaine, which lies to the east of Mauretania, is little else than the Mediterranean coast of the Sahara, and consists of ranges of stony hills, low mountains, and arid plateaus, with occasional wastes of shifting sand, and a few depressions known as oases, wherein an easily reached water-supply maintains a compara- tively rich vegetation. Egypt is a prolonga- tion of this desert region traversed by the course of the Nile, which in its delta com- pletely banishes the desert and presents us with a region of fertile mud and rich vegetation of a European and Asiatic character. The Sahara Desert region extends with nothing but the interruption of the Nite and the few miles of cultivated region on either side of the Nile, between the Red Sea on the east and the Atlantic Ocean on the west. Arabia carries on the characteristics of the Sahara to the south of Persia and the northwest of India. MOUNTAINS AND PLATEAUS In Eastern Nigeria between the Eastern Niger, the Benue, and Lake Chad, and on the southern frontier of the central Sahara, there are high mountains which may attain to as lit* K/^ 2 ^ It' ibv^Ii 1 ^ J Z * * 1'2 NATIVES OF AFRICA PLATE 1 I Shilluk 2 Dinka 3 Woman of Porto Novo 4 Fu'.ah Girl 5 Tamberma Man 6 Man of Bamuro 7 Ama-ngqika 8 Weushagga Girl 9 Loarigo Girl 10 Girl of Kamerun 11 Pygmy 12 Woman of Lunda NATIVES OF AFRICA PLATE II i Hadendoa a Bedouin 3 Biskra Girl 4 Midgan 5 Somal Woman 6 Wahuma Girl 7 Bushman Woman 8 Hottentot 9 Mukamba 10 Hova Girl n Sakalava Girl 12 Masai Youth AFRICA AFRICA much as 7,000 feet, perhaps more. South of the Benue the country is very mountainous, with altitudes of as much as 8,000 feet. Ad- vancing from the Benue towards the Gulf of Guinea, we meet with peaks mostly of volcanic origin of 9,000 and 10,000 feet, culminating in the great volcanic mountain of the Cameroons, which is about 13,000 feet and is occasionally capped with snow. A few miles away to the west of the Cameroons lies the 10,000 feet high valcano of Fernando Po Island. From the Cameroons southwards there is an almost unbroken range of mountains at no great dis- tance from the coast, which, except for the passage of a few great rivers, is continuous with Table Mountain at the Cape of Good Hope. The greater part of the center of Africa from the southern Sahara Desert _ to the southernmost limits of the Congo, is at an average altitude of 1,500 feet above sea level (with depressed areas and ancient lake-basins here and there). On the east this comparative flatness gives place somewhat abruptly to plateaus of 6,000 to 8,000 feet in height, above which towers the snow range of Ruwenzori (the true Mountains of the Moon), nearly under the Equator. RAINFALL, FORESTS AND ANIMAL LIFE West Africa has a much greater rainfall than the eastern half of the continent. There is, however, a somewhat well-marked rainy equatorial belt, which extends from the Victoria Nyanza on the east to the Gambia River on the west, and expands over a good deal of the basin of the Congo, the lower and the upper Niger. This equatorial belt has some of the most splendid tropical forests the world can show. It is in this region also, expecially in Central Africa, that some of the most rare and remarkable of African mam- mals continue to exist, such as the great Anthropoid Apes (Gorilla and Chimpanzi), the strange Drill and Mandrill Baboons, the Okapi, the Chevrotain, and (in Liberia) the Pygmy Hippopotamus and Zebra Antelope, The Lion has become extinct in North Africa within the last few years, but a Leopard of very large size still exists there, together with a Striped Hyena and the Common Jackal, the true Wild Boar, the Porcupine, and a Red Deer allied to that of Southern Europe. The Sahara Desert is by no means devoid of animal life. A few Lemurs ("half apes") are still found in Tropical Africa and in Tropical Asia, but in Madagascar this group in the recent past developed extraordinarily. Within the human period there existed in Madagascar lemurs nearly as large as a man. Such re- markable forms are extinct now, as is also the gigantic bird of Madagascar, the Aepyornis, possibly the largest bird that this world has ever known, and the origin of the legend of the Rukh of the Arabian Nights. One of the most useful birds in Africa of the twentieth century is the Ostrich, which fortunately has been domesticated and brought into the service of man. GOLD, DIAMONDS AND OTHER PRODUCTS It was not, until 1884 that the wealth in gold of the Transvaal rocks was fully realized, and the gold industry centered in Barberton and Johannesburg was started on a large scale. Since then, the gold export of South Africa has risen to something like 36,000,000 (180,- 000,000 dollars) per annum. In the sixties of the last century, likewise, the existence of diamonds was made known in South Africa, and the working of diamonds brought immense wealth to that region and quite changed the history of the southern third of Africa. Within the last few years, however, diamonds have been discovered also in German Southwest Africa, in the south-western portion of the Congo basin, and in Liberia, on the west coast of Africa. Gold has also been discovered and worked in the north-eastern basin of the Congo and in Liberia. It has also been worked in- termittently for several centuries in Bambara, in the basins of the upper Sengal and upper Niger. Another great source of wealth peculiar to Africa is the oil palm, the full importance of which is scarcely yet realized. The two distinct oils which come, the one from the kernel and the other from the husk of the nut, are not only of great value as food products for both man and beast, but they furnish the best material for soap, and for a great many other industrial products, including lubricating oils for machinery, and a vegetable fat for making butter. Other products of great future value in Africa will be timber and rubber from the forests and the plantations, the banana (which though not in its cultivated form native to the continent, has been established there for untold centuries), and maize, which, though introduced from America, has found a second home in Africa. Besides the ostrich also, Africa in many parts is a splendid field for horse and cattle breeding. The horses of North Africa are in great demand. So also are certain breeds of sheep and goat. Madagascar is cele- brated for its cattle and apparently is free from the pest of the tsetse fly. THE HUMAN POPULATION OF AFRICA The total population of Africa at the present day is probably something like 151,000,000, and apportioned racially would consist of 120,000,000 Negroes and Negroids, 6,000,000 pure-blooded Europeans (absolute White men of Northern or Mediterranean stock), and 25,- 000,000 of handsome, physically well de- veloped, but mentally rather backward, dark- skinned Caucasians Berbers, Arabs, Egypt- ians, Galas, and Abyssinians. Quite distinct, from the true Negro is the Bushman of South Africa, a somewhat (but not always) stunted race, with a yellow skin, very sparse and tightly curljd hair, and other peculiar physical features not ordinarily met with in the Negro, though sometimes occurring in the people of the Mediterranean basin. The Hottentot is nothing but an early hybrid between the true Negro and the Bushman. AFRICA AFRICA POLITICAL DIVISIONS OF AFRICA Scarcely any portion of Africa at the present day can be described as independent of European rule. The Empire of Abyssinia maintains a tottering independence which can- not last much longer, owing to the utter in- ability of the ruling race, the Abyssinians, to impose law and order throughout their ill- governed dominions. The little Republic of Liberia on the west coast of Africa was founded by white Americans as a refuge for American slaves who had gained their freedom a hundred years ago. It has not so far been much of a success as a governing power over the wild negroes of the territory proclaimed as "Li- berian," and the government of the country is a good deal controlled and influenced nowadays by the American organizers lent by the United States. Not only is the whole of Africa con- trolled by Europe, but by Christian Europe; Muhammadan Turkey being excluded from any further interference in African affairs, since the Italian annexation of the Tripolitaine and the establishment of a British control in Egypt. MARVELOUS OPENING UP IN RECENT YEARS In the truly marvelous opening-up of Africa which has been taking place during the last twenty years, and more especially since the commencement of the present century, the great schemes and public works which most deserve mention in a brief record (beginning on the north and proceeding southwards) are the following: The damming of the Nile at Assuan, at what is called the first (though it is really the last) of its cataracts. This operation, though it is leading to the submergence of the temples of Philae, will more than double its native popu- lation. For Egypt (compared to the rest of Africa) is a healthy land for Black, White, and Yellow. Give it a sufficient water supply in the way of irrigation and it will become one of the wealthiest regions, for its area, on the world's surface and one of the most habitable. What the ultimate consequences of this re- generation of Egypt under the British aegis will be, it is interesting to speculate. Certainly the prosperity of this land will far exceed the greatest altitude ever reached in population and civilization at the best period of the rule of the dynastic Egyptians let us say, Egypt 1,500 years before the time of Christ; and if ever Egypt again is one of the great nations of the world the thanks of her people will be due entirely to the British nation which undertook its regeneration. The Italians are commencing a similar work in the Tripolitaine, and once Italy has got effective control we may look with confidence to the restoration of the sparsely inhabited region between Egypt and Tunis to a state of prosperity such as it has not enjoyed since it ceased to form part of the Roman Empire. Wells will be dug and will tap the immense reserves of water underlying the surface of the Sahara. The French have rally transformed Tunis from a semi-desert country to one of the most fertile and beautiful in the Mediterranean Basin. Algeria has more than twice the native population at the present day which it pos- sessed at the time the French abolished the rule of the Turkish pirates in 1830-40. A VAST SYTSEM OF RAILWAYS The French are entirely revolutionizing con- ditions of life in Morocco, chiefly by means of railways. They have carried their eventual Trans-Saharan Railway from Oran on the coast to a distance of 700 miles south, into the desert, beyond the range of the great Atlas. In fact, what with the work of the Italians in Tripoli, the British in Egypt, and the French in the rest of North Africa, there will, before very long, be a continuous line of rail between Tangier through North Africa to Alexandria and Cairo. The French also, once they are free from any reasonable dread of German invasion, will com- plete their Trans-Saharan Railway right across the Desert of Timbuktu, and joining with other railways already constructed or under con- struction, will eventually link up Tangier with Kano in Northern Nigeria, as well as the British, French and German colonies on the West African coast. Tangier, which will certainly be the point of departure for these tremendous overland rail- way journeys through the once Dark Con- tinent, constitutes at the present time a tiny internationalized state of Morocco, under the joint guardianship of Britain, France and Spain. It is, of course, only a few hours' steam from Gibraltar and the Spanish and Portuguese coasts. It is the Calais of Africa, and perhaps some day may be its most im- portant city. RECENT DISCOVERIES OF MINERAL WEALTH The extraordinary rate at which railway building is now proceeding in Africa is justified commercially by recent discoveries of great mineral wealth. The tin and the coal of Nigeria; the phosphate deposits of Tunis; mineral oil in Somaliland, .Egypt, and the. Northern Sudan; gold, tin, copper, coal, petroleum, in North and Central Africa; haematite iron, lead, silver, in Morocco; Ehosphates, soda, copper, iron and gold in the ahara Desert and the Egyptian Sudan; are, or will be, inducements for railway adventure in those regions, while in much of Central Africa, Angola, Nyasaland, Uganda, Kamerun, the Congo Basin and the forest regions of West Africa, the inducement for railway and road construction is often not mineral but vegetable; for these regions are producing ever-increasing quantities of rubber, coffee, cotton, tobacco, maize, peanuts, bananas, cocoa, palm-oil and palm-nuts; besides timber, cattle, nides and wax. One of the most inter- esting phases in the opening-up of Africa is the greatly increased application of the negro races to agriculture and horticulture on their own account. The cocoa of British West Africa is produced not by hired laborers or slaves for white planters, but by free natives working AFRIKANDER AGAVE their own land. This is the case with regard to the immense ground-nut industry of French West Africa and the palm-oil and rubber of Southern Nigeria. SIR HARRY HAMILTON JOHNSTON. Afrikander (df-re-kdn'der), a name ap- plied to whites of Dutch descent born in South Africa. The term is opposed to Uit- lander, which signifies an outsider, or one born in another country. The Afrikander Bund is an organization among the Dutch in Cape Colony which aims at the political independence of South Africa in Dutch in- terests. Agamem'non, the leader of the Greeks in the Trojan war. He was the son or grand- son of Atreus, king of Mycenae, and the most powerful prince in Greece. He and his brother Menelaus married the two daughters of the king of Sparta, Clytem- nestra and Helen. When the Trojan Paris carried off Helen, Agamemnon was chosen chief of the forces sent out for her recovery. At Troy, in the ninth year of the war, he quarreled with Achilles over two captive maidens, and almost ruined the Greek cause. After his return from the capture of Troy, he was murdered at a feast by his wife and her lover. His death was afterward avenged by his son Orestes. Agamemnon was wor- shiped in Sparta as a god. Agar'icus. The best known genus of mushrooms, one of whose species, A. cam~ pestris, is the common cultivated mush- room. The genus belongs to the Basi- diomycetes, and the spores are exposed along the surfaces of radiating plates or "gills" under the cap or "pileus." See BASIDIOMYCETES. Agasias (a-ga's%-as), a Greek sculptor of Ephesus, who probably lived about the fourth century. His celebrated work, called the Borghese Gladiator, was found in the ruins of Antium in the third century, and is now in the Louvre collection at Paris. Agassiz (ag'a-se), Louis Jean Rodolphe, a distinguished naturalist, was born at Motiers, Switzerland, May 28, 1807. After years of study he began to write on scientific subjects. His reputation was made by his book, Studies of Glaciers. In 1846 he be- came professor of zoology and geology at Harvard College. He made explorations in Brazil and in the South Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Agassiz was not merely a learned naturalist, but a great force. H& did much by public lectures and by teaching to make natural history popular. He trained many young naturalists who have carried out his methods. He founded the Agassiz Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard Col- lege. His Methods of Study in Natural His- tory and Contributions to the Natural History of the United States are his most popular works. He died at Cambridge. Mass., Dec. 14, 1873- His son, Alexander (1835-1910), also a dis- tinguished naturalist and writer, was from 1874 to 1897 chief curator of the Museum of comparative zoology at Cambridge, Mass. Ag'ate is a kind 01 chalcedony. Its colors are arranged in bands, but sometimes form spots, clouds and often stains like moss, when it is called the moss agate. By boiling the stone in a syrup and then in an acid the beautiful colors can be made brighter. Agates take a high polish and are cut into brooches, seals and bracelets, and used in mosaic work. They are found in Egypt, Germany, Scotland, South America, the United States and other parts of the world. In this country moss agates abound in Wy- oming, Nevada and other points; small banded agates of great beauty are numerous on the shores of Lake Superior, and also in western Texas, where large specimens are plentiful. The agate marble is a name known to every boy, though most of these marbles are cheap glass imitations. Agate was prized by the ancients, mention being frequently made in history of onyx, the black and white banded agate, and of sar- donyx, the red and white. AGAVE Agave (d-ga've). A genus of plants of the amaryllis family, whose numerous species are peculiar to the warm and dry regions of America. Along with forms of cactus and yucca, agave forms the characteristic American desert vegetation. One of the species, the American aloe, has received the fanciful name of Century Plant, from the mistaken notion that it must be a hundred years old before it blooms. It is a native of Mexico and Central Amer- ica. In native soils the plant usually blooms in its seventh or eighth year, but in hothouses it rarely blooms until it is from 40 to 60 years old; whence arises the story that they flower AGESANDER AGRICULTURE only once in a hundred years. After flower- ing the plant dies down to the ground and new plants spring up from the roots. It has no stem proper, or a very short one, bearing a crowded head of large fleshy leaves, which are spiny at the edge. From the midst of these shoots up the straight, upright scape, 24 to 36 feet high, and at the base frequently a foot through, along which are lance-like flower branches, ending in clusters of blos- soms often numbering 4,000 flowers. Although agaves are decorative plants in the United States and Europe, in their native home in Mexico they are among the most useful plants. There they are called maguey, and are a regular farm crop and valued highly. Some of the species supply fiber which is used in making rope, cordage, mat- ting, clothing, thread, hammocks, bagging, burlap and other coarse textile stuffs, and the old Mexicans used it to make a coarse paper. Its introduction on our arid western plains is highly recommended, for it will grow in the dry lands of Texas, New Mexico, Ari- zona and southern California. When pas- turage is scarce the leaves are cut up and fed to cattle. From some of the species soap is made, while the two most common Mexican drinks, pulque and mescal, are obtained from still others. When the young flower- bud is cut out, the sap keeps on flowing into the cavity. This juice is quite sweet. It is gathered daily and fermented, and becomes the great Mexican drink known as pulque. It is milky, sour and bad smelling, looking like thin buttermilk, and has a rank taste; yet even Americans soon find it agreeable and refreshing. A distilled liquor is also made from it. The unfeimented maguey, called honey-water, is used as a substitute for milk. Agesander (ag-e-sdn'der) of Rhodes, See LAOCOON. Agesilaus (d-^es'i-ld'Hs), one of the most warlike of the kings of Sparta. Though not the lawful heir, he became king in 398 B. C., and reigned 38 years. He was small, lame and mean-looking, but had a wonderful amount of energy. His first war against the Persians, whom he defeated in Asia Minor, led to his forming the project of entering the heart of the Persian Empire, which Alexander the Great afterward carried out. But he had to give up the attempt in order to defend Sparta against her enemies at home. In the later years of his life Sparta lost her power, but he remained faithful, and devoted his fortune to her service. He died at the age of eighty on the coast of Africa, while returning from a last effort against his enemy, Persia. Agincourt (a-zh&n-koor t ), a village in the north of France, known in history as the scene of the battle between the English under Henry V and the French under the Duke D 'Albert, commanding for the Dauphin Charles, Oct. 25, 1415. Having driven the French cavalry by strategy into a swamp, Henry V turned his archers upon them and almost annihilated them. The fugitives threw the army into confusion, and the battle of three or four hours ended in a terri- ble defeat for the French. More than 10,000 French were killed, including many princes and nobles, while the English lost only 600. This decisive battle so crippled the power of France that Henry V soon had control of the entire kingdom. Agra (d'gra), a city on the Jumna River, in the British Northwestern provinces of India. It contains the Taj Mahal, or Pearl Mosque Mausoleum, the finest piece of Indian Mohammedan architecture in the East. Population 185,449. Agric'ola (born 37, died 93 A. D.), a Roman general, born in the south of France. He was made governor of Aquitania by the Emperor Vespasian, then elected consul, and later given the province of Britain to govern. He spent seven years there, completing the conquest of the island. He built a chain of forts as a defense against the northern tribes, and was the first Roman to send his fleet around Britain, proving it to be an island. He introduced Roman customs and the Roman language. He was recalled by the Emperor Domitian, who was jealous of his popularity. His life has been written by his son-in-law, the historian Tacitus. Ag'riculture comprehends the tillage of the soil, the cultivation and harvesting of crops, the rearing, breeding, feeding and management of the various domesticated animals, and the manufacture of numerous products of the farm into commodities suitable for home use or for commercial purposes. No other of the arts antedates this, which not only feeds and clothes the world but contributes in ways innumerable to its wealth and welfare. History. Wherever husbandry has been in highest esteem there has been found a people advanced in civilization. Apart from the present-day advantages of knowledge that centuries of research and investigation have given, and those contributed by agri- cultural chemistry, new and improved ma- chinery and modern transportation facilities, the husbandmen of some of the nations of antiquity were in many essentials so ad- vanced as to make comparison of their practices with those of to-day appear by no means discreditable. The ancient Egyp- tians, we are informed, knew the wisdom of crop rotation, were skilled in their methods of suiting these to soils and seasons, and even the rearing of poultry hatched by artificial incubation was not uncommon. The ex- ceeding care in their execution of deeds of conveyance, minute description of both the seller and realty and explicitness of terms warrant the belief that land was held in earliest times at high value as a means of pro- ducing wealth. Farming operations were AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURE overseen by superintendents, shelter pro- vided for beasts and vehicles, and records kept of accounts. The Scriptures abound in allusions to flocks and herds and the produce of the field. Palestine afforded an early example of intensive farming, where small holdings were the rule. The limited farms, it is recorded, produced abundantly, and their fertility was maintained by judicious cultivation and management. A mixed husbandry ob- tained, and the fields were enriched by the application of manures. Ancient Romans were among the foremost of their time in agricultural pursuits, and problems of irri- gation, tillage and fertilization were among those which commanded their attention. Cato, Pliny and others expounded doctrines that in the present century are being pro- mulgated by our most learned teachers. They recommend rotation, such, for instance, as having wheat follow legumes, because, as Pliny said, they enriched the ground; also the keeping and feeding of live stock was advocated. To-day it is quite generally recognized that any rational system of farm- ing includes these usages. During the Middle Ages agriculture in Europe under barbarian conquerors was neglected, and those engaged in it held in contempt ; its peaceful pursuits were largely abandoned by the landowners for war and the chase, and every one not of the nobility was regarded as a slave, subject to the will of a master. This resulted in a most deplor- able condition of labor, and retarded prog- ress; but the end of the feudal system marked the beginning of a new era, and renewed attention was given to tillage. By the end of the seventeenth century it was probably as skilfully practiced as ever before, and the prestige of the husbandmen had been regained. The eighteenth century was one notable in its relation to the world's agriculture. Jethro Tull, an Englishman, introduced the method advocated by him of sowing crops in drill rows, which admitted of their culti- vation, and a four-crop rotation that has been followed more or less strictly to the present time is credited tc Lord Townshend. Robert Bakewell, another Englishman, re- vealed the methods by which all breeds of farm live stock have since been improved, i. e., by judicious selection, mating and feeding, as illustrated in the Leicester sheep which he developed, and in the cattle known as Longhorns which he improved. By the same methods the brothers Colling produced from the native Teeswater cattle the famous breed now known as the Shorthorn, and Herefords were similarly improved or de- veloped by Benjamin Tomkins. These were the pioneers in this work. Thomas Bates, Thomas Booth and others became famous as improvers of Shorthorns, as did Amos Cruickshank, a Scotchman, later, and through the latter's breeding came some of the greatest Shorthorns of the last quarter of a century. In the light of present-day knowledge and Practices agriculture differs much in our own rom that of earlier times. Chemistry, in- vention of new tools and machinery and improvement of the old, better methods of tillage, and superior educational facilities raising the general plane of intelligence are among the more potent forces that have effected the change. The most far-reaching developments have been accomplished dur- during the past century, and from the multi- tude of scientists and investigators now delving into the mysteries of the soil and of animal and plant life, much more of value is likely to be evolved. Agricultural im- plements and machinery were developed and perfected to their present efficiency only in recent times, and there is nothing to suggest that the end in their improvement is near; the rapid extension of railroads and im- proved methods of travel and transportation are the work of the past few years, and the institutions on every hand for agricultural education are also the products of modern times. Agriculture in the United States. In the United States there has been no lack of ap- preciation of agriculture. The chief execu- tives from Washington to Roosevelt have been strong advocates of its promotion. In his first annual message to Congress, in 1 790, Washington urged its advancement by all proper means. Many of his later messages and writings contained discussions of the country's agriculture, which he considered of primary importance with reference either to the individual or national welfare. In his last message to Congress he said : " In pro- portion as nations advance in population and other circumstances of maturity this truth becomes more apparent, and renders the cultivation of the soil more and more an object of public patronage." President Roosevelt in his message to Congress, Decem- ber 4. 1906, urged the wisdom of scientific research and education as a means of for- warding the country's agriculture, recog- nized as the nation's chief industry. He wrote: "It is a mere truism to say that no growth of cities, no wealth, no industrial development can atone for any falling off in the character and standing of the farming population There is no longer any failure to realize that farming, at least in certain branches, must become a technical and scientific profession." The pioneer American farmers derived their methods from those in vogue in the respective countries from which they came, and these practiced ever so perseveringly oftentimes failed because lacking adapta- bility to the new conditions of so: 1 s and climate. Besides the natural wildness of the country to be tamed and subdued, the AGRICULTURE 28 AGRICULTURE vicissitudes of their environment were many and hazardous. Wild beasts, unfriendly Indians and the absence of adequate facili- ties all retarded the country's development. For approximately two centuries farming in America was confined to a comparatively narrow area adjacent to the Atlantic. The first of the farmer's implements were of the crudest, and his practices were wasteful. The conserving of the land's fertility was ignored; such vast areas, uncultivated and unclaimed, encouraged no other practice; and if a field was exhausted it was abandoned and another cleared and tilled. Buildings, equipment and other necessities were had at the expense of the soil. Thus an indiffer- ence to the maintaining of the soil's fertility was inherited by succeeding generations, with the result that one of the great problems of our times in the older portions of America }s to remedy the evil done in days gone by and inaugurate a system that tends in the other direction. Agricultural chemistry is quite clearly pointing the way. It required a full century for Americans to realize that the productivity of their land was limited, and that the deep fertile soil could become exhausted. In the aggregate of its field productions the United States is without a close com- petitor among the nations, but it must be confessed that from the viewpoint of the acre-yield we do not favorably compare with others whose density of population makes small holdings and intensive cultivation a necessity. That our average yields are low may be accounted for by the fact of abun- dant land in proportion to population. The capabilities of some portions are yet but partially comprehended and of others well- nigh unknown. Owing to the country's vast area the developments already achieved are comparatively superficial because of the largeness of the farms and lack of sufficient labor. These conditions scarcely make possible the use of methods adapted to pro- ducing the maximum per acre, although the use of modern machinery has made farming on an extensive scale exceedingly profitable. As the country more nearly approaches a maximum development, with the inevitable increase in population, smaller farms and benefits of the revelations and teachings of science, it may be expected that average yields per acre will show continual increases until the maximum has been attained. Recent economic revolutions in the art and science of agriculture have had a noticeable effect already, as evidenced in the nation's enlarged prosperity. At the close of the eighteenth century the great percentage of our population were farmers. The farms were comparatively small in area, and tilled sparingly and mostly for self-support ; because of lack of adequate transportation facilities markets were not available, and hence there could be little incentive to produce more than was required for home consumption. Inefficient equip- ment was also a barrier to any surplus that might have been desired. Under these con- ditions none but the simplest methods were employed, and but scant attention given to cultivation. Providence was the main reli- ance. In those days it was commonly said that "anybody can farm," and in truth nearly everybody did. With a population the greater part of whom raised their own supplies, and the exporting of any surplus being practically impossible, the situation of the American farmer about the close of the eighteenth century was one that created little enthusiasm. About this time, how- ever, the discoveries of science led to the belief that chemistry would greatly promote the art of agriculture; new ideas were enter- tained, better implements sought, improved methods were adopted, and a general awakening marked the first great stride in a progress that has become the admiration of the world. As the population increased and the fron- tier was gradually pushed further into the interior of the continent the pioneers in the westward movement were required to adapt themselves to yet other conditions and solve new problems. Each new outpost of civili- zation was in a sense an agricultural experi- ment station. The vast expanse of country presented a variety of soils and climates, and to learn what crops and methods were best adapted to their differing conditions was tedious and expensive. This gave birth to the state agricultural experiment stations, and with their help many obstacles have been overcome and the development of the country steadily expanded. The first society for the promotion of agriculture in the United States was organ- ized in 1785; this was followed by others in rapid succession, and at the present time nearly every community has its agricultural association. Agricultural fairs have been helpful educators, and nearly if not all the states have their boards of agriculture or other similar organizations supported with public funds for the purpose of advancing the farming interests. From these are issued re- ports, bulletins and other useful publications, which are usually distributed free. An extensive agricultural literature has grown up, including not only many general and special works but a long list of periodicals, some of them devoted exclusively to special products of the farm, some particular breed of live stock, or branch of industry, such as dairying, poultry raising, market gardening, fruit-growing, bee-keeping and the like. Agricultural Colleges. The educational movement inaugurated by the early agricul- tural societies has grown into the excellent agricultural colleges, with which are gener- ally connected the experiment stations, in every state and territory. These are given AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURE liberal appropriations by national and state governments, and are assisted and co-op- erated with by the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture. This Department was established in 1862 as a Bureau, under direction of a commissioner. In 1889 Con- gress enacted a law making it an executive department of the government, under direction of a secretary to be appointed by the president and to be a member of his cabinet. In 1862 Congress also passed the Land-Grant Act, donating public lands to the states and territories providing colleges for the benefit of agriculture and the me- chanic arts, which has resulted in the estab- lishment of such institutions in every state and territory. The Hatch Act of 1887 g av $15,000 a year for the maintenance of each agricultural experiment station, for experi- mentation, investigation and the reporting of results. The value of these stations as agencies for the advancement of agriculture through scientific research was early dem- onstrated, and in 1906 Congress passed the Adams Act, which has for its object the extension and strengthening of the experi- mental work of the stations by additional appropriations. By provision of this act the initial appropriation of $5,000 is to be increased each year until 1911, when it will amount to $15,000, making then and thereafter annually available an aggregate of $30,000 of government funds for each station, under the Hatch and Adams Acts. Labor-Saving Implements Transporta- tion. It is a far cry from the old-time forked stick for stirring the ground to the modern steam plow that turns sixteen or more furrows at a time, or from the flail to the twentieth-century thrashing machine, but these improved implements have been brought to their present perfection in comparatively recent times, and to Ameri- cans belongs the distinction of first providing farm implements of the greatest labor-saving and time-saving qualities. The invention of those adapted to the requirements of the American farmers has been a potent factor in developing the country 's agriculture. Eli Whitney's cotton gin was the first of these wonderful contributions; Charles Newbold and Jethro Wood were probably the first to fashion the plow of modern times; and Cyrus H. McCormick made the first successful reaper. Until better means of transpor- tation were provided by railways there were comparatively few settlements away from the seaboard or the navigable rivers. Trans- continental railways, by making markets available, have brought remote areas within the pale of profitable agriculture, incidentally quickening a widespread interest in the improvement of country roads, and modern machinery has in large measure solved the next problem caused by the sparse popula- tion in proportion to area that of labor. The acreage of arable land yet uncultivated is vast.the greater proportion, of course, being in the states west of the Mississippi River; much of that previously regarded as barren is being brought into a high state of pro- ductivity by systems of irrigation, and much is being accomplished in this line also through a better understanding of climate and soils, the adoption of methods of tillage best adapted to them, and the introduction of plants found more suitable. It is claimed by engineers that under the operation of the National Irrigation Act of 1902, 100,000,000 of acres of practically arid lands now useless may be reclaimed for agricultural and home-making purposes. Crop Distribution and Development. Cli- mate and soil determine the kind of crops raised; for instance, the farmers of some portions of the southern states found theirs especially adapted to cotton and tobacco; others found theirs peculiarly suited to corn, and especially was this the case in the Mississippi Valley states; the great wheat- growing region is further north in the middle states, and semi-tropical fruits are grown throughout the south. Something of the country 's rapid develop- ment may be gathered from the fact that the yield of corn in 1910 in the United States was more than twice as much as was produced in 1875. I n J 8?4 tne country assumed first rank as a wheat-producer, surpassing France in an aggregate yield of 308,102,700 bushels. In 1901 the yield was 119 million bushels more than double that quantity. In quantity and value our agricultural productions exceed those of any other class. Sixty years ago the United States produced insufficient breadstuffs to supply home demands, but now is the largest exporter of breadstuffs and other kindred products. American agriculture rivals that of all Europe in the aggregate of its yields, and with a continued growth in population, the conse- quent decreased areas in individual farms and their better cultivation, a far greater production seems inevitable. Exports. Millions of acres of fresh land have come into production faster than domestic consumption required ; this necessi- tated finding markets elsewhere for their surplus products, and much of America's prosperity is due to her export trade. In providing export commodities the farms overshadow all other sources. Not only this, but the farms support the manufactures of the country by supplying the raw material. For the year ending June, 1910, the value of farm products exported reached $933,000,- ooo, the largest by any country. Of this the live-stock products constituted no small pro- portion. The annual shipments of our cattle and sheep to foreign ports are estimated in the hundreds of thousands, and dressed meats in millions of pounds. The leading export-product is cotton, the quantity exported in 1910 amounting to 3,206,708,226 AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURE pounds, worth $450,447,243. The 1910 cotton crop of Texas alone was greater than that of British India, nearly three times that of Egypt and half as much again as the crop of the world outside of the United States, India and Egypt. Cotton and tobacco were among the first export articles grown in America. In 1910 the live animal exports exceeded a value of $17,000,000, while the packing house and dairy products aggre- gated $130,632,783 Crop Acreage and Value. According to the national census of the year 1900 there were in the United States 838,591,774 acres, or about 1,310,300 square miles, divided into 5,737)372 farms. Of their entire areas perhaps half were under cultivation. In 1910 the wealth- production of the farms of the United States amounted to $8,926,000,- ooo. Among the crops largest in acreage and contributing to this wealth the most important is Indian corn or maize, a product native to America. The crop of 1910 amounted to 3,121,381,000 bushels, grown on approximately 108,500,000 acres. The value of the 1909 corn crop of the United States was $1,652,822,000, and no other crop of the year was worth half so much. Natur- ally, corn is more used in America for human food than in other countries, but this is little compared with the whole, and Toy far the most is utilized in the meat-making industry, of which it is the mainstay and buttress. Its commercial uses have been largely increased in late years, however, and it is important in the manufacture of such commodities as alcohol, starch, glucose, cellulose and oils for various uses, and the newer products have resulted in increasing its price. Corn is grown in every state and territory, but in recent years the six states of Illinois, Iowa, Nebraska, Missouri, Indiana and Kansas have yielded the major portion. In 1906 these states raised nearly 60 per cent of the year's product. Corn contributes more to the nation's wealth than any other of the cereals. Of the world's total produc- tion of 3,478,328,000 bushels of corn in 1908, the United States raised 2,668,651,000 bushels. Wheat comes second among the grain crops, and as a nation the United States ranks first in its production. The crop of 1909 was 737,189,000 bushels from 46,723,- ooo acres. For the five years ending with 1909 the average annual yield was some- what over 700,000,000 bushels. Large quan- tities of wheat and wheat-flour are exported. Oats, rice, sugar-cane, potatoes, rye, barley, buckwheat and many other crops receive more or less attention, the climate and char- acter of the soil in large measure dictating which shall be grown. Timothy, clovers, blue-grass, alfalfa, and the like, often mixed, and the native wild grasses, both for meadows and pastures, claim vast areas, and especially in many of the central and more western states immense tracts of native grasses are utilized for grazing purposes alone. No survey of agriculture in America would be adequate without special mention of alfalfa or lucerne, which, while one of the world's oldest forage plants, is one of the newest to America. Within a decade its values have brought it to attention as one of the richest acquisitions to the farm. Considerably more valuable as a feed, acre for acre, than the justly-prized red clover, it is even superior as a soil renovator and fertilizer. In the Middle West especially it has already made itself a permanent place, and to this more than to any other agency perhaps is due the marvelous growth of the dairy industry there, which is a striking feature of its husbandry, as it is an important one to the whole country. (See ALFALFA.) Dairy Industry. Indeed, a foremost branch of American agriculture is the dairy, and in recent years its progress has been most marked. The Babcock test, a simple but accurate device for ascertaining the per cent of fat in milk, and the separator which extracts the fat from the milk by centrifugal force, have been incalculable aids to dairy- men as well as to the progress of the dairy industry. The Babcock test, in connection with the scales, enables the farmer to detect the profitable and unprofitable cows. The separator cannot only separate the butter- fat from the milk as soon as drawn from the cow, but secures more of the butter-fat or cream from the milk than is possible by the old and laborious gravity system of setting milk in pans or other receptacles and skimming by hand. Creameries and cheese factories mark the thriftier agricultural communities, and it is not uncommon for these institutions to draw their supplies from long distances, many railroads supply- ing special milk trains to insure prompt delivery. The skill and appliances required for the making of high-grade articles are such that the manufacturing of butter and cheese for commercial purposes has become an extensive business, and has raised the quality of the product as well as taken a burden from the formerly overtaxed housewives. Silos. The storage of green or partly green forage crops, such as corn, the clovers and the sorghums, in silos, which then be- comes silage, has overcome many difficulties of the cattle grower, and especially of the dairyman, making available in winter suc- culent food second only to June pastures. It not only saves in feed and labor, but makes possible the keeping of an increased number of animals on a given area, as by its use pasture can be largely or entirely dispensed with. It promotes an intensive husbandry that makes possible greater returns from the same farm, and helps to simplify the problem of winter feeding. Use of the silo affords ideal conditions both for the preparation and conservation of feed, and its introduction AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURE may be considered one of the important features of modern agriculture. Veterinary Science. Commensurate with and contributory to the advance in animal husbandry has been the progress in veteri- nary science. Among beneficial economic measures made possible by veterinary schools have been the inspection by govern- ment officials of meat animals and meat and dairy products for both home consumption and export, the quarantine against conta- gious diseases, and extensive investigation of diseases not hitherto understood. The successful treatment of milk fever in cows by simple, harmless processes has become a great boon to dairymen everywhere. The tuberculin test as a means of detecting tuberculosis in cattle has been perhaps the most valuable discovery of recent years. " Texas" or " Spanish " fever is no longer the dreaded disease it formerly was, and im- munity is had by inoculation and by immersion in crude petroleum or other dips. Stock Feeding. All breeds of domesticated animals have been greatly improved in the past century, and the methods of feeding and care have kept pace with the advance- ment in other lines. Much earlier maturity in meat-producing animals is one of the great improvements attained, as by it increased profits are derived, the feeding period is comparatively shortened, and the invest- ment can be turned oftener. It has been fully demonstrated, too, that far greater gains for given quantities of feed are made in the earlier stages of an animal's growth. Early finishing obviously has many advan- tages over the former practice of fattening meat animals when several years old. Feeding standards for the various farm animals have been computed that show the quantities and combinations of the different feedstuffs for rations containing the proper proportions of essential compounds, such as protein, carbohydrates and fat. Experi- ments to identify the digestible nutrients of the different feeds and test their effects when used have resulted in practically determining the food requirements of all kinds of farm live stock under normal conditions. Tables of such feeding standards have been con- veniently arranged, and the various rations cover such a wide diversity of feedstuffs that they meex all ordinary farm situations and enable the farmer to form the most advan- tageous combinations, from the viewpoints of both cost and efficiency. Many farmers have regarded Indian corn as an all-sufficient grain, and, probably because of its abun- dance and ease of production, it has been difficult to persuade them otherwise. While its low cost of production and high feeding value make it the leading meat-making feed on American farms, its value is greatly enhanced by the use with it of other elements in which it is lacking. Corn has an excess of carbonaceous matter in proportion to the protein compounds, and the tables of feeding standards point out, among other things, how and with what it may be most advanta- geously associated to make the properly balanced ration. The study of animal nutrition has resulted in most valuable developments for the farmer and stock- laiser. Stock Breeding. Wonderful advancement has been made in the breeding of horses, and one of the marvels in horse speed was the performance in 1906 of the harness horse, Dan Patch, when he paced a mile in a minute and fifty-five seconds. The different breeds of swine nave been greatly improved, and something of the importance of the swine industry of the United States may be noted from the fact that about two-fifths of the world 's hog supply is'produced in the United States, and about six-sevenths of this is from the Mississippi Valley, where the corn is most extensively raised. The various breeds of cattle have likewise been greatly improved for their specific uses, as evidenced by the increased milk flow from dairy cows, and in the superior flesh-forming and fatten- ing propensities of the beef breeds. The live-stock industry has increased greatly in importance in the last half century, and the value of the various kinds on hand in the United States January i, 1910 amounted to $5,138,486,000, divided as follows: Horses, $2,276 363,000; mules $494 095,000* milch cows, $780,308,000; other cattle, $917 453,- ooo; sheep, $233 664,000; and hogs, $436,- 603,000. Agricultural Chemistry and Seed Selec- tion. Progress in agricultural chemistry is assisting to a constantly widening develop- ment in agriculture. It has taught the composition of soils, whereby their adapta- bility to certain crops is shown; of the composition of plants, thus determining their relative values in compounding food rations of greatest excellence at minimum cost. It has also tended to the development of new crops, and improved in various ways those already staple. Great strides have been made in beneficially changing the chemical properties of plants, especially in recent years. Plants, like animals, can be modified and improved by selection and breeding, and this is a work now employing the minds of many of our foremost agricultural authori- ties. For example, corn can be improved in its physical characteristics by the selection of seed according to certain standard requirements, and by planting seed tested by chemical analyses the chemical composi- tion of its progeny can be changed at will, as to a high- or low-protein, or oil content, or other constituent, as desired. The signifi- cance of this is readily apparent from the facts stated regarding the feeding standards, as a corn richer in protein would be corre- spondingly more valuable as a feed for growing animals; high-oil corn would be of AGRICULTURAL STATIONS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES special advantage in fattening stock; and an increase in the percentage of carbohydrates would render it more valuable to the manu- facturers of starch, glucose, syrup and other articles. By the application of similar prin- ciples the gluten content of wheat has been increased, enhancing its value for the manufacture of flour. Strict selection of seed, which is coming to be more or less generally practiced, according to well-known principles, is having a most telling effect upon subsequent productions. In Minne- sota, particularly, where the work has been carried on systematically and continuously for a series of years, the staple crops, such as wheat, corn and flax, have been so improved by selection and breeding that they yield much larger crops per acre than formerly. The study of entomology is also contributing its quota of usefulness to the country's agriculture by revealing the habits of various insects, distinguishing the useful from the harmful, and promoting the in- crease of those desirable and retarding that of others. Farming in the United States is being reduced to such a science that the likelihood of crop failure is gradually becoming less. Haphazard methods are replaced by scien- tific practices that accurately lead to probable results foreknown. It is no longer the drudgery it once was, and the environ- ments of the farmer of to-day are vastly changed for the better from those of the preceding generation. In this time trolley cars, telephone lines, rural free mail delivery and improved roads have modified and benefitted his industrial and social conditions. An enlarged prosperity provides for the modern conveniences in his home, and the situation of the more progressive present-day farmer is one of increased comfort and ease. F. D. COBURN. Agricultural Experiment Stations in America have been modeled after those of Europe. Their aim is to advance agriculture as a science with special reference to local needs. The federal Department of Agricul- ture, founded by President Cleveland in 1889, includes an Office of Experiment Stations, which controls the funds that are expended on these stations in the United States, and administers the stations in Alaska, Hawaii and Porto Rico. This department issues a monthly journal called the Experiment Station Record. To such states and territories as support an agricul- tural college, the federal government makes annual grants in aid; many of the states also make special grants. The federal office co-operates with the Experiment Stations to make such investigations as Congress may from time to time desire. Joint researches have even been made in co-operation with foreign agricultural stations. Agricultural Schools and Colleges. As so large a part of our population is en- gaged in agriculture people have gradually come to see that a study of its underlying principles is just as important and necessary as the study of the older branches of science and philosophy. It was not till 1862, however, that the means for placing the desired instruction within reach of the agricultural community at large was realized through the establishment of state agricul- tural schools. In that year by act of Con- gress 30,000 acres of land for each congress- man were set aside to ensure the permanent endowment of at least one college in each state and territory for the teaching of agriculture and mechanical arts. In 1890 a further grant was made to each state of the maximum annual value of $25,000. The majority of the state agricultural colleges are connected with a university. The others, with the exception of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, are departments of technical schools. Conditions of admission vary considerably in different parts of the country. In parts of the south and west pupils from the eighth and ninth grades of the public schools are usually admitted, while some of the universities have a standard of admission about as high as that for students entering upon literary courses. As to courses of study, in general the agricultural schools connected with univer- sities do more work along the line of scien- tific research, while in the schools not connected with universities more attention is given to the directly practical work. The universities wish to put the four years' course in agriculture on a par with those in literature and philosophy. The aim is not to produce all-round agricultural experts, but to give students a general working knowledge of the things of fundamental importance to intelligent farmers, with opportunity of becoming a spe ialist in some one particular line. The courses usually include care of orchards, grafting, pruning, dairying, feeding and judging of stock, properties of soils, etc. Some colleges have winter courses, lasting three months, especially adjusted to the needs of those students who cannot afford to be away from their home farms during the rest of the year. Such courses, have proved so helpful that many students have returned for several successive winters. Tuition in agricultural colleges is free, but a small fee is usually charged to cover cost of materials used in experiments. In some states allowance is made for work done by pupils towards the payment of their personal expenses of board and lodging, and in some places free lodging is provided by the institution. The Agricultural Department of Cornell University has given courses by correspond- ence which have proved to be highly suc- cessful. Too much encouragement and AGUILAR 33 AIR commendation cannot be given to the farmers and farmers ' sons who are industri- ous and intelligent enough to take advantage of these aids toward improving their vocation, thereby raising their own standard of living and increasing their value to the community in which they live. In few occupations will the results achieved be more increased by a knowledge of underlying principles and an intelligent application of them than in farming. Aguilar (d-ge-lar'), Grace, a story- writer for girls, of some popularity, was the daugh- ter of a Jewish merchant in London. Her books are numerous, among them: Home Influence, Women of Israel and Days of Bruce. Aguinaldo (a-ge-ndl'do), Emilio, late leader of the Filipino insurgents, of mixed European and Mestizo or native half-breed descent, was born in 1872 near Cavite\ Luzon Island, one of the Philippine group. He was educated by a Jesuit priest, and at Manila he took a course in medicine. In 1896 he was mayor of Cavite", and later became leader in the anti-Span- ish revolt. The insur- gents becoming dis- couraged, Aguinaldo and other chief leaders accepted terms offered by Spain, which in- volved, however, their expatriation to Hong Kong. Here, when the Spanish-Amer- ican war broke out, Admiral Dewey found him, and agreeing with him that he would once more take up arms against Spain in the Philippines, he, with his com- rades, was given passage thither on the dispatch boat McCuttoch, and landing in Luzon they renewed the insurrection, be- seiged Manila, and captured some 5,000 Spanish, including the wife and children of the Spanish captain-general. This achieve- ment, added to Aguinaldo 's ambition, appears to have incited him and his com- patriots to wrest the islands from both Spanish and American rule ; for in June, 1898, the insurgents set up a provisional govern- ment with Aguinaldo as president, and when peace between the United States and Spain was proclaimed, Aguinaldo refused to recognize the treaty and assumed active hostilities against the United States. After attacking the American lines on February 4-5, 1899, he declared war by proclamation against the United States, and for over two years maintained desultory fighting against its forces in various parts of the Tagal prov- inces. Aguinaldo and his immediate follow- ing were entrapped on March 23, 1901, at Palanan, and Aguinaldo was made a prisoner by General Fred. Funston and AGUINALDO brought to Manila. Here the insurgent president took the oath of allegiance to the United States, and issued a manifesto to the Filipinos acknowledging and accepting the sovereignty of the United States. Aikins, Hon. James C., born in Ontario in 1823. Educated at Upper Canada College. Elected to the Legislature for the County of Peel (his native county) in 1854, and remained in the Assembly until 1861. From 1869 to 1873 he was Secretary of State and a member of the Administration of Sir John A. Macdonald, and was a second time Secretary of State in 1878. Resigned in 1882 and was appointed Lieutenant-Gov- ernor of Manitoba. At the expiration of his term of office he returned to Toronto and was again appointed to the Senate of Canada. Aino (i'no) or Ainu, an aboriginal Japan- ese race of Caucasian stock inhabiting Yezo (Hokkaido), the Kuriles, the southern part of Saghalien and other northern islands of Japan. They are in appearance short in stature, stoutly built, and in general rather hairy; their chief occupations are hunting and fishing. Their present number is less than 20,000. In early times they lived in the heart of the Japanese archipelago and exercised considerable influence upon the Japanese, though these treated them as half- barbarians and drove them to their present retreat in the northern sections of the coun- try. Their religion is a primitive nature worship, though of late many of them have become Buddhist, while a few have been made converts to Christianity. An Aino grammar and dictionary has been published by the Rev. John Batchelor, a missionary who translated the New Testament into the native tongue. Of recent years the Ainos have been blending with the Japanese, the latter having parted with their former low opinion of the mental inferiority of the race and their backward civilization. See Batch- elor 's The Ainu of Japan (London, 1892), Chamberlaine 's Things Japanese (Lon- don, 1899), an( l Savage Lander's Alone with the Hairy Ainu (London, 1893). Air is the atmosphere in which we live. It is invisible, and has neither taste nor smell, but we know that it is all around us, for we take it into our lungs with every breath and it becomes our most important food. It has weight, which we do not feel because of the air and other gases within us that exert an equal outward pressure. Upon every square inch of the earth's surface there rests a weight of about fifteen pounds of air, so that upon the body of a medium-sized man the air presses with a force equal to thirty thousand pounds. Air may be compressed or packed closely into smaller space than it usually fills. Thus, if a tumbler is pushed down, bottom upward, under water, the water will rise up inside the tumbler and press the air into smaller space. But as the tumbler is brought back to the surface the air again AIR BRAKE 34 AIR PUMP becomes as rare as the surrounding atmos- phere, showing that it is elastic. The weight of the atmosphere makes the lower air so much denser than the upper air that one-half of the whole atmosphere is squeezed into a belt around the earth about three and one- half miles in thickness, while the upper half extends more than forty miles. Air is made up of about 78 parts by volume of nitrogen, 21 of oxygen and one of argon, in 100 parts, and with it is always mixed a variable quantity of water-vapor, which amounts to about one per cent by volume on the average. It contains also about ^5^7 of carbon dioxide and minute quantities of several other gases, including helium, neon, krypton and xenon, which are inactive elements resembling argon. Oxygen is the element that is necessary to animal life, while carbon dioxide is required by plants. On the other hand, animals produce carbon dioxide while plants give off oxygen, so that each supplies the other, and the composition of the air is kept nearly constant. There is air also dissolved in water, and by the same double process fishes and sea-plants keep the air pure. In the cities the air is less pure than in the country, as there are more people to breathe it and fewer plants to supply oxygen. The gases of combustion and decay, which produce much carbon dioxide, also tend to contaminate the air. In a room the breath- ing of a number of persons will soon make the air unwholesome if the ventilation is not good. The gas, carbon dioxide, which is commonly called carbonic acid, is often called a poison; but it is not poisonous, although the presence of a large quantity of it interferes with breathing, and if enough is present it may cause suffocation. Carbon monoxide, the gas that burns with a pale- blue flame at the top of coal fires and is present in illuminating gas, on the other hand is a deadly poison. If this escapes unburned into the air of a room, the results may be very serious. Air Brake. SEE BRAKES. Air Gun, a weapon for shooting bullets or other projectiles by means of condensed air. The air is forced into a vessel, usually in the stock, by means of a condensing syringe. When the finger touches the trigger, the air reaches into the space behind the bullet and drives it out of the barrel, and when the finger is taken away the ves- sel is again closed. Thus several shots may be fired, but with less force each time. At its greatest, the force is not equal to an ordinary charge of gunpowder. Air Plants. Those plants which ob- tain all their food materials from the air. See EPIPHYTES. Air Pump, an instrument used either to compress air in a closed vessel or to exhaust the air from a closed vesel. When used for the former purpose it is generally known as a "force pump," and when used for the latter purpose it is frequently called a "vacuum pump." Air pumps, like other pumps, consist es- sentially of a cylinder fitted with a piston and two valves. The simplest of those which are used for compressing air is, per- haps, the ordinary bicycle pump illustrated in Fig. i. Here the piston is provided with a more or less flexible leather collar which allows the air to pass down around it as the piston is lifted. But on the down stroke of the piston this leather collar acts as pack- ing and prevents the air from passing up. Hence this one part acts as both piston and valve. A second valve, Vz, at the bottom of the cylinder prevents the air in the tire from getting back into the cylin- der during the upstroke of the piston. The vacuum pump is built upon exactly the same prin- ciples as the force pump, only the direc- tion in which the valves open is reversed. The first ar- tificial vacuum was produced by Otto von Guericke, about 1650, with a pump similar to an ordinary lift-pump used in wells, except that instead of pumping the air out of an open vessel, such as a well, he pumped it out of a closed vessel. ___y^~\ The immense improve' f|| ^ ment which has recently been made in the con- struction of air pumps, especially by the intro- duction of valves which open automatically, can be seen from the fact that Guericke's pump re- quired four able-bodied men to operate it. A modern air pump is easi- ly worked by one hand. Ordinary vacua are thus produced by a piston working in a brass cylin- der; but when it comes to "high vacua," such as those employed in the incandescent lamp and in X-ray bulbs, a much more perfect instrument is required. Here it is PIG. 2 necessary to replace the SPRENGEL AIR PUMP ordinary cylinder by a mercury column in a glass tube. FIG. i SINGLE-ACTING BICYCLE PUMP I ] (7J- : (BJJU t AJX-LA-CHAPELLE 35 ALABAMA In Fig. 2 is given a diagram of the best of these mercury pumps, the one devised by Sprengel. The supply of mercury is contained in the reservoir on the left. It flows over into the bulb B, where it falls in drops into the long tube on the right. These drops entrap be- tween them the air in B. The mercury which runs out is collected and poured back into the reservoir on the left. In this man- ner practically all the air can be removed from the bulb B, and hence from any vessel R, which may be connected with B. At M is a manometer which indicates the pressure in the vessel R, which is being exhausted. A pump of this type is capable of produc- ing a vacuum in which the pressure is only 100,000, oooth of an atmosphere. Aix-la-Chapelle (dks-la-shd-feV ), Ger- man Aachen, a city of Prussia. It was founded by the Romans and contains the tomb of Charlemagne. Three treaties were signed here, the most important being that of 1748, when a congress was held between France, England, Holland, Austria, Spain, Sardinia and Modena. This treaty made Switzerland independent, the Rhine free to navigation, secured the Protestant succession in England, and the disunion of the French and Spanish crowns. The dislike of Eng- land and France for the treaty caused the "Seven Years' War," begining in 1755. Pop. (1910) 156,044. A'jax was the son of Telamon, king of Salamis, and next to Achilles in warlike strength. He led the men of Salamis to Troy in twelve ships, and was called the bulwark of the Greeks. At the death of Achilles Ajax, as the bravest of the Gtreeks, claimed his armor, but it was given to his rival, Ulysses. Upon this, becoming in- sane, he killed himself. Sophocles tells the story of his madness and death in his tragedy Ajax. Ak' bar, one of the greatest and wisest of the Mogul emperors, was born at Amarkote, in Sindh, in 1542. When he ascended the throne only a small part of what had for- merly belonged to the Mogul empire owned his authority, and he devoted himself with wonderful success to the recovery of the revolted provinces. He tried by every means to encourage commerce. He had the land carefully measured, so that the taxes should be fair. His people were of different races and religions, but he was just and tolerant to all. He founded schools and was friendly to scholars. Measures like these gained for him the title of "Guardian of Mankind," and caused him to be held up as a model to Indian princes of later times. He died in 1605. Akene (d-ken r ). A seed-like fruit, as in the sunflower, dandelion, etc. Often writ- ten "achene." See FRUIT. Akenside (d'ken-sld), Mark (born 1721, died 1 7 70) , an English physician and poet.who chiefly owes his position among the poets to his Pleasures of the Imagination, a poem which at once became famous. Ak' ron, Ohio, a city, the county seat of Summit County, and a large manufacturing, shipping and railroad center, 35 miles south of Cleveland. Incorporated in 1836, the city is on the Ohio Canal, the Pennsylvania, Erie, Baltimore & Ohio and other railroads. It has coal mines in its vicinity and large industries within it, including one of the largest printing and publishing establish- ments in the world, match and rubber goods factories, flour and other cereal mills, boiler and mining machinery works, besides cord- age, pottery and sewer-pipe, mower and reaper works, a lithographic plant, etc. The Municipal University, formerly Buchtell College, has its seat here, with 20 instructors and 300 students, while there are good pub- lic school facilities, a public library, a hos- pital and efficient police and fire protection. In the neighborhood, reached by train serv- ice, are a number of attractive lake resorts. Population 100,000. Alabama (cU'a-da'ma), State of (mean- ing "here we rest"), with its southern border on the Gulf of Mexico, is from 150 to 200 miles wide, and from 278 to 336 miles long, and is larger than New York, Pennsylvania or Virginia. Surface. The area of the state is about 52,250 square miles. The northern end of the state is crossed by the Tennessee River, which in the west flows through a fertile terraced valley, but in the eastern section is flanked by low mountain ranges. The Allegheny range enters in the northeast, trends southwest and terminates in foot hills and sand mountains toward the center of the state. There next succeeds on the west a plateau in which are found the rich iron and coal beds for which the state is famous; on the east a Piedmont region of rolling upland, while the southern part of the state, comprising three-fifths of its area, is a broad coastal plain. The chief rivers are the Mobile, Alabama, Tombigbee and Tennessee. The Mobile is formed by the junction of the Alabama and the Tombigbee, and after a short course of forty-five miles empties into Mobile bay. Climate. Because of its altitude the northeastern section of the state has a de- lightful climate; the Piedmont region is healthful, and in the country near the coast the heat is tempered by the Gulf winds, while the low lands along the rivers are malarious. Resources. The climate and varied soils of Alabama are favorable to the growth of a wide range of agricultural products, and previous to the discovery and development of its vast mineral wealth the products of the state were chiefly agricultural. The chief crop is cotton, grown throughout the state, but especially in the famous black ALAMCh belt which crosses the state. Her annual yield of this great staple gives Alabama the rank of fifth among cotton-producing states. Other important products are corn, oats, sweet potatoes, sugar cane, peanuts, peaches and melons. ^ In minerals the state is enormously rich. Immense deposits of iron, coal and lime- stone in close proximity afford conditions for the manuafcture of iron products at low cost, and this has led to great develop- ment of this and kindred industries within the last twenty years. In quantity of coal mined the state ranks fifth in the United States, and in iron ore mined it ranks third, next after Michigan and Minnesota. Other minerals include immense beds of cement rock and of phosphates; also soap- stone, lithographic stone, emery and corun- dum, asbestos, graphite, slate, gold, silver, copper, tin and marble of finest grade. Manufactures. The iron industry is the most important and has had marvelous growth. This has facilitated and given impetus to the establishment of other in- dustries, so that the manufactures of the state have doubled in ten years. Manu- factures of open-hearth steel and of cot- ton goods have greatly advanced in recent years. Transportation. The state is traversed by about 5,225 miles of railway. The rivers of the state furnish 1,500 miles of navigable waters, the main streams, the Alabama and the Tombigbee, connecting with the port of Mobile through the Mobile River. Education. Alabama maintains sepa- rate schools for white and colored children, and applies the public school fund in exact proportion to the two classes of schools. In the state there are now 6,566 public schools, besides 45 high schools, nine normal schools, three of them for colored students, three private normals, nine agri- cultural schools, nine universities and colleges and nine women's colleges. Among the more prominent institutions are Uni- versity of Alabama, at Tuscaloosa; Southern University (M. E.), at Greensboro; St Ber- nard College (R. C.), at Cullman; at Auburn, the Polytechnic school and the Agricul- tural and Mechanical College; at Tuskegee, the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial In- stitute (colored), which has national fame. History. The first settlement was made at Mobile Bay, in 1702, by the Frenchman, Sieur de Bienville, called the "Father of Alabama," though De Soto, the Spanish cavalier, was the first to cross the state with his knights, priests and crossbow- men, in 1540. In 1813 occurred the war against Tecumseh and the Creeks. Ala- bama was admitted to the Union in 1819. In January, 1861, the state seceded and furnished the confederate army sixty-nine regiments of infantry, twelve of cavalry and twenty-seven batteries. The principal cities are Mobile, Montgomery (the capital), Birmingham, Anniston, Selma and Dem- opolis. Population 2,348,273. Alabama Claim, The. The Alabama was a cruiser which was built in a British port for the use of the Confederacy in de- stroying the commerce of the northern states during the Civil War. Against the protests of Mr. Charles Francis Adams, the American minister to Great Britain, the Alabama was permitted to sail from the latter country in 1862. For three years she did much harm to the shipping of the United States, but she was at last defeated and sunk off the northern shore of France (June 19, 1864) by the Kearsarge, under the command of Captain Winslow. The United States presented its claims for damages to Great Britain. In 1871 it was decided by a treaty between the two countries to submit all claims for damages done by the Alabama and other vessels to a tribunal of five persons, who were to be named by the President of the United States, the Queen of England, the King of Italy, the President of the Swiss Con- federation and the Emperor of Brazil. In 1872 this court awarded $15,500,000 to the United States. Because the tribunal met in Geneva, Switzerland, its verdict is often called the Geneva Award. Alaba' ma River, a river of the state of Alabama, is formed by the junction of the rivers Coosa and Tallapoosa. It unites with the Tombigbee to form the Mobile at a point forty-five miles above the Gulf of Mobile. It has a depth of six feet for sixty miles above its mouth. Alabaster (al'a-bas-ter). See GYPSUM. Aladdin (a-lad'in), a hero of one of the stories of the Arabian Nights 1 Entertain- ments. He possessed a wonderful lamp and an equally wonderful ring, on rubbing which two frightful genii appeared, who are, respectively, the slave of the ring and of the lamp, and who obey the bidding of any one who may have them in his keeping. Alameda (a-ld-ma'da) , California, an im- portant city of Alameda County, opposite San Francisco, on the shore of the Bay of San Francisco, and contiguous to the city of Oakland. It is reached by the Southern Pacific, Central Pacific and Santa Fe railroad systems; while by ferry from the moles and wharfs of the town it is connected with San Francisco. The town makes a delightful suburb of the latter city, surrounded by shady oaks, and with clean streets, good schools and churches and the quiet and freedom of suburban life. Population 30,000. Alamo (a' Id-mo'), The, a fort near San Antonio, Texas. Here 188 Texans bravely resisted 2,500 Mexicans from February n to March 5, 1836, and nearly all perished rather than surrender. When the fort was taken by the Mexicans, who lost 1,600 men, only five Texans were alive. These ALARIC 37 ALASKA were ordered to be shot. Here were killed David Crockett and Col. James Bowie, from whom the bowie knife was named. Because of this heroic defense Alamo is called the "Thermopylae of America." "Remember the Alamo!" became the cry of the Texans in their struggle for independ- ence. Al' aric, whose name means "all ruler," was a chief and king of the Visigoths. We first find him in 394 A. D., as a commander in the army of the conquered Goths, under the Roman Emperor Theodosius. When Theodosius died, the Goths rebelled, at- tacked Athens and plundered it of its treasures. A Roman army was now sent against him, under General Stilicho, which drove him to a stronghold in Elis and be- sieged him there. Managing to escape with his army, the new emperor, Arcadius, de- cided to make him prefect or governor of the Roman province of Illyricum. This kept Alaric quiet for five years. But about 400 A. D. he set out to invade the empire of the west. It took him two years to reach Milan, where the Emperor Honorius was. He drove him to a fortress and besieged it, but was defeated here, and afterward at Verona, by Stilicho. Still it was thought safest to give Alaric his old place as prefect of Illyricum and a large amount of gold. When the emperor foolishly killed Stilicho, his best general, Alaric marched at once on Rome and laid siege to it. When the people attempted to buy him off, his price was so exorbitant that they said they could not pay it. Alaric's well-known reply was, "The closer hay is pressed, the easier it is mown." He was at last bought off with a great treasure of gold and silver. Hon- orius, however, broke the treaty, and a second time Alaric attacked Rome. This time the people opened the gates and asked him to name a new emperor. When Hon- onus became emperor again, he sent, treach- erously, a savage chief to attack the camp of the Goths. Alaric marched again on Rome and pillaged it for six days, and then overran all Italy with his troops. He died in 410. Alas'ka, a territory of the United States, situated in the extreme northwestern part of the continent. In a political sense Alaska is not a territory but a district, with no territorial organization. It is governed directly by Congress at Washington, and is locally administered by a governor ap- pointed by the President. It is bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean; on the east by British Columbia and the north- west (Yukon) territories of Canada; on the south by the Gulf of Alaska and the North Pacific; and on the west by Bering Strait and the North Pacific Ocean. It com- prises an area of 590,884 square miles, equal to one-sixth of the United States or one- seventh of Europe. Much of the coast line is very irregular, deeply indented and having many islands, the chief of which are the Aleutian, Prince of Wales, Chichagoff , Kadiak, Baranoff, Admiralty, Unimak, St. Lawrence, Kupreanof and Pribyloff Islands. Surface The coast line is followed by mountain ranges, which are a continua- tion of the Rocky Mountains, and spread apart in this peninsula. The main range bends westward along the coast to the end of the Alaskan peninsula. The other takes a northwest direction at Prince Will : am Sound, and a second turn gives it a southwest-northeast direction, and it is known as the Alaskan Range. This is the loftiest elevation in North America. Its noted peaks are Mt. McKinley (20,464 feet), Mt. Logan (19,539 feet), Mt. St. Elias (18,024 feet) and Mt. Wrangell (17,500 feet). Moving down through the valleys of this chain of mountains are the great ice rivers, known as glaciers. Many of these reach to the sea, and one of them, Muir Glacier, not far from Sitka, is wonderfully beautiful. Alaska's interior, west of the Porcupine Hills, is a vast swampy moor which stretches to interminable wastes of tundra that reach to the Arctic Ocean. Climate. The entire coast section and the insular districts are influenced by the Japanese current and the mountains. The latter are a protection against the Arctic winds, while the former fills the air with warm vapors. Condensation takes place when these come in contact with the moun- tains and causes almost perpetual fog and rain. For these reasons the temperature is less extreme than in districts east of the Rockies. Inside the mountains, where the warm currents and vapors are absent, Arctic weather prevails long intense winters and short warm summers. Drainage. The main river is the Yukon, over 2,000 miles long, which may be trav- eled from end to end four months out of the year without seeing snow. Other rivers are the Stickeen, Copper, Sushitna, Musha- gak and the Kuskowim, and the tributaries of the Yukon, which are the Porcupine and the Tanana. The Sushitna is navigable for no miles and the Yeutna for 100 miles. Minerals. The all important mineral product so far is gold, of which the product in 1908 was $19,858,800. In 1909 the amount produced was $20,339,000, but in 1910 there was a decrease in gold production, the total shipment being $15,173,008. Coal is found in several places, the best grade in Copper River Valley. The main coast range contains extensive copper deposits, while silver, tin and petroleum have been found, and on Prince of Wales Island large quarries of marble. Forests. The forest wealth of Alaska is also large, chiefly white pine, cedar and ALBANI ALBANY fir. The most valuable timber is the yel- low cedar; there is also balsam fir, used for tanning, but the wood of universal use is the Sitka or Alaska spruce, which grows in a stunted form even up to the Arctic circle. Agriculture. Alaska claims only that she can supply her present population with its agricultural needs. Experiments have demonstrated that oats, wheat, rye, barley, potatoes, turnips, beets, lettuce, radishes, etc., have been planted, and nearly all reached perfection in the brief summer. In the Yukon Valley are wild berries of great variety, wild celery, wild parsnip, beautiful ferns, purple lupine and red columbine, yellow lilies on the ponds and iris on the banks. Fisheries. The fisheries of Alaska are among the richest in the world; more than half of the salmon product of the United States comes from Alaska j while cod, mackerel, halibut and herring are found. The Pribyloff Islands are the seat of the fur seal industry of Alaska. The number of seals to be killed each year is fixed by regulation of the secretary of the treasury. Education. Alaska has 35 public schools, and the Protestant and Catholic church organizations have their missions, churches and converts. History. The peninsula and strait were discovered in 1728 by Vitus Bering, a Danish navigator in Russian service. The first settlement was made in 1784 on Kadiak Island at Three Saints, and in 1799-1800 the important one at Sitka. In 1867 the United States bought the territory from Russia for $7,200,000, and took formal possession on October i8th the same year. Boundary Dispute. The United States and Russia claimed joint ownership of Bering Sea as an inland body of water to protect their seal fisheries. This Great Britain would not allow, for she had Cana- dian sealing interests to protect. At length in 1902 a protective agreement was entered into between the two nations. Besides, there was an old contention as to the United States and Canadian boun- daries which was never urged because the districts in debate were regarded as worth- less. The discovery of gold in 1896-97 revived the question and forced a settle- ment. On September 3, 1903, the Alaskan Boundary Commission met in London, and on October 20, 1903, the official report was signed by the British and American commissioners, the Canadians refusing. The majority ruled, nowever, and the report was substantially in favor of the United States. By the decision the gold fields are part in Canada and part in the United States, but the Pacific coast-line is wholly within the control of the United States. Cities. Juneau, in the southern district, near Douglas Island, is the capital (pop- ulation 1,644); the other chief towns are Nome City, at Cape Nome on Norton Sound, opposite St. Michael (population 2,600), Sitka, on Baranof Island in Sitka Sound (population 1,039), Skaguay City near the head of the canal (population 872), and the chief mart where the miners purchase their supplies on their way north, by the Chilkoot Pass, overland to the gold mines of the Klon- dike and the Yukon. Alaska is provisionally divided into two districts, the northern and the southern, the census of 1910 givir.g ice territory a total population of 64.356. Albani, Madame (Marie Louise C. E Lajeunesse), a famous soprano and prima donna, was born at Chambly, near Mon- treal, Canada, November i, 1850. After an education at Montreal, Paris and Milan she made her de"but at Messina, in 1870, in Bellini's opera of La Sonnambula. In 1878 she married Ernest Gye, the English im- presario In 1897 she was awarded the Beethoven gold medal by the London Philharmonic Society. Albania (al-ba'ni-a) is the southwestern part of European Turkey. It is about 290 miles long from north to south, and from 40 to 50 miles in width. The country is mountainous, and is noted for its under- ground rivers and beautiful lakes. The Albanians are mountaineers and many of them brigands. Albano (al-bd'no), a lake, mountain and town in Italy, situated about 1 5 miles south- east of Rome. The town (known as the Roman Alba'num) is built on the slope of the Alban mountains, on the site of Pom- pey's villa. It is noted for the beauty of its surrounding scenery and for the interest it possesses for the classicist and anti- quarian. Population between 6,000 and 7,000. Albany (al'ba-ni), the capital of the state of New York, is situated on the west bank of the Hudson River, 142 miles above New York City. It was settled by the Dutch in 1614, and was the first settlement, after Jamestown, within the thirteen col- onies. In 1624 a Fort Orange was built, and the village which grew up around it was named Beaverwyck. This was changed in 1646 to Willemstedt. When captured by the British in 1664, the name was changed to Albany. The city was chartered in 1686. It is an important distributing point for trade from the west. It has a large trade in fruit, lumber, grain and wool, and extensive manufactures of iron, stoves, shoes and other products. It has many fine public buildings, of which the most notable is the state capitol, a magnificent structure, built of granite, at a cost of over $24,000,000. It is the seat of the State Normal College, Albany Institute, the medical and law schools of Union College ALBANY CONGRESS 39 ALBERTA at Schenectady and other educational in- stitutions. Fine residences and public buildings, a beautiful park, modern nitration plant, and excellent drainage combine to make it an attractive as well as a healthy city. Pop- ulation 1 10,000. Albany Congress. A convention of representatives of the colonies of Massa- chusetts, New Hampshire, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, Pennsylvania and Maryland which met at Albany at the call of the British government, June 19, 1754, to consider defensive measures in view of the threatened war with France. At this congress Benjamin Franklin pro- posed a confederation of the colonies under a president to be appointed by the Crown, with a council to consist of representatives chosen by the different colonies. The president, who was to be commander in chief, was to appoint all military officers, and commission civil officers who should be nominated by the council, and to have veto power over the council. The council was to have power to assess taxes, main- tain an army, build defenses and legislate concerning matters of common interest, such as relations to Indians, etc. The plan was not adopted, and the congress was of consequence only as presenting an idea which later on was realized in the union of the colonies. Al' batross, a long- winged ocean bird, occurring in tropical and southern seas. It almost never goes ashore, save in the breeding season, then seeks lonely cliff or rocky slope. The single egg is usually hatched in the bare earth. The albatross is famous in literature, as in Coleridge's Ancient Mariner, and also in accounts of voyages. The birds follow vessels for many days, being almost continuously on the wing, though, in calm weather, they are some- times seen resting on the surface of the water. Many naturalists believe that their powers of flight have been overestimated, WANDERING ALBATROSS and that most of the birds sleep on the water at night and join the ship again after an interval of rest. A few birds may be seen flying astern at night, but a less number than in the daytime. They feed on refuse that is thrown overboard, not diving for their food but eating what they find on the surface of the water. Their cry is between that of a raven and a sheep. The wandering albatross or Cape Sheep is the largest water-bird in existence, some- times measuring 14 feet in expanse of the wings. Its general color is white, with wavy lines of black, and its hand feathers are black. The bill is pinkish white and the legs a light flesh color. The coat of feathers is very heavy, serving as protec- tion against water and long continued cold. Their flight is described as a beautiful sail' ing motion. Albemarle. See MONK. Al' bemarle Sound, a deep, shallow inlet of the Atlantic, on the northeast coast of North Carolina, connected southward with Pamlico Sound. It extends from the mouth of the Roanoke River for about sixty miles eastward, where it is separated from the Atlantic by a long, narrow spur of land. It is from 5 to 15 miles in width, and being enclosed from the ocean its waters are mainly fresh, while it is almost useless for shipping. Its average depth is only 20 feet. The Sound and neighboring region received its name in early colonial days when Charles II of England, in 1663, made a favorite general of his, the first Duke of Albemarle, one of the Lords Proprietors of the Carolinas. Alber' ta became a province of Canada in 1905. It and the new province of Saskatchewan were carved out of the Northwest Territories. Out of 22 members in the Canadian Parliament it was given a representation of seven members. It lies north of the international boundary line and immediately east of the Rocky Mountains, between the 49th and 6oth parallels of latitude and the i loth and i2pth meridians. Its area is 255,285 square miles and its population (1911) 374,663. It stretches 760 miles from north to south. The state of Montana lies to the south of it and the province of Saskatchewan to its east. No other political division of the Dominion possesses greater or more varied natural resources. Edmonton is its capital and seat of government; Calgary and Medicine Hat, considerable cen- ters of population, are in Alberta. Climate. It is characterized by a mild climate in winter and cool breezes in summer. Its location gives it the benefit in winter of the Chinook winds, which follow an easterly direction from the currents in the Pacific Ocean, whence they receive their warmth. The snow in winter rarely lies longer than four or five days at a time when it is melted by the wind, thus making the winters mild and filling the creeks and ponds with water for the stock on the ranches. In the summer these creeks are con- stantly supplied with water from the melting snow in the mountains, so that during summer and winter there is always to be found throughout the district an abundance of water for grazing and all other purposes. ALBERT EDWARD NYANZA 40 ALBINO Resources. The wild grasses are most nutritious, as has been demonstrated by the thousands of cattle sold from the different ranches all in first-class condition for the market. The grain raised in Alberta at present is largely required to supply local require- ments. The surplus finds a market in British Columbia, the Orient, and to some extent in eastern Canada. Winter wheat is successfully grown in Alberta, more especially in the southern parts, and the area under crop is rapidly increasing. The growing of winter wheat has revolutionized conditions. The cool temperature in summer, with the grasses and pure cool mountain streams mentioned, makes Alberta one of the best countries to be found for cheese and butter- making, and it is rapidly becoming as noted for such industries as for its ranches. There is a local lumber supply at Ed- monton and other points, but the finer grades are obtained from British Columbia. The province is opened up by the Cana- dian Pacific Railway and its branches from Calgary to Edmonton, Macleod and to the great ranching country around Medicine Hat, which, owing to its climate, permits cattle to graze without shelter throughout the whole winter. Alberta has a border line of 30 townships which front upon the American Republic. The province contains 170,000,000 acres of arable lands. Of this immense tract scarcely one million acres have been tilled. It has no waste country. In its south- west corner (near Montana) there is a rich oil field. Its coal fields extend all over the province; vast deposits of coal are found all along the foothills. Medicine Hat, one of its largest towns, is famous for its natural- gas wells. The largest zinc smelter in the world is at Frank, Alberta. Its greatest wealth, however, will always be in agri- culture. The northern part of this province is in the same degree of latitude as Scot- land, and the southern part of the province the same as a part of Germany. North Alberta is watered by portions of two great river systems, the Peace River and the Athabasca River. The markets of the agricultural products of Alberta will, it is likely, ultimately be to the west and to the Orient what they are now to the mining districts of British Columbia. Her coal will go to the east, to the plains of Saskatch- ewan and the prairies of Manitoba, but her agricultural products will seek a nearer market. It is over 2,000 miles to Montreal, nd only 600 to Victoria, B. C. The soil of from one to three feet of black vegetable mould with but little of sand or gravel is of almost inexhaustible fertility. Education. Common schools are estab- lished with liberal government assistance wherever the number of children of school age warrants. High schools are established at several central points, and arrangements are well under way for opening a well equipped provincial university. The opportunities for primary (common school) education are excellent, and "when the university opens for actual work the facilities for the professional training of the teachers, a most important considera- tion, will be all that can be desired. Albert Edward Nyanza (nl-dn'za), a lake in Africa, about 50 miles southwest of Lake Albert and connected with the lat- ter lake by the Semliki River. This lake was discovered by Stanley in 1876, and was again visited by him in 1889 while on his Emin Pasha relief expedition ; but it is still somewhat veiled in uncertainty. It is probably much smaller than its northern companion. Several small salt lakes are in its vicinity. Its old name was Muta Nzige. Stanley says of this lake: "No rivers of any great importance feed the Albert Edward Nyanza, though there are several which are from 20 to 50 feet wide and two feet deep. The river-like arms of the lake, now narrowing and now broaden- ing, swarm with egrets, ducks, geese, ibis, heron, storks, pelicans, snipes, kingfishers and other water-birds." ("Nyanza" means "lake".) Albert Nyanza, a large lake in east Central Africa. Its surface is 2,720 feet above the level of the sea. On its western coast are the Blue Mountains, rising 7,000 feet higher, and on the east steep cliffs rise almost as high. The White Nile, flow- ing from Lake Victoria, enters Lake Albert and issues from it near its northernmost point. Sir Samuel Baker was the first Euro- pean who explored it in 1864. Area about 2,000 square miles. Albert, Prince Consort, Prince of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and husband of the late Queen Victoria of England, was born near Coburg, August 26, 1819. He married Victoria in 1840; soon after was made field- marshal in the British Army; and in 1857 received the title of prince consort. He acquired great influence in public affairs as the prudent and trusted adviser of the queen, and became popular throughout England. He died December 14, 1861. Albigenses (al-bt-jen' sez) , a French re- ligious sect, so named from the town oi Alby, where a council was held in 1176 which condemned their doctrines. They taught the doctrines of the Manichaeans that there are two opposing principles, one good and the other evil. They also rejected the Old Testament. The sect practically died out about 1227. Albino (Si-be 1 no), a person or animal whose skin and hair are perfectly white. The white negroes of West Africa were first called by this name by the Portuguese, but it is now applied to persons of any race who ALBONI ALCINOUS hav this peculiarity, though it is most common among dark races. Animals also have the same peculiarity, as the white elephant, white hare and white mice. The whiteness is caused by the absence of color- ing matter in the outside layer of the skin. The eyes of albinoes are red, and are weak in the daytime but strong at night. Alboni, Marietta, a celebrated (con- tralto) opera singer, born in the Romagna, Italy, in 1823, and died at Paris, June 23, 1894. She studied under Rossini and made her de"but at Bologna, achieving a phenom- enal success. She afterward sang in all the chief Continental and English cities, and also appeared in the United States. She married Count Pepoli, a Bolognese, after whose death, in 1863, she retired from the stage. Albu' men, a substance familiarly known in the white of eggs, which exists abun- dantly in all animals and in the juices, seeds, grains and other parts of plants. It is one of a class of substances called proteids, which form an important part of food, since they build up the tissues of the body. Albumen is naturally a fluid, but when heated to a high temperature it is changed into a firm, white solid. White of egg is used to clear liquids, as coffee, because when boiled it collects all the impurities in flakes and rises to the surface as scum, or sinks to the bottom, according to the weight of the liquid holding it. Albuquerque (dl-boo-kdr'kd'), the county seat of Bernadillo County, New Mexico. It is 56 miles southwest from Santa Fe, and its elevation is 4930 feet. The territorial University of New Mexico is situated in this city. Among the chief industries of the city are the trade in wool and hides and manufactures of lumber, sash, doors, boxes, etc. There are mines of gold, silver, copper and iron in the vicinity. Albuquerque is lo- cated on the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe railroad. Owing to the surrounding resources and the enterprise of its people its industries are developing and its population increasing at a rapid rate. Population, 11,020. Alcamenes (al-kam'e-nez) , a famous Athenian sculptor, a pupil of Phidias. He nourished from about 448 to 400 B. C. He is said to have once competed with his master in chiseling a statue of Minerva. Alcamenes's statue was beautiful in finish, but he had forgotten that it was to be placed on a high column; and so placed his work would not bear comparison with that of his great master. His masterpiece was his statue of Venus Urania, in the temple of Venus at Athens. Alcestis (al-ses'tes) . In classic mythol- ogy, the daughter of Pelias and wife of Admetus, king of Thessaly. She is said to have sacrificed herself that her husband's life, then in danger, might be spared, as Apollo had promised her. She was brought back from Hades by Hercules. The story of her wifely devotion is the theme of a tragedy, or rather of a melodrama, by Euripides. Ar chemy, the art of making gold and silver and of preparing a universal medi- cine. In ancient times it seems to have been cultivated to some extent by the Greeks and Chinese, and was learned by the Arabs in their invasions. In the middle ages it was looked upon as a science, and was earnestly studied among the nations of Europe. A university of alchemy was founded at Prague, and princes for a time kept their private alchemists. The alchemists believed in the existence of a certain solid red preparation called the philosopher's stone or the grand elixir, which, when placed on common metals, such as lead, and melted to a liquid, would change them into gold. It would also cure all diseases, while a similar white prepara- tion changed all metals to silver. In the study of this art many scientific truths were discovered, and so alchemy became the forerunner of chemistry. Alcibiades (al-si-bl 1 'd-dez) , one of the most brilliant of the Athenians. He was born at Athens about 450 B. C., and boasted that he was descended from the hero Ajax, and through him from Jupiter himself. He was brought up by Pericles, his guardian, and was a favorite pupil of Socrates. He was beautiful in person, had splendid abil- ities and energies and great ambition, but was without self-restraint and utterly selfish. Entering public life at the time of the contest with Sparta he became the leader of the war party, and persuaded the Athenians to undertake an expedition against Sicily. The night before he set out as one of the generals all the images of the god Hermes or Mercury were thrown down, and he was charged with a share in the sacrilege. No sooner had he reached Sicily than he was recalled to stand trial, but fled to Sparta and devoted all his energies to defeating his own countrymen. Soon the Spartans grew jealous of his power and in- fluence and he was compelled to flee to the Persians. Anxious to return to his native Athens, he promised the Athenians the help of the Persians. He was recalled and made general, and won several brilliant victories, but was banished again at his first defeat. After the fall of Athens, on his way to the Persian court to seek help for his country, he was assassinated, 404 B.C. Alcinous (al-cin'o-us'), a mythical king of the island of Scheria described in the Odyssey. Being separated from other people, he and his people lived in unbroken peace and prosperity. The description of the king's palace with its fine furnishings, and its wonderful court containing the orchard of everbearing trees and vines is well known and is quite remarkable. The ALCOHOL 42 ALDER chief employment of the people was naviga- tion. It was said that the ships were in- telligent, and without helm or pilot could find any coast or harbor. King Alcinous received Ulysses near the close of the latter's long period of wandering. He entertained him hospitably and furnished him with a ship to carry him to Ithaca. Upon its return to Scheria this ship and its sailors were transformed to stone by Neptune as a mark of his wrath for the favor shown to Ulysses. Al' cohol, the spirit of fermented liquors. The word is of Arabic origin, and was originally used as the name of a kind of black paint used by Eastern women for darkening the eyes. It is not known why the word was applied to its present use. Alcohol is made from the juice of grapes, apples, etc., and from corn, grain and other materials containing starch, after the latter has been converted into sugar. When the juices or "mashes" ferment or "work", the sugar which they contain changes into the spirit alcohol. It has great affinity for water, which is to a great degree separated from it by distillation and other processes. When pure it is a deadly poison, and is the intoxicating principle in the so-called spir- ituous liquors. Brandy, whiskey, rum and gin, which are called distilled liquors, are about one-half alcohol; port wine about one-fourth or one-fifth, and claret and white wines one-tenth, while ale and cider have still less. When alcohol is drunk it undergoes oxida- tion in the body, just as sugar, starch and other similar substances do. As a narcotic, it produces at first high spirits; then, as it gets possession of the nerves of feeling, stupidity; then when it has paralyzed the nerves of motion, insensibility; and, finally, if taken in large enough quantities, it reaches the heart and the result is death. Alcohol has many interesting properties and uses. As it never freezes at any natural tem- peratures, it is used in cold countries in thermometers. It is used in medicines by mixing it with drugs; in varnishes by mix- ing with resins and gums; and in cologne by mixing with oils. It is used in preserving specimens, as it is an antiseptic. Chemists find it a clean and valuable fuel. Alcott (awl'kof), Amos Bronson, Ameri- can educator, philosophical writer and one of the founders of the New England Tran- scendentalist school, was born at Wplcott, Conn., November 29, 1799, and died at Boston, March 4, 1888. His active life began by teaching in schools, founded by himself and on methods of his own, the teaching being imparted more by conversa- tion than by books. Later on, he exchanged the schoolroom for the lecture platform, and became dean of the Concord School of Philosophy. At Concord, he was intimate with Emerson, Hawthorne, Thoreau and LOUISA MAY ALCOTT Channing, and was a frequent contributor to The Dial. Besides his Table Talk his best known work is his Concord Days. Aicott, Louisa May, daughter of the above, was born in 1833 an< ^ died in 1888. Her books for children are per- haps the most popular works of the kind pub- lished in this country. Her Hospital Sketches are selections from letters written home from the army in 1863, where she was a volunteer nurse. Her best known books are Little Women, Little Men, Old-Fashioned Girls, Eight Cousins and Rose in Bloom. Alcuin (al'kwin), born in England about 735 A. D., and died in France in 804. He was educated in the cathedral school at York, England, and became head master of that school. He is, perhaps, best known for his labors in the celebrated palace school opened by King Charlemagne in France. Alcuin became the head of this school and, in addition to teaching, he had corrected copies made of classical manu- scripts which had gradually become very inaccurate through careless copying. Dur- ing his last years, Alcuin was abbot of the monastery of St. Martin in Tours, France. Alden (awl'den), John (born 1599, died 1689), one of the Pilgrim fathers, who came over in the Mayflower in 1620. For more than fifty years he was a magistrate of Ply- mouth colony. Miles Standish once sent him to a lady with an offer of marriage, but she, liking John better, said, " Prithee, John, why do you not speak for yourself?" anc 1 T 1 Lonj or shrub, fond of the water and the wood valued for its durability in water. It be- longs to the genus Alnus; 20 species are known. A giant among these is the famous black alder of Europe, Asia and North Africa. The alder is widely distributed. In North America there are six species of trees and three of shrubs. "The alder by the river" is not only a very pretty feature of the landscape, but also of value to the land, keeping the banks from crumbling. The tree is not ranked with the more im- portant timber trees, but is put to numer- ous uses; alder branches furnish the best charcoal for the making of gunpowder; from the bark and shoots is obtained a dye; the wood is turned to account in various small common articles, and is used for piles, pumps, watering-troughs, etc. ALDERMAN 43 ALEUTIAN ISLANDS The Oregon or red alder is found in the far west, in Washington, Oregon and in the mountains of California down to Santa Barbara. It grows along streams, on can- yon sides, and up on the mountains beyond the spruces. On Puget Sound the tree some- times reaches the height of 80 feet. The bark is smooth and grayish, the leaves dark green. The wood is red-brown in color and is sometimes used for furniture. The white alder also belongs to the west, borders mountain streams from Idaho down toward the Mexican line. It, too, is a tall tree for an alder. Very early in the year it puts forth great yeUow catkins, at this season specially conspicuous and attractive. In the spring the unfolding leaves are cov- ered with white hairs and the young shoots have a white crust. The bark is rough and dark brown in color. The lanceleaf alder grows on high lands in Arizona and New Mexico. The paperleaf alder is another species found in the mountains of the west. The seaside alder, an attractive small tree, is found fringing stream and pond in Delaware, Maryland and the Indian Terri- tory. It is from 15 to 30 feet in height, its bark light brown, the leaves a gleaming dark green above, paler beneath. A feature of this tree is the beautiful yellow catkins with which it decks itself in September. Plants of other orders are popularly called alders. Mention may be made of the winter- berry or black alder, common on low grounds, closely related to the American holly, bearing thick-clustered coral-red berries, these appearing in September. The sweet pepperbush or white alder, a shrub in late summer adorned with fragrant white blossoms, grows along the New England coast. Al'derman, Edwin Anderson (1861), American educator and president of the University of Virginia, was born at Wil- mington, N. C., and educated at the Uni- versity of his native state. Of the latter, in 1896-99, he was president, when he be- came head of Tulans University at New Orleans, La., subsequently removing to Charlottesville, Va., to take the presidential chair at the University of Virginia. Aldrlch (awl'drlch), Nelson Wilmarth (1841 ), U. S. Senator (Republican) from Rhode Island, born at Foster, R. I. For six years he was a member of the Provi- dence Common Council, in two of which he acted as president. In 1875 he was a mem- ber of the Rhode Island General Assembly and in the latter was elected speaker of the state House of Representatives. In 1878 he was returned to the Federal Congress and in 1880 was re-elected, but in the follow- ing year resigned to take a seat in the Senate. He was successively elected to the Senate (in the years 1886, 1892 and 1905), and became one of the most forceful and T. B. ALDRICH efficient members of that body. He had charge of the tariff bill passed in 1909. He was also chairman of the commission ap- pointed to revise the monetary system of the country. Aldnch (awl'drich'), Thomas Bailey, an American poet and novelist, was born in Portsmouth, New H a m p- shire, Novem- ber ii, 183*. Between the years 1881 and 1890 he was editor of the Atlantic Month- ly. He has written The Stillwater Trag- edy, Story of a Bad Boy, Mar- jorie Daw, Pru- dence Palfrey, Judith and Holofernes and several volumes of poems. He died March 19, 1907. Ale. See BEER. Alemainl (d'ld-man'ne) (meaning "all men"), a union of several tribes, who lived in the heart of Germany. They were at- tacked at different times in their history by nine Roman generals or emperors. They were defeated time and again, but never conquered. They were at last united with the Suevi into the dukedom of Alemannia, and thereafter their history is included in the history of Germany. Aleppo (a-l%p'po), a city of Syria, is built over the ancient city of Beroea. It is sur- rounded by a stone wall forty feet high and three and a half miles long. In an earth- quake which occurred in 1822 two- thirds of the people were swallowed up. Outside the city beautiful gardens stretch for 12 miles to the southeast. The "boil of Aleppo" is a cancer that breaks out on the faces of children and lasts a year, leav- ing a scar for life, by which a citizen of the place can be easily recognized. Population, 210,000. Aleutian Islands or Catharine Archi- pelago, a group of over 150 islands, vol- canic as well as rocky in their foundation, which extend southwestward from the Alaskan peninsula across the northern Pacific and between the latter ocean and Bering Sea. They are populated by a hardy race, between 2,000 and 3,000 in number, allied to the Eskimo stock, who subsist chiefly on seals and fish. There is little agriculture, for the soil is thin and poor, and the vegetation is stunted and insignificant. The islands, which form part of Alaska and with that northwestern peninsula belong to the United States, were discovered early in the eighteenth century by Bering, the Danish navigator. The in- habitants as a rule are of a low order of ALEXANDER 44 ALEXANDER III intelligence, use primitive implements in their work, and live in winter in crude dug- outs and underground dwellings. They have been Christianized by Russian mis- sionaries and are nominally attached to the Greek church. Their food, in addition to the fish they catch, includes foxes and rein- deer. The Fox Islands form the larger and more populous portion of the archipelago, which extends along both sides of the parallel of 55 north latitude, separating the Northern Pacific from the Sea of Kam- chatka. See ALASKA. Alexander. See EMPEROR SEVERUS. Alexan' der the Great, son of Philip of Macedon, was born at Pella, in 356 B. C. Gifted by nature and carefully educated by Aristotle, he early gave promise of his great character. Philip's triumphs saddened him, and he once exclaimed : " My father will leave 'nothing for me to do!" When only 1 6, he took charge of the government in his father's absence. Two years later he showed such courage in the battle of Chaeronea that his father, embracing him, said: "My son, ask for thyself another kingdom, for that which I leave is too small for thee." At Philip's death, Alexander, not yet 20 years old, ascended the throne and prepared to finish the conquests which his father had begun. He struck terror into all Greece by razing Thebes to the ground and punishing all who had revolted. He then turned to- ward Persia. Crossing the Hellespont, in 334, he defeated the Persians in a number of battles, overthrowing the son-in-law of King Darius with his own lance. The cities of Asia opened their gates to the conqueror as he marched to meet Darius and his army of 500,000, in the denies of Cilicia. At the pass of Gordium was the famous Gordian knot. An oracle had foretold that whoever should untie it would become master of the world, but Alexander boldly cut it with his sword. Meeting Darius between the mountains and the sea, the resistless Mace- donian phalanx utterly routed the dis- orderly masses of the Persians in the great battle of Issus, 333 B. C. The family of the Persian monarch fell into the hands of Alexander, and all Asia, as far as the Euphrates was offered as the condition of peace; but the conqueror proudly refused, saying that Darius must regard him as the ruler of all Asia and the lord of all his people. Alexander now turned southward and conquered the eastern coast of the Medi- terranean. In Egypt he restored the religious customs of the people, which the Persian rulers had changed, and built the city of Alexandria. He visited the temple of Jupiter Ammon in the Libyan desert and was hailed as a son of the god. In the spring, he routed Darius again, at the battle of Arbela (331 B. C.). He marched to the interior, entering in triumph Babylon and Susa. the storehouse of the treasures of the East, and Persepolis, the capital of Persia. But thest successes turned his head, and he began to lead a life of cruelty and dissipa- tion. In a fit of anger he killed some of his best friends, and while drunk burned the beautiful city of Persepolis. In 320 B. C., Alexander marched northward to the furthest known limits of Asia and con- quered the Scythians on the banks of the Jaxartes. Two years later, he invaded India. When a king named Porus was brought to him, Alexander asked him how he would like to be treated. " Like a king," was the reply, which so pleased Alexander that he restored him his kingdom, and Porus became an ally and friend. Here his favorite horse, Bucephalus, which no one else could ride, died from a wound. Alex- ander gave the horse a splendid burial, and founded a town, named Bucephala, in his honor. Alexander advanced through India, until his soldiers refused to follow him further. He sailed down the Hydaspes to the Indus, thence to the Indian Ocean. He returned to Babylon, receiving on his way ambassadors from all parts of the world. Here, while forming new plans for the future, both of conquest and civiliza- tion, he was taken sick at a banquet and died at the age of 32, after a reign of less than thirteen years, during which he had become master of most of the then known world. His body was carried to Alexandria and placed by Ptolemy in a golden coffin. The Egyptians and other nations worshiped him as a god. His vast empire was divided among his generals. When asked who should inherit his throne he replied: "the worthi- est." Alexander I, czar of Russia, was born November 6, 1777, and ascended the throne in 1 80 1. He was concerned in all the wars of Napoleon, either as his enemy or as his ally. As a ruler, he was able and humane, but in his wars he was usually on the side opposed to the cause of public liberty. He died in 1825. Alexander II, czar of Russia, born in 1818, succeeded his father Nicholas I as czar in 1855, during the Crimean war. By his establishment of schools and in- ternal improve- ments he did more to build up Russia than any emperor since Peter the Great. He gained the name of " Lib- erator" by giv- ing freedom to the serfs. He was assassinated i& 1881. Alexander III, ALEXANDER ill czar of Russia ALEXANDER (POPES) 45 ALEXANDRIA, VA. was born March 10, 1845. He succeeded to the throne in 1881 . He showed vigor in gov- ernment and ability in repressing the Nihilists (see the latter), who made several attempts on his life, and who assassinated his father, Alexander II. The harsh laws against the Jews and the severe famine (1892), are among the later events of his reign. In 1866 he mar- ried Princess Dagmar of Denmark (sister of Alexander queen of England), whose son, Nicholas II, succeeded Alexander III on the throne. He died November i, 1894. Alexander, the name of eight popes. Alexander VI has been called the worst of the popes, because the crimes of his son, Caesar Borgia, were attributed to him. He was a profligate, but an able statesman and did much to advance the cause of the papaoy. He was born in 1431, and died in 1503. See BORGIA, CAESAR. Alexander, W. J., born at Hamilton, Ontario. Educated at Hamilton Colle- giate Institute. Matriculated University of Toronto with double scholarship ,1873. Cana- dian Gilchrist Scholar, 1874. Student of University College, London, England, 1874-7. B.A. University of London. Teacher in Prince of Wales College, Char- lottetown, P.E.I., 1877-9. Graduate Student, Scholar and Fellow of Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, 1879-1883. Ph.D., 1883. Graduate student in Germany, 1883-4. Professor of English Literature, Dalhousie College, Halifax, Nova Scotia, 1884-89. Professor of English, University College, Toronto, 1889 present time. He has written various books, Introduction to the Poetry of Robert Browning; Select Poems of Shelley; and various articles in learned periodicals. Alexan'dra, Queen, consort of the late Edward VII of England, long known as Prin- cess of Wales, daughter of the late Chris- tian IX, of Denmark, was born at Copen- hagen, Decem- ber i, 1844. On March 10, 1863, she was mar- ried at Windsor to Albert Ed- ward (then Prince of Wales), eldest son of Queen Victoria and the Prince Con- sort. She has had six chil- dren, four of whom survive. Her majesty is widely loved and admired; she is a fine musician, eagerly interested in philanthropic works and devoted to QUEEN ALEXANDRA her family life of which she is the center and inspiration. Alexan'dria, a city of Egypt, founded by Alexander the Great, 333 B. C. Its site is near one of the mouths of the Nile, between the Mediterranean and Lake Mareotis. About a mile out in the sea is the island of Pharos, connected with the land by an enormous mole, on which Ptolemy built the famous lighthouse, 400 feet high, which was called one of the won- ders of the world. He ordered as inscrip- tion on the lighthouse, the words: "King Ptolemy to the Gods, the Saviours, for the Benefit of Sailors." But the architect, Sostrates, put another inscription on the wall, covenng it with mortar on which he wrote the words of the king. In later years the mortar fell off, and the hidden inscrip- tion appeared: "Sostrates, the Cnidian, son of Dexiphanes, to the Gods, the Saviours, for the Benefit of Sailors." The city was laid out in squares, with the tomb of Alex- ander the Great in the center. It WES divided into the quarters of the Jews, of the Egyptians and of the Greeks. In the latter were most of the beautiful buildings for which the city was famous, the palace of the Ptolemies, the greatest of the libraries of ancient times, the museum, the court of justice and the temple of the Caesars. This temple Julius Caesar adorned with the two "Cleopatra's needles," which he brought from Heliopolis, and which have been given to England (1877) and to America (1880). Alexandria has been a great center of trade at different times in its history. The rise of Constantinople and the discovery of the passage to India by the Cape of Good Hope took away its importance; but the opening of the Suez canal has renewed its prosperity, and it is now growing rapidly. The city fell at various times under the power of the Romans, the Persians, the Arabs and the Turks. It was largely rebuilt under Me- hemet Ali (who reigned from 1811 to 1848). In 1882 it was bombarded and held for a time by the English. It is now under English government. The modern city is built on the ancient mole. The population is 332,246, made up of a large number of nationalities. Alexandria, Ind., a growing city in Madi- son County, situated about 50 miles north- east of Indianapolis on two lines of rail- way and having trolley connection with all principal towns and cities in Indiana and Ohio. With the discovery of natural gas in 1889 its growth for a few years was remark- able. On the failure of gas it lost many industries but since 1908 has enjoyed a healthy growth. Its manufactures include glass, min- eral wool, wire and paper mill products. The city owns and operates its own waterworks. Population (1910), 5,200. Alexandria, Va., a town, port of entry and railroad center in Alexandria County, ALEXANDRIAN LIBRARY 46 ALFALFA of which it is the capital, is situated on the right bank o. the Potomac, six miles southwest of Washington, D. C. The tidal wateis of the Chesapeake flowing up the Potomac, afford a good and roomy harbor, the river here being a mile wide. It has a number of institutions of learning, among them Potomac, Mt. Vernon and St. Mary's Academies, the Wash ngton High School, and the Theological Seminary and High School of the Diocese of Virginia (Episcopal). The town has several buildings of historic interest, among them being Christ Church where Washington worshipped; the Carlyle House, Brad dock's headquarters in 1755; the school of which the first teacher was Washington: the old Town Hall, the first story of which was used by the fire brigade of which Washington was a member, etc. Alexandria has many factories, mills, ma- chine shops and other industries. Popula- tion, 15,329. Alexandrian Library, probably the largest collection of books ever gathered before the invention of printing. It was founded by Ptolemy I and Ptolemy II. of Egypt, and contained books in all languages. It was housed in two buildings, the Museum and the Serapeum. The number of volumes was said to be seven hundred thousand, but this would not amount to as much as a modern library of printed books of the same number, because at that time all books were written, and each part of a book was called a volume. Thus the Iliad, which now makes one volume, was then twenty-four volumes. Students came to this library from all parts of the world to study. When Julius Caesar besieged Alexandria, a large part of the library was burned. Mark Antony, however, presented a new collec- tion to Cleopatra from Per gam us, and the library went on increasing for four centuries, till the Serapeum was destroyed by com- mand of the Emperor Theodosius The library was again re-established, but was burne'd a second time, about 640 A. D., when the Arabs conquered the city. The story is told that the Arab caliph, Omar, when asked to preserve the library, said: "If these writings of the Greeks agree w'th the Koran, they are useless and need not be preserved: if they disagree, they are pernicious and ought tr v e destroyed. So they were used to hea the four thousand baths of the city, and ~uch was their num- ber that six month were barely sufficient to use up the precious fuel. Alexiev, Admiral E. S. Born in Russia in 1844, and educated for the navy. During the Chino- Japanese War in 1897, he was the chief of the eastern fleet; later he was the chief of the Black Sea fleet. In August, 1903, he was appointed viceroy of the Far East with supreme command of the land and naval forces. When the Russo-Japanese War broke out and the Ru?sians met re- verses, Alexiev was superseded in com- mand both of the army and navy, and left in charge of the civil administration only. He has been severely censured for either being ignorant of the state of affairs in Japan prior to the war or for concealing his knowledge of the situation from the czar. Nicholas II. Alexiev belongs to the reactionary faction in the Russian govern- ment. Alfalfa, from an Arabic word meaning "the best fodder," the Medicago sativa of botanists, is a forage plant belonging to the botanical family Leguminosce, of which all clovers, beans and peas are examples. It is known by many other names, of which the most common is lucerne; it is a per- ennial, with powers of indefinite repro- duction from one seeding, and fields of it are claimed to have been continuously productive without reseeding for from one to two hundred years or more. It is a smooth, upright, branching plant, with leaves three parted, arranged alternately, and netted-veined, and produces many stems from one seed or root. Its flowers are purple, and appear in clusters on the stems and branches; its seed-pods are coiled spirally, each containing several seeds, which are kidney-shaped and olive green or bright egg-yellow in color. Alfalfa is native to Asia, and was familiar to the Egyptians, Medes and Persians, Greeks and the Romans, who distributed it over large portions of southern Europe. Early in the history of the western continent the Spaniards carried alfalfa to South America. It was introduced probably about 1853 into the United States, in northern California, but attracted no great attention until more recent years. It is the richest forage plant known, and doubtless destined to come into general use in most of the states. In fact it is already grown successfully in greater or less areas in every state in the Union, whereas a few years ago its profitable production was thought possible only in the irrigated valleys of the west, being deemed adapted only to certain conditions found in the so-called semi-arid section, but it is now produced under greatly varying condi- tions of soils, climate and altitude, and this adaptability gives its growing a wide range. There are but two soil conditions that seem reliably against the successful growth of alfalfa . one is a soil generally wet, the other is too much soil acidity. The latter may be remedied by applications of lime, the other requires drainage. Alfalfa is exceedingly rich in protein, the property in which corn and most other crops are deficient, and hence its hay serves admirably to balance the feeding ration, saving the purchase of high- priced feeds, such as bran, for ^instance, which, pound for pound, it approximates in value. Its great value to the husbandmen may be further appreciated by the fact that ALFIER] 47 ALFRED THE GREAT it yields from three to twelve tons per acre per season. One experiment station reports that "one acre of alfalfa yields as much protein as three acres of clover, as much as nine acres of timothy and] twelve times as much as an acre of brome-grass." Unless a seed crop is desired, it is cut regulaily whenever the first blooms appear, which in some regions is every month in the year, but three to five cuttings per annum would probably be an average range. It restores and enriches rather than depletes the fertility of the soil in which it grows, supplying it with nitrogen collected from the atmosphere in nodules on its roots, in greatest abundance for other succeeding crops. Its long penetrating roots, reaching to great depths, not only give it unusual powers of resistance to protracted dry weather, but draw from subterranean recesses large quantities of mineral elements which other crops would never reach, and decaying leave these readily available for future crops of whatever kind. The action of its wonder- ful root-system constitutes it in effect a gigantic subsoiler, ' and humus is constantly added to the soil by the decay of its fibrous roots, continually branching from the main tap-root. The soils on which alfalfa is grown are wonderfully changed in chemical eleme^ ts and physical character, and it has been denominated as the greatest fertilizing and soil renovating plant known to agri- culture. Its palatability and succulence cause live stock of all kinds to eat it with extreme relish, uncured or as hay, and it is especially prized as a factor in dairy husbandry, affording at lowest cost the most important ingredients of the feeding rations. It is also used as pasturage, but ruminants such as cattle and sheep are not safely grazed upon it, owing to its liability to cause bloat (hoove), often resulting in speedy death. No diseases of alfalfa are as yet common in America, and it is said more failures in growing it are caused by weeds than all its other enemies and pests combined. Well- prepared seed-beds and the most favorable conditions are demanded for the prosperity of the seed and the young plants during the earlier stages of their growth, if the fullest measure of success is to be attained. Where- eyer extensively grown, alfalfa has revolu- tionized the conditions of agriculture, and one of the most eminent agricultural and dairy authorities in the United States re- cently declared it as his belief that "the alfalfa-growing movement is the most important agricultural event of the century." F. D. COBURN. Alfieri (dl-fe-a're) , the founder of Italian tragedy. He was born in Piedmont in 1749, and after a brief period of study at Turin traveled several years on the continent, spending his time, however, in dissipation. A few chance verses, written at the bedside of a friend, stirred in him a passion for tragedy, and he turned his energies to the study of literature. He wrote twenty-one tragedies, besides other poetry, including five odes on the American Revolution. His dramas, though simple in style, held an Italian audience spellbound. Saul is his most successful tragedy. Count Vittorio Alfieri died at Florence in 1803. His tomb is in the church of Santa Croce, in Florence, next to the tomb of Michael Angelo, and over it stands a monument by the sculptor Canova. Alfonso (alfon'so), a name borne by twenty-two sovereigns in the Spanish penin- sula. Alfonso I of Portugal (1110-1185) was the founder of the Portuguese kingdom. He is said to have been over seven feet in height, and was a successful fighter against the Moors and Spaniards. Alfonso VI, of Leon and Castile (1030- 1109), inherited only a part of his father's kingdom, in which his brother and sistet shared, but by a series of wars he conquered the greater part of their territories l and fought the Moors vigorously. Alfonso X, of Lepn and Castile, was engaged during his reign in putting down revolts, in fighting the Moors and in two attempts to make himself emperoi of Ger- many. Era, 1221-1284. Alfonso V, of Aragon, also ruler of Sicily, Sardinia and Naples, was born in 1385. His determination to conquer Naples, after long wars, at great odds, was finally successful. Alphonso was one of the best kings of his name. He was brave, showed great generalship, was generous, loved books, and gave encouragement to law and justice. He died at Naples in 1458. Alfonso XIII, king of Spain, is the son of Alfonso XII of Spain and of Maria Christiia, Archduchess of Austria. Alfonso XIII was born on May 17, 1886, shortly after the death of his father, and during his minority his mother acted as regent. Before he ascended the throne, there were serious uprisings in the Philippine Islands and in Cuba. In 1898 war broke out between the United States and Spain, and as a result ot it Spain lost Cuba, Porto Rico and the Philippines. The young king took the oath of office May 17, 1902, and shows strong tendencies towards progressiveness in gov- ernment. In 1906, he married the Princess Victoria Eugenia, daughter of the late Prince Henry of Battenburg and Princess Beatrice, youngest child of Queen Victoria of England. An heir to the throne was born May 10, 1907. Another son was born June 22, 1908 Alfred the Great, king of the West Saxons, was born at Wantage, Berkshire, in 849. The youngest of four sons, he suc- ceeded to the crown on the death of his brother Ethelred at the age of 22. He had already given proof of ability as a general ALGAE" 48 ALGEBRA in driving back the constant invasions of the Danes, the most terrible warriors of Europe, and a large part of his reign was spent in preserving the liberty of his coun- try against these northern foes. At first he was unsuccessful, and by 878 the in- vaders had overrun the entire kingdom of the West Saxons, while Alfred was driven into its forests. But he refused to be beaten, and soon the tide of fortune turned. Build- ing a stronghold on an island in the wastes of Somersetshire, still known as Athelney (the island of the nobles), he made fre- quent sallies against the enemy, and so^n found himself at the head of an army with which be totally defeated them. He then built England's first fleet and soon grew so powerful, both by land and sea, that he was recognized as sovereign of all England. During the years of peace which followed Alfred busied himself in ^ rebuilding the cities which had suffered in the wars, in training the people in the use of arms and in founding those wise laws and institutions which helped so much in making England great and happy in later years. In an age of ignorance he was a fine scholar, and did much in founding schools and encour- aging literature. Toward the close of his reign, after a hard contest of three years, he was again victorious over his old enemies, the Danes. He died in 901, leaving his country in peace and prosperity as the result of that w : se and energetic rule which endeared him to all Englishmen as their best and greatest ruler. Algae (al'je). One of the great divisions of Thattophytes (the lowest group of plants), being distinguished from the Fungi by containing the green coloring matter known as chlorophyD. Ths enables them to manu- facture their own food and so to live inde- pendently of all other organisms. They are of special interest as representing tl e most primitive forms of the plant kingdom, from which all other groups of plants have prob- ably been derived. They ate exclusively water plants, either living in the water or in damp places, and are commonly known as "seaweeds," although they are abundant in fresh as well as in salt water. Their bodies are of various sizes and degrees of complexity. Some are only a single cell and are microscopic in size, while others are very complex and huge in size, as the giant kelps of the ocean. There are four great groups of Algae, named for their dif- ferences in color. The Cyanophycece or blue-green algae are the simplest, and are characterized by possessing a blue pig- ment in addition to the green chlorophyll, which gives them a bluish-green hue. The Chlorophycece or "green algae" have no other pigment than the green chlorophyll. These two groups are characteristic of fresh waters, although they have their marine representatives. The two following groups are characteristic of salt waters, but have representatives in fresh waters. The Phtz- ophycecB or brown algae have a yellow- ish to brown pigment in addition to the chlorophyll, which gives their bodies various shades from olive to yellow and brown. They include the common large and coarser seaweeds cast up by the waves. The Rho- dophycecB or red algae have a red pig- ment in addition to the chlorophyll, and their graceful and often very delicate bodies, beautifully tinted with various shades of red, are among the most attractive plants of the seashore. For a further account see under the names of the four groups. JOHN M. COULTER. Al'gebra is a branch of mathematics which deals chiefly with "functions" or general values instead of special values as in arithmetic. The ancient Egyptians prac- tised simple equations, an example being this: "Its whole added to its seventh gives 19, how much is it?" In other words, they solved the equation +x =19. The Greeks added something to algebra; thus Euclid, about 300 B. C., knew that (a-ffc) 2 =a a -J-6 2 -j-2a&. Other steps in advance were made in Alexandria and Persia. But algebra was only used as a help to arith- metic until Vie'te or Vieta, a Frenchman, in 1591 made of it an independent science. As to the usefulness of algebra, it can only be said that it is needful to all advanced work in mathematics. Its value to the professional man or workman may not be great, except that it is well for every man to know a little of each of the branches of truth. The teaching of algebra might well follow the historical order; and begin with simple equations as did the Egyptians. For here algebra is of obvious use in making the problems of arithmetic more simple. Let one ask the following "catch" question: "A goose weighs six pounds and half its own weight, what is the weight of the goose?" The answer is seldom given rightly without setting x for the weight of the goose, thus : x-6 + Z. which gives the answer 12 pounds. It is better to begin, however, with practical questions. The most important modern change in the teaching of algebra has been brought about by Professor Chrystal, who has called attention to the nature of general func- tions as the real object of study in this science. A knowledge of general functions, such as the following for a quadratic equa- tion, ax* + bx + cd, has always been im- plied in the teaching of algebra; but it has only lately been insisted upon. It has been usual to teach the use of root signs and signs for brackets as if they formed a part of algebra; but in reality these operations belong to pure ^arithmetic. ALGECIRAS ALGERIA Algeciras ( al'je-s&ras ) International Conference, on Morocco matters, held at Algeciras, Spain (opposite Gibraltar), in January, 1906. The Conference, after a period of extreme diplomatic tension be- tween the European powers, caused by the exception taken by Germany to the trade control of Moro co by the Franco-British- . Spanish agreement, settled matters more agreeably to Germany and signed a "Gen- eral Act" embodying a concession for a state bank at Tangier, the suppression of the illicit traffic in arms, the control of the police, together with provision for an open door as regards trade and the exactions of the Customs. Later in the year, Morocco was disturbed by serious tribal disputes in the Mogador district, and by much unrest in the southern Franco- Moroccan frontier. Alger ( al'jer ), Russell Alexander, American general, politician and ex-secre- tary of war in President McKinley's admin- istration, was born in Lafayette, Ohio, February 27, 1836, and was educated at Richfield Academy, Ohio, studied law, and was called to the bar. Removing to Mich- igan, he entered the army as captain in the Second Michigan Cavalry (1861), and two years later became colonel of the Fifth Michigan Cavalry, and subsequently reached the rank of brevet major-general of volun- teers. He was severely wounded at the battle of Boonsboro, Md., July 8, 1863, and performed meritorious s rvice at Gettys- burg and in the Shenandoah valley. After the war he became interested in the lumber business in Detroit, and owner of extensive timber tracts. In 1885-6, he was governor of Michigan, and on March 5, 1897, was appointed United States secretary of war. In 1901 he was elected to the United States senate, where he served until his death, January 24, 1907. Alge' ria, a French colony in northern Africa, fronting on the Mediterranean, and comprising besides Northern Algeria, with 17 arrondisements and 350 communes, South Algeria, which extends far to the south and west, and embraces the vast Saharan oases organized into four terri- tories in 1905. The area of the Algerian Sahara effectively occupied is estimated at about 193,000 square miles, including the zones, in the southwest, with a popu- lation numbering about 62,000. The two regions (North Algeria has an area of 184,474 square miles), have a total area of about 343,500 square miles, with an aggregate population in 1911 of 5,563,828, all but 795,522 Europeans being natives Arabs, Berbers, Tunisians, Moroccans and Musulmans. The extent of French posses- sions in Africa is very large, its area ex- tending from the Mediterranean, and in- cluding the region of Tunis, in the north, to the Gulf of Guinea in the south, to- gether with the French Congo district, to the southeastward, and covering also all of French West Africa and the Sahara to the Atlantic, including French Guinea, the Ivory Coast, Dahomey, Upper Sene- gal and the Niger region, besides French Somaliland on the Gulf of Aden, at the foot of the Red Sea. Government. The government and ad- ministration of Algeria are centralized at Algiers under a governor-genera) 1 ., who represents the authority of the French Republic throughout Algerian territory. He is assisted in his duties by a council; while each department sends one senator and two deputies to the French National Assembly. The revenue, estimated for 1911, of the Algerian colony was 144,549,940 francs, with an expenditure of 140,546,551; that of the southern territory, for the same year, was 5,615,244 francs, with an ex- penditure of 6,891 francs below the total revenue. The military force of France in the colony was, in 1911, about 56,000 of all ranks, of whom two-thirds were Europeans. The debt of Algeria (Decem- ber, 1909), amounted to close upon 57! million francs in capital and 114 million francs in annuities, interest, etc. Commerce and Resources. Its annual commerce aggregates 1,078 million francs, 565 million representing imports and 513 representing exports. The chief items of the latter are living animals, wool, hides, cereals, wines, cork, tobacco, fruits, olive oil, phosphates and some iron and zinc ore, besides fish and various shell-fish. The chief cereals raised are wheat, oats, barley, maize and beans. In Algeria the animal stock is considerable, embracing in 1909, 233,243 horses, 187,339 mules, 278,250 asses, 205,106 camels, 4,006,913 goats, 9,066,916 sheep, besides 110,700 pigs and over 1,100,000 cattle. Transportation. The railways of the colony, which receive state aid, were in 1910, 2,035 English miles in extent, besides 200 miles of tramway. In addition there are a considerable system of telegraphy and a fair postal service and a sound system of banking. Algiers, the capital, and chief seaport, has a population of about 110,000. History. Algeria is an old country. Its prince was an ally of Hannibal, and it be- came a Roman province under the Caesars. It was successfully conquered by the Van- dals, by Belisarius, by the Saracens, the Morabites (an Arabian religious sect), the Spaniards and the Turks, who taught Alge- rines to be the dreaded pirates they were. Many thousand Europeans were captured and enslaved by them. This piracy grew so unbearable that the English, Dutch and French sent fleets at different times to suppress it. The French, at last, in 1830, conquered Algiers, but there were numerous revolts, especially that of Abd-el- ALGIERS ALKALI Kadir, before France became fully mas- ter of the country and the life of a French- man was safe outside the walls of the capi- tal. Algiers (al-jeerzf}, capital of Algeria, is divided into two parts. The newer por- tion, along the harbor, is European; the older, on the hillside above, is Arab. It is an important French coaling station on the Mediterranean. Population (1906), 138,240. Algo'ma, one of the northern districts of the province of Ontario, offers great attractions for settlers. Contains millions of acres of productive land easily reached, very suitable for live stock and dairying. Bounded by the district of Nipissing on the east. It includes the Temiskaming settlement. Its northern boundary is that of the province itself, viz. : Hudson Bay and the Albany River. These two dis- tricts of Algoma and Nipissing taken to- gether have an area larger than that of any European c untry except Russia. These districts are in that belt of the world which has" ever been the most famous for the pro- duction of grasses, vegetables, fruits and cereals. The important industrial center of Sault Ste. Marie, only 193 miles north from the latitude of Toronto (population 13,000), is in Algoma. The timber and mineral wealth of the district is immense. The richest and most extensive nickel belt in the whole world is in Algoma. Algon' quins, one of the two great families of Indians that formerly occupied the Mis- sissippi Valley and the regions east of it. The Indians of New England were Algon- quins. The largest tribe left is the Chip- pewas. Algon'quin National Park. In north- ern part of the province of Ontario (from 1,500 to 2,000 feet above sea level). On the Ottawa division of the Grand Trunk Railway, which extends into the park itself, only 200 miles north of Toronto (quickly ana comfortably reached), and 175 miles west of Ottawa, the capital city of Canada. Most attractive to travelers and tourists. A magnificent preserve set apart by the province for a park; beautiful lakes and rivers, 1,200 in number; abundance offish. Wild forests of heavy timber and pure, health-restoring air; a total area of 1,800,000 acres of forest, lake and stream; called Lakeland. Red deer and moose (hunt- ing not allowed in the park) plentiful and increasing in number. The highest sum- mer resort in eastern Canada. The rail- way stations are located on picturesque lakes. Teeming with fish (speckled, gray and salmon trout). A paradise for campers. The Naganetawan River takes its rise in the park. Amambra (dl-h&m'br), the ancient for- tress and residence of the Moorish monarchs of Granada, situated on a hill overlooking the city of Granada, Spain. This famous palace was built between 1248 and 1354, and though greatly marred by its Spanish conquerors *n succeeding ages still contains marvels of beauty, taste and ingenuity. The surround- ing gardens, with their wat rfalls, fountains and shady ravines, caused the Arab poet to liken the whole effect to "a pearl set around with emeralds." It is divided into count- less apartments, vast halls, ranges of bed- rooms and summer rooms, whispering gal leries, a labyrinth and vaulted tombs. Pas sages from the Koran adorn the various walla. Among the most famous courts are the Hall of Ambassadors, with its splendid throne of the sultan, and the Court of the Lions, with its magnificent fountain, supported by twelvr marble lions. A famous description of tbii palace is to be foun_ in Washington Irving's Alhambra. Alicante (d'L-kdn'ta), Spain, a province of the Spanish kingdom, area 2,185 square miles, with a population (1910) of 483,986; also a strongly fortified town and seaport on the Mediterranean, situated north of Car- tagena and south of Valencia, population (1910) 51,165. Here, on an eminence over- looking the sea, is the castle of Santa Bar- bara. The town, which is a delightful sea- side resort, is picturesquely situated, and has a picture gallery, library, several parish churches, two nunneries and a number of fine squares and promenades. Being the port of its own and the Valencia province, its export trade is considerable, chiefly of wine, oil, tobacco, silk and grain. There is a resi- dent United States consul in the town. Alison (dVi-son), Sir Archibald (born 1792, died 1867), an English historian. His work, the History of Europe, covers the period from the French Revolution to the Peace of 1815. It was in its day very popular and had a sale of over five hundred thousand vol- umes. It, however, is not of the highest authority, because of its author's partisan- ship and its many inaccuracies. Al' kali, an old chemical term used to de- note soluble caustic hydroxides. The alka- lies proper are potash, soda, lithia, rubidium and caesium hydroxides and ammonia. Potash is called the vegetable alkali, soda the mineral alkali and ammonia the volatile alkali. Lime, magnesia, baryta and stron- tia are called alkaline earths, because they have some of the properties of alkalies. That which especially distinguishes an alkaline substance is the power it has of turning a vegetable blue, green; or a vegetable yellow, reddish brown. Alkalies belong to a general class of substances called bases, which are oxides of metals (usually combined with water), or compounds containing carbon and nitrogen called organic bases, all of which unite with acids to form salts. Alkalies and acids neutralize each other, and the usual caustic or bitter taste of the alkali and the sour taste of the acid usually dis- appear when a salt is formed. A familiar ALKALOIDS ALLEN example is the addition of soda (alkali) to sour milk (acid), which neutralizes the acid, or destroys the sour taste. An alkali also unites with oil or fat to make soap. Al' kaloids, a class of substances that occur in plants, some of which are very poisonous, and many are very valuable medicines. All of them are bases, that is, they unite with acids to form salts, and in many cases the salts are used medicinally. All alkaloids contain carbon, nitrogen and hydrogen and usually oxygen also. Some of the most im- portant alkaloids are theine of coffee and tea, nicotine of tobacco, morphine from opium, quinine from Peruvian bark, as well as strych- nine, atropine, cocaine etc. Allahabad (d-ld-ha-bdd'), capital of the northwestern provinces of India. The name of the place means "City of God." It is built at the junction of the Ganges and Jumna Rivers. Its fort is strong and com- mands both rivers. Within the fort are the remains of a splendid palace of the Emperor Akbar. Many Hindus make pilgrimages to Allahabad because of its sacred rivers. It also forms the junction of the great rail- way system that unites Bengal with Central India and Bombay. Population about 172,000. Allan, Hon. George W., born in Toronto in 1822. Educated at Upper Canada Col- lege. Called to the bar in 1846. Was Chancellor of Trinity College. Toronto; a fellow of the Royal Geological Society (England); was mayor of Toronto in 1855; a legislative councillor from 1858 to 1867; called to the Senate of Canada in 1867; speaker of the Senate from 1888 to 1891. He died in 1901. Allan, Sir Hugh, born in Ayrshire, Scot- land, 1 8 10. His father was a ship master; entered a counting house at the age of 13, went to Canada in 1826. In 1851, the firm of which he was a member began to build iron screw-steamships, and their first boat, "The Canadian, " made its first trip in 1853. I n ^54 the mail service was begun. It has continued ever since. The history of the Allan firm is that of Canadian maritime commerce. Their fleet has long been one of the first in point of general merit in the world. Their steamers have been used as transport ships by the British Government. A director of several important industrial concerns; received knighthood in recogni- tion of his great services to foreign and do- mestic commerce; died December 8, 1892. Alleghany (al'e-ga'ni) or Appalachian Mountains, the great range of mountains which extend from Canada to the northern part of Alabama. The greatest width of the main range is in Pennsylvania and Maryland, about 100 miles in extent, and its length is 1,300 miles. While varying little in height, the ridges follow a remarkably straight course, sometimes keeping an almost straight line for 50 or 60 miles. Included in this range are the Green Mountains of Vermont, the Highlands of the Hudson, the Catskuls, the Blue Ridge and west of it the Alle- ghanies proper. Nowhere do these moun- tains reach the snow line. Mitchell's Peak, in North Carolina, 6,688 feet, is the highest S)int, while Mt. Washington, in New ampshire, 6,293 ^ eet high, is the most famous peak. The Alleghanies are one of the great sources of supply for the whole country of iron and coal. Allegheny, formerly a separate city at the junction of the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers opposite Pittsburgh (q. v.) was united in 1907 with Pittsburgh, with which it is con- nected by numerous bridges and electric lines. Surrounding the main business section is City Park of 100 acres and farther out River- view Park (219 acres), in which is the Allegheny Astronomical Observatory. The Carnegie Library and three theological seminaries, the Presbyterian, United Presbyterian and Re- formed Presbyterian, are located here. Alle- gheny, as a separate corporation, had a flourishing and efficient public school system which is now a part of that of Greater Pitts- burgh. The University of Pittsburgh, origi- nally the Western University of Pennsylvania and located in Allegheny, is now in Pittsburgh. On the hills are the beautiful homes of wealthy men and the city is noted for its numerous and handsome churches. Its manufacturing in- terests extend for miles along the river front and include slaughtering and meat-packing, rolling mills, foundries and machine-shops, preparation of pickles, preserves and sauces, works for making locomotives and railroad equipment, structural iron and plumbers' supplies. Vast quantities of coal are shipped down the Ohio. A curious and interesting fact in the history of Allegheny is that it suffered severely in 1874 from a fire started by a boy's firecracker on July 4. Its public institutions include the Riverside State Penitentiary, hospitals, homes for orphans and the friend- less, and an industrial school. Allegheny River rises in Potter County, Pa., and flows northwest into New York, then south-southwest, and, after a course of 400 miles.unites at Pittsburg with the Monon- gahela to form the Ohio. It is navigable for small boats for a short distance. Allen, Charles Grant, a Canadian natur- alist and story-teller, of Scotch parentage, who won fame in England as an ex- ponent of evolution, a popular writer on scientific subjects and a psychological novelist. He was. perhaps, most at home in the popular essay, in the field of aesthetics and semi-science. He has written delight- fully on flowers, birds and insects as well as in the realm of fiction. His best known works are, in novels, The Tents of Shem and The Woman Who Did, and in popular science, The Evolutionist at Large, Vignettes front Nature and Science in Arcady. ALLEN, ETHAN ALLISON ETHAN ALLEN As a disciple of the great evolutionist of the age, he wrote a sympathetic Life of Darwin for the series of "English Worthies." Al'len, Ethan (born 1737, died 1789), a brigadier-general in the American revolu- tionary army. In 1775, after the battle of Lexington, he gathered a small company of his "Green Mountain Boys" and marched against the fortresses of Ticonderoga and Crown Point. Land- ing with 93 men, just before daybreak, he surprised the fort, getting inside and forming his men on the parade ground where they awoke the sleeping garri- son with a shout of victory. The Brit- ish commander rushed out in his night clothes and asked : " What does this mean?" He was ordered to surren- der. " In whose name? " he asked. " In the name of the Great Jehovah and the Conti- nental Congress," replied Allen, and the fort was surrendered. In the attempt to take Montreal, at the head of a small body of troops, he was captured after a sharp engagement and sent to England. After his release and return to America, he was appointed commander of the Vermont state militia. Allen, James Lane, American litterateur and novelist, hails from the Blue Grass region of Kentucky, having been born near Lexing- ton, Ky., in 1849. After graduating at Transylvania University, he taught Latin and the higher English branches at Bethany College, West Virginia, though, since 1885, he has devoted himself entirely to literature. He is a delightful and realistic writer, and in all his books he shows himself to be an ardent lover of nature. His early work consisted of sketches and studies, dealing thoughtfully and freshly with Kentucky life, contributed to Harper s Magazine and The Century. His novels, most of which have an historic back- ground in his loved Kentucky state, include A Kentucky Cardinal, The Choir Invisible, Two Gentlemen of Kentucky, Aftermath, Flute and Violin and The Reign of Law. Allentown, Pa., the county seat of Lehigh County, was incorporated as a borough in 1826. It is situated at the junction of the Lehigh and Little Lehigh Rivers. It has excellent natural drainage and is located in a rich agricultural district. It originally was known as Northampton. It was named Allentown in honor of James Allen, who at one time owned the greater part of the land on which it is built. There are several beautiful springs near Allentown, which are justly admired by all who have seen them. Allentown has excellent railroad facilities, and its trolley lines, radiating in every direc- tion, make it easy of approach from all sides. Its proximity to the cement and slate regions of the county furnishes employment to many of its people, Owing to the depre- ciation of blast furnaces in the east, these have been supplanted by the wire mill, furni- ture and shoe factories, silk and jute mills and other industries. It has a school popu- lation of over 10,000, and is also the seat of Muhlenburg College and the Allentown College for Women. It has a population of 61,901. Alli'ance, a city of Stark County, Ohio, situated on the Mahoning River, 56 miles from Cleveland. It is in a fine agricultural region and has importance as a manufactur- ing city. Among its products are agricul- tural implements, terra-cotta ware, white lead; and its steel works manufacture boil- ers, cranes, steam hammers, drop forgings and structural iron. Alliance was incorpo- rated as a city in 1 8 5 4 , and itsmost important school, Mount Union College, was established in 1850, when the settlement was called Freedom. It has the service of several railroads, and the population is i5>83- Al'ligator, a large reptile found in the rivers and swamps of the southern United States, and also in South America. It is closely related to the crocodile of the Eastern Hemisphere, and is commonly confused with it, but differs in having a broader head, a blunter snout, more teeth and other small peculiarities. The adults rarely attain la feet in length. Its back and sides are cov- ered with very hard plates, but it is easily wounded in the belly. Its natural food is fish, muskrats, etc., and it is extremely fond of dog-meat. The female alligator lays from 50 to 60 eggs and buries them in sand, where the heat of the sun hatches them. As soon as hatched the young seek the water. Man y doubtful stones are in circulation re- garding the habits of both adults and the young. Al'lison, William B., an American statesman, was born in Ohio in 1829. He went to Iowa and was on the gov- ernor 's staff, helping to enlist volunteers at the outbreak of the war. He was elected to Con- gress in 1862 and served four terms in the house. In 1873 he was made United States senator, and was WILLIAM B. ALLISON re-elected in 1878, 1884, 1890, 1896, 1903 and 1908. He died Aug. 4, 1908. ALLITERATION Al'litera'tion is the frequent rtcurrence, met with often hi English poetry and occa- sionally in prose composition, of the same letter or sound at the beginning of recurring words. "Alliteration's artful aid" is a familiar example. Instances of it are often met with in the Elizabethan writers and in those of early Anglo-Saxon times, chiefly in the poets. Examples are occasionally found in prose, where, when skilfully used and combined with assonance, alliteration heightens the effect of what is written or said; but its use, in both prose and verse, is often more of a trick in a writer, and should therefore be sparingly indulged in. In Shakespeare it is often met with, as in the phrase occurring in the song in The Tempest, "full fathom five thy father lies"; it is also frequently found in Spenser, and in Lang- land's Piers Plowman, as well as in the modern German writers, such as Goethe and Heine, where it is occasionally used with pleasing effect. Fine examples are also to be found in Tennyson and Swinburne. Among other modern English authors Coleridge, moreover, uses it as an embelish- ment of his verse, thus : " The fair breeze blew, the white foam new, The furrow followed free," How much the use of alliteration is the mere trick of a writer may be seen in the C9uplet : " Cossack commanders cannonading come, Dealing destruction's devastating doom." Much of alliteration's use will moreover be familiar to many in the proverbs and phrases in current speech, as in "life and limb," "out of house and home," "the bonnie bairn," "with peril and pain," "warring words," "the scum of the streets," "a vile varlet," "a dainty dame," "zeal, zest," "a rascally rogue," "the merry month of May," etc See Guest's English Rhythms. Allotropy (al-lot'ro-py) or Allotropism, a chemical term to explain a conversion or change in physical property, but not in substance, in certain bodies. More ex- plicitly, it is the property or capability which certain bodies show of assuming different forms and qualities under a premaned diversity of molecular arrangement. Exam- ples of allotropic conditions are seen in carbon, sulphur, phosphorus and oxygen; practical instances are carbon (i) in its soft state, as in plumbago, black lead and charcoal and (2) (hard and crystallized) as in the diamond. Phosphorus is another instance of this dual property: (i) as a colorless wax-like solid, poisonous and dangerously imflammable and (2) as a red powder with neither of these destructive qualities. Similar contrasts are seen in oxygen and ozone. Alloy', a mixture of two or more metals melted together. Some of the metals, when combined with other metals, are rendered more serviceable for certain uses. ^'i'hus copper alone is not fit for castings, and is too 53 ALMA tough to be easily worked by tools, but when alloyed with zinc, forming brass, it can be cast, rolled or turned. Gold and silver, also, when pure are very soft and easily worn out. They are hardened by alloying them with other metals in different proportions. The silver coins of the United States are made ap of nine parts of silver and one of copper, while the gold coins consist of nine parts gold and the other part is divided into one-quarter silver and three-quarters copper. Allovi are generally harder and much more fusible than would be indicated by the hardness and fusi- bility of the component metals. Besides the alloys that have been mentioned, some im- portant ones are bell-metal and bronze consisting of copper and tin; type-metal, containing lead and antimony and some- times tin also; German-silver, composed of copper, nickel andj zinc; and solder, which is ordinarily made of lead and tin. Alloys of which one metal is mercury are called amalgams. Allston (awl'stori), Washington (born 1779, died 1843), an American historical painter and poet. A native of South Caro- lina, he was graduated a t Harvard in 1800. He pur- sued the study of his art in Charleston , London, Paris and Rome. During his studies he formed a close friendship with the great paint- er, Benjamin WASHINGTON ALLSTON w ' est> ^ algo with Coleridge and Thorwaldsen. He prac- tised his profession mainly at Boston and Cambridge. Allston was of a deeply re- ligious nature, and many of his pictures are scenes from the Bible. As a writer, he was also eminent. His friend Coleridge says of him that he was surpassed by no man of his age in artistic and poetic genius. Allu'vium, the name given to the masses of sand, earth and gravel brought down by currents of water and spread over plains, forming what is called alluvial land. Thus the Ganges, the Nile, the Amazon and the Mississippi have formed their deltas. It is estimated that the Mississippi every yeai carries down enough sediment to cover 268 square miles of land with a layer of earth one foot deep. The so-called bottom lands are those formed by alluvial deposits. Along rivers it is sometimes formed into terraces by the rising of floods to different heigira*. Alma (al'ma), a small river in the Crimea. Here was fought an important battle in the ALMAGRO, DIEGO D' 54 ALPENA Crimean War, between the Russians (36,000 men and 122 guns), and the jEnglish, French and Turks (62,000 men and 128 guns). The Russians, though intrenched, were defeated, and the road to Sebastopol was opened. Almagro, Diego D* (al-ma'grd, de-d'gd) (born 1464, died 1538), one of Pizarro's officers during the conquest of Peru. He was named from the Spanish town where he was picked up as a foundling. In Peru he became famous and wealthy, though he could neither read nor write. After Peru had been conquered, he began the conquest of Chile, but, recalled by a Peruvian rebellion, subdued it and captured Cuzco. He quarreled with Pizarro, was attacked, defeated and im- prisoned by him, and put to death by his order. Almanacs (al'ma-naks) , or books in which information is given about the seasons, the sun and moon, eclipses and other phenomena of astronomy, are at least as old as the fifth century after Christ, when they were in use jn Alexandria. They may be much older, and of Asiatic origin. With the invention of printing they became common in Europe. They generally contained predictions, the most famous of which was one that hap- pened to be correct, in which Nostradamus foretold the death of Henry II of France. In America the best known almanac was that of Franklin, called Poor Richard's, and begun in 1732. Until 1828, when the So- ciety for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge issued a valuable English almanac, most of those which were sold were either useless for practical purposes or else full of coarse and superstitious remarks. Since that date, however, almanacs have either been pub- lished for their practical utility or else for advertisement. In the former class may be mentioned firstly the Nautical Almanac, published by the British Government since 1767, which is quite necessary to navigators; secondly, the French Connaissance des Temps; thirdly, the German Astronomisches Jahrbuch; and finally the United States American Ephe- meris and Nau- tical Almanac. Very good alma- nacs are pub- lished yearly by some of the great American news- papers; such as the World and the Tribune; and in these may often be found the exact date of events which are remote enough LAWRENCE ALMA-TADEMA to be forgotten, but too recent to be readily found in books of reference. Alma=Tadema (al'md-tdd'd-ma), Sir Law- rence a distinguished British artist, was ALMOND born at Dronryp, in the Netherlands, Jan uary 8, 1836. He settled in England in 187-? where he was given knighthood and made a Royal Academician. His paintings chiefly deal with classical subjects, and are distin- guished for their careful composition and accuracy and for the beauty and finish of their coloring. In 1905 he received the Order of Merit. Entrance to a Roman Theater and The Vintage, are two of his works. His later paint- ings include The Way to the Temple, A Reading from Homer, Sappho, A Roman Emperor and The Triumph of Titus. He died June 24, 1912. Al'mond (d-muncT). A species of Prunus, a genus of the rose family. The almond is very old in culti- vation, and is probably a native of the Mediterra- nean region. The two races of al- monds are known as the "bitter" and the "sweet," the kernel of the form- er being used in the manufacture of flavoring extracts and ofprussic acid. The sweet almonds, with their edible kernels, are grouped under two heads: those with hard shells and those with soft shells. The almond of commerce be- longs to the soft-shelled group, and those with the thinnest shells are known as "paper shells. " The commercial cultivation of the almond in the United States is confined to the west, chiefly California. A large part of the almonds used in this country comes from Italy, France and Spain. A native almond is found in southern California, a low bushy shrub with a small, smooth nut Both the almond and the dwarf almond of southern Russia are used as ornamental trees, planted in places not favorable for the production of the nut. Alpaca (al-pak'a\ an animal native to the lofty tablelands and mountains of the Andes in Peru. It is related to the camels of the old world, and is kept as a beast of burden by the Peruvian Indians. The wool is of fine quality, usually pale brown in color; but gray and even black varieties are common. The wool grows about eight inches long, when shorn regularly every year, but grows longer when not clipped. As soon as the animal is shorn its resemblance to a small camel without a hump is evident. Alpena, Mich., county seat of Alpena County, situated at the head of Thunder Bay, Lake Huron, about half-way between Saginaw Bay and the S traits ^ of Mackinac. It has a commodious harbor and extensive shipping facilities by boat, and two railroads. The city has a variety of industries such as paper from ALPS 55 ALTOONA wood pulp, excelsior and veneer mills, woolen and knitting works, iron foundries, tanneries, flouring mills, etc. It has two of the largest limestone quarries and cement factories in the United States. It has many public and paro- chial schools and churches and a public library; it maintains its own water works and electric lighting system; has many miles of paved streets and cement walks, a beautiful park system. Population 13,700. Alps, the largest and highest mountains in Europe. The average height of the central chain is 7,700 feet, a region where snow never melts, while several hundred peaks rise still higher. From these snow-capped mountains the avalanches rush down, sweeping along snow, rocks, forests and even villages. Here, also, in the valleys between the peaks, gather the huge masses of snow which form the long streams of ice called glaciers (see GLACIERS). The most beautiful of these glaciers _ is the Mer de Glace. The highest peak is Mt. Blanc, 15,732 feet in height: though Monte Rosa, the Matterhorn and several others are almost as high. There are some sixteen great passes over the Alps. Famous marches have been made over them by large armies : Han- nibal's march was through the Little St. Bernard Pass and Napoleon's through the Great St. Bernard. Bridges terraces and long galleries have been built of stone to give protection against avalanches and whirl- winds. Places of shelter from storms, called hospices, have also been erected, where huge St. Bernard dogs are kept to help in search- ing for unfortunate wanderers who may be lost in the snow. The Alps are now pierced by four railroad tunnels, the Aiiberg, Mt. Cenis, Mt. St. Gothard and Simplon. The scenery of the Alps is famous for its grand- eur, and every season the mountains are so crowded with tourists that the Alps have been called "the play-ground of Europe." Of the many objects of grandeur or beauty, the most famous are Mt. Blanc and the Valley of the Chamouni. Austria. Switzer- land, Italy, France and Bavaria share in the possession of the Alps. Al'sace-Lorraine' (dl-sds'lor-rdn'), an imperial territory of the German empire, composed of Alsace and those parts of Lor- raine conquered from France in the war of 1870. It does not belong to any state of Germany, but is subject to the emperor directly, who appoints the governor or statthaUer. The language spoken is gen- erally German in Alsace and French in Lorraine. The country is a great wine- producing one, and is also engaged in the mining of ores and the manufacture of cot- ton. The principal city is Strassburg (population 167,678). Area 5,604 square miles; population of Alsace-Lorraine 1,871,- 702. In 1911 there were in the Reichsland 1303 miles of railway. Altai (al-ti') Mountains, a group of mountains in Central Asia separating the tablelands of Mongolia from Siberia. The great Siberian rivers, the Obi, the Irtish and Yenisei, have their sources in these moun- tains. The highest peaks are over 12,000 feet above the level of the sea. Alternation of Generations. In all plant groups above the ThaUophytes, the life history of every plant is made up of two phases. One phase bears the sex organs, and is called the gametophyte; the other bears no sex organs, but produces asexual spores, and is called the sporophyte. These two phases or generations regularly alternate with each other, the gametophyte by means of its sex organs producing the sporophyte, and the sporophyte by means of its asexual spores producing the gameto- phyte. For example, in the mosses the ordinary leafy plant is the gametophyte, and the so-called fruit is the sporophyte. In the ferns the leafy plant is the sporophyte, while the gametophyte is a very small but independent body, which is never observed except by those who know of its presence. In the flowering plants the whole visible body is the sporophyte; while the gametophyte is so minute that it is effectually concealed from ordinary observation. For a further account see GAMETOPHYTE and SPOROPHVTE. Alton, a thriving city, railroad cen ter and port of entry in Madison County, Illinois. It is situated on the Mississippi, 25 miles above St. Louis and about 14 miles above the mouth of the Missouri. It is buiit on high limestone bluffs. The Mississippi is here bridged by the Burlington railroad. An electric railway connects Alton with St. Louis and with Upper Alton, the seat of the Baptist Shurtleff College. The town has a Roman Catholic cathedral, many other churches and schools and a number of im- portant manufactories, the most important being the Illinois Glass Works. Population, 17.528. Altoo'na is in Blair County, Pennsyl- vania, and is situated at the eastern base of the Allegheny Mountains, 1,168 feet above the level of the sea The surrounding country is noted for its scenic beauty. A few miles west is the famous Horseshoe Bend; several miles north is Wopsononoc Mountain, from whose summit there is spread before the eye a panoramic view of the Blue Juniata; and to the east is Sinking Valley, with its interesting natural curiosities. In the year 1849, the time at which it may be said Altoona was founded, the officers of the Pennsylvania Railroad company selected the site of the city for the location of their principal workshops. Later the testing department, laboratories and offices were removed to the city, and at present the car and engine manufactories are the most extensive of the kind in the world. Other prominent industries are silk mills and glass works. Altoona is the terminus of a division ALUM AMAGAT of the main line of the Pennsylvania, railroad, and passengers have the convenience of 82 daily trains. Branch roads extend south and southeast. In the summer of 1858, the Altoona Me- chanics' Library and Reading Room Asso- ciation was organized. The high school has a four years' course of study, divided into four courses, namely, vocational, commercial, general and industrial. The Pennsylvania Railroad company has donated to this school one of the most complete equipments for wood working, forge, foundry and metal machinery to be found in the country, and the High School building was erected at a cost of half a million dollars. The parochial schools have a large enrollment. The emphasis on vo- cational education in Altoona and the skill with which the system has been developed and ap- plied will make the reading of the School Sys- tem at Gary of particular interest and value in this connection. Population, 52,127. Alum, common alum, a sulphate of potas- sium and aluminum, is a salt used in the arts and in medicine. It forms colorless, octa- hedral crystals containing much water. It is sometimes found in a natural state, but is usually manufactured. There are several kinds of alum, and the one containing am- monium in place of potassium is often used instead of the more common compound. Alum is used in the manufacture of calico, in tanning and dyeing, Mixed in the milk it helps in the separation of the butter, and bakers sometimes use it to whiten their bread. If added in small quantities to turbid water, in a few minutes it will make it perfectly clear without any bad taste or quality, but it should be used with caution in articles of food and drink on account of its astringent properties. Alu'mmum or AIu min'lum, a white metal like tin in appearance. It is the most abun- dant of the metals, being found in clay, marl, feldspar, slate, mica and many other min- erals, but it cannot be cheaply manufactured although great improvement has been made in this direction. (See METALLURGY.) It may be rolled into very thin foil and drawn into very fine wire, and when rolled it be- come* harder. When struck it gives forth a very musical sound, and hence is some- times used for making bells. It is a light metal of about the weight of porcelain, and for many purposes is more convenient than silver. It makes useful alloys; with copper it makes an alloy resembling fine brass, called aluminum-bronze. This alloy is used in cheap jewelry and is adapted for gun metal. It also forms a very useful alloy with silver. It is now used for cooking utensils and a wide variety of other products. Alva (al'vd), Duke of, a Spanish general, was born in 1508. When a mere boy he gained distinction at the battle of Pavia, and at the age of 29 defended the town of Perpignan against the dauphin of France. He soon rose to be commander of the Spanish army. In 1567, at the head of 10,000 men, he marched into the Netherlands with un- limited powers from Philip II of Spain to proceed against the heretics there. The Court of Blood, which he established here, soon became widely known and feared, and Alva boasted that he had sent 18,000 men to execution. But this great cruelty led to the revolt, which afterward made the Low Coun- tries independent. Alva was recalled to Spain, soon after imprisoned, and, though set free when a skillful general was needed to lead an army against Portugal, he never regained the confidence of Philip. He was able, cruel and proud. His pride is shown by his reply to Philip's demand for an ac- count of the treasure he had captured at Lisbon. "If the king asks me for an ac- count," said Alva, "I will make him a statement of kingdoms preserved or con- quered, of signal victories, of successful sieges and of sixty years' service." Noth- ing more was said about the account. He died in 1582. Amadc'us, a name very common in the ruling family of Savoy. Those of the name most famous were; AMADEUS V, Count of Savoy (born 1249, died 1323), called the Great. His most celebrated exploit was his repulse of the Turks from the Island of Rhodes, then held by the Knights of St. John. In memory of this victory, a Maltese cross, with the letters F. E. R. T. (Fortitudo ejus Rhodum ienuit "His bravery saved Rhodes,"), was made the coat of arms of the family. AMADEUS VIII, count and first duke of Savoy, was born 1383, and died 1451. After a few years of rule, he retired to a monastery, Ripaille, where he lived a life of luxury. In 1439, he was elected to succeed Pope Eugenius IV, who had been deposed, but after a few years he resigned in favor of Nicholas V. &s pope, he was called Felix V. Am'adis of Gaul, the mythical hero of one of the early romances of chivalry; a model knight-errant, of whom Don Quixote is ^he caricature. The romance was written by j. Portuguese courtier, Vasco de Lobeira (who died hi 1403), and has been translated into various languages. Amadis, the son of a king of Gaul, had a number of adventures in a great many countries, and crowned his exploits by marrying Oriana, daughter of Lisuarte, an early king of England. The period of the story is about the beginning of the Christian era. Amagat, Emile Hilaire, a distinguished French physicist, born at St. Satur in 1841. He has enormously extended our knowledge of fluids, especially concerning the compres- sibility of gases at high pressures. This work was done while he held the chair of physics in the Facult6 Libre des Sciences at Lyons AMALGAM 57 AMBASSADOR Sinc 1891 has held an official position in the Ecole Polytechnique at Paris. Amal'gam, an alloy of metals, one of which is mercury. Mercury has the power of dis- solving almost all other metals and mixing with them, and so is much used in separating gold and silver from their ores. (See METAL- LURGY.) Amalgams are very numerous, and many of them are used largely in the arts. Tin amalgam is used for silvering mirrors; gold and silver amalgam in gilding and re- silvering; cadmium and copper amalgam in dentistry; and zinc and tin amalgam for the rubbers of electrical machines. Amalgams are variously made; some by merely rubbing together the two metals, others by the aid of an electric current. Some amalgams are solid, while others are liquid. The mercury can be distilled off from most amalgams by heating them in retorts. This is tne way in which gold and silver are recovered from their amalgams. Am'aranth (meaning unfading), a class of plants of which the flowers are composed of dry, colored scales, and which retain their colors for a long time after they are plucked. Because of this fact the flowers are made emblems of immortality, and are frequently so used in poetry. The cockscomb, prince s feather, love-lies-bleeding and globe am- aranth are common kinds of this plant. Amarillo (dm'd-ril'o), a city, county seat of Potter County, Texas, 337 miles northwest of Ft. Worth and 275 miles west of Okla- homa City. It is 3600 feet above sea level, and enjoys a clear bracing air and a salubri- ous climate. It is the most important city of the Panhandle country, which in former years was devoted to grazing, but now wherever cultivated yields profitable crops. It has produced Indian corn, sorghum, maize, wheat, oats, rye, besides vegetables, melons, fruit and in the southern portion cotton. Amarilllo has a good county court house and jail, a handsome city hall, two opera houses and an Elks' Lodge, besides several fine churches and good schools. It has three ice factories, marble, concrete- block, broom and oandy factories, a flouring mill, grain elevator, brick works, etc. The city has four banks, water works, electric light, street cars and all adjuncts of a mod- ern city. It is served by the Santa Fe, the Fort Worth and Denver and trie Rock Island Railroad. The Santa Fe has yards and shops here; the Denver ana the Rock Island each have offices and round houses. Popu- lation, 19,124. Am'azon, a river of South America, flow- Ing easterly from the Andes to the Atlantic, where it empties below the equator. It is the largest river on the globe, but not the long- est. Its length is estimated at from 3,000 to 4,000 miles; its width, at its mouth, is 60 miles ; it is four miles wide i ,000 miles from the sea; and more than a mile wide 2,000 miles from the sea. Its depth for 750 miles is nowhere less than 175 feet. Over 350 branches and lesser tributaries form its main trunk, and the whole system drains an area of 2,500,000 square miles, or more than a third part of South America. While large vessels can sail from the sea over the main river and its branches, the volume of water is perceptible in the ocean 200 miles from the coast, and the influence of the tides is felt 400 miles from its mouth. The forests are very extensive, being so twisted and matted and interlaced with trees, vines and shrubs, as to present an almost impassable barrier. This "sea of verdure," a traveler says, "extends in an unbroken, evergreen circle of 1,100 miles in diameter." The mouth of the Amazon was discovered by Pinzon in 1500. It was not ascended until forty years later. It is navigable for over 2,000 miles, and with its branches it affords 16,000 miles of navigable waters. Am'azons, in Greek legend, a war-like race of women living in Isia Minor near the shore of the Black Sea. The mythical town of Themiscyra, on the river Thermodon, was the capital of their state. Their name prob- ably came from a Greek word, meaning breastless, and referred to their habit of cutting off the right breast to give them greater freedom in the use of the bow. The Greeks told a number of stories of their contests with these women. The heroes, Bellerophon and Hercules, defeated them, and Theseus of Athens captured their princess Antiope. In revenge they invaded Attica and were defeated. They also fought in the Trojan War against the Greeks, and Achilles engaged in single combat and slew their queen, Penthesilea. They are repre- sented in Greek sculpture armed with a bow, spear and axe, and carrying a half- shield. Ambas'sador, an accredited diplomat of note and eminence sent by one nation, country or state to represent his country at a foreign court, nation or capital, and be the chief medium of diplomatic intercourse between them. In this high representa- tive capacity the ambassador has right of audience with the sovereign or chief of the nation to which he is accredited, besides possessing or being accorded certain other privileges and immunities, including pre- cedence on ceremonial occasions and at state functions over all save princes of the blood. In its early history, the United States withheld for long the rank and title of ambassador to its accredited representa- tives abroad at foreign courts; but in 1893 Congress, when acting on the diplomatic or consular appropriation bill of that year, empowered the President to raise American plenipotentiaries and ministers at foreign courts and capitals of note to the rank of ambassadors, especially where these foreign courts and nations were represented at Washington by a plenipotentiary of equal AMBER AMERICA rank. This was done, and the rule and practice are still in force. Am'ber is a hard, brittle, yellow sub- stance. It is found in large and small Sieces; the largest are in the museum at erlin, weighing eighteen pounds. It is found mostly clinging to seaweed along the shores of the Baltic Sea, where divers dive for it and dredgers throw it up on the shore for women and children to gather and pick over. Some is found in New Jer- sey, Massachusetts and Maryland. When amber is rubbed, it develops electricity, and attracts light substances. This quality very much astonished the ancients, and they gave it the name "electron," from which we have the word "electricity." It is used mostly for beads, ornaments and mouthpieces for tobacco pipes, though large amber dishes have been found, show- ing that people long ago used it for manu- facturing. The ancients valued amber highly, both as ornament and charm, amber necklaces being worn in the belief that the wearer would thereby be protected from witches, poisons and other evil. Ambrose, Saint, one of the most promi- nent of the bishops of the early Chris- tian church. He was born in Gaul about 340 A. D., and was educated for the grofession of law. He was appointed pre- ;ct of Liguria and ^Emilia, and chose Milan as his residence. When the bishop of Milan died in 374, there was a great struggle be- tween the orthodox and the Arian Chris- tians in regard to the succession. Finally, Ambrose was unanimously elected, although he was not a priest. He accepted the office reluctantly, disposed of his property, and at once devoted himself to those studies which would prepare him for his office. His life was one of struggle as he opposed those in Rome, who wished to restore the worship of heathen gods, also the Arian sect which denied the divinity of Christ; and he even went on embassies to the north- ern tribes, which were planning to attack Italy. When the emperor, Theodosius, ordered the massacre of the Thessalonians in 390, Ambrose compelled him to perform penance for eight months, and exacted the promise that thereafter a period of thirty days should. intervene before any sentence of death was executed. Ambrose left a large number of writings whose object was to defend and extend the Christian re- ligion. It was through his preaching that Augustine was converted. He was the author of a kind of singing called the Am- brosian chant. He died in 397. Am'bulance, a name applied to the cov- ered wagons used in our large cities to convey the wounded and sick to the hospitals. Strictly, it means a movable hospital at- tached to an army in the field, to afford early help to the wounded in battle. It was introduced by the surgeon Larrey. into the French army in 1792. Before that, wounded soldiers were either carried to the rear by their comrades, or left uncared for, sometimes ixntil a day after the battle. The usual working of an ambulance during a battle is as follows: The field station is usually just in rear of the troops, and there- fore under fire; the wounded are there treated hastily, then carried on stretchers to the transfer station, which is out of rifle range. Here they are put into ambulance wagons and driven to the dressing station, out of artillery range, where the wounds are dressed, and the sufferers are finally taken to the field-hospital. Am'ent. The characteristic flower cluster of birches, alders, willows, etc. See INFLORESCENCE. America (a-mer'i' kd). One of the five continents of the globe, has an area of 16,000,000 square miles, and is larger than AMENTUM (Willow, male and female, with separate flowers.) Europe and Africa together. Its extreme length from the northern limit of Alaska to the south end of Patagonia is 8,700 miles, or, including the Arctic Islands on the north and Tierra del Fuego on the south, 9,600 miles. Its greatest width is over 3,000 miles. The isthmus of Panama, but twenty- eight miles wide at its narrowest point, separates the continent into North America and South America, and each of these is known as a continent. These two continents are similar in phy- sical characteristics. Each is a triangle, broadest at the north, and the trend of the western coast of each is directly southeast. Each has a vast mountain range on the western coast, a lower and less continuous range in the eastern section, with a wide central region of plains. Each is drained by three great river systems. NORTH AMERICA is larger than South America, having an area of 8,700,000 square miles. On the northeast is Hudson Bay, and on the eastern coast are the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, the Bay of Fundy, Delaware and Chesapeake Bays, the Gulf of Mexico and the Gulf of Honduras, with other smaller indentations, affording ample and safe harbors. The western coast has few inlets, the most important being San Francisco Bay, Puget Sound and the Gulf of California. Surface and Drainage. On the western side is the great Rocky Mountain range, running the whole length of the continent. Besides the main Rocky Mountain range, called Sierra Madre in Mexico, are parallel ridges, the Coast, Sierra Nevada and Cascade ranges. This vast system of mountain ranges and * -N~^ -- i-^ > S . nU* .V . Ml PK ;r Tf'^fl s s ii LSA.S 1 , b it5i>T>'-is a fi\^l]r ^j r |F||>f - *=hr : : 4J^M^r ; -l| 'Ji * % |* re?J?^..~J 3 ^ff^MJff rMQBii4jy! f i*Jfi ifi/I I- ft BIS ^4^11.111 r r^//a3 / ' 3 1 . * I^TS ^ g s - 1 ' t / &.* ^ ' : wJ^i i f frfs r^ ^rfTfi i l J 3iml^^yTl 'jj. : t?jj a p : ^fe ~ j MifW _ 5 o f._. ; - f ,3 / AMERICA (NORTH) 59 AMERICA (NORTH) high plateaus has an extreme breadth of 1,000 miles. Between the main range and the Sierra Nevadas, lies a high table land called the Great Basin, which includes Utah, Nevada and parts of Arizona and New Mexico. The highest peaks are, in Alaska, Mount McKinley, 20,464 feet, Mount Saint Elias, 18,024 feet, Mount Wrangell, 17,524 feet; in the Sierra Nevada range, Mount Whitney, 14,898 feet; in the Cas- cade range, Mount Shasta 14,510 feet, Mount Rainer or Tacoma, 14,526 feet; in Mexico, Orizaba, 18,250 feet, and Popo- catapetl, 17,520 feet. On the east coast is the Appalachian range, which is lower than the Rockies and runs parallel to the Atlantic, but further from the coast line. Appearing first in the Wot- cish ridge of Labrador, it extends to the table lands of Alabama. The White Moun- tains, Adirondacks, Allegheny and Blue Ridge Ranges belong to this system. Mount Mitchell in North Carolina, 6,688 feet, and Mount Washington, in New Hampshire, 6,293 feet, are the highest peaks. Between these two mountain systems is the great central plain, stretching from the Arctic Sea to the Gulf of Mexico. The eastern and southern portions of this great plain are, or originally were, heavily tim- bered. The central portion on both sides of the Mississippi and stretching west to the higher planes of the Rocky Mountain sys- tem is the great prairie country, level or Slightly rolling, nearly treeless, with a deep and wonderfully fertile soil. East of the Appalachian range is a region of hills and valleys, known as the Piedmont region, slop- ing down to a wide coastal plain, with low, swampy lands on some portions of the coast. On the Pacific Coast is a narrower but rich and productive region, rising to the western slopes of the mountains, and running through California, Oregon and Washington up into British Columbia. The southern end of the continent through Mexico is chiefly a great tableland, reaching an elevation of 8,000 feet, dropping abruptly on the east to the Gulf of Mexico, and slop- ing more gradually to the Pacific. A low level is reached at the Isthmus of Tehuan- tepec. The greater part of Central America, including Guatemala, Honduras, Salvador and northern Nicaragua, is mountainous, sinking in southern Nicaragua to too feet above sea level, where is Lake Nicaragua. Animal and Vegetable Life. The animals of North America possess hardly a feature in common with those of South America. In many respects they stand closely related to those of northern Asia. Among dis- tinctly North American animals are the alligator, bison or buffalo, beaver, Eskimo dog, grizzly bear, moose, muskox, puma or panther, rattlesnake, reindeer and white mountain-goat. There are also black, brown and polar bears, deer, the wolf, fox, raccoon, opossum, prairie dog, otter, mar- ten, lynx badger, and many other animals, which are similar to those of Europe and Asia. Of birds and wild fowl more than 2,000 varieties have been catalogued. Among the larger kinds are the eagle, vulture, turkey buzzard, hawk, crow, wild turkey, heron, flamingo crane, wild goose, crane and pelican. Specific trees include the boxwood, cypress, hickory, magnolia, mahogany, palmetto, pecan, redwood, sequoia. There are also vast forests of pine, spruce, fir, hemlock, cedar, as well as oak, ash, maple and many other varieties of hard wood. Of plants and vegetables, cotton, cactus, maize, or- chids, peppers, pineapples, plaintains, pota- toes, sugarcane and yams are natives of America, and here are the great grain fields of the world. Climate. Stretching as it does from the arctic to the tropical zone, North America presents every variety of climate. In the extreme north the ground remains frozen through the year, the short summer suffic- ing to warm the surface and produce a meager vegetation. The temperate region is subject to wide ranges of temperature, giving four seasons, a frigid winter, mild spring and autumn and a hot summer, while the southern portion presents the usual characteristics of the tropics. More- over, the temperature on the Atlantic coast and the interior is more variable than on the Pacific coast, where the climate is modi- fied and made equable by the warm winds from the Pacific. The climate of the west- ern coast is more like that of the western coast of Europe. The rainfall is heaviest on the Gulf coast and lower Mississippi Valley, where the south winds bring in the moisture-laden air from the Gulf; and on the more Northern Pacific coast, where the prevailing winds are from the ocean. On the Atlantic and westward to the upper Mississippi Valley and north of the great lakes, the rainfall is ample for vegetation, while east of the Rocky Mountains, remote from the Gulf, and on the lower Pacific coast, there are large semi-arid areas. Minerals. North America is rich in minerals. Immense deposits of gold, silver and copper are found in the Rocky Moun- tain range, from Alaska, through Mexico, and rich but less extensive fields in other parts of the continent. North America stands first of the continents in the pro- duction of silver, and second and nearly equal to Africa in the production of gold. The. United States alone, in 1906, produced more than one third of the world's coal, more than half the world's copper and almost one half the world's iron. Except- ing tin, all the important minerals are found in abundance. AMERICA (NORTH) 60 AMERICA (CENTRAL) Inhabitants. When America was dis- covered by Europeans it was peopled by a savage race, who were named Indians be- cause the land was then supposed to be a part of India. In the north these were roving tribes, living chiefly by hunting and fish- ing. In Mexico were found the Aztecs, who had been preceded by the Toltecs, and these were more civilized than the tribes of the north. These people receded before the advance of the white race, and are now few in number and confined to circum- scribed limits or reservations. The early emigrants to America were chiefly English, who settled in the United States, French, who entered Canada, and Spanish, who occupied Mexico and Central America. The present population is made up of de- scendants of these colonists and of later emigrants from every European nation and some from Asia, together with Negroes, who were introduced as slaves. Divisions. The political divisions of North America are the United States, the Dominion of Canada, Newfoundland, Mexico and the Central American States. Canada occupies almost the whole of the continent north of the great lakes and lat. 49 N. The territory of the United States extends from the British possessions to Mexico and the Gulf of Mexico and from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. Alaska Territory, be- longing to the United States, occupies the northwest corner of the continent. The republican form of government prevails everywhere, except in the British dominions. The areas and population are as follows: Area, sq. miles Pop. British America (including Newfoundland) 3,729,665 7,3 19,400 United States (including Alaska) 3,617,673 92,036,622 Mexico 767,005 15,063,207 Central American States .. 207,474 4,803,487 West Indies 94.400 6,451,237 8,416,217 125,673.953 History. The history of America begins in 1492, when Christopher Columbus sighted the West Indies, probably Watling's island, in the Bahamas. We know that 500 years before Columbus there were Norse colonies in Greenland and on the continent further south, which were altogether forgotten at the beginning of the i6th century. The belief that the natives of the continent came from China is gaining some credence, though little definitely is really known. However, it is generally held that the native peoples of the two Americas alike are all of one race. The natives were called Indians, as the con- tinent was supposed to be a part of Asia. It was named in honor of Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine, who first sailed for the western hemisphere, in 1499. For modern history of North America, its material development and civic progress, see articles on UNITED STATES, CANADA and MEXICO ; also articles on the different states and provinces. CENTRAL AMERICA. The southern end of North America, lying between Mexico, Colombia, the Caribbean Sea tend the Pacific. In geological formation, it differs from North and South America, and appears to belong to a different system, related to the West Indies, the mountain folds having an east and west trend, and apparently having no connection or relation to the Rocky Moun- tain and Andean systems of North and South America. Its length is 1,280 miles and maximum breadth 315 miles, dwindling to 28 miles at the Isthmus of Panama. The area is 207,474 square miles, and the popu- lation about 4,803,487, Panama included. Physical Features. At Tehuantepec, Mex., is a broad plain. In northern Guatemala the mountains begin, close to the Pacific, extend- ing through Salvador, Honduras and Nicar- agua. Not of great height, they consist of detached ranges with volcanic peaks, some of which are active. Then comes the depression nearly filled by Lake Nicaragua, the largest inland body of water south of the great lakes. In Costa Rica highlands follow. Panama is a low* plateau. The rivers flow mostly into the Gulf and the Caribbean. The climate is tropic and pesti- lential on the shores and along the streams, but moderate and healthful on the uplands. The rainfall is enormous, 200 inches at Pan- ama, and creates heavy vegetation. Animal and Vegetable Life. The ani- mals of Central America are those of South America. There are heavy forests which are rich in mahogany and other valuable woods. The chief products are fruits, coffee, rubber, sugar, indigo and tobacco; corn, wheat and rice are grown to some ex- tent. Mineral resources are great, includ- ing gold, silver, platinum, copper, lead, iron and zinc. Inhabitants. Central America was the home of the Aztecs, and is rich in remains of this ancient civilization. The present inhabitants are Creoles or Spanish-speak- ing whites, Indians, Negroes and mixed races. Political Divisions. These include Belize (British Honduras), Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama and Salvador. Belize is a British possession, the remaining states independent republics. History. The coast of Central America was visited by Rodrigo de Bastidas in 1500, and by Columbus in 1502. It was invaded by Cortez in 1524. Guatemala and Salva- dor were held by Alvarado, second in com- mand to Cortez. For three centuries the country was under Spanish rule and subject to frequent disturbances and harsh condi- tions. Independence was achieved in 1821. and in 1823 a republic was formed by the union of the five provinces. Slavery was abolished in 1824, but after dissensions and NATIVES OF NORTH AMERICA , Eskimo of Labrador 2 Eskimo Woman of Greenland 3 Apache 4 Navaho 5 Koskimo Woman. Vancouver 6 Cheyenne 7 Mandan 8 Ute 9 Blackfoot 10 Woman Moki Chief 1 1 Nez Perce 1 2 Wichita Woman NATIVES OP SOUTH AMERICA i Guatuso 2 Talamanoan Woman 3 Bolivian Indian 4 Guaykuru 5 Caraja 6 Matako 7 Brazilian Indian 8 Guayaqui 9 Araucanian (Chile) 10 Tierra del Fuegan ii Patagonian u Botocudo Woman M 3 J| S O J -^ -?.- i ^V*- / ~ B '~ if* t '* University of Michi- igan, resigning the office in 1909. In 1 880-81 he acted as United States minister to China, and later he negotiated for the government some important treaties. He was American minister to Turkey and served on international com- missions, especially on those dealing with Canadian-American fisheries and deep water ways. He died in 1916. Angel o, Michael (mifka-el &n'ja-ld), an Italian sculptor, painter and architect, was born near Florence in 1475. (The great painter's name is frequently written as one word "Michelangelo"; or, in Italian, "Mi- chelagnolo Buonarroti"). He began to draw as soon as he could use his hands, and his early paintings on the walls of the house where he lived as a boy were once shown. _ A great merchant prince, Lorenzo dei Medici, opened a garden in Florence filled with stat- ues. Here Angelo went often to draw, and his first piece of sculpture, a copy in marble of a laughing faun, so pleased Lorenzo that he took the boy into his own house, treating him like a son. His Sleeping Cupid brought him to the notice of all Italy, and got him an invitation to come to Rome. Here, besides other statues, he carved his Pieta. the mourning Mary with the dead Christ in her lap, now in a chapel of St. Peter's From now on his life was of the busiest A huge block of marble, 18 feet long, lay outside the cathedral at Florence. One sculptor had hacked at it and half spoiled it, but out of it Angelo cut his statue of David. The pope gave him an order for a tomb, and Angelo's design was so mag- nificent that it was decided^ to rebuild St. Peter's as a fit covering for it, and Michael Angelo was made the architect. The Sistine chapel was to be ornamented, and in 20 months the great painter had covered the whole ceiling with the beautiful frescoe? that may be seen there today. It was on the walls of this chapel that he afterward painted his Last Judgment. Michael Angelo was a poet, ana wrote beautiful sonnets ANOIOSPERMS ANILINE and also an engineer, and built the fortifi- cations of Florence. Besides possessing genius, he had a passion for work. He carved till his hands could no longer guide a tool, only giving up his work at the age of 90, when he said, "Death often pulls me by the coat to come with him." He died m 1564. Angiosperms (Sn'ji-o-spermz). One of the two divisions of seed plants, or Sper- matophytes, the other being Gymnosperms. It is the highest and most recent great group of plants, and to it belong almost all the plants of ordinary experience. The group contains over 100,000 described species, and at the present time furnishes the chief vegetation of the earth's surface. To it belong all the true flowering plants, as well as" the plants directly useful to man. The bodies of angipsperms are exceedingly varied in size, habit and duration. They range in size from no larger than the head of a pin to the giant redwood; in habit, from floating and creeping to erect; in dura- tion, from a few weeks to centuries. The name refers to the fact that the seeds are inclosed in a case, and are not freely ex- posed as in the Gymnosperms. The two subdivisions of angiosperms are the Mono- cotyledonSi to which grasses, lilies, palms, orchids, etc., belong, and the Dicotyledons , to which the common trees, buttercups, roses, mints, sunflowers, etc., belong. For a further account see MONOCOTYLEDONS and DICOTYLEDONS. Anglin, Hon. Timothy Warren. Born and educated in Ireland. Came to New Brunswick in 1848 where he founded the Morning Freeman. Sat in the New Bruns- wick Assembly from 1861 to 1866, opposed to Confederation. Elected to the House of Commons at Ottawa. Elected speaker in 1874. A very influential member of the Roman Catholic Church. His death occurred in 1896. An'glo-Sax'on, the name of the German tribes that invaded England just after the Romans had left it. They came mostly from three tribes, the Saxons, Angles and Jutes, all living on or near the Danish peninsula. They subdued and overspread the country, driving the Britons, who were of the Celtic race, before them. They founded the seven kingdoms, Kent, Sussex, Wessex, East Anglia, Mercia, Essex and Northumbria, which were banded together for protection into the Heptarchy or Seven Kingdoms, and afterward united in one nation called England, from the Angles. Each of the seven divisions had its king and a queen, who were treated with great respect. Next came the athelings or high nobles; then the thanes, who were landed farmers. Below these were the churls, who were retainers of the thanes, and lowest of afl were the slaves, most of whom had been prisoners of war. The Anglo-Saxon lan- guage is the German language spoken by these tribes, mixed with a few words of Celtic spoken by the Britons and many Latin words introduced by the monks, who were the only scholars then in the country. Although the English language grew out of the Anglo-Saxon, we cannot read it now without studying it like a new language. Ango'la, a Portuguese colony on the west coast of South Africa, in lower Guinea. It has an area of 484,800 square miles; population, 4,119,000. It was discovered by the Portuguese in 1484, and is still in their possession. The capital is St. Paulo de Loan do. An army of 5,000 men, four war vessels and the cost of maintaining the packet service eat up almost the entire revenue of the colony. The country has a coast line, between the mouth of the Congo and German Damaraland, of over 1,000 miles; the boundaries separating it from the Congo Independent State and from French, German and British posses- sions in southwestern Africa have been adjusted by conventions in the past fifteen years. Angola is divided into six dis- tricts: Congo, Loando, Benguella, Mossa- medes, Huitla and Lunda. It has a large export trade in coffee and rubber, besides ivory, cocoa nuts, vegetable oils, oxen and fish. Estimated revenue 1910-11, 2,321,- 373 milreis; expenditure, 3,171,373 milreis. It has over 300 miles of railroad in operation. A trunk line of railway is projected between Lobito Bay, near Benguella, on the coast, to the eastern frontier of the colony, about 900 miles, and work has begun. In 1909 there were 69 telegraph offices with 1,940 miles of line in operation. The trade is largely with Portugal. Angora Goat. See GOAT. An'gus, Richard B., of Montreal, capi- talist. Born near Edinburgh, 1830. Came to Canada in 1857 and joined the staff of the Bank of Montreal. In 1861, placed in charge of the Chicago agency. Later local manager at Montreal and in 1869 generaj manager. For ten years he achieved brilliant success in this position. In 1879 he retired to take the position of general manager of the St. Paul, Minneapolis and Manitoba Railway. In 1880 he was one of the Stephen (afterward Lord Mount Stephen) Smith (Lord Strathcona) syndi- cate, which built the Canadian Pacific Rail- way, which was completed in 1885. This was the leading incident in a phenomenally successful career. He is a governor of McGill University, president of the Board of the Royal Victoria Hospital and a director of the Bank of Montreal ; possesses a valuable art gallery; and is one of the most prominent of successful Canadians. Aniline (an'^-Un or ten), a colorless, oily and poisonous liquid, discovered 80 years ago as a product of the dry distillation of indigo, but now mainly derived from the ANIMALCULA ?4 ANNAPOLIS benzene of coal-tar. It is largely used in the manufacture of dyes, now an extensive industry since the development by chemists of the variety of aniline and coal-tar colors and their application in dyeing and calico print- ing. On exposure to air and light aniline takes on a dark red color, and it boils at 183 C. United with acids, it forms crystallized salt. Animal'cula. See PROTOZOA. Animal Kingdom, the name applied to the group containing all animals, separat- ing them from the vegetable and mineral kingdom, respectively. It is a very old arrangement to divide all nature into three kingdoms animal, vegetable and mineral. Cuvier named one of his most famous books, the Animal Kingdom (Rdgne Animal), and in it divided animals into four divisions, based on their plan of construction, as follows: vertebrata, the backboned animals; mollusca, the soft-bodied animals, such as snails, clams, etc.; articulata, all jointed animals, thus including lobsters and cray- fishes with the worms; radiata, animals like the starfishes, sea anemones, etc., hav- ing a radial arrangement of parts. These divisions have long been out of use, for the reason that they do not represent the real state of the case. The animal king- dom is now divided into a larger number of branches, called sub-kingdoms. While there is a tendency to increase the number, the following eight sub-kingdoms represent a modern arrangement. I. Protozoa, the simplest animals, microscopic and single celled. All animals above the protozoa are many-celled, and are spoken of collectively as metazoa. 2. Porifera, the sponges. 3. Ccelenterata the jellyfishes, hydroids, sea anemones, coral animals, etc. 4. Vermes, the worms, a very large and complex group, including the jointed worms, leeches, earth worms, the smooth worms, the shelled worms, like brachiopod shells, etc. 5. Echinodermata, animals with spiny skins, like starfishes, sea urchins, sea cucumbers, etc. 6. Arthropoda, the articulated animals, with jointed limbs spiders, insects, myria- pods, Crustacea. 7. Mollusca snails, oysters, clams, cuttle-fish, etc. 8. Verte- brata: this group includes some of the animals formerly classed with the worms and mollusca. The majority of them have a backbone composed of vertebrae, but not all of them. The sub-kingdoms are co- ordinate divisions; in other words, equiv- alent groups. They are further divided into Classes, the classes into Orders, the orders into Families and smaller divisions. On account of the importance of the Ver- tebrata, the five Classes are named : Fishes, Amphibia, Reptiles, Birds and Mammals. See the different sub-kingdoms under their respective headings. Anjou (dn-zhod'), an ancient province in the northwest of France, area about 3,000 square miles. In the lath and J3th cent- uries it was a possession of the English kings, and from it came Godfrey, Count of Anjou, who, in 1127, married Matilda, daughter of Henry I of England, and so became the ancestor of the Plantagenet kings. In 1480 it reverted finally to France, in the reign of Louis XI. Anam', a country, forming part of the peninsula of Indo-China, bordering on the China Sea, and lying between the Gulf of Siam and the Gulf of Tonquin. It is flanked on the west by Siam and on the north by China. Today, it forms, with Cambodia, Tonquin and Cochin-China, the chief Asiatic possession of France. It has an estimated population of 6,124,000, and an. area of 52,100 square miles. It was acquired by France in 1884, and the affairs of the protectorate are under the control of the French government. Three of its ports are open to European and American commerce. Its exports include, besides rice and raw silk, sugar, cinnamon and medicinal plants. Hue* is the capital with a population of 50,000. See COCHIN CHINA. Annap'olis, a picturesque old seaport is the capital of Maryland, and the seat of the United States Naval Academy. The city is on the Severn River, two miles from Chesapeake Bay. It was first set- tled in 1649 as Providence; it became the state capital in 1694; and in 1708 the town was renamed in honor of Queen Anne. In colonial days Annapolis was one of the foremost of American cities, and be- came known as "The Athens of America." The Continental Congress sat there from November, 1783, to June, 1784; General Washington there resigned his commission as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army, December, 1783; and in September, 1786, representatives of five of the states assembled in the Annapolis Convention for the purpose of promoting the commer- cial interests of America. This conven- tion recommended the calling of another, and the recommendation resulted in the Constitutional Convention of 1787, which devised the constitution of the United States. The United States Naval Academy, founded in 1845, has been located at An- napolis since its organization. The city is also the seat of St. John's College, estab- lished in 1789, and St. Mary's Seminary. Population, 8,609. Annapolis or Annapolis Royal, formerly Port Royal, is the county seat of Annapolis County, Nova Scotia, situated on Annap- olis Basin, opening from, the Bay of Fundy. It is the oldest European settlement in America to the north of Florida, having been founded by De Monts and Champlain in 1604. It has an estimated population of 1,105 the county containing about 20,- ooo souls. The ruins of the ancient fortress, still imperial property, are of interest, but. there are no remaining proofs of the early frHIIIIIIIIIIIIBIIIIIIIIIIIinilllllllllllHIIIIIIIIIIIOMIIIIIIIOIIIIIIlim 3 3 LENGTH OF LIFE AMONG ANIMALS = GOOSE 8O YRS One of the most interesting things in the study of animals is the length of life of which they 3 are capable. A May fly, for example, born at 1 o'clock, is approaching old age by 4, and by 5 has passed away; while a whale who saw Columbus discover America might still have been spouting = until near the end of the 20th Century. Insects, fortunately, are short lived ; otherwise, life would = = be pretty hard for all the rest of us. But other small creatures, you notice, are quite long lived. A || = saucy little sparrow, for instance if nothing happens to him could keep chattering at you off and on 5 = from the time you learned your first baby words until you reached middle age. *iiiiiiiiiiioi!iiiiiiiioimuiiiioiiiiiiiiiii:]iiiiiiiiiiii:]iiiiiiiiii!OiM ANN ARBOR 75 ANT French occupancy. It was named from Queen Anne on its capture by the British in 1710, and was ceded to the British Crown in 1713. See NOVA SCOTIA. Ann Arbor, Mich,, an important town and railroad center, the county seat of Washtenaw County, situated midway be- tween Detroit and Jackson on the Huron River. It is the seat of the Uni- versity of Michigan, University School of Music and the Ann Arbor High School. This latter institution supplements or pre- pares its students for the University and its enrollment embraces pupils from all parts of Michigan and of the United States as well as foreign countries. It has many important manufacturing concerns, mills, machine shops, etc. Population, 14,817. Anne, queen of England from 1702 to 1714. She was born near London in 1665, was the daughter of James II, and married Prince George of Den- mark. She came to the throne at the death of her brother - in - law, William III. During her reign occurred the War of the Spanish Succession, in which the Duke of Marlborough QUEEN ANNE won his famOUS victories. The union of England and Scot- land under the name of Great Britain was made while she was queen. Her reign is known as the Queen Anne age of literature, because of the many illustrious writers of the period : Addison, Pope, Dryden, Swift, Defoe and the great scientist, Isaac Newton. Though the mother of 17 children, Queen Anne left no heirs, and was the last sov- ereign of the house of Stuart. Anne Boleyn. See BOLEYN, ANNE. Anneal'ing, the process of tempering certain metals and glass to increase their tenacity and render them less brittle by cooling them slowly after they have been submitted to a high temperature of heat. Badly annealed glass, it is well known, will break with a sudden change of tem- perature, and to obviate this glass vessels are annealed in trays in a long oven, one end of which is hotter than the other the process of annealing being to draw the trays slowly into cooler and cooler por- tions of the oven. Cast iron is similarly annealed for tinning; while steel and other metals are tempered after much the same process is undergone. The annealing of the softer metals is done by immersion in boiling ^water, which is then slowly cooled. An'niston, Aia., a progressive city, the county seat of Calhoua County, situated in the Blue Ridge chain of mountains. It is located on the Southern, Louisville and Nashville and Seaboard Air Line railroads about 62 miles east by north of Birmingham. Its exports include coal, iron, cotton and lum- ber; and its industries, coal and iron mining and the manufacture of soil pipe, cotton yarn and cloth, table linen, hosiery, frogs and switches, car wheels and locomotives. Its educational institutions include excellent pub- lic schools, an Episcopal school for girls, a Presbyterian College and Barber Seminary for colored girls. Its many beautiful churches in- clude the noted St. Michael and All Angels. Population 15,256. An'nuals. Plants which endure only a single growing season See DURATION. An'nulus. A structure developed in the wall of the spore-case (sporangium) of the ordinary ferns to assist in discharging the spores. See FILICALES. An'selm, Archbishop of Canterbury, was born in Piedmont in 1033. He studied at Bee in Normandy and became renowned for his learning. He was elected abbot of Bee in 1078, and in 1093 was chosen arch- bishop of Canterbury in England. Anselm quarreled so fiercely with the king, William Rufus, in regard to the relation of church and state that he was exiled from England. He was recalled by Henry I with whom the quarrel was continued. The contro- versy was finally settled by a compromise. The king permitted the bishops to be elected, though the election was to take place at his court. The rights of the crown were secured by the act of homage on the part of the bishops when they received their lands; the spiritual rights of the church were recognized by the anointing of the bishops by the archbishop and their investiture with ring and crozier at his hands. Papal jurisdiction was not ex- cluded, but no papal legate could come into England without the king's permission. Anselm was the author of many books on theology and philosophy. He died in Canter- bury in 1109, and was buried there. Anso'nia, Conn., a city of New Haven County, on the Naugatuck River, near the city of Derby and the junction of the Naugatuck with the Housatonic River. It is on the line of the N. Y., New Haven & Hartford railroad, about 12 miles west of New Haven. It has a number of manu- factories, chiefly of brass and copper products, clocks, electrical works, webbing and knitting goods, carriages and hard- ware. Ansonia was founded in 1844 by Anson Greene Phelps, and the public library of the city was erected to his memory by his granddaughters. Population 15,152. Ant, an insect related to bees and wasps. More than two thousand species have been described. One authority thinks there are probably as many as 5,000. All ants are social, and live in communities, old ones con ANT ANT* taining hundreds of thousands of members. Ants of one community are not friendly with those of another ; either they have noth- ing to do with them or quarrel with them. The work of a community is wonderfully portioned out. There are big workers and little workers. In some species there is a class that does the fighting, a soldier class. In a colony are the females, which are largest in size; the males; and the workers or nurses, which are the smallest. After the pairing season the males are allowed to stray away and soon die. The females and workers are very long-lived. The queens are carefully guarded by the workers, but occasionally on of them es- capes and founds a colony. There are four builders of their wonderful colonies with their houses and streets, by processes of mining, masonry and carpentry. The min- ing ants dig long galleries in the clay, remov- ing the rubbish, building pillars to support the work and covering the whole with a thatch of grass stems. The red and yel- low field-ants are the masons. They first raise pillars and then spring arches over them, covering them with thfc loose piles of soil which we know as ant-hills. The carpenter ants bore their cells in the solid timber of trees, side by side, with partitions no thicker than paper. A kind of ant in Australia builds its houses of leaves fastened together with a kind of glue. Ants are very strong, carrying animals for 1 51 Red Wood Ant. i Male, a a and b, Worker magnified. 3 Female. 4 Worker's head. 5 Larva. 6 Shelter Pupae, so-called ant-house. 7 and 8 Pupse magnified. Horse Ant (natural size). 9 Worker. 10 Male. uPe ?emale. stages in the life history of ants : egg, larva, pupa and perfect insect. The eggs are laid by the queen and carried about by the workers or nurses, exposed to the sunlight during the day and protected from the dampness at night. As soon as the white, legless larvae are hatched, they are treated in the same way, being fed by a liquid from the stomach of the nurse, until they reach the proper age to spin their own cocoons around them. The cocoons represent the pupa stage; they are commonly called ant-eggs, and are carefully tended by the workers. When ready for their second birth, the young ants are cut out of the in- closing cells. The workers are the most interesting of the three classes of ants. Besides acting as nurses, they supply all the food and are the food, or masses of material several times larger than themselves. They eat various kinds of food, both vegetable and animal, other insects, honey, sugar, fruit, etc. They are fond of the honey-dew pro- duced by little insects called aphides, and some kinds of ants capture these insects and use them as milch - cows. Many ants live on decaying vegetable and animal matter. In some hot countries are large, flesh-eating ants, which move in swarms over the land, searching for insects of all kinds, each carrying his prey. In South America, when a swarm is seen ap- proaching, the people leave their houses and let the ants clear out the insects which infest them. In Texas is a kind of farming ant, which is said to plant, cultivate and harvest a kind of grain, laying it up in cells ANTAEUS 77 ANT-EATER for a rainy day. This kind also "builds paved cities, constructs roads and keeps a large military force." Some varieties, like the amazon or war- rior ant, are slaveholders. They go out on warlike expeditions against tribes of smaller ants and capture their eggs and cocoons, which they bring home, dooming the ants hatched from them to lifelong labor. The honey ant is a very curious creature, having a distended abdomen filled wholly with honey. Active workers bring in the honey, and it is stored with the honey- bearers. These cling to the ceiling of the underground chambers, and in time of need give forth their store drop by drop. The common household ants are the little red ants, the small black ant and the pavement ant. Their nests, usually in walls, are very hard to locate. Their presence can be discouraged by spraying with kerosene the crack through which entrance is had to kitchen or pantry. There are various kinds of ant homes. Some have underground chambers and galleries, some occupy chambers and gal- leries in decaying wood. Some ants construct mounds. Some build nests of a paste-like substance. In the tropics there is a great variety in materials used and manner of building. The only insects likely to be mistaken for ants are the termites or white ants, which belong to an entirely different order of insects. These latter live in vast com- munities, generally in the tropics, and do much damage by eating out the interior of articles of furniture, chairs, tables, sills of houses, etc. They are very productive, one female laying as many as 80,000 eggs. Their homes are very large, sometimes twelve feet high, in the shape of a cone, and so strongly built that a man may stand upon them. The queen is imprisoned in a large chamber in the interior. Ants have been a most interesting object of study from the earliest times; reference being made to them in the Bible and in poetry and fable. Many stories are told of their seem- ing intelligence, much written of the curious features of their lives their battles, their mushroom-growing, the many guests they entertain in their colonies, the cleanliness of their homes, etc., etc. See Lubbock: Ants, Bees and Wasps; McCook: The Agri- cultural Ant; The Honey Ants and Tenants of an Old Farm; Howard : The Insect Book; La Fontaine's fable: The Grasshopper and the Ant. Antaeus (an-te'us), in ancient fable, a giant of Libya, son of Neptune and Terra. He was a mighty wrestler and could not be conquered so long as he remained on and was in contact with the earth. Whoever came to Libya had to wrestle with him, and with the skulls of the slain he built a temple to his father Neptune. Hercules finally conquered him by lifting him from the ground and strangling him in the air. Antarctic, meaning opposite to the Arctic or northern pole. Antarctic Circle is one of the smaller circles of the globe, twenty-three and a half degrees from the south pole. Antarctic Ocean, is the name of the ocean lying within the Antarctic circle. It was long thought impassable for ships on account of the ice, but of late years many voyages have been made and tracts of bar- ren land observed. The features of the Antarctic Ocean are constant fogs and currents, unnumbered icebergs and the beautiful aurora borealis (which see). Antarctic Exploration. Since the notable expedition in 1840, to the South Polar Seas, of Captain James Ross and Dr. (Sir Joseph) Hooker in the Erebus and Terror, there have been several researches in the region. In 1901-4, Captain R. F. Scott penetrated by sledges the interior of Victoria Land, and carried the British flag to 82 17' S. Other expeditions embrace those of the German Antarctic Expedition (1901-0^); the Swedish Expedition in the Antarctic, which was lost; and the Scottish- National Antarctic Expedition (1902-04) in the Scotia. A notable expedition was that of Lieutenant Shackleford, who sailed from England in Aug., 1907, and reached lati- tude 88 23', Jan. 9, 1909. It remained for Roald Amundsen to win the long-sought prize. Sailing from Norway in 1910, he wintered in Whales Bay, and in Oct., 1911, started with a dog and sledge outfit for the south pole. Climbing the ice barrier to the great polar plateau and struggling over the great polar plain, he reached the pole Dec. 1417, 1911. Ant-Eater, a toothless animal found in Central and South America feeding on white ants and other insects. The long, flexible tongue, covered with sticky saliva, is pro- truded among the insects and suddenly withdrawn when a number have collected ANT-EATER upon it. There are a number of forms. The great ant-eater is about four feet long with a large tail covered with bushy hair. The color is gray, marked by a band of black on the breast and toward the shoulders; the feet and forelegs are white. The claws are long and strong, adapted for digging. jit sleeps a great deal, and lies curled up with its ANTELOPE ANTHONY tail spread out to protect it from sun and rain. In defending itself, it makes good use of its strong forearms. An'telope, an animal like the deer, be- longing to a group between cattle and goats. Its horns are ringed and hollow and are not renewed annually. The size varies greatly, the pygmy antelopes of South Africa being only from eight to nine inches in height, while the largest kinds are from five to six feet. Antelopes are found in Europe, Asia, Africa and America. They are the fleetest as well as the most beautiful and graceful of quadrupeds. Two kinds are peculiar to North America the Rocky Mountain goat, which is a true antelope, and the prong-horn. The latter stands apart from the true antelopes, from the circumstance that annually it sheds the outer sheath of its horns. There is an interior bony core that remains permanent. These animals are distributed from the Missouri River to the Pacific and from 53 N. latitude south- ward into Mexico. At one time there were immense herds in the San Joaquin Valley in California. They are now abundant in northwestern Mexico. The common ante- lope is found in India and Eastern Asia. It is about two and a half feet high at the shoulders, with erect diverging horns bent in a spiral form. It is so swift that gray- hounds cannot catch it, and it leaps easily a height of ten or twelve feet, while the length of its bound is often ten or twelve yards. The Chinese antelope is found in the deserts of Central Asia. Its flesh is very much prized. The gazelle of North Africa was known to the ancients, its beau- tiful black eyes being often spoken of by Arabian poets. In the Alps we find the chamois and in South Africa the eland, the largest of ail the antelopes. Anther (Hn'ther). That part of a stamen which produces the pollen. See FLOWER. Antheridium (an'ther- "id'i-iim). The male or- gan of plants. Within it are produced the sperms or their equiv- alents, which fertilize the female cells or eggs. The antheridium v a r i e s in structure in different groups of plants, being for the most part a sin- gle cell in the Thatto- fhytes, and a several to many-celled structure in the higher groups. It is important to note that the antheridium holds no relation to the an- ther, the structure in the flower which pro- duces pollen, for the SECTION THROUGH anther is not a male ANTHERIDIUM OF organ. To avoid this LIVERWORT confusion it has been proposed to change the name antheridium to spermary. Antherozoid ( tin'ther-o-zo'id ). A n a m e often applied to the swimming o r motile sperm of plants. See SPERM. Anthoceros. A genus of the plants known as liverworts which gives name to the group An- Anthoceros, showing thallus thoc e r ot ale s. with two capsules (A) and q-t-p crrm-m rr>n mature capsule splitting (B) ^ e g ro "P c n - tams but few forms, but_is of great interest from the fact that from it the mosses seem to have devel- oped, and possibly the ferns and seed-plants also. The body (gametophyte) is a simple flat thallus, and produces a slender spore- case (sporophyte) which is remarkable for its continued growth in length and its green color. See HEPATIC^E. Anthony, Henry Bowen, American statesman, was born at Coventry, R. I., April i, 1815, and died at Providence, R. I., September 2, 1884. Graduating at Brown University, he took early to journalism, and was for a time editor of the Providence Journal. In 1849-50 he was governor of Rhode Island, and, nine years later, he en- tered the United States senate, and was a member of that body until his death, serv- ing frequently on important committees, and acting on several occasions as tem- porary president of the chamber. Anthony, Susan Brownell. In 1854 a school teacher appeared in Albany, New York, to present a petition signed by 28,000 persons for bet- ter laws to reg- ulate the liquor traffic. A mem- ber of the As- s e m b 1 y said : "Who are all these signers nobody but women." No- body but women mothers, wives, daugh- ters, sisters who wanted to pro- tect their pro- tectors against evil habits that threatened the home. The teacher, as she turned away, said: "A woman's name on a petition will never be as good as a man's until she has a vote." Susan B. Anthony from that day was an equal suffragist. That thought was her whole creed, precept and practice. For SUSAN B. ANTHONY ANTHRACITE 79 ANTHROPOMETRY the next half century she gave every day, every dollar, every power of her mind to the work of making a woman's name worth as much as a man s. Born in South Adams, Mass., February 15, 1820, of a Quaker father, she was given the same education as her brothers, which was unusual in that day. It was not until she began to teach for $10 a month in a position for which a man would have been given $40 that she felt the disadvantage of being born a girl. Her voice was first heard in a New York State Teachers' As- sociation in a demand for equal pay for men and women. At the age of 27 she joined the movement for temperance reform, and she might have preceded Miss Willard in the leadership of that work but for her ex- perience at Albany. She became convinced that the ballot was the only effective weapon to fight with against any and all kinds of moral evil and legal oppression. Other eminent women were pioneers in this movement, but Miss Anthony was the most original and aggressive of them all, and she was singled out for ridicule. In time her wit, her good-humor, her courage, her intellect, her grasp of political history and the legal status of women won respect and admiration even from people who did not agree with her. There are few to-day who will deny the debt that women owe to her in their privilege of working at in- numerable occupations, with equal or very nearly equal pay as men, in their control of their property and children, in their op- portunities for higher education and in the fact that women's names on petitions, even when they have no vote, can no longer be dismissed with contempt. It must be remembered that the cause Miss Anthony made her own was helped along enormously by the Civil War. The roll of the dead forced thousands of timid women into the ranks of bread-winners. From a social disgrace it suddenly became an honor, a patriotic duty for women to work, and necessity opened all the gates of industry and all the gates of preparation for work. Her lectures, her writing, her petitions, her appearance before Congress- sional committees and her work of organi- zation made her a national character. In 1872 she cast a vote in the presidential election to test her status as a citizen. She was tried before the courts of New York state and fined $100, but refused to pay it, declaring that "taxation without repre- sentation is tyranny," just the same as it was a hundred years before. Miss Anthony died March 13, 1906, active and able for her task up to the age of 86. See Life by Ida M. Harper. Anthracite. See COAL. An'thropol'ogy, a wide and compre- hensive term, otherwise expressed as the , science of man, and treating of man's 1 nature, origin, history, etc., especially as a social animal, living in groups either by nature or from choice or necessity. Sociol- ogy is a term somewhat akin to it, though specifically dealing with society as a whole, its _ structure and organizations, the laws of its development, as shown in the evolu- tion of man in communities, and of what we know as actual civilization. Again akin to what is termed anthropology is ethnography, which treats of the races of men in the geographical groups or tribes in which they are met; while ethnology deals with the customs, languages and institutions of mankind in general. An- thropology, in the main, embraces what is usually dealt with in the two latter sciences. The physical aspect and characteristics of the race, varied as they are by climate and temperature, including the cranium, limbs, facial features, height and shape of the body and other descriptive details, belong to the classification of physical anthro- pology; while the industrial and utilitarian arts in which man employs himself or is em- ployed, together with the tools with which he works, are covered by the term tech- nology. Men in their lawless, vicious state as criminals, felons and outlaws of society, transgressing its laws and defying its proprieties and conventionalities, are studied and treated of under criminal an- thropology, ^by investigators in police offices and prisons, who endeavor to set forth the hereditary, congenital and other causes that create the criminal classes and leave the imprint of crime upon them as a distinct physiognomical and racial type. An'thropom'etry, the science of the measurement of the human body, is of use in the study of different races of men and also of special groups, such as school-chil- dren and even criminals. It is of service also in medicine both for the purpose of a more exact knowledge of the symptoms of disease and for the more reliable use of measurements of the average rate and variation of the circulation of the blood, respiration, etc. It is not only necessary to have these measurements hi large num- bers; but to have them under different conditions. Francis Galton of England was perhaps the pioneer of the science of anthropometry. It was only in 1875 that measurements of average height, weight, girth of chest, etc., were ordered to be made for the British Association. In con- nection with education, the measurements by Galton, Karl Pearson, Cattell, Edward Thorndike and others are worthy of notice. Many such measurements have been col- lected by President Stanley Hall in his recent work on Adolescence (1908). The system of identifying criminals by means of thumb-marks and other physical meas- urements is an example of the application of anthropometry in another field. Phy ANTICOSTI 80 ANTIOCH sical statistics are often collected by the doctors in charge of large gymnasiums. But scientists now endeavor to measure mental as well as physical traits; and although such measurements are indirect, they represent a greater degree of exact- ness than mere opinion. An'ticos'ti. An immense island in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 140 miles long by 30 miles wide. Not suitable for agricul- ture. It is now owned by Menier, the French chocolate manufacturer. Anti-Cyclone. See CYCLONE. Antie'tam (an-te'tam), a creek in Mary- land, where was fought one of the great battles of the Civil War, September 17, 1862, between the Union army, with 57,614 men in the field, under General McClellan, and the Confederate, with 38,000 men, under General Lee. The bat- tle raged with great slaughter from early morning until dark. The result was not decisive, the Union loss being over 11,000 and the Confederate loss about 10,000. McClellan did not renew the attack, and on the 1 8th Lee retreated in safety. But the moral effect was to encourage the north, and on the strength of Antietam President Lincoln issued his proclamation abolishing slavery. An'tigo, Wis., a city, the seat of Lang- lade County, on the Spring Brook River and on the Chicago & Northwestern R. R., 206 miles northwest of Milwaukee. Settled in or about the year 1878, the city was in- corporated in 1884. Lumbering and ag- riculture are the chief indutsries of the region, together with its commerical trade. Besides its railroad shops, it has foundries, breweries, flour mills and extensive wooden- ware establishments, etc. Population, 7,196. Antigone (an-tig'o-ne), one of the tragic characters in Greek fable. She was the daughter of GEdipus, king of Thebes. When her father was driven from his throne, she followed him to Attica and cared for him. After his death she returned to Thebes, where Haemon, son of Creon, the new tyrant of Thebes, fell in love with her. She at- tempted to bury the body of her brother, who had been slain in war with Creon, and for this offense was ordered to be buried alive or shut up in a cave. Haemon slew himself by her side. The story of Anti- gone has been told by several Greek poets; but only the tragedy of Sophocles is now in existence. Antigua (ante'gwa) , British West Indies, one of a group of islands (the Windward) which compose the Lesser Antilles, situated to the east of Porto Rico and separating the Caribbean Sea from the Atlantic. It is 54 miles in circumterence, enclosing an area of 108 square miles or, with its depend- ent islands of Barbuda and Redonda, 170 square miles in all. Antigua is the seat of government in the Leeward Islands Colony of Britain, and has, besides a nom- inated governor and executive council, a legislative council consisting of eight official and eight unofficial members. The chief town is St. John (population, 1911, 9,262); the population of the colony with its de- pendencies, 38,899. It has a local tele- phone line 90 miles in extent, is connected with the West India and Panama Tele- graph Company's cable, and is reached by periodic steam vessels, direct from England, New York and Canada. Its chief ex- ports embrace sugar, cotton and pineapples. Antilles (an-til-lez or on-tel'), a cluster of islands, forming a half circle and gener- ally called the West Indies. They are about 360 in number. They are very fertile, but fierce hurricanes blow over them, and their climate is very hot. Their chief prod- ucts are sugar, coffee, tobacco and cotton. They are divided into the Windward Islands, the Leeward Islands and the Great Antilles. See WEST INDIES, CUBA, JAMAICA, BAHAMAS, etc. An'timony, a brittle metal of a bluish- white color. It may easily be reduced to a powder. When heated to about 800 it melts, and when cooled it forms crystals. It burns in the air with a white light, and gives off fumes known as the flowers of antimony. It does not tarnish or rust, and so is much used in alloys, such as type- metal. The finely-divided metal, called antimony black, is used to give casts an ap- pearance of iron. There are a number of useful compounds of antimony: tartar emetic, the tartrate which is used in medi- cine; glass of antimony, a mixture of oxide and sulphide, used for coloring glass and porcelain yellow; and butter of antimony, the chloride, an oily liquid, which, mixed with olive oil, is used by gunmakers to give a brown color to gun barrels. The prin- cipal source of the metal is the sulphide, called stibnite or gray antimony ore. It is smelted in France, where it is found abundant- ly, in Germany and in England which receives its supply from Singapore and Borneo. An- timony is found in America, in California, Nevada, Mexico and New Brunswick. Antinous (an-tin'd-us), a beautiful youth of Bithynia. He was a favorite of the Em- peror Hadrian, and went with him on his journey through Egypt. An oracle had told the emperor that a great danger which threatened him could be avoided only by the sacrifice of the person whom he loved most fondly. The youth hearing this, drowned himself in the Nile. In his honor, Hadrian built the splendid city of Antino- opolis or AntinoS, in Egypt, and also gave his name to a newly-observed star. An- tinous was made a god, and statues of him were set up throughout the Roman empire. Antioch (an'tl-bk), named from its foun- der, Antiochus, was long celebrated as one of the first cities of the east. The name ANTIPODAL CELLS 81 APE Christians was first given to the disciples of Christ in this city. It was captured by the Saracens and the Crusaders. Once richer than Rome itself, but devastated by earthquakes and impoverished by con- quests, it was finally razed to the ground by the Mamelukes, in 1269. The "Queen of the East," as it was called, is now only a small town. Antip'odal Cells (in plants). A group of ceils developed in the embryo-sac of Angiosperms. See EMBRYO-SAC. Ant-Lion, the larva of an insect common in the United States and belonging to the order Neuroptera. The larva is armed with long jaws. It constructs in the sand a funnel-shaped pit one or two inches across. It then conceals itself at the bottom with its pincer-like jaws protruding into ^the funnel. Ants and other insects slide into the pitfall and are devoured by the larva. The adult form is a graceful insect with four delicate wings and a slender body. Antonel'li (dn'to-nel'le), Cardinal Qiacomo, was born in Italy in 1806, and died at Rome, November 6, 1876. He was raised to the cardinalate in 1847, and wa s for a time secretary of foreign affairs for the papal states. As a champion of the papal interest, he strenuously opposed the union of Italy, under Victor Emmanuel. He was chief adviser and prime minister of Pope Pius IX, and during the Italian revolution of 1848 he accompanied his Holiness in his flight to the seaport of Gaeta. Antoni'nus (dn'to-nl'nus) Pi'us, a Roman emperor, was born in 86 A. D. He was adopted by the Emperor Hadrian and sue ceeded him in the year 138. His reign was peaceful and prosperous. He is quoted as saying: "I had rather preserve the life of a citizen than destroy a thousand enemies." He encouraged everything that was good, helped the poor, lessened the taxes and well earned the title: "Father of his Coun- try." He was called Pius (pious), because he built a temple in honor of his adopted father Hadrian. He died 161 A. D. An'tony, Mark, a great Roman general, was born at Rome in 83 B. C. He fought bravely as a soldier in Syria, Egypt and Gaul under Caesar, whose firm friend he became. He took part in Caesar's great victory of Pharsalia, and with him was made consul in 44 B. C. After Caesar was killed, Antony, with Augustus and Lepidus, formed a government called the Triumvirate, which defeated the republican army of Brutus and Cassius at Philippi. Some time after, Antony visited Greece and Asia, and met the beautiful Cleopatra, queen of Egypt. His love for her made him forget the prov- inces he was to govern. When at last he turned his attention to them, he ruled so much like a despot that Augustus sent an army against him, which defeated him in the naval battle of Actium, Cleopatra cowardly sailing away with her ships, and Antony too much in love to stay behind her even to fight for his honor. Soon afterward Mark Antony killed himself (30 B. C.). An' trim, a county and town in the north- east of Ireland, noted for its extensive manufactures of linen. The capital of the county, which, as it was largely colonized from Scotland, is preponderatingly Protest- ant is Belfast. Antrim is an old town, with considerable historic interest attached to it. Near it, in the reign of Edward III, a battle was fought between the English and the Irish; and, during the troubles of the year 1798, a British force encountered, at Antrim, a body of rebellious "United Irishmen," and defeated them. The county of Antrim has an area of 1,211 square miles, with a population of 478,603. Ant'werp, the main seaport of Belgium. Its cathedral is a fine specimen of Gothic architecture. The paintings in it are by Rubens; among them is his best work, The Descent from the Cross. Antwerp is over a thousand years old. It is to-day the chief military arsenal and the principal com- mercial city and seaport of the kingdom. The province of the same name (Antwerp or Anvers), has an area of 1,093 square miles, with a population of 825,156. At the beginning of the i6th century the city was at the height of its prosperity, with a population of over 200,000, a world- wide commerce, and having 2,500 ships at a time in its harbor. Its noted citadel was built by the Duke of Alva, and has endured many sieges, especially one of thirteen months by the Duke of Parma. Population, 317.171- Apa'ches (d-pd'chdz), a tribe of Indians that inhabit Arizona, New Mexico and parts of Mexico. They are the most treach- erous and bloodthirsty of Indians, and live by hunting and robbery. They have no single chief. By a system of mountain signals they can gather at short notice a large body of warriors. Ape, the name often applied to any monkey, but here confined to the^tailless, semi-erect forms that most nearly approach man in structure. This includes the chim- panzee, orang-outang, gorilla and the gibbon. They are aU inhabitants of the old world. The term man-like ape applied to these forms is significant of their likeness in structure to man. in fa^o, man differs structurally from these apes no more than they differ among themselves. It requires some anatomical knowledge to appreciate the differences. Those in the brain are often referred to, but even in that organ it is largely a difference in size, in convolu- tions and microscopic structure. The con- volution containing the brain-cells that preside over speech (convolution of Brocca) is deficient in the apes, and there are, of APELLES 82 APIARY course, other differences. The likeness is especially strong in the young animal. An interesting contribution to the facts bearing on the subject of structural re- semblances was the finding of a fossil form more man-like than any previously discovered. In 1894, there was found in the island of Java remains of a fossil ape (Pithecanthropus erectus), which, from the capacity and form of the cranium and the anatomy of the long bone of the leg, occupies a position intermediate between man and living apes. The doctrine of evolu- tion does not teach that any existing ape is in the direct line of man's ancestry, but that the simian line and the human line are united in remote generalized ancestors common to both groups. The existing apes are, therefore, side branches, as it were, of the ancestral tree and not in the direct royal line. The apes are progressing in their habits; some of them build rude shelter, use clubs and stones in defense, etc., but a popular misconception should be corrected their progress is not directly toward human- ity, but toward a more perfect simianity. Apes live mainly on vegetable food. They are as large as, or larger than, man; all can walk as man does, though more at home in climbing. They have no tail and no cheek pouches, have great strength and intelli- gence. They are by nature very savage, and are among the most dangerous of wild animals. See CHIMPANZEE, ORANG-OUTANG, GORILLA. Apelles (a-pel'ez), a Greek painter, who lived probably between 352 and 308 B. C. We do not know when or where he was born, nor when or where he died, and not one of his pictures remains, yet his name stands for the highest excellence in painting. He painted portraits of Philip and Alexander, who would sit to no other painter. His most famous picture was Venus Rising from the Sea. One of his paintings, representing Alexander holding a thunderbolt, was sold for a sum equal to $200,000. When he had finished a picture, he used to place it in a public place and hide behind it, to hear what was said. Once he overheard a passing shoemaker say that a slipper on the foot of a figure had not ties enough. Apelles cor- rected the mistake. The next day the shoemaker began to find fault with a leg, when Apelles, putting out his head, desired him to confine his criticism to the slipper. Ap'ennines, a chain of mountains in Italy, running the whole length of the penin- sula, from the Maritime Alps to the Straits of Messina, a distance of 800 miles. Its average height is about 4,200 feet; its high- est peak, Monte Corno, is 9,542 feet. Be- tween the main range and the Mediterranean extends a chain called the Sub-Apennines, which include the group of volcanoes of which. Mt. Vesuvius is the center. Apet'alous Flowers. The phrase liter- allv means "flowers without petals," but it is somewhat arbitrarily applied. In a complete flower there are two distinguish- able floral envelopes calyx and corolla. In case there is only one floral envelop, it is assumed that the corolla (petals) is missing, and the flower is said to be apetalous. The apetalous condition may be a primitive one, or it may have been derived by reduction from forms which had petals. Apetalous flowers are most common in what are regarded as the more primitive families of Angiosperms. The noun form of the word is apetaly. Aphides (af'i-dez), small insects very injurious to plants and commonly called plant-lice. The number of species is very large, and they live on a great variety of plants. They are usually greenish in color, with short bodies and long slender legs. Their mouth parts are formed into a short stylet, through which they suck the juices of plants. They prey practically upon all cultivated plants, and increase so rapidly that were it not for their numerous enemies plant life would almost be destroyed. The grapevine phylloxera is very destructive to vineyards; a great pest is the root-louse of the apple, mistakenly called the American blight; another great pest the hop plant louse ; and others, the aphides of the cabbage, potato, bean, apple, pear, etc., have carried wide destruction. They are produced in large numbers, and have natural enemies, like the larvae of the lady-bird. Tobacco and a strong solution of soap and kerosene emulsion are used in combating them. Many forms of aphide produce a sweet liquid, called honey-dew, of which ants are very fond. Ants are known to keep herds of them as "milch cows" in captivity, pro- tecting them from their enemies and strok- ing them with their antennae in order to make them give up the honey-dew. Aphrodite (af-ro-dl'te), the Greek god- dess of love, the counterpart of Venus in Roman mythology. Both, probably, are of Asiatic origin; though it is to the Greeks that we owe the pretty story of her birth from the sea foam and of her subsequently becoming the wife of Hephaestos and the mother of Cupid. By another account, Aphrodite is said to be the daughter of Jupiter and Dione. Beautiful herself, she was endowed with the power of conferring beauty; and as the queen of beauty she was awarded the golden apple of Paris. A'piary, a house or structure for keeping bees, from the Latin apis, a bee. Differ- ences of opinion exist as to the best form hives should take and of what material they should be constructed. Among old- country bee-keepers, the old dome-shaped straw skep is still preferred; others prefer a box-like wooden hive, consisting of a breeding-chamber below and two sliding. APOCARPOUS FLOWERS APPERCEPTION removable chambers above for the abstrac- tion of the honey without disturbing the bees. The one essential on which all agree is that the apiary should be erected in the vicinity of good feeding grounds, such as gardens, clover-fields or heath-covered hijls. See BEES. Apocarpous (dp'd-kdr'piis} Flowers. The carpels oi a flower may remain distinct from one anothei and thus form simple pistils, or they may organize together in the forma- tion of a compound pistil. In the former case the flower is apocarpous, in the latter it is syncarpous. An apocarpous condition is regarded as more primitive than a syn- carpous one. The noun form of the word is apocarpy. Apogamy (d-pog'd-tny). In plants with regular alternation of generations (which see) the gametophyte produces the sporo- phyte by means of a fertilized egg. Occa- sionally the sporophyte is produced directly upon the gametophyte without the inter- vention of an egg, and such a phenomenon is known as apogamy. In general, there- fore, apogamy refers to the appearance of the embryos of higher plants without any sex act. Apollo, called also Phoebus, one of the chief gods of the Greeks. He was born on the island Delos, and was the son of Jupiter and Latona. He is the god of the sun, the god of song, the head and protector of the muses, the revealer of the future especially at his temple at Delphi the god of flocks, the archer who inflicts vengeance with his arrows and the patron of the heal- ing art. He is pictured as a beautiful youth with long hair, his brows bound with the leaves of the sacred bay tree, and bearing the lyre or the bow. The Romans adopted him from the Greeks, and built a temple and held games m his honor. Apollo Belvedere (bel've-der), a marble statue of the god Apollo, one of the most famous works of ancient art. It was found in 1503 in the ruins of ancient Antium and placed in the gallery of the Belvedere in the Vatican at Rome. The sculptor is unknown, but is thought to be one of the Greek sculp- tors, either Agasias or Praxiteles. The statue is seven feet high and shows the god in the perfection of manly beauty, at the moment of his victory over the monster Python. He stands with his left arm ex- tended, holding the bow, while his right hand, which has just left the string, is near his hip. The body is poised with such grace as to give it a wonderful beauty. Apos'pory. In plants with regular alter- nation of generations the sporophvte pro- duces the gametophyte by means of asexual spores. Occasionally gametophytes arise directly from sporophytes without the inter- vention of a spore, and such a phenomenon b known as apospory. Both apogamy and apospory have been most commonly 6\> erved in ferns. Apostles, originally the twelve men whom Jesus chose to preach the Gospel. They were Simon Peter (called also Cephas and Bar-jona), Andrew, James the Elder (son of Zebedee), John his brother, Philip, Bartholomew (Nathaniel), Thomas (Didy- mus), Matthew (Levi), James the Younger (son of Alpheus), Thaddeus, Simon and Judas Iscanot. Matthias was chosen in the place of Judas, and later on Paul and Barnabas were added to the number. The apostles were first sent out by Jesus to preach to the Jews only; but a short time before his ascension they were commanded to preach to all nations. On the day of Pentecost they received miraculous gifts and began their public ministry. They have left records in the Epistles and the Acts of the Apostles. Apothe'cium. In plants, a flat or cup- like spore-producing body formed by the h.scomycetes, which see. The name is most commonly applied among the lichens. Appala'chian Mountains. See ALLE- GHANIES. Apperception. This term was origin- ally used by Leibniz (1646-1716), a Ger- man philosopher. He wished to distin- guish between consciousness and self-con- sciousness. Ordinary perception makes us aware of external objects, but not of our own perceptions as distinct from what we perceive. Leibniz employed the word apperception to indicate the consciousness of perception. This self-consciousness, he thought, is not possessed by the lower ani- mals, but only by human beings. The brute perceives, man apperceives, or perceives that he perceives. The philosopher Kant (1724-1804) used the term apperception to mean the power of the mind to relate to various perceptions and especially to or- ganize them into a system. The result of apperception, according to him, is that the objects of perception are all seen to be- long to one world, to be governed by its laws and thus to be related to each other, and all the perceptions are seen to belong to various minds, by which they are organ- ized, and by the laws of which they are controlled. Herbart (1776-1841), another German philosopher and psychologist, still further modified the definition of apperception' by conceiving it to be the process by which old expenence assimilates or gives meaning to new perceptions. This view emphasizes the fact that the character of one's previous experience will determine whether he will be interested in any new object sufficiently to attend to it, that is, to apperceive it. Moreover, the new object that one attends to will seem significant and interesting in accordance with the richness of the expe- rience that he has already acquired in reference to similar objects. Indeed, diff erent people may apperceive the same APPERCEPTION 84 APPERCEPTION thing in very different ways and yet all find it interesting. To illustrate these points, suppose a person in crossing a stream sees what looks like a small dull, yellow stone. It does not differ much from the other stones surrounding it, and if the observer ^oes not know enough about that sort of an object to make it more in- teresting tc him than its neighbors, it will not arrest his attention. Suppose, howr ever, that the observer is a savage, who has noticed such stones before, and that they are unusually heavy, and therefore valuable as missiles, such a person would get from seeing the stone a number of suggestions connected with warfare or the hunting of wild animals, and be sufficiently interested to pick it up and carry it away. But if a civilized man were to perceive that the object is not an ordinary stone, but a nugget of gold, his interest will be- come intense because of his knowledge of its use as money and in the arts. He will not only pick up the nugget, but will do so eagerly. A great number of ideas will surge into his mind, and it may be some time before he will think of anything ex- cept his discovery and its significance. Moreover, his actions will be very exten- sively modified by the experience. If he happens to be a miner, he may perceive in the nugget the suggestion of a nch deposit of gold in the neighborhood, and the cur- rent of bis life may be turned by its dis- covery. It is evident that apperception means alike to Leibniz, Kant and Herbart the interpreting of perceptions by the mind. Leibniz saw in this a process of reflecting upon and becoming conscious of our per- ceptions. This is, no doubt, one phase of the process of apperception. Kant noticed that this interpreting of perceptions con- sists in relating and organizing them, and here, too, is an important part of the truth. Herbart brought out the fact that the relating of experience consists in the sug- gesting of old experience by new percep- tions and that its organization means the interpretation of the new perception by the knowledge thus called up. The active force in apperception is, with Herbart, ex- perience itself, and not, as with Kant, a mind that is *hought to organize experi- ences which are themselves passive. ^The consequences on education of this view of Herbart are very important. Learn- ing, i. e. t apperception, is commonly re- garded as absorbing new facts and organ- izing them so that they may be useful. According to Kant, the teacher might be supposed to present the facts, but their organization must be left to the activity and inclination or will of the pupil. The Herbartian notion of apperception, on the other hand, makes the teacher responsible in a measure for the activity displayed by the learner in assimilating or inter- preting the new experience. For the suc- cessful apperception of a new object de- pends upon two things: first, whether the learner already possesses any experience with which to interpret it; and second, whether the new perception comes in such a way that it calls up this interpreting ex- perience. Both of these conditions the teacher can understand and at least par- tially control. He can, before he presents a new topic, investigate what the child already knows about it. This will tell him whether the child can apperceive the topic at all and, if so, to what extent and in what way. If the child already possesses a fund of apperceiving material sufficient to make the topic profitable, it may be presented. The method of presentation, however, will depend on what th child already knows. This is brought out in a preparatory step. Such a preparation brings all or the most valuable part of the related experience possessed by the child actively to bear on the new idea, thus in- suring its apperception. It also gives the teacher his clue as to what the child can learn, and what he needs to learn in order to complete his view of the subject. Later, as the new subject becomes better mastered, the teacher can suggest the con- nections between it and other related sub- jects thus increasing the degree of organi- zation of material in the pupil's mind. Finally, the ideas thus mastered can be continually revived at the suggestion of the teacher in order to interpret new mate- rial or solve new problems. Thus the idea of appreception can have a very de- cided influence upon this method of in- struction. From the point of view of the course of study also, the notion of apperception is of the greatest importance. For it im- plies that each subject as a whole be selected with reference to the child's particular stage of development; that it be so graded that the work of every day prepares for the next; and that all the subjects be so correlated that the growing knowledge of each shall constantly redound to the benefit of all. The idea of apperception has in recent years received a new development because of the discovery that what causes new subjects to be seized and assimilated by the mind is not merely that they are seen to be related to familiar experience, but that their mastery is felt to be worth while. To use the illustration employed earlier, the savage is interested in the nugget and apperceives it, because he sees that he can make use of it in a very fruitful way. The intenser apperception of the civilized man is due to the great value that gold has for him in the social world he inhabits. From this point of view the teacher is seen to APPIAN WAY APPLE have the task of not merely connecting the new object with familiar experience but also that of helping the child to see how, in the light of his experience, the compre- hension of the new topic is worth while. To get the observer to apperceive the nugget properly, it may not only be necessary to tell him that it is that familiar thing, gold, but to get him to see how valuable a thing it is to know about and to possess. To be sure, experience would be the only source of this valuation. Yet the child may need help to get from experience the values that will inspire him to enlarge his experience and power along specific lines. Thus, through a proper utilization of his experience the savage might be led to see the value that gold has for civilization and so to apperceive it quite differently. In this aspect apperception is very intimately related to Interest. Some psychologists now use the term apperception to cover all that the mind adds to what is at the moment given by the senses. In this meaning it signifies the interpretation by the mind, not of per- ception, but rather of sensation. Percep- tion itself is a gradual outgrowth of expe- rience and therefore involves apperception. This use of the term leads to no important educational consequences that are not in- volved in the other. See ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS, INTEREST, TEACHING, METHOD OF, MENTAL DISCIPLINE, PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS. Consult Apperception, Lange; General Method and Method of the Recitation, Mc- Murry; The Educative Process, Bagley; and The Point of Contact in Teaching, Du Bois. E. N. HENDERSON. Appian Way, a famous road with many branches which connected Rome with southern Italy. The main road was laid out by Appius Claudius (312-307 3. C.). It was paved with large and well-fitting blocks and adorned with numerous mag- nificent sepulchers, the most noted being those of Collatinus and the Scipios. Within the present century excavations have been made over a large part of the ancient road. Apple, the name of a tree and of the king of fruits, the most important commercial pomolpgical fruit in the world. It will grow in a variety of climates and soils; in the Old World its range is from Scandinavia south to the mountainous portions of Spain; in the New World, from New Bruns- wick to the mountains of Georgia, from British Columbia down to the mountains of Mexico. And in New Zealand and Tasmania the apple thrives. It has been in cultivation since prehistoric times. Nota- ble reference is made to it in ancient litera- ture; it is mentioned several times in the Bible; in the tale of Troy's fall the apple played a part; names and other evidence shows its extensive cultivation by the Romans; the folk-lore of Scandinavia and Germany abounds with stories of apple trees and golden apples. The apple^ belongs to the rose family of plants, and is a native of southwestern Asia and adjacent Europe. The common apples are all modifications of a single species; while the crab apples have all been de- rived from another species. The number of varieties actually on sale in America dur- ing any year is not far from 1,000. North America is the greatest apple country of the world, and a full crop for the United States and Canada is said to be not less than 100,000,000 barrels. Apples were early introduced in this coun- try, and at first prized specially for cider. In the United States the apple is adapted to all portions save Florida, the lands im- mediately bordering the Gulf and the warmer localities of the southwest and Pacific coast. The most perfect apple region, Bailey considers, begins with Nova Scotia and extends to the west and south- west to Lake Michigan; other important regions are the Piedmont country of Virginia and the highlands of adjacent states, the plains region, the Ozark and Arkansas regions and the Pacific region. While the apple thrives in a variety of soils, it reaches its best in a clay-loam. It is propagated both by budding and by grafting the sort desired on young seedling trees. Apples grown from seeds are very apt to revert to the wild type. Dread enemies of the apple are apple worm and apple scab. Spraying with poison is the means used to check their work of ruin. There are several species of crab apple native to North America; the prairie, the wild (Coronaria), the narrow-leaved, and the Oregon crab. The blossom of the wild crab-apple is of exquisite beauty and fragrance, and thickets of these trees now have place in many of our city parks. There is no wild flower more highly prized in this country, and for every region there is a crab-apple tree. The common apple tree is rightly valued for its beauty as well as its utility. In the spring, when the rugged, sturdy trunk bears aloft its huge bouquet of fragrant bloom and freshest leaves, all pay homage and here may be made declaration that APPLESEED. JOHNNY 86 AQUARIUM beauty is excuse for the wealth of flowers, for not one tenth of the blossoms is needed to "set" all the fruit the tree could mature. A summer orchard, too, is very attractive, and decidedly attractive is the orchard in the season of ripened fruit. In winter the spreading bare branches and leaning tree stand out in full picturesqueness. "Health to thee, good apple-tree, Well to bear pocketfulls, hatlulls, Peckfulls, bushel-bagfulls." See Bailey's Cyclopedia of American Hor- ticulture and Bailey's Field Notes on Apple Culture; Thomas: The Book of the Apple; McFarland : Apples. Appleseed, Johnny, the nickname of an eccentric character belonging to the early pioneer days of Ohio and Indiana. He looked upon it as his mission in life to start orchards in the wilds, and for over 40 years trudged here and there in the wilderness with his leathern bag of apple seeds. His clothing in later life consisted of a long, loose garment made out of a coffee sack, on his head a cap fashioned of pasteboard. He wore no shoes, but trod barefoot on his long, rough journeys. His real name was Jonathan Chapman; it is thought he was born in Boston in 1775. He made his appearance in Ohio with his apple seeds in 1801; came again in 1806, this one time travelling by water, his seeds stored in canoes. Ere long he became well known to the settlers and Indians, and was regarded as a friend by both. He would procure his seeds from the cider-presses of western Pennsylvania, then with his load go where the white men were clearing and making homes farther west; selecting a fertile spot near a settle- ment, he would start a nursery, and when ready for transplanting dispose of his trees to the settlers. Ohio and Indiana owed to Johnny Appleseed many and many a good orchard; he lived to see his trees bear fruit over a territory of great extent. At the scattered log-cabins old and young were wont to give warm welcome to the strange, kindly wanderer. He seems to have been held in a kind of superstitious awe, the Indians for their part considering him a great medicine-man. During the War of 1812 he saved the lives of many settlers by spreading the news of Hull's surrender and the coming of the Indians. He was extraordinarily gentle and kindly, would harm no living creature, and amid the many dangers of the forest himself remained unharmed. He died at a settler's cabin in Allen County, Indiana, in the summer of 1847. Appleton, Wis., a city, the capital of Outagamie County, Wisconsin, on the Fox River, about midway between Oshkosh and Green Bay city. The town receives its water-power from the falls here on the Fox River, and utilizes this in the chief factories and industries, such as in pulp- making, paper making, the manufacture of pulp-mill machinery, furniture and woolen goods. Other industries are flour and wind mills, wire works and cement building- blocks. The town has a water outlet by river into Green Bay and Lake Michigan, as well as by rail, 120 miles southeast to Milwaukee and other points. It is the seat of Lawrence College, has two fine libraries, one public and the other in Lawrence College, and a handsome Y. M. C. A. building; also a fine hospital in charge of the Catholic sisters. Population, 16,773. Appomat'tox Courthouse, a Virginia village, 20 miles east of Lynchburg. Here, April 9, 1865, General Lee surrendered the army of northern Virginia to General Grant. Of this army only 27,805 men were left. Apricot (d'pjt-cot), a fruit between the peach and the plum, supposed to be a native of China. There are three species. The kind common in Europe and America grows on a spreading tree with round top, luxuriant, beautiful foliage, bark similar to that of the peach, leaves bright green and ovate or round-ovate, flowers of pinkish white. The apricot will grow under much the same general conditions as the peach. It is beginning to be grown commercially in the east, but it is in California it holds leading place. It has been grown there since the early mission-days, and now is one of California's most important com- mercial fruits. In the east the apricot suffers from the curculio, the insect that works such havoc with peach and plum. In California the enemies feared are scale insects and a slot-hole fungus. A'pril, the fourth month of the year, containing 30 days. It is named from a Latin word, meaning "to open," because the buds open at this period of the year. Charlemagne, who made a new calendar, called it Grass Month, the name still given it by the Dutch. On old monuments April is represented by a dancing boy with a rattle. April Fools' Day, the first day of April. The custom of playing tricks and practical jokes on this day is common throughout Europe and America. In France, the man tricked is called a "silly fish;" in Scotland a "gowk." This practice probably goes back to the era of the early Hindus who play the same kind of tricks on the last day of March, when they hold what is called the Huli festival. Aquarium (d-wa'rt-m), a tank for keep- ing living animals and plants for study and amusement. A proper proportion of plants and animals keeps the water pure, or it may be renewed. There are two kinds, fresh water and marine aquariums. The fresh water ones are more easily kept, as the animals are hardier. A good form is a square tank, about 12 inches deep, with AQUEDUCT ARABIA plate glass sides, and metal, slate or marble bottom and a metal frame. The bottom should be covered an inch deep, or more with sand and pebbles scattered over it, and the tank filled with fresh river or spring water. The use of rock work adds greatly to the beauty. Among plants, water thyme, crowfoot, milfoil and starwort, are useful, because they produce a great deal of oxygen. Interesting animals for this purpose are the stickleback, goldfish, tench, gudgeon, perch, minnow and Prussian carp; while mussels and snails are good as purifiers. A salt- water aquarium needs more careful atten- tion, but is built in much the same way. Another form, with three of the sides closed and with an inclined plane for a floor, to allow the more torpid animals easily to reach the surface, has been found very successful. Green dulse or seaweed is a good sea-plant to use, and of animals, shrimps, snails, barnacles, minnows and sticklebacks. Large aquariums have been built in many cities. One of the largest is the English one at Sydenham near London. Aqueduct (ak'we-dukt), a cliannel for carrying water, or a structure on which water-pipes are laid. This method of carry- ing water has been in use from the earliest times. Persia, Phoenicia, Judaea and many other eastern countries practiced it; while the Incas or rulers of Peru in the western world built aqueducts which have not been equaled in ancient or modern times. The Romans were the most expert at aqueduct building of ancient peoples and built these works all over their dominions. Rome was supplied by 24 aque- ducts, some with several channels, one above another, extending many miles. They are built on a grade of regular descent, winding around the hills or piercing them by tunnels and supported across low levels^ by arches sometimes over a hundred feet high. Many cities are now supplied with water by this means. Other important aqueducts are those used for carrying canals across rivers and valleys. The chief examples in the United States are those on the Erie canal, 32 in number, the Denver aqueduct, of wood, which supplies 16,000,000 gallons a day, the Pioneer aqueduct in Utah, and the new Croton aqueduct in New York, which cost over $20,000,000, and required over five years to build. California has many wooden aqueducts, called flumes, for use in hydraulic mining. Masonry and iron piping are both exten- sively used for aqueducts, the choice depend- ing upon the contour of the land. As cast iron does not become corroded so quickly as steel, it is more often used, though steel can sustain a greater amount of pressure from within. Concrete is used when the ground is high and the water is to be carried on or near the surface, and when a great volume of water has to be transported. Aquinas (A-kwl'nas), Thomas (c. 1225- 1274), was the greatest of the Christian philosophers of the Middle Ages. He is known as " the angelical doctor " and "the universal doctor." Aquinas, so called because of his birthplace Aquino, in Italy, was a member of the order of Black Friars. His chief work is the Summa Theologies. His writings were regarded by his follow- ers as almost sacred; and in 1323 he was canonised as Saint Thomas Aquinas. Although he knew little of history and nothing of Hebrew and Greek, the learn- ing of Aquinas was as extensive as was possible previous to the Renaissance. In the 1 4th century scholars became divided into two great bodies, the Thomists or followers of Aquinas and the Scotists or the followers of the Franciscan writer, Duns Scotus. The doctrines of Aquinas some- what resemble those of Aristotle, who was known in part to Aquinas in translation, and those of the Scotists are indebted to Plato. The great work of Aquinas was his attempt to bring together scientific learn- ing and Christian doctrine into one com- plete system. Ara'bia, an extensive quadrangular peninsula forming the extreme southwest part of Asia, much of the interior of which is an arid, sandy desert. It is situated be- tween 12 40' and 34 north latitude and between 32 30' and 59 40' east longitude. Area. Its length, from north to south, is about 1,500 miles, and its breadth from east to west varies from 800 to 1,200 miles. It is bounded on the south by the Gulf of Aden, the Arabian Sea and Indian Ocean; on the east by the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf, the Tigris River in the northeast separating it from Persia; while its northern boundary is Asiatic Turkey; and its western the Red Sea and Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb. The Sinaitic Peninsula and the Suez Canal on the extreme northwest separate Arabia from Egypt and the continent of Africa. In the southwest the island and fortified port of Aden and that of Perim both British Eossessions subject to the Bombay (East ndian) Government form excellent har- bors and coaling stations. The other har- bors (there are not many on the Arabian Coast) include Muscat on the Gulf of Oman, El Kuweit near the mouth of the Tigris, and Dafar (or Dhofar) near the British Kuria-Muria Islands in the Arabian Sea. Government. The peninsula is politically a dependency of Turkey, and by that power its more settled region, on the Red Sea front, is created into two vilayets or provinces, named Hejas (area, 96,500 square miles, with a population of 300,000) and Yemen (area, 73,800 square miles, with a population estimated at 750,000). In the former (Hejas) the chief port is Jedda, the administrative seat and the ARABIAN GULP 88 ARAGO objective point of pilgrims, proceeding from Syria and Egypt on their way to the in- land city of Mecca, the birthplace of Mo- hammed and containing the Kaaba, the holy shrines and sacred mosques of Islam. North of Mecca lies Medina, with its Red Sea port of Yambo. Medina, too, has its fine mosques, one of them being erected on the spot where Mohammed died. The capital of Yemen, is Sanaa, its port being Hodeida on the Red Sea. South of Hodeida, near the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, is Mocha, the seat of the coffee trade, which is now chiefly exported from Aden and Hodeida. Inland from these two provinces lies the Syrian desert on the north ; and on the south, extending for hundreds of miles from Yeman to Oman, are the deserts of El Akhaf and Roba'a-el- Khali. Surface and Products. Arabia with its extensive tablelands, varied by its vast trackless deserts, has a hot, dry climate, only the coastal plains being fertile and productive. On the latter, browsing on the grassy slopes, are reared donkeys, goats and dromedaries. Besides these, Arabia has many wild animals, the terror of travellers and the menace to the native caravans; among these are tigers, panthers, hyenas and lynxes, besides the less repellant and more useful ostriches and gazelles. Among the natural resources, besides the rice plant, the coffee tree and the date palm, there are many spice and incense shrubs, to- gether with the cotton and maize plants; while gum arabic and precious stones form a considerable portion of the exports. History. The Arabs claim descent from Ishmael, and have ever been a wild and independent people of nomadic habits and predatory instincts. Their history proper begins with the advent of the religious enthusiast, Mahomet (570-632 A. D.), and with the foundation of the caliphate. Leaving their peninsula, the Arabs and their caliphs founded large and powerful em- pires in three continents, which flourished until the close of the isth century, when Arab rule and influence in Europe and Asia Minor came to an end. In the following century the Turks obtained possession of Yemen, and, though for a time they were expelled from that Arabian province, they subsequently settled down in the peninsula and obtained at least nominal possession of its holy cities as well as those in the Hejas province. Since then, the one alloy in the Turkish cup was the rise and domin- ance for a time of the Wahabis, a religious sect which sought control of the Moham- medan holy cities and shrines, and menaced the Sultan's interests in the country as protector of the sanctuaries. The rebellion which it was was attempted to be put down, but it took many campaigns from the years 1811 to 1818 before this could be effected by Ibrahim Pasha, acting under Mehemet AH, Viceroy of Egypt. The Wahabis, despite Turkish sway, still exert a considerable influence in Arabia. Arabian Gulf. See RED SEA. Arabian Literature. See LITERATURE. Arabian Sea, the upper part of the Indian Ocean, situated to the south ot Persia and flanked by Arabia on the west and British India on the east. It has two extensions ot :t? waters, northwest by way of the Gulf of Oman into the Persian Gulf, and southwest by way of the Gulf of Aden into the Red Sea. The latter, with its con- nection with the Mediterranean, through the Gulf of Suez, makes the Arabian Sea a great highway of traffic to Bombay and to Madras and Calcutta in the Bay oi Bengal. The eastern inlets of the sea are the Gulfs of Cutch and Cambay in north- western India, where it receives the waters of the Indus River. Ara'bi Pasha' (a-r&'be pa-slid' '), the leader of the Egyptian rebellion of 1882. was born in Egypt about 1835. His father was a farm laborer. He had no schooling when a boy. but afterward learned to read and write Arabic. He was for 12 years i private soldier in the Egyptian army, then rose to be colonel, minister of war and pasha. Previous to his day a great deal of money had been borrowed, and the Khe"dive had promised all Egypt to the bondholders. The people, however, refused to pay the taxes. Hence, England and France interfered, and the Khedive wau obliged to fill all positions of trust with foreigners. Arabi now proclaimed to the troops that he was inspired by the prophet to undertake a holy mission, the motto of which was, "Egypt for the Egyptians," and he thus became the leader of a great rebellion. A massacre by his forces at Alexandria soon followed. The English came to the help of the Khddive, and their fleet bombarded and dismantled the forts at Alexandria. The war lasted but a few months, Arabi's army being entirely de- feated at Tel-el-Kebir, September 13, 1882, by the English under General (now Vis- count) Wolseley. Arabi soon after sur- rendered, and was condemned to death. His sentence, however, was commuted to exile for life, and he was sent to Ceylon. In 1901 his banishment ceased and he was made a pensioner of the British Crown. Arachnida. Scorpions, spiders and mites. See SPIDERS. Ar'ago (dr'd-go), Francois Jean Domi- nique (born 1786, died 1853). A leading man of science in France during the first half of the igth century, he was distinguished alike in astronomy and in physics. At the early age of 23, he had acquired a brilliant reputation by three years of strenuous labor and hardship spent in determining the length of the earth's meridian from Dun- kirk to Barcelona. In this work he was ARAGON ARBITRATION assisted by Biot; and from the measures of these two men was computed the distance from the pole to the equator of the earth. Our international standard of length, the metre, is one ten-millionth part of this quadrant. In 1809, Arago was appointed to the Paris observatory where he spent the remainder of his life. In 1816 he joined hands with Gay-Lussac in founding the great French journal, Annales de Chimie et de Physique. It was about this time that Arago "discovered Fresnel," and made it possible for the latter to carry out his investigations in optics. In this manner Arago, perhaps, did more to establish the wave theory of light than by his own experi- ments, which, however, were a contribu- tion of no mean order. In 1830, he became director of the Observatory and member of the chamber of deputies. A little later he held, at the same time, the portfolios of minister of war and minister of marine. His lectures on astronomy and his eulogies on deceased members of the Academy of Sciences are models of clearness and ele- gance. Arago's works are published in 17 octavo volumes. The first of these opens with his Histoire de ma Jeunesse, which is already a classic among autobiographies, and should be read by everyone interested in the development of this remarkable man. Aragon (ar'a-gon), an ancient Spanish kingdom, now a district of Spain, embrac- ing the provinces of Huesca, Teruel and Zaragoza (Saragossa), and through which the Ebro and Jalen Rivers flow. It em- braces an area of 18,294 square miles, and has a population under a million. It is mountainous, skirted by the Sierras and the highest range of the Pyrenees. Of its many products, the grape and the olive are the finest. Aragon was conquered by the Romans, by the Goths and lastly by the Moors in 714. Later it was governed by its own kings till it became, in 1479, a part of Castile and Leon, by the marriage, in 1469, of Ferdinand and Isabella. Araguay (d-rd-gwt'), an ^ affluent of the Tocantins, an important river of central and northern Brazil, which reaches the Atlantic through the Para River. Total length, including the Tocantins and the Para, 1,900 miles. In the lower reaches of the river, some 200 miles above Para, the navigation is much interrupted by rapids. About 500 miles from its source, the Araguay incloses the island of Santa Anna, about 210 miles long. Ar'al, Sea of, next to the Caspian Sea, the largest inland body of water in Asia. It is 265 miles long by 145 miles broad, and is situated in Asiatic Russia. It receives several rivers, but has no outlet. Its waters are salt. It is a remarkable fact that twice, first in the Greco-Roman period and after- Ward during the I3th and I4th centuries. the present bed of the Aral is known to have become dry, while its rivers flowed to the Caspian. Aram (d'ram), Eugene (born 1704, died 1759), an English felon, born in Yorkshire. He had a good knowledge of a number of languages and became a schoolmaster. A Tnan named Clark disappeared, leaving his debts unpaid, and Aram was tried as his accomplice. It was discovered later that he and another man had killed Clark. Aram made his own defense at his trial, but was convicted and hanged. He is known as the subject of a poem of Hood's and also of one of the novels of Bulwer. Arap' ahoes, a tribe of American Indians who roamed over the country east of the Rocky Mountains; but chiefly inhabiting Indian Territory and Wyoming. The name is said to signify "tattooed people." They were noted robbers and are very cruel. They number about 5,000. Ar'arat, a noted mountain of western Asia. It is on the boundary between Persia, Asiatic Turkey and the Russian possessions. It is called by the Persians Koh-i-nooh, or mountain of Noah. The highest peak is 17,000 feet above the level of the sea, or 14,200 above the level of the plain beneath, and is always capped with snow. It is a volcano, and its last eruption took place in 1840. Here, according to the Bible, the ark of Noah rested after the flood. Ar' auca' nia, the name formerly applied to a part of Chile which is now nearly all included in the provinces of Arauco and Valdivia, lying between the Andes Moun- tains and the Pacific Ocean. The Arau- canians are very warlike, and are so tenacious of their liberty that they maintained their independence for several centuries. They have been much reduced as a nation, and now number only about 50,000. They are humane towards their enemies, and are said to be very hospitable. They are an agricultural people, and give much attention to stock-breeding. In 1861 a French adventurer, Antoine Tounens, was elected king of the Araucanians, but the Chilean government sent him back to France. The Araucanians finally recognized the rule of Chile in 1870. Ar'bitra'tion, a mode of determining and settling, by reference to outside, inde- pendent parties, matters in dispute or dis- agreement, either in commercial or indus- trial affairs or in the larger questions of political and international controversy. This may be done by representatives will- ingly chosen by the respective parties to settle the points of disagreement, or by order of a court of law, when decisions have the conclusive effect of legal proceedings. Arbitration is now being largely adopted in private commercial dealings, especially between masters and workmen; while the resort to the expedient has for many years ARBOR DAY ARCH, TRIUMPHAL been employed in cases of international dis- pute, not involving national honor. (See HAGUE PEACE CONFERENCE.) Arbitration has been successfully employed in settling railroad and labor strikes, wage controversies, lockouts and other industrial troubles. Arbitration in labor disputes took a long step forward in the appointment of the Commission on Industrial Relations by President Wilson under an Act of Congress. The Commission made inquiry into the general conditions of labor, relations between employers and employees, the effect of industrial conditions on public welfare and the like. As one social worker, who helped to secure the Commission, put it: "What we need is more light and less heat. " A free copy of its report may be obtained of the Depart- ment of Labor. Arbor Day, a day set apart for the planting of trees, generally observed through- out the United States. It has been estab- lished also in Great Britain, France, northern and southern Africa and in Japan. Ob- servance of the day may be said to have started April 10, 1872, the state of Nebraska having the honor of the first Arbor Day, and to the Hon. J. Sterling Morton of Nebraska, belongs the credit of suggesting and establishing a tree-planting day. Kan- sas began tree planting in 1875, Minnesota in 1876, and gradually the other states followed suit. Now an important feature of Arbor Day is its connection with the public schools. This connection probably began in 1882, when the school children of Cincinnati, Ohio, planted trees in a public park in memory of authors and statesmen. Soon after this, in most of the schools of West Virginia a special day was appointed for tree-planting. While the festival may be considered a national one, it is observed by the several states and territories at widely different times; in the south it may be observed in December, in the north in May. Some states have a fixed date, in others it is appointed by the governor. In addition to the planting of the trees, appropriate exercises mark the day. The various states issue Arbor Day circulars giving suggestions for the celebration. The value of the interest of the school children in Arbor Day is recognized by the United States Forest Service, which sends out circulars treating of its history and observance. It is desired that every child shall learn of the use and value of the tree in the life of the nation. Arbutus (ar'bu-tus or ar-bu'tus), trail- ing arbutus, mayflower or ground laurel, belongs to the heath family. It is one of the loveliest of our wealth of wild blos- soms. The leaf often presents a time-worn and rusty appearance, but the waxy, pink blossoms are of rare delicate beauty and exquisite fragrance. After the rpring rains the new leaves come and snow glossy green, the later sprays the finest specimens of both flower and foliage. It is a shy blossom, does not take kindly to trans- planting in cultivated garden, prefers the distant pine woods or sandy beach by pine-wood lake. Frequently in moss, too, the arbutus grows, but in moss of sand rather than loam. It is found from the Maine woods south to Florida, abounds in the northern pine forests of the Middle West and is a familiar and beloved flower of New England. It is a brave little blos- som j its buds formed the preceding fall, are all ready to come forth 'while yet an- other snow storm may be expected. The plant trails on the ground, and the sun on the sandy soil forces the bloom. A few warm days in early spring are sufficient encouragement, and often after the rosy little faces have shown themselves a snow- fall will whiten the ground around them. The poet, Whittier, tells of the joy the weary Pilgrims, after their hard winter, took in this early blossom which abounds in the vicinity of Plymouth "Yet God be praised!" the Pilgrim said, Who saw the blossoms peer Above the brown leaves, dry and dead." The Indians say when there is most moisture the flowers are pinkest, and they do show pallid in a dry season. The stem is prostrate or trailing, some petals quite buried in the sand, no branch high above the ground one must stoop low to pluck the posies. The flowers grow in clusters, many attached to the woody central stem; they may be gathered in graceful sprays, but by the Indian venders are cut off short and made up into compact little bunches. In gathering the arbutus greedi- ness should be controlled, the plant not uprooted, else, as is the case near the eastern cities, the beautiful blossom will be pushed farther and farther back from town and village, and in the end become extinct. Arca'dia, a mountainous country of ancient Greece, lies in the northwestern part of the Peloponnesus. In the north- east is the great waterfall of the Styx, which the Greeks thought the main river of the infernal regions. Arcadia seems never to have had immigration from other coun- tries, but was always peopled by the same race, noted for their great simplicity of life. Cut off from commerce divided by the mountains into small districts that had very little to do with one another, the rustic ways of the Arcadian seemed awk- ward and stupid to other Greeks. Their history is made up of wars against the Spartans. They became a part of the Achaean league, and later of the Roman province of Achaia. Sir Philip Sidney's Arcadia greatly praises the Arcadians. Arch, Triumphal, was a memorial raised by the Romans to celebrate a victory ARCHAEOLOGY ARCHIBALD in honor of a victorious general. When a general came back from battle, the gate by which he entered Rome was wont to be adorned with the spoils of war. This custom grew into that of raising a special arch of bronze or stone, patterned after a city gate. The most remarkable of these arches still remaining are the arch of Augustus at Rimini, the arch of Trajan at Beneventum and the arches of Con- stantine and Titus at Rome. The arch of Titus was built by the Roman people after his death, in honor of his conquest of Judasa, and is remarkable for its bas- reliefs. The finest modern arch is the Arc de Triomphe, built by Napoleon I at Paris. It has three arches, and is 160 feet high and 150 feet long. Archaeology (dr'ke-ol'd-ff), the science which deduces knowledge of past times in the history of the human race from the relics of bygone ages and the study cf existing remains. Exploration in the seats of ancient civilization in the old world and the new has greatly enriched our knowledge of past modes of living and the artistic habits of nations and peoples. In this work the researches and published records of the various archaeological societies have been very helpful and instructive, par- ticularly in Mycenae, Athens, Corinth and Rome, in Assyria, Mesopotamia, Egypt and Palestine, as well as in notable places in ancient Britain, and on this continent in New Mexico, Arizona, Yucatan and Peru. Nor is it only in these regions that antiq- uities have been recovered; almost every state in the American Union has con- tributed of its ancient treasure, and not alone from the sites where abode ancient cave dwellers and mound builders, but from the seats of early civilization in North, South and Central America, as well as from almost everv region in the old world, where at periods there was a more or less pre- valent high art, despite the current estimate of what is deemed a primitive age. The recovered treasure revealing to our modern gaze the cunning handicraft and artistic taste of these early peoples embraces a wide and curious variety, including not only remarkable specimens of the sculptor's and metal-worker's activities, beautiful marbles, mural paintings and costly decor- ations from Greek and East Indian mau- soleums and temples, rare ceramics, mosaics, vases, gems, bas-reliefs, statuary, bronzes and coin mintings, but a vast array of personal ornaments, together with unique household utensils and the more homely, but often elaborate figured pottery and relief ware. Our art galleries, museums and archaeological institutes today are full of the spoil of early days, drawn from the recovered art treasures of the Graeco- Roman world, from ancient Babylonia, Assyria, Phoenicia, Persia, Egypt, Ceylon, India, China and Japan, together with specimens of Anglo-Saxon art and of the tools, implements, weapons and mural remains from our own continent. For details of this interesting subject of archae- ology, see the many works (chiefly English and German) treating of the science, and the archaeological records of the various lands, nations and peoples, with an account of their early ethnological eras. Archangel (ark-dn'jel), a Russian city on the River Dvina, 750 miles northeast of St. Petersburg. It has a large trade in timber, tallow and tar; it is connected with the interior by river and canal. Popula- tion, 35,000. An English sailor, driven ashore by a storm, once took refuge in a monastery on the site of Archangel. As the result of his visit, an English factory was started there in 1584. For a long time Archangel was the only seaport of Russia, and became very prosperous. It still has a very large import and coast trade. The shortest day here is only three hours and twelve minutes in length, the longest is twenty-one hours and forty-eight minutes. Archangel also is a province of northern Russia; area, 326,063 square miles; popu- lation, 437,800. Ar'chego'nium. The female organ of certain groups of plants, namely, the Brya- nt phytes (mosses, etc.), the Pteridophyte s (ferns, etc.), and the gymnosperms (pines, etc.). In general it is a flask-shaped struc- ture. In the bulbous part of the flask the solitary egg is devel- oped; while through the open and often elongated neck the sperms pass for fer- tilization. So char- acteristic is this organ that the three groups which possess it are often classed together under the name Ar- chegoniates. Ar' chespo' rium. In plants a developing spore-vessel sets apart certain cells from all others to produce the spores. The first cells which can be disting- uished in this way, and which give rise to all of the tissues which produce spores, are known collectively as the archesporium. The archesporium is a prominent feature in the history of the sporangia of all higher groups of plants. Archibald, Hon. A. Q., born in Truro. Nova Scotia, in 1814. A member of the ARCHEGONIUM MOSS ARCHIMEDES ARCHITECTURE executive council as attorney general of Nova Scotia in 1856 and again in 1860. A delegate to England to arrange terms of settlement with the British government as to Nova Scotia mines, and to learn the views of the British government on the question of union of the provinces. Also attended the final conference in London to complete terms of union (1866-7). I Q J 867 Secre- tary of State for the provinces. Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba in 1870-3. From 1873 to 1883 Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia. A Director of the Canadian Pacific Railway. Styled one of the Fathers of Confederation . Archimedes (dr-kt-me'dez), a Grecian en- gineer, physicist, and mathematician, born at Syracuse, on the island of Sicily, about the year 287 B. C. What little is known concerning the details of his life is con- tained in the histories of Polybius, Plutarch and Livy and in the treatise on architecture by Vitruvius. Like many men of science belonging to this period, he was educated at Alexandria. His principal contributions to learning are (i) a large number of geometrical theorems; (2) a short treatise on arith- metic called Psammites, because grains of sand were used in the computations; (3) a determination of the centers of gravity in bodies of various shapes, a work which may be fairly called the foundation of modern statics; (4) a treatise on floating bodies; (5) in addition to the above, it is probable that he invented the screw which goes by his name and that he devised a hydrometer by which he could compare the densities of liquids. Many stories have come down to us con- cerning his engineering feats at Syracuse while that city was besieged by the Romans during the second Punic War. Most of these stories are not well authenticated. The best known perhaps -is that told by Vitruvius. Having been assigned the problem of determining whether a certain crown supposed to be made of pure gold had been alloyed with silver, he devised the following method: First he measured the volume of a mass of gold just equal to the mass of the crown. This he did by putting the gold in a vessel of water and measuring the overflow. The second step was to measure, in the same way, the volume of a mass of silver just equal to the mass of the crown. Lastly he measured the volume of the crown which proved to be inter- mediate between that of the gold and that of the silver. From these data it was a simple matter to compute the percentage of silver in the crown. This method, it is said, suggested itself to him as he was getting into his bath, where he observed that the rise of water on the sides of the tub was apparently proportional to the volume of his body immersed. The story goes on to relate that Archi- medes announced this discovery by run- ning through the streets, clothed principally with enthusiasm, and shouting "Eureka! Eureka!" (I have found it.) Architecture (dr'ki-tek'tur), is the art of building. All the different styles of con- structing and decorating buildings can be traced back to two early forms, used accord- ing as the material was either wood or stone. The form used for wooden buildings was two upright pillars and a crossbeam at the top. The arch with its strong abutments was the form generally used for stone build- ings. The oldest architectural remains are thoste of the Egyptians. They are rough and stiff, and show that men had only begun to think about the rules of building and to ask what makes any structure beautiful. The most noticeable features in Egyptian buildings are their immense size and their simplicity and regular outline. How the immense blocks of stone used in them were moved and raised to their place is a cause of wonder today. Most of the temple remains are in Upper Egypt, though EGYPTIAN FRONT OF TEMPLE OF ISIS AT PHIL.* the greater part of them were destroyed by the Persians in 500 B. C. The walls ancl pillars were usually ornamented with hiero- glyphics and with outlines of different sorts; but they had little of the grace and Elegance of the later Greek architects. Be- sides the temples, the most interesting structures are the pyramids, which are supposed to be the tombs of Egyptian kings. They are built of immense blocks of stone put together in regular form, gradually narrowing from the broad base to the small- pointed apex. The largest of them is 693 feet square at the base and 498 feet high. Herodotus states that it was built by Cheops, who kept one hundred thousand men work- ing on it for twenty-years. The obelisks are single four-cornered shafts of great height, usually of red granite and com- monly cut from the quarry in a single block. They were placed at the entrances of temples or palaces, covered with hiero- glyphics and figures illustrating the vic- tories and great deeds of their kings. +niiiiiii iiioiiiiiiiiiioiiiiiiiiiioiiiiiiiniin iiiiiioiiiiiiinio iiioiiiiu uiiiiiiiuiiiu iiiiiioiiiiiiiiiioiiiiiiiiiioiiiiiiiiiioiiiiiiniii::* Q How Sculpture and Painting Grew Out of Architecture = WHY did the Egyptian sculptor attach that curious block of stone to his statue of Rameses II? The question long puzzled Egyptian scholars. Finally they found the = answer in comparing Egyptian statues with the carvings g on the temples and tombs. The earlier sculptors, you see, simply cut the figure into the stone. In the course of time came the next step the figure stood out from the wall. = Then followed the idea of a figure entirely independent of 1 Rameses and Fa the wall. But among Orientals, where custom is sa- cred, they felt it to be wrong to make figures without some reminder of the wall hence those curi- ous and apparently meaningless blocks of stone. Notice in the figures from Notre Dame in Paris how Christian sculp- tors again con- nected sculptured Thotn Presenting Svmtnl of Everlasting Life to King Seti 5 Wall Decoration from Notre Dime. Pa figures with temple walls. The first paintings were also made upon walls, as in this wall painting from Hercu- laneum, "T e 1 e p h u s Nursed by the Hind," now in the National Museum at Naples. On the right, in the paint- ing by the English artist, Poynter, "Egyp- tian Girl Feeding the Sacred Ibis," you can see the whole story of the relation between architecture, painting and sculpture epito- mized. Early Wall Decoration Feeding the Sacred Ibis = fcarly Wall Llecoration Q &C:III!IIIIIIIIIIIIIOIIIIIIIIIIIHIIIIIIIIIIII:JIIIIIIIIIIIO Hhniiiiiiiiiiioiiiiiiiiiioiiiiiiiiiiimniu jtUQl ICS 1H niiiiimiiiiiimraiiiimiiiiniimiiiiiiin* Doric Ionic Corinthian The Three Types of Greek Capitals The Parthenon THIS picture group shows the Parthe- non, the most famous piece of archi- tecture in the world ; the altar of St. Mark's, the classic type of Byzantine "in i m- Basilica of St. Mark's, Showing Altar architecture; two types of medieval archi- tecture the wonderful cathedrals at Rheims and Cologne and a brilliant ex- ample of modern architecture, the in- terior of the $5,000,000 Grand Opera House in Paris on the opening night. Original in the Luxembourg 1 , Paris Inauguration of the Grand Opera House. Painting by Edouard Detaille ( French b. 1848) Notre Dame Cathedral of Rteims, France Cologne Cathedral, Germany !lll!!llllll[3IIIIIIIIIIOIIIIIIIIIIOIIII!lll!ll[:!llllllim ARCHITECTURE 93 ARCOT In Assyria anu. Persia are found the ruins of great palaces; among the oldest is the northwest palace of Nimrod, built about 884 B. C. A palace at Susa, Persia, was ROMANESQUE CATHEDRAL OF WORMS evidently built of brick and faced with colors in enamel. The Greeks are thought to have taken some of their ideas in build- ing from Assyria and Persia. But it is in Greece that we find the greatest number and most perfect specimens of ancient architecture. The temples and theaters of Asia Minor and Greece were of great mag- nificence and wonderful for their grace and delicacy of outline. (See ATHENS.) There are three styles of Grecian archi- tecture, called the Doric, the Ionic and the Corinthian, the most important difference being in the head or capital, as it is called, of the pillar. The most flourishing period of Greek architecture was from 650 to 324 B. C. The Romans borrowed mainly from the Greeks, but used their architecture not only GRECIAN DORIC TEMPLE OF JUPITER AT OLYMPIA upon temples and theaters, but on many other kinds of buildings, such as baths, bridges, aqueducts, triumphal arches and private houses. They borrowed the round arch from the Etruscans, and soon made use of its principle to construct immense circular domes or vaults. Many great Roman buildings still remain. When Byzan- tium became the capital of the Roman empire, Roman architecture was in use there. The dome was specially affected by the Byzantines. In the reign of Constan- tine the Christians were allowed to build churches, and the term Byzantine designates the architecture of the Christian churches of eastern Europe and Asia Minor of that period. One of the finest of these churches is that of St. Sophia at Constantinople. Romanesque is the name given to the various round-arched styles which arose in Europe after the inroads of the northern barbarians. The Saxon style of building was rude and simple. It was followed in England by the Norman, which is dis- tinguished by the rich and odd carving on the doorways and arches. Most of the best-known buildings in England and Scot- land belong to this style. The Gothic or pointed style followed, with its three periods. In the first we find the narrow, pointed windows and high gables and roofs. A part of Westminster Abbey is built in this style. In the second period, the windows are divided into small panes, the upper part filled with beautiful tracery in waving lines. The third period is called the perpendicular period. The tracery is no longer in wavy, but in straight, lines. The doorways have square tops over pointed arches. West- minster Hall in London is a good example of this style, which lasted from the end of the 1 4th to the middle of the i6th century. At the time of the great revival of learning in Italy, in the 1 5th century, the old Roman style of architecture, in a slightly altered form, was revived. This style is called the Italian Renaissance. St. Peter's at Rome and the Louvre and the Tuileries at Paris are good examples of it. Another style of building is the Moorish or Saracenic, which dates back to the gih century. It is noted for its graceful towers, beautiful domes, the slender pillars which support the walls and for the frequent use of the arch. The Moorish palace of the Alhambra well illustrates this style. Modern architecture is the name em- ployed for all varieties of building in use since the Renaissance. In the i8th century Greek forms were copied, and in the ipth century the Gothic form was popular. All modern architecture is in imitation of the older forms. Churches are largely imita- tions of the Gothic, while private buildings are of the Renaissance type. Arcot (dr-kof), a city of Hindustan, once the capital of the Carnatic, is situated on the Palar, about 70 miles southwest of Madras. In it are many ruins, among them the palace of its princes, who were called ARCTIC CIRCLE 94 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC nabobs. The people are, in the main, Mohammedans. Arcot was taken by Clive in 1751, in the wars with the French, and finally became a British city in 1801. Popu- lation, 12,000. Arctic Circle, one of the smaller circles of the globe, is twenty-three and a half degrees from the North Pole. Arctic Exploration. See POLAR EX- PLORATION. Arctic Ocean is that part of the ocean within the Arctic Circle. The main rivers flowing into it are the Mackenzie and Black in America, the Obi, Yenesei and Lena in Asia. Its largest islands are Spitzbergen, Wongatz and Nova Zembla in Europe, those of New Siberia in Asia and the Polar archipelago in America. An expanse of ice of nearly 4,000,000 square miles extends dur- ing an eight-months' winter round the pole, and even in summer the temperature is still at the freezing point. From this region come the icebergs which in spring and summer drift into the Atlantic. In the last three hundred years many voyages have been made to make discoveries in this region or to find a passage through it, but we know almost nothing about it. Besides the great dangers of ice, the sailor, often blinded by fogs and snow, has to face with- out guide or sea-room, storms, tides and currents of unknown waters. The highest Faint ever reached was by Lieutenant eary, who in 1906 reached a point 206 miles distant from the north pole. See POLAR EXPLORATION. Ardmore, Oklahoma, a city on the Gulf, Colorado and Santa Fe and Choctaw, Oklahoma and Gulf railroads. About ao miles north of the Red River. It is the seat of Hargrove College. Its commercial activities embrace cotton, coal and asphalt. Population, 10,462. Areop'agus (d-re-op'a-gus), the hill of Ares or Mars in ancient Athens, near the Acropolis. It was the seat of the court called by the same name, which was the most famous court in Greece. It dates back to the earliest days of Athens, and plays an important part in its history. At first it was a criminal court, but Solon gave it so much power that it reached everything in the state. Pericles took away most of its power; but its fame lived on, even as late as the era of the Emperor Theodosius. Its members were the men who had been archons, or highest officers, in Athens, and they served for life. Here Paul made his address to the Athenians, as given in Acts. Arequipa (d'rd-ke'pa). A department in the South American republic of Peru. It lies in the southern part of the republic, between Lake Titicaca and the Pacific. Its area is 2 1 , 947 square miles, with a population of 229, 007. Its capital is the city of Arequipa which lies in a fertile valley near the volcano of Misti (sometimes called Arequipa), which rises to a height of 20,260 feet. Notabla buildings are the cathedral, public library, hospital, astronomical and meteorological observatories. The meteorological station is 16,280 feet above sea level, the highest in the world. Its exports include (besides minerals) cotton, coffee, hides, rice, cocaine, wool and sugar. The province, being on the Andean range, is mountainous. A railway connects it with Mollendo, its port on the Pacific, while a line connects it east- ward with Puno on Lake Titicaca. Popu- lation, 35,000. Argentine Republic is, next to Brazil, the largest of the political divisions of South America, and with Chile on the west occupies the southern part of the continent. It has an area of 1,135,840 square miles, a little more than one seventh of the area of the continent and one third that of Brazil. It extends from the 27th to the 57th parallel of latitude, a distance as great as from Hudson Bay to the southern Smit of Florida. The northern half has an average width of about eight hundred miles and the southern part narrows to about two hundred miles. It could be divided into twenty-two states each the size of New York. Its population is 6,- 489,023. _ Surface. In the northern part of Argen- tine is the basin of the Parana River. Here are large tracts of prairie or pampas, producing wheat and pasturage, with rich cultivated districts near the Parana and Paraguay Rivers and sugar lands and timber tracts further north. In the central section are the great pampas or plains, extending from the mountain range on the west to the Atlantic on the east. The soil is very rich, from three to six feet in depth, and here are the great wheat fields and cattle ranges for which the republic is famous. In the southern sec- tion are wide sandy plains, once the bed of an ocean which extended to the Andes. South of the Strait of Magellan is the island of Terra del Fuego, a part of which belongs to Argentine. The republic may be char- acterized as a country of vast plains, yet in its western border rises the great Andean mountain range, which here shows its loftiest peaks, including Aconcagua 22,860 feet, the highest mountain in America; Mercedario 22,315 feet; Tupangato 20,280 feet; San Juan 20,020 feet. Rivers. The Plata River, on which Buenos Ayres, the capital of the republic, is situated, receives the waters of 10,000 miles of waterways, the second largest river system in the world, and discharges into the Atlantic Ocean a volume of water nearly double that discharged by the Mis- sissippi into the Gulf of Mexico. The Plata is formed by the junction of the Parana and Uruguay Rivers. It is too ARGON 95 miles long and from 35 to 4* miles wide. The Parana is over 2,500 miles long and in many places 25 miles wide. It is navi- gable for vessels of 19 feet draught to Rosario, a port 380 miles from the sea, and some of its branches are navigable for vessels of 8 feet draught to points over 2,000 miles inland. By this river system not only all of northern Argentine, but parts of Brazil, Uruguay, Paraguay and Bolivia are made accessible to Buenos Ayres. South of the Plata are a number of rivers of minor importance emptying into the Atlantic. There are 12,274 miles of railway in Argentine. Trunk lines con- nect Buenos Ayres, which is the center of the system, with all parts of the country. Cities. The chief ports of Argentine are Buenos Ayres, the capital, population 1,3! 9, 747; Rosario in province of Santa Fe, population 176,076; Bahia Blanca in the province of Buenos Ayres, population 50,- 138; La Plata 100,608 and Santa Fe 48,600. The chief interior cities are Cordoba, popu- lation, 70,380; Tucuman, population 74,- 865; Mendoza, population 42,496. Other towns of considerable importance are Salta, population 23,284; Corrientes, population 23,904; Santiago, population 14,340; Guale- guacha, population 13,000; Rio Cuarto, population 12,000; San Juan, population 15,262; and Jujuy, population 10,000. Resources. The resources of the Argentine Republic are largely agricultural and pas- toral. Its vast area of fertile territory, its varied climate suitable to the growth of every product of the temperate zone and the tropics, its great rivers and a sea coast 1,500 miles in extent, giving ample trans- portation facilities, together present con- ditions which must make this one of the great producing nations of the world. The area at present under cultivation, about 47,000,000 acres, is less than a fifth of the area available for agriculture. By the latest census the wealth of the nation is invested as follows: transportation, $511,- 588,527; stockraising, $336,546,748; trade, $300,696,958; manufactures, $145,407,647; agriculture, $139,352,746. Minerals of many kinds are found, including gold, silver, copper, lead, tin, iron and coal, but these resources are mostly undeveloped. There are considerable areas of valuable forests. Imports in 1909, $302,756,095; exports, $397,350,528. Government. Argentine is a republic com- posed of a federal district, 14 provinces and 10 territories. Its constitution is modeled after that of the United States. The presi- dent is elected for a term of six years by an electoral college. There is a national congress, consisting of a senate and a chamber of deputies. Each province has a governor and a provincial legislature. There are federal and provincial courts similar in powers and functions to the federal and state eeurts of the United States. History. The first Europeans who visited the country were a party of Spanish ex- plorers in search of a southwest passage to the East Indies. Their leader, with a small company, landed in 1516. They are said to have been treacherously killed and then cooked and eaten in sight of their comrades on board the ships. The first settlement was made by Sebastian Cabot in 1527, in the name of Spain. Other expeditions followed, the main rivers were ascended, forts were built, wars were fought with the Indians, and after a vast expenditure of blood and treasure the Spaniards were finally established in the land. In 1776, Buenos Ayres was made the capital of a vice-royalty. In 1806, when Spain was at war with England, a body of troops landed from a British fleet and captured Buenos Ayres, but it was soon retaken and the English troops were forced to surrender. Two years later an English army of 8,000 again attacked the city. The houses were built with their windows looking on the streets, guarded with strong iron railings, like prison bars, and with their flat roofs filled with defenders, so that each house was a fortress. After suffering terrible slaughter in their march through the streets, the British surrendered. It was these suc- cesses against the English that gave the people courage to throw off the yoke of Spain. On the 25th of May, 1810, what was called the provisional government was set up. This is usually held to be the be- ginning of the independence of the country. The whole of the vice-royalty did not acknowledge the authority of this govern- ment. Bolivia, Paraguay and Uruguay made themselves into separate republics. A struggle with Spain followed,, lasting till 1824. Since then there have been many civil wars between the leaders of the two political parties, the Unitarians and the Federals. Ar'gon, a gaseous element discovered in 1895 by Lord Rayleigh and Professor Ramsay of England. It exists in the air to the amount of about one per cent. It is somewhat heavier than air. All efforts to make it combine chemically with other elements have failed. In this inertness it differs from every known element except four others recently discovered, called helium, neon, krypton and xenon, that are associated with it in the air in extremely minute quantities. Argonauts (ar 1 'go-no.?) , in Greek story, the band of heroes who sailed, before the Trojan war in the ship Argo, in search of the golden fleece ; Argonauts meaning sailors of the Argo. Pelias, king of lolcus in Thessaly, was warned by an oracle to fear his nephew, Jason, and so, hoping he would be killed, he sent him to capture and bring ARGOS 9 6 ARIOSTO home the fleece of the ram which had carried off the brother and sister, Phrixus and Helle, and which Phrixus had sacrificed to Jupiter. Phrixus had nailed the fleece to an oak in the grove of Mars in Colchis, where it was guarded by a sleepless dragon and by fire-breathing bulls. Jason set sail with the principal heroes of Greece, among them Castor and Pollux, Hercules and Orpheus. After various adventures in Lemnos, Mysia and the land of the Bebryces, and after successfully passing between the floating islands of the Symple- gades, which were dreaded because of their custom of dashing to pieces whatever came in their way, the Argonauts reached Colchis. The king of Colchis promised Jason the golden fleece if he would yoke the fire- breathing bulls to the plow and sow the dragon's teeth, from which warriors always sprang up to kill the sower. With the aid of Medea, the king's daughter, a powerful enchantress, who had fallen in love with Jason, the latter achieved these tasks. Finding the king plotting against him, he seized the fleece and set sail with Medea and her brother, Absyrtus. When the king pursued them, Medea killed her brother, and throwing his body into the sea, piece by piece, so delayed her father, that the Argo escaped, though, because of their crime, they suffered many things on their homeward journey. Ar'gos, an important city of ancient Greece, in Argolis. It was believed to be the oldest city in Greece, dating back as far as 1500 B. C. At the time of the Trojan War it was a famous capital, and from it the Greeks were often called Argives (ar'jivz). Before the rise of Sparta, Argos was at the head of a powerful league of Doric cities, but in later Greek history it plays little part. Its site is occupied by a modern town of the same name, which has a population of about 10,000. Here are remains of ancient cyclopean structures, among them a grand amphitheater hewn in the rock and a large aqueduct. Argyle (ar-glV), George Douglas Campbell, eighth duke of, was born April 30, 1823, and died April 24, 1900. He held important offices in the English gov- ernment, and was a liberal in politics. He also wrote valuable religious and scien- tific works, among them The Reign of Law, and Primeval Man. His eldest son, the Marquis of Lome, married the Princess Louise, daughter of the late Queen Victoria. This is the first instance of the marriage of a daughter of a reigning sovereign of Eng- land to a subject. The marquis succeeded to the dukedom on the death of his father. Argyll, John Douglas Sutherland Campbell, ninth duke of, long known as Marquis of Lome, husband of H. R. H. Princess Louise, fourth daughter of the late Queen Victoria, was born in 1845 m Lon- don and educated at St. Andrews Uni- versity and Trinity College, Cambridge. From 1868 to 1878 he represented Argyll- shire in Parliament as Liberal member, and later sat for South Manchester. In 1871 he married Princess Louise, and was governor-general of Canada from 1878 to 1883. In 1900 he succeeded to the duke- dom of Argyll and has since sat in the House of Peers. His writings include A Trip to the Tropics, Guido and Lita, The Psalms Literally Rendered in Verse, a work on Imperial Federation and a Life of Queen Victoria. Ariad'ne. See THESEUS. Aries (d'ri-ez), a northern constellation, known as the ram. It is the first of the twelve signs in the zodiac, which the sun enters at the vernal equinox (March 21). Owing to the precession of the equi- noxes, the constellation now is not within the limits of the sign. Ari'on, a poet and musician of Lesbos, Greece, who lived about 625 B. C. He is said to have invented a new form of verse; but all we know of him is the pretty story told of him by the historian Herodotus. Arion had traveled all over the world and gained great fame and a large sum of money by his skill in singing. On the homeward voyage the sight of his treasure roused the cupidity of the sailors, and they decided to kill him. He was told he must either die by his own hand on shipboard or throw himself into the sea. He chose the latter, but first asked leave to sing one last song. The sailors agreed, and Arion, standing on the deck, sang a dirge, accompanying himself on the lyre. He then jumped over- board, but instead of drowning was borne up by a dolphin that had been charmed by the music. The dolphin carried him to the coast, from which he reached home before the ship. He told his story to the prince, who hardly believed him. On the landing of the sailors, they first said that they had left Arion behind; but when they saw him, they quickly confessed and were punished. Arios'to, Ludovico, a famous Italian poet, was born at Reggio near Modena in 1474, the eldest of ten children. As a boy he showed ability and taste in composition, but at the wish of his father he studied law. After a trial of five years he gave up the attempt, and turned to the study of the classics, and devoted himself to literature as a profession. A few lyrical poems gained him as a patron the son of the Duke of Ferrara, and he spent some years in his service. The death of his father left him to support the family, and compelled him to give more time to the service of his patron, but meanwhile he was producing his great poem Orlando Furioso, a work at which he toiled for some ten years. Its appearance made him ARISTIDES 97 ARITHMETIC famous. His patron alone treated the poem with contempt, and soon dismissed Ariosto from his service. The Duke of Ferrara then became his patron, and made him governor of a small district. After three years of successful rule he returned to Ferrara, where he lived till his death in I 533- Besides his great poem, he wrote a number of comedies and satires, and a theater was built for the playing of his fieces. The Orlando Furioso still stands in taly at the head of all poems of chivalry, and has been translated into many lan- guages. The plot is taken from the wars of the time of Charles the Great. Aristi'des (dr'is-ti'dez), called the Just, was one of the statesmen of Athens, and helped to build up the greatness of his city. At the battle of Marathon, 490 B. C., he was one of the ten generals of the Athen- ians. He persuaded the others to give up their day of command to Miltiades, who was the most skillful commander. His rival at Athens was Themistocles and the contest between the two leaders grew so bitter, that it was deemed best to exile one of them by vote. When the vote was being taken, a man who did not know Aristides asked him to write for him the name Aristides on the shell which was used as a ballot. " Has he done you any in- jury?" asked Aristides. "No," was the reply, "but I am tired of hearing him called 'Aristides the Just.' " Aristides was ban- ished for ten years; but in 480, when his country was in great danger from the Persians, he returned on the eve of the battle of Salamis, and helped his rival Themistocles. He also commanded the Athenians at the battle of Plataea. When many of the states decided to form an alliance against Persia, with Athens at its head, Aristides, because of his well-known honesty and fairness, was chosen to make the arrangements and to assess the expenses of the war on the different states. He died so poor about the year 468 B. C. that he was buried at the public cost; but he had done so much for Athens that the government gave his daughters dowries and his son a landed estate. Aristophanes (dr-is-tofa-nez), the great- est Greek writer of comedies. Little is known of his life, although his writings have made him famous. He was born at Athens, probably about 448 B. C. He began writing when very young, and his first plays were brought out under another name, because he was not old enough to contend for the prize. He wrote, in all, fifty-four comedies, but only eleven have come down to us. The Knights and The Clouds are among his most admired pieces. Others are The Wasps, The Birds and The Frogs. Aristophanes laughed at everything and everybody, especially . at everything new. He liked old Athens, "as it had been in the days of the Persian wars," and thus failed to see the good in men like Socrates. One of his finest plays, The Clouds, is a satire against Socrates. His plays have in them specimens of the most beautiful and finished poetry. He died about 380 B. C. Aristotle (dr'is-tot-l) , the greatest of all the Greek philosophers, was born at Stageira in Thrace, 384 B. C. His father was a physician, and his own early educa- tion was in that direction. In his eight- eenth year he went to Athens and be- came the pupil of Plato, who called him the "Intellect of the School." He stayed at Athens twenty years, until the death of Plato, 347 B. C., when he went to Atar- neas in Mysia and afterward to Mitylene. In the year 342 B. C., he was invited by Philip, king of Macedon, to educate his son Alexander in Macedonia. When Alexander set out on his expedition to Asia, 334 B. C., Aristotle returned to Athens, where at the age of fifty, he opened a school called the Lyceum, from its near- ness to the temple of Apollo Lyceius. His school and pupils were called the Peri- patetics, from his habit of walking up and down in the garden while giving his lectures. After the death of Alexander, he was accused of impiety by the party in power. With the fate of Socrates before his eyes, he chose a timely escape and fled to Chalcis in Eubcea, where he died 322 B. C. Many of his writings are lost; of those that remain, his Logic, Rhetoric, Poetics and Meteoro- logies are the most important. He almost created the science of logic and also that of natural science. In philosophy no one can be named whose influence has been greater or more lasting. Arithmetic has been greatly influenced by modern educational thought, the same as other studies. Until very recent years the principal change taking place in the study consisted in a growing willingness to omit topics that had no close relation to our own lives. For instance, topics now wholly omitted or neglected are the sur- veyor's table, apothecaries' weight and troy weight; G.C.D. and L.C.M. as special topics, complex and compound fractions, except those of a very simple nature; annual interest and most of compound interest; partial payments, except under the United States rule, and with problems involving common amounts, as a principal of $100 with payments like $ 10 and $25, rather than amounts like $251.42 and $19.79; profit and loss as a special topic; equation of payments; partnership; longi- tude and time, except problems based on the 15 scheme and a few others; and cube root. The conviction has been growing that there are too many quantitative matters inti- mately related to our lives to allow time to be spent on others that lack such relationship ARITHMETIC ARITHMETIC But more recently new topics have been accepted and other older ones have been receiving a new emphasis, according as such topics are intimately concerned with our welfare. For example, new topics or topics newly emphasized are insurance, stocks and bonds, government revenues and expenditures, the banking business and taxes. These are subjects for chil- dren studying somewhat advanced arith- metic. But a similar change is also affect- ing the problems for younger pupils. Problems dealing with actual situations are more and more in demand for all ages of pupils, such as those dealing with farm- ing, fishing, lumbering, mining, manu- facturing, transportation of goods, trade and facts of daily interest. Knowledge of mental processes is in- sisted upon as heretofore; but insight into the quantitative conditions of social life is also aimed at through the study of arithmetic. The old style of problems began usually with "*/," being supposed cases, and the pupil was scolded if he worked for the answer. We are now slowly reaching the point where problems are selected for children whose answers are of real interest and, therefore, worth work- ing for; then the children are expected to work for the answer, just as adults always have worked for them. It is the modern doctrine of interest (see INTEREST) that has been greatly influencing teachers here. The increased interest in the problem in- creases the pupils' concentration of atten- tion, and thus results in a better knowl- edge of processes and more accurate work in general. It is very difficult for arith- metics to realize this ideal to a great ex- tent, but recent text-books plainly show a movement in this direction. In be- ginning arithmetic many good teachers make no attempt to follow the Grube' plan, by teaching the four fundamental opera- tions touching one number before con- sidering the next higher number. In fact, many superintendents now make no at- tempt toward systematic instruction in arithmetic to pupils during the first year of school. The reason for this is that formal instruction in the subject accom- plishes little with pupils so young, and they ordinarily have too much formal instruction in other subjects the first school year anyway. Counting is one of the first kinds of work, such as the counting of objects, "keeping score" in games, etc. Measuring, involving single facts in the table of com- pound numbers, such as the relation be- tween inch and foot, foot and yard, pint and quart, ounce and pound, etc., simple fractions, such as J and \, and the symbols of +, , X, *-, may well be taught the first year arithmetic is studied. That is, fractions and various other topics need not be delayed until a certain year is reached; but the pupil should take up whatever facts his interests suggest. The fraction J is just as naturally used by a six-year-old child as the combination 2X2. In teaching addition teachers are not limited to any one device. In explaining a process involving some mental retention of number, as in "carrying," it is advis- able to use sticks in bundles of 10, as is often done, and to adopt, also, such de- vices as 26 20 + 6 26 39 -3+ 9 39 50 + 15=65 IS 5 65 Such devices help greatly to make the steps clear. In general, the use of splints and other objects is very helpful in ap- proaching new facts. They can well be used in the first two years of instruction, along with diagramming and other con- crete helps, and also later in the beginning study of fractions. But it should be remem- bered that these are only temporary helps and that the pupil should soon be able to dispense with such concrete aid. The use of the fingers in counting should be dis- couraged, because they cannot later be removed entirely from reach when not wanted. In subtraction the "making change" method should be used. For example, if you have 10 cents and buy a pencil for 3 cents, the child should see that you have 7 cents left, because 3 cents + 7 cents = 10 cents. This is the method used at any store, and in business in gen- eral. The Austrian method of subtraction is the one that now is most commonly favored. The example just given follows that method, one advantage being that it dispenses with the necessity of learning any subtraction table. An example like 52-27, might be worked as follows: 52 =50 + 2 Add 10 to each 50 + 12 27=20 + 7 which leaves the 30+7 difference the same 20+ 5 No number added to 7 will make 2. But 5 added to 7 makes 12. We have now increased 52 by 10, and we must add 10 to 27, so as not to change the difference. 3 (tens) and 2 (tens) are 5 (tens). Hence, the difference is 25. The details of such presentations vary greatly, and a teacher should follow the plan that best satisfies her. In short division it is often advisable to use the "long division" form, showing that the former is only an abbreviation of the latter. A text-book in arithmetic is hardly desirable before the third year of school. ARITHMETIC 99 ARITHMETIC At least its earlier use tends strongly to make the work too formal. There is little object in carrying the multiplication table beyond 10 X 10. In compound numbers reduction "ascending" and "descending" should be confined to numbers of not more than three denomina- tions. The reasons for this are that in practical life we rarely use more than two denominations, as feet and inches or pounds and ounces; and that, if one has learned to perform reduction with two and three denominations, he can easily perform those with more if occasion re- quired. Quantitative facts are so much more often expressed decimally now than for- merly, that much more attention to decimal fractions is in place. The addition and subtraction of decimals need offer no difficulties. In multiplication the most approved forms are the following : i. 6.25 EXPLANATION Since 5 5 . times hundredths are hun- dredths, the right hand num- 31.25 ber of the product is placed under hundredths. The rest of the work is identical with that of in- tegers, the decimal point going under the others. EXPLANATION Since hun- dredths multiplied by tenths is thousandths, the right- hand figure of the product goes in the thousandths place. EXPLANATION Since hun- dredths multiplied by hun- dredths are ten-thousandths, the right-hand figure of the product goes in the ten- thousandths place. 125 1-5625 Operations with decimals should be limited to fractions having not over three places, and answers need not be carried beyond three places. Division of decimals should be taught as suggested in the following Austrian method : Required to divide 6.275 by 2.5 OLD METHOD ' -I . " Point off as many places in the quotient as the num- ber of decimal places in the dividend exceeds that in the divisor." COMMON AUSTRIAN METHOD Dividend and divisor having been multiplied by such a power of 10 as makes the divisor a whole number, the decimal point in the quotient simply goes above that in the dividend. The following method is recommended for the early work: 2-51 25)^2.75 5 The entire remainder is brought down each time, and the decimal point is pre- terved throughout. In more advanced arithmetic, including the last two or three years of the elemen- tary school, the value of the work must lie largely in the character of the problems, as previously suggested. By the time a child has reached the sixth year of school, he has usually acquainted himself with the various arithmetical processes, and he is now ready for their various applications to actual conditions in life. Correlation with geography, manual training and other studies is, therefore, of much importance. Percentage, formerly a topic by itself, is merely one phase of decimal fractions, and should be so treated. A large part of business arithmetic involves the finding of per cents, so that the method is continually applied after it is once presented. The treatment of the subject by "cases," and the learning of definitions of terms like "amount," "difference" or even "per- centage" may be considered obsolete. There is need to know what "per cent." means, namely "hundredths" ("hundredth" or "of a hundredth," as in 6%, i%, $%), and there is occasionally some value in using the term "base." But the two lead- ing problems of the subject are illustrated by two examples not requiring any elab- orate vocabulary, namely: 1. 6% of $250 is how much? 2. If 104% of x - $7.28, what does x equal? Practical problems in percentage rarely require any other forms. The explanation of problems should con- sist of no carefully learned formula, but should be nothing more than an explana- tion of the steps involved, with the reasons. Some use of the equation, with x to repre- sent the unknown quantity, is fully in place. In general in the study of arithmetic pupils are tempted to "figure" too much, and to allow the formal side to dominate the "thinking" side. To overcome this difficulty it is well to have much oral work in the solution of problems, without any figuring. To emphasize the thought side of arithmetic properly, children (i) should often read a problem a second or third time carefully, to get the exact conditions; (2) should then restate the problem in their own words, to make fully sure that they understand its condition! (3) should state ARIZONA ZOO ARKANSAS the number of steps required for the solu- tion and show the character of each; (4) should then give the approximate answer. Figuring for the correct answer should often follow; but frequently this fifth piece of work should be omitted. It is hardly wise to allow children to study their arithmetic and receive help upon it at home. The reason for this statement is that parents and other home friends usually have different ways of solving problems from those employed at school. Sometimes these home methods are worse, sometimes better, than those used at school. But they are almost bound to be a source of confusion. It is generally best, if home help seems necessary, for the helper to try to understand and follow the school method. Reference books: Mathematics in the Elementary School] Teachers College Record, Columbia University; Teaching of Ele- mentary Mathematics, D. E. Smith; Special Method in Elementary Arithmetic, C. A. McMurry; The Psychology of Number, Mc- Lellan and Dewey. F. M. McMuRRY. Arizo'na, a southwestern state of the United States, is as large as Italy or New York and New England combined; area, 112,920 square miles. It is made up of great plains, mountains and canons. The highest peak is Mt. San Francisco, 12,561 feet. The Colorado River, 1,100 miles long, runs through the mightiest series of chasms in the world, with walls of marble and granite 1,000 to 6,500 feet high. Where it is highest it is called the Grand Canon. The Gila River is 650 miles long, and with its tributaries entirely crosses the southern portion of the territory. Climate. There is a difference of both temperature and rainfall between the northern and southern sections, owing to their altitudes. Although the sandy region around Yuma is the hottest district north of the Isthmus of Panama, the dry atmosphere keeps the summer's heat from being very oppressive and makes the winter climate delightful. Minerals. Arizona is rich in minerals, and mining is the chief business. Jerome is a very active mining town in the copper region; there has also been considerable development of gold mines. Coal, mica, nickel ores, wolframite, from which tung- sten is made, limestone, marble, granite, sandstone, vanadium, turquoise and garnet occur. In Navajo County is a wonderful chal- cedony forest. The cracked trunks of this petrified wood are sometimes four feet thick, and show the most exquisite colors. This forest is now a part of the national park system of the United States. Forests. The mountain areas of Arizona are covered with forests of pine, cedar and other timber, while the cottonwood follows every stream. In the vicinity of the San Francisco Mountains the Vimber industry is quite important, but in this and other sections the government has set aside vast timber tracts. Agriculture. Because of lack of water, agricultural development has been greatly retarded. The valleys are remarkably fer- tile, and much is expected from the arid sections with the construction of the gov- ernment reservoirs and extension of irrigated areas. The products at present embrace wheat, barley, alfalfa, apricots, oranges, olives, etc. Experiments are being con- ducted in the cultivation of Egyptian cotton and dates, thus utilizing the arid lands of the south. Manufactures. Little as yet is being done in this line, but the chief manufacturing interests are mining, smelting, lumber and the car shop works. Education. The public school system is good, and education is compulsory. Illiter- acy is high owing to the Mexican, Indian, Chinese and Japanese inhabitants. There are private and sectarian schools, a state university at Tucson, normal schools at Tempe and Flagstaff, high schools at Phoenix, Prescott and Mesa, and the government maintains several Indian schools. The state maintains an asylum for the insane near Phoenix, and an industrial school at Benson. Government and History. The capital is Phoenix (population 11,134). Tucson, Jerome and Prescott are other large towns. An Italian friar and a freed African slave were the modern discoverers of Arizona, going there from Mexico in 1539 as mis- sionaries. They found traces of a great and populous race, that had once lived there, either of the Pueblo or Aztec stock. The Jesuits followed these discoverers, but all their work was swept away by the Apache forays in 1828. That part of the state north of the Gila River was ceded to the United States by Mexico in 1848 and the remainder in 1853 by the Gadsden purchase. Arizona was organized as a terri- tory in 1863, having previously been part of New Mexico. With its admission as a state, Feb. 14, 1912, the last territory passed, and continental America became wholly a union of states. Population, 259,666. Arkansas (dr'kdnsa'), a state which takes its name from the Arkansas Indians. By act of the legislature some years ago it was declared that the correct pronunciation of the word is Ar'kansa/ It has the Missis- sippi River on the east, Missouri on the north, Oklahoma on the west and Louisiana on the south. The state is larger than New York: area 53,845 square miles. Surface. The surface of Arkansas varies in elevation from the lowlands of the Mis- ARKANSAS 101 ARKANSAS sissippi Valley in the east, only a few feet above the sea level, to the Ozark Mountains in the northwest, appreaching an elevation of 2,000 feet. Extending from Helena in the southeast due north to the northern limit of the state is an elevation known as Crowley's Ridge, varying in width from one to fourteen miles and having an average elevation of 400 feet. On this ridge are situated most of the im- Sjrtant towns in eastern Arkansas. Mt. agazine is the highest point in the state, reaching an elevation of over 3,000 feet. The central part of the state is level or rolling, much of it being extensive prairies. Rivers and Lakes. The Arkansas, White, St. Francis, Ouachita and Red Rivers are the principal streams. In the higher regions they are swift and afford excellent water- power for milling interests. There are many lakes in the state, and these, together with the rivers, abound in various kinds of game fish. Climate. The climate of Arkansas is equable, though in the mountainous re- gions the winters are somewhat rigorous. Snow rarely falls south of the Ozark Mount- ains. The mean annual temperature is about 63 F. The yearly rainfall is about 42 inches. In the river bottoms malarial influences render the climate somewhat unhealthful, but aside from this the climate is remarkably salubrious. Some of the finest springs in the Union may be found within its borders, notably, the famous Hot Springs where there are annually more than 50,000 visitors, Potash Sulphur Springs, White Sulphur Springs, Eureka Springs and Mammoth Spring, whose waters form a large lake and furnish water- power for several mills. Natural Resources. The forests of Ar- kansas cover large areas, and furnish vast supplies of pine, cypress and hardwood of many varieties. In the northwest part of the state are vast beds of coal of the best quality. The zinc mines of the north are attracting the attention of capitalists, and the ore, found in large quantities, is of a very high grade. Bauxite is found in the southern part of the state and large quan- tities are exported. Valuable deposits of manganese are to be found in several counties. Vast beds of the finest quality of slate are located in the western part of the state. A very high grade of clay, suitable for pottery and tiling, is widely distributed in the southwest. Iron, an- timony, novacuVite and other minerals are to be found. The quarries furnish prac- tically inexhaustible supplies of marble and building stones A superior quality of onyx is found in Carroll County. Industries. As an agricultural and hor- ticultural state Arkansas takes high rank. The fertile river-bottoms yield immense crops of cotton and corn. In 1909, 718,117 bales of cotton and 50,400,000 bushels of corn were raised. Wheat, oats, barley and other cereals are grown. Alfalfa is produced in large quantities in many locali- ties. Fruit-growing is becoming an im- portant industry. The shipment of straw- berries from Crawford County will average in value $250,000, and the apple crop of Washington County at $2,000,000. The vast acreage of peaches, some orchards containing over three hundred acres, adds much to the wealth of the state. The shipment of potatoes also reaches large proportions. A few years ago the United States government began experiments in the culture of rice on the prairies east of Little Rock. The success of the effort has been marked. The land is irrigated from pumps sunk to a depth of less than 200 feet, where abundant water-supply is found. The yield of rice averages about forty bushels to the acre, and the acreage has been very largely increased. The exten- sive prairies furnish excellent facilities for raising cattle, sheep and horses at mod- erate cost, and these are exported in large numbers. Manufactures. The manufacturing in- terests of the state are being steadily de- veloped. Some of the largest lumber mills in the south are located in this state, and the export of lumber is large. The largest oar factory in the world is located at De- valls Bluff, while another of much import- ance may be found at Clarendon. Immense stave and hub factories may be found in the northeastern part of the state, and the manufacture of sash, doors, blinds and furniture is carried on in many places. Mining forms an important industry in the western part of the state, covering an area of 2,000 square miles. The output of coal in the year 1909, was 2,122,462 tons, which was the lowest in five years, owing to fail- ure to operate the mines for several weeks on account of local troubles. Hot Springs has the unique distinction of having an ostrich farm where over one hundred and fifty birds are kept, and the number is being steadily increased; also an alligator farm where hundreds of these saurians varying in size from a few inches in length to twelve or fourteen feet are found. The sale of ostrich plumes and of alligator hides produces considerable revenue for the promoters of these interests. The leading cities of Arkansas are Little Rock, Fort Smith, Pine Bluff, Hot Springs, Texarkana and Jonesborc. The state charitable in- stitutions are located at the capital. Railroads. The Iron Mountain, Frisco, Kansas City Southern, Cotton Belt and Rock Island have trunk lines crossing the state, while many tributary lines afford easy means of access to all parts of the state. Education. Since the adoption of the constitution of 1874, education has been ARKANSAS CITY 102 ARKWRIGHT steadily advancing. The state university, located a*, Fayetteville, has an enrollment of 1,000 students. The law and medical schools, under the control of this institution, are located in Little Rock, and each enrolls about three hundred students. The Branch normal school for negroes is located at Pine Bluff. The leading denominational schools are Henderson College (Methodist) and Ouachita College (Baptist), located at Arkadelphia; Searcy Female Institute and Galloway College (Methodist), located at Searcy; Hendrix College (Methodist) and Central College (Baptist), located at Conway; Arkansas College (Presbyterian), located at Batesville. The Arkansas Mili- tary Academy is located at Little Rock. Besides these there are about eighty private academies and high schools. All these institutions enjoy a liberal patronage. There are separate schools for the white and black races, but the laws contemplate that there shall be no difference in the char- acter of the educational facilities offered. In the negro districts the colored race is represented on the school boards, and the attendance is as regular as that of the white schools. Twenty-five per cent of local school expenses are borne by the state and there is a permanent school fund derived from the Hand grants made to the state by the national government. History. Possibly the earliest settle- ment in the state was made in 1686, at Arkansas Post by the French. By the purchase of the Louisiana Territory in 1803, the United States acquired its title to the territory, though it was not till 1824 that the Indian < claims were finally adjusted. Arkansas became a territory in 1819 and a state in 1836. It withdrew from the Union in 1861, and was not readmitted till 1868. During the "Carpet Bag" administration the state suffered much, but since the Brooks and Baxter War, occasioned by rival claims to the office of governor, and adoption of the present constitution in 1874, the progress of the state has been marked. Population 1,753,033. Arkansas City, a city in Cowley County, Southern Kansas, at the junction of the Walnut River with the Arkansas.. A canal uniting these two streams furnishes the city with water-power for manufacturing purposes. Settled in 1870, the city was incorporated in the following year. Its trade consists largely of agricultural im- plements, windmills, wire and mattress factories, flour, oil, lumber mills, etc. The purchasers include the Indian posts and agencies in Oklahoma. The U. S. Indian school is located near here, besides high and primary schools for whites. It is also well furnished with other public buildings, theaters and opera houses. Its trade is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, the Missouri Pacific, the St. Louis & SIR RICHARD ARKWRIGHT & San Francisco Railways. Population 9,000. Arkansas (ar'kan-saw), a river of the United States and, next to the Missouri, the longest tributary of the Mississippi It rises in the Rocky Mountains, and lias a length of over 2,000 miles. After break- ing through the Colorado canons, it flows through Kansas, Oklahoma and Indian Territory, and cuts Arkansas into nearly equal parts. It is navigable to Fort Smith and, in high water, to Fort Gibson, 463 miles. Arkwright, Sir Richard. On a stormy night in the year 1765, foot- traveler knocked at. the door of a thatch- ed cottage in the village of Stan- hill, Lancashire. (England, and asked for shelter from the weatn- 'er. The light of a candle and the whirring of a wheel guided him to that dwelling rather than to any other of the group. A cotton- spinner was there lengthening his day of toil, while his neighbors slept. At the knock the candle was blown out and the noise stopped. After a moment a voice asked: "Who knocks?" "Dick Arkwright." "A spinner?" "No, a barber and hair buyer from Bol- ton. I can pay for a lodging for the night." When the stranger was admitted and the candle had been relighted, there was disclosed a strange spinning-wheel with eight spindles. The host was James Har- greaves, and this was his newly invented spinning jenny which he used secretly be- cause his ignorant neighbors, fearing such a machine would make work scarce, had destroyed his first model. In the itinerant barber he feared no rival, and he founa a sympathetic listener. From this chance encounter of two poor, unlettered laborers resulted inventions that made England the greatest cotton-manufacturing country in the world, and revolutionized the methods of the industry Richard Arkwright was at that tima thirty-three years old. He was bom in Preston, a seaport town north of Liverpool, in 1732, the youngest of thirteen children of a poor laborer. At the age of ten he was apprenticed to a barber in Bolton. and for twenty years his life was passed in a cellar shop, shaving workingmen at a penny a shave. It is doubtful it he could ARLINGTON, MASS. 103 ARMADA, SPANISH read and write, "nevertheless," as Thomas Carlyle says of him, "the man had notions in his own rough head." His discovery of a method of preparing and dyeing hair for the wig-maker, lifted him out f the cellar-shop and into the highway. Hair- buying took him among the poorest work- men in the cotton spinning district. As he went from hamlet to hamlet he heard talk of the need for a better and more rapid method of spinning. The yarn was not only insufficient in quantity but was so poor in quality that flax had to be used for warp. The all-cotton fabrics had to be imported from India, and were very ex- pensive. Arkwright saw that Hargreave's jenny could spin eight threads at once, but that the yarn was still inferior. He had once been through a rolling mill and seen iron bars lengthened and strength- ened by being forced through rolls. Why not apply the process to cotton? He had a little money laid by, but he had no knowl- edge of mechanics. So he employed a clock-maker to construct his machine The first part of it consisted of two sets of rolls turning on each other like those of a clothes wringer. One roll of each pair was of steel, finely ground, the other was cov- ered with leather. The filaments of the cotton plant were drawn through the grooves, spun and compressed. Spindles then took the yarn and stretched and twisted it. Fearing the spinning frame he had invented might be destroyed, he took it to Nottingham and began to use his yarn in hosiery mills. He obtained his first patent the same year, 1769, that Watt secured his on the separate condenser stationary engine. And Arkwright was one of the first to operate a factory by steam power. He made the first all-cotton fabrics produced in England. His wonder- ful invention inspired the jealousy of rivals, his patents were attacked and declared void, and he was compelled to pay duty by having his goods classed as East Indian calicoes. His spinning frame was copied with impunity. However, they "couldn't copy his mind." In 1775, Arkwright took out new patents on machines for equipping an entire textile factory. It is said that no other patent ever issued was so com- prehensive, and covered so many distinct mechanical inventions, all necessary to the processes of one industry. It covered every stage of manufacture from the raw fibre to the finished fabric ready for the merchants' shelves, and provided for various weaves and mixtures of cotton with wool, silk and flax. Many biographers have scant apprecia- tion of the man, while admitting his genius and the value of his inventions. He won a fortune and a knighthood, and he educated himself to fit his new station in life, em- ploying private tutors and giving an hour each day to study after he was fifty years old. His force of character and executive ability are shown in his organizing the factory system. Before Arkwright's time spinning was a cottage industry, and much of the weaving was also done in private houses. The workmen labored irregularly, and the product was far from uniform in quality. Arkwright brought his workmen under a factory roof, compelled cleanliness, order and regularity of hours, and estab- lished standards in quality and quantity of fabrics produced. His cotton factory at Crawford became the model system which other plants that were to prosper had to adopt. He put into practice the principles of industrial economy that Adam Smith taught the saving accomplished by organized, disciplined division of labor. Aside from London, the county of Lan- cashire is to-day the most populous and prosperous part of England. When Ark- wright patented his invention, the county had only 600,000 people. To-day Liver- pool, the greatest cotton market in the world, has a greater population; and Man- chester, the largest cotton manufacturing city, has nearly as many. Tne county has a population of nearly 7,000,000. For a century and a quarter Lancashire has grown and thriven chiefly on Arkwright's inventions, and there are few people on the globe who have not profited by them It must be admitted, however, that the inventor was not disinterested. He never sacrificed his own interests or did anything by intention to endear himself to an ad- miring and grateful world. See Heroes of Science, by T. C. Lewis, M.A. Arlington, Mass., an attractive residen- tial town in Middlesex County, situated on the Boston & Maine R. R., about seven miles northwest of Boston and connected with it by an electric railway. It has numerous fine buildings, including a well- equipped public library. Its chief in- dustries besides market gardening, are ice- cutting and ice-tool manufacturing. Set- tled about the year 1650, it received its present name in 1867. See Cutter's His- tory of the Town of Arlington. The population of Arlington is 12,811. Arma'da, Spanish, the great expedi- tion sent out against England in 1588 by Philip of Spain. England was at this time the bulwark of the Protestant faith, and for this reason Philip, who was the great Catholic champion, desired to crush her. For many months the Spanish nation used all its energies in gathering a mighty force, and in July, 1588, the fleet, of 150 vessels, carrying over 19,000 soldiers and 8,460 sailors, besides slaves as rowers, and. armed with 2,431 cannon, set sail from Spain, under command of the Duke of Medina-Sidonia. His project was to sail through the Channel and pick up at Flanders ARMADILLO 104 ARMINIUS the Duke of Parma, who was lying there with 35,000 men. Forces were then to be landed on a different part of the English coast, while the Armada kept the Channel clear. Meanwhile, the English had not been idle. Drake, by a bold dash at the Spanish fleet in the port of Cadiz, had delayed the attack, and when the news came that the great fleet was about to sail, forces gathered around the Earl of Leicester to oppose the landing of Parma, while the best mariners of the age, Drake, Hawkins, Frobisher and others gathered around the English Admiral Howard. They took their station at Plymouth, and, as the Spanish fleet sailed up the Channel, in the form of a crescent, seven miles long, the English took their place to windward. The next day the Spaniards attacked, but the English ships were managed with such skill that no harm could be inflicted. Dismayed at their failure, they stood off up the Channel, pursued and harassed by the English, and cast anchor at Calais. From here they were driven by means of fireships put into the open sea, a large number of ships were destroyed and almost the whole fleet was forced on the coast of Flanders. The hopes of the Spaniards were now broken, and they resolved to give up the expedi- tion. Rather than go back through the vigilantly guarded lines of their persistent enemies, they set out on the perilous voyage by the North Sea; but the fierce northern gales scattered the fleet and drove them on the coast of Ireland and Scotland, where those escaping from the wreck were killed by the natives. Of the vast Armada only a shattered remnant of fifty-four ves- sels, with about ten thousand men, reached Spain. Armadil'lo, a curious animal of burrow- ing habits, living in Mexico, Central and South America. It sometimes crosses the Mexican border into southern Texas. It is covered by an armor of bony plates, which are so jointed, that when annoyed the animal can roll itself into a ball for pro- tection. Not- withstanding its short legs, it is said to be able to outrun YELLOW-FOOTED ARMADILLO a m a n, and can bury itself in an incredibly short time by the use of its long, powerful claws. It is about thirty inches m length; in color, brownish -black marked with yellow, and underne...,h a yellowish- white. It is an habitual digger, makes its burrows in the dry soil of arid regions, comes forth chiefly at night. It feeds on insects, worms, roots, fruit and sometimes carrion. In the woods and pampas large numbers are found. Armature, pieces of soft iron or other magnetizable substance placed as the "Keepers" at the extremities of poles of magnets to preserve their magnetic power, by completing the magnetic circuit through the two poles when the electric current is sent through their coils. The armature in a dynamo is the coil of wire in which the current is generated. Arme'nia, formerly a large country of western Asia, is now divided between Tur- key, Russia and Persia. Its boundaries have been changed much, but in general it extends north and south from the Cau- casus to the mountains of Kurdistan and east and west from the Caspian Sea to Asia Minor. From very early times a distinction was made between Greater Armenia, east of the Euphrates, and Lesser Armenia, lying to the west. Greater Ar- menia is usually meant when speaking of Armenia. It is mostly a high tableland, 7,000 feet above the level of the sea. Mt. Ararat is the only lofty peak. Its main rivers are the Tigris and the Euphrates. The country is naturally fertile; but now much of it is uncultivated. During its prosperity it had many flourishing towns, and its capital for centuries was Armavir. The Armenians became free from Macedonia in 317 B. C. Before that nothing really certain is known of their history, though it has recently been asserted that the Hittites were their ancestors. Since then, though at times ruled by their own kings, the greatest of whom were Valarsaces, a brother of the Parthian Mithradates the Great, and Tig- ranes II, their history is in the main one of conquest. Syria, Mark Antony, Persia, the Greek empire, the Mohammedans, the Mame- lukes, the Kurds, the Turks, Timour the Great and the Russians have at different times conquered Armenia in whole or in part. The Armenians, once a warlike people, are now noted for their peaceful character. The area of modern Armenia and Kurdistan is 71,990 square miles, with a population estimated at nearly two and one half millions. Chief town, Erzerum, popula- tion, 80,000. Armin'ius, prince of the Cherusci, a German tribe, was born about 18 B. C., and died by assassination in 21 A. D. When a boy le became a Roman citizen and served c*s a soldier in the Roman army. Coming home, he found the whole country stirred up by the cruelties of Varus, the Roman governor, and became the head of a conspiracy. He induced the Roman general to scatter his troops in small de- tachments, saying that it would keep better order among the Germans. News of the conspiracy caused yams to march into the interior. Arminius struck the match, the scattered Roman troops were murdered, and the main body was surround- ed. They fought their way for three days, till ARMOR 105 ARMOR-PLATE they were killed almost to a man, Varus taking his own life. Rome was filled with shame. The Emperor Augustus kept cry- ing for days: "Varus, give me back my legions!" Germanicus marched against the Cherusci, but accomplished nothing. The next year he marched again with 80,000 men and a fleet; Arminius artfully led him into narrow passes, then, falling upon him, cut off his cavalry, almost destroyed four legions and forced him to retreat. The next year the undaunted Germanicus came with 100,000 men and 1,000 ships. On a plain called No-man's Meadow a great battle was fought. The Germans were beaten, but the next morning they fought again and compelled the Romans to re- treat. No Roman army ever again marched beyond the Rhine, and Arminius is there- fore justly called the German Liberator. Ar'mor, a protection once used for the warior in battle. Armor of some sort was used by almost every nation from the earliest times until the gradual improve- ment in firearms made it useless. Except in very early times, when skin was used, armor has always been made of metal, usually brass or bronze. This was the sort used in the contest between Goliath and David, which is the most ancient whole body. They also clothed their horses with this armor. But it was in western Europe, in the middle ages, that complete defensive ar- mor was brought to its greatest perfec- tion. The earliest armor was made of metal rings, then sewn closely together upon leather, or simply of rings woven together like the modern curb-chain. But this mail, as it was called, could be driven by a hard blow into the flesh, and so, piece by piece, plate armor was adopted. For 200 years this change went on, until, by the time of the reign of Henry VII of England, the best and most beautiful armor ever wrought was worn. The whole suit of armor, completely covering the body, was fluted, the helmet fitted the head, and, with the plates guarding the ROMAN CUIRASS GREEK ARMOR (Art Armor) allusion in history to armor. The armor of the Greeks consisted of a crested helmet, which could be drawn down so as fully 'to cover the face; a small breastplate worn so low as to leave the throat and neck exposed; a plated waistband from which hung a short kilt of cloth or leather cov- ered with metallic plates; and greaves or a sheath of solid metal for the legs from knee to ankle. The shield was a round one, at first large enough to cover the entire body of the warrior, but later a small one was used of the same shape. The Roman soldier's armor was much the same, except that his shield was oblong, and he often fought without greaves. The earlier nations used armor made of overlapping scales of metal sewn upon leather, fitting the neck, adapted itself to every movement. Every part of the body was piotected, and yet motion was comparatively free. The shields were of various shapes. The heads and bodies of the horses were also protected by solid steel. So hard was it to pierce these splendid suits of armor, that at one time two armies in Italy fought from 9 o'clock in the morning until 4 o'clock in the afternoon, without a single person being killed or wounded. After firearms were in- vented, armor was discarded as useless, until at the beginning of the i Qth century the only troops still wearing ar- mor were the heavy cavalry of the Austrian, Russian and French armies, who were all cuir- assiers. Ships-of- war are now cov- ROMAN CUIRASS CHAIN ARMOR ered with plates, (Scale Armor) called armor- plates. See NAVY. Armor-Plate, the metallic sheathing of a ship-of-war or of a fortification, used as a protection against artillery fire. It is claimed that John Stevens of Hoboken, New Jersey, was the first to suggest the use of armor, but the first practical use was in 1855 by the French on their ships- of-war. Armor-plate manufacture has gone through several stages. The first plates were made of wrought iron, but the inven- tion of rifled cannon made it possible to pierce any single thickness of wrought iron that could be then made. 1873 C. Cammell & Co. invented the compound plate, which was prepared by pouring liquid steel on to hot iron plates. Then Schneider & Co., of Creusot, France, dem- onstrated that steel plates are preferable, ARMOUR, PHILIP D. 106 ARMS About 1890 experiments made by the United States government at Annapolis showed that a plate made of an alloy of steel and nickel is far superior to the sim- ple steel. More recently, the resisting power of steel armor-plate has been in- creased 25 per cent, by the process invented by Harvey, an American. This consists in face-hardening the plates, by causing the outer layers of the metal to take up a greater percentage of carbon. The Krupp firm of Essen, Germany, discovered a new process, which is kept secret, for harden- ing both steel and nickel-steel plates, by which a product of unexcelled quality is turned out. Its resistance is 20 per cent, greater than that of harveyized steel. One foot of the best armor made to-day has more endurance than two feet of the best armor in 1880. It is said that the principal armor-plate makers of America, England, and France are now using this process, under agreement with Krupp. The steel is subjected, while hot, to hydraulic forg- ing. This renders the whole mass more homogeneous than old methods, making it stronger and freer from flaws. It is next sawed or planed into plates of the required size, and then harveyized by cementation, hardening and tempering. Krupp 's process carries the hardening deeper into the plate, because chrome, probably, as well as nickel is used in the steel. Hardening the steel increases the brittleness and the liability of the plate to crack, but its back remains extremely tough, and so the risk of cracking is lessened. Krupp plates resist ordinary projectiles better than Harvey armor does, but Harvey plates resist capped projectiles better and are not liable to crack. Krupp armor 12 inches thick withstands and smashes 1 2-inch shells, though dented four or six inches, but is cracked by i,8oo-lb. torpedo shells. On May 27, 1908, the 1 1 -inch armor plate of the Florida, a United States monitor, successfully re- sisted 12-inch shells containing a new high explosive. The first plates used were less than five inches thick. By 1876 solid steel plates of 22-inch thickness had been produced. Fully 4,000 tons of armor- plate are used on the exposed sides and turrets of some modern battleships. Ar'mour, Philip D., a Chicago merchant, head for many years of the great firm of Armour & Co., pork-packers and dealers in dressed meats and provisions, was born at Stockbridge, N. Y., May 16, 1832, and died at Chicago, January 6, 1001. The house with which he was long identified, and through the successful operations of which Mr. Armour amassed a large fortune, was founded in 1862 by Herman O. Armour, Philip D. Armour joining the Chicago con- cern in 1875. The volume of its business, which gave employment to more than 11,000 persons, exceeded a hundred millions a year. Much of his large income Mr. Armour gave away in private and public charities. The chief object of his benevo- lence was the Armour Institute of Tech- nology in Chicago, which was opened in 1893, an d now has 68 instructors and an enrollment of 1,800 students. Connected with this were a mission and a group of apartment buildings, rented to working- men and their families, known as the Armour flats. Mr. Armour's enterprises included, besides the great dressed-meat factory, a grain business of large volume and ownership in a great railway system. His wealth was estimated at his death at about forty millions. Armour, Hon. John Douglas, born county of Peterborough (Ontario), 1830, son of the Reverend Samuel Armour. Edu- cated at Upper Canada College and Toronto University. Studied law with Chancellor Vankoughnet and was called to the bar in 1853. His progress at the bar was rapid. Appointed judge (Court of Queen's Bench), 1877. Made president of the court in 1887. Declined knighthood. One of the ablest of Canadian judges. Ap- pointed one of His Majesty's Commis- sioners in the Alaska Boundary case. He died in 1903,^1 England, when on a public mission. Arms, weapons of defense. Just as the invention of powder made armor useless, so it changed the kinds of weapons used, which differentiates weapons into ancient and modern arms. Of ancient arms, the most common in the earliest wars were missiles to be used at long range. Thus, in the time of the Old Testament, the bow and the javelin were the favorite weapons of oriental races, while for close fighting merely straight daggers were used. Among the Greeks the chiefs used a long and heavy spear, which they threw as a missile, often ending their combats by a duel with short swords. The masses fought with a pike, in close column or in a phalanx, which afterward became so famous in the Mace- donian phalanx with which Alexander the Great conquered the world. The pike was twenty-four feet long, held in the hand, and the men were so drawn up as to present a solid front of glittering spear-points. The Romans used a short massive javelin, six feet long, which they hurled at the enemy at a distance of ten or fifteen paces, and then closed on them with their short two- edged broadswords. They depended largely on the broadsword, and the lines were so drawn up that each man had room for full play with it in single combats, in which the training of the Romans almost always secured them the victory. In the middle ages steel-clad caralry were the main strength of the armies. Their arms were ' the lance, mace, battle- ARMSTRONG 107 ARMY axe and the two-handed sword; but they relied mainly on the lance. This was a heavy weapon, eighteen feet in length, balanced by the weight of its butt end, which was often a foot in diameter at twenty inches from the extremity, and made to fit the arm of the champion as it was laid in rest. The infantry carried at this time the famous cloth-yard bow; the bills, like a heavy scythe blade, set erect on a four-foot shaft! the leaden mallets and long knives of the Anglo-Normans; the pikes and halberds of the Swiss; the crossbows of the Genoese; and the Scottish spear. Modern arms begin with the battle of Pavia in 1525, when the matcklock was first used so as to be of any real service, though it was awkward and had to be used from a rest. It was gradually improved, and at the beginning of the lyth century the bayonet was added, which made it much more complete, as it gave the musketeer a means of defense at close quarters. The rifle was brought into prominence in the American Revolution and in the Revolution in France. Since that time improvement has been rapid, and the invention of the simple modern percussion lock, of the minie-rifle bullet, of revolving-chamber Eistols and of breechloading of every kind as greatly increased the destructive char- acter of warfare.. The greatest^ attention and most experi- menting are given to field artillery. Old systems and types passed away with 1892, and in 1900 the weapon used in 1890 was not considered good enough. Machine- guns that load, fire and extract by ma- chinery are the weapons of to-day. Some are operated by hand-power, others by the action of the powder-gases on a piston or through the recoil of the barrel. The in- vention of smokeless powder, the applica- tion of electricity and the use of powerful explosives in shells have in recent years doubled the efficiency of arms. The speed at which they can be discharged has also increased greatly, the U. S. warship Georgia, five years younger than the Oregon, being able to fire nearly three and a half times faster. Smoke and fouling have been done away with. The size of weapons and their recoil from firing have been lessened. Pressure in the ammunition chamber has been diminished. Soldiers as well as gunners can aim now without exposing themselves, for not only is the telescope used for sight- ing by fastening it to the weapon, but there is an invention, called the hyposcope, consisting of a series of mirrors in a tube below the line of sight. To-day, the United States regular in- fantry and cavalry are armed with the short U. S. rifle, Springfield model 1903, which superseded the Krag-Jorgensen. See ARTILLERY and GUNNERY. Armstrong, Samuel Chapman, an educa- tional philanthropist, was born in 1839 in the Hawaiian Islands, where his father was a missionary, and died at Hampton, Va., May ii, 1893. I n l862 he entered the Union army and rose to the rank of briga- dier-general. During the war he took a hearty interest in the Freedmen's Bureau, and in 1868 he founded and became prin- cipal of the Hampton Institute of Vir- ginia for the education of negroes and In- dians. Ar'my, a body of armed men, so or- ganized and disciplined as to become a vast, movable military engine. ANCIENT ARMIES. Sesostris of Egypt, about sixteen centuries before Christ, is the first conqueror who is said to have maintained a regular army. He divided his kingdom into thirty-six military prov- inces, and established a militia with which he overran Asia as far as India. Some centuries later the great Persian kings formed a vast standing army, apportioned as garrisons among the provinces, under control of military governors. In time of war this army was increased by a general levy from the barbarian peoples that had been conquered. The Greeks, who alone could resist these vast barbarian hosts, kept no standing army, but maintained militia in each small state which united in times of foreign war. They did much, however, for military science; the Spartans invented the phalanx; the Athenians added their light-armed troops and cavalry to cover the front and to harass the enemy in the rear. Miltiades is said to have first used the "double step," to increase the momentum of attack, while the Thebans first made use of the long and narrow col- umn to pierce the lines of the enemy. The rise of the great Macedonian power marks the next standing army, which under Philip and Alexander conquered the world. Rome introduced changes in army mat- ters that have influenced the whole civil- ized world. About 200 B. C. every Roman from the age of seventeen to forty-six was liable to be called upon to serve as a soldier. The levies passed through a severe course of discipline. Every year the mag- istrates sent up the names of the men liable to service, from which their legions were chosen, and the Roman legion in its best days excelled all other troops in discipline and valor. ARMIES OP THE MIDDLE AGES. When the feudal system arose, national armies gave place to the small armies gathered around each chief, whose little conflicts make up the greater part of the wars of the middle ages. The crusades first united these troops into an army against a com- mon foe, and showed the need of organiza- tion and discipline; and from this time foot-soldiers began to take the place of the ARMY sod ARMY mounted chivalry which had carried on the warfare of the previous few centuries. MODERN ARMIES. With the use of fire- arms began the gradual change in army methods which has resulted in the modern military system. During the Thirty Years' war (1618-48) Gustavus Adolphus experi- mented with methods of dealing with in- fantry; the long wars of the reign of Louis XIV brought in the grouping of armies into brigades and divisions; while Frederick the Great in the next century carried tactics and drill to such a point of perfection that nearly all his victories were won by manceuvering. Horse artillery was first used during this period. The French Revolution so exhausted the resources of France that she was compelled to pass a law in 1798, making military service com- pulsory. Every citizen was made liable to four years' service, and all between the ages of twenty and twenty-five were en- rolled. This irresistible power gave Na- poleon such an advantage that the other European powers, except England, followed her example; and Prussia added the reserve system. Now, in most nations, will be found a standing army, with its several corps and body of cavalry, and an army of reserves, of two classes, those awaiting immediate call to arms and the militia or second line of reserves. Among European nations, all except Great Britain, have com- pulsory service. Under compulsory service the pay of the soldier is small so that at a given expense more men are kept under arms than under the volunteer system and the state has, in time of war, its entire mass of able-bodied men to draw upon. The theory that volun- teers fight with more enthusiasm than con- scripts is not borne out by facts, results depend- ing rather upon the national attitude toward army service and the state. As to the en- thusiastic attitude of the Germans toward army service, see Collier's Germany and the Germans. UNITED STATES ARMY. The United States has been notable for its small standing-army in time of peace as compared with European nations. Before the Civil War the army numbered but 12,000 men. During the Civil War, in various levies, a total of 2,859,132 men were mustered in for various periods of service. This immense army was quickly disbanded at the close of the war, and in 1874 a law was passed which fixed the maximunv strength of the army at 25,000 enlisted men. The exigency of the Spanish - American war, however, was provided for by an increase of the regular army and the organization of a volunteer army, which reached a maximum of 58,688 regulars and 216,029 volunteers, an aggre- gate of 274,717. _ In 1901 a law was passed by Congress which increased the standing- army to provide for the needs of the gov- ernment under new conditions. On June 3, 1916, a federal law was passed providing for the gradual increase of the national guard from an immediate strength of 200 men for each senator and represen- tative in congress to a strength of 800 for each senator and representative, making a total of 400,000. While the old law "re- quested" the militia of the different States to adopt the physical standards and dis- cipline of the United States army, the new law requires it; and the progress of each organization is kept before the proper au- thorities by means of a system of reports and records, supplementing the annual inspec- tion. While, previous to this enactment the president could call out the guard only to repel invasion or suppress insurrection or rebellion, this law provides that members of the guard can be drafted into the military service and that their service is not limited "to any particular class of duty or to any particular territory," thus giving the central government absolute control of the guard in time of war. General Staff. By act of Congress, approved February 14, 1903, the position of commanding general of the army was abolished and a general staff corps was established, to be composed of officers detailed from the army. The general staff corps consists of one chief of staff and two general officers to be detailed by the presi- dent, four colonels, six lieutenant-colonels, twelve majors and twenty captains. The duties of the staff are to prepare plans for the national defense and for the mobiliza- tion of the military forces in time of war; to consider all questions relating to the efficiency of the army and its state of prepa- ration for military service; to render pro- fessional aid to the secretary of war and superior commanders and to act as their agents in informing and co-ordinating the action of all the different officers to the supervision of the chief of staff; and to per- form such other duties as may be prescribed by the president. ARMY PAY. Annual salaries of officers are as follows: Grade. Active. Retired. Lieutenant-general $i 1,000 $8,250 Major-general 8,000 6,000 Brigadier-general 6,000 4,500 Colonel 4,000 3,000 Lieutenant-colonel 3,500 2,625 Major. 3,000 2,250 Captain, mounted -. 2,400 1,800 Captain, unmounted 2,200 First lieutenant, mounted. ...... 2,000 1,500 First lieutenant, unmounted .... 1,900 Second lieutenant, mounted 1,700 1,275 Second lieutenant, unmounted. . . 1,600 After five years' service 10 per cent, is added to the salaries at intervals of five years until the increase amounts to 40 per cent, of the pay of the grade. Thus a col- onel after twenty years' service gets $4,800 a year. Non-commisioned officers are paid from $18 to $45 a' month, and private soldiers $15. Officers and enlisted men serving ARMY-WORM 109 ARNOLD, BENEDICT in Alaska and the island possessions are paid 10 and 20 per cent, additional, respectively. The president (q. v.) is officially the com- mander-in-chief of both the army and navy and of the militia of the several states when they are called into actual service of the U. S. His position is much like that of the president of a manufacturing corporation who usually does not understand the technical processes of the business but whose services are of great value in maintaining a general supervision over policies and results. Congress may be compared to the board of directors of such a corporation for it has the power (Constitution Art. I, Sec. 8) to provide for the common defense, declare war, raise and support armies, provide for calling forth the militia, to execute the laws and for organizing, arming and dis- ciplining the militia and governing it when employed in the services of the United States. In monarchial countries the commander-in- chief of the army is the sovereign but, as in the United States, the control of army matters is more or less in the hands of the representatives of the people, depending upon the extent to which the monarchy approaches absolutism in those countries. Army- Worm, the larva of a very common destructive moth. It appears every year in the United States east of the Rocky Moun- tains, but attracts attention only when it appears in great numbers. Then it marches, like an army, from one field to another, destroying the crops in its path. The worm is one and one-half inches long when full grown, and striped with black, yellow and green. Fields of grain are protected by surrounding them with ditches with vertical sides, into which the worms fall and cannot get out. Their numbers are largely kept down by fungous diseases and parasitic insects. Arndt (drnt), Ernest Moritz, a German poet and patriot, was born in 1769 on the island of Rugen. The son of a former serf, he yet received a good education with a view of entering the ministry; but after traveling over a great part of Europe he became professor of history at Greifswald. He assisted in the abolition of serfdom by his writings; and an attack on Napo- leon in another work compelled Arndt to flee to Stockholm after the battle of Jena. Returning after a few years to Germany, he was active in stirring up the national feeling of his countrymen and in preparing them to throw off the foreign yoke. His songs, poems and other writings kept up the spirit of the Germans during the war of liberation. His famous song, Was ist das Deutschen Vaterland (What is the German Fatherland?), is sung wherever German is spoken. In January, 1818, he became professor of history in the then new Uni- versity of Bonn, from which position he was suspended because of his energy in re- forms, but restored in 1840. He was at one time a member of the national assem- bly. Vigorous in mind and body, be- loved by the whole German nation as Father Arndt, he died at the age of 90 in January, 1860. Arnim, Bettina von, famous for her acquaintance and correspondence with Goethe, was born at Frankfort, April 4, 1785. Her intimacy with Goethe lasted from 1807 to 1811. Shortly after his death she published a mass of correspond- ence said to have passed between them. There is no doubt that Bettina put a large amount of new matter into Goethe's let- ters, and some of them he never wrote at all. However, Bettina's freshness and power as a writer make them interesting and valuable. Her correspondence with the friend of her youth, Caroline von Giinderode, and with her brother Clemens Brentano, probably equally fictitious, while not as famous as her correspondence with Goethe, is of high value. She died in 1859. Ar'no, next to the Tiber the most im- portant river of Central Italy, rises on Mount Falterona, at a height of 4,444 feet above the sea. It flows westward 140 miles and empties into the sea, eleven miles below Pisa. At Florence it is 400 feet wide, but can be forded in summer; at other times it can be navigated by barges thus far. It is noted for its rapid and destructive floods. Ar'nofd, Benedict, a brilliant and dashing American general, but a traitor to his country. He was born in Norwich, Conn., January 14, 1741. Reckless and fond of adventure, he ran away from home when fif- teen years old, and joined the American forces in the French and Indian War but soon de- serted. On the breaking out of the Revolution- a r y War, he helped Ethan Allen and his Green Moun- tain Boys to BENEDICT ARNOLD capture Fort Ticonderoga; took a gallant part in the disastrous siege of Quebec, where he was wounded, and for his bravery was made a brigadier-general; and handled with skill a flotilla in the battle of Valcour Island. Arnold had a violent temper, and when, in 1777, five of his inferiors in rank were made major-generals, he was very angry, but kept on fighting in the colonial _ cause showing his usual skill and bravery in the battle of Ridgefield, where his conduct gained him the rank of major-general, and in the battle of Saratoga, where his ARNOLD, SIR EDWIN 1X0 AROOSTOOK WAR horse was killed tinder him and he him- self was severely wounded. Disabled by his wound, he spent much of the winter of 1777-78 in the hospital at Albany, and the next spring was placed in command of Philadelphia. Here he met Major An- dr6, with whom he formed an acquaint- ance which ended disastrously for both. In 1780, Arnold, at his own request, was given command of West Point on the Hudson, one of the most important points in the colonies, which he traitorously agreed to betray into the hands of the British. After his secret interview with Andr6, and the capture of that officer, Arnold fled to the British army, in which he was given a command. In the latter part of the war he led an attack against his native state, and when peace was declared, went to London, where he lived in obscurity until his death on June 14, 1801. Ar'nold, Sir Edwin, an English poet, scholar and journalist, was born June 10, 1832, the son of a Sussex magistrate. He studied at Rochester and at King's Col- lege, London; was elected to a scholarship at University College, Oxford, where he won the Newdigate prize by a poem on Belshazzar's Feast. He taught at Bir- mingham, and was principal of the govern- ment Sanskrit College, at Poona, India. In 1861 he became one of the editors of the Daily Telegraph, London; and, in con- nection with it, to him was largely due the sending of Mr. George Smith to Assy- ria for exploratory purposes and of Stanley to Lake Victoria and down the Congo. His writings, chiefly poems, include. The In- dian Song of Songs, Indian Poetry, Pearls of the Faith, The Song Celestial, The Light of Asia and The Light of the World, He died March 24, 1904. Arnold, Matthew, an eminent English poet, essayist and critic. He was born at Laleham, Decembei 24, 1822, the eldest son of Dr. Arnold of Rugby. He studied at Winchester, Rugby and Balliol Col- lege, Oxford, and was made a fel- low of Oriel. Af- ter acting for some years as a private secreta- ry, he was made government in- spector of schools. In 1857 he was elected professor of poe- t try at Oxford. > In 1883 he lec- t u r e d in the United States. Arnold's poeti- cal works place him in the front As a critic his MATTHEW ARNOLD rank of modern poets. literary judgments have long been received by the literary world with a higher respect than is given to the criticisms of most other writers. His prose works include Essays in Criticism, Culture and Anarchy, Literature and Dogma, Irish Essays and Last Essays on Church and Religion. He died suddenly at Liverpool on April 15, 1888. See Letters of M. Arnold (1848-88), collected by G. W. E. Russell and the monograph by George Saintsbury. Arnold, Thomas, headmaster of Rugby, was born June 13, 1795, on the Isle of Wight. He studied at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, and hi 1815 was elected a fellow of Oriel College. As a boy he was shy and retiring, as a youth somewhat bold and unsettled in his opinions, but in his studies he took a high rank. The next few years were spent in fitting pupils for the university, in beginning his History of Rome and in the quiet study and thought which gave him those positive ideas o* Christian belief and life which were strongly expres ed in his later years. From this life he was called to be headmaster at Rugby, a position which made him famous as a teacher of boys. He had the tact to make himself both loved and feared. He made it a practice to believe his scholars. "If you say so, that is enough; of course, I believe your word." And so there grew up a feeling among the boys that it was a shame to tell him a lie. Once when he had sent away several boys, he said: "It is not necessary that this should be a school of three hundred, or one hundred or fifty boys; but it is necessary that it should be a school of Christian gentlemen." In 1841 he was made professor of modern history at Oxford, and he was just enter- ing with enthusiasm upon his new duties, when he died suddenly, June 12, 1842. He was buried in Rugby chapel. His great work, the History of Rome, was broken off at the end of the second Punic War by his death. The story of his life has been told by one of his old pupils, Dean Stanley, in his Life and Correspond- ence of Arnold; but he will be best known as the schoolmaster in Tom Brown's School- Days, by Thomas Hughes, another of his pupils. A'roids, the common name of the great plant family Aracece, which contains about 1,000 species. The great display of aroids is hi the tropics, where they are remarkably diversified. In our own flora, Jack-in- the-pulpit, sweet flag and skunk cabbage may be taken as representatives. One of the best known forms is the cultivated calla-lily. The feature of the group is the huge enveloping bract or spathe, which incloses the fleshy spike of incon- spicuous flowers. Aroostook (a-rdos'took) War, a some- what jocular name given the boundary \RPAD III ARSENAL dispute arising between the province of New Brunswick, Canada, and the state of Maine, reaching its crisis in 1839 and settled amicably in 1842. By the treaty acknowledging American independence in 1783, the boundary between the two coun- tries was loosely defined to be the St. Croix River, eked out by a line from its source to the watershed between 'the streams flowing to the St. Lawrence and those to the Atlantic Ocean. The United States set up for boundary a stream far ^to the east of the river, only to have their con- tention disproved by the discovery of Champlain's little colony on the island at the true river's mouth. A branch to the east was then seized upon, but commis- sioners agreed upon the most westerly branch and there, in 1798, set a stone monument The watershed then fell into dispute; tbe United States asserted that it skirted the St. Lawrence valley, a hun- dred miles north. The district became known as the disputed territory. In 1829 the king of the Netherlands, to whom the dispute was referred for arbitra- ment, refused a decision. Ten years later, lumber-thieves began cutting timber there in defiance of all law. The Maine authori- ties arrested them, and were in turn ar- rested by New Brunswick lumbermen. Maine sent 1,800 militia to the Aroostook River, and a call was issued for 10,000 more to take possession. Sir John Har- vey, governor of New Brunswick, occupied the ground with two regiments of regu- lars, artillery and several bands of volun- teers. Nova Scotia voted all her militia and 100.000 in aid. At this crisis ^Gen. Winfield Scott was sent on by President Van Buren. Harvey had fought against htm at Lundy's Lane and Stony Creek, and their respect was mutual. The war- fever abated, and the question was referred to a. commission. In 1842 Alexander Baring, for Great Britain, and Daniel Web- ster, for the United States, met and framed the treaty known as the Ashburton, from the barony soon to be conferred upon Mr. Baring. Under it a line was continued due north from the monument of 1798 until it met the St. John River somewhat beyond the mouth of the Aroostook, giving New Brunswick only 5,000 and Maine 7,000 square miles cf the land in dispute. When the treaty came up for confirma- tion in tbe United States senate, ratifica- tion was at first refused, the United States wanting all the territory. But when Web- ster produced a map which had been in his possession all the time, showing that Franklin himself in 1783 had agreed precisely upon the boundaries set up by New Brunswick, the treaty was confirmed.. The survey in pursuance of the Ashburton treaty is not yet complete, but several tupposedly American towns have been compelled to transfer their allegiance to New Brunswick as it has proceeded. Ar'pad, the national hero of Hungary, under whom the Magyars first gained a footing in the country about the year 884. Chosen duke en his father's death, he carried on an incessant warfare with the Bulgarians, Wallachians and Moravians, and made several successful sallies into Italy. He died in 907, leaving his power to his son. The Arpad dynasty ruled Hungary as dukes until 1000, and as kings from ^that year until 1301. Arpad still lives in the popular songs of his country, and not a little legend has gathered around his name. Arrhenius (dr-re'nt-us'), Svante, a dis- tinguished Swedish chemist, born Feb- ruary 19, 1859. At the age of 19 he re- ceived the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Upsala. Since 1895 he has been professor of physics in Stock- holm. His most important contributions to knowledge are in the domain of physical chemistry, more particularly in the theory of solutions. The explanation which he has recently offered for the repulsion which the tails of comets experience on approach- ing the sun is probably the simplest and most satisfactory ever given. Ar'rowroot. A well-known starch ob- tained from the thick underground stems of various tropical plants related to Canna. Arrowroot is adulterated with the starches of potatoes and corn. Ar'senal, a government establishment for the manufacture, storing and issue of arms, gunpowder and other munitions of war for land and marine forces. In the United States those naval arsenals which provide for the construction and repair of war vessels, are called navy yards. In the Old World, where the term is more familiar and is equivalent to our navy yard, the most notable is the Royal English arsenal at Woolwich, a borough of the metropolis, with its great gun-fac- tories, military carriage and transport departments, laboratories and establish- ments for the manufacture of ordinance and war stores, and the seat also of the Royal Military Academy for the education of cadets for the artillery and engineer service. Besides Woolwich, there are also in England notable naval dock-yards at Portsmouth, Chatham, Sheerness, Mill- wall and the West India docks at London, together with naval stations abroad at Gibraltar, Malta, Ascension, Bermuda, Cape of Good Hope, Sydney, Bombay and Weihaiwei. Other Old World arsenals em- brace those of France at Cherbourg, Brest, Toulon, and Le Orient ; those of Germany at Wilhelmshaven, Kiel and Dantzic; those of Russia at Kronstadt, Reval and Sevastopol; besides Antwerp in Belgium, Cartagena in Spain and Venice and Spezia ARSENIC ZX2 ART in Italy. In the United States the home navy yards, are at Brooklyn, N. Y., Charlestown, Mass., Kittery, N. H., Wash- ington, D. C., League Island, Pa., Ports- mouth, Va., Mare Island, Cal. and Puget Sound, Wash. Besides these, there are naval stations at Charleston and Port Royal, S. C., Key West, Fla., Algiers, La., Pensacola, Fla. and at North Chicago, 111., for the Great Lakes service; together with torpedo and training stations at Newport, R. I., and a training station at Yerba Buena Island, Cal. In foreign parts the United States have naval stations at Tutuila, Samoa; at the Island of Guam; San Juan, Porto Rico; Culebra, W. I.; Guantanamo, Cuba; Honolulu, Hawaii; and Cavite, Philippine Islands. At home, Springfield, Mass., has from the Revolu- tionary era been the seat of the small- arms manufacture; Harper's Ferry at an early era also became important as an arsenal, with others, later on selected, at Watertown, Mass., Watervliet, N. Y. and Rock Island, 111., besides a powder depot at Dover, N. J. and a proving ground at Sandy Hook, N. J. During the Civil War, there were arsenals at Springfield, Boston, Washington and elsewhere, but then, as now, for powder, small-arms and war sup- plies, the United States chiefly depended and depends on private factories, and on the larger manufacturing firms; also for the heavy guns used by the army and navy. Ar'senic. See POISONS. Art. When we think of "all creation," we think of the sky and the earth and all things in and of and around the sky and earth, including, finally, people and the things they have created. To this whole concept we sometimes apply the name of Nature. When we wish to distin- guish from the rest of nature the things that human beings have accomplished, we sometimes use the word Art. This word is used in other senses, too, but in its largest sense it includes all those things that have been added by man to nature as he found her. In this light art might be said to begin where nature leaves off to be, in other words, "all but nature." As a matter of fact, however, we know that nature never does and never will "leave off" so long as man "keeps on," and that art is simply our name for Nature, when she works through man's intention. The stem A R from which the word art is descended is probably the same stem from which we get such words as articu- late, "to fashion," "to join," and arith- metic, fundamentally, "a putting together," as well as artificial and artisan. The word Art igifi doing, a making, a fashion- ing or a putting together, and it usually im- plies tkat the thing is accomplished by human skill. Dr. Johnson's definition for art is "The power of doing something which is not taught by nature or by instinct;" for ex- ample we say, "the art of making violins." But the word has other applications; we have already seen that it signifies not only the power of doing, but also the doing itself; as, when we speak of "devoting one's life to art," we mean, usually, the production of works of art. Besides this the word may mean the principles which govern the doing; as in the phrase, "a training in art." Lastly, the word is used with ref- erence to the thing done and we speak of "French art" when we mean the produc- tions of the artists of France. The various arts are, in our day broadly divided into two classes, ordinarily dis- tinguished as the useful arts and the fine arts. The meaning of the former of these terms is self-evident and it, in turn covers such subdivisions as the lib- eral arts, industrial arts, manual arts, household arts and others. The second term, the fine arts (see FINE ARTS), desig- nates those activities which have their root in man's impulsive nature, with beauty in some form as their result. The word art is nowadays often applied to fine arts alone; thus we sometimes speak of "art-lovers," meaning persons who are interested in the fine arts; and sometimes the significance of the term is narrower still so that it refers simply to sculpture and painting or even to paint- ing only. When any other activity than the fine arts is specifically referred to as "an art," the idea of excellence is usually implied either in the end to be attained or in the mode of attaining the end; as, "the art of flying;" "the conjuror's art;" "the art of boiling an egg " At all times some art or arts have been held in higher esteem than others, this often being due to the fact that some arts demand a more complex use of the faculties than others and sometimes to the circumstances under which the various arts were practiced. Under the feudal system for instance, warfare was regarded as one of the highest and most important of arts. In communities like ancient Rome, where the land was tilled by free cultivators, agriculture was considered one of the highest arts. In Pompeii, where the art of painting was practiced by the slaves exclusively, this came to be regarded as one of the meaner arts. In medieval Italy, where commerce and manu- facturing became highly organized, they wer ranked among the "greater arts, and the word art (rt*) was used to desig- nate the guilds or companies by which these activities were carried on. There is standing in Florence to this day a beautiful building, erected by the ARTEMIS ARTEVELDE Arte of the Wool Merchants; connected with it is a corn-warehouse decorated with statues of the saints, contributed by the arte or guilds of the city, and executed by the best artists of the time. We have spoken of the term art as cov- ering all human activity. We have thus far avoided any special reference to that form of human activity which consists in the contemplation and analysis of nature the subject which we call science. Never- theless, since science strictly speaking, does not aim to produce things, but only to ascertain truths, it is clearly to be seen that it can be included only in the broad- est interpretation of the term we are de- fining. If we can show what part of the field of human activity belongs to science, we may, by establishing its boundaries, find out just what is the field of art. With what material does science deal? Our premise was that science deals with existing fact; all facts in nature fall within the scope of science. What is it that science does with these facts? Science observes, records, and in so far as possible explains these facts, shows their relations, one to another, and makes deductions from them. Now, with what does art deal? Art, since it adds to those things which nature has provided, deals with the production or attainment of ends, first assuming the desirability of such ends. Architecture, the art of building, for in- stance, assumes the need of houses and sets about producing them. Architecture calls in science with its knowledge of the stone, wood and clay which nature has provided and its knowledge of the effects of the elements upon such stone, wood and clay. Having obtained this knowledge from science, architecture acts upon it. To sum up the functions of art and science : "Science is the knowing, art is the doing. Art evolves, science involves." It is thus seen that art cannot go on without science. Neither can science ad- vance its investigations without the aid of art that is to say, human activity in carrying on its experiments and build- ing its hypotheses. Science has been described as in the indicative mood, ex- pressing itself by means of the declara- tive sentence: "Two and two are four." Art, then, is in the imperative: "Produce four." While science deals with the funda- mentals by which ends are to be attained, art deals with the ends themselves, and with the attaining of them. GEORGE WILLIAM EGGERS. Artemis. See DIANA. Ar' tery, the name of the tubular vessels that convey blood from the heart. There are two sets of arteries: (i) The great aorta, springing from the left ventricle of the heart and reaching by numerous sub- divisions and branches all the tissues of the body. (2) The pulmonary artery, springing from the right ventricle of the heart and branching through the lungs. The former is the systemic, the latter the pulmonary system. The pulmonary ar- tery, of course, carries venous blood. The arteries are elastic, and, when filled with blood, are stretched and exert a steady pressure on that fluid. This causes them to force most of the blood on into the veins after death, and led the ancient anatomists to believe that the arteries were air tubes and the veins only blood vessels. The arteries and veins are con- nected by capillaries. The aorta was named by Aristotle. Artesian (dr-te'zhan) Wells are borings straight down into the ground through which water rises above the surface of the ground. The possibility of getting water in this way depends upon the rock forma- tion at a place. There is more or less water in all rocks. Rocks which are sandy and easily broken up part with a greater or less portion of the water they receive. For example, a cubic yard of pure sea- sand can hold about one third its bulk of water. It would part with nearly the whole of this into a well sunk in it and regularly pumped from. Chalk, which is composed of fine particles closely pressed together, holds as large a proportion of water ; but from the power of what is called cap- illary attraction the same power that , lifts the sap in trees little water would : drain into a well sunk in such a rock. Where porous layers of rock are found resting on a layer which is impervious to water and covered by another layer also impervious, the water in the middle layer is held im- j prisoned. Where these three layers run ! across a valley and up a hill on each side, ithey will be exposed to the air at the top. I The falling rain is carried down the middle i layer, and gathers at the bottom of the i valley, and in time the whole porous layer becomes water logged, and the water at .the center is under strong pressure. Now, if a bore is made at the bottom of the val- ley into the water logged layer, the pressure will force the water above the surface. The most famous artesian well is that at Grenelle near Paris, which was bored in 1833-1841. and whose water is brought from a depth of 1,798 feet. It yields 516^ gallons of water a minute, which is forced thirty- two feet above the surface. The Chinese and Egyptians knew about artesian wells, and they have been bored in the Sahara desert. There are many artesian wells ii the United States, where they are utilized for supplying cities, towns, villages and farms with water. Artevelde (ar'ta-velt). Jacob Van, a Flemish leader of the people in the i4th century, was a brewer in Ghent. His wealth, eloquence and talents made him ARTEVELDE 114 ARTHUR the most prominent man on the side of the citizens in their struggles against Count Louis of Flanders. The people of Ghent made him commander of their forces, and he banished from the town all the nobles and friends of the count. His power was secure for ten years, but in 1335 he made a treaty with Edward III of England, persuading him to assume the title of king of France. To strengthen this alliance, he tried to make Edward the Black Prince count of F\anders, when the people rose in rebellion and Artevelde was slain July, 24, 1345- Artevelde, Philip Van, son of the above; born in 1340. In 1381 the people of Ghent, who had driven away the Count of Flanders and plundered his house, were closely blockaded by the count. At this juncture, Philip, as the son of the great Artevelde, was asked to become their leader. The count's army was badly defeated and Bruges, which had sided with the count, was plundered and submitted to Artevelde. His power only lasted a year ; a French army invading Flanders routed the forces of Ghent, and many thousands were killed, including Artevelde. His death occurred in Belgium, November 27, 1382. Arthrop'oda. The largest sub-kingdom of animals, containing an immense num- ber of species. They are known by having an articulated body and jointed legs. The group embraces four great divisions or classes: I. Crustacea, including the lob- sters, crabs, crayfish, shrimps and others. They usually live in the water and breathe by gills. The common pill-bug is an ex- ception. 2. Arachnida, the spiders, daddy- long-legs, scorpions, mites and others. In this class the head and thorax are united. They have four walking legs and no antennae. The representatives are air-breathers. 3. Myriapoda, the centipedes and thousand- legged worms. They are air-breathers, with the head bearing antennae and dis- tinct from the thorax. The latter forms with the other joint of the body a contin- uous line of segments fiom six to two hun- dred in number. Each of these segments bears a pair of legs. 4. Insecta, the largest class, including all insects. These bieathe by air tubes distributed through the body. They show great variety of form and structure. The king crabs, the fossil trilo- bites and the interesting peripatus (see INSECTA) are sometimes separated from the other Arthropoda into distinct classes. Ar'thur, a prince of the Britons, who is supposed to have lived about the 6th century. He is pictured in legend as the champion of the British tribes against the Saxon invaders and as the ideal of a knightly hero. The son of King Uther, he became leader of the Britons after his father's death. He married Guenevere, the fair- est princess in the land, and with her lived in splendid state at Caerleon in Wales, surrounded by hundreds of knights and beautiful ladies, patterns of valor, breeding and grace to all the world. Twelve knights, the bravest of the throng, formed the cen- ter of the retinue, and sat with the king at a round table, known as the famous Knights of the Round Table. From Arthur's court knights went forth to all countries in search of adventure, to protect women, chastise oppressors, liberate the enchanted and to enchain giants and malevolent dwarfs. Among the most renowned of these heroes of legend were Percival, Tristram, Gal- lahad, Lancelot and. the enchanter, Mer- lin. Arthur was killed in battle by _his nephew, Modred, who had revolted against him. His body was carried by fairies to the Isle ot Avalon to be cured, whence he was expected to return some day again to lead the Britons against the Saxons. Many critics doubt the existence of Arthur, and, of course, the stories that have gathered about his name are, many ^of them, only beautiful legends. His fancied adventures have been sung in many languages, but for English readers they are told most beautifully in Tennyson's Idylls of the King. At Innsbruck, in the Franciscan church, is a magnificent ideal, life-sized, bronze figure of Arthur. Arthur, Chester Alan, the twenty- first president of the United States, was born at Fairfield, Vermont, October 5, 1830. His father was the Rev. W. Arthur, D. D., a Baptist minister and a native of the north of Ireland. He was graduated at Union College, New York, and was ad- mitted to the bar in 1853. At the out- break of the Civil War he held the post of inspector-general, and during the war was quartermaster -gen- eral for the New York forces. When he re- turned to the law, he was head of an emi- nent law firm. He took a prominent share in politics on the Republican side. In 1871 President Grant appointed him collector of customs at the port of New York. He was elected vice-presi- dent of the United States when Garfield was made president. The death of Gar- field called Arthur to the chief mag- istracy, and he was installed as president on September 22, 1881, and held the office till March, 1885, when he was succeeded by Grover Cleveland. During Arthur's term of office two important measures were passed by congress: a bill dealing with the Mormon question and one for the exclusion of the Chinese. His administration was CHESTER A, ARTHUR XI5 ARTILLERY recognized as clean and conservative, and he retired from office with the approba- tion of his party and the respect of the nation at large. He died November 18, 1886. Arthur's Seat. See EDINBURGH. AT' tides of Confed'era'tion. In 1776 the Continental Congress appointed a committee to draw up "Articles of Con- federation and Perpetual Union." This committee prepared the articles of con- federation and submitted them to Congress in 1776. It is not definitely known who wrote them. In the fall of 1777 the ar- ticles were sent to the legislatures of all the states for consideration. Within a year and a half all the states, excepting Maryland, had ratified them. Maryland refused to do so until all the states claim- ing any of the northwestern lands should give up their claims to the Confederation. These claims were finally granted, and Maryland ratified the articles in 1781. As the provisions of the articles went into effect, their weakness became very apparent. Congress was the governing body, and in it each state had one vote. On all important questions the approval of nine states was necessary to pass an act; thus a few states could easily defeat any measure. The main difficulty with this whole plan of government was that Con- gress could only recommend to the various states that they collect certain sums of money, or raise an army of a certain size, or perform other acts for the good of the country; but had no means of enforcing its recommendations. There was no well- defined executive department, and no courts were provided. A committee which was appointed by Congress and which contained one member from each state acted during the recess of Congress and performed such duties as Congress directed. The difficulties which at once arose from so loose and incomplete a plan of govern- ment soon became so serious that a change was necessary, and so our present federal constitution was prepared and adopted. Artll'lery, originally any projectile weapon or engine of war, even bows, arrows and slings, now it signifies either cannon of any kind or the 'soldiers who manage them. When field-guns began to be used, it was necessary to have a special body of men to study and become familiar with the flight and range of balls, the weight and strength of cannon and the manceuver- ing of heavy masses of field artillery. This was the origin of the artillery corps. After the great wars of the nineteenth century artillery had become the third great branch of military service, ranking with the in- fantry and cavalry. When cannon first came into use. the gunners were looked upon as mechanics and had a guild of tneir own. When a war broke out, the different monarchs hired as many of them as they wanted, their pay being four times that of an _ ordinary soldier. In battle, artillery tactics consisted simply of putting the guns in position, generally in front of the line, but taking care to hide them as much as possible, until they were ready to open fire^ In case of defeat they nearly always fell into the hands of the enemy, because of the difficulty of moving them. Louis XIV in 1671 was the first sovereign to create a special artillery force, and he also founded the first artillery school (1690). Among those nations which have done most to improve the artillery service ar the Americans, French and Germans, the latter standing at present foremost in this line. English artillery was mainly de. veloped within the igth century. Field ordnance has become very effective ol recent years, and, being lightened, its mobility has been greatly increased. The rapid-fire field-gun to-day fires more aimed shots in a minute than a whole battery of the old field-guns could. The new Ameri- can artillery combines the best and essen- tial features of the Wheeler and Ehrhardt guns. One of the largest guns ever built is the 1 6-inch breech-loading rifle of the United States seacoast cannon. It is almost fifty feet long, weighs about 130 tons and throws a 2,400 Ib. projectile nearly twenty- one miles. It can pierce 42 inches of the strongest steel. The heaviest guns ever put on ships are the great guns of the British Navy. The gatling and mitrail- leuse types have become obsolete. The rapid-firing, single shot Hotchkiss cannon, the Maxim-Nordenfeldt automatic cannon and the Krupp, Canet and Vickers-Maxim are the best-known types of artillery to- day. The rapid-fire guns vary from one- pounders to 13.5 rifles and from one round every two minutes to sixty in a single minute. Their range is from 7,500 to 18,000 feet. Now- adays gunners crouching behind steel shells never see the object at which they are firing. The battery commander scientifically finds the range for them and the accuracy of firing is amazing, as illustrated in our article on AERONAUTICS in connection with air scouting. In time of peace the president is authorized to reduce the battery organization. The law requires that one battery in each regi- ment shall be mounted, though it gives the president power to mount as many others as shall seem best to him. When not thus mounted, the batteries serve as heavy or garrison artillery, mainly in the seacoast fortifications. Special schools for artillery instruction have been founded in different countries. The United States Artillery School is at Fortress Monroe, Virginia. It aims at a course of training which shall not merely make expert artillerymen but men fitted for any office, however high in rank or command. The course is two ARUNDEL 116 ASBURY years, and is properly a post-graduate course with referenqe to the United States Military Academy. Ar'undel Marbles, part of a collection of ancient sculptures and antiquities gath- ered among the ruins of Greece early in the 1 7th century at the expense of the Earl of Arundel, and since 1667 in the possession of the University of Oxford. The most valuable of the marbles is the one bearing the Parian Chronicle, a compendium of the chief events in Grecian and Athenian his- tory, covering a period of 1,318 years or from the reign of Cecrops (1582 B. C.) to the archonship of Diognetus (264 B. C.). The Arundel Society of London, instituted in 1848 for promoting the knowledge of art by the publication of facsimiles and photo- graphs, was named after the Earl of Arundel. Aryans (dr'y&ns), the name given to the parent race from which most of the modern Europeans are supposed to have descended. The race, possibly, lived originally in the highlands of Central Asia and spoke a com- mon language. Now and then small groups separated from the parent fold and traveled to the northwest. The first of these groups were the Celts, who once seem to have spread over a large part of Europe, though the Welsh and Irish and a few other peoples are all that is left of them. A good while later the ancestors of the Italians, the Greeks and the Germans started westward and settled in the regions which these nations now occupy. Other tribes that set out in the same way are the Slavs, the Persians and the upper classes of Hindus. The languages of these different peoples are now quite different; but they show that they were once all part of the same root-tongue. The parent race was a peaceful, agricultural people, having a definite form of govern- ment. They probably lived in towns and built houses. All that we know about them comes from the study of the languages of European nations and of the Old-Persian and the high-caste races of Hindustan. The English are a branch of the Aryan race through the Germans. Asa, son of Abijah and great-grandson of Solomon, was the third king of Judah and reigned from about 929 to 873 B. C. He was very zealous in opposing the worship of heathen gods, and is noted for the wis- dom of his rule. A great army which the king of Ethiopia sent against him he com- pletely overthrew. During most of his reign he was at war with Baasha, king of Israel, and at one time formed an alliance against him with the king of Damascus. His son Jehoshaphat succeeded him. A'saph, one of the leaders of the choir appointed by King David for the religious service. His position probably became hereditary, his descendants thus forming a kind of religious order. He is supposed to have written several psalms. Asbes'tos, an incombustible mineral of a flax-like, fibrous texture, composed of silica, magnesia and lime, and usually occurring in veins in highly metamorphic rocks. The sources of supply of commercial asbestos are deposits of two distinct min- erals: one a variety of serpentine known as chrysotile; the other a variety of amphibole. The Canadian product, which is much prized, is of the chrysotile variety, and is chiefly found in, the Thetford dis- trict, in the province of Quebec. There the more expensive grades have a value of from $150 to $250 a ton, though the mill fibre or paper stock commands but $30 or so a ton. The yield of the Canadian product in 1910, was 75,678 tons, valued at $2,458,929, the most of which was exported, only a small part being reserved for home consumption. The sources of the supply in this country are the states of Georgia and Wyoming, Idaho and Vermont. In the United States the yield in 1910 was but 3,693 short tons, valued at $68,357. The foreign sources, besides Canada, where asbestos is found, are Australia, Russia, Corsica and the Tyrol. The uses are now many to which asbestos is put, among them the manufacture of fireproof clothing, lining felt, theater curtains, etc., where protection is sought from fire; it is also in use for incasing steam pipes, pistons, hot-air joints and furnace pipes as well as for lampwicKS. gas stoves and fireproof safes. It is valuable also for its heat-re- taining properties. The ancients were fa- miliar with asbestos, making use of it to envelope corpses on the funeral pyre, so as to retain the ashes. As'bury, Francis, the first bishop of the Methodist Episcopal church ordained in America. He was born in Staffordshire, England, August 20, 1745. At the age of fourteen he was apprenticed to a mechanic, but two years later was led to begin work as a local preacher. Later he joined the itinerant ministry, and after three years of service was sent as a missionary to America, being appointed in the following year gen- eral assistant by John Wesley. Here he brought new life into the work, and at the outbreak of the Revolution, when many other ministers returned to England, he kept on in his labors. At the end of the war, it was decided to found an independent M. E. church for America, and he was ordained in 1784 as bishop by his colleagues who had already been ordained by Wesley in England. For more than thirty years he worked earnestly and successfully, and the wonderful progress of Methodism in America was largely due to his efforts and ability. In many respects he was much like his teacher and chief, John Wesley. He helped to lay the foundation of the first Methodist college in America in 1785. He died in Virginia in 1816. ASCALON 117 ASH As'calon or Ashkelon, one of the five chief cities of the ancient Philistines, lying north of Gaza on the Mediterranean. It had a shrine of the Syrian fish-goddess Derketo, and was the birthplace of Herod the Great. In Solomon's time it was sub- ject to the Jews, but later became inde- pendent. Under the Romans it was a kind of republic and afterward the seat of a Christian bishop. The Arabs took it in 637, and in 1099 the crusaders, under Godfrey de Bouillon, gained a great victory before its walls. Recaptured by the Mos- lems, it was retaken after five months' siege in 1157 by Baldwin III. It was dismantled by Saladin in 1191, and com- pletely destroyed in 1270 by Sultan Bibars. Ascension (as-sen' shun) Island. Origi- nally discovered by the Portuguese in 1501 and called Concepcion Island, its redis- covery on Ascension Day, seven years later, procured for it the name it still holds. It is of volcanic origin, -j% miles long and with an area of 35 square miles, lying in latitude 7 55' south, longitude 14 25' west, 700 miles northwest of St. Helena. It came into possession of the British in 1815 and is under the jurisdiction of the admiralty, being used as a depot for coal, stores and provisions for ships on the South Atlantic station. It has been strongly fortified recently, and the discipline of a man-of-war is maintained. The population, including about 1 60 Kroomen, is 450. Georgetown, on the northwest coast, is the garrison station and there is an excellent sanitarium up Green Mountain. The island is a great resort of sea turtle, as well as of rabbits, wild goats and partridge. Ascension, Right, in astronomy, a term used with declination (tending down or aside), for defining the position of points of the celestial concave and indicating their positions relative to each other, right ascension being measured on the equinoc- tial from the first point of Aries eastward, while declination measures the secondaries of the equinoctial to the north and south poles of the heavens from o to 90. Right ascension, which is commonly expressed in time, one hour corresponding to 15 on the celestial sphere, is invariably measured from west to east, thus corresponding to longitude on the earth, while declination corresponds to latitude. The right ascen- sion of a star or other 'heavenly body is ascertained by a transit instrument and a clock. Ascham (as' karri), Roger, a well-known scholar and teacher, was born in a small English village about 1515, and was taken into the family of a nobleman to be educated. While there he showed so much taste for study, that in 1530 he was sent to St. John's College, Cambridge. He was specially fond of Latin and Greek, and soon became known as a scholar in those languages. Soon after his graduation he began to act as a tutor, and his success brought to him the sons of many noblemen. He was then appointed Greek lecturer at the university, and in 1544 was made university orator. He was very fond of archery, and wrote a book about the right way to use the bow. He also was quite a musician as well as an artist. In 1548 he was appointed to take charge of the education of Princess, after- ward Queen, Elizabeth. After traveling on the continent for a time, he became Latin secretary to Queen Mary, and when Eliza- beth became queen he spent part of each day with her, reading Latin and Greek authors, of which she was very fond. His success as a teacher led him to write his famous book called The Schoolmaster. He died at London in 1568. Ascomycetes (as-ko-mi-se' tez). A very large group of low plants (Fungi), among which the common mildews may be taken as a type. The mildews are surface para- sites and are commonly found covering the leaves of the higher plants with a whitish covering. The leaves of the lilac are very commonly infested by this parasite. To this group also belong such well-known forms as the common blue mould found on bread, fruit, etc.; the common fungus, whose subterranean body produces truffles; the fungi which cause the diseases known as black knot of plum and cherry; forms which cause the witch's broom, peach curl, etc.; while to the same group belong the common cup-fungi and the edible morels; perhaps the common yeast is an ascomycete. The name of the group is derived from the fact that the spores are developed in delicate sacs, each sac being called an ascus; while the spores within these asci are known as ascospores. See FUNGI. As'cospore (in plants). An asexual spore produced by the ascomycetes. As'cus (in plants). A sac producing spores, characteristic of the ascomycetes. Asex'ual Spore (in plants). A spore which has not been formed by the union of two cells, that is, in a sexual way. Ordinarily, the asexual spore is formed by cell division. Its power of reproduction is the same as that of the sexually formed spore, the differ- ence between the two being simply one of origin. Asexual spores are common among all groups of plants. They are the spores most commonly seen in connection with the flowerless plants, and among the flowering plants, the so-called pollen grains are asexual spores. See SPORE. Ash, a tree common to Europe and on the North American continent, of the genus Fracinus and family Oleacea. Accord- ing to its variety it is valuable economically as timber used by carpenters, coachmakers and wheelwrights, as well as picturesquely for its ornamental and shade purposes. The varieties of the ash are many, includ- ASHANTI 118 ASH WEDNESDAY in* the common ash, native to the British Isles; the white or American ash, with a light bark and pale green leaves, abundant in Canada and in the United States west to Minnesota and Texas; the red ash, met with in swampy ground in the middle states of the union: the black ash, native to New England and west to Missouri, and with its soft though tough wood, useful for barrel hoops and staves; besides the green ash, prized for its ornamental beauty in the middle states and the west; and the mountain ash or rowan tree (a species of Pyrus), allied to the ash tree proper only in its leaves. The two varieties familiar in the middle and northern states are the white and the black ash, and these are the most useful for their tough, yet easily worked wood, as well as for their orna- mental purposes as a shade tree. Ashan'ti or Ashantee, lately a negro kingdom in western Africa, on the north of the Gold Coast. Formerly, it was shut off from the seaboard by the Gold Coast colony, eighty miles broad, an English protectorate. Since 1896, it has become part of the north- ern territories of the Gold Coast under a British protectorate, and is governed by a British resident agent. Its exports are gold, palm-oil and india-rubber. Its population is from one to one and one-half millions, one fifth of whom are warriors; area of Ashanti, the Gold Coast and protectorate, about 82,000 square miles. The land is tilled near the towns, but elsewhere is a dense forest. The natives manufacture beautiful cottons, earthenware and sword- blades. They have been wont to practice human sacrifice and are polygamists, the king being allowed 3,333 wives. The capital is Coomassie (Kumas-i). The people of Ashanti probably came from north of the Kong Mountains. They were first heard of in 1700, when a powerful king, Osai Tutu, conquered several neigh- boring states. They have fought two wars with the English and lately one with the French. In 1900, there was a serious rising c.t Kumasi against the English, who for a time were besieged in the city, but were relieved by a force from the coast. Progress is going steadily on, Kumasi being linked with Obassi and the coast at Sekondi by a railway 168 miles long, built at a cost of $9,034,000. The census of 1911 estimates the population in the northern territories (those beyond the eighth parallel of north latitude) at 357,- 569, distributed over a territory^ between 38,000 and 50,000 square miles in extent. They are administered by a commissioner and commandant with headquarters at Gambaga. The revenue in 1910, derived largely from caravan taxes, was $188,105, the expenditures $586,990, and the grant in aid $68,800. Permanent roads are being made, light steamers are plying the Volta, and a silver currency has been introduced with increasing benefits. Kumasi, the chief town, had in 1905 a population of 5,940 Ashe'ville, N. C., the capital of Bun- combe County, North Carolina, a central railroad point in the state, 210 miles west of Raleigh. Situated in the Blue Ridge Mountains and comparatively close to the Smoky Mountains of Tennessee, it has be- come a noted health resort. Here is Ashe- ville College for Women, a Methodist institu- tion, founded in 1843. Asheville is the seat of an extensive trade in tobacco. Popula- tion, including suburbs, 34,000. Ash'land, Ky., a city in Boyd County, on the Ohio River, opposite to and a little to the southeast of Ironton, O., and about 145 miles southeast of Cincinnati. It is reached by the Chesapeake & Ohio, the Norfolk & Western and other railroads as well as by steamers on the Ohio. Settled early in the fifties, Ashland became a city in 1870 and is today governed by the revised charter of 1894. Besides Central Park, a pretty, recreative area of 50 acres in the heart of the city, it has other pleasure resorts without the city limits, especially Cliffside Park. The town is important as a manufacturing and shipping center, and has an extensive trade in coal, iron ore, sheet steel, wire rods and nails, brick, lumber, furniture, leather and other prod- ucts of its industrial establishments. Pop- ulation, 8,688. Ashland, Wis., capital of Ashland County, Wis., in the northern section of the state, situated on Chequamegon or Ash land Bay, Lake Superior, 60 miles east of Duluth, 1 80 miles from St. Paul, 250 miles from Milwaukee and 410 miles from Chicago. It is the center of a large lumber, brown stone, and iron mining trade, and its position on the lake contributes to the commerce and expansion of the city. t is, moreover, the terminus of four railroads. It has a number of churches and schools and several charcoal blast-furnaces and other industries. Population, 11,594. Ash' tabu' la, O., an important railway and shipping center on Lake Erie, 55 miles east of Cleveland and about midway be- tween the latter and Erie, Pa. It possesses a good harbor, and has a large trade in ship- ping coal from Ohio and Pennsylvania mines and iron ore from Northern Michigan. It is a station on the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railroad, and has railroad connec- tions besides with the New York, Chicago and St. Louis and with the Pittsburg, Youngs- town and Ashtabula division of the Pennsyl- vania Lines, It has become an important manufacturing center. The town has some fine public buildings and has electric railroads and other modern equipments. Population 21,000. Ash Wednesday, the first day in Lent; so called from the old church custom of no" 140 yso"- rw^^^- ^~-~~*? ../> 1 v* / %> ^ g T eM -U? A'^rLnr NI"'^" ^T^-^ " Sg^^4fet -. |r^f=f|g|s: t .,.A%fl ,XLAS,^, ^""n'' ' S/.-M ^/ lu*-*-.."' ""HlKK^x ,-,, j xkjrvLxN i l \ 'X. P-itm 1 1^ vf- ._ 1 .Ov_-~- 1 'o_Toa.*X% 't > n.-S* u ^i-Ws^ ASIA 119 ASIA sprinkling ashes on the head as a sign of penitence. The ashes are those of the palms consecrated on Palm Sunday. This custom was probably established by Gregory the Great (590-604). It is observed by the Ro- man Catholic church. The day, but not the ceremony, is observed in the Church of England. Asia (d'sht-a) is the largest continent of the globe. Its name comes probably from an Assyrian or Hebrew word meaning "the rising sun." It has the Arctic Ocean on the north, the Pacific on the east and the Indian Ocean on the south. On the west is Europe, the boundaries being the Ural Mountains, the Caspian Sea, Caucasus Mountains, the Black, Mediterranean and Red Seas. It is joined to Africa on the southwest by the Isthmus of Suez and on the northeast is separated from America by Bering Strait. The immense coast line of 35,000 miles is very irregular. The Red Sea, bordering Arabia, has become, by the building of the Suez Canal, a highway of the first importance. The Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal are wide, open divisions of the Indian Ocean. The Persian Gulf is shut in by deserts and mountains. The archi- pelagoes of the Pacific form the two China Seas, which, with their three gulfs, Siam, Tonquin and the Yellow Sea, constitute the Mediterranean of Asia. It is these seas that are visited by the dreaded storms called typhoons. In the north are the seas of Japan, Okhotsk and Bering. Area. The length of the continent from north to south is about 5,300 miles and from east to west over 5,500 miles. The area, including islands, is estimated at I 7i256,ooo square miles, one-third of the dry land of the globe. The peninsulas of Asia occupy one-fifth of its area. On the south are the three greatest peninsulas, Arabia, India and Indo China. On the west, Asia Minor projects Europe-ward, and all but closes the waters of the Black Sea from the Mediterranean. In the east, are Kam- chatka, Korea and the peninsula of Tchukt- chis. The islands of Asia cover one-sixth of her area. In the south and east they form a dotted line running parallel to the coast. Surface and Drainage. Central Asia has been called the roof oi the world. It is a region of lofty mountain ranges and wide plateaus, the highest in the world. North of this elevated region lies the great plain of Siberia, extending to the Arctic, while east and south are narrower plains extend- ing to the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Ex- tending northeast and southwest are moun- tain ranges and high plateaus. The great mountains of Asia are the Himalayas, the highest in the world. They are 2,000 miles in length, and from 100 to 500 in breadth, rising along their whole length far above the line of perpetual snow. There are seve- ral peaks 20,000 feet high or more, the lofties- that has been measured, Mount Everest, being more than 29,000 feet. The Ural and Caucasus ranges are on the border of Asia. There are two great tablelands: that of western Asia, stretching from the Black Sea to the valley of the Indus, and the higher and larger tableland of eastern Asia, stretching from the Himalayas to the north- eastern point of Asia, where it meets the great central tableland of North America. The plain culminates in Tibet, the highest tableland in the world, its lowest valleys being higher than Mont Blanc. These great plains separate the lowlands of Siberia and the Aral-Caspian region from the lowlands of India and China. Across the mountains to the north of Tibet is a swamp, Lake Lob- Nor. which once was a huge sea, and whose rapid drying up was probably the cause of the westward migration of the Huns and Mongols. Drainage systems are numerous, but only those of importance demand enumeration. They include continental and oceanic drain- age. The first, 4,900,000 square miles in area includes rivers emptying, as in Gobi desert, Syro-Arabia or Tibet, into the Aral, Caspian or Dead Seas, Lakes Baikal, Kalk- hash or Van, or the numberless lakes, sinks or swamps of Persia, Siberia, Turkestan. The oceanic systems drain to the Arctic, Pacific and Indian Oceans and the Medi- terranean. The Arctic area covers 4,367,- ooo miles, the Pacific 3,641,000 and the Indian 2,873,000. The Lena, Ob and Yenisei flow into the Arctic, these rivers and their tributaries, when unfrozen, giving navigation throughout Siberia. China and Tibet contribute the Amur, Hwang- Ho, Si-Kiang and Yang-Tsi-Kiang to the Pacific Ocean. Indo-China gives the Mekong, Salwin and Irawadi to the Indian Ocean; India the Brahmaputra, Ganges and Indus j Armenia the Tigris and Euphrates. Climate and Rainfall. On the tablelands and north of the main mountains the climate is very dry and there are great extremes of temperature, long severe winters and hot, short summers. South of the mountains and on the Pacific the climate is tropical but modified by altitude and the monsoons or rain-winds from the southern seas. The mean temperature ranges from nearly zero in Arctic Siberia to nearly 90 in Arabia. The lowest temperature is 100 below zero, the highest 120 above. Rainfalls vary from five inches annually over the Aral to 550 on the Khasiya Mountains near Cal- cutta. Animal and Vegetable Life. Animals of Asiatic origin include the ass, buffalo, camel, cobra, crocodile, dromedary, dugong, dol- phin, elephant, goat, horse, leopard, lion, ox, pheasant, reindeer, sheep, silkworm, sturgeon, tiger, yak, zo and others. Among indigenous plants, the flora of southeastern Asia numbering 12,000 species, are the ASIA 120 ASIA MINOR banyan, barley, breadfruit, cedar, cotton, coffee, fig, indigo, flax, lemon, mulberry, mango olive, orange, peach, pomegranate, poppy, rice, sago, spices, sandalwood, sugar, tea. teak, the vine, wheat and many more. Inhabitants. The yellow, white and brown races people Asia, but others occur. The first is the Mongolian, the typical Asiatic and three fifths of the population. The second is the Caucasian, consisting of the Semitic and the Aryan family. The third is the Malay, whose separateness as a race is questioned. One Mongolian group em- braces the tribes of Siberia and Turkestan, the other the peoples of China, Indo-China and Tibet The Turks, Koreans and Japanese belong to the first group, the Chinese, Siamese and Tibetans to the sec- ond. A Caucasian group, the family of Aryans, includes Afghans, Armenians, Baluchs, Hindus, Kurds, and Persians, but excludes Europeans and Americans; while another, the family of Semites, consists of Jews and Arabs. The Malay prevails in the East Indies, Formosa, Malacca and the Philippines. Near America live Eskimos; in tropical Asia and the Philippine Islands, Negritos; and Anatolia, Arabia and Persia have Negro slaves. Of unrelated tribes hundreds exist. Political Divisions. Asia is partly inde- pendent, but two thirds of the area and nearly half the people are controlled by Europe and the United States. Inde- pendent states include Afghanistan, Arabia (partly), Baluchistan (partly), Bhutan, China, Japan (including Formosa, Korea and part of Sakhalin), Nepal, Siam, some Malay states and Turkey. The depend- encies are those of America, Britain, France, Germany, Holland, Portugal and Russia. America holds the Philippines. British colonial possessions include Baluchistan, British Borneo, Burmah, Ceylon, India, Hongkong, Labuan, Sarawak, the Straits Settlements and Weihaiwei. France has Anam, Cambodia, Laos, Tong-King and places in Hindustan. Germany owns Kia- ochau. Holland possesses Borneo (partly), Celebes, Java, Sumatra and other islands. Portugal remains at Goa, Kambing, Macao and Timor. Armenia (partly), Caucasia, Siberia and part of Sakhalin belong to Russia. History. In Asia history began. In Asia Minor originated man's oldest monu- ments and records outside of Egypt. Though Babylonian civilization ceased two thousand years ago, its contemporary exists yet in China. In Asia arose every great religion Brahmanism, Buddhism, Chris- tianity, Islam, Judaism and Zoroastrianism. (Confucianism is not a religion but a code of conduct.) Confucius, Gautama the Buddha, Mohammed, Moses, Paul and Zoroaster were Asiatics, but each affected the world as powerfully as Alexander and Caesar. The Aryans, possibly from east of the Cas- ?Ian and north of the Hindu Kush, invaded ersia and India. Persia became the first world-empire, extending her dominion under Cyrus to the confines of Greece. Alexander in turn invaded Asia 330 B. C., conquered Persia, extended his power into India, and carried Greek ideas and culture from the Bosporus to the Indus and Oxus. On the death of Alexander his empire fell to pieces and subsequently all western Asia came under the dominion of Rome, including Arabia in part, Asia Minor and Syria; Constantinople inheriting and holding this region for seven centuries after. The power of Islam, dating from the seventh century, became dominant, building empires between the Mediterranean, Ganges and Caspian on the wreckage of Rome and extending its sway into Egypt and India. Palestine be- came a stage (1100-1300) for the wars of religion called crusades. Turks and Tartars issued from central Asia (1215-1415), destroyed the Saracen, Muscovite and Byzantine empires, and overthrew China temporarily. The Ottoman empire was established, however (1300), drove back the Mongols and in 1453 captured Con- stantinople. Mongols founded an Indian Empire (1525-1857) whose rulers included two of the best and ablest among monarchs, Akbar and Aurangzeb. Portugal found a searoad to Asia around Africa to India (1497), China (1517), and Japan (1542), and initiated Asia's modern era. Russia started across Siberia (1580), Holland gained footing in th* East Indies (1596), England's East India Company arrived in 1600, and France entered India four years later. England's Indian empire began in 1757, and France, failing in H'ndu- stan, built an empire in Indo-China during the igth century. America brought Japan into modern life (1854), though the Dutch had influenced it through commerce for two centuries, and in fifty years it entered among the world-powers. A war between China and Japan (1894) resulted in the cession of Formosa to Japan, The Philip pines were transferred to the United States (1898) at the close of the Spanish-American war. A war between Russia and Japan (1904-5), the most sanguinary struggle of recent times, resulted in victory for Japan, with added prestige, the cession of part of Sakhalin and the control of Korea. Asia Minor is the name given to the western peninsula of Asia, forming part of Turkey in Asia. Its area is about 200.000 square miles. It is the western prolonga- tion of the high tableland of Armenia, with bare steppes, salt plains, marshes and lakes. Along the coast are mountains, from 4,000 to 6,000 feet high on the north, and on the south the Taurus range, from 10,000 to 12,000 feet in height. In general the climate is like that of southern Europe. The in- ASIATIC TYPES i Ainu of Tapan 2 Chinese 3 Japanese Girl 4 Shiba Man 5 Manchu 6 Golde 7 Mangune 8 Giljak Man 9 Buriat 10 Katjinz ir Korean 12 Giljak Woman ASP 121 ASPHALT habitants, some 10,500,000 in number, are of various races, The ruling race L> the Turks, who number about 1,200,000. Allied to them, are the Turkomans and Yarruks, who are nomads. Another nomadic people are the Kurds, and in the mountains are the robber tribes of the Lazes. The Greeks and Armenians are most progressive and have most of the trade, and with the Jews own most of the land. Here were- the ancient and famous coun- tries of Ionia, Phrygia, Lydia, Galatia, Cilicia and Cappadocia, with Troy, Ephesus, Smyrna and many other noted cities. Asia Minor was the scene of great conquests. Here took place the wars of the Medes and Persians with the Scythians, of the Greeks with the Persians, of the Romans with Mithradates and the Parthians, of the Arabs, Mongols and Turks with the Byzan- tine empire. Notwithstanding all these wars, the country still enjoyed some measure of prosperity, until it fell into the hands of the Turks, whose harsh military rule has almost ruined it. The chief modern vilayets (Turkish provinces) are Smyrna, Angora, Trebizond, Ismid, Konia and Brussa. A Dumber of railways now traverse Asia Minor. Asp, a name loosely applied to several kinds of venomous serpents. A kind of viper in southern Europe and a snake in India, closely allied to the cobra, have received this name. Several kinds of vipers are found in Palestine, and it is not cer- tainly known to which one the word asp in the Bible refers. Cleopatra's famous asp, bv means of which she committed suicide, is believed to have been a snake called the homed viper. As=par'a=gus is a tuberous rooted, per- ennial herb, which in some varieties is the size of a shrub. It is widely distributed in warm countries of the temperate climes and in the tropics, but is cultivated in all civilized countries. The plant grows wild on the southern coast of England, and on the plains of Russia it so abounds that the cattfe devour it like grass. Its varieties number nearly 150, the best and most widely known being the esculent asparagus. For more than 2,000 years it has been cultivated for the succulent young shoots produced from the thick root stocks in spring. It is first grown a year or, if neces- sary, two years in a nursery bed, then transplanted to a permanent one. Shoots should not be gathered before the second spring after planting in permanent quarters. As a rule the thicker the head the better. The plant yields annually for ten or twelve years. Its important enemies are rust and beetles. As'pen, also known as quaking asp and as white poplar, is a tree of much interest and beauty. It came originally from the cooler parts of Europe and Asia, and belongs to the genus Populus. In this country it is distributed generally north of Pennsylvania and Kentucky, and grows on the mountains of the west, south to Mexico. It is a tall, slender tree, is said to reach in the forests to the height of 100 feet, but the usual variation is from 40 to 80 feet. The bark, save at the base, is light colored; the leaves, which are a glossy green above and yellowish green below, twinkle and tremble owing to the arrangement of the long flexible stem and the light leaf-blade. There is much delicate color in the aspen, in the bark, the cat- kins and the unfolding leaves. It is a prized ornamental tree, grows rapidly, but is short lived. The seeds are wafted a considerable distance by means of the long hairs with which they are surrounded. It is valuable on lands devastated by forest fires, being one of the first trees to spring up in clearings and protecting later growths. It is used in turning and in the manufacture of wood pulp, but is not valued for fuel. The large-toothed aspen is a stiffer, less attractive tree, though the weeping vari- eties of this are employed for ornamental purposes. Its distribution in this country is from Nova Scotia to Minnesota and south to Tennessee. Asphalt (as' fait) is bitumen of purer form, being a mineral and solid or semi- solid. Its name comes from Locus As- phaltites, Latin for the Dead Sea, where asphalt once abounded . It is black or brown in color, brittle in consistency (though this varies from a bright pitchy condition to thick masses of mineral tar) and compact. It melts easily about the boiling point of water, burns without mak- ing ashes, and emits a thick smoke of pitchy odor. It is widely distributed, especially in tropical and subtropical re- gions, but deposits of sufficient quantity for commerce and the industries occur only in a few localities. It is a product of the decomposition of vegetable and animal substances, the three preceding products being naphtha, petroleum and mineral tar. Asphaltic stone is limestone impreg- nated with bituminous matter. Asphalt cement is refined cement tempered with petroleum. Mastic is asphalt cement mixed with powdered limestone and sand. As- phalt concrete is crushed stone cemented with mastic and compressed. Simple as- phalt is found at Auvergne (France), Caxatambo (Peru), Cuba, southern Cali- fornia, Switzerland, Trinidad (an island off Orinoco River) and Venezuela. Colorado, Italy, Kentucky, Oklahoma and Utah also contribute. Asphaltic limestone oc- curs largely in Europe. Auvergne once supplied most asphalt, Caxatambo exports a very pure variety of high luster, Cuba yields considerable asphalt of fine quality, but the supreme sources of supply m quality as in quantity are Trinidad, Cali- ASPINWALL 122 ASSAYING fornia and Bermudez in Venezuela. Trini- dad contains a lake of asphalt about one mile in diameter, and containing perhaps 6,000,000 tons. An American company exports 100,000 tons a year from this lake to the United States, the supply partly renewing itself by a constant flow of soft pitch from subterranean sources. Ber- mudez, where an asphalt lake covers 1,000 acres, exports very pure and hard asphalt. In California asphalt was dis- covered in 1879, and about 1894 beds of very pure, high grade, liquid asphalt were found, which even in its natural state already has the proper consistency for paving. The value of our domestic product almost equals that of the imported product. Bituminous rock, which is principally used for paving streets, is usually shipped unrefined, and mixed at the place of use with other ingredients. Raw asphalt gen- erally is impure, and must be refined be- fore it can be used. It is manufactured into a cement by mixing it with other forms of bitumen, this cement being used to bind particles of limestone and sand in an asphalt pavement. First the asphalt is melted, the residuum from petroleum being added and this mixture being the paving cement. Clean, sharp sand, heated to 300 is added, and carbonate of lime last. The three substances are mixed thoroughly, and the product is the mix- ture used in paving streets. Asphalt is most used for street paving, but it is em- ployed also for the distillation of lubricat- ing and illuminating oils, for cements, for making black Japan varnish, drainpipes of compressed asphalted paper and roofing felts, or paper waterproofed with asphalt, and for waterproofing foundations in bridges and buildings. Paving streets with asphalt is a simple process. The street is graded solidly to within eight inches of the proposed surface, Asquith, Herbert Henry, Premier of England. Born at Morley, Yorkshire, Sep- tember 12, 1852, and educated at Oxford, he became a lawyer, was appointed Queen's Counsel in 1880 and in 1886 elected to Parlia- ment. He was made Home Secretary in Gladstone's last Cabinet; appointed Chan- cellor of the Exchequer under Campbell- Bannerman (q. v.) and at his death, succeeded him as Premier. Owing to criticism of his policy in the European War he resigned the premiership in 1916 and was succeeded by Lloyd-George (q. v.) his minister of war. Aspinwall. See COLON. Ass. The ass, originally domesticated from the wild ass of Abyssinia, differs from the horse in its smaller size and its long hair tufted at the end of the tail. Its fur is usually of a gray color. The unwilling- ness it snows to cross the smallest stream and its fondness for rolling in the dust point to arid deserts as probably its first home. Its reputation for stupidity is very old. The Egyptians represented an ig- norant person by the head and ears of an ass. In the middle ages the Germans of Westphalia .made the ass represent Thomas, the unbelieving apostle, and the boy who was last to enter the school on St. Thomas' Day was called the "Ass Thomas." In southern Europe, the ass has been care- fully bred and thus greatly improved. The small size of the animal in cold coun tries is as much due to neglect as to the climate. In Kentucky, where they are used in breeding mules, being well cared for, they are fifteen hands high on an average; while in the north of India, where they are used by the lowest castes, they are no taller than a Newfoundland dog. In Syria and Egypt the ass is seen at its best, and is highly prized as a domestic animal. Its milk is very valuable for invalids. Wild asses are hunted in Persia. Assam (as-sam'), a province of British India, situated north of Burma in the valley of the Brahmaputra, acquired by the British in the Burmese War in 1824, and now under the jurisdiction of a British Chief Commissioner. Its area, still largely covered with jungle, in which roam ele- phants, tigers, leopards and other wild beasts, is 49,004 square miles in extent, with a population, chiefly Hindus and Mohammedans, of about five and a half million. Assam has a heavy annual rain- fall, with a climate of moderate tempera- ture; the region, however, is subject to earthquakes. Its chief exports embrace tea, rice, rubber, silk, cotton, ivory and gold; it has also much coal; while petro- leum and iron, though as yet undeveloped, are known to exist. In the higher eleva- tions there is much timber. The soil in the valleys and along its chief river, the Brahmaputra, is very fertile, though the excessive rains inundate the land and at seasons imperil the tea-plantations and the rice crop. See Cumming's With the Jungle Folk and Hunter's Statistical Account of Assam', also Bronson's Dic- tionary in Assamese and English. Assay' ing is the art of finding how much of a given metal there is in a metallic ore or alloy as, the amount of iron in a speci- men of iron ore or the amount of silver in a silver dollar. The term is applied particularly to processes carried out chiefly by fusion or fire assaying; but the word is also applied as wet assaying to the commercial analysis of many things where chemical solvents and reagents are used. Assay processes vary with different metals, but the method used with silver ore will serve as an illustration. The first process is called scorification. One part by weight of ore is mixed with from ten to twenty times its weight of granulated lead and half its weight of borax. This mix- ASSIMILATION 123 ASSOCIATION ture is put in a fire-clay dish, called the scorifier, and heated to redness in a furnace having a compartment or muffle open to the air, called a muffle furnace, until the substances are thoroughly melted. The surface of the molten lead now shows in a circular space in the center of the scorifier, while the earthy materials form a slag which forms a ring around this circle. The heating is continued until a considera- ble part of the lead has been oxidized to lead oxide. This goes into the slag and increases its amount so that the slag finally covers the diminishing metallic lead. Then the melted mixture is poured into a mould, and, on cooling, a lead button is seen which can be detached from the slag. The lead has taken up the silver as well as any gold that may be present. The next process is called cupellation. The cupel is a small cup made of burnt bone and is porous. The lead button is put in this vessel, after the latter has been heated to redness in a muffle furnace. The lead and other base metals that may be present are burned or oxidized, and the oxides are absorbed by the porous mass of the cupel, or sent off in the shape of vapor. Silver and gold are not oxidized, hence they remain in the metallic state. Just before the assay is finished, rainbow colors come and go over the button, and a brilliant flashing up of color marks the end of the operation. The silver button left in the cupel is finally weighed. This is one of the simplest methods, but not the only method of assaying. A crucible is sometimes used instead of a scorifier. H. L. WELLS. As'simila'tion (in plants). A term often applied to the manufacture by green plants of starch, sugar and similar substances (carbohydrates). This process is better called photosynthesis (which see), leav- ing assimilation to be applied to the trans- formation of foods (carbohydrates, proteids, fats, etc.) into the living substance, pro- toplasm. Of the details of this very little is known. Assiniboia (as'sin-i-boi'd}, one of the northwest territories of Canada until 1905, when one part of it was merged in the new province of Alberta and the remainder in the new province of Saskatchewan. The city of Regina was formerly in Assiniboia. Assin'iboine, an important river in northwestern Canada. The city of Bran- don (Manitoba), is on its banks. Runs easterly to the Red River. The Souris and Qu'Appelle Rivers are its tributaries. Runs through a rich agricultural country. Length 450 miles. Assisi (d-se'se), St. Francis of, a devout Italian monk, bom at Assisi in the province of Perugia, in 1182, and the founder of the Franciscan order. To his tomb, in the Church of San Francesco, Assisi, many thousands from all parts of Europe make annual pilgrimages. The church is en- riched by the possession of many remarka- ble frescoes and paintings by Cimabue and Giotto, which depict stories from the Old and New Testaments and incidents in the life of St. Francis of Assisi. Associated Press, the largest organization of its kind, is a mutual organization of persons representing newspapers, having for its pur- pose the collection and distribution of the important news of the world. There are about eight hundred and sixty members. For its more important service The Associated Press has its own leased wires, which form a network across the continent from Bangor, Me., to Seattle, Wash., and San Diego, Cal., and from Duluth, Minn., to New Orleans, Galveston and Tampa, Fla. The total mileage of this leased wire system is approximately: Day wires 22,000 miles; night wires 28,000. From various points along the trunk lines the report is sent to interior cities. Each of its members engages to contribute the news of his immediate vicinage to The Associated Press. The annual revenues, which are derived from assessments levied upon its members, approximate $3,000,000 while the number of words daily received and transmitted at each of the more important offices is over 50,000, or the equiva- lent of thirty- five columns of the average news- paper. The headquarters are in New York with bureaus at thirty-five other cities in this country and at the important capitals of other nations. It has correspondents all over the world and coSperative relations with the largest similar organizations in foreign lands. It is governed by a Board of Directors, fifteen in number, chosen for three-year terms by the members in annual meetings. It has no stock, no dividends and no profits of any character, its revenue being derived from assessments of its members. The present organization operates under a New York charter, secured in 1900, and is the outgrowth of several earlier and competing associations. FREDERICK R. MARTIN, Assistant General Manager, Associated Press. Association of Ideas. By the asso- ciation of ideas is meant such relations among them as will cause one to suggest others. Through the so-called laws of association psychologists have attempted to explain why a certain perception or thought is followed by certain images, sensations or ideas. Association is sup- posed to explain those trains of thought in which the mind pursues its own course unguided by the senses, except in so far as the original suggestion may have been a perception. Early psychologists have many inter- esting allusions to the mental phenomena that are classed under the head of associa- tion of ideas, but before the time of Locke (1632-1704), it was generally assumed ASSOCIATION 124 ASSOCIATION that when the mind proceeded to recount in its own way the suggestions of a per- ception, it followed a certain logical order with greater or less error according to the quality of mind. Locke assumed that when one idea suggests another to which it is related in a logical way, no further explanation of the association is necessary; ( but where such association exists between ideas having no logical connection, he falls back on the explanation that they have occurred together accidentally in the past, and because of this we have formed the habit of thinking them together, so that when one recurs we immediately call up the others. If the idea fire suggests that of cooking food, association is not needed to explain the relation; if, instead, Lon- don is thought of, we wonder and can ac- count for the fact only by supposing that the experience or description of a chance fire in London has proved so influential as to cause the idea fire to suggest its habitual associate London, rather than its logical or scientific premises or con- sequence. Hartley (1704-1757), an English psy- chologist, uses the idea of association by babit to explain not merely the curious and arbitrary associations of ideas but the logical ones as well. All mental processes are, according to him, dependent on the processes in the brain. Those brain pro- cesses that occur together become asso- ciated by habit so that the re-excitement of one will cause the re-excitement of the ethers, and the corresponding ideas will come successively into consciousness. The discoveries of modern experimental psy- chology make it possible to state still more definitely the character of the associa- tions in the brain. It is known that visual consciousness is dependent upon the ex- citement of structures in the rear of the brain, and that auditory areas lie in the temporal regions, Suppose that, at the time when one sees a cat, he hears the sound of the word cat Then the auditory and the visual structures are" excited together. They become so associated that when again we hear the word the nervous cur- rents discharge from the temporal into the occipital or rear portion of the brain, and the visual image of a cat rises in the mind. Apparently the sound of the name suggests immediately the visual image of the thing. Really it is the association of the two portions of the brain correspond- ing to the two ideas that causes the one to follow the other. After the time of Hartley, English psy- chologists attempted to explain all trains of thought on the basis of association. But the knowledge of the anatomy and physiology of the brain was too imperfect to lead thinkers to value highly the theory that all mental associations depend upon habitual associations of brain processes. Instead they interest themselves in a statement of the logical relationships ex- isting between ideas that suggest one another. They find that when ideas are similar or contrasting or come in close suc- cession -in time, or when their objects are related as cause and effect or are situated near each other in space, they are likely to call each other into consciousness. Pro- fessor James, the American psychologist, points out the fact that such laws of asso- ciation may be increased indefinitely, and that they do not help one to do any- thing in the way of predicting the effect of a suggestion on a given mind. In his opinion, and here modern psychology agrees substantially with him, the physio- logical law of habit is the only real explana- tory law of association. When we think logically ' and when our fancy riots in non- sense, we are following the same funda- mental law of connecting those expe- riences that have occurred together in time. Professor James, however, finds it nec- essary to expand his treatment of this law. The same idea may have many habitual associates. How are we to tell which one it will suggest? Other things being equal, the most frequent associate will come up. The idea of fire will suggest cooking rather than London, because the former has been associated with it much more commonly. If, however, the experience of the London fire was very exciting, as it might well have been in case the fire occurred at a hotel where we were staying, the associa- tion of fire with London might be so in- tense as to overcome the effect of the frequent association with cooking. Again, if one had just been absorbed in the ac- counts of the San Francisco disaster the idea of fire might suggest this most recent associate rather than the most frequent or the most intense ones. To know the effect of these principles so that we can predict the result of a given suggestion on a certain mind, it is necessary to know the concrete condition of this mind. Here it is that the subject of the association of ideas connects with that of apperception (q. v.}. The experience that any new perception or idea calls up and through which it becomes apperceived depends on the laws of association, and the teacher in counting on the force of any suggestion must know the experience of the pupil and apply these laws. No amount of ac- quaintance with the logical relationships in the material of instruction will help, unless the teacher knows in how far these logical associations have become habitual in the mind of the pupil. One further condition affecting the working of the law of association needs to be mentioned. The current of one's thought ASSUAN DAM 125 ASSYRIA is almost never determined solely by a single isolated perception or idea. The entire contents of the mind, both that which is clearly attended to and that of which one is vaguely conscious, that which is rapidly disappearing from conscious- ness, and that which is just rising into the mental field, feelings, images and ideas; all are more or less influential in determin- ing what is to come by association. If the . suggested ideas are related to all or most of the contents of the mind, we have what Professor James calls total recall. If, however, owing to special interest in one phase of this content the mind attends so closely to it as to call up associates suggested by it but unconnected with the other ele- ments in consciousness, we have partial recall. When this special interesting topic is the thought of a quality, it may. suggest some new object known to possess that quality. We may be thinking _ of the sequoia or big trees of California. Our attention may concentrate on the thought of their extraordinary size, and, this may lead us to think of elephants. Big trees may never have been thought 'of in con- 1 nection with elephants before. We seem to have departed from the law" of habit. However, the quality of great size- is habit- ually connected with both objects. Thus the fundamental law of association, when supplemented by the law of the special influence of interesting items, is seen to explain association by similarity, where the mind seems to be taking an utterly orig- inal course. Finally it should be noted that \rhile the English associationists treated the ideas as if they were comparatively dis- tinct and unchanging elements recurring frequently in thought, modern psycholo- gists hold that all mental elements are what they are because of the other elements that accompany them. This idew is prac- tically invo 1 ved in the notion of appercep- tion, for apperception means that the associated ideas suggested by any thought apperceive, interpret and so modify it. After the thought of sequoia has suggested the thought of elephants, it can never recur as it was at first. It will henceforth always be the thought of tree's that are like elephants in a certain respect, See APPERCEPTION, MEMORIZING, PSY- CHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS. Consult Principles of Psychology by James, pub. by Holt & Co. E. N. HENDERSON. Assuan Dam (ds-swdri), The. A part of an extensive system of irrigation un- dertaken by the British government in Egvpt. Assuan is about six hundred miles up the Nile and is below the first cataract. By building dams across the Nile at Assuan and Assiut, it is proposed to form two great reservoirs in which to store the water during the annual over- flow of the river. By this means a much greater area can be irrigated and brought under cultivation, and the productive- ness of Egypt greatly increased. The dam at Assuan is a mile and a quarter long. It consists of a solid wall of granite rising ninety feet above the level of low Nile, and is. about sixty feet in width at the top. Tfie plans include a roadway across the top, so that there may be com- munication between the two sides of the river. ., There are one hundred and eighty sluices' in the dam, each equipped with _heavy steel doors which are readily opened and .closed. ^by means of levers. It is ex- pected that this dam will form a lake one hundred and forty miles long. The stored up water partially-, submerges the island of Philae with its interesting ruins. Assyr'ia* was the northernmost of the three great countries which occupied the Mesopotamian plain. The Niphates Moun- tains of Armenia were on the north, Susiana and Babylonia on the south," Media on the east and the watershed of the Euphrates on the west. % It was about -280 miles long from north to south, and about 150 broad from east to west: There are mountain chains in the north and east, and the coun- try is watered by the Tigris. It is a very 'fertile region and supported in ancient times a large population. That its people reached a high degree of wealth and civili- zation is shown by the ruins of mighty cities, by canals and means of irrigation, by inscriptions and carefully kept records of its history especially the Eponym canon, as it is called, which has been found k to agree closely with what is said in the Bible about the Assyrians. The Babylonian monarchy was already growing old before the Assyrian began. The early rulers were mere governors ap- pointed by the Babylonian kings. Little -by little Assyria became independent. .'She began to be powerful about 1320 B. C., Ibut Tiglath-Pileser I (about 1140 B. C.) was the real founder of the first Assyrian empire. He spread the dominion of As- syria o/er ill western Asia, from Elam to the Med: erranean and from the Ar- menian Mou itains to the Persian Gulf. Under his son the empire decayed as rapidly as it had grown, and for two cen- turies Assyria, played no part in history. It was during this time of decay that the Hebrew kingdom arose and was developed under David and Solomon. In 930 B. C., Assyria began once more to become im- portant. Shalir aneser II began to reign in 858 B. C., and for thirty years engaged in wars that established the power of As- syria over all western Asia. It was this king who in 854 B. C. fought against the king of Hamath, Benhadad of Da- mascus and Ahab of Israel. In 745 B. C., the throne was usurped by a powerful ASTARTE 126 monarch, Pul, a Babylonian, who took the Assyrian name, Tiglath-Pileser II. He made firm the conquests of his predeces- sors. In earlier times it had been con- quest and spoil that formed the policy of the rulers; now the conquered districts were annexed and ruled by Assyrian gov- ernors, who saw to it that a fixed tax was sent year by year to Nineveh. Sargon, who was one of Assyria's great generals, was the leader of a successful revolt of the army against a weak prince. It was he who cap- tured Samaria, in 722 B. C., and carried away 27,000 of its best citizens. Sar- gon 's son, Sennacherib, ravaged Judaea, capturing forty-six cities, and besieged Jerusalem, where a pestilence, referred to in the Bible, attacked his army and saved the city. In 68 1 B. C. began the reign of Assyria's greatest king, Esarhaddon. He at once set on foot the war which resulted in the conquest of Egypt, and which placed the ancient world for twenty years_ under one rule, thus giving the world the idea of a universal empire. Under Esarhaddon and his son, Asurbanipal (called by the Greeks Sardanapalus), the kingdom in 650 B. C. reached its height. Afterward revolts took place which slowly ruined it. The modern area of Assyria (Mesopo- tamia), in Turkey in Asia, comprises the vilayet of Mosul (area 35,130 square miles; population 500,000), Baghdad (area 54,540 square miles; population estimated at 900,000); and Busra (area 53,580 square miles; population 600,000). The town of Mosul on the Tigris is close to the ruins of Nineveh and 220 miles by water (R. Tigris) north of Baghdad. Busra or Basra contains the town of Korna, where the Tigris and Euphrates join their waters, at the southern end of the ancient domin- ions of Assyria and then find their way by the Shat-el-Arab southward into the I-ersian Gulf. Northwest of Korna or Kurna and south of Baghdad is the town of Hillah, on the Euphrates, near the ruins of ancient Babylon and the Arab vilayet from which many Babylonian records have in our modern day been shipped. Astar'te or Ashtoreth. An ancient oriental deity, supposed to be the moon- goddess, as Baal was the sun-god. She is mentioned several times in the Old Testament (I Kings XI: 5-33: II Kings XIII: 13). King Solomon built an altar to her. She was sometimes represented as having four wings and bearing a dove in one hand. She was worshipped by the Phoenicians, the Carthaginians, the Sicilians and by the inhabitants of Cypus. As'fer, a flowering plant of the thistle family, found largely in North America, some species to be found in most regions of the globe. The word means star. In England they are called Michaelmas and Christmas daisies, because they have heads like daisies and when the weather is mild they bloom as late as those periods of the year. One variety grows at a considera- ble height on the mountains of Europe. The wild asters of the United States are many and beautiful, there being over a hun- dred native species. Several months of the year they clothe the land in royal bloom, a large part of the glory of the American autumn. The aster has been suggested as the national flower, its range is so general and it blooms so profusely. "And everywhere the purple asters nod And bend and wave and flit." The purple or blue asters are very numer- ous, ranging from the low-growing sea- side aster to the tall New England aster, sometimes reaching eight feet in height. The golden aster seeks the dry roadside, white asters grow in open wood and field and by shady roadside, an abundance of tiny flowers crowning high, wide-spreading branches. A variety of the Chinese aster, having beautifully colored florets of rose, violet, and white, is called Reine Marguerite. As'teroids, a series of small planets, sometimes called minor planets, which revolve about the sun in periods varying from three to eight years. More than 500 of these bodies have been discovered, all having orbits lying in the space between Mars and Jupiter. Practically all of these planets are so small they can be seen only with a telescope; though Vesta, which is the largest, can at times be seen with the naked eye. Their diameters probably range between 10 miles and 400 miles. In recent years many asteroids have been discovered by photography. If any portion of the sky is photographed with a camera attached to a telescope, the fixed stars will appear as points; but i* there be an asteroid in the field of the> camera, its image will be a short straight line, for it is moving among the fixed stars. Of all known asteroids the most inter- esting are probably Ceres and Eros. Ceres was the first one discovered, having been detected by Piazzi, January i, 1801. Eros, discovered by Witt of Berlin, August 14, 1898, proves to be our nearest neighbor and promises to offer, by observations of its parallax, the very best of all methods for determining the distance from the earth to the sun. Since this distance is the stand- ard of length for nearly all astronomical measurements, Witt's discovery of this planet must be ranked among the most important astronomical discoveries of recent years. The name asteroid is due to Sir William Herschel. Astor, John Jacob, millionaire, the founder of the American Fur Company, was born in Germany, near Heidelberg, in 1763. A peasant's son, he went to London in his sixteenth year, and worked with ASTORIA 127 ASTRONOMY his brother, a maker of musical instru- ments. In 1783 he sailed to America, and invested his small capital in furs, and after six years, by economy and industry, he had acquired a fortune of $250,000. He now sent out two expeditions to the Oregon territory, one by land and one by sea, to open a regular trade with the natives, and in 1811 established the fur-trading station of Astoria. From this time As- tor's ships were found in every sea. He died in New York in 1848, leaving property estimated at $20,000,000, and a bequest of $450,000 in all to found the Astor library in New York. His great grandson, John Jacob Astor, perished in the Titanic disaster (q. P.). Astoria (as-t(/ri-a), originally a fur. trading station in Oregon, on the left bank of the Columbia River, founded by the Pacific Fur Company in isii and named from its chief proprietor, John Jacob Astor. It was a main issue in the American claim to Oregon. Its industries include logging, saw, lumber and planing mills, and there are many large salmon-tinning establishments in the neighborhood. It has a fine harbor, is an N. P. terminal and so has large shipping interests. Washington Irving has told the story of the beginnings of Astoria, in his book of that name. Population, 12,000. Astor Library, The, New York, now embraced in the New York Public Library, was founded under the will of John Jacob Astor, who left $450,000 for a public library in the city of New York. This munificent sum was increased subsequently to a million by gifts from his son and grandsons, one of whom, Wm. Waldorf Astor in 1882-85 was United States minister to Italy. Among the first trustees appointed by Mr. Astor himself were Washington Irving and Fitz- Greene Halleck. The library was opened in 1854 with 90,000 volumes. In 1895 it had about 300,000 volumes. In some departments, as oriental languages, it is unsurpassed by any library in the country. The 4stor library was in 1805 consolidated with the Lenox library, and, with the Tilden bequest, is now housed in the New York Public Library, situated in Bryant Park, 5th avenue and 42nd street. See NEW YORK PUBLIC LIBRARY. Astrakhan (as-trb-kan') t a 'government in the southeast of European Russia; area 91,042 square miles; population, 1,005,460. It is watered by the Volga and washed by the Caspian Sea. The climate is severe, and the population is noticeable for the number of its nationalities. For the gov- ernment of Astrakhan a reformed tribunal, but without jury, was introduced in 1894, when a reformed system of justice was organized for other departmental districts of Russia. Astrakhan, its capital and one of the chief towns of Russia, is built on a high island in the Volga, forty-one miles from its mouth. It is surrounded by fruit trees and vineyards, smd consists of the fortress, the white town and sixteen suburbs. A canal runs through the city. The popula- tion, 121,580, consists of Russians, Arme- nians, Tartars and Persians. Astrakhan is the principal harbor on the Caspian Sea, and its great markets every year attract many thousands of merchants, while its three bazars are among the busiest marts in Europe or Asia. Its fisheries rank among the greatest in the world. Enormous num- bers of sturgeon are taken. The industries are shipbuilding, dyeing, silk-making, tal- low-melting, oil-refining and soap-making. Almost the entire commerce with Persia and Transcausasia passes through the city. The main imports are wheat, barley, woolen stuffs, spirits, iron, tin, drugs, raw silk and cotton fabrics. Astrol'ogy, the so-called science of predicting events by means of the posi- tions of the heavenly bodies. It is one of the oldest of the sciences, being found among the Egyptians, Chaldeans, Hindus and other eastern nations at the very be- ginning of history. It made its way to the western nations of Europe, and reached its height of popularity in the i4th and 1 5th centuries, when chairs of astrology were established in some of the Euro- pean universities. Bacon, Napier, Kep- ler and other scientists of their period believed to some extent in astrology, and Wallenstein, the great general of the Thirty Years' War, believed in it implicitly. With the acceptance of the Copernican system and the growth of science, the belief in astrology has almost died out. Astron'omy. There is a certain sense in which the history of each science extends back into the early periods of antiquity, and even into the prehistoric past. But in this respect astronomy has a history which is unparalleled, except possibly by that of mathematics and of medicine; for the earliest men were astronomical ob- servers. The seasons could not be de- termined, the sea could not be navigated, and geography could not be written with- out considerable knowledge of the stars and their motions. The result is that as- tronomy was in a very advanced state as early as the time of Thales (640-546 B. C.)} and more than a century before the Christian era it was an astonishingly complete and well-systematized science, a result mainly due to the observations of Hipparchus and to the systematic 'treat- ment of Claudius Ptolemy. At this period the Greeks were familiar with the uniform motion of the fixed stars, and the variable motion of the planets; they knew how to measure latitude and longitude and how to compute eclipses] they had not only determined the fact of the precession of the equinoxes, but had ASTRONOMY 128 ASTRONOMY obtained its value with great precision. Meanwhile, Hipparchus had completed a catalogue giving the positions of no less than i, 088 stars. The modern science of astronomy may rightly be said to date from Copernicus (1473-1543), who first saw that the sun is the center of what we now call the solar system; at least, he saw that this is a simpler way of looking at the matter than to consider, as the Greeks had done, that the earth was the center of this system. A couple of centuries after the time of Copernicus, Richer found that the acceler- ation of gravity diminishes as one proceeds from the equator to the poles. This made it almost certain that the earth was in rota- tion. In 1726 Bradley discovered the aberration of light, a phenomenon which could not occur, as it does, unless the earth were revolving about the sun. These phenomena and the law of gravitation, as employed by Newton, practically com- plete the evidence for the Copernican view; unless we add the discovery by Bessel, in 1838, of the annual parallax of the fixed stars. The invention of the telescope about the beginning of the i-jth century gave a tremendous impulse to astromical discovery. Galileo, Huygens, Newton and many others shortly made and used their own instruments. The continuous improvement in the telescope has been accompanied by a continuous extension of the solar system from that date up to the discovery of the fifth satellite of Jupiter by Barnard in 1892. Advances in our knowledge of the stellar systems lying beyond our own have been made pan passu with the improve- ment of the telescope. Of the more than 1,300 double stars recently discovered by Burnham, pracically none could have seen as double by any telescope in exist- ence at the beginning of the ipth century. Modem astronomy, like most other sub- jects, has grown into a science of such enormous proportions that it is studied by a great variety of men under a great variety of subdivisions. BRANCHES OF ASTRONOMY. Among these branches of astronomy are the following: 1. General, sometimes ailed descriptive, astronomy, which includes a general survey of the entire subject, including both the phenomena and the principles of the science. 2. Mathematical, sometimes called theo- retical, astronomy, which assumes the law of gravitation and then proceeds to com- pute orbits, prepare tables and determine all the motions of the heavenly bodies. 3. Practical astronomy, which deals with work in the observatory proper, including a study of various methods and instru- ments there employed. The fundamental instruments are the clock, the telescope and the divided circle for measuring angles. 4. Astrophysics, a comparatively new branch of the science, made possible largely by the discovery and development of the spectroscope. Astrophysics is simply the physics of the heavenly bodies, and has to do with their composition, their tem- peratures, their states of aggregation, their atmospheres, their radiations and even their motions. The fundamental in- strument, but by no means the only in- strument employed by the astrophysicist is the spectroscope. SUMMARY OF DISCOVERY. Passing now to a brief survey of the astronomical discoveries, we may outline the matter as follows : 1. The Sun, which is, to us, the most im- portant of all the heavenly bodies, being the one upon which we are dependent for our daily existence, is simply one of the fixed stars. It appears much larger than any other of these stars simply be- cause it is many thousand times nearer us than the nearest of the stars. See Suiw. 2. About the sun as a central body there have been discovered many bodies which are distributed at distances varying from one third to thirty times the distance of the earth from the sun. These bodies reflect the light of the sun and have, to the naked eye, the appearance of stars. Since, however, their apparent position in the sky changes from night to nights, they are called planets, which is merely the Greek word for wanderers. Besides the earth, which is one of these planets, there are seven others of importance, and besides these eight there is a large number of similar bodies, much smaller in size, called asteroids. See PLANET and ASTEROIDS. 3. Now and then the solar system en- tertains visitors from other parts of the uni- verse. These stray bodies, which come inco the solar system for a few days or, at most, for a few months, and then leave it again, are called comets, for the reason that they resemble a star with flowing hair. Comets are probably com- posed largely of hydrocarbon gases, since the spectrum which they exhibit is always that of the Bunsen burner. But what is the source of their light, what is their origin and why their tails are repelled by the sun are still unsolved problems. 4. Leaving the solar system and passing out into space, our nearest neighbor is another great sun (as we learn by the spectroscope), whose distance from the earth is such that more than three years is required for light to travel from it to us. This star, which is called a Centauri, is said to be fixed, since from year to year its motion is so small that it can be de- tected only by very careful and delicate measurements. Most of the stars one 4niiiiiiiiiii:Bii!iiiiiiiioiiiiiiiiii[Hiiiiiiiiimn IIIIIIIUIIIIIIIIHIOIIIIIIIIIIIUIIIIIIIIIIIOIIIIIIIIM THE HIGH JUMP ON THE MOON This illustration shows the difference between the pull of gravity on different planets ana on 3 the Moon. On the Earth an athlete can jump six feet high, but on Jupiter he could only jump S two and one-half feet high, because Jupiter is so much larger and the force of gravity is so much = stronger. However, on Mars, which is smaller than the Earth, and the force of gravity considerably = H less, the same athlete could jump nine feet high, and the Moon is so small that he could jump thirty y feet high with the same amount of effort. = = *IIIIIIIIIIIOIIIIIIIIII|[]||||||||||IOIIIIIIIIII|[]IIIIIIIIIIIOIIIIIIIM imiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiHittn OUR NEIGHBORS IN THE SKY ""' " HI i mini iiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiu| Story of the Constellations Why did not somebody teach me the constellations and make me at home in the | starrv heavens which are always overhead and which I do not know to this day? Carlyle. On the Great Bear's left, the man with the whip is Auriga, the Charioteer. He is carrying Capella, | the Goat, who nursed Baby Jupiter. Perseus, with his shield, carries the head of Medusa of the Snaky | Locks and is about to rescue the beautiful Andromeda, who is chained to a rock. In the chair is Cas- | siopeia, mother of Andromeda, who after Andromeda's rescue was chained to her chair and swung round = and round the pole. This constellation is the well-known "W" which you can easily find. By Cas- | siopeia's feet is her husband, Cepheus, King of Ethiopia. Only the head and forelegs of Pegasus, the | Winged Horse, are represented in the sky. The Sea Goat with the fish's tail, is Capricprnus. On the | right of the picture, Bootes carries his sickle, herdsman's crook. Next is Hercules with his club. Below | Hercules is Ophiuchus, the Serpent Bearer. Near the center of the sky is the Swan. Next is the | Winged Lyre and below Aquilla, the Eagle, carries Ganymede to Jupiter to be his cup-bearer. It takes | nearly ten years for light to travel from Albireo, the star in the swan's head, to the earth, so you will | not see this star as it is when you look at it, but as it was ten years previous. AS YOU LIKE IT 129 ATCHISON sees on any clear night belong to this class. They are all so far away that, however much they may be magnified, they still appear as bright points. In addition to these, a telescope will reveal a number of double suns, or double stars as they are called, each revolving about the other. Even a small telescope will also reveal many bright objects hav- ing the appearance of a small bright cloud or patch of light. Such a body is called a nebula, which is merely the Latin word for small cloud. These nebulae possess the utmost variety of form; have fixed position as fixed stars do; are composed of gases, including hydrogen and probably helium; and, in fact, exhibit nearly every gradation in appearance from a bright cloud to a bright star. Nebulae probably represent the fixed stars in the earlier stages of their development. See LAPLACE. The four groups of bodies just mentioned include practically all that we meet in the universe about us, if we except those small particles which the earth encounters now and then, some of which burn in the earth's atmosphere and are called shooting stars or meteors. Some of these are large enough to penetrate the entire atmosphere and reach the earth's surface, in which case we call them mete- oric stones. Certainly some, and possi- bly many, of the bodies mentioned above are accompanied by other small bodies revolving about them. These bodies are called moons or satellites, and are in- cluded as a part of the body about which they revolve. See MOON. For an excellent and elementary treat- ment of this science see Young's General Astronomy; also, Chambers' The Story of the Stars (N. Y., 1895). HENRY CREW. As You Like It is a comedy of Shakes- peare, written probably in 1599 and founded as to its plot upon Rosalind, a novel by Thomas Lodge. In As You Like It Shakespeare imagines a sort of golden age, in which an ideal life according to nature is led by the outlawed Duke and his court "under the shade of melan- choly boughs" in the forest of Ardennes. The bright wit and beauty of the dialogue and the combination of romance, philoso- phy and art in this play, make it one of the most readable of the works of Shakes- peare, and still a favorite drama upon the stage. In no other play are grace and thought so exquisitely mingled and touched with humor. Atacama (d'td-kd'ma) Desert, a region in the northern part of Chile which, on account of its location, is not reached by the rain-bearing winds and consequently receives almost no rainfall. The surface is mountainous and sterile, but is rich in minerals, especially copper. In the more elevated parts are found rich deposits of salt, borax and nitrate. In the eastern part of the country there is sufhcient rain- fall to permit the growth ot herbage, which is used as fodder for llamas and other animals. Atahualpa (a'ta-wdl-pa), the last of the Incas or rulers of Peru. He was first given the kingdom of Quito, but in a war with his brother had just obtained the rule of Peru, when Pizarro, at the head of his 200 Spanish cavaliers, marched through the country and entered Caxamarca where the Inca was encamped. By a daring but treacherous stratagem Pizarro got pos- session of the king, who had come by in- vitation on a friendly visit. While a priest was explaining the Christian religion, at a sudden signal the mysterious firearms poured death into the terrified masses of the Peruvians and the Spanish cavalry rode them down with merciless fury. Ata- hualpa, made a captive, agreed to pay an enormous ransom; but was accused of plotting against Pizarro, tried and con- demned to be burned. On his agreeing to be baptized, his sentence was modified to death by strangling (1533). Prescott in his Conquest of Peru tells the story of this struggle and of the wonderful civilization of the Incas. Atalan'ta, a heroine in Greek fable. She was an Arcadian, daughter of Jasus and Clymene. At her birth she was left to die on a hill by her father who had wished for a son, but was suckled by a she-bear and grew up to be a maiden huntress of marvelous courage and skill. She slew the centaurs who pursued her, sailed with the Argonauts and took a prominent part in the chase of the Calydonian boar. She was the swiftest of mortals, and having many suitors, offered to marry the one who should outstrip her in a race, the penalty of defeat being death. At length she was beaten by stratagem. Meilanion got from Venus three golden apples, which he dropped one after another during the race; and Atalanta was so charmed by their beauty that she stooped to pick them up and so lost the race. They were both later changed into lions. Her story has been put into poetic form by Swinburne in his Atalanta in Calydon. Atchafalaya (ach-af-a-ll'd), a river of Louisiana or, more properly, an outlet of the Red River. It flows southward to Grand Lake, and after passing through it reaches the Gulf of Mexico by Atcha- falaya Bay after a course of 160 miles. Its name means lost river, and it is sup- posed to have once been the bed of the Red River. Atch'ison, a city of Kansas, on the left bank of the Missouri River, 333 miles above St. Louis. It is an important railway cen- ter, nine distinct lines converging there. The city has flour mills, an iron foundry, ATHABASCA 130 ATHENS Port?* S A and machine, furniture, casriage and wagon shops. St. Benedict College, St. Scholas- tica*s Academy (R. C.), the Midland Col- lege (Lutheran), the Atchison Latin School, and excellent public and parish schools are in the city. Besides, there are an or- phans' home, an insane asylum, a hospital and three parks. The city has grown rapid- ly. Its population is 16,429. Athabas'ca, a former district in north- west Canada, now has the status of a province, and is known as Alberta. LAKE ATHABASCA, partly in Alberta and partly in Saskatchewan (Canada) ; area a ,842 miles. River of the same name, 765 miles long, flows into this lake. A considerable stretch of it navigable. Athabasca Land- ing, a place of some commercial importance, is on its banks. The Athabasca is the most southerly of the rivers that go to make up the Mackenzie basin. It has its source in Yellow Head Pass high up in perpetual snow. It flows easterly and northerly collecting in its course the waters of the Baptiste, Macleod, Freeman, Pem- bina, Lesser Slave and other streams. It is one mile wide where it empties into Lake Atha- basca (Lake of the Hills), and 1,100 miles from its source high up in the Rockies. Athaliah (tith-d-li'o), the daughter of Ahab, king of Israel, married Jehoram, king of Judah, and brought the worship of Baal into Judah. After the death of her son, Ahaziah, who succeeded Jehoram but reigned only one year, she tried to pave her way to the throne by destroying all the members of the royal family. But Ahaziah's son, Joash, was hidden by his aunt, and after Athaliah had reigned six Jears, the high priest, Jehoiada, placed oash on the throne and caused Athaliah to be killed. Handel, in an oratorio, has told this story, and Racine also, in his drama Athalie, for which Mendelssohn com- posed the music. Athena. See MINERVA. Ath'ens, the capital of Attica and the center of ancient Greek culture. The city is beautifully situated. In its center is the rocky height called the Acropolis, rising about 500 feet above the Attic plains; and grouped around it are the Areopagus or Hill of Mars, the Museum or Hill of the Muses, the Hill of the Pnyx and the Hill of the Nymphs. The river Ilissus can be seen to the north and east, and the Cephissus to the south and west, while the Attic plain is itself girdled by hills. In legend Athens dates back to the hero Cecrops, from whom the city was called Cecropia, as well as the far more famous name, Athens, in honor of its patron god- dess, Athena. The mythic King Theseus also plays an honored part in the forming of the early city; while under the hands of Solon and the tyrants Pisistratus and Clisthenes was formed that democratic government which made the city so famous in history, and beginnings were made in the erection of imposing buildings. The ruins of the colossal temple to Zeus, called the Olympium, date back to this period. During the Persian wars the city was abandoned and burned, but after the ATHENS and THE PIRAEUS victories of Salamis and Platasa, it was splendidly rebuilt and the Athenians en- tered upon the most brilliant epoch of their career. The energy of Themistocles secured the building of the walls around the Acropolis, and the city walls, about five miles in circumference, with their ninety- seven towers and ten gates. Just out- side one of these gates was the Ceramicus or burying-ground, where are still to be seen beautiful tomb bas-reliefs. The for- tification of the harbor, called Peiraeus, and the building of the famous "long walls," 500 feet apart, some years later, com- pleted the defenses of the city. The age of Pericles was the most glorious in the history of Athens. Then flourished Monesicles and Ictinus in architecture, Phidias and Myron in sculpture, ^Eschylus and Sophocles in tragedy, Socrates and Plato in philosophy, Herodotus and Thucy- dides as historians and Pindar and Sim- onides as poets. In this period many of the finest buildings of Athens were built the Parthenon, considered the most beau- tiful ruin in the world, the Eiechtheum, the Temple of Wingless Victory, the The- seum and many other temples and monu- ments. At that time the city had more than 10,000 dwellings and 100,000 free in: habitants, with at least twice as many slaves. The close of the Peloponnesian War marked the fall of Athens. Her splendid ATHENS, GA. 131 ATHLETICS walls were destroyed and her civic spirit was broken; but a few men such as De- mosthenes still kept her the defender of Greek freedom, while Lycurgus laid out the Stadium for the grounds of the so- called Panathenaic festival, having seats for 45,000 persons. After Athens with the remainder of Greece had fallen under the power of Macedonia, it became the seat of schools of philosophy and rhetoric, and later, when it became a Roman prov- ince (146 B. C.), it for a long time taught its conqueror." During this period the Emperor Hadrian gave the city a new prosperity; but from this time onward Athens became the spoil, first of the Romans, then of the Goths, afterward of the Chris- tians and lastly of the Turks. In 1833 Greece was freed from the Turks, and since that time Athens, as the capital of the kingdom, lias grown rapidly. It has a gymnasium after the German model, a school for the education of girls, a poly- technic school which provides instruction in painting, sculpture and mechanics, and a university, which numbers over fifty professors and nearly 3,000 students. Within recent years there has grown up in Athens a great interest in the study of the remains of antiquity; and the three museums are stored with the fruit of such work. Besides the native societies for this object, called archeological societies, America England, Germany and France have estab- lished similar schools. The American school was founded in 1882, and is maintained by twelve leading colleges in the United States. The population of Athens is now 167,479. Athens, Qa., the capital of Clarke County, north central Georgia, on the Oconee River, is seventy-three miles northeast of Atlanta. It is a center of the Georgia cotton-trade, and has a number of cotton-mills and other manufactories. It is the seat of the University of Georgia, the State College of Agriculture, the State Normal and of Lucy Cobb Institute. The city is an important railway junction, and fifty miles to the eastward it has the facilities of the Savannah River. Popu- lation, i4,9 J 3- Athletics. The indulgence in games and sports is as old as the era of Homer. Quite respectable amateurs were Plato, Cleanthes and Pythagoras, though they did not rival, of course, the trained pro- fessionals who won the bay and the olive leaf at the great Olympian, Pythian, Ne- mean and Isthmian games. In the days of old King Hal of England, sport and games in the mother country were univer- sal. The chief features in these contests and rivalries were archery, running, jump- ing, leaping, wrestling and boxing matches, together with remarkable records in putting shot and throwing the hammer. At a later day came the school sports at Eton, Harrow, Rugby and Shrewsbury, the ath- letic contests at Oxford and Cambridge, including sculling matches on the rivers and the Highland games at Braemar, Inver- ness and other towns in Scotland. In our modern day athleticism has become almost a craze, with its swimming, skating, bicy- cling, baseball, football, boxing and cricket matches, croquet and lawn tennis cham- pionships and boat and hurdle races. To-day the physiology of bodily exercise is better understood and valued than ever before, and hence come the methodical training indulged in and its results in the healthful nutrition of the body and its beneficial effects on the respiratory organs and the stimulus to the brain and all the bodily powers. Those who practice athletics fall into three classes, consisting of amateurs, pro- fessionals or semi-professionals. All train, that is, make particular preparation for special sports, but amateurs do not com- pete for money, receive pay for services nor contest against professionals. For many years athletics in America con- sisted of contests between isolated col- leges or, clubs, but about 1875 these began to form groups, train methodically, play series of games and hold large meets. Now a network of athletic associations covers the civilized world, including even colonies in uncivilized countries, and codes of play regulate every imaginable condi- tion and happening in any game. The United States has an Amateur Athletic Union (A. A. U.) and an Intercollegiate Association of Amateur Athletes. The professional associations are too many to name, the best known being the Ameri- can and National leagues of ball-clubs. Training for athletic games has been re- duced to a science. It regulates bathing, clothing, diet, exercise and sleep; begins months before an "event" occurs; and often is as severe as if the athletes were soldiers. A cold bath should be taken every time after practice and be followed by vigorous rubbing with a rough towel. Clothing usually consists of a shirt, knee- trousers, thick stockings, rubber-soled or light-leather shoes for road-running and a blanket or sweater to wear after exercise and prevent catching cold. Proper diet is indispensable wholesome, well-cooked food in plenty but drink, heavy foods, rich pastries and tobacco are forbidden. Exercise should not be confined to the practice that the special contest requires, but whatever develops all-around power and skill helps on the special thing. Regular hours of sleep and at least eight hours a night are indispensable. The more im- portant games are described in special articles. See BASEBALL, BASKETBALL, CRO- QUET, GOLF, TENNIS, etc. ATHOS 132 ATLANTIC OCEAN Ath'os, Mount, called Monte Santo or Holy Hill by the Italians, a famous moun- tain in Greece, at the extremity of the peninsula of Chalcidice, on the ^Egean Sea. It rises to the height of 6,346 feet above the sea. In ancient times several towns were built on the peninsula. Xerxes cut a canal through the isthmus which connects the peninsula with the mainland, to escape the dangerous passage around the promontory; traces of the canal still exist. The peninsula is celebrated as the seat of a kind of monastic republic, consisting of twenty large monasteries besides numerous hermitages and chapels. The entire number of monks is about 6,000. The whole community is governed by four presidents, one of whom is called the First Man of Athos, and a holy synod of twenty members. The monks lead an ascetic life, living on herbs, fruit and fish. They spend their time in farming, gardening, the care of bees and the manu- facture of amulets, images, crucifixes and wooden articles of furniture, which they sell. Atlanta, Qa., the capital of the state and county seat of Fulton County, through which county the Chattahoochee River flows. It lies 170 miles west by north of Augusta and about 295 miles north- west of Savannah, both of the latter cities being on the Savannah River, Atlanta, frequently called the Gate City, is an important railroad and commercial cen- ter; it is on the Southern, the Seaboard Air Line, the Atlanta & West Point and other railroads. It occupies high ground, and has a mild, equable climate. The city, which was founded in the year 1837, when for some few years it was known as Marthasville, received its charter as a city in 1847, an d in 1878 it became the state capital. During the Civil War it played a prominent part as a rallying point and supply center for the Confed- erate armies, and as such was for several weeks in 1864 invested and finally cap- tured by the federal army under Gen- eral Sherman, the city being at the time held by the Confederate General Hood, who was compelled to evacuate it after two sanguinary battles had been fought in the vicinity. Later in the year Sher- man withdrew his army and started on his march to the sea, when the city was almost totally burned. After the close of the war Atlanta was speedily rebuilt, and in 1895-96 it was chosen as the site of the Cotton States Industrial Exposi- tion. The new city has been substan- tially and attractively built and besides its civic and municipal buildings it is adorned with a handsome state capitol, together with a number of important educational institutions, including Atlanta, Oglethorpe, Emory and Clark Universities, State School of Technology, Atlanta Baptist College, two Medical Colleges, the city's training institutes and Georgia Military Academy. It has, moreover, a large and growing number of industrial establishments, including agricultural implement works, ma- chine-shops, foundries, cotton and paper mills, tobacco factories, etc. The city has made progress since the Civil War. Is now one of the busiest and most flourishing cities of the New South and is still enjoying a solid and rapid growth. Population, 200,000. Atlanta University. A 'non-sectarian institution founded in 1869 for the educa- tion of colored men and women. It is situated in Atlanta, Ga., and in 1910 had 400 students. The president is Horace Bumstead, D. D. The aims of the uni- versity are stated to be "to train talented negro youth to disseminate civilization among the untaught masses, and to edu- cate teachers." Atlantic City, N J., a popular and fashionable seabathing resort on the New Jersey coast, situated sixty miles south- west of Philadelphia. On account of its salubrious climate it is both a winter and a summer resort. It has an admirable beach, and is frequented both summer and winter by thousands of people from Philadelphia, New York and from all sections of the country. Magnificent ex- press trains, both steam and electric, are run daily between Philadelphia and At- lantic City, while trains are run direct from New York, Pittsburg, Washington and the south. The city is lighted by electricity, the principal streets are asphalted and the electric street car service is of the best the country affords. There are upward of one thousand hotels and boarding houses, some of these being the largest and best equipped on the Atlantic coast. The Board-walk along the ocean front is over eight miles in length and is sixty feet in width. There are thirteen school buildings, large and convenient churches, numerous halls, magnificent ocean piers and amusement places of all descriptions. The resident population is over 51,000, and the assessed valuation of the resort over ninety-two million dollars. Atlantic Ocean, so called either from Mt. Atlas or from the fabulous island of Atlantis, which separates the old from the new world. Its greatest width is about 5,000 miles; but between Brazil and the African coast the distance is only about i, 600 miles. It is in open communication both with the Arctic Ocean and the Ant- arctic or Southern Ocean. The average depth is between two and three miles, though in places it is twice that depth. It has been sounded in all directions, and it has been found that as a rule the bed of the ocean is a broad, gently undulating plain, though near some of the continental ATLANTIS 133 ATOM shores and around some of the volcanic cones which rise from this floor there are very steep slopes. Life exists at all depths of the sea, though becoming less abundant at greater depths; while the surface waters from equator to poles swarm with all kinds of plants and animals, many of which give forth a phosphorescent light, causing what is known as the luminosity of the sea. Though only about half as large as the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic is much more important, as the most civilized nations of the world live on its shores and it is the great highway of trade for the world. Its coasts are better surveyed and better provided with lighthouses than those of any other ocean. It is divided by the equator into the North Atlantic and South Atlantic, with respective areas of 14,000,000 and 10,000,000 square miles. It is esti- mated that the yearly discharge of rivers into the Atlantic is 3,400 cubic miles of water, equal to about one half of the river dis- charge of the world. There are warm and cold currents in the Atlantic, which have an effect on the neighboring lands. The most important is the Gulf Stream. It starts from the Gulf of Mexico and spreads out over the ocean to the south of Newfoundland; one part of it returns to the tropics off the coasts of Spain and Africa; the other passes northward between the British Isles and Iceland and on to the coasts of Norway, which are thus rendered habitable, though the opposite coasts of Greenland are ice- bound. The chief inlets of the Atlantic are, on the west, Baffin Bay, Davis and Hudson Straits, the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea; and on the east the North and Baltic Seas, Bay of Biscay, Strait of Gibraltar and Gulf of Guinea. The principal islands washed by the ocean are, on the west, Newfoundland, Bermuda, Bahama and West India Is- lands, Trinidad and the Falkland Islands; and on the east, Iceland, Faroe, Shetland, Orkney and the British Islands, the Azores, Ma- deira, Canary and Cape Verd Islands, together with St. Paul, Ascension and St. Helena. Some twenty cables now cross the Atlantic floor between the Old World and the New; while the Marconi wireless system, now successfully inagurated, adds to the facilities of international communica- tion. Atlan'tis, in ancient tradition the name of a vast island in the Atlantic Ocean. Plato relates, in his dialogue Timaeus, how an Egyptian priest told Solon of its exist- ence, lying off the Pillars of Hercules in the ocean and larger than Libya and Asia Minor together. Plato also gives a descrip- tion of the island and adds a fabulous history. His story is that 9,000 years be- fore his own time Atlantis was a powerful and populous island, and conquered the western part of Europe and Africa. At one time its whole power was arrayed against the nations bordering on the Mediterranean, and every nation gave way before it except the Athenians, who were finally victorious. The gods at last came to the rescue of the earth and an earthquake caused the island to sink in tke ocean. Many efforts have been made to find the seat of this island, but it doubtless was only an imaginary land, like the Land of the Dead among the Celtic race. At'las, in Greek fable, the son of a Titan and father of the Pleiades and Hyades. As leader of the Titans he tried to storm the heavens, and for this crime was condemned by Zeus to bear the vault of heaven on his head and hands, standing in the neighbor- hood of the Hesperides at the western end of the earth on the mountains in the north- west of Africa, still called by his name. Atlas, the great mountain system of northwestern Africa, stretching from Cape Nun in Morocco to Cape Bon in Tunis, a distance of about 1,400 miles. It is a very irregular mass of mountains running in various directions. It reaches its greatest height (about 13,000 feet) 27 miles south- east of the city of Morocco, and in the peaks Bibawan and Tagherain. The heights approach the sea and form the promontories jutting out into the Atlantic. The slopes of the north, west and south are covered with vast forests of pine, oak, cork, white poplar, etc. Copper, iron, lead and antimony are found abundantly, but have not yet been mined to any great extent. Atoll (a-toU), the native name commonly applied in the Indian Ocean to a lagoon island, a low, usually circular reef, often composed of coral and the sand and soil washed up by the sea, and upon which a stunted vegetation grows, with an oc- casional palm tree a variety of shrubs. Many atolls are as much as a hundred miles in circumference, and enclose bodies of water varying from 12 to 50 fathoms: they furnish good temporary harbors, open here and there, by narrow inlets from the sea. In many cases they are inhabited by Malays. See CORAL ISLAND and REEF. At'om. When a homogenous body is broken up into very small parts, even the smallest parts which we can produce by any instrument or see by any microscope, these parts appear to be all exactly alike in structure. But we may fairly ask whether, if it were possible to continue the process of division yet further, we should still fina the body made up of parts exactly alike. The facts indicate that this question would have to be answered in the negative. For there are other methods, besides the use of mechanical instruments, for separating a ATREUS 134 ATTILA body into its parts. Thus, for instance, if we place zinc in dilute sulphuric acid, the zinc will set free hydrogen, which formerly constituted a part of the sulphuric acid. The sulphuric acid has thus been divided into parts. Again, if we confine a mixture of gases in a vessel with porous walls, we find that some of these gases pass through the walls more rapidly than others; and that by collecting those that come through first and those that come through last, we can separate the mixture into parts that are very different from one another. From considerations of this kind we are led to think that matter is made up of particles far transcending in smallness the reach of the most powerful microscope. The smallest mass of any substance in which the prop- erties of the substance still remain is called a molecule. But all substances, except about ninety which are called elements, have been decomposed into other sub- stances having different properties. The smallest mass of each of these elementary substances is defined as an atom. Atom is a Greek word meaning "indivisible;" it acquired its present English signification about the beginning of the ipth century. An atom is defined as a portion of matter which is indivisible by chemical methods: but there are excellent reasons for thinking that this atom which is indivisible by chem- ical methods is made up of still smaller parts. One of these reasons is that a single type of atom say hydrogen is capable of emitting light of many different wave lengths, just as a piano or an orchestra can emit many different wave lengths of sound. And just as a piano is a complex instrument, so we are led to think that an atom of hydro- gen or indeed an atom of any other sub- stance is probably a very complex mechan- ism. A still stronger reason for thinking that the chemical atom is divisible is th fact that Sir Joseph Thomson has recently succeeded in splitting off, from the hydrogen atom, parts which are called "electrons" and which have a mass of approximately one two-thousandth that of the hydrogen atom. These electrons may be obtained from matter by other processes also, such as X-rays, ultra-violet light, and high temperatures. One investigator has esti- mated that the size of an electron bears to the size of an atom about the same relation as the size of a pinhead bears to the size of the dome on St. Paul's Cathedral. In all, there are about ninety kinds of atoms: these are the "elements" of the chemist. Professor Millikan of Chicago University has found the mass, in grams, of a hydrogen atom to be 1.62x10-24. Experiments indicate that it would require about 100,000,000 average molecules laid side by side in a straight line to cover a distance of one centimeter. See Sir Joseph Thomson's Corpuscular Theory of Matter (Scribners), Soddy's Inter- pretation of Radium, Cameron's Radium and Radioactivity (Romance of Science Series), Kimball's Properties of Gases (Houghton Mifflin Company). HENRY CREW. A'treus, according to the Greek legend, the son of Pelops and Hippodamia. By some versions he is accounted the father of Agamemnon and Menelaus, while others say he was their grandfather but that he reared them as sons. The whole story of the house of Atreus is one of bloodshed, the series of crimes beginning with the murder of Chrysippus by his half brothers, Atreus and Thyestes, and ending with the murder of Clytemnestra and her husband by Clytemnestra's son, Orestes. Because of the first murder, Pelops pronounced the curse upon his sons that they and their posterity should perish by means of one another. At' tar of Roses (from the Arab word for perfume'), the oil extracted from the petals of the rose. It is prepared from rose-water in Persia, India and other eastern countries by setting it out during the night in large open vessels, and early in the morning skimming off the oil which floats at the top. It is very costly, and is often adulterated with sandalwood and other oils. Half an ounce of the oil can be made from 200,000 well-grown roses, and this amount, when manufactured, is worth about $40. The oil is at first colorless, but later shows a yellow tint. The oil of Adrianople and of Ghazipoor in Hindu- stan is considered the best. The region about Ghazipoor is one great expanse of roses. At'tica, one of the divisions of ancient Greece, with Athens as its capital. Its area was about 640 square miles. It is of the shape of a triangle, having its north- east and southwest sides washed by the sea, and joined to the mainland on the north. As early as the time of Solon it was well cultivated, and produced wine and corn. Figs, olives and grapes are still grown, and goats and sheep are raised. Today Attica and Bceotia together form a division or government in the kingdom of Greece, with an area of 2,472 square miles and a population of 341,247. At'tila, the Scourge of God, 'born about 406 A. D., was son of the king of the Huns, and in 434 succeeded his uncle as king of countless hordes scattered over the north of Asia and Europe. He was regarded by the Huns with reverence but by the Christians with dread. He is said to have received che title Scourge of God from a hermit in Gaul. His power at one time reached from the Rhine to tha frontiers of China. In 447 he laid waste the entire region between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. All the people, it is related were either destroyed or forced to follow ATTLEBORO 135 AUDUBON him against his enemies. The Emperor Theodosius was completely defeated by him, and seventy large cities were destroyed. A few years later, in 451, Attila marched westward against Gaul. There he was met in the valley of the Marne by Theodoric, king of the Visigoths, and by Aetius, leader of the Romans. After a terrible battle, Attila was completely defeated and barely escaped with his life. The old historians speak of the battle as one of the most bloody the world ever saw, and it was of the greatest importance, because it pre- vented the inferior races of the east from destroying the beginnings of new civilization in the west. Not less than 252,000 men are said to have been left dead upon the field. Attila resolved to fire his wagons and cast himself into the flames rather than be taken captive, but AStius allowed him to retreat without harm. The next year he made a raid into Italy, destroying many cities and driving the people into the mountains. Rome itself was saved only by the bravery of Pope Leo I, who visited Attila and is said to have so awed him by the majesty of his appearance that he gave up his intention of burning the city. He died in 453, while preparing for another attack upon Italy, from the rupture of a blood-vessel on the day of his marriage. His body was put into three coffins, the first of gold, the sec- ond of silver and the third of iron, and the men who made his grave were put to death, that no one might know where he was buried. He is de- scribed as of very short stature, witn large head and flow- ing hair, small piercing eyes and broad shoul- ders. At'tleboro, Mass., an early settled and progressive manufact- uring town in Bristol County, on the line of the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad, 32 miles southwest of Boston. Originally composed of a group of villages, Attleboro was incorporated as a town in 1 694. Today it has a number of bleacheries, dye- houses, smelters, gold and silver refineries and manufactures besides jewelry and jeweler's supplies, silverware, carriages, leather, but- tons, cotton goods, etc. It has a well equipped public library, owns its water- works and is the seat of the Attleboro Sani- tarium. See Daggett : Sketch of the History of Attleboro (Boston, 1894). Present population 18,149. Auburn (au'btirn), a city of Cayuga County, New York state. Electricity from Niagara and water-power from Owasco Lake, which is within two and a half miles of the city, supply its factories with power. The city contains a state prison, Theological Seminary and two free libraries. It was long the home of William H. Seward. Manufac- tures include farm implements, rope, twine, engines and shoes. Population, 34,668. Auburn, Me., the capital of Andros- coggin County, southwestern Maine, on two rivers of the same county name, which furnish the city with splendid water-power. It is situated about 35 miles north of Port- land, and has good railroad facilities for the shipping of its special manufactures of cotton and shoes, in which trade it gives employment to some 6,000 hands. Its other industries include last, box and carriage works, machine shops, shoe findings, packing houses, etc. The city is lighted by electricity, and owns its waterworks. It has excellent public schools, at the head of the public school sys- tem being the Edward Little High School, a noted institution, a number of churches and fine public buildings. Its population at ^present is 17,000. Auck'land, a New Zealand seaport and the chief town in the North Island. For a time it was the capital of England's colony in the South Pacific, before the choice fell upon Wellington in 1865. Auckland has a fine harbor on the Gulf of Hauraki, and possesses considerable trade, being the chief town of its provincial district of the same name. The district has an area of 25,746 square miles, with a population (exclu- AUCKLAND its harbour and approaches sive of Maoris) of 264,520 in 1911, and a fertile soil and delightful climate. The city of Auckland has considerable foreign trade, chiefly with Britain; it is also the seat of a university, and with its suburbs has a population of 102,676. Audubon (au/du-bon), John James, a distinguished American ornithologist, was born in 1780 in Louisiana. He was edu- cated at Paris, his parents being of French origin. After returning to America, he married and went to live on his plantation. He 1 spent his time wandering through the AUDUBON SOCIETIES X36 AUGUR woods, watching the habits of birds. Often he was gone for months entirely alone, in absolutely uninhabited regions. The vari- eties of birds which he observed he sketched at once. After about fifteen years of such excur- sions, he proceeded to Philadelphia with his designs, intending to publish a work on the birds of North America. But while he was gone from the city all his papers were destroyed by rats, and he was obliged to go back to the forests and begin his work again. Four years later he took his new designs to England and in 1830 appeared the first volume of The Birds of America, containing 100 plates. In 1839 the work was completed, and at the same time was published a description of American birds to accompany the volume of plates. Audu- bon published another book in 1846-50 on the quadrupeds of America. He died at New York, January 27, 1851. Audubon Societies, organizations formed in over thirty states of the American Union, with about 75,000 members, for the study as well as the protection of bird-life. These societies have waged their battle for birds along many lines and with gratifying results. Through their literature and through the newspaper and magazine press they have awakened a wide interest in behalf of the birds; they have enlightened the public in regard to the aesthetic and economic value of birds; they have enlisted the interest of teachers in the public schools and through them have created in the minds of the young a love of birds and bird-lore; they have secured the enactment of laws forbidding the slaughter of birds and have practically stopped the trade in bird plumage. In cooperation with the federal government they have purchased and set aside as refuges, safe from depredation, many of the islands used as breeding places by various species of sea- fowl along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts and in certain points in Oregon and Wash- ington. A warden is placed in charge of each of these whose business it is to patrol the refuge and see that the birds are protected from trespassers. In order that he may have the prestige and authority of a government officer, the federal govern- ment pays him a salary of one dollar a month, but his real salary is paid by the Audubon societies. Pelican Island, in Florida, the first bird reservation, was set aside by proclamation of the president in March, 1903. This island is the only known breeding place for brown pelicans on our Atlantic coast, and the colony had been almost exterminated when the government interfered. Here and in other reservations where many species of wild fowl, includ- ing grebes, coots, rail, white ibises, egrets, heron, etc. make their winter homes, these beautiful birds are now raoidly increasing in number. Much similar work is carried on by state organizations. In Louisiana the state Audubon Society controls 750 square miles of land and water on the east side of the Mississippi River near its mouth and a similar tract of territory on the west side. Massachusetts, New Jersey and other states have secured extensive tracts in whicn wild birds are to be protected. It is probable that ere long similar action will be taken by every state in the Union. In 1903 the Audubon Societies east and west secured agreements with the Mer- chants' Millinery Association and the West- ern Jobbers' Association whereby the sale of the plumage of wild birds was discon- tinued. It is stated on the authority of the government Bureau of Ornithology that bird life in this country, which during the fifteen years preceding 1903 had been reduced fifty per cent, by the merciless slaugnter of birds for their plumage, is now slowly but steadily on the increase, thanks to the vigorous legal measures and the awakening of public sentiment which have resulted from the work of the Audubon Societies. Auerbach, Berthold, German novelist, was bom of humble Jewish parents at Nordstetten, in the Black Forest, Germany, Feoruary 28, 1812, and died at Cannes, France, February 8, 1882. After passing through the universities and getting into trouble with the authorities for participa- tion in the Burschenschaft, he, under the influence of Spinoza's teaching, renounced Judaism and gave himself to literature. He published a Life of Spinoza and one (un- acknowledged) on Frederick the Great, but made no special success until 1843, when the first of his now famous Black Forest Village Stories appeared, followed at some interval by Little Barefoot, Joseph in the Snow, Edelweiss, The Villa on the Rhine and by On the Heights the latter two being, with his sketches of the Black Forest, his most representative work. His subsequent work included further novels, Brigitta, Aloys Waljried and a later series of village stories of the Black Forest, with some admirable delineations of peasant life and character. Augs'burg, an old and important city of Germany, in Bavaria, is on the River Lech. A colony was planted here in 12 B. C. by the Emperor Augustus. It became a free city of the empire in 1276. Holbein was a native of this city. It has many large manufactories, and is one of the main money markets of Europe. Population, 102,293. Augur, a Roman soothsayer or diviner who professed to foretell events by the flight of birds or other omens. His office was held in high repute by the heads of the state, who rarely undertook any pro- ject of importance without first consulting AUGUST AUGUSTUS the auguries. The augur among the Romans held his office for life; at one time there were but two (generally patricians); but later their number was increased to nine and even more. Au'gust, the sixth month in the Roman year, which began with March. It was originally called Sextilis, and received its present name in honor of the Emperor Augustus, because several of the most im- portant events of his life occurred in this month. In this month he was first elected consul and three times entered Rome in triumph ; in the same month an end was put to the civil wars. To make it equal to the fifth month, a day was taken from Febru- ary and added to August. Augus'ta, county seat of Richmond County, Georgia, a city of 41,040 inhab- itants, situated at the headwaters of the Savannah River. It was laid out by Ogle- thorpe, the founder of the state, in 1735 as a trading post for the Indians. It be- came a point of historic interest and mili- tary importance during the Revolutionary War, was visited by Washington in 1792 and by Lafayette in 1825. It is beautifully laid out in wide streets and avenues, noted for their regularity and abundance of shade trees. Greene Street, the main residence street, is 170 feet wide, with a park in the center, the length of the street, shaded with a double row of stately trees. The Augusta canal, nine miles long, developing 14,000 horse power, is one of the widest and deepest in the entire county. It was built and is owned by the city, and furnishes water-power for a dozen large cotton mills. Milling and cotton selling are the main industries of the city. The factory popula- tion numbers 15,000. The capital employed is about $6,000,000, running 9,000 looms and 300,000 spindles. Besides these, there are large iron foundries and railroad shops, Augusta is well equipped with hospitals, orphan asylums, electric car lines, parks and public schools. It is a favorite winter resort for northern tourists, having a fine winter hotel, The Bon Air. Its soft climate, beautiful situation and enterprising and hospitable people make it an attractive place for industrial pursuits as well as for social pleasures. Augusta, the capital of Maine, on the Kennebec River, 43 miles from its mouth. The city lies on both sides of the river, which is spanned by a bridge 520 feet long. The white granite statehouse is one of the finest in New England. Other fine buildings are the courthouse and the Maine insane asylum, to which property has been added the U. S. arsenal grounds. The United States arsenal is on the east side of the river, and the national military asylum is just outside the city limits. A dam, 1,000 feet long, above the city sup- plies an immense water-power. The chief interest is lumber, but the city has cotton mills, pulp and paper mills and large publishing houses. Because of Augusta's position among the hills of th? Kennebec and her lakes and ponds it has become quite a summer resort. Population, 1-3,211. Augustine (aw'gus-tin), Saint Aure~ lius, a famous preacher and scholar, was born at Tagaste, near Carthage, Africa, November 13, 354 A. D. He had the best of schooling, the latter part of it at Carthage, where he fell into bad habits. A passage of Cicero, which he chanced to read one day, first stirred his deeper being into life. For the next ten years he was an earnest student of philosophy. In 383 he went to Milan Italy, as a teacher of rhetoric. Here he became a close friend of the eloquent preacher, Ambrose, then bishop of Milan. Augustine often went to hear his friend preach. His mother, Monica, was an earnest Christian, and her influence and that of his friend brought him to accept Chris- tianity. In 396 he was made bishop of Hippo in North Africa. The next year he brought out his Confessions, some passages of which for beauty can only be com- pared with the Psalms of David. His most powerful work is his City of God. A great thinker and writer, no man's influence on the church has been greater. He died in 430 A. D. Augus'tus, Gaius Julius Caesar Oc- tavianus, the son of Octavius and Atia (the niece of Julius Caesar), was born Sep- tember 23, 63 B. C. In early youth he was adopted by Julius Caesar as his son and heir. At the time of Caesar's assassina- tion, Augustus was a student under the celebrated orator Apollodorus in Illy- ricum. He returned to Italy, assuming the name Julius Caesar Octavianus, and on his landing at Brundusium was welcomed by deputies from the veterans there assem- bled. Augustus was at first haughtily treated by the consul, Mark Antony, who refused to surrender the property of Caesar. After some fighting, in which Antony was defeated and had to flee across the Alps, Augustus, who had made himself a favorite with the people and the army, succeeded in getting the will of Caesar carried out. When Antony returned from Gaul with Lepidus, Augustus joined them in estab- Ishmg a triumvirate. He obtained Africa, Sardinia and Sicily. Antony obtained Gaul, and Lepidus Spain. Their power was soon made absolute by the massacre of those unfriendly to them in Italy and by victo- ries over the republican armies in Macedonia under Brutus and Cassius. After the battle of Philippi, won by Augustus and Antony, the triumvirs made a new divis- ion of the provinces Augustus obtaining Italy and Lepidus Africa. Shortly after- ward, the claims of 'Lepidus and Sextus Pompeius having been settled by force AUK 138 AURELIAN and fraud, the Roman world was divided between Augustus and Antony. While Antony was lost in luxurious dissipation at the court of Cleopatra, Augustus was striving to damage his rival in public estimation. At length war was declared against the queen of Egypt, and at the naval battle of Actium, B. C. 31, Augustus was victorious and became sole ruler of the Roman world. Soon after, Antony and Cleopatra ended their lives by suicide. The subsequent measures of Augustus were mild and prudent. He abolished the laws of the triumvirate, adorned the city of Rome and reformed many abuses. The title of Augustus, meaning consecrated, was conferred upon him as consul. In 12 B. C., on the death of Lepidus, he had the title of Pontifex Maximus or high priest conferred upon him. He died August 19, A. D. 14. He so beautified Rome that it was said: "Augustus found the city built of brick, and left it built of marble." He encouraged agriculture and patronized the arts and literature. Horace, Vergil and all the most celebrated con- temporary Latin scholars and poets were his friends. His was the famous Augus- tan Age of Latin literature. Auk, the name applied to a family of webfooted sea-birds. They have a thick- set, heavy body with short wings and tail. They are seldom more than a foot long, dark colored above and white beneath. They live almost exclusively in the water GREAT AUK and visit the land only to lay eggs and breed. Their movements on land are very awkward, which is caused because their legs are set far back. They are fine swimmers and divers, using their wings as well as their legs when under water. The razor-bill and the so-called little auk are common in high northern latitudes, and are used by the Esquimaux for food, while the skins are used in making clothing. The most noted as well as the largest member of the family, is the great auk, which has become extinct by the hand of man within the last fifty years. This bird, about the size of a goose, was formerly abundant on both shores of the Atlantic in north temperate parts, not, as is com- monly supposed, in the Arctic Ocean. The wings were so short as to be useless for flight, and the birds stupidly allowed themselves to be knocked over by seamen armed with short clubs and to be driven in large flocks on board vessels. They were used as food from the time of the discovery of Newfoundland, and later they were killed for their feathers. While once wonderfully abundant, they have become extinct, because they were ruthlessly slaugh- tered. Now their skins, bones and eggs bring high prices from museums and col- lectors. Auld Lang Syne, a well-known popular song; words by Robert Burns; music de- rived from a book of Scottish tunes printed in the latter half of the eighteenth century. Auld Robin Gray, a popular Scottish ballad, written about the year 1772, by Lady Anne Barnard, daughter of the Earl of Balcarras, whose family name was Lind- say. It was originally sung to an old Scotch tune, known as The Bridegroom Grot, but has been superseded by a modern air. A second part of the ballad, it is said, was written by Lady Anne, in which Robin Gray dies and Jeanie happily mar- ries Jamie, who "lo'ed her weel," as the song portrays. Aumale (do'tnaV) (Henri Eugene Philippe Louis d'Orldans), Due d', fourth son of Louis Philippe of France and a general of note in the French army, was born in Paris, January 16, 1822, and died in Sicily, May 7, 1897. When a youth he took part in cam- paigns in Algeria, of which he became governor-general. When the Revolution of 1848 broke out, he resigned his post and joined his exiled father and the Orleanist princes in England, until the law banishing royalty was repealed in 1871. The duke then returned to France, was made a gen- eral, and president of the council of war in which capacity he tried and condemned Marshal Bazaine. Later on, a new expul- sion bill passed the French legislature in 1886, and he was banished until the revo- cation of the measure in 1889. Meanwhile, and in spite of the decree of banishment, the Due d' Aumale bequeathed his beauti- ful chateau of Chantilly, with its fine art treasures, to the French nation. Aure'lian, Lucius Domitius Aure- lianus, emperor of Rome, was born in AURELIUS, MARCUS 130 AURELIUS, MARCUS Pannonia early in the 3d century. He came from the lowest classes, but so dis- tinguished himself in the Roman legion which he entered, that he was rapidly pro- moted. In the campaigns against the Goths by Valerian and by Claudius II, he became very popular with the soldiers, and when Claudius died he was proclaimed emperor in 270 by the army of the Danube, which he then commanded. Having driven the Goths beyond the Danube and defeated many German tribes, he built a long wall to protect Rome against them. One of his best-known expeditions was against Pal- myra, a city ruled by the famous Queen Zenobia. He captured, the city and treated the people with unexpected kindness, and refused to put Zenobia to death. After his departure, the Roman garrison which he left to guard the city was murdered by the citizens. Upon hearing of this, Aure- lian returned, destroyed the city and put the inhabitants to death. Zenobia herself was carried to Rome. Aurelian then de- feated an uprising of the Egyptians, and once more obtained for Rome the complete control over Gaul. He also made many improvements in the condition of the peo- ple and in the city of Rome, as well as in the discipline of the army, and was given the title of Restorer of the Empire by the senate. While on his way to attack the Persians, he was assassinated near Byzan- tium in 275 A. D. Aure'lius Antoni'nus, Marcus, the noblest and, in personal qualities, the most attractive of the Roman emperors, was born at Rome, 121 A. D. His original name was Marcus Annius Verus. Both his father, Annius Verus, and his mother, Domitia Camilla, were of noble blood. On the death of his father, Marcus was adopted by his grandfather, who bestowed the greatest possible care on his education. When a child he attracted the interest of the em- peror, Hadrian, who, when he named Antoninus Pius as his successor, stipulated that the latter in turn should adopt both Marcus, who was his nephew, and Lucius C. Commodus. In Antoninus, who was a wise and prudent ruler and a thoroughly good man, Marcus had the best of guar- dians. In appreciation of the advantages of his youth Marcus himself says: "To the gods I am indebted for having good grandfathers, good parents, a good sister, good teachers, good associates, nearly every- thing good." While he first studied rhetoric and poetry, he early abandoned these for the study of philosophy and law, having become fascinated with the Stoic philosophy as taught by Diognetus. It was from his stoic teachers that he learned so many valuable lessons to work hard, to deny himself, to avoid listening to slander, to endure misfortunes, never to deviate from his purpose, to be delicate in correcting: others. Through all his stoical training Aurelius preserved the natural sweetness of his nature and became the most lovable and saintliest of pagans. In the year 140 A. D. he was made consul, and from this period on to the death of Antoninus, in 161 A. D., he discharged the duties of his various offices with the greatest fidelity. Antoninus in his last moments left the suc- cession to Aurelius, without naming Com- modus; but Aurelius voluntarily shared the throne with the latter, who- henceforth bore the name of Lucius Verus, and Rome for the first time was governed by two em- perors. Before the close of 161 A. D. the Parthian War broke out and Lucius was sent to quell the insurrection ; but he gave himself up to licentious pleasures and in- trusted the army to Cassius, who proved an able general, and gained several victories. The empire was now beset by many dangers. A revolt broke out in the German provinces; in Rome a pestilence raged; floods and earthquakes had laid large portions of the city in ruins; and these calamities increased the terror in which the people held their savage enemies. To allay the public alarm Aurelius placed himself at the head of the Roman legions and marched against the barbarians. He conquered the rebellious tribes and made them sue for peace in 1 68 A. D. Lucius died in the following year. In 170 A. D. the barbarous tribes again revolted, and from this time the con- test continued almost through the whole life of the emperor. Though fond of peace, he was brave and relentless in suppressing rebellion. The most famous of all his victories was the one gained over the Quadi in 174 A. D. The effect was to bring the Germanic tribes from all quarters to sue for peace. Aurelius was now called to the east, where Cassius, the governor, had re- belled and seized the whole of Asia Minor; but before he reached there he learned that Cassius had been killed. On his arrival he burned the papers of Cassius without read- ing them, so that he might not learn who had been guilty of treason, treated the provinces which had rebelled with great kindness, and freely forgave the nobles who had favored Cassius. On his way home he visited Egypt and Greece, everywhere showing a deep interest in the welfare of his vast empire and securing the warm regard of his subjects, who were astonished at his lenity and goodness. He reached Rome in 176 A. D. The next year he went to Germany, where the tribes had again revolted. He again was victorious in sev- eral bloody battles, but, worn out with anxiety and fatigue, he died March 17, 180 A. D. The one blot on the character of Marcus Aurelius was his persecution of the Christians, who had been misrepresented to him and whom he regarded as enemies of the empire. His Meditations have been AURORA 140 AURUNGZEBE translated into English, German, French and Spanish. Several books have been written on his life and character. The best estimate of him is found in Dean Farrar's Seekers After God. Compare, also, Pater's Mariits the Epicurean. Aurora (in Greek Eos), the goddess of the morning. She was the daughter of Hyperion and mother of the winds. She loved Tithonus, for whom v she obtained from the gods immortality but forgot to ask for perpetual youth. She lived with him at the end of the earth, and when he grew old, nursed him until at last his voice disappeared and his body became shriveled, when she changed him into a cricket. Aurora is sometimes represented in a saffron-colored robe, with a wand or a torch in her hand, emerging from a golden palace and ascending her chariot; and sometimes in a flowing veil, which she "is in the act of throwing back, thus opening as it were, the gates of the morning. Auro'ra, a city in Kane County, Illinois, on the Fox River about 40 miles from Chicago. It has a variety of manufactures, including machinery, paints, carriages, sash and blinds, silverware, cotton mills, a wheel scraper manufactory, hardware specialties, foundries, etc. The extensive shops of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy railroad are located here. The public schools are of high grade, and it is the seat of Jennings Seminary. Aurora has 38 churches, a Carnegie Library and all the adjuncts of an up-to-date and prosperous town, and is served by four railroads. Population,, 29,807. Aurora, Mo., a city of Lawrence County, on the Missouri Pacific, Iron Mountain and the St. Louis & San Francisco railroad sys- tems, about 270 miles southwest of St. Louis. Agriculture, fruit-growing and considerable lead and zinc mining are the chief industries of the region. Besides the shipment of these products, the city numbers among its indus- tries flour mills, foundry and machine shops. Population, 4,148. Aurora Borealis, often called Northern Lights, a luminous phenomenon of remark- able beauty occurring in the high latitudes. In intermediate latitudes the aurora most frequently presents the appearance of long streamers of pale yellowish light extending from the northern part of the horizon well,* nigh to the zenith. But in the higher lati-- tudes this light appears frequently as an arch or even several arches, with the summits in the magnetic meridian. These streamers and arches are in almost constant motion, appearing to oscillate to and fro or to shoot suddenly upward and then to disappear with equal abruptness. \ Since the auroras rotate with the earth, it is practically certain that they are phenom- ena which occur in the earth s atmosphere. And since they are almost universally accompanied by disturbances of the mag- netic needle and by electrical disturbances! it seems highly probable that auroras are produced by electrical discharges, as was first suggested by Franklin. These dis- charges occur perhaps at a height of from 50 to too miles, where the atmospheric pressure -does not amount to more than about one one-hundredth of an inch of mercury. * Air under these conditions is a fairly good conductor of electricity. When >an aurora is examined with a prism, it presents an emission spectrum which is quite unique, consisting, as it does, of some half-dozen weak lines and one strong green line. This strong line has a wave length of 5,571 tenth-meters and apparently does not coincide with an equally strong line in any known substance. Such a spectrum indicates that auroras are in the condition of a glowing gas. And it is the opinion of two very high authorities, Vogel and Hasselberg, that the spectrum of the aurora is merely a modified spectrum of air, which as yet we have not been able to produce in the laboratory. Contrary to the general impression, the frequency of auroral displays does not in- crease from equator to pole, but reaches a maximum at an average latitude of about 60. So that the northern lights are not seen so frequently in Greenland and in Iceland as in regions south of these countries. The name aurora borealis is due to Gas- sendi, who observed a brilliant display in France in 1621. Aurungzebe (o-rung-zdb'), the last great .emperor of the Mogul dynasty in India. He was born in 1618, and was early ap- pointed by his father viceroy of the Deccan. Here he gained military experience and at the same time became very rich. In 1657 his father suddenly became sick, and the eldest brother seized the power ; but Aurung- zebe, uniting with a younger brother, de- feated him* and soon gained complete con- trol. His father, xvho had recovered, was made a prisoner for life in his own palace. The reign of Aurungzebe was the most "brilliant period in the rule of his race. The first ten years were peaceful, and the em- peror showed great wisdom in providing for a famine and in putting down a rising 'of Hindu fanatics. The rise of the Mahratta .empire broke . in upon his peaceful regime. ' The generals sent against this new power were defeated, and Aurungzebe had to march to the Deccan and take the field himself. . He remained there twenty-two years, ruling an empire which in wealth and population was probably as great as any ever ruled by a monarch. He died in 1707. He liked to be called Conqueror of the World; but to show that he ruled as yet but three quarters of it, he used to tear off a corner from every sheet of paper he used in his correspondence. AURORA BOREALIS OR NORTHERN LIGHTS. AURORA IN FORM OF DRAPERY OBSERVED AT PORT FOULKE. GREENLAND AUSTEN AUSTRALASIA Aus'ten, Jane, a famous English novelist, was born in 1775 in Hampshire, England. Her acquaintance with English literature was considerable, and she was an especial favorite with her young friends because of her ability to make up long and interesting stories for their amusement. Her first novel, Sense and Sensibility, appeared anonymously in 1811. Others of her works are Pride and Prejudice Mansfield Park, Emma. Northanger Abbey and Persuasion. Her works deal entirely with domestic life, and her characters are taken from the Knglish middle class. Miss Austen is espe- cially noted for the delicacy and aptness ot her descriptions of character and life. She died in 1817. See Prof. Goldwin Smith's Life of Jane Austen in the Great Writers' Series. Ausierlitz (aj^ter-tits), a town in Moravia, Austria-Hungary, situated on the Littawa River, is celebrated because of the victory there of Napoleon over the Russians and Austrians. December a, 1805. After Napoleon had captured Vienna, in the middle of November. 1805. he took up his quarters with about 75,0:0 men, at Brunn, the capital of Moravia. The Austrian and Russian forces, about >j',ooo strong, commanded by their two 3m;i>orors, were at Olmutz, northeast of Brunn. The French occupied a high piece of ground, partly surrounded by swamps and woods. At about seven in the morning of Decem- ber 2d, the allied forces advanced against the right wing of the French army, but Napoleon ordered an instant attack on their flank, and completely defeated them after a hard contest. While part of the ellies were retreating across a frozen lake, Napoleon's artillery broke the ice and nearly 2,000 men were drowned. At Aus- terlitz Russia and Austria lost about 30,000 men in killed, wounded and pris- oners, while the French loss was about 12,000. After the battle the Peace of Presburg was signed, and the Russian em- peror was forced to return to his empire. Aus'tin, Alfred, English poet-laureate (1896-1913), in succession to Lord Tenny- son, was born at Headingley, near Leeds, England, May 30, 1835, and educated at Stonyhurst College and at St. Mary's Col- lege, Oscott. In 1853 he took his degree at London University, and was called to the bar of the Inner Temple. In 1861 he first showed his bent toward literature by the publication of some minor poems, followed by the volumes entitled The Hu- man Tragedy, Savonarola, The Tower of Babel, Prince Lucifer, Fortunatus the Pes- simist, The Garden that I Love, In Veronica's Garden, Lamia's Winter Quarters, England's Darling and At the Gate of the Convent. A collected edition of his poems has appeared in six volumes. He never practiced law but did journalistic work as a newspaper correspondent, and critic, writing largely for ^the London Standard and Quarterly Review, and founding and editing for a time, ^conjunction with W. J. Courthope, the National Review. Austin, Minn., a city, the county seat of Mower County, on Red Cedar River and on the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul and the Chicago Great Western Rail- roads, situated about 100 miles south of St. Paul. It is the seat of the Southern Minnesota Normal College and has, be- sides a Carnegie Public Library, a number of fine churches, schools, city and county buildings and an attractive city park. It is the center of a fertile agricultural re- gion, and has a growing trade, which in- cludes meat-packing products and those of its flour mills, creameries, brick, tile and cement works, besides live stock, wheat, flax, barley, butter and other dairy products, etc. Population 9,500. Austin, Stephen Fuller, son of Moses Austin, the Texan pioneer, and himself founder of the state of Texas, was born at Austinville, Va., November 3, 1793, and died at Columbia, Texas, December 25, 1836. Taking up the work of his father, who died in 1821, he obtained from the Mexican government a confirmation of the grant 'to his father; he built up at Aus- tin, Texas, a thriving settlement, while he pacified those Indians that threatened trouble. In the thirties the colony became restive under Mexican rule, and he, siding with the revolutionists, was for a time imprisoned. On being liberated he act- ively took up arms against the Mexicans, and, calling General Sam Houston to his aid, he committed himself to the project of Texan independence. In 1835 he was a commissioner to the United States to secure the recognition of Texas, but that object was as yet distant, and he died before seeing his cherished designs fulfilled. Austin, the capital of Texas, stands on the left bank of the Colorado River. The river here breaks through a range of hills upon which the city is built. On Capitol Hill stands the magnificent state capitol, built of Texas marble, at a cost of 3,000,000 acres of state land. From this point broad avenues extend north south, east and west. Austin is an important railroad point, and the market center of a rich ag- ricultural district. It is the seat of the University of Texas, endowed and main- tained by legislative grants, with 71 in- structors and an attendance of 2,500 students. Here are also located St. Edward's College, St. Mary's Academy, Tillotson College and other academies and seminaries; also the state asylums for the blind, insane, and deaf and dumb. Population, 45,000. Australa'sia, meaning Southern Asia- includes Australia and the neighboring islands Tasmania, New Zealand, Papua, AUSTRALIA 142 AUSTRALIA New Caledonia, the New Hebrides, New Guinea and New Britain. The term is also popularly used for the Australian col- onies of Great Britain, including Tasmania, New Zealand, Fiji, etc. Australia (as-tra'tt-a), the great island continent of the southern hemisphere, belonging to Great Britain. It lies be- tween latitude 10 41' and 39 u' south, longitude 113 5' and 153 16' east. It is washed on the west and south by the In- dian Ocean, on the east by the South Pacific and on the north by the Timor, Arfura and Coral Seas. Its greatest length from east to east is 2,400 miles, and its breadth from north to south 1,970 miles. Its area, ^ in- cluding Tasmania, is 2,072,573 square miles. Population, in 1909, 4,374,138. Surface and Drainage. The coast line is almost unbroken. Parallel with the east coast stretches for 1,200 miles the Great Barrier reef, offering but one safe opening for ships. The absence of rivers between the coast and the interior is re- markable, there being only one large river, the Murray, 2,345 miles long. The moun- tain ranges are on the east coast, divided into the Australian Alps, whose peak, Mt. Kosciusko, is the highest on the conti- nent (7,308 feet); the Blue Mountains; the Liverpool Range; MacPherson Range; Herries Range; the dividing range of Queensland; the great dividing range of Victoria; the Grampians and the Pyrenees. From the head of the Gulf of Carpenteria stretches a tableland westward. A large part of the interior is a barren tract of salt or mud plains. To the north of Spencer Gulf is an area of some thousand square miles, set with lakes, the Lake District of Australia. Eyre, Torrens, Gairdner and Amadeus to the northwest are the largest. These dead masses of salt water change as the season is wet or dry; now sheets of water and now almost grassy plains. Climate. The climate of Australia is healthful though subject to high tempera- ture. The coast regions generally have a sufficient rainfall, but the interior is subject to extreme drought and large areas are practically arid. Vegetation. Plant life is modified by the dryness of the climate; the trees have a scanty foliage and large areas are covered with scrubby bushes, and, in the arid re- gions, with a hard, coarse plant, called porcupine grass. There are forests which afforof valuable timber trees, including gum, of which there are 150 species, and acacia or wattle 300 species. Palms, of which there are 24 species are found on the north and east coasts. Various fruits and vines have been introduced and pro- duce well. There are also large areas which produce nutritious grasses, affording pas- turage for immense flocks of sheep. Minerals. Gold was discovered in Aus- tralia in 1851, attracting a rush of gold- seekers. Since that time the mines have produced more than $1,350,000,000. 'inere are a) so rich deposits of silver, copper, tin, lead, zinc, etc.; also coal, iron, granite, marble, limestone and sandstone, Animal Life. The higher orders of wild animals found in other countries are almost wholly lacking in Australia, those here found being mostly marsupials, or animals which generally carry their young in an external pouch. Of these there are more than 100 kinds, of which the best known are the kangaroo, wombat, koala, bandicoot, wallabies and opossums. Birds are in greai number and variety. The largest is the- emu, which is nearly as large as the ostrich, reaching a height of six or seven ieet. Eagles, falcons, hawks and owls are numerous; also many kinds of parrots and cockatoos of brilliant plumage. Other birds are the pelican, Australian goose, the magnificent lyre bird, with pigeons, ducks, geese, quail, etc. Rep- tiles include the alligator, more than 60 species of snakes, lizards, frogs, etc. Native Peoples. The natives are of a dusky, coffee-brown complexion. They are not much shorter than the average Euro- pean, but are of a much slimmer and feebler build. They are mainly interested in hunting and getting food, at which they show great cunning, and they easily learn to chatter foreign languages; but outside of this limit all is blank to the Australian. His only idea of right and wrong is that each man's property is his own, wives being one item in a man's chattels. In summer they go naked; in winter they wrap them- selves in kangaroo skins. They eat roots of the wild yam, the opossum, lizard, snakes, white ants, etc. The boomerang, their favorite weapon, is a flat stick, three feet long, curved at the middle, which, when thrown, jerks in a zigzag fashion and usually comes back to the thrower. They also have flint-pointed spears, shields, and stone hatchets. Before Europeans set- tled in the island, there were about one hundred and fifty thousand natives, but there are now less than 50,000. History. It is not known just when Aus- tralia was discovered, but it is found on a French chart of 1542. A Spaniard, in 1606, passed through the Torres Strait, to which his name is given; while early Dutch explorers made known Tasmania, called at first, in honor of the Dutch gov- ernor of the East Indian colonies, Van Diemen's Land. In 1664 the states- general gave to the western part of the continent of Australia the name of New Holland; it is known also to have been visited by the mariner William Dampier. It was not until 1768, however, that the country became really known to the Eng- lish. It was visited in that year by an t iu' Cttoc * \' r - ~^J>-sMi V&gg &. ,&Cn'? b Sa^l&= wo..^ksrtoS^^izrr 1 i .^p""" J20" 130 /vlu/ t^^f^< v \ & ,,, ,,//,r,* 0o (J> iSsveiJi-i ''"I '? XT~.-^--^i^v"s\*^^Srv* l ' i "- i M^ Q w$K$ M 2 * !MvAfe;7f???Psb nara I '^^te^irr^ 1 ^^^-PlyHI b^S^^^^m^ i^^S Anders g J/^ A^jV^febU J^^ll -T X /">""> 5^ ^^ s lv\^ r ^ "%-S^ TaUa Brrhl4J/ c^aaes iJwl J| *f J? ^* ^/ A t ' ?i Bi '^ ^ J'Mfeoi,. '" ,,^it V"r>r-.T-,-,, . SjJiHfxSaCS!; ^ i / sj/^.., . .*n''T__ . ^i I A. J r? )i^1 1 * & / , pMotaS ? we i\^^ :: \ c *'9Kf' fflr ^^foV' Jy? T -^4s- : ' y'r* ^- * ^lj^^-1 U5? i STRATI "f* *',, >. W /' 740" AUSTRALIAN TYPES i North Australian 2 North Australian Woman 3 South Australian Woman 4 South Australian, Moroya Tribe 5 Tasmanian Woman 6 Aboriginal of New Guinea 7 Fiji Chief 8 Fiji Girl 9 Assachoreter of Taling 10 Tonga Girl of New Caledonia u Man of Utuan 12 Man of New Britain AUSTRALIA 143 AUSTRALIA. expedition under Capt. James Cook, who had taken soundings for General ^ Wolfe in the St. Lawrence during the siege of Quebec. This expedition was under the auspices of the English Royal Society, and was equipped for the purpose of taking observations on the transit (June, 1769) of Venus over the solar disc. Australia had its beginnings as a British settlement in 1788, when its coasts were utilized as places of banishment for criminals, Botany Bay being the first penal colony, in what be- came the colony of New South Wales. The Moreton Bay district in Queensland was settled in 1825, but the colony was not organized until 1859. Port Philip dis- trict, settled in 1835, was erected into the colony of Victoria in 1851. The colony of Western Australia was founded in 1829, and South Australia in 1836. The popu- lation, which had been slowly increasing, was rapidly augmented by the influx of immigrants on the discovery of gold in 1851, and the country entered on a career of continued prosperity. The Commonwealth. In 1901 the col- onies of Australia, including Tasmania, were federated under the crown, some- what after the fashion of the Dominion of Canada. These comprise New South Wales, which may be said to be the mother colony (area, 310,367 square miles; popu- lation 1911, 1,648,448); Victoria, (area 87,884 square miles; population, 1,303,387); Queensland (area, 670,500 square miles; population, 605,813); South Australia (area, 380,070 square miles; population, 408,808); Western Australia (area, 975,920 square miles; population, 282,114); and Tasmania (area, 26,215 square miles; population, 191,21 1). The constitution bill was in June, 1898, submitted by means of the referendum to the people and passed upon; while in January, 1899, at a conference of premiers held in Melbourne, an agreement was come to on all matters in dispute, the British parliament ratifying the federation meas- ure. The federation of Australia was inaugurated at Sydney, New South Wales, by representatives of the Crown, with Lord Hopetown as the first governor- general, in the summer of 1901. Legisla- tive power is vested in a federal parlia- ment, consisting of the king, a senate and a house of representatives, the king being represented by a governor-general. The constitution provides for a common tariff, for interstate free trade and for a common control over matters of national defense. Each of the colonies retains its own par- liament to deal with purely internal affairs. Education in the new commonwealth is compulsory, and under state control and free; while there is no state church. The credit of effecting Australian federation is shared by the Rt. Hon. Geo. H. Reid, P. C., premier of New South Wales, and Sir John Forrest, first premier of Western Australia and president of the federal council of Australasia. New Zealand did not enter the commonwealth, though pro- vision is made for so doing later on, should it desire to become federated with the six colonies of the neighboring continent. Future amendments to the federal consti- tution are provided for by means of a ma- jority vote of both houses of the Australian parliament, followed by a referendum to the whole people. NEW SOUTH WALES. It was only by slow degrees that New South Wales emerged from the status of a convict colony. A good deal of the first rough labor was, however, done by exported criminals, in constructing public buildings, in making roads and in clearing the land. Early in the i gth century some fine breed of sheep was brought to the settlement, and as the pasturage was excellent and the climate favorable, the sheep did well and greatly multiplied. Assisted immigration in time brought numbers, and in 1841 the reception of convicts ceased. In the early fifties a great impulse was given to the colony by the inrush of miners and adventurers ow- ing to the discovery of gold. In 1843 representative government was introduced, and twelve years later responsible rule was fully established, with a parliament consisting of two houses. Finally, educa- tion came under state control, and the University of Sydney was founded as the apex of the system. Technical education is also fostered and subsidized by the gov- ernment. Sydney, the capital, has a popu- lation, including suburbs, of 605,900. The other chief towns are Newcastle, Bathurst, Gouiburn and Parramatta. One third of the people are engaged in agricultural, pastoral and mineral pursuits. Over 40,000 are engaged in the mining of gold, silver, coal, etc. The value of the annual product of gold is nine million dollars. An equal value of silver-lead ore and metal is an- nually mined. Other exports include coal, hides and skins, leather, wool and meat preserved and frozen. New South Wales is the premier wool-producing colony, taken from the immense numbers of sheep pas- turing on the western plains. Only one per cent., as yet, of the land is under cul- tivation, while twenty-five per cent, is under forest or brush. VICTORIA, next to New South Wales, is the most densely populated colony in the new commonwealth. The capital is Melbourne, with a population of 591,830, or nearly two-fifths of that of the entire colony. The other chief towns are Bal- larat (44,000), Bendigo or Sandhurst, as it is now called (42,000), and Geelong (28,880). In 1898 the exports of gold (inclusive of specie) amounted to nearly AUSTRALIA 144 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY thirty million dollars; the other principal exports were of wool, cereals and flour, hides, skins and furs, leather and harness, butter and live stock. Half of the culti- vated area is under wheat, the other crops being oats, barley, hay and potatoes. Since 1851 it is estimated that gold to the amount of 1,365 million dollars has been extracted from the mines. The educa- tional institutions include, besides the state primary and technical schools, the Univer- sity of Melbourne, with three affliliated colleges, The latter has both an examin- ing and a teaching body, and by royal char- ter, granted in 1839, is empowered to grant degrees in all faculties save divinity. QUEENSLAND comprises the whole north- eastern area of the continent, with its adja- cent islands in the Pacific and in the Gulf of Carpentaria. The northern portion of the colony was, prior to 1850, known as the Moreton Bay District. From its great area and climate, its products are many and diversified, including not only the staple cereals and grains, vegetables, etc., but sugar cane, oranges, pineapples, bananas, arrow-root, tobacco, coffee and cotton. The woods afford large supplies of fine timber, and bees are raised largely, as nearly all the forest trees flower and provide large supplies of honey and pollen; while the winters are so mild that the bees are not compelled to remain in the hives and consume their own stores, as in colder countries. Within the colony, it is esti- mated, there are 5,000 square miles of coal- yilding country, though scarcity of labor, it +4 said, hinders its mining development. Primary secular education is provided free by the state. There are also schools of art, where technical instruction is given. Brisbane, the capital, with two municipali- ties (Brisbane and South Brisbane), has a combined population (1907), of 130,000. The gold product for the year 1905, amounted to 592,620 ounces; other minerals mined include silver, copper and tin. SOUTH AUSTRALIA extends across the center of the continent from north to south, having Western Australia on the west and the other colonies' (Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria) on the east. The capital is Adelaide, on the river Torrens, which has a university; its popu- lation is 184,393. It is the great empo- rium of the colony for its large exports of wool, wheat, hay, live stock and its min- erals, silver and copper ore. In the northern territory of the colony large numbers of horses, cattle and sheep are raised. In 1911 it had 1,935 miles of railway open for traffic and nearly 6,000 miles of telegraph in operation, including the overland line running between Adelaide and Port Dar- win (a distance of 2,000 miles) in connect- tion with the British Australian cable. WESTERN AUSTRALIA is the largest of the commonwealth colonies, though it is the most 'sparsely settled, except in the southwest corner around Perth, the capi- tal (population 54,354). The other chief town is Fremantle (19,346), named after Captain Fremantle, who after the first settlement of the colony, in 1829, claimed posession of it in the name of George IV. The colony was then known as the Swan River settlement. In 1850 it became for a time a penal settlement of Britain; but in 1868 transportation of the criminal class was abolished. The chief difficulty in the interior is said to be want of water. The inland mining region around Copl- gardie and Kalgoorlie is one of great in- dustrial activity, especially since the rail- way has been constructed to these min- ing centers and on as far as Menzies. The chief exports are gold (the value of which, shipped, in 1904 amounted to $19,000,000), pearls and pearl-shell; sandalwood, tim- ber, wool and skins. Along the river courses of the north and northeast are, it is estimated, about 20,000,000 acres of fairly well--vatered country, affording good pasturage. Australian defense is main- tained by subsidies granted by the sepa- rate colonies, including Tasmania and New Zealand. At Sydney, N. S. W., there is a first-class naval station, the headquarters of the British fleet in Aus- tralasia. The principal ports of the col- onies are protected by fortifications, main- tained at the expense of each colony. Australian Ballot System is the sys- tem of voting used by the several colonies of Australia. It was invented to secure absolute secrecy to the voter and so pre- vent bribery at elections and effectively check fraud in voting. The printing of the tickets and all expenses are borne by the government. There is but one ticket, on which are printed the names of all the candidates. No electioneering is allowed within fifty feet of the polls. Sep- arate compartments or voting-booths are provided, into which one voter at a time goes, and prepares his vote by drawing a line through the names of the candidates he does not wish to vote for. The system was adopted in New South Wales in 1858, and speedily came into use in the other Australian colonies, where it proved highly successful. The present law in regard to voting in Great Britain, based on this system, was passed in 1872. The Aus- tralian method, with some changes, has been adopted in Massachusetts', New York, Illinois, Connectici '.t and other states, where it has been heartily approved. Aus'tria=Hun'gary, the second largest country in Europe, lies between Ger- many, Russia, Rumania, Servia, Turkey, the Adriatic, Italy and Switzerland. It is a loose union of two independent states J extends 800 miles east and west. 6co AUSTRIA-HUNGARY AUSTRIA-HUNGARY north to south; has an area (including Bosnia and Herzegovina) of 259,679 square miles, less than that of Texas, and a popu- lation of nearly 50,000,000; and is the only large European state without possessions outside of Europe. The name Austria means the east country, because Aus- tria originated in 796 as a county east of Germany; and Hungary means Hun- land, because the Huns lived there four centuries before the Magyars came. Surface and Drainage. Austria, next to Switzerland, is one of the most mountainous countries in Europe, the Tyrolese scenery being grand and beautiful. The moun- tains are the Alps in the west, whose loftiest heights tower nearly 13,000 feet, and the Carpathians on the north and east that rise almost 9,000 feet. There also are moderate heights in the south. Between these ranges lie the lowlands of Austria and the plain called Hungary. The chief rivers are the Danube, Dniester, Moldau- Elbe and Vistula. The first two drain to the Black Sea, the third to the German Ocean, the fourth to the Baltic. Small mountain lakes are numerous and beau- tiful, large lakes few. Climate and Rainfall. The climate and rainfall vary greatly, and we find northern, intermediate and southern zones. In Bo- hemia, Galicia, Moravia, in the northern districts of Austria proper and Hungary and in Silesia the winters are long and severe, the summers warm but brief. In Carniola, Styria and middle Hungary the summers are hot, the winters mod- erate. In Bosnia and Croatia, in semi- tropic Dalmatia and southern Hungary the winters are brief and mild, the sum- mers long and hot. The annual mean temperature is 50, the range of rain- fall from 25 inches on the Hungarian lowland to 100 on the Carpathians. Resources. Austria-Hungary is almost the richest of European countries in min- erals, all except platinum being found. Copper, coal, iron, lead, petroleum, quick- silver and rock salt abound. The In- dria quicksilver mine ranks next to that of Almaden, Spain. Bleiburg lead-mines are the richest in Europe. The Galician salt-mines are a world's wonder, the de- posits being 1,200 feet deep and 300 miles long. Thirty miles of galleries have been dug, and villages built far below the sur- face. The gold-production is the second largest in Europe, some of the gold mines having been worked by Celts and Romans. The mountains are covered with for. ests full of valuable varieties of timber Practically all the land is utilized, three fifths of Austria-Hungary's area being de- voted to agriculture and one third to forests. _ Agriculture. The staple industry is ag- riculture. More than two thirds of the Hungarians and Austrians till the soil or raise stock. The plants and grains of the temperate zones prevail and a great variety of agricultural products is raised successfully. Austria leads in barley, flax, hemp, hops, potatoes, rye, sugar beets and tobacco; Hungary, the granary of Europe, in cattle, maize, oats, the vine and wheat. Fruit-raising is a great industry. The pear and apple thrive in the north; grapes and prunes in Hungary; and almonds, figs, lemons, olives and. oranges in the south, while along the Adriatic the palm flourishes in the open air. More horses are raised than in any other country of Europe except Russia. Hungary is famous also for fine mules, and poultry-raising is extensive. Manufactures and Commerce. Austria- Hungary is a land of transition from the industrial west to the agricultural east; Austria being more the manufacturer, Hungary more the farmer. But Hun- gary invented modern processes of flour* making and Budapest leads Europe as a milling center. The best inventions are employed, wheat is classified in seven grades, and uniformity of product causes Hungarian flour to command high prices. Wine-making is another great Hungarian industry, Tokay being world famous. In Austrian lands textiles are the most im- portant manufactures, then woolens, car- pets, machinery, railroad materials and tools, leather and gloves; and furniture, ships and toys. Bohemia has half the glass-factories, and Bohemian glass has been famed for centuries. The manufacture of beet-sugar ranks next to Germany's production. The largest exports are sugar, timber, cattle, wheat, leather goods, eggs, coal and glass; the main imports are cot- ton and wool fibers, yarn, cloth and ma- chinery. Germany is the greatest buyer and seller, America the third among buy- ers and sixth among sellers. We buy Aus- tria-Hungary's glass, gloves, sugar, por- celain, pottery, musical instruments and beer, and sell cotton, corn, hog-products and pig-iron, buying a fourth as much as we sell. Transportation. River valleys, moun- tain passes and a coast of only 465 miles form nature's roads to foreign countries. The Danube, whose course of 820 miles in Austria is fully navigable, is free to all nations and seagoing ships navigate it from the Black Sea into Germany. The stream is connected by canals with the Elbe and Theiss and has over 100 navigable tributaries. The Moldau-Elbe at favora- ble stages is navigable from above Prague, Bohemia, to Hamburg, Germany. The Morava and Oder open waterways from Vienna into German Silesia. The Save and Drave, important navigable tributa- ries of the Danube in the south, are also linked by a canal. The waterways availa- ble for steamers give 1,620 miles of inland AUSTRIAN HYMN 146 AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION navigation, the others 2,340 more. The merchant marine is the smallest in Europe, most of the maritime traffic passing through Trieste and Fiume on the Adriatic. Since the rivers do not lead to these ports, four fifths of Austria-Hungary's ocean-freight are transported by railroads, all converging on Vienna and Budapest. The railroads are less developed than in most European countries, their mileage of 25,000 miles being only one-third that of France, but international overland routes lead to Buch- arest, Constantinople and Salonika. A railroad through Arlberg tunnel leads to Geneva, Marseilles and Paris, another over Brenner pass into Germany and Italy, and a third via Semmering pass and tun- nel to Genoa, Trieste and Venice. Education. Primary instruction is com- pulsory and free from six to fourteen years of age. The schools are controlled by a department of public instruction, and are excellent, but every province remains responsible for the management of its schools. For secondary instruction admir- able provision is made in hundreds of ex- cellent colleges, gymnasia or high schools, professional and technical schools, and eight universities. Among these, Prague and Vienna are famous. History. Austria was founded as a small oatpost of the Empire of Charlemagne in 796. Arpad a century later founded Hun- gary (886), and for six and one half cen- turies each grew independently. Hungary became a Kingdom in 1,000, many of its present institutions originating then; Austria a duchy in 1156, the accession of the Hapsburgs in 1282 initiating its great- ness. Hungary in 1222, like England in 1216, won a constitution, and till 1490 was the strongest state in central Europe. The Hapsburgs meanwhile acquired Carinthia, Carniola, Styria and Tyrol and the head- ship of the Holy Roman Empire, Vienna about 1500 becoming the metropolis of German art and science. In 1526 Hungary fell before Turkey but Austria obtained Bohemia, Hungary, Moravia and Silesia and received recognition as a European mon- archy. At the Reformation, which made great progress in Hungary where millions today are Protestants, Austria remained with the Roman church. It was the bul- wark of Christendom against Turkey, the mainstay of the papacy against Calvinism and Lutheranism. Its almost ceaseless wars succeeded in liberating Hungaiy from the Turkish yoke. Numerous German colonists brought' German civilization to Hungarian towns. The Hungarian estates, assembling in Pressburg, staunchly resisted every effort to absorb Hungary in the Austrian Empire. The Austrian states were in 1804 united as the Empire of Austria, its archduke becoming "Hereditary Emperor" and in 1806 he ended the Holy Roman Empire. Austria was a powerful force in overthrowing Napoleon and from 1815 to 1865 opposed every attempt of the Magyars at independence. In 1848 Hungary rose under the lead of Kossuth, but was subjected to the imperial armies with the help of Russia. Austria renewed its efforts to germanize Hungary but failed and meanwhile lost Italy and Germany. So independence and selfgovernment were restored to Hungary and arrangements were made that united Austro- Hungary to a real union founded upon the same dynasty and an old pact called the Pragmatic Sanction dated 1721-1722. By this fundamental law all parts of the old Hapsburg Empire were forever united under the rule of its dynasty and bound to common defense against foreign attacks. Austria-Hungary have one army, coinage, diplomatic service, sovereign, and tariff, foreign affairs and war being managed by a dual committee called the Delegations; but Austria and Hungary each have their own ministry and premier. Austrian Hymn. Known also as the Emperor's Hymn. Written by the poet Hauschka in 1796, and set to music for four voices by Joseph Haydn. It was first sung on the emperor's birth-day, February 12, 1797, at the national theater in Vienna and at the principal theaters in the provinces. Its combination of strength and simplicity well fit it for an adequate expression of patriotic sen- timent. With Haydn it was a great favorite, which he often delighted to play, and which he introduced into the Kaiser quartet, No. 77, with elaborate variations. It endures as the best of Haydn's songs. Austrian Succession, War of the, a war on the European continent which broke out in 1741 to defend'the rights of Maria Theresa in her Austrian dominions, left to her, in what is called the "Pragmatic Sanc- tion," by her father, Emperor Charles VI., who died without male issue. These domin- ions were claimed by some pretenders, notably by Charles Albert, elector of Bavaria (descending from Ferdinand I.), and by Augustus III., elector of Saxony (husband of the eldest daughter of the Emperor Joseph I.). In the struggle Britain allied herself with Austria, Russia, Hungary, and Poland, against France, Prussia, Spain, Sardinia, and Bavaria. The war continued from 1741 to 1748, when it was terminated by the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, Austria emerging from the conflict with the loss of Silesia, Parma, and Piacenza. The chief f incidents of the war were the defeat of the ' French by the British at Dettingen, and the French victory of Fontenoy over the Duke of Cumberland (British), and the allied Austrians, Dutch, and Hanoverians (Prussia having, in 1742, withdrawn from the struggle at the close of what is known as the first Silesian war). Other phases of the war of the period between the English and the French are known as King George's war, and the at- AUTO-DA-FE 147 AUTOMOBILE tempt of Prince Charles Edward Stuart, "the Young Pretender," to effect a landing in Scot- land in 1745, and who.after winning the bat- tle of Prestonpans, was routed at Culloden. Auto-da-fe" (q'to-da-fd') or Act of Faith, a ceremony, often of a hideously fantastic and inhuman kind, by which the guilt or innocence of a heretical human victim was inquired into or set forth by the Spanish Inquisition. During these cere- monies and processions, a large concourse of people were generally gathered together, to witness what mostly happened, the hand- ing over of the victim to the secular power to be put to death at the stake. Autos- da-f were, in the iyth century, of frequent occurrence in Seville and Madrid, as well as in some cities of Portugal. Automobile (au'to-mo'bel), a vehicle for street and road use, which carries its own motive power. Steam road vehicles have been used in England since 1865, but it was not until 1893 that the modern horse- less vehicle, including pleasure carriages, passenger coaches and freight trucks, be- gan to be successfully developed. Since 1900 the manufacture, sale and use of automobiles have developed and grown so swiftly as to be one of the amazing features of our century. In 1901, 26 motor cars were imported into the United States. At the close of 1911 there were in use in the United States 780,000 pleasure motor vehicles and 18,000 commercial vehicles. The total production of the industry in the United States in 1909 was 127,287 machines. The capital employed in the industry in the United States is approximately $90,000,000, and the estimated value of all motor vehicles in use is $370,000,000. The popularity of the automobile is due to its possession of greater speed-capacity SIDE ELEVATION OF MOTOR CAR i, Pneumatic tires. 2, Wheels. 3, Axles. 4, Springs. 5, Pressed steel frame. 6, Motor cylinders. 7, Gear change mechanism. 8, Body. 9, Steering mechan- ism. 10, Drive-shaft, n, Brake lever. 12, Gear- change lever. 13, Height over all. 14, Wheel base. 15, Length over all. than that of the swiftest horse and also to its ease of running and its freedom from jolting. Its gain in speed and durability within a few years is a remarkable instance of evolution in modern mechanism. The gasoline-engine has so far formed the most popular motor, but on heavy roads steam has greater flexibility and superior hill-climbing powers. Steam-propelled autos, however, demand more experience and carefulness on the operator's part. The electric motor, though not remarkable as a hill-climber, has the merits of con- venience and cleanness. In a gasoline motor a storage battery supplies the spark for igniting the fuel. Electric autos are operated by storage batteries. The records of automobiles for speed and endurance challenge comparison with those of the swiftest and strongest railway loco- motives. In 1895 a motor-carriage ran 736 miles in 48 hours and 53 minutes, or 15 miles an hour, but now 60 miles an hour on the road is an ordinary record. The touring auto goes everywhere in the wilds of Africa, in the wastes of Asia and across America from ocean to ocean. The motor cycle is also very popular, par- ticularly in America and England. For the motor cycle an air-cooled four-cycle, single-cylinder engine of three and one-half horsepower is most widely used. There is a trend toward employing the touring-car as a revival of the romantic coach of our ancestors, but more important is the auto's adaptation to swift passenger-service. Light motors may yet revolutionize municipal streetcar systems and suburban lines, and remove their tracks from highways. But the automobile's preeminent service is to be that of dray-horse and freight- carrier. Autotrucks gain steadily in public favor. Great progress has been made by the manufacturers of this type of auto- mobile, and many plants throughout the United States have been erected for their exclusive manufacture. Their efficiency in the matter of work and small cost of opera- tion have been established, and many great corporations are substituting them for horse-drawn vehicles. In addition to autodrays there are auto- busses, electric cabs, auto-fire engines and road-locomotives or traction-engines. The last were used before autos, but are equally entitled to be styled automobiles, though it required the development of the latter to teach the makers of the former to build well. These traction-locomotives proved useful during the European War, traveling over poor roads at greater speed than infantry could march and drawing heavy loads. A fifteen-ton engine draws forty tons of wagons forty miles a day, and can make twelve miles an hour. There is scarcely a commercial calling where these traction engines foil to figure. The future AUTUMN COLORATION I 4 8 AVERNUS in heavy haulage, so soon as fit roads can be had, belongs to the automobile, and its influence has already initiated a new era in American roadmaking. Autumn Coloration (in plants). This phenomenon is associated with the decid- uous habit, and is displayed by shrubs and trees throughout the temperate regions. The vivid colors have attracted a great deal of attention, but as yet no adequate ex- planation has been offered. The two types of color which appear, the reds and the yellows, seem to be due to different causes. The yellow is a post-mortem change of the green, an example of which may be observed in a poorly blanched stalk of celery, where the transition from green to white is seen to be through yellow. The red color is a product of the living substance of the leaves, manufactured at a time when the work of the leaf is beginning to flag. It has been suggested that the red color is of incidental advantage to the plant in that it raises the temperature of the leaves slightly and in this way protects the living substance from chill while it is retreating into the permanent parts of the plant previous to the fall of the leaves. Auvergne (o'vdrn'y"), a branch of the Ce- vennes Mountains. The mountains lie in confused groups, sending up several sum- mits to the height of 6,000 feet. Not only do the cone and domelike shapes of the summits betray a volcanic formation, but the great masses of peculiar rock that break through the crust of granite and gneiss render it evident that this was a great focus of volcanic action at a com- paratively recent period. Among the sum- mits that have apparently been at one time volcanoes, the most remarkable are Cantal, Mont-Dore and Puy-de-D6me. All are now covered with verdure. There are rich deposits of iron, lead and other ores in the region, which was once an ancient province and today is a department of France. Aux'anom'eter. A device for measuring the growth of plants during short periods, when it is too slight readily to admit of direct measurement . In all forms the growth is mag- nified by caus- ing the plant, acting on the short arm of a lever or the hub of a wheel, to displace an in- dex five to twenty times more than the actual move- ment. (See AUXANOMETER figure.) In the more elaborate forms the index registers its movements on a smoked surface. Av'alanche, a mass of snow or ice which slides down the sides of high mountains, often causing great destruction. There are various kinds of avalanches. Drift or powder avalanches are loose, dry snow, which is set in motion by the wind and rushes into valleys in the form of great dust-clouds. They usually occur in winter and are very dangerous, because of their suddenness, often suffocating men and ani- mals and overturning houses by the com- pression of the air which they cause. An- other kind of avalanche is like a landslide. The melting of the snow in spring makes the soil slippery, and great masses of snow are carried down the mountains by their own weight, taking trees and stones with them. If they come to a precipice in their course, as they often do, they are hurled with tremendous force into the valley be- neath, destroying whatever is in their path. Ice avalanches often occur in summer. They are masses of ice which detach them- selves from the mountain glaciers, com- monly in July, August and September. Nine great Alpine avalanches, which de- stroyed 447 lives, are recorded between the years 1578 and 1827. Avebury, Lord. See LUBBOCK, SIR JOHN. Averell, William Woods, American general and inventor, was born in Steuben County, New York state, November 5, 1832, and graduated from West Point in 1855. When the Civil War broke out, he was on duty in the west, fighting the Kiowa In- dians. He then organized a corps of mounted riflemen, and in August, 1861, received the appointment of colonel, acting in most of the campaigns of the period with the Army of the Potomac and operating in cavalry raids. In 1865 he resigned, hav- ing the rank of major-general, and from 1866 to 1869 was United States consul- general in Canada, subsequently becoming interested in a large manufacturing com- pany as president. While so occupied, he in 1869-70 discovered and perfected a process of obtaining cast steel direct from the ore; in 1879 he invented the American asphalt pavement; and subsequently he in- vented what is known as the Averell in- sulated conduit for electric wires and also a machine for laying electric conductors underground. He died in 1900. Aver'nus, called now Lago d'Averno, is a small circular lake in Italy, It is about a mile and a half around, and lies in the crater of an extinct volcano. It is in some places 200 feet deep, and is almost com- pletely shut in by steep and wooded heights. The sulphurous vapors arising from it were believed in ancient times to kill the birds that flew over it, and so it probably got its name from a Greek word meaning AVIGNON 149 AZORES "birdless." Its gloomy and awful appear- ance made it the center of almost all the stories of the ancients about the world of shades. Here was Homer's and Vergil's entrance into the lower world, and here were the Elysian fields, the cave of Hecate and the grotto of the Cumaean Sibyl. Agrippa connected it with the Lucrine Lake and the sea, making it a sort of harbor; but the volcanic upheaval of Monte Nuovo, in 1358, again made Avernus an inland lake. On its east side are the ruins of a temple of Apollo, and on its south side what is shown as the grotto of the Sibyl. Avignon (d-ven-yoN'), a city in Provence, France, is on the left bank of the Rhone. Its streets are narrow and crooked, and it is still surrounded by high walls. Here is the cathedral of Notre Dame, dating back to the nth century. There are so many churches and convents that Avignon has been called the city of bells. It has manufactures of paper, leather, silk, iron, etc., and is famous for its garden produce, fruit, wine and honey. Here the great Italian poet, Petrarch, lived for some years, and here in a church that is still pointed out, he first saw Laura, the lady to whom he wrote his beautiful sonnets. In the middle ages Avignon belonged to the popes, and here Clement V and six of his successors lived. Here also lived the anti- popes for forty years. Population, 51,000. A'von. There (are several rivers of this name in England, Scotland, Wales and France. The most noted is called Upper Avon, which gains its importance from passing Stratford, the birthplace of Shake- speare. It rises in Northamptonshire, and flows southwest till it joins the Severn at Tewkesbury. It is about 100 miles long. Ax'il (in plants). The upper angle formed by a leaf and the stem axis on which it is inserted. It is in the axils that branches normally arise. Aylesworth, Hon. Allen Bristol, K. C., edu- cated at Toronto Univer- sity. A distinguished law- a a AXILS y er ' 9 ne * ^is Majesty's Commissioners in the Alaska Boundary case. Elected to the Canadian House of Commons in 1905, a prominent member of the Laurier government. Ap- pointed Postmaster General in 1905, and Minister of Justice in 1906. One of the ablest and most influential members of the Laurier administration. Aylrner (al'nier), Col. the Hon. Mat- thew, Adjutant General of Militia (Can- ada). Eldest son of Lord Aylmer. Born in province of Quebec in 1842. Educated in Montreal and at Trinity College, Dublin. Entered the army as Ensign in Her Majesty's 7th Royal Fusiliers then quartered at Malta (1864). Retired from the Imperial Service AZALEA in 1870. In 1896 he became Adjutant General of the Militia of the Dominion. Was second in command of all the colonial forces that took part in the Diamond Jubilee celebration in England. A thorough soldier and successful administrator. Azalea (a-zal'ya), a flowering plant be- longing to the Heath family, closely related to the rhodo- dendron. It covers moun- tain slopes, is a native of the countries bor- dering on the Black Sea, and abounds in North America. They are among the most orna- mental and beautiful of flowering shrubs, and are well represented by native forms in our eastern mountain regions. In the flower- ing season they are often completely covered with showy flowers of various bright colors. The pink azalea, often called the wild honeysuckle, is distributed from Maine to Illinois and south to the Gulf of Mexico. It is a shrub from two to six feet high, the flowers grow in clusters, bloom in April and May, giving rosy hue to swamp and moist \iood. Closely related to this is the clammy azalea or white honeysuckle, a shrub from three to ten feet high, bearing fragrant white blossoms in early summer. It is seen as a rule in swamps along the coast, found from Maine to Florida and westward to Texas. Decking the mountains of Georgia is the smooth or tree azalea, with June flowers of rare fragrance and beauty. The azalea is highly prized as a garden flower in Europe. European horticulturists were quick to appreciate its beauty. It is the national flower of Flanders. Azari'ah, the tenth king of Judah, also called Uzziah, who began to reign about 809 B. C. It is also the name of one of the prophet Daniel's three friends, whose name was changed to Abednego. It is a common name among the Jews. The period of azariah's reign is 792-740 B. C. Azores (a-zorz'), a group of Portuguese islands in the mid-Atlantic, 800 miles west of Portugal. Carthaginian coins have been found on the islands, showing that the hardy sailors of Carthage must have been there. Edrisi, an Arab geographer, knew them before 1200, and an Italian map of 1351 rep- resents them unmistakably. The islands were taken possession of by the Portuguese in 1431-1453. There are many hawks here, and the name Azores is from a Portuguese word, meaning hawks Their area is 919 square miles, or considerably smaller than AZOV, SEA OP 150 AZTECS Rhode Island. The total population is 160,000. The capital is Angra (population, 11,067). They are of volcanic origin, and are still liable to eruptions and earthquakes, having had twenty-one earthquake shocks since 1444. Oranges are the chief export. Azov (d-2&/), Sea of, is a large gulf in the Black Sea. It was first called the Maeotic Marsh, from the name of the people dwelling on its shores. The Turks called it Fish Sea. The water is almost fresh. The whole sea is shallow, and meas- ures 235 by no miles. The largest river emptying into it is the Don. During the Crimean War, there were sent to this sea, in 1855, a number of war vessels having on board 16,500 French, English and Turks. With this hostile array, the allies bom- barded the ports and cut off supplies in- tended for Sebastopol. Az'tecs, the name of the people found in Mexico at the time of the Spanish invasion, 1519, though the name strictly belongs to only one of the seven tribes occupying the country at that time. Aztec tradition repre- sents these people as starting from a place called Aztlan and wandering for about 150 years before reaching Chapultepec. Where Aztlan was, and what was the origin of the Aztec tribes, are still doubtful. Mexico had been previously occupied by a people called Toltecs, a superior race whose ruins still rove skill in the arts of civilized life, hese Toltecs were almost destroyed by famine and pestilence in the nth century, so that the Aztecs found only a few rude, savage races occupying the land. In 1325, they built the City of Mexico, called Ten- ochtitlan, named after their chief, Tenoch. It was built on a few small islands in Lake Chalco, and was approached only by long and narrow causeways. It was so strongly fortified as to resist even the conquering Spaniards. The Aztecs seem to have been a fierce, savage people, yet with many traces of civilization, some of it probably borrowed from the Toltecs who preceded them. Their chief was chosen by the nobles; the laws were severe, but the courts were open. The records are preserved in the picture-writing of Mexico; the women shared in all the occupations of the men, and were taught to read and write, sing and dance, and were even learned in astron- omy and astrology. They believed in one god, but they had many lower gods, of whom the chief was the frightful Huit- zilopochtli. His magnificent temples were drenched with, the blood of human sacri- fices; no less than 20,000 victims, of whom only the heart was used as an offering, were immolated yearly to supply his altars. The priests were a large and powerful class, who had charge of the education as well as the religion of the nation; 5,000 were attached to the great temple of Mexico alone. The last king of the Aztecs was Moctezuma, who was treacherously imprisoned by Cortes and killed by the Aztecs in their revolt against the Spaniards. See Popular History of the Mexican People and Native Races of the Pacific States, by Hubert H. Bancroft B BABEL, TOWER OF B B (be), the second letter, is a consonant, and is called a sonant labial, because made by the lips and representing a sound, as in able, boy, cab. After ra in the same syllable or before t, it usually is silent, as in bomb, debt, bdellium. The form is Roman, from Greek 0, which, perhaps, is of Phoenician origin. All letters of the English alphabet, except J, U and W, come from the Latin, which derived them through the Greek from the Phoenician. Baal (bd'al), the principal god of the Phoenician and Canaanitish nations, among whom Ashtoreth was the principal goddess. He was the god of the sun, as ruling and giving life to nature, while Moloch repre- sented the sun as a destroyer, and both these ideas were united later in the god Melkarth. The oldest form of his worship was on the tops of mountains; thus the Midianites and Amalekites worshiped him on Mount Peor; the Phoenicians on Carmel and the Canaanites on Hermon. Upright conical stones, either in the open air or in temples, were a mark of his presence, but there were no images of him. From the earliest foundations of Tyre he seems to have been the protecting god of that city. His worship spread among all the towns of Phoenicia, including their distant colonies, such as Malta, Carthage and Cadiz. The Greeks connected him with Hercules, calling him the Tyrian Hercules. The worship of Baal was very attractive to the Jews, and many years of punishment were necessary to banish it from Israel. The word Baal is often used in connection with some epithet; as Baal-Berith (the Covenant Lord), and Baal-Zebub or Beelzebub (the Fly-God), the idol of the Philistines at Ekron, where he had a temple. Such proper names as Jezebel and Hannibal are compounds of the word Baal. Babcock Test, a method of determining the amount of butter-fat in milk, named after Prof. S. M. Babcock, of Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, who in- vented it in 1890. It depends upon (i) the separation of light from heavy parts by centrifugal force and (2) the action of sulphuric acid on all the solids of the milk other than butter-fat. The machine con- sists of deep brass cups attached to an upright revolving shaft, so that they will swing out horizontally when the machine is rotated by hand or steam power. In the cups are placed Babcock milk bottles. These are vase shaped with long narrow necks, and hold about 2 cubic inches. Almost equal parts of milk and acid are mixed in the bottles in a special way. The acid decomposes the other solids and frees the fat. Being warmed by the chemical action, the fat particles run together, and being so much lighter than the acid mixture, the fat rises into the neck, which is so graduated that the amount of fat can be read off in percent. The rapid rotation of 900 to 2,000 or more revolutions per minute separates practically all the fat. The Babcock test was the first practical method of testing milk for commercial use. It has made it possible for creameries to pay for milk on a basis of cream value and has made it possible for the dairyman to estimate accurately the performance of each of his cows and so tell the amount of cream produced by each. Milk from different cows may vary in amount of butter-fat from 2% to 8%. Some cows will test less than others, but may, by reason of a greater quantity of milk, produce the same amount of butter. Milk for retailing is usually required by law to test at least 3% of cream. Cream is sold in different frades, as 12%, 18%, etc. See CREAM EPARATOR. Ref. : L. L. Van Slyke: Modern Methods of Testing Milk and Milk Products. Ba'bei, Tower of. According to the story in Genesis xi, the descendants of Noah journeyed from the east till they came to the plain of Shinar (Chaldaea), the Hebrew form of the native name Sumir, and there began to build a tower of burned bricks and pitch, whose top should reach the sky. But God confounded the language of the builders so that they could not understand each other, and the tower was called Babel or Confusion. A similar story has been found among the Babylonians, and the Greek story of the giants who attempted to scale the sky but were overthrown by Zeus has some likeness to it. The site of the tower was somewhere in Babylonia. It is usually supposed to be represented by the great pile of Birs Nimrud, which stood eight miles from the city of Babylon, was dedicated to Nebo, and was called the Temple of the Seven Lights. It had stood unfinished, till Nebuchadnezzar under- took to finish it, and its ruins still rise 153 feet above the plain. Another possible site is the ruin called Amram, within the city BABOON 152 BABYLONIA itself. This mound is 1,100 yards long and 800 yards broad. Baboon (btib-oon'), a. family of monkeys, native to Africa and found also in parts of Asia. Thoy have dog-shaped heads, long muzzles, large cheek-pouches in which a great quantity of food can be temporarily stowed away, frequently large and brightly- colored calloused cushions on their hips. In the adult males the canine teeth are developed into formidable tusks. They are quadrupeds, running swiftly on all-fours, climbing with great vigor, fond of sitting on their haunch pads and especially at home in mountainous districts. They often live in herds, and. led by patriarchs and guarded by sentinels, fight other herds or defend themselves against other wild beasts. Often when fighting they will stand erect. They are playful and amiable when young. It is said the ancient Egyptians trained them to pick fruit. When older, especially when kept confined, they are very savage. Their food is largely made up of fruits, roots, seeds, insects, worms, etc. Their raids on plantations are much dreaded. About a dozen different kinds are known. The largest and fiercest is called the mandril or ribbed-nose baboon, and is a native of the Guinea coast. This form has a rudimentary tail, while the common baboon has a well developed tail, twenty inches long in the adult. The baboon is thought to have been an object of worship in Egypt, inspiring reverence because of his wise-looking face. Bab'ylon, capital of the empire of Baby- lonia on the Euphrates River, was said by the ignorant Greeks to have been founded by Queen Semiramis, who, it is related, employed two million workmen in building it. In Nebuchadnezzar's time, it stood on both sides of the river, in the form of a square. It was surrounded by walls, some 60 miles long, with 100 brazen gates Here was a famous temple of Baal, by some thought to be built over the ruins of the tower of Babel; also the hanging gardens of Semiramis, one of the wonders of the old world. The Persi- ans ruined Babylon by their conquest, Xerxes in particular, ravaging the temple of Baal. Alexander the Great undertook to rebuild the city; but when his ten thousand work- men, after two months' labor, had not even cleared away the rubbish, he gave up the project. After that it rapidly fell into ruin, and its materials were used in build- ing the new city, Seleucia, by Alexander's successor, Seleucus. Babylo'nia was the name given to the low plain watered by the lower streams of the Tigris and Euphrates. The country has always been one of the most fertile spots in western Asia. Herodotus tells us that it supplied one third of the corn of the whole Persian empire. This fertility was increased by a network of canals irrigating the whole country. It has always been a land of many races and tongues, and almost every country is represented in the mixed gathering of nations living on its plains. Chronicles and lists of kings have been found that afford us considerable knowledge of the Babylo- nians. Boys became free citizens at the age of fourteen; women were well-treated; they could trade and own slaves, and offenses against the mother were severely punished. Slaves must not be treated cruelly, and all free Chaldaeans must be educated and learn tablet-writing. Judges sat in the gates of the temple, and taxes were fixed by law. They were also no mean sculptors, and had learned the art of cast- ing metals. Babylonia's history in age rivals that of Egypt, going back at least 4,000 years be- fore Christ. The first king who appears to have united the different towns into one kingdom was Urbaku (about 2,700 B. C,). In 2 1 20 B. C., came in the Kassite dynasty, and then Babylon came to be known as the capital of the empire. From 1150 B. C. there were many wars between Babylo- nia and Assyria. Even the great kings suffered invasions from the north, as Nabo- nassar, who reigned fourteen years, be- ginning in 747 B. C., and whose kingdom was twice invaded by the Assyrian army. Tiglath-Pileser III, the Assyrian, completely overran the country, and ascended its throne as King Pul, being known by a different name in each of his kingdoms. This con- quest brought Babylon and Nineveh, the two capitals, into close relations. Merodach- Baladan II succeeded, in 722 B C., in free- ing the country from its northern neighbor, and by skillfully sending an embassy to Hezekiah of Judaea and other Syrian princes led them to revolt, and so kept the Assyrian Sargon too busy to march inss- Babylonia; but in 710 B. C. it was again conquered. When Assyria fe&. Babylonia BACCHUS 153 BACILLUS rose on its ruins as a conquering empire. Nebuchadrezzar, its greatest king, reigned forty-three years (604-561 B. C.), recon- quered provinces, rebuilt temples and pal- aces, and made Babylon once more queen of nations. Among other conquests he captured Jerusalem, carrying its king, Jehoiachim, captive to Babylon, and eleven years later destroyed the Jews' capital and removed most of the people to Chaldaea. The last notable king was a usurper, Nabu- naid, who drove out Nebuchadrezzar's grandson, and who left almost as many inscriptions on bricks, cylinders or tablets as the great Nebuchadrezzar himself. The whole land revolted against him because he neglected the duties of government and religion, leaving everything to his son, Bel- shazzar. This made the country an easy prey for the Persian conqueror Cyrus, who captured Babylon in 538 B. C. It was afterward ruled by Alexander, by the Syrians, Parthians, Romans, the caliphs of Baghdad and several dynasties of the Per- sians and the Turks. Bacchus (bak'kus), one of the names among the Greeks, and the usual name among the Romans, for Dionysus, the god of wine. In Italy, he was connected with the god Liber. He was the son of Jupiter, and was brought up by the nymphs at Nysa in India. Many stories are told of his adventures. He flayed Damascus alive, who opposed him in Syria; made Lycurgus, king of the Edones, mad, so that he killed his own son, and when he became sane, caused him to be torn in pieces by horses; he also overcame the Amazons. Bacchus taught men to cultivate the vine and to make wine. He collected bands of wor- shipers, mainly wo,men, and, surrounded by them, seated in a chariot drawn by panthers or leopards, passed through many countries. He was represented in some works of art as an infant, but generally by the Greeks as a beautiful boy, while in the east he was pictured as a man of middle age, clothed in long robes. Festivals in his honor were first held in Thrace, but the most famous were at Athens and were four in number; the country festival in December, when the vintage was just over; the wine-press festi- val in January, when the wine was just made and the presses cleaned; the flower festival in February, lasting three days; and the great festival in March, when the city was filled with strangers from all Greece. In these festivals, banquets, pro- cessions and plays composed the program, and they were scenes of riotous merriment and drunkenness. In Rome the Bac- chanalia, as it was called, was celebrated every third year; but it became so immoral and dangerous that the consuls in 186 B.C. forbade its observance. After this, the Liberalia were celebrated yearly on the 1 6th of March, on which day the young men began to wear the toga virilis, the badge of manhood. Bach (bdk), Johann Sebastian, one of the greatest musicians of the world, was born at Eisenach, Germany, in March, 1685. He belonged to a distinguished musical family, and at Erfurt, where a branch of the family lived for many years, the town musicians were called Bachs, even when no member of the family was connected with them. Losing his father before he was ten years old, his older brother under- took his musical education, but found it hard to keep his genius in check. He tried to hide from him a manuscript volume of organ pieces, but Sebastian managed to get hold of it and worked for six months copy- ing it by the light of the moon, for fear of being found out; but was discovered and his copy taken from him. At fifteen he entered the choir of St. Michael's school at Luneburg. Here he remained as a violinist after losing his beautiful voice. In 1703 he was given a court appointment at Wei- mar, and in 1704 became organist at Arn- stadt, where he composed many of his church cantatas. During the nine years spent as court organist at Weimar, he studied Italian music and did some com- posing. Some years followed at the court of Prince Leopold, where he wrote the first half of the collection known as Forty-eight Preludes and Fugues. His next appoint- ment was at Leipsic, where all his greatest works for chorus were written. In 1747 he paid a visit to Frederick the Great at Potsdam, who received him with great honor. On a theme proposed by the king, Bach composed his Musical Offering, which, with his Art of Fugue, is a work of wonder- ful ingenuity and learning. An operation on his eyes resulted in total blindness. He died July 28, 1750. Piano-players owe to Bach the method of tuning, by which they can play in all keys, and also the mode of fingering which brings all the fingers into use. Bache (bach), Alexander Dallas, a noted American scientist. He was a great- grandson of Benjamin Franklin, and was born at Philadelphia in 1806. He graduated with high honors at West Point, where he was made an instructor. He was professor of, natural philosophy and chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania, at Philadelphia, and later president of Girard College at the same place. He organized a system of free schools in Philadelphia. He was superin- tendent of the United States coast survey and regent of the Smithsonian institution. He was prominent in scientific circles, and was connected with many scientific societies in both hemispheres. He died at Newport, Rhode Island, February 17, 1867. Bacil'lus (bd-sil'lus), a genus of the plants known as Bacteria, and distinguished from the other forms by consisting of rather elongated rod-shaped cells. See BACTERIA. BACON 154 BACTERIA Da con, Francis, one of the most extra- ordinary men that any age can Boast. A scholar, a wit, a lawyer, a statesman a philosopher, his writings will endure as long as the language in which they are written. He was born in London, January 22, 1561. He was sent to the University of Cambridge at the age of twelve. Before he was sixteen he wrote a paper against the philosophy of Aristotle, and at nineteen a work called On the State of Europe, the result of his studies while a member of the suite of the English ambassador at Paris. He was knighted in 1603, appointed consul to the crown, and in 1613 attorney-general. In 1617 he was made keeper of the great seal, and in 1618 appointed lord chancellor, with the title of 'Lord Verulam, and soon after was created Viscount St. Albans. His fall was as sudden as his rise was rapid. He was accused of bribery and convicted on his own confession. He was fined $200,000, and imprisoned in the Tower. Though the fine was remitted and the imprisonment lasted but two days, shame, added to fail- ing health, kept him from appearing again at court. His death, April 9, 1626, was caused by a cold taken while making an experiment to test the power of snow to preserve flesh. Bacon's writings are numer- ous, but he is known best by his philosoph- ical works, Advancement of Learning and Novum Organum, which introduced a new method into philosophy. "He rang the bell which called the other wits together," is his own description of the effect of these writings. The most popular of his works is tris Essays, fifty-eight m number, on such subjects as Pride, Truth, Ambition, Riches, and they well repay study both of their contents and style. Ba'con, Leonard, was the son of a mis- sionary to the Indians, and was born at Detroit, Mich., in 1802. After graduating at Yale College and Andover Theological Seminary, he was a Congregational pastor at New Haven for many years. In 1866 he became professor of theology at Yale Divin- ity School and, later, lecturer on church history. He was a prom- inent contributor to the Christian Spectator and the New Englander, and was for several years one of the editors of the New York In- dependent. He also published a number of works. He died at New Haven, Conn., December 24, 1881. Bacon, Nathaniel, a colonial leader, of English birth, the chief figure in Bacon's Rebellion, in Virginia, under the governorship of Sir Wm. Berkeley. He was born in Suffolk, England, January 2, 1647, and died (nominally a rebel) after the burning of Jamestown, Va., in October, 1676. He was educated at the London Inns of Court as a lawyer, and emigrating to Virginia, settled on the upper James River, and became a mem- ber of the governor's council. The col- onists of the region were then har- assed by the Indians, and being dis- satisfied with Governor Berkeley's measures for the defense of the colony, they chose Bacon as their leader in the Indian war. Berkeley, however, proclaimed the expedi- tion a treasonable one, and captured and tried Bacon; but he was acquitted by the council and reinstated as a member of the body. Bacon meanwhile opposed the governor's authority in other ways, and especially his arbitrary and unjust taxation of the colon- ists, his inefficient Indian policy; and his measures of restricted suffrage. The In- dians again invading the colony, Bacon once more set out to subdue them. This he did, but had also to fight the governor and his forces, who once more had proclaimed Bacon a rebel. In the struggle, Jamestown, the capital of the colony, was taken by Bacon and burned, the governor's forces being routed, while Berkeley himself had to take refuge on an English ship in the river. At this juncture Bacon s however, died, and the war (styled Bacon's Re- bellion) came to an end. Its influence on the subsequent American Revolution is capable of being traced. Ba'con, Roger (1214-94), was an English monk and scientist. He studied at Oxford rnd Paris, became a Franciscan monk about 1250, and devoted himself to science. He made discoveries that ignorant people con- sidered magic. So he was imprisoned twenty years, with one brief space of free- dom. He wrote a Latin book, called Opus Majus, giving a comprehensive view of the progress of human knowledge. He in- vented or improved the telescope. As a scientific discoverer he was centuries ahead of his age. Bacte'ria, an immense group of ex- tremely small plants which have attracted great attention on account of their relation to man and his interests. They are the (A) Bacterium. (B) bacillus (above), leptothrix (below), spirillum (E) sarcina. (C.D) smallest known of living organisms whose adult bodies are sometimes barely visible under the highest powers of the microscope BADEN 155 BADGER They multiply by division with wonderful rapidity, and occur in the air, in the water, in the soil, in the bodies of plants and ani- mals. Some of them are harmless, some are useful, and some are exceedingly dan- gerous. They are the agents of the proc- esses known as fermentation and decay, in- ducing fruit juices, milk, etc. to sour, and also pus to form in connection with wounds and decay, What is called antiseptic sur- gery is the use of various means to exclude bacteria and so prevent inflammation and decay. As producers of disease, bacteria are known by various names, such as bacilli, microbes, germs, etc. They are the causes of contagious diseases, such as pear-blight and melon-wilt among plants, and such human diseases as tuberculosis, cholera, diphtheria, typhoid fever, etc. From the fact that bacteria are mostly ciliated and have powers of locomotion, they are asso- ciated in the popular mind with animals. Baden (ba'aen), The Grand Duchy of, lies in the southwestern corner of the Ger- man empire, separated from Switzerland by the Rhine. It is divided into a plain and highlands, and of the latter the Black Forest is the most important part. It is drained by the Rhine and Danube, and so ours its waters into two opposite seas, he country is fertile, especially the Rhine valley, and rich in minerals. It is famous for its mineral springs. Among its manu- factures the wooden clocks and straw plait- ings of the Black Forest are known over the world; of clocks alone over seventy thous- and are made yearly. The manufactures of jewelry at Pforzheim are the most im- portant in Germany. Baden has a good school system, a Protestant university at Heidelberg and a Catholic university at Freiburg. The population is 2,010,728, of which a large majority are Catholics. A parliament of two houses limits the power of the sovereign, whose home is at Karlsruhe. The earliest people of Baden were the Alemanni, and the present house of Baden began in the nth century. At the time of the French Re volution , the spirit of change which was abroad in all Germany passed into Baden. The Grand Duke Leopold was driven out, but was restored to his throne by the aid of the Prussians. In 1867 though Baden had sided with Austria against Prussia, it was forced to enter the North German Confederation. The troops of Baden fought with distinction in the Franco-Prussian War, and the Grand Duchy became a part of the restored German em- Jire. The present grand duke is Frederick , who came to the throne in 1852. The area of the duchy is 5,823 square miles; Karlsruhe (population, 111,249) is the capi- tal; but Mannheim (population, 163,693) is the chief town. Baden-Baden, a town in the duchy of Baden, famous as a summer resort. It lies on the edge of the Black Forest. Though its actual population is only about 16,200, its summer visitors r average over 50,000, and many strangers remain through the winter. Its hot springs, which attract many strangers, were known in the time of the Romans, Baden-Baden claiming to have been founded by Hadrian in the 2d century < In laying the foundations of the summer home of the grand duke, the remains of a vapor bath and a dungeon of that period were found. There are thirteen hot springs, with a temperature of 115 to 150. The chief spring discharges in twenty-four hours about 4,200 cubic feet of water. The water of these springs is useful in skin diseases, gout and rheumatism. The attraction of Baden-Baden used to be its gaming tables, once the most famous in Europe, but now closed, which, besides paying a rent ot $70,000, devoted as large a sum to adorn- ing the promenades and public gardens. The scenery is beautiful. The picturesque ruins of the old castle still crown the sum- mit of the Schlossberg, from which is had a fine view of the Rhine valley. Baden-Powell (bd'den-po'el), Robert Stephenson Smyth, British general and one of the dashing and popular figures in the Boer war (1899-190.1,), is the son of the late Rev. Baden-Powell of Oxford, and was born February 22, 1857 and educated at Charterhouse, London. In 1876 he joined the i3th English Hussars, and served as adjutant of that regiment in India, Afghanistan and South Africa. In 1887-89 he served in South Africa as assistant mili tary secretary on the staff took part m the operations in Zululand, for which be was mentioned in dispatches; was employed for a time in Malta; and in the command of the native levies in the war in Ashanti (for which he received a star and was raised to the rank of lieutenant-colonel). In the Matabele War, he was chief staff officer in that campaign. In the Boer War, -he was given command of the 5th Dragoon Guards, and with a force of 1,200 men was besieged in Mafeking, on the Bechuanaland frontier, from October, 1899 till the town was re- lieved (May 18, 1900), the general display- ing great tact and coolness in the conduct of the defense. He afterward took part in the advance on Pretoria, and was given command of the South African police for the pacification of the country. He is now British Inspector-General of Cavalry, and is the author of a work on Reconnaissance and Scouting, Vidette Duty, Cavalry in- struction, The Downfall of Prempeh, The Matabele Campaign and on Pig-Sticking or Hog-Hunting. He is a noted sportsman, actor and athlete. Badger (baj'er), a burrowing animal com- mon in Europe, Asia and America. It is notable for the flatness of its short, clumsy body. Its head is pointed at the snout BEAR 156 BAGDAD its feet armed with long claws, used for digging and also for defense. All badgers have heavy fur marked very distinctly. They are creatures of great strength and courage and wonderful acuteness. Left alone, they are timid and gentle. They live in burrows dug by themselves, are very shy about being BADGER seen, usually come forth only at night. The fur is valuable, the hairs used in mak- ing artists' brushes. The European badger, unlike the American, is fond of deep woods. Badger-baiting, a low sport once practiced in England, had to do with the arraying of one badger's strength against that of a number of dogs; from this comes the word "badgering," meaning persistent annoying. In Scotland the badger is sometimes domesticated. The American badger be- longs to the west, and shows a fondness for open prairie. He is about two feet long, his color greyish with irregular black bands on the back, underneath whitish, throat and sides of the face white, in front of each eye a black patch, legs and feet black. The markings of the face remind one of a clown. With his strong claws he lays open the burrows of prairie dogs, ground squirrels, gophers, field-mice, etc.; feeds on these and on birds, frogs, small snakes, lizards, grass- hoppers and other insects. He very seldom shows himself; if ever caught a distance from home will flatten himself "almost like a doormat or a turtle. His long, silky, grey hairs, parted in the middle down along his spine, spread out into the grass on each side, so that he seems to be only a slight hummock in the prairie." (American Ani- mals: Stone and Cram). Baer, Karl Ernst von (Jon bar) (1792- 1876), a distinguished Russian naturalist, the founder of modern embryology. He was educated in Germany and became a professor in the University at Konigsberg, where, in 1828, he published The Develop- ment of Animals (Entwickelungsgeschichte der Tiere), a set of careful observations and philosophical reflections that are most remarkable for clearness and thoroughness. This book made an epoch in the science of the development of animal life. Baffin's Bay, a gulf on the northeast coast c* North America, lying between Greenland and the great islands northeast of Hudson Bay. It is open to the Atlantic Ocean by Davis Strait, and to the Arctic Ocean by Smith Sound and Lancaster Sound. It is about 800 miles long, and on an average 200 miles in width. The shores are for the most part lofty and steep, and backed by snow-clad mountains. Baffin's Bay was discovered in 1562, but was named from William Baffin, who as pilot of an expedition in 1615 first explored it. It is navigable for only about four months in the summer, on account of the ice. Whal- ing and seafishing are carried on in its waters. Bag'dad, the capital of the province of the same name in the southeast of Asiatic Turkey. It lies on both sides of the Tigris, which is spanned by a bridge of boats 220 yards long. The city is surrounded by a brick wall five miles around and forty feet high, with four gates. The place looks pic- turesque from the outside, but a closer view shows dirty, narrow streets and houses without windows in front. The insides of the buildings, however, are often gorgeous, with vaulted ceilings, rich mouldings, in- laid mirrors and massive gildings. The mosques and bazaars are the most notice- able of the buildings. Though the former great traffic of Bagdad has been greatly cut off since Persia began to trade with Europe through Trebizond on the north and by the Persian Gulf on the south, the bazaars are still filled with the produce of both Turkish and European markets, and many European houses keep agents in the town. Red and yellow leather, silk and cotton goods are rranufactured, and dates, wool, grain and v.unbac (a substitute for tobacco) are exported. Rain does not fall for r.:ore than twenty or thirty days during the year.but when the snows melt on the hills of Armenia, the Tigris is filled, and floods often lay waste the country. In 1831 a flood de- stroyed half the town and several thousand people. Bagdad is sometimes visited with the cholera, from which disease 4,000 people perished daily for several days in 1830. Discoveries around Bagdad have shown that it dates back to the time of Nebuchad- rezzar. About 754 it became the seat of the Mohammedan empire, and was long famous as the home of the caliphs. The Caliph Haroun-al-Raschid and his son in the gth century greatly improved the city and made it the seat of Arabic learning and literature. It has been frequently taken by the Turks and Persians. While at one time its population was estimated at 2,000,000, it is reported now to have only 150,000, made up of Turks, Arabs, Christians, Jews, Armenians, Hindoos, Afghans and Persians. The province or vilayet of Bagdad (in Mesopotamia), lying between Persia and Arabia, includes the greater part of the basin of the lower Tigris and Euphrates BAGEHOT BAINB RIDGE area, 54,540 square miles. The population of the province is about 615,000. Bagehot (bdg'ut or baj'ut), Walter, a noted English economic writer and litter- ateur, was born at Langport, Somersetshire, February 3, 1826, and died there March 24, 1877. He graduated at the University of London in 1848, studied law, and was called to the English bar. Instead, however, of making law his profession, he joined his father in banking, and was soon recognized as an authority in finance, and widely known as an accomplished writer and critic. From 1854 to 1863 he was one of the editors of the National Review, to which he contributed many able papers on literary, biographical and theological subjects. At the Review's decease he wrote for The Fortnightly, and between the years 1860 and 1877 was editor of The Economist. He published a number of widely-known books, among which are a text-book on The English Constitution; Lombard Street, a description of the money market; Physics and Politics, "a work which does for human society what the Origin of Species does for organic life;" and three volumes entitled respectively, Literary Studies, Economic Studies and Biographical Studies. The latter was not published until after Bagehot's death, when it appeared, edited by R. H. Hutton. Bag'pipe, a wind instrument still com- mon in the highlands of Scotland, and in use in some other countries. At different times it has been used in all parts of Europe. It is a large bag made of leather, usually covered with cloth, having a mouth tube by which the player fills the bag with his breath. There is a pipe with finger-holes upon which the tune is played, and also three other pipes called drones, each of which constantly sounds a single low tone. Sometimes a bellows is used instead of the piper's breath to blow up the bag. The bagpipe is a very ancient instrument. It is spoken of in the Old Testament, and was used by the Egyptians, Greeks and Romans. It is the national instrument of the Scottish Highlanders, pipers being attached to their regiments and usually present at their festivals. Baha'mas, a chain of islands belonging to Great Britain, stretching nearly 600 miles in a northwesterly direction from Hayti to Florida. There are twenty-nine islands, 66 1 islets and 2,387 reefs, occupy- ing an area of 5,450 square miles. The population of the islands is about 58,175, of whom 6,500 are Europeans. Many woods and valuable fruits grow there, and the main trade is in oranges, pineapples, salt and sponges. The Bahamas were the first land discovered by Columbus (1492), but the exact spot of his landing is doubt- ful. Cat Island and Watling's Island or San Salvador each claim the honor. Nas- sau is the capital. The constitution calls for a governor, an executive council of nine and a representative assembly of twenty-nine. Bahia (bd-e'a) or San Salvador is the capital of the state of Bahia in Brazil, and the second city in the republic. It lies on the east shore of the Bay of All Saints, one of the finest bays in America. It is built partly on the shore and partly on high ground, and the two parts of the city are connected by steps and a hydraulic elevator. It has a university, exchange, arsenal and a national dockyard, over sixty churches and many other public institu- tions. It has a railroad to the interior and connection with several cities by submarine telegraph. It exports sugar, coffee, rice, cocoanuts, cotton, dyestuffs, fancy woods and diamonds. Bahia is the oldest city in Brazil. The bay was discovered in 1503 by Amerigo Vespucci, and the city was founded by a Portuguese navigator, named Correa, in 1510. It is visited by yellow fever and other epidemics yearly. Population is about 230,000, and that of Bahia state is 2,117,956, with an area of 164,643 square miles. Baikal (bi-kal'}, Lake, a large and very deep body of fresh water in Siberia, Rus- sia in Asia, lying north of Mongolia and the vast range of the Altai Mountains. It is situated in the Department of Irkutsk, in latitudes 51 to 55 N.; longitudes 103 to 110 E., and is fed by numerous streams from the Baikal Mountains, a spur of the Altai Range. It has several outlets, the chief being the Angara River, a confluent of the Yenisei. The Trans-Siberian Rail- road which connects St. Petersburg via Manchuria with the ports of Vladivostok, Dalny and Port Arthur on the Pacific, formerly crossed Lake Baikal, the trains being transported across the lake on an ice-breaking ferry-boat. The area of the lake, which is crescent-shaped, is estimated at 13,000 square miles, with a shore line 1,000 miles in length. Its depth off its southwest shore is close upon 4,500 feet, over 2,800 feet below ihe level of the ocean. It abounds in fish, including salmon, stur- geon and fresh-water seals. Steamboats have of recent years begun to develop trade on the shores of the lake, which are rich in mineral springs and petroleum wells. The region is subject to earthquakes. Bainbridge, Commodore William, an American naval officer, who did staunch and loyal service during the War of 1812, was born at Princeton, N. J., May 7, 1774, and died at Philadelphia, July 28, 1833. His career as a naval commander dates from 1798, when the United States navy was recognized. Early in the century he was actively engaged in the Mediterranean in successive command of the frigates George Washington, Essex and Philadelphia, was once captured by the French, and had to BAIRD 158 BA.KER surrender his ship fai the United States war with Tripoli. When the War of 1812 broke out, he was < given command of a squadron, consisting of the Constitution, Essex and Hornet, which sailed from Bos- ton in that year. When cruising off the coast of Brazil toward the close of 1812, he captured jfhe British frigate, Java, of 49 guns, for* which -Congress voted him a gold medal, together with a share in the prize-money. During the remaining months of the war he had charge of the Charles- town Navy Yard; and from 1815 to 1821 he was again in command of a squadron at sea. Later on, Commodore Bainbridge acted as president of the board of navy commissioners. Baird, Spencer Fuller ton, a noted naturalist, was born at Reading, Pennsyl- vania, February 3, 1823. He was educated at Dickinsorf College, Carlisle, and was after- ward professor of natural science in the institution.-'; He was secretary of the Smith- sonian Institution, at Washington, and afterward commissioner of fish and fisheries. He wrote many papers on birds, reptiles, fishes, etc., and under his direction the National Museum was begun in 1850. In connection with other editors he pub- lished The Birds of North America, The Mammals of North America and a History of the Birds of North America in five vol- umes. He died at Wood's Holl, Mass., August 19, 1887. Baireuth or Bayreuth (bi'roit'), famous as the home of Wagner and Jean Paul Richter, is a city of Bavaria, on the Red Main. Its population is about 30,000. The most interesting sight in Bayreuth is the national festival theater, designed by Richard Wagner,., and opened in 1876 with a performance of his Ring of the Nib- elungen. This theater is devoted to music; and the audience is expected to be silent and refrain from applause during the per- formances. Baker, Alfred, M. A., professor of mathematics in the University of Toronto since 1887. Born in Toronto, of Yorkshire parents. Was educated at Toronto Gram- mar School and University of Toronto. Appointed mathematical tutor in Univer- sity College, Toronto in 1875; registrar, 1880; dean of residence, 1884; elected by graduates a member of Senate of University of Toronto 1887-1906, in last year be- coming a member ex-officio. Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada; member of the Society Mathematique de France and of the American Mathematical Society; president of the Ontario Educational As- sociation 1895; president of Section in Royal Society of Canada, 1905; member of Executive Committee British Empire League in Canada and of Navy League. In 1904, in. conjunction with Di. Seath, he reorganized geometrical teaching in the schools of Ontario. He has published ar- ticles relating to Geometry of Position, Quat- ernions and Foundations of Geometry, in pro- ceedings of Royal Society of Canada, the last named article being translated into Jap- anese; also elementary treatises on Analytic and Synthetic Geometry, Trigonometry and Mechanics. Baker, Edward Dickinson, an Ameri- can senator and soldier. He was born in London in 1811, and came to the United States when three years old, living first at Philadelphia and then at Belleville, Illinois. He practiced law in Springfield, Illinois, when he was elected to the legis- lature, state senate and finally to the house of representatives. In 1846 he resigned his seat in Congress to become colonel of a regiment of volunteers from Illinois in the Mexican War, and was pres- ent at the siege of Vera Cruz, and com- manded a brigade at Cerro Gordo, He was elected to the United States senate from Oregon in 1860. At the breaking out of the Civil War he was appointed colonel of a regiment he had raised in New York and Philadelphia. He was killed when in command 'of a brigade at the battle of Ball's Bluff, October ai, 1861. Baker, Sir Samuel White, an African traveler, was born in London in 1821, and educated there and in Germany. He super- intended the building of the railroad which connects the Danube with the Black Sea. In 1860, with his wife, a Hungarian lady of great talent, he entered upon an exploring journey to discover the sources of the Nile. Starting from Khartum, with an escort of 90 men, 29 camels, horses and asses and three large boats, he as- cended the White Nile. He met the explorers Speke and Grant, who reported their own discovery of the Lake Victoria, and told him of an- other large lake call ? d b y the " at . ives L uta Nzige. He re- solved to reach this lake, and after many adventures, on March 4, 1864, from the top of lofty cliffs, he saw the vast inland sea, to which he gave the name of Albert Nyanza. During 1869-73 he commanded an expedition organized by the khedive of Egypt to suppress slavery ana to annex the equatorial regions olt sia SAMUEL WHITE BAKER BAKING POWDER 159 BALBOA the Nile Basin. He published The Rifle and the Hound in Ceylon, The Albert Nyanza as I Saw It, Ismaila and Cast up by the Sea. He died at Newton Abbot, England, Dec- ember 30, 1893. Baking Powder, a combination chem- ically prepared, of tartaric acid and bicar- bonate of soda, mixed with flour for the making of bread, biscuits, cakes, etc. The powder, when water is added, causes the bread to rise, as in the olden method of making bread by the fermenting of yeast. Some bakers substitute the bicar- bonate of ammonia for that of soda, which is unobjectionable; though the use of alum in lieu of tartaric acid is objectionable if one desires to have wholesome bread. Baku (bd-kod'), a province of Russia, in Transcaucasia, situated on the western shores of the Caspian Sea, southeast of Tiflis and north of the rivers Kur and Aras, the latter separating Russia in Asia from Persia. Area, 15,061 square miles; population of province (1910), 1,013,900, and of the city (in 1909), the seat of ad- ministration for the Transcaucasian re- gion, 177,777. The province in 1806 passed from Persian to Russian control, though the population largely remains Tartar and Armenian rather than Russian. There is a good harbor at the port of Baku, of importance to Russia as a naval station on the Caspian Sea and utilized as ship- building yards, as well as a pert for the shipment of petroleum, the chief product of this region, and the yield of which is estimated at about nine million tons an- nually. Just north of the port is the great oil-well emporium and refineries, known as the Black Town, where, be- sides the crude oil works, are a number of chemical works, mills and tobacco fac- tories. Much of the trade of Persia passes into Russia and western Europe through the port of Baku. Here spouting wells of petroleum may be seen all about, many destructive fires frequently occurring from the easily igniting gases as well as from the large areas of oil-saturated land. Ba'laam, a Midianite, the son of Peor, who was hired by Balak, King of Moab, to curse the children of Israel while the latter were encamped in the land of Moab on their way to the Promised Land. Al- though Balaam made three attempts to pronounce the curse desired by Balak, he was each time constrained by the Lord to bless instead of curse. Balaam was afterward killed by the Israelites in a war with the Midianites. See Numbers xxn-xxiv, also xxxi. Balaklava (bd'ld-kla'va), a small Rus- sian fishing village in the Crimea, near Sebastopol. In the Crimean War the British made it their headquarters and began building a railroad to Sebastopol. It was attacked by the Russians, October *5, 1854; but they were repulsed. During this attack the famous charge of the light brigade was made. Upon a probably mistaken order, Lord Cardigan led his light brigade of 600 men against a large force of Russians. With great bravery they cut their way to the Russian guns, but finding that they could do nothing there, turned and cut their way back again. Only 150 men survived the brilliant but fruitless charge. Tennyson's ode in commemoration of it is well known. The English left the town in June, 1856. Balanced Ration, the daily food of farm animals containing the proportion of tissue-producing and heat-producing food-elements calculated to give the best results under different conditions of de- velopment and requirements of work. The first sort of foods are the nitrogenous (protein) foods, of which egg-albumen and wheat gluten are familiar types drawn from human foods. The second includes the carbonaceous foods, as starches and sugars (carbohydrates) and fat, or, more strictly speaking, materials soluble in ether (ether extract). Protein can also furnish heat, but, being so much more expensive, the feeder's problem is to add as much carbonaceous food as will sup- ply the ^ necessary heat and also, if the animal is intended for food, as can be converted into fat. The proportion of protein to heat-producing elements is called the nutritive ratio. When the proportion of heat-producing elements is large, the ratio is said to be wide; when small, it is narrow. Thus timothy hay and oat-straw, with proportions of i : 16.7 and i : 34, are examples of wide ratios. Soy beans, 1:1.9, have a narrow ratio. Corn, 1:10, has a medium ratio. For growing cattle a balanced ration is about 1:4.5; f r fattening cattle, 1:6; for heavily worked horses, i : 6 ; for light- worked horses, 1:7. It is no more im- portant to know the amount of these ma- terials in a ration than to know the per- centage of their digestibility. The re- sults of the many analyses and experi- ments in feeding have been embodied in the Wolff-Lehmann feeding standards, which form the basis of all calculations of the feeding value of different food com- pounds used by stockmen. See Henry's Feeds and Feeding. Balboa (bal-bo'd), Vasco Nunez de, a Spanish conqueror, was born in 1475. He crossed the ocean and began farm- ing in St. Domingo, but fell into debt and to escape his creditors smuggled him- self on board a ship and joined an expedi- tion to Darien in 1510. An insurrection which took place there gave him the chief place in the new colony. Rumors reached him here of a great western ocean, and in 1513 he set out in search of it. On Sep- BALDER 160 BALFOUR tember 25, 1513, he first saw the Pacific Ocean from a peak of Darien. Owing to intrigues against him, Balboa was obliged to give up his command, but undertook many successful expeditions while in a subordinate position. Davilla, 1 however, who succeeded him as commander, envious of his success, accused him of plotting a rebellion, and had him beheaded in 1517. Bal'der, the beautiful god of light in the Norse mythology. He was the son of Odin and Frigg and was beloved of gods, men and nature. Through a charm Bal- der was made incapable of injury from any object save the mistletoe. Loke, the god of fire, jealous of Balder, found out through deceit the one thing which could injure him, and persuaded the blind god Hoder to throw at him a weapon made of mistletoe. Balder was slain, and the twilight of the gods began. A mes- senger was sent to the lower world to beg for the return of Balder. The promise was given that he would be permitted to return if all things, both animate and inanimate, would weep for him. Loke, in the disguise of a giantess, refused to weep and so Balder remained in the lower world. See Anderson's Norse Mythology, and Bulfinch's Age of Fable. Bald'win, James Mark (1861), American psychologist, was born at Columbia, S. C., in 1884 graduated from Princeton, and subsequently studied at Leipsic, Berlin and Tubingen. In 1886-87 he was in- structor in German in his alma mater, and in the two following years he was professor of philosophy at Lake Forest University, occupying the same chair from 1889 to 1903 in the University of Toronto, Canada. Subsequently he de- voted himself to psychological studies, gaining prominence in the science and making a number of contributions to its varied branches; while at the same time filling the chair of psychology at Prince- ton. In conjunction with Professor Cat- tell of Columbia he founded the Psychologi- cal Review, and in 1901 became editor- in-chief of the Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology. His other publications, besides his translations from French and German, include A Handbook of Psychology, in two volumes (1888), Elements of Psychol- ogy (1893), The Story of the Mind and Social and Ethical Interpretations in Men- tal Development (1897-98). He made many original discoveries and reasearches in his own special department of work, and con- tributed a number of articles to reviews and encyclopaedias. Baldwin, Hon.' Robert, born in city of Toronto, 1804, of Irish descent. His father, the Hon. W. W. Baldwin, was a member of the Parliament of Upper Canada. Practiced law very successfully and profita- bly from 1825 to 1848. First elected to the Upper Canada Legislature in 1829, The executive, ' although in a minority, rejected year after year the legislation of the Legislative Assembly. He be- came the champion of responsible govern- ment. Lord Durham supported him and oligarchical rule was doomed. He was a member of the executive council in 1836. In 1840 he became solicitor general. In 1842 be became attorney-general in Upper Canada. Mr. Lafontaine was at- torney-general in Lower Canada. Hence, the name of "Baldwin-Lafontaine Govern- ment.'- Held the position until 1851. Died 1858. Called the father of respon- sible government in Canada. Bal'ear'ic Isles (bal'e-ar'ik), a group of islands lying off the Mediterranean coast of Spain. They are Majorca or Mallorca, Minorca, Iviza, Formentera, Cab- rera and several islets. From 1232 to 1344 they formed the kingdom of Mallorca, but in 1349 were united with the kingdom of Aragon. They now form a Spanish province, Balleares, with an area of 1,935 square miles, where vines, olives and fruit trees are abundant. Port Mahon, in Min- orca, is one of the finest harbors in Europe. The Phoenicians and Greeks visited the islands in early times. Later they were subject to Carthage, but were added to the Roman empire in 123 B. C. The natives were famous slingers and their name, Baleares, comes from the Greek word meaning "to throw." Population, 311,649. Balfe (half), Michael William, a mu- sician and composer (born 1808, died 1870). He studied under various mas- ters, and in 1826 wrote his first work, La Perouse, which was performed at Milan. In the same year he sang in Italian opera at Paris, and later conducted the Lon- don Italian opera. His most successful operas are The Bohemian Girl, The Rose of Castile and The Talisman. Many of his songs are favorites. Balfour (bal'foor}, The Right Hon. Arthur James, an English statesman and prime-minister (1902-05), was born July 25, 1848. He was educated at Cambridge University, and in 1874 entered parlia- ment as a member of the Conservative party, and during 1878-80 he was private secretary to his uncle, Lord Salisbury. He was president of the local government board (1885), secretary for Scotland (1886) and chief secretary for Ireland (1887), and then filled the important position of leader of the Conservative party in the House of Commons. In July, 1902, on the retirement of Lord Salisbury, Mr. Bal- four became prime minister, a post he held until the close of 1905, when he re- signed the premiershp and was succeeded by the Liberal leader, Sir Henry Camp- bell-Bannerman. He is a fine scholar, I a man of letters, a metaphysician and a BALFOUR 161 BALLAD brilliant debater. He has shown himself cool, clear-sighted, quick to think, speak and act. He is the author of quite a well- known work call- ed a Defense of Philosophic Doubt. Besides this work he has published (1905) a vol- ume of essays and addresses. During the Euro- pean War he was first lord of the admiralty, later foreign secretary and was a mem- ber of the com- mission sent by ARTHUR JAMES BALFOUR the Allies to the United States. Balfour, Francis Maitland (1851- 1882), brother of Arthur. A highly gifted young naturalist, educated at Trinity Col- lege, Cambridge. His investigations, es- pecially in the line of embryology, were of great importance. Between 1879 and 1882 he brought together all that was known about the developmental stages of animals in his Comparative Embryology, a work of almost priceless value to students of embryology. In 1882 he and his single guide were killed on the Alps by slipping while attempting to climb one of the spurs of Mont Blanc. Balfour, Rt. Hon, Gerald W., an- other nephew of the late Marquis of Salis- bury and brother of Arthur J. Balfour, entered the English Parliament in 1885, and in the third Salisbury administration he was appointed chief secretary for Ire- land, having much to do with the passing of the Irish Land Bill (1895) and the ex- tension of local government to Ireland in 1898, including the creating of a depart- ment of agriculture and technical instruc- tion on the island. Subsequently, he was president of the English Board of Trade.. Baliol (bd'ti-ul or bal'-yul), John, king of Scotland, was born in 1249. Through his mother he was connected with the royal family, and on the death of the heir to the throne, the Maid of Norway, he became a competitor for the throne with Robert Bruce. The question was left to Edward I of England to decide. He chose John Baliol, who swore obedience to him as his feudal lord. In consequence of his oath, he soon found he had no real power, but had to endure whatever Edward I put upon him. In 1295 he made a treaty with Prance, which was then at war with England. Immediately Edward invaded Scotland, and taking Baliol prisoner, com- pelled him to give up his csowti. In 1302 he was allowed to settle on some estates of his in Normandy, where he died in 1315. Balize. See BELIZE. Balkan (bdl-kan') (the ancient Hasmus), a mountain range that separates the waters of the lower Danube from those that flow into the ^Egean Sea. The name is also given to the whole mountain system from the Adriatic to the Black Sea. The main chain has an average height of 4,000 or 5,000 feet, and rises in various parts to a height of 7,000 to 8,000 feet. Toward the east it is broken into a number of chains and ridges running parallel to each other. Scardus, the highest mountain, is 9,700 feet above the sea. Most of the rivers on the northern side flow into the Black Sea, while those on the south fall into the Mediterranean. There are many passes through the mountains, but most of them are very difficult to traverse. The mountains are mostly of granite-like rock. Balkan Peninsula, that part of Europe having the Adriatic and Mediterranean Sea's on one side and the ^Egean and Black Seas on the other. It includes Rumania, Bulgaria, Servia, Turkey, Greece, Monte- negro and Herzegovina. Nearly the whole of the peninsula is mountainous, the chief plains being those along the Danube River. There is great variety of climate, both as to the range of temperature and the amount o.f rainfall. Much of the land in the east and south depends upon irriga- tion to make it productive. The indus- tries are chiefly cattle-raising, agricul- ture, fruit-growing and manufacturing, the latter being carried on largely by hand. The country is rich in minerals, but min- ing is little developed because of the re- pressive government to which the people were so long subjected. The total popu- lation is about 17,000,^00, and nearly half of the people are Slavs. Ball, Sir Robert Stawell, British astron- omer, one of the most popular scientific lecturers of the day, and one of the few who can invest abstruse subjects with fascinat- ing interest. He was born at Dublin on July ist, 1840. He has been successively professor of mathematics in the Royal Irish College of Science, astronomer royal for Ireland and Lowndean professor of as- tronomy and geometry at Cambridge. His writings include an Atlas of Astronomy, Story of the Heavens, Time and Tide and The Story of the Sun. Bal'lad, originally a song sung or acted in a dance. The name is used for any simple narrative poem of short stanzas in which a story is told in a forcible, straight- forward manner. Ballads are found among all European nations, and belong to times when, in the nation to which they belong, life was simple and civilization not so far advanced as English civilization is at BALLARAT 162 BALTIMORE present. Percy's Rehques if Ancient Eng- lish Poetry and Sir Walter Scott's Min- strelsy of the Scottish Border are famous collections of these old English and Scottish ballads. The ballad of Chevy Chase is probably the most famous in the English language. The story of Robin Hood was also a favorite subject of popular song, and has been sung in various forms. Bal'larat', a large Australian town, next in importance to Melbourne, is in the province of Victoria. It owes its rise to the discovery of the goldfields there in 1851, being the oldest but one of the gold fields of the colony. It is in the center of one of the richest gold fields of the world. The largest gold-nugget ever discovered was found here in 1858. It was sold for over $50,000. In 1910 about 16,553 men were employed in the gold fields of Victoria colony, 2,000 of whom were Chinese. Popu- lation 50,000. Balliol (bdl'-yul) College, Oxford, is at present probably the most important of the colleges of Oxford University. It was found- ed about the middle of the i3th century. The greatest of its masters in the middle ages was John Wiclif ; and, perhaps, in the igth century Jowett and Caird. Among poets, Balliol College has educated Southey, Matthew Arnold, Clough and Swinburne. The philosophers, T. H. Green and Sir William Hamilton, were men of Balliol; as was the late Archbishop Temple. There are about 600 names of members on the books. Balloon. See AERONAUTICS. Ball's Bluff, a bluff on the Virginia side of the Potomac, thirty miles from Washington, was the scene of a battle in the Civil War, October 22, 1861. A small force of Federal troops was surrounded by a larger Confederate force. The Federals were defeated, and a large number were killed or captured, among the killed being the commander, Col. E. D. Baker. See BAKER, EDWARD DICKINSON. Bal'moral, a home of the English royal family in Scotland. It is 926 feet above the sea, on a plain that slopes from a height of 1,437 feet to the River Dee, and lies 45 miles west of Aberdeen. In 1852 the prince consort, husband of the late Queen Victoria, bought the estate for $160,000, and built a new granite castle in the Scottish baronial style, which cost about $500,000. The estate now includes about 25,000 acres. Baltic (bal'tik), Battle of the, a naval battle between the English and Danish fleets in the harbor of Copenhagen, April 2, 1 80 1. The English fleet, under Sir Hyde Parker, with Lord Nelson second in com- mand, was ordered to the Baltic to break up. the alliance just formed between Rus- sia, Prussia, Denmark and Sweden. Nel- son led the attack, and when Parker gave the signal to stop the fight, Nelson put the glass to his blind eye, and said he could not see the signal. He continued the at- tack and captured or destroyed nearly the whole Danish fleet. His victory helped greatly to break up the alliance. Baltic Sea is the great inland sea, bor- dered by Denmark, Germany, Russia, Finland and Sweden. It is nearly 900 miles long, from 100 to 200 miles broad, and 40 to 140 fathoms deep, and has an area, including the Gulfs of Finland and Bothnia, of 184,496 square miles, over 12,000 square miles being occupied by islands. The great number of islands, the sudden changes of wind and the violent storms make navigation very dangerous. The main gulfs are those of Bothnia, Fin- land and Riga. About 250 rivers flow into it, which makes the sea much more nearly fresh water than other bodies of salt water. For this reason it freezes easily, so that navigation is interfered with from three to five months in the year. The chief rivers are the Oder, Vistula, Niemen, Duna, Narva and Neva. The shipping-trade is large, the exports of the countries around the Baltic being timber, hides, tallow and grain. The Eider and Gotha Canals connect the Baltic and the North Sea. A larger canal for ships from the mouth of the Elbe to Kiel Bay was begun in 1887 and completed in 1895. It cuts the base of the peninsula or Jutland through Schleswig-Holstein. It is about sixty miles long and saves a dangerous voyage of about 600 miles. Another pro- jected canal is a Russian enterprise, which is designed to connect the Gulf of Riga with southern Russia at Kherson, north of the Crimea. It will utilize the water ways of the Duna and the Dnieper. The most important harbors on the Baltic are Copenhagen, Kiel, Lubeck, Stralsund, Stret- tin. Dantzic, Konigsberg, Memel, Riga, Narva, Kronstadt, Sveaborg, Stockholm and Karlskrona. A noticeable feature of the Baltic is the slow vertical movement of its coasts downward in the south of Sweden and an upward movement farther north. Its area is said to be gradually decreasing. The Germans call it the East Sea. The Baltic is connected with the Cattegat and the North Sea by the Sound and the Great and Little Belts. Baltimore, known also as the Monu- mental City, is the metropolis of Maryland and the largest town on the Atlantic sea- board south of Philadelphia. The city is at the head of navigation on the Patapsco River, fourteen miles from the Chesapeake Bay. It is on the highway of travel be- tween the cities of the east and those of the south and west, being 38 miles from Wash- ington and 97 miles from Philadelphia. Baltimore is an important shipping port, a large railroad center and a rapidly growing manufacturing town. The Patapsco ex- BALTIMORE 163 BALTIMORE pands just below the city, affording an extensive and safe harbor, with an outer bay which is able to accommodate the largest ocean steamships and an inner harbor or basin for small coastwise and bay crafts. Thirty-two steamboat and steamship lines connect the city directly with Liverpool, Bremen, Rotterdam and other foreign ports, and with nearly all the bay and river towns of Maryland and Virginia as well as the larger American seaports of the Atlantic. The city is on the main line of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad between New York, Washingon and the west; it is on the Philadelphia-Washington division of ^the Pennsylvania Railroad; and is the terminus THE WATERWAYS TO BALTIMORE & WASHINGTON of the Northern Central Railway, a branch of the same system. The city is the termi- nus of the Western Maryland Railroad the outlet of the Shenandoah and Cumberland valleys which has been made _ a part of the Wabash system; and it is also the terminus of both the Maryland & Penn- sylvania and the Baltimore & Annapolis Railways. The city has direct connections, too, with the Southern Railway, the At- lantic Coast Line and the Seaboard Air Line. Baltimore is the youngest of the great American cities on the Atlantic coastline. The city, consisting then of sixty acres, was first laid out in 1730, and was created upon the petition made a year earlier by certain residents upon the Patapsco to the Mary- land legislature. In 1732 another town was started across a small stream from Balti- more-Town, and this settlement took the name of Jones' Town, from the stream Jones' Falls. The two towns were consoli- dated in 1745; and Baltimore was enlarged from time to time thereafter until with the large addition gained by the taking in of the Annex in 1888 it now covers 31^ square miles. The city was called after Cecilius Calvert, Lord Baltimore and one of the proprietaries of the province of Maryland. It was originally included in Baltimore County, and became the county seat in 1767. Subsequently, however, the city and county were divorced, and Baltimore today has an independent government from the county by which it is surrounded. During the Revolutionary War Baltimore became an important center, and for a while housed the Continental Congress, after that body was forced to retire from Philadelphia. In 1780 Baltimore became a port of entry, and in 1796 was incorporated into a city. During the second war with England the city was subjected to two attacks by the British one by land and the other by sea; but both were unsuccessful. The land attack resulted in the Battle of North Point, (Sept. 12, 1814,) when the British lost their com- mander, Gen. Ross, and retired without accomplishing their purpose. The follow- ing day, September 13, the fleet opened fire upon Fort McHenry the city's chief de- fense. The bombardment lasted all day and night, and had the fort been taken Baltimore would have fallen prey to the enemy. But on the morning of the i4th the American flag was seen still flying over the ramparts of the unconquered stronghold, and the enemy abandoned all hope of taking Baltimore. It was the sight of this Amer- ican flag waving over Fort McHenry that inspired Francis Scott Key, who had been detained by the British during the bombard- ment, to write America's national anthem The Star-spangled Banner. Shortly after the War of 1812-15 the residents of Balti- more raised two monuments one to Wash- ington and the other to the defenders of North Point ; and these memorials won for the town the name of the Monumental City. The first blood of the Civil War was shed in Baltimore (April 19, 1861), when a mob sought to prevent the passage through the city of the Sixth Massachusetts and the Seventh Pennsylvania regiments, then on their way to Washington in response to Lincoln's call for volunteers. Historically, there are other important events connected with the city of Baltimore : It was the first BALTIMORE, LORD 104 BALUCHISTAN American city lighted by gas; the first steam passenger train in America ran from Baltimore to Ellicott City; the first steam- ship to cross the Atlantic sailed from Balti- more; the first electric telegraph line was strung from Baltimore to Washington; the first paid fire department in America was that of Baltimore; the first school of den- tistry in the world was established in the Monumental City; the first iron building was the former home of the Baltimore Sun; and the first American Methodist Episcopal church was organized in Baltimore. On February 7-8, 1904, the entire business section of the city was wiped out by a fire which destroyed $70,000,000 worth of prop- erty. The conflagration proved the begin- ning of a new era in the life of the city. Not only were the destroyed buildings replaced, in most instances by better structures, but the municipality seized the opportunity for extensive improvements. Many important business streets, which had been too narrow to accommodate the heavy traffic imposed upon them, were widened. The two thor- oughfares skirting upon the wharf property of the basin Light and Pratt Streets were changed from narrow and unattractive streets to avenues of great width. At the same time a new system of modern concrete piers was begun along Pratt Street, ranging in length from 550 to 1,450 feet and having docks 150 feet wide, giving a total surface area of 23^ acres. At the same time a complete sewerage system was undertaken, at a cost of $10,000,000. Enormous sums of money were appropriated for improving the streets and roads of the Annex, while considerable additions were made to the city parks, which include one of the finest natural pleasure grounds of the world in Druid Hill Park. Baltimore has made great advance as a manufacturing town in the past two decades, and ranks seventh among the manufactur- ing cities of America. It is the largest city for the slaughtering and packing of meat upon the Atlantic seaboard. The city ranks first in the canning and preserving of fruits and vegetables and also in the canning and preserving of oysters. It ranks third in the manufacture of all kinds of factory- made clothing for men, women and children, and sixth in the hand-trades manufactures. The city is also an important center for the manufacture of tobacco goods, foundry and machine shop products, factory-made furni- tura. Baltimore is a great export center for both coal and grain. Baltimore ranks as a foremost educational center. The Johns Hopkins University, opened in 1876, is primarily an institution for graduate and research work, but has also an efficient undergraduate depart- ment. The Peabody Institute contains a world-famed historical library and has con- nected with it a conservatory of music. The Woman's College, the Maryland Insti- tute School of Art and Design ; and colleges of medicine, law, dentistry and pharmacy are located in the city. The public schools are equal to those of any other American city. The Enoch Pratt Free Library with more than 200,000 volumes and numerous branches is one of the greatest free libraries in America. The public buildings include the magnificent new Custom-House, the marble Court-House, Walter's Art Gallery containing one of the finest private collec- tions of paintings in the United States, the Johns Hopkins Hospital covering several city blocks and numerous other notable structures. Baltimore is the seat of a Roman Catholic archbishopric and of a Protestant Episcopal bishopric. Popula- tion, city and suburbs, 700,000. Bal'timore, Lord, a title of the Calvert family. In 1625 Sir George Calvert was made first Lord Baltimore by James I, and granted land in Newfoundland; but the colony which he founded was a failure. He then petitioned Charles I for a charter to found a new colony, but died (1632) before the charter was issued. His son, Cecil Cal- vert, second Lord Baltimore, received the charter in June, 1632, and was thus the real founder of Maryland colony. The whole state of Maryland was included in the grant, and Leonard Calvert, a brother of Lord Baltimore, came with an expedition as gov- ernor in 1633. Under the Calverts the col- ony was managed in a wise and tolerant manner. Baltimore Oriole or Baltimore bird, also called Firebird, is a beautiful bird, very common in North America, from Canada to Mexico. The birds come from the south in May, and in trees and vines near houses build their hanging nests of moss and fibers skill- fully woven together. Threads, strings and horsehairs are used in building the nest, which is a deep hanging pouch about six inches long. The birds are about seven inches long, with sharp bills, pointed wings and rounded tail. The plumage is beautiful, especially in the males, being a glossy black, mixed with bright orange and yellow. These were the colors of Lord Baltimore's livery, hence the name. Their song is strong and pleasant, a ringing whistle easily imitated. They are valuable for their de- struction of insect larvae, like the tent-cater- pillar, canker worm, etc. Lady Baltimore, as the nest builder is called by the author of Bird Neighbors, is one of the best archi- tects in the world. Of the splendid male the poet Lowell says: "Hush! 'tis he! My oriole, my glance of summer fire." Baluchistan (bd-loo'chis-tan'), a rugged country of southwestern Asia, bounded on the north by Afghanistan, on the south by the Arabian Sea, on the west by Persia and on the east by Hindustan. It has an area of 131,855 square miles. BALTIMORE ORIOLES AND NEST BALZAC 165 BANCROFT Surface. Baluchistan is mountainous, but has also broad and high tablelands and some extensive sandy deserts. One of its moun- tain systems extends north and the other east and west. Many of the mountains have great height and are snow covered, while the tablelands are very hot in summer and extremely cold in winter. Its most important rivers are the Bolan and Mula, which are located in the northeast. Natural Resources. It is believed that the mineral wealth is quite important, and includes, gold, silver, lead, copper, iron, mineral salts and saltpetre. Throughout the country there is a great scarcity of water, and the soil generally speaking is not fertile. The following articles, however, are produced to some extent: wheat, barley, millet, cotton, rice, indigo and tobacco. Orchard and garden fruits are grown near the towns and vegetables are very plentiful. Atten- tion is given to the breeding of fine camels. Manufactures. The manufacturing inter- ests are unimportant, and consist mainly of coarse fabrics, matchlocks and other weap- ons. Government. The khan or tribal ruler receives an annual grant from India, and resides at Kelat, while his rule is almost confined to the surrounding country. Quet- ta is the largest town and has railway con- nection with India. It is strongly fortified, and is occupied by a British garrison. The country is a British protectorate, and while not wholly under their rule, is completely under British influence. Population over 9 1 5 ,000. Balzac (bal'zdk'), Honore de, a great French novelist, was born at Tours in 1799. He studied law, but gave it up and went to Paris to try his fortune as an author. For ten years he lived in wretched circumstances, writing stories which were of little value. In his thirtieth year he wrote his first great novel, The Last Chouan, which brought him into notice. Soon after he began his great work, called The Human Comedy, which was intended to be a complete picture of modern life. He was a very hard worker, and wrote eighty-five novels in twenty years. Few writers have shown such power in describing character and in giving reality and life to their characters. Some of his best works are Scenes of Provincial Life, Scenes of Parisian Life, La Peau de Chagrin (The Magic Skin), Le Cousin Pons, Sera- phita, Conies Drolatiques, Eugenie Grandet and Father Goriot. He died at Paris, Aug. 18.1850. Bamboo', a kind of tree-like grass, which grows to a large size in the warmer parts of Asia and America. Some kinds are at least eighty feet high. It is used for a great variety of purposes, such as housebuilding, shipmasts, furniture, spear-shafts and walk- ing sticks. As the stem is hollow and very strong, it is also used for water pipes. In some varieties a sweet juice is found, which in India is used for cooking. Banana, (bd-nd'na), the name of a fruit and also of the plant which produces it. It is thought to be a native of India, but is now grown in all tropical countries. We get our bananas largely from the West Indies and Central America. The fruit is grown extensively in our island possessions, and some is produced in Florida, Louisiana and California. There are many varieties; the one commonly exported is the Martinique, which shows a large bunch of yellow fruit. A delicious variety is the apple banana, a small banana with fragrance and taste of the apple. In Hawaii, just in the home garden of the sugar planter, may be grown fifteen different kinds. Common in tropical countries is a popularly called cooking banana, not edible raw; with thick, salmon-colored flesh and dark skin, similar to the plantain of the South Seas. It is told that the natives of one of the South Sea islands subsist entirely on bananas; on many islands it is the main food. Between the plantain and the banana there is little, if any, botanical difference. Both are Musa sapientum. The plantain,, a much less familiar fruit, is large, solid and mealy compared with the ordinary banana. The banana is very nutritious and wholesome when thoroughly ripe. The bunches are cut off when green; those for export, so they will ship well; those for home use, to keep them from the birds. They are often hung from the beam of the veranda to ripen. Some bunches grow to enormous size, one occasionally weighing 80 pounds. A small area of land will produce a rich crop. A plant bears but a single bunch, then the stalk is cut down and the sprouts take its place. When about three feet high, these are transplanted, put far enough apart to allow space for the great leaves that will outspread wide when full grown. The plant or tree varies in height from 10 to 40 feet, and at the top of the stalk the immense, undivided leaves are from six to ten feet long and one to two feet wide. The flower- bearing is most curious; the flower cluster with its tight-overlapping scales is a great elongated purple bud in appearance. Under each scale is a true flower of which there may be over a hundred in each "bud," forming that many bananas as they develop. Under favorable conditions a banana plant bears when from twelve to eighteen months old. Bananas grown for their fruit are per- petuated by root-cuttings, by sprouts and suckers. Ban'croft, George, a distinguished American historian, was born in Worcester, Massachusetts, in 1800. He graduated from Harvard College, and studied two years at Gottingen, Germany. He was tutor in Greek at Harvard for one year, and with a fellow student carried on a school in Northampton BANCROFT, HUBERT 166 BANKS till 1830. The first volume of his History of the united States was published in 1834, and two other vol- umes soon followed. The next five vol- umes came out from 1852 to 1860, and in 1866 and in 1874 two more volumes were published, which bring the history to the preliminary treaty of peace with Great Britain in 1782. Two other volumes, on the formation of the G1 constitution, appeared in 1882. Bancroft was collector of the port of Boston under President Van Buren ; under President Polk he was secretary of the navy and minister to England. In 1867 he was appointed minister to Berlin, where he remained until recalled at his own request in 1874. He died at Washington, D. C., Jan. 17, 1891. Bancroft, Hubert Howe, an American historian, was born at Granville, Ohio, in 1832, and settled in San Francisco, where, in the book business, he made a large fortune. He collected a library of 60,000 volumes, mainly on early American history. He was so fortunate as to secure the library of the Mexican Emperor Maximilian. His well- known work in five volumes, The Native Races of the Pacific States, forms the first part of his immense History of the Pacific States of North America, complete in forty volumes. Banff. A charming and very fashionable summer resort on the main line of the Cana- dian Pacific Railway, 922 miles west of Win- nipeg and 560 miles east of Vancouver. Famous for its hot sulphur springs and grand majestic scenery. The National Park of Canada is at Banff. The journey from Winnipeg to the Pacific coast is generally broken at Banff. Bangalore' (b&n'ga-ldr'), a strongly for- tified town of Mysore, one of the native states in India, in a district of the same name. When Mysore was occupied by England in 1831, Bangalore was made the capital, and when, in T 88 1 , Mysore was restored to the rule of its native prince, the district of Banga- lore was exempted from native control. The city lies 3,000 feet above the sea, and is con- sequently very healthy. Silk and carpets are the principal manufactures. Population 189,485. The district of Bangalore has a population of 669,139. Bangkok', the capital of Siam, situated on both banks of the Menam. One third the population are Chinese, who control the large trade of the city. For the right to trade there the Chinese pay a poll-tax of about three dollars every third year, which exempts them from the half-yearly military service which all other foreign residents have to give. A large number of the houses are built on rafts in the river. They are made of bam- boo boards, wicker work or palm leaves, usually with a veranda in front and a wing at each end. On land the houses are raised on piles six or eight feet from the ground and reached by ladders. The walls of the city are about six miles in circumference. The traffic of the city is carried on mainly by canals, there being only a few streets. Bang- kok is the residence of the king of Siam. The palace is surrounded by a high wall, nearly a mile long, which incloses temples, public offices, a theater and accommodation for several thousand soldiers and for about 3,000 women, 600 of whom are the wives of the icing. The temples of the city are very numerous, decorated in the most gorgeous style and served by 20,000 priests. The chief exports are rice, sugar, pepper, hides, ivory and feathers, while the imports are tea, silk, opium, hardware, machinery and glassware. The building of steamships, the introduction of gas into the royal palaces and the houses of the noblemen, the starting of a regular mail to the city in 1884, followed by Siam joining the International Postal Union in 1885, show the recent progress. A railway is now running from Bangkok to Paknam (14 miles in length), while one runs from the capital to Korat (165 miles) ; there are also electric tramways now in the king- dom. Telegraphs connect Bangkok with Burma and Cambodia. Population is 628,675. Ban'gor, a city and port in the state of Maine, on the Penobscot River, about sixty miles from its mouth. The harbor is accessible during the open season to all except the very largest shipping vessels. Bangor is one of the largest lumber stations in the world. About 200,000,000 feet are yearly shipped during the season of eight months. The city has some shipbuilding, several sawmills, furniture factories, foun- dries, etc. When under the English govern- ment it was called Kenduskeag. Its present name was derived from the well-known tune of that name. Population, 24,803. Bangs, John Kendrick, (1862), Ameri- can humorist, born at Yonkers, New York, and educated at Columbia College. He early took to literature as a profession, and has been connected editorially or as a writer with Harper's Weekly and Magazine, with Life, the Metropolitan Magazine, etc. He has written a number of amusing and enter- taining books, among the best known of which are A Houseboat on the Styx, The Pursuit of the Houseboat, Mr. Bonaparte of Corsica, Coffee and Repartee, Uncle Sam, Trustee, The Idiot at Home, The Bicyclers and Other Farces, Toppleton's Client, A Rebellious Heroine, Olympian Nights and The Enchanted" Typewriter. Banks (from the Italian banco, meaning a bench). The Babylonians and Chinese as BANKS 167 BANKS well as the Greeks and Romans are known to have made use of the principles of bank- ing; but the bank of Venice in the i2th century was the first institution which carried on banking business as it is now practiced. The bank of Barcelona was founded in 1401 ; and one at Genoa, started in 1407, was for centuries one of the first banks in Europe. The bank of Amsterdam (1609) was the great warehouse for bullion during the i7th century, giving receipts for the coin and bullion put there, which receipts were used as money. Modern banking begins with the i8th century, and the modern bank in its simplest form is an institution which receives money from its depositors and loans it out to bor- rowers, charging the latter interest for the loan. The difference between the higher rate of interest which the bank charges, the borrowers and the lower rate which it pays its depositors is the gross profit which the bank makes. The money which the bank loans is repre- sented in the bank by notes, which are promises to pay back the money at a cer- tain time and place, signed by the borrowers. In order that the bank may safely loan money it requires the borrower to give security. This may be in the form of an endorsement which is the signature of a person, firm or corporation on the back of the note, and this endorsement makes the endorser guarantee the payment of the note and interest. Other forms of security are stock, bonds, mortgages, etc. If the borrower fails to pay the note when it is due, the bank can then sell the stock, bonds, mortgages, etc., and apply the pro- ceeds in payment of the note. In the United States banks may be divided into national banks, state banks, trust companies, savings banks and private banks. National banks are organized and operated under the national banking laws, and are examined by national bank exam- iners who are under the Comptroller of the Currency in Washington, D. C., and make their reports to him. National banks are also required to make sworn statements of their condition to the comptroller whenever he calls for them. State banks, savings banks and trust companies are organized and operated under the banking laws of the states in which they are located. They are subject to examinations by state bank examiners and must make sworn state- ments of their conditions when the proper state official calls on them to do so. Pri- vate banks are not organized under the national or state banking laws and are not subject to the supervision of federal or state officials. When a bank is organized under the national or state banking laws, it is known as a chartered bank, because the national or state government gives the owners of the bank, known as stockholders, a charter which authorizes them to conduct a banking business. The stockholders supply the money to start the bank, and this money is called the capital of the bank. As the bank prospers, it lays aside a certain amount of its net earnings each year in a fund called surplus. Some banks have a surplus larger than the capital. The capital and surplus belong to the stockholders; but if for some cause the bank should fail that is, be unable to pay back to the depositors the money they had deposited, then the public author- ities take the capital and surplus to pay the depositors what is owing them. If this is not sufficient, an assessment is made on the stockholders, sometimes for as much as the par or face value of the amount of stock they own. Stockholders of a bank meet each year and elect diiectors to represent them in the management of the bank. The direc- tors in turn elect the officers of the bank to whom they delegate authority to operate the bank. It is the duty of the directors to see that the bank is properly managed and that the officers conduct the bank's bus- iness carefully, safely and properly and with profit, for unless the bank makes a profit it cannot pay dividends upon its stock. A dividend is a division of the net profits of the bank among the stockholders in proportion to the amount of stock each holds and is designated as a percentage of the capital. Thus, if a bank pays 10 per cent, dividends, it divides each year among the stockholders an amount of money equal to 10 per cent, of its capital stock. The par or face value of the stock of national or state banks is $100. Its real value is what it sells for. The stock of some banks is worth many times its par or face value. The first chartered bank in this country was the Bank of North America. The charter was granted by the Congress of the Confederation in 1780. Because there was some doubt as to the power of Congress to do this, the bank was rechartered by Penn- sylvania in 1781. In 1784 the Bank of Massachusetts and the Bank of New York were organized. In 1791 Congress estab- lished the Bank of the United States; the charter was limited to 20 years. The capital was $10,000,000 one fifth of which was supplied by the government. The headquarters of the bank was in Philadel- phia, with branches in other cities of the country. When the charter expired in 1811, Congress refused to renew it. In 1816 the second United States Bank was chartered by the government with a capi- tal of $35,000,000 of which the government subscribed one fifth. This bank was used as a depository for government funds, and five of its 25 directors were appointed by the government. In 1832 Congress passed an act renewing its charter, but President BANKS t68 BANKS Jackson vetoed it. The bank became a great political issue, and President Jackson ordered the public funds to be removed from the bank and deposited in state banks. In 1836 the bank's charter expired, but a few days before this occurred Pennsylvania gave it a state charter and it became the United States Bank of Pennsylvania. Between 1836 and 1863 only state banks existed in the United States. The several state banking-systems, no two alike, caused great dissatisfaction and losses. Each state had its own banking laws and under them the state banks issued currency. The laws were so loosely drawn that suspensions and failures were frequent. In many instances the privilege of issuing notes to circulate as currency was grossly abused. This led Secretary Chase in 1861 to suggest a national-bank act, and in 1863 such an act was passed by Congress and became the basis of the present national banking laws. Congress in 1865 levied a tax of 10 per cent, on all circulating notes other than those issued by national banks, and this prohibitive tax put an end to state-bank currency. National banks can issue their own bank- notes to circulate as currency by depositing United States bonds with the Comptroller of the Currency. The bank can issue notes to an amount equal to the bonds so deposited but not to exceed the amount of the bank's capital stock. Thus a national bank, hav- ing a capital of $1,000,000, can issue $1,000,- ooo national bank-notes, provided it de- posits $1,000,000 United States bonds. Any five citizens of the United States can organize a national bank. In towns or cities of less than 3,000 population a national bank with but $25,000 capital can be organized; where the population is be- tween 3,000 and 6,000 the capital stock must be at least $50,000; between 6,000 and 50,000 population the capital stock must be at least $100,000 and over 50,000 popu- lation the capital stock must be at least $200,000. In May of 1908 Congress enacted what is known as the Emergency-Currency Law. Under the provisions of this law ten or more national banks, each having an unim- paired capital and surplus of not less than 20 per cent, of its capital stock, all of the banks having a total capital and surplus of at least $5,000,000 were allowed to form a National Currency Association for the purpose of providing for an issue of emergency currency in times of financial stress or panics. Any bank belonging to a National Currency Asso- ciation could use stocks, bonds or commercial paper (the notes of commercial houses) which had been approved by the association as a basis for additional circulation. To secure this emergency currency from the government through the currency association, the bank must meet certain requirements and do certain things laid down in the emergency currency law but always under the direction and control of the Secretary of the Treas- ury. The law also provided for the issuance of emergency circulation to the banks direct without compelling the bank to secure such circulation through the medium of a currency association. A special tax on emergency circulation was provided for; it amounted to five per cent, a year for the first month such circulation was outstanding and one per cent, a year for each additional month until the tax reached 10 per cent. a year. This tax was levied to make it un- profitable for a bank to issue emergency circulation, the idea being that such cir- culation should only be used when the emergency was so great as to imperil the banks. The law also carried a provision for a cur- rency commission of eighteen members, the Speaker of the national House of Repre- sentatives to name nine and the presiding officer of the United States Senate to name nine. This commission also inquired into the entire subject relating to currency and made a report to Congress. The emergency currency law expired by limitation on June 30, 1914. France claims the credit of being the mother of savings banks, basing this claim on a savings bank said to have been estab- lished in 1765 in the town of Brumuth, but it is of record that the savings bank idea was suggested in England as early as 1697. There was a savings bank in Hamburg, Germany, in 1778 and in Berne, Switzerland, in 1787. The first English savings bank was established in 1799, and postal savings banks were started in England in 1861. The first chartered savings bank in the United States was the Boston Provident Savings Institution, incorporated December 13, 1816. The Philadelphia Savings Fund Society began business the same year, but was not incorporated until 1819. In 1818 banks for savings were incorporated in Baltimore and Salem, and in 1819 in New York, Hartford, Newport and Providence. Savings banks are organized and main- tained for the conveniences of the person of small means who by making small de- posits can in time accumulate a comfortable sum of money. Such banks differ widely in the conduct of their business from com- mercial banks. Deposits in commercial banks are subject to withdrawal without notice, but savings banks reserve the right to require from 30 to 60 days and in some instances six months' notice of with- drawal of funds. Interest ranging from three to five per cent, per annum is paid on savings deposits, but such deposits must remain in the bank for a certain period the time varying according to tne rules of the banks before interest is allowed. BANKRUPT 169 BANKRUPTCY If the funds are withdrawn before interest time, the depositor loses the interest. The postomce savings banks which were established in England in 1861 at first were tried at only a few postoffices, but later the system was extended to include all the money-order offices in the United Kingdom. In the United States the Postal Savings System was inaugurated under act of con- gress in 1911. On June 3oth, 1912, the num- ber of depositors was 8,113, and the deposits were approximately $20,300,000. Deposits bear interest at two per cent per annum, principal and interest being guar- anteed by the United States Government. Accounts may be opened and deposits made by any person of the age of 10 years or over. Deposits are received from individuals only, and not from corporations, associations or firms. Receipts for deposits are given in the form of postal savings certificates which are issued in denominations of $i, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50, and $100 each. No person is permitted to deposit more than $100 in any one month, nor have more than $500 on deposit at one time. A depositor is per- mitted to exchange his deposits for sums of $20, $40, $60, $80, $100 or multiples of $100 up to $500 into United States bonds bearing interest at 2? per cent per annum, payable semi-annually. Pull information concerning the Postal Savings System may be obtained at any depository office or by ad/dressing the Postmaster General (Postal Savings System), Washington, D. C. A trust company is a banking institution organized under the laws of a state. In some states trust companies are not per- mitted to exercise all the functions of a bank; in other states banks are permitted to perform the functions of a trust company in addition to general banking. Trust com- panies act as trustees, guardians, adminis- trators and executors of estates, conserva- tors, agents, etc. In short, they can act in all matters of trust as if they were human individuals. A trust company can be ap- pointed guardian by a court for orphan children. It can manage the estate of a dead person. It can be appointed to take care of an insane person or to manage the affairs of a spendthrift. Its. varied and many functions bring it into close personal relationship with its clients. It also acts as trustee for railroads and other corpora- tions issuing bonds, and does many things which banks cannot do. Many trust com- panies have savings departments, and, be- sides, do a large real estate business. One of the most important services ren- dered by a bank is the transmission of funds or credit from one part of the country to another. For instance, a debtor in New York who wants to pay his creditor in Chicago, pays the money to a New York oank which, for a small charge, gives him a draft on a Chicago bank. This he sends to his Chicago creditor, who presents it to the bank in Chicago and receives the money. No money is sent by the banks in New York to Chicago, because Chicago banks send drafts to New York, and an account of how they stand toward each other is all that is necessary, and in this way the sending of money from one place to another is avoided. In the same way, one bank in a large city is constantly paying out money in exchange for checks and drafts which strictly should be paid by another bank. But instead of the first bank making the second bank at once pay back the same amount, all the banks of the city meet together once or twice a day, each showing how much it has paid out for the others, and how much they have paid for it, and the difference only is paid in cash. This is called a clearing-house. The first clear- ing-house originated in London. Many cities in the United States now have them. Following are the number of banks, with their capital, surplus, deposits, etc. in the United States, as shown in the report of the comptroller of the currency for 1911: National Banks. Number, 7,301, capital stock paid in, $1,025,441,384; surplus, $670,- 041,576; United States bonds to secure cir- culation, $707,204,380; national bank notes outstanding, $696,982,033; deposits, $5,489,- 995,011. State Banks. Number, 17,115, divided into following: commercial banks, 12,864; cap- ital, $452,944,684; surplus, $170,566,937; de- posits, $2,777,566,835; loan and trust com- panies, 1,251; capital, $385,782,993; surplus, $400,406,067; deposits, $3,2951855.895; mutual and stock savings banks, capital, $72,177,899; surplus, $261,834,082; deposits, $4,212,583,598; savings depositors, 9,794,- 647, having an average deposit of $430.09. There are also 1,1 16 private banks, having a capital of $21,872,416, surplus $7,329,974 and deposits, $142,277,224. MALCOLM McDowELL. Bankrupt is a term applied to a person who is unable to pay his debts, and bank- ruptcy laws are laws which prescribe the methods by which the estate of an insolvent debtor is applied in payment of his debts and the debtor himself is relieved from fur- ther obligation. Bankruptcy may be voluntary or in- voluntary. Voluntary bankruptcy occurs when a debtor asks to be declared a bankrupt, involuntary bankruptcy when his creditors ask it. In the United States Congress legis- lates as to bankruptcy, though the states may do so, but a federal statute suspends a state law covering the same ground. Con- gress has four times passed a national bank- ruptcy law, that of 1898 being the latest. Proceedings begin by a debtor committing an act of bankruptcy, either by becoming unable to pay or by attempting dishonestly to alienate his property. Then a petition BANKS, NATHANIEL 170 BARBAROSSA is filed, and the court orders the property to be put under the control of a receiver. The deotor states his affairs on oath and is publicly examined, and the creditors meet. He may offer to compound with them, that is, to pay part of what he owes. If his creditors approve, the court or receiver may allow the arrangement. If he does not offer to pay, the court says he is a bankrupt and the creditors appoint a trustee. He administers the estate and controls the bankrupt's movements. The latter can at any time after being declared a bankrupt ask to be discharged, but this may be refused, suspended or granted conditionally. When the trustee has divided the debtor's prop- erty among his creditors in proportion to the amount he owed each, he is released from his debts and discharged from bank- ruptcy. The ancient Roman law against bank- ruptcy regarded it as a crime, so that the creditors might sell the debtor into slavery or divide his body into pieces. An English act of 1622, again, condemned a debtor who failed to show just reason for being unable to pay his debts to have one ear nailed to the pillory and afterwards cut off. The mild- ness of recent laws against bankruptcy is not only due to a more humane spirit, but also to the great complexity of modern business, which may cause a man to become bankrupt to a greater degree than formerly through no fault of his own. Banks, Nathaniel Prentiss, an Ameri- can general, born in 1816 at Waltham, Massachusetts. He studied law and was elected to the state legislature, being made speaker of the house in 1851. He was elected to Congress in 1 85 2, but being opposed to slavery left the Democratic party. In 1854 he was again sent to congress by the Republicans and Know-nothings, and was chosen speaker of the house in 1856. He was governor of Massachusetts from 1857 to 1860. Soon after the outbreak of the war he was given command of an army corps on the Potomac. In 1862 he succeeded General Butler in the command of the Department of the Gulf. In 1863 he cap- tured Port Hudson with 6,000 prisoners, which effected the opening of the Mississippi River, and in 1864, with Admiral Porter in charge of a gunboat fleet, he led an unsuc- cessful expedition up the Red River, and was there relieved of his command in May, 1864. He was a member of Congress from 1864 to 1870 and again from 1874 to 1876, and was re-elected in 1888. He died Sept. i, 1894. Banks of Newfoundland, The, extend- ing for a length of some six hundred miles, are famous for their cod fisheries. Other fish are also abundant on the Banks; and it may be said that Newfoundland depends almost entirely upon its cod, seal and herring industries. The Banks are believed to have been gradually formed through the melting of icebergs, which here come into contact with the warm waters of the Gulf Stream and deposit the earth and stones which they may have carried from Arctic shores. Ban'nockburn, a Scottish village on the stream of that name. It is noted for the great battle fought there in 1314 between the English under Edward II, with 100,000 men, and the Scotch under Robert Bruce, with 30,000, in which the English were com- pletely defeated, losing nearly 30,000 men. The stone on which Bruce is said to have fastened his standard is still to be seen, and near it a flagstaff, 1 20 feet high, was erected as a memorial. Ban'yan or Banian, a tree of India and tropical Africa, remarkable for the great branches which it sends down to the earth, and which take root again, forming new trunks. In this way the tree spreads over a great surface and lasts for many ages, though the original trunk may decay. One has been described as having 350 trunks as large as oak trees and more than 3,000 smaller ones. It grows from seventy to a hundred feet high. Alexander Campbell is said to have once sheltered 7,000 men under a banyan. Great numbers of birds and monkeys live in the tree and eat its fruit, a kind of fig. The Brahmans hold the tree in great reverence. Barba'dos, the most eastern of the West Indian Islands, to the eastward of the Wind- ward Islands. It is twenty-one miles long and fourteen and one-half miles broad. It contains 166 square miles, or 106,470 acres, of which about 100,000 are cultivated. The island is almost surrounded by coral reefs. The highest point of land is Mount Hillaby, which is 1,104 feet above the sea. The climate is very healthy, but the people are in constant danger from hurricanes, which destroy an immense amount of property and many lives. One storm, in 1780, killed 4,326 persons and swept away about $6,000,- ooo worth of property. Since the suppres- sion of slavery in the island in 1834, its prosperity has greatly increased. The pop- ulation is 199,542, a large part of which is colored. England first settled the island in 1625, and it still belongs to her. The capital is Bridgetown (population, 33,000). Barbarossa. See FREDERICK I. Barbaros'sa (meaning Red Beard) , three brothers, natives of Greece, who, as Turkish pirates, were the terror of the Mediterranean Sea during the first half of the 1 6th century. One of them murdered the chief men in Algiers and seized the town, but was cap- tured in 1518 and beheaded. His younger brother took his place in Algiers, and, putting himself under the protection of Turkey, conquered Tunis for her. He defeated the Christian nations several times in sea-fights, and helped the French to take Nice in 1543. With thousands of captives he returned in BARBARY STATES X7I BAR HARBOR triumph to Constantinople, where he died in 1546. Bar'bary States, a large region in north- ern Africa, comprising modern Barca, Tripoli Proper, Fezzan, Tunis, Algeria and Morocco. In ancient times the countries included in it were called Mauritania, Numidia, Africa Proper and Cyrenaica. It is divided by the Atlas Mountains, and stretches from Egypt to the Atlantic Ocean and from the Mediter- ranean Sea to the Desert of Sahara. The whole or parts of it have been conquered at different times by the Romans, Vandals, Arabs, Turks and. French. Excepting the French and other Europeans, the inhabi- tants are mostly Mohammedans. Barca, known also as Benghazi, a Turk- ish vilayet in Tripoli-in-Barbary, projecting into the Mediterranean, opposite Greece and the island of Crete, and having to the south of it the Libyan Desert. It is flanked on the east by Egypt and the mouth of the Nile River, and on the west by Tripoli, the Gulf of Sidra and Algeria. In early days the region was the Dorian colony of Cyrene, subsequently captured and pillaged by the Persians. Later on it became a province of Greece, but, declaring itself independent, it was invaded and conquered in A. D. 641 by the Arabs. With Tripoli it fell under Turkish dominion, and in 1835 tne entire region was proclaimed a Turkish vilayet; though, forty years subsequently it was placed under a separate administration directly responsible to the Porte. The country is in the main arid and sandy, with a few elevations, together with fringes of arable and pasture land, where barley and wheat are grown, cattle and sheep are bred, and fruits, including dates, olives, oranges and lemons, are grown. Sponges also are among its exports, besides goat-skins, ostrich- feathers, ivory and the produce brought by caravans from the Libyan Desert and the Sudan. Arabic is the tongue commonly spoken in the district, though the official language is Turkish. The population of Barca or Benghazi is 320,000 to 520,000, mostly Berber, though Jews are numerous. Barcelo'na, the most important manu- facturing city in Spain, and next to Madrid in size, is situated on the Mediterranean Sea. It is divided into the old and new towns by a beautiful promenade called La Ramble. It has a Gothic cathedral 600 years old, a university, public libraries, museums and theaters. It is the most important port of Spain except Cadiz. Silk, lace, woolen and cotton goods, shoes and firearms are its principal manufactures. It is a very old place, supposed to have been founded 400 years before the Romans, and rebuilt by Hamilcar Barca, the father of the great Carthaginian general, Hannibal. In 878 it became an independent city under the counts of Barcelona, but was joined to the kingdom of Aragon in the i2th century. During the middle ages it was a flourishing seaport. Ferdinand and Isabella received Columbus here, in 1493, after his discovery of America. In 1714 it was captured by the Duke of Berwick for the French after a long siege, and the town pillaged. Napoleon got possession of it in 1804, and it was held by the French till the Treaty of Paris in 1814. Barcelona is also a province of Spain, area, 2,968 square miles, population, 1,133,- 883. The city's population is 560,000. Barebone's Parliament, a name applied in derision to an assembly of Roundheads summoned by Cromwell in 1653 to govern the then Puritan England after turning out the "Rump" of the Long Parliament. It was composed of about 140 members, and received from the Cavaliers its nickname of Barebone's Parliament from the name of an officious member, Praise-God Bare- bone, a leather merchant of Fleet Street, London. The assembly, though composed in part of many responsible and capable as well as godly men, proved rather unman- ageable, and as it began to originate laws of a more or less radical order, which the Lord-Protector deemed beyond the legiti- mate province of the assembly, Cromwell ordered its dissolution after many of the body had personally surrendered their vested power into his hands. The Parliament lasted from July 4th to Dec. i2th, 1653, and in spite of its wittily applied name it enacted several wise measures of reform. Before resigning as a body, it named a new Council of State, and this council proceeded to draft a constitution, histor- ically known as the Instrument of Govern- ment. Under this instrument Cromwell was made Lord-Protector of the common- wealth, and was given a council of twenty- one members, by whose advice he was to be guided in foreign and domestic affairs. Bar Harbor, a famous summer resort, is situated on Mt. Desert Island off the coast of Maine. This island, the largest on the New England coast, was discovered by Champlain who named it L'Isle des Monts Deserts or the isle of the desert mountains. In its area of 100 square miles there are fifteen mountains from 700 to 1,500 feet above the sea level, and as many beautiful lakes from a few acres to several square miles in area. Bar Harbor has a permanent population of 5,000. In the summer this is increased to 12,000 or more. It contains several large hotels but is becoming more each year a city of magnificent summer residences which are popularly known as cottages. These are occupied during the summer by members of some of the wealthiest and best known families of the large cities. In addi- tion to its natural attractions of mountain, lake and shore, Bar Harbor has many pub- lic improvements including fine roads, bridle paths, excellent drainage, an abundance of BARK 172 BARNACLE pure water, electric lights and unusual railroad, postal, telephone and telegraph facilities. Bark, the portion of the stems of trees and shrubs outside the wood. Sometimes ex- tended by analogy to the cortex of herbs, especially of such as the flax, hemp, etc., which contains textile fibers. In spring, this part is usually easily separable from the wood, because young cells which are easily ruptured are forming at the juncture of the two. (See CAMBIUM.) In Europe (and con- sequently in English translations of German books) , the term bark is applied only to the dead and dry outer portions of what Amer- icans call bark. The bark of a young twig shows three parts : the outer, corky layer, composed mainly of a dead tissue, cork; the green layer of living cells capable of food- making; the inner (often fibrous) layer con- cerned in the transport of foods. (See BAST.) As the bark grows older it under- goes various modifications: (i) The outer part either becomes thick and ridgy, or is sloughed off in flakes or strings. (2) The green color disappears from the middle layer or this layer also may be sloughed off ; leav- i n (3) the inner portion alone, which, being added to yearly, consists of partly dead and partly living tissues in various proportions in different plants. Many barks are of great economic importance on account of the tan- nins, alkaloids, aromatic substances, etc., which they contain. The bark of several oaks and of hemlock is used in tanning leather; Peruvian bark yields quinine and other alkaloids, used as medicine; stick cinnamon is the rolled inner bark used as a spice. Barker, Lewellyn Franklin, a native of Ontario, graduated in medicine in Toronto University in 1890. Up to 1893 assistant resident physician at Johns Hopkins Hospital, associate professor of anatomy and later of pathology in Johns Hopkins University. A member of the Johns Hopkins commission for the study of tropical diseases in the Philip- pine Islands in 1899. ^ n 1900 made pro- fessor of anatomy and director of the ana- tomical laboratories of the University of Chicago. In 1901 he was a member of the United States government commission for the investigation of the plague in San Francisco. A double gold medalist of Toronto University. Has spent much time studying at Leipsic, Berlin, Munich and London. In 1905 appointed a professor of Johns Hopkins Hospital and School of Medicine as successor to Dr. Wm. Osier. Bar 'ley, a well-known grain produced by a species of the genus Hordeum, which be- longs to the grass family. The ordinary barley is the H . sativum. In its cultivated form it is unknown in nature, but is com- monly supposed to have originated from a wild speeies which is now growing from Asia Mmor and the Caucasus to Persia and Ba- luchistan. All the cultivated forms are probably derived from this one stock. Barmecide's Feast, an imaginary ban- quet, from the story, in Arabian Nights, of one of the Barmecide family who put a number of empty dishes before a starving beggar, giving them fine names as he did so. The beggar humored the joke, pretending to eat heartily, and at last feigned to be so intoxicated with the imaginary wine that he boxed the ears of his host. The host was so pleased with the beggar's patient humor, that he set a real dinner before him at once. Bar'men, a busy city in Rhenish Prussia. Nowhere else in Germany are so many fac- tories found in one place. It has the largest factories for ribbon-weaving on the conti- nent, and also manufactures lace, thread, buttons, braid, cotton cloth, silk goods, steel wares and plated goods. It is made up of a number of villages, which form almost one continuous street six miles long. Population, 169,201. Bar'nabas, one of the early Jewish Chris- tians, best known for his connection with the Apostle Paul, was born at Cyprus. His name was Joses, Barnabas being a surname which means son of exhortation. He was sent to Antioch to learn the truth of the story which had reached Jerusalem of the conversion of Paul, and was with him there a year, helping him in his work. They were sent together on a mission to Cyprus and Asia Minor. The people of Lystra, on this mission, called him Jupiter, and Paul, Mer- cury, from which it is thought Barnabas must have been large and fine looking. Nothing further is known certainly about him, though some- scholars think he wrote Hebrews. The Gospel of St. Barnabas in Arabic is not considered his writing. The Roman Catholic church observes the nth of June as St. Barnabas's day. Barnacle. Among the most common objects at the sea-coast are the acorn-shells, attached to rocks, and other forms of barna- cles attached to the piles supporting wharves and other submerged objects. These ani- mals possess a shell, but are not related to the clams, oysters and sea-snails; on the other hand, they are closely related to the crabs, shrimps and lobsters. In one .of the common forms, the shelled animal is perched on a flexible stalk (see Fig.). This is the common ship-barnacle or Lepas, frequently attached to the bottom of ships. Feathery-like limbs protrude from the shell, which, by moving, produce cur- rents in the -water that bring BARNACLE f oo d to the animal. (Lefas These animals have a strange anattfera) life-history. The females lay eggs, but the young, when hatched, do not look like the parents; BARNARD COLLEGE BARNUM they are free swimming anet higher de- veloped, and show their resemblance to the other Crustacea (crabs, lobsters, etc.) . After swimming freely for a time, these young forms settle down and grow firmly attached to some object in the water. Then they undergo changes that carry them down- ward instead of upward in the scale of life ; therefore, the adults are not on as high a plane as the young. The forms growing to the rocks have no stalks. A myth of the middle ages led to the strange belief that a kind of goose-barnacle gave birth to goslins. Barnard College is the institution which cares for the undergraduate women students of Columbia University. It is named in honor of President Frederick A. P. Barnard, former president of Columbia University, to whose recommendations and efforts this college owes its existence. In 1883 the trustees of Columbia College authorized the bestowal of "suitable aca- demic honors and distinctions" upon women who had pursued successfully courses of study outside of Columbia College, but under the observation of its authorities. Women students began at once to take advantage of this privilege, and from that beginning the present college has grown. The college buildings are beautifully situated at i2Oth Street, Morningside Heights, New York City. It takes very high rank among institutions of advanced learning for women. Barnard, Frederick A. P., American educator and scientist, was born in Massa- chusetts in 1809, and died in New York city, April 27, 1889. Educated at Yale, he occu- pied for a time the mathematical chair at the University of Alabama, and later on was successively president of the University of Mississippi and of Columbia College, New York. In the latter post he did admirable work, and at his death his estate was devised to it. In his honor Barnard College for women was founded as an annex to Colum- bia. In 1867 President Barnard repre- sented the United States as commissioner to the Paris exposition ; he was also president of the American Association for the Advance- ment of Science. Besides a number of works of an educational character, President Bar- nard published treatiseson The Metric System, on the Undulatory Theory of Light and a History of the United States Coast Survey. Barneveldt (bdr'ne-velt), John Van Olden, grand pensionary of Holland, who held an important place in the long struggle against Spain, was born in the province of Utrecht in 1547. In 1585 he was sent on an embassy to Queen Elizabeth of England, and on his return was made advocate-general of Holland. He became the head of the republican party, and opposed the warlike tendencies of Prince Maurice, who then was stallholder. In 1609 he secured peace with Spain. He was in favor of the more tolerant of the two parties in Holland, called the Remonstrants or Arminians, while Maurice sided with the other, called the Gomarites. Barneveldt tried to bring about an agree- ment between them in religious matters, but his enemies claimed that he was acting secretly in the interest of Spain. In 1618 he was illegally tried and convicted of trea- son, _ though his country really owed its political existence to him. He was beheaded at The Hague in May, 1619. His story is well known to American readers through the Life and Death of John of Barneveldt, written by the historian Motley. Bar'ney, Joshua, an American commo- dore, was born at Baltimore, Maryland, in 1759. After distinguishing himself in sev- eral engagements and being imprisoned in England, he was appointed captain of the famous ship Hyder Ali. In 1782 he cap- tured the British ship General Monk, for which he received the rank of commodore. After the Revolution he was for a time in the French navy. In the War of 1812 he commanded a fleet of gunboats, and also dis- tinguished himself at the defense of Washing- ton. He died at Pittsburg, Pa., in 1818. Barnum, Phineas Taylor, American showman, was born at Bethel, Connecticut, July 5, 1810. He began business at thirteen years of age as clerk in a country store, then was in the lottery business, and after- ward edited a newspaper in Danbury, Conn., where he was imprisoned sixty days for libel. In 1834 he bought in New York a colored woman, said to have been the nurse of Washington, and exhibited her as Wash- ington's nurse. In 1841 he got hold of Scudder's museum in New York, which soon became famous. Here he exhibited the famous dwarf, General Tom Thumb, whom he afterward showed through Europe. In 1849 he induced Jenny Lind to sing in New York and other cities at $1,000 a night for 150 nights. The tour was successful, Barnum receiving $700,000 from the sale of tickets at auction. In 1871 he organized a museum, menagerie and circus, which took 500 men and horses to carry it through the country. This he enlarged in later years un- til it required a hundred rail- road cars to transport it. In 1879 he said that 90,000,000 people had vis- ited his show, and the num- ber enormously increased i n later years. Y Mr. Barnum was well known as a benevolent *>HINEAS T. BARNUM 'BARODA 174 BARR man and also as author of several books an Autobiography (1854), The Humbugs of the World ( 1 865) , Struggles and Triumphs (1869) and Money-getting (1883). He died at Bridgeport, Connecticut, April 7, 1891. Baro'da, a city of Hindostan. It is 250 miles north of Bombay, with which it is con- nected by railroad. It is the residence of the Gaikwar, a Mahratta prince. It has several Hindu palaces and temples and the court of the state to which it belongs. Its trade is considerable. Baroda is also one of the feuda- tory or native states in British India (area 8,099 square miles, with a population of . 972,600). Population of the city, 103,790. Barom'eter, an instrument for measuring the pressure exerted by the earth's at- mosphere. It consists simply of a U-tube, one end of which opens into the earth's atmosphere, the other into a vacuum, the intermediate portion of the tube being filled with a liquid, usually mercury. To clearly understand the barometer, we must recall that at the beginning of the 1 7th century the two following facts were sup- posed to be entirely independent, namely, (i) the fact that " nature abhors a vacuum" and (2) the fact that the air has weight. It was Torricelli (born in 1608, died in 1647), who first showed that "nature abhors a vacuum because the air has weight." (l) MERCURIAL BAROMETER. He illustrated this by taking a tube, more than 76 centimeters long and closed at one end, which he filled with mercury, as indi- cated in the figure. Placing his finger over the open end, he inverted the tube in a dish of mercury. The column of mercury fell a short distance, but remained standing in the tube approximately at the height of 76 cen- timeters above the surface of the mercury in the dish. Torricelli thus showed that the weight of the earth's atmosphere is approximately that of an ocean of mercury cover- ing the entire earth to the depth of 76 c e n t i meters. But if this be the fact of the case, Torricelli argued that the height o f t h e mercury in the inverted tube should dimin- ish as one as- cends in the earth's atmos- phere. This test was shortly made by Pas- TORRICELLIS EXPERIMENT ca j w ^ c&r _ ried the inverted tube to the top of a moun- tain in France, and found that the mercury fell some seven or eight centimeters in the ascent. Such a dish of mercury and in- verted tube is called a mercurial barometer. The vertical distance between the two surfaces of mercury, one in the tube, the other in the dish, is called the height of the barometer or, sometimes, the reading of the barometer. Ordinary barometers are fur- nished with graduated scales by which this height can be easily read. In general the height of a barometer de- pends upon two factors: (i) the height of the atmosphere and (2) the average density of the atmosphere. Anything which changes either one of these will change the reading of the barometer. Water vapor, when under the same pres- sure as air, has a density which is less than that of air. If then there be much water vapor in any portion of the earth's atmos- phere, its density will be diminished and the mercury column which it supports will become shorter. The barometer is said to fall. But the same thing happens when the height of the atmosphere is changed or when its pressure is altered by cyclonic motion. The barometer is not, therefore, an instrument for telling whether or not it is about to rain; but for measuring the pres- sure of the earth's atmosphere. The read- ings of the barometer are, however, exceed- ingly useful, os one factor, in predicting the weather. (2) ANEROID BAROMETER. Since the mercurial barometer is not easily portable, geologists and travelers generally use a smaller form based upon the same prin- ciple as the ordinary steam gauge. It con- sists essentially of a hollow cylinder made of thin sheet- metal and bent into a circular form. After the air has been partially removed from this cylinder it is hermetically sealed. As the pressure of the air outside diminishes, the metallic vessel tends to un- coil from the circular into a straight form. By a system of levers this motion is com- municated to an index moving over a dial from which the barometric height can be read. Such an instrument is called an aneroid barometer. This is not nearly so reliable as the mercurial barometer; but when it is used with care and frequently compared with a mercurial barometer, it is exceedingly convenient for measuring alti- tudes. Hough, Hipp and others have in- vented excellent self-registering barometers. Boudin of Paris makes a delicate ther- mometer which by changes of boiling-point of water will indicate differences of altitude as small as 30 feet. Such an instrument is equivalent to a barometer and is called a hypsometer. Barr, Amelia Edith (Huddleston), An- glo-American novelist, was born at Ulver- ston, Lancashire, England, March 29, 1831, and was educated at the High School at BARRE 175 BARROWS AMELIA E. BARR Glasgow, Scotland. In 1850 she married Wm. Barr, and four years later they came to this country and settled in Texas, where the husband and three children died of yellow fever at Galveston in 1867. With her three remaining children (daugh- ters) , Mrs. Barr re- moved t o New York, where she began to write for the religious pe- riodicals and t o publish a series , of semi-historical Stales and novels. \The more popular of the latter are A Bow of Orange Ribbon, Jan Ved~ der's Wife, A Daughter of Fife, Friend Olivia, Beads of Tasmer, Sister to Esau, A Rose of a Hundred Leaves, The Lone House and Pris- oners of Conscience. She has also written Romance and Reality, The Hallam Succession, Young People of Shakespeare's Time, A Border Shepherdess, Bernicia, Feet of Clay, Remember the Alamo and a number of other stories. Barre, Vt., a city in Washington County, six miles from Montpelier. It is one of the most important granite centers in this country. The city has a school for young men and women, the Spaulding High School, Goddard Seminary, a public library, opera house, banks, newspapers, etc. It has the service of three railroads. Population, 10,734. Ban-as (bd'rd r ), Paul Francois Jean Nicolas, Comte de, a prominent man in the French Revolution, was born in June, 1755. ^ e s 61 "^ 60 ^ i* 1 hi? youth as a soldier in India against the English, leaving the army with the rank of captain. His dissipation soon made away with his fortune, and he joined the Revolution in the hope of regain- ing it. He became a member of the states- general in 1789, of the national convention in 1792, and was an active opponent of the royalist party, voting for the execution of the king. He conducted the siege of Tou- lon, where he first met Napoleon, and put down with great cruelty a revolt in the south of France. He was active in overthrowing Robespierre in 1794. In 1795 he was appointed general-in-chief, and by calling Napoleon Bonaparte to his aid put down the rebellion which was just starting. About the middle of 1794 he became dicta- tor, but his love of pleasure made him un- popular, and he had to yield to Napoleon in 1799. His later years, until his death in 1829, were spent in conspiracies against the government. Barrie, Sir James, greatest of modern Scotch novelists, made a baronet in 1913, was born at Kirriemuir ("Thrums"), a little Forfar weaving town, May 9, 1860, and educated at Dumfries Academy and at the University of Edinburgh. He began his literary career as a leader-writer on a newspaper in Nottingham, England, then became a journalist in London, contributing under the pen name of Gavin Ogilvy to the British Weekly, the Speaker and the National Observer. His first book, Better Dead, a satire on London life, appeared in 1877, and was followed by two more important and far more successful works, A ul d Licht Idylls and When a Man's Single. These were followed by A Window in Thrums (1889), which won fame for the novelist; after which ap- p e a r e d An JAMES M. BARRIE Edinburgh Eleven, My Lady Nicotine, Sentimental Tommy and a memoir of his mother, Margaret Ogilvy. His first long story now appeared, The Little Minister, in which he shows himself the literary artist. In 1892 appeared a comedy, Walker London, which enjoyed a phenomenal run. Tender sympathy and shrewd humor, mark his style. His later works, beside a dramatic version of The Little Minister, also very successful on the stage, are The Professor's Love Story, Tommy and Grizel, Peter Pan and Alice-sit-by-the-fire. Barrie, county seat of Simcoe County, Ont., is a pleasant city of 6,575 inhabitants, situated 839 feet above the sea on the north side of Kempenfeldt Bay (Lake Simcoe). The Grand Trunk Railway runs through it, and here starts the Lake Simcoe steamer, traversing a beautiful body of water 30 miles long and 26 wide. In the vicinity was fought that war in which the Iroquois In- dians completely destroyed the power of the Hurons. The summer temperature makes the spot a favorite resort. Barrows, John Henry, president of Oberlin College, Ohio, and a minister of the Presby- terian church, was born at Medina, Mich., in 1847, and in 1867 graduated from Olivet College, Mich. He subsequently studied at Yale, Union and Andover theological semi- naries, and from 1881 to 1895 was pastor of the First Presbyterian Church, Chicago. During the Columbian exposition (1893) held in that city, he was chairman of the general committee on religious congresses. In 1896 he resigned his pastoral charge in Chicago and proceeded to India, to lecture on religious subjects under the auspices of BARRY 176 BARTOLINI the Haskell endowment of the University of Chicago. On his return he became lecturer at the latter on Comparative Reli- gions^ and was also lecturer at Union Theo- logical Seminary, New York. He is the author of a History of the Parliament of Religions; a Life of Henry Ward Beecher; Christianity, the World Religion; and The World Pilgrimage. Died June 3, 1902. His daughter has since published a biography of him. Barry, John (1745-1803), an officer of the United States Navy, the first senior officer of the service to have the rank of commodore conferred upon him after the reorganization of the American Navy in 1794. Born in Wexford County, Ireland, he early began to follow the sea as a pro- fession, first as master of a trading ship and subsequently, after coming to America and settling in Philadelphia, as an officer of the United States Navy. In the Revo- lutionary War he was given command of the Lexington, in which he made some cap- tures of English vessels; while after being transferred to the command of the frigate Effingham he captured an English war schooner in the Delaware River, and in the winter of 1776-77 he assisted at the battle of Trenton. In 1787 he commanded the Raleigh, which was pursued by the British and driven ashore; he later on commanded the Alliance and in a sharp engagement he captured the Atlanta and the Trepassy and gained well-earned promotion. Barry, William Farquhar, an American major-general and artillery officer, was born in New York city in 1818, and died near Bal- timore, Md., July 18, 1879. After service in the Indian War in Florida, in the Mexican War and on the western frontier, he became chief of artillery of the Army of the Poto- mac in the Civil War. In 1864 he gained promotion for gallantry at the fall of Atlanta and also for distinguished service in the cam- paign against General J. E. Johnston. Later on he was given command of the artillery in the armies under General Sherman, and had charge of the defenses of Washington. He for a time also was in command of the artil- lery school at Fortress Monroe. He was one of the authors of the Engineer and Artillery Operations of the Army of the Potomac and of A System of Tactics for the Field Artillery of the United States. Barth (barf), Heinrich, a distinguished German traveler, was born at Hamburg in 1821. After visiting Italy and Sicily, he crossed the Mediterranean in 1845 * Tan- gier in Africa, and made short trips into the interior, to Tunis, Tripoli and Benghazi and then dwn the Nile. Soon after he extended his travels into Egypt, Palestine, Asia Minor and Greece. He published an account of his travels, called Wanderings Along the Shores of the Mediterranean. In 1849, with Dr. Overweg, he proceeded on an exploring journey through Central Africa. He was gone nearly six years, traveling about ia,ooo miles. He published his Travels and Dis- coveries in Central Africa and a work on the Vocabularies of Central Africa. After other journeys in Greece, Turkey and Asia Minor, he died at Berlin, Nov. 25, 1865. Bartholdi (bar'tol'de'), Frederic Au= guste, a sculptor, was born in Alsace in 1834. He has made a number of famous statues. Among them are the Lafayette statue in New York; V ercingetorix , the leader of the Gauls, which is now in the galleries of the French government; The Lion of Belfort and Grief. It occurred to him in 1874 that it would be a fitting thing for France to present to America a statue in honor of American independence. The result of this idea is the gigantic bronze statue of Liberty Enlightening the World, which was finished in 1884, and, after two years spent in getting it into position, was unveiled on Bedloe's Island in New York harbor. Bartholdi received the cross of the Legion of Honor in 1887. He died Oct. 4, 1904. Bartholomew Fair, held at West Smith- field, London from 1133 to 1855, its charter having been granted by Henry I to a monk. It was held yearly at the Festival of Bartho- lomew. In the beginning it was one of the great yearly markets of the nation, more cloth being sold there than anywhere else in the kingdom. All sorts of amusements were used to attract people to it; all kinds of shows, acrobats, stilt-walkers, mummers and . merry-andrews were to be found there in great numbers. After 1685 the famous fair began to lose its trade, and came to an end in 1855. Bartholomew, Massacre of St., the name given to the massacre of the Huguenots in Paris on the night of St. Bartholomew's Day, Aug. 24, 1572. During the youth of Charles IX his mother, Catherine de Medici, acted as regent and showed an extraordinary cruelty. Pretending friendship to the Hu- guenots, she married her daughter Margaret to Prince Henry of Navarre, afterward Henry IV, the head of the Huguenot party, and appointed Admiral Coligni, another leader of the Huguenots, to a high office in the kingdom. Having induced all the chief members of the party to come to Paris, she secretly appointed St. Bartholomew's Day as the day for their massacre. Admiral Coligni was murdered in the palace, and the bell of the palace was rung as a signal to the citizens to begin the slaughter. Notices were sent through all the French provinces to kill all the Huguenots, and for days the bloody work went on; 30,000 people are said to have been killed. The massacre, however, did not accomplish its object, for the king was obliged soon to grant liberty of conscience to his Huguenot subjects. Bartolini (bdr'to-le'ne), Lorenzo, a cele- brated Italian sculptor, was born in Tuscany BARTON 177 BASEBALL in 1777, and came to Paris while still a young man. His chief patron was Napoleon, who sent him, in 1808, to Carrara to establish a school of sculpture. After the battle of Waterloo, he went to Florence, where he died in 1850. Besides a great number of busts, he produced several groups, of which Charity and Hercules and Lycus are the most celebrated. Barton, Clara, philanthropist, and presi- dent of the American National Red Cross society (18811904) was born at Oxford, Mass., in 1830. In 1854 she entered the United States Patent office at Washington as a clerk ; but at the outbreak of the Civil War she devoted herself to the humane care of the soldiers on the battlefield, and, in 1864, had charge of the army hospitals on the James River. Congress voted her $15,000 for her relief work on the field, for organizing the search for wounded and missing men, and, in the case of the dead in Andersonville cemetery, Georgia, for mark- ing the graves of the Union soldiers. During the Franco- German War, she assisted the Duchess of Ba- den in estab- lishing and or- ganizing hospi- tal relief, a hu- mane work which won her the honor of decoration with the iron cross of Germany. In 1 88 1 she be- came president of the Ameri- CLARA BARTON can Red Cross society, and represented the United States at the Geneva conference. In- connection with Red Cross operations, she did relief work during the famine in Russia in 1892; during the Armenian massacres, in 1896; and during the Spanish- American War. in Cuba, where she also did personal work in the field. Miss Barton was author of a History of the Red Cross, which was issued by the United States government; and of The Red Cross in Peace and War. She died in Washington, April 12, 1912. Barton, Rt. Hon. Edmund, P. C., first premier of the commonwealth of Australia, was born at Sydney, New South Wales, Jan. 1 8, 1849, an d educated at the University of Sydney. In 1879 he was elected to the leg- islative assembly of the colony, becoming attorney-general and member of the legisla- tive council and taking a foremost part in the movement for Australian federation. In the new federal ministry he was made prime minister, with the portfolio of external affairs. Bar'ye, the unit of pressure used by scien- tific men. The numerical value of the barye is that of a pressure which exerts a force of one dyne upon an area of one square centi- meter. This unit was adopted by the Inter- national Congress of Physicists at Paris in 1900. The mega-barye is a pressure of one million dynes per square centimeter. This is very exactly equivalent to the pressure exerted by a column of mercury 75 cm. high under standard conditions of gravity and temperature. Barye' (fyz're'), Antoine Louis, a French sculptor, distinguished mainly for his bronze statues of animals and animal groups, was born at Paris in 1795. He was at first an engraver and metal-worker. His famous bronze of a lion struggling with a snake, secured for him the cross of the Legion of Honor. He died at Paris in 1875. Basalt, a dark, greyish-black stone of volcanic origin, a variety of up-rock, and often occurring in the form of columns, as in the columnar structures seen at Fingal's Cave, Staffa, in the Scottish Hebrides, and at the Giant's Causeway, Antrim, Ireland. From a number of still active volcanoes, such as those in Iceland and in the Hawaiian Islands, and in the case also of Etna and Vesuvius, basalt is ejected in lava-flows in a molten state, the chief constituent of the outflow being augite (pyroxene), horn-, blende and felspar, the latter consisting chiefly of silicate of alumina, generally hard and brittle and sometimes glassy. Bascom, John, American educator, and for many years president of the University of Wisconsin, was born at Genoa, N. Y., May i, 1827. Graduating in 1849 from Williams College and six years later from Andover Theological Seminary, he was for twenty years professor of rhetoric at Williams, and for thirteen years president of Wisconsin University. He is now professor of political science at his alma mater, and is the author of the following works: Political Economy (1859); ALsthetics (1862); Philosophy of Rhetoric (1865); Principles of _ Psychology (1869); Philosophy of Religion (1876); Comparative Psychology (1878); an Histor- ical Interpretation of Philosophy (1893), together with works on ethics, sociology, etc. His later works embrace The Growth of Nationality in the United States (1899) and God and His Goodness (1901). Baseball, the national game of America, is a development from the old English game of rounders. The first club in America was the Knickerbocker, founded in New York in 1845. The game gradually grew in favor until in 1871 it had become so popular that a professional organization was formed consisting of clubs in many of the large cities. The success of this first organization has resulted in the formation of leagues including clubs in almost every city of the United States. Some of the larger cities have clubs 1h more than one league. Stock companies are organized to maintain these BASEL BASIDIOMYCETES clubs and large amounts of capital in vested. Professional players are paid salaries, which in the cases of those who are more expert are very large. During the season, which begins in April or May and runs about six months, some thousands of men are em- ployed in playing professional base ball. Hundreds of amateur clubs play every year also. Every school or college has its team, and many professional ball players receive their training while playing in $hese clubs. Every professional league plays a champion- ship series in which each club meets the other clubs of the league an equal number of times. Great interest is shown in the result of these games. The scores are telegraphed over the country by innings and the progress of the games in other cities announced. A piece of ground in the form of a diamond ninety feet square is marked out on a level field of three or four acres. Bases are placed at each corner of the diamond, called home, first, second and third base. Each team has nine players, and in turn are fielders and batters. The fielders are: the pitcher, near the center of the diamond ; the catcher, be- hind home base; the three basemen and shortstop, sometimes called infielders, the first and second basemen being between those bases and the shortstop and third baseman between second and third base; outfielders at right, center and left fields. When the fielders take their places, the pitcher delivers the ball, a fair ball being one that passes over the home plate, not lower than the striker's knee nor higher than his shoulder. Such a ball counts a strike, whether struck at or not, and after three strikes the batsman must run or be put out; but four unfair balls entitle the striker to a base. The batsman tries to knock the ball out of the reach of the fielders, so as to reach at least first base before the ball reaches the baseman, and as many more bases as he can make. Each base is a resting place, but, if he is touched by the ball between bases, he is put out. If he succeeds in reaching home plate, he scores one run. A batsman can only run on a fair hit, which is a ball batted within the lines running from home to first base, and home to third, and beyond; all other hits, even a mere tick are fouls, and a foul fly, if it is caught, puts out the batter. The batters bat in turn until three are put out, when the teams change places. When both sides have been batters once, an inning is ended, and nine innings make a game. The side scoring the most runs wins. The ball is thrown by the pitcher with great swiftness, and this high speed enables him to curve the ball in any direction, and so fool the batter into thinking an unfair ball is good or a fair ball bad. This is brought about by the pitcher's giving the ball a twist, the resisting air forcing the twisting sphere to curve from a straight line. The ball curves up or down, out or in, according to the kind of twist given by the pitcher. The game is easily understood; yet to be a good player requires not only agility, endu- rance and strength, together with good throw- ing and running powers, plenty of courage, pluck and nerve, but quick thinking, con- trol of temper and presence of mind to act promptly at critical points of the game. Basel (bd'zel), Bale (bal) or Basle, the capital of the canton of the same name, is, with the exception of Zurich, the largest city in Switzerland. It lies on both sides of the river Rhine, 43 miles north of Berne. The river is crossed by a bridge 80 feet long, which was first built in 1 2 2 9 . The cathedral, begun in 1010 and finished some centuries later, is still standing. The city first appears in the 4th century as a Roman military post. In the middle of the roth century it became a free city of the empire. In 1356 nearly all its buildings were overthrown by an earth- quake, and in the next century its popula- tion was greatly decreased by the plague. It joined the Swiss confederacy in 1501, and was one of the chief seats of the Reformation. There was a long contest between the city of Basel and the rest of the canton. The city claimed all the offices and rights, shutting out the country people. Peace was brought about in 1833 by separating the city entirely from the country district. The city was much more important in the middle ages than now, though it is to-day the wealthiest city in Switzerland. It has a university founded in 1460, with a teaching staff of 129 professors and 806 students. Its population is 131,914. Basidiomycetes (bd-std't-o-mi-se'tez) . A great group of low plants (Fung-i), includ- ing such well-known forms as mushrooms, toadstools and puffballs. For the most part they are not destructive par- asites, but are harmless and often useful saprophytes. The popular distinction be- tween toad- stools and mushrooms has no botanical foundation. The common cultivated mushroom, Agaricus cam- pestris, may be taken as a type. The mycelium o c - curs in decay- STAGES IN THE DEVELOP- ing leaves, MBNT OF A MUSHROOM wood, etc. in BASIDIOSPORE 179 BASTIAT* the form of fine white threads, spoken of as the spawn. Upon this, little knob-like protuberances arise and grow larger and larger until they have developed into the so-called mushrooms. The mushroom has a stalk-like portion, the stipe, and an ex- panded top called the pileus. From the under surface of the pileus hang the radiating plates or gills. The surface of the gills is composed of a layer of peculiar cells whose broad ends are directed outward. Each one of these cells is called a basidium, and the whole layer of basidia is spoken of as the hymenium. From their blunt free ends the basidia put out minute branches, each one of which bears a spore. These spores are known as basidiospores and are formed in great abundance. In addi- tion to the mushrooms and toadstools with gills, there are others with numerous spores Hned with the hymenial layer, very common among which are the bracket fungi. The puffballs differ from the other forms in maturing their spores before exposing them. When mature, the spores are liberated by the drying and bursting of the puffball. The name of the group comes from the characteristic basidia which form the hy- menial layer. See FUNGI. Basidiospore (ba-s'id'i-d-spor) (in plants). The asexual spore of the Basidiomycetes. Basidium (ba-std'i-um) (in plants). A peculiar cell of the Basidiomycetes which produces branches upon which the asexual spores are borne. See BASIDIOMYCETES. Basket-Ball, a modern game, dating from the year 1892 and modelled somewhat after football, though the ball (a leather- covered rubber bladder, from 30 to 32 inches in circumference and weighing from 1 8 to 20 ounces), instead of being kicked, is thrown or batted with one or both hands (though it may not be run with) into the basket or hammock-net receptacle, sus- pended on each short side of the enclosed court or oblong-shaped field, which usually covers an area free from obstruction, of from 3,000 to 3,500 square feet. The players, five in number on each side, are assigned as center and right and left guards, and right and left forwards, the guards being opposed to forwards and the centers opposed to centers. The time-contest con- sists of two halves of twenty minutes each, with a rest of ten minutes between. The officials, four in number, are scorer, time- keeper, referee and umpire. The playing area is usually 50 by 70 feet. The game, which was first played by members of the Young Men's Christian Association, has since become very popular, not only in athletic clubs, but in schools and colleges of both sexes. For directions as to playing and for rules, etc., see Spalding's Basket Ball Guide (an annual). Basketry, the art of making baskets, is an ancient and simple yet useful and beauti- ful form of industry. It was known to the ancient Britons and to the Chinese; and the basket work of many of the Indian tribes of America shows a nigh degree of skill. Ozier or willow twigs are most suited to basketry; and are cultivated for the pur- pose chiefly in France, England, Germany and the Netherlands. Ash and oak may also be employed; and bamboo is used in China and Japan. The Japanese very cleverly enclose porcelain in basket work. Basketry is one of the most useful of the arts for the purposes of the modern school. In the schools for Indians it already receives great attention; and it may be employed in the grades in such a way as to connect the actions of the children with an interest in American history and industry and in Indian and primitive life. It is fortunate for this purpose that few tools are required for the making of baskets, which is done for the most part by hand. Basques (basks) , a curious race living on both sides of the Pyrenees. Their home forms what are called the Basque provinces of Spain, with a very small district in France. They are a farming people, though very much behind the times, using the same clumsy two-pronged wooden fork for a plow which was used by the Romans. The Basque language is unlike any other; and scholars cannot agree as to where those speaking the tongue come from or to what race they belong. Their bravery in the reconquest of Spain from the Moors won for them many political privileges, which they have kept up until very recent times. Their total number in Spain and France is about 610,000. Bas=Relief. See SCULPTURE. Bass, common fishes related to the perch, but now placed in a different family group, which also includes the sun-fishes or pump- kin-seeds. There are several kinds of bass. The black bass is entirely an American fish, and is among the finest game fishes of the world. Like other members of the group they prepare nests and take great care of the eggs and young. Other common kinds, all valuable as food, are the rock bass, white bass, striped bass, brass bass, etc. The last three are grouped by naturalists into a separate family. Formerly, they were all united with the perches into the perch family. Bast (in plants) , a name applied originally to the inner fibrous layers of the bark Strictly, the term is applied to the phloem elements, such as are added year after year by the cambium of trees. This cambium is said to add new wood on the inner side and new bark on the outside. This so-called bark, which is thus added, is the bast, which, therefore, consists of fibrous elements which lie just outside of the newest wood and within the layers of cork. Bastiat (bds'tya'), Frederick, a well- known French political economist., was born BASTILLE 1 80 BAT at Bayonne in 1801. In 1825 he began the study of political economy and wrote largely on the subject. He was a strong be- liever in the doctrine of free trade, and pub- lished several articles against the system of protection to home manufacturers. After the revolution of 1848 in France he was elected a member of the French parliament. He died at Rome in 1850. Bastille (bas-tel'), a famous fortress of Paris, built between 1370 and 1383 as a de- fense against the English. It was always used as a state prison. It would hold 70 or 80 prisoners, and during the reigns of Louis XIV and XV it was often full. The prison- ers were rarely criminals, but men who had in some way offended the king and his court- iers. Authors, priests and scholars, besides political offenders, were often shut up there, and many remained so long that no one knew who they were or for what they had been imprisoned. At the beginning of the French Revolution it was attacked by the mob as a stronghold of tyranny, and after a fight the governor opened the gates and the people rushed in. The next day the prison was destroyed amid the rejoicings of the people. The fall of the Bastille was felt to be important because it seemed to mart the downfall of the old French monarchy. Basutoland (bd-soo'to-land) , is a British crown-colony in South Africa, governed by a resident commissioner under the direction of the High Commissioner. It is an elevated fertile region northeast of Cape Colony, in- habited by Basutos who rear immense herds of cattle. The population in 1911 is estimated at 404, 1 90 natives and r ,400 whites, European settlement being forbidden. The schools, numbering 259 and chiefly con- ducted by missionaries, have nearly 15,760 pupils. The territory embraces 11,716 square miles, about the area of Belgium. The productions are wool, wheat, mealies and Kafir corn. Imports, consisting chiefly of blankets, plows, clothing, iron and tin- ware, amounted in 1910-11 to $958,500, while the exports of stock, grain and wool were $862,500. Trade is almost exclusively with Cape Colony and Orange River Colony. The governmental revenue is derived from a hut tax of one pound a year, licenses and customs rebates. For 1910-11 the receipts were $727,500; the expenditure $674,440. There is no public debt. Bat, a flying mammal. The fact that bats have wings caused the naturalists of the middle ages to group them with the birds. But they are far removed from birds; they are mammals and bring forth their young alive. They have remarkable power of flight, in which ease and grace are shown. Walking is made difficult by the fact that the knee bends backward. They are distributed all over |he world, save in the very coldest region's. As a rule they are small, but the GREAT HORSE-SHOE BAT largest, the flying foxes of the Malay region, have a spread of wings measuring 30 inches. These and other large ones found in the East Indies and tropical Africa are fruit- eaters, doing much damage to crops; but most bats are insectivorous. In this coun- try in the southeast we have one of the leaf- nosed or vampire bats, also one in California and Texas. Bats fly at night, and are reputed most active at dusk and just before dawn. Their voice is most unmu- sical, high- pitched and s q u eaking. During the day they hang head downward in sheltered places: caves, hollow trees, barns, church towers, deserted buildings, etc; they hiber- nate in the winter except in warm climates. The vampire bats are known to settle on the backs of horses and cattle and suck blood. They have been known to attack man, but it is a strange circumstance that the particular kind named vampire is not the culprit, but another related form Desmodus. There are about 300 varieties of bats, but only a few kinds in the United States. While not the spirit of evil that supersti- tion paints it, the bat is certainly a curious and mysterious little creature, and its looks are calculated to inspire dread. In American Animals, by Stone and Cram, the animal is thus described: "The wing, as a whole, corresponds exactly with the accepted idea of a devil's or goblin's wing; and the short head with its big shapeless ears, wide mouth and little blinking eyes is of just as impish and devilish an aspect." But its looks are misleading; the author goes on to say: " Bats are the most gentle and friendly of living things." Unfortunately, they have long had a bad name, and about these crea- tures of the night hang many a dark story and queer tradition. Children almost uni- versally desire the instant death of any bat that presents itself. They should, on the contrary, look upon him as a sort of " night policeman." C. F. Hodge in Nature Study and Life so regards him, and tells of the work he does by night : "So few of our birds are nocturnal, and so many of our worst insect pests the codling moth, tent- caterpillar moths, the white-marked tussock moth, owlet moths, parents of the cut-worms, June beetles, mosquitoes and a host of others have taken refuge in the darkness, that we need the bat as the night police of our gardens. They should be accorded the same protection as our most valuable in- sectivorous birds. . . A family of bats BATANGAS i8z BATH is a valuable acquisition to a farm or garden." The same author asserts that the bat may be easily tamed, gives interesting personal experiences with this creature of evil repute but warns one intending to tame it, to be careful at first of its sharp teeth and un- friendly attitude. Bats drowse about twenty hours out of the twenty-four. They make no nests, but look out well for the newly born, carrying the young ones with them on their backs when flying through the air. " Blind as a bat" is but another superstition, for there is sufficient evidence that the creature's little eyes serve it well. Flitting mouse is one of the names given it in England and in Germany. See Cram and Stone: Ameri- can Animals; pages in Nature Study and Life, by Hodge; Allen: Bats of North America, Bulletin No. 43, U. S. National Museum. Batangas (bd-tdn'gds), a seaport town and district in the southern part of Luzon Island of the Philippines group, lying south of Manila and north of the island of Mindoro, in the south of the China Sea. The town is situated in a bay of the same name and pos- sesses a fine harbor, into which the Calum- pang River empties. Population of the town, 33,131, and of the district or province over 210,000. In the vicinity are lofty moun- tains, with the volcanic Mount Taal rising from them; while near by is Lake Taal or Bingabon. The city, which is well built, has a number of notable buildings, including a royal palace and convent. The province exports sugar and cocoanut oil, and has manufactures of cotton fabrics, dye stuffs, silk, etc. There are several railways with their branches on the island, together with banks, consulates, industrial and trade schools and a teacher's training institute. There also are much fine timber and con- siderable mineral deposits. Bata'vla, the capital and chief seaport of the Dutch East Indian possessions, is situated on the coast of the island of Java. It is very unhealthy. It has been improved, however, by drainage, and most of the European in- habitants live on the higher ground of the healthy suburbs. The Dutch government has built a large harbor, a short distance away, connected with the city by railroad and canal. Batavia is one of the trading centers of the far east. The chief exports are coffee, rice, indigo, hides, oil, tea. Among the imports are cottons, woolens, silks, machinery and American ice. About half of its trade is with Holland. A tele- graphic cable connects it with the city of Singapore. Population, 116,000, of whom 9,000 are Europeans. The province of Batavia is low, but rises gently toward the south. The religion is chiefly Mohammedan. Population, nearly 1,000,000 of whom 8,000 are Europeans, 70,000 Chinese and the remainder natives. Batavia, a city in New York, is the seat of Genesee County on Tonawanda Creek, and on the New York Central, Erie and Lehigh Valley railroads, 34 miles northeast of Buffalo and 32 southwest of Rochester. Founded at the beginning of the last cen- tury, it was incorporated as a village in 1823. It is the seat of a state institution for the blind, the Holland Purchase Land Office, a public library, and a monument to Wm. Morgan, erected by anti-Masons, in memory of one of their number who, it was charged, was abducted and, it was thought, killed in 1826 for threatening to reveal the secret of Masonry. Batavia has a number of flourishing industries, including manu- facturers of agricultural implements, fire- arms, wooden ware, shoes, plows, blinds, sashes and carriage wheels. It also has a Roman Catholic convent. Population, 13,830. Bateman, Newton, American educator, and for many years president of Knox Col- lege, Galesburg, 111., was born at Fairfield, N. J., July 22, 1822, and died at Galesburg, Oct. 22, 1897. Graduating in 1843 a ^ Illi- nois College, Jacksonville, he traveled exten- sively in the United States, and for a time was principal of a school in St. Louis; pro- fessor of mathematics in St. Charles College Missouri; and then superintendent of city schools in Jacksonville, 111. Later on, he became principal of the Jacksonville Female Academy and, finally, state superintendent of public instruction. In 1875, Dr. Bateman became president of Knox College, at Gales- burg, 111. While state superintendent of Illinois schools, he published a number of valuable educational reports, a codification of the school laws of Illinois and a digest of the school laws and common school decisions of the state. Bates, Arlo (1850), American journal- ist and novelist, born at East Machias, Maine, and in 1876 graduated from Bowdoin College. From 1880 to 1803 he edited the Boston Sunday Courier, while later he be- came a professor of English in the Massa- chusetts Institute of Technology. He has published criticisms on the writing of Eng- lish and on the study of literature, in addi- tion to a number of works and several col- lections of poems. His best known works of fiction include Tlie Pagans (1884), A Wheel of Fire (1885), The Philistines (1888), The Puritans (1889) and Love in a Cloud (1900). His collected verse embraces Ber- ries of the Brier (1886), Sonnets in Shadow (1887), A Poet and His Self (1891), Told in the Gate (1802), The Torchbearers (1894) and Under the Beech Tree (1899). Bath, the chief city of Somersetshire, England, about twelve miles from Bristol, on the River Avon. Its houses are built entirely of white stone, and the city has probably the finest situation and appearance in England. It has long been a fashionable BATH 182 BATTLE CREEK health resort on account of its hot mineral springs. They were known to the Romans, who built large baths there in the first cen- tury of our era, the remains of which have been discovered. There are several fine old churches, extensive buildings and beauti- ful parks. Richard I granted the city its charter, which was extended by George III. Population, 50,729. Bath, Me., the capital of Sagadahoc County, southern Maine, on the west bank of the Kennebec River, twelve miles from the Atlantic, and about equidistant from Port- land to the southeastward and from Augusta to the north of the city. It has a large commerce, chiefly in lumber, in ma- chines, boilers and iron and brass work, as well as a large industry hi ship-building, including battle-ships and steel steamers. It has steamboat communication with Bos- ton. It possesses some excellent schools. Population, 9,396. Bath'sheba, the daughter of Eliam and the wife of Uriah the Hittite. After the death of her husband at King David's Instigation, Bathsheba became the wife of the latter. She was the mother of King Solomon. See II Samuel xi and I Kings i. Baton Rouge (btit-un'roozh) , the capital of the statz of Louisiana, is situated on the left bank of the Mississippi River. It was one of the earliest French settlements. The state house, state university and many other public buildings are there. The city was occupied by Federal troops during the Civil War, after the capture of New Orleans, and defended by General Williams against a Con- federate force led by General Breckenridge. General Williams was killed during the con- gest. Population, 14,897. Battenberg, House of, members of a grand -ducal family reigning in Hesse, Germany, many of whom havfe by mar- riage and otherwise been connected with royalty on the European Continent and in Great Britain. The mother of the present reigning Grand-Duke of Hesse was Princess Alice of Great Britain, third daughter of the late Queen Victoria; this Grand-Duke (Ernest Ludwig) in 1894 married Princess Victoria, daughter of Duke Alfred of Saxe- Cpburg and Gotha, a marriage which was dissolved in 1901. The Battenberg title was first conferred in 1857 on Countess Hanke, morganatic wife of Prince Alexander of Hesse, three of whose four children attained high honor as Princes of Battenberg. One, Louis Alexander ^D. in 1854) is a British naval officer; another, Alexander Joseph, was from 1879 to l8 86 Prince of Bulgaria; while the third, Prince Henry Maurice, in 1885 married Princess Beatrice, youngest child of the late Queen Victoria of Great Britain. Prince Henry, who was created a royal highness by his august mother-in- law and made governor of the Isle of Wight, died on his way home from Kumasi in 1896, having seen service in the Ashanti campaign. His widow, the Princess of Battenberg, still survives, and one of their children, Victoria Eugenie (b 1887), married in 1906 Alfonso XIII, King of Spain. Bat'tering Ram, an instrument of war used in ancient times. It was a beam of wood, with a head of iron or bronze, like a rani's head. It was used to batter down walls and doors, and was either carried by the soldiers or fastened in a frame and made to swing. Another kind moved on rollers. To protect those who were operating it, a wooden roof was built over it and the whole mounted on wheels. The ram varied in length from 60 to 120 feet, the head some- times weighing over a ton, and as many as a hundred men were needed to manage it. The Romans borrowed it from the Greeks, but who invented it is not known. Battersea, a suburb of London, on the Surrey side of the Thames, with a fine park, 185 acres in extent. Chelsea Hospital has its seat here. Bat'tery. See ARTILLERY. Bat'tery (electric), any combination of voltaic cells, whether used for the purpose of furnishing an electric current or merely to produce electrical pressure. For most pur- poses, the cells of a battery are joined up in SIMPLE GALVANIC BATTERY series, that is, the positive pole of one cell \s connected with the negative pole of the next cell, and so on (as shown in above cut). But if the object be to make a battery of the least possible resistance, the cells are joinsd in parallel, that is, all the positive poles are connected together and all the negative poles connected together, thus forming one large cell. If the object be to obtain the largest possible current, then the cells are so ar- ranged as to make the internal and external resistances of the circuit equal. Battle Creek, Mich., a city in Calhoun County, on the Kalamazoo River, south- western Michigan, 120 miles west of Detroit and 44 miles southwest of Lansing, the capi- tal of the state. It is located on the main lines of the Michigan Central and the Grand Trunk railroads. It has large manufac- tories, chiefly of farm implements, in- cluding tkrwehing-machines, and of flour and knitting mills, a boiler works, pipe-organ BATTLEFORD 183 BAVARIA factory, etc. It is the seat of Battle Creek College, controlled by the Seventh-day Ad- yentists, and possesses an extensive san- itarium and manufactories of health- foods. Its two streams supply its factories with good water-power. The city has an admirable system of public and parish schools, and has three business colleges. The Y. M. C. A. building and the public library are the gifts of the late Chas. Willard. The late John Nichols presented the city a fine hospital. Population, 28,122. Battleford, Saskatchewan, is a small town near the confluence of the Battle and North Saskatchewan Rivers, ninety miles by stage from Saskatoon on the northwesterly Eur of the Canadian Pacific Railway from ;gina to Prince Albert. It is distant 2,328 miles from Ottawa, and on the direct line of the projected Grand Trunk Pacific. Battle Hymn of the Republic, written by Mrs. Julia Ward Howe to the tune "Glory Hallelujah," familiarly known as "John Brown." The tune itself is of south- ern origin, being ascribed to William Steffe, a composer of Sunday-school music. It was first heard in Charleston, South Carolina; then in various camp-meetings and among colored congregations until, in time, it made its way to the north. The original words were a hymn, beginning " Say, brothers, will you meet us?" "John Brown's Body" was an improvisation originating in the Twelfth Massachusetts Regiment, at the time it was at Fort Warren, in Boston Har- bor. The singing of the song by the regi- ment as it crossed Boston Common and marched through the streets of New York caused it to become national property. Mrs. Howe's poem, "Mine Eyes have Seen the Glory of the Coming of the Lord," was the inspired result of an endeavor to set more fitting words to the music than those ordinarily sung at the camp-fires of the soldiers. The song has been more popular than any other of its kind and time, and is well known in the military circles of foreign nations. For the full story see The History of American Music, by Louis C. Elson. (Macmillan pub.) Bauer (bou'er), Bruno, a German phil- osophical and historical writer and biblical expositor of the Hegelian (rationalistic) school, was born at Eisenberg, Germany, Sept. 6, 1809, and died near Berlin, April 13, 1882. His writings embrace a number of critiques on the Gospels and Pauline Epis- tles; one on Strauss 's Life of Jesus; an Exposition of the Religion of the Old Tes- tament; besides a History of the French Revolution to the Establishment of the Repub- lic and a History of Germany during the French Revolution and the Rule of Napoleon. He also published Philo, Strauss, Renan and Primitive Christianity and a work entitled Disraeli's Romantic and Bismarck's Socialistic Imperialism. On theological sub- jects, Bauer was a daring and destructive critic (the Voltaire of Germany he has been called) ; he denied the historical truth of the Gospels, and regarded the Christian religion "as overlaid and obscured by accretions foreign to it." Baur (bour), Ferdinand Christian, an eminent German biblical critic and Protes- tant theologian, was born in 1792, and died at Tubingen, Dec. 2, 1860. A profound scholar and influential writer on biblical exegesis and Christian doctrine, Baur, in 1826, became professor in the evangelical faculty of Tubingen University, and labored there until his death. His writings, which deal chiefly with Christian dogma, embrace The Christian Gnos-is; The Doctrine of the Atonement; The Doctrine of the Trinity and the Incarnation, Critical Inquiries Con- cerning the Canonic Gospels, a History of Christian Doctrine to the End of the i8th Century; Paul the Apostle of Jesus Christ, etc., etc.^ Bauxite (boks'if), a mineral ore, of a white, yellow, brown and red color, used with cryolite in the manufacture of alum, also for fire-brick, etc. It is found at Baux, France (whence its name) also in Austria, in the north of Ireland (chiefly in Antrim) and in North America, principally in Georgia, Alabama and Arkansas. In 1911 the pro- duction in the United States was 155,618 tons, the market value of which was $750,- 649. Bavaria, one of the states of the German empire and the second in size. It is divided into two parts, which are separated by Baden and Hesse- Darmstadt, the eastern division being fully eleven-twelfths of the whole. It covers 29,292 square miles, divided into eight districts, with a population of 6,876,497. The capital is Munich (population, 595,053). The southeast, northeast and northwest are walled in by high mountains, and the interior is cut up by small ranges and is well wooded. It is touched by the Rhine and Danube, and a canal connecting the two rivers passes through Bavaria, thus joining the Black Sea and the German Ocean. It is a farming country and the soil is very fertile. Large quantities of grain are grown, and the grape and hop for wine and beer are cultivated on a large scale, as more beer is manufactured here than in any other country in Europe. The Roman Catholics outnumber the Protes- tants about five to two. It has a fine system of education, under the direction of a minister of public instruction, with primary schools, high schools and three universities. The library at Munich is one of the largest in Germany. The kingdom of Bavaria is a constitutional monarchy. When, in 1870, it became a part of the German empire, it retained many of its old privileges, such as the control of BAXTER BAYEUX CATHEDRAL home affairs. The army is modeled after the Prussian system, and is under the com- mand of the king of Bavaria in time of peace, but under the German emperor during war. The peace strength of the Bavarian army is 67,000 men. The Bavarians are the descendants of the ancient Boii, who were under the power of the Romans, and afterward formed a part of the empire of Charlemagne. The country was given to the Count of Wittelsbach in 1180, and has been under that house ever since. On the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War, in 1870, Bavaria joined Prussia against France, and soon after became part of the new German empire. Prince Ludwig became king, as Ludwig III Nov. 5, 1913 following the deposition of the mad King Otto for whom he had ruled as regent for a number of years. Baxter, Richard, a distinguished English preacher, was born in 1615. He had great influence as a chaplain in the Puritan army in the Civil War, which began in 1642, using all his eloquence to soften the stern political and religious views of the soldiers. His best known work is The Saint's Ever- lasting Rest. Other works are Now or Never t Call to the Unconverted and The Reformed Pastor. He died at London in 1691. Bayard (bi'Vrd), James Asheton, Amer- ican statesman, was born at Philadelphia in 1767, and died at Wilmington, Del., in 1815. In 1796 he was elected to congress as a Federalist, and became noted as an orator, constitutional lawyer and leader of the house. In 1801 he was offered, but de- clined, the ministership to France. In 1804 he was elected senator from Delaware, and sat in the chamber until 1813, when he was chosen by President Madison, along with Albert Gallatin, to conclude peace with Great Britain, by the Treaty of Ghent. His son, of the same name, and father of Thomas Francis Bayard, born at Wilmington in 1799 and dying there June 13, 1880, was Democratic senator from Delaware during the years 1851-64 and 1867-69. Bay'ard (ba'e'rd) Pierre Du Terrail, Chevalier De, a famous French knight, was born near Grenoble in 1476. He served under Charles VIII in an expedition against Naples, and in the wars against the English and Spaniards he distinguished himself by his bravery and nobleness of character. In the reign of Francis I he gained a great victory for the king at Marignano, and de- fended the city of Mezieres against Charles V, for which he was called the Savior of his Country. He was killed in a battle at the river Sesia, Italy, in 1524. He was so highly thought of for his virtues that his death was mourned by his enemies as well as by his friends. He is known as "the knight without fear and without re- proach." THOMAS FRANCIS BAYARD Bayard, Thomas Francis, American statesman and secretary of state (1885-89^ was born at Wilmi n g t o n, Del., Oct. 29 1828, and died Sept. 28, 1898. His early man- hood was spent in the practice of the law. In 1869 he suc- ceeded his father as sena- tor from Dela- ware, when he served contin- uously until > ^^**T i * air/ 1885; then he entered M r . Cleveland's cabinet as secretary of state. In 1880 and 1884 he was unsuccessful in obtaining the nomination, on the Democratic ticket, for the presidency. In 1893 he was appointed ambassador to England, the first to hold that rank as a representa- tive of the United States. Bay City, county seat of Bay County, Mich., noted for its beautiful streets and fine public buildings, is situated on Saginaw River, three miles from Saginaw Bay. The population, including West Bay City and Essexville (an important suburb), is now 54,000. It was first platted as the village of Portsmouth in 1836 and twenty years later as Lower Saginaw. Lumber and salt were formerly its main productions. Planing mills and lumber-yards are still in evidence, with wooden-ware works and box-factories coming to the front, while beet-sugar fac- tories and coal mines now add to its pros- perity. Lake transportation companies cen- ter here, and its shipyards should not fail to be mentioned. Large chemical works, industrial works for building heavy railroad wrecking cranes, bicycle works, foundries, etc., furnish employment to many. Bay City is a railroad center and a distributing point for a large section of country. It has 19 public schools, 287 teachers and an en- rollment of 8,000; also a business college, a private kindergarten and seven parochial schools with an enrollment of 3,500. Bay - de -Verde, an electoral district of Newfoundland. Population about 10,000; chiefly Methodists and Roman Catholics; occupations, fishermen and those engaged in the catching and curing of fish; chief towns; Bay-de-Verde, Cower, Island Cove, Grate's Cove, Old Perlican and Freshwater. Bayeux (bd'ye) Cathedral, in the city of Bayeux, is said to be the oldest cathedral in Normandy. It was rebuilt by William the Conqueror, after a fire in 1077, but most of the present building dates from 1106 to the 1 3th century. On the west front are two steeples built in the i2th century and BAYEUX TAPESTRY 185 BEAR three beautiful sculptured porches. Here was kept for a long time the famous Bayeux tapestry. Bayeux Tapestry, a roll of linen cloth about 230 feet long and 20 inches wide, on which is embroidered a panorama-Ike pic- ture of the conquest of England by William the Conqueror. It is now preserved in the public library of Bayeux, Normandy, France. It is divided into seventy-two scenes, most of which have Latin inscrip- tions. The panorama begins with a picture of Harold taking leave of Edward the Con- fessor before setting out for Normandy, and ends with the battle of Hastings, the death of Harold and the flight of the English. It has usually been supposed that the tap- estry was embroidered by Matilda, wife of William the Conqueror; but others believe it to have been worked for the Bayeux cathedral under the direction of Otho, bishop of Bayeux and a half-brother of William the Conqueror. It was discovered in the Bayeux cathedral in 1728, Lancelot having described an illuminated drawing of part of it in 1724. It is very valuable as a record of the customs and costumes of the period, and nearly fifty books have been written about it. Bayonne (bd'yon") , N. J., a thriving town in Hudson County, adjoining Jersey City, on the long tongue of land that separates New York and Newark Bays. It is traversed by the Central Railroad of New Jersey, and is separated from Jersey City by the Morris Canal and from Staten Island by the Kill- von-Kull. It has, moreover, excellent rail- road communication with New York City. It possesses many important industries, the chief of which are oil refineries, boiler and electrical works and chemical works. At its docks there is usually great activity in oil and coal-shipping. Population, 64,500. Bayreuth. See BAIREUTH. Bay Tree, a name given to a number of trees and shrubs resembling the laurel. The large-leaved evergreen, common in shrub- beries, called the common or cherry laurel,, is sometimes called bay laurel. The true bay leaves are used for flavoring. Bay rum, used by perfumers, is a liquid got by distilling rum in which bay leaves have been boiled. The leaves were also used to deco- rate houses at Christmas and at weddings. Bazaine (bd'zdn'), Francois Achille, a French general, born in 1811. He enlisted as a private and served in Algiers and Morocco, in the Crimea and in Italy. In the French invasion of Mexico, he became Commander-in-chief of the French forces. In the Franco-Prussian War he was com- mander of the main French army, and after the bloody battles of Mars-le-Tours and Gravelotte he was shut up in the city of Metz, where he surrendered on October ay, 1870. He was tried by courtmartial and sentenced to death, which was after- ward mitigated to twenty years' imprison- ment. He escaped and fled to Madrid, where he died in 1888. Beaconsfield, Lord. See DISRAELI, BENJAMIN. Bear, a large animal, omnivorous as to food, found in both warm and cold climates. The stout body, with thick legs and very short tail, is covered with long, shaggy fur; the whole sole of the foot rests upon the ground, and the claws are adapted for dig- ging and climbing. Bears are found in Europe, Asia and America; those in cold climates being more fierce and less content with vegetable food than those in warmer regions. Bears generally are very fond of fruit, honey, nuts and roots, and when berries and green food are plentiful will often pass animal food untouched. The latter includes mice as well as elk and bison steak, and of ants they are very fond. Bears swim with ease, and some climb. In cold countries, at the beginning of winter, they hunt caves or hollows and sleep there until spring. The young bears are born during the winter, usually two in a litter, very small and helpless at first and almost hairless. Bears are very playful animals, have a great sense of humor, and generally are good-tempered and cheerful. Brown bears are plentiful in Europe and Asia. Comparatively recently new American bears have been described; one, the glacier bear living about Mt. St. Elias, and an enormous brown bear of Alaska which perhaps is the largest of living bears. Other varieties BROWN BEAR of bears live in Syria, the Himalayas, Russia, the Malayan region and the Andes. Bears 01 North America are the polar bear of the far north; the big brown bears of Alaska; the grizzly bears, ranging from Mexico to Alaska; and the black bears, found gener- ally in our forest regions. The white or polar bears of the Arctic regions are very large, often measuring nine feet in length, and are very strong. They 3EAR, GREATER AND LESSER 186 BEATRICE swim rapidly, and live largely on fish. They are more apt to attack man than any other variety. The males do not hibernate in the winter, but the females remain in sheltered places through the winter and bear their young. They are pure white all the year round. They swim rapidly, are the best swimmers of the bear family, can swim for hours in icy water, and are excellent divers. POLAR BEAR The Kadiak bear or the great brown bear sometimes grows as large as an ox. It belongs to Alaska and adjacent islands. In the spring it wears a coat of beautiful golden yellow, which later turns to brown. This enormous bear has markedly high shoulders and a massive head. The glacier bear belongs to the glacier region of Mt. St. Elias. Little is known of it. It is reputed shy and fierce, its general color bluish-gray. The grizzly is the most ferocious of bears, a great, lumbering, fierce fellow. Before the day of the long-range rifle he was very hard to kill, a great fighter, but now his numbers are much decreased. He is pecu- liar to North America, and is found mainly in the Rocky Mountains. The fur is dull brown, around the head somewhat gray. The claws are long and curved. Its strength is equal to dragging a bison, and in the days when "buffalo" was plentiful on the plains it was a persistent hunter of this animal. It now preys on horses and cattle, but want- ing these must manage with such minute game as mice. It greedily eats berries, wild plums, green fodder, almost everything it can chew. The adult grizzly cannot climb trees, but when he has found a good hunting range he will reach up as high as he can on the trunk of a pine and there make a mark that means " Keep Off" a challenge well understood by animals passing that way. The American black bear is thought by many to be a variety of the brown bear. In our forest regions both east and west, north and south, it is found, still quite com- mon in lonely mountains and in timbered land. It is all inky black save for a brown- ish tinge or dirty white on the face, and some, called cinnamon bears, are dark chestnut in color. It is naturally timid and inoffen- sive, and stands in terror of man, but will fight savagely if attacked or called on to defend its cubs. Except in the spring it lives chiefly on vegetable food. It is excessively fond of blueberries, also of honey, and will endure many stings from the bees to get possession of the sweet it craves. After the long winter's fast it eats snakes, bugs, fish, anything it can get; when eager for animal food, it will kill cows, sheep, and steal from the pig-pen; in the fall, nuts, acorns, wild grapes and mushrooms vary its fare. The black bear usually carries its head low, and is highest in the middle of its back. It climbs with ease and runs swiftly. The young cubs are very playful and good tem- pered, but grow to be much too rough for close association. See Hornaday: American Natural History; Stone and Cram: Ameri- can Animals. Bear, Greater and Lesser, two groups of stars or constellations in the northern sky. In the Great Bear are seven very bright stars, forming the "dipper." The body of the " dipper " is made by four stars forming a quadrangle, the other three, which make the handle, being nearly in a straight line. The straight line which passes through the two stars on the side opposite the handle, passes also very nearly through the pole star; distant about five times the length between the two stars. These two stars are therefore called the point- ers. In the Lesser Bear a group of stars also forms a dipper, but the stars are not nearly so bright. The end of the Little Bear's tail is the Pole Star, which lies almost exactly over the north pole. The Great Dipper is easily recognized by the star-gazer, and remem- bering the pointers, then locate the Pole Star, and the Little Dipper may readily be found. In most star-maps these constella- tions are called by their Latin names, Ursa Major and Ursa Minor. See Ball: Starland, also The Story of the Heavens; Moulton: Introduction to Astronomy. Beard, William Holbrook, an American portrait and animal painter, was born at Painesville, Ohio, April 13, 1825, and died February 20, 1900. After studying art in Europe, he settled in New York, where he was very successful in painting pictures of animals. He had quite a gift for depicting with humor animal life, and for giving human expression to the faces of his animal subjects. Some of his best known pictures are Kittens and Guinea Pig, Bears on a Bender, Voices of the Night, Who's Afraid, Raining Cats and Dogs, etc. A collection of his sketches appeared in 1885, with the title: Humor in Animals. Be'atrice, Neb., a city, the chief town of Gage County, in Nebraska on Big Blue River, 40 miles south of Lincoln and 90 miles southwest of Omaha. It is reached by the Union Pacific, Rock Island, Burlington and Missouri River and other railroads, BEAUHARNAIS 187 BEAUREGARD which give facilities to its growing trade in flour, lumber, agricultural implements and cement and stone from important quarries in the vicinity. The city is well laid out and possesses many fine buildings, including court house, municipal buildings, banks, churches, schools and public library, besides a state Institute for the Feeble- Minded. The city owns and operates its own water-works, while it derives from the river good water-power for its indus- tries. Settled in 1859, Beatrice became a city in 1873. Population, 9,356. Beauharnais (bo'dr'nd'), Eugene de, a French soldier and statesman, was born at Paris in 1781. His mother (Josephine) be- came the wife of Napoleon Bonaparte. He held many positions in the French army, and in 1805 was appointed viceroy of Italy, filling the position with ability. He showed cour- age and military capacity in the campaigns against Austria and Russia. He conducted the retreat from Russia in a masterly man- ner. After the overthrow of Napoleon, he lived at Munich, the title of Duke of Leuch- tenberg being granted him by the king of Bavaria, whose daughter he had married. He died there in 1824. Beaumarchais (bd'mar-sha 1 ) , Pierre Au- gustin Caron de, a celebrated French dramatist, was born at Paris in 1732. He became so skilled as a musician that he was appointed to teach the daughters of King Louis XV to play on the harp. He wrote, as a defense of himself against a charge of fraud and forgery, his well-known Memoirs, which is a masterpiece of French writing and gave him quite a reputation. During the American Revolution, he sup- plied the American army with a large quan- tity of arms and ammunition, for which he received the warm thanks of Congress, but not the money payment which was promised. One fourth of the debt was paid thirty-six years after Beaumarchais was dead. He was a supporter of the French Revolution, and was obliged to leave France for a time. His greatest drama is Tfte Mar- riage of Figaro. Tlie Barber of Seville was also very successful. He died at Paris in 1799. Beaumont, Texas, a city, the seat of Jefferson County, situated at the head of tidewater navigation on the Neches River on which it does a large trade in the ship- ment of yellow pine and cypress lumber and shingles via Sabine Pass. It is reached by a number of railroads, including the Santa Fe, Southern Pacific, Frisco & Kansas City Southern, operating eleven lines in all. It lies 83 miles northeast of Houston. Its industries connected with the lumber, oil, foundry and machine shop trades are ex- panding rapidly and this of recent years has given an impetus to the developing of the city. Population, 31,000. Beaumont (bo'mont), Francis, an English dramatist, was born in 1586. He was edu- cated at Oxford University, and afterward studied law, but neglected it for literary work. He became a great friend of the dramatist, John Fletcher, and nearly every- thing he wrote was in partnership with him. He was also acquainted with Ben Jonson and other writers of the time. The finest of the dramas which the two friends, Beau- mont and Fletcher, wrote together are The Maid's Tragedy and Philaster. The Cox- comb and Cupid's Revenge are also well known. Beaumont was one of the most gifted writers of the age of Elizabeth. He died in 1616. Beaumont, William, an American sur- geon (1785-1853). While he was in the United States army he had to care for a man who had been shot in the left side. The patient got well, but the wound in the side healed without closing up, leaving a large hole through which Dr. Beaumont was able to watch the process of digestion in the stomach. He thus found out and described the action of gastric juice in digestion, the process not being definitely known before. His observations and experiments were of great importance. Beauregard (bo f re-gdrd f ) , Pierre Qus- tave Toutant, an American general, born in 1818 near New Orleans. He graduated at West Point in 1838, and won considerable distinction in the Mexican War. He was sta- tioned until 1860 at New Orleans, in charge of engineering works on the Mississippi and the Gulf, and also had the oversight of the building of the mint. He resigned his posi- tion as superintendent of the Military Acad- emy at West Point to become a brigadier- general in the Confederate army in 1861. He directed the attack on Fort Sumter, and de- feated General McDowell at Bull Run. In the spring of 1862 he was second in com- mand of the Department of Tennessee. At the battle of Shiloh, after the death of Gen- eral Johnston, Beauregard became com- mander, and in the first day's fight partially defeated General Grant; but General Buell having reinforced Grant during the night, Beauregard was defeated. He fell back on Corinth, which he fortified and held until May 30, when ha made a ma&- terly retreat to Tupelo. Owing to failing, health, he was for a time re- lieved from ac- tive service,but later took com- m a n d of the defense of the southern coast. GENERAL BEAUREGARD While S t a - tioned at Charleston, he defeated the attacks BEAVER 188 BEAVER of General Gillmore and Admiral Dahlgren in 1863. In 1864 he successfully resisted General Butler, and held Petersburg against Grant's attack until the arrival of General Lee. He later had the task of resisting General Sherman's march to the sea. After the war he became president of the New Orleans and Mississippi Railroad, and in 1878 was made general manager of the Louisiana Lottery Company. He died near New Orleans, February 20, 1893. Beaver, a gnawing animal of very inter- esting habits, related to squirrels, but living in the water. Beavers live in Europe, Asia and North America, although there is be- lieved to be only one kind. They are about two feet long, one foot high, and weigh from forty-five to sixty pounds. The beaver is, therefore, one of the largest and heaviest of the gnaw- ers. It has a very un- usual tail, oval, flat and scaly, about ten inches long and three inches wide. The rest of the body is BEAVER covered by fur of two kinds: a soft, thick, gray under-fur, overlaid with polished and glistening chestnut-brown hairs. The fur is one of the most valuable furs of commerce. Formerly, this animal was distributed through the wooded part of the northern hemisphere, but it has been hunted till it is almost exterminated in settled portions. In the United States it is scarcely found east of the Mississippi; occasional colonies are known, however, in Maine, Virginia, and a few other places. Though numbers exist in Siberia, the beaver is now rare in the Old World. The beaver feeds mainly on bark of trees (willow, poplar, birch, etc.), roots, buds and leaves. It gnaws down trees not only for constructing dams and houses, but to get the finer branches and twigs for food. The front teeth are remarkably large, and of deep orange color on the outside. They are like the front teeth of the fsquirrels, rabbits and other gnawing animals, hard in front and softer behind, so that by use they get worn to chisel edges. With these teeth they gnaw through trees as large as nine feet in circumference. Their hind feet are webbed and the flattened tail serves as a sculling oar and rudder, which makes them splendid swimmers and divers. They can remain two minutes under water. They are social animals; a family of several members usually live in one house; and sometimes a large number of families collect together in a community. Usually there are four young ones at a birth. The young beavers leave home in their tkird summer and set up new households, and when com- munities become too large for comfortable living, an emigration takes place. Once in a while a solitary old bachelor is found, a recluse living alone in his burrow. Their habits are remarkable ; they usually work at night, and so diligently, that " work- ing like a beaver" has become a common saying. They build houses, lodges and dams in forest brook, well-concealed from haunts of man. The simplest form of house is merely a burrow opening under water. The lodges are more elaborate and are of three kinds: the island-lodge, built on a small island in a pond; the lodge built on the banks of streams and ponds; and the lake-lodge on the sloping shores of lakes, with a considerable portion of the hut out of water. A description of one of the island-lodges will be sufficient: It is an oven-shaped house of sticks, grass and moss woven together and plastered with mud, so strong as to protect the inhabi- tants from beasts of prey. The room inside may measure eight feet in diameter and two or three feet in height, and the floor is carpeted with bark, grass and wood chips. There are two entrances, both un- derneath; one is straight, through which the wood for winter food is passed; the other, called the beaver entrance, is often winding in its course. Both these entrances open into a moat around the house, too deep to freeze easily, so that the beavers are not likely to be shut in. When the trees near the water are used up and the land is too uneven for rolling, log-slides or canals are cut in the bank to carry down the timbers. These may be hundreds of feet long and about a yard in width and depth. So they may easily pass back and forth under the winters ice, and that they may have room to store food, dams are built to increase the water about the lodges. They are often of great size one is reported as being 1,530 feet long. The first step in dam-building is selection of a suitable site, a narrow place with firm bottom. Then work is begun on felling trees. They commence by gnawing deep parallel grooves about the trunk, in chips pull out the wood between the grooves; repeating this until nothing is left but a few last fibres, the trunk is ready to fall. Some say they always plan for the tree to fall toward the water, others declare they work haphazard. After the tree is down the beavers set to work lopping off branches and cutting it in lengths they can drag into the water. The short logs, dragged or floated to the desired spot, are sunk lengthwise across the cur- rent and kept down by means of stones, sod and mud loaded on by the beavers. To provide for winter needs, they collect a goodly supply of birch, willow and poplar. BEAVER FALLS 189 BECKET which they stack near their homes, sinking the ends well in the mud so the gathered store cannot float away. During the i7th and i8th centuries beaver skins held first place in the world's fur trade. For many years the beaver was called upon to furnish hats for men of fashion. So great was the demand for the fur that in the western part of Canada and the United States beaver-skins passed as currency. Where once they were almost unbelievably plentiful, their numbers now are fast decreasing. Rigid protection in eastern Canada is reported, and a plea has been presented for a game and fur 6-eserve in the Canadian northwest. See organ: The American Beaver and His Work; McClure's Magazine, April, 1901; Scientific American, Supplement, August 13, 1904; Plea for Establishment of Game and Fur Preserve, Report of 8th Inter- national Geographical Congress. Beaver Falls, Pa., a city of Beaver County, thirty miles northwest of Pittsburg, located on the Beaver River near its junc- tion with the Ohio. It has excellent water power and in addition there is an abundant supply of coal and natural gas; hence it is an important manufacturing point, the principal products being fence wire, nails, shovels, files, saws and other articles manufactured from the finer grades of steel. Pottery is produced to some extent and also glassware. Here is located Geneva College, an institution affiliated with the Reformed Presbyterian denomination, having in attendance a large body of students. Population, 14.000. Bebel (ba'bel), Ferdinand August, an able and influential leader of the German Socialists in the Reichstag, of which he served as member for over thirty years. Born at Cologne in 1840, he early in life became a turner by trade, and as early identified himself with workingmen's labor organizations, out of which he built up a progressive social- democratic party having a compact vote of three millions. Few Germans of his time en- gaged in public affairs made a more notable name than he, as his influence in labor-con- gresses bore witness, not to speak of the sym- pathy felt for him by large masses of followers, owing to his repeated imprisonments on a charge of high treason and of lese-majest& against the German Emperor. Herr Bebel was a powerful and convincing speaker, an exten- sive contributor to socialistic journals and a writer of books, among them a life of the French socialist Fourier, and Die Frau und Der Socialismus. He died in 1913. Bechuanaland (bechob-a'na or bek'u- a'na-land), is a native territory in South Africa annexed to Cape Colony in 1895. It contains 51,524 square miles and a popu- lation (estimated for 1908) of 94,608, of whom 9,608 were whites. It is traversed by the Cape-to-Cairo Railroad. Bechuanaland Protectorate, The, has an area of about 275,000 square miles, about that of British Columbia, and a population (1905) of 137,832, only 1,000 being whites. It is bounded west and north by German Southwest Africa, north by Zambezi River and British Central Africa, east by Matabeleland and Transvaal and south by British Bechuanaland and Molopo River. The chief tribes are the Bamangwato, Bakwena and Bang- waketse. These and the others are governed by a resident British agent responsible to the High Commissioner of South Africa, but Khama and two other chiefs rule their peoples in subordination to the resident. No licenses for the sale of spirits are granted. Herding and farming are the chief industries. Much of the land is held by native chiefs, who also collect the hut-tax, but the people are peaceful and contented. The Cape-to- Cairo Railway passes through the protect- orate, and the telegraph connects it with Cape Town, Portuguese East Africa, Rho- desia, Ujiji and the whole world. In 1905-6 the income was almost $143,265; the expenditure about $373,915; and the grant- in-aid for 1906-7, $220,000. Beck'et, Thomas a, an English arch- bishop, born in London about 1118; mur- dered in Canterbury cathedral, Dec. 29, 1170. His father, a London merchant, was a friend of Theobald, archbishop of Canterbury, who thus became acquainted with the young man, helped him in his education, and induced him to enter the church, also bringing him to the notice of King Henry II, who soon after appointed him lord chancellor of England. Becket showed great ability, and also distinguished himself in Henry's war against France. He lived in great magnificence and was constantly in the company of the king. In 1162, on the death of Archbishop Theo- bald, the king had Becket appointed arch- bishop of Canterbury. Immediately Beck- et's conduct changed. Instead of the brilliant courtier and statesman, he became grave and austere, and began to oppose the king, making himself the champion of the rights of the church against the king's demands. In 1164, at Clarendon, the king had resolutions drawn up which declared what the king's rights and what those of the church were on certain disputed points. These Constitutions of Clarendon, as they were called, Becket at first refused to agree to, but finally signed them. As soon as he left the place, he repented having signed them and declared that they ought not to be observed. He was then obliged to flee to France. In 1170 he was allowed to come back; but he at once began his old opposition to the king, who was then in Normandy. The king is said to have angrily cried out: "Will no one rid me of this pestilent priest?" At once four knights BECQUEREL RAYS IQO BEE left the king, and, going to Canterbury, murdered Becket at the altar of the church. He was declared a saint by the pope, and his tomb at Canterbury became a shrine visited by pilgrims from all over the world. But the beautiful shrine was destroyed by Henry VIII, and the cathedral was partly destroyed by fire in 1872. Becquerel (bek'rel') Rays. About one year after Rontgen made his beautiful dis- covery that X-rays could be produced by the use of an induction coil and a vacuum tube, a French physicist, M. Henri Becquerel, found that the metal uranium and its compounds are continually emitting rays which possess almost exactly the same prop- erties as X-rays. This new radiation which is emitted spontaneously by uranium has received the name Becquerel rays. Experiments have shown that these rays possess the following properties: 1. They are propagated in straight lines, as is ordinary light. 2. They affect the photographic plate, as does ordinary light, though in a much less degree. 3. They traverse thin plates of opaque bodies, unlike ordinary light. 4. They are not reflected, refracted or polarized, as is ordinary light. 5. They render the air through which they pass a conductor of electricity, or, as the chemist says, they ionize air. A full account of this discovery is to be found in Becquerel's papers, which are pub- lished in the Comptes Rendus for the first few months of 1896. Bede or Beda, surnamed The Vener- able, an English monk, scholar and church historian, was born in 673, in what now is the county of Durham, and died at Jarrow, at the monastery of St. Paul, in 735. He is said to have been the most learned Englishman of his day, and in the seclusion of his cell he wrote, besides his important Ecclesiastical History of England, which was translated from the Latin by King Alfred into Anglo-Saxon, a number of com- mentaries, homilies, hymns and lives of the saints. Bedford, Indiana, is the county seat of Lawrence County, on the Baltimore and Ohio Southwestern Chicago, Indi- anapolis & Louisville and Terre Haute & Southeastern railways, 75 miles northwest of Louisville. It has valuable quarries near by, chiefly of a fine, durable oolitic limestone, much in request for building purposes. Its other industries include veneering mills and lumber factories, besides railway shops, etc. It is the seat of Bedford Business University and public schools that employ sixty teachers. Population 11,000. Bed'ford, Admiral Sir Frederick George Denham, G.C.B., K.C.B., C.B., has been governor of Western Australia since 1903. He was born in 1838, the son of Vice- Admiral Bedford, and entered the royal navy in 1852. His service has been interesting and extensive. He was present at the bombardments of Odessa, Sevasto- pool and Sveaburg, commanded the Shah in its engagement with the Huascar, organ- ized the Nile flotilla in 1884, commanded the expeditions against Fodi Silah in Gam- bia in 1894, against Nana of Brokenin on the Benin the same year and against King Koko of Nimbi on the Niger the year fol- lowing. He was one of the lords of the admiralty from 1889 to 1892 and from 1895 to 1899, taking command of the North American and West Indies station in the last named year and retaining it until he received his present appointment. Bedford, Duke of. See JOAN OF ARC. Bedloe's Island, in New York harbor. In 1800 it was ceded to the United States government, and in 1841 Fort Wood was built on it. Within the fort now stands Bartholdi's great statue of Liberty Enlighten- ing the World, presented by France to the United States. Bedouins (b%d f dt>-tnz) , meaning " dwellers in the desert," are Arabs who lead a wan- dering life. While the desert of Arabia is their central place of abode, they have spread themselves over many countries, and are now to be found from the western boundary of Persia to the Atlantic and from the mountains of Kurdistan to the negro countries of Sudan. In a few regions they have mixed with other nations; but as a rule they have kept their separate character and independence. They now form a sev- enth of the population of Arabia. They have seldom acted as a united people in the world's politics. They are herdsmen and generally robbers, and recognize little law except tribal custom. One or more families form the core of a tribe, a kind of aristocracy, and from their number a supe- rior sheikh is chosen to lead them and to judge between those engaged in disputes, if they choose to come to him. They manu- facture their own woolen clothes, and their food is mainly obtained from their herds, though they also eat rice, honey, locusts and even lizards. Certain tribes, however, live in houses and practice agriculture. Bee, an insect related to wasps and ants. Bees abound in all parts of the world, num- bering about 5,000 species. All when adult feed on sweet juices. There are the solitary bees, each female providing a nest for her young, as the carpenter bee and others; the social bees, so called because many work together to build a common home; guest bees, that lay eggs in the nests of others. The carpenter bees bore tunnels in dead tree trunks, fence posts, even in the joists of buildings. The burrow runs across the grain at first, then at right angles to this a deep burrow is made, and other galleries may be added. These bees are indefati- BEE BEE QUEEN BEE gable workers and very hard to discourage. Carpenter bee, digger bee, potter bee, cuckoo bee, honey bee, bumblebee all are of much interest and well-worth close study. The social bees, including the bumblebee and honey bee, are the best known. The latter was originally introduced from Europe into America, more than three centuries ago, and escaping swarms stocked the forests with what are now called wild bees. There are three kinds of individ- uals: the queens, the workers or undevel- oped females and the drones or males. The queens and workers have stings connected with poison sacs, but the drones have no stings. Each kind is produced in a particular kind of cell. That in which the queen is reared is especially large. The undeveloped queens are provided with a kind of food called royal jelly. The cell of the drone is larger than that in which the worker is reared. It is possible, however, for the active workers to enlarge a cell that would ordinarily produce a worker, and by chang- ing the food to royal jelly cause the young grub to develop into a queen. When sev- eral queens mature at the same time there is a royal battle DRONE among the rivals and the one'who succeeds in stinging the other to death is left as reigning sovereign. The queens lay eggs in large numbers, placing in different cells those that are intended for workers, drones and new queens. The drones are males and are destroyed by the workers soon after the honey season. The workers do all the work of the hive. They gather the honey, bee-glue and pollen, which is made into bee-bread with which the young are fed. They clean the hive, form the wax, build the comb and care for the young. The formation of wax is very interesting. Some of the workers gorge themselves with honey and remain quiet for about twenty-four hours, after which the wax comes out as little plates from the wax pockets on the under surface of the body. About twenty-one pounds of honey are consumed to manufacture one pound of wax, but this amount will make about 35,000 honey-comb cells. The cells are six-sided; in building the same the workers begin at the top and build downwards, leaving some spaces for passage ways. Some of the cells are for honey, others for eggs. The migration or swarming of the bees usually happens when the hive becomes too crowded. The first swarm, led by the old queen, usually starts out in June, leaving the new queen in possession of the hive. A second and third swarming sometimes take place. The swarm comes out, num- bering thousands, and soon lights, usually on the limb of a tree, hanging like a bag, from which it may be taken and put into a hive. "A swarm of bees in May Is worth a load of hay. A swarm of bees in June Is worth a silver spoon. But a swarm in July Is not worth a fly." Before swarming takes place there is no little commotion in the hive. The queen (or, better, mother) of a hive is an indispen- sable member, and beautifully cared for by the others. But between queen and queen there is little friendliness, and when a new queen comes forth from her cell the old queen knows her day is over, she must leave and go off to establish a new home. Warning of the flitting is given by both new queen and old. At the sound of the pip- ing of the former a thrill passes through the hive, the queen giving special sign of agi- tation. Swarming takes place on a fine day, and may be considerably retarded by cloudy weather. Some of the new hives may be opened, an observer having opportunity to study the condition of the swarm and the progress of the work. Keepers often use little machines that puff smoke into the hives, this making the bees quiet without hurting them, and allowing the keeper to handle them. Bees become quite tame when handled often. The sting is at the extreme end of the abdomen. The poison, pumped from the poison-sac with great rapidity, exudes from the many infinitesimal barbs of the dagger- like sting. The angry bee, leaving her sting behind in her victim, falls a victim, too, and shortly dies. A person stung should immediately remove the sting, which retains poison. The bee's tongue is a delicate and complicated instrument, which, when not in use, is folded back beneath its head; when active, working with lightning flash. For especially deep, tubular flowers there is an extra length of tongue that can be shot out from within. The tongue is hairy and there is a little, spoon-like termination. Some of the nectar taken up is eaten and digested; some stored in the honey- sac, situated in the big. end of the abdomen. This and the pollen are taken home for the good of the community. Pollen accumu- lates in dust on the feathery hairs of legs and body, later to be collected in the two pollen baskets, one on the fourth joint of each hind leg. The worker gathers the pollen together with her legs, then scrapes it with one hind leg into the basket of the other leg. It is most interesting to watch her gathering pollen. " Sometimes she looks as if she were running about over a head of flowers to find something she had BEE 19* BEECH lost now this way and now that she goes in a great hurry, then turns around and around. But she has not lost anything, and she has not gone crazy; she is merely collecting pollen as fast as she can, and if you have sharp eyes you will see her rub, rub, rubbing it with her legs back into her baskets. It is astonishing how much she can carry. When her baskets are full, she goes about with a basket of pollen attached to each of her hind legs." (Morley). The "busy bees" not only are carriers and honey-makers, but they sometimes stop to feed from their store a hungry rela- tive. First the two cross antennae by way of greeting, then the hungry one puts out its long tongue and proceeds to draw honey from the mouth of the other. The senses of bees are very highly devel- oped. The sense of vision is remarkable. The bee in proportion to its size has more eye-space than the owl, two great compound eyes and on top of its head three small eyes. No wonder it can make a bee-line for a desired goal. The antennae or feelers are of the greatest importance; without them the bee is lost. They serve as nose and ears as well as feelers, Bees take the best of care of these sensitive things, cleaning them carefully and frequently. The bee is very clean, as neat as can be ; is always cleaning itself, making use of its legs, which answer well as comb and brush. The hive likewise is kept scrupulously clean. Fresh air is let into the crowded hive by an ingenious method; some bees standing outside fanning air into the holes in the bottom of the hive, others just inside doing their share of fanning, and good circulation is thus provided. The bee has various enemies, and keeps sentinels on the lookout for intruders. There are robber bees to be combated; the bee moth to keep from gaining entrance and laying eggs that produce larvae de- structive to both comb and honey. Then there are birds that eat bees, and bears, notorious honey thieves, will eat both honey and honey-bee. Bees are torpid during cold weather. The queen bee may deposit as many as 3,000 eggs a day. She sometimes lives four, sometimes five, years. The workers live but a few months at the most, sometimes only a few weeks. A hive has been known to yield 1,000 pounds of honey in a single season. As a rule, bees do most of their collecting w'thin two miles of the hive. The common black or brown honey makers are German bees. The Italian bees, large bees with yellow markings on the abdomen, are in much favor in this country. The Carnio- lans, from Austria, have a good standing. The Syrians have the highest honey record. As is well known, white clover makes de- licious honey; the flowers of the basswood are favored of bees; in the south, orange- blossoms are used and yield a clear, delicate strain. Buckwheat flowers give very dark honey. Bees sometimes gather flowers from poisonous plants, but that happens very seldom in this country. The wild bees store honey that both man and beast search for, the store being usually found in trees. Before the world had sugar, honey was of great importance as an article of food. While not so highly valued to-day it is nevertheless much relished. Bees are of utmost importance in the cross-fertilization of plants; it is their habit to visit bloom after bloom of the same kind. Howard says: " Without their aid the health of the plant world would suffer and its infinite variety would hardly have been achieved. " Attempts to raise fruit on a large scale with no bees in the locality have proved failures; abundant crops following the introduction of bees. There are many kinds of bumblebees. They are large and furry. A familiar one wears a splendid coat of black and yellow. They are of much value in the fertilization of flowers, especially red clover. They generally nest in a hollow in the ground, under a tuft of grass, close to the surface. In the winter the queen lives quite alone, sleeping through the cold. When the flowers bloom again, she works very busily, gathering pollen to place in her nest and lay her eggs therein, where the young larva may help itself. After a time the larva spins a cocoon about itself, from which it comes forth a bee and, if a worker, ready to help carry pollen. As with the honey bee there are the three classes, workers, drones and queen; when cold weather comes, the workers and drones die. See The Honey Bee, Frank Benton, Bulle- tin No. 1, United States Department of Agriculture; Hodge: Nature Study and Life; Morley : The Bee People; Howard : The Insect Book. Beech, a genus of trees technically known as Fagus, represented by about five species in the cooler regions of the northern hemi- sphere. The species of the southern hemi- sphere formerly included under Fagus are now regarded as forming another genus. The beech is prized for its beauty, largely cultivated as a shade and ornamental tree, and valued for its timber and nuts. Both in Europe and the eastern United States the beech forms extensive forests, and it is the common hardwood tree of central Europe. It is a familiar and well-beloved tree of Europe; the beeches of England are famous and whole forests of beech are com- mon in Denmark and Germany. In the olden days great herds of swine were fed on the beech-forests of England. The ancients highly prized beech-nuts for food, used the oil therefrom for lamps, kept their records on beechen boards the word book being derived from the Anglo-Saxon word for this tree, bece. HOW HONEY COMB CELLS ARE MADE j Courtesy Technical World This picture of the little girl blowing soap bubbles illustrates the latest answer of science to one of Nature's oldest conundrums: "Why are the cells of the honey comb six sided?" Look at the bubbles and see if you can't find this answer before I tell you. Ever since King Mykennos of Egypt made his royal sign in sealing wax with the image of the bee in his ring and long, long before that men have kept and studied bees and spoken of their wonderful instinct in making their cells six-sided. Round cells waste space; six-sided cells make use of all the space and make the comb stronger because the cells support each other better. Now it is pointed out that the bees make the cells round in the first place; as you can see in the next picture they grow six-sided as the frames fill. So it is the pressure of the cells against each other that makes them six-sided, just as the pressure of the soap bubbles is changing them from round to six-sided figures. The soap bubbles do not take an equal sided shape because they are not strong enough and last too short A comb of 4000 cells is made in twenty-four hours. (How many cells an hour?) After the breeding season the cells are built out longer and turned up at the end to keep the honey from spilling out until the cells are filled. This picture shows the frames which are used in artificial hives. The bees begin to build the comb from the top of each section. When filled with honey, the bees seal the cells with wax. The frames are easily lifted from the hive at the convenience oi the bee- keeper. This picture shows how these cells will look under the microscope; and it shows something else. Notice that the point of meeting of the three sides of three cells is just opposite the center of the cell in the other side. Any carpenter, architect, mechanical engineer or your big brother in High School will tell you that this greatly increases the strength of the comb. You can see this back to back arrangement of a comb if you will hold one up to the light. The queen bee reigns in the hive, and is treated with reverent courtesy and attention. When she moves about she is attended by a body guard, as seen in the picture. They form a circle about her with all their heads towards her. They walk backwards before her, and when they retire they move backwards, still facing their queen. They feed her with honey and bee-bread. This picture shows that combs are not made only to hold honey, but to brace the little bee city for that is just what a honeycomb is so that it can't fall or be shaken down; as cities built by men sometimes are when they are shaken by earthquakes or struck by whirling winds. If you ever find a beehive in the hollow of a tree, you will find these braces protecting it against the swaying of the trees in the wind. You will not find them in artificial hives. When the workers go out into the fields for pollen to feed the babies, they carry along ' 'market baskets." These baskets, as you see in this picture, are on the outside of each pair of hind legs. Both body and legs are covered with hairs which collect the pollen. The bees scrape the pollen off one leg with the other and put it into the basket. You have noticed the flies have the same habit. Bees do most of their collecting within two miles of the hive. The pollen is first rolled into a ball before it is dropped into the basket. The baskets are arched over with hairs to protect these little balls from falling out. Sometimes the bees roll in the flower so as to get themselves all covered with pollen just as you have seen horses roll, or a bird nutter dust over himself. Larva Bees' eggs are long shaped, about one-twelfth of an inch in lenpth, are bluish white, and hatch in three days. The eggs hatch into little worm-like creatures, called larvae. They lie curled up in their cells as you curl up in bed on a cold night. They are fed by the workers for five days and then they refuse to eat and the workers seal up the cell very much as you pull the bed clothes over your head and go to sleep. Then the bee that is to be spins himself a silk cocoon and is changed into a pupa such as you see in this picture. About the first day after he becomes a pupa, he breaks from his cell a perfect little bee. All his aunts caress him and feed him just as other people do their babies. The next day, he tries his wings. We see here the umler side of the worker bee. This is magnified three times so as to show clearly the wax scales or pockets. When a swarm of bees begin to keep house in a new hive their first task is to manufacture wax out of which to make the comb. It is interesting to note what bees do and how they conduct themselves in making the wax. They eat all the honey they possibly can and then they remain quiet for about twenty-four hours. We do not know how the honey is changed into wax, but at the end of that time the wax appears in these wax pockets that you see in the picture. In the new hive the bees have suspended themselves from the top or roof of the hive and hang down like a curtain. When the scales have become filled with wax, they are ready for work and some of them run up to the top of the hive and lay the foundation of the comb. The making of the comb then pro- ceeds rapidly. It takes about twenty-one pounds of honey to make one pound of wax, but this amount will make about 35,000 honeycomb cells. When first made the wax is of a white color; it turns brown with age. This picture gives an end view of a comb and hows how the honey is kept from spilling out before the cell is filled and sealed up; just as Mother seals her jelly glasses when they are ready for the winter storehouse. See how the bottoms of the cells are curved. SWARMING When so many bees are born that the hive becomes crowded, the in- mates seem to come to an agreement to divide themselves up into two parties, one remaining in the old hive and the other starting out to secure a new home. This is called swarming. The new swarm must take the old queen with them. The queen is usually among the last to leave the hive. Sometimes she does not go at all and then the swarm returns to the hive after a time and try it again the next day The first swarms usually come out in June and sometimes a second, or even a third, swarm issues during the season. Usually after going a short distance the swarm alights on a bush or the limb of a tree, and here the bee keeper follows and the swarm is skill- fully transferred to a hive. In the picture we see a large swarm which settled on a slender tree, bending it over by its weight. A SMOKER. This picture shows the tool which is used by men in getting the honey from the hive. We cannot drive bees from the hive, as we can drive cattle and horses with a whip. If you were to try it you would soon be driven off yourself by the angry bees, with their terrible sting. It is here that the power of smoke comes in. Blow a few puffs of smoke into a hive and it is astonishing to see the bees turn about and retreat in perfect dis- may and fright. The above cut shows a picture of a device which is used for this purpose. In the can there is a little fire made with rotten wood or other material. The bellows forces the smoke through the mouth of the smoker into the hive. The bees soon become quiet and stupid and the comb can be handled without trouble. A HONEY EXTRACTOR. The above is the picture of a honey extractor The original honey extractor was invented by a major in the German army who saw his little boy swinging an unsealed comb in a basket on the end of a string. He swung it around his head and his father noticed that the honey oozed out. Then he made a machine such as you see in the picture which, when whirled very fast, forced the honey out of the comb, just as the cream separator separates the milk from the cream. After it is forced from the comb the honey drops to the bottom of the machine. BEECHER 193 BEER America has but one native beech, a tree of which we are justly proud. It is a round-topped tree; grows from 50 to 120 feet high; has abundant, thin, soft leaves, whose perfection is seldom lessened by insect attacks. The leaves are alternate, oblong-ovate, strongly veined. In autumn they turn yellow, remaining on the tree very late. The bark is of unique beauty, smooth, shining, bhiish-gray, the limbs darker. The flower is inconspicuous. The fruit is a small, sweet, three-angled nut, the well known delicious little beech-nut. In Europe an oil made from the nut and called beech-oil, is extensively used for food; the nuts themselves are fed to swine, poultry, etc. The tree is widely distributed, its range being from Nova Scotia to Florida and westward. It grows best in sandy loam and limestone soil. Both Indians and early American settlers believed that a beech was never struck by lightning a tradition that has its believers today. See Bailey: Cyclopedia of American Horticulture; Rogers : The Tree Book; Lounsberry: A Guide to the Trees. Beecher, Henry Ward, a great Ameri- can preacher and author, son of Dr. Lyman Beecher, was born at Litchfield, Conn., June 24, 1813. He studied at Boston Latin School and Amherst College, taking his theological studies at Lane Seminary, Cin- cinnati, of which his father was then presi- dent. He began preaching at Lawrenceburg, Ind., then removed to Indianapolis. In 1847 he was called to Plymouth Congre- gational Church in Brooklyn, which was just formed. Here he remained, attracting an immense congregation, until his death, March 8, 1887. As a preacher Mr. Beecher had great power. A rich voice, great vigor of action, a fine intel- lect, a warm sym- pathy for men of all classes and strong faith in God made him one of the great- est of pulpit orators. As writer, lecturer and orator he was hardly less gifted, his speeches and HENRY WARD BEECHER ^wspaper articles during the war pro- ducing a great effect both in his own country and in England. He wrote for many years for the New York Indepen- dent, and some of his articles were col- lected and published as Star Papers. He also founded the Christian Union. Among his published writings are Lectures to Young Men, Life Thoughts, Norwood, a novel, and a Life of Christ. Beecher, Lyman, a great American preacher and theologian, was born at New Haven, Conn., Oci. 12, 1775. He studied at LYMAN BEECHER New Haven, graduated at Yale College, studied theology for a year, and began preaching at East Hampton, Long Island, where he remained until 1810. He then went to Litchfield, Conn., where were born his two most famous children. Henry Ward and Harriet ( Mrs. Stowe) , though nearly all of his twelve children are well known. Here he soon made his mark as one of the first pulpit ora- tors of the time, and preached his famous Six Sermons on In- temperance, at a time when the cause of tem- perance was very unpopu- lar. After sixteen years he was called to Hanover Street Church, Boston, and during six years of hard work here he engaged in a theological discussion with Dr. Chan- ning. _Lane Theological Seminary at Cin- cinnati next called him to be its president. While here he was charged with heresy, tried and acquitted. He spent twenty years in the seminary, resigning when his health failed and spending the last ten years of his life in Brooklyn. He died Jan. 10, 1863, at the age of 88. He had many oddities. When excited by preaching, he used to divert himself by playing Auld Lang Syne on the fiddle, or dancing the double shuffle in his parlor. He also kept a pile of sand in his cellar, which he shoveled back and forth for exercise. His Sermons and his Autobiography have been edited by his son Charles. Beer, a fermented or worked liquor made from malted grain, usually barley, though wheat and, in India, rice are also used. There are various names to distinguish the different kinds of beer. Table beer, pale ale, mild ale and porter are names to mark slight differences in the process of fermentation or in the proportions of materials used. This drink has been known from the earliest times, the Egyptians using it 3,000 years before the Christian era. It is now the general drink of many nations. In making or brewing beer the first step is to soak or steep the barley in iron cisterns for a period from seventy-two to ninety-six hours, when the water is drained off and the barley thrown on to the malting floor, where it sprouts as it does when planted. This is called germination, and when it has gone far enough to produce the largest amount of sugar in the barley, the malt, as it is now called, is taken to the drying kiln. After drying, it is crushed, BEERSHEBA 194 BEET-SUGAR and the crushed malt or grist is mixed with hot water in the mash-tub. Here an im- portant change occurs, by which the starch in the barley is turned into grape-sugar. After a few hours the liquid, now called wort, is drained off and boiled with hops, which give beer its bitter taste, and help to keep it. It is strained, cooled and put into a large vessel, called a fermenting tun; yeast is added, and the fermentation goes on for several hours, when the beer is drawn off into casks and stoied in cellars for use. This process is varied in different manufac- tories and for different kinds of beer, but the general method Is the same. Among na- tions the Belgians use the most beer, con- suming about thirty-six gallons for each person every year, though some single states in Germany use more as Wurttemberg, where the average is forty or fifty gallons to a person. _ In the United States the amount used is about fourteen gallons to a person, and nearly 50,000,000 barrels are produced yearly, besides that which is imported. In the British Isles the con- sumption of beer annually is in the vicinity of 34,000,000 barrels, at a cost of $15 per barrel an average expenditure per head of about $20, reckoning the present day population at a little over 43 millions. In Germany the consumption of malt liquor, exceeds that of Great Britain and that of the United States by about 30,000,000 gallons annually. In Austria-Hungary the yearly consumption is about 550,000,000 gallons; while Belgium consumes close upon 400,000,000 gallons. Beersheba (be-Sr'shg-bd), now called Bir- es-Se-ba, a place on the southern border of Palestine, about fifty-two miles southwest of Jerusalem. The name means the "well of the oath," and it was so called because here Abraham made a covenant with Abimelech, the Philistine king, and sealed it with an oath and a gift of lambs. In the 4th century A. D. it was a large village, with a Roman garrison. In the i4th century some churches were still standing there. Little is now left but a heap of ruins and two of its wells, which afford an abundant supply of pure water. Beethoven (ba'td-ven), Ludwig Van, a famous musician, was born at Bonn in 1770. A member of a musical family, he early showed evidences of his genius and at the age of four was taught to play the harpsi- chord, as the piano was then called. By the age ot fourteen, when he became assistant court-organist he had already composed music and gained a reputation. He studied now under Mozart at Vienna and later under Haydn. He composed piece after piece with' a wonderful rapidity and power. He was admired by many, and his career seemed to be one ot great promise. But he became totally deaf, and from that time gave up society and shut himself up with his music and his books. His work went on, and kept growing in power and beauty. His compositions numbered 138, of which his symphonies and grand sonatas are alone said to be sufficient to make his name immortal. The ninth or Choral Symphony is held by many to be the most wonderful of all his compositions. Though from the standpoint of musical science his music is perfect, yet it is so human and full of feeling that it has ever had a strong hold upon all classes. He died at Vienna, March 26, 1827. Beetle, the name of the largest order of insects. They have usually four wings, but the front pair forms hard and bony covers for those behind, which alone are used in flying. They have long legs and two strong jaws for gnawing. Their food varies from hard wood to soft fruits and the carcasses of animals. They live in the water and on land, under bark and stones and on plants, digging in the ground or drilling holes in wood. There are three changes which they undergo. They are first larvae or grubs with wormlike bodies, horny heads and three pairs of legs. Then they enter the second or pupa state, sometimes lying foi years in their cocoons or cases before be coming full beetles. There are about 100,000 different kinds, varying in form, color, size or habit. Of these more than 8,000 kinds are found in the United States. The tiger beetle is named from its striped body and fierce habits. It preys on cater- pillars, flies and other beetles. The bom- bardier beetle shoots a strong liquid at its enemies; scavenger beetles live on filth, cleaning away a great deal. Of these, some are called carrion beetles, because they live on the dead bodies of animals, and others sexton beetles, as they bury the dead bodies of animals, and lay their eggs there, and the larvae, when hatched, feed on them. The ordinary potato beetle and tumble bugs belong to this class. The latter roll balls of manure and push them along or carry them on their flat heads, and put them in deep holes after laying their eggs in them A related species was held sacred among the Egyptians. There are many blind beetles, these living in caves and under stones. Familiar beetles are the fire-fly, glow-worm and lady-bird and oil beetle. While cer- tain species are highly useful, on the whole, beetles are pests, and the larval state lasts a number of years. They work destruction in crops, wood, lumber, fur, wool, hides, books, etc. The larvae are generally called grubs. Of beetles' usefulness it may be said that many fertilize flowers; some de- stroy plant-eating insects, and of this species the lady-bird is an excellent illustration. Enemies of the beetle are birds, rodents, frogs, reptiles, flies, wasps, etc. See IN SECTS. Beet-Sugar. See SUGAR. A beetle grub traveled 1^4 miles on these paper rolls. He was kept "inked" like a pen and so wrote his own record. A PIGMY FRIEND "WROTE" THIS D D D D D a a a a a a a a a a a a a D a D a a a a D G a a a G a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a G D a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a n o D a G D annnnnDaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaannaaDnnaaanaDQDanQnnnannaaaaaaonnnaaaDa Such beetles are imported by our government because they live on destructive cater- pillars, and the above record was made to learn how far they could travel in search of food. They were brought from Europe in these match boxes. On the right is a beetle breeding house. The picture on the left shows glass jars of earth containing eggs of these beetles hatching in the sun ; on the right,, how beetles are carried into the field for planting colonies. Every hole is the house of a beetle. (x) "O W C PQ _ fe > O -o O s a BEGONIA 195 BELGIUM Bego'nia, a genus of tropical shrubs and herbs, perennial, succulent and often bear- ing handsome flowers, abounds in South America, Mexico and Central America. Some varieties of begonia are highly popular for the house and garden The roots are often bulbous, but sometimes fibrous. It is to be noted that the fibrous rooted be- gonia flowers in winter; the tuberous in summer. The begonia needs protection against excessive sun or drought; but is easily grown in the house or conservatory. An Asiatic variety, the Rex Begonia, is re- markable for its handsome foliage. Begums or Princesses of Oude, The. The wife and mother of Sujah Dowlah, Nabob of Oude, who figured in the impeach- ment of Warren Hastings, England's great proconsul in India, and in Macaulay's great essay on him and his rule. In 1775 when the nabob died, the two princesses claimed that his hoarded treasure, amount- ing to two or three million pounds sterling, had been made over to them as their pri- vate property and could not be used as revenues of the state foi; the payment of tribute to the East India Company or for any other purpose. The new ruler, Asaph- ul-Dowlah, by dint of coaxing, had got his mother and grandmother to dole out some of the treasure. It was the remainder of it that Warren Hastings set his eyes upon, and, with the nabob's connivance, endeav- ored to wring from the princesses, with what success is seen in the impeachment and famous trial of Hastings. Bel'fast, the second city in Ireland, capital of Ulster and headquarters of Presby- terianism in Ireland, is situated in the county of Antrim, in the northeast part of the island, on the Belfast Lough or Bay, twelve miles from the Irish Sea. Its population is 385,492. Several bridges cross the River Lagan, and a number of pleasant villas lie on either side of the bay. Pictur- esque hills to the north give the city a pleasant appearance, and much is constantly being done to improve it. Besides public buildings and churches, there are several colleges and schools, such as Queen's College, Belfast Academy and the national schools. The linen and shipbuilding trades are chief among those that give Belfast its prosperity, about -five per cent, of the population being employed in the linen trade. Belgium (bel'fi-um), one of the smaller European states, lying between France and the Netherlands, the North Sea and Rhenish Prussia. It is divided into nine provinces, and comprises 11,373 square miles, less than one third the size of Indiana. It has a population of 7,160,547, or 629 persons to the square mile, so that Belgium is the most densely populated country in Europe. Dutch, Germans, French, Flemings and Walloons are found among its population. There are twenty-six towns with over 20,000 inhabitants, of which the capital, Brussels (population, 612,401), Antwerp (297,311). Ghent (163,059) and Liege (12^,207) are the largest. Most of the country is low, and part of it is protected from the sea by dykes. The Scheldt and the Meuse, with their branches, and a system of canals afford abundant water supply. The farm- ing is like gardening on a large scale, so carefully is every inch of soil cultivated. All kinds of grain are raised. The land is rich in minerals, including coal, iron, lead, copper, zinc and marble. The chief manu- factures are linen, woolen, cotton and silk goods, lace, leather and metals, besides sugar-refineries and distilleries, steel works, blast and puddling furnaces. For many years Belgium led Europe in commerce, and her foreign trade is still very large. The people are mainly Roman Catholic. Culture has been hindered some- what by the many different dialects in use; but there are many scientific and literary societies and museums, public libraries, music and art schools and universities at Ghent, Louvain, Liege and Brussels. At- tached to the universities are schools of engineering, arts, manufactures, mining, etc., with a combined attendance in 1909-10 of 2,407 students. There are also 85 schools of design, with nearly 15,000 students, several royal conservatories and other schools of music with 20,192 students, be- side the Royal Academy of Fine Arts at Antwerp, with 850 students in 1909. Belgium numbers Rubens, Teniers and Van Dyck among its great artists. The standing army is fixed at 42,800 in time of peace, with 180,000 on a war-footing. Belgium has no navy. The government is a constitutional monarchy, in which the succession is hereditary. There are two houses, much like those in the United States a senate (having no members), elected for eight years, and a chamber of represen- tatives (present number being 166), elected for four years. The history of Belgium as a separate king- dom dates from the year 1831, when it parted from Holland. Its provinces, how- ever, have figured in history from the days of the Caesars. They often served as the battle-ground of Europe, and the battle of Waterloo was fought on the soil of Bra- bant, a province of this kingdom. When Belgium became independent, Prince Leo- pold of Saxe-Coburg was elected king, and in 1865 his son, the present monarch, succeeded as Leopold II. War with Hol- land has several times threatened, and riots of workingmen and socialists have caused disturbance; but the country is steadily growing in prosperity. The reve- nue estimated for 1911 amounted to 658,- 724,000 francs, while the expenditure,' as per budget, was a fraction over 658,000,000 francs. The imports for 1910 showed a BELGRADE 196 BELL total of over 6,50*000,000 francs. The exports from the United States to Belgium, consisting of wheat, cotton, oil-cake, mineral oil, lard and tobacco, were valued in 1911 at $45,016,622, while the imports from Belgium into the United States, consisting of glass-work, rubber goods, iron and steel work and jewelry, had a gross value of $37,084,743. ^ The railways of Belgium in 1911, including the lines operated by the state and those operated by private com- panies, were 2,915 miles in length. Belgrade (bel'grad), meaning "white town," is the capital of Servia and lies at the junction of the Save and the Danube, with a population of 90,890. From a Turkish city it is year by year becoming a modern and European one. The royal palace and the national theater are the chief buildings. Opposite the theater is a bronze statue of the murdered Prince Michael III. It is important from the trade of Turkey and Austria which passes through it. Belgrade has been the scene of many hard fights, and has been successively in the hands of Romans, Greeks, Hungarians, Bulgarians, Servians, Turks, Austrians and French. It was made the capital of Servia in 1862, but the citadel was not given up by the Turks until 1867. Elementary education in the city and state is compulsory, and in all the schools under the ministry of education, including the university, education is free. Hence there is little pauperism, in the king- dom. Belgrade also forms a department of Servia, area 782 square miles; population, 155,815- Belisarius, a Byzantine general, was born about 505 and died in 565, the same year as his emperor, Justinian the Great. From the emperor's body-guard he rose to the chief command in the army. The wisdom of Justinian's appointment was apparent, for Belisarius with Narses helped to restore to the Roman Empire part of its lost possessions. In 530 he defeated the Persians, and in 532, when civil disturbances threatened to disrupt the empire and dis- place the emperor, Belisarius was recalled and with a body of followers restored order. After this he conquered the Vandals, in- vaded Italy in 548, conquered the Bulgarians in 559 and upon his return to Constanti- nople was accused of conspiracy. Justinian believed him innocent, however, and re- stored his rights and property of which he had been deprived. Many narratives are related of Belisarius, as that the emperor had his eyes plucked out and he became a street beggar, others of his imprisonment in a tower, etc. These legends are not credited, since no contemporary writer relates any of them. Belize (be-lez r ) or British Honduras, a British colony on the Bay of Honduras, in the Caribbean Sea. It forms the southeast part ef the Peninsula of Yucatan, and covers 7,562 square miles. The population is 40,458, only 500 being whites. The Cockscomb Mountains (4,000 feet) are the highest elevations, the land along the coast being swampy. The chief exports are mahogany, log-wood, sugar, coffee, cotton, cocoanuts, bananas, and india-rubber. Since 1862 it has been a British colony, and in 1903 the Bank of British Honduras was established at Belize, population 10,478. Belknap, George Eugene, American naval officer, born in Newport, N H., January 22, 1832. He received appoint- ment as midshipman in the navy in 1852, and was successively lieutenant-commander, commander, captain, commodore and rear admiral. He was present in China in 1856 at the taking of the Barrier Forts, and in the Civil War took part in the bombard- ment of Charleston Harbor. He achieved distinction while engaged in deep-sea sound- ing in 1873. While thus engaged in the north Pacific Ocean, he made discoveries relating to the topography of the ocean bed, which attracted the scientific world. He published, among other works, Deep Sea Soundings, and in 1885 was appointed superintendent of the United States Naval Observatory. He was retired in 1894, and died April 7, 1903, at Key West, Florida. Bell. From the earliest times bells of some sort have been in use. For their manufacture, the material most approved in all ages has been a mixture of copper and tin called bronze; but the proportions of the two metals vary. For a long time in Europe, two parts of copper to one of tin were considered the best ratio, but at pres- ent much more copper is used, the ratio being about thirteen parts to four. Steel, silver and glass have also been used for bells^ but are not as good as bronze. With any metal the pitch of the bell depends upon the ratio between the thickness of the striking-place and the diameter. Bells were used among many early nations in religious ceremonies, and so came naturally into use in Christian churches. From Italy their use spread over Europe between the 6th and 1 2th centuries. Most of these bells were hand-Dells, made of thin plates of hammered iron, bent into a four-sided shape, fastened with rivets and bronzed. One of these early bells, called The Bell of Patnck's Will, is still preserved at Belfast. When bells came to be hung in steeples or belfries, they were at first small; but were gradually made larger; the largest bell in the world was cast in 1734. It is called the Great Bell or Monarch of Moscow. It is over 21 feet in height and diameter, and weighs 193 tons. It fell down during a fire in 1737, was injured, and remained unrestored until 1837, when it was raised, and now forms the dome of a chapel made BELL IQ7 BELL by digging out the space beneath it. Other large bells are the Great Bell of Pekin (53 K tons), and the Kaiserglocke of Cologne cathedral (26 tons), made out of 22 French cannon. The largest bell in the New World is in the cathedral of Notre Dame at Mon- treal (29,400 Ibs.)- Many early super- stitions have gathered around bells; they were believed to drive away storms and pestilence and to put out fire. From re- ligious customs connected with them bells have acquired a sacred character. At one time they were tolled when any great per- sonage was passing out of the world, and they are now often tolled after deaths and before funerals. The ave bell, sanctus bell and ves- per bell are among those used in the Roman Catholic church. The curfew bell was rung to warn people to put out their fires and lights at eight o'clock in the evening, and this eight o'clock bell is still rung in many parts of England and Scotland Many churches now have peals or chimes, on which tunes are played. Tune-playing bells are sometimes sounded by means of a cylin- der, just as a barrel organ; others are played with keys by a musician. The best chimes consist of from eight to twelve bells. The muffled peal, which gives one of the finest effects, is rung with a leather cap over half the clapper, making the chimes first clear and then dull. In casting bells, the core or part which fills the inside of the bell is first made of brickwork covered with soft clay; then the outer mold or cope is fashioned in the form of the outer surface of the bell and fitted over the core, leaving a hole in the top for the escape of the air. The melted metal is then poured in. Electric bells have of recent years been extensively used in offices and houses See ELECTRICITY. Bell, Alexander Graham, one of the inventors of the telephone, was born at Edinburgh in 1847, was educated at the High School and in Germany, and in 1872 introduced into the United States the system of deaf-mute instruction which his father had in- vented. Having for some time experimented on the trans- mission of sound by elec- tricity, he ex- hibited his tele- phone at Phil- adelphia in 1876, and its success from that time on was assured. He has also in- vented the ra- diophone. Since 1881 he has ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL lived in Wash- myten. Considered as th inventor of the telephone, Bell's great merit lies in the fact that he, at the same time with Elisha Gray, recognized that human speech cannot be transmitted by means of an intermittent current, but requires an undulating current. Bell saw that an intermittent current might reproduce the pitch and amplitude of a sound, but without a continuous cur- rent one could not reproduce the quality of the sound. Bell, Henry (1767-1830), a Scottish engineer, born in Linlithgowshire, who served his apprenticeship to his uncle, a millwright, but later became interested in ship-modelling under John Rennie of Lon- don, the notable civil engineer. Returning to Helensburgh, on the Clyde, in 1808, he pursued his experiment with the steam en- gine and achieved fame by constructing and sailing on the Clyde the steamship Comet, the herald of steam navigation in the Old World. Fulton, it is asserted, gained his ideas of steam navigation on water highways from Bell. Bell, Henry Haywood (1808-68), Ameri- can rear-admiral, was born in North Carolina and in 1823 entered the United States Navy as midshipman. He early saw service in China and in 1856 was in command at the attack on the Barrier Forts, at Canton. In 1862, during the War of the Rebellion, he acted as fleet captain of the West Gulf Squadron and led a division of gunboats in the attack upon Forts St. Philip and Jackson, part of the defences of New Orleans. In the following year, he took command of the blockading squadron dur- ing the temporary absence of Admiral Farragut. In 1865 he was in command of an United States Squadron operating in the East Indies, and two years later met his death by drowning in an attempt to pass in his barge over the bar at the mouth of Osaka River, Japan. Bell, John, a notable Tennessee publicist, speaker of Congress and founder of the Whig party, was born near Nashville, Tenn., in 1797, and died at Cumberland Iron Works, Tenn., September 10, 1869. Graduating in 1814 from the University of Nashville, he studied law, and in 1817 became a senator for his state. From 1827 to 1841 he served in Congress, and for a year was speaker of the house. In 1841 he became secretary of war in President Harrison's cabinet, but resigned the office when President Tyler abandoned the Whig party. After some years of retirement, he from 1847 to 1859 was United States senator, and in 1860 became candidate of the Constitutional Union party for president. He took no part in the Civil War, as he condemned secession, though he abjured coercion Bell, Robert, I.S.O., D.Sc., M.D , C.M , F.G.S., F.R.S.C., F.R.S., was born in To- ronto, June 3, 1841, and educated at McGill BELLAIRE 198 BELOIt University, where he was graduated in tince, medicine and surgery, later study- ing chemistry in Montreal and under Lord Playfair at Edinburgh. He joined the geo- logical survey of Canada in 1857, and has ever since been engaged in extensive topo- graphical and geological surveys through- out the Dominion, Bell River being officially named after him. He has been royal com- missioner on the mineral resources of On- tario, 1888-9, a member of the American Institute of Mining Engineers, member of the government geographical board, pro- fessor of chemistry and natural science in Queen's University, Kingston, from 1863 to 1867, and is honorary chief of the Algonkin Indians of Grand Lake. His published writings aggregate two hundred titles, in- cluding geology, geography, biology and folk-lore. Bellaire (b^l-lar^, a city in Belmont County, Ohio, on the Ohio River, five miles south of Wheeling, West Virginia. The region around Bellaire abounds in coal, iron, limestone, cement and brick clay. The city has manufactories of stoves, carriages, glass, foundry and machine-shop products. Bellaire has all the improvements of a progressive city. Population, 13,896. Bell'amy, Edward, American economist, journalist and story writer, was born in Massachusetts, Mar. 26, 1850, and died there May 22, 1898. Entering journalism as a profession, he was for a time on the staff of the New York Evening Post and later was editorial writer and critic for the Spring- field Union. Owing to poor health, he made a voyage in 1876 to the Sandwich Islands, and after this began to write short stories for the magazines. His chief success, how- ever, was his socialistic novel, Looking Back- ward, which, issued in 1888, had a sale of over 300,000 copies in this country. In- spired by the book, " Bellamy " commu- nities became for a time the vogue. His later works embrace Equality, The Blind Man's World and other stories. Bellefon'taine, Ohio, a city, the county seat of Logan County on the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis and the Toledo and Ohio Central railroad, 30 miles north of Springfield and 45 northwest of Columbus. Besides a large railway plant and carshops, the city, which dates from 1818, has a number of manufactures of iron bridges, carriage bodies, tools, harness, etc., besides the city's gas, electric-plant and water-works. It has also a flour-mill. It has a number of churches and several good schools. Population, 8,238. Belleville, 111., county-seat of St. Clair County, southwestern Illinois, 14 miles southeast of St. Louis, is beautifully sit- uated in the midst of rolling and somewhat broken country. It has good railroad con- nections and has nearby shipping facilities furnished by the Mississippi. It has fifteen large foundries, extensive brick works, fac- tories for the manufacture of farm imple- ments, breweries, hosiery mills and two shoe factories. It possesses some fine civic buildings, good public schools, many churches, a large convent and handsome residences. It has 25 miles of paved streets. Population, 25,000. Belleville is a manufacturing city of 9,117 souls, admirably placed on the north shore of the Bay of Quint and on the Grand Trunk Railway. It is the county seat of Hastings County, Ontario, the southern terminal of the Midland Railway, and is touched by a line of lake steamers on Lake Ontario. Bellevue, Ky., a city, in Campbell County, on the Ohio River, opposite Cincin- nati, and on the Chesapeake & Ohio Rail- road. Settled in 1871, it was incorporated in 1871. An attractive residential suburb of Cincinnati, it is connected with the latter by electric railway. Population is now 6,683. Bellicent. In the Arthurian legends Bellicent is represented as the daughter of Gorlois and Ygerne and the half-sister of King Arthur. She was the wife of Lot, King of Orkney. When King Lodogran hesitated to give his daughter Guinevere to King Arthur in marriage because of the doubts about Arthur's parentage, Bellicent won his consent to the marriage. See Tennyson's Idylls of the King. Bell'ingham, Wash., a city in Whatcom County, on -Puget Sound and on the Canadian Pacific, C. M. & St. Paul, Great Northern and the Northern Pacific rail- roads, 70 miles north of Seattle, west of Mount Baker and near the British Columbia boundary. It has a fine land-locked harbor, an inlet of the Strait of Georgia, and has communication by steamer not only with Seattle, but with San Francisco and the nearby city of Victoria the capital of British Columbia. Besides its shipping trade, chiefly in lumber, it has a large number of shingle and saw mills and several large salmon canneries. Population, 36,890. Bellini (bel-le'ne), Vincenzo, a composer of operas, was born at Castania, in Sicily, in 1802, and was the son of an organist. He was sent to the conservatory of Naples, where he studied composition. After a number of early operas had made him known in Italy, he wrote, in 1827, the opera // Pirata, which gave him a name in the musical world. Fcr the next eight years he wrote a fresh opera almost every year, and visited Paris and London. When only thirty-two years old, and before his powers were fully developed, he died near Paris, Sept. 21, 1835. Among his best works are Norma, I Puritani and La Sonnambula. His operas are replete with sweet melodies. Beloit (be-loit'}, a city of Rock County, Wisconsin, situated on Rock River, ninety- 4iaiiiniiiiiiiDiiiniiiiiiiiiaitiiiiiiiiiiDiiiHiiiiiiiioiiNiiiiiniiDiiiiiiiuiiiaidiiiiiiL; A HiiiiiiiiiiioiiiiiiiiiiiiiHiiiiiiiiiiioiiiiiiiiiioiiiiiiiiiiiHiiiiiiiiiinn* g St. Peter's Where the Pope Holds Service ST. PETER'S, where the Pope holds service, is the world's largest and most magnificent church. It stands on the right of the Tiber near the Vatican in a space in the form of an ellipse. From it extend the huge colonnades or covered drives which you see. The dome of the capitol at Washington is copied from the dome of St. Peter's, the erection of which was supervised by Michelangelo. Now imagine yourself in this wonder- ful building looking at the group by the famous Spanish painter, Mas y Fondevila, "AVorshippers at St. Peter's." With what skill the artist has brought out the lights and shadows in this vast palace of religion and art and emphasized the motherhood of the church which knows no distinction of rank or class. What a variety of figures and attitudes the young Italian mother with her babe, one old man with his head bowed upon his cane, another, rheumatic and in rag- ged shoes holding to the chair to pre- vent himself from falling, as he bows in worship. \Vorshippers in St. Peter's, by Ar la ( Spanish b. 1850) $Hiiiiiiiiinoiiiiiiiiiioiiiii!iiiioiiiiiiiiRoiiimiimainim POPE BENEDICT XV BELT OF CALMS 199 BENGALI two miles northwest of Chicago. It is a handsome town, built on the bluffs over- looking the river, and has a well-laid- out park. Among its manufactures are paper-mill and wood-working machinery, steam-pumps, gas and gasoline engines, agricultural implements, shoes, hosiery and paper. The river furnishes excellent power for manufacturing, and Beloit has the serv- ice of two railroads. It is the seat of Beloit College, a well-equipped and endowed insti- tution with a faculty of thirty. Population, 15,125. Belt of Calms, a narrow zone where the winds are weak and irregular, often dying into a calm. It lies along the line of greatest heat around the globe, and shifts north or south with it. The northeast tradewinds are north of the belt, the southeast ones south. In this belt the tradewinds become hottest and lightest. Belt of Heat, the regions on and near the equator, where the air is hot all the year, because at noon every day the rays of the sun strike straight down or nearly so. The slant of the sunshine varies but little. Day and night always are each about twelve hours long. The change of seasons is slight, and there is no winter. Beluchistan See BALUCHISTAN Bel'videre, III., a city, the county seat of Boone County, on the Kishwaukee River, and on the Chicago & Northwestern Rail- road, about 75 miles west-northwest of Chicago. It is an active industrial center, and is situated in a fine fertile region with large dairying interests. It has a number of fine municipal buildings, besides an opera house, a public library, good schools and church edifices. Its industrial establish- ments embrace automobiles, bicycles, sew- ing machines, boilers, screen doors, flour- mills, etc. Its water-works are owned and operated by the city. Population (1910), 7,253- t/ t, Benares (ben-d'rez), the most sacred city of the Hindus. Sacred bulls wander among its 1,450 Hindu temples and shrines and 272 Mohammedan mosques, pilgrims bathe in the Sacred Well, or Pool of Knowledge, and the Hindu dead are cremated in the Burning Ghat. The broad flights of stairs leading to the temples, standing on the high banks of the crescent sweep of the Ganges, present a view of striking beauty. The chief industries are the manufacture of muslins and silk shawls. Population 209,300, of whom 160,000 are Hindus. Benedict XV. was elected on September 3, 1914, as successor to Pope Pius X. He is the son of the Marchese della Chiesa, and at the time of his election was Cardinal Giacomo della Chiesa, Archbishop of Bologna. He is a comparatively young man for so responsible an office. He was born at Pegli, Italy, Nov- ember 21, 1854. Like his predecessor His Holiness is a man of unusual intellectual force and activity. His first public utterance was an appeal to the Roman Catholics throughout the world and to the peoples of Europe to pray and work for the end of the Great War. Bengal (ben-gal'), the most important of the seven great "provinces of British India. It lies in the west of India, between the Him- alayas on the north and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It is nearly as large as Spain, and its population is about 52,668,000, or nearly that of the population of the United States. Its capital is Calcutta. Eastern Bengal and Assam have, besides Bengal proper, an area of 106,130 square miles with a population of 30,961,459. Political Divisions and Cities. It is di- vided into nine large provinces, each under a commissioner, while these are again divided into forty-six districts, each with a magis- trate. Besides Calcutta there are few large cities; though there are over thirty towns, each with upwards of 20,000 inhabitants. There are about 2,000 miles of railway and 5,110 miles of telegraph line. Climate. The climate is generally hot and damp, and the rainfall in Chera Punji is the greatest reported in the world. Destruc- tive cyclones and floods are frequent, earth- quakes are not unknown, and famine, un- happily, is occasionally rife. Natural Resources. The land contains a good deal of mineral wealth, especially coal, iron and copper. On the seacoast are the trackless forests, which are the home of the tiger and the rhinoceros. The land is very rich, owing to the dressing of soil brought down every year by the immense network of rivers, the largest of which are the Ganges and the Brahmaputra. Occupations. Agriculture is the main occupation of the people, and among the products are indigo; jute, from which cer- tain cloths are made; cinchona, from whose bark quinine is made; the opium poppy, varieties of rice; grains, spices, cotton, sugar and drugs. The yearly exports amount in value to about $200,000,000. Education. Bengal stands far ahead of the rest of India in its provision for educa- tion. There are five colleges, connected with the University of Calcutta, and a fine system of public and private schools and special schools. Calcutta, including its suburbs has a population of 1,222,313. (For history see INDIA.) Bengali, a modern East Indian dialect, with a literature; it is akin to Hindustani and is spoken by nearly 45 millions of na- tives in the presidencies and chief provinces of British India. With Hindustani, it is BENGHAZI 200 BENNINGTON the language commonly heard in Calcutta and the Valley of the Ganges. It is related to Sanskrit, which has had an influence upon its inflexion and syntax, like other languages of the Aryan family. Its literature em- bodies translations of the chief Sanskrit epics, notably the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. See Dutt's Literature of Ben- gal; also dictionaries of Bengali, Sanskrit and English. Benghazi. See BARCA. Benguela (ben-gd'la), a district and gDrt in Angola, a colonial possession of ortugal on the west coast of Africa. It lies south of French Congo, and southward also from Sao Paulo de Loanda, the capital town of the district. Its trade is mainly with Portugal, its chief exports being coffee and rubber. Malachite, copper and iron, to- gether with petroleum and salt, are found in the province. Its soil is fertile and pro- duces a luxuriant vegetation; but the cli- mate, especially near the coast, is hot, humid and unhealthy. Besides the ship- ping trade in the coast towns, the province of Angola has now considerable railway traffic inland, with 250 miles of railway in operation. From Lobito Bay near Benguela a i,2oo-mile railway is being built to con- nect in Northern Rhodesia with the Cape- to-Cairo road. Ben'jamin, meaning "son of the right hand," was the youngest and best beloved of the sons of Jacob. He was at first named Benoni by his mother Rachel, but after her death the father changed the name to Benja- min. He was the founder of one of the two tribes of Israel whose warriors were noted for their skill in archery and for their cleverness with the left hand. On entering Canaan the tribe numbered 45,600 warriors above twenty years old. The territory of the tribe lay on the west side of the Jordan, between the tribes of Ephraim and Judah Saul, the first king of Israel, was a Benja- mite. After the death of Solomon, Benja- min along with Judah formed the kingdom of Judah, and on the return from the cap- tivity these two tribes formed the main element of the new Jewish nation. The Apostle Paul belonged to the tribe of Ben- jamin. Benjamin, Judah Peter, an American lawyer and politician, was born in 181 1 in the West Indies, of Jewish parents, who at a later day emigrated to the United States. He practiced law in New Orleans and became in- terested in politics, acting first with the Whigs. He was elected United States sena- tor from Louisiana in 1852, and on the slav- ery question sided with the Democrats. When Louisiana seceded, he withdrew from the senate and became a member of Jefferson Davis's cabinet as attorney-general. He was later secretary of war and then secretary of state until the downfall of the Confeder- acy. He then went to London, where he 'was called to the English bar and practiced with success until 1881, when he retired. He died in Paris, May 6, 1884. He pub- lished a treatise on the Law of Sale of Per- sonal Property. Ben'nett, James Gordon, founder and proprietor of the New York Herald, was born in Scotland in 1795, and studied to be a Roman Catholic priest, but, abandoning that idea, emigrated to America in 1819. For a livelihood, he tried teaching, proof- reading, writing and lecturing, and was connected with several newspapers, but remained a poor man, when in May, 1835, he issued the first number of the New York Herald. By his industry and sagacity he made the paper a great success, and soon became a wealthy man. His paper was the first one to publish the stock lists and a daily money article, and many other original features were afterwards added. When steam communication was opened with Europe, he crossed the Atlantic and made arrangements for correspondence from all countries. The first speech ever reported in full by the telegraph was sent to the Herald. The paper was independent in politics, but generally supported the Demo- cratic party. He died in New York, June 2, 1872, in the Roman Catholic faith. He be- queathed the Herald to his son, James Gor- don Bennett, who is now its editor and pro- prietor. The present editor, together with the London Daily Telegraph, supplied the funds for Stanley's journey across Africa (1874-7) from Zanzibar to Lakes Victoria and Tanganyika and down the Congo to the Atlantic. Ben Nevis (ben nev'ts) , a mountain of In- vernessshire, Scotland. One of the loftiest peaks in Great Britain, it has a height of 4,400 feet, with a precipice of 1,500 feet on the northeast side. A road was built to the summit in 1883, where a weather obser- vatory has been erected. A weather report is sent daily from this elevation and trans- mitted by telegraph over Scotland. Ben'nington, capital of the county of the same name in Vermont. The place is fa- mous because of the battle fought there in the Revolutionary War. On Aug. 16, 1777, Gen. Stark, at the head of a column of Green Mountain Boys, defeated a force commanded by Col. Baum, sent from Gen. Burgoyne's army to capture the public stores at Bennington. Six hundred British prisoners were captured In 1891 a monu- ment commemorating this event was dedi- cated; it is a shaft 301 'feet in height. The anniversary of this battle has been celebrated almost every year since, and in 1877 a centennial celebration was held, at which the then president of the United States and his cabinet, the governors and legislatures of Massachusetts, New Hamp- shire and Vermont, besides many promi- nent men of the army and navy and DI othei BENSON 20 X BERANGER states, were present There ar valuable deposits of brown hematite ore in the town and also considerable manufacturing, in- cluding knit goods, woolen goods and ma- chinery. Population 8,698. Benson, Arch'bishop Edward White, an English prelate and primate of all Eng- land (188296), was born in 1829 and died in Flintshire, Wales, After graduating at Trinity College, Cambridge, he taught for a while at Rugby, was head master of Well- ington College, chancellor of Lincoln Cathe- dral, and in 1877 was consecrated Bishop ot Truro. In 1882, on the recommendation of Mr. Gladstone, the Crown appointed him as successor to Dr. Tait in the Arch- bishopric of Canterbury. He held this high office in the church until his death October 10, 1896. Dr, Benson wrote several religious works and sermons, including The Seven Gifts, Christ and His Times and The Cathedral: its Necessary Place in the Life and Work of the Church. Benson, Maj.-Qen. Frederick William, son of the late Hon. J. R. Benson, senator of Canada, was born at St. Catharine's, Ont., August 2, 1849, an d educated at Upper Canada College and at the Royal Military College at Sandhurst. He served as a volunteer during the Fenian raids of 1866, joined the 2ist Hussars in 1869, has since seen much service in India, Egypt and South Africa, and has been director of trans- ports and remounts since 1903. Ben'ton, Thomas Hart, an American statesman and writer, was born in North Carolina, March 14, 1782. He subsequently moved to Tennessee, where he practiced law and served in the state legis- lature. After the War of 1812, in which he took part, he removed to St. Louis and there edited the Mis- souri Inquirer. In 1820 he was elected to the United States senate, where he served for thirty years, taking a strong stand on the questions which were then agitating the country. Because of his earnest support of President Jackson in his war on the United States Bank, he earned the name of Old Bullion. He opposed the compromise measures of 1850, and Calhoun's measures intended to pro- vide for the extension of slavery. His stand on the latter measure lost nim his scat in the senate. In 1852 he was elected THOMAS HART BENTON to the house of representatives; but two years later he was defeated as a candidate for re-election, and devoted the remainder of his life to literary work. He published Thirty Years' View or A History of the Working of the American Government from 1820 to 1857. He also abridged the De- bates of Congress from 1789 to 1856. He died at Washington, April 10, 1858. Benton Harbor, Mich., a city in Berrien County, on the St. Joseph River and on the Pere Marquette, the Cleveland, Cin- cinnati, Chicago & St. Louis and other railroads. It lies back one and one half miles from Lake Michigan, but is connected with it and its fine harbor by a ship canal, and from the harbor steamboat lines ply to Chicago, Milwaukee and other ports on the lake. It has a considerable trade in the product of the important mineral springs adjoining the city; while it also ships largely of flour, furniture, machinery, be- sides fruit, beet-sugar, pickles, cider and vinegar. Population, 11,000. Be'owulf, a long and notable Anglo- Saxon poem of the 8th or gth century, now among the treasures of the British Museum, in London. The poem or epic, it is thought by scholars, existed prior to the colonization of Britain by the Anglo-Saxons, and was probably brought to Britain by the early Teutonic invaders. Its hero is represented as a thane and, later, as a king of the Swedes, while the field of action is in Swedish and Danish territory. Beranger (ba'ran'zhd r ), Pierre Jean de, a great song writer of France, was born in Paris, August ip, 1780. He was brought up by his grandfather, a tutor, and later by his aunt, an innkeeper, who filled him with republican ideas. After a few years of work as a printer, he retired to a Paris garret, where he gave himself to literature and study But poverty soon again forced him into the world. He received aid from Lucien Bonaparte, and three years later was made a clerk in the Imperial University. In 1815 he published his first collection of songs, which made him the poetic champion of the masses who opposed the Bourbons. He wrote always for the working classes, for whom he had a deep sympathy, and he was so popular among them that his verses were repeated from mouth to mouth before they were printed, so that it has been said that he is the only poet since printing was invented who did not need its service. In 1821 two volumes of poems which he pub- ; lished were so strongly republican in senti- ment that he was brought to trial, fined 500 francs and sentenced to three months in prison; and in 1825 another set of songs caused him to be again imprisoned. While in prison he was visited by the great literary men of the day, including Victor Hugo, Dumas and Sainte-Beuve. In 1848 he was elected by more than 200,000 voters to BERBERS 202 BERGH represent the department of the Seine in the constituent assembly, but after a few days he resigned and retired to his quiet work and study, where he remained until his death, July 17, 1857. His songs have a lightness and wit, a smoothness of move- ment and, at times, a deep humanity and pathos, which make their author still the favorite singer of his countrymen. Besides his poems he wrote the story of his own life Berbers (ber*bers), an interesting people living in the mountainous regions of Bar- bary and in the northern parts of the Great Desert They are called Kabyles in Algeria, Shelluh in Morocco, and those in the desert, Tuaregs or Tawareks by the Arabs. They are the descendants of the earliest inhabitants of northern Africa, and though they have in their veins an admixture of negro blood, and have been conquered at different times by the Phoenicians, Romans, Vandals and Arabs, they are still in many respects a distinct and peculiar race. Their number is between three and four millions. They are fierce and cruel, and usually at war either with their neighbors or among them- selves. They have herds of sheep and cattle, till the soil, manufacture swords, guns and gunpowder, and work the mines of iron and lead in the Atlas Mountains. In appear- ance they are strongly built and of middle height, with a complexion varying from red to reddish brown. They are followers of Islam. Berea (bZr-e'a) College, a non-secta- rian, co-educational institution situated in Berea, Ky. In 1906 there were 1,018 students enrolled. The president is Wm. G. Frost, Ph.D., D.D. The college was founded in 1855 ^7 anti-slavery South- erners, and was intended for the youth of the mountainous district of the South. For many years it admitted both white and colored students, but in 1904 the legislature of Kentucky passed a bill pro- hibiting co-education of the races in any of the educational institutions of that State. The object of this bill was to break up the co-education of races in Berea College. Beresford, Lord Charles, born 1846, rear-admiral of the British navy, gained distinction by his skillful operation of the gunboat Condor at the bombardment of Alexandria in 1882. In this action he silenced one of the strongest Egyptian bat- teries. He served in Egypt under Lord Wolseley, and commanded the naval bri- gade in battle after battle. In 1875 he accompanied the Prince of Wales on his visit to India. Lord Charles visited the United States in 1899 and again in 1906, on the latter occasion to claim a legacy. He has earnestly endeavored to promote a gocd understanding between the United States, Eaiglad and Germany upon the Chinese question. He advocates the. " open- door" policy. He is a prominent member of Parliament, and has written books upon the Chinese question and the life and times of Lord Nelson. Ber'gamot, Oil of, made of the rind of the fruit of the so-called Bergamot orange, now cultivated in the south of Europe. The oil is used in making pomades, fragrant essences, cologne, etc., and also in diluting the expensive oil of chamomile. It is of a pale yellow color or almost colorless. It is obtained by distilling or by grating down the orange rinds and then subjecting them to a strong pressure. One hundred Berga- mot oranges will yield about two and a half ounces of oil. The name comes from Ber- gama, a city in Asia Minor, the ancient Pergamos. Bergen, Norway, founded in 1070 A.D., is the center of the fish trade of the North- men; and has now some 75,000 inhabitants. Bergen lies to the northwest of Christiania about 1 86 miles. It is a picturesque city, being surrounded on three sides by water, and enclosed upon the fourth side by moun- tains three thousand feet in height. Bergerac (her' zhe-rdk') , S. Cyrano de (1619-55), a noted French dramatist and novelist, with a gift for the writing of bur- lesque romance and satire. Born at the Chateau de Bergerac in Perigord, he grew up a man of the world, entered the army, and is known to have fought many duels. He gave free play to his satirical humor, which at times got him into trouble, par- ticularly with the Jesuits of his era, whom he satirized, as in his political letters and quips he satirized Cardinal Mazarin, Prime Minister of France during the minority of Louis XIV, He is doubtless best known, however, by his Comic Histories of the States and Empires of the Moon, with a companion work on the Sun. The influence of these books can be traced in the imagi- native and whimsical later work of Dean Swift, Jules Verne and Edgar Allen Poe. Bergerac's other work embraces a comedy of character, entitled Le Pedant lone, and Agrippine, a tragedy. Bergerac is the theme of a brilliant modern drama by Edouard Rostand, Cyrano de Bergerac, played with acceptance not only in France, but in England and the United States. Ber- gerac, as has been often remarked, was the first author to use the novel to teach natural science, as he was the first author of note in France to manifest the influence of early English fiction. Bergh, Henry, a philanthropist and author, was born in the city of New York, of German parents, in 1823. After he graduated from Columbia College, he wrote several poems, dramas, sketches, and served as secretary of legation to Russia; but on returning from abroad, he determined to devote the remainder of his life to the cause of dumb animals. On April 10, 1866, after BERING SEA 303 BERKELEY several years of hard work, in speaking, lecturing and working in the street, in the court-room and in the halls of legislature, the first Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals was incorporated by the legislature of New York, and since then most of the states and territories have organized societies. Cruelty to animals of all kinds is dealt with by the society, and a great work has already been done in educating public opinion to the sense of the need of reform. There is now a very large membership, and many friends have donated money liberally to its support, one patron, Mr. Lewis Bonard, giving his entire fortune of $150,000. Out of this movement has also grown the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children, which has become almost as widespread as the original society. Henry Bergh died in New York, March 12, 1888. Be'ring (or Behring) Sea, a part of the North Pacific Ocean, commonly known as the Sea of Kamchatka, is bounded by Kamchatka, Alaska, the Aleutian Islands and Bering Strait, which connects it with the Arctic Ocean. The strait was gissed through first by a Siberian named eschner, in 1648, and later the sea and strait were explored by Bering, a Danish navigator in the employ of Peter the Great, in 1741. The latter died on Bering Island, one of the Aleutian group. The seal fish- eries of Bering Sea caused a sharp dispute between the United States and Great Britain on behalf of Canada. These fisheries, owned and operated by Americans directly for their own benefit, but indirectly for the benefit of the world, were in danger of being entirely destroyed by the lawless acts of the Canadian seal-fishers or sealers An agreement was concluded which per- mitted the United States to put a stop to the acts of the Canadian sealers and pro- vided that the whole dispute be settled peaceably by a board of arbitrators. Bering Strait, a narrow water-passage north of the Aleutian Islands and Bering Sea, in the Northern Pacific, connecting the latter with the Arctic Ocean. It is in the vicinity of long. 170 W., having on the east of it Alaska and on the west the projecting peninsula of Siberia, in Rus- sian Asia. It was at an early era discovered by a Russian Cossack navigator, named Deshneff, and subsequently explored by Captains Bering and Cook. At its narrow- est part it is about 40 miles in width ; and has a depth varying from 150 to 250 leet, the deeper water being on the Asiatic side. St. Lawrence Island lies to the south of the Strait, in Bering Sea. Berkeley (berk'li), a town in Alameda County, California, in Oakland Township, is situated on the east shore of San Fran- cisco Bay opposite the Golden Gate. It is five miles from the city of Oakland, which lies immediately south of it i and eight miles from San Francisco. The South- ern Pacific and Santa Fe railroads both pass through the town. Communication with San Francisco every twenty minutes is furnished by the Southern Pacific local trains and the Realty Syndicate furnishes a like number of the best equipped electric trains every hour. A large number of manufactures and planing mills are located near the water front. The University of California, the State Agricultural College and the State Institution for the Deaf, Dumb and Blind are loc ,ted here. The population, which is growing quite rapidly, is now 54,879. There is a complete school system, in- cluding manual training, domestic science, primary and grammar schools and high schools, including a Polytechnic High School. Within the last two years, bonds to the amount of one-half million dollars have been voted for school purposes, and municipal bonds for a like amount for other municipal improvements have also been voted. Berkeley, George, bishop of Cloyne. was born near Kilkenny, Ireland, in 1685. After graduating at Trinity College, Dublin, he remained there thirteen years as a fellow, studying and writing on philoso- phy. His theory, called Idealism was that the world exists only in our thoughts and that the objects around us are only ideas, which God, as the highest reason, causes to pass before our minds. At Trinity, he had become a friend of Dean bwift, and in 1713 he went to London, where Swift introduced him into the brilliant society of the reign of Queen Anne. He next traveled for some years through France and Italy On his return he wrote a great deal on social ques- tions. In 1 7 2 8, having formed a plan to con- vert the American savages, he came to Amer- ica, and for three years lived in Rhode Island, writing, studying and preaching. He then gave up his work and returned to England, leaving his library of 800 volumes and his es- tate in Rhode Island, called Whitehall, to Yale College. He was soon after made bishop of Cloyne, in the south of Ireland, where he lived for eighteen years, and then removed to London and died in January, 1753. Be- sides his writings on philosophy and social questions, Bishop Berkeley wrote the well- known stanzas On the Prospect of Planting Arts and Learning in America, in which occurs the famous line : " Westward the course of empire takes its way." Berkeley, Sir William, colonial governor of Virginia in the time of Charles I and Charles II of England, was born near London in 1608, and died in England in 1677. He was commissioned royal governor of Virginia in 1641, and being a monarchist and partisan of the crown, he held, for nearly thirty-five years, this colonial outpost, with BERLIN 204 BERLIN the exception of the interval of the Common- wealth. During the Cromwellian period Virginia was an asylum for many English- men of rank who were loyal to the crown; the colony, indeed, was among the last of the crown possessions abroad to acknowledge the Protector's authority. Berkeley, in his later years, grew irascible and intolerant, and behaved despotically toward those who took part in Nathaniel Bacon's rebellion (see tre latter). He was opposed to free schools, to printing and to religious liberty, and was recalled to England in 1676. Ber'lin. A city of 13,664 in Waterloo County (Ontario) , one of the busiest manu- facturing centers in all Canada. Is rapidly growing. Amongst other articles of manu- facture may be mentioned furniture, leather, buttons, machinery and felt goods. Population largely of German descent, churches, schools, private residences noticeably attrac- tive, evidences of thrift and progress everywhere, the County of Water- loo is one of the richest and most fertile in all Can- ada. Another im- portant manufact- uring town, Wa- terloo, lies imme- diately adjacent to it. Berlin, the cap- ital of Prussia and, since 1871, of the German Empire, the third largest city of Europe, lies on the banks of the River Spree, which flows through the center BERLIN ROYAL THEATER of the city from southeast to northwest. Its population is 2,070,695, and it covers an area whose circum- ference is nearly thirty-five miles The city dates as a small fishing village as far back as the 1 3th century, but the beginning of its rapid growth and prosperity was not made until the Great Elector, Frederick William (1640-88), united the separate duchies of which Prussia is now formed, and made Berlin the capital of the new state. Among the fine buildings for which the city is noted are the royal palace, with 700 apartments, and other palaces; the royal library, with over 710,000 volumes and 25,000 manuscripts; the old and new mu- seums, with their fine collections and art galleries; the national gallery; the arsenal; the royal theater; the opera house; the guardhouse; and the university. Through- out the city and in the parks are numerous statues of national heroes, and monuments, such as the great Column of Victory, 197 feet high. The street called from its double avenue of limes Unter den Linden is one of the finest streets in Europe. The Uni- versity of Berlin is now one of the fore- most in Germany. Founded in 1810, it has had many famous professors and schol- ars. It now numbers over 414 professors and lecturers with over 5,000 students, and as many more non-matriculated students. Besides the university, there are the Acad- emy of Sciences, one of the most learned institutions in Germany; the military acad- emy and academies of art and architecture; and the schools of mining, agriculture, artillery, engineering, music, etc. The Zoo- logical and Botanical Gardens are also worthy of mention. The commerce of Ber- lin, carried on by the Spree, the canals AND NEW CHURCH IN THE GENSDARMENMARKET and many railroads, with its manufactures, places it in the front rank of the mercantile cities of the continent. Grain, cattle, spirits and wool are the staples of trade. The exchange is daily visited by 3,500 persons. The main branches of industry are woolen weaving, calico printing and the manu- facture of engines and other machinery, also of iron, steel and bronze wares, drapery EDods and confections. Together with eipsic, Berlin holds the first place among German cities in the publishing trade. Owing to the recent great strides in German manufactures and in the extension abroad of German colonies, the capital has become a still greater financial and imperial center. Berlin, N. H., a city in Coos County, on the Androscoggin River and on the Grand Trunk and the Boston & Maine railroad, 16 miles north-northeast ol BERLIN, TREATY OP 205 BERNADOTTE Mount Washington. It has large lumber and pulp mills, with an extensive annual product and employing a large force of men. Its other industries, all of which are usefully served by good waterpower, include shoe manufacture and other activ- ities. The city is lighted by electricity, and possesses a public library, several fine church buildings and schools, as well, as a number of attractive residences. Popu- lation, 11,780. Berlin, Treaty of. After the Russp- Turkish War of 1877, what is known in Europe as the Eastern Question arose to trouble the diplomats, and a congress of the great powers met at Berlin, at the call of Prince Bismarck, to settle the affairs of the Balkan Peninsula and other boundary disputes. As a result of the conference, the Treaty of Berlin was drafted and signed by the representatives of the respective powers, modifying in some degree the Treaty of San Stefano, previously con- cluded between Turkey and Russia. By the Treaty of Berlin, Russia received from Rumania the territory called Bessarabia, lost by the Crimean War, and she acquired the fortress of Kars and the port of Batum; Bulgaria, the territory between the Danube and the Balkans, became virtually independ- ent; Montenegro acquired full freedom; and Servia and Rumania became independ- ent kingdoms. Bosnia and Herzegovina were at the same time transferred to the rule of Austria, while Cyprus became a British possession; and Greece acquired Thessaly and a portion of Epirus. The T urkish empire in Europe was thus reduced to narrow limits. Berlioz (ber'l$-oz'), Hector, a great but eccentric musical composer, was born in 1803, at Cote St. Andre, near Grenoble, and was the son of a physician. Disregarding the wish of his father, who wanted his son to follow his own profession, he studied music at the Conservatoire in Paris, winning several prizes. In Italy, where he studied for a year, he became acquainted with Liszt and Mendelssohn. On his return to Paris, in 1832, he brought out some of his com- positions, but their success was so small that he had to eke out his living by writing for musical journals and giving concerts. In his foreign concert tours he was far more successful than in his own country, being received with enthusiasm and offered several lucrative posts. He died at Paris in 1869. His Faust is his most popular musical com- position. His symphonies, such as Romeo and Juliet; his opera, Beatrice and Benedict; his overtures, as The Carnival of Rome; and his sacred pieces, as The Childhood of Christ and his Te Deum, are among his most successful achievements. His literary work is also of a high order. Liszt, Heine and Balzac, the great novelist, were among his intimate friends. Bermu'das, The, or Somers' Islands, are British possessions in the Atlantic, southeast of Cape Hatteras, 680 miles from New York. They were named from the Spaniard Bermudez, who first sighted them in 1522, and from the Englishman, Sir George Somers, who was shipwrecked there in 1609. They are said to be 360 in number, but many are mere specks, the whole being only about 12,000 acres in extent. They are composed of coral sand and are sur- rounded by a living, growing reef of coral. They are important to the British govern- ment as a half-way station between its pos- sessions in Canada and the West Indies. Hamilton, the seat of government, is situated on Main Island. The next in importance is St. George's Island, which has a strongly fortified harbor. On Ireland Island is the Bermuda floating dock, built in England and towed out in 1869. It is 381 feet long and 124 feet wide. A large number of the islands are without name or inhab- itant. Because of the balmy and temperate climate the Bermudas have become in winter a popular resort, for Americans as well as for English; and St. George's and Hamilton have many hotels. Although the soil is poor, yet, because of the absence of winter frosts, crops can be prepared for March, April, May or June, and so their early potatoes, onions, tomatoes and other garden vegetables bring high prices in the New York markets to enrich the Bermu- dians. The population is 17,535, more than half of which is colored. A governor and council of six members, appointed by the crown, and an assembly of thirty-six, four being elected by each of the nine par- ishes into which the Bermudas are divided, make up the governing body. The chief town is Hamilton, population, 2,627. Bern or Berne, the capital of the canton of Bern and of Switzerland, lies on a promon- tory formed by the River Aar, which sur- rounds it on three sides. The population, 85,264. Berne is the first city in Switzer- land, although Zurich, Bale and Geneva have each larger populations. The houses are massive, built of freestone, resting on arcades, which are lined with shops and furnish a covered walk on both sides of the streets. A bridge which spans the Aar is one of the largest bridges in Switzerland. The Gothic cathedral, mint, hospital and university are among the fine buildings of the city. The trade is chiefly in dress fabrics and hats. The figure of a bear is conspicuous in the ornaments of the place, in allusion to the origin of the name Bern, and a bear's den is maintained by the municipality at public expense. The area of the canton is 2,675 square miles, with a population, 642,744. Bernadotte (ber'na-dot'), Jean Baptiste Jules, king of Sweden and Norway as Charles XIV, was born at Pau, in the south BERNARD 206 BERTILLON SYSTEM of France, January 26, 1764, the son of a lawyer. He entered the army as a private, but his promotion was rapid after the out- break of the French Revolution. In 1794 he was a general in command of a division, and in 1804 he was made a marshal in the army. In 1797 he was sent with 20,000 men to re-enforce the army of Italy, which led to his first meeting with Napoleon. Of all Napoleon's marshals, Bernadotte was the one least under his influence, and refused to help him in any of his political designs. But his generalship was highly thought of by his chief. He commanded the center at Austerlitz and helped to prevent the allies from turning the right flank of the French army. With a separate command, he defeated the Prussians at Halle and forced Blucher to surrender. He defeated the Russians at Mohrungen, commanded a corps of Saxons at the battle of Wagram, after which a dispute with Napoleon caused his resignation. Bernadotte was also, for a time, minister of war and ambassador to Vienna. He was elected crown prince of Sweden in 1810. He refused to agree to Napoleon's demand that he should pledge himself not to take up arms against France, saying that from that time the interests of Sweden were his It was not, however, until French troops invaded Sweden that he attacked Napoleon. When Napoleon declared war against Russia, Bernadotte held in his hands the destiny of Europe, Napoleon offering him large territories if he would attack Russia. He, however, joined the allies, but halted when France was invaded, before reaching the border, determined not to attack his native land. In 1814 he forced Denmark to cede to him Norway, which until June 7, 1905, remained joined to Sweden. In 1 8 1 8 he became king of Sweden and Norway under the name of Charles XIV. Throughout his long reign of twenty-six years, though knowing nothing of the languages of his subjects, he ruled successfully and built up the country in many ways. He died at Stockholm, March 8, 1844. Bernard (ber-ndrd'), Great Saint, a mountain pass of the Alps, between the Swiss canton of Vaud and the valley of Aosta. At the highest point of the pass, nearly 8,000 feet above the sea, near the line of perpetual snow, is the monastery or hospice of St. Bernard. It is said to have been founded in 062, for the succor of trav- elers crossing the mountains. The cele- brated St. Bernard dogs are trained to assist in this work. By this pass, Roman armies, armies under Chailemagne and Frederick Barbarossa and Napoleon's army of 30,000, with artillery and cavalry, crossed the Alps. The Little St. Bernard is a mountain 7,200 feet in height, south of Mont Blanc. It has a pass by which Hannibal is thought to have crossed rnto Italy. SARAH BERNHARDT Bernardino de Betto Bagio. See PIN- TURICCHIO. Bernhardt (bern'hdrt), Rosine (called Sarah), a famous French actress, was born in Paris in 1844. Her parents were Jews, but she was brought up in a convent at Versailles. She made her first appearance on the stage in 1862, at the Theatre Fran- 9aise, but at first attracted little notice. In 1867 her play- ing of the part of Marie de Neuberg in a play by Victor Hugo, called Ruy Bias, made her famous. She then went back to the Theatre Fran- jaise, in Paris, and after 1879 began to appear each year in London, where she was very successful. Her trips through America and Russia were also successes. In the United States her favorite roles were those of Fedora and La Tosca, while she drew im- mense audiences when she appeared in Adrienne Lecouvreur and La Dame aux Camelias. Madame Bernhardt is probably the greatest living actress of tragedy. She is also gitted as an artist and a sculptor. Bertill'on System, The, was made public by Dr. Alphonse Bertillon in 1885 in Paris, after he had been at work upon it for six years. The purpose of the system is to identify criminals. Its chief feature is accurate bodily measurement. After the age of twenty the skeleton is almost wholly fixed; and yet in no two individuals are the measurements of parts of the body liable to be closely alike. Precise descrip- tions, in which the color of the eyes is most important and also photographs are em- ployed to assist the method ot measure- , ment. Marks, moles and scars are care- fully noted, and their position is registered with great exactness. The system has now been adopted in most European countries. Its employment in the United States dates from 1887. It is very needful to identify criminals; and the Bertillon system makes innocent persons safe from the danger of being identified with some criminal who may resemble them. In Paris there is a collection of the measurements and descrip- tions of no less than 120,000 criminals; and it is likely that the United States will form a similar central collection, for it is said that European criminals flock to the United States because the Bertillon system is less universal in this country. feERYL 207 BETHLEHEM Beryl, a precious stone, a variety of emerald and known also as aquamarine. They are usually found embedded in granite or in veins that traverse granite or gneiss. Their color is sometimes yellowish and sometimes of a greenish-blue tinge. The best beryls come from Brazil, Ceylon and Siberia; the common opaque beryl is met with in this country. The difference be- tween the beryl and the emerald is due to the coloring-matter; both are double sili- cates of alumina and glucina; in the beryl the coloring matter is oxide of iron, and in the emerald it is oxide of chromium. Besancon (be-zan'sdn'), a French city, capital of the department of Doubs, lies on both sides of the River Doubs. The citadel is perched on an almost inaccessible rock, 410 feet above the river, and the city is so well fortified that it is considered one of the strongest places in France. In the days of Caesar it was called Vesontio, and there he gained several victories. Some streets still bear old Roman names, and Roman ruins are to be seen in the neigh- borhood. The modern inhabitants are largely engaged in watch-making, the yearly product being nearly 450,000 watches. Victor Hugo and Abel Re'musat, the great scholars, were born at Besangon. The city was ceded by Spain to France in 1679, and was unsuccessfully beseiged by the Austrians in 1814. Population, 55 Besant (bte&wt), Sir Walter, English novelist, was born at Portsmouth in 1836, and educated at King's College, London, and Christ's College, Cambridge. In 1868 he published his first work, Studies in Early French Poetry, which was followed later by a work on the French Humorists. His ca- reer as a romance writer was in conjunction with a journal- ist, James Rice, in partnership with whom ap- peared Ready Money Morti- boy and many other novels. Of the stories that appeared in his own name the best are: All Sorts and Conditions of Men, Chil- dren of Gibeon, All in a Garden Fair, Katherine Regina, For Faith and Freedom, Armor el of Lyonesse and The Orange Girl. Sir Walter took great interest in matters that affect the interests and status of authors in respect of copy- right; he was for many years secretary to the Palestine Exploration fund; and the People's Palace, in the East of London, was inspired by one of his stories. He was WALTER BESANT knighted for his services to literature in 1895. He died June 9, ipoi. Bes'semer, Ala., a city in Jefferson County, in the center of an iron-producing region, on the Louisville & Nashville and other railroads, n miles southwest of Birm- ingham. Its industries embrace large iron and steel works, blast furnaces, foundries, rolling and planing mills, machine shops and fire brick works. There are coal as well as iron mines in the vicinity. Popu- lation, 20,000. Bes'semer Process. See STEEL. Bessemer, Sir Henry, an English inven- tor and engineer, was born in Hertford- shire in 1813, and died in London, March 14, 1898. He is famed for his many inventions, but especially for the revolution in the steel making trade, due to his cheap and ready process of making steel from pig-iron. The process increased the output of steel enor- mously both in this country and in England : in England the annual production at once rose from 50,000 to 3,000,000 tons, while the price fell nearly 80 per cent. The Bessemer invention consisted in taking the pig-iron when in a state of fusion and blowing a blast of air through it, to clear it of all carbon, and then adding the necessary carbon to produce well-tempered steel. He was knighted in 1879, and was the recipient, of many honors and decorations. See KEL- LEY, WILLIAM. Beth'any, meaning "the house of dates," lies on the southern slope of the Mount of Olives, in Palestine, 2,208 feet above the sea. This little village was the home of Lazarus and his sisters, and was often visited by Christ, and there He worked his, greatest miracle. It was also the scene of His ascension. It is now a place of about 200 inhabitants. Houses said to be those of Martha and Mary and the cave where Lazarus was buried", are pointed out to the traveler. Bethes'da, Pool of, meaning "house of mercy," or "house of the stream," is the tank or pool at Jerusalem associated with Christ's healing of the impotent man. The large reservoir, called " Birket Israel," near St. Stephen's gate, and the spring Gihon 01 En Rogel, in Kedron Valley, are each cited by different scholars as the place of this ancient pool. Beth'lehem, meaning "house of bread," now called Beitlahm, known as the birth- place of Christ and of King David, is a small village six miles south of Jerusalem. The present inhabitants, numbering about 3,000, live by making and selling crucifixes, beads, boxes, shells and other articles of mother-of- pearl and of olive wood. The Convent of the Nativity is a large square building, believed to have been built by the Empress Helena, 327 A. D.; destroyed by the Mos- lems in 1236; and rebuilt by the crusaders. The Church of the Nativity within it is BETHLEHEM 208 BEYROUT divided among the Latin. Greek and Ar- menian Christians, who make up the entire population. The church is in the form of a cross, the finest part being the nave, which is supported by forty-eight Corinthian columns of solid granite. At the head of U cross, a sculptured marble star marks the entrance to a long passage descending to the crypt or chamber, in which a silver star shows the spot where Christ is said to have been born. The star is engraved with the words, in Latin: "Here Jesus Christ was born of the Virgin Mary." The manger in which he was laid is in a recess cut in the rock. Bethlehem, Pa., a borough in North- impton County, about 55 miles north of Philadelphia, with which the town of West Bethlehem was incorporated in 1 004. Total population (census 1910) 12,837. It is sit- uated on the Lehigh River and Canal, two bridges across which give access to South Bethlehem, the seat of Lehigh University. Bethlehem is reached by the Central Rail- road of New Jersey, the Lehigh Valley and the Philadelphia & Reading railroads. Founded by Moravians in 1742, it early became a noted seat of the Brethren of that church and of their institutions, including a theological seminary and academy known as Nazareth Hall, located since 1858 at Bethlehem. The town has a public library and a hospital (St. Luke's); it has also considerable manufactures, including silk- mills, iron and steel works, zinc and graphite works, knitting mills, and large paint works. The town, which was incorporated in 1845, received its charter in 1851, and it owns and operates its own water-works. In the Revolutionary War a hospital of the Con- tinental Army was located here, and in West Bethlehem are the graves of some 500 soldiers. See an article by Jordan on Bethlehem During the Revolution, in the Pennsylvania Magazine of History (Phil- adelphia, 1890) ; also Martin's Historical Sketch of Bethlehem (Philadelphia, 1872). Bethsaida (beth-sa'l-da) , meaning "house of fish," is the name of two villages on the Lake of Galilee. The one on the western shore was the birthplace of Peter, Andrew and Philip, the Apostles. A heap of grass- grown rums is thought to mark its site. The other, at the northern end of the lake, lies adjacent to the scene of the feeding of the five thousand by Christ. It was afterward called Julias. Beust (jdn boist), Frederick Ferdinand von, Count, a prominent modern Ger- man statesman, was born in Dresden in 1809. He devoted himself to politics, and was employed by his government in differ- ent services in Berlin, Paris and London. In 1849 h g was rnade minister of foreign affairs. He opposed Prussia, and after the battle of Sadowa, entered the service of Austria, where he was made chancellor in 1867. He completely reorganized the Aus- trian Empire, and the present constitution was his work. He was later an Austrian ambassador at London (187178), and acted in the same capacity at Paris (187882). He died October 24, 1886. Bevan, Theodore F., F.R.G.S.A., the explorer, was born near London, October 14, 1860, and has largely given his life to the exploration of British New Guinea. In 1887 he discovered the Aird and the Purari Rivers there, the latter the next to the largest in the territory. Bev'eridge, Albert Jeremiah (1862-), American senator, was born in Highland County, Ohio, and as a child was taken by his parents to Indiana where his younger years were spent in farm and railway con- struction work. He, however, snatched time to study in the winter months and subsequently entered De Pauw University, at Greencastle, Ind., from which he grad- uated in 1885. He later on became clerk iu a law office in Indianapolis, where he was drawn to political life and took part in the Blaine campaign of that era, mean- while going on with his law studies, and was admitted to the bar. During the nineties he became widely known in his state by his political speeches, and in 1899 was elected as a Republican senator from Indiana. In the latter year he visited the Philippines, and in the following year he addressed the senate in favor of the admin- istration's policy of retaining the islands under such local government as the situation demanded. This was in January 10, 1900. Among his many speeches and addresses; is one on "The March of the Flag," delivered at Indianapolis, Ind., September 16, 1898. By these speeches he has made a notable mark, while he is also known as an author by his work on The Russian Advance (1904) and by a booklet, issued in 1905, entitled The Young Man and the World. Beverly, Mass., a city in Essex County, Mass., on an inlet of the Atlantic, 18 miles northeast of Boston, and on the line of the Boston & Maine (Eastern) Railroad. It has factories engaged in the manufacture of women's boots and shoes, and leather, the largest shoe machinery plant in the country and has considerable trade in fish. It pos- sesses a good harbor and has a share in the coasting trade. Here is located the New England Institute for the Deaf and Dumb. Population, 20,679. Beyrout (ba'root) or Beirut, known to the ancients as Berytus, is a commercial city on the coast of Syria, 55 miles from Damascus and 147 from Jerusalem. It is the chief seaport and market town for all the trade on the shores of Syria and Pales- tine. British, French and Egyptian steam- ers maintain a regular service, carrying back wool, olive oil, gums and silk in exchange for their cargoes; and since the BHUTAN 209 BIBLE opening of the Suez Canal a direct eastern trade in spices, coffee, indigo and jute has sprung up. The first line of omnibuses in Syria was established here in 1859, and water works and gas works have been in- troduced by European companies. A Scot- tish school for Jews and the Protestant Syrian College have also been founded here. The American Presbyterian Mission in Syria has its headquarters here. Popula- tion, 150,000. Bhutan or Bhotan (bb^-tdn r ), an inde- pendent state, in the Eastern Himalayas, area about 16,800 square miles. It lies south of Tibet and north of Assam and Bengal, and is flanked in the west by Sikkim and Nepal. Its population is close upon 30,000, and its capital is Punakha, a place of much natural strength. It has a dual ruler, Deb Raja, the secular, and Dharin Raja, the spiritual, head of the state. Its trade is chiefly with British India, its main products being rice, Indian corn, millet, musk, chowries and silk. Formerly its native tribes were given to aggress on British India, but this was put a stop to, the Bhutan rulers receiving an annual subsidy from the Indian government con- ditional on the good behavior of the natives. The latter are nominally Buddhists, but their religious exercise consists chiefly in the propitiation of evil spirits and the recitation of verses from the Tibetan Scrip- tures. The principal monastery in Bhutan (lasichozong) , has 300 priests. The coun- try has a varied cfimate and a wide range of products. Bible. The word Bible comes from the Greek, where it is plural and means the books: books that stand apart from and in moral worth are higher than all other books. The Bible consists of two great parts, the Old and the New Testament testament mean- ing covenant, a covenant between God and His people. The Jews had a threefold divi- sion of the Old Testament into the Law, the Prophets, and the Sacred Writings. By the Law, they meant the first five books, called usually the Books of Moses or the Pentateuch. Of course, law is not the only thing we find here. There is also history, from the story of the creation in Genesis to the death of Moses in Deuteronomy. But in this bed of history we find three sets of law or codes; the Book of the Covenant (Ex. xx-xxiii). which seems to have been followed by the Israelites till the reign of Josiah; Deuteronomy, which pre- vailed from the time of Josiah to the exile; and the Priestly Code (Leviticus) , which came to be looked upon as authoritative after the Restoration, The Jews divided the Prophets into the former prophets and the latter prophets. By the former prophets, they meant what we 5snerally call the historical books, Joshua, udges, Samuel, and Kings, which give us the sayings of the great prophet-statesmen, Sarrael, Elijah, and Elisha, though they themselves wrote nothing. With the Israel- ites ihe sense of being a people and the sense of being a people of Jehovah were almost one and the same, and this is one reason why we find so much history in the Bible. So in the Prophets, as in the Pentateuch, we find his- tory; Joshua to Kings being really one work, setting forth the fortunes of the people from the conquest of Canaan to the fall of Jerusa- lem. The latter prophets are divided into the greater prophets, Isaiah. Jeremiah, and Eze- Kiel; and the minor prophets, the twelve smaller books. The prophets made predic- tions, but this was not all their work. They were sent usually to guide the people in great crises. Amos and Hosea came before the fall of Samaria, Isaiah during the great strug- gle with Assyria, and Jeremiah before the de- struction of Jerusalem. The Sacred Writings include books of poetry Psalms, Prov- erbs, Ecclesiastes, Lamentations and the Song of Songs; books of history Chronicles, Ruth, Esther, Ezra, Nehemiah, and one pro- phet, Daniel. That the Psalms are true poetry no one will deny; yet there is no ac- cent, or counting of syllables, no rhyme or rhythm. The one thing that makes the Psalms the finest religious poetry in the world is what is called parallelism ; that is, an arrangement in couplets or pairs, the second line repeating or contrasting the thought of the first. There is much poetry outside of the poetical books, and the oldest piece of writing in the Bible is a song, that of Debo- rah (judges v). Running all through the Old Testament we find hints, passages, and whole discourses showing that Jehovah had promised the peo- ple a deliverer out of all their troubles, who was to be known as the Messiah. It is these Messianic prophecies, as they are called, more than anything else, that bind the Old Testament to the New Testament, which tells of a new co/enant, through Christ the Messiah. The New Testament begins with four ac- counts of Christ by his followers, called the Gospels The authors of the first and fourth, Matthew and John, were themselves disci- ples, while the other two gospels were writ- ten by Mark, a follower of Peter, and Luke a companion of Paul. The A ct s of the Apos- tles tells of the planting of the church. Then follow twenty-one letters of the Apostles personal letters, as the epistles to Timothy, and letters to the churches that sprang up as the Apostles went preaching from town to town and from country to country. Christ uttered prophecies, but the one prophetical book in the New Testament is the Revela- tion of St. John. The Old Testament was written in He- brew on skins, linen cloth, or papyrus and kept in rolls. The first draft of Matthew seems to have been in Hebrew, but was B1CHAT 210 BIERSTADT translated into Greek, in which language were written the other New Testament books, as the Greek tongue was read and understood throughout the Roman world. In modern times translations have been made into all spoken languages. The first English ver- sion was Wichfs Bible (1382). Tindale's New Testament was the earliest printed ver- sion, and Miles Coverdale brought out the first complete English Bible in 1535. Other editions followed: the Great Bible, brought out through the efforts of the Protector Cromwell; the Geneva Bible, through the English refugees at Geneva in the reign of Mary; the Bishop* 's Bible, superintended by Archbishop Parker; the New Testament at Rheims, and the Old Testament at Douai, by the English Catholic College. The King James or Authorized Version appeared in 1 6 1 1 , the work of six committees of scholars. The Revised Version, the joint work of Eng- lish and American scholars, appeared, the New Testament in 1880, and the Old Testa- ment in 1884. The most famous version in a foreign language is the German Bible of Luther, finished in 1534. Bichat (b$'shd'), Marie Francois Xa- vier (1771-1802), a very talented anatomist and physiologist who made an epoch by studying the tissues and thereby founding modern histology (q. v.). He is regarded by Buckle as a greater man than Cuvier. He died at the age of thirty-one, worn out by too severe application to study and re- search. Bicycle (bVsi-kl) , a machine, as the name shows, for riding with two wheels, moved by pressing the feet on pedals. The first two- wheeled " cycle' ' was called the " dandy horse," and was moved by kicking the feet, one after the other, into the ground, and then holding them up until the dandy horse stopped, when the process was repeated. The first practical bicycles were made in England in 1869, of wood and iron, and were BICYCLE fitly called "bone-shakers." The invention oy an Englishman soon after of the rubber tire and steel frame made the modern bicy- cle. The old high-wheeled bicycle, with its tendency to "headers" was soon laid aside for the convenient "safety," which is now in most common use. The pneumatic tire, ball bearings, which greatly reduce fric- tion, the evolution of the chainless wheel and other improvements, together with a large reduction in cost, made the bicycle a popular and expeditious means of travel and recreation for old and young of both sexes and all classes. " Cycling clubs " became popular and long tours were made with ease. While bicycling as a sport has largely died out, the wheel is still widely used as a prac- tical and convenient means of locomotion. Biddeford, Me., a town in York County, Me., on the Saco River, and opposite Saco Falls, six miles from the Atlantic and 15 miles southwest of Portland. The town was settled early in the 1 7th century, was incor- porated in 1718, and became a city in 1855, The city has excellent water power, and as a result is a manufacturing center. Among the leading products are lumber, boots, shoes, machinery and also the extensive manufacturing of cotton cloth and leather tanning. The vicinity of the city is rich in good granite, and the export of this fine building stone adds considerably to the in- dustrial wealth of its people. Biddeforu has an excellent school system and a high school building erected at a cost of $50,000, a fine public library and daily, weekly and monthly papers. Population, 17,079. Bien'nials, plants which endure through two growing seasons. See DURATION. Bienville (by an' v el'"), Jean Baptiste, Sieur de, French governor of Louisiana, was born in Montreal, Canada, in 1680, and died in France in 1768. With his brother, Iber- ville and a few settlers from old and new France, Bienville erected a fort in 1699 at the mouth of the Mississippi, and was for many years director of the colony, and sub- sequently governor of Louisiana. Quarrel- ing with La Salle, the royal commissioner, Bienville was for a time deposed from office and recalled to France, but was afterward reinstated. When Law's Mississippi com- pany was formed, Bienville moved his head- quarters to New Orleans in 1718, and founded the town. Later on, having un- dertaken unsuccessful expeditions against the Chickasaw Indians, he was removed from the governorship, and in 1743 returned to France. He published the code r.oir (black code) , which remained in force in the colony until Louisiana was purchased by the United States. The code was rather vigorous in its provisions, as not only did it regulate the condition of the slaves, but ban- ished Jews from the colony, and banned every religion save that of the Roman Cath- olic Church. Bierstadt (bSr'stat), Albert, an emi- nent American artist, was born near Dus- seldorf, Germany, in 1830. His parents emigrated to the United States when he was two years old, but he returned when older and spent several years in study in his native city. In 1858 he visited the Rocky Mountains, and the first result of his visit was his sketch of Lander's Peak, BIG BLACK RIVER 211 BILLINGS which attracted special notice in the Paris exposition of 1867. Upon this picture and upon his other landscapes his fame mainly rests. Other works are the Domes of the Yosemite, Laramie Peak, Emigrants Crossing the Plains, Mi. Hood and Mt. Whitney. In 1873 ne visited the Pacific Coast and painted a series of pictures of that region. His house and studio at Irving- ton, N. Y., were burned in 1882. For- tunately some of his best pictures were on exhibition in New York city at the time and so were saved. He was a member of the Academy of Fine Arts at St. Peters- burg. His death occurred in 1902. Big Black River, a river of Mississippi, is about 200 miles long and flows into the Mississippi. It is navigable for boats for fifty miles, and is bordered by rich cotton plantations for most of its length. Big Horn River, the largest branch of the Yellowstone, rises in the Rocky Moun- tains in the northwest part of Wyoming, where it is called the Wind River. It en- ters the Yellowstone at Big Horn city, in Montana, and is about 350 miles in length. Big Sandy River flows into the Ohio and forms the boundary between Kentucky and West Virginia. Steamboats navigate it for a hundred miles. The timber and coal along its valley are very valuable. Bigelow (big'e-ld), John, American jour- nalist and author, was born at Maiden, N. Y., November 25, 1817. He graduated at Union College in 1835, and for a time practiced law, but afterward deserted it for journalism. In the fifties he was one of the editors of the New York Evening Post, and in the following decade was consul, and subsequently (1864-67) United States minister to France. In 1875-77 he was secretary of the state of New York. His writings include Lives of Fremont and W m. Cullen Bryant; France and Hereditary Monarchy; and a History (in French) of The United States of America in 1863. He also edited Franklin's Autobiography and His Works and the Speeches of Samuel J. Tilden. He died Dec. 19, 1911. Billiards, an indoor pastime of great popularity, calling for the exercise in playing the game not only of a quick eye but also of a steady hand and delicate touch, besides good judgment in estimating the strength of stroke necessary to good billiard playing, in addition to proficiency in the use of the cue, with which the game is played, and correctness and accuracy of aim. Not much definitely is known of the origin of the game, though it would appear to have been played in many parts of Europe during the Middle Ages, in the 1 5th century in France, and later on in England. About the year 1565 it would seem to have been introduced on this continent by Spaniards residing in Florida. The game is played with two white balls propelled by ivory-tipped cues or staffs usually well-chalked, in the hands of the players, on an oblong rectangular table, with a cloth or baize covering over its slate bed, the table having vulcanized cushions round its inner sides, so that the balls when they strike the sides may rebound from it in the player's design to strike not only his opponent's white ball, but the red ball placed in position on a small black spot at the head of the table bed, and in the center of it. The players may be two or more in number on each side. In Great Britain the tables are generally furnished with six pockets at the four corners and on either side, the players commonly using four balls; while in France and in this country the game is played with three balls, and on a table without pockets. The balls, which are of ivory 2$ inches in diameter, are propelled by a cue, made of maple or ash wood 4^ to 5 feet in length, the diameter at the butt end aver- aging ij inches tapering to a point at the delivery end of fromf ths to a J-inch in diam- eter. Balk-lines are frequently marked on the billiard table, in championship games 14 and sometimes 18 inches from the sides and top and bottom, to give increased interest to the matches and calling for higher skill in playing games. In play- ing the game the lead off is determined by what is called banking. The several players take their stand at the foot of the table, and each strikes his ball in turn with such force as to send it to the head or far end of the table and back again, the player whosa ball lands nearest the foot or near cushion being declared winner. The game is begun by placing the red ball on the marked spot at the head of the table, while the white ball of the player who has lost the bank is placed on the spot at the near end. In opening the game the player must strike his opponent's white ball be- fore striking any other with his own ball. A shot is made when the player strikes his ball so that it shall hit the two object balls; and he continues to play until he fails in this, when it is his opponent's turn to play. For other details of the game, see any good work on billiards; also, see the important contemporary almanacs of the year for records of notable matches and championship tournaments. Billings, Montana, a city, the county seat of Yellowstone County, on the Yellow- stone River, about 236 miles east by south of Helena, and reached by the Northern Pacific, Great Northern and Chicago, Bur- lington & Quincy. It is the center of a large live stock, sheep raising and agricultural region, having considerable trade in the shipment of live stock and an extensive export of wool. In its neighborhood are important mineral deposits, chiefly of coal, limestone and marble. Among its BILL OF RIGHTS 212 BIOLOGY public buildings, besides a city hall and court house, are a public library and an opera house. Population, 15,000. Bill of Rights. This name is com- monly given to the declarations of the rights of citizens which are prefixed to the constitutions of most of the states of the Union. It is also given to the first ten amendments to the U. S. constitution proposed by the first constitutional con- gress and adopted in 1791 by the states. The original bill of rights was, however, an English act of Parliament which summed up the results of the revolution which had placed William and Mary on the throne. This bill of 1689 made it illegal for the crown to suspend the laws, levy money without the consent of parliament, or keep a standing army in time of peace. It also declared the rights of citizens to impartial and not over-severe justice, frequent parliaments, carrying arms for self-defense, free elections" and petition to the king. To this bill of rights was added an act for the settlement of the crown upon William and Mary and their children; and next upon Anne and her children. Bimetallism. The system of money which admits both gold and silver to coinage at a fixed relative value, and which regards them as having the same legal-tender value is called Bimetallism. Up to the time of the Civil War, the bimetal- lic system was the legal system in the United States. In 1873 "the gold standard was recognized by law. Silver coins are used, but are not coined upon the same terms as gold, and not all of them have the same legal-tender value as gold, hence the system is not bimetallic. It is claimed by the adherents of bimetallism that if a definite ratio of value were established by law between gold and silver that (i) the exchanges between nations would be simplified, and (2) that the price of com- modities would fluctuate less, since the fluctuations in the prices of the latter are, so it is claimed, associated with the fluctua- tions m the value of silver. The question of bimetallism was the great issue in the presidential campaign of 1896, and the candidate who advocated that theory was defeated. Since that time discoveries of gold in great quantities have relieved the financial situation to such an extent that a change in the money standard is not urged with the same earnestness as formerly. Bingen (blng'en), a picturesque old town of Germany, on the Rhine, in the grand duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt. Popu- lation of the commune, 8,187. Neighbor- ing mountains, crowned with ruins, and an old bridge, dating back to the era of the Romans, increase the beauty of the place. Below the town is the famous Bingerloch or Bingen Hole, where the Rhine narrows into a strait between tower- ing rocks. Above them, rises the Mause- thurm or Mouse-tower in the middle of the river, where, in the loth century, Bishop Hatto, of Metz, collected toll from all Eassing vessels, and where he himself was nally eaten alive by mice atti acted to the tower by the grain he had stored away in a time of famine. In popular legend it was near Bingen that the treasure of King Nibelung, which gave its name to the Nibelungen-Lied, was sunk in the Rhine. Bing'hamton, the county seat of Broome County, N. Y., lies on both sides of the Susquehanna River, at the mouth of the Chenango River, and both rivers are spanned by several bridges. It is an important rail- road town, and has more than 300 manufac- turing establishments, the leading ones being furniture, glass, gloves, scales, leather, boots, shoes and cigars. It takes third rank in the U. S. n the last named indus- try. Among its noted buildings are the U. S. government building, the state armory, the state insane asylum, two orphan asylums, etc. The use of an- thracite coal has kept the city clean and free from smoke, earning it th-j title of the parlor city. Population 55,901. Biology, a subject of great interest and importance, not only to scholars and medical men, but to all intelligent people who care for living nature. All questions in regard to the living world belong here. An animal or plant is wonderfully con- structed, but, after all, the most wonder- ful thing about it is that it is endowed with life. While it is interesting to ob- serve the structure of animals and plants, it is even more interesting to learn the pur- pose of the structure and to determine what is taking place within their bodies, what has been their past history, how they behave in reference to their surroundings, etc. This is, of course, very difficult; it requires observations with and without the microscope, experiments, and the use of the best powers of the mind. Biology is an attempt to analyze the activities of life and finally, if possible, to give an explanation of the same. It is one of the natural sciences and is related to many branches of learning. It is easily separated from physics and chemistry, both of which deal with lifeless matter, but is is closely connected with natural history, medicine, physiology, botany, zool- ology, psychology and with many affairs of eyery-day life. Biology in its modern sense is of recent origin. It is customary to consider it as having taken rise about 1860, but in order to understand the reason for this way of looking at the matter, it will be necessary to trace the growth of the subject. It is BIOLOGY 213 BIOLOGY a long story, reaching over several cen- turies, but it can be briefly told. Among the ancient Greeks observations directly upon animals and plants led to many facts of natural history. Aristotle (384-322 B. C.) is the best representative of the knowledge of his time about life. But after a few centuries the mind of man- kind was turned away from nature. In due course of time, there was a complete arrest of inquiry into all things relating to the external world. During this period, other branches of learning might make a little advance, but the knowledge of nature suffered the most, because we cannot know anything about natural phenomena without turning the mind outward and making direct observa- tions upon the external world Therefore, it was an epoch of great importance when men began again to observe, to use their eyes, and to turn to the great world of nature outside themselves. The men who started independent observations deserve much credit, for the authorities of both church and state were unfriendly to unbiased inquiry, and they went against every motive of self-interest in becoming pioneers in the new intellectual life. Vesalius (see ANATOMY), Galileo and Descartes were among the reformers in the i6th century, and in the i7th century the work of Mal- pighi, Swammerdam and Leeuwenhoek is worthy of especial mention. Their great work consisted chiefly in this, that "they broke away from the thraldom of book- learning, and, relying alone upon their own eyes and their own judgment, won for man that which had been quite lost, the bless- ing of independent and unbiased observa- tion." Thus awoke again the good spirit of in- quiry and thereby the foundations of modern science were laid. When atten- tion was turned to animals and plants, the first things noticed were, of course, the simplest and most obvious : external form, color, habits. This is the period in which the organism was studied as a whole, for each plant and animal is an organism. The naturalist of the time knew relatively little about the internal structure of animals and plants but many general facts about them. Linnaeus and Ray represent this level of knowledge. For them, the study of nature consisted in observing and col- lecting widely, grouping or classifying animals and plants, learning about their habits, etc. Linnaeus made an epoch by introducing a method of naming plants and animals by giving to each two names a generic and a specific name. This made knowledge more definite. He used Latin, wh ; ch was the language of science, and, as his method was universally adopted, the same name same to apply to the same animal or plant in afl countries. This directed the attention of naturalists to species or particular kinds, and thereby prepared the way for the discussion of the origin of species, w/rch is the fundamental question in the doctrine of organic evolution. But another advance was to come. The next natural step after the study of the or- ganism as a whole was to think of its architecture or the way in which it is con- structed. Men began, therefore, to ob- serve the organs or parts that are united together to make up animals and plants. This was a study of internal structure. The construction of animals was studied very widely and they were compared with one another, so that there arose the new science of comparative anatomy (see ANATOMY) of which Georges Cuvier (1769- 1832) was the founder. Similar work was done for plants by Jussieu. But knowl- edge of nature was becoming so much ex- tended that it was necessarily subdivided, and investigations into the uses of the organs were being made by physiologists like Haller and J. Miiller (see PHYSIOLOGY) at the same time that structure was being studied by the anatomists. The next step was based on the obser- vation that organs are composed of simpler parts called tissues. Ofter several differ- ent kinds of tissue will unite into one organ ; for example, the heart is not all muscle but connective tissue and nerves enter into it; the walls of the stomach also con- tain glands, muscles, nerves, connective tissue, etc., all united to form the one or- gan the stomach. The leaf of a plant is not all one kind of tissue, but several different kinds enter into it. We are thus approaching step by step the finer structure or living beings. Bichat (1771-1802) studied the tissues extensively, and at the beginning of the 1 9th century laid the foundation of microscopic anatomy or histology. The next step was based upon the per- fection of the microscope. This instru- ment had been introduced, in a crude form, into natural history in the i7th century, and had opened a new world to naturalists. About 1840 great improvements were made in manufacturing the magnifying glasses for the microscope, and observers began gradually to see that the tissues are not the simplest parts of animals and plants, but that tissues are composed of very small units or particles, brought together and built into the tissues as bricks might be fitted together into a building. This idea took definite form about 1839-40. principally through the observations of two men, Schleiden and Schwann. The for- mer was a botanist, and he came to the conclusion that all the parts of plants are built of little box-like compartments or cells. The latter, his friend, was an anatom- ist and zoologist, who, from his studies with the microscope on animals, reached BIOLOGY 214 BIOLOGY similar conclusions. This great discovery unites all animals and plants on a broacl plane of similitude of structure. It is known as the cell theory, and ha~ done much to- ward unifying the knowledge of animals and plants. This, taken m connection with the fact that all animals and plants arise from a single cell, has great meaning. The discovery that the egg of all animals is a single cell, shows that the starting- point is one of the single bricks of organic architecture, which by successive divisions gives rise to all the others that enter into the construction. Plants also proceed from a single cell. These are among the most remarkable facts in all nature. In its original form, however, the cell theory was very imperfect. Both Schleiden and Schwann supposed that the cell wall was important, and looked upon the cells as little box-like compartments. This had to be changed by later students, and the cell theory was reformed and modified into the protoplasm theory. The progress, thus far, had brought out the facts that cells are joined to make tissues, the tissues to make organs, and organs to make the organism, but there was one turther step to be taken to bring this line of advance to its proper goal. It was soon discovered that the cell wall of cells is not important, but that the jelly- like viscid fluid within is the substance that is actually alive. This substance is the seat of all life and is called proto- plasm (see PROTOPLASM). We see that observations began on the outside and led by a series of steps to the true seat of life, just as a flight of stairs uncovered by some good genii in the old fairy tales, led from the surface to a treasure cavern, but it took a good many years for naturalists to take each step. Max Schultze, in 1860, placed the ideas about protoplasm on a firm base's, and from that time dates modern biology, which is all about this living sub- stancewhat it is like in its various mani- festations, what it is doing, and what it has done in the world. Therefore, a great deal of the work of the biologist is the study of this living sub- stance _at first hands. He can place under his microscope the simplest plants and animals, and if they are translucent enough to let the light through, he can see many things that are taking place within the protoplasm. One of the common organ- isms of great interest to biologists is the amoeba a simple microscopic particle of living jelly in which the processes of life are reduced to their simplest expression, and it meets all the requirements for ob- servation. This organism is really an animal and a single cell, and, therefore, it lies near the bottom of the animal series. By suitable experiment and observa- tion it can be shown that the amoeba, sim- ple as it appears, is really verv complex, on account of the powers and activities which it exhibits by virtue of being alive. A list or catalogue of its activities will be the same as those occurring in the various tissues and organs of higher animals. There- fore, we have in it the germ of all the activi- ties of the higher creation. Its body is a little mass of protoplasm, and anything determined about it holds good for pro- toplasm. This substance is the only one in the world that is endowed with life, and biologists have come to the conclusion that it is practically identical in plants and animals, but at the same time exhibits a wide range of variations and differences, not in kind, but depending on the degree of perfection and specialization. Protoplasm has properties which, taken together, distinguish it absolutely from every form of non-living matter. These are: (i) its chemical composition; (2) its power of waste and repair and of growth; (3) its power of reproduction. Other sub- stances are simpler in composition than protoplasm, in fact, it is the most complex substance in the universe. Common chem- ical elements like carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus, enter into it, but they are combined in a very much more complex manner than in any other substance, and they are all present at the same time. Living matter is also con- tinually undergoing a process of breaking down, by a sort of internal combustion, and making good the loss by the manu- facture of new protoplasm out of the simpler food particles. It also has the power of growth, and "lastly, living matter not only thus repairs its own waste, but also gives rise, by reproduction, to new masses of living matter; which, becoming detached from the parent mass, enter forthwith upon an independent existence." "We may perceive how extraordinary these properties are by supposing a locomo- tive engine to possess like powers: to carry on a process of self -rep air in order to com- pensate for wear; to grow and increase in size, detaching from itself at intervals pieces of brass or iron endowed with the power of growing up step by step into other loco- motives capable of running themselves, and of reproducing new locomotives in their turn. Precisely these things are done by every living thing, and nothing like them takes place in the lifeless world." Sedgwick and Wilson, General Biology. The higher animals, all of which are many-celled may be looked upon as com- binations of amoeba-like elements, variously modified and built into the tissues. In passing from the condition of a single cell to that of many there has been not only an increase in the number of cells, but there has been also a physiological division of labor, so that particular groups of cells BIOLOGY 215 BIOLOGY have been set apart to perform a certain particular round of duties, while other cells have been set aside for other work. For example, the protoplasm of certain cells has become very contractile and forms the muscles; in certain ether cells the pro- toplasm has become highly irritable and responsive, and makes the nervous tissues; and so on for the other groups. This phys- iological division of labor has led to the different tissues. Plants show very nicely the gradations between the single-celled and the many- celled condition. There are first linear aggregates, in which the cells are united end to end in a single row. The next step is groups of cells arranged in a single layer to form an expanded surface; and finally the combination of cells into a solid mass having length, breadth and thick- ness. In biology, animals and plants are con- sidered from a variety of view-points: as to their Structure, or the way in which they are constructed (see ANATOMY); as to their Development, or the stages through which they pass from the egg or seed to the adult (see DEVELOPMENT) ; as to their Physiology, or the uses of the different organs and the changes that are taking place in the pro- toplasm of the tissues; as to their Distribu- tion. Biology is, therefore, a complex science, and is the result of the concurrent progress in all these departments. It may be likened to a great stream into which a number of smaller streams have united to make the main one, and it contains mixed together the product of all. The main divisions of biology are, of course, greatly subdivided; for example, under structure, we might consider animals and plants in reference to their surround- ings, and show that the structural pecu- liarities are the result of responses to the surrounding conditions, and we might further show how likeness in structure in- dicates relationship, and is the basis upon which animals and plants are classified or arranged into systematic groups. More- over, development and physiology are very extensive branches, and must be divided into smaller topics for practical consideration. In reference to the dis- tribution of animals and plants, it must be said that it takes two directions: first, their geographical distribution, and, sec- ondly, their distribution in time. The first will be clear without further statement, but the second requires a word. We know that there are entombed in the rocks count- less numbers of animals and plants that lived centuries ago and became extinct. The succession of life in the rocks is very interesting, beginning as it does with the lowest forms, in the earliest formed rocks, and passing to the higher ones in the later formed rocks. In this succession of stages we can read the past history of life on the earth, and this has helped greatly in estab- lishing the doctrine of organic evolution. It is an indefinite line that separates biology from botany and zoSlogy. Modern botany and zoology embrace all that is known about plants and animals respect- i ely, but the plant kingdom and the animal kingdom are considered separately. In biology the facts are approached from a different standpoint, and the emphasis is differently placed. The phenomena of life are brought into union in both animals and plants, and the attention is especially directed to the activities of protoplasm, and its responses to surrounding conditions. General biology is a term in common use to indicate the consideration of certain feneral facts about animals and plants, t is recognized as a distinct branch, and frequently studies of these general topics are made to precede studies that are mainly botanical on the one hand, or mainly zoological on the other. These facts should make clear how the department of biology arose and what it is about; but before leaving the sub- ject we should at least glance at its igth century features. The three things that most distinctly mark biological advance during the igth century are: (i) The cell-doctrine (which see), the discovery of the fact that, with the exception of unicellular forms, plants and animals are composed of groups of cells, and moreover, that they all begin their existence as eggs or ovules, in the single-cell condition. (2) The discovery of protoplasm (which see), and the recognition of the r61e it everywhere plays in animal and plant life. (3) The doctrine of organic evolution, or the discovery of the genealogy of animals and plants. There are in addition other things to be mentioned: The great extension of knowledge in reference to microbes and bacteria (which see) has been character- istic. Advances in this direction have led to the discovery of the nature of fer- mentation, of decay, to the germ theory of disease, etc.; and have also brought in their train an unusual number of prac- tical applications : antiseptic surgery, the canning of fruits and meats, infecting in- sects with disease to stop the ravages of the injurious kinds; and also the protec- tion of silk-worm culture, etc. The growth of information regarding the development of animals and plants has been very great, and has been turned to account in reading the past history of life. The question of the spontaneous origin of life was revived in 1858. That is the belief that the simplest microscopic forms of life are sometimes formed, spontane- ously, from lifeless matter. But it was BIRCH 2XO BIRD DA? again answered in the negative, as It had been in the i8th century, and finally it was put to rest through the work of Pas- teur, Tyndall and others. In the latter part of the century experi- ments on living forms became prominent. The eggs, the larvae and the older stages have been placed under different condi- tions of temperature, light, food, chemical and mechanical surroundings, and the effect of these changes watched. Many important facts have been brought to light by these experiments. Biology is a body of rapidly expanding knowledge of intense interest o.nd great service to mankind. Much was accom- plished by it in the ipth century, but much more is to be expected in the aoth century. For books about biology, see Sedgwick and Wilson's General Biology, Parker's Elementary Biology and Thompson's The Science of Life. Additional titles will be found under ANATOMY, BOTANY, ZOOLOGY. WM. A. LOCY. Birch, species of the genus Betula, which consists of trees or shrubs, very widely distributed throughout the north temperate regions. The birches have usu- ally a bark which separates in thin papery plates, and the long and pendulous cat- kins of flowers appearing in very early spring are well known. They grow in North America, Europe, North and Cen- tral Asia. Bailey states that no tree grows farther north than the birch. The Dwarf Birch is highly valued by the Lap- lander, furnishing him most of his fuel, and its tiny nut furnishing food for that bird so useful to the Laplander, the ptar- migan. The wood of many birches is inferior owing to the toughness of the bark interfering with the evaporation of the sap, its consequent fermentation and the crumbling of the wood. It makes excellent fuel; is used in manufacture, and is employed for furniture and small, common articles. Of the bark are made baskets, boxes, and that of the Paper Birch is extensively used for canoes; a dye is also made of it, and an oil which is used in the preparation of Russia leather. A number of birches are cultivated as ornamental trees, the weeping birch being extensively planted in this country. They are graceful of form, fair appearing from bark to least tremulous leaf. They ate easily propagated by seeds and grow rapidly. The American White Birch has a short life, but is agraceiul tree and plucky one, springing up in deforested land and aban- doned fields. It grows south as far as Penn- sylvania. It is a small tree, from 25 to 45 feet high, the bark smooth and white, not readily peeling; foliage tremulous; dark green, triangular leaves, turning yel- low in autumn. Recently the wood has come into value, found useful as wood pulp, for shoe-pegs and spools. The Canoe Birch or Paper Birch is one of the largest and most picturesque of the birches, and is widely distributed through- out our northern states. It usually grows to a height of from 60 to 80 feet, some- times reaches to 120 feet; its bark a con- spicuous chalky white, which tears off readily in horizontal sheets. The leaves are large and broadly ovate. This, as the name suggests, is the tree so friendly to the Indians, giving them bark for their famous canoes, for their shelters, and for their household utensils, giving them fuel that quickly crackled and flamed; even giving them food, they making this use of the layer between wood and bark (cam- bium). "And the tree with all its branches Rustled in the breeze of morning, Saying with a sigh cf patience: 'Take my cloak, O Hiawatha!' " The Indians to-day .still make canoes of birch bark, baskets and various other articles thereof. The bark, as is well known, tears off in thin sheets of several layers, the thinner ones being frequently used as letter paper, a use of birch bark going back to ancient times. The peeling of the bark by careless hands, cutting too deep, results in the loss of many goodly trees, whose far-gleaming white columns have proved their undoing. The Cherry Birch is a comely and useful tree also known as Sweet Birch and as Black Birch. It grows from 50 to 80 feet high, and is noted for its grace. The bark is dark brown, the leaves, from two to five inches long, are oblongovate. Early in the spring the Black Birch is all aglow with yellow catkins, is golden in the fall, and in the summer bears an abundance of glossy foliage. In the spring the wintergreen flavor of the saplings is very pleasant. The sap is made into birch beer, and from the inner bark are obtained salicylic acid and wintergreen oil. The hard, strong wood, of good red-brown color, is used for furniture, and for wheel hubs and fuel. The range of the tree is from Newfoundland to Ontario, south to Florida, Tennessee and Kansas. Other varieties are the Yellow or Gray Birch and the Red or River Birch. See Bailey: Cyclopaedia of American Horticulture and The Tree Book by Julia E. Rogers. Bird Day, a day set apart for the pur- pose of interesting boys and girls in wild birds and in bird protection. The idea of Bird Day originated with Professor C. A. Babcock of Oil City, Pa., in 1894. Bird day was observed in Oil City in 1895. In some states Arbor and Bird Day are ob- served as a single festival. Bird Protection, nature lovers had long been working for federal protection of birds, but the first distinct bird reservation was BIRDS BIRDS' NESTS made in 1903 at Pelican Island, Fla. Since then many others have been added and a national law passed for the protection of migratory birds. In 1916 a treaty with Canada brought the hunting season and pro- tection afforded in the two countries into agree- ment. Birds* a natural class of vertebrates. Other groups of equal value are Fishes, Amphibia, Reptilia and Mammals, each of which is called a class. Birds are distinguished from all other animals in that they possess feathers. They moult or change the feathers once a year. They are warm-blooded animals with a four-chambered heart; their lungs are connected with air-sacs, and the bones are often hollow with spaces which are connected with the air-sacs, to make them light for flight. Living birds have no teeth, but many fossil birds had teeth. The birds as a group are closely related to reptiles. There were, in geological times flying rep- tiles, and there is a bird (Archaeopteryx) found in the rocks of Bavaria that forms a connecting link between birds and reptiles. The largest living birds are the ostriches, but the great fossil birds (Dinornis) of New Zealand were from six to ten feet in height. There are several other extinct birds of very large size. In the world to-day there are between 13,000 and 14,000 species. The best way to observe our common birds is with the help of opera-glasses. We should go into the fields and woods armed with opera-glasses instead of a gun. Quietly reclining under the trees, we may, with field-glasses, bring the birds near enough to see their colors and observe many of their habits. Besides their beauty, birds are h'ghly useful, destroying numberless in- sects and acting as agents in cross fertiliza- tion and seed planting. A good book to help is Chapman's Color Key to North American Birds. The modern classification of birds in- cludes the extinct forms, and is too tech- nical to give here, but the following arrange- ment may be found convenient: Our com- mon birds are either (a) water birds or (b) land birds. The water birds include divers, swimmers, waders, and the shore birds, represented by loons, gulls, ducks, geese, swans, auks and pelicans, herons, storks, ibises, cranes, rails and snipes, sandpipers, woodcocks, plovers and kill deer. The land birds are more numerous. Here the largest order is that of the perch- ing birds, embracing many families and representatives, including most of the song birds. Flycatchers, kingbird, phoebe, larks, crows, jays, blackbirds, oriole, bobolink, meadow laik, cowbird, sparrows and finches, song sparrow, field sparrow, goldfinch, purple finch, rose-breasted grosbeak, swal- lows, waxwings, warblers, threshers wren, catkird, mockingbird, red thrush, creepers, nuthatch; the thrush family, blue bird, robin, hermit thrush, etc. Other families and representatives of the land birds are the scratchers: common fowl, turkey, pheasant, grouse, pigeons and doves; birds of prey: turkey buzzard, hawk, eagle, owl, ctickoos, kingfishers, wood-peckers, goat- suckers nighthawks, whip-poor-wills, swifts and humming biids. In addition to the above are the running birds; ostriches, emus, cassowaries. See Chapman: Bird-Life (1899) fcnd Bird Studies with Camera (1901); Davie : Nests and Eggs of N. A. Birds (sth ed.. 1898); Coues: Key to North A merican Birds; Blanchan : Birds Every Child Should Know; How to Attract the Birds (1902); Bird Neighbors (1897"); Birds that Hunt and are Hunted (1898); Dugmore: Bird Homes (1900); Merriam: Birds of Village and Field (1898). Birds' Nests are primarily for rearing the young rather than for shelter. They show a great difference in architecture, from the most rude to the very complex, and birds may be divided into groups according to the way in which their nests are built. The min- ing birds either dig holes in the ground for their nests or use holes already dug by other animals. Thus the kingfisher digs a crooked gallery several feet into a bank and lays its eggs in a round hole at the end. Other birds of similar habits are the common bank swal- low, the bee-eaters and the family of storm petrels. The wood-wren and the burrowing owl make their nests in ready-made bur- rows. Among ground-builders some build no nest at all, others only occasionally. The nighthawks lay their eggs on bare ground, as a large number of sea birds do on the sand. The brush turkeys of Australia, called mound builders, gather a large heap of decaying leaves and grass, and when the heap has become warm from rotting, dig a hole about two feet deep in the top, and lay their eggs, leaving them to hatch out by the heat. Vultures and common fowls belong to this group. The masons build their nests with walls or sometimes only coverings of mud. The cliff swallows build flask-shaped nests against the sides of rocks or cliffs. Several birds usually work at one nest, bring- ing mud, while one of their number directs the work from within. The baker bird of South America is the most skillful of this class. It builds its nests very high, in the shape of a baker's oven, with an entrance on the side twice as high as it is long, and the interior divided into two chambers by a partition. The common robin is allied to this group. The carpenters bore holes for their nests in trees. The woodpeckers, for example, dig with their beaks a short tunnel upward and then a larger hole downward, in the middle of the tree, where the eggs are laid. The platform builders include the eagle and pigeon. The level platforms of branches of trees and sticks built by eagles BIRDS-OP-PARADISE 218 BIRMINGHAM are strong enough to hold the weight of a man. The basket-makers form a very large class. The mocking bird and the red-winged blackbird are familiar examples. A family of grosbeaks build a large, basket-like cluster of nests, sometimes as many as 800 in a single group. The weavers include the orioles, etc. The social weavers of Africa join together and build in tree-tops large grass canopies shaped like umbrellas. Among tailors is the bird of India, which usually makes its nests by sewing a dead leaf to a living one, making a sort of pouch, which is filled with fine down. The felt- makers, as the canary bird, build a closely woven nest, arranging the material like the fibre of felt. The nest of the hornbill is a hole in a tree, in which the female is made a prisoner during the period of incubation. She is locked up in the nest, by plastering the entrance, leaving only a small hole through which she is fed by the male. As interesting a bird structure as any is that of the swift, which makes the nest so highly prized by the Chinese, in bird's-nest soup. See Davie: Nests and Eggs of North American Birds; Dugmore: Bird Homes. Birds-or-Paradise, the name given to an Australasian family of birds of very brilliant and varied plumage, no bird its rival in splendor. The history of the name is interesting. The early voyagers to the Moluccas were shown dried skins of these birds from which the feet and wings had been removed, and for several centuries thereafter, no perfect specimens were seen in Europe. About the year 1 600, they came to be known as birds-of-Paradise. One writer of that period tells us that no one has seen these birds alive, for they live in the air, always turning toward the sun, and never alighting on the earth till they die, for they have neither feet nor wings. Even Linnaeus, in 1758, named the largest kind the footless Paradise-bird, as no perfect specimen had been seen in Europe. During 1854-62 Alfred Russel Wallace was in the Malay Archipelago and was the first natural- ist to observe these birds in their native haunts. They are now very common in museums, and some kinds are used in trim- ing ladies' hats, certain species having almost been exterminated owing to the milliners. Some are caught in snares, others are shot with blunt arrows by the natives. There are twenty-five or thirty species of these Paradise-birds, including the great bird-of-Paradise, the largest kind, about eighteen inches from beak to tip of tail, the lesser bird-of-Paradise, etc. The males alone have brilliant and gorgeous plumage; the females are plain. Associated with the more brilliant kinds, in the same family, are the bower birds of Australia and New Guinea. They are all related to the crow-family and vary in size from that of the crow to that of the sparrow. The plumage is not only of great brilliance but also of the richest velvety appearance. In many species there are numerous long tufts of feathers that start from the shoulders and spread out and down in wondrous fashion. These are the prized bird-of-Paradise plumes used by the milliners. The various species [show varied gorgeousness ; the Paradise Minor is golden above with throat and top of head a me- tallic green, coppery red below, and with copper-red wings and tail, a great swirl of golden and white plumes completing its splendor; the King Bird is a glossy crimson above, divided by a band of metallic green about the throat from the white below, and has a fan of ashy plumes tipped with emerald. See Wallace: Malay Archipelago. Birds of Passage are birds which are migratory, passing regularly with the seasons from one climate to another. Birds which breed in the United States and go south in the fall, returning to the north in the spring, are called summer birds of pas- sage; while the wild geese which breed in the Arctic regions and visit the United States in autumn, flying north again in the spring, are winter birds of passage. Most of the migratory birds of the western United States pass the winter in Mexico. Birds of the eastern states winter in the south, West Indies, Central America and even (Bobo- links) in Brazil. Birkenhead, an English seaport in Cheshire, on the left bank of the Mersey, opposite Liverpool. The population, 130,- 832. It dates back to the xath century, but has gained its present importance within recent years. It has several fine parks, one being 180 acres in extent, and a number of public buildings, such as a free library and public baths. In its neighborhood is St. Aidan's College. There is communication across the Mersey by bridge, by ferry and by a railroad tunnel, 1,230 yards long, which was opened in 1886. The docks are united with those of Liverpool. For some years Birkenhead has been noted for its shipbuilding yards, where have been built some of the largest iron ships afloat. Birmingham, Alabama, founded in 1871 and called the Magic City of the South, is situated in Jones Valley, from which rises Red Mountain, and is the county seat of Jefferson County. It is close to almost inex- haustible supplies of iron ore, coal, limestone, oil and gas, and promises to rival Birmingham, England, and to become the greatest metal- workers' city in America. It has large rolling mills, which manufacture rail and bar iron, plate and sheet iron, steel and rail mills, and by-product plants, factories for making ice, glass, bridges, chains, steel cars, etc. Twenty- five furnaces in or near the city are now en- gaged in making iron. One company employes 10,000 men. The red and brown iron ores, found in enormous quantities in the region, make an excellent Quality of steel, and the HUMMING BIRD S NEST. PHOEBE'S NEST BUILT ox A BEAM. WORM-EATING WARBLER'S NEST. 5LUE JAY'S NEST. CROW'S NEST WITH YOUNG NEARLY READY TO FLY. WOOD THRUSH ON NEST VESPER SPARROW S NEST NEST OF YELLOW-WINGED SPARROW. REED-WARBLER S NEST BETWEEN* THREE REED STEMS. WOOD PEWEE S NEST. WARBLING VIREO'S NEST. WHITE-EYED VIREO ON NEST. BIRMINGHAM BISMARCK annual output is now very considerable, giving employment to many thousands. Nine rail- roads center here: The Southern, the Louis- ville and Nashville, the Seaboard Air Line, the Central of Georgia, the Alabama Great South- ern (a part of the Queen and Crescent System) , the Illinois Central, the Atlanta, Birmingham and Atlanta, the Birmingham Southern and the Kansas City, Memphis and Birmingham. Fine buildings are constantly going up, of which the magnificent Union Station, the First National Bank and Saint Vincent Hospital are good examples. The city has fine schools and churches, and includes among its public build- ings a handsome courthouse, several high school buildings and many other fine civic institutions, including a million dollar building. Near by, at East Lake, is Howard College, a Baptist institution, and three miles west of the city is Birmingham College, the Methodist institution of the state. The population is 215,894. Birmingham furnishes a most strik- ing example of the wonderful commercial development of the New South. Birmingham, an English manufacturing city in Warwickshire, famed for its metal works, is situated near the center of England. From an early period it has made all kinds of metallic articles. The chief variety is the brass-working trade, in which 10,000 people are engaged. The next in importance is the manufacture of jewelry, gold, silver and gilt; then come small arms of all sorts. Other specialties are buttons, hooks and eyes, pins, screws, nails, steel pens, electric- plating and bell making. About 20,000,- ooo steel pens are made every week, and Birmingham has the monopoly of the screw trade in England. There are a large number of fine buildings, such as the City Hall, where musical festivals are held every three years, and great political gatherings, for which the place is famous. Mason and Queen's Colleges are situated here, together with several art galleries and libraries. A large number of fine statues adorn the place, among them those of Lord Nelson and Sir Robert Peel. The famous Soho works, founded by Watt and Boulton, where the first engines were made, are near Birming- ham. The city is divided into seven dis- tricts, each of which returns a member to Parliament. The population, 570,113. Bisbee, a city in Cochise County, Arizona, about thirty miles from Tombstone, is situated in a canon of the Mule-Pass Moun- tains, and is a substantially built modern city. Noteworthy buildings are the Y. M. C. A., Y. W. C. A. library, the high and central schools. Bisbee has an admirable public-school system and several fine churches. Its copper mines are among the richest in the world, and the two of greatest importance are known as the Calumet and Arizona and the Copper Queen. The city has electric light, waterworks and an electric street-car system; also the service of the El Paso & Southwestern Railroad, by which it is connected (at Tucson) with the Southern Pacific. Bisbee, inclusive c-f its suburbs, has a population of 21,000. Biscay (tiis'kd} Bay of, an eastern arm of the Atlantic, extending from Ushant Island to Cape Ortegal, and flanked on the east by France and on the south by Spain. It is about 350 miles long by 300 miles in width. Violent circular currents, as well as storms, make the navigation difficult. The Spanish coast is rocky, but the French coast is low and sandy. The depth varies from 20 to 200 fathoms. The principal ports on the French coast are Bayonne, Bordeaux, Nantes, Rochefort, La Rochelle and Brest; those on the Spanish coast are Santander, San Sebastian and Bilboa. The Rivers Loire and Garonne flow into the bay. Bismarck (bis' mark} Archipelago, is made up of what was formerly called the New Brit- ain Archipelago, the Admiralty Islands and several other groups lying to the north and east of Kaiser Wilhelm's Land or German New Guinea. The white population in 1909 was 474, of whom 364 were Germans. The imports in 1910 amounted to 2,914,792 marks; the exports to 3,224,027, chiefly copra, with some cotton, coffee and kapok, a sort of cotton. About 170,000 acres are under cultivation. Bismarck, N. Dakota, since 1889 capital of the state, on the Missouri River. Four federal buildings are located here anjndian school an army post, a weather bureau and a modern building containing the new post office, the land office and the federal courts The state buildings are the capitol and the penitentiary. The city has good grammar schools, a model high school, ample fire and police protection, good sewerage and well lighted streets. Sixteen wholesale houses have their home offices or branches here and there are three excellent banking institutions. It has the service of two railroads. The site of the town was visited by the explorers, Lewis and Clarke, but it was not until after 1875 that it was incorporated. Popula- tion, 5,443' Bismarck, Otto Edouard Leopold von, Prince, one of the greatest of modern statesmen, was born at SchSnhausen, in Brandenburg, April i, 1815, of an old and distinguished family. Educated at Got- tingen, Berlin and Greifswald, he lived for awhile on his estates; but in 1847 entered politics as a member of the first Prussian parliament, where he sided with the con- servatives. From that time forward he was the great champion of a united Germany, with Prussia at its head. He was sent as min- ister to St. Petersburg and Paris; and in 1862 was appointed minister of foreign affairs and prime minister. His policy was strongly opposed by the liberals, and for awhile he became very unpopular. At this time the BISMUTH 220 BISON rivalry between Austria and Prussia stood in the way of the reunion of Germany as a nation, and so Bismarck hurried on a war between these two powers which (1866- 67) ended in forming the North German Confederacy, with Prussia at its head, and B i smarck as chancellor. In 1870, during the war with France, he was wont to accompany the army and King William, and was present on many battlefields and at the siege of Paris, while he negotiated the treaty of peace in 1871. Bis- marck received pRINCE BISMARCK tne titleoi prince and was made chancellor of the new German empire. From that time his whole energy was given to putting tha empire into good condition within and securing it from attack without. His social measures won for him the designation of the greatest state socialist of the age, and his efforts to keep peace in Europe by an alli- ance against Russia and France, earned him the titles of the Peacemaker and the Peacekeeper of Europe. He was also called the Iron Chancellor, and, from his own words in a speech, the man of blood and iron. Though not a smooth orator, Bismarck had great power in the use of his native tongue, and his speeches were always strong and effective. He made many enemies and his life was frequently in danger. He was, however, a great national hero, and his birthday, while he lived, was several times celebrated by the whole nation. During the brief rule of the Emperoi Frederick, Bismarck retained his power, but the strong opposition to his plans by the present Emperor William led him to resign. He latterly lived in retire- ment on his estate. Prince Bismarck was tall and of an imposing presence, and had a piercing eye. Though imperious and even unscrupulous as a statesman, yet in private life he was genial, witty and en- tertaining. He died at Friednchsruh, July 30, 1898. Bismuth, a hard orittls metal having a bright metallic luster and a distinct reddish tinge of color. It melts at 518, and ex- pands, as water does, when it solidifies. It is used for making very fusible alloys. One of these, known as Wood's metal, consists of two parts bismuth, two parts lead, one part tin and one part cadmium, and melts at 1411, a temperature that can be borne by the hand. Basic bismuth nitrate, fre- quently called sub-nitrate of bismuth, is extensively used In medicine. The greater part of the bismuth comes from Saxony. Bison, wild cattle, related to the ox, living in Europe and North America. The European bison was common in Europe in the times of ancient Rome, but is now confined to a few herds in the Caucasus and Ural Mountains. The European form eats buds, shoots and bark. When it was abundant, it did much harm in the forests. The true buffalo belongs to India and South America. In appearance the bison differs from the true buffalo in the high hump on its shoulders, the long hair with which the head is so heavily clothed, the heavy barb, and the fringe of long, coarse hair on the forelegs The American bison, popularly called buffalo, is the most famous of our hoofed animals. Once buffalo were almost unbe- lievably abundant here. In comparatively recent days herds derailed trains in the west and stopped boats on the Yellowstone and Missouri Rivers. Toward winter they migrated in an enormous company south- ward on their range, herd upon herd unit- ing. Various authorities repeat the story told of Col. Dodge's experience while trav- eling in Arkansas in 1871: "For twenty- five miles he passed through a continuous herd of buffalo;" the number estimated at 4,000,000. To-day there are probably less than 3,000 to be found in Canada and the United States together; this remnant saved in private preserve, public park and garden, in a desolate region in Canada southwest of Great Slave Lake, on the Flathead Reservation in Montana and in the Yellowstone National Park. In Corbin Park in New Hampshire there is a notable herd of pure-breed animals. The Oklahoma national forest also is a pre- serve for the rearing of buffalo. The range of the American bison was once 3,000 miles from north to south, 2,000 miles from east to west; in their migra- tions they climbed great mountains and swam mighty rivers. Their food was the herbage of plain and prairie. Vast ex- panses of land were marked by "buffalo paths," and still today the "buffalo wal- lows" show how hosts of these great creatures sought relief from flies and insects. They were indispensable to the Indian, furnished him with his chief subsistence. He dried great quantities of the meat and made use of the hide for shelter, clothing, boots and many other purposes nothing was thrown away, the dried dung served for fuel. The bison begins to shed its hair in March, shortly becomes quite bare, and to protect itself rolls in muddy sloughs until caked in an armour of mud. The new coat is fine by October, and at its best in November and December. The fur is valuable, the hide makes excellent leather. BITTERN 221 BLACK and the meat is edible, almost like beef. A naturalist once shot a great animal that measured ten feet in length, its estimated weight 2,000 pounds. When at its best the American bison is of very splendid appearance. Hornaday thus describes one in perfect pelage: "The magnificent dark brown frontlet and beard of the buffalo, the shaggy coat of hair upon the neck, hump and shoulders, terminating at the knees in a thick mass of luxuriant black locks, to say nothing of the dense coat of fur upon the body and hind quarters, give to our species a grandeur and nobility of presence which are beyond all comparison with ruminants." Greed brought to an end the life of this noble and most useful creature. Settlers coming in restricted the range and also ruthlessly slaughtered; sportsmen wantonly killed; and droves of hide-hunters had their full share in the extermination. See Hornaday: American Natural History; Stone and Cram: American Animals. Bittern (Botaurus Lentiginosus), a noc- turnal bird allied to the herons, widely distributed over North America and fre- quently found in marshy or reedy places in the eastern continents as well as in Australia. In size it varies from two to three feet in height, with a bill about three inches in length, and an expanse of wing close upon four feet. In its marshy haunts, it feeds at night on water-insects, fish, lizards and frogs. In the spring especially, at the breeding season, its notes have a bellowing, booming sound. Nesting on the ground, their eggs have a plain olive-green color, the birds themselves having a pur- ple-brown tint, with occasional buff streaks on throat, breast and belly. They are very solitary in their habits, as well as shy and retiring. Bitu' men, a general name applied to a variety of substances occurring beneath the earth's surface, and consisting prin- cipally of carbon and hydrogen, though often containing a little oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur. Natural gas represents one extreme of the bitumen series, and solid asphalt the other. Between these ex- tremes are naphtha, petroleum, mineral tar, etc. Bitumen is very widely distributed, though its occurrence in quantities suffi- cient to make it commerically valuable is relatively rare. See NATURAL GAS, PETRO- LEUM, ASPHALT. Bituminous Coal. See COAL. Bjornson (bySrn' sun), Bjornstjorne, a celebrated writer of Norway, was born Dec. .8, 1832. While studying at the University of Christiania, he conceived a passion for the theater, and began his career as a writer by an historical drama. A few years later, when in Copenhagen, he pub- lished his beautiful story, Synnove Solbakken, which at once became popular and marked an epoch in Norwegian literature. Soon after, he was made manager of the Na- tional theater in Bergen by its Eroprietor, 1 e ull. He pub- lished a series of national dramas from subjects taken from the old Norse sagas or legends. After a few years spent in Rome, Ger- m a n y and Prance, he re- turned to Nor- way. The par- liament voted him a yearly "poet's salary, ' BJSRNSTJORNE BJSRNSON so that he was free to devote his time to writing. He became director of the Danish theater at Christiania, and editor of the Norse People's Journal. He also took an active part in politics, and came to be an eloquent speaker. In 1881 he visited the United States, studying the workings of republican government and lecturing to his countrymen in the western states. Among his works are the so-called saga tragedies, Limping Hulda, King Sverre, Sigurd Slembe and others. The play, Mary Stuart in Scotland, is the only one taken from foreign history. Among his novels are The Fisher Maiden, Arne, In God's Way, The Heritage of the Kurtz and The Bridal March; he has also written shorter tales and poems. His later works dealt mostly with society and social reforms; among these are The Editor, The King, A Bankruptcy and The New System. Died April 26, 1910. Black, Jeremiah Sullivan, American jurist and statesman, was born in Pennsyl- vania in 1810, and died there Aug. 19, 1883. In politics he was what is known as a Jeffersonian Democrat, and was prominent as a lawyer, taking part, at one period of his professional career in the Vanderbilt will contest. In 1851 and again in '1854 he was elected one of the supreme court judges of Pennsylvania, and from 1857 to 1860 he was attorney-general in President Buchanan's administration, and afterward (1860-61) was secretary of state. In the latter year (1861) he retired from public life. Black, William, a British novelist, was born at Glasgow in 1841, where he was edu- cated and studied art. He was, however, led to writing, and did his first work for a Glasgow newspaper. He afterward went to London, where he wrote for several maga- zines. During the war between Prussia and / Austria, in 1866, he was war correspondent for the London Morning Chronicle. He afterward editor of the London Review BLACKADER 222 BLACK FOREST assistant editor of the Daily News. In 1875 he abandoned journalism and devoted him- self to writing fiction. He visited America :n 1876. A Daughter of Heth was Black's first really successful work, and A Princess of Thule is perhaps his finest romance. Other works are Strange Adventures of a Phaeton, Madcap Violet, Macleod of Dare, White Wings, Sunrise, Shandon Bells, Judith Shakespeare and Strange Adventures of a Houseboat. He died at Brighton, Dec. 10, 1898. Black'ader, Alexander Dougall, B.A., M.D., M.R.C.S., has been lecturer on the diseases of children since 1883, and pip fessor of pharmacology and therapeutics in McGill University, Montreal, since 1891, where he received his earlier education, afterward studying in London Vienna and Prague. He is a member of many learned medical societies in Canada and the United States, and is the author of numerous articles and of the Reference Handbook of the Medical Sciences. Black'berry. Certain species of the genus Rubus, belonging to the rose family. The blackberry is distinguished from the raspberry, which belongs to the same genus, by the fact that the receptacle remains with the druplets when the fruit is picked. It seems that the fruit is known in commerce only in America. Although it has been a well-known wild fruit from the earliest settlement of this country, it has recently been developed as a garden fruit. Blackbird, a common name for a num- ber of birds of black plumage, some of them only distant- ly related. In America several birds receive this name. The crow - black- bird or pur- p 1 e grackle is one of the c o m m o n blackbirds; it lives in flocks. The rusty black- bird is less common . The red- win g e d blackbird is abundant in swamps and marshes of the United States. It is, really, a starling. The common blackbird of Great Britain and Europe is the merle; it is closely related to the American robin, which it resembles in form and habits, but is, of course, black. It is a true thrush. Black'burn, a manufacturing town in Lancashire, England, twenty-one miles northwest of Manchester. Its population BLACKBIRD is over 133,064. Its importance dates back to the 1 7th century. Its chief industry now is cotton manufacture, in which it leads the world, having a large number of cotton factories, many of them employing from 1,000 to 2,000 hands. Among the improve- ments in the machinery for spinning cotton which are traced to Blackburn is the spin- ning jenny, invented in 1707 by James Hargreaves, a native of the town. The chief public buildings are the town hall, the Gothic exchange and the infirmary. It has a grammar school, founded by Queen Eliza- beth in 1567. Blackburn sends two mem- bers to Parliament. Black'feet, a tribe of Indians of the Algonquin family, living in the states of Montana and Wyoming, on the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains, between the Yellowstone and the Missouri River, and also in northwestern Canada. They num- ber about 6,000 in Canada, and 7,000 in Montana and Wyoming. They are divided into the Jrue Blackfeet, the Bloods, the Pigeons and the Small Robes. In the early days of the west they were a powerful tribe, given to robbery and hostile to the whites, but have been friendly and peace- ful for a number of years, though in 1865 they were involved in troubles with miners. In 1870 a large number were massacred. They differ from the other Algonquin tribes in worshiping the sun instead of the Great Spirit. A briei vocabulary of their dialect has been published by George Catlin in his North American Indians. They must not be confounded with the Blackfeet Sioux. Black Forest, a wooded mountain chain in Baden and Wurttemberg, running north- east and southwest along the course of the Rhine. The chief rivers rising in it are the Danube and the Neckar. The loftiest eleva- tion is reached in the round-topped Feld- berg, and is 4,903 feet high, above the nar- row valley of HSllenthai, connected with Moreau's famous retreat in 1796. The Kaiserstuhl or Emperor's Chair is a great mass west of the main chain. Its numerous valleys are beautiful. The legends of many centuries cluster around the whole region. Silver, copper, cobalt, lead and iron are found, and the mineral waters are famous, especially those at Baden-Baden. Some farming is done, but cattle rearing and the manufacture ot wooden articles, such as clocks, musical boxes and toys, form the chief industries. Of these articles, 600,000 are exported yearly to all parts of the world. A railroad encircles the forest, and numerous lines cross it. The engineering has been very difficult, the line between Freiburg and Neustadt rising in elevation 2,000 feet in twenty-two miles. The region forms a district in Wurttemberg, Germany, area, i .844 square miles, with a population of 541,662, largely Protestant. BLACK HAWK 223 BLACKSTONE Black Hawk, a famous Indian chief of the Sac and Fox tribe, was born about 1768 unthe east shore of the Mississippi, near the '.nouth of Rock River. When about twenty years old, he succeeded his father as chief of the Sacs. In the War of 1812, he took part with England. When the remainder of the tribes removed to their reserva- tion across the Mississippi, Black Hawk, with his followers, remained. Some years after, war began with the whites, and after a number of the whites had been massacred, the Indians were driven to the Wisconsin River and twice defeated, and Black Hawk was captured. A treaty was made, and the Indians were removed tc the region near Fort Des Moines. Black Hawk and his two sons were taken as hostages through the cities of the East. They were confined for a time in Fortress Monroe, but were allowed to rejoin their tribes in 1833. Black Hawk died in Iowa in 1838. Black'heath, an open common of sev- enty acres in extent, in the county of Kent, England, seven miles from London. Many schools are situated here. It is famous in English history. Here were the insurrec- tions of Wat Tyler, of Jack Cade and of the Cornishmen under Lord Audley; here the Danes encamped in ion; here the London- ers welcomed Henry V from Agincourt; and here Charles II on his way from Dover met the army of the Restoration. It was, for a long time, a noted place for high- waymen. Black Hills, a range of mountains in South Dakota and Wyoming, about 100 miles long and 60 miles wide, or an area of about 6,000 square miles. They are a continuation of the Big Horn and Snow Mountains, which branch off from the Rockies. The highest point is Laramie Peak, in Wyoming, nearly 8,000 feet above sea-level. About one third of the area is covered with vast forests of black pine, giving the name to the mountain range. Gold has been discovered and extensively mined in the Black Hills, and other mineral wealth is believed to be abundant. The value of the mineral products of South Dakota in 1905, which were chiefly gold, was close upon seven million dollars ; though this is a large falling off from the era of the seventies, when the region was opened to settlement. Harney Peak is the most elevated point in the Black Hills, reaching an altitude of over 7,200 feet. Black' more, Richard Doddridge, a well- known novelist, was born in Berkshire, England, in 1825, and graduated at Exeter College, Oxford. He studied law, and was called to the bar, but practiced only a short time. He was fond of gardening, and so, in his novels, his descriptions of nature are his best efforts. With the exception of Lorna Doone, a Romance of Exmoor, his works lack movement and life. Lorna Doone however, is considered one of the best romances in the English language. Other stories are Springhaven, Alice Lorraine and The Maid of Sker. He has also translated the Georgics of Vergil. He died Jan. 20, 1900. Black Mountains, a group of mountains in the western part of North Carolina, a few miles west of the Blue Ridge and belonging to the Appalachian system. The name comes from the forests of dark bal- sams on its summits. It has twelve peaks, all higher than Mt. Washington, the highest being the Black Dome or Mitchell's Peak, as it is called in honor of Dr. Mitchell, of the University of North Carolina, who per- ished while exploring the mountain and was buried on its top. The height of this peak is 6,707 feet the highest point of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains. Black Sea or Euxine, meaning "hos- pitable," is an inland sea lying between Europe and Asia. Its greatest length is 720 miles, its greatest breadth 380 miles, and it covers 163,711 square miles or, including the Sea of Azov, 172,500 miles. It is thus more than five times as large as Lake Supe- rior. Its depth in the center is over a thou- sand fathoms. It is connected with the Sea of Azov on the northeast, and flows into the Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmora and the Dardanelles. Many large rivers flow into it, and it drains nearly one-quarter of the surface of Europe, besides a large area of Asia. There is only one island in it, the Adassi or Isle of Serpents, opposite the mouths of the Danube. There are many important ports along the coast, such as Kustendji, Odessa, Trebizond and Sebas- topol. In summer navigation is safe and easy, but in winter, when the sea is closed on every side, conflicting winds rage over it, and short but terrible storms are frequent. There is no tide, but the large rivers flowing into it give rise to currents. The sea has been known and navigated from a very early period. For many years it was under the control of Turkey alone, but now both Russia and Turkey maintain fleets in its waters, and it is open to the commerce of all nations. Black Snake, in many localities called blue racer, is common in nearly all parts of the United States. Its length varies from four to six or seven feet, and it moves very rapidly. It feeds on frogs, lizards, mice and eggs, occasionally captures a young chicken, and drinks cream and milk in dairies. It has no poison fangs, but the embrace of its coils is powerful. The name is also applied to poisonous black or blackish serpents of the eastern hemisphere. Blackstone, Sir William, an English commentator on law, was born in London in 1723, and after his college and law studies he began the .practice of law. He was not at first successful, but, after delivering a course BLACKWELL 224 BLAIR of lectures at Oxford on the law of England, was made professor of English law there Later he was made a king's counsel, entered parliament, was appointed solicitor-general to the queen, was knighted, and finally appointed a justice of the court of common pleas. He published in four volumes his Oxford lectures, which form his celebrated Commentaries on the Law of England. He died in 1780. Black'well, Elizabeth, the first woman who received a medical diploma in the United States, was born in England in 1821, and with her family emigrated in 1832 to the United States. She taught for some years at Cincinnati, helping to support a large family of brothers and sisters. After much difficulty she was admitted to the Medical School at Geneva, N. Y., from which she graduated with honors in 1849. She next visited Europe in furtherance of her studies, and was admitted into hospitals in Paris and in London. In 1851 she returned to the United States and began a successful practice in New York, where she has mostly resided. In 1859, with her sister, she opened the New York Infirmary for Women and Children. In 1869 she delivered a course of medical lectures in England. She has writ- ten several popular books on the laws of health, especially for girls, besides a volume entitled Pioneer Work in Opening the Med- ical Profession to Women (1905.) On all questions of social reform and the status of woman she has always taken an active part. Black' well's Island is in the East River and is part of New York city. It has an area of 120 acres. It is the seat of many of the penal institutions of the city. It has a lunatic asylum, an asylum for the blind, a workhouse, almshouse, penitentiary and several hospitals. On its north end is a stone lighthouse, with a fixed red light, which is fifty-four feet above the sea Blaine (Man), James Qillcspie, an American statesman, was born at West Brownsville, Pa., Jan. 31, 1830. He grad- uated at Wash- ington College in 1847, ^d then taught for two years in the Wes- tern Military In- stitution .George- town, Ky. After studying law and being admitted to the bar, he re- moved to Au- gusta, Me., where he took charge of the Kennebec Journal. When ed, he became prominent as a public speaker; was chairman of the state committee of that party; and served four years in the state legislature, being speaker of the house for two years. He edited the Portland Advertiser, and in 1862 entered Congress, where he soon showed himself an able and ready debater, and, on the death of Thaddeus Stevens, became leader of his party in the house. From 1869 to 1875 ne was speaker, and in the latter year was chosen senator from Maine. During the short ad- ministration of President Garfield, Blaine was secretary of state, and, on the death of his chief, he retired to his home in Augusta, having first delivered an eulogy on Garfield before the two houses of Congress, He now began to prepare his Twenty Years of Con- gress, a review of American political history during 1861-81, and had issued the first vol- ume when he was nominated for the presi- dency in 1884, but was defeated by Mr. Cleveland. The next few years were spent in literary work and in visiting Europe, and when Mr. Harrison became president, in March, 1889, Blaine again became secretary of state. Here he carried out the scheme of a Pan-American congress, which he had begun in his former short term, and was chosen chairman of the meeting. The policy of reciprocity with other American states, at his suggestion, became a feature of the McKinley tariff law. In June, 1892, Blaine resigned from the cabinet. He died at Washington, D. C., Jan. 28, 1893. Blair, Hon. Andrew George, born in Frederickton, New Brunswick, in 1844. Called to the Bar in 1866. Entered New Brunswick Legislature in 1878. Leader of the Opposition in 1879. Remained in the Legislature until 1896. In 1883 defeated the Hannington Government and formed a new Government. His Government was sus- tained at four general elections. Member of the Inter-Provincial Conference held at Que- bec, 1887. Elected to the House of Com- mons and joined the Laurier Administration in 1896 as Minister of Railways and Canals. Secured the extension of the Intercolonial Railway from Levis to Montreal in 1898. While he was Minister the St. Lawrence canals were deepened to 14 feet from the Great Lakes to the sea. Blair, Francis Preston, journalist and politician, and founder and editor for a time of the Washington Globe, was born in Vir- ginia in 1791, and died in Maryland, Oct. 1 8, 1876. He took an active part in politics before and after the War of the Rebellion, and on both the Democratic and the Repub- lican side. In 1856 he was instrumental in organizing the republican party and in 1860 was one of the leaders who nominated Lin- coln for the presidency. During the war he sought to bring about peace in the South. After Lincoln's death he was, however, opposed to the Republican reconstruction policy, and returned tp the Democratic camp. BLAIR 225 BLAKE Blair, Francis Preston, Jr., American politician, major-general of volunteers and son of the foregoing, was born at Lexington, Ky., Feb. 19, 1821, and died at St. Louis, July 9, 1875. A graduate of Princeton and student of law, he became a member of the Kentucky bar and practiced for a time at St. Louis. In 1845 the state of his health took him westward to the Rockies, and there he took part in the war with Mexico. Later on, he became editor of the Missouri Demo- crat, and represented his state in the legis- lature. He was elected to Congress as a republican in 1856, and was re-elected in 1862. When the Civil War broke out, he became colonel and later major-general of volunteers, commanded a division in the Vicksburg campaign, and was at the head of the i 7th corps in Sherman's march to the sea. Like his father, he veered to both political parties in the state, and in 1868 was democratic candidate for vice-president. From 1870 to 1873 ne was United States senator from Missouri. In 1848 he published a Life of General W O. Butler. Blair, Montgomery, an American officer and politician, was born in Franklin County, Ky., in 1813. After graduating at West Point, he served in the Seminole War, and then entered upon the practice of law, rising high in the profession and filling several im- portant positions. In 1857 he was counsel for Dred Scott. Under President Lincoln Blair was postmaster-general for four years. He then returned to the practice of his pro- fession, and died July 27, 1883, at Silver Spring, Md. Blake, Edward, was born in Middlesex County, Ontario, in 1833, an( ^ m I ^5^ gradu- ated at the University of Toronto, of which he was elected chancel- lor in 1876. Elected to the Ontario legisla- ture in 1867, he led the Opposition till 1871, when he was called on to form a government. He re- signed the Ontario premiership in 1872 after a brilliant and successful career in its local legislature. In 1867 he had been HON - EDWARD BLAKE elected to the Canadian House of Com- mons. At the request of the leaders of the Irish Parliamentary party, he went to Ire- land in 1892 and was elected Member for South Longford. In 1904 elected a mem- ber of the Executive Committee of the Irrh Party. A member of the Royal com- mission to inquire into the financial rela- tions between Great Britain and Ireland. In 1896 one of the committee of 15 of the House of Commons to investigate South African affairs and the causes of the Trans- vaal raid. His cross-examination of Cecil Rhodes was the leading feature of the in- vestigation. Elected Chancellor of the University of Toronto in 1876, contributed generously to its funds. Engaged frequently in very important cases before the Privy Council. One of the greatest advocates of the day of any country. Blake, Robert, the greatest English ad- miral next to Nelson, was born at Bridge- water in 1598. Until he was forty years old he lived quietly in England as a country gentle- man. Entering the army on the side of Cromwell, he distinguished himself by de- fending Taunton against the Royal- ists for a year, and in 1649 ne was ap- pointed with two others to command the fleet. Within two years his energy had built up the fleet, block- aded Lisbon, de- stroyed the squad- ADMIRAL BLAKE ron of Prince Rupert, and forced the royalists to give up their last strong- holds. At this time the Dutch were masters of the sea, and in 1652 Blake began his struggle with them. After several bat- tles with the great Dutch admirals, in Feb- ruary, 1653. Blake defeated Van Tromp in a long running fight which extended from Portland to Calais, and within a few months, instead of Van Tromp's scouring the channel with a broom at his masthead, the English had established their naval supremacy. In 1654 he made the fleet of England respected in the Mediterranean. The last exploit of the great admiral, however, was his greatest and most daring one. In 1657, hearing that a Spanish fleet had arrived at Santa Cruz, he at once sailed thither, where he found sixteen ships lying in the semicircular bay, protected by a castle and six or seven forts. Dashing boldly in by night, he completely destroyed the ships and the town, and with- drew with little loss. This exploit excited great enthusiasm in England and admira- tion throughout Europe. After this his health failed rapidly and he died on his way home, as he was sailing into the harbor of Plymouth, Aug. 17, 1657. Blake, William, an English artist and poet, was born in London, in 1757. As a boy he was dreamy and spent his time in drawing and verse making. After studying art for some years, he began to paint in water colors, and to engrave illustrations for BLANC 226 BLEAK HOUSE magazines. At the same time he wrote poetry which showed great power and beauty. Poetical Sketches, Songs of Experi- ence and Songs of Innocence are among his best works. Most of his other poems are strange and mysterious, and are valuable chiefly because of the wonderful way he had of illustrating and printing them in various colors, which he said had been revealed to him. Among these quaint and now rare editions are Book of Prophecies, Gates of Paradise, Vision of the Daughters of Albion and America. During his life, Blake's genius was little recognized, but many now believe that England has not produced his superior in force and originality. He died in London, Aug. 12, 1827. Blanc (blan) , Jean Joseph Louis, a noted French socialist and historian, was born at Madrid in 1811. He studied at Paris and wrote for several newspapers, and in 1839 founded the Review of Progress, in which he brought out his chief work on socialism, the Organization of Labor. This work, which proposed to establish social workshops connected with the government, and with an equal profit ti the laborers, was at once widely popular among the French workmen. His next work, The History of Ten Years, was aimed at the royal government. It was followed by his History of the French Revolution. In the revolution of 1848 Blanc took some part, but was soon after accused, without reason, of participating in the civil disturbances which took place in Paris, and he escaped to England. Here he remained many years, engaged in writing, and on the fall of the empire, in 1871, he returned to France. He was elected to the national assembly, and later became a member of the chamber of deputies. He died at Cannes, Dec. 6, 1882 Blanc, Mont. See ALPS. Blarney Stone, a famous stone in the ruins of old Blarney castle, near Cork, which is said to give to one who kisses it the power of saying agreeable things. From this story comes the word Blarney, a term for complimentary or flattering talk. Blast Furnace, a furnace in which the burning of fuel is increased greatly by a blast bl->wn from a bellows or by means of fans or other blowing-engines. Blast furnaces are used mainly for smelting iron, copper and lead ores. See METALLURGY. Blasting, the method of loosening or breaking in pieces masses of rock by means of the explosion of gunpowder or dynamite. It is used in sinking shafts, cutting tunnels, building roads and railroads and clear- ing channels. Formerly a form of slow burning gunpowder was used, but in 1868 nitroglycerine was used for the first time in boring the Hoosac tunnel. Now simi- lar high explosives are universally used for blasting. Nitroglycerine is an ex- plosive chemical compound made by treat- ing glycerine with nitric and sulphuric acids. It is often mixed with an absorb- ent material, as sawdust, and dynamite is a general term for high explosives of this kind. The explosive is placed in holes which are drilled in the rock by hand or power drills, and exploded either by slow burning fuses or more generally by an elec- tric spark. The removal of Flood Rock at Hell Gate in the East River, New York, October, 1885, was done by this method, and was the largest blast ever made. The rock covered about nine acres, 21,669 feet of tunnel were made, over 40,000 pounds of high explosives were used, and 80,232 cubic yards of rock excavated. Blavatsky (bid-vat' ski), Madame Helena Petrovna, a Russian theosophist and founder of the Theosophical Society, was born in Russia in 1831. She was of noble descent and married a Russian councillor of state, from whom, however, she sepa- rated early in her married life. Fond of travel, she found her way to Tibet, where she claims she received the theosophical doctrines connected with her name. From 1873 t J 8?9 she was a resident of New York, when she founded the Theosophical Society and published Isis Unveiled. Her other writings include The Key to The- osophy, The Secret Doctrine, The Voice of Silence, etc. She died in London, May 8, 1891. Bleaching (from the Anglo-Saxon blaec, Eale), the process of whitening textile ibrics (cotton, linen and silk, also wool) by removing coloring matters and sub- stances naturally present, or adhering to them in the course of their manufacture. In early days it used to be the custom to send Scotch linens to be bleached in Hol- land, and the latter name is still used for a kind of unbleached linen. The term lawn, which continues in use, received its name from being spread on lawns or cul- tivated grass fields for bleaching purposes. Besides linen and cotton, wool, silk, jute, paper and now even wood are submitted to the bleaching process. The term bleach- ing is moreover applied to the decolorizing of castor-oil, bees-wax and other fatty materials by exposure to sunlight. Scour- ing and bleaching are now largely effected by the use of chemicals and volatile liquids, soda ash, resin soaps and more or less caustic alkalis being utilized in place of baths of lime, lye and sulphuric acid. For the bleaching of silk, after scouring, sul- phur dioxide is used, or, better still, hydro- gen peroxide. As a bleaching agent, chlor- ide of lime or bleaching powder is resorted to for the removal of metallic and other colors in calico-printing. Bleak House, a novel written by Charles Dickens during 1852-3. This novel BLENHEIM 227 BLIGHT was in part a satire on the long delays of the Court of Chancery; but the story itself is a great favorite. It has been said that the dreary residence from which the name of the book is taken was suggested to the author by a residence at Broadstairs, Kent, where Dickens lived in summer. Blenheim (blen'im), a village of Bavaria, 23 miles northwest of Augsburg, famous as the scene of the Duke of Marlborough's great victory over the French and Bava- rians, Aug. 13, 1704. The two armies numbered about 50,000 on either side. The French and Bavarians lay in a strong position, and the attack was made by the English and Austrians, with their allies, headed by the Duke of Marlborough, the great English general, and Prince Eugene. The onset was long resisted, until Marl- borough, by two desperate charges, which he led in person, broke the enemy's line and decided the day. Of the defeated army only 20,000 escaped. Twelve thou- sand, were killed and 14,000 captured. The battle is also called the battle of Hoch- stadt, from the name of another small vil- lage near by. Near Blenheim, also, the French defeated the Austrians in 1800. Blennerhas' sett, Harman, known in connection with Aaron Burr's conspiracy, was born in England about 1764. He was of an Irish family, but, becoming dissatisfied with Ireland, sold his Irish estates for a sum exceeding $100,000 and came to America. He bought an island of 170 acres in the Ohio River near Parkersburg, W. Va., and built on it a fine mansion and adorned his home with all the comforts and refinements which culture could sug- gest and wealth supply. Many visitors enjoyed his hospitality, and among them Aaron Burr, still bitter because of his political defeat. He filled Blennerhassett's mind with plans of forming an empire in Mexico, tor which he made extensive prepa- rations. When Burr was arrested and brought to trial, Blennerhassett was ar- rested, but on the acquittal of Burr, he was released. His fine property was sold to creditors, and his later life was clouded and unhappy. He died on the Island of Guernsey in 1831. Blight, a diseased condition of plants, causing deadening of the stems or roots, yellowing and early falling of the leaves, or shriveling and premature decay of the fruit. In a restricted sense the word re- fers to a certain mildew affection of the leaves. Blight exists among plants in their wild state, and is often aggravated by cultivation. Though pre-eminently a fungous disease (see FUNGI), it may ap- pear, as often shown by the foliage turn- ing yellow, from the roots being poorly supplied with food and air. From the standpoint of the producer, blights may be roughly classed as the rusts and smuts of grains, blights of orchard and shade trees, of small fruits and grapes and of garden products; though several or all of these sorts of plants may be attacked by fungi that are similar, botanically, or are the same thing. Often a single species of blight-producing fungus will pass through several stages of development on entirely different plants, as in the case of wheat rust. (See ^ECIDIOMYCETES.) Damage to cereals from rust and smut in the United States amounts to from $25,000,000 to $30,000,000 yearly. While rust is com- mon, it causes damage only when cool, damp weather allows it to mature more rapidly than the grain. While the black spores (q. v.) of rust live over the winter, in the case of those orchard blights affect- ing the wood, only those spores survive where the dead and healthy tissues meet. Here form, in the spring, the familiar sweet masses of "gum," which attract insects and so scatter their spores. Al| branches showing such hold-over blight should be pruned out. Certain apple rusts pass one stage in the jelly-like masses, commonly noticed on cedar trees after spring rains, and popularly known as cedar-apples. Some typical fungous dis- eases are the blights, mildews, scab and rot of potatoes beet-root rot, peach-leaf curl, apple scab, rye ergot, corn smut, loose and stinking smut of wheat, wilt disease of flax and of cow-peas. Often the ground becomes infected, as in several of the above, and must be abandoned as regards the susceptible crop. Potato scab and smuts that are transmitted by the seed are prevented by treating the seed with a weak solution of 4 per cent, formal- dehyde (one pint to 45 gallons of water). Blight on trees and small fruits, as well as insect pests, is fought by spraying (see SPRAYING MIXTURES), which kills the parasite without injuring the host. The Department of Agriculture investigated a leaf-blight that ruins nursery seedlings (see GRAFTING), and showed by experiment on 100,000 young trees that treatment costing but 90 cents per 1,000 trees netted profits averaging $13 per 1,000, and going as high as $40. Other experiments showed that at an expense of 15 cents per fruit- bearing tree, the marketable product could be increased 25 to 50 per cent. Black rot affecting grapes was first studied by the Department, which discovered a treat- ment increasing the yield 20 to 80 per cent. In five years its methods were used by 50,000 grape-growers. Plant breeding (q. v.) is used to increase the power of resisting not only insects and fungi but blight induced by climatic conditions and inherent weakness which, in the case of the California raisin grape, sometimes re- sults in a loss of a million dollars in a single BLIND FISHES 228 BLOOD year. References: Bulletins of the De- partment of Agriculture and of the State Experime'nt Stations. Blind Fishes. The caves of the United States are inhabited by six species of fish with imperfect eyes. Five of them have rudimentary eyes, and in one the eyes are very degenerate. They belong to the family Amblyopsidae. They are small fishes related to minnows. Their senses of hear- ing and touch are highly developed and enable them to capture prey. The forma- tion of these blind animals is an interesting problem. They respond negatively to the stimulation of light, and doubtless they sought the caves voluntarily instead of being carried in by accident. There are also blind fishes in the depths of the ocean and in dark places along the shores. See Eigenmann in the Pop. Science Monthly, vols. LVI and LVII, 1900. Block and Tackle, a combination of fixed and movable pulleys, employed to secure what en- TO gineers call a large 'mechanical advan- tage." There are various forms, of which that repre- sented in the figure will serve as a type. Here one rope passes over each of the pulleys. And since each movable pulley gives a me- chanical advantage of two, it is evident that with the block and tackle shown in the figure one is able to exert a force nearly six times as great as without its aid. If no energy were used up inside the mechanism, one could lift exactly six times as much with as without the tackle. It should be carefully observed that one secures no gain in energy by this device. The energy stored up in a lifted mass is always a little less than the energy required to lift it, whether a block and tackle be used or not. Block System, a system of signals at intervals along a line of railroad, intended to decrease the danger of accident. The system of telegraphing the arrival of a train from station to station, used in Eng- land as early as 1839, may be quoted as its origin. It was first introduced into the U. S. in 1876 by the Pennsylvania railroad. In general the block system divides a line into sections, upon each, of which only one BLOCK AND TACKLE train is admitted at a tim. The system of giving staffs, a staff being given to a train by a station-master only when one has been returned by the train previously upon that section, is a variety of block system which is adapted only to single lines. The serious accidents which occur upon American railroads have led to an agitation for the compulsory use of the block system, which is universal in Eng- land but not in America. To keep the sections clear for any one train it adds the additional safeguard of an interval of space to the universal practice of an interval of time between trains. The expense of the block system is sometimes lessened by au- tomatic devices for block signals which minimize the direct manipulation of levers by signalmen. Blockade, in naval warfare is the shut- ting up of a port of a country, cutting off communication with the outside world. It is effected by stationing sufficient num- bers of ships off the ports to make entrance impracticable. Neutral powers, because the interference with their commerce injures them, must be fully notified of the blockade by the state that attempts it Then en- deavors to deal with the ports blockaded become contrary to the law of nations, and attempts to trade with such ports render ships and cargoes liable to confisca- tion. But if blockades are to be binding on neutrals, they must not merely be blockades on paper or blockades by proclamation. They must also be phys- ically effective. Among famous blockades are that of the European coast from Den- mark to Italy in 1807-8, when Napoleon was fighting England; the Crimea in 1854-6 by England, France and Sardinia; the coast of the Confederate States by the Federal Government during 1861-5; Cuba by America in 1898; and Venezuela by Britain, Germany and Italy in 1903. Blocmfontein (bld&m' fan-tin'), capital of the late Orange Free State (now the Orange River Colony), in South Africa. Here, be- fore the outbreak of the Boer War of 1899- 1901, was held the conference between President Kruger of the late Transvaal Republic, and the British High Commis- sioner of South Africa, Sir Alfred (now Lord) Milner. The conference met May 30, but separated June 5, 1899, without having come to any agreement. The State joined the burgher republic of the Trans- vaal in the war with Britain, and the capital (Bloemfontein) was entered and occupied by the British under Lord Roberts, March 13, 1900. TheJ population is 33,900, of which more than 15,000 are whites and the rest natives. Blood, the circulating fluid of animals. It is a nutrient fluid of varied composition. In the course of its circulation it is con- tinually giving nourishment to the tissues +aiHiiiMnoHuiiiuioiiiiiiiiii!niiiMiiiiiioiuimiiioiiiimiuoiiiiu AERATING, SEPARATING AND STORAGE SYSTEM Here we follow the blood through the body, first through the separating room, or liver, g 5 which not only acts as a separator, but also stores up food to keep the body going between meals, g Into the pipe leading from the separating room is emptied used blood from the lower parts of the g body and from headquarters through two additional pipes, and the common stream flows on to the = = heart pump, which forces it to both sides of the aerating room, where it is spread out and exposed to the fresh air for purification. Then back it gees to the left side of the pump and is sent into the body again for use. = i;:iin true: \\::\\a muiiimiiiiiic: 1111:11:: IIIIIIH iiiiiioimiiiiiioiiii iiaiiiiiiiiiiioiiiiiiiiiioiiiiiiiiiiia IIIIINCJ* BLOODROOT BLOOMINGTON and carrying away from them worn-out material. Therefore, it carries on a sort of exchange with the tissues, in which there are certain sources of loss and certain sources of gain to the blood. For example, it loses to the tissues soluble food material and oxygen; in the lungs it loses carbon dioxid (CO 2 ); through the skin it loses water and certain salts in solution; and through the kidneys it loses the broken- down protoplasm that contains nitrogen and water. But the gain keeps pace with the loss; in the lungs it receives oxygen; from the digestive system it receives soluble food material and water; from the tissues it receives the broken-down material in the form of carbon dioxid, water and nitro- genous waste. From these statements it will be seen that the blood is the agent of exchange between the tissues and the out- side world. There is a similar circulating fluid in in- sects, mollusks, worms and other simple animals as well as in the vertebrated ani- mals. Contrary to the usual statement, this fluid in the simpler animals, also, con- tains solid particles or corpuscles, though they correspond with the white blood cor- puscles rather than with the red ones. In the fluid part of the blood of the crayfish, also, for example, there is a substance which acts as an oxygen carrier. As everyone knows, the blood undergoes changes from arterial, bright red color to venous of dark blue tint, and back again from venous to arterial; but we should un- derstand clearly where these changes take place. It is not in the ordinary blood vessels which have thick walls, but in the network of capillaries those small tubes with very thin walls that connect the ar- teries and veins. For example, the blood is rendered arterial in the capillaries of the lungs and venous in the capillaries of the tissues; also, all the exchanges spoken of above take place in the capillaries. Blood is made up of a fluid plasma, in which float minute corpuscles. In higher animals there are two kinds, red and white. The red ones are much more numerous than the white (in the human body about 355 red corpuscles for one white). They are oxygen carriers and their color is due to the presence of the substance (hemoglobin) which holds the oxygen. They have a regular life-history; they live a few weeks and break down, disappearing principally in the liver and the spleen. It follows, since they disappear, that they must be renewed, and new ones are being continually formed in the red marrow of bones. The white blood corpuscles are larger in size; they possess the power of changing form and creeping. They gather particles of foreign substance, and creep with them out of the blood vessels, and even to the surface of the body. They also feed upon bacteria, and help to rid the body of harmful kinds. The white blood corpuscles are, in a d pensioned. For a time he taught French at St. Paul's School, in London, and wrote his first work, which became instantly popular, John Bull and His Island. He subsequently published John Bull's Daugh- ters; Jacques Bonhomme; and, after a ler.- turing visit to this country, he issued Jonathan and His Continent. He died May 24, 1903. Blowing Machines, machines for pro- ducing artificial currents of compressed air, their uses being well-nigh as manifold as their forms, from the simple, early black- smith's bellows to the modern rotary jet disk and fan blowers or exhausters of more or less ingenious mechanical types. Among the uses to which they are to-day put are, as contrivances for producing forced draught for boiler furnaces; warm or cool air in school rooms and crowded public buildings; to remove dust and re- fuse from the same or from factories and work rooms; to supplant vitiated air by pure air; and to furnish, by means of elec- tric fans or the blowing engine, a drying cur- rent of air for grain or other substances, likely to spoil by being stored in crowded and heated elevators or warehouses. One of their chief and important uses is for supplying the airblast for Bessemer con- verters and blast-furnaces, by means of high-pressure steam-cylinders, which are frequently compounded. For ventilation purposes the disk-blower is largely used and driven by an electric motor or by belting connected with an engine; other contrivances are what is known as the positive blower, such as the Root type, which exerts a higher pressure than the disk or fan blowers; also the steam jet blower, which creates induced currents of air on the principle of the in- jector, such as are used in locomotives and fire engines for creating a powerful draft. Blow'pipe, a small instrument used for glass ^ blowing and soldering metals, and also in chemistry to determine the nature of substances. By means of it a jet of air is thrown into a flame, causing the flame to burn with great rapidity, and increasing its effect by making it occupy a smaller space. The blow-pipe consists of a fun- nel-shaped tube of metal, about eight inches long, closed at the wider end and open at the upper end, which forms the mouth- piece. Near the lower end a small tube passes out, through which a fine current of air can be blown. When directed against a candle or gas jet, it makes the heat of the flame very intense, so that hard substances may be quickly melted. Blucher (bloo'ker), Qebhard von, a dis- tinguished Prussian general, was born at Rostock in 1742. In 1793 he fought against the French on the Rhine, and showed great genius as a cavalry leader. War with the French was renewed in 1806, and Blucher, as lieutenant-general, led the vanguard at the battle of Auestadt, and soon after was captured. He was, however, exchanged, and took a prominent part in the ensuing struggle with Napoleon. To- gether with the other powers allied against Napoleon, the Prussians, with Blucher as commander-in-chief, defeated the French conqueror at Leipsic in 1813. iHe was raised to the rank of field-marshal, and the next year led the Prussians against France. He was repeatedly defeated, but finally marched victoriously into Paris, when his king made him Prince of Wahlstadt. After Napoleons return, in 1815, Blucher again took general command, and, though defeated at Ligny, his timely arrival at the field of Waterloo decided that great victory. He received new honors, and four years later died on his estate of Krie- blowitz, in Silesia, September 12, 1819. He was called Marshal Forwards, and is still a great hero among the German people. Blueberry, the term for a small fruit commonly applied in New England to a berry of the Vaccinium species. It is sometimes confounded with the bilberry or huckleberry, though it is of a distinct though allied class. See HUCKLEBERRY. BLUEBIRD 231 BOA Bluebird, also called Blue Robin, an early spring bird of the United States, belonging to the thrush family. Some individuals pass the winter in sheltered places as far north as southern Connecticut. It appears very early in the spring, and in New England begins nesting in April. By the middle of the month about five bluish white eggs are laid. It is a little longer than the English sparrow, has feathers of a rich bright blue above and reddish chest- nut on the throat and breast, and white below. The female is duller in color than the male. It is of a happy social disposi- tion, and builds its nest in orchards and near houses, and will take advantage of a box, a deserted woodpecker's nest or a hole in a fence post. A pair raise from two to three broods a summer, at first the young birds being almost black. One of the first birds to come, they are one of the last to leave, remaining until the frostc of November. "Ah, now that you are gone, I know The summer's gone!" The voice is soft and musical, the tem- per of the bird most amiable. Its beauty and also its usefulness as an insect destroyer make it a very desirable neighbor; one whom it were well to invite close by build- ing for it a tiny house. Blue Books or Parliamentary Papers are the official reports, returns and docu- ments printed for the British government, and laid before the houses of Parliament for the use of members. They are uni- formly stitched up in dark- blue paper wrappers (in France they are yellow; in Germany and Portugal they are white; in Spain red; and in Italy green); and are called from the color of their covers Blue Books include, besides statistics of the home trade in England, consular reports from abroad; bills presented to and acts passed by parliament; reports of com- mittees of both houses; and all papers and returns moved for by members or granted by government on particular subjects. Blue' fish, a salt-water fish of blue color merging into greenish, widely distributed in temperate seas. Its ordinary size is from two to three feet, weighing four to ten pounds, but larger sizes are taken It is highly prized as a table fish and also as a game fish. It is very destructive, and appears to eat nearly everything that swims Bluefish go in large schools, like a pack of hungry wolves, killing fish not much in- ferior to themselves in size, and more than is required for their support. Blue Jay (Cyanocitta Aristata). Of the jay family, birds that are common in the Old World, the American blue jay will be familiar to most bird lovers. It is smaller than its^ European kin, but, like its foreign cousin, it has a fine crest and a beautiful BLUE JAY purple blue plumage, though its song is harsher, and it is a great depredator, and sometimes devours the eggs and young of other birds, especially after the breeding season. It is also a fighter, though its courage is not of a high order, attacking owls and squirrels at times; while its food consists of anything it can obtain in win- ter, and in summer feeding on insects, nuts, seeds and fruits. It is found along the coast of North Amer- ica from Newfound- land and the Cana- dian maritime prov- inces south to Flor- ida and the Gulf, and inland as far as the plains. The long-tailed blue jay is an in- habitant of Central and South America. Blue Laws, a name sometimes given to the early laws of the New England states, especially of the New Haven colony. The appellation probably came from the strict- ness and severity of the early rules of the Puritans. No such distinct system of laws as the blue laws, however, existed in New Haven. Blue Ridge, the range of the Alleghe- nies which lies nearest to the Atlantic Ocean, and extends in a northeast and southwest direction through Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina and Georgia. The spur in Pennsylvania is called South Mountain. From the James River to the line of North Carolina the ridge is called the Allegheny Mountain. Blue Warbler. See BLUE BIRD. Boa, a name loosely applied to large serpents that crush their prey in coils of their bodies. The name properly belongs to the boa constrictor and the anaconda, both natives of tropical South America. The former lives in dry bushy regions and the latter in damp places; it is often called the water boa. The boa constrictor at- tains a length of twelve feet and upward, but the anaconda is much larger. It is difficult to get trustworthy measurements, but it is doubtful that it exceeds twenty feet in length. They are both to be dis- tinguished from the pythons, which are residents of the tropical regions of the old world. The boas have no poison fangs, but their powers of crushing are great. They are able to swallow whole animals the size of a small dog, or, perhaps, even a goat. After feeding in this way, they re- main torpid for several weeks to complete BOADICEA 232 BOBOLINK the process of digestion, and during this period they may be easily killed. See SNAKES. Boadicea (bo' d-dt-se' a) , "the British war- rior queen," was wife of the king of the Iceni, a tribe existing in the time of the Romans, living in the region now occupied by the English counties of Norfolk and Suffolk. At her husband's death, about 60 A. D., the Romans seized her land and treated her and her people cruelly. Boadicea, enraged, gathered a large army, captured several Roman colonies and destroyed as many as 70,000 Romans. She was in turn defeated with loss, and in despair killed herself by poison. The poets Cowper and Tennyson have told her story in verse. Boar, the male of swine or, when ap- plied to the wild stock of swine, used for either sex. Its native country is the Old World, where the wild stock abounds in parts of Europe, in Asia and in Africa. The domestic breeds of swine are all proba- bly descendants of the wild stock. The wild boar is a large, powerful beast, meas- uring about four feet in length. Its color is dark brown. It comes from its place of concealment at night, feeding on roots, herbs, grubs etc. Boar-hunting has long been considered one of the most exciting sports of the chase It was once a favorite sport in England, and is still practiced in parts of Europe, India and Syria. In some places toils and nets are used; in others dogs, which bring the boar to bay, when he is killed with a spear or a knife. When at bay he is very dangerous, and will display remarkable courage and tenacity. The bristles are in demand for brushes. Board of Health. This name is given to the body which is created by the govern- ment of a city, or state or nation for the purpose of protecting the health of the jeople. A national board of health was i ginning to be / understood that B rowning's message was simple and di- rect, and to all mankind that struggles and strives after moral good. Through the poets that immediately preceded him we learned to look for God in nature, the spiritual solace and growth to be found in keeping close to simple, natural things. Browning spent a half century in teaching the uplifting power of human life and work the beauty of sublime faith, dauntless cour- age and deathless love to lift us to heights unattained and give us thence the farther vision into the world beyond. This subtlest seer of the soul, as he has been called, was born in a suburb of London, May 7, 1812, and was brought up in that human maelstrom, surrounded by it, a part of it, conscious of the swarming millions with their problems and desires. The son of a man in banking and wealthy, he was almost as obscure as if he had been poor, for he was outside the aristocracy of birth, outside the established church, outside every thing that claims distinction in social and intellectual life in England. Where many men of sensitive imagination see only con- fusion and discouragement in such a hive of commercial activity, Browning saw hope and order. An optimist, he believed in tne enthronement of man above time and cir- cumstance. And this he taught in his earliest poems, Pauline and Paracelsus. At 33 he won an audience with Pippa Passes. The pretty little silk-winder of Asolo, with her simple faith and happy heart expressed in song, triumphed over the snarls of sin and selfishness. All the world understood her "God's in His heaven; all's right with the world. ' ' Browning wrote other things as simple as that, like The Pied Piper of Hamehn, Herve Kiel, How They Brought the Good News from Ghent to Aix and Home Thoughts. Saul is one long, sustained drama of optimism in a royal setting; Bells and Pomegranates and Men and Women contain matchless lyrics, sensuous, impassioned, dramatic. The most tender of all Browning's poems were addressed to his wife, Elizabeth Bar- rett Browning, herself a poet of distinction. Their brief life together in Italy is one of the world's most precious love stories. He outlived her 28 years and wiote his greatest work, The Ring and the Book, after her death. The last poem he wrote ex- pressed the belief that he should "clasp thee again, O thou soul of my soul, and with God be the rest." He died in Venice December 12, 1889, and was buried in Westminster Abbey, London. Professor Edward Dowden, one of his biographers says: "Much of Browning's work, as much of Wordsworth's, is below what is charac- teristic. Those things will survive that are inspired by the permanent passions and endearing interests of humanity. ' ' Wil- liam Sharp says: "It is as a poet that he will live, not as a novel thinker in verse. He had an enormous influence on the spir- itual and mental life of his day, an influence that continually shapes itself to wise and beautiful issues." See Life and Works by Prof. Edward Dowden and The Poetry of Robert Browning by Rev. Stopford Brooke. Browns'ville, Texas, a city, the county- seat of Cameron County and a port of entry, situated on the Rio Grande River, opposite Matamoros, Mexico. Brownsville was set- tled in 1848, and five years later incorpo- rated as a city. It is in a busy stock-raising district, and has a large trade with Mexico. The region in which the city is situated was, after the year 1845, claimed by the Mexi- cans. This helped to bring on war with the United States, our government stationing a garrison at Fort Brown, adjoining the city, throughout the duration of the rup- ture with Mexico. Four miles from Browns- ville the battle of Resaca de la Palma was fought in May, 1846, the issue being the flight of the Mexicans in a state of panic. In September, 1859, a Mexican raiding party captured Brownsville, but it was recovered by General Banks in November, 1863. The city has grown since, and to-day has some fine public buildings, including the county court-house, United States custom-house, a Roman Catholic cathe- dral, college and convent. Population, 13,163. Bruce, James (born 1730, died 1794), a famous Scottish traveler, called the Abys- sinian, early gave up business to travel through Europe. In 1768 he went to Algiers as consul-general, and there studied the oriental languages and also the art of medicine. He traveled through Tunis and Tripoli, studied at Aleppo in Syria, spent some time at Alexandria, and finally set out from Cairo on foot to explore the head- waters of the Nile. In November, 1770, he reached the sources of the Abawi, then supposed to be the main stream of the Nile. He spent about two years in Abyssinia, BRUCE 278 BRUNN and afterward returned to Alexandria by way of Senaar and the desert of Assuan. He published so many strange things about the manners and customs of the Abyssinians, that they were not believed at the time; but recent explorations have proved their truth. His Travels to Discover the Sources of the Nile was published in 1790. Bruce, Robert, the most heroic of the Scottish kings, son of the Earl of Carrick, was born July n, 1274. One of the several claimants to the throne of Scotland, Bruce at first took no part in the struggles of William Wallace to free his country from the English power. At last, however, he joined the final rising against the English king, Ed- ward I, beginning his career by the murder of the Red Comyn, one of his rivals, in a fit of passion, because he suspected him of betraying their plans. He laid claim to the throne and was crowned king, but for many years he was an outlaw in his own kingdom, taking refuge in the fastnesses of the mountains, and hiding at one time in an island off the coast of Ireland, while he was thought to be dead. The story is told of him that one day, while lying in bed in a wretched hut, he saw a spider try- ing to spin its web from beam to beam over his head. Six times it tried and failed, just as many times as Bruce had been beaten by the English. " If the spider tries again," 1 e thought, "so will I." The spider tried once more, and was at last successful. So Bruce determined to try again. He landed once more in Scotland, won several victories, and the death of the energetic Edward I, and the accession of his unwar- like son gave him a chance to recover his lost ground. He won back one castle after another, and at last the great battle of Bannockburn, which was to decide the liberty of Scotland, was fought June 24, 1314. The Scotch spent the night before the battle in fasting, and in the morning Bruce opened the battle by a single combat with a powerful English knight. His vic- tory fired the hearts of his men, and, although less than a third the number of their ene- mies, they utterly routed them. Later he attacked the English on their own ground and compelled them to recognize him as lawful king of an independent Scotland. He died in 1329, at the age of 55, of leprosy. James Douglas tried to carry his heart to Jerusalem and bury it there, as King Robert had requested, but was killed in Spain while fighting against the Moors. The heart was brought back to Scotland and buried in the monastery of Melrose. The king's body was buried in the abbey church of Dun- fermline, where his bones were discovered in 1818, when the foundations were being cleared out for a new church. His son, David II, succeeded him. Bruchesi, The Most Reverend Louis Paul Napoleon, Archbishop of Montreal, born in Montreal in 1855. Studied theology in Paris and Rome. Ordained in Rome in 1878. Became a professor in Laval Uni- versity. For years chairman of the -Catho- lic school-board of Montreal. Appointed archbishop in 1897. Bruges (bru'jez Fr. bruzh), a city of Belgium, capital of West Flanders, is situated about eight miles from the sea, with which it is connected by three canals. Named from its many bridges, it is famous more for its ancient < prominence than for its present prosperity. It dates from the 3rd century, and in the 1 2th century it was the center of the world's traffic. Commercial agents from seventeen kingdoms resided here, and no less than twenty ministers from foreign courts had mansions within its walls. At this period its population numbered upward of 200,000. Political troubles and religious persecutions sub- sequently ruined its prosperity. Many of its traders and manufacturers settled in Eng- land, and it is only during the present cen- tury that its greatness has begun to return. Its population is now about 54,015. It has a number of manufactures of lace, woolens, etc. Among its buildings is Les Halles, a market, with a famous belfry, 353 feet high, and possessing a chime of forty-eight bells regarded as the finest in Europe. Long- fellow's poem has made this belfry well kn wn. The church of Notre Dame has a spire 442 feet high and many valuable paintings, carvings and statues. Caxton, the famous printer, lived thirty-five years in Bruges. Brumaire (bru'mdr), (meaning, foggy winter month -November), The Eigh= teenth, in the year VII, according to the calendar of the French Revolution, was a day famous in French history. It corre- sponds to November 9, 1799. On that day was begun the movement which overthrew the government of the Directory, which had been set up five years before, and made Napoleon Bonaparte first consul and finally emperor of France. Brunelleschi (broo'nel-lds'ke), Filippo, (born 1377, died 1446), one of the greatest Italian architects, was a native of Florence. His most famous work is the dome of the cathedral of Santa Maria dei Fiori at Flor- ence. It is the largest dome in the world, and was used by Michael Angelo as a model for that of St. Peter's. He made the designs for the Pitti Palace, which gave rise to the beautiful style of Tuscan palace architecture in the ijth century. Brunhilde. See NIBELUNGENLIED. Brunn (briiri) , a city of the Austrian em- pire, capital of Moravia, stands at the junction of the Schwarzawa and the Zwit- tawa. Though its appearance is in manv respects like an ancient city, yet it has nunv erous modern improvements. The state theater, opened in 1882, was the first theater BRUNO 279 BRUSSELS on the continent lighted by electricity. As a manufacturing town, its wools are espe- cially famous. Back of the city, on a height of 984 feet, rises the castle of Spielberg, where the unfortunate Italian author, Silvio Pellico, was imprisoned from 1822 to 1830. The population numbers 109,346, almost half of whom are Czechs. Bru'no, Giordano, an Italian philosopher who lived during the last half of the i6th century. Concerning his parents and the date of his birth almost nothing is known. His life was spent largely in lecturing in many of the principal cities of western Europe, including Padua, Geneva, Paris, London, Oxford, Wittenberg, Prague. His chief service lies in the energetic and successful war which he waged against the scholasticism of his times, and in particular against the lifeless physics of Aristotle. A contemporary of Tycho Brahe and Kepler, he expanded the system of Coper- nicus and prepared the way for Galileo. Even from these few lines, it will be evident that he was just the type of man which the Inquisition was looking for. At the hands of this institution he received the verdict of "guilty," in February of 1600. Punish- ment was prescribed in the following cus- tomary hypocritical sentence: Ut yuam dementis sime, et citra sanguinis effusionem puniretur, "to be punished with the ut- most clemency and without shedding of blood." He was accordingly burned at the stake in Rome on the i yth of February, 1600. Bruns'wick, Duchy of, a state of north- ern Germany, made up of three larger and five smaller distinct parts. Its total area is 1,424 square miles, considerably larger than Rhode Island, and its population is 485,958, most of whom are Saxons and belong mainly to the Lutheran church. The country is rich in minerals, and agri- culture is the chief occupation of the people. The capital is the city of Brunswick, popu- lation, 136,397. Brunswick was a part of Saxony under Charlemagne, but in 1235 it became a duchy. It now holds the ninth place among the states of the German empire. Brunswick, Ga., a city, the county seat of Glynn County, in the southeast part of the State, on St. Simon's Sound, about nine miles from the Atlantic, with a commodious and safe harbor. It is reached by the Southern Railroad, the Plant System and the Seaboard Air Line, and lies about 90 miles south-southwest of Savannah. It is also reached by steamships plying from Boston and New York. The place was settled early in the i8th century by James Oglethorpe, and is a favorite summer ard winter resort, made attractive by its his- toric interests and many attractions, in- cluding St. Simon's Island, Cumberland Island (where sleeps Light-Horse Harry Lee), the Carnegie Dungeness Castle and the Jekyl Island Club. Its exports embrace oysters (canned), vegetables (also canned), besides cotton, phosphates, tar, rosin, tur- pentine and pine lumber. Population, 10,182. Bruns'wick, Germany, the capital of the duchy of Brunswick, is situated on the Ocker, 143 miles southwest of Berlin. Founded in the gth century by Bruno, duke ot Saxony, it was enlarged by Henry the Lion and became an important member of the Hanseatic League. It has annual fairs of some importance and a large trade. The ducal palace is a fine modern building, and there are a number of picturesque old structures. The museum is valuable. Pop- ulation, 143,534. Brunswick, Me., a town in Cumberland County, at the head of navigation on the Androscoggin River and on the Maine Central Railroad, opposite Topsham, and nine miles west of Bath. It possesses good water-power for its many manufactures, which include cotton goods, wood pulp, flour, wooden-ware, etc. Bowdoin College is located there. The town was settled early in the 1 7th century. In early times it was known as Pejepscot, a local history of the region being published at Boston in 1878. Popu- lation, 6,621. Brussels ( br&s'selz) , the capital of Bel- gium and one of the finest cities in Europe, lies on the River Senne. Railroads connect it with the principal towns of Belgium and with France, Germany, and Holland. The lower town, although it contains some fine old churches and some specimens of Gothic architecture, is mostly given up to trade. The upper town is the newest part of the city, and has the finest residences and public buildings, including the king's palace, the chief hotels, residences of foreign min- isters, etc. The new palace of justice is a magnificent structure. The old city- walls have been turned into boulevards, and there are a number of noteworthy squares or places, as they are called, such as the Place Royale, with a colossal monument of Godfrey of Bouillon; the Grand Place, where in the i6th century the patriot counts, Egmont and Horn, were beheaded by order of the Spanish Duke of Alva; and the Place of Martyrs, where a memorial has been built to those who fell in the revolution of 1830, by which Belgium became independent. A picture gallery, museum and public library are contained in the Palace of the Fine Arts, and there are a large university and several academies. Besides being the seat of gov- ernment, Brussels is one of the chief cen- ters of the industry of the country. Its lace is particularly famous; but of the so- called Brussels carpets, only a few are made here, the larger part tcing man- BRUTUS 280 BRYANT ufactured at Tournai. A great world- exhibition was held here in 1888. The population, with the suburbs, in 1910 was 665,806. Bru'tus, Lucius Junius, a Roman pa- triot, who lived about 500 years B. C. Ac- cording to the old story, he was the nephew of King Tarquin the Proud, and, to escape the fate of his father and brothers, who had been put to death by the king, he feigned stupidity, from which he got his name Brutus. He once went with the sons of Tarquin on a mission to the oracle at Delphi and when they were told that the one who first kissed his mother should rule, Brutus, as he landed in Italy, pre- tended to stumble and kissed the earth, the common mother of all. The treatment which the noble Lucretia received from the son of the king was the signal for a rising to throw off the kingly yoke, and Brutus, laying aside his mask, led the people in an insurrection which put an end to the monarchy. Brutus was chosen one of the first consuls, and when his sons took part in a plot to bring back the Tarquins, he condemned them to be scourged and beheaded, and saw the sentence executed. He was finally killed in battle against the enemies of his country's liberty. A public funeral was voted, the women wore mourn- ing for a year, and a brazen statue, with a drawn sword in its hand, was raised to his memory. Bru'tus, Marcus Junius, one of the as- sassins of Cassar, was born in 85 B. C., and died 42 B. C. He joined Pompey in his war against Caesar; but after Pompey 's defeat he was kindly treated by Cassar, and made governor of Cisalpine Gaul. In 44 B. C., in his eagerness to preserve the liberty of the republic against Caesar's apparent pur- pose of being made emperor, he was per- suaded by Cams Cassius to join a conspiracy, and helped in his assassination, although Caesar had given him many honors and promised him others. The people, instead of rejoicing at Caesar's death, were enraged, and Brutus fled from Rome. Soon after, he and Cassius were defeated at Philippi by Antony and Octavius. He at once flung himself upon his sword and died. He was an earnest student, and something of a philosopher. Bry'an, William Jennings, was born 'at Salem, 111., March 19, 1860. He graduated from Illinois College in 1881, studied law at Chicago, and began practice in Jacksonville, 111. In 1887 he removed to Lincoln, Neb. In 1890 he was elected to Congress, and was re-elected in 1892. Here he took posi- tion as a strong debater and brilliant orator. In 1896 he was nominated for the presi- dency by the Democratic party, on a free- silver platform, but, after a hard contest, was defeated by William McKinley, the nominee of the Republican party. In 1900 he was again the standard bearer of his party, and was again defeated by McKinley. In 1908 he again led his party, in oppo- sition to Taft, but was de- feated. In 1913 he was appoint- ed secretary of state but resign- ed in 1915 owing to disagreement with President Wilson in a dis- pute with Ger- many as to neu- tral rights aris- ing out of the use of submar- WILLIAM j. BRYAN ines. Bryant, William Cullen, a celebrated American poet, was born at Cummington, Mass., November 3, 1794. He began to write poetry when he was but ten years old, and in his fourteenth year his friends had published two of his poems, which were so popular that a second edition was called for. He entered Williams College in 1810, where he stayed two years, after which he began the study of law, and was admitted to the bar in 1815. His well-known poem, Thanatopsis, was written when he was 1 8 years old. He practiced law for a short period at Plainfield and then at Great Barrington. In 1817 he began to write for the North American Review, which brought him into public notice; and in 1821 his reputation was greatly increased by the publication of a volume of poems. He went to New York in 1825 and engaged in editor- ial work, and the next year became connected with the Evening Post, be- coming chief edi- tor a short time after. In 1832 a complete edition of his poems was printed, which WILLIAM CULLEN BRYANT m ade his reputa- tion in England as great as it already was in Amer- ica. He visited Europe several times, and studied the language and literature of several countries. The volume, Letters of a Traveler, was written soon after his return from one of these trips, and his letters to the Evening Post, afterward collected under the title, Letters from Spain and Other Countries, were written during another journey. In 1863 a small volume of new poems was published, and in 1870 and 1871 appeared BRYCE 281 BUCHANAN his translation 01 Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, in English blank verse. He was often called on for addresses, and a volume of his Addresses and Orations was issued in 1873. He died at New York, June 12, 1878. His poems are noted for their delicacy yet vigor of expression, for their beautiful in- terpretation of nature and for their depth of thought. Bryce (bris) , Rev. George, is head of he faculty of the University of Manitoba, lec- turer there in biology and geology, and a professor in Manitoba College. He was born at Mount Pleasant, Brantford, Ont., April 22, 1844, and was educated at the Brantford high-school, the Univer- sity of Toronto and at Knox College in Toronto, taking many prizes and medals during his course, and becoming examiner in natural history in the Uni- versity in 1870. In 1871 the general assem- bly of the Presbyterian Church in Canada selected him to proceed to Manitoba and there organize a church and college. He thereupon organized Manitoba College in 1871, Knox Church in 1872, was one of the founders of the University of Manitoba in 1877, and was moderator of the general assembly of the Presbyterian Church in Canada in 1902-3. More than sixty churches have been opened in Mani- toba through the influence of the Rev. Mr. Bryce, who, in addition to many magazine articles, has published Manitoba, Infancy, Progress, ana Present Condition (1882), Short History of the Canadian People (1887), The Apostle of Red River (1898), Remarkable History of the Hudson's Bay Company (1900), and Makers of Canada (1903), this last a series of volumes. Bryce, Rt. Hon. James, an English ex-member of Parliament, a Liberal in pol- itics and a distinguished author, was born at Belfast, Ireland, in 1838, and ed- ucated at Glasgow and at Oxford. At the latter university he was appointed in 1870 regius professor of civil law, resign- ing the post in 1893. In 1880. he entered Parliament and six years later (while representing Aberdeen), he became under-secretary of state for foreign affairs in Mr. Gladstone's administration. He has been one of the chief supporters of Irish home-rule, and has also held the offices of chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster and president of the board ot" trade. He was (1907-12) ambassador from Great Britain to the United States. He is a voluminous writer, his two most im- portant works being The Holy Roman Empire, since become a classic, and his admirable and authoritative survey of The American Commonwealth. His other works embrace a narrative of a journey in Asiatic Russia, entitled Transcaucasia and Ararat; Two Centuries of Irish History (as editor) ; and an important book giving his Impres- sions of South Africa. Mr. Bryce has always taken a deep interest in Irish questions, in the extension of rural local government, in the reconstruction of the second chamber, in the development of secondary education and in the condition of the eastern Christians and their emancipation from Turkish mis- rule. Bryophytes (bri-o-fi'tez), one of the four great divisions of the plant kingdom. It consists of two great classes, known com- monly as liverworts and mosses. Of these two classes the liverworts are the more primitive, and have been derived very probably from the Green Algae (Chlorophy- ce&), and in turn have given rise to the mosses. In the Bryophytes, alternation of generations (which see) appears for the first time very distinctly. The gametophyte is the leafy plant upon which the antheridia and archegonia are borne. The egg devel- oped within the archegonia is fertilized, and its germination produces the sporophyte, which in this case is a leafless structure, and is commonly known as the fruit of the moss. Bryophytes are distinguished from T hallo phytes, the group below them in rank, not merely by the distinct alternation of generations, but also by the fact that they have a much more com- plex body and the female organ is always an archegonium. The group is also distin- guished from the P teredo phytes, which are next above them, by the fact that the sporo- phyte is simply a leafless affair, and also by the fact that they have no vascular or woody system of tissues. See HEPATIC^E and Musci. Buccaneers, the famous adventurers of the 1 6th and i7th centuries, who plun- dered the West Indies and the Spanish colonies of South America. They were mostly English and French, and were united by a common enmity against the Spaniards. Their first stronghold was on the little island of Toitugas; but later the French buccaneers established themselves in San Domingo and the English in Jamaica. They formed themselves into an association, with a code oi laws. They went out in bands of fifty or more in boats, and attacked and plundered the Spanish ships as they returned from the colonies to Europe, loaded with treasure. Later on, they grew bolder and went in much larger numbers against for- tified towns. The Frenchman, Montbars, named from his fierceness the extermin- ator, and the Welshman, Henry Morgan, were among the most famous leaders. The plundering of Vera Cruz and of Cartagena was among the most noted exploits of tlie buccaneers. Buchanan (buk-an'an), James, fifteenth president of the United States, was born at Stony Batter, Pa., in 1791, his father having emigrated from Ireland in 1783. He was admitted to the bar in 1812, and soon ob- tained a fine practice. In 1821 he was BUCHANAN 282 BUCKEYE elected to Congress, and remained there ten Jears. In 1831 he was sent by President ackson as minister to Russia, where he made the first commercial treaty between that country and the United States, which gave our merchants many valuable trading privileges on the Baltic and Black Seas. Two years later he was elected to the United States senate, of which he was a member for 12 Siars, until 1845. ere he was an ac- tive and able sup- porter of the doc- trines and measures of the Democratic party, as well as a strong upholder of slavery and the rights of the separate states. When President Polk was elected, he made Buchanan secretary of state; and under JAMES BUCHANAN President Pierce, he was appointed min- ister to England. In 1856 he was elected president. During his administration a Mormon rebellion in Utah was quietly set- tled. In the last year of his administration the trouble between the north and the south came to a head, and in December, 1860, South Carolina withdrew from the Union. The president declared that Con- gress had no power by the constitution to prevent any state from withdrawing if it wished and that the president could not treat with the representatives of any state, but must refer the matter to Congress. Soon afterward, Lincoln was elected presi- dent. Buchanan spent the remainder of his life at his home in Lancaster, Pa. In 1866 he wrote a book to defend his ad- ministration. He died in 1868. Buchanan, Robert, an English poet, novelist, critic and literary free lance, was born in Staffordshire, England, in 1841, and educated at Glasgow University, Scotland. His early work appeared when he was a jour- nalist and won him consider- able fame, es- pecially two volumes o f verse entitled U ndertone s and London Poems. His other poetical writings in- clude A Lyrical Drama; The Drama of ROBERT BUCHANAN Kings; Ballads of Love, Life and Humor; The City of Dreams; and The Wandering Jew. HIP chief novels are A Child of Nature; God and the Man; Come Live with Me and be My Love; and The Shadow of the Sword. He also wrote a bright jeu d'esprit, entitled St. Abe and His Seven Wives. He also issued a number of dramas and popular plays. His biting pen, as a critic and essay- ist, made him many enemies; though the good in him, on the other hand, won him many warm friends. He died June 10, 1901. Bucharest (bod'kd-resf), the capital and seat of government of the kingdom of Rumania, which, since 1861, includes the now united principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia, stands on the plain of the small river, Dambovitza. The city has a number of handsome buildings. A university is situated here, and there is a large trade centering in Bucharest between Austria and the Balkan Peninsula. There is an unusual number of cafes and gambling houses; and the presence of all the vices and few of the refinements of Paris has given Bucharest the reputation of being the most wicked capital in Europe. The city has been the scene of many military operations, and has suffered from floods, earthquakes and pes- tilences. The population is 300,000. Buck, Dudley, an American organist and composer, who has achieved fame for his song music, operettas and fine organ com- positions, was born at Hartford, Conn.. March 10, 1839, and received his profes- sional education at the Leipsic Conservatory of Music. For several years he was organist at the Music Hall, Boston, and latterly organist of Holy Trinity Church, Brooklyn and director of the Apollo Club. He wrote a number of admired songs, cantatas and festival hymns, besides several long compo- sitions, especially his Golden Legend, based on Longfellow's well-known poem with that title. He died Oct. 6, 1909. Buckeye (genus JLsculus), a group of trees distinguished by large winter buds; conspicuous flowers in pyramidal racemes; leaves large, compound and opposite; large nuts the fruit. In all the buckeyes the leaflets are branched at the end of the stem. There are eleven species, four native to this country. One very well known is the Ohio buckeye, once so abundant in Ohio as to give the state the name Buckeye, and the tree the name Ohio. It is gradually becoming rare, the disagreeable odor exhaled by the bark counting strongly against it. The tree is also known as the fetid buckeye. It is found from Pennsylvania south to Alabama, west to Michigan and Oklahoma. The bitter nuts are not edible, and are poisonous to cattle. The wood is valued specially in the making of artificial limbs. The tree grows from 20, 40 to 70 feet high, has slender spreading branches, and in April and May bears small, pale yellow- green flowers. BUCKINGHAM 283 BUDAPES1 The sweet, yellow or big buckeye, has no disagreeable odor, and the nuts are eaten by cattle. It is a tall, shapely tree, and bears an abundance of showy yellow flowers. The tree grows along the Alle- fhanies, south to Georgia and west to owa. The California buckeye grows along the western coast, is usually a small tree, and has a broad top. See Rogers: The Tree Book; Lounsberry: A Guide to th$ Trees, Buckingham, George Villiers, Duke of (born 1592, died 1628), the son of an English nobleman, who rose to wealth and power under the Stuarts. He accompanied Charles I to Madrid in his unsuccessful suit for the hand of the Spanish princess, and made the arrangements for Charles's marriage with the Princess Henrietta of France. He involved England in war, and became very unpopular, but remained in high favor with the king, He was finally assassinated. Buck'land, William (born 1784, died 1856), an English geologist, was lecturer for many years at Oxford on mineralogy and geology, and by his researches and writings did much for geology as a science. He practically founded the geological museum in Oxford. Geology and Mineralogy, Con- sidered with Reference to Natural Theology, ' one of his most popular works. Buck'ner, Simon Boiivar, a Confederate general, was born in 1823 in Kentucky, grad- uated at West Point, and took part in the War with Mexico. He joined the southern army in the Civil War and became a major- general. After the war he settled in New Or- leans. Returning t o Kentucky, he was elected governor of that state in 1887, and in 1896 was vice-presiden- tial nominee of the sound- SIMON B. BUCKNER money Democrats. He died January 8, 1914. Buck'wheat, a kind of grain, believed to be a native of Asia, called by the French Saracen wheat. It grows on poor soils and matures quickly, but is destroyed by the least frost. Its flowering season lasts for a long time, so that it is impossible for all the seeds to be at the proper stage of develop- ment when it is reaped. The seeds furnish a white flour, from which gruel is made in Germany and in Poland, and breakfast cakes in America and in England. A dark, heavy bread is also made from it in France. The flowers are rich in honey, and so buck- wheat is cultivated to feed bees. Another kind of buckwheat is called Siberian buck- wheat, but it is of a poor quality. Bud, a name applied in general to an un- developed shoot in which the axis is nor elongated and the leaves overlap one an- other. In general, buds may be distin- guished as leaf buds, which continue the ordinary growth of the stem axis, and flower buds. In the former case, the bud disappears by the elongation of the axis and the separation of the leaves. In the latter case it disappears by the opening oi the flower. Budapest (bdo'dd-pe'st), the capital oi Hungary, consisting of the now united cities of Buda and Pest, situated on both banks of the Danube. Within recent years the city has become one of the finest capitals of Europe, and its growth and enterprise resemble those of our western cities. The two parts are connected by a magnificent suspension bridge. Buda is built in the form of an amphitheater around a hill, which rises 485 feet above the sea and is crowned by a citadel and a royal palace. The Blocksburg promontory rises abruptly to a still greater height. On its top is a now useless citadel, and its sides are dotted with villas. Just out of Buda, in a little plain surrounded by high hills, are the well known bitter-water springs, which have made the name of Hungary more famous, perhaps, than any other article of export. On the other side of the river, the ancient and inner part of Pest is surrounded by a series of boulevards; while others branch out from them in straight lines to the outer environs of the city The finest street in Budapest, and one of the handsomest in Europe, is Andrassy Street, which is two miles long. It is divided into a central driveway, with sidewalks, narrower drive- ways next the sidewalks, and graveled riding courses between the central and outer driveways. It connects the inner city with a beautiful park of 1,000 acres The Margaretta island, which lies in the Danube, at the upper end of the city, -two miles long and a half mile wide, is also kept as a pleasure ground. The river is lined for three miles with stone quays, leading up to promenades, along which are rows of fine buildings, broken by open parks and adorned with statues of Hungarian heroes. The city government controls many institutions which in the United States are under private companies, such as thea- ters, opera houses, street railways, etc. The university and special schools, the national museum, the 250 periodicals and a dozen or more daily papers pub- lished in the city are among the liter- ary advantages of the place. All the Hungarian railroads center in Buda- pest, and its trade by the Danube is extensive. Next to Minneapolis, on this continent, it is the great milling cen- ter of the world. Total population (1910), 880,371. BUDDHA 28 4 BUENA VISTA Buddha (bdod'dd), the founder of the religion known as Buddhism. Although this religion has now existed for 2,500 years, and its followers are counted as more than 340,000,000, or nearly one fourth of the human race, it is only within recent years that the discovery and study of Buddhist sacred books has made known to western nations the nature and birth of this world- religion. It began about the beginning of the 6th century B. C., in the north of Hindu- stan. Buddha, the founder, was a prince named Siddhartha; but he is often called Sakya and Gautama. Buddha, or more properly the Buddha, is the title given him m his state of perfection, and means the Enlightened One or he to whom truth is known. This prince, as the story runs, was of a thoughtful disposition, and his father, fearing that he would desert his high position and take to a religious life, had him married to a charming princess and surrounded him with all the splendors of a luxurious court. He was, however, in spite of his surroundings, constantly brooding over the thought of old age, of loathsome sickness and death and of the unknown future after death. After twelve years passed thus, he escaped from the palace and began a strict religious life. He was now about thirty years old. He cut off his long locks, the sign of his high caste, and studied all that the Brahmans could teach him, but found no satisfaction. He sat thinking for weeks, and at last came to the conclusion that ignorance is the cause of all evil and that by getting rid of ignorance, we can be free from all miseries. After various stages of thought, he himself be- came free from ignorance, and attained the "perfect wisdom" of the Buddha. He began to preach this strange gospel at Benares, and for forty years traveled over northern India, making many converts. He died at Kusinagara, at the age of eighty, in the year 472 B. C. BUDDHISM has now little hold in India, the land of its birth; but it has full sway in Ceylon and over the whole Indo-Chinese peninsula; it prevails in China and to some extent in Japan; it is the religion of Tibet, of the Mongolian population of central Asia and southern Siberia and of the Tartar tribes on the lower Volga. As a system of belief, Buddhism holds that existence is on the whole a curse, and so it seeks final rest, in what is called Nirvana cr nothingness non-existence. Death, how- ever, does not bring this rest, for it leads only to another state of existence, as a person, a spirit, an animal, an insect, a plant or even an inanimate thing, according to the merit o r demejrit of the departed. The Nirvana ft gained by eight things: right faith, right judgment, right language, right purpose, right practice, right obedi- ence, right memory and right meditation. There are many moral precepts and direc- tions and certain virtues which lead directly to it. The great virtue of the religion is benevolence. Buddhism knows no supreme God or Creator, and as an intellectual belief is of little value; but as a system of morals it ranks only second to Christianity. Since the time of its founder its worship has been disfigured by countless extravagant and childish forms and ceremonials. Buell (bu'el), Don Carlos, an American general, was born near Marietta, O., in 1818. He graduated at West Point in 1841 and took part in several battles in the Mexican War, being severely wounded at Churu- busco. From the era of the Mexican to that of the Civil War, he was assistant adjutant-general in different departments. After the outbreak of the Civil War, he helped for a time in organizing the army at Washington; then became commander of the department f the Ohio, and later was made major- general of volun- teers. At the bat- tle of Shiloh his forces came to the aid of General Grant, and with their help the Con- federates were de- feated on the sec- ond day of the battle. A few months later he was given com- mand of the new district of the Ohio. The Confederate force under Gen- eral Bragg entered Kentucky and threat- ened Louisville and Cincinnati. A part of this force was met by a part of Buell 's army at Perryville, October 8, 1862, and aa indecisive battle was fought, Buell allowing the Confederates to retreat without attempt- ing to follow them. His command was given to General Rosecrans in the same month, and a court of inquiry was ordered to in- vestigate his conduct, but he was acquitted. He became president of the Green River Iron Works, in Kentucky, in 1865, and died on November 19, 1898. Buena Vista (bwd'na ves'ta or bu'na vts'ta), a village in Mexico, near which the American forces under General Taylor de- feated the Mexicans under General Santa Anna, on February 23, 1847. Taylor had a force of 5,000 men and Santa Anna had 20,000. The American forces occupied a Eosition which made it almost impossible sr the Mexicans to make use of their artil- lery or cavalry. Slight skirmishes took place on February 22; but the main attack by the Mexicans began the following morning and lasted the whole day, Santa Anna being finally drfven back and re- treating during the night The America^ GENERAL BUELL BUENOS AVRES 885 BUFFALO-FISH loss was 746 ; that of the Mexicans being 2,000. Buenos Ayres (bo'nus a'riz, Sp. pron. bwd'nos I'r&s), the federal capital of the Argentine Republic, stands on the right bank of the River Plata, 150 miles from the open sea. The river here is 36 miles across, but very shallow, a difficulty which is being remedied by a vast system of har- bor works. Besides the coast and foreign trade, there is a large overland traffic to Chile. The absence of any good fuel near at hand and of stones and timber for build- ing purposes, has been a great disadvantage to the city. It is, however, being greatly built up, in modern style, and has a number of fine buildings, among them one of the finest cathedrals in South America. The six railroads, also, which have their termini here, have many of them handsome depots. There are also a university and a military college; while its extensive mileage of street railroad lines and an extensive tele- phone system are among recent improve- ments. Europe and the United States are connected with the city by cable. Buenos Ayres was founded in 1535, but was twice destroyed by the Indians. It became in- dependent of Spain in 1810. The commerce of the country, which passes through the ports of Buenos Ayres and Montevideo, consists chiefly of wheat and other grains, mutton, sheep-skins, wool, tallow and stearine. Its population (estimated 1911), I >3 I 9,747J population of the province of this name, 1,796,320; area, 117,777 square miles. Buffalo. Two kinds of cattle the Asiatic buffalo and the Cape buffalo properly receive this name. The Asiatic form is a native of India; it has been domesti- cated and carried into Greece, Italy and Egypt. It is larger and more powerful than an ox. It is fond of water, and will stand for hours ^with only its head above the surface. The Cape buffalo is found in Cen- tral and South Africa. It grazes chiefly at night, and lies in the woods and thickets during the day. It has never been domesticated. It is very fierce and cunning, and often attacks without provocation. Its skin is so tough that it is made into shields by the Kaffirs. The so-called American buffalo is the bison (which see). A faithful bird-friend it has, the buffalo- bird, which closely attends it, picks para- sites from its hide, and gives note of alarm at the approach of danger. The 1. Head of Cape Buffalo 2. Head of Indian Buffalo Indian or water - buffalo is of great service, owing to his strength and his ability to labor, in wet grounds. It is a very interesting sight to see this huge creature at work in the rice fields, his head always low down, nose thrust far in front. There are still some wild herds to be found of the Indian buffalo, the largest of all wild cattle, a very dangerous animal, able to worst a tiger in combat. The so-called American buffalo is the bison. (See BISON.) Buffalo, a western city of New York state, at the eastern end of Lake Erie, at the head of Niagara River. It has 37 miles of water frontage, 12 miles of which are on Buffalo River and the remainder is on the outer harbor along the lake front and on Niagara River. It has one of the best har- bors on the lake, formed by the Buffalo River, the entrance being protected by an immense breakwater, 4,000 feet in length. A new harbor has also been made by the building of a breakwater in the Niagara River. The city is a desirable place of residence, especially in summer, during which the lake breezes moderate the temperature. It has a beautiful series of parks connected by broad driveways. It has nearly 200 churches and many fine public and business buildings. Its railway facilities are great, while it has the advantage of the trade of the Barge Canal. Its commerce has grown wonderfully in recent years, and it is now the fourth shipping city in the New World. The first grain elevator on the lakes was built here, and it now has 22 elevators with 25,350,000 bushels' capacity. It has 2,200 manufactories, and handles great quantities of flour, lumber, coal and min- eral ores. It is supplied with natural gas, piped from Pennsylvania and from Canada, and with electric power from Niagara Falls tunnel. It has over 375 miles of street-rail- way and 376 miles of paved streets, in- cluding 250 miles of asphalt thoroughfares. Pure water is supplied from Lake Erie. There are a good system of public schools and several colleges and seminaries, as well as public and private libraries. The town was burned in the War of 181 2 by the British and Indians. In 1901 Buffalo was the seat of the Pan-American Exposition, and the mecca for travelers and sight seers from Europe and all parts of the New World. It was here (on September 6, 1901), that President McKinley was assassinated by an anarchist. Population, 454,112. Buffalo - Berry, a shrub with small silvery leaves, which bears red or yellow fruit the size of a currant. It is some- times planted as an ornamental shrub. It is a native of cold, dry regions of north- western North America. Buffalo Bill. See CODY, WILLIAM FRED- ERICK. Buffalo -Fish, a dark colored fish with humped back and large head, found in the BUFFALO-GNAT BULGARIA Mississippi valley. It is one of the suckers, and the flesh is poor. Buffalo -Gnat, a rival to the mosquito in bloodthirstiness, a dreaded enemy of man and beast, that ravages in the Mississ- ippi and Missouri valleys. These gnats kill poultry and domestic animals. Their bite is poisonous and, attacking as they do in droves, causes much loss of blood. They fly and bite in the day time. The larvae are aquatic, found on rocks and logs in swift streams. Buffalo -Grass, a highly valued grass common in the West, from Manitoba to Texas. It is low and spreading, spreads rapidly by runners, is easily propagated and is adapted to regions of little rainfall. All stock enjoy it. Buffalo-Moth. See CARPET BEETLE. Buff on (bXff&n, Fr. buf'fdri), Georges Louis Leclerc, Count de, a French scien- tist (born 1707, died 1788). He was of a wealthy family and educated for the law; but, after traveling for a time, decided to devote himself to science. In 1739' he was elected a member of the Academy of Scien- ces, and appointed director of the Royal Garden. This gave him opportunity to study animals widely. His Natural History, in fifteen volumes, is written in the finest literary style and created a great popular interest in natural history. Rosseau is said to have kissed the steps of the pavilion in which the book was written. He was a great thinker and one of the pioneers in the modern doctrine of evolution. The History of Birds, The History of Minerals and Epochs of Nature are other works of his which are well-known. Building -Material. In the mammoth structures which our modern building era has made us all familiar with, more impor- tant than ever is the necessity of having good sound material for their erection, so as to withstand the severe strain now im- posed upon all departments of the builder's and constructor's work. In earlier times the erection of buildings was for the most part a matter of mere masonry, calling into exercise, in addition to the architect, the bricklayer's or stonemason's work; to-day, in this era of immense steel structures, the demands are more extensive and com- plicated, calling not only for materials of greater strength and endurance, as well as for increased fireproof protection, but also for elaborate plumbing, heating and ven- tilating arrangements, and for stone, granite, concrete or iron and steel that' will resist crushing weights and defy deterioration by the changes in weather and temperature. So vast, and occasionally so elaborate, are the structures of our modern day that the building of them, under the architect's supervision, has to be undertaken not only by specialized labor, but let out to various contracting and sub-contracting firms, each responsible for its own assigned task, and turned out by the use of material either where the building is to be erected, or, more generally, in yards, workshops and factories where specialized work is made ready, as demand calls for, on a large scale, and that whether it be vaults, beams, joists, arches, balustrades, railings, baths, doors, windows, mantels, moldings, stair- cases, encaustic tiles, wardrobes, belts and belting, roofing material, boilers, radiators, furnaces, ranges, sinks and light and heat- ing plant. When these rough essentials are furnished and placed, then come the plumbing, lathing and plastering operations, the fireproofing, glazing, painting, papering and general finishing and decorating, the processes of all being well known, and the materials of which, including the skilled labor in using and applying them, should be of the best quality and the most work- manlike and satisfactory. Bulb. In a certain sense a bulb is a bud whose leaves have become fleshy through storage of reserve food. This simply means that it is a shoot whose axis has remained short and whose overlapping leaves have become thickened. A further difference be- tween a bud and bulb is that in the latter case it is not the whole leaf, which is thick- ened, but merely the leaf bases, as in the hyacinth and onion. Bul'bel, bulbs which grow from the main bulb, or which are formed by the breaking apart of the main bulb. What is known as the potato-onion is an example of the latter phase. Bulb'let, small bulbs which are borne in connection with the foliage or flowers. For example, " top onions" bear bulBlets in the flower cluster, while the tiger lily bears bulblets in the axils of its leaves. Bulga'ria, including Bulgaria proper, occupies a part of the Balkan Peninsula, and lies between the Danube and the Balkan Mountains, and, with Eastern Rume- lia to the south, is a tributary principality of the Balkan Peninsula, under the Sultan of Turkey. On its eastern border is the Black Sea, on its western Servia; while it is bounded on the north by Rumania and on the south by Turkey. Natural Resources. With a fine agricul- tural country, a broad seaboard, the fine waterway of the Danube on her northern boundary, a mild climate, one of the most liberal constitutions in Europe and an en- ergetic people, Bulgaria has great possi- bilities. Occupations. There is in Bulgaria con- siderable agricultural and cattle raising in- dustry; also wine-making, tobacco growing and manufactures of silk and the attar of roses. Cities. Sofia, the capital, has a popu- lation of 102,769. The other chief towns are Varna, 41,317, a fortress on the Black BULL 287 BULL-FIGHT Sea, Plevna, 23,081, and Rustchuk, 35,823. At Sofia there is a university, with 50 professors and about 800 students. History. The present Bulgarians came in the 6th century from the banks of the Volga and overran the country. They gained power, and at one time ruled over Macedonia, Thessaly, Epirus and Albania; while their prince styled himself the auto- crat of all the Bulgarians and Greeks, and looked forward to a great empire of Slavs. They fell, however, under the power of the Byzantine Empire and, later, under the Turks, lost all their civilization, and their warlike character seemed gone forever. But about the middle of the igth century a national feeling began to stir again, and literature, newspapers, and schools grew up. The Bulgarian atrocities in 1876, in which many thousands of Christians were killed by their Turkish neighbors, aroused the interest of Europe in Bulgaria, and the next year Russia, as the assumed guardian of the Slavic races, made war against Turkey. By the treaty of Berlin, 1878, Bulgaria was made a self-governing state, but her choice of a ruler must be con- firmed by Turkey and the powers of Europe. Prince Alexander of Battenberg, by the choice of the people, became Alexander I of Bulgaria in 1879, and in the following year Eastern Rumelia united with Bulgaria. A war with Servia followed, in which Bul- garia was completely successful, through the bravery and generalship of her prince, who became the idol of the people. Russia, however, grew hostile to him, and in the in- terest of Bulgaria he surrendered the throne. In 1887 Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg oc- cupied the vacant throne. In 1908 Bulgaria proclaimed complete independence of Rus- sia and Ferdinand assumed the title of Czar. EASTERN RUMELIA is in many respects in advance of Bulgaria proper, as it has been longer open to influence. The production of attar of roses is one of its most valuable industries. Sofia and Philip- popolis are the two capitals. The army consists of about 52,500 men, with a military college at Sofia. There is also a small fleet. The total area of Bulgaria, including both parts, is 38,080 square miles, or a little larger than Indiana, and the popula- tion of the whole principality is 4,329,108. Eastern Rumelia has a population of 1,174,- 535. with an area of 13,700 square miles. Philippopolis, the capital, has a population of 47,929- Bull, Ole Bornemann, a Norwegian vio- linist (born 1810, died 1880). His father was greatly opposed to his studying music, but in 1829 he went to study under a musician in a German town. He became discouraged and proceeded to Gottingen to study law, but afterwards went to Paris where the celebrated violinist, Paganini, was present at his de"but. After a period of misfortune, he became famous as a player. He traveled through Italy, Great Britain, Russia, Germa- ny and Norway, his reputation 'increasing all the time. In v844 he came to America, and nine years later he made this country a sec- ond visit, play- ing to immense crowds a n making a large fortune, most of which he lost in OLE BULL land-specula- tions. One of his land-schemes was the buying of a great tract in Pennsylvania, upon which he founded a Scandinavian colony, later called Oleana. The plan ? roved a failure, and the colony broke up. n 1869 he once more visited America. He died at Bergen, Norway, in 1880. Bull-Dog, a large-headed, strong-jawed variety of dog, of the mastiff type common in England, and used in olden days in boar- hunting and bull-baiting. Nowadays they are commonly reared as watch-dogs, or crossed with other breeds and their temper modified, as pets and faithful companions of man. In color the usual varieties are brindle, red, fawn, white or piebald; in weight they are about 50 pounds, compact in shape and thick-set. Other species in- clude the toy bull-dog, and the French bull-dog, the latter familiar now in this country as a house dog of good disposition. Btiller, General Sir Redvers, V.C., a British officer in command of the Natal Force in the Boer War of 1899-1901, who, after many disheartening reverses, effected the relief of Ladysmith, and returned to England in November, 1900. He was born in England in 1840, and as an officer of the 6oth Rifles saw much service in the China Expedition of 1860, in the Red River Rebellion (in northwestern Canada), in Ashanti and in the Kaffir and Zulu Wars in South Africa. In the war with the Boers, that broke out in October, 1899, he had chief command of the first army-corps sent from England to South Africa, and was conspicuous in the operations which led to the relief of Ladysmith. He died in Eng- land, June 2, 1908. Bull -Fight, a Spanish amusement. It was introduced by the Moors and soon spread over all the kingdom. Each city has its arena, some very magnificent, called place of the bulls, for carrying on this sport. The bulls are let loose in the open space, one at a time. Horsemen begin the attack armed with lances, and if one of the horses is ripped up, as often happens, a crowd of BULFINCH 288 BULWER-LYTTON footmen with red banners take up the attention of the bull, while the rider escapes. Men armed with sharp, barbed darts, with fireworks and flags attached to them, next torment the victim. Finally the main actor enters the arena clad in black, and, armed with a long, straight sword, he soon ends the sport, driving his blade up to the hilt into the bull, where the neck joins the spine. Bulfinch, Thomas (1796-1867), the author of the Age of Fable (1855), a remark- able and well-written book, and of many literary and historical studies, was a native of Boston, Mass. He was a student of Phillips Exeter Academy; and a graduate of Harvard University (1814). Mr. Bul- finch was a business man and banker as well as an author. Among his works are Legends of Charlemagne, Poetry of the Age of Fable, the Hebrew Lyrical History, the Age of Chivalry, Oregon and Eldorado and the Boy Inventor. Mr. Bulfinch was an in- timate friend of the poet Longfellow. Bull Run, a small stream in northeastern Virginia, upon whose banks were fought two severe battles of the Civil War, both of which resulted in defeat to the Federal arms. The first battle of Bull Run was fought July 21, 1 86 1, and was the first important engagement of the war. The Union army, 35,000 strong, was commanded by General Irvin McDowell; the Confederate army, numbering about 32,000, was under General Beauregard. The fight began in the early morning, and until noon the advantage was with the Federal forces, which crossed Bull Run and attempted to turn the confederate left; but in the afternoon the Confederates were re-enforced, the Federal lines gave way before the onset of fresh troops, and finally retreated in confusion and disorder. The effect of this battle was greatly to en- courage and strengthen the south, while the n orth proceeded to prepare for a struggle which it was now seen must be stubborn and prolonged. On the same field a second and terrible battle was fought on the 2gth and 3oth of August, 1862, between the Confederate army under General Lee and the Union forces under Major-General John Pope. After two days' hard fighting, Pope was defeated and compelled to retreat. He charged his defeat to the tardy support which was given him by certain divisions of McClellan's army, which had been sent to him, and particularly to positive dis- obedience of orders by General Fitz-John Porter, who withheld re-enforcements dur- ing the crisis of the battle. Porter was afterward courtmartialed and dismissed from the service, but was later on restored. Bulpw (bu'16) Prince Bernard von, Ger- man imperial chancellor in succession to Prince Hohenh>he, who retired in 1900 and died in the following year. Prince von Bulow was born in 1849, m Holstein, studied at Lausanne, Leipsic and Berlin. served in the Franco-Prussian War, and entered the German Foreign Office in 1874. In his early diplomatic career he was successively secretary of legation at Rome, St. Petersburg, Vienna and Paris; charge d' affaires at Athens; and secretary at the Berlin Congress. In 1897 he was named Foreign Secretary at Berlin, and as such concluded with Spain the treaty by which Germany became possessor of the Mariana and Caroline Islands. In 1899 he was created a count and in 1900 became German Chancellor, after which he was raised to the dignity of a prince of the Empire, as well as prime minister of Prussia. Biilow (bu'lo), Hans Quido von, a Ger- man musician, born at Dresden in 1830, and died February 12, 1894. He studied law for a time, but by the advice of Wagner and Liszt decided to devote himself to the study of music, which he did under Liszt for two years. In 1855 he was made professor of the piano in the Conservatory of Music at Berlin, and later went on con- cert tours through Germany and Russia, gaining a great reputation as a pianist. In j867 he became chapel-master to the king of Bavaria at Munich, and in 1880 he was made director of music to the court at Meiningen. He wrote about thirty musi- cal works, and composed many songs and short pieces. He was one of the most suc- cessful orchestra-leaders in Europe, and as a pianist had few equals. He died at Cairo, Egypt, on Feb. i2th, 1894. Bul'wer-Lyt'ton, Edward George Earle Lytton, Baron Lytton, an English novel- ist, was born in Norfolk in 1803. He belonged to a very old English family, and was educated at Cambridge University. In 1826 he wrote his first poetry for publi- cation, and in the next year his first novel, Falkland, appeared. After that his writings were published in rapid succession, among the earlier ones being Eugene Aram, Pelham, Last Days of Pompeii, Rienzi the Last of the Tribunes, Zanoni and The Last of the Barons. He was also successful in the writing of dramas, Richelieu and The Lady of Lyons being the best known. He entered Parliament in 1831 and became a prominent member, being made secretary of state for the colonies in Lord Derby's cabinet in 1858. Most of his later works were first published in magazines, of which the most celebrated are The Caxtons, Harold the Last of the Saxon Kings, My Novel, A Strange Story and Caxtoniana, the last be- ing a collection of essays. Bulwer con- sidered King Arthur, an epic poem, his best work. His novels are very popular and have been translated into several languages. He was made a peer and given the title Baron Lytton in 1866. His death occurred in 1873. Lord Lytton 's son, Robert, in- herited much of his father's gifts, especially as a poet. His best known work is Lucile, BUNKER HILL 289 BUNTING published under the nom de plume of Owen Meredith. He is also known as a states- man and diplomat, having filled the offices of governor-general of India (1878-80) and of ambassador to France (1887-91). Lord Robert Lytton was born at London in 1831, and died at Paris in 1891. Bun'ker Hill, an historic elevation in Charlestown, now a part of Boston, Mass. It is about 100 feet high, and is connected by a ridge with another smaller hill, called Breed's Hill. These hills are where the famous battle of Bunker Hill was fought be- tween the British and American troops, June 17, 1775. The British had possession of Bos- ton, and Generals Howe, Clinton and Bur- goyne had just arrived from England with a large body of troops. The American militia and the volunteers were encamped at Cam- bridge, three miles from Boston. The news had come to the Americans that General Gage was planning to fortify Dorchester Heights, and in order to prevent this 1,000 men under Col. William Prescott were sent to Charlestown on the night of June 16 to fortify Bunker Hill. General Putnam and Major Brooks joined them, and after reach- ing Bunker Hill without attracting the attention of the British, it was decided to throw up the breastwork on Breed's Hill instead, as it was nearer Boston. At daybreak the British sailors on the ships anchored in the harbor, descried the forti- fication and began firing upon it. Prescott extended the fortification by filling up with hay the space between two old rail-fences on the left of the breastworks. General Warren came up about two o'clock in the afternoon, and, refusing the command, fought as a volunteer. At the same time Colonel Stark arrived with 500 men and took up a position behind the rail-fence. Meanwhile, the British forces, under Gen- erals Howe and Pigot, had been brought over from Boston in boats, and at half- past two the first charge was made. Pres- cott had ordered his soldiers not to fire until the British were so near that the whites of their eyes could be seen; and when they did open fire the British retreated in confusion. Meanwhile the town of Charlestown had been set on fire by the shot from the British ships, and, under cover of tie dense smoke, Howe ordered a second attack; but again his troops were driven back. Unfortunately the Ameri- cans were by this time almost out of am- munition, and when, Clinton having come over with British re-enforcements, a third assault was made, the Americans after firing their last shot and fighting the British bayonets with clubbed muskets were obliged to retreat. The British pursued them only a short distance. The loss of the British was 1,054; that of the Americans being only 450, though among them was General Warren. In the center of the old fortifi- cation at Breed's Hill now stands a granite monument, 221 feet in height. The corner stone was laid by Lafayette in 1825, at the fiftieth anniversary of the battle, Daniel Webster delivering one of his greatest orations. It was completed in 1842 and dedicated in the following year, Webster once more being the orator of the day. Bun'sen (boon' sen), Robert Wilhelm, a distinguished German physicist and chemist, born at Gottingen, March 31, 1811. He received his university training at Got- tingen, where he took his doctor's degree at the age of 20. His education was con- tinued at Paris, Berlin and Vienna. At the age of 22 he began, with a privat-docent- ship at Gottingen, that marvelous career of teacher and investigator destined to extend over more than half a century and to maka his name beloved by- his own students and a household word for all others. The years from 1851 to 1899 were spent at the Univer- sity of Heidelberg. In addition to his more technical chemical investigations, the following may be men- tioned as his most important contributions to science: 1. The invention of the Bunsen battery which replaced the expensive platinum plate of the Grove cell by a cheap carbon rod. 2. The invention of the Bunsen burner now in use everywhere from the kitchen to the research laboratory. 3. A satisfactory explanation of the phenomenon of the geyser, given after a trip to Iceland in 1847. 4. Precise methods for analyzing gases. 5. The chemical action of light. 6. His well-known ice-calorimeter for measuring quantities of heat. 7. His most important contribution, however, is that which he, in conjunction with Kirchoff, published in 1860 and 1861, namely, the establishment of the foundation of spectrum analysis. These two men showed that the prism is a reliable and delicate method for detecting the presence of any particular element in a chemical compound. And in their second paper they exemplified this fact by the discovery of two new elements, namely, casium and rubidium. During the last ten years of his life Bunsen was not engaged in active teaching, but held an emeritus professorship at Heidelberg, where he died August 16, 1899. Bunting, a group of birds between finches and starlings, containing numerous species widely distributed. Among these may be mentioned, as of special interest to our readers, the Snowflake, called Snow-Bunting; the Dick- cissel or Black-Throated Bunting; Vesper Spar- row or Bay- Winged Bunting. And mention should be made of the Indigo Bunting, Painted, Varied, Beautiful and Lazuli Buntings. The Bunting is one of the few birds of the Arctics. See SNOWFLAKE AND DICKCISSEL. BUNYAN 290 BURGOYNE Bun'yan, John, author of The Pilgrim's Progress, was born near Bedford, England, in 1628. His father was a tinker, and John was trained to that craft. He was very fond of dancing on the village green and of ringing the church bells things he after- ward thought sinfuL He served in the army for some time during the English Civil War, though only 16 years old. After the war he married a poor girl and became deeply interested in religion. He began to preach to the poor people in the villages around Bedford, and, getting into dis- cussions with the Quakers, in 1656 he published a book against them. It was a remarkable book for an uneducated crafts- man to write. This led to further discussion and the publication of other works, Bunyan being finally arrested and imprisoned. He was in prison 12 years, though he was continually told that he would be set free if he would give up preaching; to which he replied : " If you let me go to-day, I will preach again to-morrow." He supported himself and his family while in prison by making lace, the remainder of his time being spent in reading the Bible, preaching to the other prisoners and writing religious papers and books. He finally was released in 1672, and preached for three years, after which he was again put in prison, but was let out again six months later. While he was in prison the second time he wrote The Pilgrim's Progress. He became pas- tor of the Bedford Church, where he re- mained 1 6 years, dying in 1688. The Pilgrim's Progress at once became very famous and has since been translated into nearly a hundred languages. Bur'bank, Luther, the "PlantWizard," after four years of patient effort, developed the famous Burbank potato from small tubers of scanty yield when only a boy on the farm on which he was born near Lancaster, Massa- chusetts, in 1849. Although his achievement soon added $20,000,000 a year to the value of our potato crop, he sold his rights to a local seedsman for $i 50. Not long after, his health requiring outdoor life, he went to California, worked at odd jobs as a farm hand and finally saved enough to start a small nursery. When it was bringing him a profit of nearly $10,000 a year, he gave it up, against the protest of friends, and began the series of experiments on his farm at Santa Rosa which have given us not only the thornless, edible, fruit-bearing cactus, but a long list of other wonders of the plant world, including the crimson poppy, the Shasta daisy, a combination of plum and apri- cot called the plumcot, the white blackberry, new varieties of apples, pears and cherries, and a walnut tree that produces a wood like mahog- any and of remarkably rapid growth. His thornless cactus is a forage plant showing great improvement in productiveness even over alfalfa. The fruit has a flavor between the raspberry and the pineapple, and will grow on the desert as well as the spiny variety. Thousands of acres have been planted, not only in this, but in almost every foreign country. Where alfalfa grows five to ten tons per acre, this cactus produces fifty to two hundred tons. The money derived by Mr. Burbank from the sale of improved varieties, considering the out- lay required to produce them, has been small from $100 to $500 each. Having disposed of the commercial department of his work he now gives his exclusive attention to producing im- proved varieties of trees, plants and flowers. Burdett-Coutts, Lady. In 1814 there was born in Ramsburg, Wiltshire, England, a little girl -named Angela, the daughter of Sir Thomas Burdett, a celebrated parlia- mentarian, and granddaughter of Thomas Coutts, a London banker. At the age of 22 she inherited a great fortune and became head of a banking firm that was second only to the Bank of England. People expected her to take a high place at the young queen's court and to marry a duke or prince. Instead she quietly set about the task of bringing light and hope to the swarming millions of East London. At a cost of $450,000 she built St. Stephen's Church, the first institutional church in the world. It combined the religious func- tion with the social settlement. Other churches, schools, model tenements, scholar- ships in universities, evening schools, penny dinners for poor school children, a fishing school and fleet for famine-stricken west Ireland and a great market -house in the slums of East London, followed in rapid succes- sion. Then plain Angela Burdett added her grandfather's name to her own and the Queen made her a baroness the only woman of the people ever raised to the peer- age in Great Britain. As Lady Burdett- Coutts, she secured the Children's Charter from Parliament, to protect children from cruelty; also a law to stop cruelty to ani- mals. In a time of cholera she cleaned East London and forced new sanitary laws. She assisted starving Irish peasants to emigrate and carried on relief work in the Turko-Russian War. For 70 years she was the friend of the queen and of every celebrated man and woman of her time, from Charles Dickens to the Duke of Well- ington. Walter Besant made her the heroine of his novel All Sorts and Conditions of Men. At the age of 68, she married her private secretary, Mr. Ashmead-Bartlett, who took her name and entered parliament to further her ideas of public good. She died in 1907 at the age of 93, universally mourned. Burgoyne (bdr-goin') , John, an English gen- eral during the American Revolution. His sur- render to the Americans, Oct. 7, 1777, at Sara- toga, (q. v.) was one of the most important victories of the war. Entering the army as a subordinate he had risen by distinguished ser- vice in Portugal before being sent to America. On returning to England he wrote an account of SOME OF THE PLANT WIZARD'S WORK Copyright by the Macmillan Co. POTATO CAUSED TO GROW ON TOMATO VINE Copyright by the Macmillan Co. THESE WILD POTATOES ARE CROSSED WITH TAME POTATOES TO MAKE THEM HARDY BURGUNDY BURLESQUES his American campaign in his own defense, throwing the blame for his failure on the British cabinet. He also wrote several dramas. He died at London in 1792. Bur 7 gundy (bur'gun-dt), the name, at different times, of three kingdoms, of a duchy and lastly of a French province. The first kingdom was formed about 406, by the Burgundians, a German people who crossed the Rhine and extended their dominion over the Saone and the Rhone. They were converted to Christianity in eight days. About 100 years later they were conquered by the Franks, but the country still kept its name. About 300 years later, when the Carlovingian Empire was broken up, two kingdoms were formed from a part of old Burgundy, and called Lower Burgundy and Upper Bur- gundy, which afterward were united and finally fell tinder the power of Germany. The remaining portion of old Burgundy meanwhile had become a powerful duchy of France. In the first family of the dukes of Burgundy there was a succession of twelve, who were among the most powerful princes of their time and were noted for their loyalty to the French kings. This family came to an end, and soon after the duchy was given by the French King John, to his son, Philip the Bold. This duke and his three successors, John the Fearless, Philip the Good and Charles the Bold, are among the most famous historical characters of their age. The last two had royal power, and owned, besides Burgundy, the Nether- lands and several other countries. After the death of Charles the Bold, the duchy of Burgundy became a province of France. This province included the present depart- ments of Cote-d'Or, Saone-et-Loire and Yonne, with parts of adjoining departments. Burgundy wines, which are famous, are produced in these departments and named after the old province. Burke, Edmund, a British statesman and author, was born at Dublin, Ireland^ in 1729. He Graduated at Dublin University, and proceeded to London to study law, but aban- doned it for liter- ary work. He wrote two works in 1756, the most famous of which is a study of the origin of our ideas o f The Sublime and the Beautiful. Soon after he be- came acquainted with the cele- brated Dr. Samuel Johnson, who said EDMUND BURKE of him that "no man of sense could meet Mr. Burke by acci- dent under a gateway, to avoid a snower, without being convinced that he was the first man in England." In 1 765 he entered parlia- ment, and at once became prominent because of his wide knowledge and learned speeches. In 1769 and 1770 he published two pamphlets which were widely read, called Tne Present State of the Natton and Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontent. He was a great student of American affairs, and his papers and speeches during the Revolution- ary War made him unpopular with many people in England. At the same time he was greatly interested in English affairs in India, and led the trial of Warren Hast- ings for corrupt government in India. When the French Revolution broke out, Burke at first favored it; but when he saw the leaders were becoming lawless and violent, he opposed it. His Reflections on the French Revolution was the most popular paper on the subject written in England; but it separated him from his former political friends, who were strongly in favor of the Revolutionary party. He wrote many other papers, but left Parliament in 1794. He died in 1797. Burke was one of the most famous orators England ever had, and his writings are wonderful examples of beau- tiful English. Burlesques, a class of literary or dra- matic compositions of the nature of parody or travesty, which date from classic times, and have had a considerable vogue in Italy whence the term (from the word bur fa which means raillery, mockery or jesting) is derived. Burlesques have also been much written in France, in England and in this country, the design of their authors being to travesty some well-known work, or to present a subject in a humorous or even a ludicrous aspect and treating it in a light, playful, jocose manner. Ancient examples can be traced back to the era of Aristophanes and to Hipponax of Ephesus (6th century B. C.). the latter being deemed the father of burlesque poetry. Its modern example* are those found in Italian literature, in thv writing especially of Berni and GOZZJ whose most successful imitators were Sar razin and Scarron in France, Chaucei, Beaumont and Fletcher, Butler in hi* Hudibras, the brothers Horace and Jaine* Smith in their Rejected Addresses. Ll dramatic burlesques the most notabh example is Moliere in France, and of the lighter order, Burnand, W. S. Gilbert ant\ Plandie in England. The Gil Bias of JL4< Sage and Don Quixote of Cervantes ai" renowned examples of burlesque. In Eng- land many instances of burlesque ani diverting poetic effusion are to be met with in the poems of Thomas Hood, Praed, Cocker, Calverley and Dobson. In this country plentiful examples will be found in the writings of Dr. O. W. Holmes and in BURLINGAME 292 3TJRMA our innumerable humorists and dialect writers. Burlingame (bur'ttn-gam') , Anson, an American statesman, born at New Berlin, New York, in 1820. He studied at the Uni- versity of Michigan, and at the Harvard Law School, and began the practice of law in Boston. In 1853 he was elected to the senate of Massachusetts, and one year later to Congress, helping to form during the following year the new Republican party. In 1 86 1 President Lincoln appointed him minister to China. In 1867 he intended to give up his position and return to America, but the regent of the Chinese Empire ap- pointed him special Chinese ambassador to the United States and the countries of Eu- rope, to make treaties between China and other nations. In July, 1868, he succeeded in getting new articles added to the old treaty between China and the United States, which gave the citizens of each country many privileges in the other, such as religious freedom and the right of founding schools. This is known as the Burlingame treaty. Mr, Burlingame then secured special treaties between most of the European powers and China, and was at St. Petersburg, negotiat- ing a Chinese treaty with Russia, when he died in 1870. Bur'lington, a city in Iowa, county seat of Des Moines County, on the west bank of the Mississippi. It is a beautiful and healthful city, the business portion being built along the river, while the residences are on high bluffs, from which there is a fine view up and down the river. The city has good public schools, including a $250,000 high school and a Roman Catholic Academy. Notable in the city are the municipal build- ings, opera house and public library. Coal is extensively mined near the city, making it a favorable place for manufactures, among which there are flour and planing mills, foundries, soap factories, breweries and pork- packing establishments, agricultural tools, furniture, etc. Population 24,640. Bur'lington (bur 1 ling-ton), N. J., (formerly a port of entry) in the county of the same name, on the Delaware River, 19 miles north- east of Philadelphia and on the Pennsylvania Railroad. Here are situated Burlington College, and St Mary's (P. E.) Hall for Girls, and the town has an opera house and a good public library, besides churches and schools. Its industries embrace iron pipe, stove and carriage works, harness and shoe-making establishments, also canned goods, besides berrying and market garden- ing. The city owns and operates its own water-works, its charter as a city dating from 1851, with revision in 1868. Population, 8,336. Bur'lington, Vermont, a city and port of entry in Chittenden County, Vermont, on Lake Champlain. It is the seat of the University of Vermont and State Agri- cultural College, of the Vermont Episco- pal Institute, (for boys) and of Bishop Hopkins Hall (for girls) . The Mary Fletcher Carnegie Library Building. The city has Fletcher Free Library now housed in a Carnegie Library Building. The city has an extensive trade in lumber and in the manufactured products of lumber, in stone and marble and in proprietary medicines. Good water-power is furnished by the Win- ooski River and large cotton and woolen mills are situated here. The public schools of the city have an enviable reputation, the parochial schools are largely attended, and there are two commercial colleges. Burlington is the educational center for a wide region of country. It is noted for its beauty of sit- uation, for its wide and well kept streets, for its handsome private residences and for its fine public buildings. It has a municipal electric lighting plant. Population, 2 0,46 8. Bur' ma, the largest of all the provinces of the Indian Empire, lies between Tibet, China, Siam and the Bay of Bengal. It covers about 236,738 square miles, consider- ably more than California and South Dakota, while the total population is over 12,1 15,000. The old province of Lower Burma occupies about one third of the territory, and the new province of Upper Burma, with the Shan States about two thirds. Surf ace and Drainage. The country ismostly hilly, largely covered with forests. Of the numerous mountain peaks, the highest reaches an elevation of 15,000 feet. The largest river is the Irawadi, flowing from its unknown source in the snows of Tibet, over a course of 1,100 miles to the Bay of Bengal. It is navigable all the year round for river steamers for 700 miles; and though there are now several railroads, most of the trade is carried on by the numerous rivers. Natural Resources. Teak and bamboo are the most valuable of the forest products. An unusual wealth of wild beasts, serpents, birds and fishes found in India abounds here. The mineral yield of the soil is not note- worthy, except that from the ruby mines near the capital. The ruby-yielding region extends for about 200 square miles, and the rubies are the best in the world. People, Ctistoms. Besides foreigners, the people are mainly Burmans, Shans, Karens and other hill tribes. The Burmans are the largest class. Their chief food is rice, and they have, besides, fish or meat daily. They live well, but save little money. Most of the people live in modern houses or bamboo huts, but the pagodas or temples of masonry and the monasteries made of teak are more substantial buildings. The finest and most sacred pagoda in Burma is the Shway Dagon Pagoda at Rangoon. Products. The chief crop of the country BURNE-JONES BURNS is rice, the acreage of which in Upper and Lower Burma was, in 1904-05, 9,265,097 acres. Wheat, pulse, sugar-cane, cotton, tea and oil-seeds are also raised. Religion. Their religion is chiefly Bud- dhism. The class which has the most in- fluence and is most respected is the Buddhist monks, of whom there are 20,000, whose il-ity it is to set an example of a correct life and to instruct the young. The Shans are much like the Burmans, but are high- landers and great traders. The Karens used to be nature- worshippers ; but now large numbers of them are Christians, through the influence of Baptist missions, which have been among the most successful of modern missions. Both the Burmans and the Shans have long had a written language, and there are now a number of native newspapers. A university and several tech- nical schools are also established in Lower Burma. History, The Burmans are believed to have come into the valley of the Irawadi about 2,000 years ago. Since that time various powerful Burman dynasties have risen, flourished and fallen. The Chinese have often invaded Burma from the north. The Burman power came into contact with the British in India as early as 1820, and, piece by piece, the British have been compelled to assume control over Burma. In 885 King Thebaw declared war and tried to drive the British into the sea, but was overcome and carried a prisoner to India, and in 1886 the whole of Burma became a part of the British Indian Empire. It is governed by a commissioner on behalf of the viceroy of India. The capital of Upper Burma, Mandalay, has a population of 138,299; of Lower Burma the capital is Rangoon, population, 293,316. Burne=Jones, Sir Edward C., a nota- ble English painter, much admired in his day as a fine colorist, and clever also as an artistic stained-glass de- signer. Born at Birmingham in 1833 and educated at King Edward's School there, he entered Exeter College, Oxford, in his twentieth year, but shortly afterwards with- drew to study art under the influence of Dante G. Rossetti. Settling in London, he drew much from real life both in water- colors and in oil, his pictures possessing much brilliancy as well as purity of hue. He is classed among the Pre-Raphaelites, but himself free from the whilom extravagances of that school of art. In 1881 Burne-Jones received from Oxford the honorary degree of D.C.L., and in 1885 was elected President of the Royal Birmingham Society of Artists and made an Associate of the Royal Acad- emy of Arts, London. The latter he re- signed in 1893 when he became one of the founders of the New Gallery, where and at the Grosvenor Gallery, in the British metrop- olis, most of his pictures were first exhibited. In 1894 the artist was made a baronet, elected an honorary Fellow of Exeter Col- lege, Oxford, and was decorated with the French Legion of Honor. At an early period in his career he came under the in- fluence of Ruskin; while, besides his varied and magnificent work as a painter, he did much as a designer of mosaics for church windows, at Oxford and elsewhere in Eng- and, as well as for the apse of the American Church at Rome. Among his best known oil paintings are King Cophetua and Hie Beggar Maid, The Resurrection, The An- nunciation, The Golden Stair, Merlin and Vivien, Pygmalion and the Image. His principal water-colors include The Days of Creation, The Wine of Circe and the series known as Spring, Summer, Autumn, Winter, Day and Night. Sir Edward Burne-Jones died in London in 1898. Burnett', Frances Hodgson, an Ameri- can novelist, was born at Manchester, England, in 1849. In 1865 her fam- ily came to Amer- ica and settled in Tennessee, where she began writing stories. Her first story was pub- ^Tlished in a maga- e in 1867. In ^1873 she married Dr L. M. Burnett, o f Knox ville, Tenn. They re- moved later to FRANCES H. BURNETT Washington, D. C. Her first novel, That Lass o' Lowries, was published in Scribner's Magazine in 1876-77, and made her reputation. Her second novel, Haworth's, was published in Scribner and also in Macmillan's Magazine (London) . A child's story, Little Lord Fauntleroy, was very popular, and has appeared also as a play acted on the stage. Her later stories are A Lady of Quality, His Grace of Or- monde and The Shuttle. Burnham, Sherburne Wesley, a notable astronomer, now professor of practical astronomy, in the University of Chi- cago, was born at Thetford, vt., in 1838. While clerk of the United States circuit court in Chicago, he early devoted himself to the study of the heavens and made many discoveries, especially of double stars, which he described with a 6-inch refrac- tor. In 1876 his devotion to astron- omy led to his connection first with Chicago Observatory and for a time with the Lick Observatory in Cali- fornia. For his discovery, measurement and cataloguing of double stars, he was awarded the gold medal and made a Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society of England. Burns, Robert, a Scottish poet of great genius was born near the town of Ayr in BURNSIDE 294 BURR 1759. His father was a poor fanner and Robert was brought up on the farm, gaining most of his education between his hours of work. The Bible and a few collections of poems were the books he read. His beauti- ful poem, The Cottar's Saturday Night, is a picture of his simple home in those early days. When he was 15 years old, he wrote his first poem, led to it by his love for a little girl who worked with him in the hay field. Through all his life Burns had a great love for women, and many of his most beautiful pieces are love-poems. At 1 8 he went to school for a short time, and at this period wrote several short poems. A few years later, he and his brother took a farm, in order to support their parents, but he still kept writing bits of poetry, which were far more successful than his farming. Finding that he was not succeeding on the farm, he decided to go to Jamaica, and published a volume of poems to pay his way. This volume at once made him famous, and instead of setting out to Jamaica, he went to Edinburgh, where he remained a year and made many valuable acquaintances. He rented a farm, and was soon after given a small government office, with a salary of $350. Unfortunately, he was of intemperate habits, and had to give up his farm. He, however, 'kept on writing, but his love of drink and the disappointment of his hopes of success injured his health, and he died in his thirty-seventh year, in 1796. His poems are the most musical in the language. His humor is great; and many of his poems are very simple and touching, while others sparkle with life and wit. He is a poet of nature, and few have approached him in simple, clear and yet touching descriptions of nature's scenes, objects and life. In 1813 a monument was erected to his memory at the town of Dumfries, and his birthday is still celebrated among Scotchmen. More people visit Ayr than Stratford. Burn'side, Ambrose Everett, an Ameri- can general, born at Liberty, Ind., in 1824. He graduated at West Point in 1847. At the outbreak of the Civil War he held the position of treasurer of the Illinois Central Railroad. I n 1 86 1 he was ap- pointed colonel of the First Regi- ment of Rhode Island volun- teers, and com- manded a brig- ade at the battle of B u 1 1 R u n. After taking part in various engagements, he succeeded Gen- eral McClellan GENERAL BURNSIDE as commander of the Army of the Potomac. General Lee took possession of the heights of Fredericksburg, and in a vain attempt to drive him. from his position Burnside was defeated with great loss. His resignation of the command was accepted, and he was given the generalship of the department of the Ohio. He drove the Confederates out of East Tennessee, for which he received the thanks of Congress. He was later be- sieged in Knoxville, until the siege was raised by the approach of Sherman with a part of Grant's army. He was then transferred to the Army of the Potomac, and took part in its closing campaigns. He resigned in 1865, and the next year was chosen governor of Rhode Island, and re- elected in the two following years. He was elected United States senator from Rhode Island in 1875 and again in 1880. He died at Bristol, R. I., September 13, 1881. Burr, Aaron, third vice-president of the United States, was born at Newark. N. J., in 1 756. He graduated at Princeton College, and entered the army, where he won distinc- tion and attracted the favorable notice of Washington. Soon after, however, for some unknown reason he incurred Washington's dislike. After the Revolutionary War, he practiced law at Albany, and married the widow of a British officer. He was ap- pointed attorney-general of New York, and in 1791 was re- turned to the United States senate. In 1800 he was elected vice-president of the United States by the Democrat ic party. Four years later he was the Feder- alist candidate for governor of New York ; but many of the leading men of the party re- fused to sup- port him, and he was defeated. This led to his duel with Alexander Hamilton, in which Hamilton was killed. Burr was tried for murder, and, though acquitted, never regained his place in popular opinion. The next year Burr set out on a journey to the southwest. He was suspected of plotting to found a new empire out of Mexico and a part of the pres- ent southern states, and was arrested and tried at Richmond, Va., but was acquitted, He went to Europe in the following year- but returned in 1812, and began again the prac- tice of law in New York. He died neglected in 1836, his only child, Theodosia, having been lost at sea. His success was largely due to his attractive and polished manners AARON BURR BURROUGHS 295 BUTLER Burroughs (bur'rdz), John, American naturalist, essayist and man-of-letters, was born at Roxbury, N. Y., April 3, 1837, and received an academic education. For a time he taught school, was a treasury clerk at Washington, D. C., and afterwards examiner of national banks. Since 1874 he has lived on a farm, devoting himself to literary work and to fruit -culture and the observation of nature, of which he is an ardent lover and keen and kindly observer. His studies of birds and of field-life have been close and intimate; and his books on these and other themes make delightful reading. Among his publications are Wake- Robin; Signs and Seasons; Pepacton; Riv- erby; Birds and Poets; Winter Sunshine; Locusts and Wild Honey; Fresh Fields; Indoor Studies; and a monograph on Walt Whitman. Burwash, Rev'd Nathaniel, born at St. Andrews, Quebec in 1839. A graduate of Victoria University, ordained 1864. Later studied at Yale. In 1867 appointed profes- sor of natural history and geology at Victoria University. In 1887 he became president of the University. A mem- ber of each general conference of the Meth- odist Church from 1874 to 1894. In 1889 pres- ident of the conference, CHANCELLOR BUR- contributed largely to WASH bringing about the fed- eration of the univer- sities which was effected in 1885. The author of a treatise on Wesley's Doc- trinal Standards. Has been most influential in every branch of educational reform in the province (Ontario). A leader of Meth- odism for a whole generation. Business College. The business or commercial college is, properly speaking, a trade school for the purpose of teaching those desirous of securing an elementary position in business, such as that of clerk or bookkeeper, the things of immediate use to them for that work. It is a private institution usually, without endowment or government inspection. Conditions of admission are very lenient, and pupils may enter at any time. As pupils differ widely in age, preliminary training, etc., much of the instruction is given individually rather than in classes. The length of the course varies from three months up to 15 months or more, and tuition fees range from five dollars per month up to about twenty dollars. Eve- ning classes have been largely taken advan- tage of by those who were obliged to pursue their usual occupation during the day. Owing to the introduction of commercial courses into the public schools and to competition among themselves, the busi- ness college has developed from the type of 50 years ago with one or two teachers giving elementary instruction in arithmetic, keeping of accounts and ornamental pen- manship, to the thoroughly equipped busi- ness college of to-day, with trained teachers offering first-class courses in a wide range of subjects, such as stenography, type- writing, commercial law and geography, history of commerce, business practice and office methods, advanced bookkeeping, etc. Present tendencies are towards longer courses, with more instruction both in the broader general studies, such as English composition, and in the more specialized technical lines. The business college has been of immense value in giving to thousands of persons in a short time the necessary equipment for a business position, and in securing suitable situations for them. Butcher-Bird. See SHRIKE. But'ler, Benjamin Franklin, American lawyer, soldier and statesman, was born at Deerfield, N. H., November 5, 1818. He entered on the practice of law in Lowell, Mass., in 1840, where he gained a high reputation. He served in the state legis- lature, both in the house and in the senate (1853-59). He served as major-general in the Civil War; was in command at Fortress Monroe in 1861; at New Orleans in 1862; and of the department of Virginia and North Carolina in 1863. He was returned to Congress by the Republicans in 1866, where he served until 1879, except the term of 1875-77. In 1882 he was elected governor of Massachusetts by the Democrats. In 1884 he was an unsuccessful candidate for the presidency in the Greenback interest. He died at Washington, D. C., January ii, 1893. But'ler, Nicholas Murray, Ph.D., LL. D. Born in Elizabeth, N. J., April 2, 1862; graduated from Columbia College in 1882; and studied in the Universities of Berlin and Paris. In 1885 Dr. Butler be- came an instructor in Columbia College, and since that time he has been associated continuously with Columbia College and University. He was president of Teachers' College from 1886 to 1891, and in 1902 be- came president of Columbia University. Dr. Butler has been connected with the administration of numerous important boards and associations, and has received several honorary degrees from both Ameri- can and foreign universities He is the editor of The Educational Rev^ew, the author of The Meaning of Education, and has made other valuable contributions to the literature of education. Bur/ler, Pa., the chief town of Butler County, western Pennsylvania, 33 miles north of Pittsburg. It has a number of BUTTE CITY 296 BUTTERFLY flour and silk mills, glass and oil well supply factories, whose motive power is derived from natural gas. Butler's largest in- dustry is a steel-car works employing 5,000 men; it also has a large oil-refinery and bedstead factory. Four lines of railroads pass through it. Population, 90,728. Butte City, Mont., the capital of Silver- bow County, is situated in the southwestern portion of the state, in the midst of a rich mineral region. It is the largest city in the state, and has five lines of railway. It de- rives its name from the Big Butte, a high mountain peak in the vicinity of the city. The city has fine public buildings, including court house, opera house, high school and many churches, hospitals and a complete system of public and parochial schools. It has a public library containing 30,000 vol- umes; also a public law-library. Is well supplied with water, and the facilities of electric lighting and gas and a very efficient street car system. The ore pro- duction of the Butte district, chiefly copper, approaches $60,000,000 per year, and is rapidly increasing. The population of the city proper is now estimated at over 40,000, but Butte, inclusive of its suburbs has about 70,000 people. Butter, the fatty part of milk, obtained from milk or cream by churning. Milk is made up of three parts, the cheesy portion or curd, the whey or watery part which con- tains milk-sugar, and the butter; and when examined by the microscope is seen to consist of a number of little globules of fat floating in a clear liquid. These glob- ules collect and form cream after the milk has stood a few hours, and the process of butter making or churning is simply to cause the particles of fat to come together in a mass. After churning, the butter is washed and salt added to prevent the forming of certain acids which give old but- ter its rancid taste. Besides the common method of churning, butter is made in parts of South America, by jolting the cream, which is put in gourds or skin bags, on the backs of donkeys, or, as in Buenos Ayres, by dragging it in a skin-bag behind a gallop- ing horseman. Indeed, butter is said to have been discovered by carrying milk in skin bottles on camels, in which the butter was made by the jolting. It takes about two quarts of cream to make one pound of butter. Artificial butter, called oleo- margarine, is now made from beef-fat. Buttercup, a well-known wild-flower, member of the Crowfoot family. It was brought to this country from Europe and is generally distributed throughout Canada and the United States. In the north, Buttercups are especially abundant and handsome. Their season of blooming is from May to September, localities preferred by them meadows, fields, roadsides and grassy places. English children call Butter- cups, King-Cups or Gold-Cups. Shakes- peare speaks of them as " cuckoo-buds of yellow hue," and says they "do paint the meadows with delight." There are many kinds, but the first comer is the Bulbous But- tercup, blooming early in May, lasting till the end of June ; a small, erect plant of meadow and roadside, the blossoms golden-yellow, leaves bright green. The Meadow Butter- cup grows in field and by roadside, some- times rises as high as three feet, and blooms from May to August, occasionally until frost, the flower, pale yellow. The Swamp or Marsh Buttercup, dots with gold low meadow lands, blooming from April to July, its blossoms huge and satiny. Chil- dren are warned not to bite Buttercup stem and leaf, as a blister might result. Butter- cups, if eaten in large quantities by cows, might prove poisonous, but the acrid taste is too disagreeable for more than a few nibbles. Butterfly, the common name for a group of day-flying insects. Butterflies and moths form a natural order of the class Insecta, and are so closely related that they should be considered together. Nearly every boy knows that a sort of dust sticks to the fingers after handling butterflies and moths. This dust, examined under the microscope is seen to be made up of minute scales, with which the wings of these insects are covered, and this circumstance gives them BUTTERFLY the name of the scaly-winged (Lepid optera) . It is a common mistake to suppose that the moths are all plain and somber in color, while butterflies are more brilliant. The group of moths, on the contrary, embraces some of the largest and most beautiful members of the order. The butterflies are day fliers, their antennas are knobbed at the end, and they fold their wings vertically over the back when at rest. The moths fly mainly at night; their antennae are of various forms; and their wings are seldom elevated in repose. Butterflies and moths make an attractive cabinet. A collection can be started with very little trouble. The requirements are: a net spread over a hoop attached to a cane or pole; a killing fluid, as chloroform MEXICAN BUTTERFLIES BUTTERNUT 297 BUZZARD or benzine ; a board for spreading the wings until they are dried, and a tight covered box in which the specimens may be kept. Hodge in Nature Study and Life, recom- mends a home-made glass case, specimens glued. As is well known, butterflies and moths come from caterpillars and various other larvae forms. The eggs are laid by the full-grown insects, but from them hatch worm-like larvae instead of winged insects. After feeding and moulting, the larvae in turn form cocoons or cases about them- selves, from which they emerge as butter- flies and moths. The larvae are exceedingly varied; the common, woolly caterpillars, the measuring worms, forming a group of moths; the tomato worm, the milkweed worm are familiar examples. From the cabbage worm come the white butterflies that are so common. Some are destructive to crops, as the army-worm; some to fur and woolen fabrics, as the small, inconspic- uous larvae of the woolen moth; and some to trees, as the gypsy moth. (See CATER- PILLAR.) Among the butterflies of the United States the swallow-tailed variety (see Fig.) is the largest and most attractive. The common yellow and white varieties are the most numerous. The brownish milkweed butter- flies are very well known. The promethea, Polyphemus and luna moths are large and beautiful, as are also the moths of the silk- worm. Some of the common, dark-colored butterflies (euvanessa antiopa) live through the winter in sheltered places in the middle and northern states and come out on warm days. Some of the large tropical butterflies are exceedingly brilliant in color, and measure upward of eight inches in spread of wings. The mouth parts of butterflies and moths are much changed. There are no bitvng jaws, but a long, sucking tube, coiled like a watch-spring when not in use, Bucking nectar and honey from flowers. Some of the forms resemble leaves when the wings are folded over the back, and are protected from their enemies by this resemblance. See Scudder: Everyday But- terflies (1899) ; French: Butterflies and Moths oftheE.U.5.(iSo6); Holland: The Butter- fly Books, with colored plates but of moder- ate price; the beautiful and extensive monographs of Edwards and Scudder; Weed: Life -History of American Insects; Comstock: Insect -Life; and Crojin: Our Insect Friends and Foes. Butternut or white walnut, is an Ameri- can tree, growing to a height of 20 to 50 feet. It has numerous spreading branches and a smooth, ash-colored bark. It blossoms in May, and the fruit ripens in September and October. The fruit is an oblong nut, covered with a thin husk or hull, dark-brown when ripe. The kernel is sweet but oily. The bark and shells yield a dark-brown dye, and a poor quality of sugar can be obtained from the sap. The half -grown fruit is also used for pickles. The timber is valuable, and is much used for cabinet-making, gun-stocks, etc. Butterworth, Hezekiah (1839-1905), a well-known writer of juvenile books, and a poet of fair ability, was a native of Warren, R. I. Mr. Butterworth was a platform lecturer of repute, speaking at times upon education, at times on hymnology, but for the most part upon his travels, which in- cluded tours in Europe, South America Cuba and Canada. Among the works of Butterworth, most of them books for boys, may be mentioned several volumes of Zig-Zag Journeys, the Knight of Liberty, In the Boyhood of Lincoln, Great Composers, The Patriot Schoolmaster, Songs of History, Poems and Ballads and Boys of Greenway Court, together with several cantatas. Buttons, useful articles of wear, used as coat and dress fasteners or as mere orna- ments, and made of bone, wood, metal, jet, apier mache', mother ofj pearl or glass, hey are manufactured in various sizes, and sometimes covered with cloth or other material, and also made with and without shanks. Birmingham, England, is a great seat of their manufacture; while they are extensively turned out in factories in this country, in the different varieties of the button industry, there being to-day about 250 button-making factories in the United States, with a gross value-output of close upon $8,000,000. The process of manufac- turing them is chiefly by stamping in the case of metal buttons ; while the cast button is made in molds by pouring molten metal over them, the loop of wire which forms the shank being suspended in the process and pressed into the bottom of the button. Powdered steatite, saturated with soluble glass, is used for making shirt buttons in molds, the buttons being afterwards baked and polished. Other kinds of buttons are made of various composites, as well as of vegetable ivory and of the hoofs of cattle, boiled down and turned out in hydraulic presses of the various sizes and patterns. Buzzard. The term is used in a loose way. The true buzzards include the hen- hawks and the common buzzard of Europe. The hen-hawks, embracing the red-tailed and rough-legged buzzards, are good repre- sentatives of the group as to general ap- pearance and average size. The white- tailed buzzard of South America and the common fish-hawk or osprey are other varieties. The true buzzards are related to the eagles and falcons. The so-called tur- key-buzzard belongs with the vultures, and not with the buzzards. In the south this bird is protected by law, both whites and negroes appreciating its services in remov- ing decaying matter. Seen floating high up in the air, one forgets its habits and thinks only of the beauty of its motion; BYRON 298 BYZANTINE EMPIRE it is very familiar to the children of the south. Byron, George Noel Gordon, Lord, a great English poet, was born at London in 1788. His father died when he was three years old, and he was brought up by his mother, a woman of weak mind. He at- tended Cambridge University in 1805. Two years after, he published his first volume of poems, which at once brought him into notice. In 1808 a criticism of his poems appeared in the Edinburgh Review. He replied to it in a satire called English Bards and Scotch Reviewers, which at once showed his power as a writer. During this time he was living at Cambridge and in London, and spending his time immorally and in frivolous high-class society. Becoming tired of this mode of living, and thinking that his genius was not appreciated, he left England and traveled in Spain and Greece. During his travels he wrote the first part of his greatest work, Childe Harold's Pil- grimage. While in Greece he performed the famous feat of swimming across the Hellespont, in imitation of the Greek story of Hero and Leander. On his return to England he was received with great favor. His Giaour, Corsair and Lara were written soon after. He married, but was after- ward separated from his wife, and, owing to public disfavor, he left England never to return. He stayed in Geneva for a time, where he wrote his Prisoner of Chilian. Later on he lived in Venice, where he finished Childe Harold, and began Don Juan, one of his inotable works. In 1822 he sent money to the Greeks, who were fighting for independence from the Turks; and soon after went to Missolonghi to join the Greek forces, but died there of a fever, in 1824. He is now considered one of the greatest of English poets. His power of description has rarely been equaled. See Life of Byron by Thomas Moore. Byzan'tine (bt-zan'ttn) Empire, also called the EAST ROMAN, EASTERN, GREEK or LOWER EMPIRE, was founded in 395 A.D., when Theodosius the Great divided the Roman empire between his two sons, Hon- orius and Arcadius. Arcadius was made emperor of the eastern division: Syria, Asia Minor and Pontus in Asia; Egypt in Africa; and Thrace, Moesia (now Bulgaria) , Macedonia, Greece and Crete in Europe. The empire thus formed lasted for more than a thousand years, and underwent a great variety of fortune. It took the name Byzantine from Byzantium, the old name of its capital, which, after 330 A. D., was usually called Constantinople or New Rome. The period of Greek revival (395-716), as it is called, is marked by the victories of Justinian and Heraclius Justinian (527 565) is celebrated for his code of laws and the victories of his great generals, Belisarius and Narses. Maurice (582-602), by his weak rule brought the country to a con- dition of lawlessness from which it was rescued by Heraclius, who overthrew him, and reigned from 610 to 641. Great as his genius was, he suffered 12 years of defeat before he could organize a victo- rious army. In 622 he began those splendid campaigns in which Persia was crushed, and which, Gibbon says, were equal to those of Scipio or Hannibal. The period of prosperity lasted from 716 1057, and was marked by successful defense against Saracens and Bulgarians. Leo III, Constantine V, Leo IV, Basilius I and Nicephorus Phocas all won victories over the Saracens and Bulgarians. The dynasty founded by Basilius held the throne most ot the time from 867 to 1056. John Zimices (969976) won victories over Saracens, Bulgarians and Russians, while Basilius II (976-1025) conquered the Bulgarian king- dom. At the beginning of the nth cen- tury the Saracen power, which had so long been dangerous to the empire, broke up, but the Seljuk Turks, a yet more formidable enemy, appeared on the eastern frontier. The period of the decline (1057-1204) was marked by the crusades and the advance of the Turkish power. With Isaac Com- nenus (10571059) the Comnenian dynasty began. In the reign of Alexius Comnenus (1081-1118) began the crusades, in which the Byzantine emperors had a hard part to play. The crusades, however, helped greatly to check the advance of the Turks, whose power already reached to the Helles- pont. The last Comnenian prince, Andro- nicus, was killed in a rising excited by his own cruelty, in 1185, and left the country in a state of utter confusion. The period of Latin occupation lasted from 1204 to 1261. In 1204 the French and Venetians, together called Latins, marched on Constantinople and captured it. The European part of the empire was carved into four divisions; the first part, including Constantinople, fell to the lot of Baldwin, the Count of Flanders. In Asia, Theodoras Lascaris set up a government at Nicaea, and Alexius Comnenus ruled at Trebizond. The Latin occupation was hurtful to the empire, which never regained its lost unity. Michael (VIII) Palaeologus, one of the rulers of Nicaea, captured Constantinople in 1261 with the aid of the Genoese, and so put an end to the Latin dynasty. The period of the fall (1261-1453) was marked by the quick oncoming of the Turks. They took Nicsea in 1339, and first made a settlement in Europe by capturing Gallipoli in 1354. Adrianople fell in 1361, and be- came the Ottoman capital. By 1381 all that was left of the Byzantine empire be- came tributary to the Turks. The sultan, Bajazet, by defeating the Hungarians in 1396 forced Manuel II to cede to him a street in Constantinople. The whole city BYZANTINE EMPIRE 299 BYZANTINE EMPIRE would soon have fallen had not Timttr, the Tartar conqueror, defeated Bajazet at Angora in 1402. At last the capital fell before Mohammed II, May 29, 1453, when the Byzantine empire was brought to a close. On the throne of this great empire, to which modern Europe owes its moral and intellectual development and which main- tained a struggle with darkness for 1,000 years, sat 76 emperors and five empresses. Of these, 15 were put to death; seven were blinded or otherwise mutilated; four were deposed or imprisoned in monasteries; and ten were compelled to abdicate. In the 4th century she fought the Goths; in the 5th the Huns and Vandals; in the 6th the Slavs; in the 7th the Persians and Arabs; in the 8th, gth and xoth the Bulgars, Magyars and Russians; in the nth the Seljukian Turks; the Ottomans, Normans, Venetians, Crusaders and the Genoese. " No wonder she at last fell exhausted." Reviewing its entire annals, the history of the fall of the empire may be said to be the record of a noble struggle in the face of overwhelming odds. For many centuries it was the bulwark of Christian culture. See Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire and Finlay's and Grote's Histories of Greece, See also CONSTANTINOPLE. 300 CABLE-ROAD C (stf), the third letter of the alphabet, represents two consonants: 5 and k. The s sound is called soft c, the k sound hard c. C before e, i or y is a hissing 5, as in cede. When e or i is followed by another vowel in the same syllable, c is sh, as in oceanic. In a few words c is z, as in sac- rifice. C before a, o, u or a consonant represents the k sound, as in call, cold, 'culminate, climax. C after a syllable not followed by e or i also equals k, as in arc. So, too, in sceptic and scirrous. It is silent in corpuscle, czar, indict, muscle, victuals. Its sound conies from the Latin. The Romans used C as a numeral (100) as well as a letter. Cabal (kd-baV), a word used to denote a small party united for political purposes. Formerly it was used to denote a secret committee or cabinet, and in the i7th century was especially applied to the in- famous ministry of Charles II of England, which was made up of five members whose initials made up the word cabal. They were Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, Ar- lington and Lauderdale. The word goes back through the French to a Hebrew word meaning "something received." Cab'inet, a committee of ministers, so called from the cabinet or room in which the ruler assembles his council. In the United States the cabinet is made up of the heads of departments; namely: the secretaries of state, of the treasury, of war, of the navy, of the interior, of agri- culture; the attorney-general; and the post- master-general. By the constitution the president has the power to require the opinion in writing of the heads of depart- ments, on any subject relating to their special duties. Washington started the practice of consulting all the heads of departments on important measures, and later presidents have usually called them together in joint meeting for consultation, so that now they are expected to be pres- ent as a matter of course. The president presides at these meetings, and he is re- sponsible for all the measures of the gov- ernment. There is in this country no premier or chief member of the cabinet, though the position of secretary of state is generally regarded as the leading one. The president usually selects for his cabi- net those who agree with his views. The word cabinet was first used as a political term in England. The modern British cabinet is made up of a variable number of ministers, usually about eighteen, among whom are always the first lord of the treasury (who is prime-minister), the lord chancellor, the chancellor of the exchequer, the president of the council and tne five secretaries of state. The members have seats in Parliament. Ca'ble, George Washington, an Ameri- can author, was born in New Orleans in 1844, and after a short career in business entered the Con- federate army. At the close of the war, he resumed business in New Orleans and while still so engaged began his work as a writer in connec- tion with the New Orleans Picayune. His first stories were collected and published under the title of Old Creole Days. The GEORGE w. CABLE Gr a n di ssim e s, Madame Delphine and the History of New Orleans soon followed, and in 1879 he gave up his business. In 1884 Mr. Cable set' tied in Northampton, Massachusetts, and devoted himself to writing and lecturing. Dr. Sevier, The Creoles of Louisiana, The Silent South, The Cavalier, By-Low Hill and Strange True Stories of Louisiana are among his later works. Cable-Road, a railroad on which the cars are moved by being attached to an endless wire rope, which is kept in motion by mechanical power. Cable traction has been used in mines for many years, but it was first successfully applied to street car traction by A. S. Halliday at San Fran- cisco in 1873.. For heavy street-car traffic and for places where there are very heavy grades the cable system has been sucess- fully employed. The cable, an endless wire rope of one to ij inches in diameter, is kept in continuous motion in a slotted groove or conduit below the surface and between the rails, and the connection with the car is made by a grip which ean be controlled from the car. The power re- quired to keep the cable in motion witkout load is large 35 to 75 per cent, of the full load so that the system is at a dis- CABLES 301 CACTUS advantage where the load is not heavy and continuous. The cable has been super- seded by electric systems almost entirely. Ca'bles, Electric, are wires especially prepared for carrying electric currents underground or under water. The under- ground cable consists essentially of a cylin- der of insulating material, such as gutta- percha, in which are imbedded one or more copper wires. These coppper wires do not touch each other throughout their length. The guttapercha keeps the moisture out and keeps the electric current in. The cable is generally placed inside a lead sheathing, which preserves its flexibility and at the same time furnishes protection from mechanical injury. It is now the custom to put a large number of conductors sometimes, for telephone lines, as many as a hundred in one lead sheath. Ca'bles, Ocean, telegraph lines laid from shore to shore beneath the sea. The first Atlantic cable was successfully laid in 1866 by Cyrus W. Field. Submarine telegraph lines had already for some years been in operation over short distances. Coney Island and Fire Island had been successfully connected. In Europe a cable had been laid from Dover to Calais, and many others over distances less than a hundred miles. In deeper waters, also, cables had been laid, one from Newfound- land to Cape Breton and another from Spezia to Corsica. In 1857 Mr. Field made his first attempt to lay a cable under the Atlantic from Newfoundland to Val- entia in Ireland. This attempt failed, as .did several others. In 1858 a cable was laid which worked at first but became silent after a few weeks. In 1865 the Great Eastern took on board a vast cable weighing 20,000 tons, and laid 1,200 miles of it, when by a sudden lurch of the ship the cable was snapped. The next year's attempt was, however, successful. The cable, 2,000 miles long, was safely stretched across the ocean, and submarine commu- nication was an accomplished fact. Its first message was the news that a treaty had been signed by Prussia and Austria. By 1903 there were 16 cables carrying messages through the Atlantic Ocean, besides three that are no longer used. But the greatest triumph of cable-laying was the completion of the British Pacific cable, 7,800 nautical miles long, which now connects British Columbia with Aus- tralia. In 1903 an American cable was laid to the Philippines from San Fran- cisco by way of Hawaii. Thus, by means cf the overland telegraph and the sub- marine cable, it is now possible to trans- mit a message in a few hours to almost any country on the globe. Submarine Cables are laid on the bottom of the sea. They require not only good insulation, but great tensile strength, els they will not support their own weights when lowered from the vessel to the bot- tom of the sea. This tensile strength is acquired by wrapping the guttapercha in- sulation with a sheathing of steel wire. There now are 16 cables of this type across the Atlantic Ocean, each carrying two copper conductors. Each of these con- ductors is capable of transmitting about 20 words a minute. See TELEGRAPH. Cabot (kab'iit}, John or Giovanni, prob- ably the discoverer of North America. Very little is known of the life of this sea- man. The place and time of his birth and death are not known. Either a Vene- tian or an Englishman naturalized in 1476, he was living in England in 1495. It probably was the voyage of Columbus in search of the East Indies which started Cabot westward on the same quest. He with his three sons obtained a patent in 1496 from Henry VII, giving them power to search for lands in the eastern, western or northern seas and, as vassals of Eng- land, to occupy any lands discovered, with a right to their commerce on paying the king a fifth of all profits. Accompanied by his three sons he set sail in 1497, and on June 24th sighted Cape Breton Island and Nova Scotia. He planted on the coast the banners of England and Venice and returned. The next year another patent was granted, but nothing further is known of his life. Cab'ot, Sebastian, son of John Cabot, was probably born between 1474 and 1477, either at Bristol or at Venice. He accompanied his father on his voyage to Nova Scotia, and in 1498 he sailed with two ships in search of a northwestern passage to India. He left a few men on the bleak shores of Newfoundland and sailed southward along the American coast as far as Florida. Later he entered the service of Spain, and in 1526 commanded an expedition which examined the coast of Brazil and the River Plata, and there attempted to plant colonies. In 1547 he again went to England and became in- spector of the navy. He was the prime mover of the expedition of merchant ad- venturers which opened to England an important trade with Russia. He was famous as the maker of maps, and he was probably the first who made sure that America was wholly a new and unknown continent. He died at London in 1557. Cabul. See KABUL. Cac'tus. The general name of a well- known family called the Cactaceae. The numerous species are characteristic of the warm and dry regions of America, their display being greatest in Mexico. There are about 1,000 recognized species, and many of them are under cultivation on account of their curious forms. They have become remarkably adapted to con- CADE 302 CLEDMOtf tinuous drouth. Their leaves have been abandoned for the most part, and the variously shaped stems are organized to expose the least amount of surface and to retain water. The largest forms are species of the genus Cereus, among which are the giant cacti, whose columnar bodies with clumsy branches rise sometimes to a height of fifty to sixty feet. The spheri- cal forms mostly belong to the genera Mamiilaria and Echinocactus ; the flat forms CACTI or prickly pear belong to the genus Opuntia. The common prickly pear has long been naturalized in the Mediterranean region. Many of the cactus fruits are edible, and certain genera are very useful to the natives of Mexico. Recent cultivation has pro- duced a spineless cactus which promises to be of great value as a food for cattle. The flowers are usually very showy, and the spines are also often brilliantly colored. The eastern variety, prickly pear or In- dian fig, is distributed in this country from Massachusetts to Florida; the western cactus ranges from Minnesota to Texas. Cade (kdd), Jack, leader of the rising in England of the men of Kent, in 1450. He took the name of Mortimer and the title of Captain of Kent, and marched on London with over 15,000 followers and encamped at Blackheath. He complained of certain grievances, and asked the king (Henry VI) to change his counselors. He was forced to retreat, but later gained a victory over a part of the king's forces, and, entering London, beheaded Lord Say, one of the king's favorites. But his troops soon scattered, a price was set upon his head, and he was killed in a garden near Heathfield, Sussex, as he was trying to reach the coast. Cad iliac, Michigan, a city, the seat of Wexford County, on Lake Cadillac, and on the Grand Rapids & Indiana and the Ann Arbor railroad, 96 miles north of Grand Rapids. It is in a region of fine hardwood timber and has large local lumber interests as well as consid- erable general manufacturing. It has a number of churches, schools and attractive public buildings. Population, 10,000. , , Cadiz ( k&d'lz) , a Spanish city in An- dalusia, near tne Strait of Gibraltar, capi- tal of the province of the same name. It is situated at the extreme end of a narrow tongue of land projecting from the Island of Leon. It is washed by the Atlantic and the Bay of Cadiz, and is one of the best fortified cities of Spain. The shining granite ramparts and the whitewashed houses give it a bright appearance; but there are few public buildings of note. The Alameda is a pleasant public walk by the seaside. After the discovery of America, Cadiz reached its highest pros- perity, becoming the depot of all the trade with the New World. When the South American colonies became independent, the city declined greatly, but has since revived, .owing to the extension of the railroad system and the establishment of new lines of steamers. About 3,800 ships enter the port yearly. There also are a number of manufactures. Cadiz was built by the Phoenicians, about noo B. C., under the name of Gaddir, meaning "for- tress." It was afterward held by Car- thaginians, Romans, Goths, Moors and Spaniards. Here Drake destroyed a Spanish fleet; Essex burned and pillaged the city; the French blockaded it; and the Spanish revolution of 1868 found its birthplace at Cadiz. Population, 67,174. Cad'mus, in classical mythology a son of Agenor, king of Phoenicia, and brother of the beautiful Europa. When the latter had been carried off by Zeus, who had become enamored of the beautiful maid, Cadmus, his brothers and mother were sent in search of her. Not finding her, Cadmus proceeded to Bceotia, where, tradition relates, he founded Thebes and built the Cadmeia. Here, the myth con- tinues, he sowed dragon's teeth, which sprang up as armed men who slew each other, save a few from whom the Thebans later claimed descent. Subsequently, Cad- mus married Harmonia, a flute-player, and both were changed by Jupiter (Zeus) into a serpent; though another account relates that he went to Illyria. The in- troduction of the Phoenician alphabet into Greece is attributed to Cadmus, while he is also said to have been the inventor of many useful arts. Csedmon (ktid'm-iin), the earliest Eng- lish writer of note who used his own Anglo- Saxon language, and the first religious poet of the Teutonic race. The account of him is given by Bede. He was a cow- herd who had never until quite old learned any poem, and often, at festivals, when it came his turn to take the harp and sing, he would rise from the feast and go home. Once when he had gone from the feast to the stable, there appeared to him in sleep one who said to him: "Caedmon, sing me some song." y "I cannot sing,", was the CAESAR 303 CffiSAREA PHILIPPI answer; "for this cause left I the feast." " But you shall sing to me." " What," asked Caedmon, "shall I sing?" "Sing the be- ginning of created things." In the morn- ing he told his dream to Hilda, the abbess of Whitby, and he put into verse for her a part of the Scriptures. Men believed him to be inspired. "Others after him strove to compose religious poems, but none could vie with him, for he learned the art of poetry, not from men, but from God." He was educated and became a monk, spending the remainder of his life writing poems on the Bible histories and on other religious subjects. He died about 680 A. D. Some of his poetry still exists. Caesar (se'zer) , Augustus. See AUGUSTUS. Caesar, Gaius Julius, was born July 12, ioo B. C., of a noble Roman family. He studied at Rhodes to improve his elo- quence, and, returning to Rome, threw himself earnestly into public life. Join- ing Pompey, who was then acting with the popular party, he passed rapidly through the different grades of office. He was quaestor in Spain; as curule aedile he increased his popularity by lavishing vast sums of money on public buildings and games; as praetor he was accused of being concerned in the famous conspiracy of Catiline, but probably unjustly. While con- sul, with rare tact and wisdom he reconciled the two most powerful men in Rome, Pompey and Crassus, and formed an alliance with them, known in history as the first triumvirate. At the close of his consulship he obtained the province of Cisalpine Gaul and the senate added that of Transalpine Gaul for five years, which were later increased to ten years. In this field Caesar conducted during the next nine years some of the most wonderful cam- paigns in history, which alone would have given him an abiding name. In seven successive campaigns he subdued the Hel- vetii, killing over 150,000 of them, a num- ber of German tribes, the Belgic tribes, the Veneti and other tribes; twice invaded Britain; built a bridge across the Rhine; and closed his brilliant course by crushing a wide-spread rebellion of the whole of Gaul. Twice during this time a thanks- giving was decreed to him by the senate, one for 15 days and the other for 20, an honor never before granted to any general. He now was the most popular man in Rome, and had an army enthusiastically devoted to their victorious leader. But Crassus was now dead, and Pompey, jealous of the power of Caesar, had veered around to the party of the senate. Caesar was ordered to disband his army, but, knowing that this meant his political ruin, he refused, and, crossing the Rubicon (a small stream which separated his province from Italy proper), moved swiftly amid the acclamations of the people toward Rome. Pompey and the senate fled to Greece, and in three months Caesar was master of Italy. Pompey's legates in Spain were soon conquered, and by the famous battle of Pharsalia, 48 B. C., Pompey's powerful army was utterly routed. Pom- pey himself fled to Egypt where he was murdered. Caesar next settled the affairs of Egypt, and defeated the generals of Pompey in Africa. His power was now absolute, but he did not use it for bad pur- poses, as previous conquerors had done, but, declaring that he had no enemies, gave himself to curing the social evils which had been so long rife in the republic. He was called the "Father of His Country" and "Imrjerator," from which comes the modern title of Emperor, and was made dictator for life. His person was declared sacred and even divine; his statues were placed in the temples; his portrait was struck on the coins; the month Quintilius was named Julius in his honor. He be- gan many reforms, but was cut off in the midst of his work by assassins, and Rome was again plunged into civil war. Brutus and Cassius, both of whom had received favors from Caesar, and a band of con- spirators fell upon the great dictator in the senate house. At first he defended himself, but when he saw Brutus with a dagger in his hand, he cried Et tu. Brute? (Thou, too, Brutus?), wrapped his cloak about him, and fell pierced with 23 wounds at the foot of the statue of Pompey. He died at Rome, aged 56, in 44 B. C. Caesar was one of the greatest men that ever lived. In everything he excelled. He not only was the first general and statesman of his age, but he was its greatest orator, except Cicero. He also was a great historian and scholar. Caesarea (sez-d-re'a), now called by the natives Kaisarieh, was once a proud and splendid seaport. It stood on the coast of Syria, 13 miles north of Toppa. Built by Herod about 22 B. C., it was named in honor of Augustus Caesar. It was a Greek town, with its temples, am- phitheatre and baths, imported into Syria. A mole in a half circle, built of large blocks of stone, protected the port on the north and west, within which a fleet might ride in safety. It was held by the crusaders, who built a cathedral here. Afterward the city fell into decay, and is now a heap of half-buried ruins, with a few miserable stone houses inhabited by fishermen. There is a small, open harbor. CaesareaPhilippi, a city mentioned in the New Testament, stood about 95 miles north of Jerusalem, near the source of the Jordan. The name Philipp 1 ' was given in honor of Philip the Tetrarch, who repaired the city. It is now a heap of ruins. On its site is a small village called Paneas or Banias. CAIN 304 CAISSON HALL CAINE Cain, the first-born of Adam and Eve. A cultivator of the soil, he killed his brother Abel, because his brother's sacrifices were more acceptable to God than his own. For his crime he was condemned to be a fugitive and a vagabond on the earth. He went to the land of Nod, on the east of Eden, where he built a city, which he called Enoch from the name of his son. Caine, Thomas Henry Hall, an emi- nent English novelist and dramatist, was born of Manx parentage in Cheshire, Eng- land, in 1853. His early years were spent as an architect, from which he drifted into jour- nalism, thence into the writing of essays, poems and lastly novels. In fiction his first successes were in the writ- ing of the Manx stories of The Deemster, The B ondman and The Manxman. C o n t e mporary with these were The Shadow of a Crime, A Son of Hagar and The Scapegoat. All of his stories show power, with much constructive skill, and the quali- ties that attract and hold the reader's in- terest. His late novels are The Christian, which, with others of his stories has been dramatized, and The Eternal City. He has also published Sonnets of Three Cen- turies and a volume of Recollections of Rossetti. He has for some time been actively interested in the government of the Isle of Man, and is a member of the House of Keys. Cairo (kl'rS), a famous city and capital of modern Egypt, lies on the right bank of the Nile, near the commencement of the Delta. The modern city is built on the remains of four distinct cities, and is surrounded by stone walls with antique battlements. It is divided into quarters, occupied by the Moslems, the Jews, the Christians, etc., and these quarters are separated by gates closed at night. The most remarkable buildings are the mosques and minarets, which include some o'f the finest remains of Arabian architecture. The great pyramid is about ten miles from the city. Cairo is also the site of a university, founded in 971, to which 2,000 students flock annually from all parts of the Mohammedan world. The streets are narrow and are traversed by an endless stream of horses, asses, camels and human bings. A few broad streets run tkrougk tha newer parts of the city. With am area of about seven square miles and a population of about 654,476, Cairo is the largest city in Africa, and second only to Constantinople in the Turkish empire. It was founded by the Arabs about 976 A. D., and was ruled by the Fatimite caliphs until 1171, when Saladin became master of Egypt. It was the capital of the sultans of Egypt until it was captured by the Turks in 1516. Since 1882 Cairo has been the center of British influence in Egypt. It is under the control of a special governor. Of the races which compose tbe population, the Arabs are the most numerous. There are about 35,000 Euro- peans. Railroads and telegraphs connect the city with Alexandria, Suez, etc., and steamers ply on the Nile. There is a busy trade, but few manufactures. There are good schools and a public library. The name Cairo is corrupted from El Kahira, meaning "the victorious." See Ball's Cairo of To-Day. Cairo (ka'ro), a city, the capital of Al- exander County, in southwest Illinois, situated at the confluence of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, about midway between Memphis and St. Louis. Its wharves are thronged with steamboats and shipping, as it is the shipping-point for southern markets of the products of Illinois, Iowa and Indiana. An extensive system of levees now protects it from inundation. It is well served with railroads and main- tains excellent public schools, and has a population of 20,000. Caisson (kds'son), a water-tight box used in laying foundations on bases under water or undersurface soils which are sat- urated in water. There are two kinds, the crib or open caisson and the pneumatic caisson. The open caisson is a box struct- ure of wood or of iron, which is loaded so as to sink into the bed of the stream; the earth is then removed to the required depth and the inside of the caisson is filled with masonry or concrete, the whole forming a portion of the pier. In making the founda- tions for the Poughkeepsie bridge, the caissons used had a cross-section of 60x100 feet and a depth of over 100 feet. Pneu- matic caissons are all on the principle of the diving bell. A large cylinder of boiler iron with closed top is sunk into the water, open end down. The water is kept out by keeping the caisson chamber filled with compressed air. Communication for the passage of workmen and materials is through an air lock. This is an ante-room, having air-tight doors both to the atmosphere and to the compressed air chamber. The caisson is sunk by digging out the soil un- derneath the caisson. In modern pneu- matic caissons the air chamber is a steel arched chamber at the bottom of the caisson tube, and the masonry or concrete is built in on top of this chamber as the caisson sinks. The air pressures used are CALAIS 305 CALCUTTA often so great as to endanger life. Frequent shifts of workmen are required. In the Brooklyn bridge caissons pressures of ten atmospheres were used. Formerly caissons were used only for foundations in water, but within recent years the foundations for many of the tall buildings in New York city have been laid by means of pneumatic caissons. Calais (kd'ld'), a seaport of France, is situated on the Strait of Dover. A ring of forts and regions of marshy ground on the south and east which can be easily flooded make the city a secure fortress. Calais has a good harbor and is connected with Dover by steamer and by a submarine telegraph. Calais has been important in history. In 1347 it was captured after a siege of eleven months by Edward III of England. Calais was held until the time of Queen Mary (1558), when it was taken back by the French. It had been called the brightest jewel in the English crown, and the boast had been written over one of its own gates, "Then shall Frenchmen Calais win, When iron and lead Hke cork shall swim." Population, 72,322. Calcium (k&l'si-um) is a white, or as usually prepared in the laboratory, yellow metal. The metal is of no practical im- portance, but its compounds are very common. Limestone, marble and chalk as well as coral, shells, etc. are compounds of calcium carbonate; quick lime is the oxide; gypsum and plaster of paris con- sist of the sulphate; and calcium carbide is a manufactured compound used for making acetylene. The earthy part of bones is largely made up of calcium phos- phate. It is chiefly calcium compounds that make water hard. Calculating Machine, a machine for adding and subtracting by mechanical CALCULATING MACHINE means. There are various forms of such machines, some of them being very com- plicated. One constructed by Mr. Babbage for the English government to be used in preparing logarithmical and trigonomet- rical tables is said to have cost $100,000. Practically all these machines are con- structed upon one principle. There are a number of dial faces on wheels alongside each other, each with the first ten figures on them. These wheels correspond to units, tens, hundreds, etc., and are so inter- locked that ten steps on the units dial move the tens dial one step and so on. By some mechanism any number that can be set up on the dials qan be added to itself any number of times, and recorded on the same or another set of dials. Multiplica- tion is taken as a successive addition and division as a successive subtraction. The best known of these machines are the Grant and the Thomas. They can be made to multiply or divide any number of figures by any other number, but with increased number of figures the machinery becomes more complicated. In a common form of Grant machine any number up to five figures can be multipled by any other num- ber up to five figures. Thirteen figures are the limit of a common form of the Thomas machine. Forms of calculating machines are now used in banking work as well as in engineering and statistical work. Calculus ( k&l'kil-lus ) means any method of making mathematical investigations by means of algebraic symbols. There are several sorts of calculus, but the term com- monly means the infinitesimal calculus, that is, the principles of mathematical reasoning by the use of symbols that rep- resent and express the infinitesimal in- creases (variations) of quantities. Arith- metic and algebra consider numbers to be finite and discontinuous, but calculus deals with them as capable of growth continuous and infinite. Hence calculus investigates quantities whose va 1 ues constantly change. Such quantities, for example, are the mo- tions of bodies, as of planets in their orbits, or the amounts of force in the performance of work, neither of which are identically the same at any two instants. Before calculus was invented modern science made but slight progress, but since Newton in 1665 and Leibniz, in 1675, both indepen- dently discovered it, science has progressed rapidly. (Leibniz published his discovery in 1684, Newton his in 1687, but Newton was the prior discoverer.) Differential calculus investigates the infinitesimal changes of quantities when the relations between the quantities are given. Integral calculus deduces relations between quantities from those between their infinitesimal varia- tions. The influence of the calculus on nearly all branches of mathematics has been extensive, rendering possible most important advances in astronomy, me- chanics and physics. Calcut'ta, the capital of the province of Bengal and the metropolis of British CALDERON 306 CALENDAR India, lies on the left bank of the Hdgli River, an arm of the Ganges, about 80 miles by the river from the Bay of Bengal. The East India Company founded Calcutta in 1686, and it had gained some importance as a town when, in 1736, Sura j ah Dowlah, the Nawab of Bengal, captured the city, and the horrible tragedy known as the Black Hole followed. One hun- dred and forty-six English prisoners were thrown into a cell, 18 feet square, on a hot night in June. There were only two small windows, and these were obstructed by a veranda. The crush of the unhappy suffer- ers was horrible; and after a night of ter- rible agony from pressure, heat, thirst and want of air there were in the morning only 23 survivors, the ghastliest forms ever seen on earth. Seven months later the English recaptured the city. It was the seat of the central government of India from 1772 to 1911, when it was transferred to Delhi. The population of the city in 191 1, with fort and suburbs, was 1,216,514. Besides these, thousands of the inhabitants of the surrounding districts flock during the day into Calcutta on foot, by boat or by railway to their daily toil. The city extends for about five miles along the river, with an area of nearly ten square miles; while other villages across the Hugli con- tain many of the government buildings. The city presents a striking appearance as it is approached by the nver. On the left are the botanical gardens and the Bishop's College, and in the rear the sub- urb of Howra. On the right are the gov- ernment dockyards and the arsenal, and beyond is the Maidan esplanade, which has been called the Hyde Park of India. Here, near the river, lies Fort William, the largest fortress in India, occupying with its outworks an area of two square miles. Among other fine buildings there is the government house, a magnificent palace, eyond this, along the river bank, is the Strand, two miles in length, adorned by buildings and lined with a splendid series of jetties for ocean steamers. Calcutta has many modern conveniences. There are four theaters, several large European hotels, half a dozen daily newspapers, street railroads, etc. Although the native quar- ter is far behind the European quarter, it is fast improving. There are several lines of railroad to various parts of India, and the city is the headquarters of the Indian telegraph department. Steamers and sail- ing vessels supply connection with foreign countries. Besides the University of Cal- cutta, there are a large number of colleges, schools and learned societies. Calcutta is the commercial center of Asia. Both its sea trade and its inland trade are enor- mous. Opium, raw cotton, jute, grain, hides, etc. are the principal articles of ex- port. Calderon (kal'der-on] de la Barca, Pedro, a celebrated Spanish dramatist and one of the, greatest dramatists of all nations, was born at Madrid in 1600, and was educated at the University of Salamanca. At fourteen he had written his third drama. He entered the army and served several campaigns in Italy and in Flanders, gain- ing a knowledge of men and things which he afterward made use of in his plays. He became a priest and royal chaplain, and died in 1681, still working at his literary labors. He wrote about 500 dramas. Among his greatest works are The Constant Prince, Love is No Joke, Life is a Dream and The Physician of His Own Honor. In later life he wrote many religious plays. His imagination was brilliant and his writ- ings abound in beautiful passages. He is called the Spanish nightingale. Caledonia. See SCOTLAND. Calendar, Correction of. The cal- endar is based on three natural movements: the rotation of the earth on its axis, giving the day; the revolution of the moon around the earth in about 29^ days, giving the month and the movement of the earth around the sun, which, in connection with the inclination of the earth's axis to the plane of revolution, gives the succession of the seasons in a period of about 36 5 J days. The month was the earliest standard, and the year was said to consist of 1 2 lunar months or 354 days. Of course this ar- rangement did not keep pace with tne actual changes of the seasons. Conse- quently the Jews and the ancient Greeks, who adopted this form of calendar, used to put in a month every now and then- the Jews seven times in every 19 years, the Greeks three times in every eight years The old Roman method, however, is of more interest to us, because it is from them we get the names of our months. At first they had ten months, beginning with March and ending with December, which means the tenth month. Finding this did not work well, they put in two more months, January and February. This made their year 355 dajrs long, or 10^ days short. Of course this also did not keep pace with the seasons, so they let the priests put in a month whenever they thought it advisable; and the priests played all sorts of tricks with the year to suit themselves. Then the great Julius Caesar called in a clebrated astronomer, Sosigenes of Alexandria, and between them they made what is called the Julian cal- endar. To do this they lengthened the year 46 B. C. to 445 days, and arranged that thereafter the year should be 365 days long, except every fourth year (which we call leap year), which is to have 366 days. The priests did not follow Caesar's directions, and so Augustus, his successor, had to straighten things out again in 8 CALGARY CALHOUN B. C. These two calendar reformers gave their names to the months of July and August. The names and lengths of the months have been the same ever since. There was still a small error, however, for the real year, the circle of the seasons, is ii minutes and a few seconds less than 365^ days. Consequently, by making every fourth year 366 days long the calendar in every four years runs more than 44 min- utes ahead of the seasons. By 1500 this error amounted to about 10 days. Then Pope Gregory XIII, on March i, 1582, decreed that 10 days should be taken out of that year, so that October 5 should count as October 15. Moreover, in order that the mistake might not occur again, he decreed that years ending with two ciphers should not count as leap years, unless the first two digits formed of themselves a number divisible by four. _ Thus 1900 is not a leap year, but 2000 is. This means that in every four hundred years three leap years will be dropped, that is, three days omitted. We are now dating every- thing according to this Gregorian calendar. But it was not until 1751 that England adopted the Gregorian reform; and by that time the error in the Julian calendar had increased to 12 days. Parliament then decreed that the day after September 2, 1752, should count as September 14, omit- ting ii days, greatly to the consternation of ignorant people. At the same time it was decreed that the year, which had be- fore commenced with March 25 should henceforth begin with January i. There have been no reforms since then in our calendar. Around 1752 it is not unusual to find two dates given, one according to the old or Julian style, and the other ac- cording to the new or Gregorian. The only countries that still adhere to the old style are those that belong to the Greek Church, such as Russia, Greece, Servia, Bulgaria, etc. At the time of the French Revolution the French invented a new calendar, but Napoleon I restored the Gregorian calendar to France. Calgary (kal'ga-ri), situated at the con- fluence of Bow and Elbow Rivers, is the largest and most important city in the Canadian middle west. It is only 70 miles east of the Rocky Mountains. Its situation seems to guarantee for it a con- tinuance of its phenomenal growth. Years ago the Canadian Pacific Railway authori- ties regarded it as a fixed commercial center. As a ranching center Alberta is unsur- passed in the whole world. For a con- siderable time southern Alberta was little else than an immense ranch. The west continued to grow, the railways extended farther and farther in all directions. Wheat- growing was tried with astonishing success and all was changed. A grain of wheat planted in the autumn and ripening in the summer brought about the change. Win- ter wheat has made Alberta famous. This fact is one of the guarantees of the growth and prosperity of Calgary, the population of which is^ now about 44,000. Another is the irrigation system which the Canadian Pacific Railway constructed on a scale .larger than anything heretofore attempted on this continent. In this case irrigation is another word for intensive agriculture and a growing population. Forty thousands of acres of grazing lands are proving through irrigation to be valuable winter-wheat lands. The Canadian Pacific gives good service to Calgary. The Canadian Northern is fast approaching it from two directions. A road to Hudson Bay is more than a mere possibility. The Grand Trunk Pacific will reach Calgary before the end of 1909. The Great Northern (Mr. Hill's road) is to come to Calgary, and will bring the southwest part of Alberta in touch with it. This road will bring cheaper coal. In a word, more railroads are projected into Calgary than to any point west of Winnipeg. Extensive coal-beds surround Calgary on all sides. The Canadian Northern Railway is using this coal, and it contributes to make Calgary a successful manufactur- ing center. West of Winnipeg, Calgary is the leading place for wholesale houses. Its custom receipts grew from $176,134,000 in 1904 to $604,358,000 in 1907. The freight receipts of the city (C. P. Ry.) in 1903 amounted to 94,000 tons and in 1907 to 291,000 tons. Its educational facili- ties are a credit to its spirit of foresight and enterprise. Its normal school (a handsome well-equipped structure) fur- nishes adequate professional training for the district surrounding it. It also has prosperous churches and a good hospital. It bids fair to be a considerable city in the near future. Calgary is the headquarters of the British Columbia Land and Irriga- tic>n Departments of the Canadian Pacific Railway. Calhoun (kal-hoon'), John Caldwell an American statesman, was born in Ab- beville County, South Carolina, in 1782. He graduated at Yale College with high honors, studied law and after serving in the state legislature was sent to Congress. He took an active part in urging the war with England in 1812 and many other measures. After six years in the house of representatives, he became secretary of war in the cabinet of President Monroe, and in 1824 was elected vice-president of the United States, and four years later was again elected to the same office. He be- came about this time an advocate of free- trade, and believed in the doctrine of state sovereignty or state rights. He was the author of the South Carolina Exposition* CALICO 30S CALIFORNIA which declared that any state can make null and void unconstitutional laws of con- gress. Calhoun resigned before the close of his term, and was elected to the United States senate. He was secretary of state for a short time under President Tyler, and negotiated the so-called Tyler treaty for the annexation of Texas. He returned to the senate, where he remained until his death at Washington, March 31, 1850. Calhoun was one of the foremost of American debaters. He, Webster and Clay were called The Great Trio. His debate with Webster in 1833 on the nature of federal government was one of the most noted for eloquence and ability in the annals of any country. Cal'ico, a white cotton cloth, received its name from Calicut, a seaport on the west coast of India, whence it was first imported to Europe. The word calico has come to be used to include colored cot- ton cloths, which are not sufficiently fine to be classed with muslins. Calico-print- ing or the art of printing colored patterns upon cloth is a process not limited to cotton cloths. It is applied also to woolen, wor- sted, silk and linen fabrics. This process was known in Egypt in the first century; and in India perhaps at an earlier date. Although calico-printing was not practiced in Europe until the iyth century, the chief center of the industry now is Lancaster, England. The older form of calico-print- ing was by means of wooden blocks pressed upon the cloth by hand. At present en- graved cylinders of copper are used, upon which the cloth is made by machinery to revolve rapidly. It is possible to print in several colors from the same cylinder and at the same time. The manufacture of cotton-goods is a rising industry in the south of the United States, where 1,000,000 bales of cotton are now annually woven into cloth. California. Excepting Texas, California is the largest state in the Union. It extends from the Oregon line on the north to the Mexican boundary on the south, a length of nearly a thousand miles; and from the waters of the Pacific Ocean on the west to the crest line of the Sierra Nevada Moun- tains on the east, a width of over two hundred miles. It is two and one half times as large as all New England, containing 158,- 360 square miles. The population of the entire state is now 2,983,843. The largest city is San Francisco, with a population of 416,912. Los Angeles is a close second, having now passed the 400,000 mark. Other chief cities in the order of size are Oakland, San Jose, Sacra- mento (the state capital), San Diego, Stock- ton and Fresno. Surface and Qlimate. The Coast Range Mountains are a series of parallel ridges run- ning north and south the entire length of the state and distant from the sea forty miles or less. The peaks rise to five thousand feet in altitude. The parallel ranges of the Coast Range and the Sierra Nevada extending lengthwise through the state divide it into long, narrow regions quite different in phys- ical character. The coast regions extend from the sea-board to the Coast Range; the interior is the trough-like depression between the Coast Range and the Sierra Nevada foot- hills, sometimes called the great valley of California; and the Sierran region embraces the mountain areas along the eastern border. It is a state of striking contrasts. It con- tains the highest land in the United States (excluding Alaska) in the summit of Mt. Whitney, 14,500 feet above sea-level; and also the lowest land, in the bottom of Death Valley, some 300 feet below the level of the sea. In the southeastern corner are the vast areas of the Colorado Desert, the hottest and driest region of our country, where there is practically no rainfall, and the thermom- eter rises to 130 in the shade; and in the opposite or northwestern corner are the dark and dripping forests of Del Norte County, where the rainfall is eighty inches per year. There are alpine climates in the Sierran counties; marine climates in the coast counties; humid climates in the northern counties; arid climates in the eastern coun- ties; semi-tropic climates in the southern counties. There are many thermal belts and local areas of special climatic conditions, as for instance, Boulder Creek in Santa Cruz County, where the rainfall is eighty or ninety inches, although surrounded by lands where it is only twenty inches or less; and Imperial County, below the level of the sea, where melons and apricots ripen in the open air in May, peaches and grapes in June; and the orchards of Butte County in the northern part of the state, where great orange groves produce abundantly in the latitude of Ohio and New York. Products and Industries. This variety in surface and climate makes a corresponding variety in the soils, the crops and the activi- ties and occupations of man. Thus, the north coast is devoted to lumbering. Three hundred million feet of lumber per year are made from the splendid redwood trees (Se- quoia Sempervirens) and shipped to the mar- kets of the world, particularly to the ports of the Pacific Ocean. The middle coast is devoted to dairying. The cool, even temperature and abundant moisture produce fine pasturage nearly all the year. Swiss, Italian and Portuguese set- tlers are found in large numbers, and butter and cheese are the staple products. The southern coast is a vast summer re- sort. The soft, luxurious climate, the sea- bathing, the picturesque scenery, the fruits and flower? form attractions that draw countless thousands of people from all parts of the United States and from foreign coun- CALIFORNIA CALIFORNIA tries as well. Santa Barbara, San Buena- ventura, Venice, Newport, Long Beach, Naples, Ocean Park, Huntington Beach, San Diego, Oceanside, Coronado and Santa Mo- nica are some of the best known towns. The interior of California on the north con- sists of the Sacramento Valley, an empire of agricultural land. It is abundantly watered by the streams flowing down from the neigh- boring mountains in to the Sacramento River. The soil is deep and rich and is adapted to all the agricultural and horticultural prod- ucts of the temperate zone. Sacramento ships each year 6,000 carloads of fruit to the eastern states, principally peaches, straw- berries, pears and grapes. Wheat, barley, potatoes and asparagus are produced in great quantities for the world's markets. The central interior consists of the San Joaquin Valley, which is cu^ off from the southern part of the state by the Tehachapi Mountains, a transverse range connecting the Sierras and Coast Range. This valley rivals the Sacramento in its great extent and its fertility, but, lying further south, it is not so abundantly watered. Wheat and raisins are its staple crops. Fresno ships 5,000 car- loads of raisins per year. The oil fields of Kern County are assuming great importance. There is a Standard-Oil pipe-line leading two hundred miles northerly to San Francisco. The southern interior is largely devoted to growing citrus fruits, Riverside, Red- lands, Ontario, Pomona, Azusa and High- lands are some of the centers for the orange and lemon groves. Riverside alone ships 6,000 carloads of oranges per year. This region depends upon irrigation for its pros- perity. It virtually is a reclaimed desert. All the fruits and flowers of the temperate and semitropic regions thrive. In one or- chard may be grown oranges, lemons, citrons, pomelos, apples, peaches, pears, apricots, nectarines, plums, prunes, pomegranates, guavas, quinces, figs, olives, grapes of more than a hundred kinds, blackberries, rasp- berries, strawberries, loganberries, walnuts, chestnuts and almonds. The wealth of orna- mental trees and flowering plants is too great to catalogue. A number of ostrich farms raise plumes for the market. Hundreds of apiaries produce honey in hundreds of tons. The chief products, with the approximate annual output, are as follows: fruit products, 90 thousand carloads; lumber, 600 million feet; wool, 25 million pounds; wheat, 17 million bushels; petroleum, 33 million barrels. Of vinuous liquors the State of California alone Produces 68.1% of the total for the United tates, and California champagne took the Grand Prize in Paris in 1912. The Sierran region yields the gold that makes California the golden state. It in- cludes great lumbering interests in pine, cedar and giant-redwood forests. It affords pasturage for innumerable flocks and herds. Its streams and waterfalls are the source of power sufficient to gridiron the entire state with electric railways and to turn the wheels and light the lamps of a thousand industries. The central part of this great mountain mass is known as the High Sierras, and affords the playground for the continent. Nineteen peaks are above 10,000 feet in height. There are many hundreds of lovely lakes, of which Tahoe is the largest. There are scores of magnificent waterfalls, such as those of the Yosemite Valley. There are stupendous chasms bordered by minarets and towers, as King's River, Hetch-Hetchy and Kern River Canyons. There are rich mountain meadows and clear, cold trout-streams and snow-covered mountain tops above the timber line. The botanist, the fisherman, the hunter, the lover of out door nature may wander for months in this wide wonderland among the clouds, traveling all the time and never seeing the same thing twice. The exquisite golden trout of Volcano Creek is here. The big-tree groves of Sequoia Gigantca are here, with single trees 325 feet high, 120 feet in circum- ference. There are canyons with perpendic- ular walls 4,000 feet deep. The whole region should be set apart as the great pleasure-ground of America, to be held and cared for by the nation through all generations. Minerals. There is a very wide range in mineral products. Gold has already been spoken of. Silver and lead are produced in the south. Shasta County has great copper smelters. Mercury is produced by Santa Clara and Lake Counties. The gem-mines of San Diego County are becoming famous for their tourmalines, beryls, kunzites and gar- nets. Opals, jade, turquoise, diamonds and chrysoprase are found in merchantable quan- tities within the state. There are great slate- quarries and asbestos mines in El Dorado County. Iron is being smelted in an electric furnace in Shasta County. Lithia rock is mined in San Diego County, and lignite coal in Contra Costa County. The borax, soda and salt deposits of the southern deserts are important exports. Manganese, molybde- num, onyx, gypsum, serpentine, talc, graph- ite, marble, magnesite, fluor spar, heavy spar, lime, cement, potters' clay, glass sand, infusorial earth, mica, asphaltum, tin and antimony also are found in different parts of the state. The total value of mineral products was over 86 million dollars in 1910. The petroleum output was largest, amount- ing to over 35 millions. Gold stands next in importance, and Portland cement third. Transportation. In commerce, California is the gate to the Orient. The spacious and noble harbor of San Francisco floats the ships of the world. Second in excellence is the harbor of San Diego in the south. Hum- boldt Bay, San Pedro Bay and Tomales Bay afford good harbors. The Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers are navigable into the CALIFORNIA, GULF OF 310 CALIGULA heart of the agricultural interior, making cheap freight rates for farm-products. Five transcontinental railroads come into the state from the east. There are 6,000 miles of steam railroads within the state. Sub- urban electric lines for passengers and freight reach for trade in every direction, stimulated by the abundant power of the mountain waterfalls. The completion of the Panama Canal has added greatly to California's commercial ad- vantage, extending her markets and lowering the freight rates to the eastern states and all Atlantic ports. Manufactures. The manufacturing estab- lishments are mostly found in San Francisco and around the shores of San Francisco Bay. They include sugar refineries, oil refineries, flour mills, powder mills, reduction works, tanneries, machine shops, chemical works. There are extensive canneries for fruit and vegetables in all parts of the state. There are nine large beet-sugar factories, producing more than 40 thousand tons of sugar per year. The value of manufactured products is over five hundred million dollars per year. Education. The educational system stands very high. It undertakes to provide as good a teacher and as well equipped a school for the small remote rural communities as for the larger centers of population. Every dis- trict must maintain a free school for at least six months every year. Sixty dollars per month are a minimum salary for the rural teacher. Thirty dollars per year per pupil are raised for the schools by public taxation on the state and the county. The rural school houses and grounds throughout the state are remarkably handsome and well improved. Few of them cost less than $2,000 each. The county is the unit in school administration, presided over by a county superintendent of schools and a county board of education. Over the whole state there are a superintendent of public instruction and a state board of education. By way of higher education there are eight state normal schools, over two hundred high schools, one polytechnic school, a state university with 3,000 students, the famous Leland Stanford Jr. University, with an en- dowment of thirty million dollars, and a large number of sectanan and private institutions. There are two state reform-schools and about forty orphan schools. History. The coast was visited by Sir Francis Drake in 1579. The first settlement was made at San Diego in 1769 by Spanish priests coming from Mexico. A chain of twenty-one missions for christianizing the Indians was built along the coast by the Franciscan fathers during the next fifty years, among them San Luis Rey, San Juan Capistrano, San Gabriel, San Buenaventura, Santa Barbara, Santa Ynez, San Luis Obispo and Monterey, reaching from San Diego in the south to Sonoma in the north. These mis- sions became rich in flocks and herds and choicest lands. The social life and the polit- ical history of California revolved around them. The Mexican government secularized the missions in 1834, and during the next few years the Mexican governors of Cali- fornia granted their rich lands to Spanish and Mexican families. These grants form the basis of the land-system to the present day. California came into the possession of the United States in 1848, at the close of the Mexican War, by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Gold was discovered at Coloma in the Sacramento Valley the same year. This at once brought a rush of population that was the wonder of the world. In 1850 the state was admitted full fledged to the Union. Since that time its history has been merged in that of the United States. Califor'nia, Gulf of, a gulf of the Pacific Ocean between the peninsula of Lower California and Mexico. It is about 700 miles long and from 40 to 100 miles wide. The Colorado River and several other streams empty into it from the east. Many small bays indent its coasts, while several islands stud its surface. On its shores are the ports of Loreto, La Paz and Guay- mas. The northern harbor is full of shoals, hidden rocks and dangerous currents, but the southern part is safer. The west coast abounds in pearl oysters, but the fishing is now little pursued, though formerly it was important. Califor'nia, Lower or Old, is a peninsula and territory of Mexico, and is separated from the remainder of Mexico by the Gulf of California. Its area is 58,328 square miles, a little more than a third of the state of California. Its capital is La Paz. The surface of the country is mostly moun- tainous, the climate is dry, and little farm- ing is done except in some of the valleys. Whale-fishing on the west coast and pearl fishing on the gulf are carried on to some extent; but mining enterprises have met with little success. Salt and orchil, a violet dye, are also obtained. The vintage of parts of the country is highly esteemed. Lower California was probably discovered by Corte"s in 1536. In 1866 part of it was granted to the Lower California Com- pany with considerable privileges. Cortes named it California, *. e., Hot Furnace, on account of its heat. Population, 52,244. Caligula (kd-Kg'u-ld), Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, Roman emperor from 37 to 41 A. D., was born 12 A. D.. the son of the popular Germanicus. In the camp he was nicknamed Caligula or Little Boot, from the soldier's boots which he wore. On the death of Tiberius he was appointed heir, together with the grandson of the emperor; but the senate made him sole emperor. At first he was lavishly generous and merciful, though at the same CALORIC CALYPSO time very sensuous, but he soon became mad, and his cruelty knew no bounds. He banished or murdered his relatives and many of his subjects, victims were tortured and slain in his presence while dining, and he uttered the wish that all the Roman people had but one neck, that he might strike it off at one blow. He built a bridge across the Bay of Baize, and planted trees and built houses upon it, that he might say he had crossed the sea on dry land. In the middle of the bridge he gave a ban- quet, and at the close had a great number of the guests thrown into the sea. He made his favorite horse a priest and then consul, and also declared himself a god, and had temples built in his honor. At length his subjects could stand him no longer. A conspiracy was formed against him, and he was assassinated. Calor'ic, a hypothetical fluid formerly employed to explain the phenomena ob- served in the study of heat. When the temperature of a body was raised, it was supposed that caloric was added to the body; when the temperature fell, it was explained by saying that caloric had been taken from the body. Caloric was sup- posed to be indestructible, uncreatable and imponderable. In having no weight, it differed from ordinary matter. When heat was added to a body such as melting ice or boiling water without changing its temperature, the fact was explained by saying that the caloric became latent and inactive, so that it could not be detected by a thermometer. Cal'vary, the Latin translation of the Hebrew name Golgotha, a skull. It is situated north of Jerusalem and outside the walls. The place took this name either from being mound-shaped like a skull or from its being the place of public execu- tions It was the scene of the crucifixion of Christ, and his body was placed in a tomb in a garden near by. In Catholic countries the term Calvary is given to a mound or hill crowned with one and some- times with three crosses, bearing life-like figures of Christ and the two thieves, and occasionally surrounded by figures repre- senting those who took part in the cruci- fixion. Calve (kdl'vd'), Emma de Roquer, a soprano opera-singer, of Franco-Spanish origin, who has achieved great fame on the stage, was born in France in 1866. In 1882 she made her debut at Brussels in Gounod's Faust, and since then her career has been one long triumph. Her chief suc- cesses have been in the r61es of Santuzza, in Cavalleria Rusticana, in L' Amico Fritz and in Carmen. She has made successful tours through most of the capitals of Europe, as well as through the chief cities of the United States. Calvert, Cecil. See BALTIMORE, LORD. Cal'vin, John, one of the most noted reformers of the i6th century, was born at Noyon, in Picardy, July 10, 1509. He was well-educated, directing his attention first to the study of law. While a law student at the University of Orleans, he first became acquainted with the Scriptures through a relative, Pierre Robert Olivetan, who was making a translation of them. He began preaching the reformed doctrines at Bourges. In 1533 he went to Paris, where the new doctrines were popular under the influence of the queen of Navarre, sister of Francis I. The king, however, soon took active measures against the new religion, and Calvin, with others, fled for their lives. He went to Basel, where he is thought to have prepared his Institutes of the Christian Religion and to have written the celebrated preface addressed to Francis I. He visited his native town, sold the home, and with a younger brother and sister set out for Strassburg. The direct road was dangerous, because of the armies of Charles V, and Calvin took a route that led him through Geneva. Here he met Farel, who was struggling to pro- mote the Reformation in that city, and induced him to give up the journey to Strassburg and join with him in the Refor- mation. At first Farel and Calvin were successful in their work at Geneva. A Protestant confession of faith was drawn up and approved by the Council of Two Hundred, the largest governing board of the city, and made binding upon all the citizens. But the party opposed to their rule triumphed, and expelled Calvin, who then proceeded to Strassburg. Here he busied himself with his studies on the New Testament. He was, however, recalled to Geneva by the people, and after a 15 years' struggle his rule was firmly estab- lished. The condemnation of Servetus and his death by fire belong to this period of Calvin's life. His share in the tragedy is uncertain. It is certain that he forwarded to the authorities private documents which Servetus had intrusted to him, and also certain that he used his influence to have the mode of death changed. Calvin died at Geneva, May 27, 1564. Besides his well-known Institutes of the Christian Reli- gion, he wrote commentaries on nearly all of the Old Testament and on most of the New Testament, except Revelation, so that he ranks as one of the greatest commen- tators. Calypso (kd-Kp'sd), in Greek legend, a daughter of Atlas, who dwelt in the solitary wooded isle of Ogygia far apart from gods and men. Odysseus (Ulysses) being thrown upon her island by shipwreck, she treated him kindly and promised to make him immortal if he would marry her. Though fascinated, he refused to desert his wife and his native island. She detained him, CALYPTRA 3X3 CAMBRIDGE FORMS OF CALYX however, seven years, and on his departure died of grief. Calyp'tra (in plants), a loose hood which rests upon the apex of the spore- case of mosses. See Musci. Ca'lyx (in plants), the outer set of floral leaves, each leaf being called a sepal. See FLOWER. Camb'ium (in plants), the layer of living cells between .the wood and bark, 'which has the power of making additions to both. Such cells have the power of dividing and thus forming new cells, on the inside adding new wood cells, thus adding each year to the rings of wood, and on the outside new bark cells. Cells with this power of division are generally knows as meristematic cells, and cambium is merely a meristem which occurs between wood and bark. These delicate cells are exposed when bark is peeled from a tree, forming the glairy, mucilaginous substance which makes the line of easy cleavage. Cambo'dia, a state in Indo-China under French control, on the lower course of the Mekong River south of Siam. It is 220 miles long and 150 miles broad, with an area of 37,400 square miles, not including the region ceded to France in 1907 by Siam. Along the coast are several islands, one bay and but one port, Kampot. Its external trade is carried on mostly through Saigon in Cochin China. The mountains in the north and west contain iron, lime- stone, sandstone and some copper. The greater part of the country consists of plains of rich loam, which yield abundantly with almost no cultivation. The main river, the Mekong, flows through the coun- try in a generally southwesterly direction. Great Lake has an area of 100 miles by 25. and its greatest depth is 65 feet. Rice, cotton, indigo, betel, tobacco, maize, cin- namon, pepper, sugar-cane, etc. are raised; and among the animals are the elephant, tiger, panther and rhinoceros. Crocodiles are found in most of the rivers. The people are tall and robust, copper-colored, with long skull, flat nose and eyes slightly oblique. They are, however, indolent and passive from long oppression and because of the little work required for subsistence. Fishing in Great Lake is the main industry. Lines of steamers ply on the Mekong. Pnom-Penh, the capital, has a population of 50,000. Here is a large school, with two French professors and a native teacher. The religion is developed from Buddhism, the worship of ancestors forming an im- portant part. The language is much like those of Siam and Anam. The ancient kingdom of Cambodia or Khmer extended over a large part of Indo-China. In the 1 7th century it was dismembered, and Anam and, later, Siam acquired large por- tions of it. The Portuguese in the i6th century were the first Europeans to enter the country, and were followed by the Spaniards and the Dutch. In 1858 France first appeared in Indo-China, and in 1863 made a treaty with Norodom, king of Cambodia, by which Cambodia was placed under a French protectorate. Cambodia has now placed over it a resident-general under the governor-general of Indo-China. The most remarkable thing in Cambodia is the splendid ruins of the architecture of the Khmer kingdom. The temples, palaces and monuments scattered everywhere are wonderful for their size and artistic gran- deur. In a single temple there are 1,532 columns. Among the ruins are also mas- sive stone bridges, one measuring 470 feet in length, with 34 arches. The present in- habitants look upon these structures of their ancestors as the work of angels or giants. Population about 1,500,000 See COCHIN CHINA Cambon (kdn'b6n r ), Jules Martin, French diplomat, and plenipotentiary to Washington in the interest of peace with Spain at the close of the Spanish-American war, was born in Paris in 1845. He served with distinction in the French army during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, and later served his government as confidential adviser in Algeria, where he became (1891- 97) governor-general. In August, 1898, he signed at Washington the peace protocol on behalf of Spain, and was rewarded by being made a commander of the Legion of Honor. His elder brother, Pierre Paul Cambon, is French ambassador in London. Cam'bridge, a suburb of Boston, with which it is connected by a subway under the Charles River. Harvard University, for which the city is largely noted, is in Cambridge, and its fine buildings and its campus filled with beauti- ful old elm trees are among the most interesting sights in the city. Cambridge is also the seat of Radcliffe College and Massachusetts In- stitute of Technology. It has many points of historic interest such as the old elm tree under which Washington took command of the American army; the house in which the poet Longfellow lived and which once was Wash- ington's headquarters; the home of James Russell Lowell; the church in which Lord Cornwallis is said*to have stabled his hoises; and Mount Auburn Cemetery, one of the most beautiful burial-places in America. Cambridge is now known as one of the principal industrial cities of New England. The leading indus- tries are baking, the manufacture of auto- mobiles, automobile accessories and other machine parts, printing, publishing and book- binding, confectionery, musical instruments, CAMBRIDGE 313 CAMEL furniture and pianos. The first book published in the United States was published in Cam- bridge. The public schools are among the best in the country, and the city has an excel- lent free public libra-y well-stocked with books. Cambridge was settled in 1630 by Governor Winthrop and other prominent men. The first ministers of the place, as well as most of the educated men, were graduates of Cam- bridge University, England. The American army was encamped here during the Revolu- tion, while the British had possession of Boston. The tax for wooden palisades around Cambridge in 1632 led Watertown Township to make the first protest in America against taxation without representation. Population, in ,000. Cam'bridge, Ohio, a city and county-seat of Guernsey County, 55 miles north of Mar- ietta. In the surrounding region are coal, pottery-clay and natural gas. Cambridge manufactures glass and pottery, iron and steel products. The city is served by two railroads and suburban electric line, was settled in 1 804, and incorporated in 1887. Population, 15,000. Cam'bridge, Ada. SeeCnoss, MRS. GEORGE FREDERICK. Cam'bridge, University o>, an English seat of learning in the city of Cambridge, on the river Cam, 58 miles north of Lon- don. Tradition places the beginnings of the university as far back as the ?th cen- tury; but its definite history begins in the 1 2th century. Like Oxford, it differs in many ways from the universities of the European continent and of the United States, but especially in what is called its college - system. It is at present made up of 1 8 colleges, each of which has its special students, teachers and governing body, but is at the same time subject to the general laws of the university. The governing body of the university is the senate, which is made up of graduates who possess the degree of Master of Arts, which is had without examination about four years after graduation. The relation between the colleges and the university is much like that between the individual states of this country and the Union as a whole. The course in any college covers three years, during which the students are called freshmen, junior sophomores and senior sophomores. The students are also divided into four classes, each class Eaying a different tuition; noblemen, ;llow commoners, who receive their name from the privilege of dining or " having their commons" at the table of the fellows of the university; the pensioners; and the sizars. The sizars formerly had to do all sorts of menial tasks; but this practice has ceased. While there is a rivalry be- tween the different colleges, all unite and act as a university, and are known not as members of the different colleges, but as "Cambridge men." There are now about 126 of a teaching staff, including readers, assistants, etc., and the students number a little over 3,200. There are over 400 fellowships, the fellows being elected from those who have distinguished themselves in examinations. The university sends two members to Parliament, who are elected by the senate. Women are admitted to the examinations for honor students, and reside mostly in Newnham and Girton Colleges. There are a number of fine buildings, the chief being the senate house, the university library with over 400,000 volumes, the Pitt press, the observatory, besides the gardens and the museums. The old Gothic chapel in King's College is of remarkable beauty. Among the emi- nent men who have studied at Cambridge are Chaucer, Bacon, Spenser, Ben Jonson, Milton, Dryden, Newton, Pitt and Byron. Cambyses (kdm-bl'sez) , king of the Medes and Persians, the son of Cyrus the Great, who became king in 529 B. C. He added Egypt to the Persian territory, but an army which he sent to take possession of the temple of Jupiter Ammon perished in the desert, and another army which he led against the Ethiopians was depleted by hunger and disease. These disasters seem to have made him a madman. He killed his brother Smerdis and one of his sisters, and treated the Egyptians with great cruelty. But a revolution arose, and one of the Magians assumed the character . of the murdered Smerdis and seized the Persian throne. Cambyses marched against him from Egypt, but died on the way, in Syria, from an accidental wound in the thigh, in 522 B. C. Cam'den, county-seat of Camden County, New Jersey, lies on the Delaware River opposite Philadelphia, with which it is connected by several steam ferries. It is the terminus of a number of railroads, has extensive shipyards and immense market gardens. It also has foundries, cotton and woolen mills and manufactures of machinery, iron works, paints, oil-cloths, boots, shoes, etc. There are many public- school buildings, a private and a public high school, hospitals, churches, etc. Cam- den has three national banks and all the adjuncts of a modern city. The rapid growth of the city in recent years is shown by the increase of population from 58,813 in 1890 to 75,935 in 1900. Population, now. 94,538. Camel, a cud-chewing animal of the Old World, especially adapted by nature to travel waste deserts with scarcity of food and water. They therefore are of great use to man, both as baggage carriers and for riding. There are two kinds, th dromedary or single-humped camel of Arabia, Syria and Africa, and the Bactrian camel with two humps native of Asia. CAMELOT 314 CAMEO The feet are provided with a spongy pad, that makes them well fitted to travel over the soft, yielding sand and also especially sure-footed in other localities. The hump is a special provision of nature for prolonged periods of fasting. It is only during a part of the year that the camel has abun- dant moist food; this is taken in greater quantities than is needed for immediate i and 2 Arabian Camels and Camel drivers. 3 Bactrian or two-humped Camel. uses, and the rest is stored in the hump in the form of fat as reserve food. This is drawn on when food is scarce. The camel will pick up a living where other animals would starve, even dry twigs being chewed and turned to account as food. The walls of the stomach are provided with small pock- ets, in which water is stored, and they can travel several days in the hot, dusty desert without drinking. Camels are further adapted to desert travel by their nostrils, which can be tightly closed against sand storms. The average value of. a baggage camel among Sudanese Arabs is about $15, but a good riding dromedary is worth from $50 to $150. The motion of the ordinary camel is said to be very trying, but that of the best riding kinds is easy and soothing. The latter are also swifter. They go, ordinarily, 50 miles a day for five days and tail, but absent on the breast and knees, where the skin is naked and provided with pads. The Bactrian camel is easily distinguished from the dromedary by its two humps. It is domesticated and also known in a wild state or, at least, wander- ing at liberty. It is of larger size than the dromedary, and is found in Siberia, Tibet and China. A few years before the Civil ^^ War, some camels were imported by the government of the United States for use on the great American plains. They were neglected and allowed to run free. Some r e m- nants of this im- portation are now found in parts of Texas, Arizona and New Mexico. The alpaca and llama of South America be- long to the same family as the cam- els, but differ from their Old World rel- atives. more ground. The baggage camels are slower. In Africa they are expected to carry five or six hundred pounds' burden, and march 25 miles a day. It is expected that they shall be watered after four days' travel. They are not docile and patient, as those who do not know them are disposed to believe, but perverse and stupid. They will eat poison herbs and bushes, if not closely watched, and, although they kneel to be loaded, they complain and groan as the burden is laid on. The Arabian dromedary is ten or eleven feet long and seven or eight feet high at the shoulders. It has fine, reddish-brown hair, abundant around the neck, throat, Cam'elot. Tennyson in Idylls of the King speaks thus of Camelot: The dim rich city, roof by roof, Tower after tower, spire beyond spire, By grove and garden lawn and rushing brook Climbs to the mighty hall that Merlin built . . . And over all one statue in the mold Of Arthur, made by Merlin, with a crown. Camelot is the name that the minstrels and historians of the middle ages gave to a city that was situated in Mommouthshire, Wales, on the River Usk, where there are still the ruins of a great amphitheater and of baths, pavements, etc. Geoffrey of Monmouth (about 1150) supposed that this was the place where Arthur had held his court, for the people still call the am- phitheater King Arthur's Round Table. Tennyson preserves the tradition. But, as a matter of fact, it is not likely that Arthur had much, if anything, to do with this city. It is called Caerleon, which means castle of the legion, and was so-called because the Romans, finding there a small British town, made it an army post for the Second Augustan Legion. It was a considerable town in Roman days, and after the Romans had gone it was the seat of a bishopric and abbey. It is now a village with about 1,000 inhabitants. Cam'eo, an engraved gem in which the figure or subject is carved in relief. It i distinguished from an intaglio, in which the engraved subject is sunk or hollowed out like a seal. Probably dating back to the Egyptians, the art of cameo-cutting w a Q w i Q W >3 O p5 Q b o o Qmvl mi CAMERA 315 CAMPANIA was brought to a high state of perfection among the Greeks. The stones used by the ancient engraver were agates, with various strata, and are known as onyx stones, the different kinds of strata giving rise to special names. Alternate layers of black and white make the simple onyx; white and ruddy brown make sardonyx; and white and gray make chalcedony, etc. Frequently there are three different colored layers, or the ground may be obtained in one color, the figure in a second and wreaths or other ornaments in the third. Cameos have been used not only for orna- ments, but for adorning cups, vases, etc., and cups were often worked out of a single stone, around which was engraved a series of figures. A vast number of ancient cameos have been preserved. One of the most celebrated is the Gonzaga cameo, a sardonyx of three strata, now in the im- perial cabinet of St. Petersburg. It repre- sents Nero and Agrippina One of the largest and most famous cameos is in the National Library at Paris, which repre- sents Augustus and the princes of the house of Tiberius as they are being num- bered among the gods. It contains 20 figures. Italian cameo-cutters introduced shell-cameos. Imitation cameos are made in glass of different colors, and are called pastes. Cam 'era is an Italian word meaning room, and is etymologically the same as the English word chamber. It has come to mean, however, only a portable dark box used by photographers. The front of this box is provided with a flange, into which is screwed a lens. The rear of the camera is made to receive either a ground-glass plate or a sensitive photo- graphic plate, upon which the lens pro- jects the picture which is to be photo- graphed. In a typical camera the remain- ing four walls are made of folded leather and are called the bellows. This enables the operator to vary the distance between the lens in front and the plate in the rear. In recent times this typical camera has undergone many modifications. Some are made to fold up, some are made without bellows, some are made so small as to be carried in the pocket, while the spectro- scopist at times uses cameras made entirely of metal, and at other times he converts an entire room of his laboratory into a camera. Cam'eron, Simon, an American senator, was born in Pennsylvania, March 8, 1799. He was elected to the United States senate in 1845, an d acted with the Democratic party. After the repeal of the Missouri Compromise he allied himself with the Re- publican party, and was again elected to the senate. His name was proposed for president in the Republican convention of 1860, and under President Lincoln he became secretary of war. After two years be resigned and was appointed minister to Russia. Again elected to the senate he became chairman of the committee on foreign relations. In 1877 he resigned, and was succeeded by his son, J. Donald Cameron. He died June 26, 1889. Cameroon'. See KAMERUN, Camoens (kam'o-ens), Luiz de, the greatest poet of Portugal, was born at Lisbon in 1524. His chief poem, the Lusiads, named from the fabled hero Lusus, who, in company with Ulysses, is said to have visited Portugal, is the national epic of the Portuguese. Camoens died in poverty in a public hospital in 1580. Camp Fire Girls, an organization among girls, somewhat similar to the Scout move- ment among boys. Corresponding to "Scout Masters" are "Guardians of the Fire." To secure admission or advancement a girl must, among other things, learn to prepare and serve meals, mend garments, keep accounts, average 'at least half an hour daily outdoor exercise, name the chief causes of infant mortality in summer and how to deal with them, know what a girl of her age needs to know about herself, understand the principles of elementary bandaging and what to do in the following emergencies: Clothing on fire, person in deep water who cannot swim, one who has fainted, and how to deal with an open cut or a frosted foot. Girls from twelve to twenty are eligible for membership. There are organizations in every state and territory. The headquarters of the organization is in New York City, and Dr. L. H. Gulick, formerly director of physical training of the New York public schools. Campagna di Roma (cdm-p&n'ya). See ROME. Campania (kdm-pdn'$a) (Latin Campus^ a plain), a volcanic but otherwise attrac- tive district in Italy lying inland from the Tyrrhenian Sea, in the region of Naples, and covering an area of 6,289 square miles, with a population, by latest census (1911), 3,347,925. It was a province of ancient Italy, and today it embraces the districts of Caserto, Benevento, Napoli, Avellino and Salerno, extending from the region of the Volurno River on the north to the Gulf of Policastro on the south. The province, originally settled by people of Oscan race, was subsequently under Greek and Etruscan dominion, until it was over- run, in 340 B. C., by the Romans who called it Campania Felix (Happy Cam- pania), in allusion to its great fertility and delightful climate and scenery, in spite of its ill-omened volcanic character and its stretches ot sulphur fields. Mount Vesuvius, overlooking the beautiful Bay of Naples, is its most striking physica' feature; while anciently it embraced Her- culaneum and the gloomy Lake Avernus, the entrance, as th Romans averred,,- to CAMPBELL 316 CANADA the infernal regions The province was in the classic period traversed by the Appian Way. The chief towns of the district are Naples, Salerno, Capua, Avellino, Benevento and Caserta. After Sulla's day the coast towns of Campania were much frequented by the literati and wealthy sybarites of ancient Rome. See CAMPAGNA DI ROMA (plain of Rome), under ROME. Campbell (kam'bel), Alexander, an American theologian, was born at Shane's Castle, Ireland, in June, 1788. After attending Glasgow University, he came to the United States and served as pastor of a Presbyterian church in Washington County, Pa. Later he became a Baptist, and as early as 1810 he adopted the Bible as the sole recognized creed of his church. But it was not till 1827 that he founded the Disciples of Christ, a church that grew rapidly and now has a large member- ship in America and foreign countries. His followers are also known as Christians, Church of Christ and Campbellites. In 1841 Mr. Campbell founded and became the first president of Bethany College, at Bethany, W. Va., which has 280 students. Besides his work as pastor and teacher, he founded and edited the denominational organ of his church. He died March 4, 1866. Campbell=Bannerman, Right Hon. Sir Henry, G.C.B., M.P , head of the Liberal ministry in the British Parliament, was born in Scotland in 1836, and educated at Glasgow and Cambridge. He entered Par- liament in 1868, and served for a time as financial secretary at the war office, and in Mr. Gladstone's administration was chiel secretary for Ireland and secretary of state for war. In 1894-95 he filled the latter post, also, under Lord Rosebery; and in February, 1898, on the retirement of Sir Wm. Vernon Harcourt as leader of the Liberal party in the house of commons, Sir Henry was chosen to succeed him. Jn Dec. 1905, he became Liberal Prime Minister. His death occurred April 22,1908. Campbell, Thomas (born 1777, died 1844), a noted British poet, was born at Glasgow, and, as a student at the university there, was distinguished for his knowl- edge of Greek literature. His early poem, The Pleasures of Hope, gave him a name as a poet. He traveled on the continent, where he witnessed the battle of Hohen- linden, which forms the subject of one of his finest lyrics. He wrote, besides poems, articles for the magazines and papers and for the Edinburgh Encyclopaedia, and also published a magazine. He was at one time lord rector of the University of Glas- gow. He died at Boulogne, France, and was buried in Westminster Abbey, a Polish nobleman scattering dust on his coffin *rom the grave of Kosciusko. Gertrude of Wyoming and the short poem. The Last Man, are well known; but it is for his war lyrics that Campbell will be most remem- bered, such as Hohenlinden, Ye Mariners of England and The Battle of the Baltic. Canada. Canada comprises the northern half of North America. Its southern bound- ary is the United States, on the east is the Atlantic, on the west the Pacific and on the north the Arctic Ocean. Its area is three and a half millions of square miles, about the same as that of the United States and nearly equal to that of Europe. The popu- lation is over eight millions or nearly one- quarter less than that of Belgium. From Halifax on the Atlantic to Vancouver on the Pacific is 3,740 miles by rail. From Victoria on the Pacific to Dawson on the Yukon River is 1,550 miles by ocean and river steamer and rail. From Fort William at the head of Canadian navigation on Lake Superior, by the water way of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River, to the tidal seaport of Quebec is 1,400 miles, and from Quebec city to the extreme Atlantic coast, at the Straits of Belle Isle, is 850 miles. Its most southerly portion is in the latitude of northern Spain and Italy, and the most northerly portion is in the latitude of northern Norway. Older and Newer Canada. The eastern and older part of Canada occupies chiefly a vast peninsula lying between the water- system of the St. Lawrence on the south and the Hudson Bay on the north. This peninsula is of very irregular shape, and is 2,200 miles in length from east to west, with a breadth of from 300 to 1,200 miles. The western or newer, and much the larger, portion of Canada is compact in form. It extends from the western end of the Great Lakes and the west shore of Hudson Bay to the Pacific Ocean, a distance of 1,500 miles, and from the United States boundary (the 49th parallel of latitude) to the Arctic Ocean, a distance of 1,600 miles. The provinces and territories of Canada may be grouped as maritime, eastern, cen- tral, western and northern. Maritime: British Columbia, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island. The easterly portion of the province of Quebec on the shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence may be included as a part of maritime Canada. The eastern provinces are Ontario and Quebec, which lie along the St. Lawrence River and its Great Lakes, and extend along Hudson Bay as shown on accom- panying map. The central provinces are Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta, which occupy the prairie area lying between the wooded region of eastern Canada and the Rocky Mountains. The western or Pacific province is British Columbia, which lies be- tween the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Coast. Northern Canada is the territory lying between the northern limits of the eastern, central and western provinces, already mentioned, and the Arctic Ocean. Mi be * DOMINION OF CANADA \,H AND c6 NEWFOUNDLAND SCALE Statute Miles, ifSOM Inch. The Rjuid-McXully St Co.'s New 11 X 14 Hap o .Dominion f.f Cnnnttn nml NVT,)unJland. Copyright l,y R.,d-li.-Nll>- 4 Co. CANADA 3X7 CANADA West of the Rocky Mountains is Yukon Territory. In the redivision of Canadian territory (1912), Franklin, Mackenzie, and a portion of Keewatin were added to Northwest Territories, Ungava to Quebec and a portion of Keewatin to Ontario and Manitoba. Climate. The vast extent of Canada neces- sarily involves a wide range of climatic con- ditions. Except on and near the ocean coasts, the general characteristic of the climate of Canada as compared with that of Europe is that the summer is shorter, warmer, and has less moisture, and the winter longer and somewhat colder than in corresponding European latitudes. It is bracing and healthy, and in all respects suited to the fullest development of the races of the British Isles and northwestern Europe generally. On the Pacific coast, owing to the Japan- ese current, the climate is identical in temperature with that of the British Isles, which lie in the same latitude. The influ- ence of this warm current on the Pacific coast extends eastward across the western and into the central provinces, so that the winter climate of the western part of the central provinces is considerably milder than that of the eastern part. On the Atlantic coast, and inland, the climate is colder than in corresponding latitudes of Europe, because of the Arctic current which flows southward along the coast. Surface. The important physical features of Canada are its mountains, lakes, rivers, forests and prairies and the great inland sea of Hudson Bay. The Rocky Mountains extend from the United States boundary northward to the Arctic Ocean. They bound the central plains on the west, and are the highest of the several parallel mountain ranges of the western province. They contain immense deposits, and in the parallel ranges between the Rockies and the Pacific coast are to be found the precious metals in great abundance, especially gold. The Laurentian Range of hills extends from the Atlantic coast, at the Strait of Belle Isle, westerly and northerly, a distance of 2,300 miles, to the east end of Great Bear Lake near the Arctic coast. In the east the Laurentian Range divides the waters flowing south into the St. Lawrence from those flowing north into Hudson Bay, and in the northwest it divides those flowing westward into Mackenzie River from those flowing eastward into Hudson Bay. But midway between the St. Lawrence and Mackenzie water-systems, the joint waters of the Red and Saskatchewan Rivers break northward through the Laurentian Range by way of Nelson River into Hudson Bay. The Laurentian Range carries iron in great abundance, but no coal. Silver, nickel, cobalt and many other valuable metals are also found, although the region has as yet been very little explored. Drainage, The Laurentian district is remarkable for its numerous lakes, and especially for the succession of great lakes, which, forming part of three separate river systems, lie almost continuously along its southern side all the way from the Atlantic to the Arctic. The many streams and rivers which have their origin in the Lauren- tian Range afford unlimited opportunities for the creation of water power, and more than replace the lack of coal for all pur- poses for which power is required. The St. Lawrence and its tributary, the Ottawa, are the great rivers of eastern Canada; the Red and Saskatchewan of central Canada; the Eraser and Columbia of western Canada; and the Mackenzie and the Yukon of north- ern Canada. The St. Lawrence, Mackenzie and Yukon are among the largest rivers in the world. The forests of Canada are one of the great- est sources of the national wealth. Maritime, eastern and western Canada were entirely covered by forest, of which only a small proportion has as yet been displaced by settlement and cultivation. The northern part of central Canada is also very con- siderably forested. The prairies, which comprise the south- erly portion of the central provinces, lie in an irregular triangle formed by the 2pth parallel and the United States boundary on the south; the Rockies on the west; and the Laurentian Range on the northwest. They are watered in the southeastern part by the Red River, in the south and west by the Saskatchewan, and in the north- west by the Athabasca and Peace Rivers, branches of the Mackenzie. Manufacturing and Commerce. With her vast mineral, fish, timber and other re- sources Canada is destined to become a great industrial and commercial country. During the last ten years the growth of her manufactures has been marvellous. The record of foreign commerce for the past few years shows that Canada's foreign trade is increasing more rapidly, proportionately, than that of any other country. The rate of gain for a period of ten years has been 132 per cent. The total of Canada's exports in 1913 was $393,232,057, of which the amount to Great Britain was $177,982,002 and that to the United States $167,110,382. Total imports $692,032,392 in 1911. From the United States came $455,322,555 and from Great Britain $139,653,587. Much of the Canadian wheat is shipped direct to Europe. In 1913 the value of the wheat exported was $88,608,730; of flour $19,970,689; of cheese $20,697,144; and of pork, bacon and ham $5,731,474- The total value of lumber exports in 1913 was $33,433,089, much of it going to Great Britain. Thirty-five mills are converting spruce into wood-pulp. Minerals. British Columbia and Nova CANADA 318 CANADA Scotia are the chief mining provinces. Important mineral deposits are found also in Ontario and Quebec. Extensive coal areas have been found in western Canada, and new railways are continually opening additional territory. In 1912 Canada's total mineral production was valued at $135,048,296. The value of the coal was about $36,019,044; gold $12,- 6481794; and silver $19,440,165. The Vancouver Island (British Columbia) mines produce a coal of excellent quality. The coal deposits of Nova Scotia underlie an area of about 635 square miles. The chief workings are in the Sydney, Pictou and Cumberland fields. The Nova Scotia mines are the largest producers in Canada. At Lethbridge, a town of 8,000 people, a mine has been opened on a large seam of bituminous coal, the output of which has been traced for many miles. The Estevan mines (in the Souris fields) and the Lethbridge mines supply the provinces of Manitoba and Saskatchewan. The coal- beds extend far down the Saskatchewan and northward into the valley of Peace River. It is no uncommon thing in this district to see the agricultural settler driv- ing up to the pit's mouth for his house- hold supply of coal, easily obtained at prices ranging from $1.00 to $2.00 per ton. In Nova Scotia iron is found near the coal, thus permitting economical smelting. Large areas of iron-ore have been found north of Lake Superior in Ontario, in eastern Ontario, in Quebec and in Ungava. Large steel-works have been established at Sydney and Terrona, Nova Scotia, and at Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario. There are iron smelters at Rawdon (Quebec) and at Dese- ronto, Hamilton and Midland (Ontario). Nickel ores are of great and growing im- portance, particularly as there are only two producing localities of consequence in the world the Sudbury district in Ontario and the French colony of New Caledonia. The Ontario mines contain enough ore to supply the needs of the world for all time. Most of the copper output of Ontario is produced as a by-product of nickel. In 1902 British Columbia produced about 30,000,000 pounds of copper, most of which was mined in the west of the Kootenay district. Practically all of the first-quality asbestos that is marketed in the world is produced at the Thedford, Black Lake and Dan- ville mines in southeastern Quebec. Large quantities of mica are mined in Quebec and Ontario. The Yukon placer gold- mines are producing more gold than any other placer mines in the world, and since the wonderful Klondike rush in 1897, when 60,000 people sought this far-away northern country, gold to the value of $100,000,000 has been taken out. One of the richest silver camps in the world is at Cobalt, Ontario. See YUKON and COBALT. Fisheries. Canada has become the fishing ground of North America. On the Atlantic and Pacific are extensive fisheries, while countless lakes, with their tributary streams, teem with fish of the greatest value as food. Hundreds of foreign vessels, including many from the United States, come to the Canadian waters to share in these treasures. It is estimated that 78,000- Canadian fishermen thus find employment. Their boats, nets and gear are valued at $11,- 500,000 and their annual catch at $29,- 629,000. There are, moreover, extensive waters yet unfished, which in the near future will add to the value of the catch. The vast salmon industries on the Pacific coast are in some respects the most re- markable in the world. In the season when fish are running up stream, the flow of water actually is impeded in shallow places by their numbers. Standing on the bank, one sees the whole river red with the gleam of their sides. Canning factories are built on these streams, and each year 9,000,000 to 10,000,000 fish are canned. Hudson Bay and the coast waters from the Ungava to Mackenzie River are the richest whaling grounds in the world. The walrus and many valuable fish, such as sea-trout, salmon and cod, are found in these waters. The Department of Marine and Fisheries carries on fish-culture, introducing fish into new waters and preventing the exhaustion of the present supply. There are sixteen government-hatcheries which, in some years, distribute over 400,000,000 fry. Railways. With the exception of the Inter- colonial (1,463 miles) and the Prince Edward Island Railway (279 miles) all railways in Canada are owned by private companies. The Canadian Pacific extends to Montreal and then crosses Canada, passing through the world's granary to Vancouver on the Pacific. Cities, towns and over 400 stations are passed en route. It also runs from Quebec to Montreal and on to Toronto. The system has a mileage of 11,507 miles, the only transcontinental railway in Amer- ica under one management. Its steamers ply between England and Canada, and be- tween Canada and China and Japan. The Grand Trunk runs from Portland (Maine), on the Atlantic, westward to Mon- treal, through Ontario to Sarnia, and thence to Chicago. It passes under St. Clair River the outlet of Lake Huron by the famous St. Clair tunnel. With a mileage of 3,104 it reaches practically all Ontario. It has several famous bridges, the Victoria Jubilee at Montreal (over the St. Lawrence); the Niagara, the lar^e^t steel-arch railway-bridge in the world, jv.st below the Falls; and also the International near Buffalo. (See, also, CANADIAN NORTHERN RAIL- WAY and GRAND TRUNK PACIFIC RAIL.TAV, both t be transcontinental lines). CANADA CANADA Steamships and Canals. There are sev- eral Canadian transatlantic steamship lines, notably the Allan, the Dominion and the Canadian Pacific. The Canadian Pacific steamers ply to China, Japan and Australia. There are also important lines on the lakes and rivers. The magnificent St. Lawrence is the greatest water-way in the world. Canals have been built wherever the rapids obstruct navigation. Canada has spent nearly one hundred millions of dollars on her canals. On the Welland Canal alone (24 miles long) $28,000,000 have been spent. The St. Lawrence has been so deepened as to allow the largest ocean steamers to sail up to Montreal. Above Montreal vessels of fourteen feet draught can ascend to Lake Erie, and from Lake Erie to Lake Superior 20 feet of water are available. By this route a vessel can load at an upper- lake port to over fourteen feet, lighter to this draught at the east end of Lake Erie (Port Colborne), and carry the remainder of her cargo to Montreal, 1,230 miles from Fort William. Water-Powers. Canada's water-powers are certain to play a tremendous part in her industrial development. Many indus- tries are now supplied with electrical power. It has been well said that the Laurentian Highland constitutes "a gathering ground for many large and almost innumerable small rivers and streams which, in the sources of power they offer in their descent to the lower adjacent levels, are likely to prove of greater and more permanent value to the industries of the country than an extensive coal field." At Sault Ste. Marie the largest pulp-mill in Canada is operated by electricity locally developed. One hundred and seventy-five thousand horse-power has been developed. See NIAGARA FALLS, at which place the ultimate development of electrical power will reach 425,000 H. P. At that point many millions of dollars have been spent by the three power-companies. The city of Toronto, more than 80 miles distant, gets its supply from one of them. Within 50 miles of Ottawa there is an available water power energy of 900,000 H. P. That at Niagara Falls is six times as great. Schools The provinces control the schools, and each of them as to system and methods and machinery generally is work- ing out its own ideal. The Royal Military College at Kingston, Ontario, is a Dominion institution All the others are provincial or controlled by local corporations. Al- berta, one of the new provinces, has made provision for a university of its own. Mc- Gill University, Montreal, is doing collegiate work in British Columbia. The elementary schools (public schools, common schools) are free all over Canada. Every province oiak*G generous provision for their up- keep. There are more than 20,000 free public schools in Canada, and about 1,250,- ooo pupils attend them. For the secondary schools (high schools, and some of these having a certain number of teachers who are specialists and a cer- tain specified strong equipment, are called collegiate institutes) a fee is charged in some instances. Not a few of these even are free. In Ontario and Quebec especially there are several residential schools modelled after the great public schools in England (such as Harrow, Rugby, Eton ) with large attendance and doing most useful work. Canadians are proud of their universities. McGill and Toronto, for example, are well and favorably known the world over. These and other universities are specially referred to elsewhere in these volumes. The sketches of the provinces contain fuller details as to their educational work. The educational work done by the five Dominion experimental farms is of great value and interest. The central farm is located at Ottawa (the capital); two are in the northwest (at Brandon and Indian Head); one at Agassiz (British Columbia); and one at Nappan (Nova Scotia). Spe- cialists carry on experiments in all branches of agriculture, the results being published in bulletin form. During the last few years seeds and specimens have been sent out through the mails to about 200,000 farmers. Less than 1 5 per cent, of the total population of all Canada is illiterate. In 1910 $27,800, ooo were spent for purposes of education, and there were 1,289,000 pupils registered. Population. Canada now has a popula- tion of over eight millions. Two and one- half millions live in Ontario; over two mil- lions in Quebec; nearly a million in the maritime provinces (New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island) ; over i ,- 300,000 in Manitoba, Alberta, Saskatchewan and the territories; and nearly 400,000 in British Columbia. History. The territories which now con- stitute the Dominion of Canada came under the British flag at various times, some by settlement and others by conquest or cession. Nova Scotia (Acadia) was dis- covered by the Cabots, in the service of King Henry VII, in 1497. The colony of Hal- ifax was founded in 1749. By the Treaty of Utrecht (1713) Acadia and the Hudson Bay Territory were acknowledged to be British territory. The Hudson Bay Com- pany's charter, conferring right of govern- ment over the territory now known as the provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Al- berta and the Northwest Territories, was granted in 1670. The old French colony of Canada was surrendered by the capitula- tion of Montreal, signed September 8, 1760, and with Prince Edward Island and part of the present province of New Brunswick, was formally ceded to Great Britain bv CANADIAN NORTHERN RAILWAY 3*O CANAL France under the Treaty of Paris, signed Feb. 10, 1763. Vancouver Island was acknowledged to be British by the Oregon- Boundary Treaty of 1846, and British Columbia was occupied in 1858. As originally constituted, the Dominion of Canada was composed of the provinces of Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. They were united under the provisions of an act of the imperial Parlia- ment passed in 1867 and commonly cited as The British North America Act 1867. Provision was made in the act for the admission of British Columbia, Prince Ed- ward Island, the Northwest Territories and Newfoundland into the Dominion. New- foundland alone has not availed itself of such provision. In 1869 the extensive region known as Rupert's Land, the Hud- son Bay Territory and the Northwest Territories was added to the Dominion by purchase from the Hudson Bay Company. The province of Manitoba was set apart out of a portion of it, and admitted into the Confederation on July 15, 1870. On July 20, 1871, the province of British Columbia and on July i, 1873, the province of Prince Edward Island, respectively, entered the Confederation. The provinces of Al- berta and Saskatchewan were formed from the provisional districts of Alberta, Atha- baska, Assiniboia and Saskatchewan, and were admitted to the Union as provinces on September i, 1905. The Dominion adopted the same form of government as existed in the mother-land. There are a governor-general appointed by the king to represent him, two houses of parliament and a cabinet. As each province has a legislature of its own to manage its local affairs, it is as if England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland had separate parliaments in addition to that at Westminster. Canada has thus become really a daughter-nation of Great Britain. The mother-land leaves her free to manage all her own local affairs. For fuller details concerning Canada, her educational equipment and natural re- sources, see ONTARIO, QUEBEC, NOVA SCOTIA, NEW BRUNSWICK, PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND, MANITOBA, ALBERTA, SASKATCHE- WAN, BRITISH COLUMBIA, MACKENZIE, YU- KON, UNGAVA, LABRADOR and FRANKLIN. Canadian Northern Railway, The. Its main line from Winnipeg to Edmonton enters the province of Manitoba on the east 1 60 miles north of the boundary, running across the province a little north of west and crossing the Regina-Prince Albert branch of the same road at War- man. It crosses the North Saskatchewan twice before leaving the province at Lloyd- minister, a noted English colony. The Prince Albert branch of this railway is further north, leaving Manitoba at its northwest corner and running almost due west to Prince Albert. The Regina-Prince Albert branch, recently acquired by this com- pany, runs from Regina in a northwesterly direction via Saskatoon to Prince Albert. Canadian Pacific Railway, The, crosses Canada from east to west. Its completion saw the beginning of the real development of Canada. It enabled those who lived in eastern Canada to realize that our western prairies and unexplored north- west comprise a rich tract of about 600,000 square miles. The train of inflowing settle- ment since 1900 has become a rush. Each year thousands of well-to-do immigrants from all lands reach this great fertile coun- try via the C. P. R. Along its main line are rapidly growing cities, and its branch lines are bordered with thrifty and grow- ing settlements. In three provinces alone crossed by this road, viz. Manitoba, Alberta and Saskatchewan, the population has grown from 420,000 in 1901 to 1,322,000 in 1911. The railway management is enter- prising and progressive. Some years ago its directors decided to undertake the irrigation of a tract 30,000,000 acres in extent, 40 miles wide and extending 150 miles east of Calgary (Alberta). Construc- tion was well-begun in 1904 on this work which, when completed, will be the largest irrigation system on the American con- tinent. The settler pays 50 cents an acre for the water his land requires. About one third of the work is now satisfactorily com- pleted. Along the main line of this road we reach North Bay, Port Arthur, Fort William, Kenora, Winnipeg, Brandon, Port- age La Prairie, Banff, Regina, Kamloops, Medicine Hat and Vancouver and other well-known prosperous places. The Canadian Pacific also has a magni- ficent steamship service on both oceans (Atlantic and Pacific). Its steamships on the Montreal- Liverpool route are palatial. It furnishes a highway round the world. It has a coast fleet including 15 vessels plying between coast points from Victoria, Vancouver, Seattle, Nanaimo, Ladysmith, Crofton and Comox to northern British Columbia and Alaskan ports. Its royal- mail "Empress" liners make regular trips from British Columbia to China and Japan, and its Canadian-Australian boats serve Hawaii, Fiji, New Zealand and Australia. Canal, an artificial water-course. Canals are used principally for navigation, but also for drainage, for irrigation and for supplying cities and towns with water. Navigation canals are of two kinds: (a) ordinary canals which are only a few feet deep and are traversed principally by special canal boats and barges, and (b) ship canals which admit sea-going vessels. A canal must be built in a series of level stretches. Where a change of level is made, the boats are generally raised by means of locks, but sometimes by lifts and cars. Canals for inland navigation CANAL 321 CANARY BIRD have been used for many centuries. The Grand Canal of China was built in the 8th century, is 650 miles long and is still in use. Canal systems in Europe are very extensive. In Russia the system of canals was started by Peter the Great, and St. Petersburg is connected with the Caspian and Black Seas. Sweden has 800 miles of canals. Both Germany and Austria have their principal rivers connected by canals, and Austria has recently planned a large increase of its canals. The canals of Holland are almost the roads of the country. In Great Britain there are about 5,000 miles of navigable canals, so that every town in the island is within a few miles of navigable water. The first canal in the United States was built in 1793 around the falls of the Connecticut River at South Hadley, Mass. In the early part of the i gth century a very extended sys- tem of canals was planned, but of the 5,000 miles planned, less than 3,000 miles were constructed, and many of these have since been abandoned. This is due to the building of railroads and the great reduction in the cost of overland trans- portation in recent years, owing to im- provements in railroad service. Most en- gineers are agreed that the ordinary canal can never be made to compete with the railroads in the United States. Now, how- ever, the tremendous growth of the coun- try's commerce has made it absolutely indispensable to improve all our water- ways and make new canals. The rail- roads cannot carry the freight. An un- official inland waterways commission ap- pointed by the government in March, 1907, has made a careful study of the rivers and canals of the whole country. In May, 1908, the governors of all the states in the Union, together with private delegates from every state, conferred on the subject at Washington with the national govern- ment, and Congress is considering a bill to create an official inland waterways com- mission. Several of the canals built in the early part of the century are noteworthy on account of the effect they have had on trade relations. The principal of these canals is the Erie Canal, built by the state of New York and opened in 182.5. It ex- tends from Buffalo to Albany, connecting Lake 1 Erie with Hudson River, a distance of 352 miles. Originally it was but four feet deep, but the canal system of the state has been extensively improved and the old Erie Canal is now a part of the waterway unofficially known as the "Barge Canal," which accom- modates boats of 1 2 -foot draft. Other notable canals are the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal (1824-29) and the Delaware and Rantan Canal (1831-34), which connect the cities of New York, Philadelphia and Baltimore. Ship-canals are built to connect two bodies of water so as to shorten routes. The most notable of these canals is the Suez Canal connecting the Mediterranean and Red Seas. It was opened in 1869 and reduced the distance of water trans- portation between Europe and India from over 11,000 miles to about 7,500 miles, and caused a saving of 36 days in the jour- ney. The canal is about 100 miles long, and had originally a depth of 26 feet and a width at bottom of 72 feet. The depth has been increased to 28 feet and the width to over 200 feet, so as to accommodate the enormous traffic. The total cost of the canal, including the approaches at both ends, is said to have been $100,000,000. Other notable ship canals are the Caledo- nian Canal (a minor ship canal), the Corinth Canal, the Kiel Canal, opened in 1895, 63 J miles long and connecting the Baltic and North Seas, the Manchester Ship Canal, the Panama Canal now under construc- tion to connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans and the Welland, Huron and "Soo" Canals, the last of which has more traffic in seven months than the Suez Canal in a year. Drainage-canals are for the purpose of carrying off the sewerage of cities. The most notable of these canals is the Chicago drainage canal connecting the Chicago River with the Illinois River by the way of the Desplaines River. The current in the Chicago River is thus turned backward and 300,000 cubic feet per minute are thus taken from Lake Michigan and reach finally the Mississippi River instead of the St. Lawrence. The cost of the work has been over $63,000,000, and owing to the effect of the current on navigation in the Chicago River, a large additional sum will have to be expended to enlarge the river channel to provide an additional inlet. It has been in the plans of the con- struction of this canal to make it a ship- canal, so as to connect Chicago with the Gulf of Mexico for large vessels, and as engineers who have studied the problems and prepared plans pronounce the project feasible, and the entire country is enter- ing on an era of building canals and im- proving waterways, it is not improbable that this will be done. Canary Bird, the most common yellow cage-bird, highly prized as a singer. It is one of the finches, and is a native of the Canary, Madeira and Cape Verd Islands. In the wild state its plumage is gray or greenish yellow tinged with brown. The yellow color of tame birds is produced by special breeding. Mama Canary builds the nest and hatches the babies. Papa Canary does most of the work of feeding them. (Watch canaries; also robins and other wild birds.) Its powers of imitation are great, and it may be taught various notes and simple airs. Excep- tionally good singers are kept by the train- ers as instructors for the young ones. The breeding and training of this familiar CANARY ISLANDS 33* CANKERWORM bird of the household are carried on ex- tensively in the Harz Mountains in Ger- many, and also in northern England, THE CANARY Scotland and Belgium. The Harz canaries are famous songsters; the Saint Andreasberg birds are the most choice of all the canaries. Cana'ry Islands, a group of islands which form a province of Spain in the At- lantic Ocean, off. the northwest coast of Africa. The group (usually called the Canaries) consists of seven large and several small islets, with a joint area of 2,807 square miles less than a fourth of Mary- land with a population of 419,809. Lan- zarote, Fuerte- Ventura, Gran Canaria, Ten- eriffe, Gomera, Palma and Hierro are the main islands. The distance from the near- est one, Fuerte- Ventura, to the African coast is about 62 miles. The coasts are steep and rocky, and mountains are scat- tered over the islands, the highest being the famous peak of Teneriffe, about 12,182 feet in height. Cones, craters, beds of pumice and streams of lava show that all the islands are volcanic, though eruptions have been known in history in only three of them. There are no rivers, and on sev- eral of the islands water, which is supplied by springs, is very scarce. Over 900 species of wild flowering plants have been found on these islands, of which 420 are peculiar to the group. The lower lands produce sweet potatoes, bananas and other native plants of hot climates, while above, to the height of about 3,000 feet, the vine and various grains are raised. Some of the towns are becoming resorts for invalids, and the whole group of islands is being opened up. Harbors are being built, where many steamers touch, and telegraph cables connect the islands with Europe and Africa. The Canaries are believed to have been the Fortunate Islands of the ancients. The Greeks and Romans knew their posi- tion; but for many centuries they were lost sight of, ufttil in 1334 they were redis- GENERAL CANBY covered by a French vessel which was driven among them by a storm. They were occupied by Spain about the open- ing of the 1 5th century, and have been her possession ever since. The natural products of the islands are wine, sugar, veg- etables and cochineal. The capital is Santa Cruz de Santiago, a seaport on the island of Teneriffe; population (1900), 38,419. Canby, Edward Richard Sprigg, an American general, was born in Kentucky, in 1819. A graduate of West Point, he served in the Flor- ida War, where he was twice brev- etted for gallantry. At the outbreak of the Civil War, he was stationed at Fort Craig in New Mexico, where he displayed abil- ity and energy in defending the fort against the Texan troops. He fought the battles of Val- verde and Peralta, and was made brigadier - general. After service in the war department and in putting down the draft riots in New York, he was made major-general and be- came commander of the armies west of the Mississippi. In 1865 he captured Mobile. After the close of the war he held several important and onerous posi- tions, and in 1869 took command of the department of the Columbia on the Pacific coast. While holding a parley with the Modoc Indians, who were giving trouble, he was treacherously shot by a chief called Captain Jack, April n, 1873. Candahar'. See KANDAHAR. Candy-Making, a large, varied and im- portant industry in this and many Euro- pean countries. About the middle of the past century ^a great impetus was given to the trade in the United States by the machinery designed for the manufacture of confectionery including the revolving steam- gan and lozenge-making machines.etc., which ave largely displaced the making of candy by hand. As in other branches of trade, that of the confectioner and manufacturer of bonbons, nougats, caramels and the myriad varieties of sweets has in our modern day come under the influence of scientific methods in the candy-maker's factory. Cankerworm, commonly known as inch or measuring worm, sometimes called fireworm, is a caterpillar, that is very de- structive to fruit and shade trees. An army will devastate a large grove in a few days, sweeping ,over a locality like fire and leaving ruin behind. It was to arrest their work that the English sparrow was CANNAE 323 CANNON brought into the country with the un- fortunate result familiar to all. There are two species: the fall cankerworm (Anisop- teryx) and the spring cankerworm (Palea- crita, or A. vernata). The fall species lays her eggs after the summer birds have flown, and may come forth on an inviting, warm winter day. The spring species lays her eggs early in the spring, before many of the birds are back. The female is wingless, and crawls up the trunk of a tree to deposit her eggs on bark or twigs. To stop her progress, about the trunk of the tree should be fastened a band of coal- tar mixed with oil or printer's ink, which should be put on very early in spring and moistened when dry in winter. The win- ter birds are a valuable aid in keeping down the cankerworm pest; the chickadee is an especial enemy, eating immense num- bers of eggs and also the female moths. With the bursting of the buds the eggs hatch, and when the larvae get through devouring foliage they spin themselves down to the ground, burrow into the earth two or three inches, there undergo trans- formation, and come forth as moths in April, occasionally in March. See Hodge : Nature Study and Life; Cragin : Our In- sect Friends and Foes. Can'nse (kdn'-i), a town of ancient Apulia in Italy, on the bank of the River Aufidus, now Ofanto, famous as the scene of Hannibal's greatest victory over the Romans, Aug. 2, 216 B. C. With about 50,000 men the Carthaginian leader took up his headquarters at Cannae. The Roman consols, ^Emilius Paulus and Terentius Varro, at the head of a fresh army of 86,000 men marched against him. The consuls commanded on alternate days, and while -ffimilius did not wish to risk an open bat- tle with the victorious enemy, Varro on his day of command joined battle on the plains near the town. Hannibal skillfully forced the Romans to take up a position with their faces toward the sun and toward a fierce wind which blew the dust against them. In this plight he, with his veteran troops, quickly threw them into confusion, almost surrounded them, and completely cut them to pieces. His own loss was small, ^milius fell in battle, but Varro partly atoned for his rashness by skillfully con- ducting the retreat of the remnant of the army to Canusium. Can'ning, George, an English states- man and orator, was bom in London in 1770. At college he showed ability as a writer and speaker. He entered Parlia- ment in 1794, and his first speech made a marked impression. He also, in company with others, published the Anti-Jacobin, a political newspaper, in which he wrote the well-known poem, The Needy Knife-Grinder. He helped in the abolition of the slave- trade, was treasurer of the navy, and twice secretary of foreign affairs. His career as foreign secretary conferred lasting benefits on his country. He was subsequently made prime minister; but his health gave way, and he died at Chiswick Aug. 8, 1827, in the same room in which Fox had died 2 1 years earlier. He was buried in West- minster Abbey near the tomb of the older Pitt. Canning = Industry. The principle of canning goods rests on the destruction of the bacteria of decomposition within the can and the keeping put of air through which such bacteria might come in. The purpose of canning was, in the first place, to preserve food ; but now it is used largely to save people the trouble of cooking their food themselves. The number of canning factories is now counted by the tens of thousands; the number of people directly employed is probably near two millions. These include many children. The cen- ters of fish and oyster canning are Mary- land, Maine, Washington and Alaska. Fruit is largely canned in New York, Illi- nois and Virginia; beef in Chicago and St. Louis. The essential machinery of a can- ning factory includes the heating apparatus for boiling and scalding the material to be canned, and for blanching the vege- tables; the exhaust apparatus for taking the air out of the can before sealing; and the heating apparatus for sealing the openings by which the air was removed. These operations are most profitably per- formed with the use of a great deaf of machinery to handle large quantities with as few workers as possible. Other ma- chinery is used for the special kinds of canning. In canning peas, the peas are taken from the pods by machinery and sorted into different sizes by machinery. Corn is taken from the cob and cleaned from the silk, etc., cooked and placed in the cans, all by machinery. In the case of soups and other liquids the cans are dipped and filled by the use of machinery. It therefore is possible to attain to great clean- liness and purity in the manufacture of canned goods, and by an act of Congress, passed in 1906, it is believed that a system of inspection has been established that will insure purity in all canned meats manufactured since that time. The canning industry has transformed our diet, mak- ing it possible to eat all kinds of fruit and vegetables at all times of the year with- out destroying the flavor by the use of sugar or other preservatives. The con- densed-milk industry has made it possible to keep cows with profit at a great distance from towns, where there are no facilities for making and selling butter or cheese. Cannon are arms or artillery that can- not be fired by hand but must be fired from fixed rests. They were first used in the 1 4th century. The first were clumsy, wider at the mouth than the chamber and CANNON 324 CANNON made of iron bars hooped with iron rings. The balls were first stone, afterwards iron. The early cannon had various names, as bombards or culverins; then they were named from the weight of the ball, as six-pounders; but now they are designated by the diameter of the bore, as 1 6-inch caliber, or by their weight, as a 25-ton gun. After the great wars of the lyth century vast improvements were effected in the manu- facture and use of cannon, but these have been superseded by those of the igth cen- tury, and the last have in turn seen them- selves replaced by extraordinary improve- ments and inventions. The interior of a cannon consists of the vent or breach, the chamber and the bore. The vent is the channel by which fire is brought to the charge, the chamber is the seat of the charge, the bore is the tube along which the ball passes. A cannon must fire accurately, destructively and rapidly without injuring the users. Its maker must provide for the strains caused by its weight and for the explosion's ten- dency to tear the gun. (Large, heavy cannon are known simply as guns.) The enormously increased weight and inertia of projectiles to-day and their swift rota- tion in rifled cannon try the gun so severely that steel is now used almost universally. Making a cannon begins by a draughtsman making figures and drawings of every size and with absolute accuracy. His work goes to a mill where steel-forgings are ready. The gun is to consist of a tube, a jacket over this and rings around the jacket. A huge forging is put on a lathe, ?erhaps 100 feet long, and the tube is ored out, oiled, tempered and rebored. This time the inside of the tube is cut with a spiral groove, the rifling, which, when the shell is fired, gives it a rotary motion, increases its range, steadiness and accuracy, and keeps the point in the direction of flight. Meanwhile the rings and jacket are made in a similar way. Putting these parts over the tube com- pletes the gun. But all must fit as tightly together as if the gun were one solid piece of steel. This is done by playing off the cooling and contraction of metal and its heating and expansion against one another. The tube is kept cold, but the jacket is heated a day or two to 700. Then the tube is stood upright, the hot jacket quickly slipped down on the cold metal, and the gun left to cool two days while the jacket shrinks tight. Finally, the gun is taken to a lathe again, and here, while it is in a horizontal position, the hoops or rings are shrunk on. The built-up gun, as such a cannon is called, resulted from shrinking a hoop over the breech of an American cannon used in the Civil War. The hoop strengthened the gun so much that others were ordered and the process perpetuated. The wire- wound gun is a tube wound about with a ribbon or thin band of steel plate, great tension being used while winding. As ribbons of steel are much stronger than large hoops, the wire-wound cannon is stronger still than the built-up cannon. Cannon are of various sorts. Guns are heavy cannon intended to throw solid shot with large charges of powder, and are distinguished from other cannon by their great weight and length and by the ab- sence of a chamber. It is replaced by a breech-block, a mechanism that carries the charge into its place. The Vickers-Maxim breech is used in the great cannon of the American navy, and automatically ejects the exploded primer and raises the new load into position. Howitzers are light, short cannon used in battles on land to throw shells into the enemy's ranks at short distances. Mortars are still shorter cannon with a large bore, and are used to throw bombs or shells into the air, so that they will fall into fortified places. Shell-guns are long [cannon used for shoot- ing shells straight at an object. Cannon are also divided into smoothbore and rifled cannon, though few smoothbores are now in use. Cannon are made of iron, steel and bronze or brass. Heavy cannon are now made in a great many different shapes. One of the largest kinds now used in the forts of the United States is the Rodman gun. Some of these guns are so large that they will carry a ball 20 inches in diameter. The Armstrong gun is one of the best modern heavy guns. It has been made as large as 13^-inch caliber. The Krupp guns have become celebrated because of their enormous size and great durability. They have been made weighing over 120,000 pounds. The gatling gun is a machine-gun, constructed with ten barrels, which are revolved around an axis by a handle. As each barrel comes to a certain point, a cartridge is pushed into it by a machine and fired. As many as 400 shots can be fired in a minute and with great range and precision. Some of the most powerful modern cannon are sighted for 8,700 yards, and at that distance may be relied upon to strike an object ten feet high. In battle, however, fire is rarely opened at a greater distance than 3,000 yards. Gathmann and Zalinski invented pneumatic guns, using compressed air, to throw shells three miles that contained 100 Ibs. of dynamite or 500 of guncotton, but they did not succeed in real war. Machine-guns and revolving and siege cannon are now the most important kinds of cannon. The possibility of transporting the huge guns mortars with eleven-inch diameters firing shells weighing 500 pounds and more was first demonstrated by the Germans at the siege of Liege and Antwerp which were soon reduced under their terrific fire. Owing to CANNON 325 CANON the enormous recoil of these guns it is neces- sary to build special concrete foundations before beginning operations. Disappearing guns are cannon in which the force of the recoil pulls the cannon back, lowers it into position for reloading and then returns it to position for firing. Thus there is perfect protection from the enemy. They are an American invention for use in forts whose location it is desired to hide, the Buffington-Crozier being the type most liked. Among coast and field guns the most effect- ive, all-around cannon is the 8-inch rifle that fires a 25o-lb. projectile about 18 miles and can discharge six aimed shots a minute. Cannon, Joseph (i., was born in Guil- ford, N. C., of Quaker parentage, May 7, 1836. His family moved to Illinois. Work- ing in a country grocery, he studied until he was prepared to pass the examination which permitted him to practice law in that state. From 1861 to 1868 he was states-attorney for Vermillion County, Illi- nois, and was elected congressman for the 1 2th Illinois district in 1873. He served in Congress from 1873 to 1891, and from 1893 to the present, failmg of election only in the year when the whole country turned to Cleveland and the Democratic party. He was chairman of the committee on appro- priations, for the 55th and 56th congresses. In 1903 he was elected Speaker, holding that office until 1911. He now lives in Danville, Illinois. His energy, which he preserves in spite of his age, his kindly nature, his reputation for honesty and his inflexible opposition to extravagance in national ex- penditure have made him popular in spite of his aggressive partisanship and his stern insistence on order in the House. Canoe (kd-noo'), originally a light, nar- row boat made of the hollow stem of a tree, or of bark, and moved by paddles. Those hollowed out of a tree-trunk are called dugouts. The American birch-bark canoe is light and frail-looking, but very useful. In building it, a skeleton is first made of light wood, the casing of birch-bark is put on crosswise, and the strips sewn to- gether with the fibrous roots of fir trees, while the seams are dressed with gum. It has no keel and neither stem nor stern, but runs to a point at either end; and neither nails nor pegs are used in building it. The birch-bark canoes of South America and the native Australian gum-tree bark canoe are made of one piece of bark. Esqui- maux canoes are generally made of seal or walrus skin, stretched over whalebone; and some Labrador canoes have a round hole or well in the center for the canoeist, and are light enough to be carried on the head. Many of the Polynesian canoes are hollowed out of a single log; while others are made of planks cunningly fastened together. The largest Fiji canoes are 100 feet long, and double ones, 70 feet in length, can carry from 40 to 50 persons. Mr. Stanley on the Congo met a war-canoe with 40 men row- ing on each side and ten in the bow, while eight men guided at the stern with ivory- tipped paddles. Canoes on the African inland lakes are sometimes made of reeds. The canoe has within recent years become popular in Europe and America as a pleasure boat. It is made of various materials, of tin, paper, India rubber, wood or canvas. The American Canoe Club has over 5,000 members. The American Canoeist is a mag- azine devoted to the interests of the sport. Canon (kan'yiin), a Spanish word mean- ing a tube or pipe, now in common use for a deep ravine or gorge worn by running water. Canons are very numerous in North America. In many parts of the Rocky Mountains the streams have worked their way down through hundreds and, in some MARBLE CANON, COLORADO RIVER places, even thousands of feet. These can- ons are of wonderful depth and size on the Colorado River, over the west slope of the Rocky Mountains. For 300 miles there is a nearly continuous canon, from 4,000 to 7,000 feet deep. The rocks rear them- selves in nearly vertical precipices on either side of the stream. In large parts of the canon are numberless peaks and temple- shaped summits, and above the walls of the canon rise plateaus and mountains piled up sometimes to an added height of 5,000 to 7,000 feet. In the interior of New York, near CANOSSA 326 CANTERBURY CATHEDRAL the headwaters of Seneca Lake, are several remarkable canons, of which the most noted is that at Watkins, known as Watkins Glen. Canossa (kd-nos'sa), a small town in Italy, near Modena, is famous for its ruined castle, once the scene of the most dramatic incident, perhaps, in all history. For centuries the German emperors, who were regarded as the divinely chosen suc- cessors of the ancient Roman Caesars, con- tested with the papacy for the mastery of the western world. It was held by both the popes and emperors that Christendom, was divinely ordained to be one indivisible empire, which they called the Holy Roman Empire, and that the kings of the nations were no more than their feudal vassals. It was admitted in theory that the pope was the spiritual head of this empire, and the emperor its lay or secular or temporal head. But during centuries the rivalry of popes and emperors became from time to time the signal for war. The last resort of the papacy was to excommunicate an emperor and, in so doing, to array his own vassals against him. Partly by this means in 1077 Pope Gregory VII, known as Hildebrand, forced the German Emperor, Henry IV, to stand before the castle of Canossa during three days as a penitent, barefoot in the snow and clad only in a woolen shirt. This was an admission of the supreme power of the papacy which was never forgotten. Although Henry VI himself and, after him, other emperors resumed the ancient strife, the Holy Roman Empire became in the fourteenth century little more than an idea and a name. See Bryce : Holy Roman Empire; and Tout : The Empire and the Papacy. Canova (ka-nd'va), Antonio, an Italian sculptor, was born in 1757, at Possagno, a village in Venetian territory. In boyhood he showed great talent in modeling, and spent many years in studying his art. His genius made him popular among his country- men, and he was received with honor in many parts of Europe. He was made a marquis and given a pension. Among his earlier works, Theseus with the Minotaur established his reputation; and Cupid and Psyche, Venus and Adonis, Penitent Mag- dalen, Palamedes and Perseus with the Head of Medusa are celebrated works. He modeled a number of statues and busts. Among his later works was a colossal statue of Washington, in a sitting attitude, which was bought I~*T the state house in Raleigh, North Carolina, but was destroyed by fire in 1831. Canova made a large fortune, which was almost entirely expended in works of charity. He was especially liberal to artists, and endowed all the academies in Rome. He died in 1822. Canrobert (kdn'rd'b&r 1 ), Marshal Fran- ^ois Certain, a French general and senator, been in 1809, and died m 1895. He held a command in the Crimean War, under Marshal St. Armand; but, disagreeing with the British allies, he was superseded by General Pelissier. In 1 8 59 he took part in the war with Italy, and distinguished himself at Magenta and Solferino. In 1870, in the Fran- co-German war, he and his force were shut up in Metz and had to capitulate. In later life he was a member of the French senate. Can'teen, The Army. A canteen is liter- ally a soldier's drinking cup; the term is applied to a shop under the control of the military authorities where refreshments are sold and amusements afforded the soldiers. The refreshments have in practically all cases consisted largely of alcoholic beverages. In the American army the canteen or post exchange had for many years supplied the troops, at reasonable price, with such arti- cles, the articles of ordinary use, wear and consumption, as were not supplied by the government, and afforded them "means of rational recreation and amusement, suitable to their station in life, which, if denied, they would seek outside the limits of the camp." " Every enlisted man is a stockholder in it.' ' In practice the profits were derived largely from the sale of beer and light wines. In 1901 the Women's Christian Temperance Union and other advocates of total absti- nence secured the passage by Congress of a law prohibiting the sale of intoxicating drinks in any post-exchange or canteen or army transport. As a consequence most of the army-canteens were closed, apparently for the reason that without the profits on the sale of beer and wine they could not be operated. Congress therefore in 1902 and again in 1903 voted $500,000 in aid of such canteens. But the army has not, it seems, to any consider- able extent availed itself of this provision. Canterbury Cathedral, one of the finest cathedrals of England, stands in the city of Canterbury, fifty-six miles southeast of Lon- don. The occupant of the episcopal see of Canterbury is primate of all England. The foundation of the cathedral dates back to the year 596, when St. Augustine consecrated there an old Roman Christian church under the name of Christ's church. It was burned in 1067 and again in 1174, and finally in 1872 was damaged by fire. During its long exist- ence, it has been altered, beautified and en- larged. The length of the building is 532 feet and its greatest breadth 154 feet. The great tower, 230 feet high, is of remarkable beauty. The stained-glass windows are of the richest colors, and the crypts or chambers beneath are the finest in England and contain several chapels. Before the high altar the famous archbishop, Thomas a Becket, was murdered in 1170. About the year 1500 the yearly offerings at his shrine amounted to $20,000, and when the shrine was torn down in the 1 6th century its treasures filled twenty-six carts. The stone steps leading to it wer worn by the knees of countless pilgrims. There are many monuments in the cathedral. CANTON 327 CANUTE including those to the memory of Henry IV and the Black Prince. Near by is Kings' School, founded by Henry VIII, where David Copperfield, of Dickens' creation, went to school. Can'ton, called also Yang-Ching, " the city of rams,' ' a large city in the south of China and capital of the province of Kwang-Tung, lies on the bank of the Shu-Kiang or Pearl River. The city is surrounded by walls from twenty-five to forty feet high, twenty feet thick and six miles around. A wall running east and west divides it into the old and the new city. There are many gates shut and guarded by night, named Peace Gate, Eter- nal Rest Gate, etc. Across the river are the hongs or European quarter, separated from the river by a quay, 100 yards wide. There are more than 600 streets, generally less than eight feet wide and very crooked. Ancient barricades inclose each street, and in the prin- cipal streets night watchmen in watchtowers. CANTON AND HONG KONG proclaim the hours and sound fire-alarms, Property is so insecure that every shop which contains anything valuable must be barri- caded at dusk, so that it can stand a siege, and all business must cease at sunset. There are two pagodas, one erected ten centuries ago, the other over thirteen centuries ago. and nearly 150 other temples or joss-houses One of the largest temples covers with its grounds seven acres and has 175 priests attached, and the temple of "Filial Duty" has 200 priests. The priests and nuns to- gether in Canton number over 2,000, most of them being Buddhists. The " Templejof Five Hundred Genii" has 500 statues in honor of the Buddha and his disciples. Examination Hall covers sixteen acres, and has 8,653 cells. Nearly half the craft on the river are utilized as fixed residences, with a floating population estimated at 200,000. Tea, silk, sugar and cassia are the chief articles of export, and the chief imports are cotton, wool, metal goods, food stuns, opium, kerosene, etc. Over 3,000 ships enter and clear the port yearly. Can- ton has long been a favorite port with foreign merchants. Its earliest annals date back to 200 B. C. In 700 A. D a regular market was opened and a collector of customs ap- pointed, and 200 years later the Arabs made regular voyages thither. The Portuguese found their way to it in the 1 5th century, and the Dutch 100 years later. These in turn were overtaken and overthrown by the Eng- lish before the close of the i7th century, and an immense trade was carried on by the agents of the East India Company. The city was captured by French and English forces in 1857, and was garrisoned by them until 1861. The exports of Canton (chiefly of tea, silk and sugar) were valued in IQOS at 37 million taels. (The tael is about $i .40.) Estimated population, about one million. Canton, the county seat of Stark Coun+y, Ohio, is 1 02 miles west-northwest of Pitts- burg, 54 south-southeast of Cleveland. It has three railroads, the Pittsburg, Ft. Wayne & Chicago; Wheeling & Lake Erie; and Cleveland Terminal & Valley. It is situ- ated in the center of a rich farming country, and is surrounded by rich deposits of coal and limestone. It has a number of important manufacturing concerns, including Aultman & Co., manufacturers of farm implements, Canton Rolling Mill, Canton Steel Company, American Bridge Company, Harvard Dental Chair Company, Gould Dental Chair Com- pany and Dueber-Hampden Watch and Case Company. It contains two parks and is con- nected by electric railway with a beautiful lake resort. It has three daily and four weekly newspapers; twenty-three churches; ten banks; a hospital; eighteen school build- ings, with 7,200 school-children enrolled. President McKinley's home was at Canton. Its large manufacturing interests have been chiefly instrumental in its rapid growth from a town of less than 10,000 in 1870, to a city of 65,000, at the present time. Canute (kd-nu?) or Cnut, called the Great, king of the English, Danes and Nor- wegians, was born about 994. His father, Sweyn, king of Denmark, died in the midst of his conquests in England, and Canute im- mediately began a struggle for the English throne. He landed with a powerful force and soon overran a large part of England. The struggle ended by the division of the country between Car-ute and the Saxon, Edmund Ironside, while the death of Edmund in 1017 gave the whole kingdom to the young Danish conqueror. He put to death some of the more powerful English nobles, but from this time onward, until his death in 1035, his character seems to have been completely changed. At once he laid aside his ruthless, revengeful temper to become a wise, temper- ate, devout and law-abiding ruler. He made a pilgrimage to Rome, and wrote back a letter to his subjects which shows the noble simplicity of his character and the high idea he had formed of the duty of a king. The death of his elder brother brought him the CANVASBACK 328 CAPE COLONY throne of Denmark, and that of Norway soon followed. Canute gave England eighteen years of peace and order, but at his death his kingdom fell to pieces, as it had depended upon his own personal greatness. A story is told of how this monarch rebuked the flattery of his courtiers, who had said that all things were possible to him. He had his chair placed on the seashore while the tide was rising, and when the water came near him, he ordered it to go back and not to wet him who was lord of the sea. But the water soon wet his feet, and turning to his courtiers, he said: "Let all men know how empty and worthless is the power of kings ; for there is none worthy of the name but Him whom heaven, earth and sea obey." ' Canvasback (Ay thy a Vallisneria), a North American freshwater duck, exten- sively found in marsh lands and river flats, where it can obtain its favorite food, the roots of the wild celery plant. It is largely found in Chesapeake Bay, in the Missis- sippi Valley and around the shores of Lake Huron and Lake Erie. Its breeding grounds are the far north, whence it comes southward late in autumn, and affords good game for the gunning sportsman, for it is expert in diving and rapid in its flight when pursued and shot at. A related bird is the redhead, often mistaken for the canvasback, though its plumage is brighter in color and it has not the latter's fondness for a celery diet. In length the canvasback is usually about 20 inches, with a blue-colored bill, the male bird having a reddish head, modi- fied by dusky tints, with a dotted and lined coarse canvas-like back and sides. See DUCK. Cape Breton (brtt'un), a rocky island in the shape of a triangle, in the Canadian Dominion, at the eastern end of Nova Scotia, and forming part of that province, from which it is separated by the Gut of Canso, one mile broad. Its greatest length is too miles, its width 85 miles and its area 3,120 square miles. The coast is indented with bays. The Bras d'Or, an inlet on the east, forms a lake 50 miles long and 20 broad, so that most of the interior can be reached by water. This lake is now continued by a ship canal to St. Peter's Bay, on the south coast, dividing the island into two parts. The main exports are timber, fish, iron ore and coal, and the soil yields grains. At first held by the French, Cape Breton was taken by the English in 1745, and in 1820 became part of Nova Scotia. The towns are Sydney, North Sydney and Port Hood. The once famous Louisbourg 'is now a mere village. Cape Breton sends two members to the Nova Scotian legislature. Its exports consist of coal, timber (pine and oak) and fish. Pop- ulation of the whole island, including the district of Cape Breton, Inverness, Rich- mond and Victoria, 97,605. Cape Cod, a sandy peninsula reaching into the Atlantic, and forming the southeastern extremity of Massachusetts. In form some- what like the letter L, it is about 65 miles in length. There are many lighthouses upon the cape. On the northern end, called Race Point, is a revolving light, 155 feet above the sea. At the head of the cape are forests of pitch-pine and oak trees. The numerous pays furnish many harbors, where are thriv- ing villages which are nurseries of seamen. Cape Cod was discovered May 15, 1602, by Bartholomew Gosnold, who gave it its name from the quantity of codfish taken off its shores. On November 9, 1620, the Mayflower arrived at its coast, and the next day cast anchor in its harbor of Provincetown. Here was formed the famous compact which gave a government to the new colony. Bancroft called it the first of written constitutions. It, like our national constitution, was the creation of the people itself. Cape Colony or Colony of the Cape of Good Hope, is a British possession at the southern extremity of Africa. It includes, East Griqualand, Bechuanaland and adja- cent native territories, which have an area of 276,995 square miles. The area of the whole of British South Africa (including the now reannexed Transvaal and the Orange River Colony) together with Bechuanaland, Natal, Cape Colony and Rhodesia is esti- mated at 603,337 square miles. Surface Drainage. It has few navigable rivers or good ports. The principal harbor is Table Bay. Running parallel to the coast line and at an average distance from it of about 150 miles there is a range of moun- tains, forming the watershed of the country and known by various names as it stretches across the continent Stormberg, Sneeuberg, Roggeveld Mountains. The eastern part of the colony is fairly well wooded and watered, and presents much beautiful scenery; the western part is covered with the karroo bush, which supports the large sheep farms. Climate Irrigation. The climate is one of the finest in the world, well suited to Euro- peans, and the Cape has long been known as a health resort. The scanty rainfall makes irrigation necessary. One vast reservoir, the largest in South Africa, draining 460 square miles, holds 35,000,000,000,000 gallons, and the extent of water surface is 19 square miles, with an average depth of ten feet. The cli- mate and soil of the country are suited to the culture of vines, and in the southwestern part the vines produce heavier crops than are known almost anywhere else in the world. Dagga or wild hemp was smoked by the natives before tobacco was introduced, which is now widely grown. Animals Flora. The native animals were once numerous and varied, but are now nearly extinct. There still are a few ele* phants and buffaloes, and the beautiful springbok and smaller antelopes are still found, with baboons, monkeys, wildcats, porcupines, leopards, jackals and ant-eaters. CAPE HATTERAS 329 CAPE OF GOOD HOPE Among birds the secretary-bird, honey -bird and weaver-bird are peculiar. The iguana, cobra, puff-adder and other snakes abound, and the white ant covers the face of the land with its habitations, from two to four feet in height. It is probable that no single country has contributed so largely to the world's con- servatories and botanical gardens as the Cape. Natural Resources. Diamonds have been extensively found in the colony; while in Transvaal, at Johannesburg, not far from Kimberley, are the rich gold fields of the Rand. The Kimberley mine, the richest dia- mond-mine in the world, covers about twenty-five or thirty acres and has been sunk to a depth of over 600 feet. This mine, with three others, forming a circle of three and one-half miles in diameter, forms what is sometimes called the diamond fields. The finest diamond, the Porter- Rhodes diamond, was found in 1880, and is valued at $300,000. A yellow diamond, 42 8 J carats, as large as a hen's egg and said to be then the largest diamond in the world, was found in 1888. The largest yield from these famous diamond mines in any one year was in 1905, the value being over $32,000,000. Gold, copper, coal, iron and salt are found, besides valuable stones, such as garnets, agates and jaspers. Exports and Industries. The principal ex- ports are gold, diamonds, wine, wool, ostrich feathers, Angora hair, copper-ore and hides; the chief imports are cloths and dress goods, iron, leather manufactures, machinery, rail- way supplies and food and drink. More than three quarters of the trade is done with Great Britain and the British possessions. Besides the diamond-mines, the colony has many flour and saw mills, tanneries, brew- eries, tobacco factories and coach-building works. In 1904 there were 2,527 industrial establishments , employing 30,318 hands , with machinery and plant valued at more than ten million dollars. Education. Education has not been made compulsory, and of the white population in 1904, twenty-two per cent could not read or write. There are a university and seven colleges in the colony, and 143 public libra- ries with a total of nearly 500,000 volumes. Private schools, generally under religious auspices, are aided by the government, the amount expended on education in 1904-5 reaching 447,796. Internal Improvements. Over 3,180 miles of good roads and over 3,300 miles of rail- roads have been built throughout the colony. Four large bridges span Orange River, and two others cross the Kei and Vaal Rivers. Almost every town is in communication with Cape Town by telegraph, and there are nearly 1,100 postoffices. Cities. The chief towns, with the inhabi- tants PS estimated by the 1911 census, are Cape Town, 67,000; Cape Town and its suburbs, 169,641; Kimberly, 34,260; Port Elizabeth, 32,921; Graham's Town, 13,877; Beaconsfield, 14,000; Paarl, 11,28 King William's Town, 9,500; East London, 24,054; Graff -Reinet, 10,072; Worcester, 8,087; Uitenhafe, 12,199; Cradock, 7,762. Government and History. The executive is vested in a governor, appointed by the British crown, with a legislative council and a house of assembly. In the Cape parliament speeches may be made both in English and in Dutch. There is a university at Cape Town, but no state-church. The capital is Cape Town; population, with suburbs, 169, 641. In 1652 the Dutch East India Com- pany took possession of the Cape and held it until it was turned over to the English in 1814. Its real growth dates from the British occupation. Since that time the establish- ment of responsible government in 1872, the emancipation of the slaves in 1838 and the Kafir and Boer wars have been the main events in the history of the colony. Popula- tion, 2,698,980, of which 2,028,104 are na- tives and the remainder whites. Unlike the aborigines of other parts of the world, the natives are constantly increasing. See BOER WAR for late history. Cape Hat'teras, the most easterly point of North Carolina, separated from the main- land by Pamlico Sound. South of Delaware no land stretches so far into the Atlantic as does Cape Hatteras. Nor is any point on the coast more noted for its frequent and dan- gerous storms. The Gulf Stream flows within twenty miles of it. There is a lighthouse one and one fourth miles from theoutermost point. Cape Horn, the headland of an island in the Fuegian archipelago, commonly regarded as the southern extremity of America. It is a steep, black rock with bare and lofty sides. It was probably first discovered by Sir Francis Drake, in 1578; but it was first doubled by the Dutch navigators Lemaire and Schouten in 1616, the latter of whom named it after his native town of Hoorn. The cape is no longer rounded by steamers, which now always pass through the Strait of Magellan. Cape May, a town occupying a point of land of the same name at the southern end of New Jersey at the entrance of Delaware Bay. It is a noted summer resort, the favor- ite watering-place for Philadelphians. It is connected with Philadelphia by the Pennsyl- vania and Philadelphia & Reading railroads, and in summer by several lines of steamers. The beach is over five miles long, and affords splendid drives. Population, 2,471. Cape of Good Hope, a point commonly called the most southerly promontory of Africa, is really a little north of Cape Agul- has. It forms the turning point from south to east on the voyage from Europe to India. The cape is formed by the extremity of Table Mountain, which, as it recedes, rises from a height of 1,000 feet above the sea to 3,582 feet. It was discovered and doubled by Diaz, a Portuguese navigator, as early as CAPE TOWN CAPILLARITY IN SOILS 1486, when he was aiming to reach India, as Columbus by another route was aiming, six years later, to reach the same country. Be- cause of the dangers he had passed through, he named it the Cape of All the Storms, but John II of Portugal renamed it Cape of Good Hope. In 1497 Vasco da Gama rounded it on his adventurous voyage from Lisbon to Calicut. The result of the discovery of the route by the cape was not only to open a new channel for the traffic of the east, but also to remove the supremacy of trade from the republics of Italy to the states of western Europe. Cape Town, the capital of Cape Colony, lies at the head of Table Bay, thirty miles north of the Cape of Good Hope, a south- western extremity of Africa. It was founded in 1652 by the Dutch, and at first consisted of a few houses under the shelter of a fort. In 1806 it was occupied by the British. The houses of old Cape Town are mostly flat- roofed, oblong and whitewashed. A few church-towers and an occasional factory or mill-chimney break the monotony. Govern- ment house, the new and handsome houses of Parliament, the public library and museum, the fine-arts gallery, the railroad station, the old Town House and the old castle are the chief buildings, together with several banks, the buildings of the Supreme Court, an ob- servatory, a cathedral, four or five colleges and an examining university without attached teaching institutions. The see-houses of the Anglican and Roman Catholic bishops are also here. There are many modern city improvements, such as water-works, gas, street- railroads. The breakwater and docks have given increased facilities to the ship- ping. The population of Cape Town proper is 67,000; including its suburbs, 169,641. See CAPE COLONY and CAPE OF GOOD HOPE Cape-to-Ca!ro Railway. This great rail- way enterprise, in large measure due to the bequest left in the will of the late Alfred Beit, which is to connect Cape Town with Cairo through the whole length of the east- ern regions of the continent of Africa, has of late been much advanced. Already the road now runs from Cape Town northward far beyond Broken Hill near the Zambezi River, a distance of over 2,100 miles, while the surveys have been completed as far as Lake Tanganyika and the southern frontiers of the Congo Free State. It is then pro- jected northward past Lake Victoria into British East Africa; thence it will proceed to the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan; and it will connect at Khartum with the Sudan military railway now open to Cairo and the Mediter- ranean Sea. Other branch-roads are also projected, while the scheme, vast as it is, seems now to be taken out of the category of dreams. Cape Verd ( verd ) Islands, a group of islands, forming a Portuguese colony, in the Atlantic Ocean, off the African coast, 320 miles west of Cape Verd. There are 14 islands and several rocky islets, covering about 1,480 square miles. They are all of volcanic origin, and one, Fogo, still smokes. The shores are low, but in the interior there are high mountains. The rainy season lasts from the middle of August to November, but sometimes no rain falls for several seasons. In 1832, after a three years' drought, 30,500 persons perished. The fruits of southern Europe and western Africa flourish on the islands. Goa';s and asses are reared, and the most remarkable of the animals are monkeys and bisam cats. Poisonous reptiles are un- known. Salt is manufactured and exported to North America. The other products are coffee, millet and drugs. The natives are docile and lazy, though very religious. Roman Catholicism is the only religion. The population is 147,424, about one twentieth being whites and one seventh slaves. The latter are of mixed race, descended from Portuguese settlers and negroes of various tribes introduced from Guinea. Santiago is the largest island in the group; it is about 50 miles long and 23 broad at its widest part. The governor lives on the island, at the sea- port of Porto Praia. The volcano of Fogo is 9,157 feet high. The islands were discov- ered in 1441 by the Portuguese, who have held them ever since. Caper'naum, a town of Palestine, often mentioned in the New Testament and mem- orable as the scene of many of the miracles of Christ. Its exact site on the Sea of Gen- nesareth is uncertain. One possible site is a ruined village, known at present as Khan Minieh; another is three miles further off, at a spot called Tell Hum. Cap'illar'ity in Soils refers 'to che ability of water to rise above the water-table toward the surface. The soil-particles act CAPITOLINE HILL 331 CARACAS as an absorbing medium, just as a lamp- wick does; the fluid in both cases passing up through the small spaces. The smaller the particles, and consequently the closer they are, the more effectively the water rises, just as in a glass-tube of very fine bore it rises better than in a larger tube. Tramping down the soil after planting small seeds presses the soil-particles together, and in- duces an upward flow of moisture that enables them to sprout. When the surface particles are compacted by sun -baking into a crust after the summer rains, the moisture easily passes into the air and is lost to the soil and the plant roots. On the other hand, breaking up this crust by cultivation forms a soil-mulch, whose larger spaces interfere with capillary action and prevent loss of moisture The so-called dry-farming of the semi-arid region is based on this principle, repeated cultivation being resorted to in order to conserve the moisture. Cap'itoline Hill, one of the seven hills of ancient Rome. It was consecrated to Jupiter, and on it stood a temple of Jupiter, called the Capitol, and also the citadel. The foundations were laid by Tarquinius Priscus, one of the early Roman kings; but the building was not completed until the expulsion of the kings. It was three times burned and successively restored. In it were three shrines, to Jupiter, Juno and Minerva. At the porch of the temple the people were feasted on great occasions. Here were kept the important public docu- ments. Other temples were built later on the hill to Mars, Venus, Fortune, etc. A library and other public buildings were also erected on the hill. At the south end was the Tarpeian Rock, down which state criminals were thrown headlong. In mod- ern times the top of the Capitoline Hill forms what is known as the Piazza, del Campidoglio, surrounded on three sides by palaces. A broad flight of steps leads up to the piazza, upon which are numerous statues. In the palaces are many objects of interest: statues, busts, galleries of pictures; the famous Bronze Wolf; a tomb on which are bas-reliefs telling the story of Achilles; and the well-known statues of the Dying Gladiator, the Antinous of the Capitol and the Faun of Praxiteles. In the hall of illustrious men are 93 busts of notable Greeks and Romans, and in the hall of the emperors is a series of 83 busts of emperors and empresses. The famous Venus of the Capitol is preserved in a cab- inet, not open on public days. Capri. See GARIBALDI. Caprivi (kd-pre've), Count Qeorg Leo von, German general, statesman and chan- cellor (1890-94), was born in 1831 and died February 6, 1899. Entering the army in his 1 8th year, he won rapid promotion, and served with distinction in the cam- paigns of 1864 and 1866. In 1883 he was given command of the 3oth division of the imperial army at Metz, and for a time was also at the head of the German admiralty and reorganized the navy. He was subse- quently given command of the loth or Hanoverian army corps, the finest in the German army. In 1890, on the fall of Bis- marck, Emperor William made him his new chancellor and minister for foreign affairs. In October, 1894, owing to fric- tion with Count Eulenberg over the agrarian malcontents, he resigned office, Prince Hohenlohe succeeding to the chan- cellorship. Cap'sule, in botany a dry fruit com- posed of more than one carpel, which splits open to discharge its seeds. See FRUIT. Capua (ka'pu-d), a fortified city in Cam- pania, Italy, on the River Volturno, 27 miles north of Naples. Ancient Capua was about three miles distant from the present city. It probably was founded by the Etruscans as early as 800 B. C. It fell under the sway of the Samnites and, later, of the Romans. Af er the battle of Cannae it deserted to Hannibal, after whose defeat the city suffered severely. Capua was formerly a luxurious city, and was noted for its gladiatorial shows. It was from the school of gladiators here that Spartacus, with 70 companions, broke forth and or- ganized the insurrection of the slaves. The city was overrun by the Vandals in 456 A. D., and finally destroyed by the Saracens about 840. A few years later, the inhab- itants returned and built the present city. There still remain the ruins of an amphitheater capable of holding 60,000 people. Capuchins (kap'u-chinz), a mendicant order of Franciscan monks, founded in 1528; they derive their name from the cowl or stuff-cap (caputium) they wear. They live chiefly by begging, and go about barefooted, unshaven and generally garbed in brown or gray. The order is most numer- ous in Austria, and is not unknown in the United States. Caracas (ka-rd'kas), the capital of the republic of Venezuela and of the federal district, is six miles from La Guaira, its port on the Caribbean Sea. Built on the slope of the Avila (8,635 feet), it is 3,025 feet above the tide-level, and from its eleva- tion it has an enjoyable climate. There are numerous public parks and gardens and handsome promenades. The most notable buildings are the federal palaces, the presi- dent's Yellow House, the university, whose library of 30,000 volumes is open to the public; the exhibition palace, the cathedral and the splendid basilica of St. Ann. Be- sides the university, there are various col- leges and technical schools. There a^e many newspapers. Caracas is the terminus of four railroads. Its chief export is. coffee CARACCI 332 CARBONIC ACID through the port of La Guaira; also cocoa, caoutchouc, ornamental feathers and furni- tu.e woods. Population, 75,000. Caracci (kar-rd? ch$) or Carracci, a cele- brated family of Italian painters, the found- ers of what is called the Bolognese school of painting, which nourished in the latter half of the i6th century. LUDOVICO CARACCI, son of a butcher, was so poor a student that his masters advised him to give up painting. Instead of following their advice, he went to Parma and Venice, and there studied the works of the great masters, and came back filled with new ideas of his art quite different from the lifeless style of his native Bologna. With his two cousins, he started the eclectic school, which has become famous in the history of painting, and soon all other schools at Bologna were closed. Many of the works of this master are preserved at Bologna. ANNIBALE CARACCI, a cousin of Ludovico, was, perhaps, the greatest artist of his fam- ily. He was born in 1 560. He made rapid progress in the study of painting, and his fame soon reached Rome, where he was employed to paint the Farnese gallery, his greatest work. He died at Rome in 1609, and was buried close to Raphael's tomb in the Pantheon. The best Italian masters of the i yth century were of the school of the Caracci. Car'avans are bands of merchants, pil- grims or other travelers who journey in company through the desert. The name caravan is of Persian origin; the deserts of Asia and Africa are its home. Here travelers seek safety in numbers, as well for defense against robbers as for the sake of aid- ing one another amid other perils of the way, the chief of which are storms of dust and whirlwinds. The hot and sand- laden wind, called in the Sahara Desert the simoom, has been known to destroy a whole caravan by suffocation. Not seldom does a line of half-buried bones of camels and of men greet the eye of the desert voyager. In the case of caravans from Tibet to China, yaks, mules and horses are used rather than camels. Large and famous are the annual cara- vans which convey pilgrims to Mecca from Persia and from Cairo in Egypt. Several thousands of pilgrims will sometimes jour- ney to Mecca in a single caravan. The internal long-distance trade of Asia and Africa is almost wholly a caravan trade. The chief overland trade-route between Russia and China runs close to the Siberian Railroad from Moscow to Irkutsk and thence to Kiakhta and Urga. A vast quantity of cotton goes by caravan from Khiva to Orenburg. Persia relies greatly upon car- avans, since, except for its Russian trade, it is but ill-supplied with railroads. In the hot season it is usual for the desert caravans to travel by night; but they keep to as fixed a route as do ships at sea, as indeed the perils of their course are at least as great. Car'bohy'drates (in plants), substances consisting of carbon and of hydrogen and oxygen in the proportion to form water, which are manufactured by green plants out of carbon dioxid and water in the presence of light. (See PHOTOSYNTHESIS.) Common illustrations of carbohydrates are sugar and starch. Car'bon is one of the elements, and is the characteristic substance of plants and animals. It is found uncombined in the mineral, graphite or black lead, and in the pure, crystallized form in the diamond. Anthracite coal, charcoal, coke and lamp- black are nearly pure forms of carbon. Soft coal and peat also contain much carbon. United with oxygen it is carbon dioxide or carbonic acid, a constituent of the atmos- phere and of carbonates, of which calcium carbonate as limestone, marble, chalk and the earthy matter of corals and shells, as well as dolomite, are very abundant sub- stances. With hydrogen, carbon forms marsh-gas and a great number of hydro- carbons, as those of petroleum and numer- ous coal-tar products. With hydrogen and oxygen it forms acetic acid and other organic acids, alcohol, oils, fats and the so-called carbohydrates, of which the sugars, starch and cellulose, important constituents of plants, are the best known. A great many very complicated carbon compounds occur in plants, and particularly in animals, in which (besides carbon, hydrogen and oxygen), nitrogen and sometimes sulphur and other elements are present. Carbon also unites with certain metals, and with iron it forms steel and cast-iron. Certain denser forms of carbon, such as retort- carbon from gas-works and petroleum- refining, conduct electricity well, and are extensively used in batteries and electric lamps. See CHARCOAL, CHEMISTRY, DIA- MOND and ELECTRIC LIGHT. H. L. WELLS. Car'bondale, a city of Pennsylvania, noted for the mines in its neighborhood, is on the Lackawanna River, 16 miles north- east of Scranton. It is the chief town of Lackawanna County, and its railroad facilities are furnished by the Delaware & Hudson; the New York, Ontario & West- ern; and the New York, Erie & Western railroad. The n\ines of the region are worked by the Delaware and Hudson Canal Company, and yield over a million tons annually. The city's industries have as their motive power abundant electrical and other facilities, derived chiefly from the great adjacent coal-fields. Population, 17,040. Carbon'ic Acid or carbon dioxid, also called fixed air or choke-damp, is a gas which forms about j^W part of the air. CAR-BUILDING 333 CARDIFF Enormous quantities of it are poured into the air by the breathing of animals and the burning of fuel, but plants absorb it by their leaves to get carbon for the formation of wood, and in this way the proportion is kept quite constant. Carbonic acid con- tains by weight 12 parts of carbon and 32 of oxygen. It is a dense gas, heavier than air, and can be poured from one vessel to another like a liquid. In vats in which it is being given off by fermentation, it re- mains at the bottom for some time, even when freely exposed to the air, so that fatal accidents have resulted from workmen care- lessly entering them. Under a pressure of about 600 pounds to the square inch it be- comes a liquid. When this liquid is allowed to escape through a small jet, it rapidly evaporates and causes intense cold, so that a certain portion becomes frozen into a solid resembling snow. This solid passes back into a gas without becoming a liquid. Carbonic acid can be easily dissolved in water. The sparkling appearance of soda and seltzer waters, etc. is produced by the carbonic acid which has been dissolved under pressure, and so passes out when exposed to the air. Champagne and fermented gin- ger beer contain carbonic acid by a natural process of fermentation. The pure gas, or air containing considerable quantities of it, causes suffocation when breathed, because the lungs do not get the necessary oxygen. It does not support burning. If a lighted taper is thrust into a vessel of it, it is im- mediately put out. Carbonic acid may be readily prepared from chips of marble and hydrochloric acid. Car-Building. While the term car strictly means any wheeled vehicle, in America it has been applied only to rail- way cars, in the first instance, but has been extended recently to automobiles or motor-cars. Automobile building will re- ceive separate treatment. The most dis- tinctive feature of the car is the truck, which consists of a frame, one at each end of the car, with two, four, six or even eight wheels underneath, and on the top a swivel, on which the car-body rests, so that it can move freely on the trucks under all the varying conditions of the road. The wheels are of many kinds, agreeing, how- ever, in rejecting the spoke and axle arrange- ment which most wheels have. Moreover, the wheels do not turn on the axle, but are fixed firmly upon it, by shrinking or other means, and the axle turns in the axle box. The wheels have flanges to keep them on the rails. The car rests on two sets of springs, one vertical, which supports a frame, from which the other, an elliptical spring, is suspended. The car rests im- mediately on the latter. The car-body is of many types. The finest is the Pullman car. This was first built about 1867 by George Mortimer Pullman; they are for the most part built at the Pullman works near Chicago. The latest modifications are cars in which the berths are put under the floor, when not in use, and the car itself turned into a parlor-car. The pressed- steel car is built at Pittsburg; in it every part of the car is built of steel. Pullman cars commonly have a steel framework which embraces the platform, so as to form what is called a solid vestibule-train. Their strength has saved many lives in our numerous accidents. American cars differ from those of other countries in their greater size and in having the aisle run up the middle of the car. Among freight-cars the most noteworthy are the refrigerator- cars, which are largely built and owned by private companies, such as the Armour Company and the Swift Refrigerator Com- pany of Chicago. Special cars are used to carry enormous loads of coal from the mountains of Pennsylvania to the coast cities. The Standard Oil has built special tank-cars for its oil. Most of the regular freight and passenger-cars are now built at the shops of the several railroad companies. There are special features, such as auto- matic couplers, now compulsory on all cars, air-brakes, gas-lighting and heating' from the steam of the engine. In most coun- tries of Europe they still employ foot- warmers which can be filled with hot water at certain stations. Cardenas (kdr'dd-nds), Cuba, a seaport in the province of Matanzas, situated on the north side of the island, 78 miles east of Havana, with which it is connected by rail, as well as with Santa Clara, Cien- fuegos and Matanzas. It is the chief port for the export of sugar, and has besides a considerable local commercial trade. It is an attractive city, with many fine plazas and public buildings. In our war with Spain, Cardenas Bay was the scene of a sharp engagement between our blockading vessels and the Spanish batteries, in which the first American officer to lose his life in the war (Ensign Worth Bagley) was killed. Population, 28,576. Car'diff, a seaport town in southern Wales, on Bristol Channel. It is noted for its magnificent docks, from which several millions of tons of iron and coal are ex- ported yearly. Cardiff is well known in history. The Arthurian legend of the sparrow-hawk refers to Cardiff. King Henry I imprisoned, for 26 years, until his death, his brother, Duke Robert, in the old castle, which still stands. The castle was once of enormous strength, and is now the mansion of the Bute family, to whom the present prosperity of Cardiff is largely due. At Cardiff there is a branch of the University of Wales, with a teach- ing staff of 55 and with 66 1 students, Population, 182,280. CARDINAL-BIRD 334 CARLISLE Cardinal-Bird, one of the finest song- birds of America, whose habitat is the southern .states, with kin- dred spe- cies f r e- quenting Mexico, Central A m e r i ca and Lower California . It is some- CARDINAL-BIRD times call- ed the Vir- ginian nightingale, the bird having a clear, whistling and melodious song. Its beau- tiful plumage and attractive song make it a favorite cage-bird, while it is usually hardy, even in confinement. The male bird is of a bright red color, marked with black, and is adorned with a high crest; he is devoted to his mate when breeding; the eggs, usually not over four in number, are in color a speckled white or blue, spotted with brown. Ca'rey, Henry Charles, American polit- ical economist, was born at Philadelphia in 1793 and died there on October 13, 1879. In early years he was associated with his father as a bookseller and publisher, and for a time was at the head of the firm of Carey & Lea. In 1835 he became a close student of political economy, in the ranks of those opposed to the rent-doctrine of Ricardo and the theory of population of Malthus. His chief writings embrace The Principles of Political Economy; The Credit System in France, Britain and the United States; Principles of Social Science; The Unity of Law, etc. He was a protectionist, and opposed to international copyright. Ca'rey, William (born 1761, died 1834), a Baptist missionary and Oriental scholar, was born in Northamptonshire, England. In 1793 he was sent out as a Baptist mis- sionary to India. He established a printing- press at Serampore, and published dic- tionaries and grammars of several eastern languages. From his press there issued 200,000 Bibles, in about 40 different lan- guages or dialects. He was made pro- fessor of Oriental languages in the college at Fort William, Calcutta. The Protestant mission-movement of the igth century regards him as its father. Cargados or St. Brandon Islands are dependencies of Mauritius, and for the most part mere sand-banks. Caribbean Sea (kar'ib-be'an), that part of the Atlantic Ocean lying between Cuba, Santo Domingo and Porto Rico on the north, Venezuela and Colombia on the south, the Lesser Antilles on the east and Central America on the west. It communi- cates with the Gulf of Mexico through a channel, 120 miles wide, between Cuba and Yucatan. Its navigation is for the most part clear and open. It contains some large gulfs. Cariboo and Cassiar are two important districts in British Columbia on the north. Placer miners won $50,000,000 of gold from the creeks and benches of these dis- tricts years ago. Wealthy companies are now engaged in hydraulic mining on a large scale. Large deposits of gold and silver quartz have been found on Portland Canal. Coal and copper ore are plentiful. These districts are proving to be rich and attractive. Caribou. See DEER. Carl'eton, Gen. Sir Guy, Lord Dor- chester. This distinguished soldier and statesman was born at Strabane, Ireland, Sept. 3, 1724. He was at the siege of Louisbourg as lieutenant-colonel; wounded, as colonel, at the storming of Quebec; at the siege of Belle Isle and the taking of Havana 1 by the British and American forces in 1762. On Sept. 24, 1766, he was ap- pointed lieutenant-governor of Quebec, suc- ceeding to the governorship on Jan. 10, 1775, when he took command of the British forces in the Canadas, defending Quebec successfully against Montgomery and Arnold during the siege. He captured Crown Point in October, 1776; was com- missioned lieutenant-general August, 1777; and took supreme command of the British forces in America Feb. 23, 1782, succeed- ing Sir Henry Clinton. He arrived in New York on May 5, and was in command at the evacuation on Nov. 25, 1783. He was reappointed governor of Quebec on April ii, 1786, created Lord Dorchester the August following, resigned the post in 1796, and died near Maidenhead Nov. 10, 1808. Carleton, Will, American author and lecturer, was born at Hudson, Mich., in Oct., 1845, and graduated at Hillsdale College in 1869. Shortly after graduating, he took to journalism and to the writing of ballads of farm and domestic life, which have won him wide popularity. His pub- lished verses in- clude Farm Bal- lads, Farm Le- gends, Farm Festi- vals, City Ballads, Legends and Fes- tivals (3 vols.) , Rhymes of Our Planet and Young Folks' Centennial Rhymes. Carlisle (kdr- IU'), John Grif- fin, an American politician, was born in Kentucky JOHN G. CARLISLE in 1835. After CARLISLE 335 CARLSBAD serving in the legislature and as lieutenant- governor of that state, he was elected to Congress for seven successive terms, and was speaker of the house for three terms. In 1889 he was returned to the United States senate, resigning to become secretary of the treasury under President Cleveland in 1893. He is a forceful debater and one of the most prominent leaders of the Democratic party. Carlisle', Pa., a borough, the county seat of Cumberland County, on the Cum- berland Valley and the Philadelphia & Reading railroad, 17 miles west-south- west of Harrisburg. In the vicinity is Mount Holly, where there are mineral springs of high medicinal value. The borough is the seat of the United States Indian Training and Industrial School, of Dickinson (M. E.) College and of the Metz- ger Institute for girls. Its industries em- brace flour-mills, shoe and carpet-factories, paper-box factories, machine-shops and chain and frog-switch works. Carlisle was founded about the middle of the i8th cen- tury, and here, during the Whiskey Re- bellion the Pennsylvania and the New Jersey troops were mustered; while during the Civil War the place was shelled by the Confederates. Population, 10,726. Carlisle Institute, a training school for the higher education of the Indian youth at Carlisle, Pennsylvania, arose out of the undertaking of Captain R. H. Pratt in 1875 to educate 74 Indian prisoners who had been set under his charge at St. Augus- tine, Florida. At first the education offered was chiefly of an industrial kind. But in 1879 the school was removed to Carlisle, and literary subjects were introduced Into the course of instruction. Various trades are still taught to the Indians at Carlisle, as at Hampton Institute and the Indian schools of the west. Carlisle Institute stands for an effort on the part of the government, which makes an annual grant for its support, to solve the problem of the future of the Indians in a permanent way. This is not to be done by force of arms, but only by education. It is the custom at Carlisle Institute to allow outings to Indian boys and girls, that they may live for a few months with the family of a farmer, earning a small wage, and so learn to un- derstand the customs of their white neigh- bors. See Boone: Education in the United States. Car lists, the name by which are known the supporters of the Spanish pretender Don Carlos, brother of Ferdinand VII, and of later claimants of that branch of the Bourbon family. The name is also applied to the partisans of Charles X of France (1824-30) and his descendants. Car'los I, King of Portugal from 1889 to 1908, was born -on Sept- a8th, 1863, and died by the hand of an assassin on Feb. ist, 1908. Through his father he was a descendant of John of Braganza, some- times called John the Restorer, who was proclaimed king in 1640 when Portugal regained independence from Spain. His mother is the daughter of Victor Em- manuel, the first king of modern Italy, and so the Portuguese monarch was a cousin of Italy's present king. He married a daughter of the Orleans claimant to the throne of France, and himself became king on Oct. i8th, 1889. His reign was marked by serious colonial, financial, political and social troubles. Difficulties with England broke out in regard to Anglo-Portuguese boundaries between the adjoining African possessions of the respective powers. In 1891 the national finances became deranged, interest on the debt was scaled, and in 1907 a monopoly in tobacco was created. The so-called political parties had for de- cades mismanaged the country and robbed its treasury. In 1906-7 the king endeav- ored to end all financial and governmental difficulties at a single stroke by making the premier practically a dictator, sus- pending the constitution and inaugurat- ing drastic fiscal reforms. Revolutionary resistance ensued, and resulted in the as- sassination of the king and the heir-ap- parent, who were fired upon by a group of conspirators on a street in Lisbon as the king and his family were returning to the palace in a carriage. Personally, Carlos was popular, though his injudicious and not always justifiable methods of remov- ing abuses had recently provoked discon- tent. Among scientists he was an author- ity on deep-sea soundings. Carlovingians ( kdr'ld-vin'fi-anz ) , the name of a dynasty, which, during the 8th, gth and loth centuries gave sovereigns to Germany, France and Italy. Their origin dates from the beginning of the 7th century, to Arnulf and Pepin of Landen, two Prankish lords; but the name is de- rived from Charles Martel. His son, Pepin the Short, was the first to take the title of king. Pep in 's son, Charlemagne, by virtue of his wide conquests, styled him- self emperor, and in the year 800 was crowned by the pope as emperor of the western world. When his empire broke up in 887 into nine separate kingdoms, the most important ones, Germany, France and Italy continued for some years under the sway of the family. They ruled in France till Hugh Capet founded the dynasty called the Capetian; in Germany till the rise of the houses of Franconia and Saxony; and in Italy until Otho the Great united that country to the German empire. Carlsbad (kdrls'bdt), a town of Bohemia, 70 miles from Prague. Lying in a beauti- ful narrow valley, between steep granite mountains, it is noted as the most aristo- cratic watering-place in Europe. Its min- CARLYLE CARMICHAEL eral springs are said to have been discov- ered in 1370 by Emperor Charles IV, to whom a statue has been raised in the market place. It is crowded with visitors from June to August, the number averaging from 25,000 to 30,000. Population, 12,579. Carlyle (kdr-lll'), Thomas, a great British historian and essayist, was born at Ecclefechan, Scotland, Dec. 4, 1795. He was educated at Edinburgh University, and for a number of years supported himself by teaching. At the same time he was engaged in literary work and study. He wrote articles for the Ed- inburgh Encyclo- pedia, the Edin- burgh Review and various other mag- azines, making.be- sides, many trans- lations from the German. Sartor Resartus is per- THOMAS CARLYLE hapsCarlyle'smost characteristic work. Its fantastic hero, Diogenes TeufelsdrSckh, illustrates in his life and opinions what Carlyle calls the Philosophy of Clothes. But the work which established his reputation as a genius of the highest order, and proved him to be, as Goethe said, "a new moral force in the world" was his French Revolution. Perhaps the most successful of his works is Cromwell's Letters and Speeches, which entirely changed the current opinion regarding that character. The History of Frederick the Great is Car- lyle's most ambitious work. During a num- ber of years Carlyle lectured on German Literature, the Successive Periods of Euro- pean Culture, the Revolutions of Modern Europe and Heroes and Hero-Worship. He died at the age of 86, Feb. 4, 1881, at his home in Chelsea, London, where he had lived for 40 years. Many honors were offered to Carlyle, most of which he refused; but he accepted the appointment of lord- rector of Edinburgh University. His in- stallation address, On the Choice of Books, is a thought-stimulating and instructive work. He was a friend of many of the great men of his day, such as Coleridge, Goethe, John Stuart Mill and Emerson. Carlyle proba- bly exerted a greater influence on British lit- erature during the middle of the igth cen- tury than any man of his time. Although his literary style is peculiar, rough and jerky, yet it is always powerful and often grand. See his life by Froude, his early letters edited by C. E. Norton and the cor- respondence between Goethe and Carlyle. Carlyle's wife was one of the most accom- plished women of her time. Car' man, Reverend Albert, was born in eastern Ontario in 1833 He is a graduate of Victoria University (Cobourg), and taught for some years. In 1874 he was elected a bishop of the Methodist Church in Canada. After the union of the Method- ist bodies in 1833 he became general super- intendent of the Methodist Church in Canada, and represented the Methodist Church at the Ecumenical Methodist Con- ference held at Washington in 1891. As preacher, organizer, teacher and contro- versialist he has but few equals. Carman [William] Bliss, one of the leading poets of English-speaking America, was born in Fredericton, N. B., April 15, 1 86 1. He graduated from the University of New Brunswick in 1881, and studied later at Harvard University and the Uni- versity of Edinburgh. After experiment- ing with law, engineering and teaching he became an editor of the New York Inde- pendent in 1890, and has since devoted him- self to writing. His poetic writings are voluminous, and include, in addition to the three volumes of Songs from Vagabondia, written in collaboration with the late Rich- ard Hovey, Low Tide on Grand Pre, A Sea-Mark, Behind the Arras, At Michael- mas, Ballads of Lost Haven, By the Aurelian Wall, St. Kavin, The Green Book of the Bards, The Book of Myths, Ode on the Coronation of King Edward, A Winter Holiday, Songs of the Sea-Children, Songs from a Northern Garden. He is a cousin of Charles G. D, Roberts. Of late Mr. Carman has been writing essays on liter- ary and other topics, several volumes of which have appeared in book form. In him speaks the voice of the Canadian forests and sea coasts, and more than one of his poems gives promise of immortality. Carmel (kar'mel), meaning woodland or garden land, is the name of a range of hills in the northwest of Palestine, ending at the sea in the promontory of Mt. Carmel. The average height is 1,500 feet above the sea, and the highest elevation is 1,750 feet. Carmel was the scene of some of the great events of Bible history. It was the retreat of the prophets Elijah and Eljsha. The brook Kishon flows at its base. A convent is now situated on the mountain, where travelers are entertained. A German col- ony has settled near the foot of the mount and on its sides. Carmichael, The Right Reverend James, Bishop of Montreal, born in Dublin, came to Canada, and was ordained in 1859. He became assistant minister of St. George's, Montreal, in 1868, and remained there ten years. He was rector of the Church of the Ascension in Hamilton for some years, but returned to St. George's, Montreal, as rector in 1882, and was appointed Dean of Montreal in 1883. He is president of the Natural History Society of Montreal. He has published several volumes, and is one of the ablest preachers and lecturers in CARNATION 337 CARNEGIE LIBRARIES Canada, held in highest esteem by all the churches. Carna'tion, a beautiful and fragrant double-flowering variety of the clove-pink. It is a universal favorite of florists, and exists only in a state of cultivation. The flower is often three inches in diameter, and _the prevailing colors are white, scarlet and pink. The carnation prefers a rich soil and should have plenty of fresh air. Carnegie (kar-nd'-gi), Andrew, the Scoto- American steel-manufacturer and philan- thropist, was born at Dunfermline, Scot- land, Nov. 25, 1835. His father was a weaver, who, with his family, emigrated in 1848 to the United States. Beginning life with only a limited school education, young Carnegie worked at first in various humble positions in Pittsburg, Pa., where he at length found employment in a telegraph office and obtained a footing in the rail- k road world. The Dasis of the im- "mense fortune he was afterward to amass was due to his connection with ANDREW CARNEGIE iron-works, which he established at Pittsburg, and which sub- sequently developed into the vast industry of the Carnegie Steel Company, located at Homestead and elsewhere in and about Pitts- burg. The Carnegie Company, in February, 1901, was, with a number of other manu- facturing concerns, incorporated as the U. S. Steel Corporation (q. v.), having a total capitalization of one billion one hundred million dollars. In achieving success, he was at a critical period in life aided by making the acquaintance of Mr. Woodruff, inventor of the railway sleeping-car, and by being one of a fortunate oil-syndicate. The story of Mr. Carnegie's career and the vast wealth he has amassed reads like a romance; and, to his honor be it said, he has made noble use of his princely fortunes. For 30 years he has been devoting large sums of money to benevolent objects and especially to the founding and endowing of public libraries, notably $500,000 for a library in Pittsburg and $250,000 for a library in Edinburgh, Scotland, and $5,- 200,000 to erect and equip 80 public libraries in New York City. It is calculated that Mr. Carnegie has spent in all more than 60 million dollars on over 2,000 libraries, which he has been instrumental in founding or aiding. Besides, he has donated ten millions towards the founding at Pittsburg of the Carnegie Institute and fifteen millions for creating the Carnegie Foundation, a trust fund to provide annuities for college professors in the United States, Canada and Newfoundland, who from old age or other physical disability have re- tired from active service. He signalized his retirement from active business in 1901 by gifts of $5,000,000 for the benefit of his old employes. He donated to five Scotish universities the sum of ten million dollars, and twenty-five million dollars to found a university at Washington, D. C., which is to be under the supervision of the national government. He has also donated over ten million dollars for those dependent on persons losing their lives in saving life or for the heroes themselves if they are only injured. Mr. Carnegie is the author of the following publications: Round the World, Triumphant Democracy, The Gospel of Wealth, a Life of James Watt, The Empire of Business, An American Four-in-Hand in Britain, and Problems of Today, together with many articles contributed to the magazines and reviews of the day. Mr. Carnegie has contributed largely to the endowing, both in this country and in Great Britain, of educational institutions and the equiping of hospitals. He also provided funds for the permanent building at The Hague (q. v.) for the international court of arbitration. Carnegie Institution, founded and en- dowed by Andrew Carnegie at Washington, D. C., in 1902, to encourage research, assist investigation and give aid in the promotion of discovery in the arts and sciences, as well as to help in laboratory work and assist meritorious persons and institutions in all de- partments of investigation and research, be- sides promoting the publication and dis- semination of the results of the same. The institution, which has been endowed by its founder with gifts aggregating $25,000,000, is managed by a board of 24 trustees, who meet annually, and by an executive committee acting in concert with the president. Its further design is to increase the facilities of higher education, giving aid to univer- sities, learned bodies, scientists and experts in all important fields of research, investiga- tion and meritorious practical work, and to provide buildings, libraries, laboratories and apparatus. Carnegie Libraries. In 1891 Andrew Carnegie wrote in The North American Review as follows: "The result of my own study of the question: What is the best gift that can be given a community? is that a free library occupies the first place, provided that the community will accept and provide for it as a public institution, as much a part of the city property as the public schools, and indeed an adjunct to those. Closely allied to the library and, when possible, attached to it, there should be rooms for an art-gallery and museum and a hall for such lectures and in- struction as are provided in the Cooper Union (New York City.)" This conclusion is largely the fruit of Carnegie's own experience; for as a poor boy he benefited largely by some books that a kind friend lent him. His CARNIVAL 338 CARNOT policy since the above was written has not changed. A standing offer of a free library is open to any town in the United State or Great Britain, provided that the town will guarantee a certain annual sum, usually 10 per cent, of the amount donated, in sup- port of the library. New York City alone has received over $5,000,000 for such libraries. In Pittsburg the library is rather overshadowed by the allied institutions for instruction, which make up the Carnegie Institute. About $10,- 000,000 is the amount of Carnegie's contribu- tion to this. St. Louis has received $i ,000,000, Detroit $750,000. But it is impossible to mention all the libraries that have been es- tablished by Carnegie in this country and Great Britain. His estimate of the value of libraries, quoted above, is emphasized by the fact that so large a proportion of his gifts have gone to helping them. A significant remark of Mr. Carnegie, in this connection, is that when he was a boy he was so busy reading the books that interested him that he had no time for the wasteful and injurious habits acquired by idle boys. Car' nival, a festival which originally began on the day after the feast of Epi- phany and lasted till midnight on Shrove Tuesday; that is, from January 6 till Lent. In later times it was limited to from three to eight days before Ash Wednesday. The forms and customs of the carnival come from the old heathen festivals of the spring- time. Banquets of rich meats and drink- ing bouts were its chief attractions during the midd e ages. The chief days had dis- tinct names, as fat or greasy Sunday, blue Monday, etc. In Germany the carnival is celebrated in the cities of the Rhine provinces and is also being revived in the north. The celebration is usually confined to the wearing of masks, to pro- cessions in costume and masked balls. In the south of France and throughout Italy, especially in the cities, it is still a popular festival. Venice used to be noted for the splendor of its carnivals; that of Rome was long the most noted yearly revel in the southern cities of Europe. Here races of riderless horses along the crowded Corso, the throwing of flowers and plaster con- fections from the windows and balconies on the people in the carriages and cars in the streets and a return fire from below were among the chief features and frolics of the celebration. In recent years the Ro- man carnival has practically ceased. Carniy'orous Plants, certain seed- plants which have developed the habit of capturing insects and using them for food. They live usually in swampy regions, and are able to capture insects in various ways, and then digest them and absorb the nutri- tious substances. The commoner forms are as follows: The pitcher plants, be- longing to the genus Sarracenia, are com- mon in swampy ground both north and south. The leaves are shaped like slender hollow cones and rise in tufts from the ground, the cone containing water, and its mouth being more or less overarched by a hood. A sweetish substance is secreted about the rim, and attracts the insects, which fall into the cone and are drowned. Such pitchers are often found more or less filled with the decaying remains of captured insects. In California a huge pitcher plant, Darlingtonia by name, has leaves some- times three feet high. The best known tropical forms belong to the genus Nepen- thes and its allies, in which the urns swing from the tendrils developed at the ends of the leaves. Various forms of Nepenthes are common in greenhouses. Another group of carnivorous plants is the group of sun- dews, belonging to the genus Drosera. They also grow in swampy ground and have rosettes of basal leaves, which are beset by sensitive glandular hairs. Small in- sects coming in contact with a sticky gland are held fast, and the leaf closes over the struggling victim and digests it. Perhaps the most remarkable carnivorous plant is Dioncea or Venus' fly-trap, which is found only in sandy savannas near Wilmington, N. C. The leaf blade is constructed like a steel trap, and the two halves snap to- gether whenever any of the bristles are touched by an insect. In this way the insect is caught and gradually digested. JOHN M. COULTER. Carnot (kdr'no'), Marie Fra^ois Sadi, a French states- man, was born at Limoges, in 1837. Entering politics, he became a leader of the strict repub- licans. He was elected a member of the national as- sembly and later of the chamber of deputies, and was minister of public works and finance. In 1887 he became president of France. He was assassinated a t M. FRANCOIS SADI CARNOT Lyons, June 24, 1894. Carnot (kar'no'}, Nicolas Leonard Sadi, a distinguished French engineer and phy- sicist, born at Paris, June i, 1796; died Aug. 24, 1832. In his memoir on the Motive Power of Heat he investigated the problem of using heat to do work in an en- gine, and he first showed under what con- ditions the heat may be most economically used. This result, which is embodied in a law known as Carnot's Theorem, is one of the foundation-stones of the science of CAROB 339 CARPACCIO thermodynamics. (See Magie's translation of Carnot's paper in Harper's Scientific Memoirs) . Carob (kar'ob) or locust tree, a native of the Mediterranean countries. In size and manner of growth it is somewhat like the apple tree, but has dark, evergreen leaves. The fruit is a brown, leathery pod, four to eight inches long, containing fleshy and, at the last, spongy and mealy pulp of an agreeable, sweet taste, in which he a number of brown seeds, like flattened beans. The sweet pulp makes the pods an important article of food to the poorer classes. They are also used as food for horses and cattle. They are sometimes called St. John's bread, in allusion to the tradition that they are the locusts which formed the food of John the Baptist in the wilderness. They are also thought to be the husks in the parable of the Prodigal Son. Some carob trees yield 800 or 900 pounds of pods. A preserve and a kind of sugar are sometimes made from the pulp. The carob is not the same as the American locust. Carol I, King of Rumania, was born in Germany, April 20, 1839, the son of Prince Carl of Hohenzollern. In 1866, he was chosen prince of Rumania, then a dependency of Turkey. In 1881 he declared Rumania independent and became king. His nephew Ferdinand succeeded him on his death October 10, 1914. Car'oline Islands, a group of about 500 coral islets, which form part of the crerman New Guinea protectorate, in the western Pacific, lying between the Marshall and Pelew Islands, with an area of 270 square miles. The Pelew group, sometimes included in the Caroline Archipelego, covers 560 square miles. Three quarters both of the area and the population are to be found in five volcanic islands, which are all fer- tile and well watered. The people belong to the brown Polynesian stock, are strongly built, and are amiable, gentle and intelligent. They are bold sailors and carry on a thriv- ing trade with the Ladrones to the north, where they have several settlements. Copra, the dried kernel of the cocoanut, is largely exported. The islands were discovered in 1527 by the Portuguese, and in 1866 were annexed to Spain. In 1885 a dispute arose over the islands between Spain and Germany, which was referred to the pope for decision. He decided in favor of Spain, but gave Germany special trade privileges. In 1899 Germany secured the group by purchase from Spain. For administrative purposes the islands are divided into three groups: the Eastern Carolines, with Ponape as the seat of government; the Western Carolines and the Pelew Islands, with Yap as administrative center; and the Marianne or Ladrone Islands, of which Saipan will be the future seat of government. The population is mainly of Malay origin, with some Japs and Chinese and about 900 whites. The northern group of the islands, being volcanic, is for the most part unin- habited. In 1898 one of this group of is- lands, Guam, was ceded to the United States. Caroline of Brunswick (1768-1821), queen of George IV of England, whom she married in 1795, as Prince of Wales and be- fore that monarch came to the throne. In 1796 she gave birth to the Princess Charlotte, and after this event the prince separated from her; and when in 1820 he became king, he refused to permit her to share the throne as his queen. To induce her 'to yield, she was offered 50,000 pounds sterling a year if she would leave England; but this she in- dignantly refused. As the English generally took her side and thought her an ill-treated wife, the government was ill-advised enough to institute proceedings against her for un- chastity. This gave Lord Brougham, while yet at the bar, the opportunity of making an eloquent defense of her cause, which forced the governmen to abandon its divorce bill which it had lobbied through the house of lords. She died a fortnight after she had been refused admittance at Westminster, on the coronation day of her husband. Carp, a common widely distributed food- fish. The carp family is the largest family of fishes, and embraces, as relatives of the carp proper, the chub, dace, shiners, gold- fish, etc. The carp is a hardy, sluggish fish, CARP often bred in artificial ponds. It eats water- insects and other small aquatic animals and also leaves of water-plants. It is preyed upon by kingfishers, turtles and crayfishes; while a number of fish feed upon its eggs and young. Carpaccio, Vittore (ve-td'rd kar-pd'cho ) , an Italian artist, was born about 1450 and died in 1525. All that is known of him is that Istria was his birthplace and Venice his home. He belonged to its old school of painters, being one of the most celebrated masters and a rival of Bellini, and put Venice into the backgrounds of his pictures. He excelled as an architectural and landscape painte , but preferred to paint sacred sub- jects dramatically. His histories of Saints Stephen and Ursula are his most celebrated paintings. He was vivid in imagination, natural in expression and correct in arrange- CARPATHIAN MOUNTAINS 340 CARPET-SWEEPER ment, and employed a great variety of fig- ures and costumes. Benedetto, his son, lived about 1550, and painted a fine Coronation of the Virgin. Carpathian (kdr-pd'tht-ari) Mountains, the second great range of central Europe, extend in a great semicircle over a space of 880 miles from Presburg on the Danube to Orsova on the same river. They lie almost entirely within the Austrian dominions, forming two great masses: one in Hungary, which abounds in minerals; and one in Transylvania, whose highest peak, Negoi, is 8,343 feet high. Between the peaks are lower ranges of wooded mountains. Forests, steep precipices, narrow ravines and extinct craters combine to make the Carpathians a magnifi- cent spectacle. The mine; of Schemnitz in ;he Hungarian range are celebrated. Car 7 pel. The innermost structure of the flower, which contains the ovules. A flower may have one or more carpels which remain separate from one another or unite to form a single pistil. See FLOWER. Car'penter, William Benjamin (born 1813, died 1885), an English medical man and great writer on physiology, was born in Exeter, and after studying medicine devoted himself to scientific study and investigation. He was appointed at different times lecturer and professor at various institutions, and edited a medical review and a Popular Cyclo- paedia of Science. He made three voyages to the North Atlantic and Mediterranean to make explorations in the deep sea, in the study of biology. In 1882 he lectured in the United States. His work and writings have done much for science. Among his publica- tions may be mentioned Zoology and the In- stincts of Animals, The Microscope and its Revelations, a work on Comparative Physiol- ogy and The Principles of Mental Physiology. Carpet, a covering for floors, usually man- ufactured principally, of wool. Carpets of some sort dat * back to very early times. They were in use in ancient Greece and Italy and probably in Egypt. Among the most famous carpets are those of Persia. Even among the higher classes there, carpets form nearly all the furniture of a room, and a Per- sian not only sits and sleeps upon a carpet, but makes a table of one. Fine Persian carpets are highly prized for their beautiful designs and ihe quiet harmony of their colors. Small pieces of old Persian carpets recently old in Paris for over $5,000 apiece. Indian carpets and Turkey carpets are well known varieties. A few Turkish and imita- tion Persian carpets are made in Adrianople. The Scotch carpet is the oldest kind of ma- chine-made carpet. The Brussels is a famous European make. In this carpet the worsted threads are interwoven into a network of linen. It is woven on a loom with an appara- tus which, at each throw of the huttle, raises such of the co'ored yarns to the surface as the pattern requires. Velvet, tapestry and jute carpets are also much used. Great Brit- ain is the great center of the world's carpet- making, including the well known Brussels, Wilton, Kidderminster and Ax minster van- ties. In the United States carpet-manufac- ture has also become an important industry, and many of the most valuable improve- ments are the result of American inventive genius. There are in the United States about 400 carpet-factories, which annually produce about 75,000,000 yards of carpeting, valued at over $60,000,000. Philadelphia is the most important seat of the industry in the United States. Associated with the trade in carpets and pile-fabrics is that in rugs and tapestry. The latter was early known to the Greeks, and had been carried to a high state of per- fection at Athens, but it is usually associated with the Flemish weavers of Arras during the 1 5th and i6th centuries. It was intro- duced into England by Wm. Sheldon, in Henry VIII's reign, and into Paris by Henri IV about 1606, the Gobelin tapestry being due to Louis XIV. The Bayeux tapestry is simply a roll of linen-cloth worked with col- ored thread. Carpet-Baggers. After the Civil War the southern states fell largely into the hands of the negroes, who had just received the right to vote. To take advantage of their ignorance many politicians of low prin- ciples came down from the north, and became citizens of such states and then leaders of the negro voters. They were called carpet- baggers because many of them had no prop- erty interest in the southern states, and came down with nothing-but what they could carry in a carpet-bag. These men, having got into office and power, proceeded to rob the south- ern states and to humiliate the southern whites. In many cases they laid a burden of debt and of unwise legislation upon those states. Carpet-Beetle, a small beetle, the larva of which is very destructive to carpets, woolen clothing, furs and feathers. It has attracted wide attention in recent years on account of its injury, especially to carpets. The larva is about one fifth of an inch long, and covered with dark brown hairs. It is frequently called buffalo-moth. The perfect insect is a small black, white and red beetle, about one seventh of an inch long, feeding on the pollen of flowers often on currant bushes. They enter houses in > spring to lay their eggs. The best way to avoivl thtc pest is to use rugs instead of carpets and trap the larvae by woolen cloths on the floors of closets. Carpet-Sweeper, a familiar and useful device in the economics of the household for brushing carpets and rugs with ease, effi- ciency and the absence of dust. It consists of a revolving brush enclosed in a wooden and metal box, and is put in mechanical oper- ation by pushing the attached long handle back and forth on the carpet, the revolving CARPOGONIUM 341 CARROLL brush gathering up the dust and confining it, until emptied, in the receptacle which forms part of the machine. Car'pogo'nium (in plants), the peculiar female organ of the red algae. See RHODO- PHYCEyE. Carrara (kdr-rd'ra) , a town of Italy, about sixty miles northwest of Florence, lies in a deep valley of the Apennines near the sea. It is famous for its marble quarries, which have been worked since the days of the Romans. Its port is Avenza, at a distance of some three miles. The value of the marble of Carrara lies not only in its beauty but in its durability and smoothness when polished. No stone is so much in demand for the art of the sculptor. Each year sees an output of over 100,000 tons of Carrara marble; and, if we include those who saw and polish the stone for export, the quarries afford employ- ment to about six thousand men. Carriage, a general name for any vehicle used to carry passengers, either on roads or railroads. It is mounted on two or more wheels and varies in form and build. The earliest carriages were made for war, but as far back as the time of Joseph carriages were used also for royal pageants. Among the Greeks chariot-races formed an important part of the Olympic games; the Romans had two, three and even four-horse chariots; and the Scythians are said to have had a covered chariot, the top of which could be removed and used as a tent. The earliest record of the carriage of modern times belongs to about the year 1280, when Charles of Anjou entered Naples with his queen, riding in a caretta, a small decorated car. But it was considered an effeminate habit to use car- riages, and Queen Elizabeth reigned seven years before she had a coach. The boatmen and the owners and bearers of sedan chairs bitterly opposed them. The early carriages were heavy, lumbering affairs, without springs. Early in the i8th century leather straps were used to suspend the body of the coach, and in 1804 the oval springs, now so common, were invented by an Englishman. Since then the improvements in carriages have been numerous. There are many sorts of carriages; of two- wheeled vehicles are the gig, dog-cart, hansom-cab, etc.; of four- wheeled open carriages are the phaeton, wagonette, etc. ; the coach and omnibus are examples of closed carriages. The barouche can be opened or closed at will. Most Euro- pean forms are used and have been improved in the United States, but there also are several distinctly American vehicles: the rockaway, the sulky, the buckboard and the light American buggy. In Japan and other eastern countries, the jinrikisha is used, which is a two- wheeled light cart pulled by a man. For railroad-cars see RAILROAD. Carrier, Common, in law and commerce a company or individual trader who engage for hire to carry merchandize, freight or miscellaneous articles, and transport and deliver such to a given address or designated town or place. In law, he is bound to use reasonable expedition and care in the deliv- ery of what is entrusted to him, and, so far as he can, to protect such from damage or mishap by the way, as well as from the result of negligence, and this whether it be by land or by water. Unless specially stipu- lated and agreed to, the carrier is not bound to carry articles of a dangerous character, involving risks in their cartage and trans- portation; nor is he usually held liable for perishable goods save where undue delay has occurred in transmitting them. In the case of railroad and steamboat companies trans- porting passengers from place to place, the law requires of them that they shall use all care and reasonable expedition in conducting the traffic. The liability of passenger carriers for baggage committed to their charge is also deemed the same as that of common carriers and forwarders of general merchan- dise. Carrier=Pigeon, one of the more notable of the extensive varieties of pigeons or doves of the domestic breed, trained to convey letters or despatches from distant places, and often from a vessel far at sea, to its home. These bird-messengers to-day in use are known as homing-pigeons, many of them being made to accompany armies in the field (as in the Franco-Prussian War), whence they are despatched with messages to their homes, sometimes as far distant as 200, 300 and even 500 miles off. Their use in this re- spect is an old one, dating back even to the era of the first crusade (noo), when pigeon- posts were utilized by the Saracens for the transmission of information as to where they were and how it fared with them in engage- ments with the enemy. The carrier-pigeon is a bird of about 15 inches in length, mark- edly carunculated about the beak and eyes, and with wings extending almost to the tip of the tail. Their intelligence is great, and their fligkt is straight and rapid, though, as a rule, not exceeding 30 or 40 miles an hour, In long flights they are liable to attacks from enemies; while thick, foggy weather is a distinct disadvantage to them. Car'roll, Charles, of Carrollton, (1737- 1832), American patriot, one of the 56 signers of the Declaration of Independ- ence, was born at Annapolis, Md., of Irish descent, and educated in Europe, chiefly in the Jesuit colleges in France. An inheritor of large wealth and heir to old manorial estates in Maryland, the youth returned to this country and soon espoused the cause of the colonies against the British crown and stoutly opposed arbitrary taxation. When the Revolutionary War came, it found him a member of the Continental Congress, and with others, including Benjamin Franklin, he was despatched to Canada to endeavor to get that colony to break with the mother CARSON 342 CARTHAGE KIT CARSON country and join those to the south of the line in seeking independence. Failing in his mission, he became a member of the Mary- land constitutional convention and later one of its senate. From 1789 to 1791 he was a member of the federal senate and also served on the Maryland and Virginia boundary commission. In 1828 he laid the corner- stone of the Baltimore and Onlo Railway, and four years later died at Baltimore in his 95th year. His life and journals have been published. Carson, Christopher, popularly known as Kit Carson, a famous American trapper and guide, was born in Kentucky in 1809. While yet a youth his family moved to Missouri, and he early engaged in trapping. He spent eight years as hunter to Bent's fort, and then acted as guide in the explorations of General Fremont. One of his most difficult feats was the driving of 6,500 sheep to California. He be- came Indian agent in New Mexico, and helped to bring about many treaties with the Indians. During the Civil War he did good service, and at its close was breveted brigadier-general. He died at Fort Lynn, Col., in 1868. Carson City, Nev., the seat of Orrnsby County and the capital of the state, is on the Virginia & Truckee Railway, 12 miles east of Lake Tahoe at the foot of the Sierra Nevada and 30 miles south of Reno. It lies in a fertile region, its chief industries being mining, lumbering and agricultural opera- tions. Besides its gold and silver mines (and here is the noted Comstock Lode), there are hot springs in the region. Settled in 1858, the town became the capital three years later, while in 1875 ^ received its charter as a city. Within the city are the state and federal buildings, including a branch mint, and in the neighborhood are a U. S. govern- ment Indian School and the state prison. Its population, which has declined of recent years, was in 1910 but 2,466. Cartagena (kdr'td-je'nd), Spain, an im- portant historic town and fine seaport on the Mediterranean, in the province of Murcia, is situated in the southeast of the kingdom, south of Alicante and east of Almeria in Andalusia. Its population in 1910 was 96,- 983. Its harbor, which is defended by strong fortifications, is one of the best on the coast and was formerly the chief naval arsenal of Spain. In early days it was the great commercial emporium of the Carthaginians,, and was founded in 242 B. C. by Hasdrubal. Thirty-two years later, it was captured by Scipio Africanus and in A. D. 550 it was destroyed by the Goths; it has otherwise suffered from invasion and capture at differ- ent eras. Today the city, which is an epis- copal see, has many interesting ruins, among them the Castillo de la Concepcion, situated on a fine promontory, while notable are many of its churches (especially the cathedral, a Gothic structure which dates from the i3th century). The arsenal, docks, dockyards, barracks and hospitals, besides its foundries, machine shops, glass and smelting works and other industrial establishments, are worthy of a visit. Its exports consist of minerals, including lead, zinc, copper, silver ore, coke and coal ; besides machinery, lumber, esparto grass, oranges, lemons. Carteret (kdr'ter-et), Sir George, an English vice-admiral, royal lieutenant-gov- ernor of the island of Jersey in the English Channel and one of the original proprietors of the land lying between the Hudson and the Delaware, afterward named in his honor New Jersey, was born on Jersey about 1612 and died in 1680. With Lord Berkeley, a favorite of Charles the Second's court, Car- teret was granted by the Duke of York (after- ward James II), portions of New Amsterdam and what is now New Jersey. On the lattef Carteret settled a colony, which should enjoy religious freedom and a liberal government resembling that of Maryland. The relations between the colonists and Carteret were, nevertheless, not harmonious; and portions of the lands were made over to the Quakers, ultimately, however, to revert again to the crown until the War of the Revolution. Car'thage (kdfthdf), a city on the north- ern coast of Africa, the capital of one of the great empires of the ancient world. It stood on a peninsula of the region that is now Tunis, and was founded, probably, about the middle of the gth century B. C. by Phoeni- cians from Tyre or from the Tyrian colony of Utica. The Carthaginians belonged to the Semitic race, and were an offshoot from the Canaanites. Vergil in his ALneid relates a mythical story of the unfortunate Queen Dido and the young city, but little is really known of the city's rise to power and wealth. About the 6th century it appears as the center of a great commerce and the capital of wide dominions in Africa, Sardinia, Sicily, Corsica and probably Malta. In 525 B. C. Carthage narrowly escaped destruction at the hands of Cambyses, the Persian king, and in 509 B. C. occurred her first treaty with the rising power of Rome. About this time began the contest between the Cartha- ginians and the Greeks for the possession of Sicily. Greece had settled a large part of that island with her colonies, and while she was engaged in her struggle with Persia, Carthage resolved to wrest Sicily from hei CARTHAGE 343 grasp. The first expedition was utterly cut to pieces on the same day that the battle of Salamis was fought. The war was carried on for 250 years, with long intervals of inac- tion and with varying success; but in 276 B. C., when the struggle closed, Carthage was strongly established in the island. But a new enemy now appeared to contest with Carthage the sovereignty of the Mediterra- nean, in the growing power of Rome. In 264 B. C. began the famous Punic wars. By the close of the first of these wars, in 241 B. C., Carthage had lost Sicily; but her general, Hamilcar, and his son-in-law, Has- drubal, built up a new power in Spain, and at their death, Hannibal, the son of Hamil- car, one of the greatest generals the world has ever seen, found himself able to renew the struggle. In 219 B. C. broke out the second Punic War. Hannibal issued from Spain, crossed the Alps, descended into Italy, and, in battle after battle, with in- ferior forces routed the best soldiers of the ancient world. He brought Rome to the verge of ruin, but he was not supported by his own people. As Arnold the historian has said, it was the war of a man with a nation. After fifteen years in Italy Hannibal was recalled to defend his own city, and in 202 B. C. he was defeated in the battle of Zama by Scipio. Peace was concluded and the power of Carthage was broken. But Rome was resolved on the destruction of the city, and on a slight pretext declared war in 149 B. C. Three years later the third Punic War closed with the fall of the city after a siege of two years. For six days, however, the fighting went on in the streets, men and women defending their homes with fierce despair, contesting every foot o' the ground. The city was, nevertheless, razed to the ground, and the country became a Roman province. Carthage became, later on, one of the chief cities of the Roman empire. In the 5th century A. D. it became the capital of the Vandal kingdom of Africa, and it was destroyed at the end of the 7th century by the Arabs. Like other Canaan- ites, the Carthaginians practiced a horrible form of fire-worship, human victims being offered to their chief god, Moloch. No Car- thaginian art o literature remains, if, indeed, there ever existed any worthy of the name. The government was carried on by two chief magistrates and a senate of the leading families, and also by an assembly of the people, which, however, had little power. Their armies were generally made up, in large measure, of hired troops. The Carthaginians were a great trading people. Their ships sailed as far west as the Azores and as far north as Britain and th ? Baltic. There was in that day an immense trade with the interior of Africa as well as with the Gallic tribes. At the time of the siege of Carthage by the Romans the city is said to have had 700,000 inhabitants. See DIDO, HANNIBAL and ROME. Carthage, Mo., a city, the county seat of Jasper County, on Spring River and on the Mo. Pacific, the St. Louis & San Fran- cisco and White River R. R's; 54 miles west of Springfield and 150 miles southeast of Kan- sas City. Mines of lead, zinc and cobalt and quarries of marble and limestone are worked in the vicinity; its other industries, which are flourishing, embrace the manufacture of shoes, bed-springs and plows, besides its foundries and flour mills. Many public buildings, including a courthouse, library, churches and schools add very greatly to the attractions of this progressive city; it also has two fine parks. The town was destroyed in the Civil War, but soon afterwards rebuilt. Near the city an engagement occurred between a Union force under General Sigel and a force of Confederates under Generals Jackson and Price. The result was indecisive. Population, 12,000. Cartier (kar'tyA'), Sir George Etienne, Canadian statesman and leader of the French-Canadian Conservatives in the Do- minion parliament, was born in 1814, and died in England, May 20, 1873. He was descended from the great navigator, Jacques Cartier. As a young man he took part in the rebellion of 1837, and had to leave the country for a while. Ten years later,, after an amnesty had been issued, he entered Parliament, and in 1856 he became attor- ney-general for Lower Canada. From 1858 to 1862 he was premier; and in 1867, as a member of the Macdonald administration, he took an active part in bringing about Canadian confederation under the British North America Act of that year. He was made a baronet by the crown in 1868. Cartier, Jacques, a French navigator, was born at St. Malo in Brittany in 1494. He was intrusted by Francis I with the command of an expedition to explore the western hemisphere, and, setting sail in April, 1534, touched on the coast of New- foundland and discovered the mainland of Canada, which he claimed for France by erecting a wooden cross. The next year he sailed up the St. Lawrence as far as the Indian village of Hochelaga, to which he gave the name of Mont Royal, the site of the modern Montreal. In a third voyage, in 1541, he built a fort named Charlesbourg near the present site of Quebec. Whether he made any more voyages is uncertain, and the date of his death is not definitely known, though supposed to have occurred in 1557. Cart'ilage. See GRISTLE. Cart' wright, Edmund (lived from 1743 to 1823), the inventor of the power-loom, was born in England, and until the age of 40 devoted himself to the ministry. In 1784 he happened to talk with some men from Manchester on the subject of mechan- ical weaving, and, although he had never taken any interest in mechanics, he set CARTWRIGHT 344 CASCADE RANGE to work, and by April of the following year he had his first power-loom in running order. The invention was opposed both by spinners and their workmen, and the first factory was burned down. But improve- ments were added, and it finally mad* its way. Cartwright spent the remainder of his life in experiments in the use of steam- power in boats and carriages, but died without reaching any result. For his in- vention Parliament voted him $50,000. Cart' wright, Peter, the "Backwoods Preacher," was born in Amherst County, Va., in 1785. His family moved early to Kentucky, and when about 16 he became interested in religion. For many years he preached to the backwoodsmen, and his sim- ble, forcible and earnest words made a deep impression. In 1812 he was made a presid- ing elder, and spent over 65 years in differ- ent western conferences. He traveled n circuits and 12 presiding-elder's districts; received more than 10,000 members into the church; baptized more than 12,000 persons; and preached in all about 15,000 sermons. His story is told in his Fifty Years a Presiding Elder and the Auto- biography of Peter Cartwright the Back- woods Preacher. He died in Illinois in 1872. Cartwright, Rt Hon. Sir Richard John, P. C. (Great Britain), G. C.M.G., K.C,. M.G., was born at Kingston, Ont., Dec. 14, 1835, the son of the late Rev. R. D. Cartwright, chaplain to the forces, and was educated at Trinity College, Dublin. He has been in the parliament of old Canada and that of the Dominion almost continu- ously since 1863, was finance minister from 1873 t I 878, chief financial critic and one of the Opposition leaders from 1879 to 1896, acting premier and leader of the house of commons in 1897 and minister of trade and commerce of the Dominion in the Laurier cabinet. In 1897 he went to Washington for the promotion of bet- ter relations between Canada and the United States, proposed a joint commission, and served on the Anglo-American Joint High commission at Quebec in 1898 and in Wash- ington in 1898-9. Caruso, Enrico. Born at Naples, Italy, in 1872. The son of a mechanic, and, as a boy, working for two lire (40 cents) a day. With later years he developed a vibrant and expressive voice which led to his debut on the operatic stage in 1896. He appeared at the Metropolitan Opera House in New York City in November, 1903, and at later dates, and has sung in South America, Russia and England. He has been decorated by the kings of Italy and Portugal. Ca'ry, Alice and Phoebe, American authors, were born near Cincinnati in 1820 and 1824, respectively. Though receiving only a slight education, they early began 1 to write. The poems of Alice and Phcebe Gary showed much poetic power. The two sisters removed to New York in 1852. Alice became a constant contributor to the leading magazines, and also wrote novels and poetry, which subsequently appeared in oook-form. The writings of Phcebe consist mainly of poems. Both sisters died in 1871. Casas (las kd'sds) , Bartolome" de las, bishop of Chiapa in Mexico, called the Apostle of the Indians, was born at Seville, Spain, in 1474. He studied at Salamanca, and with his father set out on the third voyage of Columbus, and in 1502 accompanied Nicholas de Ovando to Hispaniola. In 1511, having the year before entered the priesthood, he was sent to Cuba to help to pacify the island, and for his services he received an allotment of Indians as slaves. But soon sympathy for them in their piteous condition moved him to go to Spain and ask for a commission to investigate into their condition. He further sought that negro slaves be imported to take the place of the Indians in the heavier work and thus prevent their total extermination. He also attempted to take out Castilian peasants as colonists, but, failing in this, he retired to a Dominican convent in His- paniola to spend eight years in solitude and study. In 1530 he again visited Spain, and after four years of missionary work in Mexico, Nicaragua, Peru and Guatemala he returned to spend four more years in the hope of gaining his purpose. During this period he wrote veynte Razones (Twenty Reasons) and Brevissima Relation de la Destruycion de las Indias, which has been translated into all European languages. He was offered the bishopric of Cuzco, but preferred the poor one of Chiapa, and arrived at Ciudad Real, its chief city, in 1544. Here he persisted in his campaign against the allotments of Indians, but the revocation of the new laws by Charles V caused him to resign in 1547. In 1550 he argued before a junta against SepuJveda, who advanced the right to carry on war against the Indians, and in 1555 he pre- vailed upon Philip II not to sell the rever- sionary rights of the allotments. The re- storation of the court of justice to the native Guatemalans was the last act before his death, which occurred in a convent at Madrid, July, 1566, at the age of 92. S*e Life by Sir Arthur Helps. Cascade (kas-kdd) Range, a ra.*rge of mountains in the western part of Wash- ington and Oregon and British Columbia, forming a continuation of the Sierra Nevada of California. It runs nearly north and south at an average distance of about 100 miles from the seacoast. The chain through- out most of its course is heavily wooded; but its chief feature is the presence of beautiful cone-shaped and perpetually snow- CASCADE TUNNEL 345 CASIMIR-PERIER clad peaks on parts of tke ramge. There are many traces of volcanoes', and volcanic action is not quite extinct in the region of Washington. The main peaks are Mounts Tacoma (14,444 feet), St. Helen's (12,000 feet), Baker (10,700 feet), Hood (11,225 feet), Jefferson (10,200 feet) and Pitt (9,818 feet). The Cascade Mountains, geol- ogists state, are of much more recent forma- tion than the Rocky Mountains proper. Cascade Tunnel, a great engineering feat on the line of the Great Northern Railway which was undertaken and ac- complislied between 1897 and 1900 after studendous labor and monetary outlay. It pierces at a high elevation the Cascade Range of the Rocky Mountains, and is in length about 2$ miles or, with its ex- tended shed at either end, nearly 14,500 feet. The difficulties of the task were vast, chiefly by reason of the large boulders and mass of water-impregnated gravel met with in its construction, necessitating the employment of extra concentric sets of timbers in its building and for perma- nent support and safety. The tunnel, moreover, had to be heavily lined with solid concrete, the pressure upon it being so great. Casault, Sir Louis E. N., was born and educated in the province of Quebec. He was a member of the Legislative As- sembly of Canada 1854-8, and of the House of Commons 1867-70. Appointed a judge of the Superior Court of Quebec, 1870, and was one of the arbitrators who determined the disputed accounts between Canada and the provinces of Ontario and Quebec. He was chief justice from 1894 until his death, which occurred in 1908. Cashmere (kash'mer 1 ), Vale of, or, as it is now usually spelled, Kashmir, the valley of the Upper Jhelum, celebrated in history and literature for the beauty of its scenery and the charms of its climate, lies in the feudatory state of Kashmir north of the Punjab. It extends for about 120 miles i.-om northwest to southeast, with a mean breadth of 75 miles. The flat portion of the valley is not more than 80 miles long by 20 wide, with an elevation above sea-level of from 5,000 to 7,000 feet. In it are two lakes. It is entered by many passes, for ranges of the Himalaya Moun- tains traverse the country. Snow-capped mountains almost surround it, with their lower spurs descending in rice-producing, terraced slopes to the level part of the valley. On the margin of the lakes and throughout the whole valley are splendid groves of china or plane trees, here and there laid out with taste to form gardens and coun- try seats, which two centuries ago used to be the favorite resorts of the Mogul em- perors. Avenues of poplars line the river. On the surface of the lakes are floating gardens, made up of masses of grwig plant* from two to three feet thick. Occupying both banks of the river is the quaint old town of Srinagar, the capital. Seven log-built bridges cross the stream. The fertility of the soil is remarkable. Shawl-weaving and lacquer- work are the chief occupations of the people. Kashmir and Jammu form one of the feudatory or native states of In- dia, .with an area of 80,000 square miles and a population of about 3,000,000. Cash-Register. The typical cash-reg- ister is that manufactured by the National Cash Register Company, of Dayton, Ohio, and found in so many retail stores. They serve two purposes: to check possible dishonesty of the assistants and to take the place of the cash-sale book. There are rows of keys, like those on a typewriter, but with numbers upon them; a cash drawer which can only be opened by pressing on a key; a bell that is rung when- ever a key is pressed; and a sign which tells anyone looking at the face of the reg- ister what key has been struck. When anyone strikes a key, therefore, and thus opens the drawer, the bell gives notice of the fact. At the same time the cus- tomer sees whether the right amount was recorded. Finally, the machine {makes a record, every time a key is struck, of the amount or number on the key; and it automatically adds them, so that at a glance the employer can see when he opens the record-box how many 50, ice, etc. have been received. He adds these totals into a grand total, and then checks by its aid the amount of money in the drawer. This record no one can get at without a key. In many such machines the operator can keep a separate record of the following accounts: amounts charged; cash received; and cash paid out. Thus the cash-register is a book-keeper as well as a detective. The first cash-register was that invented in 1879 by John Ritty, of Dayton, O. There are more complicated machines of the same general type for use in banks, etc. One important fact is that the machine makes no mistakes in adding. Casimir-Perier ( ka'ze'mer'pa'rya' ) , Jean Paul Pierre, who became the fifth presi- dent of the French Republic (1894-5), was born in Paris in 1847. He received the cross of the legion of honor for his services in the Franco- Prussian War. His grand- father had been premier under Louis Phil- ippe, his father also had been a cabinet- minister, and it is natural that he should have chosen a political career. In 1893 be became president of the Chamber of Deputies. On the assassination of Presi- dent Carnot in 1894 he was elected presi- dent. After a short and stormy admin- istration of six months he suddenly resigned and retired from public affairs. President Casimir-Perier is said to have been ham- CASPIAN SEA 346 CASSOWARY pered in his policy even by his own min- isters, over whose acts the constitution of the French Republic gave him but a slight control. He died March 12, 1907. Cas'pian Sea, an inclosed inland sea or great salt-lake, the largest in the world, lies on the boundary between Europe and Asia. It is bounded on the south by Per- sia and on the north by Russia; with the Caucasus Mountains on its westward and the transcaspian territory on the east. _ Its length from north to south is 700 miles, and its breadth varies from 130 to 270 miles. Its total area is estimated at 170,000 square miles. On the east side, especially, there are several bays and pen- insulas. On the south a low, flat plain, from 15 to 20 miles in width, leads to the lofty range of the Elburz Mountains; while the north is bordered by great steppes. The surface of the Caspian is 97 feet be- low the level of the Black Sea ^and 248 feet below that of Lake Aral. It is proba- ble that all three bodies were once con- nected. The Caspian has no tides, but violent storms make navigation danger- ous. Its level varies much at different seasons. In the middle it is divided by a submarine ridge, a continuation of the main Caucasus chain, into two deep basins. The greatest depth found in the northern basin is 2,526 feet and in the southern 3,006 feet. A number of large rivers empty their waters into the Caspian, of which the greatest is the Volga. The sea abounds in fish, and valuable fisheries are carried on, especially for sturgeon and salmon. By a canal uniting the upper tributaries of the Volga with those of Lake Ladoga and the Dwina, the Caspian is united with the Baltic Sea. The sea is now sur- rounded on three sides by Russian territory, the southern shore still remaining Persian. The Russians maintain a flotilla on the Caspian Sea, and lines of steam-packets ply upon it. Cass, Lewis, an American politician, was born at Exeter, N. H., Oct 9, 1782. His family went west, and Cass studied law at Marietta, Ohio. He now entered politics is a Democrat, and played an im- portant part in the War of 1812; was gov- ernor of Michigan and superintendent of Indian affairs for 18 years, during which time he negotiated 22 treaties with Indians and did much to open the northwest ter- itory; he also explored the upper lakes and the headwaters of the Mississippi. Cass was secretary of war, for a long time United States senator from Michigan, minister to France and candidate for president against Taylor. In 1860 Cass diffe ed from Presi- dent Buchanan in his southern policy, and resigned his position as secretary of state, closing a public career of 54 years. He was a man of much ability, a fine scholar and an effective speaker. He was the author of several . works. He died at De- troit, Mich., June 17, 1866. Cassandra (ka-san'dra),in Homeric legend, was the fairest daughter of Priam, king of Troy, and twin sister of Helenus. The two children were left one night in the sanctuary of Apollo, and while asleep their ears were touched and purified by two snakes so that they could understand the language of birds and thus know the future. Apollo afterward taught Cassandra the secret of prediction; but she rejected his love, and as a penalty he laid upon her the curse that no prediction should ever be believed. So she in vain predicted the treachery of the Grecian horse and the destruction of Troy, and was looked upon by the citizens as mad. On the sack of the city she was torn from the temple by Ajax Oileus, and in the distribution of the spoil she became the share of Agamemnon. She was afterward murdered by Cly.em- nestra. Cassava (kas'sa-vd). This is the West Indian name of a plant that grows not only in those islands, but in Brazil, Peru and tropical Africa. In Brazil it is called manioc (mandioc), and in Peru, yucca. From its stems, branches and leaves is obtained a juice, which, though a deadly poison when fresh, quickly becomes a who esome food when heated, and is used as a soup by the natives. From the plant also is obtained arrowroot, which is almost pure starch. Tapioca also is made from it by heating the arrowroot until the grains of starch burst, are partly converted into dextrine and come together into small lumps. The pearl tapioca which is better known to us is not obtained from this plant, but from potato starch. Another important and well known product of cassava is farina, which also is almost pure starch. This is obtained from the roots, which are grated and then dried on hot metal plates. The cassava is remarkable for its fertility. Cassiope'ia (kas-st-o-pe'yd), a constella- tion in the northern hemisphere, not far from the north pole. It is marked by five stars of the third magnitude, forming a figure like a W. In 1572 there appeared in this constellation a new star, which, when first noticed by Tycho Brahe, ex- ceeded in brightness all the fixed stars and nearly equaled Venus. The star gradually diminished in magnitude, and disappeared in March, 1584. Cas'sowary, a large running bird, native to New Guinea and northeastern Australia. Although related to the ostrich, it belongs to a different family and lives in dense forests, while the ostrich lives on open plains and deserts. It has black plumage, with a naked neck, and bright-colored (red, blue, yellow) wattles. It is about five feet high, with rudimentary wings, a swift CAST 347 CAT runner and a good swimmer. On the head "s a hard bony cap or helmet. The head is carried low while running, and the vines CASSOWARY and branches strike this cap and slide over the back. It feeds mostly at night on fruits and berries. The birds may be tamed. If teased, they kick powerfully sideways. Cast, a term applied when a work of sculptured art a figure or ? group of figures is reproduced in plastci or, less perishably, in bronze. Famous works of antiquity are often thus reproduced when replicas (duplicates or repetitions) are made of them as models for study in schools of art or for exhibition in museums or art galleries. The process of reproduction is first to lubricate the original carefully that it may not be injured or defaced, and so that the applied plaster shall not adhere to it when it is coated with the plaster, after which,- when the latter is dry, the mold or shell is removed, either whole or in parts. This cast, as it is called, when it is put together, furnishes, generally speaking, a faithful reproduction of the original, and from it repeated copies may be similarly made. When the original is designed to be reproduced in bronze or other metal, the process is termed found- ing, the reproduction being done from suitable molds in a foundry. Caste. See INDIA. Castelar (kds'td-ldr'}, Emilio, a Spanish orator, statesman and writer, was born at Cadiz, September 8, 1832. He was for some years professor of history and philoso- phy in the university at Madrid. He took part in several political uprisings and helped to bring about the downfall of King Amadeus in 1873. Castelar became dictator, but, when Alphonso XII became king, he fled across the frontier. He returned to Spain in 1876 and devoted himself more to literature than to political and social questions. He died in 1899. Castile. See SPAIN. Castor=Oil, a familiar and simple pur- gative, derived from the seeds of the cas- tor-oil plant (Ricinus Communis), a native of the Indies. Used as a laxative, it has a nauseous smell and disagreeable taste, which can, however, be partially overcome by using^it in capsules of gelatin or by float- ing the oil on hot coffee. It is considerably CASTOR-OIL PLANT used in the arts as a lubricant for machinery, while in the East Indies it is employed as an illuminant as a lamp-oil. Cas'tor and Pol'lux, often called Sons of Zeus, were, according to Homeric story, the brothers of Helen of Troy; but another tradition makes them only half-brothers of Helen, their father being Zeus; while still a third account makes only Pollux Zeus's son, and so he alone was immortal. Castor was famous for his skill in managing horses; Pollux for his powers in boxing. Both re- ceived divine honors at Sparta as patrons of travelers by sea. They assisted at the battle (496 B.C.) of Lake Regillus. Zeus placed the brothers among the stars. They are the principal stars in the constellation of Gemini or the twins. Their names are also given to the electric appearance known as St. Elmo's Fire. Cat, the name of a family which includes besides the wild and domestic cat, such animals as the lion, tiger, leopard, puma, jaguar, cougar or American panther, etc. The wild cat of Europe is larger and stronger CATACOMBS 348 CATALPA than the house cat, with yellowish-gray fur and dark stripes down the back, along the sides, across the legs, and rings on the tail. In common with all the wild members of the family, it is very fierce in disposition. The animal called wild cat in America is a lynx. The common domestic cat proba- bly is a descendant of the Egyptian cat, which was tamed 13 centuries B. C. From Egypt it was carried into Europe, but was long scarce and very expensive. There are many varieties of cats. Some of the best known are the fawn-colored, royal Siamese cat, with blue eyes and small head; the Maltese cat, of a bluish-gray color; the large Angora or Persian cat, with long, gen- erally whitish fur; and the beautiful Spanish or tortoise-shell cat. The Manx cat of the Isle of Man is tailless and has very long hind legs. In cats the senses of sight, hearing and touch are very highly developed, and the intelligence also is great. Their whiskers are sensitive hairs, and the pupil of their eye expands in the dark, enabling the animal to see with a small amount of light. The habits of domestic cats are well krown, and they do many clever things. Fi >m early times cats have been the objects of superstition. In Egypt they are held in the highest reverence, and sacrifices were offered to them. In the middle ages they were believed to be the friends of witches, and the favorite shape of Satan was said to be that of a black cat. See Mivart's The Cat (1880) and Champfleury's Cats, Past and Present (1885). Cat'acombs are ancient underground places for burying the dead. Those in Egypt, the burial places of the ancient kings, are very remarkable; but the most important are the famous Roman cata- combs. These are to be found on almost all the roads leading out of the city, at a distance of two or three miles outside of the walls. More than 40 of these ceme- teries are known to have existed, and two thirds of these were of considerable extent; and, if the galleries were extended in a straight line, they would reach at least 300 or 400 miles. Many of them are very old having been originally quarries; but a large number were dug solely for the purpose of burial and as places of worship. Each catacomb forms a network of passages or galleries, usually eight feet high by two or three wide. The graves are in tiers on the sides, and when undisturbed are found closed by marble slabs or tiles, on which are often found inscriptions or Christian emblems. The catacombs were used by the Christians during the ages of persecu- tion as places of burial and also of worship; but the use of them was at various times forbidden,, and at the beginning of the 5th century the practice of burial there entirely ceased. When the ages of persecution came to an end, a new era opened in the history of the catacombs. Christian pilgrims flocked from all lands to see them and to do honor to the martyrs entombed there. Some of the more important tombs were decorated with marble and some with gold and silver. In the 6th and 8th centuries they were ravaged by the Goths and Lom- bards, and in consequences the sacred relics were removed to the churches. The cata- combs then fell into neglect, and were almost forgotten by the Christian world. They were at this time thronged with out- laws and assassins. They were again some- what cleared, and in 1578 an accidental landslip brought them to light and they soon attracted universal attention. They have since been much studied and written about. Other catacombs are those of Naples, Syracuse and Malta. The so-called catacombs of Paris are simply old quarries under the city, to which the contents of graveyards have been removed. Catalan! (kd-ta-la'ne), Angelica, an Ital- ian singer, was born in 1779 near Ancona, and in her seventh year displayed such won- derful powers that strangers flocked from all quarters to hear her. She began her professional career at Venice when 18 years old, and for more than thirty years passed through a series of triumphs in every coun- try in Europe. Her large, queenly person and fine countenance, the immense volume and range of her voice and at the same time her lightness and ease in its use every- where took her audiences by storm. She twice directed the Italian opera in Paris. She bought a villa near Florence after retir- ing from the stage, where she gave free instructions to girls who had a talent for singing. She died in 1849. Catalonia, a former province of Spain, in the northeast of the kingdom and situated south of the Pyrenees, east of Aragon, and bounded on the south by the Mediterranean. It to-day comprises the provinces of Gerona, Lerida, Tarragona and Barcelona. Its area is 12,480 square miles, and in 1910 it had a population (known as Catalans) of 2,075,- 033. It is the chief agricultural and manu- facturing district of Spain. The soil is productive in the valleys, where grain, flax, g~spes and fruits are raised, while much of the region is rich in minerals, including iron, copper, zinc, coal and marble. The principal seaport and seat of Spanish com- merce is Barcelona; population (1910), 560,000. Catalpa (kd-tdl'pd), a kind of tree of which there are seven or eight species, two being found in the United States. The com- mon catalpa is a native of the southern part of the United States, and is cultivated as an ornamental tree in most of the cities of the northern states. It has silver-gray bark, and its showy flowers are white, slightly tinged with purple and violet in the throat. The flowers are followed by s White Persian 2 Light Silver 3 Cream Persian 4 Siamese 6 Short Hair Tortoise Shell S Silver Persian A GROUP OF LIONS. ROYAL BENGAL TIGER LEOPARD. CATANIA 349 CATERPILLAR pods, often a foot in length, which hang until the next spring. In its natural locality this tree seldom exceeds 40 feet in height. The wood is light in color and coarse- grained, and is used in exterior finish, for fence posts and railroad ties. It is known by various names, as Indian bean, candle- tree and bean-tree. Catalpas belong to the Begonia family. Catania (kd-td'n-a) , a city and seaport of Sicily, near the foot of Mt. Etna. The fertile and well-cultivated plain of Catania is styled the granary of Sicily, and has given the city the title of Beautiful Catania. By eruptions of the great vol- cano and by earthquakes, the city has been several times almost entirely destroyed, but out of its ruins it has always risen with increased beauty. It now is the finest city of Sicily, being built throughout on a beautiful and uniform plan. Among the chief buildings are the Benedictine con- vent of San Nicola, the cathedral, founded in 1091, and the university, founded in 1434, which has a faculty of 48 professors and i ,048 students. There are manufactures of silk and linen goods and of articles in amber, lava, wood, etc. There have been some remains of ancient times found here, including those of a theater, a temple of Ceres, Roman baths and an aqueduct. Catania was founded by the Greeks in the 8th century B. C., and became a flourishing city. It was desolated by Dionysius I, but again rose under the Roman sway. It was destroyed by earthquake in 1909. Population, 211,699. Catapult (kat'd-pult}, an ancient military engine for throwing stones, arrows, javelins and other missiles. It was invented in Syracuse in the reign of Dionysius the Elder. It consisted of a wood framework, a part of which was elastic and furnished with tightly drawn cords of hair or gut. It acted on the principle of a bow. Cata- pults were of various sizes. The largest would throw a beam six feet long and weighing 60 pounds to a distance of 400 paces. Cataract. See WATERFALL. Catawbas (ka-ta'bdz), a tribe of Indians in North and South Carolina, now reduced to a mere handful. When these states were settled, they were a powerful tribe with 1,500 warriors. They occupied six towns on Catawba River. They were a warlike peo- ple, early engaged in strife with the Chero- kees and later with the Shawnees and Iroquois, but were freindly to the settlers and served with them in the Revolution. They retired on a reservation, and have since decreased greatly. There are now about 200 half-breeds in the reservation bearing the name. Pontiac is said by some to have been by birth a Catawba. The last full-blooded Catawba, Peter Harris, was a Revolutionary soldier. Cat' bird, a very common, well-known bird in the United States, related to the southern mock- ing-bird and othtr thrushes. The ordinary song of the male during the mating season is musical and agreeable, but both male and female utter on occasion a dis- agreeable cry, CATBIRD like the mewing of a cat, and from this their name is derived. The bird is slaty- gray with black cap and tail. It nests in thickets and shrubbery near settlements, sel- dom more than four or five feet from the ground. The nest is a bulky affair of twigs, leaves, grasses and fine roots. The four or five eggs are of a bluish-green color. The bird arrives in New England in May, and departs for the south the middle of October. Caterpillar, the immature stage of but- terflies and moths, intermediate between the egg and the perfect insect. What the tadpole is to the frog, the caterpillar is to the butter- fly or moth. They are both called larval stages, and when the extensive change takes place, transforming them into adult stages, it is in both cases called a metamorphosis. (The metamorphosis of insects is general and by no means confined to butterflies and moths). The butterfly or moth deposits eggs, which, in place of hatching in the form of the parents, hatch as worm-like caterpillars. But caterpillars, although worm-like in form, are not worms ; they are immature stages of insects. They all have three pairs of jointed legs like insects (also additional false-legs or supports), and all breathe by air- tubes like insects. Caterpillars vary greatly in form, size and coloring. There are the com- mon heavy or woolen varieties, and many others that are unprovided with hair but usually with bright colors. The common measuring-worms, the large green tomato- worms, the striped, spotted, and various- colored worms found on milkweed, tobacco, apple-leaves, mulberry and other plants are illustrations. . The rearing of these larvae, in order to watch the changes, is now a common thing; boxes open to the air, but provided with wire screens, are used. Into these are placed the larvae and some of the leaves of the plant on which they are found, and these are re- newed from time to time. They will grow in the boxes so tended, and, when they have reached their full growth, will pass into the stage of a pupa or chrysalis. The latter vary also greatly in form and appearance. Some kinds spin cocoons around themselves, others draw the skin over the back and form a sort of case into which they retire. CATFISH 350 CATHERINE OF ARAGON Some, like the tomato worm, burrow into the earth, and there form a dark brown case, CATERPILLAR provided with a long, slender, curved handle ; the resemblance of the whole structure to a brown jug gives this form the not inappro- priate name of the jug-handle. Inclosed within the handle is the sucking tube of the mouth. The chrysalids formed upon bushes are often ornamented with bright golden metallic spots. The cocoons of the silkworm are the ordinary cases of the chrysalids of that moth. What takes place within the cocoon is not thoroughly understood, but the living part of the body is all worked over. Disks appear upon the caterpillar, from which grow the wings, legs and other parts of the perfect insect. The period of residence within the cocoon is not one of sleep and no change, but a period of reconstruction and great changes. Shut up within the cocoon the new organs of the perfect insect are constructed out of the olcf ones of the larva. It is one of those marvelous changes which take place continually in the world of life. It is a development parallel to the develop- ment within the egg, but of a different character. Caterpillars are preyed on by birds and other animals, but these apparently defense- less creatures have means of protecting them- selves from their natural enemies. Some- times they are covered with stiff hairs or sharp points, making them disagreeable to swallow. Some, by reason of secretions, have an unpleasant taste or odor, and birds soon learn to leave them alone. Sometimes the harmless forms assume the colors of the harmful kinds, mimic their movements and thereby save their own lives. The bright colors of the poisonous or unpleasant ones are called warning colors. Others still are protected by resembling in color and mark- ings the objects on which they live and so escaping notice. Caterpillars often are very destructive. The woolen moth has a small, worm-like larva, that feeds on woolen fabrics, furs, etc. The yearly injury to crops is enor- mous. The sole business of the larvae is to eat and grow, and they may eat many thousand times their weight before going into the chrysalis state. The destruction caused by the army-worm is very great. The loss from the cotton-worm in one year was above thirty million dollars, as estimated by authorities of the United States government. Catfish, a common food-fish, with large head and slender barbels about the mouth. The latter, from a fancied resemblance to the whiskers of the cat, give the name. The common catfish of the United States is abun- dant in sluggish waters and is called bull- head and horned pout. It is a homely fish, of dark color, and has no scales. It has sharp spines near the front fins and one on the back, that make painful wounds. Some varieties grow to large size; the black-cat of the great lakes exceeds a hundred pounds in weight, and the ponderous cat of the Mississippi reaches a weight of two hundred pounds. There also are catfish in salt water. Cathay (kd-thd'), the name applied to China by the western nations of Europe in the middle ages, is a term now seldom em- ployed except in poetry and rhetoric. " Bet- ter fifty years of Europe than a cycle of Cathay' ' writes Tennyson in Locksley Hall. See CHINESE EMPIRE. Catherine de Medici (ddmd'd$-ch$), wife of one king of France and mother of three, was born at Florence, in 1519, of a famous Florentine family. When fourteen, she was married, as the niece of Pope Clement VII, to Henry, the second son of Francis I of France. Her influence was not felt until her eldest son, Francis II, became king in 1559. The great Catholic family of the Guises, on the one hand, and the Huguenots, on the other, were both becoming so powerful as to overawe the crown. The able Catherine, having the reins of government in her own hands, partially, under Francis II, and wholly, under the weak-minded Charles IX, played off these great parties against each other. It was one of these intrigues which caused the fearful massacre of St. Bartholo- mew's Day. The elevation of her third son to the throne of Poland and the death of her fourth son were brought about by her in- trigues. Under Henry III she was almost as powerful as she had been before. But in a few years she and her son, having betrayed those who trusted them, found themselves abandoned by all. The great Catholic League, with the Guises at its head, and the Protestants, headed by Henry of Navarre, equally distrusted them. Catherine died unheeded and unmourned in 1589. Catherine of Aragon (ar'd-gbn), queen of England and first of the six wives of Henry VIII, was born in 1485 and died in 1536. She was the fourth daughter of Ferdi- nand, King of Aragon, and of Isabella of Castile. While scarcely sixteen she was married to Arthur, Prince of Wales, son of Henry VII, but by his decease a year later Catherine was left a widow. In 1509, on Henry Vill coming to the throne, she be- came his wife, having some years before re- ceived the papal dispensation. With Henry she lived happily for about twenty years, but the want of male issue, together with the king's passion for Anne Boleyn, one of Queen Catherine's maids of honor, led to a dissolu- tion of the marriage, which Cranmer declared a nullity, though the pope refused to sanction the divorce and thereby hastened the rup- ture between the English Church and the Church of Rome. The grief-stricken queen CATHERINE II 351 CATO retired into privacy, and led an austere re- ligious life until her death in 1536, three Sears after Henry's marriage with Anne oleyn. Cath'erine II, Empress of Russia, was born at Stettin in 1729. The daughter of a Prussian prince she was chosen by the Empress Elizabeth as the bride of her nephew and heir Peter. She had many quar- rels with her husband, and each led a life of open vice. In 1761 Peter III ascended the Russian throne. An attempt of the new and unpopular tsar to divorce Catherine brought about a conspiracy, which dethroned and murdered him. It is pretty certain that Catherine had a share in the murder. Catherine's reign was energetic, and remark- able for the rapid increase of the dominion and power of Russia. Her two wars with Turkey, the three partitions of Poland and the acquisition of Courland (a southern Baltic province) each brought great addi- tions of territory and prestige. She made some attempts at making the country more free, but Russia was not yet ripe, and they did not outlive her. She died at St. Peters- burg in 1796. Catherine Howard. See HOWARD, CATH- ERINE. Catherine Parr. See PARR, CATHERINE. Cathode Rays (kath'-od), a phenomenon accompanying electric discharge in a vacuum tube in which the pressure is something less than one one-thousandth of a millimeter of mercury. The wire by which the electric current enters the tube is called the anode: the wire by which the current leaves is called the cathode. When the region between the anode and cathode is a perfect vacuum, the walls of the vacuum tube exhibit a brilliant phosphorescence, as if they were bombarded by particles which are projected from the cathode. These particles appear to travel in straight lines from the cathode to the walls of the glass tube; for if a screen be placed in the region between the cathode and the wall, a shadow geometrically similar to the screen is cast on the wall. Another re- markable property of the cathode rays is that they are deflected from their rectilinear paths by a magnet. In this respect they behave as if they were flexible electric conductors. It was this fact that -led Crookes to suppose them negatively electrified particles shot from the cathode. Most interesting of all, perhaps, is the fact, discovered by Roentgen in 1895, that whenever cathode rays strike the walls of the vacuum tubes they give rise to X-rays. See ROENTGEN RAYS. Catholic University of America, a Roman Catholic institution of higher learn- ing at Washington, D. C., which dates from 1887 and has a number of colleges in various sections of the country affiliated with it. It has received several goodly money gifts towards its endowment and maintenance, and is under a chancellor, rector and govern- ing body. Under its various faculties in the- ology, philosophy, law and technology the university has a teaching staff of 30 pro- fessors and instructors with about 160 students; it also has a good, well-equipped library, and maintains a quarterly bulletin giving information on the subjects treated in the curriculum of studies. It has a num- ber of endowed chairs and also several endowed scholarships. Its present rector or president is the Rt. Rev. Dennis J. O'Connell, and its chancellor is Cardinal Gibbons. Catiline (ktit'^i-lin) , Lucius Sergius, a Roman conspirator, was born about 108 B. C., of a noble family. He was able to bear great fatigue; he was masterful and resolute in mind; his face looked reckless and haggard; and he seemed in later life to be in a constant fever of disappointed ambition. After an ill-spent youth and the bloody successes of Sulla's party, in which he had taken an eager part, he was made governor of Africa in 69. The next year, ruled out as a candidate for consul because of charges of misrule in his province, he formed a conspiracy against Rome. The first project was to kill Cicero, the famous orator, whose murder was to be the signal for revolution. This was told Cicero at once by a Roman lady, Fulvia, whose lover was one of the conspirators. Cicero frustrated their design easily. The next step was a secret meeting, on the night of Nov. 6, 63 B. C., at which Catiline explained a new project for murdering Cicero, for bringing up to the city an army which he had won over and for setting the city on fire. Yet in a few hours Cicero knew every word spoken, and when, two days later, Catiline recklessly took his seat in the senate, the orator arose and, pointing his finger at the traitor, made his famous speech, in which he told the senate even the smallest details of the conspiracy. Catiline tried to reply; but, drowned by cries and hisses, he rushed out of the senate and escaped from Rome by night. An army was sent against him, and after a battle, in which he fought with the greatest bravery and desperation, Cati- line was defeated and slain in 62 B. C. Cat'kin, the characteristic flower-cluster of the birches, alders, willows, etc. See IN- FLORESCENCE. Ca'to (kd'td), Marcus Porcius (surnamed The Censor), was born at Tusculum in 234 B. C. Marcus Porcius was his proper name. Cato, meaning wise, was a title given him later in life when he held office as censor. He spent his boyhood on his father's farm, and there learned simple manners and ways of living. When 17, he served with great bravery in the army against Hannibal. At the same time he was becoming known as an orator and statesman. Because of his ability and uprightness, he was made con- sul in 105 B. C., though his family waa CATO 352 CAUCASIAN unknown. Made, the next year, governor of Spain, he showed such skill and vigor in putting down a rebellion there, that the people gave him a military triumph on his return to Rome. In 184 he was chosen censor, and at once became very active in using his office to carry out his ideas of simplicity, of honesty in government and of dislike of everything which was new. He put the water-courses, reservoirs and drains in good order; had the taxes col- lected more cheaply; saw that less money was paid for building the great public buildings; and decided what price should be paid for slaves, clothes, furniture, car- riages, etc. Rome was growing rich from the spoils and plunder of her successful wars, and the Romans had caught from the Greeks a liking for fine clothes, great pal- aces, many slaves and all that made up luxury in life. These new ways of life Cato despised and fought against. The famous saying, "Carthage must be destroyed," which became a battle-cry of the Romans, was first used by Cato, who never made a speech in the senate without using the appealing, insistent words to inflame the ambitions of the Roman people. He died in 149 B. C. Ca'to, Marcus Porcius, called Cato the Younger, the great-grandson of the elder Cato, was born at Rome in 95 B. C., and committed suicide in North Africa in 46 B. C. When only 14 years old, he went with his tutor one day to call upon Sulla, and, seeing the heads of several famous men, who had been put to death by the tyrant, carried away from the house, he asked why some one did not kill him. His tutor answering that no one dared to do so, he exclaimed that he would do it himself, if he would give him a sword. He greatly admired his great-grandfather, and took him as his model in life. He was rich, but lived in a simple manner, always walking instead of riding, wherever he went, and often going barefoot. He held the office of quaestor, and carried through so many needed reforms that when he left office, he was praised by all classes of citizens. He was an open enemy of the three most powerful men in Rome, Caesar, Pompey and Crassus, who, he foresaw, would destroy the republic, as they did when they formed the first triumvirate or government of three. Caesar he had de- nounced years before as a friend of the traitor Catiline, and after the battle of Pharsalia he set out to join Pompey, now the defeated rival of Csesar, but, hearing of his death, fled to Africa. He wished to defend Utica, but on the approach of the conqueror the citizens refused to fight. Cato, disdaining to surrender, killed him- self after spending the evening talking with his friends and reading Plato's Phado. His death was for two centuries regarded as the right death for a Stoic by the noblest of Romans. Catskill Mountains, a group of moun- tains in New York, west of the Hudson River and south of the Mohawk. They form part of the Alleghenies, and cover an area of about 5,000 square miles, some peaks being 4,000 feet high. The scenery among the deep valleys with their precipice- like walls is fine and often grand. Cattle, a term sometimes used to include all domestic quadrupeds, but usually ap- plied to those of the bovine family, the ox and the cow, the most useful to man of all domestic animals and probably the first to be domesticated. In all ages and in all countries the ox has been employed as a beast of burden and of draught. Its chief value, however, is found in the fact that, aside from grains, it furnishes to mankind the chief articles of food, meat, milk, butter and cheese. The cow is the poor man's dependence in every clime and, as the basis of the meat and dairy industries, is a large factor in the commerce of the world. Modern husbandry has been wonderfully successful in improving the breeds of cattle along two distinct lines, developing certain breeds for the production of beef and other breeds for dairy purposes. Among the for- mer the most notable are the Shorthorn or Durham, Hereford, hornless Angus, Gallo- way and Redpolled breeds. All of these breeds are characterized by heavy, square bodies, frequently reaching a live weight o* two thousand pounds or more, and art fattened for market at a much earlier r^e than formerly. Among the dairy breeds are the Holstein, noted for the production of large quantities of milk, the Jersey, cele- brated for the rich quality of the milk given, the Ayrshire and the Alderney. Each of these breeds has its champions, and for each special qualities of superiority are claimed. See AGRICULTURE, BUTTER, DAIRY-FACTO- RIES, MILK and MEAT-PACKING. Catullus (ka-tul'lus), Gaius Valerius, a celebrated Roman lyric and elegiac poet, supposed to have been born at Verona, Italy, B. C. 87, and to have died about B. C. 54. What is known of his life is chiefly derived from his writings, which consist, to some extent, of amatory poems addressed to one Lesbia, of his journeyings and pleasant home life at a villa (modern Sirmio), on Lake Benacus (now Lago di Garda). He is known to have had Cicero, Caesar, Cinna and Cornelius Nepos among his intimate friends. He has great versatil- ity and sprightliness, with the Greek lyric spirit and beauty of expression. Caucasian (ka-kd'shan) was the name adopted for one of the main race divisions of mankind; but later, mainly because of the difference in the languages spoken, the Caucasian has been broken up into two groups, the Aryan and the Semitic CAUCASUS 353 CAVOUR peoples. Caucasus was a misnomer, as there was no connection in race between the Aryan, the Semitic and the 1*6 or more distinct races of the Caucasus Moun- tains. The word is now used for the fair type of man as opposed to the black, the red and the yellow type ; but it is understood not to imply any common race or language in the peoples included under the name. Caucasus (ka'ka-sus) , a mountain range which occupies the isthmus between the Black and Caspian Seas, its general direction being from west-northwest to east-south- east. It is about 750 miles long by 150 miles broad. There are at least six peaks over 16,000 feet high; Mt. Elburz, 18,000 feet, is the highest. There are but few glaciers, very little perpetual snow and no active volcanoes, though Elburz and other peaks are of volcanic formation; while there are hot springs and mud vol- canoes at each extremity of the range. There are but two roads across the Cau- casus, the Derbend Pass and the fine military road built by the Russians through the Dariel Gorge. The Caucasus has been called the mountain of languages, from the many tongues, distinct from one an- other, having little or no likeness to any other languages on the globe, which are spoken in this narrow area. Some 16 or more distinct and well marked races, including the Georgians, Circassians, etc., are found in the region of the Caucasus. For over 50 years this region resisted the advance of Russia; but with the cap- ture of Schamyl, the prophet-chief of the Lesghians, who had withstood the armies sent against him for 20 years, the power of the Caucasians was shattered. Since 1871 the country has been wholly under the dominion of Russia. Caucus (derivation doubtful), in poli- tics, a term applied to designate a con- ference, generally preliminary to a sub- sequent public meeting, of men who desire to select delegates, nominate certain party representatives for office or take certain action in regard to some public question, give shape to and outline proposed later legislation, as well as to ascertain and discuss the views of those so called to- gether in preliminary and sometimes secret council. The deliberation is one usually held to promote unity among members of the same party, in regard to public measures, and suggesting the line to be taken in advancing such, or possibly, in balking and defeating them, if objected to or deemed unwise and inexpedient. Cau'licle (in plants), a name formerly applied to the hypocotyl, that is the stem- like part of a seedling, which appears below the m-st leaves or cotyledons. See EMBRYO. Cavalier (kS.v'd-ler'), meaning horse- man at first, but afterward it came to mean gallant, and was so used by Shake- speare. In the struggle between Charles I and Parliament in 1641, the courtiers were nicknamed cavaliers, while the friends of Parliament were called Round- heads. At first applied in derision it was held as a title of honor, until after 1679 when it was replaced by the term Tory. Cavalry. See ARMY. Cave-Men, prehistoric dwellers in caves or caverns, usually convenient to streams of water. Their homes have been traced in Belgium, France, Switzerland and also in Britain, and in their cave-shelters have been found primitive tools and weapons and the teeth and bones of the animals on which they rudely subsisted. Their era appears to have been the paleolithic or stone age. They were a tall, powerful race, fitted well for their early rude environ- ment, primitive in their manner of life, and without skill to fashion or invent any but the simplest weapons and utensils They were ignorant of the metals, of pottery and of agriculture, and had no domestic animals. Cav'endish, Henry, a distinguished Eng- lish chemist and physicist, born at Nice, Oct. 10, 1731, died Mar. 10, 1810. His most important work includes the discovery of the composition of water; the composi- tion of nitric acid; and the determination of the mean density of the earth. Since the discovery of argon by Lord Rayleigh, it has become evident that Cavendish in his studies on the composition of air had, at that early date, isolated argon, but without knowing it. Cavendish was never married. He was a man of great wealth, leaving a private fortune of between three and four million dollars. Cavite (kd-ve'td), Philippine Islands, a province and city in Luzon Island, on the southwest side of Manila Bay, seven or eight miles southwest of Manila. Since the Philippines were ceded to the United States in Dec. 1898, after the close of the war with Spain, Cavite harbor, which is strongly defended, has become the chief naval station of the archipelago. There, on May i, 1898, an American squadron under Admiral Dewey destroyed a Spanish one under Admiral Montojo. Besides the docks, repair shops and government-build- ings, Cavite has an arsenal and in the town a hospital, several convents and churches, together with an extensive to- bacco factory. The area of Cavite prov- ince is 500 square miles and the popula* tion of the city (1907) about 4,500. Cavour (kd'voor'), Camillo Benso, Count di, the restorer of Italian unity and nationality, was born at Turin, Aug. 10, 1 8 10, of an old noble family of Pied- mont. He was a student of the military school^ and when only 16 was made an officer of engineers. At an early age he was stirred with a desire to improve CAWNPORE 354 CEDAR MOUNTAIN the condition of his country; and for 1 6 years he studied, traveled and ob- served the workings of other govern- ments. In 1847 he, with Count Balbo, founded a newspaper in favor of a freer form of government for Sardinia, based on that of England. A year later he entered Sardinian politics, was made premier in 1852 and until his resignation in 1859 was the originator and director of the Sardinian policy. He greatly improved the financial condition of the country and made Sardinia a power of some account in Europe. It was through his advice that Sardinia took part in the Crimean War, and this gave him a chance to bring the question of unity for Italy before the nations of Europe. In 1858 he had a secret meeting with Napoleon III and drew up a plan for driving Austria out of Italy, which resulted in breaking the power of Austria in the Italian peninsula; but Cavour was so dis- appointed at her being left in possession of Venetia by the peace of Villafranca that he resigned. But the next year found him in office again, striving to attain his object more earnestly than ever, and this time more successfully. Parma, Modena and Tuscany came into union with Sardinia under King Victor Emmanuel. He secretly encouraged the expedition of Garibaldi, which freed Sicily and southern Italy. In 1 86 1 an Italian parliament was sum- moned and Victor Emmanuel made king of Italy. Rome and Venetia only were wanting, and they were won with a little patience. The strain, however, was too much for him, and he died on June 6, 1861. His last words were: "Brothers, brothers, the free church in the free state." Cawnpore (kan'pdor'), a city of India, on the Ganges,' 42 miles southwest of Lucknow. It became a British possession in 1 80 1, and is now a garrison town for British troops. Cawnpore also is a district in the Allahabad division of the northwest provinces of British India. At the out- break of the mutiny in May, 1857, there were 1,000 Europeans in Cawnpore, 560 of whom were women and children. Be- hind hastily thrown up intrenchments the few defenders held out for three weeks against the overwhelming numbers of muti- neers led by Nana Sahib, when they sur- rendered on promise of a safe-conduct to Allahabad. The Sepoys marched the men to the banks of the Ganges, but hardly had the prisoners embarked, when the Sepoys opened fire on them and only four escaped. Hearing that General Havelock was within two days' march of the place, Nana Sahib went to meet him, was driven back, and, on reaching Cawnpore, in his rage he ordered the women and children to be massacred at once. Dead and dy- ing they were thrown into a well. A memorial arch was erected over the in- trenchments and a mound raised over the well. Population, 197,170. C ax' ton, William, the first English printer, was born in Kent about the year 1422. He served as an apprentice and prospered in business. About 1476 he set up his wooden printing press at Westminster. He had learned to print at Bruges, and in 1474 printed there the first book issued in English, but the Dictes and Sayings of the Philosophers, brought out in 1477, is the first book certainly known to have been printed in England. His industry was wonderful. His own translations filled more than 4,500 pages, while his press turned out over 18,000 folio pages. The books he printed are to-day held as great rareties, and the few copies still left are worth many thousand dollars each. He died in 1491 or 1492. Cayuga (kd-ydd-ga) Lake, an attractive body of water in central New York on which the towns of Ithaca, Aurora and Cayuga are situated. The lake has ,a high elevation, and is drained by the Seneca and Oswego Rivers into Lake Ontario. It is about 35 miles in length, varies from one to three miles in width, and is traversed in the season by steamers plying. on it between Ithaca and Cayuga Bridge. It is the resort of many tourists and summer visitors. Ce'dar (se'der), species of the genus Cedrus, which belongs to the Conifers. They are large and ornamental trees, being native to northern Africa, Asia Minor and the Himalayas. The great durability and firmness of the wood are highly esteemed qualities. The native African species, C. Atlantica, is the only one hardy enough for cultivation in the northern states. The cedar of Lebanon, (7. Libani, is well- known, in maturity forming a tree with broad head, differing decidedly in appear- ance from the pyramidal form of the African species. Although true cedars are not native to America, there are several native conifers which are commonly called cedars. For example, Thuja is known as arbor vitce or white cedar; Chamcecyparis is called southern white cedar; while a species of juniper (Juniperus Virginiana) , with odorous red wood, is universally known as red cedar and is used in large quantities in the manufacture of lead pencils. Cedar Mountain, a cone-like hill in Culpeper County, Virginia, where was fought a spirited battle, Aug. 9, 1862, between the Union troops under Gerneral Banks and the Confederates under General Jack- son. Near evening Banks fell back to join supports forwarded by General Pope, who was in command of the Army of Vir- ginia, leaving the Confederates in possession of the battlefield. The Confederates did not keep their ground, but, falling back, joined the main force under Lee two days 355 CELL-DOCTRINE later. The Confederate loss was 1,314; the Union loss about 1,800. Cedar Rapid or The Cedars. An exten- sive rapid on the St. Lawrence River, now avoided by the Soulanges Canal, and the name of a village on the northern bank of the river, in Soulanges County, Quebec. Here Capt. Forster with a small band of regulars and Indians captured the garrison of 400 Americans in their retreat from Quebec in May, 1776. A force under Maj. Sherburne was also defeated after a spirited engagement, and the survivors made pris- oners. Cedar Rapids, la., a city in Linn County, on Cedar River. It is a considerable railroad-center, and has a number of machine-shops, employing about 1,000 men. The water-power utilized by its manufac- tories comes from the Cedar River. Its industries are pork-packing and the manu- facture of flour, pumps, furniture, agri- cultural implements, starch, creamery, egg and dairy products. Cedar Rapids is the home of the American Cereal Co. and the Pawnee Cereal Co., which together have a daily capacity of thousands of barrels of cereals and give employment to hun- dreds of people. The city has the service of four railroads, excellent public schools, a public and also a Masonic library, etc. Population, .32,811. Celebes (sel'e-bez), an island possession of the Netherlands in the East Indies, lying between Borneo on the west and the Moluccas on the east. It was first visited by the Portuguese in 1512, but in 1660 was taken and occupied by the Dutch. The center and north of the island are mountainous, and have deposits of gold, copper, tin and diamonds. It is rich in forest wealth and its vegetation is luxuriant. The area of Celebes is 49,390 square miles, with an estimated population (1900) of 454,368. Among its chief products are coffee, sugar, indigo and tobacco. The capital is Macassar, situated on the south- western peninsula. The Celebes Sea, on the north of the island, separates the latter from the Philippines ; the Strait of Macassar on the west separates it from the island of Borneo. Cell (in plants), the unit of structure in the bodies of plants and animals. The bodies of the smallest plants consist of a single cell, while those of the more com- plex plants consist of very many cells. The free cell is approximately globular in outline, but if pressed upon by neigh- boring cells it may become variously modi- fied in form. Bounding the ordinary plant- cell, there is a thin elastic wall composed of a substance called cellulose. This cell- wall forms a delicate sac within which there exists the living substance called protoplasm. It is this substance which is alive and works, and has really formed PLANT CELLS OF DIFFERENT AGES the cell-wall about itself. The protoplasm of a living cell is organized into various structures, which have dif- ferent duties. One of the most conspicuous structures is a more compact mass of proto- plasm, usually of spherical form, which is called the nucleus. The nucleus i s im- ULOTHRIX, SHOWING THE FOR- bedded in the MATION, ESCAPE AND BEHAVIOR i dense oroto- OP SWIMMING CELLS plasm, which receives the general name cytoplasm. In addition to its power of growth the living cell is also able to divide itself intc two cells. The process of ordinary cell-divis- ion is an exceedingly complicated one, and is known as mitosis or karyokinesis. It is this power of self-division which enables a single cell, such as an egg, to produce eventually a complex body composed of numerous cells. JOHN M. COULTER. Cell - Doctrine, the doctrine that all the tissues of animals and plants are con- structed of cells. It unites living beings on the broad ground of similarity of struct- ure, and, for the understanding of animals and plants, is one of the most important advances of the nineteenth century. The cells are the little particles that are fitted together to make the tissues, and, there- fore, we may speak of them as the bricks of organic architecture. Not only are the parts of animals and plants constructed of cells, but every living being, no matter how complex, arises from a cell. The doctrine, therefore, is a broad one, and tends to unify knowledge. CELL-DOCTRINE 356 CELL-DOCTRINE Let us see some of the facts upon which this conclusion rests: If a very thin slice of a plant-stem be examined under the microscope, it will be found to be constructed of small units fitted together. If the outer epidermis of a leaf be stripped off and properly magnified, it will likewise show cellular structure. (See illustration.) By extending our observations, any part of the plant may be proved to be con- structed of cells or their derivatives. In like manner, if the epidermis of an animal be magnified, it will be seen to be constructed of cell elements. (See illustration.) If animal tissue, for example, the liver, be hardened in alcohol and cut into thin sec- tions, it may also be shown to be made of united cells. Now, cartilage presents us with a modification; in it the cells are separated by considerable lifeless substance in which the cells lie. (See illustration.) This lifeless substance has been secreted by the cells and thrown out around them. It may later have a deposit of earthy mat- ter in it as in bone or may undergo other changes. These afford a few illus- trations of cells in animals and plants. We must understand, however, that there is considerable variation, both as regards size and shape of the different cells, but they are quite uniform for the same kind of tissue. This theory first took definite form in 1839-40 through publication of the obser- vations of Schleiden and Schwann, and is generally known as the cell theory of Cells from Epidermis of frog (upper left); Epidermis of leaf (upper right); Cartilage showing matrix (lower left); and fiver (lower right). Schleiden and Schwann. But cells, espe- cially those of plants, had been observed long before this time. Robert Hooke, the English botanist, in 1665 described the plant-tissue in cork as made up of "little boxes or cells distinct from one another." Malpighi the Italian, Leeuwenhoek of the Netherlands and Grew of England all made sketches within a few years of this date, to show the cellular structure of plants. These, however, were individual observations, and Schleiden's great step consisted in applying the idea to all plants without exception; and Schwann made a general application to animal tissues. Both these men had a wrong idea regarding the cells. They thought of them as "box- like compartments," something like the cells in honeycomb or a wasp's nest, and, therefore, looked upon the cell-walls as important; but the idea of the cell changed and gradually came to mean the living particles instead of little boxes. Within the cavity of the cell is a jelly-like, viscid substance that is actually alive while the cell-walls are lifeless. The living substance is protoplasm, and in due time a cell came to be defined as a small mass of protoplasm containing a nucleus, for a nucleus or denser portion of protoplasm was found in all living cells. Finally, about 1860, the original idea of Schleiden and Schwann was completely replaced by the true one. Max Schultze did more than any other one man to establish this idea, which is called the protoplasm theory; but the work was greatly aided by De Bary the botanist and Virchow the pathologist. In the meantime, a new discovery had been made and partly perfected, viz.: that the egg is a cell. It is a modified cell of the body of the parent, and, with this new fact in mind, we can account for the origin of cells in the body. The egg divides into 2, then into 4, 8, 16, 32 cells, and so on, so that what was a single cell becomes many, and each new cell is derived by division from a formerly living cell. The cells produced in this way become grouped into layers and, later, into tissues. As the tissues grow, the cells become changed, both in form and as regards the work they do, and so we have different kinds of tissue. Now, since all animals arise from eggs, the substance of the egg must contain everything that an animal inherits from its parents, and it follows that heredity, in the long run, is a question to work out on cells. All activities have been shown, likewise, to take place in the protoplasm of cells; for example, the liver does not act as a whole, but each cell of which it is com- posed is doing a part of the work of the liver, and the combined action of all repre- sents the work of that organ. This is the case with any other organ in the body, and, therefore, the cell is important m physiology as well as in anatomy and development. Many problems are to be solved by work on cells. The recent CELLINI 357 CEMENT observations on cells have become close and technical, and cannot be dealt with here. See Wilson: The Cell -in Develop- ment and Heredity (1900); Hertwig: Tne Cell (1895); Sedgwick and Wilson: General Biology (1895). WM. A. Locv. Cellini (chtl-le''nt), Benvenuto, an Italian goldsmith, sculptor and engraver and the author of a very interesting account of his own life, was born at Florence in 1500. When young, he went to Rome, where his skill in metal-work gained him the favor of many nobles. He seems to have been somewhat of a freebooter, be- sides an expert swordsman and stabber, and had few scruples about murdering any one he chanced to quarrel with. His book mentions many of his encounters. He usu- ally got off scot-free, but the murder of a rival goldsmith brough him to prison. He was, however, in such favor as a metal- worker as to be quickly set free again. He was summoned to the court of France and he tells us how pleased Francis I was with a golden spice-box he made for him. But it was in Florence that he produced his finest piece of sculpture, the famous bronze, Perseus with the Head of Medusa. He began to write his life in 1558, which is of the greatest interest. Cellini was a shrewd judge of men, and gives a faithful and wonderfully life-like picture of Italian society in the i6tn century. He died in 1571. Celluloid (sel'u-loid), is a mixture of gun-cotton, camphor and various other substances. It is chiefly manufactured in the United States, most largely at Newark, N. J. Celluloid has many valuable proper- ties. It is buff or pale brown in color, but it can be made as white as ivory or trans- parent. It can be molded or p-essed into any form and turned, planed or carved. It is not affected by water or air. It can be hardened, and is then used for combs, piano keys and billiard balls. It can be colored to resemble amber or tortoise-shell. As an imitation of red coral, it is used in jewelry. Among the many articles made from it are knife-handles, buttons, napkin- rings, card-cases, thimbles, dolls, shirt fronts and collars. Cel'lulose (sel'u-los), the peculiar mate- rial which forms the original cell-walls of plants. See CELL. Celsius (sel'st-iis), Anders, a Swedish astronomer, born 1701, died 1744. Be- sides making some important geodetic measurements, he invented a scale of tem- peratures, known as the centigrade scale, which is now universally used in scientific work. The centigrade scale is defined by dividing the interval of temperature between melting ice and beiling water into 100 equal parts. Celts or Kelts, an Aryan or Indo- European race that spread over Europe in early times. There seem to have been two migrations, the first Celts conquering and driving westward the native peoples, who were of the Ivernian race, and in turn being driven and conquered by the second horde of their countrymen. Therf was no common Celtic name by which all Celts were known to the Romans, but they were known as Galli or Celtce. The Celts intermarried with the natives they conquered, and with the Romans and Saxons who conquered them; but some of them have remained more or less dis- tinct, as the Irish, Bretons, Scotch High- landers and Welsh. The language of the Irish and Scotch is called Gaelic; and a Gaelic dialect different from either of these, the Manx, is still spoken in the Isle of Man, while the Cornish dialect in the south of England, was spoken so late as a hundred and twenty-five years ago. Cement (se-menf), is any substance which without using mechanical rivets unites arti- cles by solidifying from a soft or liquid condition. The most important cements are those which, when mixed with water, form a hard, stony mass. Mortar sets in open air, hydraulic cements under water. They are used with sand and broken stone in making concrete, for masonry exposed to water and for material in other situa- tions that must possess exceptional dur- ability. Stony cements may be natural, as lime and Roman cement, or artificial, as Portland cement. The latter was in- vented in England in 1824, is considered the strongest and best of the hydraulic cements, and is the chief cement con- sidered in this article. In 1850 improved methods, with general recognition of ce- ment's merit as a building material, en- sured its commercial success. Then France and Germany took up the industry in earn- est, and their scientific methods improved the processes and quality of the product. It arrived in America in 1865, began to be manufactured here in 1872, but did not number even 1,000,000 barrels a year until 1905. Its true value as a structural substance was undreamed of in 1882, and it has required a quarter-century for it to win universal use, but in 1911 79>547>958 barrels were produced and the future of cement in all construction, including arti- ficial stone for house-building, appears assured. Making Portland cement is a simple process. Rocks containing clay and lime are quarried, crushed and ground, and then burned in rotary kilns at 2,000 F. This cement-clinker, as the product is called, is cooled, crushed and re ground to an impalpable powder. Then it is seasoned in dry bins, and finally about two per cent, of finely ground plaster-of-paris is added. The vast use of cement is as concrete and reinforced concrete. Concrete is arti- CEMETERY 358 CENCI ficial stone made from broken granite, trap-rock or screened gravel (the sizes ranging from a walnut to an egg), clean coarse sand and cement. Sand fills the spaces between stones, cement those be- tween grains of sand. The stone, gravel and (if strength be not indispensable) brick, cinders or terracotta form the aggre- gate, on whose character the concrete's final durability chiefly depends. Rein- forced concrete is ordinary concrete in which iron or steel rods or bars are imbedded, and is needed if concrete is exposed to pulling or bending. In 1882 the employ- ment of concrete was virtually confined to foundations and underground work, and reinforced concrete was undreamed of; but in 1885 the twisted bar was invented and the principle and method of rein- forcing concrete demonstrated; and in 1906 buildings of reinforced concrete endured the California earthquakes practically un- scathed. Now not only are huge ware- houses, 800 feet long and nine stories high, built of concrete, but bridges, cellars, chim- neys, cisterns, curbs, culverts, dams, drains, floors, hogpens, horseblocks, poultry-yards, porches, shingles, sidewalks, stalls, tanks and troughs. Portland cement is the sole hydraulic cement that the builder of concrete blocks can seriously consider. Natural and slag cements and hydraulic lime, when exposed to dry air, are its inferiors in strength and durability. Moreover, the speed with which it hardens and develops its full strength would alone throw other cements out of consideration. The price of cement has, for years been lessening steadily, until now, at a fifth of a cent (wholesale) per pound, it is cheaper than stone in general, not seldom even cheaper than brick, while well-made construction cement equals the best stone. The combination of steel and concrete seems as nearly fireproof a com- position as men may devise, and will, when generally employed, reduce insurance rates materially. In building on sandy soils, the stone or brick piers that are often built for considerable distance below sur- face as foundations are filled in with cement, and when this has hardened there prac- tically is a huge single mass of stone. The buildings of the future are likely to con- sist almost entirely of steel and cement. When cement costs only five dollars a ton, the speediest means of building a house will be to make rough molds and cast the walls from solid cement. Then stone houses can be made for the cost of wooden ones. In view of the expensiveness of lumber already and the impending exhaustion of our forests, this fact is of incalculable importance. Edison is constructing iron molds and devising machinery to cast a full-sized house in twelve hours. At the end of six days the molds can be removed, and the house will be complete and, after drying six more days, be ready for occu- pancy. Slag-cement also is coming into general use. Slag is a product of the blast furnace, resulting from the blending of iron ore and limestone. To the ironmaker it is so value- less that vast piles accumulate as waste. When it is suddenly cooled, dried and mixed with 25% of slaked lime, it forms a fine material for cement. Germany an- ticipated America in seeing the merit in slag-cement and in establishing factories for producing it. American manufacture of slag-cement began in 1902. Pure white cement is now made. When mixed with white sand, white quartz and white marble or limestone, it produces pure white concrete. By the addition of small amounts of ordinary pigments to white cement, it yields concrete of brilliant, delicate and lasting colors. Cemetery (sem'e-ter-y), (meaning a sleep- ing place), may mean any graveyard, but it has lately come to be applied to the large ornamental burial-grounds which have taken the place of the old custom of burying within and around churches. Western na- tions have got this idea from the Turks whose fine burial-grounds, especially around Constantinople, are famous and are dense forests of cypresses. A Mohammedan grave is never reopened, but after each death a cypress is planted. Paris was the first western city (in 1804) to set apart a modern cemetery, Pere la Chaise, which has become famous throughout Europe. The Campo Santo (Sacred Field) of Pisa, an oblong court surrounded by marble arches and adorned with noted frescoes and works of art and the Campo Santo of Genoa, with its wealth of sculpture, are both of them noted in Italy. There is an odd cemetery in Naples. In it are 366 deep pits, one of which is opened each day, and in it all the burials of the day take place, and it is not again opened until the same day in the following year. The park-like adornment of cemeteries has had most attention in the United States. The best known are Spring Grove at Cincinnati, Mt. Auburn near Boston, Greenwood in Brooklyn and Laurel Hill near Philadelphia. Cenci (chen'che), Beatrice, was the daughter of Francesco Cenci, a wealthy Roman nobleman. According to the popu- lar story, the beauty of Beatrice awakened in him an evil love of his own daughter. The outraged girl, but 16 years old, in revenge planned with her stepmother and brother her father's murder, into whose brain two hired murderers drove a large nail. The crime was discovered, she and her brother were put to the tor- ture, but, though the brother confessed, Beatrice maintained that she was innocent. All three, however, were beheaded. On CENSUS 359 CENTRAL AFRICA PROTECTORATE the story Shelley founded his tragedy of The Cenci. Researches have shown that Francesco was not so bad as he has been painted, that Beatrice was not so beautiful and virtuous as she has been pictured and, lastly, that the sweet and mournful face that forms one of the treasures of the Barberini Palace at Rome cannot, as was thought, be a portrait of Beatrice by Guido, who never painted in Rome until nine years after Beatrice was executed (I599)- Cen'sus, meaning the counting of the people. The word is a Latin one and was first applied to the duty of counting the people, which was intrusted to the Roman censors. Solon also established a census in Athens. The first careful census of a European nation was undertaken by Sweden in 1749. A count was made in France in 1700, but the first reliable one was not undertaken until 1801. In America the first census was taken in 1790; in England in 1 80 1. Censuses are now taken in the United States, England, India, most of the British colonies. Austria, Belgium, Italy, Norway, Sweden, Russia and Switzerland every ten years; in France and Germany every five years; in Spain irregularly. Hardly any two countries agree as to the subjects on which information is asked. Thus, some inquire whether there are in households infirm persons, blind, deaf and dumb, idiots, insane persons, persons who have been convicted of a crime; how many languages are spoken by the persons en- tered; how many are at school, how many vote, how many rooms and windows are in the house, and so on. Without being too inquisitorial, the design of the census-returns should at least afford information not only as to the vital statistics of a country or nation but as to its industrial and economic resources, including the extent and char- acter of its chief industries, manufactures, mines, if any, and the growth and nature of its agricultural products. The United States census is the most important of any, as the representation of the states in the lower house depends upon it. It was pro- vided for in the constitution. It aims at giving a specially full view of the condition of the people, and is illustrated with maps on almost all the many branches of in- quiry, such as the amount of land occupied by different crops and where various dis- eases prevail, as well as the indicated scope, extent and nature of its manufacturing interests, its mining resources, etc. The thirteenth (1910) census gives the United States a total population, including Alaska and the territories, of 93,402,151. The cen- sus of 1900, embraced in a series of ten volumes, devotes two to population, two to other vital statistics, two to manufac- tures. The census-bureau, organized as a permanent one in 1902, is under the Department of Commerce and Labor, and its periodic bulletins are of the utmost value. Centaurs (sen' tars) (meaning bull-kil- ers), a wild race of men, who lived in early times in the forests of Thessaly and spent their time in bull-hunting. Homer first tells about them, picturing them as savage, gigantic in stature and covered with hair. It was not until the time of the poet Pindar that they are spoken of as half-man and half-horse. In Greek myths these horse- centaurs are described as fighting with a people called the Lapithae and with Her- cules. The most famous was Chiron, who was the teacher of Achilles. When the Mexicans, who had never seen horses, first set eyes on the Spaniards on horse- back, they believed that the horse and man together made one animal, or a cen- taur, as the Greeks would call it. Centigrade Scale. See CELSIUS. Centiped (s$n f tt-p&d) t the common hun- dred-legged worm of warm regions. The body is divided into a number of similar jomts, and each joint is provided with a pair of legs, of which there are from 21 to 23. The enlarged front joint is the head, with eyes, jaws and long many-jointed feelers. Although resembling worms in form, they are really more closely related CENTIPED to insects. They resemble the larval stages of the latter in external and internal struc- ture, having jointed appendages, antennae or feelers, and breathing by air-tubes. These traits are not possessed by worms, but by insects, spiders, etc. The centipeds proper represent one group (Scolopendra) of a larger subclass called Myriopoda. The largest centipeds, from nine inches to one foot long, live in the East Indies, but one in South America attains nearly equal size. Their fore feet are modified into poison-claws, and their bite is fatal to small animals and dangerous to man. The centipeds are to be distinguished from the millepeds which are common in the United States and Europe, but a few centipeds are found within the borders of the southern states, the largest of which is five and one- half inches long. The centipeds live on insects and small animals, the millepeds mainly on decaying wood. The latter are harmless. Central Africa Protectorate, The, con- tains 40,980 square miles, with a popu- lation of 750 Europeans and nearly a mil lion natives. The chief settlement is Blan- tyre, in the Shire 1 Highlands, with abou* CENTRAL AMERICA 360 CERES 6,ooe inhabitants. It lies along the south- ern and western shores of Lake Nyasa, extending toward the Zambezi. There are good roads everywhere, and life and prop- erty are safe, with the inhabitants prosper- ous and content. The prevailing religion is Mohammedanism, with nine Christian mis- sions at work having 61,000 natives under instruction. Tobacco, coffee, cotton, rice can all be cultivated in either the low- lands or highlands. The trading is chiefly done at Port Herald and Chiromo on the lower Shire" and at Kotakota on Lake Nyasa. Imports are largely cloths, ironware and food; exports include coffee, cotton, tobacco, beeswax and rubber. For purposes of administration the protectorate is divided into 12 districts, and there is a small force of Sikhs and natives under British officers. Twenty post-offices in 1903 handled 391,599 pieces. There are railway, telegraph and telephone lines, and a water-power electric light plant at Zomba. In 1906 it was made the Nyasaland Protectorate. Central America. See AMERICA. Central Falls, R. I., a manufacturing city in Rhode Island, on the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad, six miles from Providence. It is situated in Provi- dence County and was taken from the town of Lincoln, and incorporated as a city in 1895. It has a number of factories, foundries, extensive cotton, woolen, thread and silk-mills, haircloth manufactories, foundries and machine-shops. Population 22,754. Cen'tral Park, the great park of New York city and one of the largest and finest in the world, was laid out in 1858. It lies in what is now the heart of the city, two and a half miles long and one half-mile wide, inclosing 843 acres, with an addition of 24 acres on the northwest. A part of it is used for two Croton water-reservoirs. The surface at first was all rock and marsh, and the expense necessary to level and fill in forbade its being made into city lots. Making it into a huge park was a happy idea; the marshes have become lakes, some of the bare rocks are now grassy slopes, while the massive bowlders and tall rock-walls face one at every turn of the winding path or smooth driveway. There is thus the wild appearance of moun- tain and forest, the contrast being height- ened by the solid rows of brownstone city- fronts that line the bordering avenues, far surpassing the effects usually produced in small city parks, where everything is so evidently artificial. The Metropolitan Museum of Art and the American Museum of Natural History occupy two large and handsome buildings in the park. Some of the points of interest are the obelisk, casino, mall, lake, cave, labyrinth and menagerie. Centra'lia, III., a city in Marion County on the 111. Central, Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Southern and the 111. Southern railroads, 60 miles east by south of St. Louis. Settled in 1852, the city was in- corporated seven years later, and is now governed by a charter passed in 1872 and subsequently amended. It is situated in a fine fruit-growing region, where there is also much coal-mining. Besides the car and repair shops of the 111. Central Railway, its industries embrace the manufacture of envelopes, boxes, pick-handles, crates, besides glassware and the product of its flour-mills. Population, 15,000. Centrifugal Force is due to rotation. If a particle is in motion along any path other than a straight line, it is acted upon by a force which is directed toward the convex side of the curve. This is called a centrifugal force. In particular, if a particle of mass m be moving in a circle of radius r with a uniform speed v, the centrifugal force is at each instant directed along the radius passing through the particle, and the amount of the force is mv* Cen- tripetal force is merely the negative aspect of centrifugal force. If we consider New- ton's Third Law and call centrifugal force action, then centripetal force is merely the reaction, which is equal and opposite to the action. Century Plant. See AGAVE. Ceramics (s^-rdm'iks or ke-ram'iks) , a name given to the plastic and decorative arts, which covers such objects of baked clay as are included in earthenware and porcelain, ornamentally treated in colors, glazing and firing. The term is applied to include such artistic utensils and deco- rated wares, known to experts as Majolica and Japan ware, the famous faience of Limoges, the porcelains of Worcester, Doul- ton and Sevres, Balleek china, plaques, pigs, vases, punch-bowls, candelabra, etc., artistically modeled, painted, glazed and enameled. The term, it will be seen, is a comprehensive one, and is applied to such objects of ornamental earthenware and porcelain as come under the category of fictile art. Cerberus (ser'bS-rus), the fabulous watch- dog who guarded the entrance to the lower world or Hades, is generally described as a monster having three heads. The twelfth and final labor of Hercules was to drag forth Cerberus to the light of the upper world, and that without use of a weapon. Orpheus, lacking the strength of Hercules, is said to have lulled Cerberus to sleep with his lyre on his journey to Hades for the lost Eurydice. Milton speaks of Melan- choly as "of Cerberus and blackest mid- night born" (L' Allegro). Ceres (se'rez), the Roman goddess who protects agriculture and the fruits of the CERRO GORDO 361 CEYLON earth. Her first temple in Rome was built in 496 B. C. to ward off a f amine with which the city was threatened. A great festival with games, called Cerealia, was set up in her honor. Cerro Qordo (ser'rd gdr'dd),a mountain- pass in Mexico, on the main highway to the City of Mexico. Here was fought a battle between the Americans and Mexi- cans, April 18, 1847. General Scott's force was 8,500, and Santa Anna's over 12,000. The engagement lasted from sunrise until 2 P. M., the Americans conquering with a loss of but 431 killed and wounded. The Mexican loss was from 1,000 to 1,200, with 3,000 prisoners, including five generals. Stores and artillery were surrendered. Cervantes Saavedra (ser-van'tez sd-d- vd-drd), Miguel de, the author of Don Quixote, was born in 1547, of an old and noble Castilian family. In 1569 we find some effusions of his on the death of the queen, that show he had begun to be a writer; but the next year we find him in Italy enlisted as a soldier and receiving three gunshot wounds at the battle of Lepanto. Coming home to Spain, he was captured by pirates, carried to Algiers and enslaved for five years. He made four daring attempts to free himself and his companions, but only regained his liberty by his family beggaring themselves to raise the large ransom demanded. He now began to write plays, which were not very successful and are all forgotten, ex- cept Numancia, which is acknowledged to be the most powerful tragedy in the Spanish language. In 1605 he brought out the first part of his great book, Don Quixote. It at once gained the greatest popularity, and the next year, in all the pageants throughout the country, men dressed to represent Don Quixote and his faithful Sancho Panza paraded the streets. Strange to say, Cervantes himself never thought it a great book; certainly no great book was ever written so carelessly. He worked at it by fits and starts, sending it to the printers without revising it and then laugh- ing at their and his own blunders. Nor did he take the trouble to bring out the second part for ten years, though all this time he was a busy writer; and only at last published it because somebody else had written a false second part. Cer- vantes, who knew what real bravery was, wrote Don Quixote to make fun of the mock bravery that strutted about in the guise of chivalry; but he also, before the book was finished, took the liberty of laughing at a great many other foolish things. Cervantes died at Madrid, April 23, 1616. Cervera (thar-vd'rd) , Pascual, a Spanish admiral who figured prominently at the outbreak of the Spanish-American War, was born at Madrid, in 1832, of a family of naval heroes. Early in his career he saw service in Morocco, in Cochin-China, in the Philippines and in the Spanish blockade of Cuba in 1870. He was, for a time, a naval attache of Spain at Wash- ington, and subsequently rose to the rank of rear-admiral. When war broke out with Spain, Cervera, with an inefficient squadron was ordered by his government to Cuban waters, and in May, 1898, was blockaded in Santiago harbor by a United States fleet. Realizing that he could make no effective defense, he determined to run the block- ade, but was overtaken and his ships were destroyed. His flagship, the Maria Teresa, took fire in the contest and had to be beached. Cervera, escaping on a life-raft, was rescued and taken on board the Glouces~ ter, where he surrendered and was held a prisoner of war until the peace protocol was signed, in August, 1898. He died in 1909. Cetewayo ( ka-chwd'yo ) , a noted Kafir chief, king of the Zulus, who in 1878 re- belled against British suzerainty, and in the following year annihilated a British regiment at Isandula, South Africa. Later in the same year Cetewayo was defeated by the British under Lord Chelmsford at the battle of Ulundi, taken prisoner and held captive till 1882. In that year he was brought to England, and there lionized by the Liberals, who were in favor of local autonomy in South Africa. The attempt was afterward made to reinstate him as king of Zululand; but having lost favor with his people, he was kept by the British at Ekove until 1884, when he died. Ceylon (se-lon'), an island and British colony in the Indian Ocean, southeast of India. Its greatest length is 260 miles; its greatest width 140 miles; area, 25,332 square miles. The sea of sapphire-blue beating against tall rocks and the rich evergreen forests towering above, till they are lost in the clouds, make a picture that can vie with any scenery in the world. Surface and Drainage. Rolling plains cover the most of the island, and in the south mountains rise 8,000 feet in height. There are but one important river and two natural harbors; but the breakwater, which has been built at the capital, Colombo, has brought the bulk of commerce thither. Plants and Animals. Most of the great trop- ical plants and trees are found here, noticeably tree-ferns often 25 feet high, scarlet flowering rhododendrons and tufted bamboos. The largest animal is the elephant, usuallv with- out tusks. Of the natives, the most numerous are the Singhalese, who are believed to be colonists from the valley of the Ganges. Products and Resources. The great ex- ports are tea, coffee and cinchona bark. The gems of Ceylon are well known. Here are found sapphires, rubies, topazes, gar- nets and amethysts, while the pearl-fisheries form a great British monopoly. People and Religion. The men look very womanish, with their delicate features, then CHAD, LAKE 362 CHALEURS earrings, their long hair brushed back from the forehead and held by combs and their waist-cloths like petticoats. The Singha- lese are Buddhists and do homage to the footstep of Buddha on the top of Adam's Peak, while his tooth is carefully kept in a rich shrine. Good work is being done in Ceylon by Christian missions and schools. History. In the north of the island ruined cities have been discovered, bring- ing to light rock-hewn temples, cave tem- ples, relic shrines which almost compare with the pyramids of Egypt and gigantic water-canks on which an immense amount of labor must have been bestowed. The Portuguese settled on the island in 1517, but were driven out by the Dutch in 1658, who were in turn conquered by the British in 1796. The chief town is Colombo (popu- lation, 158,228). Population, chiefly Singha- lese and Tamils, 3,592,397. Chad, Lake. See TSAD, LAKE. Chadbourne (chad'burn), Paul Ansel, an American educator, was born at North Berwick, Me., Oct. 21, 1823, and died at New York, Feb. 23, 1883. In 1848 he graduated at Williams College, where he w r as subsequently professor of chemistry and botany, and conducted some scientific expeditions with its students in Florida, Newfoundland, Iceland and Greenland. In 1867 he became first president of the State Agricultural College at Amherst, Mass., and, though he left this post to assume other duties, he returned here in 1882 and spent his last years in its work. In the interval he was successively president of Wisconsin University and of Williams College, of the latter of which he was an LL.D. He was also a licentiate in the ministry, and held the degree of D D. from Amherst. He published a number of works, chiefly con- sisting of courses of lectures before the Lowell institute and the Smithsonian in- stitution and of baccalaureate sermons and addresses. These include Natural The- ology; Instinct in Animals and Men; Rela- tions of Natural History to Intellect, Taste, Wealth and Religion; The Strength of Men and the Stability of Nations, etc. Chaffee, Major-General Adna Ro- manza, United States army, in command of the American military contingent in China that acted with the Japanese and European troops in the advance (August, 1900) on Pekin, for the relief of the besieged lega- tions at the capital. Born April 14, 1842, at Orwell, Ohio, he entered the army in 1861; became lieutenant in 1865 of the Sixth cavalry, major of Ninth cavalry in 1888 and lieutenant-colonel of Third cavalry in 1897. He gained a lieutenancy for gal- lantry at Gettysburg and a captaincy for gallantry at Dinwiddie Court-House, Va. He was made major and subsequently lieutenant-colonel for gallantry against the Indians in Texas and Arizona; appointed brigadier-general in 1898 of United States volunteers; and served in the Santiago campaign and was made major-general of volunteers in July of the same year. In 1900, at the outbreak of the Boxer riots in China, he was appointed to com- mand the United States troops acting with the European allies in the advance from Tien-tsin to Pekin. In 1901 he was made major-general in the United States army, and placed in command of the forces in the Philippines, of which he was appointed military governor. In 1904 he was pro- moted to lieutenant-general and appointed chief- of -staff. He was retired from the army in February, 1906. He died November i, 1914. Chagos (cka'gos) Islands. These are largely islets and dependencies of Mauritius. The largest of them, Diego Garcia, lies in 7 south latitude and between 72 and 73 east longitude, and is 12^ miles long and 6J broad, with 526 inhabitants. Chaiilu, Paul du. See Du CHAILLU. Chalazogamy (kal'a-zog'a-mi}, in plants. In ordinary angiosperms the pollen tube, having passed through the style, enters the micropyle of the ovule and so reaches the egg. In certain dicotyledons, as walnut, birch, alder, etc., it has "been found that the pollen-tube does not enter the micropyle, the natural passageway to the egg, but penetrates directly through the external parts of the ovule and burrows its way to the egg from the side or from beneath. The name has been given from the fact that the basal region of the ovule is known as the chalaza, which is at the opposite end of the ovule from the micropyle. The habit is a curious one, and its significance is not clear. Chalcedony (kal-sed'o-ny), a beautiful mineral. It is a variety of quartz, with a mixture of opal. It was found abundantly near Chalcedon, in Bithynia, which gave it its name. It is found lining or wholly filling cavities in old rocks, like the basalt rock of Scotland, Iceland, etc. Chalcedony composes the whole or main part of many agates. It is generally translucent, has a waxy luster and is usually white or bluish white; sometimes reddish or milk white; more rarely gray, blue, green, yellow, brown or black. Chalcedony is much used in jewelry for brooches, necklaces and orna- ments of all sorts; and large pieces are often made into little boxes, cups, etc. The people of olden times prized it highly, and many beautiful engraved specimens can be seen in museums. Petrified plants are sometimes found in chalcedony, in which they seem to have been incased while it was forming. Sometimes a speci- men with a little water inside is discovered. Chaldaea. See BABYLONIA. Chaleurs (slid-ler') , Bay of, extends west- ward.in between the provinces of Quebec and New Brunswick. It forms more than half of the northern boundary of New Bruns- CHALK 363 CHAMBERS wick. Said to have neither shoal or reef. Its fisheries (salmon, cod, herring, mackerel and lobster) are very important. Chalk. Chalk is a variety of soft lime- stone, made up chiefly of the shells of microscopic sea-animals, called Forami- n-ifera, which in life swim at or near the surface of the water. After the death of the animals their shells sink to the bottom. A cubic inch of chalk has been estimated to contain more than 1,000,000 shells. With the shells of the Foraminifera shells of other animals are sometimes mingled. In certain periods of the past these minute shells have accumulated in such numbers as to make beds scores of feet in thickness over great areas of the sea-bottom. Some portions of the sea-bottom on which these chalk-beds accumulated have subsequently been converted into land by uplift, so that chalk- formations now occur on the conti- nents. Oozes similar to chalk are now accumulating on some parts of the ocean- bed. Contrary to the earlier belief, the chalk-formations known on the land were made in shallow, not in deep, water. The chalk of our country is found principally in the western plains, from Texas to Nebraska. In foreign countries it is found especially in France and England. Most of the known chalk was formed in the Cretace- ous period (see GEOLOGY). In color it is usually white or whitish, and in composition it is chiefly carbonate of lime. Chalk is used extensively in the arts and to a slight extent in medicine. Various other sub- stances, such as red chalk, yellow chalk, black chalk, French chalk, etc., which are soft and will make a mark, as on a black- board, are erroneously called chalk. Chalmers (chal'merz) , Thomas, a Scottish divine, was born in Fife, Scotland, March 17, 1780. He was graduated at St. Andrews University, and began to preach when but 19 years old. What made him the earnest Christian leader he became was the careful study he made of Christ's divinity, when asked to write an article on the sub- ject for an encyclopaedia. Then his great genius broke forth like the sunshine. Called to the Tron church, Glasgow, his oratory took the city by storm; visiting London, his preaching soon made him as well-known as at home. To wrestle with the ignorance and vice of Glasgow, he became minister of St. John's parish, with its 2,000 families of work-people. Here he set up day- schools and 40 or 50 Sunday-schools. The authorities left him the whole manage- ment of the poor in his parish, and in four years he reduced the amount expended on paupers from $7,000 to $1,120. This work ruined his health, and he left it to take a professorship in St. Andrews and, afterward, in Edinburgh. He ie't very strongly on the questions that then divided the Scottish church, and, followed by 470 clergymen, he led a secession movement and founded what is known as the Free Church of Scotland. All his life he was a busy writer. His works extend to 34 volumes, mostly on theological, Christian and social subjects. As a pulpit orator he was un- rivaled. Gentle, guileless and genial- hearted, he combined great brain-power and imagination with the shrewdest com- mon sense. He died on May 31, 1847. Cham'berlain, Rt. Hon. Joseph, an English statesman and M.P., for Birming- ham West, was born in London, in July 1836, and educated at University College. He began his political career as an advanced Radical, was thrice elected mayor of Bir- mingham and was in 1876 re- turned to Par- liament for that city, and represented it until the year 1885. In early life he was an active member of the firm of Messrs. Nettle- JOSEPH CHAMBERLAIN *ld & Co., screw manufac- turers of Birmingham. In 1880 he became president ( Of the board of trade in Mr. Gladstone's cabinet, and came into promi- mence as an able politician and forceful debater. Taking issue with his political chief on the subject of Irish home-rule, he in 1886 allied himself with the Conservatives. Though at first disliked by the latter, he afterward became their leader in the house of commons, where he was regarded as a fierce fighter and hard hitter as well as a man of great force and ability. He took office in the Tory ministry of Lord Salisbury as colonial secretary, and did much to pro- mote colonial enthusiasm for the war with the Boers in South Africa, to bring about Australian federation and in his masterful way in Parliament to defend the Tory govern- ment for the mistakes and shortcomings in the Boer War. He was an earnest ad- vocate of municipal reform and of the better- ment of the condition of the working classes. He was lord-rector of Glasgow University. In 1888 he married, as his third wife, Mary, daughter of W. C. Endicott, formerly United States secretary of war. Age and ill-health withdrew him from many of his activities. He died July 2, 1914. Chambers (chdm'berz), William, was born on April 16, 1800, at Peebles, Scotland. The boy's schooling ceased in his thirteenth year, owing to his father's business troubles. After a five years' apprenticeship to an Edinburgh bookseller, he started in business CHAMBERSBURG 364 CHAMOIS for himself, soon adding printing to book- selling. In 1832 he founded Chambers' Edinburgh Journal, the pioneer of a class of cheap and popular periodicals of a whole- some kind, now so general. Together with his brother Robert, he wrote and published many useful books, especially the Cyclo- pcedia of English Literature and Chambers' Encyclopaedia in ten volumes. He died on May 20, 1883. Cham'bersburg, Pa., a borough, the seat of Franklin County, on Conococheague Creek and on the Western Maryland, and the Cumberland Valley railroads, about 50 miles southwest of Harrisburg and 150 west of Philadelphia. It is an attrac- tive town, with many fine buildings, in- cluding churches and schools, besides Wilson (Presb.) College for women; and in the neighborhood are Mont Alto, Wolf Lake and Pen-Mar Parks. The city owns and operates its electric-light plant and water- works, and in addition to the Cumberland Valley Railway car and machine-shops, has manufactures of paper, iron, engines, boilers and milling machinery; also establishments for the manufacture of shoes, furniture, gloves, hosiery, woolen goods and flour. Population 13,500. Chambord (shdn'bor'), Henri Charles, Comte de, and Due de Bordeaux, claimant to the French throne as the last representa- tive of the elder branch of the French Bour- bon dynasty, was born at Paris, Sept. 29, 1820, and died near Vienna, Aug. 24, 1883. He was the son of the Due de Berri, and in 1836 married the Princess of Modena, but IHt no children In 1830 his grandfather, Charles X, abdicated in the Count of Cham- bord's favor, when he assumed the title of Henri V; but his claim was unrecognized by France, and Louis Philippe came to the throne, while the Count had to go into exile. Chameleon, a lizard of Africa and Mada- gascar, with the power of changing its color to correspond with that of surrounding objects. The name properly belongs to the Old World form, though it is now com- monly applied to certain small lizards of the southern United States, which have the same power of quickly changing color, though this is not confined to the chamele- ons. Nearly all lizards have it to a greater or less degree, but it is highly perfected in the chameleon. Even a passing cloud is said to affect the particular shade of its color. The true chameleon of Africa is covered with granular scales and has a rigid head but very movable eyes. The long tongue is worm-like, with a knob on the end, and is run out with remarkable quickness to catch insects. The tail is clinging. It is also capable of puffing out the neck with air. The American chame- leon belongs to a different family. It is a smaller animal, covered with minute scales, and very abundant in the southern United States and the island of Jamaica. Its body is about three to three and one half inches long, and the tail alone is about six inches. It is white below, but above can change rapidly to shades from emerald CHAMELEON green to dark bronze. It assumes most perfectly the green color, and, on the leaves of palmettoes, can scarcely be seen if looked at from above, but, by looking from under- neath, _the dark shadow of the animal shows its position. It sleeps during the night and is most active in the daytime, when insects are moving. The cat is its natural enemy, and will leave all other kinds of food, even fish, for the chameleon. Various explanations have been suggested to account for its ability to change color. The outermost layer of skin is transparent, and underneath are two colored layers the upper layer lighter and the deeper one darker. Both of these can be changed in intensity by contraction or expansion of the coloring substance. This is probably effected through the nervous system. Chamois, ( sham' my" or shd-moi' ), a small mountain antelope inhabiting the European Alps from the Pyrenees to the Caucasus. It is about 3 feet long and z\ feet high at the shoulders. It may be known by the horns, which are carried by both sexes. They are from six to eight inches long, black, slender and round; they rise almost ver- tically from the iorehead, and at the ex- tremities suddenly hook backward and downward. The body is covered with coarse reddish-brown hair, paler on the head, with a dark-brown streak on each side. The hair becomes lighter in the spring. Underneath the hair is a short, thick, grayish wool. The tail is short and black. They are shy and live in herds, al- ways posting a sentinel when feeding. The signal of danger is a whistling sound, ac- companied by stamping of the fore feet. Chamois-hunting in Switzerland used to be a favorite but dangerous amusement. The hunter followed the animals into almost inaccessible places and sometimes bared the feet and scratched them enough to cause slight bleeding, in order to prevent slipping on the smooth rocks. Chamois were once common in the Swiss Alps, but CHAMOUNI CHAMPLAIN are now greatly reduced in numbers. In the Austrian mountains, where they have been better preserved, it is not uncom- mon to see bands of 20 or 30 individuals. The agility and climbing powers of the CHAMOIS chamois are famous; its foot is especially well formed for laying hold of slight pro- jections on the rocks. The outer margin of the solid hoof is lower than the sole, forming a shallow depression. In summer chamois ascend to the limits of the snow-line ; in winter they descend to the wooded dis- tricts that border the glaciers. They do not hesitate to spring over chasms nor to leap downward 20 or 30 feet against the rocky face of an apparently perpendicu- lar precipice. The fine soft leather known as Shammy was originally made from chamois-skin, though many of the skins now sold under that name are manufactured from sheep-skin. The flesh is prized as food, and resembles venison in flavor. Chamouni ( shd'mo'ne'), a celebrated val- ley among the French Alps, is about 3,400 feet above the level of the sea. It is about 13 miles long ajid two broad. On the south is the giant group of Mont Blanc, from which great glaciers glide down, even in summer, almost to the bottom of the valley. The chief of these is the Glacier des Bois, which in its upper course expands into a large mountain lake of ice, called the Mer de Glace. Over 15,000 tourists visit the valley every year, and from this point Mont Blanc is usually ascended. The beauties of Chamouni have been writ- ten of by Byron, Coleridge, Shelley, Words- worth, Lamartine and Ruskin. Champagne and The American' Wine Industry. Great strides have of recent years been made in the production and im- proved quality of the wines of the United States, with the gratifying result that they have largely supplanted the importation and use of the product of the foreign-grown grape. The total yield of the native wine has now risen to close upon forty million gallons per year. The region of its chief cultivation is still California; though produc- tion has of late largely risen in the states of New York and Ohio as well as in sev- eral of the western and southern states. The superior quality of the native wine has now become a matter of national and local felicitation, which is evidenced by the fact that it is increasingly rivalling the imported vintages of the Old World. Of sparkling wines there has been a great increase in Californian production, especially in the last 10 or 12 years, both the soil and the climate of the state, over a large area, favoring the vineyard yield, and that to well-nigh perfection. There the manu- facture of champagne is now a great and remunerative industry, while it is increas- ingly satisfactory to the taste of wine connoisseurs. At Urbana and Rheims, N. Y., as well as at Brockton and Ripley in the same state, and at Erie, Pa., Sandusky and Toledo, O. and on Lake Erie Island there are also successful winemaking establishments, their collective output an- nually being la/ge and constantly increas- ing in yield and in improved brands. Champaign (sham-pan'), a city in Cham- paign County, 111., 128 miles south of Chi- cago. It has the service of the Illinois Central, the "Big Four" and several other railroads. It is situated in a rich agricul- tural region, and has foundries, machine- shops and a number of manufacturing in- terests. Located here is the Burnham Athenaeum and Hospital. The cities of Urbana and Champaign join, and they have electric service. The University of Illi- nois is located between Champaign and Urbana. Population, 15,823. Champ-de-Mars (shon'de-mdrz'), a large square on the outskirts of Paris, where military reviews are held. The first great feast of the Revolution was held here on July 14, 1790. At that time the place was not ready, and all Paris, men and women, turned out and worked night and day to Eut it in readiness. It has been used for lirs, feasts, great mass meetings and demonstrations of mobs. Cham plain (sham- plan'), a beautiful lake separating the states of New York and Vermont. It is no miles long and from one to 15 broad. It empties into the St. Lawrence through the Richelieu River, and a canal joins it to the Hudson. Here the Americans defeated the British in a naval battle in 1814. The lake is named from its discoverer, Samuel de Champlain. Champlain, Samuel de ( 1567-1635). Of the most striking figure, perhaps, in Canadian history during the French regime, Sir John Bourinot says: "It was not in Acadia but in the valley of the St. Lawrence that France made her great effort to establish her do- minions in North America. Samuel Cham- plain, the most famous man in the history CHAMPS-ELYSEES 366 CHANNEL ISLANDS of French Canada, laid the foundation of the present City of Quebec in the month of June, 1608, or three years after the re- moval of the little Acadian colony from St. Croix Island to the Basin of the Annapo- lis. For 27 years Champlain struggled against accumulating difficulties to estab- lish a colony on the St. Lawrence. He won the confidence of the Algonquin and Huron tribes of Canada who then lived on the St. Lawrence and Ottawa Rivers and in the vicinity of Georgian Bay. He recognized the necessity of an alliance with the Canadian Indians who controlled all the principal avenues to the great fur-bearing regions ... It was during Champlain's ad- ministration of affairs that the Company of the Hundred Associates was formed under the auspices of Cardinal Richelieu, with the express object of colonizing Canada and developing the fur-trade and other commercial enterprises on as large a scale as possible. The company had ill-fortune at the outset . . . When Champlain died on Christmas Day, 1635, the French popula- tion of Canada did not exceed 150 souls, all dependent on the fur-trade. Canada so far showed none of the elements of pros- perity; it was not a colony of settlers but of fur-traders. Still, Champlain by his indomitable will, gave to France a foot- ing in America which she was to retain for a century and a quarter after his death. He stands foremost amongst the pioneers of European civilization in America." Dr. Dawson, in his volume on the St. Lawrence Basin, gives the following in- teresting sketch of Champlain: "Cham- plain was a many-sided man, strong in body as in mind. He was as much at home in the brilliant court of France as in a wig- wam on a Canadian lake, as patient and politic with a wild band of savages on Lake Huron as with a crowd of grasping traders in St. Malo or Dieppe. Always calm, al- ways unselfish, always depending on God. in whom he believed and trusted, and thinking of France which he loved, this simple-hearted man resolutely followed the path of his duty under all circumstances; never looking for ease or asking for profit, loved by the wild people of the forest, re- spected by the courtiers of the king and trusted by the close-fisted merchants of the maritime cities of France." Champs-Elysees (shori 'zd-le-zd') (mean- ing elysian fields), celebrated gardens and an avenue-promenade in Pans, between the Place de la Concorde and the Arc de Triomphe. It came into the possession of the city in 1828, and is extensively used as a public resort. Chan'cellorsville, a village in Virginia, south of the Rappahannock River, where a series of battles were fought May 2-4, 1863, between the Army of the Potomac under General Hooker and the Confederate army under General Lee. The Union army, though superior in numbers, after three days terrible fighting was defeated and retreated across the Rappahannock, with a loss of 18,000 men. The Confederate loss was 13,000, including the brave and able Stonewall Jackson, who was acci- dentally shot by his own men and died eight days later. Chandler, Zachariah, United States senator from Michigan (1857-75 and again in 1879) and secretary of the interior (1875-77), was born at Bedford, N. H., Dec. 10, 1813, and died suddenly at Chi- cago, 111., Nov. i, 1879. He was for a time in the dry-goods business in Detroit, Michigan, where as an active anti-slavery Whig, he took interest in the "underground railroad," by which slaves found their way to freedom in Canada. In 1857 he was elected to the United States senate, and continued a member of that body till his death, with the intermission of the years 1875 to 1879. In 1875 he was secretary of the interior in the Grant administration. During the Civil War he was loyal to the Union, and rigidly defended it against the slave-states. He also opposed, for the time, the admission of Kansas. Chang-Choo-Fou, a large city of China, in the province of Fokien, 35 miles from Amoy, its port on the coast, It is well built, and has a large Buddhist temple. Population, estimated at 1,000,000. Channel, The English, is the narrow sea between England and France. It joins the North Sea at the Strait of Dover, where it is only 21 miles wide. From here to its junction with the Atlantic, where it is 100 miles wide, its length is 280 miles It contains the Channel Islands, the Isle of Wight and others. Channel Islands, a group of small is- lands off the coast of France, subject to Great Britain. Jersey, Alderney, Sark and Guernsey are the largest.. The whole group covers 75 square miles, with a population of 95,618. The islands contain much fine scenery. They belonged to Normandy when William the Conqueror invaded England, and have belonged to England ever since. The people still speak Nor- man-French; while modern French is the official language used in courts and the legislature. Politically, the islands are ad- ministered by their own laws and customs, each by a lieutenant-governor with judicial and other functionaries, and a states' assembly, partly elective. Jersey has a separate legal existence. Guernsey, Al- derney and Sark have a lieutenant-gov- ernor in common, but otherwise their gov- ernments are separate. In these respects, the islands may well be called the Land of Home-Rule. The islanders are mainly farmers, and fertilize their lands with the rich seaweed gathered on the coasts. The CHANNING 367 CHARITY, SISTERS OF fine breeds of Alderney and Jersey cattle come from here. Chan 'n ing, William Ellery, a great American preacher and writer, was born on April 7, 1780, at Newport, Rhode Island. He graduated from Harvard in 1798, and preached first as pastor of a Congregational church in Boston. Here his sermons soon became famous for their fervor, solemnity and beauty. He gradually drifted toward the Unitarian creed, His interest was not confined to religion alone, for he advo- cated temperance and education and was opposed to war and slavery. He stands high also as an essayist. Among his most popular essays are those on National Litera- ture, John Milton, Fenelon and Self-Culture. He died at Bennington, Vermont, Oct. 2,1842. Chantilly (shdn-te-ye 1 ), a town in France, in the department of the Oise, 25 miles north-northeast of Paris, noted for its fine lace-manufactures. The famous races of the French Jockey Club are held here. Here was the magnificent palace of the great Cond6, which was destroyed during the Revolution. The Due d'Aumale, in 1850, built a fine castle here, which, with its domains about it, he presented in 1887 to the French Institute. Population, 4,500. Chapleau, Hon. Joseph Adolphe, was born in Terrebonne (Quebec), in 1840. He was called to the bar in 1861, and was created an officer of the Legion of Honor (France) in 1882. A professor, in Laval University, of Criminal Jurisprudence. He was solicitor-general under Mr. Ouimet in 1873, was appointed provincial secre- tary, 1876, and in 1879 was premier of Quebec. Appointed Secretary of State in Canada in 1882. He was elected to the parliament of Canada in 1867, 1871 and 1875, an d was elected for Terrebonne in the House of Commons in 1882. He was a very prominent and influential French Canadian for at least a quarter of a century. His death occurred in 1889. Chapui tepee (chd-pool'td-pek'), a Mexi- can fortress, built on a rock 150 feet high, about two miles from the city of Mexico. On Sept. 8, 1847, General Scott first stormed Molino del Rey, an old powder-mill in rear of the fortress and then, September 12, brought four batteries to bear on Chapul- tepec from the opposite ridge. After can- nonading a day and a half, attacks on the two sides were made at the same time, which carried the castle, with slight loss to the Americans. This victory threw open the causeway leading to the city, and, the day after, United States troops occupied the Mexican capital. To-day Chapulte- pec is occupied as the summer residence of the president of Mexico, General Diaz; it is the seat also of an observatory and a military school. Characeae (kd-rd's$-e). A group of l aquatic plants, commonly called stone ; worts and usually included among the green alga; (chlorophycea) . They have no other coloring matter than chlorophyll, but they are so different from the other green algae that it is doubtful whether they should be included with them. They are more complex than the other algas, growing in fresh or brackish waters and being fixed to the bottom. They often form great masses, even choking up shallow ponds. They are coarse, thready and branching growths, whose walls become incrusted with a deposit of lime, which makes them harsh and brittle and suggests the common name, stoneworts. Char'coal. Animal charcoal is made from bones by heating in a closed vessel or retort, when the gases, water-vapor and oil are given off, and bone-black, mainly car- bon, remains. It is seen usually in coarse grains, from the size of peas to pin-heads, and is used mostly in removing colors from liquids. Syrup of sugar, for example, is allowed to drip through a layer of bone- black; all color is held by the charcoal and the syrup runs through clear and colorless. This is due to the charcoal's earthy matter and also to its being porous. Bone-black is also used to absorb disagreeable smells. Wood-charcoal is one of the most important varieties of carbon. Wood consists of car- bon, hydrogen and oxygen. When heated in the open air, it burns away, except a small white ash; but if the air is partially cut off, only the gaseous matters escape, leaving the carbon. Billets of wood are stood on end in rows, making a large cone- like heap, which is covered with turf or moistened charcoal ashes, and holes left at the bottom for air to get in. An open space for a chimney is also left at the top, and the wood burns slowly from top to bottom and from center to outside. When fully burned, the heap is covered and left to cool two or three days. One hundred parts of wood average 24 parts by weight of char- coal. Charcoal is black and brittle, and keeps its wood-form. It is never pure carbon, usually from 65 to 96 per cent. Charcoal is largely used as a fuel, in some countries taking the place of coal. Its use in the reduction of iron-ore is important. Fence posts, telegraph poles and piles driven in mud or beds of nvers for foundations are often charred on the outside to preserve them from decay. It is also used in water filters, for tooth powder and as a medicine. Chares of Lindus, the Rhodian sculptor. See COLOSSUS OF RHODES. Charity, Sisters of, an organization usually consisting ot nuns or celibate women, founded by St. Vincent de Paul near Paris at out the year 1633. The object of the sisterhood was to take care of the poor, especially the sick, and to educate children. Prisons, free schools, hospitals and alms- houses were at once placed under their care. CHARLEMAGNE 368 CHARLES II The archbishop of Paris gave them the name of Servants of the Poor, which they have proudly kept ever since. The sisters became so useful and beloved that they were spared by the Revolution. They have since spread to almost every civilized coun- try, and are doing a good and faithful work. Charlemagne (shdr'tt-mdn), meaning Charles the Great, born April 2, 742, was the eldest son of Pepin, the first king of the Franks, of the Carlovingian dynasty. He was at first joint-king with his brother Carloman, but on the latter's death in 771 he became sole king. Six wars made him master of the Saxons, whom he Christian- ized. Crossing the Alps with two armies, he overthrew the kingdom of the Lombards in 774. In 778 he invaded Spain, and by his campaign against the Moors added a large region south of the Pyrenees to his kingdom. Ten years later Bavaria was made a part of his empire, and the savage Avars were conquered. In 800 he fought as the ally of the pope against the rebellious Romans. Here, while worshiping in St. Peter's church on Christmas Day, the pope set a crown upon his head and, amid the shouts of the people, saluted him as the emperor of the Romans. The remainder of his reign was spent in strengthening his vast empire, which extended from the Ebro to the Elbe. Bishoprics were founded; the country was divided into districts ruled by counts; and counts, called markgrafen, de- fended the frontiers from attack. A further element of strength was a great yearly military muster, attended by the high officials of the empire. Charlemagne was not merely a soldier; a learned man for his era, he had a school in the palace for the sons of his servants and set up schools throughout the country. He promoted commerce and manufactures; he also took an interest in farming, and had fruit trees brought from southern Europe and planted by his subjects on their lands. His fame spread to all parts of the world, the great Caliph Haroun-al-Raschid sending an em- bassy to show his respect. Charlemagne was tall and looked every inch a nobleman. The greatness of his kingdom ended with his own life. His successors were weaklings, and the great empire fell to pieces. Yet his attempt to maintain order and observ- ance of law among his people and to gather small tribes into one great nation, had great effect in making Europe civilized. He died Jan. 28, 814. Charles I, king of England, born Nov. 19, 1600, was a weakly child, unable to speak until his fifth year or to walk until his seventh. He, however, outgrew both defects, became active in outdoor sports and was an accomplished scholar. He suc- ceeded his father in 1625, and the same year welcomed, at Dover, his little bright- eyed queen, the French Princess Henrietta Maria, whom he had married by proxy six weeks earlier. At first he was the mere tool of Buckingham, but after that noble's murder in 1628, he gradually submitted himself to the guidance of his wife. It was his yielding to her influence and also to that of Stafford and Laud, that caused the rupture between the king and Parliament. The struggle was caused by Charles' deter- mination to get money without rendering an account of it. For eleven years he ruled without summoning a parliament. His attempt to make the inland counties pay a ship-tax was met by the resistance of Hampden; while Laud's foolish attempt to force the Scottish church to become English arrayed the whole northern kingdom against him. In 1640 two parliaments met; the short parliament, which lasted but three weeks, and the long parliament, which out- lasted Charles. Afraid that the queen would be impeached, he signed the bill which sent Stafford to the block. Then came Pym's Grand Remonstrance, as it was called, and Charlies' attempt to arrest the five members of Parliament who had gone farthest in opposing him. In 1642 began the Civil War, in which Charles showed great bravery but which resulted at the battle of Naseby, in the utter destruc- tion of his cause. He was tried and con- demned to death, and on the 3oth of January. 1649, was beheaded. His faults were as a ruler. As a man, a husband and a father, one English prince alone is worthy of being named beside him the late prince consort. It has been well said : " No man so good was ever so bad a king." Charles II, king of England, born May 29, 1630, was present with his father at the battle of Edgehill. when but 12 years old, and in 1646 he escaped to France. In 1650 he landed in Scotland, was crowned at Scone, and with 10,000 Scots marched into England, but was defeated and his army put to rout by Cromwell at Worcester. For six years Charles wandered about, a fugitive with a price of 1000 set on his head now hiding in an oak tree and anon disguised as a serving-man. More than 40 persons shared in his secret, yet not one betrayed him, and he escaped from the country. On the fall of the protectorate in 1660 he was recalled to the throne. His first adviser was Lord Clarendon, who was succeeded by the cabal or cabinet, and they by Shaftesbury. He was unpatriotic, sell- ing to France Dunkirk, a French town which the English had long held, and also secretly taking money from Louis XIV for not opposing the schemes of France. Two wars with Holland; religious troubles at home; the struggle to prevent the king's brother James, duke of York, from being declared heir to the throne; and the Popish and Rye House plots made up the political incidents of his reign. Under Charles II CHARLES VII 369 CHARLES XII happened the great plague, when nearly 70,000 Londoners died, and the great fire which burned 13,200 houses. His reign has been called the worst in English history; a friend said that "he never said a foolish thing, nor ever did a wise one"; yet he was interested in science, was always popular and was nicknamed the Merry Monarch. Charles died Feb. 6, 1685. Charles VII, king of France, born Feb. 22, 1403, succeeded his father, Charles VI, in 1422, when all northern France was held by the English, who proclaimed Henry VI, of England king of France. The English, after some successes, laid siege to Orleans, the capture of which would wholly cut off the French from the north. At this time the famous Joan of Arc, the Maid of Or- leans, by her wonderful courage and be- lief that she was sent by Heaven to deliver her country roused the courage of nobles and people. The siege was raised, the English retreated, and soon lost all they had gained in France. In 1437 Charles entered Paris and spent the remainder of his reign in restoring order and prosperity to France, after the great misfortunes the country had suffered. He died July 22,1461. Charles IX, king of France, the second son of Henry II and Catherine dei Medici, was born in 15 50 and succeeded his brother, Francis II, in 1560. He was weak and wavering, and led in all things by his mother. It was her counsel that drove him to authorize the massacre of St. Bartholo- mew's Day. He died May 30, 1574. Charles X, king of) France, the grandson of Louis XV, was born at Versailles, Oct. 9, 1757. He received the title Comte d' Artois, and in 1773 married Maria Theresa of Savoy. After the fall of the Bastille, in 1789, he headed the first emigration of nobles and took the lead in the attempts made to restore the monarchy. Under Louis XVIII Artois headed the royalist party, and by the death of that monarch became king under the title of Charles X. At first he was popular with all parties, but it was soon plain that he wished to make his rule as absolute as that of the old French monarchy. The people became dis- contented, and a struggle ensued with the chamber of deputies. On July 26, 1830, the king signed the five well-known ordi- nances, putting an end to the freedom of the press, making a new mode of election and dissolving the chamber that had just been elected. Paris at once took up arms. In three days the revolution was finished, Charles was driven from the capital, and Louis Philippe declared king. Charles lived the remainder of his life in exile. He died Nov. 6, 1836. Charles V, emperor of Germany, was born at Ghent in 1500. From his father he inherited the Low Countries and from his mother Spain and Naples, together with the Spanish colonies in America. In 1516 he became joint-ruler of Spain with his mother Juana, and in 1519 he was made emperor of Germany. The hisliory of western Europe for the next quarter of a century is largely made up of the rivalry of Charles and Francis I of France. The other powers. Henry VIII of England and the different popes favored first one and then the other, which resulted in war between the monarchs during much of the era. Most of the fighting was done in Italy, where the possession of Milan was in dispute. First, Charles V drove the French out of Italy and besieged Marseilles. The next year Francis, in trying to recover Milan, was taken prisoner at the battle of Pavia and had to buy his freedom by giv- ing up all he had been fighting for. Charles was now so successful that the Holy League, with the pope at its head, was formed against him. An army under Constable Bourbon sacked Rome and imprisoned the pope, Charles claiming to have nothing to do with it; but it left him master of Italy. But now trouble called him home to Spain. An insurrection had arisen, which he put down, and at the same time by his tact made himself popular throughout the country. In Germany he found himself opposed by the Protestants, who had formed in defense the League of Smalkald. Threat- ened by an invasion of the Turks, he was forced to agree to many of their demands. In 1535 he accomplished the most brilliant of all his exploits, the destruction of the power of the great corsair, Barbarossa, and the capture of Tunis. A later expedition to put down the Algerian pirates was badly wrecked, and Charles himself had great trouble in reaching the coast of Spain. By two more wars with France, when Francis went so far as to call on the Turks to help him, he triumphed over the French king. Two things he now wished to effect, but in both of which he failed, were to suppress the Protestant party in Germany and nave his son Philip accepted as heir to the em- pire, and not merely to the throne of Spain. The young and brilliant Maurice of Saxony, by suddenly opposing Charles with a secretly gathered army when his own was scattered, obtained from him lawful recog- nition for the Protestants. The German princes declared in favor of Philip's brother Ferdinand as their next emperor. Baffled by his unruly German subjects, seeing no way to keep his empire from being divided at his death, the disappointed emperor resigned his throne in 1555. The three remaining years of his life (he died Sept 21, 1558) were spent in retirement in a Spanish monastery. Charles was in person slight, graceful in manner and popular with all classes of his subjects among the various peoples under his sway. Charles XII, king of Sweden, was born June 27, 1682, the son of Charles XI. As- CHARLES XIV 370 CHARLES, LAW OP cending the throne when 15 years old, his boyishness tempted Denmark, Poland and Peter the Great of Russia to attack Sweden, at that time the great power of the north. Charles at once besieged Copenhagen and forced a peace. Next, with 8,000 Swedes, he attacked the camp of the Russians, 50,000 strong, and in the battle of Narva routed them with great slaughter. The king of Poland was now driven into the heart of Saxony, conquered and dethroned. In 1700 Charles invaded Russia with an army of 43,000, almost captured the czar and won several battles. But here, trusting to the promises of the Cossack, Mazeppa, the Swede turned southward to meet him. Mazeppa and his troop failed to come up. His reinforcements cut off, he was forced to winter in a hostile and barren country, losing half his army; and though in the spring he marched at once on Peter, he was defeated. With a handful of attendants he fled across the Turkish border, but in- stead of gaining the sultan as an ally, Russian spies spread such reports about him that he was arrested and imprisoned. In 1714 he escaped and made his way through Germany and Hungary in 16 days. But his love of fighting was only intensified by his misfortunes, and a project now entered his head that promised fighting enough. This was to make peace with Peter, conquer Norway, next land in Scot- land and replace the house of Stuart on the English throne. When at peace with the czar, he burst into Norway, and early in 1718, while urging on siege- works in the dead of winter, he was killed by a musket- ball from the fortress. Charles was almost foolishly brave; his dress was simple, and he shared the coarsest food and the hardest labor with the common soldiers with a cheerfulness that won their devotion. Charles XIV of Sweden. See BERNA- DOTTE. Charles the Bold (Duke of Burgundy), son of Philip the Good of Burgundy, was born Nov. 10, 1433. He succeeded his father as duke in 1467. He was the life- long enemy of Louis XI of France. Join- ing with other great nobles in fighting for what they considered their rights as against the crown, their army threatened Paris and defeated the king. The province of Bur- gundy had once been a kingdom, and Charles now planned to restore it by conquering Lorraine, Switzerland and Provence. In this, however, he was not successful, being twice defeated by the Swiss. Finally, in a battle against the Duke of Lorraine, fight- ing with his usual courage and boldness, he was killed, Jan. 5, 1477. Richer and more powerful than any prince of his time, of great size and strength, his great ambi- tion and reckless boldness combined to make him the most striking figure of the period. Charles Edward (the Young Pre- tender), the son of James Stuart, the first Pretender, was born at Rome, Dec. 31, 1720. Unlike his father and grand- father, he was talented and firm of purpose. As a boy he served in the Spanish army against Austria. On the breaking out of war between France and England in 1744, the French furnished him with a powerful fleet and an army under the command of Marshal Saxe, the greatest soldier of the time, with which to secure the throne of the Stuarts, but the expedition was driven back by storms. The French refusing to let him try again, he managed to collect enough funds to fit out two small vessels. One was driven off by a British cruiser, but the second bore Charles to Scotland, where an army of Highlanders slowly gathered about him. He destroyed an English army sent against him at Prestonpans, which gave him such a reputation that he marched to within 100 miles of London, which he could have captured, but the Highlanders forced him to retreat. After winning the battle of Falkirk, his Highland chiefs forced him again to retreat to the Highlands, where the dis- astrous defeat of Cufioden ruined his cause. He- might have won this battle, too, had not the MacDonald clan refused to charge, sulking because they had been moved from their traditional position on the right wing. After months of wandering, the Pretender escaped from the country. He lived in Europe as the Count of Albany, until his death at Rome in 1768. Charles I, Emperor of Austria, born Aug. 17, 1887, succeeded Francis Joseph on the throne Nov. 21, 1916. He was educated in the public schools of Vienna and later entered the army, taking an active part in the Great War. He is simple and unaffected, greatly beloved by his people. Charles, Law of. When a constant mass of gas is heated, either or both of two things may happen to it. ( i ) The effect may be to increase the volume of the gas while the pressure remains the same; (2) the effect may be to increase the pressure of the gas while the volume remains con- stant; or (3) both the volume and the pressure may be changed simultaneously. Charles' law, which might more properly be called Gay-Lussac's law, tells us just how these changes take place. If the mass and piessure of the gas remain constant, then the volume of the gas increases |, part for each degree centigrade through which it is heated. Thus, if we denote by V the volume of the gas at the temper- ature of melting ice, its volume at any other temperature, Vt, will be given by the following equation: V t =V [i + o. 003665 t] The fact thus described is known as Charles' law. if the volume remains constant and CHARLES MARTEL 371 CHARLESTOWN the pressure changes, the effect is described by the following equation: P t =P [i-ro. 003665 t] where P is the pressure at the temperature of melting ice and P t the pressure at t. If pressure and volume both change, then PtVt=P V [i+o. 003665 t] The student should be warned that this law of Charles is very accurately true for all gases throughout a moderate range of pressures, but is not exactly true for any gas, and does not hold at all in the case of vapors. Charles Martel, meaning CHARLES THE HAMMER, was born about 688. He was mayor of the palace under the last Frankish kings of the Merovingian dynasty, and was the real ruler of the Franks. He carried on wars with the Saxons, the Alamanni and the Bavarians; but his great service to Europe was his driving back of the Saracens. They had already taken Bordeaux and had advanced to the Loire, when Charles met them in 732, and after a hard-fought battle wholly defeated them. This was one of the most important victories in the world's history, and probably kept Europe from becoming a Mohammedan country and being to-day no further advanced than Arabia. Charles died in 741. Charleston, the chief city of South Carolina, was founded in 1670 as an English colony. It was captured by the British in 1780. The first ordinance of secession was passed here, and the reduction of Fort Sumter in its harbor was the first conflict CHARLESTON HARBOUR INGUSHMII.U of the Civil War. In 1861 nearly half of the city was burned to the ground, and it was in a state of siege during the last two years of the war. Then again, in 1886, a heavy earthquake visited the city and wrought $8,000,00 of damage. Charleston is situated on a peninsula, formed by the Ashley and Cooper Rivers, while a third river, the Wando, unites with the Cooper at the city. The estuary formed by these rivers makes a magnificent harbor. It is even regarded as the safest on the Atlantic coast. Fort Moultrie, at Sullivan's Island on the eastern side of the harbor, is one of the best equipped defenses on the coast. It and the naval station at Charleston, which occupies a tract on Cooper River, have cost the government several millions. Charleston's commerce was almost destroyed by the Civil War, but much of that which entered other channels has been recovered, and the terminal docks for two ocean-freight lines which were established in Charleston in 1901 have also increased the city's commercial prestige. Eleven manufactories are engaged in producing phosphate fertilir^rs, which is the leading industry; others of importance are tobacco, foundry and machine-shop products, oil and rice milling, bagging-factories, turpen- tine-casks and baskets for shipping veg- etables and fruits. Charleston has good public and parish school systems, and for higher education, the Charleston and Meninger High School, Academy of Our Lady of Mercy, Smith's school for young ladies, the South Carolina Military Academy, a state institution estab- lished in 1843, the state Medical College and many others. The city has 60 churches and many charitable institutions. The buildings of note are the postoffice, built of Carolina granite, and the U. S. Custom-House erected of white marble. Population, 58.833 Charleston, capital of West Virginia and county seat of Kanawha County, is situated on the Kanawha River at its junction with the Elk. The Kanawha has an excellent system of locks and dams, which afford facilities for shipping coal from the rich New River mines. Charleston is the center ot trade for large coal and lumber interests. Its industries include woolen-mills, machine-shops, boiler-works, iron-foundries, steel-plants, dye-works, marble-works, wagon-shops, glass-works, furniture-factories and one of the largest axe-factories in the world. It has many fine public buildings, among which are the Capitol and Capitol Annex, Court-House, Y M. C. A. building, modern and well- equipped houses and handsome churches. Population, 30,000. Charlestown, Mass. Charlestown is situated at the mouth of the Charles River, opposite the old city of Boston. In 1873 it was annexed to the city of Boston. At that time it had a population of 28,000. It is the scene of the first real battle of the Revolution, that of Bunker Hill. CHARLOTTE 372 CHATHAM Charlotte, N. C., a growing city and railroad center, the capital of Mecklenburg County, situated on Sugar Creek, no miles north of Columbia, capital of South Caro- lina. Its balmy climate and high average temperature are favorable for invalids. Gold has been found in the vicinity, and there is here a branch of the United States mint. It is the seat of Queen's College for girls. It has numerous manufactories and a good trade in cotton-goods, tobacco, iron- castings, and agricultural implements. Popu- lation, 50,000. Charlot'tenburg is a large suburb lying to the west of Berlin. It is visited by tourists for the sake of the royal palace, built here in 1696 by Frederick I for his second wife, Sophia. The grounds and statuary are of great beauty. Charlotten- burg has become the seat of many factories ; and its population, which in 1871 was esti- mated at less than 20,000, has multiplied no less than tenfold. Char'lottesville, Va. f a city, the seat of Albemarle County, on the Rivanna River and on the Southern and the Chesa- peake & Ohio railroads, about 100 miles northwest of Richmond. It is the seat of the University of Virginia, founded in 1819 by Thomas Jefferson of Monticello, near by; also the seat of Albemarle College, Rawlings Female Institute and other edu- cational institutions. Settled] in 1744, Charlottesville became a city in 1888. It became a city of the first class in 1916, by the annexation of adjacent territory. Its industries embrace cigar-factories, wine- presses, flour, planing and woolen mills and textile manufactures. Population 12,000. Char'lottetown, the capital of Prince Edward Island (which is separated from New Brunswick and Nova Scotia by Nor- thumberland Strait) has a population of 13 ooo. It is nicely located on a good harbor in Hillsborough Bay. It has the main trade of the island. Its main industry is shipbuilding. The Prince Edward Island Railway, owned by the government of Canada, connects Charlottetown with the towns of the island, and a submarine telegraph connects the island with the province of New Brunswick, a distance of nine miles. Charter-House, a famous 'school and hospital of London, founded in 1611. It first provides a good home for 80 "poor brethren." The Charter-House school main- tains some 60 scholarships, worth from $375 to $475, which are open to boys from 12 to 15 years old. Besides the holders of these scholarships, many Londoners send their boys to this school because of its reputation. Blackstone, Addison, Steele, John Wesley, Grote Thackeray, John Leech, Eastlake and many other men of note and ability were educated there. In 1872 the school was removed to Godal- ming in Surrey. Charter-Oak. See ANDROS and HART- FORD. Chase, Salmon P., chief -justice of the United States, was born at Cornish, N. H., Jan. 13, 1808. He graduated at Dartmouth College, and entered the law, practicing at Washington, D. C. His edition of the Statutes of Ohio, now court authority, made him known as a jurist, while his arguments in several cases intrusted to him, in favor of the rights of fugitive slaves, brought him into great prominence. In 1841 Chase entered politics as an opponent of slavery extension and was one of the founders of the Free-soil party. In 1849 he was chosen senator from Ohio as a Democrat, but withdrew from that party soon after on the slavery question. On his record in the senate he was elected governor of Ohio by the Republican party in 1855, and re- elected two years later. He was secretary of the treasury in President Lincoln's cab- inet from 1861 to 1864. On him fell the burden of finding the ways and means of carrying the government financially through the war. Legal-tender greenbacks, issuing of bonds and the national banking system were the chief means used. In 1864 he became chief-justice of the United States, and as the head of the supreme court pre- sided at the impeachment trial of President Johnson. He died at New York on May 7. l8 73- Chateaubriand (shd-to'bre'dn') , Francois Rene, Vicomte de, a French man-of-letters, was born in Brittany, Sept. 14, 1768. At the time of the French Revolution he took part at first with the exiled royalists, but, returning to France, was employed in a dip- lomatic service by Napoleon. On the murder of the Due d'Enghein, he threw up his office as ambassador to the Republic of Valais. He supported the restoration monarchy, becom- ing a minister of state, and was appointed ambassador-extraordinary to England. He visited America when a young man, and afterwards traveled in the east. His love story of savage life, A tola, made his literary reputation. This appeared in 1801, and the Genius of Christianity added its quota to raise him to the foremost place among French writers of the day. Chateaubriand s books abound in passages of brilliant description, and there is no French author before him whose prose writings can compare with his in the power of conveying the beauty and mystery of nature. Chateaubriand is called the father of the French romantic school of writers. He died at Paris, July 4, 1848. Chateauguay ( sha'td'ga' ) , a village in the county of that name in the province of Que- bec, possessing a monument erected in 1895 to commemorate the victory there gained by Col. de Salaberry over the Americans in 1813. Chatham, Earl of. See PITT. CHATHAM 373 CHAUCER Chatham (chafam) , Northumberland County, N. B., is the chief town on the gulf coast of the province, lying on Mirarmchi Bay, with a fine harbor and much activity in shipyards, mills, foundries and lumber. It has a population of about 5,000. To the southwest, along the Miramichi River, are the best salmon grounds in Canada. Chat' ham, a city of 10,317 in western Ontario. Situated on the River Thames. Considerable manufacturing is done here. A carriage-manufactory is one of its largest industries. It is in the natural-gas and oil district. The district surrounding it is particularly rich and fertile. It is growing rapidly, its natural advantages proving attractive. Chattahoochee (chaftahoo'chd), a river in Georgia, which takes its rise in the north- east part of the state, in the Blue Ridge Mountains, and, flowing south, between Georgia and Alabama, unites with Flint River to form the Appalachicola. Its length is over 500 miles, and it is navigable for over 200 miles to Columbus. It is famous in literature as the subject of Lanier's poem, The Song of the Chattahoochee. Chat'tanoo'ga, Tenn., a city, the county seat of Hamilton County, on the Tennessee River and on a number of railway trunk- lines. For eight or nine months of the year the river is navigable as far as Chattanooga. It is the seat of the University of Chatta- nooga, McCallie Preparatory School, Baylor School, Girls' Preparatory School, and also of Baroness Erlanger Hospital; it has many fine civic buildings, an opera house, public library and a number of attractive churches and fine schools. The city has a large trade in coal, iron, grain and lumber, its industries embracing the manufacture of steel and iron, machinery of various kinds, furniture, bricks and tiles, cotton goods, carnages and cars. In the vicinity is the Chickamauga National Military Park, mark- ing the scene of the battle of Chickamauga (Sept. 1863). During the Civil War the city and neighborhood were the scenes of much and calamitous fighting, the city espe- cially suffering. A sad evidence of the bloody struggle of the era is the national cemetery here, which contains about 13,400 graves. Population, 57,000. Chattanooga, Battle of, a series of bloody engagements, in the Civil War, fought at Chattanooga, Tnn., and immedi- ate neighborhood, Nov. 23-25, 1863, between the Federal army (60,000 strong) under General Grant and the Confederate forces (numbering 40,000) under General Bragg, and ending disastrously for the south. The battle had for its initial acts the expulsion of Bragg by Rosecrans from Chattanooga, and the battle fought at Chickamauga (Sept. 19-20, '63), in which the Union army was defeated and driven back to Chattanooga, where General Thomas, who had succeeded Rosecrans in command of the Army of the Cumberland, was besieged by Bragg. At this juncture General Grant, who had been placed in command of the northern armies operating in the region, came on the scene, bringing with him General Sherman with a part of the Army of the Tennessee, Hooker with reinforcements from the east having just preceded them. Ordering Hooker's corps to attack Bragg's left, Grant entrusted to Sherman the duty of attacking the south- ern right, while Thomas was to engage the center. Hooker forced his way up Lookout Mountain and had a notable engagement with the enemy in what is romantically known as the Battle above the Clouds, after- wards gaining a position on Bragg's left and rear. Sherman's attack met with stubborn resistance, and desperate fighting ensued without decisive results. Finally the forces under Thomas charged and carried the en- emy's rifle-pits at the foot of the Ridge and in the absence of orders, rushed up the steep face of Missionary Ridge, and won the crest and the day. The storming of this Ridge has been noted as one of the most heroic achievements of the war, besides being vi- tally disastrous to Bragg and his army, which retreated toward Atlanta. See War of the Rebellion Records, also The Army of the Cumberland and Battles and Leaders of the Civil War. Chaucer (cha'ser), Geoffrey, English poet and man of affairs, was born about 1340. Of his early boyhood we know nothing. At the age of seventeen we find him a page in the service of the wife of the Duke of Clar- ence, and at nineteen see him in the army of Edward III fighting the French, when he was taken prisoner, but later on was ran- somed. He married about 1360 the sister of the future wife of John of Gaunt. He was given a pension by the king, and sent afterward to the Continent as commissioner or diplomat. In 1386 he lost two of the offices he was holding, why we know not, and from that time until his death misfor- tune pursued him. He seems never to have made provision for old age, and now many dark days came to him, though things went a little better when Henry IV, the son of his old friend, John of Gaunt, came to the throne. While on the king's business he visited Italy, and we find in most of his poems indications that his idea of poetry, what it is and should be, as well as his style and many of his plots and subjects, were taken from the great Italian poets, Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio. The first of his great poems was Troilus and Cressida, but not until the darkness of poverty and old age came upon him, did he write the Canter- bury Tales, of which the Prologue is the chief work. The Tales are related by a company of pilgrims on their way to Canterbury, who gather at an inn and agree each to tell a tale in going and returning; he who should CHAUDIERE 374 CHEMISTRY tell the best tale was to be treated by the others with a supper at the inn. Chaucer is known as the father of English poetry, and not only is he the first great poet of the race, but, in order of merit, he is among the first of all our poets. Chaucer wrote when the English language and spelling were not yet fixed, and one needs almost to learn a new language to read him, though some of his poems have been published with modern spelling and explanatory notes. Spenser called him "that welle of Englishe unde- fyled." The poet died about the year 1400, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Chaudiere ( sho'dy&r 1 ) , a Canadian river about 1 20 miles in length, which flows through the southern portion of the province of Quebec. Its source is in Lake Megantic, near the border of the state of Maine and it joins the St. Lawrence opposite Quebec, or, rather, some seven miles above the historic city. Near its mouth occurs one of the cata- racts known as Chaudiere Falls, whose height is about 100 feet. Another cataract of the same name occurs in the Ottawa River, near the Dominion capital. Chautauqua (sha-ta'kwa), a popular re- sort on Chautauqua Lake, New York state. Here Lewis Miller founded in 1874 the Chautauqua Assembly to give instruction to Sunday-School teachers, and out of it grew the wider Literary and Scientific Circle, "to direct the reading habits of grown people." It consists of a fou years' course of home reading under the oversight of the Chautau- qua officers. There are about two hundred thousand members of the circle, scattered over the world. Dr. John H. Vincent, chan- cellor, was the best exponent of the spirit of the institution. As expressed by him, the "Chautauqua idea" is "a plea for universal education." He was convinced that "a college is possible in every-day life if one choose to use it." Checkers or Draughts, a popular game, supposed to have come in early times from Egypt, and played on a board, somewhat after the chess-board pattern, in various ways in many modern countries. The fa- miliar form is that played by two persons, each being given 12 checkers, (one using the white ones and his opponent the black, or vice versa), on a square board, divided into 64 equal squares, alternately black and white, the checkers at the beginning of the game being placed on the three near lines of squares (usually on the black ones) . The moves are made diagonally across the board on to an unoccupied square, with the design, at close range of one's adversary, of cap- turing his men by jumping over the piece and removing it, the moves being made diagonally to a square unoccupied and clear to land on. The jump or move may be con- tinued, if other men on the opponent's side are also exposed to capture, when they are similarly leaped ovr and removed from the board, provided that there be again a vacant square to occupy in making the leap. When the opponent's back line of squares is reached and occupied, the player gets his man kinged or crowned, by placing another checker of the same color on top of it. This kinged man is then free to move back and forth on the board, one square at a time (unless checked by the adversary), and is thus in a more favorable position to win the game. For further details see any checker's manual or treatise on games. Chelsea (chel'sS), a western suburb of London, England, on the north side of the Thames. The town has been the home of many famous English characters, Sir Thomas More, Princess Elizabeth, Walpole, Swift, Carlyle, George Eliot and others. It is widely known as the seat of Chelsea Hospital for old and disabled soldiers, whose founda- tion-stone was laid by Charles II in 1682. About 550 pensioners are housed here, but all of the pensioners of the empire (about 88,000) are called out-pensioners of Chel- sea. Chelsea, a city of Suffolk County, Mass., population, 43,121. Chelsea is a suburb of Boston; it was settled as a part of Boston in 1625, was set off as a town in 1739, and became a city in 1857. It is connected with Boston by railroad, electrics and ferry. This ferry, the Win- nisimmett, is the oldest in the country, dat- ing from 1631. While most of its citizens do business in Boston, manufacturing inter- ests have increased. Wall paper, clocks, boxes, boots, shoes, brass goods, pot- tery, rubber goods and hard-wood veneers are among the products. There are excellent schools, church and social organ- izations and a public library. A United States naval hospital faces the Mystic River, which separates Chelsea and Charlestown. In area the city is very compact, comprising little more than two square miles. In 1908 it was almost completely destroyed by fire. Cheltenham (chelt'nam), a fashionable watering place in Gloucestershire, England. Its popularity came first from the benefit George III got by drinking its salt-spring waters. There are several colleges and fine buildings, and the absence of manufactures makes it a pleasant place to live in. Popula- tion 50,842. Chemistry. The science of chemistry deals with the nature and composition of sub- stances and with a certain class of changes which substances undergo. Chemical changes produce substances which are permanently different from the things from which they are formed. They take place when anything burns, ferments, decays or rusts; when sub- stances combine to form new substances or when they are divided into other things; also when substances exchange some of their constituents. Examples of chemical changes are the explosion of gunpowder, where the CHEMISTRY 375 CHEMISTRY solid substance disappears and products which are largely gases are formed; the burning of a candle, where the fat or wax combines with oxygen from the air to form water- vapor and carbon dioxid; the rusting of iron, where a brown earthy substance is produced by the slow action of oxygen and moisture; the destruction of sugar by heat- ing, where water-vapor and pungent gases come off and charcoal, a form of carbon, is left behind; the slaking of quick-lime, where water combines with the lime and much heat is produced; the action of metallic zinc in a solution of lead acetate, where zinc changes place with lead and a lead-tree is formed, together with soluble zinc acetate. The most careful experiments have shown that no gain or loss of total weight takes place during any chemical change. Matter cannot be destroyed, therefore, nor can it be pro- duced in any circumstances whatever. This fact leads to the statement that there is a law like this in regard to energy. Phys- ical changes are distinguished from those that are chemical in being merely changes of condition. For example, when a piece of glass is heated to redness it becomes soft, but it remains unchanged chemically and has the same composition and properties after it has cooled; when water is changed to steam by heating or to ice by cooling, it undergoes no chemical change, for the steam and ice may be readily turned into water again; when a piece of sulphur is crushed to powder the change is merely physical, for every one of the small particles is still sulphur; when common salt is dissolved in water it under- goes a physical change, for it may be regained unchanged by boiling off the water. Chemistry has to do with the composition of all substances; not only those that occur naturally in the earth as minerals, or are produced by plants and animals, but those that are prepared artificially by chemical changes. Analytical chemistry deals with finding out what is contained in substances. This is qualitative analysis when only the identity of the constituents is sought, while it is quantitative analysis when their quan- tities are determined. A vast amount of re- search has shown that the innumerable ob- jects that have been analyzed contain com- paratively few kinds of matter or elements. As far as we know, each element contains only one thing, and all the evidence goes to show that it is impossible to change any element into another, even to the slightest extent. At the present time seventy-six elements are recognized by chemists, as follows : Gaseous non-metallic elements. Argon, chlorine, fluorine, helium, hydrogen, kryp- ton, neon, nitrogen, oxygen and xenon. Other non-metallic elements. Boron, bro- mine, carbon, iodine, phosphorus, selenium, silicon and sulphur. More common or important metallic ele- ments. Aluminium, antimony, arsenic, ba- rium, bismuth, cadmium, calcium, chro- mium, cobalt, copper, gold, iron, lead, lith- ium, magnesium, manganese, mercury, -odi- um, nickel, platinum, potassium, silver, strontium, thorium, tin, titanium and zinc. Rarer or less important metallic elements. Beryllium, caesium, erbium, gadolinium, gallium, germanium, indium, indium, lan- thanum, molybdenum, neodymium, niobium, osmium, palladium, praseodymium, rho- dium, rubidium, ruthenium, samarium, scandium, tantalum, tellurium, thallium, thulium, tungsten, uranium, vanadium, ytterbium, yttrium and zirconium. Most of the elements included in the last list are exceedingly rare, and are found only in minerals which occur in small quantities and in but few places. The elements given in the other lists vary enormously in their abundance. About one fifth of the atmos- phere, exactly eight ninths of pure water and nearly one half of the earth s crust are made up of oxygen. Silicon, which occurs in combination with oxygen as quartz and in silicates, is next to oxygen in abundance, while calcium, the metal of limestone, and aluminium, the metal of clay, occur in large quantities. Magnesium, iron, potassium and sodium are also very important constituents of rocks; carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and ni- trogen make up the greater part of plants and animals; but calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulphur, iron and a ^ew other elements are also required by living things in larger or smaller quantities. Plants get their carbon from the carbon dioxide of the air; hydrogen and oxygen are taken in by the roots in the form of water, and from the soil also are taken the nitrogen and the other elements that plants require. Animals ob- tain their nounshment directly or indirectly from plants, so that they contain no elements that are not found in vegetable matter. The term, organic chemistry, originally referred to the chemistry of the substances produced by plants and animals, and it was formerly supposed that these substances could be pro- duced only by living organisms. Many of the products of life, however, such as alcohol, some of the sugars, indigo, oil of winter- green and many others, have now been made artificially, so that there is no necessity for classifying these products by themselves. For convenience, however, substances con- taining carbon, the characteristic element of living things, are still called organic, and they include a vast number of artificial sub- stances that do not occur in nature. The chemistry of all substances that do not con- tain carbon is called inorganic chemistry. All substances that are not elements are either mixtures or chemical compounds, con- taining two or more elements. These two classes are to be distinguished by the fact that compounds do not vary in composition, while mixtures may vary greatly. Examples CHEMOTAXIS 376 CHEROKEES of chemical compounds are water, composed f hydrogon and oxygen; sugar and alcohol, both of which contain carbon, hydrogen and xygen; common salt, which is made of odium and chlorine and has the chemical lame of sodium chloride; quartz, called sil- i* or silicon dioxide, which contains ailicon amd oxyja*; and potaium chlorate, which is coat posed of potasiiuai, hlorin and oxy- fen. Different aamplae of any chemical compound, when pure, always contain the same element* in exactly the same propor- tions by weight or in definite proportions. The same elements often form several com- pounds by combining in several different proportions; there are hundreds of com- pounds containing only carbon and hydro- gen. It is true, also, that the same elements, combined in exactly the same proportions, may form a number of entirely different substances. This last fact, as well as many other chemical facts, is explained by sup- posing that the elements are composed of exceedingly small indivisible particles called atoms. All the atoms of each element are believed to be alike, and atoms of different elements are supposed to make up the mole- cules or smallest possible parts of compounds. The existence of several compounds of the same composition is explained by assuming that the atoms have different arrangements in the molecules. The atomic theory has been developed so elaborately that chemists are able to assign definite relative positions to the atoms in the molecules of a great many compounds, and the relative weights of the atoms of most of the elements have been determined with great accuracy, al- though their actual weights are unknown. However, since atoms have never been seen (and in all probability never will be seen on account of their small size), their existence cannot be said to be proven. Most of the substances met with in every- day life are mixtures of chemical compounds. Such are most articles or materials of food and raiment, wood, bricks, paper, glass, rocks, soils, etc. There are a few familiar mixtures of elements, such as metallic alloys, steel and also atmospheric air, which consists chiefly of nitrogen and oxygen. Our present chemical theories and the greater part of our chemical knowledge have beea developed in comparatively recent tiai6. The discovery of oxygen by Priestley in 1774, the correct explanation of combus- tion shortly afterward by Lavoisier and the founding of th atomic theory by Dalton during the first decade of the last century were important events which mark the begin- nings of modern chemical science. Chemical knowledge is still rapidly increasing. In both the inorganic and the organic fields natural sabstanoes are being examined, new com- f*t*tds are being prepared and the laws wWfch govern chemical changes are being studied. Chemistry has given and is giving much assistance in a practical way to medicine, agriculture, metallurgy and many other branches of art and industry, and still more important advances in these directions are to be expected in the future. HORACE L. WELLS. Chem'otax'i* (in plants) , the sensitiveness of an organism, free to move about, to a one- sided chemical stimulus (see IRRITABILITY), to which it responds by taking up a definite attitude with respect to the direction from which the substance is diffusing. Since no plants (except possibly the myxomycetes or slime-moulds, which see) are free to orient themselves thus unless they are immersed in water, it follows that the substance in order to act must be soluble and diffusible in water. Thus the sperms (male cells) of mosses will so place themselves in a diffusing current of sugar particles that, as they swim, they move toward the source of the sugar. Such agencies are believed to determine the movement of the sperms toward the egg in many plants. Chemot'ropism (k$-mot'r$-p%z'm) , the sen- sitiveness of a plant to a onesided chemical stimulus (see IRRITABILITY) to which it re- sponds by changing the rate of its growth in certain regions, and thereby putting the part affected in a new position with respect to the diffusing particles. It differs from chemo- taxis only in the nature of the reaction. Diffusing gases or solutes (but usually the latter) may effect the reaction. Thus the growth of the germ-tubes arising from grow- ing spores of fungi is directed by their che- motropism. When, for example, a spore falls upon a leaf on or in which the fungus can develop, it sprouts, and when the young germ-tubes reach the stomata (which see), they turn in and ramify in the interior. Or they may penetrate an epidermal cell at once. It has been shown in both cases that the directive influence is the presence of foods in the leaf. The pollen-tubes are similarly controlled in their growth down the style to the ovules (see FERTILIZATION). Che'ops. See PYRAMIDS. Cherbourg. See BREAKWATER. Cherokees (cher'd-kSz), a tribe of North American Indians who were found by the whites in possession of the upper valley of Tennessee River and the rivers and moun- tains of the Alleghenies, and occupying 64 towns. Meeting the English colonists first, they became their friends and took part with them in the wars against the French. During 175761 they were most of the time at war with the English, the trouble growing out of robberies of provisions from the settlers by the Cherokees, who were driven to thievery by hunger on the homeward march, after fighting for the colonists. They yielded to the whites, after losing most of their houses, cattle and horses. During the Revolution they took the side of the British. After the CHERRY 377 CHESAPEAKE war a part of the trib imved west of the Mississippi to find better hunting-grounds, and in 1838 the government removed the remainder. In the Civil War they divided, Cherokees being in each army. The tribe learned several kinds of manufacturing, gradually gave up hunting, and up to the outbreak of the war held many slaves. There have been schools and missions among them for a long time. They are also rich, the go vernment holding for them over $ i , 5 o o ,o o o . They number about 14,000. Cher'ry, certain species of the genus Prunus, which belongs to the rose family. The cultivated tree-cherries are said to have come from two European species. The ber- ries are also distinguished in general as sweet and sour cherries. It is the latter kind which is usually cultivated for canning, the sweet cherries being mostly confined to dooryard planting. In Japan cherries are specialized for their beauty, Cherry-blossom time being a holiday season. Our wild red cherry, pin, bird or pigeon cherry, is a graceful little tree, its bark smooth and shining, its leaves ever twinkling, and none could pass it by unno- ticed in April and May, then all snowy, fragrant bloom. Its rich red fruit is a prime favorite with the birds. This tree, a quick grower and short-lived, is an excellent nurse for young forest trees. The choke-cherry is generally but a shrub, though attaining con- siderable size in the region lying between Nebraska and northern Texas. Both in time of blossoming and in fruit-bearing it is very attractive, the blossoms having long, fleecy bunches. Later the branches droop with the long stems aset with glowing gems, ohanging through various shades of yellow and red to the dark crimson of the ripe fruit occasionally yellow when ripe. The fruit is very good to look at but very bitter to eat, puckery and harsh to the taste. The wild black cherry or rum-cherry, is a very valuable timber tree. It grows to the height of 50 to 90 feet, the polished wood, a rich, lustrous brown, rivalling ma- hogany and rosewood. It was once abundant on the Alleghany slopes, but is now quite scarce. See Rogers: The Tree Book', Louns- berry: A Guide to the Trees. Cherubini (kd-roo-be 1 ne) , Maria Luigi Carlo Zenobio Salvatore, an Italian com- poser, was born at Florence in 1760. He began to study music at the age of six. He produced successful operas, and in 1800 brought out one of his masterpieces, The Water-Carrier. Soon after he turned his mind to church-music, in which he became very distinguished, his first work being the Mass in F. His operas resembled Mozart's in many respects. He died March 15, 1842. Chesapeake Bay (ches'd-pek), meaning mother of waters, the greatest inlet in the Atlantic coast of the United States, enters Virginia and extends into Maryland. It is 200 miles long and from four to forty miles wide. Cape Charles and Cape Henry mark its entrance. It receives the Susquehanna, Potomac, James and other rivers. The Chesapeake is so deep that the largest ships can steam up its entire length. It is also the most southern oi the deep-water bays, all those to the south being shallow. Chesapeake, The, a frigate of the United States Navy, historically noted in the War of 1812 with Great Britain and in the prelim- inary impressment-controversy period. The latter period was the one when the British government' refused to recognize the natural- ization abroad of her subjects as absolving them from their inalienable allegiance. In the intercourse between this country and Eng- land, early in the last century, it was a frequent practice on the part of British seamen, when their ships touched at Ameri- can ports, to desert and become American subjects. This naturally offended England and annoyed the captains and officers of her ships when desertions occurred on this side; so much so that it became a frequent occur- rence to overhaul American ships and take from them deserters and even American subjects on the high seas. One instance of this connects itself with the United States frigate, The Chesapeake, which soon after sailing from Hampton Roads, on June 22, 1807, was overhauled for deserters by the British warship Leopard. Though unpre- pared for action, The Chesapeake resented the insult to the American flag and refused to submit to inspection or to surrender any of the foreign portion of her crew. At this The Leopard opened fire and forced The Chesa- peake to haul down her flag and give up the three colored deserters aboard her. The unfriendly act, though disowned by Britain (the government of the latter refusing all redress) did much to embroil the two nations and precipitate the War of 1812-14. When the latter was in progress, The Chesapeake was again to figure in a sharp encounter with a British warship, The Shannon, com- manded by Captain Broke and carrying 52 guns. On this occasion, The Chesapeake, which was then commanded by Captain Lawrence, and had an armament of 50 guns, was in better shape than formerly to take her part in the action that followed, save that she had a practically untrained crew. The two frigates met just outside of Boston, on June i, 1813, and at once an engagement ensued. So hot was the Shannon's fire, and so indifferently was it returned by her Ameri- can adversary, that the encounter lasted but fifteen minutes, when The Chesapeake was forced to surrender, in spite of her gallant captain's charge to his men, as he was carried below mortally wounded: "Don't give up the ship." The Chesapeake became The Shannon's prize, and was taken by the latter into Halifax harbor, afterwards and for a few years sailing under the British flag. The casualties of the encounter were CHESAPEAKE AND OHIO CANAL 378 CHESTNUT' many on both sides; out of a crew of 379 The Chesapeake lost 61 in killed or mortally wounded, and 85 more or less severely wounded; The Shannon's losses (out of a crew of 330) were 33 killed and 50 wounded. See Cooper's History of the Navy of the United States and Roosevelt's The Naval War of 1812. Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, a project, favored in 1774 by Washington, to connect the great inland lakes by a navigable water- way from Lake Erie across the Alleghenies, utilizing the affluents of the Ohio River, thence to tidewaters on the Potomac. The undertaking was not in his day put into effect; though in 1820 it was revived by the state of Virginia, and a company was organ- ized to construct the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, from Georgetown, D. C., to Cumber- land, Md., by utilizing the waterway of the Potomac and tunneling the mountains be- yond Paw- Paw Bend, thence to Cumberland. The project was completed in 1850, at a cost exceeding n-J million dollars. The canal has a length of 185 miles, and by means of about 75 locks (100 feet in length by 15 feet in width) it gains a total elevation of over 600 feet, the water being supplied by the Potomac. The depth of the canal is 6 feet, while its width to Harper's Ferry is 60 feet on the surface and 42 feet at the bottom. The continuation of the canal to tap the inland lakes is a matter still in the future; though of late the city of Pittsburg, Pa., has taken hearty interest in the scheme, both by urging the Federal authorities to carry the canalization of the Monongahela River south to Fairmont, W. Va., and by planning to construct a canal, 16 feet deep and esti- mated to cost over $30,000,000, from Pitts- burg to Ashtabula, Ohio, on Lake Erie. Chess, a game played with pieces of dif- ferent value upon a board chequered in two colors and divided in sixty-four squares, is the most ancient of all the current games of skill. Chess is probably of Asiatic origin, although a game similar to it was known to the Egyptians. One of the earliest books to be printed in English was Caxton's Ye Game and Playe of ye Chesse (1479). The literature upon chess is at the present time enormous. The pieces at the disposal of each player are a king, a queen, two bishops, two knights, two castles or rooks and eight pawns. The king moves in any direction one square; the queen, so far as the board is free, either diag- onally or horizontally; the bishop, diagon- ally on its own color; the knight, one square horizontally or vertically and one square diagonally; the castle, horizontally and ver- tically; the pawns, to the next square in front. For the peculiar moves in castling, capturing and moving two squares with pawns, and "queening^ the pawn, the reader is referred to books upon chess. In theory, since the forces of each player are equal, every game of chess if rightly played should end in a draw. But the charm of chess arises from its infinite variety. No two games are alike. None the less, the best openings in chess have been reduced to a science, so that the earnest student of the game needs to practise the standard openings as given in books. There is no better plan for the learner than to play over the pub- lished games of the great masters. The strategy of chess imitates that of war. The king is for each player the final object of attack and defence. Often, how- ever, it is better to direct the attack upon some other piece, and to weaken the enemy before attempting to checkmate him. A king is checkmated when he is attacked in such a manner that if he were not the king he must needs be taken. The value of chess as a mode of mental recreation is almost beyond praise. At the same time it may be too serious a study for the good of the scholar whose mind is overtaxed by mental work. Moreover, the virtue which chess is held to possess, of training the mental powers for other purposes than the game itself, would seem to have been exaggerated. Ches'ter, a city in Delaware County, Pa., on the Delaware River, 13 miles from Philadelphia. It has a military and other colleges, shipbuilding yards and manufactures cotton and woolen goods, engines, etc. It was founded by the Swedes in 1643, and is the oldest town in the state. Popu- lation 40,000. Ches'terfield, Philip Dormer Stan- hope, Lord, was born in London, Eng., Sept. 22, 1694. He studied at Cambridge, and was a member of Parliament. He was acquainted with Swift, Pope, Johnson and other authors. It was by offering his pat- ronage to Dr. Samuel Johnson, after his famous dictionary appeared, though he had withheld it before, that he drew from the indignant Johnson the witty letter de- clining the courtesy that is so famous in English literature. Chesterfield is best re- membered by his Letters to His Son. He died March 24, 1773. Chest' nut, species of the genus Castanea, which is closely related to the beech. There are about five species, which occur in the temperate regions of northeastern America, Europe, northern Africa and Asia. The peasants of Italy and Spain regard the chestnut as quite important. This chestnut is not sweet like ours, but very good when cooked. Three species are cultivated in this country for the fruit, namely, the European chestnut (C, sativa), also known as French, Spanish and Italian chestnut; the American chestnut (C. Americana); and the Japanese chestnut (C. crenata). The European chestnut is a tall, spreading tree the burrs very large, the nuts larger than the American chestnut. The Japanese chestnut is a dwarfish, slender tree and CHEVIOT 379 CHICAGO bears very large nuts, in quality generally not equal to the other chestnuts, though excellent when cooked. The American chestnut rises to a height of 60 to 100 feet, and is a symmetrical tree with a heavy top. The bark is gray; the glossy leaves, from six to eight inches long, taper at both ends, making foliage of marked beauty and abundance; the flowers are catkins, which open in June and July and exhale a sweet heavy odor; two to three nuts are the fruit. The nuts hold CHESTNUT first rank among chestnuts, and are mark- eted in large quantities from the forests of the Appalachian region, from Maine to Georgia in the east and westward to Michi- gan, Mississippi and Louisiana. The tree is a valuable lumber-tree, the wood being used for interior finish, for furniture, rail- road ties, fence posts and fuel. A miniature chestnut is the chinquapin, occurring from Pennsylvania to Florida and west to Arkansas and Texas; in the last two states reaching the dignity of a tree, east of the Mississippi only a shrub. A single sweet nut is its fruit. Chinquapin nuts are on sale in their season in the mar- kets of southern towns. The horse-chest- nut does not belong to the same family as the above, but is treated under horse- chestnut. See Rogers: The Tree Book; B ailey : Cyclopedia of A merican Horticulture; Hodge: Nature Study and Life, chapter on Elementary Forestry. Cheviot ( che've-ut ) rlills, a mountain range in Northumberland and Roxburgh Counties, on the English and Scotch bor- ders, 35 miles long. These hills are used as pasture-lands by the fine Cheviot breed of sheep. Here were fought many bloody battles between the Scotch and the English, and the name is commemorated in the famous old ballad of Chevy Chase. Chevy Chase. See BALLADS. Cheyenne (shi'en'), the capital of Wyo- ming. It was founded in 1867, when the Union Pacific Railroad reached that point It has large railroad shops, is a supply. point for surrounding ranches and mining camps, and is a shipping place of beef- cattle. Many cattle-men and mine-owners live here. Population, n>3 20 Cheyennes, a tribe of Indians belong- ing to the great Algonquin family. They were found by the travelers, Lewis and Clarke, in 1803, on the Cheyenne River near the Black Hills. The tribe afterward di- vided, one part remaining in the north, joining the Sioux and fighting against the Crows; the other going south to the Arkansas and joining the Arapahoes. Treaties were made between both bands and the United States; but failure to carry out a treaty made in 1861 and an inhuman attack, made in 1864, by whites on what is known as Sand Creek village, killing 100 Cheyenne men, women and children drove the tribe into the field against the whites for the first time. This war cost the government many lives and about $30,000,000. The troops of General Hancock and Custer, in 1867, forced them to go on a reservation. The Cheyennes do not take kindly to schools. They number about 3,500. Chicago. In the University of Chicago, there is a relief map which shows that the site of the second city in the United States and the fourth in the world, was, at no very remote age, covered by the waters of Lake Michigan. You would have had only to watch workmen excavating earth for any one of the nearly 12,000 buildings erected in 1912 to see the sand of this an- cient beach turned up. In December, 1674, when PeYe Marquette was guided to the Chicago River by Pottawattomie In- dians, the plain was no more than six feet above lake-level a dreary, frozen marsh, bounded by a wooded ridge ten miles back, the old shore-line, and relieved only by two low elevations of glacial drift Stony Island (gravel) and Blue Island (clay). The saintly Jesuit, on his way to found a mission among the Illinois Indians, was conducted along the route that had long been used by the many Algonquin tribes of the upper lakes and the middle Mis- sissippi. When the ice broke up and flooded the plain, the canoes were paddled out to the ridge, carried across a couple of miles and set afloat on the westward flowing current of the Desplaines. La Salle saw the strategic importance of the route and fortified Starved Rock on the Illinois. In 1803 the United States government built Fort Dearborn on the Chicago River to control the Indians around the head of the lake. Hither, in the same year, came John Kinzie, fur-trader and silver- smith, with his family, to barter with the many tribes that used the Chicago trail or gathered here for council. As the farthest point inland to be reached over the Great Lakes, with the shortest portage to the Mississippi system, nature CHICAGO 380 CHICAGO had endowed the spot, but had set it in a slough 960 miles across a hostile wilderness from the seaboard. The horrid massacre of Fort Dearborn August 15, 1812, was not followed by peace with the red man for 20 years. After the Black Hawk War (1831), the Indians of northern Illinois were removed to Iowa, and the vast region of fertile prairie behind Chicago was open to settlement. The town was organized In 1833 with 28 voters. In 1837 it was in- corporated with a population of 4,497, which was but a fraction of the number that in five years had swarmed through the gateway. In 1848 it had grown to 20,000. It became plain to the least imaginative that, if Chicago was to get any great ad- vantage from its position, means must be provided for bringing in the products of the farms and for distributing supplies. It was easier and cheaper for settlers on the streams to load grain and cattle on flat- boats and send them to St. Louis, than to haul loads across Chicago's ten miles of slough. The Illinois and Michigan Canal connecting the Chicago and Illinois Rivers along the old canoe- trail, opened in 1848, extended Chicago's trade a hundred miles westward and taxed its shipping facilities. In the early 50*3 William B. Ogden over- came incredible financial difficulties, and pushed ten miles of railway (the North- western) out to the boat-landing on the Desplaines. The first train out found a cargo of grain piled on the bank. From that small beginning of a half century ago Chicago has become the greatest railroad center in the world, the terminal of 36 lines, aggregating a mileage of 91,672 miles, or over 40 per cent, of the total mileage of the United States, with gross revenues of $2,900,000,000. With a death-rate in the 50*3 that must wipe out the entire population in 40 years. Chicago undertook the colos- sal task of pulling itself up to a 2o-foot level. For the first time in history four-story brick and stone buildings were hoisted on jack- screws 12 to 14 feet in the air without interrupting business. The sand-bar that turned the river a half mile south to seek an outlet, was used to raise the grade of the streets; the river was cut straight out to the lake; the channel and harbor were deepened; and pumping works on the South Branch reversed the current, drew water from the lake and washed Chicago's sewage into the canal. To-day the city stands 25 feet above lake level. In 1901 the Drainage Canal was opened. One of the world's greatest sanitary works, it is 25 miles long, 15 miles of it cut through solid rock. The system not only disposes of the sewage and guards the water supply from pollution, but is to provide a ship-canal to connect the Great Lakes with the Mississippi a glorified canoe-trail that follows the red man's route. Five tunnels that extend under the lake from two to four miles out give the city a per capita water-supply of 200 gallons a day. The death-rate has been lowered to 13.5 per thousand, the lowest of any great city in the world. The lesson of wide streets and substan- tial buildings Chicago had to learn through the most disastrous fire recorded in his- tory. In October of 1871 the city had a population of over 300,000, mostly housed in crowded wooden buildings that had been dried to tinder by a long drough't. Start- ing on the west side of the river, a strong southwest wind hurled brands on bridges and shipping and so across the stream. The business section was wiped out east to the lake and south to Harrison Street. Crossing the main stream, the fire swept the northern division, the finest residence section, to the city-limits. Three and a third square miles were burned over, 17,450 buildings were destroyed, 100,000 people made homeless; and there was a money loss of $200,000,000. Within a year the city had sprung from its ashes and added 50,000 to its population. Its courage, energy and resource amazed an admiring world. In the middle 8o's, under pressure of demand for more room in the business CHICAGO PUBLIC LIBRARY BUILDING section, the first of the steel-frame, fire- proof sky-scrapers, known as the Chicago construction, was erected. The Masonic Temple, the Woman's Temple and the Auditorium are among the earliest of these tower-like structures now covering the greater part of the central business district. In con- trast with these are the low, classic outlines of the Public Library, the Art Institute and several bank buildings. The improve- ment in domestic and church architecture dates from the World's Fair (1893) and the erection of the many, red-gabled, gray- stone buildings of the university quad- rangle on the Midway. In this connection too much can scarcely be said for the in- fluence and benefit of the parks, boule- vards and uniformly broad avenues. Lin- coln Park on the north shore, Humboldt, Garfield and Douglas Parks on the west side and Washington and Jackson in the CHICAGO 38l CHICAGO south division are connected with each other and with many smaller parks and open squares by boulevards. Michigan Avenue, Jackson Boulevard and the Lake Shore Drive link the limits with the business section. Ex- tension of Grant Park a mile into the lake, and a shore line parkway, will give Chicago one of the most beautiful waterfronts in the world. WHAT MADE THIS GIANT CITY Business is on the same gigantic and aspir- ing scale as the sky-scrapers, "City Beautiful" plans and the growth in population, which is now approximately 2,500,000. The earliest lines of trade to be developed, when the western limit of commerce was the Mississippi, were grain and lumber. With the spanning of the river by rail and the development of the wheat states of the northwest, the Chicago Board of Trade ruled the grain market. The conquer- ing of the Great American Desert confirmed her sovereignty. Annually the city receives over 35,726,000 bushels of wheat. Receipts of wheat, flour, corn, oats, rye and barley aggre- gate 332,008,041 bushels. The city has 68 elevator warehouses, with a grain-storage capacity of 46,640,000 bushels. The prairie country's greatest need was for building ma- terial. This Chicago supplied from the forests of Michigan and Wisconsin. With the partial exhaustion of these forests Chicago reached more remote supplies. The lumber handled in the Chicago market yearly exceeds 2,642,650,000 feet. The packing industry which began in the 40*3, to supply lake-vessels and lumber-camps with salted and smoked meats, received its first impetus from the Civil War, and its second and greater one from the invention of refrigerator cars by which fresh carcasses may be shipped to any part of the world. Yearly the slaughtering and meat packing houses of Chicago turn out products amounting to over $375,000,000 and employ upwards of 27,000 men. The iron and steel industry, which has grown up since the dis- covery of iron ore in the Lake Superior region, amounts to $135,000,000 (including products of foundry and machine shops); printing and publishing $74,000,000; and the manufacture of clothing, which began in the outfitting of 49ers in the rush for the California gold-fields, turns $85,000,000 into Chicago's pockets every year. OTHER FEATURES OF HER COMMERCIAL LIFE The manufacture of electrical machinery alone now aggregates $20,000,000 a year. At the packing houses, the International Har- vester works and the plant of the Western Electric Company visitors are welcome and the processes are explained. At the electric works the making of telephones and dynamos is especially interesting and of educational value. The average pay-roll of Chicago manufactories amounts annually to $175,000,- ooo, and in the value of manufactured prod- ucts Chicago ranks second in the list of American cities. In the wholesale trad* dry goods toad with $200,000,000, produce $160,000,000, groceries $100,000,000, boots and shoes $60,000,000 and the mail order business, which enters all lines, $90,000,000. Manufactured articles ar* carried chiefly by rail; raw material, such as coal, iron ore, grain and lumber, etc., aa largely as possible by water in the six months' open season. Each year more than 6,000 vessels, with a tonnage of 9,470,572, dear in Chicago's two harbors. PUBLIC OWNERSHIP AND PUBLIC SBRTICE The city owns and operates its waterworks and municipal electric lighting-plants, and has a partnership interest in, and the right to purchase, its street-railway surface-lines. The surface-mileage has trebled in ten years and is now 1,364 miles. The elevated mileage has doubled to 144 miles. The form of gov- ernment is typical. The departments of police, fire, health, water, etc., are under separate heads, and the schools, library and park systems are managed by boards. The old corrupt system of police-court justice has been abolished and municipal courts estab- lished. For the child delinquents and de- fendants there is a juvenile court in its own building, one of the first in the world. To support the city government with its 191.39 square miles of territory and its 21,000 officials and employees, Chicago has an annual revenue of $52,177,591, on an actual valuation of real and personal property of $2,783,248,476. More than half of Chicago's population is of foreign birth or parentage. With over 40 nationalities listed by the last census, the Germans lead with 416,000, Irish 215,000, Poles 109,000, Swedes 100,000, Bohemians 76,000, Norwegians 41,000, Italians 26,000. EDUCATION AND THE ARTS In many of the 407 school-buildings few of the pupils ever hear a word of English at home. There are 6,740 teachers and 307,281 pupils in the day-schools. In the night- schools are 25,000 more, chiefly foreigners. There are 21 high-schools, four of which are manual training, and a normal college. A down-town commercial college is to be estab- lished. The public library has 800,000 vol- umes for free circulation and reference, with many branch distributing stations. Of the endowed libraries, the Newberry covers his- tory and music; the John Crerar library, science and mechanics; the Chicago His- torical Society is the custodian of local history, relics and documents. The Art Institute, which has some notable collec- tions, is free to the public three days in the week, and maintains an art-school. A GREAT MUSICAL CINTBK In the Thomas Orchestra Hall, Chicago stands alone, among American cities, in the possession of an endowed home for orchestral music; and in the Field Colum- bian Museum of Natural History and Anthropology, endowed with $8,000,000 by the late Marshall Field, Chicago, has CHICAGO 382 CHICKADEE a great scientific institution that must long eclipse anything of the kind in the world. Besides the University of Chicago, which ranks with the best in the country, Chicago has the Northwestern University at Evan- ston; Wheaton and Lake Forest Colleges; the Chicago, the Western and the McCor- mick Theological Seminary; the Armour Institute of Technology; Lewis Institute; Rush Medical College; the College of Dental Surgery; the School of Domestic Science; the Kindergarten College; and many other special schools for higher education. A marked feature of the city's educational and moral life is the many social settle- ments maintained by the universities and churches. Hull House, established about 20 years ago by Miss Jane Addams, was the pioneer settlement and is to-day the model upon which successful work of this kind is done everywhere in the United States. There has been no history of Chicago of portable size published. [Kirkland's Story of Chicago is a portable history.] Visitors to the city should get a copy of the last annual edition of the Daily News Almanac to learn what to see and how to get there. Few people are aware of the fact that Chicago has a subway of 45 miles twice as long as that of New York City in opera- tion. It was begun in 1899 by the Illinois Tunnel Company, under an ordinance which required the overhead telegraph and telephone wires of the down-town or "loop" district to be carried underground. The company was reimbursed for its ex- penditure of $30,000,000 by permission to use the tunnel for freight-traffic. The roof of the subway lies 24 feet below the surface, beneath the water and gas and sewer mains, and the work of excavation was carried on with no interruption of traffic. In the space of a mfle square under the business district, there are now 26 miles of tunnels which intersect at every second block. Connection was made with the six big freight-depots of 25 trunk lines and with the terminal station at Taylor Street and the river. The tunnels are of two sizes trunk, 14 feet high, branch, seven feet six inches. All are lined with 2 1 -inch cement walls poured on a frame- work of structural iron. The wires were carried along the walls, a narrow-gauge track was laid and trolley wires dropped from the roof. The cars are open steel- boxes, 12 feet long, of one and a half tons' capacity. In the freight-yards these cars are lifted through shafts, loaded, lowered and sent direct into the ware- houses of merchants. If the goods are not required inmediately, they may be stored in one of seven big warehouses at the ter- minal station. There the cars are hoisted to the top by enormous elevators, and un- loaded. The trains make from 12 to 15 miles an hour and deliver up to 100,000 tons a day. Of coal alone 4,000,000 tons are delivered through the subway to the "loop" dis- trict in a year. The system relieves the congested down-town streets of thousands of horses and wagons. Chicago is the only city in the world with a subway system of freight-distribution. Plans are being worked out for a great subway system which is to be built either by the city or by private capital under municipal control. The general plan recommended by the subway commission ap- pointed by the mayor is for a high level sub- way, as close as possible to the . surface of the streets and to be operated by electricity. The estimated cost of the subways themselves is $96,257,000 and the cost of equipment $34,- 844,000. Chickadee, a modest, little, soft-plum- aged gray bird, is a member of the titmouse family. The black-capped chickadee is a permanent resident of the northern states. Its breeding-range is north of the Carolinas to Labrador. It is some- what smaller than the En- glish spar- row, the up- per gray s 1 ightly tinged with brown, crown and throat BLACK-CAPPED CHICKADEE rating the two blacks; underneath a dingy white. It is a brave little bird, quite unafraid of snow and storm, more common in lower New England in winter than in summer, through wintry weather blithely singing its chicka-dee-dee- dee-dee or uttering its high, sweet whistle; and a friendly, tame bird, readily respond- ing to invitation to dine near our windows and doors. It is a valuable friend to man in many ways; as an insect-destroyer it is most diligent, a persistent enemy of the cankerworm moth, destroying both the female and eggs and thus keeping down the numbers of "measuring" or "inch" worms. It eats insects in summer, their eggs in winter. Hodge says that probably no bird possesses a higher economic value than the chickadee. The birds build their nests in holes a deserted woodpecker's nest, or a knothole or a cavity made by themselves in some decayed tree. The nests are of moss, feathers, wool, plant- fibre, fur or sometimes wholly of short hairs. There are from five to eight eggs, white with sparse markings of purple or browr.. The Carolina chickadee is a southern species, the chief difference from the above being that the southern bird is smaller, its CHICKAHOMINY 383 CHIGNECTO BA7 breeding-range from southern Illinois south- ward. See Dugmore: Bird Homes; Chap- man: Bird Life; Blanchan: Bird Neighbors; Hodge : Nature Study and Life. Chickahominy (chik' a-hbm'i-nf) , a river in southeast Virginia, which flows into the James. Part of the region watered by the river was the scene of several battles in 1862 and 1864. Here the river flows through a wooded swamp, a few hundred yards wide. A continuous rainfall floods the swamp and overflows the neighboring bot- tom-lands. These are crossed by deep ditches, and even when not overflowed are so soft as to be impassable for cavalry and artillery. As a military obstacle, the narrow Chickahominy, with its bordering swamps, was found to be more formidable than a broad river. Here in 1862 were fought the battles of Williamsburg, Hanover Court- House, Seven Pines, Fair Oaks, Mechanics- ville, Cold Harbor, Savage's Station, Fra- zier's Farm and Malvern Hill, and in 1864 the second battle of Cold Harbor was fought. Chickamauga (chik' d-maj go) , Battle of, fought upon Chickamauga Creek, a branch of Tennessee River, between the Union Army of the Cumberland under General Rosecrans and the Confederates under General Bragg, Sept. 19 and 20, 1863. The main battle was opened on the morning of the 1 9th, the Confederates endeavoring to get possession of the road to Chattanooga. Neither side gained any advantage on the first day, though the fighting was severe. During the night Longstreet joined Bragg. On the 2oth the Confederates renewed the attack with great fury. At length, in an effort to strengthen the left, which was hard pressed, and partly through a mistaken order, the Union center was fatally weak- ened. Longstreet with his veterans charged through the line and drove the right wing in confusion from the field. But Thomas, who was on the left, remained firm and repulsed charge after charge made against him by the whole Confederate army. Dur- ing the night he withdrew to Rossville Gap. This was a Confederate victory, though of no great advantage to them, as it left Chat- tanooga, the objective point, in the hands of the Federals. The Union loss was about 16,000; Confederate loss about 18,000. Chickasaw Bluffs (chik'd-sa), Battle of, was fought near Vicksburg, Miss., Dec. 29, 1862. General Sherman, who was be- sieging Vicksburg, endeavored to attack the city in the rear. He sent a strong force up Yazoo River, which was to land and march down from the north. In the line of the march was the Chickasaw bayou, bordered by a broad, miry swamp, almost impassable, and guarded by batteries and rifle-pits on the opposite bluffs. Though the head of the charging column reached the works, the heavy fire forced it back and the enterprise was abandoned. The Union loss was about 1,900, while the Con- federate loss was very small. Chickasaws, a tribe of Indians, found by_ the whites about 160 miles east of the Mississippi. De Soto visited them, but when he sought to force them to carry his baggage, they attacked him, causing great loss. In the [French-and-Indian wars, the Chickasaws were between the English and the French settlements, and thus came into the struggle between the two nations. They uniformly sided with the English, stirring up the Natchez against the French, and, when that tribe was almost destroyed, joining them in their desperate raids. In 1793 they joined the whites in the war against the Creeks. At the beginning of the igth century some of the tribes left for Arkansas in search of better hunting- grounds. In 1822 those left in Mississippi., numbering 3,625, settled in eight towns, owning slaves and selling cattle and hogs to the whites. In 1834 they sold their lands to the government and removed west of the Mississippi, buying lands of the Choctaws, who spoke the same language. In the Civil War they joined the south and lost many of their braves, besides, of course, losing their slaves. They no longer have a king, but have a governor, together with a senate and house of representatives. They own their land in common, but each man's stock is his own. They receive an annuity of $3,000, and have in the hands of the government $1,400,000 in bonds, of which they receive the interest. Chickasha, a city, county-seat of Grady County, Oklahoma. It is the trading-cen- ter of a fine agricultural region and an im- portant shipping-point for cotton. Chick- asha has a flour-mill, a broom-factory and cotton-gins, and the Rock Island car-shops and round-house are located here. It has four banks, good public schools, a convent, library and several churches; also the serv- ice of two railroads. Population, 10,320. Chic'opee, Mass., a thriving manufactur- ing town on the Connecticut River, at the mouth of the Chicopee, four miles north of Springfield, Hampden County, Mass. It possesses excellent water-power for its in- dustrial establishments, which include the manufacture of cotton, knitted goods, knitting machines, bicycles, rifles, shot- guns, pistols, mechanic's tools and agricul- tural implements. It has a number of good schools, churches and a convent, with several substantial banks. Chicopee Falls are in the neighborhood. Popula- tion, 30,000. Chignecto Bay (shig-nek-to), an inlet at the north end of the Bay of Fundy. It separates Nova Scotia from New Bruns- wick. It is 30 miles long by eight miles in breadth. There is an isthmus only 14 miles wide between it and Northumber- land Strait in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. CHI-HOANG-TI 384 CHILD-STUDY Chi-hoang-ti, one of the greatest em- perors of China, who ruled from 246 to 210 B. C. It was he who, by his military successes, formed the eight kingdoms then making up China into one great empire. He further extended the empire so that under him it came to be about as large as it is now. He was also the builder of the great Chinese wall. Chihuahua (che-wa'wd), the largest state of Mexico, adjoining New Mexico and Texas, covers 87,802 square miles and is about as large as Idaho. In the east is a large desert of sand; the south and west are mountain- ous; and there are many rivers. Its silver mines were for centuries the richest in Mexico. Its capital, Chihuahua, rises like an oasis in the desert among roses and orange-groves. Founded in 1691 it housed a hundred years ago 80,000 people. Popu- lation of the state, 405,265. Child, Lydia Maria, American author and, with Wm. Lloyd Garrison, a zealous advocate of slavery abolition, was born at Medford, Mass., Feb. n, 1802, and died at Wayland, Mass., Oct. 20, 1880. Early in the thirties, some few years after her marriage, she and her husband (David Lee Child) took an active interest in the sub- ject of American slavery, against which she made many stirring appeals, both in her novels and in a periodical which she afterward edited, the National Anti-Slavery Standard. Her writings greatly contributed to the formation of public opinion adverse to the holding of slaves; while she aided the cause she had at heart by supporting schools for the negroes, helping freedmen and giv- ing of her bounty to the Union soldiers in the Civil War. Her writings include The Rebels; a novel, Hobomok; Fact and Fiction; The American Frugal Howsewife; Looking Toward Sunset and The ' Progress of Religious Ideas. Child-Study. Early philosophers and Ssychologists, notably Plato and Aristotle, ave occasionally commented on phases of child-life, but the systematic study of the mental and physical nature of children has been reserved, for modern and, in- deed, quite recent times. The subject was first approached from the point of view of the educator. Among many others Comenius, Rousseau and Pestalozzi were strenuous in insisting on the vital im- portance of a study of children to the one who expects to teach them. All these writers emphasized the need of beginning education with an appeal to the senses. Only in this way, they declare, can the reason and the judgment ultimately be reached. Rousseau, the enthusiastic ad- vocate of nature, was especially interested in the child, at any rate in the theoretical child, as one expressing the purely natural in its naive spontaneity. He would have the education of the child consist largely in permitting it to develop in a natural and untrammeled way. This idea, an- tagonistic to the earlier religious one of the total depravity of the child, was, in spite of some limitations, the inspiration of the greater part of modern educational reform. Herbart, whose educational theory turns about the notion of apperception (q. v.), requires of a teacher a very careful study of the contents of the child's mind and also of those diseases, temperamental variations and emotions that are likely to interfere with successful learning. It will be noticed that he does not advocate child- study as a means of discovering those in- stincts, the proper development of which con- stitutes the aim of education. This point of view, suggested by Rousseau, it was left to Froebel and more recent students of children to develop. On the other hand, Herbart did point out the great im- portance of studying the minds of children and of men by observation and experiment instead of by introspection and specula- tion. This improvement in method has been responsible for a large part of the results of recent child-study. Froebel derived is view of the aim and material of education from his sympathetic philosophy of the nature of the child. From the point of view of the develop- ment of child-study, his most interesting conception is that the child in his evolu- tion passes through or recapitulates the same series of steps that has been traversed by the race in its evolution. This idea was not original with him but was derived on the one hand from philosophers like Lessing, who were emphasizing, as against Rousseau, the value of historic culture to the individual, and on the other from biologists like Von Baer, who had discov- ered that the embryo of any higher tvpe of animal passes through stages in which it resembles the embryos of lower types down to the very simplest. This notion of recapitulation has been applied to education in two forms. The first is that of the culture-epoch theory, developed by Ziller, one of the followers of Herbart. According to this view the course of study should be so arranged that the child will first take up the study of primitive life and culutre, and then deal successively with more and more advanced types of civilization. Courses of study arranged on this plan were expected to appeal most successfully to the interests and powers of the child. This contention has not been entirely justified, but the culture- epoch theory remains to-day a most valua- ble clue to the interests of children. The second application of the theory of recapitu- lation to education is found in the notion that the various instincts appear in the child in much the same order that they CHILD-STUDY 385 CHILD-STUDY appeared in the race. At first very im- perfectly developed, they require education for their perfecting, but the satisfactory maturation of the child requires that each should be allowed to run its course, so that the properly developed child has run ^ the gamut of ancestral interests. This idea may be said to represent fairly well the belief of the very influential group of child- psychologists who follow President G. Stanley Hall of Clark University. Both applications of the idea of recapitulation to education are liable to the criticism that, while they suggest what is interest- ing and can be taught to the child, they do not enable us to know what should not be taught. Many stages of culture need not be represented in the child's educa- tion. So, too, many instincts, as those of fighting, may need repression rather than development. The method of careful scientific obser- vation of the child recommended by Her- bart finds its earliest and best exponent in the German physician and psychologist; Preyer. In his book, The Soul of the Child, we find a most careful study of the develop- ment of the powers of sense, or the feelings of physical and mental control, of language and the logical processes and self-con- sciousness. Space does not permit the statement of detailed conclusions, but the most suggestive and interesting outcome of Preyer s investigation is the clearness with which he puts the fact that the child at birth and for many months thereafter is not only without self-consciousness, reason and will, but that even its sense- perceptions are vague, confused and un- differentiated. Feeling is at first the mere rude sense of discomfort or com- fort. The eyes are uncoordinated, the gaze is not fixed, and objects are not clearly discerned, not to speak of distances and colors. The same general condition holds of hearing and touch and even taste and smell. The clarifying discoveries of Preyer have stimulated much valuable research into the methods by which self-control, judgment and conscience are evolved from the primitive chaos and night of the in- fant's consciousness. The most important development in this field takes the form of a psychological reinterpretation of the old principle that learning should be by doing. As stated by the American psy- chologists, Professors Dewey and Angell, who merely represent here the point of view of the psychology of to-day, con- sciousness arises when the child is stimu- lated more or less uncomfortably by some object, say a rattle. It reacts in a variety of movements, partly reflex, partly random in character. Among these movements one is usually more satisfactory in its re- ults than the rest. Assumie t to be that of grasping the rattle. This comes iu the course of time to be the one movement that follows from the given stimulus, and the other unsuccessful movements are gradually eliminated. While this process is going on, the mind is gradually growing familiar with the stimulating object and is distinguishing those characteristics by which it can. be identified. Thus percep- tion is developing. The child bee mes conscious of what the object is and what it means. It then is capable of acting toward this object with intelligent fore- sight into consequences, that is, it can will. In a similar way all the mental powers develop. We learn to perceive, to remem- ber, to imagine and to reason because we react toward stimulating objects, and in order that we may react more successfully. Consciousness finds its stimulus in an un- satisfactory situation and its function in assisting to a satisfactory treatment of this. To get a pupil to learn, the teacher must get him to be discontented with his capacity to do. This will stir up a process of experimentation, in the course of which the powers of thought and feeling will ex- pand. The typical experimental activity through which a young child learns most has beeu recognized to be that of play. According to Professor Groos, play is simply the expres- sion of the instincts of the child and so of its interests and capacities. This activity is accordingly justified in the place assigned to it in education by Froebel. It must, how- ever, be led into work by methods that are indicated in the article on INTEREST. One important activity by which this transition between the imperfect, instinctive plays of the child and mature efficiency is effected is found in imitation. This process has been exhaustively treated by the American psy- chologist, Professor Baldwin, who finds in it the means by which the child is led to become conscious of himself and of others, and so to develop his social and ethical nature. In the endeavor to imitate the child becomes adjusted to society. The great emphasis thrown by child-psy- chologists upon the feebleness of intelligence and the imperfection of instincts in the in- fant naturally rouses our curiosity as to why the young of brutes should be so much more capable of helping themselves. Mr. Fiske, the American historian and philosopher, has found in the helplessness of infancy the secret of man's capacity to learn. A brute is fairly well-fixed in its mode of life by its instincts. It does well in commonplace sit- uations, but in unusual emergencies it is helpless. Its life is, however, as a rule, sim- ple and commonplace It does not need to do new things. Man, on the other hand, is in his complex life continually compelled to learn, to readjust himself. Hence he is born helpless, with imperfect instincts CHILD-LABOR LAWS 386 CHILE and a corresponding enormous capacity to learn. In recent years the child-psychologists have devoted much attention to the special features of the age of adolescence. This subject is treated in another article. An- other important field i the study of the physical development and health of the child. Much information of. the greatest value to teachers has come from these in- vestigations. See APPERCEPTION, INTEREST, ADOLES- CENCE, METHOD OF TEACHING, MODERN ED- UCATION, PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS, SELF- ACTIVITY. Consult Preyer: The Senses and the Will and The Development of the Intellect, Apple- ton & Co.; Kirkpatrick: Fundamentals of Child Study, the Macmillan Co. E. N. HENDERSON. Child=Labor Laws. So long as a young apprentice lived in the family of his master, the evils of child-labor do not appear to have been great. But when, at the end of the eighteenth century and the early part of the nineteenth century, children came to be employed in large factories, at a very early age, for very long hours and under a brutal discipline and most unhealthy conditions of work, laws became needful to restrict the abuse of child-labor. Both the need and the laws came earlier in England than in the United States. Probably no man did so much on behalf of the factory-acts as did Lord Shaftesbury. In 1802 the hours of apprentices were limited to twelve, no part of which must fall between 9 P. M. and 6 A. M. In 1819 was passed an act that no chil- dren under nine years should be employed in the cotton-mills, nor should their hours be more than twelve per day. In 1831 night- work in cotton-factories was prohibited for persons between the ages of nine and twenty- one years. In 1833 night- work for young persons was prohibited in most other mills. In 1847 came the ten-hours bill, which limited the work of women and children to ten hours per day. In 1899 the Elementary Education Act raised the age at which a child might leave school from eleven to twelve years. An act of 1901 summed up the results of the factory-acts and allowed no children under the age of twelve to be employed in factories. Until recently in the United States, each state made its own labor laws, and as a result a few backward states had no child-labor or even compulsory education law. The most important legislation in the history of child-labor was the act passed by Congress in 1916, excluding from inter- state commerce, articles from factories where any child under fourteen years of age is employed or where any child under fifteen has worked more than eight hours a day or been employed at night. The chief difficulty in protecting children had previously been that humane manufacturers who did not wish to employ children were compelled to compete with manufacturers in other states who did employ them and so made goods at less cost. Childs, George William, an American publisher, well-known for his generous gifts to charitable and public causes. He was born at Baltimore, Md. f in 1829. He came to Philadelphia at an early age, and about the year 1849 became a member of a pub- lishing firm afterward known as Childs & Peterson. In 1864 he became owner of the Public Ledger, which he made a great suc- cess. His philanthropy took many and varied forms, at one time establishing a home for aged printers; at another commem- orating authors, like Geo. Herbert and Wm. Cowper in Westminster Abbey and erecting to Shakespeare's honor a memorial fountain at Stratford-on-Avon. He died at Philadel- phia, Feb. 3, 1894. Chile (chil'e), a republic of South Amer- ica, has been called the shoestring republic from its peculiar shape. It is a narrow strip of territory thirty times as long as it is wide. It is nearly 3,000 miles long with an average width of less than 90 miles. For comparison conceive a strip of terri- tory as wide as from Chicago to Mil- waukee and as long as from New York to San Francisco. It stretches from Peru on the north to the extreme southern limit of the continent, with Bolivia and the Argen- tine Republic on the east and the Pacific Ocean on the west. Surface and Climate, Chile has an area of 292,580 square miles, about five times the area of New England, with a population in 1910 of 3,329,036, about two-thirds the pres- ent population of New York City. Chile is a mountainous country, carrying two par- allel ranges through most of its length. A narrow strip along the coast slopes up to the western Cordilleras. Between this range and the great Andean range, which forms the eastern wall of Chile, lies the great cen- tral valley, with a length of 581 miles and an average width of 31 miles. This valley has a rich, productive soil and contains the most important cities and towns. More than one fourth of the territory of Chile lies above the snow-line. In the western Cordilleras range are found the snow-capped peaks of Tacora 19,800 feet; Huallatire 19,720 feet; Parinacota 20,950 feet; In the main Andean range are Copiapo, a volcano, 20,022 feet; Nevada Los Leones, 19,850 feet; Cerro Jota- beche, 19,259 feet; Cerro Volcan, 18,341 feet; and on the boundary between Chile and Argentina, Tres Cruces 22,213 feet; Cerro Incahuasi 21,576 feet; Los Patos 20,- 595 feet; and many others from 18,000 to 20,000 feet high. A number of islands belong to Chile, the most important being Chiloe, Juan Fernandez and a part of Tierra del Fuego. CHILE 387 CHILE Climate. The seacoast on the west and the mountain range on the east afford con- ditions which render the climate of Chile healthful. The temperature varies from 67 in the north to 43 in the south. It averages about 6 lower than on the eastern coast of South America, owing to the Antarctic cur- rent, which flows along the western coast, and to the Andes which shut off the warm winds from the eastern plains. The northern section is tropical, and, being subject to the dry southeast trade-winds, is practically rainless. The central division has a temper- ate climate and a rainfall during the winter, with dry summers. In the southern section the rainfall is heavy, averaging 115 inches annually. The rivers of Chile, of which 'here are a large number, have their rise in the Andes and empty into the Pacific, and for the most part are short shallow streams. Cities. Santiago, the capital of Chile, is the third largest city in South America, pop- ulation, 332,724. Valparaiso, the chief port on the western coast of South America, is 62 miles west of Santiago, population 162,447. Iquique, celebrated as a nitrate port, has a population of 42,488. Other cities are Con- cepcion, population 55,330; Talco, popula- tion 38,040; Chilian, population 33,506; La Serena, population 15,996; Curico, popula- tion 17,573; Antofogasta, population 32,496; Talcahuano, port of the city of Concepcion, population 15,561. Resources. It is a noteworthy fact that the barren, rainless section in the north of Chile is the chief source of the nation's wealth. The export of nitrate from this region amounts to over $43,000,000 annually, being more than two-thirds of the total ex- ports of the country. The nitrate produce of 1910 was 5,078,133 tons. Other mineral products, copper, silver, gold, iodine, with leather, wool, hides, etc., bring the total exports up to $125,000,000. Agricultural products, while large in the aggregate, are not sufficient for the needs of the country, so that imports of food amount to six millions annually. Railways. There were 3,573 miles of rail- way open for traffic in 1911. The Central system, a trunk line owned by the govern- ment, traverses the central valley with branches to coasta_l and interior points. A branch connects with the Transandine Rail- way, completed in 1910, which furnishes all- rail connection with the Atlantic coast at Buenos Ayres, a distance of 880 miles from Valparaiso. Government. Chile is a republic, consist- ing of twenty-three provinces and one terri- tory. The president is elected for a term of five years and is not eligible for a second term. He is assisted by a council of state composed of eleven members, six of whom are elected by Congress and five are appoint- sd by the president. There also is a cabinet of six ministers who are appointed by the president, with the approval of the senate. There is a national congress consisting of a senate and a chamber of deputies. The chief executive of each province is an intend- ant appointed by the president. Education. A system of public schools is maintained by the state. In 1910 there were 2,716 public primary schools with 258,- 875 pupils, beside 506 private primary schools with an attendance of 66,577. There are two universities, one belonging to the state, with an attendance of about 3,000. There are lyceums and colleges in the capi- tals and provinces, including four for girls in Santiago and 1 1 in other towns, with 2,500 students. There are three normal schools for men and three for women, with aa aggregate attendance of 2,222. There also are schools of mining, private secondary schools, agri- cultural and other special schools. History. The northern part of Chile be- longed to the Incas of Peru; the southern part to the Araucanian Indians, the only tribe unconquered by the Spaniards, and who, until lately, kept themselves independ- ent of Chile. The first European to land in the country was the Portuguese discoverer, Magellan. He reached Chile in 1520, just after his famous voyage through the strait that bears his name. Pizarro's lieutenant, Almagro, headed an expedition southward from Peru in 1535, and another expedition, under Valdivia, founded Santiago in 1542. Chile declared herself a republic in 1810 and revolted from Spain, under the leadership of Don Bernardo O'Higgins, her first dictator. The constitution was adopted in 1833. Chile's war against Peru and Bolivia arose over boundary-disputes with Bolivia. No sooner was war declared against Bolivia, in February, 1879, than Peru avowed a secret treaty, offensive and defensive, made six years before, between herself and Bolivia; and as a result, she bore the brunt of the war. Chile overwhelmingly defeated the allies. In the battle of Iquique, May 21, one of Peru's four ironclads was sunk on the rocks; and at the battle of Cape Augamos the capture of the ram Huascar left Chile master of the sea. The invasion of Peru followed, 10,000 Chileans routing 20,000 allied troops at Dolores, November 2. The doubtful battle of Tarapaca, a week later, was followed by a retreat of the Peruvians. Early in 1880, 14,000 Chileans won a third battle, north of Tacna, after a hard march across the desert and still harder fighting. At last, after two well-fought battles, at Chorrillos and Mira- flores, the Chilean army of invasion entered Lima, Jan. 18, 1881. The little republic has since passed through a revolution, brought about by the unlawful use of power by the president or, rather, dictator, Balmaceda. The law-abiding party or congressipnalists were successful, Balmaceda committing sui- cide after all hope was lost. In 1891 an at* CHILLICOTHE 38* CHINA SEA tack upon American sailors in the streets of Valparaiso came near to bringing on a war with the United States. Chil'lico'the, O., an attractive city and railroad center, the capital of Ross County, Ohio, situated on the Scioto River, 50 miles south of Columbus aad 100 miles east of Cincinnati. The B. & O. S. W., Norfolk & Western, C., H. & D. and Scioto Valley railroads traverse the town. At the beginning of the last century, it for a decade was the capital of Ohio. It possesses some fine public buildings, including schools, courthouse and public library. Its manufactories include paper mills, flour mills and the manufacture of carriages, shoes and farm implements. Pop- ulation, 15,500. Chil'koot Pass. This pass is in eastern Alaska, on the trail leading from Lynn Inlet and the ports of Dyer ana Skagway, to the gold fields of the Klondike and other inte- rior points. It starts in Alaska, but the highest point is just over the Canadian bor- der; and here the British have their custom- house. There is a cable which pulls up the loads of the intending miners at this point. The varied types of humanity and the pres- ence of a custom-house in this wild spot amid the snows give this port a picturesque char- acter of which many have written. C himborazo (ckim'bd-rd'zo) , a peak of the Andes, in shape like a cone, lying in the republic of Ecuador, 20,517 feet above the sea. It was for a long time thought to be the highest mountain-peak in the world, and its snowclad top was named the Silver Bell. The mountain was first scaled by Whymper in 1880. Chimera (kt-m&ra) . A chimera is a mon- strous or vain fancy. The chimera of myth- ology was a monster, its front like to a lion, behind a serpent, and in the midst of it a goat. This fire-breathing monster was slain y Bellerophon. It is thought to have stood for a volcano, on whose crags were lions and on its rocky sides goats; while at its foot would dwell the serpents of the marshes. Bellerophon, then, would have subdued it by making his home upon its forbidding slopes. Hesiod gave the chimera the heads of a serpent, a lion and a goat. There is a family of shark-like fishes now known to scientists as Chimcera. Chimney-Swift, mistakenly called chim- ney-swallow, is not even distantly related to the swallow, its stiff, mechanical flight being wholly different from that bird's graceful motion. If not characterized by grace, the flight is very swift and is long sustained, and the bird is well-named the swift. It is said it can travel i ,000 miles in twenty-four hours, stopping only to roost in occasional tree or hollow chimney. The bird does not perch, but clings to a rough surface by means of sharp claws and sharper tail. Its nest, built in an unused chimney, seems more like a shelf than a nest. It is almost flat, and is woven entirely of sticks fastened to the wall by a sort of glue that flows from the mouth during the breeding season. This glue be- comes hard and very strong, and the nests are fastened most securely, though, as is well known, a sudden fire in the chimney brings disaster. The four to six eggs are white. With beak and feet the bird, while in flight, breaks off sticks for the nest, and while in flight feeds, going through the air with mouth wide agape as do its kin, the nighthawk and whippoorwill, and as does the swallow. Swifts rid the air of gnats and mosquitoes; they travel in the late after- noon and early morning. In color they are a sooty gray. The birds breed from Florida to Labrador and west to the Great Plains, are common summer residents and migrate in April, September and October. See Dug- more : Bird Homes; Blanchan : Birds Every Child Should Know. Chimpanzee (chim-pan' ze) , the best known of the man-like apes, because often seen in captivity, while its nearest relative, the go- rilla, is practi- cally unknown outside its nat- . ural haunts. It ! is also related I to the orang- } outang. It lives I in the dense for- f ests of Africa, on the coast of Guinea and in the heart of the continent as far north as the Sudan. It is of black color .with a broad, leath- CHIMPANZEE ery, r e d d i s h- brown face, and attains a height of four or even five feet. It has no tail, and its arms, although long, are not so long in proportion to its body as those of the orang-outang. Its life is largely spent in the trees; when on the ground it often stands upright, and in walk- ing places the knuckles of its hands on the ground, but the legs are bent and there is a forward stoop, so that the chimpanzee does not show its full height whei walking. The chimpanzees, like other apes and monkeys, are great imitators, and show considerable intelligence and judgment. In their forest home they feed on Dairies and other fruits; cultivated bananas are also stolen, -nd on this account they are hunted by the natives. See APES. China Sea, The, is chiefly known to Amer- ican boys as the scene of terrible adventures with Chinese and Malay pirates and of the destructive work of typhoons. It is destined, however, to be one of the most important seas in the world. It is enclosed by the Malay Peninsula (British), French China and China proper to the west; to the north by the CHINA-WARE 389 CHINA Straits of Formosa; to the east by Formosa (Japan) , the Philippine Islands and Borneo (British); to the south by the Java Sea. Hence it is girt by British, French, Chinese, Japanese and American dominions, countries that will no doubt develop into centers of civilization and wealth in days soon to come. East China Sea lies to the north of Formosa, being partly shut off from the Pacific by the Liu-Kiu Islands, a possession of Japan. China-Ware, a species of fine porcelain, originally manufactured in China (whence its name) . It is characterized by the fineness of its texture, transparency and beautiful color. It is made from two kinds of earth, known as petunse and kaolin, which are worked into a white paste, the kaolin ena- bling it to withstand great heat in the furnace ; after this the article, cup, vase or whatever it may be, passes into the hands of the painters for decoration and delicate coloring, when it is then glazed or varnished, and once more submitted to the furnace to have the colors burned in and given their rich luster. China-ware has been manufactured more or less successfully in Europe. The fi est imita- tions are those known as Sevres, Dresden and Wedgwood or queensware. The French have turned out some beautiful china, which they call faience fine, or Henri II ware; but the most artistic, probably, is Sevres, manu- factured in that town, in France, together with the Dresden ware manufactured in Sax- ony. The most notable English ware turned out has been that of Josiah Wedgwood, whose classical vases, ornamented by the sculptor Flaxman, attained great repute and command high prices. The Japanese have also reached great perfection in the manufac- ture of porcelain; the Hizen or "old Japan' ' ware being noted for its elegance and beauty of color. Chinch-Bug, an insect very destructive, especially to corn and wheat. It is estimated that the loss from this pest mainly in the Mississippi valley has amounted to $60,- 000,000 in a single year. It is a true bug having a sharp beak, instead of jaws, with which it punctures the grain and sucks the juices. The plants are not eaten but sapped of their life. The chinch-bug is a small bug about one sixth of an inch long, blackish in color, with snowy white wing-covers marked with a dark spot and line. China. Its boundaries now embrace China Proper, Manchuria, Hi (including Sungaria and East Turkestan) and Tibet, and also a wide territory in eastern Asia. According to recent Chinese estimates the following is the area and population of the republic: China Proper, 1,532,420 Eng- lish square miles; population, 433,553,030. In 1904, however, Mr. Rockhill, American minister to China, after careful inquiry con- cluded that all official estimates since 1750 have far exceeded the truth and that proba- bly the inhabitants of China Proper number less than 270,000,000. The dependencies are Manchuria, area 363,610 English squar* miles and the population 16,000,000; Tibet, area 463,200 English square miles and 6,500,000 population; and Chinese Turk- estan containing 550,340 English square miles and 1,200,000 population. Mongolia, part of which is now independent, has an area of 367,600 miles, population. 2,600,000. The natives call their country the Flowery Kingdom or the Middle Kingdom, while the name Cathay came from the Persians. The name China comes from India. Surface and Drainage. China Proper slopes from the mountainous regions of Tibet and Nepal toward the eastern and southern shores of the Pacific. The Nang Ling or Southern Range, a spur of the Himalayas, is the most extensive moun- tain range, separating southeastern China from the rest of the country. North of this long range, as far as the Great Wall, lies the Great Plain, covering 210,000 square miles, on which live 175,000,000 people. The soil of most of it, called loess beds, is a brownish earth, crumbling easily between the fingers. It covers the subsoil to a great depth, and is apt to split into clefts. These clefts afford homes for multitudee of the people, who live in caves dug at the bottom of the cliffs. Sometimes whole villages are so formed, in terraces of earth which rise one above the other. These loess beds are very rich, and have given to the province of Shan-hsi the name of the Granary of the Nation. The two largest rivers are the Ho or Yellow River and the Yang-tze-Chiang, each over 3,000 miles long. Ho has changed its course many times, and its numberless floods have given it the name of China's sorrow. It last burst its banks in 1887, destroying millions of lives. The Grand Canal, built by King Kublai, joins the northern and southern parts of the empire and is over 600 miles long. The Great Wall (see ad joining article) is 1,500 miles long. Cities. The nominal capital is Pekin, in the province of Chili, population estimated at 700,000, part of which reside in the Chi- nese city and part without in the Tartar city. The other chief cities, with their estimated populations, are Canton (1,250,000), Tient- sin (750,000), Shanghai (651,000), Hankau (870,000), Ningpo (400,000) Fuchau (624,- ooo), Nankin (270,000) and Chung- King (620,000). Hong-Kong (population, 366,- 145) is a crown-colony or Great Britain, ceded to that power in 1841. Resources and Exports. China's coal-fields are extensive, coal being found in all of the 18 provinces, but chiefly so far in Shansi, Feng-tse, Kai-Ping, Pashan, Annan and Kansu. Tin, copper, lead, silver and gold are found, but very little has been done in the way of mining. China's imports in 1910 were in value about $310,000,000, while her exports were $155,000,000. Silk, CHINA 390 CHINA raw and manufactured, raw cotton and tea, were among the chief exports. In 1910 the value of Chinese exports to the United States amounted to $31,297,928, while the imports from the United States amounted to nearly $17,000,000. Agriculture. China is a farming country. Each year the emperor began the season by himself turning over a few furrows in the Sacred Field, while the empress in the same way started the work among the silkworms, the care of which is left to the women. Wheat, corn and other grains, peaches, pineapples and other fruits, sugar in Formosa, rice, and opium are grown; but tea and silk are the great export crops. Pork is largely eaten, though ducks and geese, fish, caught by tame cormorants (which see), and dogs are also used as food. The famous bird's-nest soup is made by slicing the nest into soup, thus adding an invigorating quality. The great bever- age is tea, which is drunk weak and clear, and is offered to guests at all hours of the day. It is this tea-drinking habit which has made the Chinese a temperate people, a drunken man being a rare sight. The Chinese clothing is made from their stores of silk, cotton and linen. China is the home of silk; the mulberry grows everywhere, and the silkworm has been cared for since the aad century B. C. The manufactured silk ranks as high as any made in Europe, while the embroidery is superior to that of the west. Cotton is also now raised every- where. Customs and People. For building, the Chi- nese use timber, brick and stone; but cheap houses are made of a kind of concrete called sifted earth. The best architecture of the country is seen in the marble bridges and altars of Pekin. In the country, houses are rarely over one story high. In the cities, the highest buildings are the pawnbroker's shops, and the most finely finished are the guildhalls of the trades. The pavilions and pagodas are picturesque. The streets of the cities are usually not wider than lanes; they are paved with slabs and are badly drained. Matting on the floor, tables and straight- backed chairs, sometimes a bamboo couch and stools, make up the furniture of the houses. The dress of both sexes is much the same. The most striking thing in the appearance of the men is the queue, a plat of hair which hangs pendant from the crown, all the rest of the head being shaved; while among the women the most notable thing is their small feet. This is a late and foolish fashion, prevalent only from the 6th century A. D., and is not customary among the very poor or among servants. It is effected by bandaging the feet in early years so as to prevent further growth. The Chinese girl at ten years is shut up in the women's apartments, and is taught the care of cocoons, silk weaving and all woman's work. At 15 she wears the hair- pin to show that she is now a woman. Marriage is controlled by the parents, and a class of match- makers or go-betweens has arisen, who hunt up desirable matches for parents. The killing of girl-babies was formerly practiced; but only among the lower classes, and then the reason was poverty. The complexion of the Chinese is yellowish, the hair coarse black, the eyes seemingly oblique, cheek bones high and face roundish. They usually are stout and muscular, temperate, industrious, cheerful and easily contented. The dead are buried in graves built in the form of mounds or cones. There is no weekly day of worship and rest, like our Sunday, but festivals are many. New Year's Day is the one holiday for all. On this festival the noise of fire- crackers is to be heard everywhere; the people dress in their best; the temples are visited; and the gambling tables are sur- rounded by crowds. Other festivals are those of Lanterns, Tombs, Dragon-Boats and All Souls. History. The Chinese are a very ancient race, their annals going back to 2637 B. C., though there probably were Chinese living in the country long before that. China as an empire dated from 221 B. C., and lasted for over 2,100 years. The late dynasty, the Manchu-Tartar, began to reign in 1643. The Chinese were not the first people in China. They made their way from the north and west, pushing before them the older inhabitants. However far back you go, you always find two persons of promin- ence in China the ruler and the sage. The sage, or Man of Intelligence, advised and helped the ruler, and taught the people lessons of truth and duty. From this grew up the custom, in full force since the 7th century A. D., that all officers of the govern- ment must be educated. This is now done by competitive examinations. The three religions of China are Confucianism, repre- senting the brains and morality of the nation; Taoism, its superstitions; and Buddhism, its worship and idolatry, though it acknowl- edges no God. China, before the republic, was governed by the emperor through the grand cabinet, which met daily for business between 4 and 6 A.M. Seven boards civil office, revenues, ceremonies, war, punish- ment, works and foreign affairs prepared the matters which were to be dealt with by the grand cabinet. The provinces were gov- erned usually by a viceroy acting for the emperor. The rank of the different provin- cial officers was indicated by a knob or button on the top of their caps. The revenue of the empire was under $100,000,- ooo. The imperial army was about 200,000 strong, with headquarters at Pekin, and scattered in garrisons throughout the prov- inces as far as Turkestan. There were also some 700,000 militia troops, called the CHINA 39X CHINESE WALL national army. The navy after the war with Japan did not number more than a few small cruisers and several old torpedo- boats. China has never cared to have anything to do with western nations, but has been forced to do so. In 1516 the Portuguese, followed by the Spaniards, the Dutch and the English, appeared at Canton. In 1767 sprang up the opium-traffic. It was the traffic in this drug that brought on the war with England in 1840 and the war with England and France in 1855-57. By these wars China was forced to cede the island of Hong-Kong to Great Britain, to open many of its ports to trade and to let in missionaries and admit opium. It has recently been semi-officially announced that the importation of opium will after the lapse of a few years be prohibited. On Feb. 24, 1844, Caleb Gushing arrived in China and negotiated the first treaty between that country and the United States. The late emperor came to the throne as a child of four years old. He became king in his own name in 1887; though in 1898 an imperial edict announced that the empress-dowager would direct the affairs of the empire. Of late years the Chinese have shown a tendency to seek a livelihood abroad, especially in California, British Columbia, the Straits Settlements, the East Indies and Australia. Chinese workmen or coolies began to come to the United States about the time of the dis- covery of gold. In 1882, 33,614 came. The low wages at which the coolie was willing to work threatened to destroy the high wages of American laborers; and this led to action by Congress prohibiting their immigration to the United States, although permitting Chinese merchants and students to travel or live in the country. British Columbia and some of the Australian colonies have also passed similar exclusion-laws. In 1894 China became involved in war with Japan, the result of rival interests in Korea. She, however, proved no match for Japan on land or sea. Her armies were routed and her fleet destroyed, and in 1895 sne secured peace by the payment of a heavy war- indemnity and the cession to Japan of the island of Formosa. Of 34 ports open to foreign trade, only 7 have less than 20,- ooo population. The very symbol of the "unchanging East" in her intense conservatism and ap- parent indifference to the movements of the world beyond her boundaries, her own easy and swift defeat by Japan and the subse- 'quent victory of Japan over Russia produced a profound change in China and the mental attitude of the Chinese people. It con- vinced the leaders of national thought of the utter incompetence and corruption of their Manchu rulers and of the superiority of Western education, military and industrial methods and ideals. The more intelligent among the Chinese began, through these leaders, to demand better government, the right to take part in it, the increase and modernization of the army, the substitu- tion of European for Confucian subjects in the Civil Service examinations and the establishment of schools similar to those of America and Europe. Alarmed by these rumblings of the gather- ing storm, the government began the usual process of making pretended concessions. Late in August, 1908, an imperial decree announced that nine years from date that time being required to fit the people for the proposed measure of self-government a parliament and constitution would be granted. This failing to quiet popular dis- content, another edict, three years later, provided for a cabinet and council to assist the emperor, but a president under the con- trol of the throne was given the right of veto over other members. Exasperated by the delay in establishing real constitutional government, the people rose in various parts of the empire until the uprising assumed the form of a general rebellion and within a few months had become a revolution. Beginning in September, 1911, it was practically ended by December, and on December 29 Dr. Sun-Yat-Sen, who was educated in America and who had been particularly active in the campaign, was elected president of the "Provisional Government of the United Provinces of China." The child emperor, Pu-Yi, through the regent, abdicated, and on February 1 2 issued a proclamation which closed the 267 years reign of the Manchus and established the Chinese republic. The premier of the empire, Yuan-Shih-Kai (Yoo-dn f she ki'), was chosen president. Dissensions, particularly over the finances, arose between the new president and the council and Yuan-Shih-Kai made himself emperor. He died shortly after and Si- Yuan-Hung, the former vice-president, be- came president. The first nation to take official notice of the establishment of the republic was the United States, which by concurrent resolution of Congress extended congratulations to the people of China. William J. Calhoun, our minister to China during her revolution, says: "The Chinese republic is, of course, not up to our standards, but that cannot be expected. The great mass are ignorant, living in mud-walled houses without windows or doors, but they are a peace-loving, industrious people and the whole impulse of China is toward modern education. In this the missionaries are doing a wonderful work." Chinese Wall, The. The construc- tion of this great feature of the Middle Kingdom was finished in 214 B.C., as "a grand barrier along the north of the Chinese empire. It is 1,500 miles long, and is constructed of two strong retaining walls of brick, rising from granite foundations, CHINOOKS 392 CHLOROPHYCE.B the space between being filled with stones and earth. It is about 25 feet broad at the bottom and 15 feet at the top, and from 15 to 30 feet in height. The top was at first covered with bricks, but is now overgrown with grass. The wall took ten years to build, and it is said that several millions of workmen were employed on its construction. Chinooks (chi r nooks/), a tribe of Indians who formerly lived on both banks of the Columbia River, broken into many bands. Their language differed somewhat among different bands, and was hard to pronounce. This led the traders to use what was called Chinook jargon, contain- ing some Chinook words, togther with French, English and words from other Indian languages. There are only a hand- ful of Chinooks left, who are on the Che- halis reservation in Washington. Chipmunk, a very wide-awake, sun- loving small squirrel that lives on the ground. It is sometimes called the striped squirrel, the black and light-colored stripes on its gray-brown fur being very promi- nent; a narrow black stripe on the middle of the back, on each side two black stripes separated by a stripe of light buff. It has roomy cheek-pouches in which it carries surprising quantities of nuts and grain to its nest. When hard beset, it will climb a tree for a short distance; but as it here is an easy prey for its enemies, it shows decided preference for a less exposed re- CHIPMUNK treat. Its worst enemies are the birds of prey and the mink, fox and weasel, the last following it into farthest recesses of its burrow. In time of peace chipmunks chirrup together most sociably, and out in the light and air of which they are so fond hold very animated conversations, their chorus sometimes almost a song. The burrow is kept most artfully concealed; no track leading to it. First a perpendicu- lar tunnel is sunk down several feet, next a horizontal passage made for a few yards, then a slight ascent brings to the chamber which is carpeted with grass. From the chamber the ground surface may be reached by a second route, this opening a considera- ble distance from the first. In the cosy nest well below the frost-line quantities of nuts and grain are stored for winter use, supplies being carried in the cheek-pouches. In the west they work considerable damage and are regarded as nuisances. In addi- tion to nuts and grain, they eat considerable fruit, and are very fond of berries. They are distributed generally in this country, several species being found here. The chipmunk somewhat resembles the little creature popularly called striped gopher, but should not be confused with it. See Hornaday: American Natural History; Stone and Cram: American Animals. Chip'pewa Falls, Wis., a city, the seat- of Chippewa County, on the Chippewa River and served by four railroads, 132 miles south-southeast of Duluth, Minn., and about too miles east of St. Paul. The State Home for the Feeble Minded and the County Insane Asylum are located here, while in the vicinity is the battle-ground (Tone Rock) of a Sioux - Ojibwa conflict. Besides its large lum- ber interests, the city manufactures wooden ware, shoes, gloves, woolen goods, foundry Eroducts, beer and flour. It has some ne public buildings, including churches, schools, court-house and public library, McDonell Memorial High School and the Hanna M. Rutledge Home for the Aged. Population, 8,893. Chip'pewa Indians. See OJIBWAYS. Chiv'alry. See KNIGHTHOOD and FEU- DAL SYSTEM. Chlorine, one of the elements, a gas of pale yellow color about two and one half times as heavy as air. It has a powerful odor and is very irritating when present even in very small quantities in the air that is breathed. It is an effective bleaching and antiseptic agent which is usually ob- tained from chloride of lime, also called bleaching powder, by exposing it to the air or especially by mixing it with an acid. Chlorine is one of the constituents of com- mon salt or sodium chloride. United with hydrogen it forms hydrochloric or muriatic acid, and it occurs in many other substances, such as chloroform, chloral, potassium chlorate, etc. Chlorophyceae (klo'rd-fis'^-e), plants known as the green algae, which are abund- ant everywhere in fresh waters and in damp places, and are of special interest in connection with the evolution of the higher plants. Some of the forms are one-celled, occurring in masses which cover damp tree-trunks, stones, etc., and look like a green stain; others have filamentous bodies, composed of a row of cells more or less elongated; while in other cases filaments become branched. It may be said in general that the filamentous body is the usual type among green algae. These fila- mentous bodies may be seen forming felt- like masses in damp places or floating as green thready scum upon the water. Va- rious reproductive methods are developed among the green algae. The majority of them have the characteristic asexual spores. CHLOROPHYLL 393 CHOATB which are variously ciliated, and have the power of swimming, being known variously as the zoospores, swarm-spores, swimming spores, etc. Most of the forms also have sexual reproduction, producing a fertilized egg. Some of the forms are free-swimming; while most of them have means of anchor- ing themselves to firm supports. The main groups are as follows: Protococcus forms, which are one-celled and reproduce mostly by cell-division; Conferva forms, which are filamentous and produce swarm- spores as well as sexual spores ; Siphon forms, as in the common green felt; and Conjugate forms, of which Spirogyra, the pond-scum is the best known. The last are called Conjugate forms because in the sexual process two filaments put out tubes toward one another, which meet and form a passageway, and through these impro- vised tubes the sex-cells pass. The name refers to this yoking together. It is from the green algae that the higher plants are supposed to have come. JOHN M. COULTER. Chlorophyll (kld'rd-fil), the green col- oring matter of plants. It is found associa- ted with proto- plasm, usually in special bodies called chloro- plasts or chlo- rophyll bodies, which are found only in cells near the surface of parts exposed to light, e. g., in leaves and twigs. These are usu- FIG. I ally rounded granules much too small to be Chloroplasts: (a) Position in cells, (b) Isolated seen with the naked eye (see Fig. I). In some algae they are much larger, and have curious shapes. Little is known with cer- tainty of the chemical nature of chloro- phyll, because it easily decomposes. Be- sides the pure green coloring matter (to which the name chlorophyll may be re- stricted), yellow pigments (carotin or xanthophyll) are associated with it in the mosses, ferns and seed-plants. In some alga? browns or blues or reds may be pres- ent also. The green pigment particularly (and in part the others) enables the plant to absorb certain portions of the light. The energy thus gained is partly used in the making of new foods (see PHOTOSYN- THESIS). In the absence of chlorophyll, this work cannot be accomplished. Chlorophyll is probably being continuously produced and destroyed in green plants. It is not usually formed in darkness, and if light is excluded from a green plant the de- struction of the chlorophyll leaves it a pale yellow. Autumnal colors are due in part to the decomposition of the chloro- phyll. Chi or op last (klo'rd-pltist), a proto- plasmic body in plant cells that is stained by chlorophyll, and thus gives the char- acteristic green color to plants. For the work of chioroplasts see PHOTOSYNTHESIS. Choate ( chot ) , Joseph Hodges, a talented and eloquent lawyer, forceful public speaker and United States ambassador to England, was born at Salem, Mass., Jan. 24, 1832. Af- ter graduating at Harvard , he adopt- ed law as a pro- fession, and, join- ing W. M. Evarts in legal practice at New York, he rose quickly to emi- nence, owing to his high forensic abili- ties and soundness as a lawyer and counselor. His chief exploits at the bar were his defense of General Fitz-John Porter, when court-martialed on a charge of disobeying orders, and his v'gorous campaign against the corrupt Tweed ring in the city govern- ment of New York. In 1894 he was chair- man of the convention held to revise the constitution of the state of New York. He also took part in the argument before the su- preme court of the United States as to the validity of the provision as to income tax in the tariff law of 1894, the court upholding his contention that the income tax could not be collected, but leaving the remainder of the tariff law in force. Mr. Choate was a nephew of the great Rufus Choate. He was noted as a public and after-dinner speaker. In Jan., JOSEPH H. CHOATE CHOATE 394 CHRISTIAN ENDEAVOR MOVEMENT V 1899 he was appointed ambassador to the court of Great Britain. He died at his home in New York City May 14, 1917. Choate, Rufus, an American lawyer, was born at Essex, Mass., Oct. i, 1799. He graduated at Dart- mouth College, and commenced t o practice law in 1823. He served as reprsentative and senator in Con- gress, but his greatest success was at the law. He became the foremost lawyer of New England, and undoubtedly was the first pleader of his RUFUS CHOATE day. His speeches and address es show great oratorical power. He died July 13, 1859. Chocolate. See COCOA. Choctaws (chok'taz), a widely-spread tribe of Indians, living on the shores of the Gulf of Mexico from the Mississippi to the Atlantic. They lived more by rude farm- ing than by hunting. They are a raw- boned, alert but treacherous people. The French gave them the name of Flatheads, from their practice of flattening the heads of their children with bags of sand. De Soto fought a bloody battle with them in 1540. In the wars between the French and Eng- lish settlers they sided with the French; though one of their great chiefs, Red Shoes, became the friend of the English. Some 500 families moved west of the Mississippi in 1803, and the remainder were offered citizenship by the Georgians; but they pre- ferred to trade their lands for others west of the Arkansas in Indian Territory. They were governed by a written constitution, elected a chief every four years and had a national council of 40 members and trial by jury. Under this government they advanced fast, and in 1861 numbered, with the Chkkasaws, who lived with them, 25,000, and owned 5,000 slaves. In the Civil War they took sides with the south and suffered great losses. Schools and missions have been established among them for along time. In 1900 there were 10,321 Choctaws in the territory. Chopin ( shd-p&n') , Frederic Francois, a Polish pianist and composer, was born March i, 1809. His waltzes, mazurkas and other compositions are peculiar in melody, rhythm and harmony, and have a great charm. He was one of the first pianists, and his playing like his music, nad a captivating grace. He spent most of his life in Paris, where he died Oct. 17, 1849 Christian I X (born in 1 8 1 8) , was crowned King of Denmark in 1863. At his accession he was misunder- stood and coldly received by the people, but by his simple manners and democratic bearing he won their respect and esteem. In 1864 Schleswig-Holstein and Lauenburg, about one third of Denmark, were taken from him by Germany. This loss of territory was offset in part CHRISTIAN ix by a gain in pres- tige through his family alliances. One of liis daughters became czarina of Russia, another queen of England, one son king of Greece and another king of Norway. He died Jan. 29, 1906, and was succeeded by his eldest son who ascended the throne Jan. 30, 1906, with the title of Frederick VIII. He died of apoplexy in the streets of Hamburg, May 14, 1912. Crown Prince Christian who took the title of Christian X, succeeded him. Christian Endeavor Movement, The. This movement originated with the forma- tion of a small society of 50 members in the Williston Church of Portland, Maine, under the direction and with the inspiration of the pastor, Dr. Francis E. Clark, on the evening of February 2, 1881. In February, 1906, after 15 years of life, the movement showed 66,000 societies, with 4,000,000 members, found not only in the United States, but in Canada and Great Britain, in many countries of Europe, in India, China and Japan, in Australia and in Africa. The different societies are independent, united only by a community of principle and plan. There is, however, a corpora- tion, bearing the title of United Society of Christian Endeavor, of which Dr. Clark is chairman. This society collects and distributes the funds that may be sent to it, and seeks to promote in every way the movement. Most of the societies have a constitution that declares the purpose to be "to promote an earnest Christian life among its members, to promote their mutual acquaintance and to make them more useful servants of God." There are active members and associate members. The former bind themselves to attend every meeting of the society to which they belong, unless prevented by absolute neces- sity, and to take some part, however slight, in every meeting. They are to read the Bible daily and to assist the pastor in the work of the church as he shall direct. The society is interdenominational. A special CHRISTIAN ERA 395 CHRIST'S HOSPITAL See EDDY, MARY of Norway, was feature of the society has always been the appointment of many committees to at- tend to and systematize various aspects of church work. Conventions are held every year in different parts of the United States. Similar conventions are held in foreign countries. The World's Christian Endeavor Union has been formed, and the Society in America publishes a journal, The Christian Endeavor World. Christian Era, the great era, now almost universally accepted, especially in Christian countries,'f or the computation of time. It is commonly held to correspond to the date of the birth of Christ; but this is scarcely accurate, since that epochal event took place four years before the era now accepted as the commencement of the new epoch in reckoning time. The centuries before the advent of Christ are marked B. C. (before Christ) ; those that follow are marked A. D. (anno Domini). The era is computed from Jan. i in the 4th year of the 1 94th Olympiad; the 753d from the foundation of Rome; and the 4, 71 4th of the Julian period. The new epoch was introduced in Italy in the i6th century, and came into use in England some cen- turies later. Christian Science. BAKER. Christiania, capital named after Christian IV, who began to build the city in 1624. The national par- liament, the storthing, with its two houses, the Lagting and the Odelting, meets here. It has a large university, a fine observatory, two palaces of the king of Norway and a national picture-gallery. An interesting es- tablishment in vogue here is the Steam Kitchen, which provides good and cheap dinners for working people. The great industry is its shipping trade, both foreign and coasting. Its chief exports are of timber and fish. Population, 241,834. Christina ( kris-te'na ) , queen of Sweden, the only child of the great Gustavus Adol- phus, was born Dec. 17, 1626. She suc- ceeded her father when only six years old. Beautiful and brilliant, she was given the schooling then only given to men. She took the ruling power into her own hands in 1644, and six years later, in accordance with her mannish desires, was crowned king instead of queen. She ruled ably for the next four years, but her wayward restlessness could not brook longer the restraints on her personal action which her position of queen made her keep, and she resigned the throne in favor of her cousin Charles, reserving, however, authority over her own household. At this time, when but 28 years old, she traveled over Europe somewhat like a female knight- errant, now becoming very religious at Brussels, now entering Rome on horseback dressed as an amazon, and later shocking Paris by having her grand equerry put to death in her own household for treason. Tired of this wandering life, she thought the death of Charles a good chance x , be- come queen again. But in this she failed. She died at Rome, April 19, 1689. Christmas (kris'mas), the day on which the birth of Jesus Christ is observed. The first certain traces of the festival are found about the time of the Emperor Commodus (180-192 A. D.). In the reign of Diocletian a churchful of Christians, gathered to cele- brate Christmas, were burned by order of the emperor. The birth was celebrated in May, April and January by the early Christians. It is almost certain that the 25th of December is not Christ's birthday, as it is the rainy season in Judaea, and shepherds could hardly be watching their flocks by night in the plains at that time. The present date came to be used probably because all heathen nations celebrated that season with great festivities, as the old Norse Yule-feast. The beautiful Christmas carols at first were manger-songs, telling the story of Christ's birth. The Christmas- tree with its hanging toys was a custom borrowed from the Romans, and is told about by the poet Vergil. The visit of Santa Claus bearing gifts belongs properly to December 6, the festival of St. Nicholas. Christmas Carol, A, the first and best of strictly Christmas stories, is one of the masterpieces of Charles Dickens. Written for the Christmas of 1843, it was marked by the best gifts of the novelist, humor, fancy, simplicity and tenderness. The old miser, Scrooge, is visited and reformed by the ghosts of Christmas past, present and future. Chris'topher, Saint, according to the old story, lived in Syria, and was put to death as a martyr by the Emperor Decius. He is said to have been 1 2 feet in height and of great strength. In the pride of his strength, he would serve only the mightiest upon earth. Once he served a powerful king for a while; but seeing his master's fear of the devil, he at once be- came the devil's servant. But one day he saw the devil trembling before an image of Christ, and decided to serve Christ only. As punishment for not having served Him before, he undertook to carry travelers across a broad stream. One day, so the the story goes, Christ came to him in the form of a little child, to be carried over, but at every step the burden grew heavier and heavier. "Wonder not, Christopher," said the child, "for with Me thou hast borne the sins of all the world." Christ's Hospital, a noted school in London, England, with an ancient foun- dation. It was founded by Edward VI in 1553, as a hospital for orphans. It is usually called the Blue-coat School, from the odd dress worn by the boys. About CHRONOGRAPH 396 CHURCH-COUNCILS 30 years ago the cap and petticoat were discarded, but otherwise the garb or uni- form is the same to-day as that worn in the i6th century: a blue coat with a red girdle round the waist, knee-breeches, yellow petticoat and stockings, a clergy- man's bands at the neck and a small blue worsted cap. Coleridge, Lamb, Sir Henry Maine and other prominent men were educated here. Chron'ograph, an instrument, of delicate mechanism, for measuring and recording minute portions of time. It is used by astronomers for registering the instant oc- currence of an astronomical event, directly it happens and is visible. It is also used at horse-races, to record the starting of a race and the instant each horse in the contest passes the winning-post. The chronograph usually registers to one tenth of a second; the delicate records are made by electro-magnetism, and can be brought into action or stopped at any instant through the manipulation of an electric key by the finger. Of this type is the chronograph known as Schultze's, which is so precise and delicate that it can register time to the 5oo,oooth part of a second. Of the ordinary type of chronometer is Benson's which, in principle, is a lever-watch, with a double seconds-hand, the one superimposed on the other. The one in use by astrono- mers is Strange 's, which is connected with the pendulum of an astronomical clock, and makes a dot or other mark on a sheet of paper at the beginning and end of each swing of the pendulum. Chronometer. See CLOCK. Chry san' themum (meaning golden flower) , is a flower growing in the temperate parts of Asia, Europe and North America. There are many varieties, such as the ox-eye daisy, corn marigold, golden feather and marguerites. The most popular variety in our gardens and flower-markets was highly esteemed in China long before it was known in Europe, and gives its name to the Chinese order of honor, the Order of the Golden Flower. It was brought to Europe in 1764, and now there are many hundred varieties. The colors are very various and beautiful. It is popular also becavise it flowers during the late autumn months. The cultivation of the chrysanthemum and the developing of new varieties have been very much extended in the last few years. Chrysan- themum shows are usually held in all our large cities. Chryseis, the daughter of Chryses, a priest of Apollo, had, according to the story of the Trojan War, been one of the captives of Achilles. In the partition of the booty she fell to Agamemnon, who refused her father's offer of ransom. Apollo avenged the insult by visiting the Greek army with a plague, until Agamemnon, its leader, was compelled to restore Chryseis to her father. Chrysostom (krts'8s-tom), John, Saint (meaning "golden mouthed"), was born at Antioch about 347 A. D. His mother was a pious woman and devoted herself to her son, who grew into an earnest, gentle and serious young man. He studied, became a monk and spent much time in preaching, in which he was very successful. His eloquence caught the attention alike of Jews and heathen, and gained him the repu- tation of the greatest orator of the ancient church. Appointed to an important office in Constantinople, he pared down the cost of living and gave what was saved to charities, so that he was called John the Almoner. For trying to reform the lives of some of the monks about him, he was banished to the Taurus Mountains. Even here he could not keep silent, but began to preach to the Persians and Goths in the neighborhood and to write Letters and Homilies, or explanations of parts of the Bible, which to-day are in the front rank of the literature of the church. But an- other order came to banish the golden- tongued preacher to the most distant corner of the Eastern empire. So the old man was made to travel on foot and with his bare head exposed to the burning sun. This was more than he could bear, and he died on the way, Sept. 4, 407 A. D. Chuquisaca (choo'ke-sa'ka) or Sucre, the capital of Bolivia, is built on a tableland almost 9,000 feet above the sea, shut in by mountains. It has a large cathedral and a college. Its citizens are mostly a mixture of Spaniards with Indians. Popu- lation, 23,416. Chuquisaca is also a depart- ment of the republic; area 26,400 square miles; population about 237,143, consisting of Indians, Mestizos and whites. Church, Frederick Edwin, a celebrated American landscape-painter, was born at Hartford, Conn., May 4, 1826. He first painted scenes from the Catskill Mountains. He then traveled in South America, and painted his Heart of the Andes, Morning on the Cordilleras, etc. He also made a sketching trip to Greece and Palestine. His Tropical Scenery and View of Niagara Falls from the Canadian Shore are among his best works. He died in 1900. Church-Councils. Church-councils are of two kinds, general or oecumenical coun- cils, at which the whole church is repre- sented, and others, in which some division of the church, as a sect or a local division, is represented. The council may meet to discuss matters of doctrine or matters of discipline. Some councils consist of clerical members only; others admit lay members, that is, those who have not been ordained. The latter are more common in Protestant churches. The lesser councils are too numerous to mention, occurring in con- nection with every sect. The oecumenical councils were held before the division of CHURCHILL 397 CICADA the church (about 800 A. D.) into the Eastern and the Western church. The first was held at Nicasa, in Asia Minor, 325 A. D., under the Emperor Constantine. It was in that council that Athanasius won the victory for the doctrine of the trinity, against the Unitarians under Arius. The next councils were those of Constan- tinople (381), Ephesus (431), Chalcedon (451), Constantinople (553), Constantinople (680), Nicaea (787). The Greek or Eastern church recognizes only these as general, because it did not attend the rest; but the Roman church considers the following to be general, holding that the other churches are not real churches, that there is but one church, the Roman Catholic: Con- stantinople (869), Lateran (1123), Lateran (1139), Lateran (1179), Lateran (1215), Lyons (1245), Lyons (1274), Vienne (1311), Constance (1414), Basel (1431), Florence (1438), Lateran (1512), Trent (1545)* and Vatican (1869). The authority of the councils has given way to that of the pope, especially since the council of Trent. At the last council, the Vatican, membership was limited to cardinals, bishops, mitred abbots and generals of religious orders. Churchill, Randolph Henry Spencer, Lord, an English statesman, member of Parliament and second son of the sixth Duke of Marlborough, was born in 1849, and died in 1895. ^ n X 874> on a visit to this country, he married Jennie, daughter of the late Leonard Jerome of New York. In the same year he entered the British Parliament, and later on became a versatile and often audacious speaker, the life and soul of what was then known as the Fourth Party in the chamber. He sub- sequently became one of the leaders of the Conservative party, and was recognized as a new and powerful, if at times some- what erratic, political force. He took a prominent part in the Bradlaugh debates, and when Mr. Gladstone fell and Lord Salisbury came into power, Lord Randolph Churchill was appointed chancellor of the exchequer and leader in the commons. In Dec., 1886, differences with his colleagues led to his resignation. He again (in 1892) became a member of Parliament. He died at London, January 24, 1895. Churchill River, 1,000 miles long, flow- ing into west shore of Hudson Bay near Fort Churchill in the District of Keewatin (Canada). Direction northeasterly. Churchill, Winston, American novelist and contributor to magazines, was born at St. Louis, Mo., Nov. 10, 1871, and graduated in 1894 from the United States Naval Academy. For a time he was editor of the Army and Navy Journal, of New York, and managing editor of The Cosmopolitan. He has published a number of short naval stories and character sketches of naval officers; an account of the naval battle of Santiago; and three notable novels, dealing powerfully with important eras in American history. These stories are en- titled The Celebrity (1898), Richard Carvel (1899) and The Crisis (1901), the latter a story of the Civil War. The Crossing (1904), a love story entitled Coniston (1906) and Mr. Cr ewe's Career (1908) are his later fiction. Churchill, Winston Leonard Spencer, son of the late Lord Randolph Churchill, English Parliamentary Under-Secretary for the colonies, under Campbell - Bannerman, and first lord of the admiralty under Asquith, was born November 30, 1874, an d educated at Harrow and the military school at Sandhurst. In 1895 ne entered the army, and saw considerable fighting, and was in many active expeditions in different parts of the world. He first served with the Spanish forces in Cuba; then in India; and later in the Nile expeditionary force in Egypt, and for his services at Khartum received a medal and clasp. Toward the close of 1899 he proceeded to South Africa, and was taken prisoner by the Boers, while acting as war-correspondent. He afterward escaped from custody at Pretoria, and proceeding to Cape Colony he joined the South African Light Horse as lieutenant. With this body of troops he saw much service in the colony, was in many hot engagements and was present at the taking and occupying of Pretoria by Lord Roberts in June, 1900. He remained first Lord of the Admiralty until after the outbreak of the European War but was replaced in that office in 1915 by Arthur J. Balfour on the formation of a coalition ministry under Asquith (q. .). His publications embrace The Story of the Malakand Field- Force; Sav- rola (a novel) ; The River War, an historical account of the reconquest of the Sudan; London to Ladysmith via Pretoria; and the narrative of Ian Hamilton's March. He has also written a Life of Lord Randolph Churchill, his father, which is regarded as a fine piece of biographical literature. See Scott's Winston Spencer Churchill (London, 1905)- Churubusco (choo'rb^-boos'ko), a village six miles south of the City of Mexico, where was fought a battle between the Americans, under General Scott, and the Mexicans under General Santa Anna, Aug. 20, 1847. The road to Mexico is a high, paved cause- way crossing the River Churubusco by a stone-bridge. At this point on the high river-banks Santa Anna made a stand, to arrest Scott's advance to the capital. Scott had won the battle of the Contreras the same day, and he carried the Churubusco position a f *er smart fighting, with a loss m both actions of 1,065; Mexican loss, including prisoners, 7,000, besides artillery. Cicada (st-ka'dd), an insect improperly known as the 1 7-year locust. The name CICERO CID locust should be restricted to certain grasshoppers, which are the true locusts. The cicadas appear in great numbers at long intervals. Those of the north require 17 years for their development, those of the south 13 years. The eggs are laid in slits in twigs of trees, and are hatched after a period of six weeks. Instead of a cater- pillar or grub, a nymph is produced. The latter has legs, but no wings. They drop to the ground and burrow and live by sucking the juices from the roots of trees. After 17 years they reach maturity and come to the surface. The skin splits open along the back and the perfect insect comes out. They attract attention far and near by their loud, shrill singing. Their life in this stage lasts but a few weeks. In some localities several broods overlap, which explains the fact that the insect appears in those localities more than once in the period of 17 years. The dog-day harvest-flies are also cicadas. These develop in two years, but, as there are two broods, they appear annually. Cicero, Marcus Tullius, orator, states- man and writer, was born at the old Italian town of Arpi- num, 106 B. C. In boyhood he went to Rome, and was put through a thor- ough and wide course of study to fit him to be an orator. Among the Romans the calling of an orator was what we would call that of a lawyer and a politician, the orator pleading law cases be- MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO fore the bar and speaking on political questions in the senate, thus requiring a wide and varied knowledge. In 76 B. C. he held an appointment in Sicily, where he became popular with all classes and obtained the information which enabled him, in 70 B. C., to impeach successfully the wicked governor of Sicily, Verres. This scoundrel felt himself crushed by Cicero's opening speech and fled the country. The orator had already become well known by earlier speeches, and now became a power in the state, and rose rapidly still higher. In 63 B. C., at the age of 44, he was a consul, the highest office within reach of a Roman. In the same year, by his boldness and promptness, he checkmated the dangerous conspiracy of Catiline, deliv- ering in the senate those famous Orations against Catiline, which brought the senators almost to a man to his support, Cicero was now at the height of his power, but his hot eloquence had carried the senate too far. Some of Catiline's band had been put to death by a simple order of the senate. This was a stretch of power for which Cicero was held responsible, and the Father of His Country, as he had been called but a short time before, was banished and his two houses were plundered. Though the changeable people welcomed him back with shouts in the following year, he never regained power. No longer confident in himself, he halted between allegiance to Caesar and allegiance to Pompey, and was held to be a time-server. It was a time when the old republic was crumbling to pieces, and only a strong man could build upon its ruins what would be stable and lasting. Cicero was gentle, amiable, clever and learned, but strong he certainly was not. The later years of his life were spent chiefly in pleading at the bar and in writing essays. After Pompey 's overthrow at the battle of Pharsalia, he became Caesar's friend; but he never liked Caesar's other friend, Mark Antony; and in the year following Caesar's death the aged orator . appeared once more in the senate, making his famous speeches against Antony, which he called Philippics, after the title of Demosthenes' orations against Philip of Macedon. These cost him his life. An- tony's proscription-list of his enemies, who were thereby outlawed, was published, and Cicero's name was on it. Old and feeble, he fled, pursued by Antony's soldiers, and was overtaken as he was being carried in his litter down to the shore to embark. With courageous coolness he put his head out of the litter and told the murderers to strike. This was in December, 43 B. C. Cicero as an orator stands in the first rank. Of his speeches that have come down to us, the finest perhaps are those against Verres and against Catiline. His essays on Old Age, On Friendship and Whole Duty of Man (de Officiis) are most pleasant reading. His letters are classics of epistolary literature. It was a remark of Erasmus: "I feel a better man for read- ing Cicero." Cid (std) , The, the name given to Rodrigo Diaz, a famous warrior of Spain, who was born about 1040. He was commander of the army of Sancho II, king of Castile, in the wars in which that king tore Leon and Galicia from his brothers. Sancho was killed treacherously during a siege, and Alfonso, the banished king of Leon, became king. The Cid was soon after- ward banished himself, and with a motley following he offered his services to the king of Saragossa and fought ably against his enemies. After besieging Valencia on his own account for years, he conquered the CIDER 399 CINCINNATI city, and reigned over the district until his death, five years later, in 1099. He appears to have been a bold and able soldier and a born leader of men. These adventures and many other things which he never did are told in the Ctd Poem, written in the i2th century, probably the oldest literature in the Spanish language. The story of the Cid was told by the story- tellers who wandered over the country, welcomed at every castle, where they en- livened the long evenings by telling stories of the national heroes, after making up adventures which they tacked on to the lives of such men as Charlemagne and the Cid. It was from these stories that the poem, with other chronicles and ballads about him, was made. On this story Cor- neille based his Le Cid and Southey his Chronicle of the Cid. Cider is the fermented juice of apples. Usually, apples that are sour in taste are used, and late apples make better cider than early ones. The apples after gather- ing are left to mellow for some days. The juice is crushed out by passing the apples between fluted rollers or in mills of various kinds. The pulp is placed in bags or in wicker-work frames with holes, and the juice is drained into tubs. This juice is kept for the finest quality of cider. The rest is squeezed out in a press. This pres- sure, especially where unduly great, adds juice from the pipe and skins and gives it a coarser flavor, though in larger quantity. Eight to ten days' fermentation takes place in casks with large bungholes, the vinegary yeast frothing to the top, which is constantly removed. The cider is next freed of the sediment by being placed in fresh casks, and this is repeated in the spring. Champagne cider is made by bot- tling the juice before it is fully fermented. Cider contains from four to ten per cent, of alcohol. Cienfuegos (se'en-fivd'gos), a city of Cuba, is in Santa Clara province on the southern side of the island. Its harbor was discovered by Columbus in 1492, and is one of the finest harbors in the West Indies. The port's commercial advance in recent years has been so rapid that Cien- fuegos has become the second seaport in Cuba. To-day it is the center of the sugar- trade on the Caribbean coast. The city has well-shaded, attractive streets, its resi- dences are substantially built, and it is lighted by gas and electricity. The climate in summer is oppressive, but the winter climate agreeable. Railroads connect Cien- fuegos with Havana and Sagua la Grande on the northern coast and with Santa Clara, the western terminus of the Santiago railway. Steamers give communication with New York. The population is 70,416. During the Spanish-American war the port Was long blockaded by the American fleet. Cimabue (che'md-bdo'd) , Giovanni, an Italian painter, was born at Florence in 1240. The art of painting had in his day fallen into decay, and Cimabue 's attempt to follow nature, painting from a living model, was called "a new thing in these times." His two madonnas are still pre- served in Florence, but he is best known as the teacher of Giotto and as the founder of the Florentine school of painters which included Michael Angelo and Raphael. He died about 1302. Cimbri (sim'bri), a people who, together with the Teutons, came out of the north of Germany, and moving southward fought against the Romans in 113 B. C. At first victorious, they were prevented from ravag- ing Italy by Marius, who routed them in a battle near Verona in 101 B. C. In this battle they showed the greatest courage, even the women killing themselves and their children when they saw that all was lost. Years later, Caesar and Tacitus speak of the Cimbri, who appear to have lived, a few in number, in the far north of Ger- many. They probably belonged to the German race. Cimon ( sVmun ) , an Athenian commander, was the son of Miltiades, the conqueror at Marathon. At the time of the Persian War he was made one of the two commanders of the Athenian section of the Greek navy, commanded by the Spartan, Pausanias. His greatest encounter was in 466 B. C., with a Persian fleet of 350 ships at the River Eurymedon, when he destroyed or captured 300 vessels and also defeated the Persian land-force on the same day. He became very popular in Athens, but later was opposed by Pericles and the democracy and banished, though he was recalled in five years. He died during one of his sieges, in 449 B. C. Cincinnati (sin' sin-no.' tt) , the second larg- est city of Ohio and tenth in rank in the United States, is situated on the Ohio River in the southwest part of the state. It is built upon two terraces, the first 60 feet and the second 112 feet above the river, sur- rounded by a circle of hills, about 450 feet high, forming one of the most beautiful amphitheaters on the continent. The city embraces nearly 72 square miles, extending along the Ohio River fcr about 15 miles. The city and its suburbs cover the surrounding hills, which are reached by a series cf street-railways with inclined planes, one having a height of 275 feet. Cincinnati is noted for the beauty of its suburbs, which stretch for miles in all directions, with costly residences and large and ornamental grounds. The suspension bridge between Cincinnati and Covington is 2,252 feet in length, and was built at a cost of $2,000,000. There are 18 parks and a zoological garden; Eden park, covering 215 acres, and Mt. Airy Forest, with 795 CINCINNATI, SOCIETY OF THE 400 CIRCULATION OF BLOOD acres, being the largest. Of the 21 ceme- teries, the largest is Spring Grove, con- taining 600 acres, and said by travelers to be the most picturesque cemetery in the world. The Tyler-Davidson fountain, a bronze fountain cast in Munich at a cost of $200,000, was the gift of a private citizen, and is one of the ornaments of the city. Among buildings of note are the hospital, erected at a cost of $4,000,000; the cathedral, with a stone-spire 224 feet high; the Masonic temple, the Art museum in Eden park, the Havlin and Sinton hotels, Ingall's building, the great Exposition build- ing and Music hall with its noted grand organ. Cincinnati is an important commercial and manufacturing city, and, since 1870, a port of entry. It for many years was the leading city of the west, called the Queen City. Its trade in pork was the largest in the country until 1863. Its manufactures are numerous and exten- sive, especially in iron, leather, shoes, paper, soap and carriages. Cincinnati has always been noted for its interest in literary and educational matters, and it also has a wide reputation as an art and musical center. The Cincinnati University, with 263 in- structors and 2,298 students, Lane Theo- logical Seminary, medical and law schools, the art-school and museum, a free school of design, a free public library, mercantile library and historical library, Emma Louise Schmidlapp Memorial Library, and the Lloyd Library, devoted to botany and pharmacy, are among its many institutions. Its great school of wood-carving and the Rookwood pottery are each celebrated. The ware from this pottery ranks with the art-product of the most famous potteries of the Old World, and may be found in the best private collections on both sides of the Atlantic. Cincinnati was permanently settled in 1788, and named in honor of the Society of the Cincinnati. The rivr trade, which began with the arrival of the first steam- boat in 1811, gave it its ^arly importance. It became a city in 1819. In 1845 tne first railroad entered the city. The popu- lation is largely foreign, one entire part of the city, called " Over the Rhine," be- ing German. Population, 405,898. Cincinnati, Society of the, a society of officers of the Revolutionary army, organized at the close of the war to keep up friend- ships and especially to raise a fund for widows and orphans of their comrades who had lost their lives in the war. It was named from the old Roman hero, Cincin- natus, as many of the members had similarly left their farms at the call to arms. As membership was made to descend from father to son, an outcry was made against the society by Franklin and others, who saw in it the germ of a future aristocracy. This caused some of the branches to dis- band. But there still are several state societies in active existence. Cincinnatus (sin'stn-nd'tus), Lucius Quintius, was made consul of Rome in 460 B. C. When the messengers came to tell him of his election, they found him plough- ing on his small farm. Two years later he was made dictator. The barbarous vEqui had surrounded the consul Lucius Minucius and defeated him. Cincinnatus marched to his aid and rescued him. Sixteen days later he laid down the unlimited power of the dictatorship and went back con- tentedly to his small farm on the Tiber. At the age of 80 he was again made dictator. He was a favorite hero among the later Romans, who looked on him as a model of goodness and simple manners. Cinematograph (sin 1 'e-mdt' 'o-grdf) . This is an instrument which casts upon a screen a number of successive views which have been taken from a moving object, in so swift an order that the eye does not ob- serve that the picture has been changed. The spectator appears to behold one and the same view, in which the objects are in actual motion. On an average about 100,000 pictures are needed for an exhibi- tion which is to last one hour. The in- strument was invented in 1894 by Edison. Cinnamon. See SPICES. Circas'sians, the name sometimes given to all the formerly independent peoples of the Caucasus, more strictly to the tribes living in the northwest wing. The Cir- cassians are a handsome race, their girls being the most beautiful in the Turkish harems. They also are strong, brave and temperate. For years they struggled fiercely agianst Russia, to keep their in- dependence, and in 1858-65, rather than submit, nearly the whole nation of 15 tribes, about half a million in number, left their country for the Turkish part of Asia Minor or the mountains of Bulgaria. See CAUCASUS. Cir'ce, a sorceress about whom Homer tells us in his Odyssey. Round her palace in ^Eaea were many men and women whom she had changed into the shapes of lions and wolves by her drugs and charms. Twenty-two of Ulysses' companions she changed into swine, but Ulysses himself was given an herb, which protected him. So he went boldly to her palace, was un- hurt by her drugs and persuaded her to disenchant his companions. She also taught him how to escape many dangers on his homeward voyage. Another story about Circe is that she poured the juice of poi- sonous herbs into that part of the sea where Scylla, of whom she was jealous, was accustomed to bathe, and so changed her into a horrid monster. Circulation of Blood, the course of the blood in its round from the heart back CIRCUS 401 CITIZENSHIP again. A simple case of circulation is illustrated in the crayfish, where the heart consists of a single chamber with muscular walls. When it contracts, the blood is sent, in arteries, forward, backward and downward; on its return path it passes through the gills. In the clam there is a two-chambered heart. In fishes there are two chambers; in frogs and toads three; in the highest reptiles and all birds and mammals four chambers in the heart. The ancients believed that the arteries contained air, and only the veins blood. Galen (131-200), in the 2d century, demon- strated that both arteries and veins con- tain blood, but a direct connection between the two was not thought of. In the i6th century such a connection was believed in by Vesalius and others. In 1628 William Harvey published a book in which he maintained that the quantity of blood leaving the heart and the rate at which it leaves made a return to the heart neces- sary. This marks an epoch in physiology. He did not, however, see the minute vessels connecting arteries and veins. It remained for Malpighi, in 1661, and Leeuwenhoek, in 1669, to demonstrate, with the micro- scope, the existence of minute tubes con- necting arteries and veins, and thus to show that the circulation takes place in a series of closed tubes. For further facts regarding circulation see HEART. Cir'cus, in Roman usage, was a large, oblong building, used for chariot and horse- races, athletic exercises and wild-beast fights. According to tradition, circuses originated with Romulus, and subsequently these games became popular, and several buildings were put up for their use, the largest being called the Circus Maximus. This was enlarged several times, and is reported to have held from 150.000 to 385,000 persons. In the time of Julius Caesar it was 1,875 ^ ee ^ m length and 625 feet wide. It was oblong in form, rounded at one end and square at the other, with tiers of stone seats on the sides and curved end, while at the square end were stalls for the horses and chariots. The Romans were very fond of the chariot-race. Usually, four chariots raced seven times round the circuit. Boxing, wrestling and even battles were engaged in. Canals were also dug and sea-fights shown. Animals were brought from as far as Asia and Africa. Free shows were given by politicians to curry favor with the people. Pompey gave a five days' circus, during which 500 lions and 20 elephants were killed. Often the Romans would demand bread and circus-games from candidates for office. Citizenship. The term citizen implies membership in a political community, and involves on the one side his allegiance to and support of that community, and on the other the protection of the citizen by the community. It does not imply the right to vote or to hold office. These privileges may be and often are withheld from citizens, while granted to those who are not citizens. This modern use of the term citizen must be contrasted with the original use, which prevailed among the Greeks, and which is thus defined by Aristotle: A citizen is one who has the right to take part in both the deliberative and judicial proceedings of the community of which he is a member. Our idea of citizen is related to that of subject, as that term was used in England when this country separated itself from England; for a subject meant one who owes allegiance to the king and demands protection from him. The country with us takes the place of the king, that is the difference. By the original constitution of the United States it was left uncertain whether citi- zenship related in the first place to the state and only secondarily to the nation, or vice versa. The fourteenth amendment, passed by Congress in 1866, approved by the requisite number of states and pro- claimed law in 1868, decrees that all per- sons born or naturalized in the United States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the state wherein they reside. This made national citizenship fundamental, and de- clared that state citizenship follows from it. Those living in territories and the District of Columbia are not citizens of any state, though they may be citizens of the United States. Citizenship does not rest on descent, fundamentally, but on the fact of birth on the soil of the United States. A person born of alien parents on the soil of the United States, unless he reserves allegiance to the country of his parents, is a citizen. Exceptions are Indians not taxed and persons born in the Philippine Islands until they shall be declared a territory (Supreme Court decision, May 1901) Citi- zenship is extended to those born abroad of a father who is a citizen, and to an alien woman married to a citizen (Acts of Con- gress, April, 1802, and Feb., 1855). The third extension of citizenship is to natu- ralized persons. To be naturalized the alien must have declared his intention to be- come a bona fide citizen at least two years before admission, must have resided in this country five years, and must swear that he does not believe in polygamy or disbelieve in organized government. He must speak English. An alien landing before he is 18 may be naturalized at 23 without a previous declaration of inten- tion. The fourth extension is to one whose father is an alien, and who himself was born abroad, but who is under 21 and resides in this country when his father is naturalized. CITRON 402 CIVIL SERVICE Citizenship does not give the right of suffrage, and suffrage may be conferred without citizenship. Female citizens in most and illiterate or propertyless citizens are in some states deprived of a vote; while on the other hand many states extend the right to vote to those who have not yet become citizens, but have declared their intention to do so. The fourteenth and fifteenth amendments do not require that citizens be permitted to vote. The fourteenth amendment declares that what privileges and immunities citizens possess by the laws of the state and the nation shall not be abridged. But voting is not such a. privilege. The fifteenth amendment sim- ply declares that, whatever limitation the state may impose in the matter of voting, it shall not be based on "race, color or previous condition of servitude." In ancient states the right to trade and to the protection of the laws rested upon citizenship. But this rule does not pre- vail in modern civilized states. Citizen- ship also means membership in a city, and then largely refers to the rights that follow from the fact of being taxed. The member of any republic, as that of France, is called a citizen. A British subject also styles himself a British citizen, because of the democratic basis of his government. Cit'ron, the fruit of a species of Citrus (C. medico), a genus of the rue family, to which belong also the orange and lemon. The citron is a large lemon-like fruit with CITRON a thic 1 c rind, which is used in the making of preserves. Citron cultivation in the United States is chiefly developed in Florida and California. Citrullus (st-trul'tis). A genus of plants of the gourd family, which includes the watermelon (C. vulgaris ) . The three species are widely distributed in Africa, the melon belonging to tropical and southern Africa. One of the species (C. colocynthis) from the Mediterranean regior yields colocynth, a drug obtained as an extract from the fruit. Civil Service is the executive branch or department of government, composed of those who serve the state or crown in a civil capacity, as opposed to those employed in the military and naval services. In England it is one of the oldest institutions of the country, dating from the earliest monarchical times, though it is only within the past century that the English civil service has assumed its present vast pro- portions. In this country, as in all enlight- ened states, the civil service branch of gov- ernment is usually separated into three dis- tinct departments, viz. : the legislative, judicial and executive branches. In the United States the divisions of the execu- tive civil service are the departmental ser- vice, the customs service, the postal service, the government-printing service and the internal-revenue service. The number of positions in the United States executive civil service is now close ur>on 330,000, of which more than half are classi^ed competitive positions, and all employed are under civil- service rules, prescribed by act of Congress in 1883. That act authorised the president to appoint three civ 1 service commissioners to regulate and improve the service, to make regulations to govern the examina- tions and to investigate and report upon all matters touching the enforcement and effect of the rules and regulations. The purpose of the law and its governing rules is to establish, in the parts of the service within their provisions, a merit-system whereby selections for appointments shall be made upon the basis of demonstrated relative fitness without regard to political or other considerations. To carry out this purpose a plan of competitive examinations is prescribed, and, when vacancies occur, the appointee is drawn from the eligibles of the highest grade on the appropriate register; and every appointment is made at first for a probationary period of six months. It has to be added that there ars what are known as preference claimants, viz.: per- sons who have served in the military or naval service of the United States, and were discharged by reason of disabilities result- ing from wounds or sickness incurred in the line of duty. Such are released from all maximum-age limitations; are eligible for appointment at a grade of 65, while all others are obliged to obtain a grade of 70; and are certified to appointing officers be- fore all others. Examinations are also held for positions in the Philippines, Porto Rico and Hawaii CIVIL WAR 403 CLAN and for the Isthmian Canal service. The chances of appointment in the U. S. Civil Service are understood to be good for teachers, matrons, seamstresses and phy- sicians in the Indian Service, for male stenographers and typewriters, draughts- men, patent examiners, civil, mechanical and electrical engineers and for technical and scientific experts. Rules and regu- lations governing the admission of persons into the civil service in large cities and states, such as New York, are also prepared and acted upon through municipal civil service commissioners. In Great Britain the departments of the civil service are the treasury, the exchequer and audit department, the foreign office (including the diplomatic service), the India, Colonial and Home offices, together with the three revenue-departments of the postoffice, inland revenue , and customs. There are others, including the spending departments, the war-office, admiralty, board of trade, board of works, education office, privy council office, the stationery office, agriculture and fisheries, charity commission, ecclesiastical and church estates, government laboratories, observa- tories and record office, the mint, patent- office, meteorological office, national debt office, the local government board, etc. These are grouped under two grades I and II and appointments, for the most part, are made on the competitive plan. See Fish : The Civil Service^ and the Pat- ronage and Goodnow's Principles of the Administrative Law of the United States (1905)- Civil War, The. See UNITED STATES. Cladophyll (klad'o-ftl) (in plants) , shoots or branches which have replaced leaves in their work and resemble them in form. The so-called leaves of the ordinary smilax of the greenhouses are cladophylls, the true leaves occurring beneath them in the form of small scales. The same word is some- times written phylloclad. Claiborne (kid-born), William, an early Virginia colonist and secretary of state for the colony, was born in Westmoreland, England, about the year 1589, and died in Virginia about 1676. He came to Virginia in 1621, where he bought large estates, and ten years later established a trading-post on Kent Island, Md., in Chesapeake Bay, some seven miles from where Annapolis now stands. This island and post were subsequently claimed by Governor Leonard Calvert to belong to Maryland, and in con- sequence a long dispute ensued between Calvert and Claiborne in respect to it. During the period of the English common- wealth Claiborne took the parliamentary side against the Calverts of Maryland, and subdued Virginia in the name of the pro- tector. Cromwell, however, did not en- dorse hii actions, but restored the Calverts to power, and after the restoration of the Stuarts Claiborne fell in favor and retired to a neglected life upon his colonial estates. There was another of his name, WM. CHARLES COLE CLAIBORNE (1775-1817), who was governor of the territory of Missis- sippi from 1804 to 1812 and governor of Louisiana (1812-16). Clam, the name applied to the fresh- water mussel and similar animals living in salt water. They have bivalve shells, held closed by muscles and open by a springy ligament on the back of the shell; there- fore, the shell of a dead clam always stands open. They creep through the mud and sand of the bottom by means of a fleshy foot. A current of water is drawn through a tube and is strained through the plate-like gills; it then passes into a chamber in the body and out by another tube. The food consists of minute animals and organic matter in the water. This is separated by straining the water through the gills, and is carried to the mouth by the movement of small hair-like projections or cilia. The shell is secreted by glands in the mouth, which covers the body, and is enlarged by rings as the animal grows. Clan (meaning children), a name given to men banded together because of having a common ancestor or because of any other tie; but the word almost always means the divisions of the Scottish Highlanders. The clan was made up of men dwelling together or having a common surname. The affix Mac (meaning son) was a common one among Scottish Gaels : the Macdonalds were the sons of Donald. The members of a clan were usually not all blood-kin; men of various births were in the habit of enlisting under chiefs as men now enlist, in a regiment, often taking the chief's name, but often not. The clan was really a military band for self-defense and for pillage. The Scottish law required all clans to have, if possible, a man of rank and property at their head, who could be held responsible for their good conduct. Clans which could find no security were called broken clans; their members were out- laws, and might be hunted down like wild beasts. The McGregors were a noted broken clan ; their name was proscribed, and clans- men who wished to live peaceably in the lowlands, changed it slightly, calling them- selves Gregor, Gregory, Grierson, etc. In general the great landowners were also mighty chiefs; men from broken clans were often received by the chief into the clan by bonds of man-rent, under which they engaged to follow their captain in all his feuds and quarrels, this being a form of the feudal system. But often the landlord was not the chief, and against his will the people of a clan usually followed their chieftain. The clan's name was kept up, as a reminder of past times, long after the CLARENDON 404 CLARK tribal system had died out. The Scottish rebellions of 1715 and 1745 induced the British government to suppress or break up the connection that existed between the clansmen and their tribal or family chiefs. Clar'endon, Edward Hyde, Earl of, historian and statesman, was born Feb. 1 8, 1608, at Dinton, England. When young, he had such gay companions as Ben Jonson and his lifelong friend, Falkland, and, as he himself said: "He never thought himself so good a man as when he was the worst in the company." As a member of the short and long parliaments he sided against the king, Charles I, but in 1641 drew back and thenceforth supported Charles, composing his answer to the Grand Remonstrance and advising him in the troublous times which followed. Under Charles II he was high chancellor. His efforts were directed to the restoring of the kingdom to the condition of things which existed 20 years earlier. He looked with equal sourness on Charles' vices and religious toleration, displeased Cavalier and Puritan alike, and was blamed for the sale of the fortress of Dunkirk to France and even with the Great Fire and the Great Plague. Impeached for high treason, in 1667, he spent the remainder of his life in exile. His History of the Rebellion in England is an apology for the course of himself and Charles I, rather than a fair and impartial history. He died in France in 1674. Clarendon, George William Frederick Villiers, Earl of, an English diplomatist, was born in London, Jan. 12, 1800. He was a man of genius and charming man- ners, of rare tact and perfect temper, qualities which insured his success in the diplomatic service, in which he became dis- tinguished. As ambassador to Spain, in 1833, he used the large influence which he soon gained in helping Espartero to establish the government of Spain on a constitutional basis. In 1847 he became lord -lieutenant of Ireland, where he had a rebellion and a famine to contend with. In 1853 he was placed at the head of the foreign office, and upon him fell the responsibility of the Crimean War and at its close the negotia- tions in regard to the balance of power in Europe. He died on June 27, 1870. Clarinet (kldr-V -net) or Clarionet, a wind-instrument, usually of wood, in which the sound is made by a single thin reed. It was probably invented by Joseph Denner, of Nuremberg, in 1690; but it has since then been much changed and improved, so that it now is one of the best of wind- instruments. The tube is round, and en- larged at the end in the form of a bell. It has holes to be covered by the fingers and left thumb, and keys, usually 13, to give the extra tones. The mouthpiece is flattened on one side, along which the reed is laid, leaving a slight opening so that when blown the reed vibrates against the mouthpiece and thus causes the sound. The clarinet has a much greater compass than the flute. It is used in orchestras and is the leading instrument in military bands. Clark, Alvan, American optician, en- graver and manufacturer of telescopes, at Cambridge, Mass., was born at Ashfield, Mass., March 8, 1808, and died at Cam- bridge, Mass., Aug. 19, 1887. Early in life he was a portrait-painter; but in 1845 he turned his attention to the making of achromatic lenses and manufacture of tele- scopes. Associated wtih his sons, he con- structed object-glasses for universities, for the Naval observatory at Washington and for the Lick observatory in California. He also had orders for his firm from Russia, from the Imperial observatory at Pulkowa. After his death, in 1887, his two sons pur- sued their father's vocation, manufactur- ing optical instruments, making improve- ments in telescopes, designing models, etc. One instrument, a 40-inch telescope, they constructed at a cost of half a million dollars for the Yerkes observatory at Lake Geneva, Wisconsin. One of the sons, Alvan Graham Clark (1832-97), was also an astronomer of note. Clark, Francis E., the founder and president of the United Society of Christian Endeavor, was born in 1851 at Aylmer, Canada. He studied at Dartmouth College and at Andover, Mass., and was pastor in Maine and South Boston. He is the author of many books, and editor of the Christian World. The United Society of Christian Endeavor grew out of a small Young Peo- ple's Society of Christian Endeavor which he founded at Williston Church, Portland, Maine, February 2, 1881. Clark, George Rogers. This great pioneer and soldier was born at Monticello, Va., in 1752. Previous to the Revolutionary War he had gained experience as a land- surveyor and also as an Indian-fighter. At the opening of the war he moved to Kentucky, and was returned as a member of the first legislature of Virginia, Kentucky being then part of that state. In 1778 he organized and commanded the campaign to conquer what was known as the Illinois country, the woods and prairies arcvind the great Illinois River. He drove the French as well as English settlers from the country or compelled them to submit to the authority of the Continental Congress. He captured and, later, recaptured the fort of Kaskaskia, taking man}'- British troops prisoners. At the end of the war he still was in possession of this vast terri- tory. And this fact was probably the chief argument that led the English and French to extend the domain of the newly-formed nation up to and beyond the Mississippi. But for Clark it is not unlikely that the CLARK 405 CLAUDIUS Northwest Territory would have been handed over to England or Spain in the treaty of 1783. The legislature of Virginia created Clark a brigadier-general, and gave him 8,049 acres of land in what is now the state of Indiana, not far from Louis- ville. Twice he was presented with a sword. But after the war his energy led him astray. He led an unsuccessful campaign against the Wabash Indians, and tried to organize an expedition to open the Mississippi River to navigation against the authority of the Spanish, with whom we were at peace. He spent the last years of his life in pov- erty on the land that Virginia had granted him. He died in 1818. Clark Street, Chicago, is named in his honor. Clark, Sir William Mortimer, was born and educated in Ab- erdeen, Scotland, and studied law at Edin- burgh University, be- coming a writer to the Signet. He re- moved to Canada at the age of 23. Ap- pointed lieutenant- governor of the prov- ince of Ontario, he now holds this posi- SIR MORTIMER CLARK tion. Clark, William Robinson, M.A., D.D., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., of Canada, has been professor of philosophy in Trinity College, Toronto, since 1882. He was born in Inverurie, Scotland, March 26, 1829, the son of a clergyman. He was educated at King's College, Aberdeen, and Hertford College, Oxford, and was admitted to the priesthood of the church of England in 1858, becoming prebendary of Wells in 1870. He was Baldwin lecturer in the University of Michigan in 1887 and Slocum lecturer in 1899 In addition to several important works of a religious nature, including the lectures mentioned, he has edited and translated Hagenbach's History of Christian Doctrine and Haefele's History oj the Coun- cils. Clark University was founded by Jonas C. Clark in 1887, in the city of Worcester, Mass., for the purpose of promoting re- search by post-graduate students in scien- tific rather than in philosophical or literary subjects. An undergraduate department, was added (1902), of which the late Carroll D. Wright, the well-known statistician, was made president. In the university proper, courses are now offered in mathe- matics, physics, chemistry, biology, an- thropology, psychology, education, eco- nomics and sociology, history and modern languages. The president is G. Stanley Hall, the psychologist, father of child-study in America, and it is in the department of psychology and education that the uni- versity has secured the most notable re- sults. The university is unique in offering a "degree of decent," certifying to fitness, both in scholarship and teaching ability, for an academic chair or college professor- ship. There are 31 fellowships, worth from $200 to $600 a year. There are exceptional facilities to get in touch with the latest literature upon the subjects above mentioned. The library contains about 40,000 volumes, and receives over 200 journals, mostly technical in character. Clarke, James Freeman, an American clergyman, was born at Hanover, N. H., April 4, 1 8 10. He graduated at Harvard College and Cambridge Divinity School, becoming pastor of a Unitarian church at Louisville, Ky., and afterward of the Church of the Disciples in Boston. Dr. Clarke became widely known as a religious writer. His best known books are Ten Great Religions and Orthodoxy, Its Truths and Errors. He died June 8, 1888. Clark, Capt. Wm. See LEWIS AND CLARK EXPLORATION. Clarks'ville, Tenn., a city and county- seat of Montgomery County, is located on the Cumberland River, about 40 miles from Nashville. The surrounding country is a tobacco-growing region, and the city has tobacco and snuff-factories and lumber and flour-mills. The Southwestern Presbyterian University is located at Clarksville, and the city is served by the Louisville and Nashville and Tennessee Central Railroads. Popula- tion, 8,548. Claude Lorrain (klod-lor-rdn') (real name Claude Gele), landscape painter, was born at Champagne in 1600. When a boy, he was carried to Rome by a relative who deserted him. But he soon obtained a place as servant to a painter, learning to paint as he ground his master's colors. After wandering about Europe, he painted for ten years at Rome before his pictures were sought after; but four landscapes Eainted by him for the pope gave him the ime he had been working for. He painted about 400 landscapes. Among the best are the series, Mormng, Noon, Evening and Twilight. Claude himself liked best his Villa Madama, keeping it in his study and refusing to sell it, even when the pope offered for it as much gold as would cover the canvas. He also produced etchings, of which Le Bouvier is the finest. Claude's pictures brought such high prices, even during his lifetime, that many copies and imitations have been sold as his. He died at Rome in November, 1682. Claudius, Roman emperor, a nephew of Emperor Tiberius, was born at Lyons, in Gaul, in the year 10 B. C. A sickly boy, he was neglected and left pretty much to himself, growing up a timid student. When Caligula was murdered, he hid himself in a corner of the palace, fearing that he CLAUSIUS 406 CLAY would be the next victim. A common soldier, finding him, saluted him as Emperor; others entered and bore him to the camp, where he was crowned, 41 A. D. In his reign the southern part of Britain was conquered and Mauritania made a Roman province. At home his rule was mild in the main, but he was influenced by his wives he married four times to commit some cruel acts. Two of his wives, Messa- lina and Agrippina, were among the worst Roman women of whom we know; and it was Agrippina who poisoned him in 54 A. D. to secure the throne for her son, Nero. Claudius built the famous Claud ian aqueduct, and spent large sums in other improvements at Rome. Clausius (klou'ze-us), Rudolf Julius E., a distinguished German physicist, born at Koslin, in Pomerania, Jan. 2, 1822; died at Bonn, Aug. 24, 1888. He was educated at Berlin University, where he later became privat-docent and still later an instructor in the school of artillery. In 1855 he went to Zurich as professor of physics in the Polytechnic school; two years later he accepted the chair of physics in the Univer- sity of Zurich. From 1869 until his death he was professor of physics in the Univer- sity of Bonn. His best work was done at Berlin, for it was here, between 1845 an d I 8so, that he placed the science of thermodynamics upon a sound basis, building the entire structure upon the then recently discovered prin- ciple of the conservation of energy. In addition to this, his most important con- tributions are perhaps to the kinetic theory of gases and to the subject of radiant heat. Clay is a term rather loosely applied to all sorts of earthy matter, which, when wet, becomes sticky or plastic. In this respect, clay is in contrast with sand. The sticki- ness depends in part on the size of the individual particles. The smaller they are, the more tenacious the clay. Clay origi- nates from the decomposition of certain sorts of rock, especially those containing feldspar. In the popular use of the term no account is taken of the composition of clay, but silicate of alumina is a common constituent. Common clays also contain free silica, iron oxide, etc. When beds of clay are solidified by natural means, they constitute the rock known as shale. Flag- stones are a variety of shale, and slate is a variety of rock formed from shale by great compression. Clay is widely used in the manufacture of brick, tile, pottery, etc. and in modeling. For the finer wares, such as china and porcelain, especially fine grades of clay (kaolin) are required. The value of the products manufactured from clay in the United States in 1898 exceeded $71,000,000. The leading states in the utilization of clay, in the order of their importance, are Ohio. Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Illinois and New York. The value of the clay-products of these five states in 1898 was considerably more than half the total value of clay-products in the United States. Clay, Cassius Marcellus, American statesman, abolitionist and United States minister to Russia, was born in Madison County, Ky., Oct. 19, 1810, and graduated from Yale in 1832. For a time he practiced law in Lexington, Ky., became a member of the state legislature and was an active antislavery man and the editor of The True American, which brought him into collision for a time with the proslavery men of his state. He served in the Mexican War of 184647 and was taken prisoner. He afterward took part in the elections of Presidents Taylor and Lincoln, and in 1 86 1 was appointed United States min- ister to Russia, in which capacity he served from 1863 to 1869. He died Nov. 28, 1913- See the Memoir's, Writings and Speeches of Cassius M. Clay. Clay, Henry, a noted American states- man and orator, was born in Hanover County, Virginia, April 12, 1777. His father died when he was five years old, but his mother, a woman of great goodness and force of character, well supplied his place in the boy's training. Af- ter a meager amount of schooling, Henry en- HENRY CLAY tefed & Richmond law-office. Commenc- ing to practice at Lexington, Kentucky, he soon became known as an able lawyer, his high personal gifts, winning address and frank, hearty manner helping him here, as they did all through life. From the first he took an interest in public affairs, and after two years in the state legislature, was chosen United States senator to fill a vacancy. He at once became an advocate of the government's building roads, canals, etc., being known as a loose constructionist of the constitution, as it is called. His short term over, he went back to the Ken- tucky legislature. This was in the days of duels, and it is not strange that Clay should have fought two, one at this time in Kentucky and, later, one with John Randolph of Virginia, both growing out of politics. In 1809 he was chosen to fill a second vacancy in the senate. In this session he spoke in favor of protection to American manufactures against foreign traders. He also opposed the United States Bank, but later he changed his views in the matter, the only instance in which he ever changed his attitude on a political question. In 1 8 1 1 he was elected a repre- sentative in Congress, and the day on which CLAYTON-BULWER TREATY 407 CLEMATIS he took his seat was chosen speaker. He was heartily in favor of war with England, and named his committees with a view to an early declaration of war. The war party was in a majority in the i3th Congress, which met in May, 1813, and again Clay was made speaker. When overtures of peace were made by the British, Clay was appointed one of the commissioners, and helped to draft the treaty of Ghent. Re- elected to Congress while in Europe on this mission, he was chosen speaker for the third time, and, except one term, when he de- clined an election, he was a representative and speaker until 1825. At this session he made some of his finest speeches, in favor of the South American patriots who were struggling for independence from Spain ; later on he was just as eager in behalf of Greece, when fighting to free herself from the yoke of Turkey. In 1821 he brought forward the famous Missouri Compromise; 20 years afterward, when South Carolina wished to secede on the tariff question, he proposed a gradual lowering of the tariff, such as would work the least harm to manufactures; and in 1850 he attempted, by compromise, to settle the slavery ques- tion, which his Missouri Compromise had failed to dispose of, and in other ways he stood between the warring factions of north and south, to bring about concessions that would, in a measure, satisfy both sides, thus winning the title of the Great Pacificator. In 1824 Mr. Clay was one of the four candidates for president, and received 37 electoral votes. In 1832 he ran for presi- dent again; but was beaten by Jackson. He was nominated again by the Whigs in 1844, but beaten by Polk, who received 65 more electoral votes. Clay served as secretary of state in John Quincy Adams' cabinet, and, besides filling the two vacancies in the senate referred to, was chosen senator from Kentucky for three full terms. One of those who opposed him politically is on record as saying that as a congressional leader Mr. Clay had no equal in America. He was the most persuasive speaker in the country during what was called the golden age of American oratory. He was, further, most popular with his party, while few men had a larger following of personal friends. He died at Washington, D. C., on June 29, 1852. Clayton=Bulwer Treaty, a treaty con- cluded in 1850 between the United States and Great Britain, by which the contracting parties agreed that neither power should obtain or exercise exclusive control over a ship-canal then contemplated to be con- structed across Central America and con- necting the Atlantic with the Pacific. The negotiators were, on the part of Britain, Sir Henry Bulwer Lytton (afterward Lord Dalling), brother of the novelist; and, on the part of the United States, J. Middleton Clayton, secretary of state under President Taylor. The treaty, about 1880 and 1900, once more came under public discussion, in consequence of efforts being made to proceed actively in the construction of the Nicaragua Inter-Oceanic Canal, which many of our senators and public men desired to place, untrammeled, under the control of the United States. A new agreement was reached in 1901 through the adoption of the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty. This treaty omitted the restrictions against fortifica- tion, and this has been interpreted by the United States as giving her the right to fortify. Without such a right, the defenders of this interpretation point out, her coasts would be far more open to attack with the canal than without it. Her objections to defending the canal by agreement among the Powers are that such treaties are often observed only so long as it is to the interest of the parties to observe them; furthermore, that under such an arrangement the canal would be as open to the fleet of an enemy as to her own. Under her treaty with Panama the United States binds herself to maintain the neutrality of the canal, the independence of the republic of Panama and that the canal shall be open to all nations on uniform terms. Clearing=House. See BANKS Cleary, The Most Reverend James Vincent, Archbishop of Kingston, was born at Waterford, Ireland, 1828, and studied theology at Rome, Maynooth (Ire- land) and Salamanca, Spain. In 1854 he was appointed professor of theology in St. John's College, Waterford, becoming president in 1873. He was appointed bishop of Kingston (Ontario) in 1880 and arch- bishop in 1889. He reopened Regiopolis College (theological) at Kingston in 1896, giving a large private contribution for the purpose. Cleburne, Texas, the county-seat of Johnson County, is located in a good agri- cultural region. Its leading industries are cotton-gins, flour-mills and machine-shops. The division-offices and shops of the Gulf, C. & S. F. R. R. are located here. Cle- burne has good schools, and is a growing, progressive city. Population, 16,505. Cleistogamous (klis-tog'd-mtis) Flower? In many flowering plants, in addition to thw ordinary conspicuous flowers, there are other flowers which are very small and inconspicuous, and even concealed. The common violet is a prominent illustration of such a plant. Cleistogamous flowers are now known in very many genera Such flowers never open, are self-pollinated, and are very productive of good seed. Clem'atis. A genus of plants of the crow-foot family, consisting of climbing vines or erect herbs, all more or less woody. About 150 species are recognized- which CLEMENCEAU 408 CLEOPATRA are widely distributed, about 20 of them being native to North America. Many of the climbing species are cultivated to cover walls, arbors, etc. The flowers are often very showy and of numerous shades. Cle'menceau (kid! man' so'}, George B. E., a French statesman and senator and premier of France and minister of the interior, under the presidency of Armand Fallieres. A clever debater and born orator, as well as an able journalist in his day, M. Cle"- menceau is one of the most picturesque figures in modern politics. A native of Brittany (he was born in 1841 in the depart- ment of La Vendee), he early studied and for a time practised medicine in Mont- martre, and then travelled abroad, paying a brief visit the while to the United States. In 1869 he returned to France, and two years later was elected to the National Assembly, later on becoming a member of the Chamber of Deputies and leader of the Extreme Left. Though holding radical views, he has usually acted with modera- tion and good sense, though he was com- ?elled successively to oppose Gambetta, ules Ferry and the Boulangists. For a number of years he devoted himself to journalism, editing for a time not only his radical journal, La Justice, but con- tributing many notable articles to L'Aurore, among them several defending Dreyfus, besides writing fiction and social studies and taking active part in politics and the questions of the day. Chief among the controversies of the time is the part played by M. Cle'menceau in defining the relation of Radicals to Socialists, in reply to M. Jaures, the Socialist leader. Among his published works are Les Massacres d' Armenie (1896), Les Phis Forts (1898) and La Mele Sociale (1895). Clemens (klem'enz), Samuel Langhorne (MARK TWAIN), was born at Florida, Mo., Nov. 30, 1835. He was first a printer, and afterward a pilot on the Mississippi River. One of the commonest sounds heard on a Mis- sissippi steamboat in shallow water is the call of the man sounding the depth of the water "Mark Twain," meaning mark two fathoms ; and when wanted donym, . L. C.BMEHS jhj., some time in the silver mines of Nevada, ne became a journalist in San Francisco. He became widely known as a humorist through his first book, Innocents Abroad Clemens a pseu- he took which he brought out in 1869. Tom Saw- yer, perhaps his most popular work, was published in 1876. Other of his works are A Tramp Abroad (1880); The Prince and the Pauper (1882); Life on the Mississippi (1883); Huckelberry Finn (1885); Pudd'n- head Wilson (1895); Tom Sawyer Abroad (1894); Personal Recollections of Joan of Arc (1896); Following the Equator (1897); The Man that Corrupted Hadleyburg (1900); Christian Science (1903); How to Tell a Story (1904) ; and Editorial Wild Oats (1905). Through the failure, in 1894, of the pub- lishing house of Charles L. Webster & Co., of which he was the founder, Mr. Clemens was left deeply in debt. To retrieve his fortune he entered upon a lecturing tour, which extended around the world and furnished material for Following the Equator. On the completion of this tour he resided for a time in Vienna. He returned to America in 1900, and actively resumed literary work. In 1907 he visited England, where he was most heartily re- ceived, and was honored with the degree of D.C.L. from the University of Oxford. Mark Twain's humor is simple and direct, never strained, and has been described as "a sort of good-natured satire in which the reader may see his own absurdities reflected." He died Aoril 21, IQTO. Clement (klem'enf) , the name of 1 7 popes. Clement XIV was born in 1705, near Rimini, Italy. He studied and taught phi- losophy and theology, was a friend of Benedict XIV, became cardinal under Clem- ent XIII, and was elevated to the papal chair on May 19, 1769. In 1773 he issued his famous brief, suppressing the Society of the Jesuits. He was remarkable for his high character and learning as well as for his liberal ideas. He died on Sept. 22, 1774. Clement! (kid-men' te) , Muzio (1752- 1832^, an Italian composer and pianist. The work by which he is best known is his Gradus ad Parnassum, a series of 100 piano-studies. Though his contemporary, Mozart, spoke of him with a sneer, he was highly esteemed by Beethoven for the virile and artistic traits developed in his sonatas. Cleopatra (kle'd-pa'tra), daughter of the Egyptian king Ptolemy Auletes, was born in 69 B. C. Her father wished her to reign jointly with her brother, who was also, according to the Egyptian custom, to be her husband; but the boy's guardian drove her from the throne. She was just about to return from Syria, backed by an army, when Caesar reached Egypt in pursuit of Pompey. Her charms won the great soldier to her cause, who placed her again on her throne, this time with a still younger brother as colleague and husband, of whom she quickly rid herself by poison. Soon after she followed her conquering lover to Rome CLEOPATRA'S NEEDLE 409 CLEVELAND where she was covered with honors. After the battle of Philippi, Mark Antony sum- moned her to appear before him at Tarsus. The Egyptian queen sailed up the River Cydnus to meet him, in a sumptuous gal- ley, arrayed as Venus rising from the sea. Then under 30 years of age, in the per- fection of her Grecian beauty, she fascinated the heart of Antony, who henceforth be- came her lover and slave. Leaving her to marry Octavia, sister of Octavianus (after- ward Emperor Augustus), he hurried back to the arms of Cleopatra, who met him in Syria and proceeded with him on the march to the Euphrates. After this, An- tony's time was spent mostly with her at Alexandria, where he loaded her with gifts and honors. It was Cleopatra's counsel that Antony followed in risking the naval battle of Actium; and when she fled with her 60 ships, he forgot everything else, and "flung away half the world to follow her." When Augustus appeared before Alexandria, the fickle queen at once treated with him for her safety; while Antony, on being told that she had killed herself, fell en his sword. But finding the report was false, he had himself carried into her pres- ence and died in her arms. Cleopatra, now Augustus' prisoner, finding that she could not win him, as she had won Caesar and Antony, from disappointed pride took poison or killed herself by suffering an asp to bite her bosom (30 B. C.). Two women only, Helen of Troy and Mary Stuart, vie with Cleopatra in the fascination which her story exerts over men's minds. Cleopatra's Needle. See OBELISK. Cleveland, Stephen Grover, was born at Caldwell, New Jersey, March 18, 1837. He began to prac- tice law at Buffalo in 1859. He was assistant district- attorney for three years, and in 1870 was chosen sheriff and, later, mayor of Buffalo. In 1882 he was elec- ted governor of New York by 190,000 majority. After an exciting canvass he was elected president of the United States in 1884, receiving 219 electoral votes. The most important act of his administration was his message to con- gress in 1887 i n which he announced a tariff policy on which the election of 1888 turned, when Mr. Cleveland was defeated by General Harrison, receiving 168 elec- toral votes to Harrison's 233. During his term as president he married Miss Frances Folsom of Buffalo, who brought social success and popularity to his administration. GROVER CLEVELAND In 1892 he was nominated a third time for the presidency, and was elected, defeating General Harrison. His second adminis- tration added to his fame as a wise and able executive. Retiring to private life at Princeton, N. J., he there interested him- self in delivering addresses at Princeton University, a collection of which he pub- lished in 1904. His death occurred June 24, 1908 at his New Jersey home. Cleveland, O., county-seat of Cuyahoga County, takes high rank among the cities of the United States in the rapid growth of its commercial interests, in the administration of its schools and other public affairs and its development of ideals of civic beauty and usefulness. Standing on a plateau, which in places rises 200 feet above Lake Erie, with its great public square, wide thoroughfares lined with magnificent buildings, its residence districts with handsome homes in spacious grounds fronting on streets of majestic elms, wide spreading maples and other shade trees, it is one of the most attractive of our great centers of population. The arrangement and con- struction of its public buildings under what is known as the Group Plan at a cost of $25,000,000 was begun in 1902. The city is divided by the Cuyahoga river which is spanned by five great viaducts. In the public square is the Soldiers' and Sailors' Monu- ment and statues of Moses Cleaveland who laid out the city, and of Tom L. Johnson, former Mayor of the city, known as the "father" of three cent street car fare. The majestic Garfield Monument occupies a con- spicuous site in Lakeview Cemetery, which lies on a ridge 250 feet above the lake. Its numerous office buildings include the Rocke- feller, New Guardian, Garfield, Rose, Citi- zens, Williamson, Leader-News, and Union National Bank. One of the twelve Federal Reserve banks is located in Cleveland. It also has several arcades running through an entire block, which are used for mercantile and office purposes. Among the other beautiful structures are many churches of every denomination. Be- sides its fine public, it has many parochial schools and other educational institutions, including Western Reserve University, the College for Women, St. Ignatius College, St. Mary's Theological Seminary and Case School of Applied Science. It is one of the best governed cities in the country in its methods of caring for the poor, its reforma- tory institutions, such as the Warrens ville Farms, its self-governed Boyville Home, its play grounds, parks, public baths and schools. Of social, fraternal and business clubs, Cleveland has more than one hundred. Many of these are country clubs devoted to golf, tennis, hunting and other sports. Its down- town athletic club ranks with^the finest in the country. CLIFF-DWELLERS Its public piers, covering five acres, were built at a cost of $500,000. Its industrial plants line the numerous railroads entering the city and are scattered up and down the valley of the Cuyahoga River. The natural meeting point of Lake Superior iron ore, and coal from Ohio, West Virginia and Penn- sylvania, Cleveland is the largest ore market in the world. It takes its place as one of the largest manufacturing cities in the United States and is noted for its iron and steel plants, its shipyards, automobile plants, and numerous other industries, including steel rails, car wheels, engines, boilers, cranes, printing presses, sewing machines, oil and gas stoves, and electrical apparatus and ma- chinery. Optical instruments and other specialties requiring scientific skill are made in Cleveland in great variety. It is also a great center for the manufacture of wearing apparel, paints and chemicals. It is the site of one of the largest oil refineries in the country; is a large market for fresh water fish; handles large quantities of lumber and grain, and, what may be of particular in- terest to boys and girls, makes a large pro- portion of our chewing gum. Population, 701,803. Cleveland was laid out in 1796 by Moses Cleaveland, and incorporated in 1836. The village bore his name and its spelling. This, however, from time to time changed, but the present spelling became permanent, it is said, in 1831, because the "a" made the word a misfit in the head-line of a news- paper. Cliff-Dwellers. See PUEBLOS. Clingman, Thomas Lanier, United States senator and Confederate officer, was born in North Carolina in 1812, and died at Raleigh, N. C., Nov. 4, 1897. After grad- uating, he studied law, and was a member of Congress from 1843 to 1858, taking a prominent part in the debates of the house. Originally a Whig, he deserted his old associates and became a Democrat, and in 1858 was elected to the senate. In 1861, when the Civil War broke out, he withdrew from the senate and entered the Confed- erate army, where be became brigadier- general, surrendering in April, 1865. with General J. E. Johnston. After the war General Clingman for many years devoted himself to mining and to scientific pursuits. Clinostat, an apparatus for rotating plants in various planes to counteract the effect of a one-sided stimulus, such as light or gravity (see IRRITABILITY). It consists of a strong clock-work, with suit- able regulating mechanism and devices for holding the pots in which the plants are grown. Clinton, Iowa, a rapidly growing city, capital of Clinton County, Iowa, is situated on the Mississippi River between Daven- port and Dubuque, and 140 miles by rail west of Chicago. It has communications With all points by a number of railroads, CLINTON by steamboat-navigation on the river and two fine bridges across the Mississippi connects it with Illinois and the east. It possesses many thriving industries, embrac- ing foundries, machine and car-shops, paper- mills, sash, door and blind-factories, furni- ture-factories, wagon-factory, wire-cloth factory and glucose-factory. Population, 25.577- Clinton, Mass., a town of Worcester County, 12 miles from Worcester, on the Nashua River. It has several churches, a hospital and The Bigelow Free Public Library of 25,000 volumes. Located here are the Bigelow Carpet Co., the Lancaster Mills and the Clinton Wire-Cloth Co. Clin- ton has the service of the New York, New Haven and Hartford and the Boston and Maine railroad. Population 13,301. Clin'ton, De Witt, was born at Little Britain, N. Y., March 2, 1769. He was a son of Gen. James Clinton and a nephew of Gov. George Clinton. He graduated at Columbia College, and after studying law he entered politics as a Republican member of the lower house of the New York legislature in 1797, where he soon became the leader of his party in the state. He was chosen United States senator in 1802, and was at this time regarded as "the most rising man in the Union." But he left the senate to become mayor of New York city, an office of considerable power in those days, which he held for n years. On the question of war with Eng- land, hs competed for the presidency with Madison, receiving 89 votes. He was elected governor of New York four times. His greatest service to the state was in urging the construction of the Erie Canal, and pushing the measure assiduously till he saw that great enterprise completed and the canal open for traffic. Clinton was dignified in manner, of fine personal appearance, deeply in earnest in all he undertook, energetic, capable and popular. His life-work is identified with the early growth of the state. He died at Albany, N. Y., Feb. n, 1828. Clinton, George, one of the prominent men of the Revolution, was born in Ulster County, New York, July 26, 1739. He had a careful schooling at home. As lieutenant of militia, he took part in the expedition against Fort Frontenac (Kingston), Canada. He entered law, but was chosen a member of the colonial assembly, where he soon became the head of the Whig party. In 1775 he became a member of the Conti- nental Congress and voted for the Declara- tion of Independence; subsequently he was appointed brigadier-general. He was soon after chosen governor of New York, and was re-elected six times in succession. In the Revolutionary War it was due to him that communication was hindered be- tween the British in Canada and those in CLINTON CLOCK New York city. The number of Tories in the state made his position the most difficult to fill of any in the country, except that of Washington. When the time came to adopt the Constitution, Clinton opposed it, on the ground that it gave the general government too much power. In 1804 he was elected vice-president of the United States, on the ticket with Jefferson, and was re-elected in 1808. He died at Wash- ington, D. C., April 20, 1812. Clinton, Sir Henry, an English general, was born about 1738. He served in the Seven Years' War, and was sent to America as major-general in 1775 He took part in the battles of Bunker Hill and Long Island, and captured Fort Clinton on the Hudson. In 1778 he became commander-in-chief of the British land-forces. He was forced out of Philadelphia by Washington, cap- tured Charleston in May, 1780, and sailed from New York with 7,000 men to relieve Cornwallis on the day he surrendered. He was superseded by Sir Guy Carleton in 1781. Later on, he was appointed gov- ernor of Gibraltar, where he died Decem- ber 23, 1795. Clive (kliv), Robert, Lord, founder of England's Indian empire, was born near Market-Drayton, England, Sept. 29, 1725. At school Robert was a much better fighter than a scholar. At 18 he went to India as a clerk of the East India Company, where, penniless and tired of the drudgery of his life, he attempted suicide, but his pistol snapped twice, and he decided to bear his trouble a while longer. When the French took Madras in 1746, Clive escaped in the night from the city, disguised as a Moham- medan, and made his way to Fort St David. Now 21, he was commissioned as ensign in the military service of the company. India was at this period rapidly falling into the hands of the French, and the safety of the English trading-posts was gravely in peril. Clive, now 25, had gained a name for desperate courage as well as for military genius. Assuring his superiors that a move must be made at once on Arcot, he was intrusted with 200 British troops and 300 Sepoys. He seized Arcot without a blow, and with his little force, now reduced to 80 Englishmen and 120 Sepoys, he with- stood a siege of 7,000 natives and 120 French soldiers for n weeks. Then, after a last assault, the siege was raised, and Clive, marching out, won two battles and captured two important forts. After two years spent in England, where he refused a diamond -hilted sword from the company until another was given to his superior officer, he came back to India in J 75S with the rank of lieutenant-colonel. A year later, with Admiral Watson, he sailed for Calcutta, to avenge the Black Hole massacre. Calcutta and other places were speedily taken from the barbarous nawab of Bengal, Surajah Dowlah, and at Plassey, June 23, 1757, Clive's 3,200 men, two thirds of whom were Sepoys, fought 50,000 natives, supported by 40 French guns. After eight hours' fighting, Clive won the decisive battle which fastened English rule upon Bengal. Mir Jaffir, one of the nawab's generals, had agreed before the battle to keep his forces inactive, for which he was to be made nawab. An unscrupulous go-between threatened to betray this agreement, and demanded from the British a large sum of money. Clive, however, overreached him by a false treaty, to which he forged Admiral Watson's name. When Plassey had been won, Mir Jaffir was at once declared nawab, and, leading Clive into the great treasury of Bengal, told him to help himself, which he did, taking over $1,000,000. These are the only two blots on his character. For three years Clive was ruler in all but name in Bengal, and was always called by the natives Sabat Jung, the daring warrior. In 1760 he returned to England, where he was welcomed by the great Pitt, as "a heaven-born general," was chosen member of Parliament, and made baron of Plassey. But by 1765 the affairs of the East India Company were in a bad way, owing to the rank dishonesty of its servants, and only Clive could set them right. As governor and commander-in-chief of Bengal, he set out a third time for India. At once he attacked the widespread abuses with vigor. At one time 200 officers of the army resigned, thinking to force him to submit by the sight of an army without leaders ; but the Sepoys stood firm, and by issuing commissions for new officers, even to clerks, and by ordering every resigned officer to be brought to Calcutta he quelled all insubordination. But the energy with which he had cleaned that Augean stable had raised up a host of powerful enemies, who, after he had left India for good, stirred up Parliament to look into his early proceedings in Bengal. Attacked in regard to the fortune he had amassed, he described the glittering heaps on which he had gazed in the treasury of Bengal, and exclaimed: "Mr. Chairman, at this moment I stand astonished at my own moderation!" This storm of enmity broke his health and unhinged his mind, and opium did the rest. He died at Lon- don by his own hand, Nov. 22, 1774. Clock. An ordinary clock is a machine for driving a wheel at the uniform rate of two revolutions a day. The energy for driving the machinery is stored up either in a raised weight or in a coiled spring. The uniformity of the motion is secured by use of a pendulum and an escapement. The clock in this form was invented by the great Dutch physicist Huygens in 1657. Galileo had already shown that the pendu- lum, when left to itself, performs its vibra- tions in equal times. Huygens showed how CLOSE POLLINATION 412 CLOUDS ANCHOR ESCAPEMENT the pendulum might be kept going and the advantage of its uniform vibrations thus be obtained. This he accomplished by the intro- duction of the escape- ment, a mechan- ism which is unlocked by the pen- dulum at each beat and thus allows the train of wheels to advance. But in ad- dition t o this the es- capement also gives the pendu- lum a lit- tle push, which just makes up for the loss of energy which the pendulum sustains in swinging through the air and in unlocking the train. The action of the escapement will be evident from the accompanying figure, in which the arrow indicates the direction in which the mechanism is driven by the spring or weight. In the upper part of the figure are represented the two pallets which receive alternate pushes to right and left as, one after another, the teeth of the wheel pass. A good clock of this type keeps better time than the sun ; and accordingly we now use as our standard of time the period of revolution of a fictitious sun which revolves uniformly with the average speed of our actual sun. This is called mean solar time. The astronomer uses a clock in which the hour-hand rotates at the same rate at which the fixed stars appear to revolve about the earth. In other words, this instrument, which is called a sidereal clock, rotates at the same rate as the earth, which is the most uniform motion that we know anything about. American clock-making from early days has had an interesting history, the men who have been connected with it being many and jn their way characters, from Isaac Doolittle, in the old colonial times, who as a brass-founder built a bell-foundry and made brass wheel-clocks, to the era of the New Haven Clock Co., with its origi- nators in Hiram Camp of Plymouth and Chauncey Jerome of Bristol, Conn. In- teresting, too, is the story of Eli Terry, the father of wooden clock-making, as is that of the men who had to do with the New Haven concern such as James E. English, H. M. Welch and Hiram Camp, the latter the inventor of a number of automatic tools and machines for making parts of clock-works, and perhaps the greatest of American clock-makers. The chronometer is merely a spring-clock in which an oscillating wheel called the balance is employed instead of a pendulum. This wheel is lightly tethered by a fine spring called a hair-spring, and its value lies in the fact that its vibrations occupy equal times. In 1714 the British govern- ment offered a reward of $100,000 to any one who would devise a means for getting longitude at sea within 30 miles. Stimu- lated, perhaps, by this offer, John Harrison (1693-1776), an English mechanician, in- vented the chronometer, which enabled navigators even then to determine their longitude within 18 miles. A watch is merely a small chronometer that can be carried in the pocket. A strik- ing clock is one fitted with a bell which is struck by a hammer at certain equal in- tervals, generally an hour. It is this form of instrument from which we derive our word clock, which originally meant a bell. Driving-clocks are really engines operated by a spring or weight. Telescopes in observatories are made to follow the stars by means of such driving-clocks. Time-keeping before the invention of clocks was a very crude process. During the day the ancients were dependent upon the position of the sun, and during the night upon the positions of certain well-known fixed stars. Intervals of time were measured by- allowing sand or water to run through funnel-shaped vessels, called hour-glasses and clepsydrae respectively. See Sir E. Beckett's Clocks, Watches and Bells; Ben- son's Time and Time-Tellers and Britten's Watch and Clock-Makers' Handbook. Close Pol'lina'tion (in plants), the transfer of pollen from the stamen to the stigma of the same flower. See POLLINA- TION. Clouds are masses of water-vapor con- densed into very minute drops of water or frozen into very small particles of ice. Every one is familiar with fogs. Clouds are simply fogs formed at a considerable distance above the earth. They are gen- erally white in appearance for the same reason that any transparent substance, such as glass or sugar, is white when broken up into small particles. The classification of clouds generally em- ployed is the one which divides them according to their external appearance into four different groups: i. The cirrus or mare's tails clouds are composed of long white fibers or slender filaments. They are generally observed at great heights, and are probably composed of small crystals of ice. Glaisher in his balloon-ascents found cirrus clouds above him even at the height of 23,000 feet; while, on the other hand, cirrus clouds are CLOVER 413 COAL never seen below the summit of Mt. Blanc, which is nearly 16,000 feet in elevation. 2. Cumulus clouds are those which look like great mountains of cotton piled one on top of another and resting on a horizontal base. It is highly probable that the rounded top of these clouds results from columns of hot, moist air rising and thrusting their tops into the upper and hence cooler regions of the atmosphere. 3. Stratus clouds consist of large flat layers or horizontal sheets. They are seen very frequently about sunset. 4. The nimbus or rain cloud has no par- ticular form, but generally is large and gray or dark. Regarding the causes which operate to produce clouds, we may group them all under one general head, namely, a lowering of the temperature of the air below the dew-point. Among the particular causes which produce this fall of temperature are the following: (a) Radiation of heat from the earth to space, especially at night. This is the most frequent cause of fogs on land. (6) Radia- tion from the earth's atmosphere to space. (c) Expansion of heated air on rising to higher regions of the earth's atmosphere where the pressure is less, (d) A cold wind blowing into a region filled with warm, moist air. Another condition necessary for the forma- tion of clouds is the presence in the air of small dust-particles or of ions. This fact has been demonstrated mathematically by Kelvin and experimentally by Aiken. In reply to the frequent query as to why the clouds do not fall, it is to be said, first, that they may be falling when in quiet air, but, secondly, when particles are as small as those involved in the case of clouds, their surface becomes enormously large compared with their mass; so that the resistance which the air offers to a falling body of this size is also enormous when compared with its weight. Hence the rate of fall is, in general, so minute as to escape observation. Clo'ver, species of the genus Trifolium, belonging to the pea family, The name is chiefly applied to those species which are used in agriculture. It is also sometimes applied to species of other genera in the same family, as the sweet clover, which is Melilotus; prairie clover, which is Peta- lostemon, etc. About 300 species of Tri- jolium have been described, and they are well-known by their habit and three-f oliolate leaves. The common red clover (T. pra- tense) is probably not native to North America, but has come from Europe. The white clover (T. repens) has been introduced from Europe, but is also probably native to North America. Numerous native spe- cies belong to North America, especially in the far west. Cloves. See SPICES. Clo'vis, king of the Franks, was born 465 A D., and died in 511. He conquered the Gallo- Romans, and overran the whole country between the Somme and the Loire. His wife, Clotilda, was a Christian, and earnestly wished her husband to become a Christian also. In a great battle with the Alemanni Clovis was hard pressed, and at last in despair cried to the God of Clotilda, offering to become a Christian if he got the victory. The Alemanni were driven from the field and on Christmas day Clovis and his soldiers were baptized; while he received from the pope the title of Most Christian King. Clyde, the most important river of Scot- land. It flows for 106 miles, past Lanark, Bothwell and Glasgow, the head of naviga- tion, and at Dumbarton becomes a firth. Near Lanark are the four famous Clyde falls. Below Glasgow large sums have been spent in deepening the channel, so that the former depth of 15 inches at low water has now become from 18 to 20 feet. The first steamboat in Europe was launched on the Clyde in 1812. The last 14 miles of the river, together with the firth, which slowly widens from one to 37 miles, are one of the world's chief commercial water- ways. There is a very large amount of shipbuilding on the Clyde. Clytemnestra. See AGAMEMNON. Coal, a name applied to considerable aggregations of carbonaceous matter of vegetable origin. Coal has no definite chemical composition, the proportion of carbon varying from 95 per cent, or even more down to 70 per cent, or a little be- low. Coal occurs in beds interstratified with shale, sandstone, etc. The vegeta- tion from which coal was made is believed to have grown where the coal now occurs. At the time of the growth of the vegetation, the regions where it grew are believed to have been swamps comparable, except in size, to the peat-bogs of the present time. As the vegetation growing in the bogs died, it fell into the water of the swamps, as in the case of the Dismal Swamp of the present time. Beneath the water the dead vegetation did not decay as it would have done in the open air, though it underwent chemical changes. The first series of changes resulted in its transformation into Eeat. After the accumulation of considera- le beds of vegetable matter in the swamps, the sites of the swamps seem to have been submerged, probably by sinking. When submerged, either beneath the sea or be- neath the waters of lakes, sediment, such as sand or mud, was deposited over the accumulated vegetable matter. Thus buried, the vegetable matter was still more com- pletely shut off from the air and under- went further chemical changes. At the same time the weight of the sediment above COAL 414 COAL the accumulated vegetation compressed it into more and more compact form. As the result of the chemical changes and the compression, the vegetable Matter was gradually brought to the condition of coal. In many regions there are numerous seams or beds of coal, one above another, separated by beds of shale, sandstone, etc. Each bed of coal represents the succession of conditions sketched above. After the burial of one body of vegetable matter the area was perhaps elevated sufficiently to cause it to become a marsh again, and the growth of vegetation followed. This in turn was buried. Wood contains about 50 per cent, of carbon. In the chemical changes which it undergoes in peat-bogs, it loses some of the carbon, but still more of its oxygen and hydrogen, so that the proportion of carbon remaining after the changes is greater than before. Peat contains about 60 per cent, of carbon. With the loss of more hydrogen and oxygen, and with compression which rendfijts . I Hi s ^ w ^> E III! : c 1*22 -og c w c 8 E S 1 >:-i e "S in .2.3 ii ** 1 A H CODLIN-MOTH 419 COFFEE lay an immense number ot eggs as many as 9,000,000 from a 75-pound fish. The cod are caught with hook and line, and great numbers are salted as food. Cod- liver oil is a well-known medicine. Codlin=Moth (Carpocapsa pomonella of Linnasus), according to Comstock "the best known and probably the most im- portant insect-enemy of the fruit-grower," is gray with bronze markings, and has a wing-spread of less than an inch across. The eggs are laid in the middle of the blossom, and hatch into tiny maggots, which eat to the center of the young apple. When the apple drops, as it does prema- turely, the grown larva crawls out and into the ground. Later it spins its cocoon under the scales of the bark of the apple-trees. Large numbers are destroyed while in this stage by woodpeckers. The larvae of the second brood are carried late in the fall to where apples are stored for the winter, and live to the next spring. It is estimated that this moth causes 7,000,000 damage yearly in Illinois, Nebraska and New York. Preventive: Paris green or lead arsenate sprayed on the trees just as the blossoms fall, with a repetition of the treatment in a few days if rainy weather follows. (See SPRAYING.) Cody, William Frederick, an American frontiersman and scout, was born in Iowa, Feb. 26,1846. He was familiarly known as Buf- falo Bill, having earned the sobri- quet by having killed, in 18 months (1867-8), over 4,000 buf- faloes on the plains, to feed the laborers en- gaged in the con- struction of t h e Kansas Pacific Railroad. H e for some time in 1868-72 acted as government scout and guide, and served in the field-operations against the Sioux and Cheyennes. In the battle of Indian Creek he killed Yellow Hand, the Cheyenne chief, in a hand-to-hand fight; and was also in the battle of "Wounded Knee. In 1872 he was a member of the Nebraska legislature. In 1888 he organized what was known as the Wild- West Show, an exhibition of Indians, rough-riders, cow-boys and frontiersmen, with whom he made tours of the chief towns of the United States and Europe. He is a joint author of. The Great Salt Lake Trail. He died Jan. 10, 1917. Ccelenterata ( se-len'ter-a' td ) , the sub- kingdom of animals containing the hydra, W. F. CODY sea-anemone, jelly-fish and coral animals. With the exception of the fresh-water hydra and a rare jelly-fish, they all inhabit salt water. There are several types ot animals embraced within this subkingdom. The hydroids are colonial and branching. They have often been collected and pressed under the name of sea-moss. The polyps or in- dividuals living on the branches are of two kinds: the feeding and the medusoids. The latter are modified polyps. When mature, they resemble jelly-fish and are set free, swimming about independently. They bear the eggs and sperms. When the eggs develop, they are converted into the branched colo- nial forms and as a consequence, there is an alternation of generations. The medusoids lead naturally to the jelly-fish, which are free swimming and of diversified form. Many of them have an umbrella-shaped disc with tentacles and other structures hanging from it. Formerly they were called medusae. The coral-animals are both solitary and colonial or branching. All of these animals have lasso-cells, con- taining minute darts or threads which are capable of being discharged. In some forms they are long enough to penetrate the human skin, and these can inflict severe stings. The Ctenophora or comb-bearers make a separate class. See CORAL, HYDRA, JELLY- FISH, Coenocyte (se'no-sit), a plant body which contains no dividing walls, but consists of a single body cavity sur- rounded by the general bound- ing wall. Such bodies con- tain numerous nuclei, and may be re- garded as be- ing composed of just as many cells, which have not formed walls about them- selves. The ccenocytic body is chiefly displayed b y the siphon forms among the green al- gse and by the Phycomycetes among the Fungi. Coffee, the seed of the coffee-tree and also a well-known drink made from the same. The coffee-tree is a native of Abys- sinia, Arabia and many parts of Africa. BOTRYDIUM, SHOWING A C03NOCYTIC BODY COFFEE REPUBLIC 420 COLBORNE It is extensively grown iii Brazil and other northern states of the South American con- tinent, as also in Mexico, Central America, Haiti, San Domingo and the East Indies. In a wild state it is a slender tree from 15 tc 25 feet in height. When grown in planta- tions, it is not allowed to become more thaTi six to ten feet high, with many branches. The fruit is dark scarlet when ripe, with two cells, having one seed each. The leaves are evergreen, and the flowers white. The coffee-tree thrives best in warm, moist lands; though it grows at Quito, Peru, at an al^ titude of 1,000 feet, where there never is any frost. The tree yields its first crop in the third year; from a full-grown tree, its yield may amount to a pound of c o ff e e-b cans. Three I gatherings are made in the year, when this pro- cess takes place: The beans are placed on a mat to dry by the COFFEE-PLANT sun ' s rays; t he pulp and skin are taken off by rollers; and the coffee is cleaned by winnowing. The main diff- erence in price and quality of the product is due to care bestowed in preparing it in different places. The chief kinds are Mocha, a small, grayish-green bean; Java, a large, yellow bean; Jamaica, smaller and greenish; Rio, pale-yellow and whitish. Rio and Maracaibo are the cheaper, and Java, Mocha and Sunda are the more expensive brands. Coffee allays hunger , exhilarates and refreshes. According to some authorities it also lessens the amount of wear and tear of tissue in the waste in the animal frame which is going on every moment. The consumption of coffee in the United States in 1910 was 873,983,689 pounds, an average of 9.33 pounds per capita, and the average import-price per pound was 7.9 cents. More than half the world's coffee is produced in Brazil. Coffee Republic. See COSTA RICA. Coffer-Dam is a temporary dam built around a place to be excavated for a founda- tion, so that the water can be kept pumped out. It is commonly constructed by driv- ing piles about the given area and using sheathing of various kinds to make a water- tight wall. Coffer-dams are not ordin- arily used in water over 25 feet deep. For deeper water caissons are used. See CAIS- SON. Cohoes (ko-hoz'), a flourishing, manufac- turing city in New York state, on the Hud- son, at the mouth of the Mohawk, and also on the State Barge Canal. It has six large cotton-mills, and some 30 knitting-mills with a number of other factories. Population, 24,709. Coin and Coinage. See MINT. Coke, a fuel got by heating coal in con- fined places. This is done sometimes in heaps, just as charcoal is made from wood, but oftener in ovens. It is also made when coal-gas is manufactured, being left after the gas is driven off. Coke is a hard, brittle, porous solid, with a steel-gray glint, and it does not readily soil the hands when handled. It is mainly valued for the great heat it gives off and its freedom from smoke when burning. Moreover, it does not be- come pasty in the fire while some of the sulphur of the coal is driven off; all these qualities make it very useful in smelting and refining metals. Coal yields about 70 per cent, of coke. Colbert ( kol'bdr' ) , Jean Baptiste, one of the greatest of French statesmen, was born at Rheims, France, in 1619. In 1651 he entered the service of the great minister Mazarin. On his deathbed Mazarin warmly recommended Colbert to Louis XIV. "I owe you everything," said he, "but I pay my debt to your majesty by giving you Colbert." It was in 1661 that Colbert became chief minister to Louis XIV. He at once began to improve the ruinous 'con- dition of the finances. So thorough was the change which he brought about, that in ten years the yearly revenue (net) was 77,000,000 livres, when before it had been only 32,000,000 livres. But his reforms did not stop here. Farming, business, roads, canals and French colonies all felt his energetic hand. He found France with a few old rotten ships, and in a few years provided her with one of the strongest navies in the world. He also was a friend to all men of learning. In short, Colbert was the patron of industry, commerce, art, science and literature, the founder of a new epoch in France. His aim was to raise the power of France; but all he accom- plished was undone by the wars of Louis and his spendthrift court. He died at Paris in 1683. Col'borne, Sir John, born in England in 1788, was educated at Christ's Hospital (the Bluecoat School) and Winchester Col- lege. He entered the army in 1794 and saw active service in Egypt, Sicily, Portugal and elsewhere. In 1828 he was appointed lieutenant-governor of Upper Canada (now Ontario). Greatly interested in education, he founded Upper Canada College which has for many years been one of the most important educational institutions in Canada. Owing to the agitation by William Lyon Mackenzie his term of office was one of stress and storm. He later became ad- ministrator of Lower Canada and suppressed the Papineau rebellion. He was subse- quently made governor of the Ionian Is- lands, and later attained the highest military rank, that of Field-Marshal. As Lord Seaton he died in England in 1863. 10 HOPS J6 TOBACCO AU. RIGHTS RESERVED F. E. COMPTON * CO. 1 Coffee Branch, showing Fruit and Blossom. 2 Single Blossom. 8 Fruit, f Cut Fiuit. 5 Tea Branch showing Blossoms. 6 Fruit. 7 Cocoa Branch, showing Fruit. 8 Opened Fruit. 9 Blossom. 10 Hops, Male Plant. 11 Male Blossom. 12 Female Plant. 13 Fruit. 14 Minute Grains (greatly enlarged) at base of petals. 15 Catkin of Female Flower. 16 Tobacco Plant, 17 Flower. 18 Fruit. RUBBER TREE COCO AN UT PALM OIL PALM ALL RIGHTS RESERVED F. E. COMPTON i OCX 1 Blossom. 2 Fruit. 3 Fruit; shell split. 4 Seed. 5 Olive Fruit. 6 Blossom. 7 Fruit; cut lengthwise. 8 Seed. 9 Blossom. 10 Blossom; cut lengthwise. 11 Fruit. 12 Branch of Blossoms. 13 Blossom of Female Tree. 14 Fruit. 15 Fruit; cut in half. 16 Branch of Oil Palm Fruit. 17 Branch of Male Flowers. IS Single Fruit. l-Single Male Flower. 20 Single Female Flowr. COLD HARBOR 421 COLERIDGE Cold Harbor, a village in Virginia, nine miles northeast of Richmond, where a bloody battle was fought, June 3, 1864, between the Federal army under Grant and the Confed- erate army under Lee. Lee held a strong po- sition, having his entire line covered with earthworks. In the early morning the Federal line advanced in a grand assault on the Confederate works. They were obliged to pass over a naked plain covered by the Confederate guns. Bravely and swiftly they advanced, only, however, to be swept down by the enemy's fire. In less than an hour after the first volley was fired 6,000 Union soldiers lay on the ground dead or wounded, and the assault failed. The attack was not renewed, and at night Lee, in turn, assaulted the Federal lines, but was repulsed. Cold Storage. Food may be preserved either by some chemical change made in it or by keeping out the bacteria of decompo- sition or by cold. The first method, which includes smoking and the use of large quantities of sugar, has the disadvantage of making the food less wholesome. The second method depends upon the fact that bacteria are kept out with the air, and requires that the bacteria present in the food or vessel be first destroyed, usually by prolonged boiling. By this method the food loses taste, in most cases. Cold storage depends upon the fact that below a certain temperature the bacteria of de- composition cannot work, though they may continue alive. A mammoth's flesh was preserved in the snows of Siberia for proba- bly 20,000 years or more; and when found the dogs ate the flesh. Cold storage is the best method of preserving food. In 1867 the first refrigerator-car ran from Chicago to New York with a load of beef; it was a success, and enormous quantities of meat are now sent east in this way. The butchers in New York and other cities are able by the same method to keep the meat a long time after receiving it. Meat is now sent across the Atlantic in cold storage, es- pecially to England, thus saving the ex- pense and the risks of sending live animals. For about 25 years mutton has been sent in ever-increasing quantities from New Zealand and Australia to England by cold storage, with excellent results to all con- cerned. Fruits are now sent in refrigera- tor-cars from California and the south to all parts of the country. Bananas are thus packed, and the heat regulated on the journey, so that the bananas arrive at their destination at just the required de- gree of ripeness; for cold prevents ripen- ing as well as decay. The cars are built double, with ice at each end, and a fan turned by the forward motion of the car keeps the air circulating over the ice to the meat and back again. The art of cold storage was neglected until the American people developed it into a great industry and common practice. Cold Wave. From time to time great masses of air that have been chilled by the cold soil of northern Canada flow south- ward over the United States. Such cold waves, as they are called by the United States weather-bureau, usually cause a sudden fall in the temperature to the extent of at least 20. The mass of cold air, being dense, usually lies near to the surface of the ground. It pushes its way beneath the less dense air of the south, which curls and rises away before it. The clouds which mark the advance of a cold wave, and often bring snow, seem to be caused by the cool- ing of the southern air, so that it can no longer contain so much water-vapor. A cold wave will sometimes reach even Mexico, where it is known as the Norte. Cole, Thomas, an American painter, was born at Bolton-le Moors, England, Feb. i, 1801. At Steubenville, O., where his father settled after emigrating to America, the sight of a wandering portrait-painter, with his can- vas and colors, made him decide to become a painter. He painted portraits in sev- eral Ohio cities with no success, after which he set up as a landscape-painter at Philadel- phia in 1823. Here he had a hard time, glad even to ornament chairs for a living. But in 1825 he painted several landscapes from sketches he had made in the Cats- kills, which gave him a name among ar- tists. Prosperity at once followed and never afterward forsook him. Among his finest pictures are Mi. ALtna, View of the White Mountains and The Voyage of Life, the last a series of four pictures represent- ing childhood, youth, manhood and old age. He died at Catskill, N. Y., Feb. u, 1848. Coleridge (kol'rtj), John Duke, Lord, son of a nephew of the poet, was born in 1820, and graduated at Oxford. He sat in Parliament from 1865 to 1873, where he was solicitor-general and attorney-general under Gladstone. In 1880 he became lord- chief-justice of England. He died on June 14, 1894. Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, an English poet, was born at Ottery St. Mary, England, Oct. 21, 1772. At the age of four he had read the Arabian Nights. Schooled at Christ's Hospital, where he was poorly fed and badly taught, he afterward became a wide reader, reading Homer for the mere fun of it; and here he had as a school- comrade Charles Lamb. Here he planted the seeds of his after ill-health by bathing in the river with his clothes on, and then joining in a game or reading without chang- ing his garments. Entering Cambridge, he was known as a xreat talker, a gift in which he excelled throughout life. Careless and extravagant, he was so exercised over his money troubles, that he fled and enlisted COLFAX 422 COLLEGES in a dragoon-regiment under a false name. Later he was discovered by his friends and sent to Oxford, where he met Southey. In 1795 he lectured and even preached in the Unitarian chapels around Bristol, and founded a short-lived journal. Coleridge and Wordsworth early became fast friends, spending much time together. Their talks on poetry led to their jointly bringing out the Lyrical Ballads (1798), containing Coleridge's Ancient Mariner, and the little book marked a new departure in poetry. A year later appeared his translation of Wallenstein, one of his best bits of work. During these years, troubled with rheu- matism and neuralgia, he began to use opium, and the habit grew and enslaved him. It ruined his health, was fatal to his imagination, and weakened his will. Very sad is his lament over his own decay in his beautiful ode on Dejection. He had. before contributed to the London journals, and now began to issue a weekly paper, The Friend, which, however, lived but a few months. As a poet and philosopher Cole- ridge ranks high; while as a critic he is unsurpassed. Besides his poems, his finest works are, perhaps, Biographia Liter aria and Aids to Reflection. He wrote but little poetry, but that little deserves to be printed on purple vellum and bound in covers of gold' He died at London, July 23, 1834. Coif ax (kol'faks), Schuyler, a vice- president of the United States, was born at New York, March 23, 1823. Removing to Indiana, he published a newspaper at South Bend, which he made the foremost Whig journal in the district. Chosen a representative to Congress by the newly- formed Republican party, in 1854, he remained a member until 1869 and was three times speaker. He was elected vice- 6-esident on the ticket with Grant in 1868. e died on Jan. 13, 1885. Coligni, Gaspard de ( di:h ko-len'ye ) , a French general, was born Feb. 16, 1517. A soldier at 22, he fought bravely in the wars against Spain, and was made general of infantry by Henry II. In 1552 he was made admiral of France, though he never commanded on the sea. In 1557 he stub- bornly held St. Quentin, with a handful of men, for 1 1 days against the Spanish army, and, though all hope of defending the town was gone, he refused to surrender and was captured, fighting desperately at the head of a few soldiers. This defense saved France from being overrun by the Spaniards. Imprisonment followed, during which he became a Huguenot. As able a statesman as he was a soldier, he succeeded in outwit- ting the Guises and securing for the Hugue- nots freedom of worship. The bad faith of the queen-mother, Catherine dei Medici, brought about the second Huguenot war, in which Coligni was chief commander of the forces of Henry of Navarre, afterward Henry IV. When peace was concluded, Catherine took advantage of the marriage of Navarre with the sister of Charles IX, the king, to older the massacre of St. Bar- tholomew (1572). Its chief victim was Coligni, who was murdered in his bed, at Paris and his body thrown into the street. Personally, Coligni was one of the noblest Frenchmen of the i6th century and had a profound love for his country. Colleges, American. The course of study in our American colleges has been constantly enlarging and widening. The knowledge required for entering has also risen greatly, so that now colleges proper as distinguished from the many high-schools and academies calling themselves colleges furnish young men with an education fully equal to that of the undergraduate departments of English and German uni- versities. The high conditions of admission are shown by the fact that 15 per cent, of the candidates for the freshman class at Harvard fail to pass the entrance examina- tions, while ten per cent, fail each year at Yale. Besides the regular course, aln-ost all colleges offer the student, especially in the last two years of the course, elective studies, which, if he prefers, he can ex- change for studies in the regular course. Training in writing and public speaking is also carried on, either under the direction of the faculty or in the exercises and debates of the literary societies and in the editing of college papers. Elective studies as a system were not introduced into Harvard till the accession of President Eliot (1869). They have since been widely adopted in other colleges. A student's expenses of course vary greatly. In city-colleges, like Yale, Harvard and Columbia, the extremes are from about $450 to $3,000 a year. At the country colleges of the east, a poor student's bills need not be more than $350, while at the smaller western colleges they may be still less. Moreover, all colleges grant aid to poor students of good brains, while teaching and tutoring or "coaching" often pay the whole of a student's expens s. Harvard bears the name of a Congrega- tional clergyman. Princeton was founded to train up able ministers. And in fact, all the early colleges were founded for a like purpose. Many western colleges w re also started as home-missionary sch ols. The aim of colleges has since greatly wid- ened; yet college-professors to-day are in the main Christian men, and the influence in colleges on student and on the coui.try is a Christian one. One feature of college life is its student-societies, open most of them literary and secret. These societies are often known as fraternities, with chap- ters in many colleges. In 1908 there were 32 men's fraternities in connection with American colleges, with 1,013 active chap- ters and a total membership of 198,507; in COLLEGE EXAMINATION 423 COLLEGE, GOING TO the same year there were 17 women's fra- ternities, with 254 active chapters and a total membership of 22,833. Athletics receive their full share of atten- tion. Each college, usually each class, has its baseball-nine, football-eleven and boat- crew. Series of games are played with other colleges each year The Thanks- giving Day football game between Yale and Princeton, which for years was played in New York city, drew thousands of spectators, as does also the spring regatta between the Harvard and Yale crews, which is rowed on the Thames, at New London, Conn. Field-days, in which prizes are given to the winners in running, jump- ing, vaulting and other matches, are held in most colleges. Over half the colleges of the country have gymnasiums, and in at least one Amherst exercise under an in- structor is required. The Dartmouth Gazette was the first college paper, founded in 1800. The Harvard Lyceum, which was begun in 1810, had Edward Everett as its first editor. Such men as Oliver Wendell Holmes, James Russell Lowell and Phillips Brooks were college editors. There are now over 200 college journals. Many colleges now give fellowships to specially able graduates to study in some special branch, usually abroad. The most prominent in this respect is Johns Hopkins University. The colleges of the country some 500 are well-distributed. The largest, as a rule, are in the east. The University of Wis- consin at Madison, Wis., the University of Illinois with 4,920 students, the Universit) of Chicago with its 3,035 students and the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor, Mich., with its 297 professors and lecturers and 5,500 students, are among the mort prominent western colleges. The oldesi college in the country is Harvard at Cambridge, Mass., with 597 instructors and its 4128 students. Yale, Princeton, Amherst, Dartmouth, Bowdoin, Brown, Cornell, Columbia, Lehigh, Lafayette, the University of Pennsylvania and Williams are the other leading eastern colleges. Most of the colleges will be found mentioned under the name of the town where they are located. The total number of students of both sexes attending the 453 American colleges in 1908 was close upon 200,000, about one fourth being women. The num- ber of instructors was over 18,000, 2,250 being women. The benefactions of the year amounted to nearly 15 million dollars, and the total income was over $30,750,000; while the gross productive funds amounted to 208^ millions. College Entrance-Examination Board, of the middle states and Maryland, was established in 1899 at the instigation of Nicholas Murray Butler to obviate the difficulties arising from the diversity of standards of admission required by the various colleges and universities through- out the country. It is composed of repre- sentatives of colleges and secondary schools in the Middle States and Maryland whose duties are to hold yearly a series of college entrance-examinations with uniform tests in the various subjects and to issue certificates based upon the results of these examinations. The examination-papers for each subject are made out by a committee of three (two college professors and one high-school in- structor), and then revised by a committee made up of the original three members, together with five additional high-school teachers. The papers are then sent to the places where examinations are held, which now include nearly all the larger cities in the United States, and some cities in foreign countries. No candidate fails, unless judged unfit to pass by at least two examiners. The certificates issued by the board are now accepted by nearly all colleges of the United States. Pupils who fail may have their examination papers sent to the college which they wish to enter, and, if their standing is satisfactory to that institution, they may be admitted. College, Going to. To raise the ques- tion whether or not one should go to college is much like questioning the advisability of one's doing much reading and thinking. There are, for various reasons, many per- sons from whom only a minimum amount of mental activity can be expected, and a meagre education must suffice for them. But, ordinarily, any one who finds it possible to go to college, or who has energy enough to make it possible, can profit greatly by going. It is true that occasionally a successful, or even a college-bred, man opposes a college- course for his son, on the ground that such a course unfits one for business instead of helping him in it. But, in general, one vital condition of success in life is a knowledge of what people have thought and done in the past: a knowledge of the principal problems that have confronted them and the ways in which they have been solved. This is one of the things that a good college-course attempts to give, and does give. It gives it in the study of literature, history, natural science, art and other subjects, the various studies representing nothing more than the main lines of human endeavor. The college-course accomplishes this object much better now than it did 25 years ago. At that time nearly all students were expected to take much the same course, consisting of Latin, Greek and mathematics, no one of which subjects dealt extensively with the actual problems of life. But since that time many subjects have been introduced, such as sociology, domestic science, domestic art, manual training and educational psychology, be- COLLEGE, GOING TO 424 COLLEGE OF NEW YORK CITY cause they deal with real issues; and most of the old lines of study have been so modified in content and method that they function much more than formerly. There- fore, as a result of a good college-course, to-day, one becomes reasonably well-in- formed in regard to modern problems, and he has such an interest in them that his mind is likely to be alert and active in regard to these and other problems in the future. He is then well-prepared to be identified with the workers of the world. All this applies as well to college-educa- tion for young women as for young men. It is true that it used to be a question whether the ordinary college-course for young women, while it possessed many merits, did not to a considerable extent inculcate a distaste for home-keeping a sad result, indeed. It tended to do this through neglect of the problems of the home, if in no more positive way. But that evil is now being rapidly remedied, just as are the somewhat similar but lesser evils in the men's colleges. But knowledge of and interest in human problems are only some of the benefits of a college course. Any one who spends three or four years at college forms there many of his main friendships for life. It is an especially cultured, ambitious and able class of persons that one meets in college; and to cement enduring friendships there that one will often enjoy later is one of the chief objects of going to college. Many an adult suffers from lack of numerous well-educated and close friends. The sug- gestion follows from this fact that study should not be taken so seriously as to ex- clude social life at college. The college-graduate, to be sure, is likely to feel his lack of preparation for most lines of work, the moment he leaves college and sets out to earn a living. He must often at first take a position much inferior to those occupied by other persons possess- ing little education. But his superior knowl- edge, training and associations give him innumerable advantages over such persons in the race for advancement, and usually, before many years are passed, he passes be- ycnd them. He not only occupies a higher position in his chosen work, too, but he takes higher rank as a factor for progress in com- munity life. The selection of a good college is not an easy matter. A college that is very good for one person may not be desirable for another. Large colleges or universities possess the advantage over small ones of having more valuable equipments and of Saying larger salaries to head-professors, ut the difficulty with the large college is that the average student who attends it becomes lost in the mass. The lecture-plan is largely followed, and the classes are large, so that few responsibilities besides getting his lessons fall upon the ordinary student, and he has little or no personal contact with his instructors. Many of these, also, are poorly paid underlings, the head-professors, worth large salaries, work- ing mainly with advanced students. The small college, on the other hand, is very likely to secure a close contact be- tween teacher and student, and each student is likely to feel more social responsibility. The difference is much the same as that between life in a great city and that in a small town. Any person having any vigor is likely to count for something in a small community; while only the born leaders are called forth in great cities. Many enlight- ened persons to-day are inclined to favor the small, reasonably well-equipped college to the very large one for the ordinary student. But the college that one chooses should depend very much upon its strength in the line of study that one expects mainly to pursue. Moreover, whatever college one attends, the courses that he selects after he arrives there should not be determined solely by their titles. In fact, one should not choose a college chiefly either because it is small or large, but because there are certain persons of power there whom he wants and can have as his own instructors. The average instruction in any school or college is not very good, and frequently it is very poor. This is not due to any care- lessness on the part of any class; it is true because good teaching is so difficult an art that it is not common. Not infrequently professors with national reputations are miserable instructors. They can attract students, but cannot hold them. In choos- ing a college, therefore, one should make sure, by correspondence with friends and in other ways, that his prospective teachers will be a source of inspiration. It makes little difference how learned the faculty as a whole is, or how many members it may contain; the very few men who will instruct a given student are practically the institu- tion for that particular student. The principal of the high-school nearest to you can probably be relied upon to give good advice about particulars in regard to going to college. By writing to the secre- tary of any college one can obtain desired information, including the catalogue of the institution. See, also, COLLEGES, AMER- ICAN. F. M. McMuRRY. College of the Cityof New York. In 1847-8 the city board of education established an institution for higher educa- tion which was at first known as the New York Free Academy. In 1866 it became a college, but it had no separate board of trus- tees until 1900, when the members of the board of education were replaced by the president of that board, acting with the president of the college and nine members COLLEXCHYMA 425 COLOGNE chosen by the mayor. The college is now housed in splendid four-million-dollar build- ings. A notable feature of its recent develop- ment has been its co-operation with the city. For example, the Department of Chemistry works with the municipal testing laboratories in the analysis of products purchased, with the Health Department in food analysis and sanitary inspection; the Department of Psy- chology acts with the Board of Education in the treatment of defective children. Collenchyma (kol-len'kt-ma) (in plants), a peculiar kind of tissue in many plants which serves as an elastic mechanical support and is developed immediately beneath the epidermis. It may be recog- nized in cross-sections by the fact that its cell-walls are thickened at the angles and have a characteristic pearly white luster. Col'lingwood, a town of 7,291, one of the principal seaports on Georgian Bay (Ontario), beautifully located at the foot of the Blue Mountains. Enjoys a large grain trade with Chicago. A lumber cen- ter for all the ports on the north shore of Georgian Bay. It is on the Grand Trunk Railway, and the home port of the Northern Navigation Co., the steamers of which ply thence to the numerous lake-ports. Col'Hns, William, an English poet, was born at Chichester, Eng. , Dec. 25, 1721. While a schoolboy be wrote his Oriental Eclogues, the most popular of his poems during his lifetime. After leaving Oxford he sought to make a living as an author in London, but his health and irregular ways of working unfitted him for success in such a life. His place among British poets is due to his Odes, which did not meet with the praise they deserved, when they first appeared, and were little valued even by such critics as Dr. Johnson and the poet Gray. In 1753 Collins' reason gave way, and he died on June 12, 1759, utterly unnoticed by a single newspaper of his time. His finest odes are, perhaps, To Evening and The Passions, though his most popu- lar poems are that on the Death of the Poet Thomson and that beginning with "How sleep the brave." Col'Hns, William Wilkie, an English novelist, was born in London, Jan. 8, 1824. He had a good schooling, spent four years in business, and studied law. However, he turned to writing, first bringing out a life of his father, who was an eminent painter. His novels took high rank, and he became famous for devising deep and tangled plots for his stories. Hence he was called the Weird Concocter. His best novels are The Woman in White, The New Magdalen, No Name, Poor Miss Finch, Armadale and The Moonstone. He died in London, Sept. 23, 1889. Collodion, a clear, colorless, gummy and highly inflammable liquid prepared by dissolving gun-co' ->n or pyroxylin in an equal-parts mixture of alcohol and ether. The gun-cotton is prepared from common cotton-wool by first boiling it in a solution of sodium carbonate, washing and drying it and, second, by placing tufts of it for eight or ten minutes in a mixture of nitric acid, water and sulphuric acid, and again washing and drying. Collodion was once extensively used in photography, and for some lines of that art is still used. It is very commonly used in surgery and chiropody, being especially valuable for scratches, chafings and minor cuts, as it keeps out poisonous substances and is not soluble in water. In one of its common commercial forms it is known as New Skin. Coll'yer, Robert, was born at Keigh- ley, England, Dec. 8, 1823. When a boy, he worked in a factory and afterward be- came a blacksmith. All his spare time was spent in educating himself. In 1850 he emigrated to America, settling in Shoe- makertown, Pa., as a blacksmith and Methodist preacher. He afterward be- came pastor of a Unitarian church in Chi- cago, and later on of the Church of the Messiah in New York city. His sermons and books, especially his Lectures to Young Men and Women, have made him widely known, and the story of the rise of the blacksmith-preacher to a commanding posi- tion is familiar to all Americans. A liter- ary society of Cornell University asked Mr. Collyer as a great favor to make them a horseshoe to hang in their hall, saying that Cornell boys could have no better stimulus than a piece of his handiwork always in sight. The preacher complied, and, asking a blacksmith to allow him to use his ham- mer, soon proved that he had not lost his skill. A picture of the scene has been painted, showing the white-haired old man with a blacksmith's apron tied over his clerical garb, fashioning a horseshoe on the anvil. He died Nov. 30, 1912. Cologne (ko-lon"), the capital of Rhenish Prussia, lies on the left bank of the Rhine. It is built in a half-circle, surrounded by the Ringstrasse, a 6o-foot-wide boulevard. Its old churches and buildings of the nth, 1 2th and i3th centuries, of Gothic, Roman- esque and Transition styles of architecture, are of great interest. But its most famous building is the cathedral, one of the finest specimens of Gothic architecture in Europe. Said to date back to the reign of Charle- magne, it was burned in 1248; its rebuild- ing was begun in about 1270, and was car- ried on interruptedly till 1509. It was not until 1823 that work on it was recommenced, and the spires were not finished until 1880. Its entire cost was about $10,000,000 Cologne is a fortress of the first rank, de- tached forts encircling the city at a radius of four miles from the cathedral. It is well-placed for commerce, and many manu- factures are carried on, among them the COLOMBIA COLOMBO famous eau-de-cologne. The town was founded by the Ubh about 30 B. C. It be- came a part of the German empire in 870, was a member of the league of the Hansa towns in 1201, and, losing its independ- ence, came under the sway of Prussia in 1 80 1. Population of Cologne (Koln), 516,167. Colombia (k$-lom'be'-a) , a South Ameri- can republic, in the northwest corner ot the continent, formerly including the Isth- mus of Panama. It is washed by two oceans, and has 3,000 miles of coast and an area estimated at 500,000 square miles. Surface. In the east are low, wide plains, and in the west three great ranges of the Andes spreading out like the ribs of a fan. The deep gorge through which the Patia River forces its way to the Pacific between steep walls from 10,000 to 12,000 feet in height forms the only break in the western range of the Andes from Darien to Patagonia. Drainage. The rivers chiefly belong to the Atlantic system. The lea, a feeder of the Amazon, provides quick and easy com- munication with Brazil. The Meta, an affluent of the Orinoco, affords navigation from near Bogota to the Atlantic. The Magdalena-Cauca and the Atrato are more important, flowing nearly the length of the land, emptying into the Carribbean, and offering feasible communication to the tablelands. Climate and Rainfall. In a day's jour- ney one may encounter all the climates of the world, from the valleys choked with the rich growth of the tropics to the never-melting snows of the peaks. On the lowlands there are a dry and a rainy season, on the tablelands two of each. The rainfall is enormous, short rivers car- rying almost continental volumes of water. Natural Resources. Colombia distinc- tively is a mineral land. It abounds in alum, amber, amethysts, antimony, asphalt, coal, copper, emeralds, gold, iron, lead, lime- stone, magnesium, mercury, platinum, pot- ash, salt, silver, soda. Spain in three centuries mined $300,000,000 of precious metals. The forests contain the aloe, brazilwood, cinchona, fustic, indigo, log- wood, sarsaparilla, tolu balsam. The flora ranges from tropical varieties to alpine or arctic types. Agriculture. On the loftier levels the crops of the temperate zone are cultivated; on the coast the banana, chocolate, cocoa, coffee, cotton, pepper, plantains, rice, sugar, tobacco and yams. On the plains cattle and horses are largely bred. Manufactures and Commerce. Beyond basketmaking, dying, tanning and weav- ing, there are almost no manufactures, though distilleries, glassworks, cigar-fac- tories and sulphuric-acid factories have been founded. Other manufactures in- clude candles, iron, "panamas," shoes and soap. Excellent harbors on both coasts create a favorable situation for commerce, but the absence of good roads and rail- ways hampers trade. Honda, the head of steam-navigation on the Magdalena, is connected by rail with Bogotd, and there are other short railroads, but they serve only the most limited areas. The prin- cipal exports are cinchona, coffee, cotton, hides, indigo; the minor items balsam, ipecac, ivory-nuts. Education. Public instruction was in 1870 entrusted to the state, the schools reformed, teachers brought from Europe, and, anticipating the rest of South America, primary education made free. Higher edu- cation is provided by normal schools, state colleges, technical schools and a national university. Races. The most densely populated part of the country is the high and healthy table- land of the eastern Cordilleras, where stands the capital, Bogota (population 150,300), 8,694 feet above the sea. Of the natives, the Chibchas were the chief, being in civ- ilization almost equal to the Peruvians. Many other tribes lived among the mount- ains, and about 200,000 survive. The population is made up of whites, Indian half-breeds, mulattoes and Zamboes (half negro and half Indian). History. Amerigo Vespucci visited the northern coasts in 1499; three years later Columbus tried to found a Spanish colony in Panama; Balboa discovered the Pacific in 1513; and the native empire was over- come by Jimenez de Quesada in 1536. The Spaniards ruled badly, and reduced the Indians to serfdom. In 1819 was formed the Republic of Colombia, including what are now Colombia, Venezuela and Ecuador. The character of the people and the lack of close communication be- tween districts far apart made the state un- wieldly, and in 1831 the confederation fell to pieces. What now is Colombia was first called the Republic of New Granada, but took its present name in 1861. Its consti- tution is m; deled after that of the United States. Besides Bogota, the capital, the other chief towns are Cartagena (popu- lation 27,000) and Medellm (60,000). Panama was formerly a part of Colombia, but seceded in Nov., 1903. The secession was caused by the action of Colombia in refusing to ratify a treaty which had been negotiated with the United States for the construction of the Panama Canal, and the refusal was held to be directly opposed to the interests of Panama. Colombo (ko-lom'bo), capital of Ceylon, was named by the Portuguese after Christo- pher Columbus. It has a fine harbor, and within the town are two mission-colleges. Colombo was captured by the British in 1796. It has railway connection with Kandy, 60 miles to the northeast. In 1910 COLON 427 COLOR Ceylon had 577 miles of railway open for traffic. Population, 158,228. Colon (ko-lon') (formerly Aspinwall), a seaport at the Atlantic extremity of the Isthmus of Panama. During the gold-rush to California in 1849 the necessity for a short route between the two oceans finally resulted in railroad connection between Colon and Panama. Colon is the terminus of the Kingston cable. The canal-author- ities have laid out regular streets, built a good hospital and in various ways improved the town, which has a population of about 4,5- Colonna, V i 1 1 o r i a , the best-known poetess of Italy, was born in 1490, daughter of the constable (a high officer on the European continent in the middle ages) of Naples, and of a famous Roman family. She was married at 17, having been be- trothed when only four years old. She was a close friend of Michael Angelo, and admit ed by the poet Ariosto. Her poems appeared in 1538. She died at Rome in February, 1547. Col'ony, a name applied to the foreign dependencies of a state. Roman colonies were military settlements, usually towns planted to overawe a conquered country. The Greek colony consisted of a band of emigrants, who, as a rule, because of politi- cal troubles sought a new home beyond the seas. According to the story of the ^Eneid, Rome itself was a colony, in the Greek sense, of Troy. Greek colonists did not go far inland, but fringed the shores of Asia Minor, Sicily, southern Italy and even the Crimea with trade-settlements, many of which, in wealth, w r ere in advance of the cities of Greece proper. Modern colonies began a little before the discovery of the New World in the isth century. Love of adventure, thirst for gold and the desire to spread religion sent Europeans to the far west and east. A long and bitter struggle between the different states for this new land left some of them, at the end of the igth century, much shorn of their possessions. Spain lost South and Central America, with Cuba and Porto Rico in the West Indies and the Philip- pine, Mariana and Caroline groups of islands in the east, though she still has possessions in Africa, with an area of 80,- 580 square miles and a colonial population close upon 300,000. Portugal has lost Brazil, but has long strips on both coasts of Africa and a few small settlements in India, together with the Madeira, Cape Verd and Azores Islands. Holland has lost Ceylon and the Cape of Good Hope to England, but is still enriched by Java and the Spice Islands, Sumatra, the Celebes, the Moluccas, New Guinea (in part) and Curasao. The French have fared badly. India and halt of North America would, perhaps, be French to-day but for two Englishmen, Clive and Wolfe. Algeria and Cochin-China have been acquired later, as also Tunis, Tonquin and Madagascar. The colonies and dependencies in Asia, Africa, America and Oceania extend to 4,227,826 square miles, with a total population ex- ceeding 56 millions. Italy has the port oi Massowah, on the African shore of the Red Sea, together with Italian Somaliland and other African dependencies. Germany has only lately reached out for colonies, but has gained valuable possessions on the east and west coasts of Africa, in China and in New Guinea. The area of Germany's col- onies exceeds one million square miles, with a population of 12,686,000. The most important colonies ever founded were the 13 colonies of England which now are the United States. Though England lost half of the North American continent, her colonies dot the globe; cover much more land than those of all other countries taken together; and through them she rules over an area of 11,400,000 square miles (including the United Kingdom) with a total population of about 410,000,000. Counting the United States as a British colony, the history of modern colonies is the story of the spread of the Anglo-Saxon race. In North America, Australasia and South Africa this race already is in posses- sion of the only large tracts of uninhabited land where white men can work and thrive. The main British possessions are, in Europe, Gibraltar, Malta, Cyprus; in North America, Canada, Newfoundland, the Bermudas, with various West India islands, Honduras; in South America, Guiana and the Falkland Islands; in Africa, Cape Colony, the Trans- vaal, the Orange River Colony, Natal, Mauritius, Ascension, St. Helena; in AsK, India, Ceylon, Straits Settlements, North Borneo, Hong-Kong; in Australia and Oceania, Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, New Guinea (in part) and Fiji. Color, a sensation of the eye produced by light-waves. When a beam of white light is passed through a prism of glass, it is stretched out into a band of light called the prismatic spectrum. One part produces the sensation of red ; another part, the sensa- tion of green; another, of blue; and so on These different sensations are called colors. As was proved by Newton, Young and others, each of these different colors is pro- duced by light of a different wave-length, and white light consists merely of light in which all these colors are combined in the proper proportion. Newton showed that colored light may be produced from white light in one of three ways: (i) By refrac- tion in a prism or lens, as seen in the rain- bow. (2) By diffraction, as, for instance ; in the colors seen in mother-of-pearl and in the blue color of the sky. (3) By absorp- tion, as, for instance, the red color of a brick-house or the green color of grass COLORADO 428 COLORADO where all the white light which falls upon the house is absorbed except the red, and all which falls upon the grass is absorbed except the green. The mixture of colors is a very compli- cated subject, but the student will find it very lucidly treated in Captain Abney's little book : Color Mixture and Measure- ment in the Romance of Science Series; as also in Shelford Bidwell's Curiosities of Light and Sight. Colorado is located in the center of that portion of the United States west of the Mississippi River. The state is quad- rilateral in shape; and is bounded by Wyoming and Nebraska on the north, Ne- braska and Kansas on the east, Oklahoma and New Nexico on the south and Utah on the west. Area. The state is about 370 miles long and 280 miles wide, while the gross area of the state is 103,948 square miles. Deduct- ing a few small lakes and . ther bodies of water leaves 103,658 square miles of land area. Colorado is larger than Great Britain, half as large as France, and nearly equal in area to New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Delaware combined. Mountains. The continental range of the Rocky Mountains extends across the state from north to south near its center. Pike's Peak, west of Colorado Springs, is the most famous peak in the state, but not the highest, it being one of many that have an elevation of 14,000 feet to 14,500 feet. The surface of Colorado has two natural divisions, mountains and plain. The mountain-division has an altitude from 5,000 feet to 14,000 feet. The plain-division is from 4,000 feet to 5,000 feet high. Rivers. The principal rivers of the eastern slope are the South Platte and the Arkansas. The Rio Grande drains the San Luis valley. The Grand flows toward the southwest. The Yampa and White are tributaries of the Green, which unites with the Grand in eastern Utah and forms the Colorado River. None of these rivers is navigable. These rivers with their numerous branches fur- nish a supply of water for irrigation pur- poses. Climate. The climate is delightful; the air is dry, the sunshine abundant. There are rains throughout the warm parts of the year and snows in winter, but both are moderate in quantity. The altitude and dryness minimize the heat in summer and the cold in winter. The perpetual-snow line varies between 13,000 and 14,000 feet, except on the side of the mountains slop- ing to the north and in deep canyons where it is lower. Mineral Springs. There are more than seventy-five groups of mineral spings hav- ing medicinal properties. The most noted ones are located at Manitou, Canon City, Idaho Springs, Glenwood Springs, Hot Sul- Ehur Springs, Steamboat Springs, Pagosa prings, etc. Land. The report of 1911 of the Com- missioner of the United States General Land- Office, Washington, D. C., shows that 20,- 599,100 acres of government land were unappropriated and unreserved, of which 19,069,624 acres had been surveyed and 1,529,476 acres had not been surveyed. Since the date of that report there have been many entries by settlers on such lands. When Colorado was admitted to the Uni^n, Congress granted to the state two sections of land in every township for the support of the public sc'/ools. The soil on the uplands ;s a rich, sandy loam, varied in some localities by clay or adobe. Along the river-bottoms it is largely alluvial; in some places siliceous and mica- ceous. Agriculture. The recent development of agriculture through irrigation has been the wonder of western civilization. In 1910 there were 46,170 farms, average value $10,645. The average number of acres per farm was 293, which was more than twice the size of the average farm in the United States. This is due to the number of stock- grazing-farms. Farm-products are cereals, roots, vegetables, fruit, hay-fodder, live stock, wool, dairying, poultry, honey, etc. Colorado excels other states in the average value per acre of farm-crops. Owing to the superior quality of Colorado fruit, it is very extensively shipped to other states. Mining. Colorado leads in the produc- tion of the precious and allied metals, pro- ducing twice as much gold and silver as any other state and more than one third of the total output of the United States. Colorado possesses inexhaustible coal-depos- its, and in 1906 was seventh among the coal- producing states, surpassed by Pennsyl- vania, Illinois, West Virginia, Ohio, Ala- bama and Indiana in the order named. It ranked second among the states as a pro- ducer of anthracite, being surpassed by Pennsylvania. The Colorado coal-fields are found on both sides of the Rock)" Moun- tains, those on the western slope being the largest and most important in quantity and quality. In the year 1910 the state pro- duced 11,973,736 tons, which were valued at $17,026,934, and employed 15,864 men in and about the mines. Coke is manu- factured extensively, and the state has abun- dant deposits of iron ores. Manufacturing. The great variety of raw materials gives Colorado advantages as a manufacturing state. The leading manu- facturing industries are the iron and steel plant at Pueblo, foundries and machine- shops at Denver, smelting of gold, silver, copper, lead and other ores, canning- fac- tories, creameries and cheese-factories, flour- ing and grist-mills, printing and publishing plants, saw-mills, beet-sugar factories, etc. COLORADO 429 COLOSSEUM Population. Colorado's total population in 1900 was 539,700. It is now estimated by latest federal estimate is now 975,190. Eighty- three per cent, are American born and 17 per cent, foreign born. Colorado has only 1.6 per cent, negroes, a less percentage than other states, and a less percentage of Orientals than any of the Pacific states. As to Indians, Colorado has fewer than either New York or Pennsylvania. Railroads. Colorado has better railroad accommodations than any other Rocky Mountain state, only one county, Baca, being without railroad communication. There already are over 5,000 miles of rail- road within its boundaries, and more are being constructed. The principal railroads are the Denver and Rio Grande, Colorado \nd Southern, Union Pacific, Burlington, Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe, Colorado Midland, the Denver, Northwestern and Pacific and the Missouri Pacific roads. Education. Colorado ranks among the foremost in education. There are more than 2,000 school-buildings, with 5,000 teachers and an attendance of 168,000 pupils. The annual expenditure for school pur- poses is five and one-half million dollars. The state institutions of higher educa- tion are the State University at Boulder, State School of Mines at Golden, State Agricultural College at Fort Collins and the State Normal School at Greeley. History. Colorado was acquired in three tracts: a portion of the north and east by the Louisiana-purchase of 1803; a portion of the west and north by the Mexican cession of 1848; the remainder by a pur- chase from Texas in 1850. Coronado, in 1 54 1 1 is supposed to have been the first white man to set foot withm the present limits of Colorado. In 1776 Escalante traversed the western and southern por- tions. The first organized American ex- ploration was made under government authority in 1806 by Lieutenant Zebulon N. Pike. The next expedition was under- taken in 1819 by Major Stephen S. Long. In 1842 John C. Fremont began a series of five explorations in search of practicable rail-routes. The first important discovery of gold was made in 1858. At this time trappers and scouts were about the only white inhabitants of Colorado, and there were only a few forts, stockade and trading-posts; such a trading- post was established in 1840 on the present site of Pueblo. When the first gold-hunters came to Colorado the parks were inhabited by the Ute Indians; the plains by the Cheyennes, Arapahoes, Kiowas and Comanches. The Indians have since been placed upon reservations. In 1876 Colorado was admitted into the Union as the Centennial State. The pre- historic remains, consisting of numerous Cave-dwellings and ruins found in southern Colorado, have been set apart as a govern- mental reservation. _ Colorado (kol'o-rd'dd) (meaning red), a river 900 miles long and navigable for 600 miles. It is formed by the junction of the Grand and Green Rivers. Its main branches are the San Juan, Flax, Bill Williams and Rio Gila. It flows southwest through south- ern Utah and northwestern Arizona; next separates Arizona from Nevada and Cali- fornia; then enters Mexico and empties into the northern end of the Gulf of Cali- fornia. The Colorado itself and most of its branches flow at the bottom of deep canons, slowly cut out by water during the lapse - eons. Below the mouth of the Flax, for nearly 400 miles, the canon walls rise from 4,000 to 7,000 feet, forming the Grand Canon of the Colorado, one of the great wonders of the world. In 1906 .'he river created Salton Sea in southern California. Colorado River of Texas is over poo miles long, and averages 250 feet in width. In winter steamboats go up the river as far as Austin. Throughout most of its length it flows through a region of rich soil, and is a beautiful, clear stream. It empties into the Gulf of Mexico, at Mata- gorda Bay. Colorado Springs, county seat of El Paso County, is an attractive city, 75 miles south of Denver. Its altitude is 6,000 feet, and it is situated on a plain near Pike's Peak, and is known the world over as a health and pleasure resort. The city possesses a handsome opera-house, five clubs, several fine school-buildings, the State Blind and Mute School, sanitariums, hospitals and fine churches. It was settled in 1870: but the Cripple Creek gold dis- covery in 1891 nearly doubled its popula- tion. Colorado Springs is served by six railroads, and has all the adjuncts of a modern city. Population, 31,717. Colosseum (kol'os-se'um) , the largest of tne Roman amphitheatres. Amphitheatres were oval-shaped buildings, used by the Romans for combats of gladiators and for wild beast fights. In the theatre, where plays were performed, the seats faced the stage in a half-circle; in the amphitheatre the seats entirely surrounded the place of perform- ance; hence the name, from amphi, mean- ing all around. The Colosseum, besides being the largest of these buildings, is the best preserved, and is one of the most in- teresting ruins in the world. It was begun by Vespasian, and finished by Titus in 80 A. D. It covers about five acres of ground, and was able to seat 87,000 persons. It is 612 feet in length, and 515 feet wide. When Titus dedicated it, 5,000 wild beasts were slain and the games lasted for a hun- dred days. On the outside it is 160 feet high, built in three rows of columns and surrounded by a row of pilasters. Between the columns are arches, forming open COLOSSUS 430 COLUMBUS falleries running throughout the entire uilding. On the inside the open space in the center was covered with sand or saw- dust, while the games were going on, and so was called the arena, from the Latin word for sand. Around the arena was a gallery where sat the emperor, senators and vestal virgins. Above were three other tiers of seats, corresponding with the three rows of columns on the outside. The Colosseum in the middle ages gave rise to the saying: "While stands the Colosseum Rome shall stand; while Rome shall stand, the world." Colossus (kd-los'sus) of Rhodes, a huge statue of Helios (the sun), the chief god of the Rhodians. It is said to have been the work of Chares of Lindus, who spent 12 years on it, finishing it in 260 B. C. It was called one of the seven wonders of the world, though not a masterpiece of sculpture. Its height was from 90 to 120 feet. It stood near the harbor; but the story that it was placed astride the entrance is erroneous. In 224 B. C. it was overthrown by an earthquake, and lay an object of wonder until 653, when it was sold to a Jew for old metal. Colt, Samuel. See REVOLVER. Columbia. See DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. Colum'bia or Oregon River is 1,400 miles long. Next to the Yukon, it is the largest river on the American Pacific coast. It rises in the Rockies of British Columbia, flows through Washington, separates that state from Oregon, and empties into the Pacific. Its mouth forms an inlet from three to seven miles wide and 35 miles in length. Its main branches are Snake River and Clarke's Fork. There are many falls and rapids, so that, though it is navigable for some 660 miles, freight has to be carried by railroads past the various breaks of the river. The salmon-fisheries are noted. Columbia, Pa., a borough in Lancaster County, on the left bank of the Susquehanna River, 80 miles by rail west of Philadelphia. A railroad-bridge across the river connects the town with Wrighteville. The town was founded in 1726 by English Quakers. Its factories include rolling-mills, flouring- mills, foundries, tanneries, silk, lace and pipe mills, wagon, brush, stove, novelty, em- broidery and shirt-works. It also has manufactories of railroad-iron. It has an active civic life, good schools and a public library. Population, 11,454. Columbia, the capital of South Carolina, is situated on the left bank of the Congaree River. The town is beautifully laid out with broad and well-shaded streets, all of which cross at right angles. Having been the capital of the state since 1790, it has many imposing public buildings, including the state-house, penitentiary, hospital for the insane, etc. Several well-known col- leges and quite a number of fine cotton- mills are located in the city. When the city was evacuated by the Confederates at the approach of Gen. Sherman in the spring of 1865, large quantities of cotton piled in the streets caught or were set on fire, and all the business section and many private residences were consumed. The pormlation in 1900 was 21,108; to-day it is 33,506. Columbia University, located in New York city, was chartered in 1754 as King's College. During the Revolutionary War the work of the college was suspended, and the building was used as a hospital. Col- lege work was resumed in 1784, and the name of the institution changed to Colum- bia College. Under this name the college has had a long and prosperous career. The law department was established in 1858; the medical department in 1860; the school of mines in 1863; the school of political science in 1880; the school of philosophy in 1890; and the school of pure science in 1892. Barnard College for women, founded in 1889, became affiliated in 1890. In 1896 the name of the institution was changed to Columbia University. It is now an amply equipped and richly endowed insti- tution. It has a library of 550,000 vol- umes, 888 officers of instruction and 7,322 students, exclusive of summer-school and extension students. Columbine (kZl'um-bin), a well-known and popular wild flower, which is widely diffused, and which has been suggested as the national flower of the United States. The leaflet is three-lobed and the flower, which passes from yellow to red, has five petals with long spurs, giving it a striking resemblance to the liberty-cap. Columbus, Christopher. In 1470 there arrived on the coast of Portugal, on a plank that was part of the wreckage of a privateer sunk in a sea-fight, an adventurous mar- iner. Born in Genoa, Italy, perhaps in 1 43 6, perhaps in 1446, he was of the stature and coloring of Norse pirates. His eyes were as pale a blue as sea-ice, his red and white skin was bronzed by 20 years' exposure to wind and sun; his auburn hair, already pointed with silver, shone like a nimbus above a handsome, smooth- shaven, aquiline face. Besides being a skilled navigator, he was a man of learning, temperate habits and speech and as strict piety as if he were of some religious order. These qualities must have recommended him in Lisbon, for the Portuguese were among the most ardent Christians and the most daring voyagers in the world. Grad- CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS COLUMBUS 431 COLUMBUS ually the facts came out that Columbus, Colombo or Colon (for he used the Latin, Portuguese and Spanish forms of his name indifferently) had learned geography, math- ematics and nautical astronomy, and had coasted the Mediterranean and voyaged to the Guinea coast. He had read Marco Polo and Sir John Mandeville, and knew of the strange, disquieting adventures of Portuguese voyagers who had been blown far to the westward. He bo-^y held the not original opinion that the earth is a sphere. Although unknown and penniless, this man was so remarkable that within a year he had married the daughter of Palestrello, an ex-governor of the Madeira Islands and a learned geographer. He thus had access to the dead man's maps, charts and cal- culations that confirmed his opinion that the Indies and the land of Kubla Khan could be reached by sailing westward. He presented a plan for an expedition, first (about 1475) to Genoa, then to John II of Portugal, to Henry VII of England, to two Spanish dukes and finally to Ferdinand and Isabella of Castile. Twelve years he spent, a beggar at in- different courts, dismissed as impractica- ble by the wise, ridiculed by the foolish, betrayed by cupidity, deluded by false promises. His wife died, his property was exhausted, he had been made the buffet of capricious fortune. But he was not dismayed. When learning, piety, self-con- trol and a single-hearted purpose go hand in hand, they may defy all the fates to baffle them. At 55 [?45?] years of age we find him (1492) leading his motherless son, Diego, through the lovely landscape of Andalusia, begging bread and shelter of the monks of La Rabida, a monastery that overlooks the harbor of Palos. Undiscouraged, he poured the tale of his incredible ambition into the ears of the simple brothers, only to find among them a geographer who could understand his plans and an ex-confessor to Queen Isabella who could recommend him to royalty. On the 30! of August, 1492, the monks of La Rabida bade him God- speed out of the harbor of Palos, on the most momentous voyage in history. How perilous that voyage was you must read a long biography to realize. It lasted ten weeks. The crews of 120 men were mostly made up of criminals and vaga- bonds, who had choice of this dangerous adventure or of imprisonment for their misdeeds as treacherous a lot of cut- throats as ever commander shipped. The Island of Guanahani was sighted on the i ath of October, 1492, and the banner of Spain unfurled above the soil of the New World. The details of this and of his three subsequent voyages are given in every school-history. The great discoverer had the misfortune for Spain to sail too far south. Had he cleared the Bahamas, he must have reached the Carolina coast and discovered the continent of North America. But he struck the wilderness of islands, large and small, that guard the Gulf and the Caribbean Sea, and thus won tropical America for Spain and Portugal, leaving the more valuable northern continent for England and France to colonize and fight over. He thought the earth-sphere much smaller than it is and Asia much larger, and mistook the archipelago of the West Indies for islands fringing India, China and Japan. So he continued to explore these, seeking always the continent beyond. On his fourth and last voyage he skirted South America, found the Orinoco River, and reached Yucatan. The sweep of the Gulf Stream made him look for a passage west- ward about where we are digging the Panama Canal to-day. On his first voyage he built a fort on San Domingo, now Haiti, out of the wreckage of the Santa Maria, and planted a colony. Then he returned to Spain with gold, strange plants and ani- mals and six natives for baptism. After his second voyage, in 1493, misfortune, misery and insults marked the remaining ten years of life, lightened by brief periods of wealth, honor and royal favor. In the failure of his colonies too little allowance was made in his own time for the evils of a tropical climate, savage natives and un- cultivated land. Too little is made by his biographers of the character of Spanish colonists. The adventurers who went with Columbus were inspired, not by desire for a home in the New World, but by greed for gain and by religious bigotry that had its logical result in exploitation and cruelty. His long absences from Spain gave am- bitious and unscrupulous men at court ample time to plot, so that adequate sup- port and authority were withheld from him. From his third voyage (1498) he was sent home (1500) in irons and, as he feared, to disgrace and death. Tardy reparation made and his enemies punished, he had the magnanimity to set out on a fourth voyage in May, 1502, for their ma- jesties of Spain. In May, 1506, he died at Valladolid, Spain, aged 60 or 70. In 1796 his bones were removed from San Domingo to the cathedral at Havana, Cuba. The title Duke of Veragua was conferred on his son Diego, and continues to-day in the descendants of his great- gran ddaughter . Columbus' task was to conceive a be- nificent idea and to put it to the proof in the most obvious way. For this his knowl- edge was as complete as possible, his plan definite, his purpose undefiled by self-in- terest, his resourcefulness and persistence unbounded, his courage sublime. He found a path across the unknown seas', and charted it so others could safely follow. He. hay the fact that the cells are flat, with no spaces between them, and the walls are water-proof. Cork is the most prominent part of bark, and the commercial supply is obtained from the bark of a species of oak, Quercus Ilex, (often called Q. suber). Forests of cork-oak are cultivated in southwestern Europe. Cork (meaning swamp), a city of Ire- land, is situated on the River Lee, in a pretty valley, built partly on a group of little islands, joined by nine bridges to the rest of the town, which is built on the river~ banks. Its race-course park and Mardyke, a shaded walk a mile long, are its chief features. The cathedral, St. Ann de Shan- don's church and Queen's College, founded in 1849, are tne main buildings. The city owes its growth to the facilities afforded by Cork harbor, a basin ten miles square. It is guarded by batteries, with three forts fitted with the heaviest guns. On the banks of the Lee are also four miles of wharves. Cork is a busy manufacturing and exporting city. Its port is Queens- town. In 600 an abbey was erected on its site, and the Danes built its walls in the 9th century. It was surrendered by its last king Dermod MacCarthy, to Henry II in 1172. Cork also is a county in the province of Munster, area 2,890 square miles. Population, 391,090. Population (1911) of the city, 76,632. Corm, a special form of thickened under- ground stem which resembles a bulb in outline, but has thin scale-leaves upon it, instead of fleshy ones. Indian turnip (from Jack-in-the-pulpit) is a typical corm. Cormorant, a web-footed bird related to the pelican, that feeds like a glutton on fish, which it catches b y swimming and diving. It has a strong, hooked bill, long neck, short wings and a rather long round tail. Its plumage is blackish.but the face is usually naked and brightly col- ored. It is very widely distri b uted ; by rivers and lakes, others on the seacoast and about islands. Some of the cormorants of the United States live in pairs, but more often in great flocks, flying around vessels at sea in great numbers. They are also called shags. The Chinese breed and train them for fishing. A ring of hemp is tied around the neck to prevent them from swallowing the fish, and, for two or three hours at a time, they will dive and bring up fish in their bills, which are taken into the boat by the fishermen. Fish too large to be managed by one are attacked by two or three birds at a time. In 1898 a very large non-flying cormorant was discovered on one of the Galapagos Islands. The bird is rare. CORN 457 CORNELIUS CORN Corn, Indian, or Maize, the original name of corn or Zea Mays, a species of the grass family. Corn is said to nave become the most 'important food-plant, next to rice. It is now almost unanimously c o n - ceded that it origi- nated in America and is probably na- tive to Mexico. Corn was found in cultivation by the Indians upon the discovery of Amer- I ica, and has con- ' tinued to be called Indian corn ; in fact the name maize is seldom used in America. Although very numerous va- rieties have been developed, they are all con- sidered to have been derived from a single species. The common? v used classification is as follows : pod-corns, pop-corns, flint-corns, dent-corns, soft-corns, sweet or sugar-corns, starchy sweet-corns. Sweet corn is distin- guished from the ordinary field- varieties by its wrinkled or sniveled kernel and its some- what translucent appearance. The pop- corn is characterized by the excessive development of the horny region of the endosperm and by the very small size of the kernels and ears. Corn is hardly less a staple food than is rice in tropical coun- tries, while in colder countries it is rapidly becoming popular. It is thought to be more nutritious than barley, buckwheat or rye. It is more generally used in America than in other continents. In the United States the annual crop is over 2,700,000,000 bushels, or about two thirds of all the grains grown. When coarsely ground, corn forms hominy; when finely ground, corn- meal. Pop-corn is a variety whose grains, when roasted, swell and burst, turning in- side out. However, the greatest use ^of corn in America, is as a food for cattle, sheep and hogs. Large quantities of starch are made from corn. This is used for food and for laundry-work, while a good part of it is made into grape-sugar or glucose. The dried leaves and stalks of corn furnish a supply of cattle-fodder. The husks are used for packing and for mattresses; while in South America they are also used for cigarettes. The cobs make popular pipe- bowls for tobacco. Corn was introduced into Europe by Columbus; but there is good ground for believing that the maize plant was known in Asia and Africa before that time. Corn- Harvester. Among the many labor-saving machines which have so greatly aided modern agriculture is that known as the corn-harvester. One type of these machines cuts the corn and binds the stalks in bundles ready for shocking. An- other type cuts and shocks the corn with- out binding it into bundles. With the use of one of these machines a single man with a team may easily cut eight or ten acres of corn in a day, doing the work of four to CUTTING MECHANISM OF CORN-HARVESTER eight men by former hand-methods. The illustration shows the cutting mechanism of one of these machines. The edges of the side-knives are at an angle to the line of draft, and as the machine advances the knives move with a shear-cut against the corn-stalks, severing them. They are then carried away by a conveyor and bound in bundles. Corneille (kor'nal'), Pierre, the great- est French tragedian and the founder of French comedy, was born at Rouen, June 6, 1606. His ill-success as a lawyer sent him to Paris in 1629, where his first comedy was produced and acted in two theaters at the same time. In 1636 The Cid, his most popular tragedy, took Paris by storm, and in spite of Richelieu, a personal enemy of the author, and in spite also of the Academy, his creature, could not be suppressed; and soon "fine as the Cid" became a common saying. Le Menteur showed the author to be great in comedy as well as in tragedy. Polyeucte and Rodogune are others of his best works; while the finest verses he wrote occur in the central love-scene of Psyche. Horace and Cinna are also favorite produc- tions of Corneille. Strength and sub- limity are his chief characteristics. Corne'Ha. See GRACCHI. Corne'lius, Peter von, one of the first masters of the modern German school of painting, was born at Dusseldorf, Sept. 23, 1783. When but 19 years \>ld, he CORNELL 455 CORNWALLIS painted some fine frescoes in an old church. In Munich he painted his greatest works a series of frescoes based on the stories of the Greek gods and heroes, and another series of New Testament scenes from the Incarnation to the Judgment, the latter being the largest fresco m the world. He achieved fame also by his Four Riders of the Apocalypse, painted in Berlin. More important than his paintings, perhaps, was the impetus he gave to wall-decoration. He died at Berlin March 6, 1867. Cornell, Ezra, American philanthropist and founder of Cornell University, was born at Westchester Landing, N. Y., Jan. ii, 1807, and died at Ithaca, N. Y., Dec. 9, 1874. He settled in Ithaca as a me- chanic and miller in 1828, and early took an active part in the construction of tele- graph lines, in which, and in connection with the Western Union Telegraph Co., of which he was the founder, he amassed a fortune. Early in the sixties he was a member of the state assembly, and later was elected to the state senate. In 1865 he gave half a million dollars, afterward much augmented, to found the university at Ithaca, N. Y., which bears his name, and to which Congress made an appropria- tion of land. The institution opened in 1868. Cornell University, is located on Cay- uga Lake, at Ithaca, N. Y. It was char- tered in 1865 and 1867, and with ample en- dowment, including the income from a grant of nearly a million acres of land, it rapidly took rank with the first educational institutions of the country. It was named after Ezra Cornell, who gave a large sum toward its endowment, and whose able management was largely instrumental in placing the institution on a sound financial basis. Besides the academic department it has Colleges of Law, Medicine, Agriculture, Veterinary Medicine, Architecture, Civil and Mechanical Engineering. The teachers num- ber 750, and the students 6,891. Cor'net, a musical instrument, usually of brass and originally curved like a horn. The best form is known as the cornet-a- pistons, because changes of sound are made by manipulating pistons with the fingers. It has a compass of two octaves and two notes. It is not an instrument of especially fine or delicate sound; but in orchestras, in company with other instruments, its effect is excellent. Corn'ing, N. Y., a growing town in western central New York, one of the capitals of Steuben County, 17 miles west of Elmira. It is situated on the Chemung River, and has a number of factories, in- cluding railroad-car-shops, brick and terra- cotta works. The leading industry, glassware manufacture, employs upwards of 2,000 people. It has good educational facilities and an active civic life. It has the service of three railroads. Population, 14,666. Corn'planter, a half-breed Seneca In- dian and chief of the Six Nations. He was born about 1732, and was the son of John Abeel, a white trader. He fought the English at Braddock's defeat, and was a deadly foe to the colonists during the Revo- lutionary War; but afterward became a steady friend of the white people. He was an intelligent, dignified and moral man. He died on Feb. 18, 1836. Pennsylvania erected a monument in his honor in 1867. Cornu (kdr'nu 1 ), Marie-Alfred, a dis- tinguished French physicist, lately occupy- ing the chair of physics at the Ecole Poly- technique, the great military school of Paris. He was born on March 6, 1841, and was educated at the institution where he later taught. Cornu's investigations cover a large range of optical and acoustical sub- jects. Among the most important of these may be mentioned his very accurate deter- mination of the speed of light by the method of Fizeau; his determination of the density of the earth by the Cavendish method; his study of the solar spectrum and, the ultra- violet spectra of the metals; and his mathe- matical discussion of the diffraction-grat- ing. Besides being a member of many learned societies, Cornu was a prominent member of the French Academy, and was president of the International Congress of Physicists which met at Paris in 1900. He died in 1902. Cornwall Canal. This Canadian canal extends past the Long Sault rapids from Cornwall to Dickinson's Landing. From the head of the Soulanges to the foot of the Cornwall Canal there is a stretch through Lake St. Francis of 32 J miles, which is being made navigable for vessels drawing 14 feet. The length of the canal is eleven miles. It has six locks 270 by 45 feet. The total rise or lockage is 48 feet. The depth of water on the sill is 14 feet. It is 100 feet wide at the bottom and 164 at water surface. See LACHINE and SOUL- ANGES. Cornwall, county-seat of Dundas, Stormont and Glengarry Counties, Ont., is situated on the north bank of the St. Lawrence River at the foot of the Long Sault rapids, and has a population of 6,704 feople, largely engaged in manufacturing, t is on the Grand Trunk and Ottawa & New York railways. Its leading indus- tries are cotton, woolens, paper, machinery and pottery. Corn'wallis, Charles, Marquis, was born at London, Dec. 31, 1738. He served in the Seven Years' War, and accepted an appointment as major-general in America, though he disliked forcing taxes on the colonists. He was the ablest British gen- eral in command, winning the battle of Camden against General Gates, gaining a slight advantage over Greene at Guilford, but being forced to surrender at Yorktown COROLLA 459 CORPORATIONS in 1781. He afterward was governor-general of India, where, by his victories over Tippoo Sahib, he probably saved India to the Eng- lish Made lord -lieutenant of Ireland, he put down the rebellion of 1798, and gained the good-will of the Irish. The ability of Cornwallis in India 'and in Ireland shows that his failure in America was largely due to the poor general- ship of his superior officers, Howe and Clinton. Cornwallis died on Oct. 5, 1805, while on his way to the Indian upper provinces , having been made governor- general a second time. Corel' la (in plants) , the inner set of the two floral envelopes, which usually forms the showy part of the flower. The individual parts are called petals. See FLOWER. a, a. Corollas with free petals. b, b. Corollas with petals united. Coronado (da kd'ro na'tho), Francisco de, a Spaniard, born in Salamanca proba- bly about A. D. 1510, was the leader of a pioneer force of troops which, starting from Mexico, did much to explore the unknown region which now is the southwest por- tion of the United States. The expe- dition appears to have advanced as far as what now is Kansas. Coronado saw the possibilities of the land which he visited for agriculture; but he was disappointed in his search for precious metals. His papers give the first reliable account of the American bison or buffalo. The latter part of the life of Coronado was spent in retirement, and the date of his death is uncertain. For the papers of this expe- dition see The Coronado Expedition (Win- ship) in Reports of the U. S. tiureau of Eth- nology, No 14. Corot (kd'ro') t Jean Baptiste Camilla, a French landscape-painter, was born at Paris, July 28, 1796. He was first a clerk in a dry-goods store, but his tastes led him early to study art. His paintings made their way slowly, but wealth and fame finally came to him. Corot's landscapes were true copies of nature. His favorite subjects were misty lakes, rivers smothered in vapor and the quiet of moonlight or sunrise, which he painted as a poet would have written of them. He had great in- fluence on young French artists, who ad- mired and liked him for his genius, kindli- ness and generosity. At one time they gave him a medal of their own when the Salon had passed him by, and they always called him Father Corot. Among his mas- terpieces are The Dance of Nymphs and Macbeth. He died on Feb. 22, 1875. Corporations. Corporations were known to the laws of ancient Rome; but it is only of late, and especially in the United States, that their value as an instrument of com- merce as well as their danger to the pub- lic welfare has been fully realized. We seem to be in a fair way to preserve the use and to prevent the great abuse of cor- porate power. A corporation is distin- guished _ from the ordinary partnership in that it is, in the eyes of the law, a distinct person, created by the act of incorporation. It continues, though all the original share- holders have died, its acts are to be con- sidered quite distinct from those of the shareholders, it may sue or be sued in the courts. In one sense it is even a citizen, for it has in general the privileges guar- anteed by the constitution of appealing to the supreme court against any state action which the constitution forbids. But this citizenship it does not possess in one matter. It cannot claim the right to do business in any state under the same conditions as those that govern citizens of that state. Thus Texas may pass one set of laws for corporations incorporated within its limits, and another for all other corporations, and forbid their entrance to the state on any other conditions. How- ever, by the interstate commerce pro- vision of the constitution, the products of a corporation of another state may not be excluded from any state, except under conditions that apply to all persons alike. A partnership, on the contrary, is not a distinct person, and the several members are liable to suit for the actions of their- partners in whatever business they have agreed to be partners. A joint-stock company, in like manner, is not a separate person, and the members are liable to be sued for its acts, though they are not held to be responsible for all the acts of the company's officers as a partner is re- sponsible for his partner's acts. At present the Federal government does not incorporate; that is left to the several states. In some states every corpora- tion must be established by a special act of the legislature; but it is now common to lay down by statute the conditions of incorporation and then, whenever those conditions have been fulfilled, the corpora- tion is by that fact established. The act of incorporation has been held by the supreme court to be a contract between the state and the corporation, and it can- not therefore be broken. The state must therefore arrange for the control that it desires to exercise over corporations, be- fore the corporation conies into existence. It is here that we have failed. New Jer- sey, above all other states, offered excep- tionally favorable terms to corporations if they would incorporate under her laws, so as to give her the benefit of the taxes CORPUS CHRISTI 460 CORRELATION OF STUDIES that might be imposed on them. New York was compelled to follow suit, in part, for the same purpose. Other states have joined in this attempt to offer favorable terms with the result that proper provisions for control have not been inserted. The failure to insert proper provisions when incorporating many of the railroads has been especially injurious. It is largely as a result of these mistakes of the state governments, and also because of their inability to agree upon a single line of action toward corporations, that the Federal government has been obliged to take action in the matter. Practically all great trad- ing corporations deal in interstate com- merce, and Congress has control over such commerce and thus, indirectly, over such corporations. It has been proposed that all corporations that have interstate com- merce be required to receive incorpora- tion from the Federal government. Corporations may be divided into sole and aggregate. A sole corporation exists where, for example, the Secretary of War in England with his successors is a corpora- tion. Most corporations have many mem- bers and are aggregate. These are divided into public and private corporations, of which the former include, for example, cities and villages, which are conducted by the public for the public good. There also are eleemosynary corporations which are run by private individuals for the pub- lic good, as colleges, churches. The sav- ings-banks in like manner are eleemosynary. Corpus Christ!, Texas, a city and county -seat of Nueces County, 149 miles from San Antonio. It is located at the mouth of the Nueces River, on Nueces and Corpus Christi Bays. It is the trading-center of a fine agricultural and stock-raising region, and its fish-packing business is very large. The city has good public schools, a convent, sev- eral churches, etc. It is served by four rail- roads, and has a regular freight steamer ser- vice with New Orleans. Population at the present time is 20,000. Correggio (kor-red'jo} , Antonio Allegri da, was named from his birthplace, Cor- reggio, near Modena, Italy. He was born in 1494, and, as his father was well-off and his uncle an artist, Antonio seems to have had none of those struggles with pov- erty that have hampered so many painters. In 1518 he painted a salon in the convent of San Paolo in Parma. The groups of goddesses, graces and nymphs were painted with a fullness of life, gaiety and grace, at that time unknown, that at once stamped him as a genius. In 1522 he began his famous decoration of Parma's cathedral, painting in the main dome his Assump- tion of the Virgin the Madonna borne up to heaven by a countless throng of re- joicing angels, while the Savior descends to meet her. This is deemed the painter's masterpiece, and Titian, when he first saw it, said: "If I were not Titian, I would be Correggio." The Night, II Giorno and The Reading Magdalene are among his best- known pictures. In Correggio's art there are a wonderful gaiety and a sunny charm; he was a master of light and shadow; and hardly any artist equaled him in painting human flesh. He died on March 5, 1534. Cor'rigan, Michael Augustine, Roman Catholic archbishop of New York, was born at Newark, N. J.,Aug. 13, 1839, and educated at St. Mary's College.Wil- .mington, Del. In ^1863 he was ordain- jed to the priesthood Sat Rome, and, after ^holding the chair of ; dogmatic theology 51 a n d subsequently the presidency in Seton Hall College, ARCHBISHOP CORRIGAN Orange, N. J., he was appointed by Pope Pius IX to the see of Newark in 1873. Seven years later he be- came coadjutor to Cardinal McCloskey, and, on the death of the latter, was made metro- gjlitan of the diocese of New York in 1885. e died on May 5th, 1902. Correlation of Studies. In modern methods of teaching the attempt is made to relate together those portions of the subject-matter of the curriculum which appeal to the same human interest. Thus it is evidently better, other things being equal, to teach the history and geography of a country in close connection with each other, rather than independently. The principle of relating portions of the cur- riculum to each other or to a common in- terest is called the correlation of studies. Correlation is one of the practical recom- mendations of the school of Herbart. Froebel also related the activities of the child as far as possible to a central object; but correlation is not the same conception for Froebel as for Herbart. For Her- bart, correlation is based upon a theory of association of ideas in the individual mind. For, in order that the life of thought may possess unity and harmony, it seemed to Herbart that ideas should be associated according to a process to be directed by the teacher from without. In other words, instruction needs to be a deliberate en- deavor to organize the pupil's ideas, and not merely to present them to him; since otherwise the house of thought and, hence, of will might be so divided against itself that it could not stand. But to Froebel, correlation appears to indicate just the recognition of the fundamental oneness of the individual with society. Correlation CORRESPONDENCE-SCHOOLS 461 CORTELYOU is for him the process of carrying over the inward unity of the self to the field of its manifestation or liberation. According to this view, which has been expounded by Professor Dewey, the correlation of studies is not so much a process of relating them to each other as of relating them to life and to its needs and purposes. The child or the student will correlate subjects for himself. This, however, is no reason why the teacher should not assist him in so doing, as Herbart advised. The child will correlate his manual training with his geography more readily, if the teacher shows him on the map from what coun- tries and by what routes the various species of woods which he uses are brought. Special types of correlation are those known as concentration, in which the at- tempt is made to relate all the curriculum to one topic, and co-ordination, in which the subjects of the curriculum are arranged in several groups. As an example of the first type Ziller would make all the in- struction of a pupil for one year to be grouped about the story of Robinson Crusoe. As an example of the second type Dr. Harris would subdivide the cur- riculum into five groups of equal value, so that the subjects in each group should be closely interrelated. See Report of Committee of Fifteen of National Educational Association; also books of the Herbart Society. Correspondence-Schools. The first regu- larly organized correspondence - courses appear to have been given by the Chautau- qua Circles about 1880. Since that time this means of education has been adopted to a considerable extent by a number of colleges and universities, and by receiving credit for work thus done, many worthy students are enabled to earn university degrees who would otherwise be unable to do so. The University of Chicago offers a very large number and variety of corre- spondence-courses . The greatest development of this method of instruction has been in the hands of private schools devoting their whole at- tention to the work. They send out in- struction-papers especially designed for home - instruction. They require written answers to questions upon the work as soon as it has been mastered by the student, and these answers are sent to the instructor, corrected by him, and returned to the student. The instruction in most cases is satisfactory. It cannot be denied, how- ever, that the successful pursuit of this method of study requires more than average S:rseverance on the part of the student, any give up their courses before they are completed. It seems advisable in most cases to have the work divided into courses which can be completed in a comparatively short time and to require a course to be finished within a specified time, in order to furnish a stimulus to regular systematic work. Some of the schools have advertised largely and gathered in students' fees, which were incompetent to give in return anything more than nominal service. Students in- tending to enroll in correspondence-courses should be on their guard against inferior or fraudulent schools of this kind. See CONTINUATION-SCHOOLS. Corsica (kor'si-ka), an island and depart- ment of France in the Mediterranean, lying due south of Genoa and separated from Sardinia by the Strait of Bonifacio. Corsica (Corse in French, from the Greek Cyrnus) was the birthplace of Napoleon Bonaparte. Its surface is mountainous, and the island was long noted for its vendettas and brig- ands. Its products besides timber, include oranges, lemons and grapes, the chief ex- ports being wine and olive-oil. It has an area of 3,367 square miles; its length is 114 miles, and its breadth 52 miles. The capital is Ajaccio on the west coast; but the chief town is Bastia on the northeast portion of the island. The population, which speaks Italian mainly, is about 295,- 589. The island was acquired by the Romans at the close of the first Punic War, and was for periods held by Vandals, Goths, Franks, Saracens, Pisans and Gen- oese. France acquired it in 1768, but in 1793 it came for awhile under British rule; though three years later it was regained by France, which to- day maintains a torpedo-station on the island. Cor'sica'na, Texas., the county seat of Navarro County, on St. Louis Southwestern, Trinity & Brazos Valley and Houston & Texas Central Railroads, 50 miles south- southeast of Dallas and 162 miles northeast of Austin. It has an Odd Fellows widows and orphans' home and a sta^e orphan- asylum. Among its industries, besides plan- ing, flour cotton and cottonseed-oil mills, are foundry and machine-shops, brick-yards and a grain-elevator. Population, 15,240. Cortelyou, George Bruce. Born July 26, 1862, in New York; was educated in the schools of Hempstead, L. I. and in the Institute and state Normal School, Westfield, Mass. He was a law-reporter in New York City for a time, and from 1885 to 1889 he taught school in that city. He entered public service as a private secretary in 1889, and in 1895 was appointed sten- ographer to President Cleveland. He acted as private secretary to President McKinley and President Roosevelt; and, when the Department of Commerce and Labor was organized in 1903, he was appointed secre- tary of that department. In 1905 he be- came Postmaster-General, and in 1907 he was appointed Secretary of the Treasury. During the presidential campaign of 1904 CORTES 462 CORTLAND Mr. Cortelyou was chairman of the Republi- can National Committee. Cortes (kdr'tez"), Hernando, the con- queror of Mexico, was born in Medellin, Spain, in 1485. At 19 his longing for adventure sent him on a voyage to San Domingo, and soon after he joined Velas- quez in the conquest of Cuba. Alvarado's glowing description of Mexico induced Velasquez to place Cortes at the head of a new expedition. On Nov. 18, 1518, Carte's sailed on one of the most daring adventures of history. He had 550 Spaniards, two or three hundred Indians, twelve or fifteen horses, ten brass guns and a few small cannon. At Trinidad he was astounded by orders from Velasquez to give up the com- mand. Corte"s refused to do this, and so cut himself from all hope, save in success. Landing, he fought his first battle at To- basco, where he captured the beautiful and faithful Donna Marina, who became his interpreter. Soon messengers came from the king, Moctezuma, bringing rich presents but forbidding him to visit the capital. Here some of his men, who were friendly to Velasquez, wanted to turn back, but, taking them into his confidence, the com- mander told them that conquest, not mere trade, was what he was after, and so won them over. Founding Vera Cruz and burn- ing his ships behind him, he marched to Tlascala, and after hard fighting subdued the country. Soon after, with some thous- ands of Tlascalans, now his allies, he set set out for Mexico. On Nov. 8, 1519, Corte"s reached the capital, which seemed to the Spaniards like a dream or an en- chanted castle. They saw before them a city of 300,000 people, in the middle of a great salt lake, approached by three cause- ways of solid masonry, from three to six miles long, with many wooden drawbridges. He had hardly been a week in the city, when, on the ground that Vera Cruz had been attacked, Moctezuma was carried to the Spanish quarters and put in irons. At first the Mexicans were stricken with fear of these strange men, with horses and cannon; but they soon saw that they were only men after all, and very few at that; so when Moctezuma had been imprisoned some five months, he begged the Spaniards to leave. Corte"s asked for time, and learn- ing that 1 8 ships had landed, sent by Velasquez, he left Alvarado in command, and with a handful of men set out for the coast. At Cholula, by a night-attack in a blinding storm, he defeated 800 fresh Spaniards, who gladly joined his troops. Two weeks later came the news that the Spanish quarter was besieged. On reach- ing the city, Cortes found himself face to face with the whole nation, led by Mocte- Zuma's brother. After driving back with difficulty a fierce attack, he saw that he must leave the city. At midnight began the retreat over the causeway. Its three bridges had been destroyed by the Mex- icans; the first was crossed by a pontoon, but at once the lake was covered with canoes, and so hot was the attack that at the second bridge the pontoon could not be raised. Soon the water was choked with struggling horses and men, and the retreat became a hopeless rout. Out of that fearful night a handful escaped to land, only to find themselves surrounded by a countless host. Yet they cut their way through, every man fighting as ten men would fight, and reached their friends, the Tlascalans. Six months later Cort6s, with 10,000 Tlascalans, marched on Mexico again. Brigantines were built, attacks along the causeway were made and a regular siege begun; 50,000 Mexicans died from famine and pestilence; yet the city had to be destroyed before it was taken. At last it fell, after 75 days' siege, which for bravery ranks with any in the annals of war. The Spaniards entered, but found only ruined houses filled with heaps of dead. In 1528 Cortes visited Spain and was highly honored, but, though appointed captain-general, he was not made governor of New Spain, as Mexico was now called. The next ten years he was forced to stand fey and see another's bungling government of the rich empire he had won. Meanwhile he discovered Lower California (1533). Disappointed, poor and in ill-health, he went back to Spain in 1540. He accom- panied Charles V on his disastrous Algerian expedition, and, touched to the heart by the emperor's refusal to allow him to capture Algiers, answered: "I am a man who has given you more provinces than your ancestors left you cities." Cortes was no common adventurer, but a captain of great military genius and, withal, a states- man of deep foresight. He was cruel some- times, and passionate, but patient, religious, simple in life, and worshiped by his soldiers and Indian allies. He died near Seville, Dec. 2, 1547. Cor'tex (in plants). The tissues of stems and roots are arranged in three general regions. In the center is the woody cylinder, sometimes solid and sometimes containing a pith. Outside of the woody cylinder is the region of the cortex, containing the active cells; and about the cortex is the epidermis. In perennial plants, where bark is formed, the cork is developed in the cortex, and the epidermis disappears. Cort'land, N. V., a city, the county seat of Cortland County, on the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western and Lehigh Valley railroads, 35 miles south of Syracuse. Settled in the latter part of the i8th century, the city was in 1829 set off as Cortland- ville. It has a state normal school and other educational institutions, together with the Hatch Public Library. Its manufactures CORWIN 463 COTES embrace carriage and wagom-shops, door and window-screen factories, besides wire and wire-cloth, wall-paper, drop-forgings and carriage-trimmings establishments. It is a shipping point also for agricultural and dairy produce. Population, 12,259. Cor'win, Thomas, was born in Bourbon Co., Ky. in 1794, but was brought up in Ohio. He be- came a lawyer, and was noted both as a speaker at the bar and for his keenness in sifting and massing evidence. He was chosen state representa- tive, member of Congress and later, senator, acting with the Whigs. He was opposed to the Mexican War as unjust. He was elected governor THOMAS CORWIN of Ohio after a thorough canvass, speaking in every county and delivering a brilliant speech in support of General Harrison, then Whig candidate for president. In 1850 he became secretary of the treasury under Fillmore. A member of Congress again, in 1858, and supporter f Lincoln in 1860, he was in favor of a compromise on the slavery question, wtich, he hoped, would avoid war. He became minister to Mexico in 1861, and died at Washington, D. C., Dec. 18, 1865. Corymb (kor'imV), a flat-topped flower cluster, in which the pedicels of the flowers are of different lengths, arising from the axis at different levels. The outer flowers bloom first. See INFLORESCENCE. Coshec'ton, Ohio, a city, the seat of Coshocton County, on the Muskingum River and on the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis and Wheeling & Lake Erie railways, about 70 miles east- northeast of Columbus. It was settled early in the last century and incorporated in 1833. Its manufactures include novelty- advertising establishments, wooden-novelty works, machine-shops, glass-factory and other "plants." It has a public library, churches and schools, and owns its own water- works. Population, 9,603. Cos' sacks, a race first known in the xoth century in the region south of Poland and Muscovy. Their name has been said to mean an armed man, a coat, a saber, a goat, etc. Their race-stock is just as un- certain; probably they sprang from mixed Slavonic, Tartar and Circassian tribes, though some hold them to be Tartars, and others almost purely Russians. They fought against the Turks and Tartars, and were very powerful in the isth century. Poland and Muscovy employed them to guard their boundaries; while Cossacks are to be met with in the outposts of Russia in Siberia, Central Asia and the Caucasus. Sometimes living near hostile peoples, they formed a cordon of settlements along the borders of territory they held; sometimes living in the midst of enemies, they gathered in separate camps, ever ready for attack or defense. They are a democratic people, choosing all their officers for one year only. Every Cossack, too, might be elected to any post, even the highest, that of hetman. There were two branches: the Little Russian and the Don Cossacks. Descend- ants of the Don Cossacks now form part of the cavalry of the Russian army, and stand fatigue, hunger, thirst and cold with the greatest patience. Though for a long time thought to be fierce savages, late travelers say that in ability, cleanliness and enter- prise they are above the average Russians, and in the i8th century an Englishman who had lived with them affirmed that they were "a civilized and very gallant as well as sober people." Costa Rica (kos'td re'kd) (meaning rich coast), a republic of Central America, reaching from the Atlantic to the Pacific, with Nicaragua on the north and Panama on the south. It has an area of 18,400 square miles. Aside from the few Indians, the people are sprung from the Spanish settlers. The country is rich in gold, silver and copper, but its chief trade is in coffee, bananas and bar-gold, and it has been called the Coffee Republic. Costa Rica was discovered by Columbus, and a settle- ment was founded, probably in 1502, on his fourth voyage. It became free from Spain in 1821, and has had several consti- tutions, with a president and congress chosen every four years. It is held to be the best governed republic in Central America, though it is in default in meet- ing the principal and interest of its public debt. Costa Rica has an army of 1,000 men (infantry and artillery) besides 5,000 militia ; though on a war-footing the republic can command about 150,000 militia. The state also has one gunboat and one torpedo- boat. In 1909 the value of its exports was $8,176,257; while its imports amounted to $6,109,938. There are 75 post-offices. The railways extend about 300 miles. The bulk of the trade is with the United States the latter supplying Costa Rica with bread- stuffs and ironwork. The state-church is Roman Catholic. The capital is San Jose' (population, 26,682). The other chief towns are Cartago, Alajuela, Limon, Pun- tarenas and Heredia. Population, 351,176 and about 3,500 aborigines. Cotes, Mrs. Everard (nee Sara Jean- ette Duncan), Canadian and, latterly, an Anglo-Indian, novelist, was born at Brant- COTOPAXI 464 COTTON ford, Ontario, in 1861, and educated at its Collegiate Institute. Early in the eighties she began to write for Canadian magazines and to act as staff-correspondent for Toronto and Montreal newspapers. Her cleverness, fine perception of the weaknesses and eccentricities of human nature and her per- vasive humor obtained a connection with the English press and the appointment to act for a literary syndicate in making a tour of the world. The result of the tour appeared in A Social Departure and subse- quently in An American Girl in London. Her later works include The Simple Ad- ventures of a Mem-Sahib; Vernon's Aunt; A DaugMer of To-day; His Honor and a Lady; A Voyage of Consolation and a delight- ful book on the author's Indian garden. In 1890 she married the editor of a Calcutta newspaper, a scientist, and has since made India her home. Cotopaxi (kd'to-paks'e), the highest vol- cano in the world, is a peak of the Andes, in Ecuador, 33 miles from Quito. The earliest volcanic outburst of which we know took place in 1532 and 1533. Many others have happened since. In 1744 its thunderings could be heard 500 miles away; in 1768 occurred the worst eruption, when ashes were carried 130 miles. The moun- tain is a perfect snow-crowned cone. Smoke can be seen issuing from the crater, sounds like explosions are sometimes heard, and at night a glow is noticed on the sky above the volcano. There is little lava, but dur- ing an outburst^fiame, smok and great quantities of ashes are thrown out. Coto- paxi was first climbed in 1872 by Wilhelm Keiss, who gives the height of the north- west peak as 19,498 feet and the southwest peak as 19,429 feet. The last eruptions were in 1877. Cotton. As early as 1500 B. C. the people of India and by 1200 B. C. the Greeks, Phoenicians and Egyptian s with primitive appliances, were making cotton cloth of a qual- ity which has been surpassed only by the most skillful manufacturers during the last half century. Cotton either in its wild or culti- vated state was used at the date of the discovery of America in COTTON PLANT practically every country within the 4oth parallels of north and south latitude, except in what is now the United States. Cotton is now cultivated in the United States on nearly all kinds of soils, south of latitude 37, artificial fertilizers being used to increase the yield, or hasten ripening on soils not naturally adapted to it. THE COTTON QUEEN AND HER DRESSES The plant belongs to the Malvaceae, or Mallow family, and is known by the generic name Gossipium. It is a perennial, but under cultivation usually becomes an annual or biennial. Culture in the United States is practically confined to two species, the silky, long-staple Sea Island cotton G. barba- dence grown in the lowland coasts and coastal islands of Georgia and South Carolina; and Upland cotton G. hirsutum which is of two sorts, short cotton and Upland long-staple cotton. The flowers somewhat resemble single holly-hock blooms and continue to form until frost, opening their pale creamy petals one morning in full maturity for insect pollination, fading to pink by noon, dark pink the second day, and by night are shrivelled ready to be pushed off in a few days by the swelling fruit or boll. Bolls vary from almost spherical to long narrow pointed capsules and are divided into 3, 4 or 5 segments. When the bolls split and the fibres fluff into a twisted mass, the cotton is ready for picking. ON THE PLANTATION Cotton requires six or seven months of favorable growing weather between spring and fall frost to mature, but picking may extend far into the winter. It thrives in a very warm or even hot temperature, provided the atmos- phere is moist, but it will mature a crop on less water than any other crop plant. Any sudden change in temperature, moisture or cultural methods is apt to cause an abortion of the young fruit and flowers. Usually cotton is planted on ridges or "beds." Fertilizers, when used, are generally drilled into the beds just before planting. The seed are usually drilled in about one bushel per acre. When the plants are three or four inches high they are hoed or "chopped" out, single plants being left standing trom 12 to 24 inches apart, distance depending upon luxur- iance of growth and type of cotton Generally speaking the best concentrated fertilizer to be used is one containing soluble phosphoric acid, available potash and avail- able nitrogen, although the nitrogen may be omitted if it has been previously supplied with green manure, legumes or barnyard manure. COTTON PICKING AND GINNING Mechanical pickers have been devised, but do not show the discrimination of the human being in avoiding immature cotton, nor adapta- bility to the irregularities of the average cotton field. After picking, the cotton is hauled in large boxed wagons to the gin (see ELI WHIT- NEY). It is sucked from the wagon through long tubes and distributed directly to the several gins in the gin house. A continuation of this sucking or blowing apparatus collects the ginned cotton and passes it to the compress COTTONBOLL- WEEVIL 465 COUES where it is compressed in large boxes. From the box it is swung around to the baler, further compressed, covered with coarse burlap and bound with metal straps. Each bale weighing about 500 Ibs. is marked for identification and with its actual weight. HOW COTTON IS BOUGHT Cotton, the fibers of which are not over i Y% inches long is known as short cotton and is sold by grade from samples taken from each bale. Grading is based on color and relative amount of trash and stained fibers present. Short cotton constitutes the great bulk of that produced in this country and is used in making the cheaper grades of goods. Additional factors of length, strength and uniformity of fiber enter into the value of long staple cot- tons, premiums generally being given for each fa inch in length. The finer fabrics, including muslins and laces (g. r.) are made from long staple cotton. The linters or fuzz remaining on the seed of Upland cotton after ginning yields batting, wadding, stuffing for pads, etc., and "lambs wool" for fleece-lined underwear. The hulls are used in cattle feed, fertilizers and paper stock. From the seed oil is made, which is used in lard compounds, cooking and salad oils and soap stocks, while the "cake" (residue after pressing the oil from the kernels) is used in fertilizers, dye stuffs, cattle and poultry feed, confectionery and flour. ENEMIES OF COTTON Cotton is subject to diseases, such as leaf blight, shedding of bolls, root, and boll rot and root galls. The principal insect enemies are the cotton worm, the boll worm, and the Mexican boll weevil. Of these, the weevil is the worst, but by community effort the number of early weevils may generally be so reduced that a crop may be well advanced before the insects become hopelessly abundant. G. S. MELOY U. S. Department of Agriculture. Cotton, John (1585-1652), an eminent Puritan minister, was for 20 years pastor of Boston in Lincolnshire, England, and for almost as long in Boston, New Eng- land. Cotton, whose Puritan leanings made him an object of suspicion under the primacy of Laud, was to have been brought before the Court of High Commission for trial. He escaped, however, to London and, later, to Boston, New England. Both in Eng- land and in New England, the reputation of Cotton for learning was of the highest. He had an absolute command of Latin, Greek and Hebrew; and loved "to sweeten his mouth with a piece of Calvin" at the close of his day of twelve hours' study. Cotton opposed Anne Hutchinson, whom he had at first been disposed to favor; and disputed also with Roger Williams. Among his many works was the catechism Milk for Babes. Cottonworm, the larva of a moth doing great damage to the cotton-plant by eat- ing the foliage. It is estimated by officials of the United States government that the loss occasioned by this insect in a year of great abundance of cotton-plants amounts to 30 million dollars. The average loss is placed at 15 million dollars. The perfect insect is a small, brownish moth, which flies at night and deposits eggs on the under side of the leaves of the cotton-plant. These eggs hatch in mid-summer within three days, and at once is begun the de- struction of the leaves. The larva, when full-grown, is about an inch and three fourths in length, of a light-green color, striped with white and black and spotted with black and yellow. When through feeding, the caterpillar folds a leaf about itself, spins a cocoon and pupates; shortly after emerging, the moth lays her eggs. There may be seven broods in a single season. A related species destroys cotton in the ball. See Riley: Entomological Com- mission's 4th Report (Washington, 1885) ; Bul- letin No. 1 8, New Series (Washington, 1898). Cotyledon ( kot'i-le' don ) , the first leaf or leaves developed by an embryo. In seed- plants the cotyledons are developed in the seed, and are more or less different from the usual leaf-form, often being fleshy from, containing stored food, as in the bean and acorn. Generally the cotyledons escape from the seed during its germina- tion, but in some cases, as in the acorn, they never leave the seed. See EMBRYO. Couch, Darius Nash, an American general, was born on July 23, 1822, in Putnam County, New York; and died at Norwalk, Conn., Feb. 12, 1897. After graduating at West Point, he served in the Mexican War as lieutenant of artillery. He entered the Civil War as colonel of the yth Massachusetts. He took part in the battles of Yorktown, Williamsburg, Fair Oaks, Malvern Hill, Fredericksburg and Chancellors ville. He was made major- general in 1862, and was in command of a division in the battle of Nashville. Coues ( kouz ) , Elliott, a notable American ornithol- ogist, was born at Portsmouth, N.H., Sept, 9, 1842; and died at Baltimore, Md.,Dec. 25, 1899. After graduating at Columbian University, Wash- ington, D. C., in 1 86 1, he entered the military medi- cal service , and was for a time surgeon and naturalist on the U. S. northern- boundary commis- ELLIOTT COUES sion. He was COULTER 466 COURTS OF JUSTICE subsequently collaborator at the Smith- sonian Institution, and secretary and nat- uralist to the U. S. geological and geo- graphical survey of the territories; was chairman of committee at the Psychical Science congress in 1893; and edited a number of works in biology and on com- parative anatomy and zoology. His writ- ings embrace a number of works on his specialty of ornithology, among which are a Key to North American Birds; Birds of the Northwest and of the Colorado Valley; New England Bird Life; Fur-Bearing Animals. Coul'ter, John Merle f a great author- ity on American botany and head-pro- fessor of botany at the University of Chi- cago, was born at Ningpo, China, of Ameri- can parentage, Nov. 20, 1851. After gradu- ating at Hanover College, Indiana, he spent a year as botanist on the U. S. geo- logical survey in the Rocky Mountains. He was afterward successively professor of natural sciences in his alma mater; pro- fessor of biology at Wabash College; presi- dent of the University of Indiana; and president (1893-96) of Lake Forest Uni- versity. Since 1896 he has been attached to the University of Chicago, in charge of his special department. His published works include a Synopsis of the Flora of Colorado; a Manual of Rocky Mountain Botany; Handbook of Plant Dissection; Manual of the Botany of Western Texas; and an edition, as editor, of Gray's Manual of Botany. Coun'cil Bluffs, a city of Pottawat- tomie County, Iowa, lies not far from the old meeting-point of the Indian tribes. Here the Mormons tarried from 1846 to 1849, while on their way to Utah. For many years it was the last village in civ- ilized America, and here California emi- grants and trappers got their outfits before entering the Indian country. It lies across the Missouri from Omaha, Neb. Six rail- roads, running west from Chicago, here meet the Union Pacific line, and others turn to the north and south. The city's industries include manufactures of paper, iron, carriages and agricultural machines. Population, 32,000. Courthope (kort'op), William John, an English critic and man-of -letters, was born in Sussex, England, July 17, 1842, and educated at Harrow and Oxford. At the latter he won the chancellor's gold medal for verse, and also was Newdigate prize- man. He was one of the founders of the English National Review and a staff mem- ber of the Quarterly Review; subsequently he was appointed civil-service examiner in the government education department, and was made a Companion of the Bath. From 1895 to 1901 he was professor of poetry in the University of Oxford. He has edited an elaborate edition of Pope's Works, with Life; a Life of Addison (in the English Men of Letters Series); a History of Eng- lish Poetry; and a burlesque in allegory, entitled The Paradise of Birds. Courtney, The Right Reverend Fred- erick, Bishop. Rector, St. James Church, New York. Born at Plymouth, England, in 1837. Graduated from Kings College, London, 1863. Came to New York in 1876 as assistant at St. Thomas' Church. Was made Rector of St. Paul's, Boston, in 1882, and bishop of Nova Scotia, 1888 to 1904, attended the Lambeth Conference in 1888. He holds honorary degrees from several universities, and is much ad- mired as preacher and bishop. Courts of Justice. Courts of justice in primitive times either were the people assembled or the king and his advisers. Their activity has always been of two kinds: either to punish or to arbitrate. Criminal cases are those in which the com- munity punishes the offender; civil cases, those in which the community decides a dispute. In early days the court was all important; but when the community en- trusted justice to a few specially selected men, it laid down laws by which they should be in part guided; and those selected men laid down further rules to guide their successors. So that now a court of justice is always subordinate to a system of law and precedents, which it may not alter, but which it must interpret to fit the case before it. In the early Roman republic the people's assembly, the comitia, tried all important cases. In the Roman em- pire there was established a regular sys- tem of courts, in which we may distinguish courts of original jurisdiction and courts of appeal. The former try cases at first hand. An appeal may be taken only from an inferior to a superior court. The Ro- mans also established a distinction still preserved between common law and equity; the former being the laws and customs current in the community, and the latter principles of justice laid down by judges at various times and finally brought to- gether in a system. Our Teutonic ancestors preserved through the middle ages the right of being tried, not indeed by the whole people, but by some of them, usually six or more, of about the same rank as the accused. That is, they were his peers. This trial by jury Englishmen especially held precious, and we in America still regard it as necessary to securing justice. (See the Constitution, Article III, Section 2, and Amendments V, VI and VII). On the continent of Europe, except in the cities, the model generally followed was that of the courts of the church, in which the essential thing was a trained judge. Since the French Revolution, however, the jury-system has become common on the continent. As our system of courts is largely de- rived from that of England, we may note COURTS OF JUSTICE 467 COURTS OF JUSTICE that in that country the lowest court is everywhere the justice of the peace, who in the cities is called a police-magistrate. He deals chiefly with minor offenses and also settles many civil disputes in small matters. But disputes concerning mat- ters that must be entered on the public and permanent records, such as the right to real estate, wills, divorces, etc., are re- ferred at once to local courts of record, the borough or county courts. These are called inferior courts. These courts also deal with offenses of greater importance. Since 1873 the superior courts include the Supreme Court. This includes "His Majesty s High Court of Justice," which has such divisions as the Chancery division (dealing chiefly with cases of equity}, the Kings Bench (or common law division), the probate (wills) and the admiralty (naviga- tion) divisions. All these courts have original jurisdiction. The Court of Ap- peals includes several divisional courts, and also a final Court of Appeals, the highest regular court in the Kingdom. But in some cases the matter may be appealed to the House of Lords, and in cases affecting India, the colonies and foreign countries the Privy Council is the final court. In England all judges are appointed, and appointed for life. The English be- lieve with some reason that they have thereby secured a more honest and a more able administration of justice. The United States courts either are Fed- eral or state courts. In state courts, ex- cept that the judges or justices are elected by the people, in most cases for a term of years, the lower courts are very like those of England, both in name and in powers. In some states, the county-judges receive such names as judge of quarter-sessions. But the essential point is that he is a judge of record and that he tries more important cases but not, as a rule, the most important cases. In some states these county-courts have, besides the above powers, those of a circuit or superior court. Commonly, however, the superior or circuit-courts are distinct. They are elected by a larger division of the state, containing several counties, and for longer terms. They have original iurisdiction in the most important cases, there is finally a system of courts of appeal, including two or more divisional courts, and then a final court of impeachment for the trial of judges and of the executive. The distinction between courts of law and courts of equity is preserved only in a few states. Most states have a special county- judge for dealing with the property of per- sons deceased. His court has various names, as surrogate's, prerogative or or- phan's court. In general, the higher judges are elected or appointed for longer terms. In many states they hold office for life and during good behavior. In a few cases they are elected, not by the people, but by the legislature. In a few others the gov- ernor appoints them. Federal courts include the senate as a court of impeachment (see CONGRESS), the Supreme Court, the Court of Claims, Com- merce - Court and District - Courts. The Supreme Court consists of nine judges, the Chief- Justice and eight associates; but the number may be increased at the will of Congress; which also may, on the death or retirement of a justice, refuse to provide for a successor. The justices are nominated by the president and confirmed by the senate. They are appointed for life, but may be removed by impeachment. All federal judges are thus appointed. The supreme court was established by the constitution, and cannot be abolished by Congress; but the circuit and district-courts as well as the court of claims may be so abolished. The supreme court sits at Washington from October, to July each year. There are nine circuit-courts, to each of which a supreme-court justice is assigned. There are 25 circuit-judges (1903). Each circuit has two kinds of courts : (i) a court of orginal jurisdiction, which may consist of the supreme-court justice of the circuit, or a circuit-judge, or a district- judge of the circuit or any two of them; (2) a circuit-court of appeals, to which cases from the first class or from district- courts may be appealed. This consists of three judges of the circuit, but must not include the judge who tried the case. There are 69 district-courts, with a judge, clerk, marshal and attorney. Appeals may be made from the district-court to the circuit-court of appeal; and in important cases from that court to the supreme court. The court of claims deals with claims of private persons against the Federal gov- ernment; appeals from its decisions are direct to the supreme court. The courts in the territories and in the District of Columbia are established by Congress, but are not Federal courts. The judges serve for four years; whereas all Federal judges are appointed for life. The Federal courts may only try cases which are directly removed by the constitution from the de- cision of the state-courts. Wherever a state-court faces the question of whether a Federal treaty or statute or act of au- thority is valid or applicacable to a case in dispute, and decides that it is not valid or is not applicable, then the person who claims that it is, has the right of appeal to the Federal court, as a state is not com- petent to decide on such a matter. How- ever, no person has the right to force a state into the courts (Eleventh Amend- ment). In all criminal cases and suits at common law before a Federal court, a Federal jury must be summoned to try the COURTS-MARTIAL 468 COVENANTERS case. The supreme court tries all cases concerning ambassadors and other ministers from foreign countries and all cases where a state brings action against another state or the citizens of another state or a foreign country. In these cases the suit is at once brought before the supreme court; but in other cases which include, besides those mentioned already, cases that involve laws of navigation and controversies wherein the United States is a party in all such cases the state-courts or lower Federal courts must try the matter first, and appeal may then be made according to the principles already mentioned. The Federal courts do not create laws, and are bound even more strictly than state-courts to interpreting the law, viz., the constitution and the enactments of Congress, always preserving the sovereignty of the constitution. It is wrong to speak of the supreme court as superior to Con- gress, in contrast with the British courts, which are subordinate to Parliament. The difference is that in England the Par- liament is superior to all authority what- soever, there being no constitution to over- rule it, while in America, Congress and the supreme court alike are subject to the con- stitution. Of course the will of the peo- ple is the final judge in both countries. At the same time, because the supreme court has the duty of interpreting the con- stitution, which needs a great deal of in- terpreting to apply it to all the changes of modern life, it has in fact a great deal to say as to what regulations shall govern us. For example, the constitution does not forbid, explicitly, a graduated income- tax; but the supreme court forbids it by its interpretation of the constitution. The constitution being difficult to amend, that interpretation, and nothing else, prevented at one time the collecting of such a tax. In like manner the state-courts of every state have the power of interpreting the constitution of the state and of deciding whether the acts of the legislature and ex- ecutive are in accordance with it. When- ever Federal or state-courts decide against the constitutionality of an act, it is void, as if it had never been passed or done. But it is the rule that where there is doubt in the matter, the benefit of the doubt is to be given to the act or statute. PERCY HUGHES. Courts-Martial, in their modern form, as regular tribunals set up by Congress or in minor cases by a military or naval com- mander, for the trial of offences against martial law or discipline in the army, navy or marines, date from an ordinance of Charles I, and are referred to in the first mutiny-act of William and Mary. Both in America and England there are several grades of courts-martial. In the highest or general courts, ih more serious offences and also all charges against commissione-A officers are tried. Often, when evidence is to be gathered, courts of inquiry are set up for this purpose. These courts in America may summon witnesses upon oath; but in England they have no such legal powers. When sentence of death is decreed, it is usually by shooting. The old-fashioned drumhead courts-martial, held upon the field before passion had time to cool and before full evidence could be gathered, are no longer held. Summary courts may, however, be held, in America in the place of regimental and garrison courts, and in the British army chiefly to try offences committed upon active service abroad, when it is difficult to have the offenders tried in the ordinary courts. The more serious offences are never tried by such courts, which in the United States consist of but a single officer. Courts- martial have the defect that their members belong to one and the same class, and may have a special army or navy senti- ment. In 1757 Admiral Byng was sac- rificed by an English court-martial to popular clamor, and shot, having perhaps made an error of judgment in avoiding battle with a vastly superior fleet. Great public interest has recently been shown (1907) in the sentence of a company of negro troops to disbandment under martial law by President Roosevelt. In a court- martial the prisoner at present has much the same privileges of having an advocate, a right to reply, etc. as in the ordinary criminal courts. The judges are of equal or superior rank to the prisoner. Cousin (koo'zan'), Victor, founder of a school of philosophy, was born at Paris, Nov. 28, 1792. After finishing his studies he was appointed professor at the Sor- bonne. He early began to write, and one of his first books, his translation of Plato, met with immediate success. His lectures drew crowds; his ideas, for the most part, were new to his hearers, bold, clear and beautiful in style; he also had a wonderful power in bringing together facts of history and philosophy so as to throw light on each other. He also took part in politics, and was one of the leaders of thought in Paris. So when his friend Guizot, in 1830, became prime minister, Cousin was made a member of the council of public instruction and also a peer of France. He also held other offices, and was a public man until 1849. His teachings have had great influence in Germany, England and America as well as in France. Among the best-known of his books are The True, the Beautiful and the Good and The History of Philosophy. He died at Cannes, France, Jan. 13, 1867. Covenanters, a body of the Scottish people, including the greater part of the nation, who during the i6th and the i7th centuries bound themselves by Covenants COVENTRY 469 COWLET o make and keep the Presbyterian church as the only religion of Scotland. The first was drawn up by John Craig in 1581 and signed by James I. Others like it followed, and in 1638 was drawn up the Solemn League and Covenant, a bond be- tween those opposed to the Catholic and Episcopal churches in Scotland, England and Ireland. It was adopted by the Eng- lish Parliament. But in Charles II's reign, the covenant-oaths were declared unlaw- ful and, later, treasonable; yet many of the Covenanters kept on taking these oaths until the Revolution of 1688 made it no longer necessary for the Scots to band to- gether for the liberty of their church. Cov'entry ( kui/en-trt ) , a city of War- wickshire, England, about the middle of the kingdom, between the four English Forts, London, Bristol, Liverpool and Hull, ts chief manufactures are ribbons, watches, bicycles and cloth. St. Michael's Church, built between the years 1230 and 1395, is the largest parish-church in England, its spire 200 feet in height. St. Mary's Hall, built in the i4th century, with its carved- oak roof and large painted window, is a fine example of ornamental work. In 1043 Earl Leofric and his wife. Lady Godiva, founded here a monastery. In Tenny- son's Godiva is told the story of this lady's famous ride, clothed only by her long hair, through the streets of Coventry, while the people reverently kept within their houses behind closed blinds. This was the barbarous condition made by her husband, the lord of the town, when she pleaded that the citizens might be treed from harsh taxes. In memory of her there used to be splendid processions in Coventry. Here also Rich- ard II stopped the trial by battle between the Dukes of Norfolk and Hereford, of which Shakespeare has so well told us in his Richard II. Here for a time Mary, Queen of Scots was imprisoned, and near the town was one of George Eliot's homes. Population 69,978. Cov'erdale, Miles, editor of English versions of the Bible, was born in York- shire, England, in 1488. He studied at Cambridge, became a priest, and soon left the country. His edition of Tindale's and other men's translations of the Bible came out in 1535. The Psalms of this transla- tion are still used in the Book of Common Prayer, and many of the most beautiful phrases in the famous King James' version are due to Coverdale. It was printed in German black-letter, in double columns, with wood-cuts. In 1538 Cromwell sent him to Paris to take charge of another translation, but the work was stopped and many of the sheets burned. However, the presses and type were smuggled into England, and the translation was brought out; it is known as the Great Bible. Coyer- dale was also editor of Cranmer's Bible. He was made bishop of Exeter, but was forced to leave England when Mary I came to the throne. He died in 1568. Coverty, Sir Roger de, a fictitious character in Addison's paper, The Spectator, who has charmed lovers of literature for two centuries. Covington (kutf ing-tun), the capital of Kenton County, northern Kentucky, on the Ohio River, opposite Cincinnati, to which it is joined by two fine suspension- bridges. Many of its people are Cincinnati business men; but it is more than a mere suburb of that city, having large distilleries and manufactures of glassware, nails and tobacco. It also has large industries in rolling-mills and in the manufacture of stoves, etc. The Licking River separates it from Newport, Ky. Covington is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishopric, and possesses good schools, churches, a hos- pital, orphan- asylum and public library. Population 53 270. Cowbird, a bird found in fields feeding near cattle, picking up the insects the ani- mals disturb in their grazing. It some- times rides on the back of a cow, and often may be seen 1'ust in front of one. t makes no nest, but, like the Euro- pean cuckoos, lays its eggs in the nests of other birds usu- ally in the nest of a smaller bird. The young cowbird is larger than the other nestlings, but the deception does not seem to be noticed by the foster-mother. The male cowbird is glossy, greenish-black, with head and neck dark coffee-brown. The female is dirty brownish-gray, with whitish throat. They live in small flocks. Cowboy. See RANCHING. Cow'Iey, Abraham, an English poet, was born at London in 1618. His father died before his birth, and it was through his mother's struggles that he got a university education. It was by reading a copy of Spenser's Faerie Queene, when hardly more than a child, that he came to write poetry. When ten years old, he wrote good verses, and brought out a book of poems when 15. On the breaking out of the Civil War, he followed the queen in her flight to Paris, and wrote letters in cipher for her to King Charles. Cowley's best known works are Pindarique Odes and The Mistress. Dur- ing his lifetime he was held to be the great- est of English poets, but now he is little read. This is probably because he wrote for the court and for the taste of the peo- ple of his own time. Nevertheless, some few passages of his are powerful. He also COWBIRD COW-PEAS 470 COWSLIP wrote essays, which are much better known than his poetry and rank with those of Goldsmith and Addison. He died on July 28, 1667. Cow-=Peas, a very important leguminous crop for forage and for adding fertility to the soil. They can be grown on soil too poor to support clover. (See NITROGEN- GATHERING CROPS). Its hay yields more dry matter and digestible protein than clover. (See BALANCED RATION.) Being susceptible to frost, the cultivation of most varieties is confined to the southern states. The soy-bean is another leguminous plant much grown for similar purposes. The seeds of both form a valuable concentrated food. Cow'pens, a village of South Carolina, near which the British under Colonel Tar- leton were defeated by the Americans under General Morgan, Jan. 17, 1781. Corn- wallis dispatched Tarleton with 1,100 choice troops to drive Morgan into North Carolina. The forces met in an open wood known as Hannah's Cowpens. The Americans, who numbered about 1,000, were drawn up in two lines, with an advance corps of rifle- men and a small cavalry reserve. The British charged, driving the riflemen back to the first line; when within bayonet thrust, the first line fell back on the second. A misunderstood order threw the Americans into confusion, and Morgan ordered a re- treat to a slight rise where the cavalry were posted. On came the British, but just then the dragoons charged, and at the same time the rear line faced about, poured in a volley at close range, and charged bayo- nets. The British line was broken and put to flight. The British loss was 800 or 900; the Americans lost 72. Cowper (kffo'per or kou'per), William, a celebrated English poet, was born in 1731 in Hertfordshire, England. When very young he was sent to Westminster School, where, he complains afterward, " he learned the infernal art of lying." One of his school-fellows was Thurlow, who jokingly promised him an appoint- ment when he should be lord-chancellor, but failed to keep the promise. Cowper studied law and was offered by a cousin a clerkship in the house of lords. But the candidate would have to appear before the bar of the house, and this thought unmanned the poet. A fixed idea that every one was his enemy, the forerunner of madness, took possession of him. He tried to kill himself on several occasions, and for a time was confined in an asylum. After recovering his health, he met his good angel, Mrs. Unwin, in whose family, at Olney, he lived for some time; but his madness burst out again suddenly while he was making a call at the house of his friend, John New- ton. He stayed there a year, refusing to j?o back to his own house, though it was but next door. In 1779, though he never fully recovered, began the brightest period of his life. As yet he had not written a line, but he followed Mrs. Unwin's counsels like a child, and when, to occupy his mind, she asked him to write poetry, poetry he wrote. He had also made the acquaintance of Lady Austen, another angel whose smiles put life into his brain, and her playful request that he write her a poem on something or other, "this sofa, for instance," resulted in The Task, Cowper's greatest work. One morn- ing he also read her the famous ballad John Gilpin, the story of which she had told him the night before. In 1787 came on another attack of his old trouble, and again he made an attempt upon his life. Yet in these last gloomy years he wrote two of his most beautiful poems, one Ad- dressed to My Mother's Picture and another to My Mary. See his biography, by Prof. .Goldwin Smith, in the English Men of Let- ters Series. He died on April 25, 1800. Mrs. Browning was inspired by the pathos of his life to write one of her most poignant and appealing poems. Cow'slip, a common native flower of English pastures, to be met with also in many other parts of Europe. It is a deli- COWSLIP cate, modest little flower, a great favorite both for its beauty and fragrance. It differs from the common primrose, in having umbels or spreading flower-clusters. These clusters or bells were long thought to be the haunts of fairies, and are still sometimes called fairy-cups. The flower commonly called Cowslip in America is a quite diff- erent blossom, a member of the Crowfoot family. It also is known as the Marsh Marigold, but is neither true Marigold nor true Cowslip. In appearance it closely cox 471 CRAB resembles the buttercup. By whatever name called, the yellow of the blossom is purest gold, the glossy leaves are of richest green, the familiar cowslip a glad- some blossom of the spring. It grows in marshes, often quite deep in water, and is found north of Carolina and west to the Rocky Mountains. Its stem is hollow, its branches bearing both leaves and flowers. The upper leaves grow on very short stems, thereby not shading the lower leaves, all spreading out broadly to the light. The young plants are sometimes used for "greens. The season of flowering is quite long, from April to June. Cox, Sir George William, an English cleric and historian, was born in 1827, and educated at Rugby and at Trinity College, Oxford. He held several curacies, and became rector of Scrayingham in York- shire. He wrote largely on Grecian his- tory and mythology. His chief works are A Manual of Mythology; Mythology of the Aryan Nations; a History of Greece; Introduction to the Science of Comparative Mythology and Folk-Lore; and a Life of Bishop Colenso. With Dr. Brande he edited a Dictionary of Science and Litera- ture. His death occurred in 1902. Cox, Jacob Dolson, an American sol- dier and statesman, was born at Montreal, Oct. 27, 1828. He studied law and began practice in Warren, O. He was a mem- ber of the state senate when the Civil War began in 1861, and also was a brigadier- general of militia. He at once entered the Federal army and rendered conspicuous service throughout the war, taking part in many of the important battles and ad- vancing to the rank of major-general. He was elected governor of Ohio, in 1866; was secretary of the interior in President Grant's cabinet in 1869; member of Con- gress from 1877 to 1879; and in 1885 be- came president of Cincinnati University. General Cox's qualities as a student and scholar, as well as a brave and capable general, gave value to his contributions to history of the great struggle, which in- clude Atlanta (1882); The March to the Sea (1882); and Military Reminiscences, the latter being published after his death (Aug. 4, 1900). Cox, Kenyon, American painter, was born at Warren, O., Oct. 27, 1856, and studied art in Cincinnati, Philadelphia and Paris. In the latter city he was a pupil of GeYome. In 1882 he became a member of the Society of American Artists, and settled in New York to pursue his profession. His pictures are chiefly por- traits and figure-pieces, together with designs for book-illustration. Among the latter is his work done on Rossetti's The Blessed Damozel; he has also painted decora- tions in the Library of Congress and in the Walker Art-Gallery of Bowdoin College, Cox, Palmer, American artist and author, was born at Granby, Quebec, April 28, 1840, and was educated at the academy of hi* native town. In early manhood he drifted to California, where he developed his native taste for drawing and sketching, while at the same time contributing to periodicals. He afterward returned east and settled in New York, where he contributed and illus- trated a series of popular papers for the young, later published as The Brownie Stories, The Brownies at Home, The Brownies thrmigh the Union, The Brownies in Fairy- land, etc. He also issued Queer People with Claws and Paws; How Columbus Found America, etc. Cox, Samuel Sullivan, American poli- tician and diplomat, was born at Zanes- ville, O., in 1824, and died at New York on Sept. 10, 1889. After graduating at Brown University he became editor of The States- man, a Columbus, Ohio, journal, in which appeared a flowery description of a sunset, which earned him the sobriquet of Sunset Cox. For over 30 years he was a member of Congress, where his humor and debating power earned him influence. In 1885-86 he was United States minister to Turkey. He was the author of several works, among which are A Buckeye Abroad; Eight Years in Congress; Why We Laugh; and Three Decades of Federal Legislation. Coyote (ki-ot? orkl-o'te). See WOLF. Crab, a short-tailed relative of the lob- ster and fresh-water crayfish. The lob- ster and crayfish each have a long tail, and so has the crab during its early life; the reduction of the tail is a case of modifica- tion. The crab is the highest member of the class of animals (Crustacea) which con- tains the shrimps, prawns, lobsters and crayfish. It has five pairs of legs and on this account is often called a Decapod or ten-footed animal. The first pair of legs ends in large claws, somewhat like those of the lobster, but smaller; the other four pairs are walking legs. The head-end is covered oy a broadly expanded buckler or CRAB shield. (See illustration.) This is an out- growth of the horney covering of the body, CRABBE 47* CRAIK and it covers the segments or rings of the body that are closely crowded under it, and serves to conceal the fact that the en- tire body of the crab is really composed of a number of segments. Those in the tail, or abdomen, are clearly separate joints, but those in front are much modified, crowded together, and covered by the be- fore-mentioned buckler. This is technically named the carapace. It serves also to cover two gill-chambers on each side of the body. The gills are feather-like ex- pansions of a membrane that is richly pro- vided with blood-vessels. Within each gill- chamber is a water-scoop, the movement of which throws the water out in front and keeps a current of water running over the gills. On the head are short antennae and eyes on stalks; the stalks are short in the common crab, but in some of its relatives are of considerable length. The horny outer covering is the same kind of substance (chitin) that forms the wing- covers and hard parts of insects, but in the case of the crabs it also contains a limy or earthy substance. As the ani- mals grow, the outer covering becomes too small, and moulting is necessary. The hard shell is cracked and thrown off, through great exertions on the part of the animal. The moulting process takes away, also, the lining of the mouth and stomach and the outer covering of the eyes. The de- serted shells are often to be picked up. The new shell is at first thin and flexible; it begins to form under the old one before the latter is cast off. Directly after moult- ing, while the shell is still soft, the animals are shy and conceal themselves. The eggs of the common sea-crabs are attached, un- derneath the tail, to the swimming ap- pendages, and the young hatch there. The young of the crabs pass through several stages after hatching, before they come to look like their parents. In all of these early stages they have long tails, and, in one of them, they resemble the lobster. There are many varieties of crabs: The fiddler-crab has one large claw and one small one; the large claw is held in such a manner as to suggest a violin, and the small one in such a position as to represent FIDDLER-CRAB the bow. The spider-crab resembles in a general way a large spider. Some are good swimmers and others live upon the land- Some kinds are eaten. The largest known crab is a marine form of Japan, which is 22 inches between the biting claws. Some of the land-crabs are swift runners and live in holes. In the island of Ceylon one of the latter catches young birds, and even young rabbits are drawn by them from their holes and eaten. Crabbe (krab), George, an English poet, was born on Christmas Eve, 1754, at Aide- burgh, England. He served as a sur- geon's apprentice, where he had to help the plowboy, and also picked up a little surgery at odd hours while working in his uncle's warehouse in London. But after a three years' struggling practice at home, he went to London with $15 in his pocket to try his fortune as a writer. He fought poverty bravely, having at times of stress to pawn his clothes and surgical instruments. At last, threatened with arrest for debt, he timidly left a letter at Burke's door and paced Westminster bridge all night till daybreak. But the great Burke was gen- erous, and from that hour Crabbe was a made man. He became a clergyman and a busy writer. The Village, The Parish Register and Tales of the Hall are some of his poems. Many he never published, but burned yearly in a grand bonfire. Jane Austen is stated to have said that the poet was the only man she would care to marry. Byron, Wordsworth, Scott, Jeff- rey, Cardinal Newman and other writers have praised his life-like painting of the scenery, fisherfolk and peasantry of his neighborhood. He died on Feb. 3, 1832. Craigie, Mrs. Pearl Mary ("John Oliver Hobbes"), Anglo-American novelist, was born at Boston, Mass., Nov. 3, 1867, and was the daughter of J. Morgan Richards. She was privately educated, and studied music in Paris and the classics at Univer- sity College, London. In 1887 she married Reginald Walpole Craigie, and after a sepa- ration obtained a divorce in 1895 an d the custody of her child. Meanwhile she had been received into the Roman communion. Her literary career began in 1891 with the publication of Some Emotions and a Moral, which was followed by The Sinner's Comedy, A Sttidy in Temptations and The Gods, Some Mortals ana Lord Wickenham. In these clever stories she showed herself a brilliant writer and a master of epigram. Her later work, besides the novel, The School for Saints, consisted chiefly ofplays, of which the most successful was The Am- bassador and a drama entitled Repentance. She died on Aug. 13, 1906. Craik (krdk), Mrs. Dinah Maria Mu- lock, was born at Stoke-upon-Trent in 1826. When but a girl she supported her invalid mother and ten younger brothers by writing stories for fashion-magazines. In 1849 her first novel, The Ogilvies, came out, and she afterward brought out some 50 CRANBERRY 473 CRANMER works novels, poetry and essays. Her fame rests chiefly on John Halifax, Gen- tleman, published in 1857, one of the most popular books of the ceitury, and trans- lated into French, Genr in, Italian, Greek and Russian. She died *n Kent in 1887. Cran' berry, the general name of the trailing species of Vaccinunt, a genus be- longing to the heath family. In North America there are two species of true cran- berry, the small (V. o: ycoccus) and the large (V. macrocarpon) . They <*row in swamps, and the red berries, ripening late, are familiar in the markets. The large cranberry is more extensively cultivated in the United States, the three centers of cultivation being Cape Cod, New Jersey and Wisconsin. Crane, a large, long-legged bird with long neck and large compressed bill. It is re- lated to the rail and not- far removed from the herons, though it is wrong to call any of the herons a crane as is done in the case of the blue heron. The cranes live mostly in marshes and swamps, and are mainly vege- table feeders. They are migratory. There are about 17 varieties known, two of which be- long to America: the white whooping crane and the brown sand-bill crane. The deep reso- nant sound made by the whooping crane is WHOOPING CRANE produced by a coil of the windpipe, in the breastbone. The windpipe of this species is four or five feet long, and 28 inches of it are coiled in the front part of the breastbone. Crane, in mechanics, steam-driven or run by electricity, used for hoisting girders, large stones or other heavy weights, and depositing such on trucks to be moved elsewhere. Traveling cranes are in use also on docks and wharves, where they load and unload machinery, general cargo and heavy merchandize from ship's holds, and also raise anchors and perform simi- lar services. The common type of crane consists of an upright post or revolving shaft, with a projecting jib or arm, at the upper end of which is a fixed pulley, with winding gear, and the windlass on STEPHEN CRANE in fiction, besides his which the tackling is wound. Cranes are commonly constructed of cast-iron and steel, and are fitted with brakes and stop- ping gear, like other hoisting machinery. Other varieties in 6rdinary use include derrick, pillar, bridge, walking, traveling and locomotive-cranes severally in use for specific purposes. Crane, Stephen, American author, jour- nalist and war-correspondent, was born at Newark, N. J., Nov. i, 1871, and died near Baden, Germany, June 5, 1900. He began newspaper work at the age of 17, and was a correspondent for the Westminster Gazette and the N. Y. Journal in the Greco-Turkish and the Spanish- American war. He shortened his life, however, by overwork, for be- tween 1892 and 1900 he produced some 14 works labors as a war-correspondent. His style is wonderfully graphic and powerful. His best-known works are The Red Badge of Courage; The Black Riders and The Eternal Patience. Crane, Walter, English decorative artist and painter, was born at Liverpool, England, Aug. 15, 1845, studied under W. G. Linton, the eminent wood-engraver, and was ap- pointed on the committee of the general exhibition of water-color drawings in 1879. He was a knight-commander of the Order of the Royal Crown of Italy. He also for a time was member of the Institute of Painters in water-colors and oils, and was first presi- dent of the arts and crafts exhibition founded by him in 1888. He was perhaps most widely known by his work as a book- illustrator and designer of children's picture- books. The Walter Crane toy-books have found their way, it may be said, round the world. His chief canvases include The Renaissance of Venus and The World's Conquerors. In 1892 he issued The Claims of Decorative Art; in 1896 The Decorative Illustration of Books; and in 1898 The Basis of Design. He died March 15, 19*5- Cran'mer, Thomas, Archbishop of Can- terbury, was born at Aslacton, England, July 2, 1489. As a boy he could ride the roughest horse in the shire, and was a keen hunter. He studied at Cambridge, gained a fellowship, and stayed 26 years. In the summer of 1529 he met two officers of Henry VIII, and, the talk turning on the king's divorce, Cranmer said that Henry could satisfy his conscience in that matter by appealing to the universities of Christen- CRANSTON 474 CRAWFORD dom. This pleased Henry much; and the king asked: "Who is this Dr Cranmer? Marry, I trow, he has got the right sow by the ear." So Cranmer became royal chaplain, was sent 6n embassies to Italy and Germany, and made archbishop of Canterbury. The king found in Cranmer a pliable tool; the servant divorced the master from Catherine, Anne Boleyn and Anne of Cleves. He pleaded timidly in behalf of Anne Boleyn and on behalf also of Henry VIII's vicar-general, Thomas Cromwell; still, if Henry said they were guilty, guilty they were in Cranmer's eyes. Cranmer was instrumental in having the Bible translated, and drifted toward Prot- estantism. The dying Edward VI won him over to signing the paper that was to make Lady Jane Grey queen instead of Mary. Under Queen Mary the persecut- ing statutes against heretics were revived, and one of the chief men of the time to suffer was Cranmer, who was condemned for treason, then retried as a heretic. From Oxford gaol he saw the reformers Latimer and Ridley die at the stake, and panic- stricken wrote seven recantations, the last on the morning of March 21, 1556. At once he was taken to church, where he listened to a grim sermon in which he learned that he must burn; but when he was to read his recantation, he instead took back all he had said "from fear of death." He went to the stake cheerfully, and, thrusting his right hand into the flame, kept it there saying: "This hath offended; O this unworthy hand!" See Tennyson's Queen Mary for an appreciative view of Cranmer's character. Cran'ston, Rhode Island, a town in Providence County, made up of several vil- lages, with many attractive residences, on the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad, and on the western shore of Narraganset Bay about nine miles southwest of Provi- dence. A state-prison, insane asylum, re- form-schools, almshouse and workhouse have their seat here. The town was settled early in the i7th century, and incorporated in 1754. Besides its extensive cotton manu- factures, it has wire-works, a large brewery and considerable market-gardening. Popu- ation, 25,201. Crawfish or Crayfish, a fresh-water animal like the lobster, but of smaller size. The front part of the body is covered by a shield-like expansion of the outer shell. This takes in the head and what corresponds to the chest or thorax; it is an expanse of the horny covering of the body, which is made of chitin and hardened by deposits of lime therein. The expansion covers two gill- chambers one on each side. There are from 1 8 to 20 pairs of feather-like gills, which are membranous and richly provided with blood-vessels. A gill-bailer lies in the front of each gill-chamber, the movement of which throws the water out of the chamber in little jets and keeps a current of water flowing over the gills. The crayfish is com- posed of a series of body-rings, but those in front are so crowded together and modified, that it is difficult, at first, to appreciate this fact. If the shield-like expanse (carapace) is removed, the furrows separating the seg- ments can be seen. The tail (or abdomen) is composed of six similar rings, and each ring bears a pair of appendages called in this position o\vimmerets. The fact that every ring bears one pair of appendages is the key to determining the number of segments in the entire body. If we count the append- ages in that region covered by the carapace, we shall find, in all, 14 pairs, and, since each pair represents a ring or segment, we know that there are 14 segments CRAWFISH crowded together in the front end of the body. The 14 pairs of appendages are the eyes, the small and the large antennae, the jaws, surrounded by five pairs of modified mouth-parts; and, finally, the five pairs of limbs. The first pair of, these ends in large claws, and the next two pairs in small claws. The crayfishes live abundantly in streams, and often make holes in the bank. They are omnivorous eaters, dead fish, wa- ter-snails, tadpoles, frogs, larvae of insects, vegetable matter in the water and the like being all devoured. The eggs are attached to the swimmerets, and, for some time after hatching, the young cling by their claws to the swimmerets of the mother. They moult or cast off the outer shell, including also the lining of the mouth and stomach, which is horny in nature. The processes of life in the crayfish duplicate those of higher animals, and Huxley showed how a study of the struc- ture, development, distribution and physi- ology of this one animal introduces us to the general facts of zoology. See Huxley : The Crayfish. See CRAB. Crawford, Francis Marlon, cosmopoli- tan American novelist and son of a sculptor, was born at Bagni di Lucca, Italy, Aug. 2, 1854, and was educated partly in the United States and partly in Italy, and had a pri- vate tutor at Trinity College, Cambridge CRAWFORD 475 CREATION England. He afterward prosecuted his studies at Karlsruhe and at Heidelberg; studied Sanskrit at Rome; and in 1879 proceeded to India to edit a newspaper, The In- dian Herald, at Allahabad. From 1881 to 1883 he was in America, ' but after that time for the most part resided at Sorren- to in Italy. He published more P. MARION CRAWFORD fr^ j f T saa ^g fa 1882 to The White Sister, 1909. His fertility as an author was no less extraordinary than was the wonderful variety and rich interest of his romances. He was one of the most cultured of modern writers of fiction, and his novels, though rarely realistic and hardly ever de- pendent upon dialect, invariably interest and instruct. The following are others of his novels: Saracinesca; Marzio's Crucifix; Sant' Jlario; Don Orsino; Casa Braccio; Zoroaster; A Rose of Yesterday; Corleone; and Ave Roma Immortalis. He died April 9, 1909. Crawford, Thomas, an American sculp- tor, was born at New York in 1814. In 1834 he went to Rome, where he worked under the guidance of Thorwaldsen, the great sculptor. His finest works are the Washington Monu- ttient at Richmond and the bronze statue of Liberty on the dome of the Capitol at Wash- ington. He died at London on Oct. 1 6, 1857. Crawfordsville, Ind., a city, the coun- ty-seat of Montgomery County, on the Cleve., Cin., Chic. & St. Louis, Vandalia and Monon railways and T. H., I. & E. traction line, 43 miles northwest of Indianapolis. Platted in 1823, it was incorporated as a city in 1865. It is the seat of Wabash College (Presb.), and is famous for the number of distinguished writers it has produced. Its manufactures consist of wire-fence works, wagon, spoke and curb factories and foundry-products, in addi- tion to lumber-mills, carriage-works, etc. Population, 9,371- Crayfish. See CRAWFISH. Creamery* a dairy-factory enterprise for making butter, cheese and condensed milk, familiar in the chief eastern and middle-west- orn states of the Union in the past 20 years. They are conducted usually by stock or co-operative companies, or by private in- dividuals having experienced and skilled men to conduct and manage them. Recent re- turns show that close upon 6,000 creameries are in operation over the country ; and in the best of them, which now produce a high- grade output, they confine themselves either to butter or to cheese-making, rarely making both in one factory. The states which to- day have the largest number of creameries are New York, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, Illi- nois and Minnesota, their seat being in th principal dairy-regions. When the milk ra delivered by the farmer to the factory, it is weighed, tested as to quality, and its value credited to the owner-producer; the cream is then separated by power (if it has not pre- viously been separated before being brought to the factory) , the farmer usually receiving the skim-milk for feeding. The more gen- eral plan followed to-day by the producer is to use the local separator-factory or skim- ming-station, only the cream being taken to the creamery, thus reducing the cost and trouble of hauling. Cream - Separator, a machine for taking cream from milk, which depends on the phys- ical principle that the heavier a whirling body is, the greater its tendency to fly from the center. The milk is passed into a vessel revolving at a high rate of speed on its own center. The cream, composed largely of butter-fat, being lighter, stays in the center and escapes by a tube. The heavier skim- milk, flying to the outer sides of the vessel, escapes through perforations into an outer jacket and is carried away by another tube. The machine can be adjusted to separate cream of any desired thickness between certain limits. This thickness can be accurately measured in terms of per- centage of butter-fat. 98% of butter-fat can be thus separated as against 75 % by the old- fashioned shallow-pan skimming, or 85% by the better deep-setting method, in which cans about 20 inches deep are set in cold water over night and the skim-milk drawn off from below by a faucet. The separator has the advantage of acting quickly, and so making it possible to market the cream with much shorter exposure to the air. Separators will handle from a few pounds of milk per hour up to 4,000 pounds. The smaller ones are usually operated by hand-power. The sepa- rator works best at a temperature of between 85 and 100 degrees Fahr. Separator-cream is much purer than that obtained by the gravity -methods, because the impurities, being heavy, fly from the center along with the skim-milk. The separator has made possible the rapid growth of creameries as an organized industry, there being over 5,000 in United States in 1905. These can make but- ter more economically and of more uniform grade than can be done on the farms. Hand- separators enable the owner of a small num- ber of cows to handle less bulk than he would in hauling milk to a creamery. See, also, BABCOCK TEST. Creation, The, an oratorio by Joseph Haydn, composed during the years 1^796-8. The words are selected from Genesis and Milton's Paradise Lost, with modifications by Baron von Swieten. The oratorio was first produced at Vienna, April 29, 1798, and ranked next to The Messiah in popularity until the appearance of Mendelssohn's Elijah. CRECY 476 CRESTON Haydn placed a higher estimate upon The Creation than he did upon his second oratorio, The Seasons, written during 1798- 1800. Cre"cy (kra f s&) , a town of France, where, on Aug. 26, 1346, Edward III of England, with about 30,000 men, won a brilliant vic- tory over 100,000 French under the Count of Alengon. The flower of French chivalry, to- gether with the blind king of Bohemia, who was fighting on the side of France, fell in this battle. In all, fully 30,000 French bit the dust. Here the Black Prince gained his spurs and adopted the threefold feather- crest of the fallen Bohemian king, with the motto Ich dien (I serve), still worn by the Princes of Wales. The battle was one of the earliest in which cannon were used by the English. Creeks, an Indian tribe, living, when first seen by De Soto in 1540, on the Flint, Chattahoocnee, Coosa and Alabama Rivers in Florida. Their own account of them- selves is that they came out of the earth, and marched from the northwest to the lands then held by them. From their language, they probably are of the same race as the Choctaws and Chickasaws. Their alliance was courted by the Spaniards in Florida, by the French in Louisiana and by the English in Carolina. During the Revolutionary War they attacked Wayne's army, and at its close many Tories joined them. Washington got some of their chiefs to come to New York and sign a treaty; but they continued still hostile. In the War of 1812 they surprised Fort Mimms, killing 400 men, women and chil- dren. They were at once attacked by United States troops and defeated seven times, the last time being utterly crushed by General Jackson at Horseshoe Bend. When hopeless, having lost 2,000 warriors, their country ravaged and their towns laid in ashes, they submitted. Neverthe- less, the government treated with them for years before it succeeded in getting them across the Mississippi. One chief, General William Mclntosh, who signed a treaty in 1825, was put to death by his enraged countrymen. But when, in 1836, some of the Creeks had attacked the frontier towns of Georgia and Alabama and had been defeated by General Scott, about 25,000, who were still left on their old grounds, were at once sent to join the rest of their nation, between the Arkansas and Canadian Rivers. In the Civil War some joined the north and some the south. Schools and churches were late in obtaining a footing with the Creeks, as their only idea of Christianity was what they learned from the negroes, and the proud warriors would have nothing to do with the slaves' religion. Their government was peculiar. Each town had nothing to do with the others, but was oiled by its own micco or king, who was chosen as a ruler. Next to him was the war-chief. Every town had a square in its center, shut in by houses, the micco and war-chief having special houses. On this square was held their great feast. Creeper, Brown, a little, brown, mottled bird that creeps or rather flashes round and round a tree in search of larvae. It is our one member of the family of Creepers. It is a little smaller than the English sparrow; is grayish-white beneath; brown and gray above very like in BROWN CREEPER to the bark of a tree ; it has a slender, curving bill. It is a most diligent bird; it starts from the bottom of a tree and in a sort of spiral climb picks out with utmost care the larvae in the bark. In climbing it some- times uses its tail like the woodpecker, the tail being stiff and sharp at the points. The breeding-range is in the northern states and northward; from September to April it may be found from Massachusetts to Florida. Cre'ole. See NEW ORLEANS. Cress, name of various plants whose leaves are an agreeable relish, much favored in salads. Garden-cress often called pep- pergrass, is gaining ground in American gardens. In winter it may be grown in flower-pots or boxes, the seed sprouting very quickly; for a supply of tender leaves seed should be sown very frequently. Water-cress is an important market-crop. It can be grown in almost any pool or shallow water course with sand or gravel bottom, being introduced by scattering seeds or some freshly cut branches. It is a hardy perennial. Creston, Iowa, a city, the seat of Union County, in the south of the state, on the Chic., Burl, and Quincy Railroad, 60 miles southwest of Des Moines. Besides its ship- ment of live-stock it has extensive railway- car works, machine-shops and wagon-fac- tories. The city, which was settled so recently as 1868, is growing rapidly, and it has a fair showing of public buildings, besides schools and churches. Population 7,852. CRETE 477 CRICKET Crete (kret), a Turkish island in the Mediterranean. It is the southernmost por- tion of Europe, 160 miles in length and from 7 to 35 broad. The climate is fine, and the air fresh and bracing. Crete is quite mountainous, and its highest peak, Mount Ida, is 8,060 feet above the level of the sea. There are many harbors on the island: Suda Bay on the north is one of the best in the Mediterranean; and Fair Havens, in the south, is spoken of in Acts. Wheat and fruit, especially oranges and lemons, are mainly raised. Olive-oil, soap, nuts and the like are exported. Sponges are found on the coast. There are a few wild animals, but not a snake on the island. There are now only three towns of any size, though Vergil told of its " hundred cities." During the past quarter- century the, remains of a great civilization have been discovered that equalled those of Egypt and Babylonia, and dates back 2,000 if not 3,000 years before Christ. Crete is now an autonomous Greek province, under Turkish suzerainty, though paying no taxes to Turkey; and its viceroy is always a native Greek Christian. The early- Cretans were seafaring Greeks, the rivals of the Phoenicians. Its laws and its great lawgiver, Minos, were famous, as were also its bowmen; while a Cretan came every- where to mean a liar. Rome, the Saracens, the Greek emperors, Venice and the Turks have in their day owned the island. Its area is 3,365 square miles; and its popu- lation is estimated at 310,815. Canea is the capital (population, 24,537). Crichton (krl'ttiri), James, called the Admirable Crichton was born Aug. 19, 1560, in Perthshire Scotland, and was educated at St. Andrews. After leaving the uni- versity he went to France. His swordplay and power as a debater on any subject with the professors of the Sorbonne are said to have astonished all Paris. At Ven- ice the great printer Aldus was his friend. Here he spoke before the doge and senate, and is said to have astounded them with his eloquence and grace. Other encounters took place, in which, it is said, he made Latin poems on the spot, offered to carry on the debate in poetry, and performed like prodigies. Moreover, according to the story, he became tutor to the heir of the duke of Mantua. Here he killed a skillful duelist, and became so renowned that he was attacked one night by three masked men out of jealousy. Crichton's swords- manship gave him the best of it, and to save his fife the leader of the masks was forced to tell who he was. It was Crichton's prince-pupil. The tutor fell on his knee, and, presenting his sword, asked his pardon; but the prince basely ran him through the body. Crichton had a fine memory, is said to have been familiar with 12 languages, and was a good debater, but many of the stories of his prowess are prob- ably fictitious. He perhaps fell in a night- brawl, but that it was his own pupil who dispatched him is unlikely. He died at Mantua, in 1583, or, according to others some time between 1585 and 1591. Cricket, an insect related to grasshoppers and locusts. There are three kinds mole- crickets, true crickets and tree-crickets. The mole-crickets have their front limbs expanded and especially fitted for digging; they make burrows and lay their eggs in underground chambers. The true crickets are very abundant in the fields; they are black, sometimes with brownish wings. They usually feed on plants and lay their eggs in the ground in the autumn, the broods hatching out in the spring. To this division CRICKETS belong, also, the house-crickets. The chirp- ing sound is produced by the males rubbing the file-like edges of the principal vein of their wing-covers upon a scraper located on the margin of the opposite wing-cover The true wings are not involved in making the sound. The tree-crickets are delicate whitish-green. They live on 1 trees and shrubs, and often do damage by boring to deposit their eggs. One kind lays its eggs in stems of the raspberry The katydid is not a cricket. Cricket (krik-et), the Englishman's na- tional game the world over, is an outdoor game with balls, bats and wickets, It is played by 1 1 men on a side. Two wickets, each consisting of three uprights or stumps rising 27 inches above the ground and with two small pieces or bails on top of the uprights, are placed opposite each other, 22 yards apart. One eleven takes position in the field, the other goes to bat. The bowler of the first eleven stands almost behind one wicket, the wicket- keeper directly behind the other. Two players from the second eleven stand at the wickets, the first batsman in front of one, the second beside the other The bowler rolls his ball at the opposite wicket, to knock it down or make the batter hit CRICKET ON THE HEARTH 478 CRISPI the ball so that it will be caught on the fly and the batsman put out. The batter prevents the wicket from being hit. drives the ball far enough to give time for changing places with the other oatter, and so makes runs. These continue so long as there is no risk of the stumps being hit while the batsmen are away from the wickets. If, however, the batter let the ball carry a bail or a stump away; or knock either down himself; or stop the ball with his body ; or has the ball caught in the air he is out. After five balls have been bowled, (sometimes four or six by arrangement), the eleven in the field changes to the same positions for the second wicket that it had for the first. Bowling at the second wicket continues for five balls, but by another bowler, and so it goes until ten men have batted. The eleventh is not out. This makes an inning, but, as a large number of runs may be made by a single batsman, it usually lasts more than a day. Then the other eleven comes to bat, and the first goes to the field. Two whole days at least are required for a first-class two-innings match. The game generally ends with a fourth inning, the eleven with the most runs being the winner. The rules of the Maryle- bone club (founded 1744) govern the game everywhere. Cricket on the Hearth, The, is one of Dickens' Christmas-Books, and like the others is characterized by a whimsical, almost fantastic humor, while it presents in the most edifying fashion the contrast between greed, selfishness and cunning on the one hand and simple goodness of heart on the other. It is distinguished by a truly dramatic climax. A good husband, believ- ing that his young wife loves another and blaming himself for the loss of her affection, is about to sacrifice his home for her sake, when, to the reader's great relief, the burden of sorrow is suddenly transferred to a des- picable old fellow, who had hoped to win a pretty young bride by the power of his money. He loses his bride, but is so moved by the unselfish love of all around^ him that his own heart is renewed, and he joins hap- pily in the marriage-festivities. ^ The merry chirping of a cricket mingles with the song of the kettle to soften with its music the passions that at times threaten to destroy the peace of home. Crime'a (the ancient Chersonesus Tau- rica), a peninsula of southern Russia, be- tween the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov. It is about 125 miles from north to south and 200 from east to west, and has an area of about 10,000 square miles. It is joined to the mainland by the isthmus of Perekop. Balaklava and Sevastopol are its two chief harbors. The Crimea was once famous for its wheat, but of recent years the penin- sula has suffered much from drought. Porphyry and coal are found. The Crimea's situation in the Black Sea, between Europe and Asia, has made it a tempting prize alike to Greek, Tartar, Turk and Russian. The Crimean War (1853-56), fought in the peninsula, was caused by Russia's attempt to establish its protection and that of the Greek church over the Christian subjects of Turkey, who, like the Russians, are of the Greek church. Turkey was aided by France, England and Sardinia. The battles of the Alma, Tchernaya, Balaklava and Inkerman were fought, and the fall of the strongest fortress of the Russians, Sebastopol, brought an end to the war. By the treaty of peace Russia gave up all she had gained during the war. Population of the Crimea about 250,000 (80,000 Tar- tars, 130,000 Russians, 40,000 Greeks, Jews, Bulgarians and Germans). Cripple Creek, Col., a mining town, situated on the foothills of Pike's Peak, in El Paso County, Colorado. Gold was discovered in its vicinity about 1885, but it was not until 1891 or later that its rich mining-wealth attracted experts and the town began to develop. Its annual pro- duction of gold is estimated at about $10,- 000,000. The town in 1894 was the scene of a miner's strike, and in 1896 it was visited by a destructive fire; but in spite of these drawbacks it has grown apace. Population, 6,206. Crisp, Charles Frederick, an American politician, and speaker of 52d and 53d Congress, was born at Shef- field, England, Jan. 29, 1845; and died at At- lanta, Ga., Oct. 23, 1896. I n early life he settled with his parents in Georgia, and in 1861 entered the Confeder- ate service, in which he rose to the rank of CHARLES P. CRISP lieutenant and was captured by the Federal forces. After the war he studied law, and in 1872 was elected attorney-general of a judicial dis- trict of Georgia, and subsequently became judge of the superior court of the state. In 1882 he was returned as a member of Congress, and in 1892 and 1893 was speaker of the house. In politics he was a Demo- crat. Crispi (krts'pd), Francesco, an Italian statesman, was born Oct. 4, 1819, at Ribera, Sicily, and became a lawyer at Naples. In 1848 he was one of the heads of the rising at Palermo, and for two years a leader of the Sicilians against Ferdinand I. In 1859 and 1860 he acted with Garibaldi in driving out CRITTENDEN 479- CROCODILE the Bourbons from Sicily. In 1877 he be- came a member of the national cabinet, and afterward was premier of the Italy he had helped to make. Here he took high rank among the statesmen of Europe. It is due to Crispi that Italy entered the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria; and the policy of keeping up the army on a footing with other European states of the first rank and of building up a war-navy was mainly his. He died at Naples, Aug. u, 1901. Crit'tenden, John Jordan, was born in Woodford County, Ky., Sept. 10, 1787. He graduated at William and Mary College, Virginia, studied law, and became famous as a criminal lawyer. He served many times in the Kentucky legislature, was six times chosen senator of the United States, and served one term as representative in Congress and one term as governor of Kentucky. He also was attorney-general under Presidents Harrison and Fillmore. He was most prominent just before and during the Civil War. He opposed the repeal of the Missouri Compromise; in the Kansas troubles he sided against the course of Presidents Pierce and Buchanan; when Lincoln was elected he took firm ground for the Union; and in 1860 he pro- posed amendments to the constitution which, he thought, would allay strife. He strenuously sought to keep Kentucky in the Union, but was unwilling that slaves should be used as soldiers. He remained in public life to the close of his career, being in the midst of a campaign for re- election to Congress when he died near Frankfort, Ky., July 26, 1863. Crittenden, Thomas Leonidas, son of the above, an American general, was born in Kentucky in 1819, and died on Staten Island, N. Y., Oct. 23, 1893. After studying law he became attorney-general in Ken- tucky in 1842, and from 1849 * J ^53 was United States consul at Liverpool, Eng- land. Previous to this, he had served under Taylor in the Mexican War, and on the breaking out of the Civil War he entered the Union army, and was promoted to the rank of major-general and given command of a division of the Army of the Tennessee. Later, he served under Buell and Rosecrans, and at Chickamauga commanded one of the two corps that were routed. Resigning his commission in 1864, he entered the regular army two years later as colonel of the 32d infantry, and was brevetted briga- dier-general in 1867. In 1869 he was transferred to the command 01 the i7th infantry and served on the frontier till 1876, and was in command of Governor's Island until he retired in 1881. Crock'ett, David, was born at Lime- stone, Tenn., Aug. 17, 1786. Davy, as he was always called, was sent to school, but on the fourth day he quarreled with the DAVID CROCKETT schoolmaster, and, in fear of a thrashing both from his father and from his teacher, he ran away from home, Spending his time roaming about with drovers and carriers. When 18, he came home, and for the first time learned his letters. In 1813 he served in the k Creek War under Jackson. After serving in the leg- islature, he was sent to Congress for three terms. But, though at first a follower of Jackson, he had now become opposed to him, and, foreseeing defeat, he thought of starting upon a new career in Te> s, which was then in revolt against Mexico. He had all his life been noted as a crack shot, a great hunter and a brave fighter. Here also, in Texas, he became famous for his exploits. He met his death after defending Fort Alamo against a large Mexican force. When only six men were left, the fort was cap- tured, and the six, including Crockett, were shot by order of Santa Anna, March 6, 1836. Crockett, Samuel Rutherford, Scottish novelist, was born at Duchrae, Gallo- way, Sept. 24, 1860; and was educated at Edinburgh, Heidelberg and Oxford for the Scottish Free-Church ministry, which he entered in 1886, but afterward abandoned for literature. For a time he held a travel- ing tutorship at Oxford, and this enabled him to see Europe, Asia and Africa. His stories, however, deal chiefly with the homely characters and scenes of his native land. Scottish peasant-life has hardly ever, since the days of Scott and Gait, had so realistic and delightful a portrayer and delineator. He, moreover, draws much of his inspiration from his love of Scotland and of Scottish romantic and religious history. His novels, The Raiders and The Men of the Moss-Hags, admirably recreate the era of the Covenanters and their mar- tyrdom for their stern faith. The first novel to bring Mr. Crockett fame was The Stickit Minister, published in 1893. Since then he has issued, among other works, Sweetheart Travelers, Cleg Kelly and The White Plume of Navarre. He died in 1915. Crocodile, a large, well-known water-rep- tile covered with bony scales. The tail is long and crested. The name is properly applied to a number of animals living in Asia, Africa, Australia and America. The crocodile of the Nile is the most famotts. It occurs in nearly all the rivers of Africa. It is said that, owing to the persecutions CROCUS 480 CROMER CROCODILE of travelers, it is greatly reduced in num- bers in the lower Nile, but it still is very abundant above the first cataract. This reptile is ordinarily 12 or 13 feet long; exceptio nal sizes are 18 |and 20 feet in jlength. It seizes cattle SCJand antelopes by the nose while drink- -ing, and draws them into the water. Croc- odiles devour dogs when they can catch them, and occasionally a child falls victim to the crocodile, but they rarely attack adults. On the whole they seem to prefer putrid flesh. They leave the water to bask on t? e mud-banks of rivers and m rshes, and here they lay their eggs. F m 20 to 60 eggs are inclosed in holes in the sand or mud, and left to be hatched by the heat of the sun. Associated with the crocodile is a bird, called the Nile-bird, that enters the mouth of the reptile while it is held open, and picks the leeches from the tongue and walls of the mouth-cavity. The gavials of India with long slender snouts belong to the crocodile group. The American crocodiles, living principally in South America and the West Indies, are now occasionally captured in Central America and the marshes of southern Florida. See ALLIGATOR. Cro'cus. A genus of the iris family, some of which are the earliest spring-flowers, but some bloom in the fall. The genus contains about 70 lecognized species, and is native to southern Europe and south- western Asia. The grass-like leaves and long tubular showy flowers rise directly from a subterranean corm. Numerous va- rieties are in cultivation. Croesus (kre'sus), king of Lydia, in Asia Minor, came to the throne about 568 B. C., when he was about 35 years old. The Greek cities of Asia Minor fell before his armies. He became wealthier than any ruler whom the Greeks knew, and "as rich as Croesus" became a common saying. Solon, the Greek sage, once visited him. The king displayed all his treasures, and then asked the wise Greek who was the happiest man he had ever known. "TeUus of Athens," was the answer; "for he lived while his country was prosperous; he was surrounded with children and chil- dren's children, who were both beautiful and good; and he died upon the field of battle after having gained a gallant victory over the enemy." "And further," said Solon, "no man can be fully happy until a happy death has closed a happy life." And, in truth, Croesus' wealth did not save him from misfortune. A son of whom he was very fond was accidentally killed in a boar- hunt. News came, too, that the Persian Cyrus, who had conquered right and left, had cast a longing eye on Lydia. Not know- ing what to do, Croesus asked advice of the famous oracle of Delphi. Said the oracle: " If Croesus goes to war, he will destroy a mighty empire." What could be plainer? So off goes Croesus, to be badly whipped by Cyrus, and to find that the empire he was to destroy was his own. When Sardis, his capi- tal, was stormed, the king, careless of life, was about to be slain, when another son, who had been born dumb, scared into speech, told the Persian soldiers that it was the king, and he was kept for a worse death. Placed on a huge funeral-pyre, he watched the flames licking their way upward to their victim, and, thinking of what Solon had said about a happy death, he kept crying out : " O Solon ! Solon!" Cyrus chanced to hear him, and, asking what he meant, was told the sage's warning, which made such an impression on him that Croesus was rescued from the pyre, and became the conqueror's friend and guardian of his son and heir, Cambyses. Croly, Jane Cunningham, American writer, known better by her pen-name of Jennie June, was born in Leicestershire, England, in 1831, and settled with her fam- ily, ten years later, at Poughkeepsie, N. Y. In 1857 she married D. G. Croly, a journalist, who died in 1889. From 1860 to 1887 she was editor of Demorest's Magazine, founded the Sorosis society, and took part in pro- gressive movements on behalf of women. Subsequently she was elected to the chair of literature and journalism in Rutgers College and president of the New York City Women's Press club. Her books consist of a History of Sorosis and of the woman's club movement in America; Talks on Women's Topics; For Better or Worse; Thrown upon Her Own Re- sources, etc. She died on Dec. 23, 1901. Cromer, Evelyn Baring, first Earl of, was born in Cromer Hall, Norfolk, on Feb. 26, 1841, and educated at the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich. He entered the Royal Artillery in 1858, and became captain in 1870 and major in 1876. After service in the colonies he was made private secretary to Lord Northbrook, while he was viceroy of India, from 1872 to 1876. He was commis- sioner of the Egyptian public debt in 1877-9, controller-general in Egypt, 1879, financial member of council of governor-general of India, 1880, and minister plenipotentiary, agent and consul-general in Egypt, 1883- 1906. He was created baron in 1892, vis- count in 1898 and earl in 1901, and was a privy councillor and a member of many orders of merit. He wrote several military works, paraphrases and translations from the Greek and a history of his Egyptian proconsulship. He virtually was king of Egypt, and his work there was constructive statesmanship CROMPTON 4 8l CROOK of the highest order. Egypt under him al- most became another land. He died in 1917. Cromp'ton, Samuel, was born at Firwood, Lancashire, England, Dec. 3, 1753, of poor parents. He educated himself, at the same time working as a cotton-spinner and playing the violin at the theater in the next town. In 1779 his spinning-mule was finished, after five years' labor, working at it even late at night. It spun yarn so wonderfully fine that his house was beset by persons eager to know the secret. Ladders were placed at the windows, and in almost every way the inquisitive tried to see it. He could not leave the house for fear his discovery would be stolen. All his savings had gone into the machine, and he had not a farthing left to secure a patent. In his misery he made known the working of the invention to a few manufacturers ; from some he never got a cent, and in all he received but a beggarly $300. He managed, however, to start in business with the aid of friends, at first em- ploying his own family as hands; but he was 60 years old before he received any return, when Parliament granted him $2 5,000. His mule came into use at once, and in 1811 there were in England 4,600,000 of them. He died near Bolton, England, June 26, 1827. Cromwell (kr&m'w2l), Oliver, Lord- Pro- tector of the English Commonwealth and one of the most remarkable characters in English history, was born at Huntingdon, England, April 25, 1599. Little is known of his early life, except that he went to Cambridge. He had, however, but a short time for study, his father dying soon after he entered college, and he returned home to manage the family affairs. In 1628 he entered Parliament. When all hope of a reconciliation between Charles I and Parliament failed, Cromwell was among the first to offer to aid the state in defending its rights. He moved in Par- liament for permission to raise two com- panies of volunteers, having been careful to supply the necessary arms beforehand at his own cost. He soon snowed his wonderfurmili- tary genius. He commanded the right-wing of the Parliamentary army at Naseby (June, 1645), where the king's forces were utterly routed. Charles, in May, 1646, escaped in disguise, and surrendered himself to the Scottish army at Newark, by whom he was handed to the commissioners of Parliament. In January, 1649, the king was tried, con- demned and executed. Cromwell was a prominent member of the new council of state. He crushed the rebellion in Ireland and in Scotland, and soon became the leading man in England. He dissolved the Long Parliament in 1653, and summoned a new one. The work of this parliament, which was dissolved in five months, gave Cromwell supreme power and the title of lord-protector. Cromwell repeatedly called and dismissed parliaments because he wanted the people themselves to govern and also wanted his government to be strictly constitutional, but his government was just and liberal toward the people and the country prospered under his rule. He died at Whitehall London, Sept. 3, 1658. Cron je ( kron'ye ) , Piet, a Boer commander in the war with Britain (1899-1901), was born in South Africa about 1835. He was a member of the Transvaal executive council, under President Paul Kruger, and in the raid of Jameson and his UitlsnHers. in January, 1896, he brought about their surrender. He defeated Lord Methuen at Magersfontein, but afterward surrendered to Lord Roberts at Paardeberg, and was exiled to St. Helena. He has the reputation of being a fierce fighter and a resourceful commander. Cronstadt ( krdn'stdt ) , a strongly fortified seaport of Russia, is situated on the island of Koblan, near the head of the Gulf of Finland and 20 miles west of St. Petersburg. The island separates the approach to St. Peters- burg into two channels, only one of which is navigable. This is narrow and strongly guarded by batteries. There are seven gran- ite forts armed with heavy guns, and during the Crimean War Cronstadt was held to be impregnable. There are three harbors: the merchant harbor, which will hold i ,000 ships; the middle harbor, used for fitting vessels; and the war harbor, the regular anchorage for the Baltic-fleet section of the Russian navy. A large number of the people are sailors or workmen in the dock-yards. Cron- stadt was founded by Peter the Great. Popu- lation, 59,939. Crook, George, an American general, was born Sept. 8, 1828,. near Dayton, Ohio. He graduated at West Point in 1852, and served on the fron- tier till the break- ing out of the Civil War, in which he served with dis- tinction, com- manding a corps of Sheridan's army at the bat- tles of Winchester, Opequan Creek and Cedar Creek. After the war he GENERAL CROOK commanded in the west, becoming brigadier-general in 1873. His campaigns against the Pi Utes in 1872 and the Apaches in 1875 were ably fought. In 1882 he drove the Mormons and squatters from Indian lands, and brought the hostile Chiricahuas to terms. He was also con- cerned for the welfare of his Indian charges, among other reforms forcing the contractors to pay the Indians in cash for supplies instead of with store-orders. Under his manage- ment the tribes quickly became self-sup- porting. He died at Chicago on March 21, 1890. CROOKES .482 CRUIKSHANK Crookes, Sir William, an eminent Eng- lish chemist and electrician, was born at London in 1832, and educated at the Royal College of Chemistry. In 1855 he became professor of chemistry at the Science Train- ing College at Chester; in 1859 founded The Chemical News; and in 1864 became editor of the Quarterly Journal of Science. Sub- sequently he became a member of the coun- cil of the Royal Society, vice-president of the Chemical Society and prize-winner and gold-medalist of the French Academie des Sciences. His researches in physics and chemistry led in 1861 to his discovery of the metal thallium ; of the sodium amalgam proc- ess for separating gold and silver from their ores; of other important discoveries in mo- lecular physics and radiant matter ; and to the invention of the radiometer and the otheo- scope. In 1871 he published Select Methods in Chemical Analysis; subsequently The Manufacture of Beet-Root Sugar in England; Handbook of Dyeing and Calico-Printing; Treatise on Metallurgy; Wagner's Chem- ical Technology; Auerbach's Anthracen and Its Derivatives; Ville's Artificial Manures; with The Profitable Disposal of Sewage and The Wheat Problem. The latter consisted of an address delivered before the British Association in 1898. Dealing with physical research and the wheat problem, it created much interest and discussion. He is a.n au- thority on sanitation, and has studied spirit- ualism scientifically. Croquet, a popular outdoor game, played on a grass lawn or levelled dirt-court under given rules. These rules, if adhered to and followed, and where the player is skilled in checkmating his own and his party's oppo- nent, make a match well-nigh as interesting as a game of billiards, especially if. all the players, who may be two or eight in number, are experts. The players, who are each furnished with a mallet and ball, are divided into pairs of partners, each playing alternately, the contest or feature of the game being to get one's ball from the start- ing point (the near stake) , first through the various hoops (usually from 6 to 10 in num- ber) placed upright in the ground in a de- fined order, to the farthest stake or goal, and back again. Cross, Mrs. (Marian Evans). See ELIOT, GEORGE. Cross, Mrs. George Frederick (Ada Cambridge), the novelist, was born at St. Germains, Norfolk, Nov. 21, 1844. Upon her marriage to the Rev. Mr. Cross in 1870 she sailed for Victoria, her home, with a so- journ in various bush-districts, until she settled at Williamstown in 1893. Mrs. Cross's published works include 15 or more volumes, from My Guardian (1877) to Thirty Years in Australia. (1903) Cross-Pollina'tion (in plants), the transfer of pollen from the stamen to the stigma of another flower. See POLLINATION. Cross, Southern, one of the star-groups in the southern heavens. Its right ascen- sion is approximately 12 hours: its declina- tion 60 south. The four main stars form a rough cross. It has been invisible from north of the latitude of Alexandria, Egypt, for 1 8 centuries. The Portuguese explorers of Africa about 1450 were the first modern Europeans to see it. Crow, a bird of black plumage, belonging to the Corvidce family, which includes jack- daws, ravens, rooks, bluejays and magpies. It is very extensive, embracing some 200 species, and its representatives are found in all parts of the world, except New Zealand, and sparingly in the Australian region. Six members of the family live in the eastern United States. The common American crow is abundant, is distributed generally in this country, and remains with us the en- tire year. In the winter crows assemble in great numbers in rookeries or crow-roosts. There are a number of these roosting-places in various parts of the country; the one on the Potomac near Washington is well-known. The number that assemble there at one time has been estimated at 40,000. The crows are usually considered to be destructive birds, but they do more good than harm. They injure cornfields to a considerable degree, but they also destroy many cut- worms, beetles, grasshoppers, tent-cater- pillars and other injunous insects, and thereby compensate for their own misdeeds. They also kill field-mice, rabbits and other rodents, follow the plow in the early spring, and eat the larva?, field-mice and worms in the furrows. These wily birds soon lose all fear of the farmer's scarecrow, but remain suspicious of bits of bright tin swinging from cords stretched across a field, and they will not go near corn that has been dipped in tar. The birds are models of family af- fection; the male feeds his mate while she is on the nest, broods the eggs when she is absent, and stands guard with untiring zeal; and both parents long keep watch over their young. Crozier, John B., born in Ontario and educated at Gait and the University of Toronto, graduating in 1872. Soon after, he went to London, England, and com- menced the practice of medicine. In 1880 appeared his Religion of the Future, a work of merit. In 1885 his History of Intellectual Development followed, and in 1887 he pub- lished Lord Randolph Churchill. His Civili- zation and Progress has reached a third edi- tion. Cruikshank ( kro&k' shank) , George, an English cartoon-etcher, was born at London, Sept. 27,1 792. His father and elder brother were caricaturists. He thought of becom- ing an actor ; but a publisher who saw some of his sketches talked him into illustrating children's books and songs. But he soon found that his genius lay in cartoons. His CRUSADES 483 CRUSTACEA finest etchings, perhaps, were those in Peter Schlemihl, Grimm's German Popular Stories and Dickens' Oliver Twist. His powerful series of The Bottle showed the evils of drunk- enness in a strong light. He died on Feb. i, 1878. Crusades, The ( from Portuguese cru- zado, " marked with the cross ") , is the name given to the religious wars carried on during the middle ages between the Christian na- tions of western Europe and the Mohammed- ans. The first of the crusades was under- taken (1096-9) to uphold the right of pil- grims to visit the Holy Sepulcher at Jerusa- lem. The Arabs had generously allowed the pilgrims, who came in thousands, not only to visit the sepulcher but to build a church and hospital in the city. In 1065 the Seljuk Turks conquered the country. At once the pilgrims were molested and treated with cruelty. Peter the Hermit, a Frenchman, who had himself made a pilgrim- age and had witnessed the cruelties of the Turks, with the pope's sanction (1095) wan- dered over Europe, preaching everywhere to crowds in the open air, telling how Chris- tians were beaten, robbed and murdered. Europe was roused from end to end. At a council, held at Clermont, France, to con- sider the matter, the pope's speech was in- terrupted by cries of " God wills it! " This became the war-cry of the enterprise; the badge worn was the cross, from which came the name crusade. The following, in brief, comprises the annals of the various crusades: First, four rabble hordes went forth, viz., 20,000 under Walter the Penniless, followed by 40,000 un- der Peter the Hermit, who were badly cut to pieces in Bulgaria and the survivors ut- terly overthrown by the Turks at Nicsea ; then issued 15,000 Germans who were scattered and slaughtered in Hungary, which also proved the grave of 200,000 poor wretches from England, France, Flanders and Lor- raine. But soon came six armies of real crusaders under Godfrey of Bouillon, Robert, Duke of Normandy and others, accompanied by Tancred, the hero of the crusade; in all some 600,000. The sultan's capital, Nicaea, fell in 1097. Next Edessa, and then An- tioch after a fearful siege of seven months, the Christian army melting away from fam- ine, sickness and desertion. Two hundred thousand Seljuks now besieged the western- ers. When they were routed, only 400,000 men were left to march on Jerusalem. The city fell; Godfrey of Bouillon was chosen king ; soon all Palestine came into his hands ; and for 50 years the crusaders held the prin- cipalities of Edessa, Antioch and Jerusalem. At Jerusalem were founded the two famous orders of the Knights Hospitalers of St. John and the Knights Templars. In 1144 Edessa was conquered and the Christians slaughtered. A second crusade, preached by the famous St. Bernard, was led in 1147 by Conrad III of Germany and Louis VII of France. About 1,200,000 sol- diers marched under them, only to be de- feated, Conrad's army, by the treachery of the Greek emperor, near Iconium, and Louis' army in the Pisidian Mountains. The deathblow to the kingdom of Jerusa- lem came from a young Kurdish chief, who had made himself sultan of Egypt and sought to become sovereign of all the Mos- lems the famous Saladin. His conquest of Jerusalem (1187) gave rise to the third crusade, led by Philippe Auguste, king of France and Richard the Lion-heart, king of England. Acre was attacked (1190), and 23 months later it surrendered. But the leaders quarreled, Philippe went back to France, and Richard, after performing prodigies of valor, which excited the ad- miration of the Saracens, made a treaty with Saladin (1192), by which the people of the west were to be at liberty to make pilgrimages to Jerusalem without being taxed. The fourth crusade (1203) never went near Palestine, but founded the Latin Empire of Constantinople, which lasted 56 years. One of the strangest happenings in history is the children's crusade, which took place in 1 2 1 2. An army of French children, 30,000 strong, headed by a peasant-boy named Stephen, set out for the Holy Land by way of Marseilles. A like army of German chil- dren, 20,000 strong, led by a boy named Nicholas, crossed the Alps at Mont Cenis. A second army of German children, num- bering nearly 20,000, crossed the Alps by a more easterly route, touching the sea at Brindisi. Their idea was that the Mediter- ranean would open a path for them to Pales- tine and that Jerusalem would be recovered and the Moslems made Christians by miracles. Some of the children became discouraged and returned to their homes, many stopped by the way, but most of them either perished on the march, or were lost at sea or sold into slavery. The fifth crusade (1228) made Frederick II of Germany and Sicily, king of Jerusalem. In 1244 a new horde of Turks made them- selves masters of Jerusalem. A sixth cru- sade (1249) followed, led by Louis IX of France, against Egypt, now held to be the key to Palestine. Louis was taken prisoner, and had to pay a heavy ransom. The sev- enth crusade (1270) was led by him and by Prince Edward, afterward Edward I of England. Nothing was accomplished by this adventure, however. Acre, Antioch, and Tripoli were held by the Templars and other knights for some time; but Acre, fol- lowed by the others, surrendered in 1291. Crustacea (krUs-ta'she-d), the name of a class of animals embracing the shrimps, prawns, crayfish, lobsters and a number of minute forms called water-fleas. They be- long to a larger group or subkingdom (Ar- CRYPTOGAMS 484 CUBA thropodd) which, besides the Crustacea, in- eludes the insects, myriapods and spiders. These four are all classes of the great sub- kingdom Arthropoda,, and therefore are equivalent groups. The Crustacea pass through a metamorphosis, hatching from the egg in a different condition from the adult. Most of them live in the water and breathe by gills, but there are some terrestrial forms, like the pill-bug, which is to be found in dark places, under boards, under bark, in cellars. Some of the minute forms, called water-fleas, carry their eggs in cases attached to the body. Cryp'togams. A name applied to all those plants which do not produce seeds, in- cluding therefore Pteridopnytes (ferns, etc.), Bryophytes (mosses, etc.) and Thallophytes (Algce and Fungi). The name was given under the impression that the sexual repro- duction was hidden or obscure, when in fact it is more evident than in the seed-plants (Spermatophytes), which were called phane- rogams, meaning " evident sexual reproduc- tion." The mistake arose from the false idea that the stamens and pistils of flowering plants are sex-organs. The name Crypto- gam, however, is convenient, although mean- ingless. Since the Pteridophytes have woody vessels, they are often called vascular Cryp- togams, to distinguish them from Bryophytes and Thallophytes, which are Cryptogams with- out woody vessels. Cuba, formerly a Spanish colony and called the Queen of the Antilles, is the largest island of the West Indies. It lies at the entrance of the Gulf of Mexico, between the Straits of Florida and the Caribbean Sea, with Haiti and Santo Domingo immediately east of it and the British island of Jamaica to the south. It is 730 miles long, and on the average 80 miles wide, with an area of 44,164 square miles. There are many good harbors, that of Havana being one of the largest and finest in the world. On the southeast are mountains, the tallest peak, Pico de Tarquino, rising 7,670 feet. Only in the province of Oriente are the mountains formidable or unavailable for cultivation. Mineral water and caverns in which are beautiful stalactites abound. No month is free from rain, but the temperature does not materially differ from that of Florida, though frosts are unknown. Earthquakes in the east are frequent, and the island is sometimes swept by hurricanes, one of which in 1846 destroyed 216 vessels and 1,872 houses. In natural resources Cuba is far the richest of the Antilles, and could support over 15,000,000 people. The soil is exceptionally rich, easily worked and capable of the greatest degree of tillage. Some localities are rich in minerals, as asphalt, copper, iron and lead. Native plants number over 3,350. Virgin forests contain immense quantities of many va- rieties of valuable timber. There are no venomous snakes nor dangerous wild beasts. Tobacco, coffee, cotton and fruits are raised; but the great crop and export is sugar. Cuba depends wholly upon agri- culture for its prosperity, the sole manu- factures being cigars and sugar. The main trade is with the United States, and the reciprocity -treaty made in 1891 has in- creased the trade between the two coun- tries. The cultivation of oranges and pota- toes for export is growing, the Cuban potato equalling that of Bermuda. The capital is Havana, which has a university. (Population over 300,000.) The other cities are Santiago de Cuba, Matanzas, Cienfuegos, Puerto Principe and Cardenas. The larger cities are mostly on the coast, a fact that indicates their commercial character. Five or six railways are in operation, and nearly as many more are being built. The island is divided into six provinces or political divisions, which since 1898 have been in considerable social, commercial and political disorganization. This was restored to some semblance of order under the excellent administration of the United States gover- nor-general, Leonard Wood. Cuba was the most important colony of Spain, and was ruled by a captain-general. Columbus dis- covered the island in 149 2, and said it "was the most beautiful land that eyes ever beheld." From 1868 to 1878 Cuba was in a state of revolution, which greatly retarded its growth. Its many slaves were freed in 1878. Population, 2,150,112. As native whites form 59% of the population, colored people 32% and foreign whites 9%, their numbers would seem to be 1,166,402 Span- iards and Creoles, 649,050 negroes and mulattoes, 15,000 Chinese coolies and 182,- 545 foreign whites. Immigration has in- creased rapidly. In 1902 the immigrants numbered 11,000, but in 1905 they were over 54,000 in number, excluding 6,000 colonists or settlers from the United States. The later history of the island may be briefly told. In 1895 the Cubans again revolted, claiming that the treaty of 1878 had never been kept in good faith; that, while names and forms had been changed, the tyrannical and oppressive policy of Spain had been continued. Alter desultory outbreaks in different provinces, a Cuban force of 10,000 men was organized under Maximo Gomez and Antonio Maceo, both of whom had been leaders in the former revolt (1868-78). For three years the war raged, marked by desperate bravery as well as by most cruel atrocities and the devasta- tion of the island by fire and sword, without decisive results. The cruelties practiced by the Spaniards upon the Cubans, including innocent women and children, excited universal horror, and led to repeated protests on the part of the United States government. Spanish hatred CUCKOO 485 CULLOM of the United States was thus engendered, which reached a climax when the United States battleship Maine, on a friendly visit in the harbor of Havana, was de- stroyed by a submarine mine on Feb. 15, 1898. Hostile action quickly followed, and war between Spain and the United States was declared on April 24. On July 3 the American fleet under Admiral Sampson destroyed Spain's strongest fleet off Santiago. Meanwhile Santiago was besieged by the United States forces under General Shafter. A fierce battle was fought on July i, and on July 17 the Spanish general surrendered with his army of 25,000 men. Peace negotiations followed, and by treaty signed on Dec. 10, 1898, Spain surrendered all sovereignty over Cuba, and ceded Porto Rico to the United States. On Dec. 28th the United States formally took the island over for military occupation temporarily. It was the declared policy of the United States to promote the independence of Cuba and surrender all jurisdiction in the island so soon as a firm and stable govern- ment should be established. To this end, under military occupation of the island, the United States proceeded to establish order, organized civil and municipal govern- ments, established schools throughout the island and provided for a convention of the people, under which a constitution was formed and the Republic of Cuba established. On May 20, 1902, the author- ity of the United States was . withdrawn, and on the same day Tomas Estrada Palma, who had been elected president of the republic, was inaugurated. Four years later he was re-elected, but gross frauds were charged, disaffection spread and in September of 1906 the island was swept with a whirlwind of revolution. The gov- ernment was helpless. President Palma called upon the United States to intervene as provided by treaty, and resigned his office, the insurgents acquiesced and laid down their arms, and for a second time the United States assumed temporary juris- diction of the island and established a provisional government. After administer- ing the island for two years, during which many reforms were inaugurated and public tranquillity was restored, the provisional government caused a popular election to be held in December, 1908. This resulted in the election of a new government with Jose" Miguel Gomez as President. This new government was duly inaugurated and in February, 1909, the authority of the United States was finally withdrawn and the Republic of Cuba was again established. Cuckoo, a bird named from its coo coo cry, found both in the Old and the New World. The European cuckoos have the habit of laying their eggs in the nests of other birds usually smaller birds than themselves. But this habit is not common to all members of the BLACK-BILLED CUCKOO group, fora numberof the cuckoosmakenests. The two forms common in the northeastern United States are the yellow-billed and the black-billed cuckoos, birds with noticeably long tails, of an olive- brown color above and white below. They make a loose nest of twigs, and lay four or five eggs of a pale, greenish color. They destroy many injurious caterpillars, tand one writer sug- 'gests they might well be called the caterpil- lar-bird. They are shy birds, and the call of the rain-crow, as they are commonly called, is better known than the bird itself. It is a series of tut-tuts, followed by cl-uck-chucks, and then a loud cow-cow-cow. Cu'cumber. See CUCUMIS. Cu'cumis. A genus of plants of the gourd family, to which belong the various forms of muskmelons and cucumbers. It belongs to the tropics and contains about 30 species, mostly in Africa and the East Indies. The numerous forms of muskmelon, cantaloupe, etc. are forms of the C. Melo from southern Asia. The cucumbers are forms of C. Sativus, also from southern Asia. Cul'berson, Charles A. (1855-), gover- nor of Texas and U. S. senator, born in Alabama, and moved with his parents in 1858 to Gilmer, Texas, and later to Jefferson and to Dallas. After studying law he practiced that profession, and in 1890 became attorney-general of the state, and subsequently governor. In 1899 he was elected U. S. senator, and was re-elected in 1905. Culloden (kul-lod'en), a tract of moor- land, about five miles from Inverness, Scotland. Here, April 16, 1746, was fought a battle which put an end forever to the hope of the Stuarts of regaining the English throne. The Duke of Cumberland, with his artillery and disciplined troops, was more than a match for Charles Edward, the young Pretender, whose little army of Highlanders were worn out by a night march, and were half-starving and broken by desertion. After a desperate and bloody attack, the English stood firm and the High- landers broke and fled. Cullom, Shelby Moore, United States senator and Republican governor of Illinois (1876-83), was born in Wayne County, Ky., Nov. 22, 1829. In 1830 he removed with his parents to Illinois, and studied law and practiced at Springfield, where he had his home. In 1856 he was elected to the Illinois legislature, and in 1860 was speaker of the chamber. From 1865 to 1871 he repre- sented his district in Congress, when he CULPEPER 486 CUNEIFORM SHELBY M. CULLOM re-entered the Illinois legislature and once more became speaker. In 1876 and again in 1880 he was governor of his state, but resigned in 1883 to become United States sen- ator. He remain- ed in the senate continuously after that date, being re- elected successive- ly in 1889, 1895, 1901 and 1907. Senator Cullom nominated Grant for the presidency in 1872 and always took an active part in railroad legislation. In 1886 he was chairman of the Interstate Commerce Commission, later chairman of the committee on foreign relations; and in 1898 was appointed one of the commissioners to establish United States government in Hawaii. He died January 28, 1914. Culpeper or Colepeper, Thomas, Lord, colonial governor of Virginia (1680-83), was born in England in 1664 and died there in 1719. In 1669 he purchased lands in Vir- ginia lying between the Potomac and the Rappahannock, and in 1673, with Lord Arlington, received from King Charles II a grant of the whole territory of Virginia. Later on he was appointed governor of the province, and personally ruled there between the years 1680-83, and acted des- potically, annulling the privilege of appeal of the colonists to the local assembly. In 1683 he withdrew from his governorship, and in violation of orders returned to England, where he was deprived of his patent as governor and prosecuted. At his death his large estate in Virginia passed to Lady Fairfax, his daughter. Cumberland, Md., the county-seat of Allegany County, on the north bank of the Potomac at the mouth of Wills Creek and the western terminus of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal. It lies about equidistant from Pittsburg, Pa., and Baltimore, Md., and is the seat of an extensive coal-trade from the semi-bituminous coal-seams of the region. It also has many industries, including those for the manufacture of steel, iron, glassware, besides foundries, machine and repair shops, flour, cement, silk-mills, etc. It has a number of good public grammar-schools, a public high- ochool and an academy. Population, 27,000. Cumberland Mountains are a part of the great Appalachian group, running along the southwest border of Virginia and the south- east border of Kentucky, crossing Tennessee into the northeastern part of Alabama. The ridges rarely are over 2,000 feet high, while the range is about 50 miles broad. It is the southwestern extension of the Alleghanies, and sometimes is called the Cumberland Mountain-plain. Cumberland River rises in Kentucky, flows into Tennessee and, coming back to Kentucky, enters the Ohio after a course of about 650 miles. Nearly 600 miles to Burnside are navigable for steamboats. Near Williamsburg, Ky., there is a fall of 60 feet. Cumberland, R. I., a town in Providence County, six miles from the city of Provi- dence. It manufactures cotton-goods and iron-wares, and has the service of the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad. Population, 10,107. Cumberland Road, an early highway, constructed by the national government to connect Cumberland, Md., on the Potomac, with the Ohio River, an undertaking of much importance in opening up the west and southwest to the east before the era of railways. The project was begun about 1806, and was completed as far as Illinois about 1838, at a total cost to the federal government of close upon $7,000,000. Un- der the name of the Great National Pike the road was held under national control; but in 1856 it was turned over to the several states through which it passed. In his day Henry Clay was influential in ob- taining the necessary sums from the nation to construct the road. Cuneiform (ku-ne'i-jorwi) , a form of writ- ing in which the parts comprising it are like a wedge or arrow-head. It was used by the ancient peoples of Akkad, Babylonia, As- syria, Armenia, Elam and Persia, and was cut upon stone, bronze, iron, glass and clay in the shape usually of columns, bricks or cylinders. It was used from about 3800 B. C. until after the era of the birth of Christ. The cuneiform signs were first pictures of objects, a circle, for example, standing for the sun; but little by little these signs became so changed that there was no resemblance to the object it stood for. For 1,600 years after the writing ceased to be used, its meaning was wholly lost sight of, nor for a long time was it known that it was writing at all. One so-called authority deemed the writings only the idle fancies of the architect, who had tried to see how many arrowheads and other strokes could be cut on a brick. Another supposed them the work of worms. A third thought them charms, which, if they could be read, would open huge vaults of gold and pearls. A fourth great scholar held that they were in the unknown lan- guage by which the Almighty had talked to Adam. The translating of these wedges is a triumph, by the side of which the reading of a modern cipher is child-pky. Many scholars have gained name and fame by CUPID 487 CURRAN merely spelling out a few letters. These inscriptions are found to be mostly histories of reigns. For example, the great Behistun inscription gives an account of the reign of Darius Hystaspes, king of Persia, enumer- ating lists of his ancestors, a description of the extent of his power, the main events of his reign, the palaces he built and his prayers. Cuneiform inscriptions are of the first importance in the light they throw on those great early eastern empires and on facts mentioned and referred to in the Bible. Cu'pid, called also Amor, the Latin name for the Greek god Eros, is the god of love and the son of Venus. He appears as a boy, playful and mischievous, with bow and arrow, and sometimes with torch, quiver and wings. His eyes are often covered so that he shoots blindly. His darts were said to pierce the fish at the bottom of the sea, the birds in the air and even the gods in Olympus. Praxiteles' statue of Cupid is famous as a representation of the god. Cu'pule (in plants) , the peculiar involucre which invests the nuts of the oak, beech, chestnut, etc. The bracts of the involucre coalesce, and in the acorn form a cup-like structure. The name is also applied to cup- hke structures which appear on the bodies of certain liverworts, as Marchantia, and which contain the peculiar reproductive bodies called gemmas. Curacao (kffd-ra-so') is the most impor- tant of the Dutch West Indies. It is situated about 40 miles from Venezuela, and is about 40 miles long by 10 broad, covering an area of 210 square miles. The chief product is salt. From the peel of the Cura- cao orange is made, in Holland, the Curacao liqueur. The capital, Willemstad, is the headquarters of the government of the Dutch West Indies, including besides Cu- racao, Aruba, Bonaire, St. Eustache, Saba and the Dutch part of St. Martin, with a population of 53,486. The trade is mainly with the United States, and consists of maize, beans, pulse, salt and phosphate of lime, besides cattle. Curacao was dis- covered by the Spaniards in 1527, was taken by the Dutch in 1634, conquered by the English in 1798 and again in 1806, and restored to Holland in 1814. Popu- lation, 31,587. Curculio. See AVERIL, Curfew. See BELL. Curie (ku-re) Pierre (1859-1906), joint dis- coverer with his wife, Madame Sklodowska Curie (1867), of radium. Mons. Curie, son of a noted metallurgist near Paris, was himself professor of physics and chemistry at the Sorbonne, and for many years pur- sued laborious investigations as to the tadial activity of metallic uranium. In this he was substantially assisted by his talented wife, a Pole, who had herself discovered a new metal, which she named polonium. Jointly, while continuing their investiga- tions, they succeeded in separating radium from the barium extracted from several tons of pitchblende, and for this they were rewarded by the Royal Society of London, which body conferred upon the Curies (husband and wife) the Sir Humphrey Davy gold medal. In April, 1906, M. Curie was accidentally run over by a wagon and killed in the streets of Paris. The discovery of the Curies is admittedly a momentous one, since it is possible by it to explain some of the grave riddles of the universe, especially such as have to do with heat-radiation, without combustion or chemical change and without any ap- preciable increase in its energy. Curling, a winter outdoor game played with round, flattened stones furnished with a handle (the stones being about 36 inches in circumference) on an ice-rink. It is a familiar game in Scotland, and is now played more or less extensively in the United States and Canada. The game con- sists in playing four on a side in matches (each player having two stones) from a tee at one end of the rink, marked by a circle, to a tee at the far end, 40 yards apart the object being to plant the stone near to the far tee and to guard it there, as well as to drive out the stone of an opponent. The weight of stone and handle is usually about 50 pounds; and each player makes use of a broom to clean the ice of any snow or impeding obstacles that may prevent the stone of a player, on one's own side, reach- ing the tee or striking aside an adversary's stone. Around each tee is a circle of seven feet radius, called the home or ring, while behind the near tee and beyond the far one are 12 feet spaces, divided into "back- scores." Between the two tees (114 feet apart) is a middle score line; while at either end (21 feet from each tee) is an intervening line called the hog-score. Two leaders called skips command the opposing teams and have the management of the game, each for his own side. The highest possible score in the game is 72. Curling is a most healthful, manly game, and has the positive advantage of having little or no betting attached to it. Cur'ran, John Philpot, a famous Irish orator, was born on July 24, 1750, at New- market, Ireland. He was idle and reckless, both while at school and at Trinity College. Dublin. While studying law in London j he had his earliest practice in speaking at the students' debating societies. On his first rising in court, he was so nervous that he could hardly read the few words of a legal form, and, when told by the judge to read more clearly, he could not go on at all. But he soon conquered^ this, and his wit and eloquence made him famous throughout Ireland. He became a member of the Irish house of commons, was sup- porter of Grattan, and, though a Protestant CURRANT 488 CURRENCY LAW himself, had a warm sympathy with his suffering Catholic countrymen, and spoke eloquently in favor of the government's changing the policy of oppression which was driving them into rebellion. Curran's chief fame came from his speeches in court in behalf of the leaders of the rebellion of 1798, which made him beloved by the whole country. The union of Ireland with Great Britain that followed, Curran opposed as the destruction of his country. His health broken, deserted by his wife, his daughter dead of a broken heart soon after the execution of her lover, Robert Emmet, Curran drudged through eight years as master of the rolls. His last three years were spent in London, where his life was brightened somewhat by the brilliant society of Sheridan, Erskine and Thomas Moore. Curran's little figure, ugly face, bright, black eyes and great vivacity easily marked him out from all others, and his wit, sharp- ness and brilliant flow of language have hardly ever been equaled. He died Oct. 14, 1817. Cur'rant. Species of the genus Ribes, which belongs to the saxifrage family. Associated with the currants in the genus are the gooseberries. The genus contains numerous species which are widely scattered, many of them being native to North America. Four species are cultivated in American gardens. R. rubrum includes the red and white varieties, and is found wild in both Europe and North America. R. nigrum is the European black currant. R. Americanum (R. floridum) is the American black currant, very similar to the European form. R. aureum, the Missouri or Buffalo currant with spicy, yellow flowers, is usually grown as an ornamental shrub, being native to western North America. Currency Law. President Wilson, in signing the measure known as the Glass- Owen Currency Bill, Dec. 23, 1913, defined its purpose: "To furnish the machinery for free, elastic and uncontrolled credits." A " United States" of Banks. This law brings the banks of the United States into co-operation with the Government and with one another in a system corresponding to that of the Uni~n itself with its central and state governments and the sub-divisions of the latter. Need for "A More Perfect Union" Business transactions are mainly based, not upon money, but upon credit. Credit is based not alone upon money and other assets but upon con- fidence in "the business situation;" so that the mere existence of a banking federation to pro- vide for financial needs and emergencies not only supplies those needs but has a strong tendency to prevent panics and depressions. The law provides for broadening the basis of credits: (a) By permitting banks to re-discount at Federal Re- serve Banks under Government control, the paper which they, themselves, have received as security for loans ; (b) by including as lawful security paper issued forindustrial and commercial purposes, and paper mat- uring in six months, secured by agricultural product*. National banks, except those in the Central Reserve cities ot New York, Chicago and St. Louis, may also make direct loans on five year farm mortgages ; (c) by allowing member banks to accept bills of exchange at not more than six months sight drawn against im- ported or exported goods; (d) by permitting or com- pelling one Federal Bank to loan to another on dis- counted paper; (e) by providing for printing, by the Government when needed, of Treasury Notes to be issued by these Reserve Banks and secured by the re-discounted paper referred to under (b). The Reserve Bank is also required to hold in gold 40% of the value of these notes and they are guaranteed by the Government and redeemable in gold. In times of unusual demand for money, the Government may temporarily suspend the gold reserve provision. The leading features of the law, as effecting the borrower and business conditions, may be summar- ized as follows: The country is divided into districts in each of which the Government locates a Federal Reserve Bank. All national banks in each district must, and any state bank in the district may, under certain requirements, take stock in this bank equal to 6% of capital and surplus. Federal banks can loan only to their stockholders or "member banks." Their sources of profit are interest on these loans and profits on dealings in designated securities. Dividends are re- stricted to 6%. earnings above 6% (and surplus fund requirements) going into the United States Treasury. A very close control of this banking federation is vested in a Federal Reserve Board at Washington, consisting of seven members (one ot whom must b Secretary, and another Comptroller of the Treasury) appointed by the President with consent of the Senate. Powers : Of the nine directors of each Federal Bank, the Board appoints three, one of whom acts also as the "Federal Reserve Agent" through whom the Board and the Federal Banks communicate with each other; can remove directors of Federal Banks; in emergency, in its judgement, can suspend restric- tions as to Federal Bank reserve; decides as to renew- al of loans by Federal Banks and rate of interest to be charged from time to time on the Treasury notes and on loans. To prevent the over-loaning of money for undue expansion and other dangerous and speculative ven- tures there are, in addition to the control provided by the close articulation ot the Government and the banks, these checks upon inflation: (a) The fact that the Secretary of the Treasury can withdraw Govern- ment funds from a Federal Bank, thus reducing the basis of loans; (b) the fact that Member Banks must pay interest on borrowed money; (c) the fact that one Federal Bank cannot, under penalty of a heavy tax, re-issue the Treasury notes of another Federal Bank; (dj although the Board may suspend the gold reserve provisions in times of unusual demand for money, a heavy tax, the amount of which is in the discretion of the Board, maybe imposed on the Treas- ury notes when the Reserve falls below the 40% re- quired under the law. (See BANKS, MONEY, MINT.) CURTIS 489 GUSHING Curry, Jabez Lamar Monroe (1825- 1903), American educator, lawyer and min- ister, was born in Lincoln County, Georgia. He was a member of the Confederate Congress. After the war he became a minister, and later professor of law at Richmond College. For four years (1881-85), he acted as general agent of the Peabody Educational Fund and later was chairman of the Educational Committee of the Slater Fund. From 1 885 to 1 888 he represented the U. S. as minister at Madrid. His published writings embrace a treatise on Constitutional Government -in Spain, a memoir of William Ewart Gladstone and a work, issued in 1894, on The Southern States of the American Union. Besides a History of the Peabody Educational Fund, he wrote a work on Establishment and Disestablishment in the United States. Curtis, George Ticknor, American writer on legal topics, was born at Water- town, Mass., Nov. 28, 1812; and died at New York, March 28, 1894. Graduating at Harvard in 1832, he studied law and was admitted to the bar, practicing first at Boston and later at New York. He served for some years in the Massachusetts legislature, but at length devoted himself to the writing of legal text-books and the compilation of decisions in the courts of common law and admiralty in the United States. One of his most notable works is his History of the Origin, Formation and A doption of the Constitution. Another useful work is his Constitutional History of the United States from 1792-1864. He also wrote lives of Daniel Webster and James Buchanan. Cur 'tis, George William, American author, was born in Providence, R. I., Feb. 24, 1824. As a boy he spent a year in New York as a clerk, and worked for some time as a farm-hand in Massachusetts. His first book, Nile Notes of a Howadji, was written after traveling in Egypt and Syria. He was one of the first editors of Putnam's Monthly, founded in 1852. He also was a partner in the undertaking, though having nothing to do with the business manage- ment. When, in 1859, the enterprise failed, Mr. Curtis sank all his fortune in the en- deavor to save the creditors from loss, which he accomplished after six years' struggle. He wrote many essays, sketches and novels, and was successful as a lecturer. He is best known as the editor of Harper's Weekly and editor of the Easy Chair in Harper's Magazine. Mr. Curtis was promi- nent in politics, acting with the Republican partv till 1884, but afterward supporting the Democrats. He died on Staten Island, N. Y., Aug. 31, '802. Curtius (kaor'ie-ob^ >, Ernst, was born Sept. 2, 1814, at Liibeck, Germany. He studied at Bonn, Gottingen and Berlin Universities. He made careful journeys in Greece, held several university professor- ships, and soon became noted as a writer on Greek history and geography. His great work, The History of Greece, is in the front rank of histories. Dr. Curtius was, late in life, professor at the University of Berlin. He died on July 12, 1896. Curwen, John (1816-1880). Originator of the Tonic Sol-fa method of teaching singing. He was educated for the min- istry at University College, London, but became author of Grammar of Vocal Music; A Tonic Sol-fa Primer; Musical Theory; Musical Statics; and other useful works. Cur'zon, George Nathaniel, Lord, ex- viceroy and governor-general of British India, was born at Kedleston Hall, Derbyshire, England, on Jan. n, 1859, and educated at Eton and at Balliol College, Oxford. He entered Parliament in the Conservative interest in 1886, and was subsequently under-secretary of state for India and under-secretary for foreign affairs. Lord Curzon has traveled considerably and pub- lished a number of thoughtful books. In 1895 he married the eldest daughter of Mr. L. Z. Leiter, a Chicago millionaire. In 1898 he was appointed by the Marquis of Salis- bury, Viceroy of India, a post which he has filled with high ability. His writings in- clude Russia in Central Asia; Persia and the Persian Question; and Problems of the Far East. In 1898 he was created Baron Curzon of Kedleston. His term of office as Indian Viceroy was extended. In June, 1905, difficulties over the new military scheme in India led to his resigning. The resignation was withdrawn upon solicitation of home-authorities, but in August con- troversy again reached an acute stage, and Lord Curzon finally relinquished office. He remained in India to receive the Prince and Princess of Wales. The London Times spoke of his work as "among the most brilliant and strenuous accomplished for the empire in our times," and of his having infused into Indian civil administration a new spirit born of his own indomitable belief in reform and his own unshaken determination to carry it into practice. His speeches as Viceroy have been re- printed. Since his return to England he has been returned from an Irish con- stituency to the House of Lords, of which body, as a peer, he is already officially a member. Gushing, Galeb, American diplomatist and jurist, was born at Salisbury, Mass., Jan. 17, 1800; and died at Newburyport, Mass., Jan. 2, 1879. After graduating at Har- vard, he studied law, traveled in Europe, was a member of the Massachusetts legisla- ture, and finally became a member of Con- gress. He served for eight years in the house, and in 1 843-44 was United States commis- sioner to China. From 1845 t l &47 DB GUSHING 490 CUTLER CALEB GUSHING served in the Mexican War, and was raised to the rank of brigadier-general. In 1852 he was appoint- ed associate-jus- tice of the su- preme court of Massachusetts, and in the fol- lowing year be- came United States attorney- general. In 1871- 72 he acted as counsel at the tribunal of arbi- tration in Gene- va ; and from 1874 to 1877 was United States minister to Spain. Mr. Gushing pub- lished a number of works; but his chief publication was an account of The Treaty of Washington (1873). Gushing, William Barker, American naval officer, whose distinguished service was the destruction of the Confederate iron-clad Albemarle, was born in Wisconsin in 1842; and died at Washington, D. C., Dec. 17, 1874. He entered the Naval Academy in 18^7-, and in 1861, before graduating, he joined the United States navy and served throughout the Civil War. His most noted act occurred Oct. 27, 1864, at Plymouth, N. C., when, with a volunteer crew on a steam-launch and amid the hot fire of Confederate guns, he approached the Confederate ram, Albemarle, and fired a torpedo under her, which destroyed the iron-clad, along with his own launch. Gushing and some of his men swam ashore and escaped. For his gallantry the young hero was officially thanked by Congress, and in 1872 was advanced to the rank of commander. He died at the national capi- tal two years later. Cush'man, Charlotte Saunders, an American actress, was born at Boston in 1816. Her father became bankrupt and she helped to sup- p o r t the family when only 12 years old. She sang in concerts and made her first appearance in opera at Boston, in 1835, but soon after that lost her fine contralto voice. Not discouraged, by any means, she at once fitted herself CHARLOTTE cusHMAN to become an actress. Her appearance in New York as Lady Macbeth was a success. She after- ward acted with Maeready, and also gained fame in England. Miss Cushman died at Boston. Feb. 8, 1876. GENERAL CUSTER Cus'ter, George Armstrong, an Ameri- can general, was born at New Rumley, O., Dec. 5, 1839. He graduated at West Point in 1861, and. as second lieu-\ tenant of United States c a v a 1 r y < made his first charge at Manas- sas, driving a Con- federate force across Muddy Creek. As assis- tant-engineer a ' Yorktown, h planned the earth- works nearest the enemy's lines. He was the first to cross the river at Chicka- hominy, and while brigadier-general of cavalry routed Hampton's cavalry at Gettys- burg, where he had two horses shot under him. In 1864 his brigade led the column in Sheridan's raid toward Richmond. He was brevetted major-general of volunteers for gallantry at the battle of Cedar Creek, and was in command of a division at the surrender of Appomattox. His rash but memorable campaign against the Sioux was undertaken early in 1876. With 1,100 men, including guides and scouts, he fol- lowed an Indian trail to Little Big-Horn River. Here he found a large encampment. Dividing his command, he tried to ford the stream three miles farther down. This brought on a battle in which Custer and his detachment of 277 troopers were sur- rounded by 3,000 warriors and slain to a man, June 25, 1876. Cu'ticle (in plants). In many plants, especially in leaves, the outer part of the walls of the epidermis becomes transformed into an impervious structure called cuticle. As new wall-material is continuously laid down, the cuticle gradually thickens and may become a very thick layer outside of the epidermis. It is a structure which protects well against drought, cold, etc., and is especially noticeable in plants of dry regions. The same substance is also developed on the surfaces of spores as a protection. Gut'ler, Manasseh, an American botan- ist and Congregational minister, was born at Killingly, Conn., May 3, 1742. After graduating at Yale in 1765, he took degrees in the three professions of theology, law and medicine. He then became regimental and brigade chaplain in the Revolutionary War. He was an enthusiastic botanist, and his description of the native flowers of New .England was the first botanical description made in the country. In wide scientific and other learning Dr. Cutler was the foremost man in America after Franklin. He is best known for his con- CUTTLEFISH 4QI CYANOPHYCE^ nection with the famous Ordinance of 1787. A member of the Ohio Company, formed by the Massachusetts army-officers to settle on Ohio lands, the purchase of the lands from Congress was intrusted to him. Some 5,500,000 acres were bought for the Ohio Company and others, and it was Dr. Cutler's making a condition of the purchase that the new settlers should take with them their own laws, that brought about the passage of the ordinance in its present form, including the anti-slavery clause. Dr. Cutler also was a member of Congress from 1801 to 1805. He died at Hamilton, Mass., July 28, 1823. Cuttlefish, one of the mollusks, with a head surrounded by eight or ten arms, provided with cup-like suckers. Two of these arms are longer than the others, are enlarged on the ends and are called antennae. They are related to the chambered nautilus, squid, etc. They have no shell externally, but underneath the skin of the back is found a limy structure called cuttlefish bone. It is often seen in bird-cages. The eyes are large and prominent, and there is a pair of horny jaws in the midst of the cluster of arms. The body is elliptical in outline, and has fins running along each side. It is surrounded by a mantle that also incloses a cavity for the gills, which are two in number. There is a funnel-like tube opening into the mantle-cavity, and the animal can, by contracting muscles, cause the mantle-cavity to close and then throw water out through the funnel or siphon in jets. It can swim forward by the use of the fins, and backward by throw- ing jets of water through the siphon. These animals also possess a bag of inky fluid, some of which can be thrown into the water when they become alarmed, and thus con- ceal their position while they swim away. Sepia and India ink were manufactured from this ink of the cuttlefish. They are carnivorous and seize their prey by means of their arms. The common squid of the Atlantic coast is closely related. It is commonly used for bait by the fishermen. The octopus or devilfish also is a near relative. See OCTOPUS. Cutworm, caterpillar of various species of owlet moths, a worm very destructive to vegetation. Both moth and worm are nocturnal. In the latter part of summer the female moth lays her eggs on plants near the ground. The larvae feed on tender roots of grasses and various plants, and by spring are ready to attack early vegeta- tion. During the day they hide under the surface, and coming forth at night cut off plants close to or just under the surface. They are enemies of garden vegetables, wheat, Indian corn, oats and cereals gen- erally. Lacking other vegetation, almost all the numerous species adopt the climbing habit, ascend grape-vines, rose and berry- bushes and trees, devouring leaf-buds and eating of the early fruit. Hodge recom- mends, as protection against cutworms, folding a piece of stiff paper around a plant- stem in such a manner that the paper reaches an inch into the ground and two or three inches above the surface. To save their corn-fields, the Indians used to pick the cutworms off by hand, a method still in use. Toads and robins are effective helpers in keeping down the grievous pest. Cuvier (kii'vya'}, Georges, Baron, was born Aug. 23, 1769, at Montbeliard, France. At 1 8 he became tutor in a family at Caen, Normandy, and while all France was in the throes of the reign of terror he peaceably spent his leisure eagerly studying the fossils and fishes of the neighboring coast. He be- came professor of comparative anatomy at the Jardin des Plants, in Paris. Cuvier was the first to compare the structure of fossils with that of animals, which we now find. He also founded the science of comparative anatomy. In this field his work and success were great, and he was recognized in France as the greatest of living naturalists. He also held office under Napoleon and Louis XVIII, and became a peer of France. He died at Paris, May i3> l8 3 2 - Cuyp (koip), Albert, Dutch painter, was born at Dordrecht, Holland, in 1605. His pictures represent grazing cattle, moonlight, winter-landscapes, horse-markets, hunts, camps and cavalry-fights; in his paintings the effect of golden sunlight has never been surpassed. While he lived, and long after, his paintings were little thought of, but now they rank high. He died in 1691. His father, known as Old Cuyp, and his nephew, Benjamin, also were well-known painters. Cyanide-Process, The. The cyanide- process is one of two ways in which gold is extracted from low-grade ores, which contain only from 2 to 10 dollars per ton of gold. The ore is first crushed in stamp- mills, until it is quite fine ; it is then treated with a solution of potassic cyanide, which dissolves the gold. This liquid is then treated with zinc, by which the gold is released and precipitated. This method is chiefly employed in the Transvaal gold- mines and, to a less extent, in the low- grade mines of Da- kota, Wyoming and other western states. Cyanophyceae (si'a-n6-fis'$-i) . One of the four plant- groups which make up the algas, com- monly called the blue - green algae, GLOEOCAPSA, ONE OF and often the green THE CYANOPHYCEAE slimes. They are CYCAD 492 CYPRESS NOSTOC, ONE OF THE CYANOPHYCE^E the simplest of algae, the body consisting of single cells or chains and filaments of cells, and are found in fresh water and damp places everywhere. All the forms show a tendency to become imbedded in a jelly-like substance which is merely the material of their walls transformed into mucilage. In addition to the chlorophyll they contain a blue pigment, which gives the bluish hue to their bodies. Many of them exhibit the power of motion, the free fila- ments of oscil- laria moving almost contin- ually, while the chains of nos- toc at times wriggle out of the mass of mucilage in which they are imbedded. They have no sexual reproduction, multiplying almost exclusively by ordinary cell-division. In many of their characters, they closely resemble the bacteria, and by many botanists they are associated with them in a common group. Cy'cads. A group of plants which next to the conifers is the most prominent group of living gymnosperms. They are con- fined to the tropics and subtropics, and contain about 80 species, nearly equally distributed between the oriental and occi- dental tropics. The principal genus in the orient is Cycas, and in the Occident Zamia, the latter genus being represented in southern Florida. The stem does not branch, and in many cases rises in a straight column, as in the palm, bearing at its sum- mit a rosette of very large fern-like leaves. In other cases the stem is like a great tuber ensheathed by the thick bases of fallen leaves, and crowned with the rosette of huge fern-like leaves. The seeds are born in cones or strobiles, often of great size, but instead of ripening dry with a hard coat, as in the conifers, they become fleshy on the outside, with a hard stone within, and are much like plums. The group is very fern-like, and probably has come from the ferns. One of the most recent and important discoveries in connection with the group is that their sperms are ciliated and can swim, as in the ferns. See GYM- NOSPERMS. Cy'clone, a phenomenon of the earth's atmosphere, which is practically always exhibited in any region of low barometer, that is, in any region where the pressure of the air has fallen considerably below its average. To understand the nature of a cyclone the student must bear in mind the fact that wind consists simply in the transport of air from regions of high pressure to regions of low pressure. In the northern hemisphere the air does not rush directly in toward the center of a region of low pressure, but sweeps around toward the center in more or less of a spiral, so that an observer, looking down upon a center of low pressure, would find the wind traveling in a direction opposite that of the hands of a watch. This vorticose motion of the wind is called a cyclone. These cyclones are generally many hundreds of miles in diameter. Now and then they become very small in diameter, and in these cir- cumstances they are apt to be exceedingly V destructive, and are called tornadoes. In America these cyclones travel with a speed i ranging from 20 to 40 miles per hour. If now we consider a region of high pressure, it is evident that the wind must in general blow away from the center of this region. These winds also assume somewhat of a spiral form, as they do in the case of low- pressure areas: only here the direction of rotation is clockwise. This phenomenon is known as an anticyclone. In general the anticyclone is not marked with the same regularity of structure as the cyclone. In the southern hemisphere the direction of rotation of these two kinds of vortices is exactly the opposite of that found in the northern hemisphere. Cym'bals are a pair of thin, round, metal plates, with a hollow part in the center, in which a leather strap is fastened for holding the hand. When struck one against the other, a loud, harsh sound is made. They were used in ancient times, by the Greeks, in the worship of the goddess Cybele. The best cymbals are made in Turkey and China. Attempts to discover the com- position of the metal have failed. The cymbals generally play the same part as the bass-drum, and in orchestras they are played by the same performer, one cymbal being fixed on the drum, the other held in one hand, while the other hand wields the drumstick. Cymbals are mostly used in military music. Cyme (sim). A flat-topped cluster of flowers in which the inner flowers bloom first. See INFLORESCENCE. Cy'press. Species of several genera of conifers. Chamcecyparis contains five spe- cies native to North America and Japan. They are all handsome trees, with the opposite scale-like leaves densely clothing the branches. The best-known species are the white cedar of the eastern United States, a tree 70 to 80 feet high; the yellow cedar of the northwest coast, a tree which reaches 120 feet in height; and Lawson's spruce of the Pacific coast, a magnificent tree which sometimes becomes over 200 feet high. Cupressus is a genus containing about ten species, found both in North America and the orient. They resemble the species of Chamcecyparis and are very ornamental evergreen trees, but are hardy only in California and the gulf-states. Taxodium contains three species, one in China, one CYPRUS 493 CZAR in Mexico, the third (7*. distichum), the bald cypress, in southeastern United States. This last species grows in swamps and along rivers, is a large tree, often reaching 150 feet in height, and gives the name to the so-called cypress-swamps. Cy'prus, an island of the Mediterranean, south of Asia Minor and west of Syria. It is about 140 miles long and 60 miles wide, and covers 3,584 square miles. There are two main ranges of mountains; the highest peak is Mt. Troodes, 6,352 feet above the sea. There are no harbors, rivers or lakes worthy of the name. It is governed by Great Britain by treaty (1878) with Turkey. The capital and seat of government is Nicosia (population, 16,052); the two chief ports are Larnaca and Limasol. Cyprus was colonized very early by the Phoenicians and afterward by the Greeks. It came under the sway successively of the Egyptians, Persians, Macedonians and Romans. The Cypriotes were one of the first Gentile people to become Christians, and were visited by St. Paul. The island was afterward taken by the Saracens; by Richard I on his way to Syria during the third crusade; by Venice; and lastly by the Turks in 1570. In 1878 Cyprus was occupied by the British, with the under- standing that it is to keep it until Batum, Kars and Erzerum are restored by Russia to Turkey. Cyprus produces wheat, barley, cotton, silk, flax, tobacco, wool, oranges, olives, grapes, etc. and great quantities of wine. Cyprus was once noted for its copper-mines, and copper got its name from that of the island, but it is only mined now at one place. The forests have mostly disappeared. The great scourges of the country are locusts and goats. The Cypriotes are peaceable, orderly and easily ruled. They are healthy and well-grown; the men, as a rule, are handsome, but the women are rarely so. Modern Greek and Turkish are spoken on the island. Population, 274,108. Cy'rus the Great, founder of the Persian empire, is first known to us from the record on the cuneiform, clay tablet-and-cylinder, which recounts his reign, his conquest and capture of Astyages, king of Media, in 549 B. C. At this time Cyrus was called king of Elam. Year after year was idly spent by Nabonidas, king of Babylonia, at Terma, a suburb of the capital, Babylon, while his son doubtless Belshazzar was with his army in Akkad (northern Babylonia). In 538 Cyrus, favored by a revolt of the tribes on the Persian Gulf, advanced on Babylon from the southeast, and, after giving battle to the army of Akkad, took Sippona and lastly Babylon "without fight- ing." Cyrus at once originated a friendly policy in religion. The nations who had been carried captive to Babylon, along with the Jews, were restored to their countries and allowed to take their gods with them. The empire of Croesus in Lydia had been taken two years before ; and Cyrus was now master of all Asia from the Med- iterranean to the Hindu-Kush. The con- queror's hold over Asia Minor and Syria was much strengthened by his friendly relations with the Phoenicians and the Jews, who received the news of his triumphs with joy. After the great king had widened his dominions from the Arabian Desert and the Persian Gulf to the Black Sea, Caucusus and Caspian, he died in 529 B.C. Cyrus ranks high among Asiatic conquerors. He was a wise ruler, whose aim was to soften by kindness the harsh rule which his sword was constantly extending. Cy'rus the Younger, the second son of the Persian king, Darius Nothus, was born in 424 B. C. He headed a conspiracy against his brother Artaxerxes Mnemon, who had succeeded to the throne in 404 B. C. The plot was discovered, and he was sentenced to death, but afterward pardoned and even restored to his office as satrap of Asia Minor. Here he planned a war against his brother, but hid his pur- pose till the last. In the spring of 401 B. C. he left Sardis at the head of 100,000 Asiatic and 13,000 Greek hired troops, under pre- tense of punishing the robbers of Pisidia. Artaxerxes, warned of his treachery, was ready to meet him. The battle was fought on the plains of Cunaxa. Cyrus was de- feated and slain, although the Greeks fought with the greatest courage and even drove back that part of the enemy in front of them. Xenophon's Anabasis gives an account of the expedition. It showed that the Persian empire was a shell, and inspired Agesilaus and Alexander to assail it. Cy'toplasm (in plants) , the name applied to the general protoplasm of a cell as dis- tinct from the nucleus. See CELL. Czar (zdr) or Tsar, a title of the ruler, the autocrat of all the Russias. The word comes from an old Slav word cesar, which the Poles spelled as czar, meaning king or emperor. The Russians use the Latin word imperator to express the idea of emperor. The first independent Russian monarch to use the title was Ivan IV, "the Terrible," who was crowned at Moscow in 1547- The Empress of Russia is styled the Czar- ina. The following have been the czars and emperors of Russia, from the era of the election of Michael Romanoff. Czar Peter I was the first ruler who adopted, in 1721, the title of emperor. HOUSE OF ROMANOFF MALB LINE. Michael 1613 Alexis 1645 Feodor 1676 Ivan and Peter I. ... i68a Peter 1 ............ 1689 . Catherine I. Peter II 172? HOUSE OF ROMANOFF FEMALE LIMB. Anne 1730 I Elizabeth 174* Ivan VI 174 I CZECHS CZERNY HOUSE OF ROMANOFF-HOLSTEIN. Peter III 1763 Catherine II 1762 Paul. 1706 Alexander 1 1801 Nicholas 1 1825 Alexander II 1855 Alexander III 1881 Nicholas II 1894 Czechs, (cheks) are the most westerly branch of the great Slavic family of nations. In the latter half of the 5th century A. D. the Czechs migrated from their lands in Carpathia, on the upper Vistula, to the country now known as Bohemia. Here, in Moravia and in other parts of Austria the Czechs now number in all some 7,000,000. Czernowitz (cher'no-vits), a provincial capital of Austria, stands 720 feet above the sea, near the Pruth River. Among its buildings are the palace of a Greek archbishop, his cathedral, the Armenian church, the synagogue and the Austria Monument. The university, founded in 1875, has 41 professors and lecturers and about 400 students. Population, 87,128, of whom 20,000 are Jews. Czerny (cher'nS), George, meaning Black George, leader of the Servians in their struggles for independence, was born of poor parents, Dec. 21, 1766, near Kragu- jevatch, Servia. He was concerned in a rebellion against the Turks in 1787, and afterward became a cattle-dealer. In 1801 a detachment of janizaries broke into his house and plundered it. Black George fled, vowing vengeance. He managed soon to gather a band of discontented fellow- countrymen, and began a sort of guerrilla warfare against the Turks. In course of time his little band increased in numbers, and in 1804 he was able to capture the for- tress of Schabaz. Later on he besieged Belgrade, and early in 1806 routed the Turks at the Rivers Drina and Morava. Secretly aided by Russia, he captured Belgrade in December of that year (1806). The treaty of Slobosje was extorted from the Ottomans two years later, after which Black George was elected governor by the people and recognized as prince of Servia by the sultan. The Russians sustained the prince in his position till Napoleon's in- vasion of Russia in 1812, when he was perforce left to shift for himself. The Turks at once recommenced hostilities. They were successful, and Czerny was cornpelled to flee to Austria, where he lived for some time. Meanwhile the free- dom of Servia had been again secured through the leadership of Milosch Obreno- witch. When Czerny returned, in July, 1817, he was murdered at the instigation of the new leader, Prince Milosch. THE LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Santa Barbara THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW. Series 9482